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 The head GoM, crthe Axs\^^iat? Enifm^e:£tieast and Ar7V.s. 
 of Siher, ortk^FnmaJi Etujiirr: Belly and Thighs of Brass, 
 orthe Gircian ErUjfdre'.Leffs oriwn aitd Feet Jiart Iron aTid- 
 Jtart Clat/.ortheFoman Emjiire: .. . Dan} fhc^' 2f 
 
 Fart 7»Faffe :2&-20. 
 
SKETCHES 
 
 OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 
 
 SACRED AND PROFANE, 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 CREATION OF, THE WORLD, TO THE YEAR 1818, 
 OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA : 
 
 m THREE PARTS. 
 WITH 
 
 AN APPENDIX. 
 
 AND 
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 BY FREDERICK BUTLER, A. M. 
 
 Author of the Catechetical Compendof General History. 
 
 , SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED BY TFIE AUTHOR. 
 
 HARTFORD : 
 PUBLISHED BY COOKE 8c HAl>E. 
 
 1819. 
 
DISTRICT OF CONNECTICUT, SS/ '' 
 (L. S.) BE IT REMEMBERED; That on the third day 
 of November, in the forty-third year of the independence of 
 the Urjited States of America, Cooke &t Hale, of the said 
 district, have deposited in this otrice the title of a Book, the 
 right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words follow- 
 ing, to wit : 
 
 " Sketches of Universal History, sacred and profane, 
 
 " from ♦he creation of the world, to the year 1818, of 
 
 *' the christian era : in three parts, with an Appendix, 
 
 " and a chronoloo:ical table of contents. By Fredf rick 
 
 "Butler, A. jM. author of the Catechetical Compeud of 
 
 •' General History." 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United 
 
 States, entitled, ** An act for the encoura2;ement of learning, 
 
 •' by securing the copies of Maps, Charts and Books, \o the 
 
 ' authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times 
 
 ' therein mentioned." 
 
 R. L INGERSOLL, Chrk 
 
 of the District of Connecticut, 
 .Vtrue copy of record, examined and sealed by me, 
 R. I. INGERSOLL, Clerk 
 
 of the District of Connecticut. 
 
 Lincoln &c Stone, Printers. 
 
 ^/-/ 
 
 JU.-^-^ ^- 
 
 
^ PREFACE. 
 
 V TO shew that one supreme, omnipotent, eternal God created <-\%"^\y"^J-.. ^"^^^^ 
 
 his almi-hlv fiatspake all worlds into existence, with all Oti..g5 which inhabit them- 
 
 That hKperintend.n,^ providence preserves and governs all thing. ; that his w.sdom 
 
 ^ regulates a^nd controhall events ; that the mallest as well as the largest are equaUy 
 
 r^l tbi objects of his care ; " not a sparrow falleih to the ground without h.s notice, and 
 
 ' even the hai^rs of ou^lje^ds are all numbered," is the great object of this work-but 
 
 and conviction, I 
 
 the inspi 
 
 '" To'e'nforce \htsTon vttion. I have recorded a narrative of the most important events 
 which have fulfilled these prophecies, in regular succession, from the iirst promise oi 
 God to Ad'rn <fo'- to this'da^, as they stand recorded by th. most approved histori- 
 ans In this narrative it deafly appear*, that all the historians, tbrougt. all a-es of 
 the world, have doue no more than record the will and g;overDmcnt of God. as pre- 
 dict^d by hU inspiredprophets. hundreds and thousands ot years befoie they were ac- 
 
 '''^S'rende; the design of this narrative as clear and forcible as P^V'!!"' Lnhlcief 
 only confined it to those nations who were the immediate subjects of the Prophe^.«s 
 but to such parts of their history as immediately regards the accompl.shmen of these 
 great events^ That part of the history of the four great empires, noticed in the great 
 fmarc of Nebuchadnez..ar and Daniel's four beasts, as regards th'^Jj-^^^rf^^^"^:;,',^' 
 laws, manners, and customs, together with a sketch of the histoiy of ^heothei great 
 ■mpires not immediately connected with tne prophecies, I have noticeu 
 
 kino-doms and empires not immediately 
 
 "ff^^L^'JcTrs'gtv^e^nEj inspiration of God nnd all ancient Prop^-X fhr^ugh 
 the prophets o/the ancient Jewish Church, which sprang f^^-^.^he family of Abra 
 ham. and regarded those nations only which were connected with the J«^'^»\^'f°;>: 
 This was alllhat was necessary,-both in its extent and durat.on-to shew that ih.t 
 
 »„ „.v^. ages , ... , 
 
 ^^Kt:r;':^.I^com;;t;:::;l^w!S"'^l.owedaa^^ the p^ 
 
 trations of the v.rtues by those very corruptions, and the general hcenUousness which 
 foHowed in thei. tram, together with factions. discorU, weakness and rum. ^vhich ever 
 closed thL political scene? ought to serve as so many beacons, to guide - and all a 
 acres in the way of wisdom, virtue, and duty, and to guard us agamH the calamitits 
 of licentious ambition, which have invariably proved their rum. p,.rsian 
 
 The economy of the governments of the Assyrian. Chaldean. Med an and P.,r»ian 
 Monarch^nrverv partially known tous--they were not on y absolute monarchies. 
 
 but from he rude and barbarous a,e in which they were founded. ^^ .^^l^/^T ''' 
 conclude their systems were very limited, and that the whole ^eP'^nd'^^'^J "^ "-^ ' P^ 
 on the will of the king, with thi. exception, that the king could not change even h.s 
 own will when once it became a law. . • i ,v,^ Mo.tn Pprsian 
 
 The union of all these km-doms stood upon the same bas.s. under the Medo- Pers an 
 Kmpi re This system was Tuffi^ient to project a rising state whilst -^1"^ ruled but 
 Ld HO powers to save a nation when sinking under licentiousness and corrupt a.i.bi- 
 
 ''°AI1 the renowned wisdom of the philosophers ^"d legislators of Greece and Rome 
 could do no more, with all their boasted systems of liberty. They m ^^c ' /"rn . 1 
 fell a prey to licentious ambition. The kingdom ot Egypt wuh all the boasted w. - 
 dom and virtue of her ancient institutions, fell a prey to all-conquering lust and nm- 
 
 ^'*!;(s we trace this great subject through the two succeeding parts of \«» ^^°;|^; ^ 
 shall find r.at all the kingdoms of Europe are under the same condemnation 'o^^<-'he.r 
 with the Turkish Empire, whose broad basis stands upon the rums of bll th^. ancient 
 States and empires. 
 
IV. pheface. 
 
 How far Itat true balance of power, which constitotes the basis of English and 
 American governments, may be able to control ambition, licentiousness and corrup- 
 tion, and preserve the governments and liberties of the nations, remains to be tested by 
 experience. 
 
 In the first part of this work I have endeavored to shew the happy and prosperous 
 state of the Jews under their theocracy, and that their wretchedness commenced with 
 their kingly government, in connection with their false religion I have endeavoured 
 to illustrate the character of the Grecian and Roman Republics, and show how a 
 corrupt religion srtid a want of the true balance of power in the third estate in the gov- 
 ernment opened the way for factions, which proved their ruin. 
 
 In the second part, I have endeavoured to show how the overbearing ambition of 
 the Roman Empire proved its own ruin, and how the distresses she had inflicted upon 
 other nations recoiled back upon herself, until luxury and refinement were swallowed 
 ap and lost in ignorance and barbarism — also, what struggles men had to endure to 
 rise out of barbarisin into a state of civil r<»finement. 
 
 In the pursuit of this subject I have endeavored to shew how much the happiness 
 and misery of men depend upon individual character, and have illustrated this in the 
 characters of -Alfred the great, contrasted with William I — styled the conqueror ; of 
 Kdward III. contrasted with Edward VI ; Q,ueen Elizabeth and Q,ueen Ann. con- 
 trasted with James 11. and Charles I. and II. and in this way have shewn how Eng- 
 land emerged from the feudal system, and acquired the supremacy of the three estates 
 ill her government — the excellency of this go^'ernment I have endeavored to shew, in 
 iUe wonderful display of wisdom, order, happiness, peace and prosperity in the Amer- 
 ican Republic. 
 
 In the third part I have endeavored to shew the character of the republics of Po- 
 land and of France, and to render it plain and intelligible, that republics without the 
 balance of government in the three estate*, soon become the nurseries of factions, an4 
 that the licentiousness of liberty ch'rishes the strife of party, until some idol chief 
 strips the people of their rights, and becomes their despot. 
 
 I have drawn at full lenj^th the characters of Charles XII. and Bonaparte, to illus- 
 trate the more strikingly the worth of the character of Peter the Great of Russia, of 
 .Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Alexander the Great of Russia — but more imme- 
 diately the true worth of Washington the Great, of America. 
 
 It has been my first object through the whole work to shew the influence and im- 
 portance of religion — to contrast the pure religion of the Jews with the idolatry of the 
 ages in which they maintained the purity of their church To contrast particularly 
 the religion of Christ and his Apostles, with the religion of the Popes and Mahomet ; 
 and to shew that Martin Luther was the angel of the gospel for the age in which he 
 lived, and will continue to be the angel of the gospel until the millennial day, through 
 the medium of the heralds of the cross, in the protestant canse. 
 
 As this work is designed immediately for the use of schools, instructors? may avail 
 thtmselves of the chronological table of contents to frame qijestions for examinatioii; 
 instruction by lectures upon tbt maps, or otherwise. 
 
 Wethersfield, Conn. October 15, 1818. 
 
SKETCHES OP 
 
 UNIVEllSAL HISTORY. 
 PART FIRST, 
 
 1 ROM THE CREATION, TO THE SUBVERSION OF THE ROMAN 
 EMPIRE, 1460. 
 
 CHAP. I, 
 
 History — its divisions and use— from the creation to the flood 
 —from the flood to the building of Nineveh and Babyton. 
 
 History is the great medium by which we are enabled to 
 perpetuate the occurrence of events — and through which we 
 may take a retrospective view of those that are past. 
 
 History may be divided into four great parts, history before 
 the flood, termed antediluvian ; history since the flood, term- 
 ed postdiluvian : history from the flood to Christ, termed an- 
 cient, and since Christ, termed modern history. All tiiat is 
 written by the immediate ins[)iralion of God, is termed sa- 
 cred ; such is the history of the bible : all other history comes 
 tinder the general denomination of profane. 
 
 History furnishes a vast field of moral and religious instruc- 
 tion, and is designed to amuse the imagination, improve the 
 understanding, correct the judgment, expand tiie mind, and 
 mend the heart, by leading it up to God, as the great author, 
 preserver and governor of all thines. 
 
 To accomplish all these valuable ends, is the immediate 
 design of this work : I shall therefore select such interesting 
 and important events in the great chain of history, as are best 
 calculated to promote this particular purpose. 
 
 The first feature of history, that claims our attention, in 
 the annals of tiu»e, is the history of the creation, as recorded 
 by Mo=e?, iu the book of Genesis, (the first in ihe sacred 
 1^ 
 
6 THE CREATION, 
 
 volume.) The most striking features of this narrative are, 
 the ff)rrTiafion of the earlh and heavenly bodies, the sun, nnoon, 
 and stars innumerable, that hang the vast expanse of heaven, 
 and the immensity of space. 
 
 The creation of animate nature, with man for its bead ; the 
 covenant between man and his God ; man's violation of that 
 covenant, which brought death into the world, and all our 
 woo ; the early promise of God, that the seed of the woman 
 should bruise the serp^^nl's head, and that man should be re- 
 stored to the lost favour of his God. The expulsion of man 
 from paradise, the seat of innocence and bliss on earth ; and 
 the curse which was denounced by God, " by the sweat of 
 thy brow shalt thou eat thy bread." 
 
 These are the ereat outlines of the apostacy ; these are the 
 origin of all the distress and wretchedness, which have been 
 the inseparable companions of man, through all the subse- 
 quent a^ies of the world.** 
 
 Driven from the presence of his God, man was left, un- 
 protecteil by his own innocence or his covenant with God ; 
 weak, corrupt, depraved, to depend henceforth upon his own 
 etforls; not in the garden of Eden, but in the wild unculti- 
 vated earth; which also was under the curse, for the disobe- 
 dience of man — " cursed is the ground for thy sake, in sor- 
 row shalt thou eat of it ail the days of thy life : thorns also, 
 and thistles shall it bring forth to thee, and thou shalt eat the 
 herb of the tield, till thou return unto the ground : for dust 
 thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return." 
 
 Ht re is the origin of the calaitiities of man ; and his whole 
 liittory from that time to this, is nothing more than a detail of 
 the ejpents, which have arisen in consequence of the awful 
 denunciations»of heaven. Thus left to himself; this ima^e 
 of Gi>(J, this child of bliss, this favored of heaven, began the 
 miployment of husbandry, upon this wide, solitary, unculti- 
 vatt d earth. Alas, how chan::ed ! Should I attempt to paint 
 the contrast, between this and his former state, imagination 
 would fail, language would be inadequate. 
 
 Our task now is, to trace him through all the mazes of sin 
 and error, wretchedness and woe, through which he has 
 wandered these six thousand j ears ; and notice the displays 
 of divine kindness, compassion, and benevolence, towards 
 Lim and his depraved Offspring. 
 
 Husbandry bein^: the first employment of man, the state of 
 society was such as is common to the first settlement of all 
 
THE DELUGE. ' 
 
 new countries ; apart from the protection of the laws for the 
 secuilty of the rights of person, and property : in this re- 
 spect, they were in a state of nature. And although they re- 
 tained so much reverence for God, as to express some dej^ree 
 of worship, by sacrifice ; yet when Cain rose up ajjainst his 
 brother and slew him, there was no avenger of blood : G.>d 
 himself denounced judirment upon Cain, and inflicted the 
 punishment. Nothing appears on record to shew that this 
 was not the wretched slate of man, for the space of 1656 
 years down to the flood. 
 
 If we examine the state of those nations since the flood, 
 who have had no commerce, cities, or intercourse with com- 
 mercial nations ; we shall most probably, have a picture of 
 man, from the creation to the flood. When the earth was 
 full of violence, and man had filled up the measure of his in- 
 iquiiy ; God came out in judjjment against him : he ordered 
 Noah to build an ark, and collect his little family of eight 
 persons, with pairs of all kinds of animals, both birds, beasts 
 and creeping things, and secure (hem from the overwhelming 
 destruction, he was about to bring, upon a guilty world. 
 
 When Noah had obeyed the command of God, and given 
 warning to a profligate world, he entered into the ark. The 
 tempest was poured out from heaven forty days and forty 
 nights : the deluge covered the face of the whole earth, even 
 the highest mountahs ; and the whole family of man, to- 
 gether with all flesh, were swept ofi" the earth, except Noah 
 and his family : these were preserved as God had appointed. 
 At the end of one year, the waters were dried up, and the 
 ark rested upon the mountains of Ararat, in Asia, near the 
 source of the rivers Eiiphratts and Tigris; on which man 
 was first created, and from whence God.first began to people 
 the earth. 
 
 Here a new scene vvrs opened ; here Noah reared an altar, 
 and returned thanks to God. Here again began the employ- 
 ment of husbandry. The corruptions also of man were re- 
 newed. Here it is recorded of Noah, that he planted a vine- 
 yard, and drank to excess of the fruit of the vine. Here 
 again, commenced the same state of society with which No- 
 ah had been conversant before the flood. 
 
 Men led the same wandering pastoral lives ; they were 
 shepherds and hunters, for the space of 1770 years; they 
 then assembled in the plains of Shinar, where they built the 
 Impious Tower of Babel. This work was of the greatest 
 
8 NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 magnitude, of any that had been attempted since the flood. 
 At this, they wrought unchecked forty years, when God in 
 judgment, suffered them to go no farther, but put an end to 
 their work by confounding their speech. 
 
 Here was the origin of the confusion of tongues, from 
 hence arose all the variety of language, wiiich has appeared 
 upon the earth. Here Nimrod, who was a mighty hunter be- 
 fore the Lord, laid the foundations of the renowned city of 
 Babylon, in the year of the worhl 1771. This city stood at 
 the confluence of the rivers Euphrates and Tigris : was wall- 
 ed in the year 1780, and became the famous capital of the 
 Chaldean Monarchy. About the year 1770, Ninus built 
 Nineveh, the subsequent capital of the Assyrian Monarchy. 
 During this period, of about 1800 years, the employment of 
 men, and the state of society, had continued the same, from 
 the fall of man. 
 
 Tiiese two great cities soon acquired a degree of wealthy in- 
 fluence and power, which produced the same effects upon so- 
 ciety and the world, as have been witnessed, in the history 
 of all the great cities which have appeared : the same change 
 of manners, habits and customs : the ferocity, barbarity and 
 uncultivated state of the hunters and shepherds, began to re- 
 ceive a polish and refinement, by their intercourse with the 
 city. The same lust of pleasure, wealth and power, began to 
 appear. Each, in their turn, extended .their conquests over 
 the neighboring countries, until they gave law to all the eas- 
 tern world. Durin* tliis whole period, men had lost the 
 knowledge of God, and were sunk in the most barbarous and 
 absurd idolatry. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 From the call of Abraham and his family, to the death of Jo^ 
 seph his Great- Grandson in Egypt, 
 
 About 417 years after the flood, God saw {\\q corruption 
 of all that eastern world ; anfi that they had lost the knowl- 
 edge and worship of the true God. He then called Abraham 
 from Ur of the Chaldees, near the plains of Shinar ; and di- 
 rected him to go out into a wild uncnlfivated desert, lying to 
 the west, near, the borders of the Mediterranean sea, and 
 
THE CALL OF ABRAHAM. 9 
 
 there settle. Abraham obeyed the command, went out into 
 this remote land ; by permission, took with him Lot, his 
 brother's son, and formed a new settlement. 
 
 Here God began to make a new display of himself to Abra- 
 ham and to the world. Here he unfolded his promises to 
 Abraham. 1st. That he would give him the land, and to 
 his posterity, when as yet he had no children. 2d. That his 
 seed should sojourn in a strange land; be evil treated 400 
 years, and then be restored to their own land. He gave 
 him a son, in a miraculous manner : and although he was 
 the heir of promise, God ordered him to sacrifice the lad. 
 When he had so far obeyed the command, as to erect the 
 altar, and raise the knife for execution; the voice of God 
 exclaimed, "spare the lad, and sacrifice a ram, you will find 
 caught in the thicket :" which he did. 
 
 Thus having tried the faith of Abraham, abolished through 
 him the ancient custom of human sacrifice, which was com- 
 mon in tho land of his fathers ; and having taught his people 
 in all generations of the world, although he slay them to trust 
 in him ; he prospered Abraham greatly in the land, ^ave^ 
 him flocks and herds, and made him lord of great posses- 
 sions. 
 
 When Isaac, the child of promise was born ; Abraham 
 drove out Hagar his maid, with Ishmael her son, to wander 
 in the desert : that Ishmael, upon whom the angel had pro- 
 nounced this prophecy before be was born, that " he should 
 be a wild man, bis hand should be against every man, and 
 every man's against him, and yet he should dwell in the pres- 
 ence of all his brethren" — that Ishmael, for whose sake God 
 gave this consolation to Hagar his mother, in her distress in 
 in the desert. "Take the lad in thine hand, for I will make 
 of him a great nation." Ishmael and Hagar his mother, 
 went out accordingly; and in him, and his posterity, the 
 prophecy has been literally accomplished. The Arabs are a 
 thieving, robbing, plundering race to this day, and have nev- 
 er bf en conquered. 
 
 When Isaac arrived at the age of manhood; Abraham 
 sent out his servant to the land of his fathers, and to«'k for 
 him Rebecca, his brother's daughter to wife, by the sp cia! 
 direction <^f God. By her he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. 
 Abraham lived to a good old age, died, and was buried in 
 his own (r>mb, which he bought of Ephron the Hittite, for a 
 family sepulchre. Esau married one of the daughters of the 
 
10 ISAAC, JACOB AND JOSEPH. 
 
 land, and united the employment of hunting with that of ^ 
 husbandry ; but Jacob became an husbandman, and kept his | 
 father's flocks. To Esau were born sons and daughters ; and r 
 to Jacob twelve sons, who became heads of the twelve tribes j| 
 of Israel. i 
 
 The history of Esau and Jacob, is recorded in the 25th | 
 chapter of Genesis, and onward, where it may be read — I 
 There is also recorded the finesse of Rebecca, to obtain the % 
 blessing for Jacob her favourite son, in exclusion of the rigiht- > 
 ful heir ; (he death and sepulture of good old Isaac, and the | 
 strife and bitterness of Esau against Jacob. As Jacob increas- :• 
 ed in bis family and wealth, he increased in favor with God ; ^ 
 and by wrestling with the angel, he obtained the blessing, * 
 with the name of Israel: also the mark of the withered thish, / 
 by the hand of the angel ; which has caused the Hebrews, f 
 his descendants, to exclude the thigh of all animals, as im- i 
 proper food, to this day. ■> 
 
 When the twelve sons of Jacob or Israel, grew into life, * 
 their father cherished an unguarded partiality towards Joseph, J 
 one of the younger sons, which excited a jealousy and re- 
 sentment, on (he part of his brethren. This, together with I 
 some extraordinary dreams, which Joseph imprudently rela- ^ 
 ted, increased their resentment to hatred, and malice, which j 
 led them to revenge upon Joseph, by selling him to the Ish- ;. 
 mat^lites, (or Arabs) and to deceive his father, by a false re- ^ 
 port, that he had been devoured by wild beasts ; this they 
 confirmed by shewing his bloody coat ; (a barbarous strata- | 
 gem [»ractised on their father, by dipping the coat in the blood ^ 
 of a kid.) 
 
 These Ishmaelites carried Joseph down into Esypt, (lying 
 south west of Canaan) where they sold him as a slave. Hnre 
 an impious attempt was made upon his virtue, by his mas- 
 ter's wife; which, to her severe disappointment, and/morti- 
 fieation, he resisted. This led her falsely to accuse him to 
 his master, who threw him into prison. God permitted these 
 darinsj acts of outrage and cruelty, to shew, for our instnic- | 
 tion, that he always can, and often does, bring the greatest ? 
 blessings out of the heaviest afflictions, and to increase our i 
 confidence in him. j 
 
 Here, while immured in the walls of a prison, God open- \ 
 cd the way for the deliverance of Joseph. When one of his i 
 fellow prisoners, (who w^s of the king's household,) related ,j 
 a singular dream j Josepli was instructed by God in the in- i 
 
PHARAOH, JOSEPH AND HIS BRETHREN. 1 1 
 
 jerpretation— which was accomplished in a very extraordi- 
 ry manner. This came to the ears of the king, who soon 
 had occasion to send for Joseph to interpret his own dream, 
 of the seven fat and seven lean kine, as recorded Genesis, 
 41 St chapter. 
 
 This interpretation procured for Joseph the favor, and con- 
 fidence of the king ; raised him to power, and broujjht him 
 near the Ihrone. The story of these years of plenty and of 
 famine, foretold by the dream of the kine, are recorded in 
 the 41st and 42(1 chapters of Gene?is and onward. When the 
 seven years of famine had extended into the land of Canaan, 
 where the father of Joseph dwelt, he sent ten of bis sons into 
 Ej^^ypt lo buy corn. 
 
 The manner in which they were received ; the stratagjem 
 of Joseph, to punish them, and bring down his younirer broth- 
 er ; the second journey of his brethren, the severity of Jo- 
 seph's treatment of them, the painful sensMtions of his own 
 breast, the disclosure of himself to his brethren, his sending 
 for his aijed father with all his household, and supporting 
 them in Egypt ; are all recorded in the 42d chapter of Gen- 
 esis, to the end of the book, in a strikinj; and pathetic man- 
 ner, not to be expressed by any other pen. This interesting 
 narrative, so full of moral and religious instruction, should be 
 familiar to all, even at an early age. 
 
 When the fulness of time was come, that the good old Ja- 
 cob should be gathered, as a shock of corn fully ripe ; he re- 
 membered the promise of G )d to his grandfather Abraham, 
 that his posteriiy should sojourn in a strange land, and be 
 evil entreated 400 years : he called together his sons, and 
 gave them his prophetic blessinis (see Genesis, chapters 41, 
 42,) and charged them to convey his remains to the land of 
 his fathers, and deposit them in the family tomb. 
 
 This command was faithfully executed, with all that so- 
 lemnity and respect, due to the best of fathers ; and the fam- 
 ily returned into Egypt, where they continued to increase 
 and multiply, under all their former prosperity. 
 
 Here again, the interesting determination of Divine provi- 
 dence is acknowledged. The dream of Joseph, which was 
 so offensive to his brethren, was accomplished. Their for- 
 mer sin, in selling him into Egypt, now stared them in the 
 face : and they, fearing his power and vengeance, after the 
 death of their father, fell prostrate before Joeeph, and pour- 
 ed out their confessions, and sought his protection. Genesij? 
 xxxvii, 7. 
 
12 JOSEPH AND HIS BRETHREN. | 
 
 Again, the meekness, gentleness and benevolence of Jo- J 
 seph were displayed : again, he drew a veil over the wicked- ) 
 ness of his brethren, ascribed alJ to God, and taught them to | 
 notice his special providence in their deliverance : again, he ^ 
 restored them to his favor, and lived to sefe the third gene- \ 
 ration of Benjamin his beloved brother. And when the full- ! 
 ness of time was come, that he should be gathered to his fath- ^ 
 ers, he called his brethren and said — " I die, and God will 1 
 surely visit you and bring you out of this land, to the land ] 
 which he sware unto Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. And \ 
 when he had (aken their oath, that they would carry his bones 5 
 with them, he fell asleep. j 
 
 CHAP. in. i 
 
 \ 
 
 From the death of Joseph to the call of Moses — the plagues in j 
 Ilgypt, the departure of the Hebrews, under Moses and} 
 Aaron, and the destruction oj Pharaoh at the Red Sea. | 
 
 HtRE begins a new era in the history of the family of Abra- 1 
 ham The patriarchs are gone ; Joseph is gone ; and they j 
 are left unprotected in a str .nge land God continued to in- ,■ 
 crease aod bless them, till a king arose, who knew not Jo- 1 
 seph. Tills king, unmindful of the protpclion the kingdom^ 
 hfld received in the lime of the famine ; fired with ambition, I 
 be<j:an to exercise despotic power, and oppress the descen- « 
 dants of Jacob. j 
 
 When they became numerous, fearing that his oppression | 
 miifht excite them to revolt, he commanded all their male J 
 children to be destroyed at the birth : an act of cruelty and g 
 barbarity, not before recorded in the ann^^ls of man. This ;S 
 order was executed, except in the instance of Moses, who j 
 was hid by his mother, in an ark of bulrushes, in the flaus of • 
 the river, where he was preserved by the special providence ^ 
 of God. The daughter of Pharaoh, in her walk discovered ^' 
 the child, and sent for a nurse, which (a?ain by the provi- ; 
 dence of God) proved to be the child's mother. sj 
 
 Nursed under the guardian care of the princess, Moses | 
 grew into life, and was educated in all the wisdom and sci- i 
 ence of ihe Egyptians ; and at the same time, wa& instructed ( 
 by ^is mother, that he was an Hebrew, of the family of the^ 
 
COMMISSION OP MOSES. 1.7 
 
 bondmen of the land. When he became a man, he went in- 
 to the field to visit his brethren; and when he saw an Eijyp- 
 tian offer to one of them violence and wronu, he slew him. 
 When this act was known, Moses fled into Midian, (a land on 
 the east of Es^ypt,) where he married the dau^iter of Jethro, 
 priest of Midian, and kept his father's flocks. 
 
 Here begin the displays of the majesty of Heaven! Here 
 the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob began to have com- 
 passion on the distresses of his attlicted children in Ea;ypt : 
 knowing that his prediction of 400 years of sojourning were 
 nearly accomplished ; he appeared to Moses in the midst of 
 a burning bush ; and called and commissioned him, from 
 the midst of that flame, which concealed the God, but con 
 sumed not the bush. 
 
 Here he charged Moses, to go into Eiiypt, and deliver his 
 people: and permitted him to take with him Aaron his broth- 
 er. Here he confirmed the commibsion of Moses, by the spe- 
 cial miracle, of turning his rod into a serpent ; and predicted 
 the manner in which his people should, at their departure, 
 spoil the Egyptians of their treasures of gold and silver, as 
 some compensation for their painful service. 
 
 Impowered by this high commission, and the miraculous 
 displays of divine power, Moses took with him Arfron, went 
 down into Egypt, and stood before Pfiaraoh. When he had 
 opened the commission of heaven to the kint£, he received 
 from Pharoah this haughty reply, " Who is Ihe L'>rd, that I 
 should obey his voice, and let Israel go ? I will not let the 
 people go." In reply to the insolence of this haughty king, 
 Moses cast down his rod, and it became a serpent. 
 
 Then Pharaoh, to try the strength of this miracle, sent for 
 his magicians and sorcerers, who cast down their rods and 
 they became serpents ; but the serpent of Moses' rod swal- 
 lowed uj) all theirs. This did not open the heart of the kint:, 
 but confirmed him in his purpose, not to let them go, Then 
 God came out in judgment against Pharaoh, by the ten suc- 
 cessive platiues which he caused M ises to inflict upon the 
 land of Esypt, fire, blood anil death, (Exod. 8ti» and 9th ch.) 
 
 In this awful manner the jmlgments of heaven were dis- 
 played, through this impious kins: upon his guilty land : to 
 inspire the Hebrews with that confidence in God, and in Mo- 
 ses and Aaron, which should unite them in their departure. 
 Fur the same purpose also, he caused Pharaoh to d<»uble the 
 tasks of the Hebrews, that their oppressive bondage mi<'ht 
 2 
 
14 DESTRUCTION OF PHARAOH. 
 
 constrain this union. Also, that he might make such a dis- | 
 play of himself and his judgments, as should l^ad Pharaoh,and j 
 the worhl, to acknowledge, that " the Lord God omnipotent | 
 rei^-neth." ' | 
 
 When God had put forth his hand and touched ail the first I 
 born of the land, when every house was filled wilh mourn- { 
 ing, lamentation and woe : then the hard heart of this haui>;h- | 
 ty Icing was si;bdued. Then the prince and people were | 
 ready to drive out the Israelites. Here commenced the sol- I 
 emn festival of the Jewish passover, in commemoration of | 
 their wonderful deliverance; which continues to this day in f 
 the Jewish Church. Here was fulfilled the pronuse, that I 
 they should be enriched with the spoils of the Egyptians, 
 by their jewels of Gold an<l of silver. i 
 
 And when all things were now accomplished, this mii^hty | 
 host of 600,000 souls assembled under Moses and Aaron, | 
 and took up their departure for the land of their fathers. — > f 
 Here again, commences a display of the selfishness and cor- J 
 ruption of the human heart. Notwithstandinji; all the mani- J 
 festations God had made of himself to Pharaoh, and to the i 
 people, in the miracles he had wrouo:hl, and the judgments ■ 
 he had inflicted upon them : he repented that he had let the ; 
 people go : raised an army, and [jursued after them by the j 
 way of Pihahiroth, and overtook them between Miidol, and ^ 
 the Red Sea, wiiere God had ordered them to encamp. | 
 
 Here was the closing scene ! the waters of the sea, op^- » 
 ed to the risht hand, and to the left, by the mighty power of |j 
 the Most High ; and JMoses led the host of Israel through on \ 
 dry land. Pharaoh attempted to |)ursue, when the waters | 
 returned by the same Almi^'hty power, with which they 
 were rolled back : and this daring, hardened, impious king, ^ 
 with all bis mighty army, \\*>re swallowed up and lost in the | 
 depths of the sea. At the same time, Moses assembled it 
 the host of Israel, on the banks of the sea, where they uni-f 
 ted in a song of praise to Cod their deliverer. Exodus xv. ^ 
 to the 22 verse. < 
 
 i 
 
 CHAP. IV. I 
 
 Frc7W the passagp. of the Red Sea, to the giving of the Moral} 
 Law at Mount Sinai — the death of Moses and Aaron — tlie , 
 
MORAL LAW. 1^ 
 
 possession of the land of Canaan^ under Joshua— ^and the 
 chans;e of government under their kings. 
 
 Here let us reflect, upon (lie awful, sublime, and interesi- 
 ino; scenes through which we have passed, from (he creation 
 to the flood ; from the flood to (he call of Abraham ; and 
 from that call, to the wonderful displays of God in Esypt, 
 and the Red Sea, and learn this lesson : that when God calls 
 sinners to repentance, by his counsels, warnings, invitations 
 and chastenings ; and they, like Pharaoh, continue obstinate 
 and impenitent ; he will come out against them in his wrath, 
 and seal up their doom with his eternal judgments. The 
 lesson before us, is a striking display of this solemn truth. 
 
 We will now p^ss over the several movements of the 
 camp of Israel, until they pitch before Sinai. Here again, 
 the majesty of heaven is displayed in the thunders of Sinai : 
 and notwithstanding the mountain is on fire from the pres 
 ence of God, when he called Moses, and conversed with him 
 forty days : and notwithstanding he had led their whole 
 march, by a pillar of cloud by day, and of fire by night : 
 even here, under the awful solemnities of Sinai, they caused 
 Aaron to make a golden calf, (one of the gods of Egypt) of 
 the same ear-rings which they had borrowed of their neigh- 
 bors ; and after the custom of the Egyptians, worshipped it, 
 in a riotous, tumultuous manner. 
 
 Here was a scene which tried the patience of Moses. AI- 
 though he was (he meekest of men, at sight of this scene, \m 
 threw down the two tables of stone, on which were inscribed 
 by the finsier of God, the Moral Law ; and brake them in 
 pieces. He next dissolved the golden calf, compelled its 
 worshippers to drink it, and caused 3000 idolaters to be slain. 
 He again, by the divine comman<l, returned into the mount, 
 where lie received two other tables of stone as before ; — . 
 which are the ten commandments (called the moral law) 
 coutiiied in the Jewish church, and handed down to us. 
 
 We will again pass over the mercies and judgments of 
 God to this people, in their several journpying3 in the wilder- 
 ness, until we come to the waters i,}f Meribah. Here the 
 murmurintis and discontent of this obstinate, ungrateful peo- 
 ple, again tired the patience of Moses, an{| he gave that of- 
 fence to God, which deprived him and Aaron of the enjoy- 
 ment of the promised land. Soon after the oftence at Meri- 
 bah, God called Aaron to seal up his last account : but he 
 
,16 CAPTURE OF JERICHO. 
 
 permitted Moses to appoint Joshua his successor, and go up 
 to the top of Pisgah, where he could view the promised 
 laud and there die. 
 
 Full of instruction, is the sacred book of God. If Moses, 
 the favored of heaven, was denounced and cut off for one 
 iiniruarded ofTence, to what punishment, does the whole fa- 
 mily of man stand exposed every moment, from the otfen- 
 ded majesty of heaven ! Learn also, that to whom much is 
 j;iven, of him, much will be required , and that every man 
 must be accountable for what he hath, and not for what he 
 hath not. 
 
 We will now leave Moses, entombed on mount Nebo, and 
 follow the camp of Israel, under Joshua, to the river Jordan. 
 Here Jehovah attain displayed his mighty power, the river 
 opened, as at the Red Sea, and gave them passajre. The 
 first city that presented itself, was Jericho ; strongly walled 
 and fortified. This intimidated the murmuring, complain- 
 ing, faithless multitude. And when they saw the hardy, 
 wwrlike, gothic race of men which dwelt in the land, their 
 hearts sunk within them, and they were ready to yield to fear. 
 Again the hand of the most high is stretched forth for their 
 relief. By the special command of Ood, the walls of Jeri. 
 cho fell down at the blowin^r of rims horns, by the priests, 
 and the city fell an easy conquest to Joshua. This event in- 
 spired the host of Israel with confidence ; and their enemies 
 in their turn were depressed, and became an easy prey. 
 
 Here ends the 400 years sojourning, predicted by Abraham, 
 andlhefort> year:* wandenua: in the desert. Aiiain, the fam- 
 ily ofJ iiob (or IsrHel) are restored to the promised land, a 
 lan(J fl'^win-: with milk and honey ; abounding with every 
 thina <'eligl«tful to the ey*-, and pleasing to the taste. 
 
 It niust not be unO»n*tood that the whole family of Jacob, 
 which cume out of Ej.ypt, are returned to this land of prom- 
 ise. The old stoi k, who were over twenty years of age 
 wlien they came out, were not permitted to carry with them, 
 tlte corrupt and id"lf<tr'^us practices of Es;y;3t, (in which they 
 had been educated,) \i\\n the lan<i of Canaan. These all di- 
 ed in the wiidernoss; and the j'ounir stock, totiether with 
 such as were born in the wilderness, were trained up, by the 
 ?p* ciil displays of God's providence and goodness, to enjoy 
 the pr.^:ni«e(l inheritance. 
 
 Wht r r?e h-Hfl taken possession of the country, under 
 Josliua, they divided up the land by tribes, side by side, as 
 
RECAPITJLATIOy. 17 
 
 the United States are divided: established their government, 
 which was a pure Theocracy : the mural law, together with 
 their ritual, formed their constitution, and Gy){\ was their head. 
 Under this form of government, they continued 350 years : 
 and had they been conlent with their condition, they might 
 have been, and continue still to be, the happK-^st people on earth. 
 But they, like old Jeshurun, waxed fat and kicked ; tl»e 
 voice of murmur and discontent, continued to rise up to heav- 
 en ai»;ainst th»nn ; they lusted after the idols and corruptions, 
 of the nei-ihbouring nations ; and had not the same power, 
 wluch broni][ht them into the land, been exerted in projecting 
 tfiem from (he corruptions of their own hearts, and the sword 
 of their enemies, they would soon have fallen a prey to them, 
 and returned back to the idolatry of the Chaldeans, the land 
 of their fathers. The promises of^ God are sure ; fixed and 
 unalterable are his purposes. Although he sometimes gives 
 up his people to the indulgence of their evil propensities ; he 
 always makes their trials, through sufferings, subservient to 
 bis own glory, and their best good. 
 
 Recapitulation of the Family of Abraham. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 We have now accompanied Abraham and his posterity, 
 from Chaldea to Canaan, to E^ypt, throutjh their sufferings, 
 tiieir deliverance, their journeyins^s in the wilderness, and 
 their restoration to the land which Gad sware uuto Abraham, 
 to give to him and his, for a possession, when as yet he had 
 no child. We have, through the instrumentality of this won- 
 derful family, witnessed the manifestation of the knowledge 
 and character of the only true God, in the miraculous birth 
 of Isaac, in the ffiith of Abraham at the sacrifice, in the ac- 
 complishment of the prophecy upon Ishmael, in the narrative 
 of Joseph, in the displays of God to Moses, in the plagues of 
 Eiypt, in the deliverance of the Hebrews at the Red Sea, and 
 the destruction of Pharaoh ; in the journeyini;s of 600,000 
 Bouls in a barren uncultivated desert, fed by the hnmediate 
 hand of God, with quails and manna from heaven ; and with 
 water in the same miraculous manner, from the*^ dry and 
 fiinted rock. 
 
 We have also witnessed the displays of the majesty of Je- 
 hovah, in giving the Moral Law at Mount Sinai, in formin;; 
 
18 DEFECTION OF THE TWELVE TRIBES. 
 
 his true church with their service, together with the judges 
 of Israel, upon the basis of this law; and finally, his leading 
 the young stock,) after destroying all the old idolaters in the 
 wilderness) into the land which he had promised to their fath- 
 ers, and in planting that church which he had not only form- 
 ed, and nursed, by the special displays of his almighty power 
 and wisdom, by so many miracles, but which he delighted to 
 honor with his special presence, guidance and direction, and 
 to preside over them as their head, deliverer, protector and 
 their God. " I am the Lord your God, who hath brought 
 you out of the land of Egypt, and out of the house of bondage, 
 to give unto you this goodly land, which I swear unto yoar 
 fathers, to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and to their seed after '■ 
 them ; a land flowing with milk and honey." ^ 
 
 Here in the midst of this renevved paradise of blessings, * 
 we are called to witness the high, and distinguished privileges { 
 of that church, from whence issued the accomplishment of J 
 all the promises to fallen and ruined man. | 
 
 The scenes of Eden were here renewed, every thing plea- ? 
 sing to the eye, and delightful to the taste, in the richest pro- | 
 fusion, gladdened the hearts of this favored church ; the pre- ^ 
 gence and counsels of God, directed their steps, the wisdom^ 
 of God gave them understanding, and from his special bouu- - 
 ty, their cup overflowed with blessings. All but Eden's in- . 
 nocence was here. 
 
 Even here, the scenes of paradise are again renewed ; even i 
 here we are called to witness again the depravity of the heart ■ 
 of man, and say " it is desperately wicked who can know it:" | 
 even here this chosen church, this favored of heaven, amidst f; 
 the satiety of enjoyment, renounced their God, and deman- *i 
 ded a king, like the nations of the earth ; and even here God ;; 
 gave them up to the lusts of their hearts, and in his wrath 
 gave them a king. 
 
 Although David, their shepherd king, was the stock from ; 
 whence sprang Christ the Lord. Although Solomon the wise, i 
 establislied the splendor of the temple worship, by the magni- 1 
 licence of the house of the Lord ; yet even this was turned 
 into tlie temple of eimony, and the great mart of all kinds of i 
 merchandise ; and even here, iniquity and corruption defiled J 
 the sanctuary of their God. 
 
 This demand of God that he should give them a king, was i 
 a renunciation of Gort their king, and like the apostacy of par- ■ 
 adise, laid t!ie foundation for all their sutferings, and prepared '; 
 the way for all their subsequent calamities. 
 
DAVID AND SOLOMON. 19 
 
 Would you realise the truth of these remarks, read the 
 chronicles of their kings ; contrast it with their enjoyments 
 under their theocracy, when God was their king, (if imagi- 
 nation can reach to the extent,) and learn wisdom. 
 
 They, like the first stock in paradise, fell, and entailed up- 
 on themselves and their posterity, the same calamities, dis- 
 tresses and judgments, and stand as a living monument to all 
 succeeding generations, with this awful memento, ''let him 
 that staodeth take heed lest he fall." 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Change of Jewish Theocracy to th-e government of their Kings 
 — Dispersion of the Ten Tribes by Psalmanazer — Remarks. 
 
 WheS God's people were weary of his government, and 
 asked a king. He granted their request, and gave them a king 
 in his wrath. Samuel the prophet of God, by divine permis- 
 sion, anointed Saul as their first king ; but God for his diso- 
 bedience rejected him, and by the special display of his pow- 
 er, appointed David the shepherd king, from which stock 
 sprang the Messiah. 
 
 Again we see, that God appoints all his means, suited to 
 their special ends. By the sword uf David, God established 
 the defence and security of his people ; and from him sprang 
 Solomon whose wisdom erected the temple at Jerusalem, es- 
 tablished the splendor of the temple worship, adorned and 
 beautified their city, and placed the nation on the summit of 
 renown. The lustre of the Jewish nation, shone conspicuous 
 in his reign, throughout the world. 
 
 When this illustrious king was called to sleep with his fath- 
 ers, and his son Rehoboam succeeded him, he by one un- 
 guarded act, severed the nation, ten tribes against two; and 
 the exclamation of Jeroboam, " To your tents, O Israel," es- 
 tablished Samaria, as the capital of the ten tribes, with Jero- 
 boam for their king; in opposition to Jerusalem, and the two 
 tribes under Rehoboam. The tlivided strength of a family 
 or nation, is a sure pledge of their weakness, to the first ene- 
 my who may be disposed to invade them. 
 
 I^he truth of the remark was soon verified in this divided, 
 fallen family. When the ten tribes had set up the calves of 
 
20 THE TEN TRIBES. 
 
 Dan and Bethel, and proclaimed " these be thy Gods O Is- 
 rael" — then the God of their fathers came out i« juijiment 
 against them ; and sent Psalmanazer kins of Assyria, with a 
 miirhty army ; who overran their country, pillasied and raz- 
 ed their cities, and carried them ail away captive to Nineveh, 
 where they were swallowed up ; their name blotted out from 
 the list of nations, and not a single vestige of them has ever 
 been found, 
 
 Moses having foreseen, by the inspiration of God, the de- 
 struction that should come upon his people, trave them sea- 
 sonable warning, in Deuf. 4!h chap, from the 28th to the 40th 
 verse. In (his a'hnonition, the sins which caused tliis calam- 
 ity, together with their dispersion, are clearly pointed out ; 
 and as the same chapter, also promises their restoration, in 
 the latter days; great search has been made for them, through- 
 out the habitable globe, but no traces of them have yet been 
 found. 
 
 By some, it is conjectured, that they passed in a body, 
 through the wilds of Asia, crossed Beerings Straits, on to the 
 continent of America, and are to be found in our western in- 
 dians. The plausible grounds for this conjecture are, the 
 similarity in their notions of the Supreme Being, their gultu- 
 fal language, together with some manners and customs, and 
 their division into tribes. 
 
 Dr. Buchanan, in his Asiatic researches, poinis out some 
 features in the AlTghans in Asia, together with reports of tra- 
 dition, that they are descendants of the ten tribes ; but he 
 does not appear to attach much confidence to the conjecture. 
 All the prophets are agreed in the restoration of this branch 
 of the family of Israel, to the land of their fathers, in the lat- 
 ter days; and God will assuredly accomplish his promi>e ; but 
 when, and in what manner, time alone can unfold. "Blessed 
 is he that waiteth, and cometh to, the one thousand three 
 hundred and thirty five daj's." Dan. xii. 12. 
 
 The tribes of Judah, together with the small remains of the 
 tribe of Benjamin, who had escaped the punishment of the 
 sword, which God inflicted upon them by the hands of their 
 brethren, for their impiety and barbarity ; continued the tem- 
 ple worship at Jerusalem, under a succession of kings, two 
 hundred and fifty years; and then they filled up the measure 
 of their iniquities, by violating the sabbath and the sanctuary. 
 
THE FALL OF NINEVEH. 21 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Btstrudion of Nineveh — Conquest of Nebuchadnezzar — Siege 
 oj Tyre — Conquest of E^ypt — Captivity of the two tribes — 
 Displays of God in Babylon. 
 
 About one hundred and fifty years after the conquest and 
 captivity of the ten tribes, by Psalmanazer kingc of Nineveh; 
 God raised up the Chaldeans, together with the Medes, (a na- 
 tion on the east of Babylon, and not far remote,) to chastise 
 the city of Nineveh for her idolatry and cruelty to his people. 
 These mighty nations overran their kingdom, laid waste their 
 country, took the city of Nineveh, raz^d it to its foundation; 
 so that her place is not to be found, (according to the pre- 
 dictions of Nahum, 2d and 3d chapters, and others.) 
 
 Thus fell great Nineveh, th^ pride of the east, and the con- 
 queror of the west, whose sword had drenched in blood the 
 cities of Palestine, and ruined the ten tribes of the family of 
 Israel. 
 
 This conquest of the kin2dr)m of Assyria, raided BabyloQ 
 upon the ruins of her riv^d, and opened the way for all her fu- 
 ture greatness. She extended her arms into the east, and 
 harrassed the M^des and Persians with distress^inir wars. She 
 carried her arms into the west under N* buchadn^zzar, who 
 overran all At^la Minor, entered Phenicia, and laid siege to the 
 city of Tyre. This city then siood upon the main land, was 
 the great mart of A?ia with the w^^st, and the richest city in 
 the world The siege of Tyre u)ade a di^tinnuishing fijfure 
 in this expedition, and the conquest of this city cost N« bu- 
 chadnez^zar a siej^e of two years. The distresses of this 
 sieye were such as had never been experienced ; and the Ty- 
 rians, by their firm and desperate resistance, caused the pre- 
 diction of the prophet £zf kiel to be fully verifi' d, " every 
 head shall be bald, and every shoulder ppaled." Chapter 
 29th — " An I the kiniidom of E.-ypt ?hall be given to Nebu- 
 chadnezzar for his serx ice asiaiost Tyre." 
 
 When the Tyrians found all further resistance would be in- 
 effectual, they removed tneir families and f tfects on to an isl- 
 and, about three fourths of a mile from their eity; here, by 
 the assistance of their ships, they protected and secured (heir 
 wealth aiiainst all further attempts from the conqueror, and 
 laid the foundation for tliat city, which became so Ohtinsuish- 
 ed in the siege of Alexauder, under the name of modern Tyre. 
 
22 DISPLAYS OF GOD. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar carried his arms into Egypt, which fell 
 an ea?y prey to the conqueror ; with the spoils of Ea:3'pt he 
 enriched his army, and they rioted in the luxuries of Egypt, 
 as a reward for their services at the siege of Tyre. { 
 
 From Egypt, the conqueror carried his arms into Pales- k 
 tine, overran the country, laid waste their cities, and laid siege | 
 to Jerusalem. The distresses of this siege are as memorable *: 
 as the siege of Tyre ; but the wretchedness of the Jews, sur- ;l 
 passes all description. Wasted by the sword, famine and jj 
 pestilence, these terrible judgments of heaven, they fell aj; 
 prey to the conqueror, who gave their city up to pillage and ^ 
 the sword, and carried the remnant of the two tribes of Ju-;; 
 dah and Benjamin, away to Babylon, with the spoils of their ! 
 city and temple, and swept their country with the besom oi\ 
 destruction. See Jeremiah, 39th chapter. i 
 
 When Nebuchadn- zzar had settled the conquest of the ^ 
 west, he relurned to Bibylon with the spoils of Asia Minor, ? 
 Phenicia, Eiiypt, Syria and Palestine, together with the rem- >■ 
 nant of the family of Israel ; and Zedekiah their king gra- Jj 
 ced his train. J 
 
 With the spoils of the west, Nebuchadnezzar greatly en-| 
 piched and beautiiied his favorite cit}^, Babylon, then the j 
 scourge of the nations, and mistress of the earth, and rioted ^1 
 in the fruits of his conqu sfs ; here the bondage of E^jypt ■ 
 was again renewed, and the captive sons of Israel became 
 the servants of the king of Babylon, to convert the spoils of 
 Jerusalem and the cities of the west, into the splendor and : 
 maffniticence of Babylon. ,j 
 
 Here again follows the illustration of one of the great ax- i 
 ioms of truth, that the most dark and mysterious ways of 
 God, are often the means of illustrating, the wisdom, good- : 
 Dess, and majesty of his character. 
 
 When Nebuchadnezzar had disposed of his spoils, and j 
 trophies, he caused seven of the princes of Judah to be se- J 
 lected, educated, and trained for the special service of his 
 court. j 
 
 Here opens such a display of the power and majesty of i 
 God, by a succession of dreams visions, miracles, judg- 
 ments, and prophecies, as astonished the king, the nation, ; 
 and the world ; unfolded a succession of events which h^ve 
 employed tlie pens of all historians from that day to this, and ; 
 will continue to employ them, to the great consummatioa of i 
 all things. j 
 
PUNISHMENT OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 9^3 
 
 That same familj^ who had been the instruments of the 
 displays of the character of God in Eaypt, in the wilderness, 
 and in Palestine, were now become the instruments to dis- 
 play the character of the one true God, to that same idola- 
 trous nation from whence he had called Abraham, more than 
 one thousand years before. The wonderful displays of this 
 Almighi}-^ power are faithfully recorded in the whole book of 
 the great prophet Daniel, for the instruction and correction 
 of a profligate world. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes, God accomplished upon Ne- 
 buchadnezzar the vision of the tree, (see Dcin. iv, 4, 18.) and 
 when in the pride of his heart he was exulting; in the majrni- 
 ficence of his favorite city, with, " Is not this jiieat Babylon 
 which I have built, for the honor of my u'ajesty, and the 
 glory of my kingdom," the finger of God touched him, and 
 he was d^prived of i)is reason, driven from his kingdom, 
 took up his abode wiih the beasts of the field, and did eat 
 grass witli the ox seven years. 
 
 At the expiration of seven years God restored Nebuchad- 
 nezzar to his understanding; and his kingdom, and caused the 
 humiliation of the king to praise him. Instead of saying, 
 " Is not this great Babylon which I have built, for the honor 
 of my majesty," he lifted up his eyes to heaven, and blessed 
 the most high God ; and praised and honored him that livi Ih 
 for ever and ever, adding, " none can stay his hand, neither 
 may any say unto him what doest thou." 
 
 In the various displays of his power in the family of Abra- 
 ham, God had manifested to the world, why he called Abra- 
 ham out of the land of Chaldea, into the wilderness of Ca- 
 liaan, intlicted on his posterity the bonda^ie of Esypt, and 
 led them through their forty years journeyin<;s in the wil- 
 derness, to effect the establishment of his church in the land 
 of their fathers. 
 
 By these astonishing displays of his power, he has made it 
 manifest to the world, why he blotted out the ten tribes from 
 the list Of nations, and carried away the remnant of the two 
 tribes to Babylon, that he might root out the idolatry of his 
 church, and by his chastisements, and corrections, lead them 
 back to himself, and at the same time through the instru- 
 mentalily of his own children, he might magnify his name 
 amongst the same idolatrous nations, from whence he tiad 
 called Abraham ; extort this confession from Nebfichadnez- 
 ,zar " that the God of the Hebrews is the only true God i^ 
 
34 CONQUEST OP CYRFS. 
 
 and this decree of the king *' that all nations and lanjsjuages 
 under the whole heaven, should honor the God of Daniel, 
 and all the people should serve him. 
 
 Thus having accomplished his threefold purpose of bring- 
 ing his church by his corrections, to humility and obedience ; 
 magnified his name and his glory to Nebuchadnezzar and 
 his kingdom, left on record these wonderful displays for the 
 instruction of the world, to the latest generations ; God pre- 
 pared the way for the restoration of his people, and to re- 
 build the city of Jerusalem. See Isaiah 43, 44 and 45 ; ; Je- 
 remiah 29. [For a particular description and character of 
 this event, see Ezra.] 
 
 CHAP. vri. 1 
 
 Conquest of Cyrus— fall of Babylon — restoration of the Jews 
 — expedition oj Darius — of Xerxes — pass oj Thermopylae, 
 
 DrRiNG the displays of divine power in Babylon, Nebu- 
 chadnezz.ir died, and was succeeded by his son, whose reign 
 was short, and next by his grandson Belshazzar; between 
 whom, anil Cyaxares king of the Medes, a war sprang up, in 
 which Cyrus, king »)f the Persians, was engaged as an ally ; a 
 brittle was -oon fjuiht in which the Babylonians were defeat- 
 ed, and put to flight with great slaughter and sued for peace. 
 
 This Cyaxares was about to grant, when Cyrus objected, 
 urging that now was a favorable opportunity to punish the 
 Babylonians for their tyranny and cruelty, and that if the 
 king would entrust him with the con«mand of his army, he 
 woald march to Babylon, and chastize that haughty city. 
 C> Hxares, admiring the spirit of this young hero, then twen- 
 ty five years of age, yielded to his request, and returned to 
 his court in Media. 
 
 Cyrus who was called by name by the Prophet Isaiah, two 
 hundred years before he was born, when that prophet pre- 
 dicted the destruction of Babylon, (see Isaiah, chap 45, 46, 
 and 47) was now about to enter upon his commission, and 
 execute the decrees of heaven against that city, who had en- 
 riched hrrself with the spods of nations, who said in her 
 heart " I sit a queen, I am no widow, I shall see no sorrow,'* 
 and knew not the judgments God had io store for her^ and 
 
 ;i 
 
TALL OF BABYLON. 25 
 
 which he had denounced against her ; and who, to filJ up the 
 measure of her iniquities, then held the two tribes of Israel 
 in bondage. 
 
 Thus commissioned by God, and armed by his authority, 
 Cyrus entered upon the plains of Shinar, and laid siege in 
 Babylon. The Babylonians, unable to keep the field, had 
 fled, and taken refuge within their walls, where they felt them- 
 selves secure, with a store of provisions for twenty years. 
 
 Cyrus invested the city so closely, that all communication 
 from without was cut off; he next prepared a canal, by which 
 he could turn the waters of the Euphrates, into the Tigris, 
 and thereby lay bare the channel of the river. During these 
 operations, Belshazzar the king was rioting in his palace, 
 with his wives, his concubines, and all his court, and drinking 
 wine with impious profanation, out of the sacred Vessels, his 
 grandfbither Nebuchadnezzar had brought from the holy tem- 
 ple of Jerusalem. 
 
 A man's hand appeared, and wrote upon the wall, over 
 against the king, these words : Mene, lekel, upharsin ; the 
 conscience of the king smote him, his knees smote together 
 with tear. Daniel was called, who thus mterpreted the wri- 
 ting : " thy days are numbered and finished, thy kingdom ia 
 divided, and given to the Medes and Persians." 
 
 The same night, amidst this impious festivity, the strata- 
 gem of the canal was executed ; the river was drained, asid 
 Cyrus entered the city by an unsiuarded gale, on the side of 
 the river, overturned ail in liis way, entered the palace, put 
 the kint and all his court to the sword, and made himself mas- 
 ter of Babylon. 
 
 Thus ft' II great Babylon, the pride and ornament of the 
 Chaldean Monarciiy, (he mistress of the world, and the head 
 of gold in the vision of Nebuchadnezzar, and the empire of 
 Mtdia was established upon the ruins of the Chaldean Mon- 
 archy. 
 
 Cyaxares then an old man, and uncle to Cyrus, upon the 
 side of his mother, soon died, and left the crown of iMedia to 
 Cyrus, as the rightful heir ; thus uniting the three kingdoms 
 of Chaldca, Media and Persia, with Cyrus for its head. 
 
 The first act of importance recorded of Cyrus, was his de- 
 cree for the deliverance, and restoration of the Jews, to the 
 land of their fathers, as we have noticed in Isaiah. This de- 
 cree was accomplished, with the necessary supplies for car- 
 rj'ing it into execution ; the seventy years capiivity were 
 
 3 
 
26 EXPEDITION OF DARIUS. 
 
 closed, and the rf-n^.nant of the*! wo tribes were restored to 
 Jerusalem, to rebuild their citr, and temple under Zerubba- 
 bel. and Ezra. Ste Ezra 1st t-hapter. 
 
 Tiius we are led a^^in to see with what precision the de- 
 crees of the Most Hijih are acrompiished, "that he seiteth 
 up kings, and putletb down kings, and none can deliver out 
 of hi? hand." 
 
 Cyrus, thus seated upon the throne, of the iMedo-Persian 
 empire, (which became the breast and arms of silver in the 
 iniaj^e of Nebuchadnezzar,) was now the greatest monarch 
 the world had ever known, he united the three kingdoms by 
 wise and eneri:etic laws, ruled in wisdom, laid the foundations 
 of that empire which becanip so conspicuous in succeeding 
 reisns, and died 529 years before Christ. 
 
 We will pass over the successive reit^ns as uninteresting, 
 until we come tlown to the reign of Darius, father of Xerxes; 
 he was fired with the same ambition of his ancestors, raised 
 a powerful army, marched into the west, crossed the Helles- 
 j)ont, marched throusih Thiace, crossed the Danube, and 
 commenced operations a2;ainst the ancient Scythians of Eu- 
 rojie. These hardy sons of the forest, drew him into their 
 wilds, by flyini: before him, laid waste their country, and har- 
 rassed him in his march, until he despaired of success, and 
 attempted to retire from the war ; the barbarians had suc- 
 ceeded in their stratagem, they fell upon him with great fury, 
 routed, dispersed an<i destroyed his army, and Darius rfturn- 
 ed a fua;itive into Persia. Darius died soon after, and left his 
 throne to his son Xerxes. He was the prince of Persia de- 
 scribed in Daniel's scriptures of truth, as beiuii; far richer than 
 ail others, who sliould stir up all asjainst the realm of Grecia. 
 
 Xerxes assembled a powerful army, amountinar to five 
 million sou!-, (according to IMr. RoIMn,) marched into the 
 west, crossed the Hellespont, and invaded the states of Greece, 
 then lying on the eastern borders of Europe, where Turkey 
 in Europe now is. [For a particular description of this coun- 
 try and people, see Appendix marked A.] 
 
 Greece was then in its infancy, divided into a number of 
 sm?l! states, hordes, or clans, independent of each other, 
 speaking the same language under a variety of dialects; 
 without union, without money, without allies, and unprepar- 
 ed, even for anj-^ invasion. 
 
 When Xerxes appeared on their borders with his immense 
 host, they began to confederate for common safety. In this, 
 
EXPEDITION or XERXES. 27 
 
 their first effort for defence, they were near bein? ruined in 
 the clinice of a general ; such was the jealousy of these rival 
 sous of liberty. When they were united in liiis, they were 
 equally distressed in the choice of a commander for their 
 flt*;t ; when they were asreed on this also, their numbers 
 were so small as not to be put in competion with the whole 
 eastern world, whicli was assembled airainst them. 
 
 The powerful force of the kin«^, and the defenceless situa- 
 tion of Greece, inspired him with the highest confidence of 
 success, he constructed a bridge of boats, passed the Helles- 
 pont, entered upon the plains of Greece, and penetrated into 
 the heart of their rou<ntry, without o[)(>os!fion, until he approach- 
 ed the pass of Thermopylae ; here he was met by Leonidas, 
 with his three hundied Spartans, who checked his (progress, 
 and held at bay the whole force of Persia. 
 
 When Leonidas had learnt that Xerxes was about to force 
 his passaiije throuj^h the by-roads of the mountain, by the 
 aid of a treacherous Greek, and thus enclose his little band, 
 he assembled his three hundred Spartans, put himself at their 
 bead, marched throuiih the defile, in dead of niiiht, and, with 
 sword in hand, rushed like a torrent upon the Persian caujp, 
 overturning: all in their course, until they had nearly reachi-d 
 the tent of the king ; here, amidst the terrible conflict of car- 
 na^^e and of death, they all fell a sacrifice to the swords of the 
 Persians, except one, who was ever after treated by his coun- 
 trymen, as a fui^itive, and vagabond, because he preferred 
 life to glory. 
 
 This darincr and heroic assault, so intimidated the kins:, 
 that he no longer considered himself safe in the midst of l\ii 
 legions, but betook himself to his fleet, as a place of more 
 safet}'^, because it was superior to the Grecian, and where he 
 hoped mucli from a naval victory, and left the command of 
 his army with Mardonius, his principal general. Here the 
 Greeks were ready to meet his wishes. The fleets met near 
 Salamin,an action was fought, and a victory obtained, which 
 ruined the Persian fleet. Xerxes escaped, and fled into Per- 
 sia, and his Queen, by a most masterly stratagem and ad- 
 dress, secured her ship, and flight, and followed the king. 
 They both returned safe to Babylon. 
 
 Mardonius, with the host of Persia, moved with renewed 
 caution, until the Greeks force*! him to a battle at Piatea ; 
 here followed a victory, as glorious on the land, as the for- 
 mer had been on the sea. Mardonius was kiilsd, and of 
 
28 CIVIL WAR IN PERSIA. 
 
 three or four hundred thousand men, of the Persian army eD- 
 gaaed, not more than three hundred escaped to return into 
 Persia. Thus ended the greatest enterprize that had ever 
 been attempted, with the greatest overthrow that had ever 
 been witnessed. 
 
 The Greeks thus secured from foreign invasion, were left 
 to cultivate their soil, improve the arts and sciences, extend 
 their commerce, and exert their military prowess, in their own 
 private and domestic quarrels, the most distinguished of which 
 was tlje Peloponesian war, which lasted twenty five years. 
 
 During these civil broils in Greece, a civil war spranjy: up 
 in Persia : the younger Cyrus conspired against his brother 
 Artaxerxes, who was upon the tlirone, passed over into 
 Greece, levied a body of troops, say fifteen or twenty thou- 
 sand, led them into Asia, where he was joined by a large 
 body of Persians from the province over which he was gover- 
 nor, with this force he marched towards Babylon, to attack 
 the king, who, apprized of the conspiracy, had assembled an 
 army, and went forth to meet him. 
 
 The two armies soon met ; a desperate action ensued ; the 
 wing of the army, in which the Greeks were posted, was vic- 
 torious, the wintr of the Persian army which engaged them, 
 was routed and fled — the Greeks pursued. At the same time 
 Cyrus, who commanded the centre, discovered his brother 
 Artaxerxes, at the head of his troops, and exclaimed *' I see 
 him," put spurs to his horse, rushed into the thickest of the 
 battle, attended by his guards, and made a desperate assault 
 upon his brother : here, engaged hand to hand, the two he- 
 roes fought for the fate of the kingdom, wlien the stroke 6f a 
 soldier struck Cyrus dead at the feet of his brother. A terri- 
 ble carnage endued; Cyrus' army was route*!, and cut to 
 pieces. The Greeks, who had p irsued their victory too far, 
 were cut off from the army, and obliged to trust to the valour 
 of their own swords, for (heir safety and .nrotectiun. Tnus 
 the insurrection of C>ru'* was closed with his death. 
 
 Artaxerxes r»^Jnrn» d to Babylon, and left hi* pr Mcipal gen- 
 eral, to purine ai * ?Iestroy, the remains of th • Gierks. Ten 
 thou!r?T ii of f e ilescendants of (he heroes of Tnernif»pyla3, of 
 Sal?«niin, an«' Plctea, were now lett destitute of succour, in 
 tlie heart of P'Tbia, either to deliver themselves up as cap- 
 tives, and <-nf^i'!e the ;v!/!>»k r.»jd .-<orn, ^nd maMIatioh^ of the 
 Pcr&iuus i lo lull a desperate sacaiice to their own valour, on 
 
RISE AND FALL OF PHILIP. 29 
 
 the plains of Persia ; or make a desperate retreat into their 
 own '.'ountry. 
 
 They chose the latter ; and this little phalanx, under 
 Xc'.'toplfon, their leader, retired in presence of the victorious 
 army of Ar taxerxes, into the northern provinces of Armenia 
 arifl G< (>rLM;i, and from (hence ov^r mountains and forests 
 covfred vviih snow, through the uncultivated wihJs an<l more 
 uncultivated savasie nations, all of them in arms ; in the pre- 
 sence of a pnrsuins: army, until they reached the borders of 
 the Black Sea. Here lliey emb:irked, and by a passage, not 
 less perilous from the wintry blasts of the north wiiids, than 
 from the swords of the barbarians, they landed saf« near 
 where Byzantium then stood, (now Constantinople.) Mnd 
 passed safely to their own homes, to the inexpressible joy of 
 Iheir friends, and the astonishment of the world 
 
 During these adventures abroad, the Greeks continned to 
 cultivate the arts, enlarjre and embellish their cities, perfect 
 the science of letters, and display to the world a succession 
 of the greatest heroes, orators, statesmen and poets, to2:ether 
 with U.i-z 2;reates( masters m the line arts, that have ever em- 
 bellished the world ; until the sjreat Philip, king: of Macedon 
 arose. This prince, artful, snbile, and powerful, a=nired to 
 the conquest of the states of Greece, and of the world. 
 
 Philip matured his plans, by increasing; his treasury, assem- 
 blini; a strong military force, and training; his invincible Ma- 
 cedonian phalanx, upon new and improved principles, and 
 by lulling the neighboring states into security, by his orators, 
 or by his a;oId. 
 
 When he was about to strike the fata! blow, to the liber- 
 ties o( bis country, he was killed at a p tbiic assembly by the 
 sword of a young Greek. Thus fell Philip the ambitious; 
 and through hir. fall, (he liberties of Greece were once more 
 preserved. 
 
 Alexander, the son and successor of Philip, upon his ac- 
 cess to the throne of Macedon, found himself in possession 
 of all the vast preparations of his father, and bein^ fired -.vith 
 the same an»bi!ion, he soon found opp()rt unity to carry into 
 effect all ihe plans of his father. 
 
 Alexand^ r assembled the s^^ne army wliich his father had 
 trained — put r»imseir at their head, and at a blow overtiirevv 
 the liberties of his country, and erected his stan<lard in tri- 
 ump * ovor those states, the gold of his (ather had lalled into 
 a slate of security; and when he had settled the govern- 
 
 3^ 
 
30 EXPEDITION OP ALEXANDER. 
 
 monf of his counfry, preparer! to take vengeance on those 
 bautrhty P' rsinns, who had, with tbeir lei;ions, outraged the 
 libertiPft of Greece. 
 
 We hert^ Hini the eloquence of Deiriosthenes, the wisdom 
 of Solon and Lyturirus, and the boasted democracy of 
 Grtrct, whicii taujiht, Umf hheity, valor, patriotism, industry, 
 econeray, and even fruEaiily were the uTc-atest virtues, had 
 all falUn ? sacrifice to the despotic sword of Alexander ; and 
 (his y«»un^ hero, of twenty five years of age, now rose up 
 like a Colossus to bestride the world. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Expedition of Alexander—fall of the, Persian Monarchy, 
 
 Bkfore we enter upon this extensive expedition, let us 
 consult the sacred volume, and see what commission God 
 ha<l fijiven Alexander, by the mouth of his prophets. 
 
 Durin;? (he reign of the impious Belshazzar kinjj of Bab- 
 ylon, who was slain at the conquest of Cyrus, we find the 
 vision of Daniel the Prophet, of the rnm and he goat, as re- 
 corded in the 8th chapter of Daniel. Impressed with the im- 
 portance of this vision, and the interpretation, let us accom- 
 pany Alexantler across the same arm of the sea, which Xer- 
 xes formerly crossed when he invaded Greece, on to the 
 plains of Asia; let us accompany him to ibe banl^ of the 
 Granicus, (a small river of Asia iMinor, which falls into the 
 sea of Marmora,) here he was met by a numerous Persian 
 army to oppose his march. 
 
 As soon as Alexander approached the river in view of the 
 Persians, he lost not a moment, but plunged his horse into the 
 river : the whole army followed ; the Persians disputed the 
 passa^ze with their whole force ; the action was desperate, 
 and the victory decisive ; the P* rsians were routed and fled ; 
 Alexander pursued, and their army was destoyed. This vic- 
 tory, cor.siderinii the time, place, and circumstances, may be 
 considered as a literal fulfilment of the vision of the Ram 
 
 The fruits of this victory opened an easy passage through 
 Asia Minor; and Alexander moved without further opposi- 
 tion, until he met Darius the Persian king, at the pas? of Ci- 
 licia ; here, by a stratagem, be drew Darius into the narrow 
 
SIEOK OF TYRE. St 
 
 defiles of the mountains, where numbers could not avail him, 
 and by a desperate action, gained a decisive victory, took 
 and dii-persed fiis army, together with the queen, and house- 
 hold of Darius, with all the treasure of his camp ; and Ddri- 
 us, with the shattered remains of his army, fled into Persia. 
 
 Alexander, affer having paid suitable honors, and render- 
 ed proper testimonies of respect to the family of Darius, 
 moved his army, by the way of the sea, into Phoenicia, and 
 laid siege to the city of Tyre. 
 
 That city which had been built from the ruins of ancient 
 Tyre, formerly tal^en by Nebuchadnezzar ; that city which 
 now stood on an island, the seat of the wealth, and commerce 
 of the world. Here Alexander, like Nebuchadfiezznr met 
 with desperate resistance, and a long and distressing siege ; 
 which called forth all the talents of the conqueror, and ail the 
 energies of his army ; at length valour and perseverance 
 prevailed, the city was carried by assault, and the riches of 
 Tyre were converted into instruments of future conquests. 
 
 Alexander pursued his rout into E^iypt, which fell an easy 
 prey ;* and here he enriched his army with the spoils of 
 Eeypt ; here he caused himself to be worshipped as the son 
 of Jupiter Ammon ; here he built the city of Alexandria, 
 which still bears his name. 
 
 When he had settled the affairs of Ejrypt, Alexander re- 
 turned into Asia, finished the conquest of Syria, and appeared 
 before Jerusalem ; here the high priest came out to meet the 
 conqueror, clad in all his royal vestments, (see Exodus xxviii. 
 where may be found a description of this curious dress, wor- 
 thy of notice) attended by all his court, and attempted to 
 prostrate hjrnself before Alexander, and do him homage ; 
 but Alexander forbade him, saying, that he had seen in a 
 vision in his own country, a man of his character and ap- 
 pearance, and he treated the high priest with great civility, 
 and respect. 
 
 When this ceremony was ended, the high priest conducted 
 Alexander into the temple ; unfolded, and explained to hira 
 all the prophecies, relating to the conquest of Persia ; partic- 
 ularly the vision of the ram and he goat, Daniel's vision of 
 the four beasts, and the dream of Nebuchadnezzar's great 
 image ; all which so impressed Alexander, that he was to be 
 the conqueror of Asia, that he took the Jews into his special 
 favor, treated them with great respect and kiodaess, made 
 
32 FALL OF PERSIA. 
 
 them rich presents, gave them his blessing, and pursued his 
 march to Babylon. 
 
 Nolhino; of importance occurred, during his passaj^ie of the 
 moiiiitains, lying between Palestine and Babylon: when he 
 came down upon the plains of Persia, he passed the Euphra- 
 tes in quest of Darius, and came uj) with him posted upon the 
 banks of the Tigris, surro<;nded by all his court, and at the 
 head of all the vast armies of Persia, where he avvailed the 
 conqueror. 
 
 Here opened anew the battle of the Granicus ; Alexander 
 ordered the charcje ; pluugeil into the river at the head of 
 his army; h«^re he eacountered perils from the deprh of the 
 river and rapidity of the current, such as he had not bef 're 
 experienced ; here his army was broken by the stream, and 
 thrown into disorder ; but all this he surmounted, gained the 
 opp(»site bank amidst the darts of the Persians, drew up his 
 army, and commenced the attack. 
 
 Here followed the actions of Granicus and Issus; Darius 
 was routed, his army cut to pieces and destroyed, and he 
 himself fled into Armenia, (a province on the north,) where 
 he was slain by Bessus, governor of Bactria Alexander 
 pursued arul overtook Darius just in time to revenge the in- 
 sult offered to fallen maj.^sty, by rausinij Bessus to be muti- 
 lated and slain. He then returned, and marched to Babylon, 
 whii'li opened her gates to the conqueror, and here he gave 
 his army rt'|)ose. 
 
 Thus fell (he kiiadom of Persia ; which arose out of the 
 kingdoms of Ciialdea, Assyria, Media, Persia and the king- 
 doms of the west, which were all united under Cyrus at the 
 cor^qj'esi of Babylon. Thus fell the head of gold, the breast 
 ai;(i arms of silver, in the trreat image of Nebuchadnezzar; 
 tlus fell the second ^reat beast in D iniel's vision, and the 
 kincdjm of the b^liy, and thighs of brass was established up- 
 on t:»eir ruins, und-M- the domiiiion of the he-coat. 
 
 Thus ended the kingdoms of Nebuchadnezzar and of Cy- 
 rus, which under the vision of <he tree, grew and filled the 
 whole ea.ih and thus was verified the denunciations of the 
 prophet; " Tiiey th^'t lead into captivity, s^iall go into cfip- 
 tivily ; they that kill with the sword, siudi be killed with 
 the fW! rd;" -.nch are the decrees of the Most High, who rul- 
 eth in the affairs of the kingdoms of men. 
 
GREEK EMPIRE ESTABLISHED, 33 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Alexander establishes the Empire of the Greeks upon the ruins 
 of the Persian — dies — division of the Grecian Empire — rise 
 of the Roman Empire — of the Carthas:enian — their wars — 
 fall of Carthage — revolutions of the Roman Empire, 
 
 When Alexander had reposed his army, and settled the 
 government, he took his rout through the eastern provinces, 
 which fell an easy prey to the conqueror; built cities after 
 his own name, and settled their governments, until he arrived 
 at the river Incfus. He then turned aside, and followed its 
 banks to the Ocean ; rejoiced his army once more with a 
 view of the sea; marched into the northern provinces, sub- 
 dued them in succession, waged war with the Scythians, with 
 great peril, and returned to Babylon ; established the gov- 
 ernment of the Greeks upon the ruins of the Babylonian ; but 
 preserved all the splendor, pomp, homage and ceremonies of 
 the Persian court.. Thus the vision is fulfilled. 
 
 Alexantier who had now become a Persian in the midst of 
 his Greeks, xave great offj^nce to those generals, whose val- 
 our had If^d his brave troops to victory, and to conquest ; and 
 they dared to express what their hearts so jn=*tly opposed ; 
 Clytus, his friend who had saved his life, and Calisthenes tbe 
 brave, fell a sacrifice to the unrestrained fury of the tyrant. 
 
 That simplicity of manners, that had nursed that Grecian 
 valor, which had hewn out the way to empire for this conquer- 
 or of the w »rld,now witnessed the triumph of Persian conup- 
 tion, over Grecian virtue, and saw their king lost in sensuality. 
 
 Thus having rioted in all the luxuries of eastern pomp, and 
 effeminacy for six years, this he-goat of the west, this son of 
 Jupiter Amm )n ; this hero of the east ; this conqueror of 
 the w-)r!d ; fell a prey to his own licentiousness, and died as 
 a fool dieth, in the excess of his cups. 
 
 H're again the scriptures of truth in the 11 Ih chapter of 
 D:;niel, are fulfilled, his kingdom was divided b«^tivei?n his 
 four principal generals, to the ex<*lusj«)n of his own family. 
 C !ssaud*»r h^ Id Babyloo and the provinces of the east; Ly- 
 sinnchus h.4d Tirace, with Greece and Asia Minor; Seleii- 
 cus -<eld Syria, and Pt demy held E ,ypt. 
 
 Tiu' w^rs of Seleij«i»ia3 ii Sy.ia, between the Jews on the 
 nor' 'J, rill 1 fh.3 P( :)l' ni .^^ if Egy(it on the south, have ^o ex- 
 actly fulfilled the propiiecies of this llth chapter of Ddaie)^ 
 
34 
 
 DEATH OF ALEXANDER. 
 
 that many have supposed they were written after the events • 
 parlicularly those which relate to the persecutions of the 
 Jews; their distresses under Antiochus Efjiphanes, who by 
 his depredations and massacrees, t(>o;ether wifh the desfruc- 
 tirn of their teujple; the violation of (he rishts of their holy 
 religion, in causing them to eat swine's flesh ; his profanation 
 of their sanctuary, in cau^ins them to oflfer it upon their al- 
 tars to their God. These sacrileijious cruelties have ]ei\ ma- 
 ny to suppose Antiochus to be the type, or forerunner of An- 
 tichrist 
 
 These scourees of the church of God, and of the world, 
 continued their depredations down to the conquest of the Ro- 
 rnans, about sixty five years before Christ. The wars be- 
 tween the Syrians and Egyptians, were almost perpetual; 
 and yet the descendants of Ishmael, who inhabit Arabia, ly' 
 m:r partly b.^ween the two, dwelt quietly, and were not entan- 
 gled in their wars. Thus far the promfse of God to Ishmael. 
 
 Smce the call of Abraham, God has di^p^^yed him-elf to 
 men, by the majesty of his power and goodness, in planting 
 and building up his church ; has rolled on one great event 
 after anf>ther, to chastise his own people for their idolatry, and 
 buckslidjngs; and to scourtre their enemies for their corrup- 
 tion.^, as well as their cruelties to his people, and church. 
 
 We have witnessed the revolutions of the three great em- 
 pires of the image of Nebuchadnezzar, and the three first 
 beasts of Daniel's vision; we have now come dovvn to the 
 fourth kingdom, as expressed by the legs of iron iu (he image, 
 and the fourth beast of the vision, strong exceedingly, with 
 great iron teeth. 
 
 Before we commence this part of our narrative. let us go 
 back and examine (he origin of the Romans, or fourth king- 
 dom, and learn their character. 
 
 In the year 1480 before Christ, was founded the city of 
 Troy, upon the eastern borders of the sea, now called Archi- 
 pelago, between the settlements in Asia Minor, and ancient 
 Greece. Paris, son of Priam king of Troy, was guilty of out- 
 rage to a Grecian princess ; this kindled a war, and all Greece 
 was in arms to revenge the indignity. Troy was besieged 
 by the Greeks, and at the end of ten years fell a sacrifice to 
 their a,"{rul stratagems, and was razed to its foundations- 
 blotted out from the'Iist of cities, and the Trojans from the 
 list of nations. This war called into action the genius of 
 Homer, the father of epic poetry, to celebrate the feats of 
 arms at the siege of Troy. 
 
DIVISION OF THE GRECIAN EMPIRE. Si) 
 
 A flrnall colony sprung from the ruins of this renowned city, 
 undt r Eneas iheir header, passed into Italy, and laid the foun- 
 dafi >ti3 of the Roman state. In the year 763 before Christ, 
 R mulus who was then their chief, laid the foundations of 
 tiie city of Rnne, (about the time of the dispersion of the ten 
 tcibes into Nineveh, and the east.) This little city, in the 
 midst of a rude, savage country, grew up by incessant wars, 
 at the expense of their neighbours, until it swallowed up all 
 Giber kinj- (loins, and gave laws to the world. [See Appen- 
 dix marked B.] 
 
 R<»m<", like ail other rising states, was checked and harrass- 
 ed in her progress by her great rival, Carthage, about four 
 hundred years. 
 
 Carthage sprang from ancient Tyre, by a colony, which, in 
 (he year 1259 befcre Christ, in the time of the judges of Is- 
 rael, was led into Africa by queen Dido. Her character was 
 like (hat of the T\ rims, commercial, corrupt, avaricious and 
 prartisirjq; the idolatry of the anciejit Assyrians and Pheni- 
 ciaas, with the barbarous custom, or rite, of human sacritice. 
 
 The ambition of the Cartliagenians, in their early ages, was 
 carried in (heir wars, into Spain, Sicil}', Rhodes and the isles 
 of the sea. The Greeks wese commercial, and checked their 
 dej)rpdations in the Archipelago, until the Romans were com- 
 pelltd by these ambitious neij^hbours, to turn their attention 
 to their tleet. 
 
 The city of Carthage, which stood upon the north of Afri- 
 I ca, upon the bay where Tunis now stands, was founded about 
 ! 1233 before Christ, as a rival of Tyre; became the seat of 
 the commerce of the north of Africa, and of the west; but 
 the limits of her territory being so narrowly circumscribed 
 by the great desert of Barca, and the kingdom of Numidia, 
 that she could acquire an extent of territory, only by foreign 
 conquest; this exhausted her treasure, trained her rival to 
 arms, and proved her ruin. 
 
 j The governments of these states were monarchial ; that 
 (Of Carthage continued ; but the government of Rome was 
 ichanged into a consular government, under their fifth king 
 JTarquin, and the senate, with two consuls, chosen annually, 
 by the people, governed Rome for the space of eight hundred 
 years, and raised her to the sun»mit of her greatness. 
 I The rival strength of these two cities was first called into 
 faction, in the contest for the island of Sicily, next carried in- 
 |to AtVica, raged with violence by sea and land, twenty-two 
 years, and was closed favorably to the Romans. 
 
36 RISE AND FALL OF HANNIBAL. 
 
 Hamilcar, the Carthagenian general, fired with resentment 
 for the humiliation of his country, swore his son Hannibal, 
 when a lad, that he would revenge this inglorious war, and 
 never be at peace with the Romans. 
 
 Hannibal was true to his oath, and at the age of twenty- 
 five, invaded Spain with a powerful army, secured his con- 
 quest, marched into Gaul, (or France) crossed over the Alps, 
 (an enterprise then unknown, and insurmountable to any 
 other general,) entered upon the plains of Italy, and begaa 
 his movements towards Rome. 
 
 Hannibal triumphed over a succession of Roman consuls, 
 who met him at the head of the Roman aroiies, and carried 
 his arms to the gales bf Rome. 
 
 At this critical moment, the Romans assembled an army, 
 and sent their consul Scipio, into Africa, who laid siege to 
 Carthage; and another army was sent into Spain, who tri- 
 umphed over Asdrubal their general, cut oflf his head, and 
 conveyed it into his brother's camp in Italy Scipio invest- 
 ed Carthage so close, that the Carlhagenians sent for Hanni- 
 bal out of Itrtly, to defend their own dwelliniis. 
 
 Stung with chagrin, and mortification, Hannibal obeyed ; 
 embarked his army, and repaired to Cartha;;e. Here he was 
 compelled to meet Scipio upon his own terms, be beaten, 
 abandon Carthasje to her fate, and flee into Syria. 
 
 litre he excited a war with the Romans; but this was 
 soon closed, and Hannibal fled into Bithynia, took poison, 
 and died. Carthatje submitted to such terms as Scipio dic- 
 tated, and settled a peace. The war lasted nineteen years. 
 
 From this time, Carthage betran to decline, and Rome con- 
 tinued to rise and flourish ; enlarged her borders by the arms 
 of her consuls, extended her commerce, encouraged a war 
 between Mast^anissa, king of Numidia, and Carthage ; and 
 when they judged that success was certain ; they sent a pow- 
 erful army into Africa, not only to assist Massanissa agamst 
 the Carthagenians ; but to become principals in the war. 
 This war commenced about fifty years after the close of the 
 second Funic war, and was closed by Scipio the younger, 
 (grandson of the great Scipio Africanus.) 
 
 He by his intrigues, persuadetl the Carthagenians to deliv- 
 er up all their arms, together with some of the best blood of 
 their city as hostages, as a guarantee for their pacific disposi- 
 tion. When he had obtained these, Scipio threw oQ" ttie mask 
 ordered all the citizens to remove from Carthage, and pro- 
 
FALL OP CARTHAGE. 3T 
 
 claimed the decree of the senate, " that Carthage should be 
 destroyed." 
 
 The delivery of their hostaj^es and arms, had filled Car- 
 thage with scenes of distress, not to be described; but Ihe 
 decree Ihrew them into de&pair. All Carihage res(iun<led 
 with acclamations of rage ; they resented this perfidy of the 
 Romans, flew to arms, converted the city into one great 
 work shop, to supply the place of those arms they had de- 
 livered up to the consul, assembled, and posted their army, 
 and prepared for defence. 
 
 Scinio enraged at this sudden change, commenced a gene- 
 ral assault upon Carthage, by surprise, and at dead of pijrht ; 
 but he was too late, Carthage was armed, ready, and made a 
 desperate resistance. Scipio withdrew, changed his plans, 
 and invested the city. 
 
 The decree of the Roman senate had gone fortl ; delenda 
 est Carthago (Carthage must be destroyed,) and the Cartlia- 
 genians knew, that such decrv^es were never revoked ; and 
 that all they held dear was at stake. Armed with despera- 
 tion, they baffled al! the arts, intrij^ucs, and assaults of Scipio, 
 three years, when Scipio entered Carthage by a desperate 
 assault, gave the city up to pilla'/e, and the sword ; razed it 
 to its foundation, and left not one solitary monument, with 
 here stood Carthage, Thus fell Carthage, and the Carthage- 
 nian state, in the year of their city, seven hundred. 
 
 Th« Romans distributed the plunder of Carthage, to the 
 states who claimed such trophies as they had been robbed 
 of by the Carthagenians ; and now felt themselves at liberty 
 to carry their arms abroad, and lord it over t.he nations 
 
 They sent their consuls into the west, and subdued Gaul, 
 and the neighboring nations. They invaded Greece, subdu- 
 ed the great Pyrrhus, who held Macedon, the former king- 
 dom of the he-goat, and conqueror of the world ; they sub- 
 dued, and sacked the city of Corinth, which broke the Ache- 
 ao league, and sealed the fate of Greece. They sent their 
 consuls into Egypt, Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, and the east. 
 
 Julius Cesar carried his arms into Britain, and received the 
 homage of the west, and Rome now as the legs of imn in the 
 great image of Nebuchadnezzar, became the fourth king- 
 dom ; and as the fourth beast of Da-iiel's vision strong ex 
 ceedingly, with great iron teeth, had devoured the world. 
 
 Rome, become mistress of all the three great empires 
 which had gone before her, together with all the smaller 
 
 4 
 
38 CIVIL WAR IN ROME. 
 
 tribes, and states ; had now to drink of the cup of her owBi 
 atfliclion, which grew out of her ambition. 
 
 A great question at this time arose at Rome, between her 
 two greatest consuls, Cesar and Pompey, which shouhl rule. 
 This like all other such questions, led to an appeal to the 
 sword, and a civil war comuienced ; the great champions 
 collected tiieir armies, and retired into the country of the 
 Greeks; they met at PharsaJia, and an action commenced, 
 the conflict was worthy of the chiefs and their companions 
 in arms ; and the prize was Rome. Cesar prevailed ; Pom- 
 pey fled to Egypt ; the terror of Cesar's arms had gone be- 
 fore liim, Ejrypt dare not give asylum to a Roman fugitive; 
 Pompey lcin(i< d in Egypt, fell by the hand of the assassin, and 
 thus left Cesar the quiet possession of Rome, sixty years be- 
 fore Christ. 
 
 Ambition had cherished the virtues and liberties of Rome, 
 and laid the foundation of ail her greatness. Virtue, liberty, 
 and ambition combined, raised her triumphs over Carthage, 
 with Africa, Europe and Asia, an<i seated her upon the throne 
 of the world. Here her virtue expired, luxury, efl'eminacy, 
 and corruption succeeded ; jealousy, faction, and a corrupt 
 amhilion followed, with all thai train of J urious passions, which 
 are the life and soul of factions in all siatesy and ^rmed the 
 nation acainst herself. 
 
 Factions, the bane of all states and empires, when once 
 formed, seldom, if ever close, without the triumph of party ; 
 and this triumph generally seals the liberties of the people, by 
 the energies of government. 
 
 The factions of Rome had long preyed upon the virtues of 
 the state, until they had sown the seeds of corruption amongst 
 the people; and then their chiefs, with the sword, caused the7n 
 to become the instruments of their own slavery and ruin. 
 
 The genius of the Roman government favored the revolu- 
 tion we have witnessed, by placing so great power in the 
 hands of their military chiefs, without a balance of power in 
 the senate to check and control it. This, when regulated by 
 virtue, and foreign conquest, was not only safe, but the great 
 gpring which raised Rome to the summit of her glory. 
 
 When the virtues of the state, and the ambition of foreign 
 conquest were removed, and faction prevailed, the sword of 
 conquest was turned by Cesar, and Pompey, against the lib- 
 erties of their country ; and tilled Rome with butchery and 
 distress ; great Cato fell ; Pompey fell ; that sepate which 
 
CIVIL WAR TN ROME. 39 
 
 had been the terror and admiration of the world, fell ; the 
 pride and glory of the Roman state, her liberty, fell ; and 
 Cesar was lord of Rome. 
 
 Cesar had triumphed over Pompey, and the liberties of 
 Rome, and was now, imperial dictator in the heart of the 
 world ; but the virtue of Rome was not all gone ; Brutus yet 
 lived, Cassius, Cicero and others had yet survived the fall of 
 Pompey and Cato, and when Cesar had declared that Rome 
 must be imperial, and Cesar the emperor, they slew him in 
 the midst of his senate ; not that senate which had Cato for 
 its head, he bad yielded np his life with the liberties of his 
 country, upon the point of his own sword, and the glory of 
 that Senate was lost in the fall of Cato. 
 
 The fall of Cesar, opened afresh tlie civil wars of Rome. 
 Anthony, the friend of Cesar ; Brutus and Cassius, the aveng- 
 ers of their country; Octavius Cesar, then a youth, the 
 nephew of Julius Cesar, and heir by adoption, set up their 
 claims, and all drew the sword. 
 
 The struggle between these conflicting interests, was long 
 and severe ; Home bled at every pore ; the field, the block, 
 and the scaffold, wasted the best blood of the nation. Tn this 
 great struggle, great Tully fell, under the axe of proscription ; 
 Brutus and Cassius fell ; the battle of Actium sealed the fate 
 of Rome ; Anthony fled to Egypt, where he fell, and young 
 Octavius reigned triumphant, filled the imperial chair of his 
 uncle Julius, and gave peace to the world, under the title of 
 Augustus Cesar. 
 
 The Temple of Janus was now shut for the first time 
 since it was built ; the golden age of the world h;id now ar- 
 rived, and the storm of war was hushed into a long repose. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 I Advent of the Messiah — his life and d^drines^ death and resur- 
 rection—prophecy upon Jerusalem — destruction of Jerusa- 
 i km — dispersion of the Jems — division of the Roman Em- 
 1 pire — rise of the Papal porver. 
 
 In this glorious, peaceful reign of Augustus Cesar, the Sflh 
 kingdom commenced, and the glorious epoch arrived when 
 the promise of God to Adam was accomplished, " the seed 
 
40 GOLDEN AGE OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of the woman shaH bruise the serpent's head." The prom- 
 ise to Abraham, " that in his seed, all the families of the 
 earth should be blessed ;" the promise of good old Jacob, in 
 bis blessing to Judah, " the sceptre shall not depart from 
 Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shi- 
 loh come, and unto him shall the gathering of the people 
 be." The prophecy of Moses : " A prophet shall the 
 Lord your God raise up unio you like unto nie," kc. 
 The vision of Nebuchadnezzar ; " And I saw a stone cut 
 out of the mouniain without hands, that smote the image 
 tipon his feet, and brake them to pieces, and became a 
 great mountain and tilled the whole earth." The prom- 
 ise of God to the world, by all his prophets, was accom- 
 plished in this peaceful reign. The star appeared in Bethle- 
 hem ; the angelic host proclaimed, in anthems of praise, 
 " glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will to- 
 wards men." "Behold! 1 bring you glad tidings of great 
 joy, whiih shall be to all people, for unto us is born this day, 
 in the cily of David, a Saviour, who is Christ the Lord." 
 " For unto us a Son is born, unto us a Child is given ; and 
 his name shall be called wt)nderful, counsellor, the mighty 
 God, the everlasting Father, the Prince of Peace." In Beth- 
 Jelu m of Jiidea, the wise men, as directed by the star, wit- 
 nessed, and published this glorious event, this accomplish- 
 ment of so many prophecies, through so many ages of the 
 world. This Alpha and Omega, this bright and morning 
 Flar. This key of life, and immortality beyond the grave. 
 This Saviour of men. This " Immanuel, God with us." 
 
 Great are the displays of God to men, through the patri- 
 archs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and all the prophets ; infi- 
 nitely greater have they been through his Son. 
 
 In him has been exhibited a perfect pattern for .our in- 
 struction : love to God, and benevolence to men. A system 
 of miracles which he wrought, fully confirra this truth, " I 
 and my Father are one." 
 
 'Christ's sermon on the mount, as recorded in the 6th, 6tb, 
 and 7(h chapters of St. Matthew's gospel, unfold a system of 
 truths, for our moral and religious instruction, worthy the 
 Saviour of men. Maxims, wliich if reduced to practice, 
 would make a heaven upon earth. Well night it be said, 
 " He taught as one having authority, and not as the Scribes." 
 " Surely man never spake like this man." 
 
 The wonderful displays of divine power at big crucifixion ; 
 
DISPLAYS OF CHRIST. 41 
 
 when darkness covered the earth at noon day, the earth 
 shook to the centre, the rocks rent, the graves opened, and 
 many that slept in the dust, sprang into life. The veil of the 
 temple which had so long concealed this great mystery from 
 the view of men, was now rent from the top to the bottom, 
 when he bowed his head in death, and said, " it is finished." 
 
 His enemies, appalled at the awful sublimity of the scene, 
 exclaimed, in the anguish of their hearts, " surely this was a 
 righteous man !" 
 
 The resurrection of this key of life, and immortality, be- 
 yond the grave, as he had announced to his followers : the 
 declaration of the angels who accompanied his glorious as- 
 cension ; " Why stand ye here looking up to heaven ? this 
 same Jesus whom ye now see ascend into heaven, shall come 
 again in liko manner, in the clouds of heaven ;" the descent of 
 the Holy Ghost, that promised Comforter, upon his disciples, 
 on the day of Pentecost, and upon all his saints from that day 
 to this ; the exact accomplishment of the judgments Christ 
 denounced against Jerusalem ; " O Jt rusalem, Jerusalem, 
 thou that killest the prophets, and stonest them that are 
 sent unto thee, how often would I have gathered thy children 
 together as a hen gathereth her brood under her wings, and 
 ye would not ; behold your house is lefl unto you desolate.^^ 
 His address, and prediction to his disciples when admiring the 
 beauty of the temple, " See ye these goodly stones, Verily I 
 say unto you, there shall not be left one stone upon another 
 that shall not be thrown down." All, all claim the faith, 
 reverence, obedience, homage, and adoration ©f men. 
 
 The manner in which he has caused the doctrines and 
 principles that he taught, together with the miracles which he 
 wrought, and the displays of benevolence that he exhibited, 
 in his life, for the instruction of the world, to be transmitted 
 down to us, by the fourfold testimony of his disciples (called 
 evangelists : also his miraculous commission of Saul of Tar- 
 sus, (a persecutor of his principles and followers) to go forth 
 as Paul the great apoatle of the Gentiles; that through him 
 the whole world might receive the knowledge of this great 
 truth, " that all things are given by the Father to the Son," 
 and that he hath not only redeemed the world; but that he 
 shall judge the world. All claim the gratitude of men. 
 
 So fully were the prophecies of Isaiah viii. and ix. and 
 Daniel ix. verse 24, and onward, aecomplished at the time 
 of the advent of the Messiah, and so fully was he looked for, 
 
 4* 
 
42 DISPERSION OF THE JEWS, 
 
 by the Jewish nation at this time, " that many false Christs 
 appeared, and deceived many," but the pride of the Jews 
 had blinded their eyes, they had overlooked the first advent, 
 when Christ was to appear as a pattern of humility, meek- 
 ness, patience and benevolence, which should reprove their 
 haughty pharisaical character ; and led them to look for a 
 prince and a kinisr, who should deliver their nation from Ro- 
 man bondage, gratify their ambitious pride, and give them 
 the dominion of the world ; this haughty spirit led them to 
 denounce their Saviour, and exclaim, " away with him, cru- 
 cify him, crucify him ; his blood be upon us, and upon our 
 children." 
 
 God has taken the forfeiture at their hands : sifted them 
 as wheat amongst the nations, and caused the prediction of 
 the prophet again to be accomplished in them. " A hiss and 
 a by-word shalt thou be among the nations ;" which contin- 
 ues (o this day. 
 
 Seventy years after the death, resurrection, and ascension 
 of the Messiah ; Tifus, the son of Vespasian, the Roman em- 
 peror, laid seige to Jerusalem with a areat army, took their 
 city after a long, and distressing siege (in which the sutferings 
 of the Jews were great beyond all former example,) gave it 
 up to pillage, and the sword ; butchered, destroyed, and dis- 
 persed (he inhabitants ; razed their temple, and ploughed up 
 it^ foundations, and thus the avarice of the Jews, who had hid 
 their wealth under the walls of their temple, led to the ac- 
 complishment of the ever memorable prophecy of the Messi- 
 ah upon its ruin. " Not one stone shall be left upon another." 
 
 The Romans, so long as they held Syria and Palestine as 
 a province, treated the Jews with great severity, four or five 
 hundred years ; then the Arabians, or Saracens in the fifth 
 century entered Palestine, broke down the Roman power, es- 
 tablished the Mahometan religion upon the ruins of the Jews, 
 and their church, drove out the remnant that had survived 
 the severities of Roman persecution, and rendered their 
 c^ountry a desert. 
 
 This deluded, distressed people, once the chosen of God, 
 and favored of heaven, now became the fugitives, and vaga- 
 bonds of the »vhole earth, without character, without coun- 
 try, without government, union, or head ; the derision, scorn 
 and jest of tlje world ; have been these eighteen hundred 
 years scraping together gold as the dust, to be prepared at the 
 call of the Messiah, to return to their own land, rebuild their 
 
TRIUMPH OF THE CHURCH. 43 
 
 city and temple, as is predicted by the prophets, and enjoy 
 the triumphs of that {ilorious day; " when the mountain of 
 the Lord's house shall be exalted upon the tops of the moun- 
 tains, and alt nations shall flow unto it and be saved." 
 Which prediction, will as assuredly be accomplished, as that 
 they exist as a dispersed nation. 
 
 God is now causing the Jews, the family of Abraham, to 
 pass through the wilderness of the whole earth, to prepare 
 them by his corrections and judgments, to become the light 
 of the world, when at the second advent of the Messiah, he 
 shall again collect the dispersed of Israel in the land of their 
 fathers ; Christ the shechinah, shall illumine their under- 
 standings, remove the veil from their hearts, and a nation 
 shall be born to God their Saviour, in a day. 
 
 Let us learn this instruction from what is before us, " that 
 to whom much is given, of them much will be required ;" 
 that if the Jews are thus punished for their infidelity and dis- 
 obedience, what will be our condemnation, for our disobedi- 
 ence and corruption, under the light of the gospel, with this 
 nation as a living miracle before our eyes, together with all 
 the prophecies, which have been so long, and are every day 
 fulfilling in them, and the nations of the earth. 
 
 Notwithstanding the » ials of divine wrath which have been 
 poured out upon this ancient church of God ; Christ has 
 planted a vine in the earth, a true church, to perpetuate his 
 name, and his praise, to the latest generation, into which at 
 his second coming, this shepherd of Israel, will gather the rem- 
 nant of his people, together with the fullness of the Gentiles, 
 and there shall be one fold, and one shepherd throughout the 
 habitable earth. 
 
 This little church from its infancy has been, like the an- 
 cient church in the wilderness, under great trials, and dis- 
 tresses, as well as frequent displays of his presence and pro- 
 tection. That Roman empire which blotted out the ancient 
 church, and paved the way in the peaceful reign of Augustus 
 Cesar for the planting of the christian church, in the course of 
 three hundred and fifty years, raised ten general persecutions 
 against her, persecutions designed to drown her in her own 
 blood ; yet Christ appeared in the midst of her afflictions, 
 and massacres, and raised her to the dominion of bloody 
 idolatrous, Rome, under the patronage of Constantine the 
 great, and through him she ruled the Roman empire. 
 
 In the midst of these triumphs, Constantine removed the 
 
44 RISE OF POPERY. 
 
 seat of goTernmeot from Rome to Byzantium, (a city of 
 Greece) on the borders of the Black Sea, and changed its 
 name to that of Constantinople, in honor of the emperor j 
 this struck a fatal blow to imperial Rome, from this time the 
 lea;s of iron, in this part of the great image of Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, began to decline, " the feet, part of iron, and part of 
 clay" began to appear, and the empire began " to be partly 
 strong, and partly broken." 
 
 When the Emperor Constantine removed the government 
 to Constantinople, he left a viceroy in the west, styled the 
 Exarch of Ravenna : (the name of the city where he resided) 
 he, with the bishop of Rome, governed in the west The 
 pomp and splendor, which Constantine attached to the 
 churches, and to the worship, greatly increased the power, 
 and influence of the bishops, particularly the bishop of 
 Rome ; whose power soon became superior to that of the Ex- 
 arch^s of Ravenna. 
 
 The meekness, simplicity, and humility of the gospel, were 
 soon succeeded, and swallowed up in this new order of 
 thiniTs; which the luxury and effeminacy, of the Roirian state, 
 at this time, greatly favored. Under this state of things, and 
 soon after the death of Constantine, (say in the year 410,) the 
 Goths and Vandals, under Alaric, began to make their dep- 
 redations upon the western empire ; and revenge upon those 
 corrupt, effeminate Romans, the injuries they had suffered, 
 from the depredations of their warlike ancestors. 
 
 These ravages continued about forty years; attended 
 with all the excesses and cruelties of savage wars : until At- 
 tila, (styled the scourge of God) with his Huns, put an end to 
 the western empire, by laying waste the countries, extermia- 
 ating the inhabitants, pillaging and sacking Rome. 
 
 With the fall of the western empire, fell all the laws, reli- 
 gion, arts and sciences, of the west ; and a state of perfect 
 ignorance and barbarism, rose upon its ruins. This change 
 introduced that period, known by the name of the dark ages ; 
 which continued about eight hundred years ; down to the 
 middle of the thirteenth century ; and in some degree to this 
 day. 
 
 The religion of these barbarians, was the grossest pagan- 
 ism. They respected neither age, sex, principle, or proper- 
 ty, excepting that of the bishops of Rome : this the bishops 
 3000 took advantage of, and made up a religion, exactly suit- 
 
PAPAL SUPREMACY. 45 
 
 ed to the spirit of the times : embracing the old Jewish reli- 
 gion for its basis. 
 
 The bishop of Rome laid aside his mitre, took the triple 
 crown and sceptre; and upon this Jew isl) basis introduced 
 the worship of saints and images ; in imitation of the heathen 
 mytholooy of the Greeks and Romans, and the Pajjan religion 
 of the barbarians. To these he added, a corrupt Christiani- 
 ty ; retaining little more of it, in its purity and power, than 
 the name. 
 
 Armed with the authority of this religion, the bishop of 
 Rome assumed independent sovereignty, and exercised the 
 powers of a temporal prince : the tyrant Phocas, who was 
 then upon the throne of Constantinople, confirmed this pow- 
 er by a special edict, about the year 606. Under this edict 
 were united, the spiritual and temporal powers of the bishops 
 of Rome, and they claimed and exercised uniyersal sove- 
 reignty. 
 
 About the year 746, the Franks, in addition to the Goths, 
 Vandals, Allans, and Burgundi, who had overrun Gaul, came 
 over the Rhine, and settled in the north, under Pharamond 
 their leader. Clovis, their kins:, embraced the papal religion ; 
 ' and Pepin, one of his successors, drew his sword, and march- 
 ed an army into Italy, to protect the pope against his neigh- 
 bors, when he began to make too free with his powers as 
 universal bishop. The pope, in his turn, to reward Pepin's 
 fidelity, gave him his benediction, and a general harmony 
 j has prevailed between the two governments. 
 
 The bishop of Rome, or pope, having thus obtained and 
 exercised universal sovereignty : assumed to himself divine 
 honors, under the title of " our Lord God the pope ; the im- 
 maculate representative of God ; vicar of Jesus Christ ; and 
 head of the church." Also, as proprietor of St. Peter, he 
 held the keys of eternal justice, and became the grand arbit- 
 er of all spiritual concerns ; and the dispenser of pardon for 
 all sins, past, present, and to come. The ceremony of ad- 
 dress to his holiness was, to kiss his great toe ; with, or 
 1 without the golden sHpper, as his holiness might graciously 
 [condescend. 
 
 Thus seated on a temporal throne, with a dominion over 
 j the city of Rome, and the neighboring country, called the ec- 
 (Clesiastical states, which aflford a small revenue; the sale of 
 I indulgencies gave a handsome addition to the crown, and to 
 I increase it, his holiness created a middle state, after death. 
 
46 FIRST CRUSADE. 
 
 called purgatory, where all souls rested, that were not par- 
 doned at death ; if they were not ransomed by fheir frir-ods, 
 with money, in a reasonable time, and prayed out, they pass- 
 ed into hell : but if thus saved, they went to heaven. 
 
 This system of finance gave his holiness a revenue, that en- 
 abled him to support a throne, with more mannificence and 
 splendor, than any other potentate. See Daniel, 7th chap- 
 ter, 7th and 8th verses. 21—24, 25, 26. 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 Kingdom ofCharhmagm — of Mahomet — of the Turks—fall 
 of the Roman empire at Constantinople. 
 
 We have now traced the progress of this horn of the Ro- 
 man beast, down to the year 800. At this time arose Chr.rle- 
 magne king of the Franks; who subdued the several small 
 states of France, Germany, and Italy, established the sove- 
 reignty and unity, of the crown of France ; placed himself at 
 the head of the German empire ; received from the hands of 
 Leo the 3d, the iron crown of the Romans, with the title of 
 Emperor of the West. 
 
 Charlema-ine, in his turn, protected the Pope, and enforc- 
 ed the papal religion, with fire and sword, throut:hout all his 
 dominions ; and became one of the heads of the Roman 
 beast, about 200 years after Pepin. This little horn, this pa- 
 pal beast, continued in regular progression, to enlarge and ex- 
 tend his power and influence, until the pontificate of Urban 
 2d, (1095) when the vision of the prophet was fully accom- 
 plished. " And these — meaning the ten horns — shall agree 
 to give their power unto the beast." 
 
 About 200 years after Charlemagne, Peter the Hermit 
 came out of Germany over the Rhine, into the southern 
 kingdoms, and preached the first crusade, or holy war, against 
 the infidels, who were then in possession of Jerusalem. The 
 flame spread like liahtning through Christendom. Princes 
 Bold or mortgaged their estates, to raise money ; rallied their 
 subjects for the war, and took the field in person ; marched, 
 or rather swarmed, into the plains of Asia Minor, and from 
 thence into Syria, and laid siege to Jerusalem. 
 
 Here was exhibited such zeal, and feats of valour, as were 
 
RISE OF MAHOMET. 47 
 
 never before known. The city was carried by assauU, and 
 the christians held it one year. Before we proceed further 
 with this war, we will take a view of the rise, progress and 
 character of the powers against which all Christendom had 
 drawn the sword. 
 
 The prophecy upon Islimael, when he was driven out from 
 his father's house, has been thus far accomplished; the storms 
 of war have burst all around bini, yet he has dwelt quietly in 
 the presence of his brethren. We will now see how he put 
 forth his hand upon the countries, rose into power, and " be- 
 came a great nation." 
 
 About the jear 606, Mahomet, a monk of Mecca, renoun- 
 ced his religion, in which he had been educated, retired to a 
 cave, and framed a new one. As i have shewn, how the 
 prophecy of the little horn was fulfilled in the pnpal power ; 
 so I will shew, how the prophecy of St. John — Revelation ix. 
 1 — nth verse incJusiVe, has been accomplished, in these lo- 
 custs of Arabia. 
 
 When Mtbomet had matured his religion, he came forth, 
 and published it at M<"cca; asserting, that God had sent 
 Christ, to publish his Religion, to persuade men to heaven, 
 but that He had sent Mahomet to compel them to heaven. — 
 That he was the representative of God, and the only true 
 prophet. He took for the basis of his religion, the old Jewish 
 patriarchal; with the indulgence of polygamy, and prohibit- 
 ed the use of wine. In their prayers, copying the Pharisees, 
 but discarding the ritual or ceremonial law : denouncing 
 Christ, and proclaiming himself the only true |)rophet. 
 
 Mahomet discarded the bible, and made one of his own, 
 called the Koran, or Alcoran ; composed of a great number 
 of detached sentences, enjoining polygamy, and prohibiting 
 the use of wine : enjoining prayers, and here and there an- 
 nouncing " God is God, and Mahomet is his prophet !" 
 
 This religion being new, and more indulgent to the ambi- 
 tion, lusts and corruptions of men, he soon had followers, and 
 met with opposition. The city of Mecca banished the proph- 
 et, who fled to Medina, (another city of Arabia) and his flight, 
 called in Arabic the Hej/ira, is the date of the Mahomftan 
 era. Here his followers increased, till they soon made up a 
 strong mi4itary force. With Ihis, he subdued his own country; 
 then carried his arms into Palestine, and took Jerusalem 637. 
 
 He next overrun E^ypl, took the city of Alexandria, where 
 the Caliph Omar ordered the largest library in the world, to 
 
48 RISE OP THE TURKS. 
 
 be burnt ; with this reason, " that if it contained any thing which 
 was not in the Koran, it ought to be burnt, if notf it ought to 
 be burnt," and it rvas burnt. 
 
 With the wealth and spoils of Egypt, they raised another 
 army, which went into the east; overran and subdued the eas- 
 tern provinces of the Roman empire, took Babylon, and raz- 
 ed it to its foundations ; and as the prophets, Jt^remiah li, and 
 Isaiah xiii. had predicted, "swept her with the besom of de- 
 struction, so that her place is not to be found." 
 
 The army of Egypt proceeded west at tJie same time, over- 
 ran and subdued all the Roman provinces on the north of Af- 
 rica, passed over into Spain, subdued it, and passed into 
 France: here they were checked in a severe action, with 
 Charles Martel, king of France ; and were driven back into 
 Spain ; where they held possession, till they were driven out, 
 with the assistance of the Moors, in 1U91. 
 
 These locusts of the bottomless pit, continued their ravages 
 upon the southern section of the Roman empire, five prophet- 
 ic months, or one hundred and fifty years : they then built 
 Bagdad, in the east, on the Tigris, and called it " the city of 
 peace." " 
 
 The conquests of the Tshmaelites, (Arabians,) Mahometans 
 or locusts, extended over all the north of Africa, Syria, Pales- 
 tine and the eastern provinces of the Roman empire, sa far 
 as they extended ; viz. to the river Indus : and the I'eligion 
 of the prophet was enforced with the sword, throughout all 
 this extent of dominion ; where it continued to prevail under 
 the Saracens, until these provinces were wrested from them 
 by the Turks. 
 
 When the vision of locusts was closed; the prophet adds, 
 " one woe is past, beiiold ! there come two woes more here- 
 after:" and in the next verse goes on to unfold the vision of 
 the Euphratean horsemen : and long before the use of gun- 
 powder was known, he describes the exact explosion, asfit ap- 
 appears when horsemen fire on horseback, "fire, smoke and 
 brimstone, coming out of the horses' mouths," and what is 
 more remarkable, these Tartars began their conquests with 
 cavalry, and very numerous cavalry; and the use of fire arms 
 gave them eroat superiority over their enemies, and rendicred 
 their conquests rapid and easy. 
 
 They overrun and destroyed the Saracen empire, in the 
 east, took Bagdad the capiral, conquered Syria, and took Je- 
 rusalem. They also conquered Egypt, and all the Saracen. 
 
CONQUEST OF CONSTANTIXOPLE. 49 
 
 states, on the north of Africa ; and having triumphed over the 
 eastiern and southern sections of the Roman empire, they en- 
 tered Europe, and fixed their capital at Constantinople, in 
 the year 1450: thus placing; the weslern Romnn empire, ua- 
 der the dominion of the papal reliiiiou, and the eastern under 
 that of Mahomet: where they will remain, until the ac- 
 complishment of the predicti«m of the apostle, 2 Thessaloni- 
 ans, ii. 3. "Who opposeth and e^alteth himself above all 
 that is called God. or is worshipped ; setting in the te»nple of 
 God, shewingf himself that he is God: whom the L(>rd shall 
 consume, with the breafh of his mouth, and the brijihtness of 
 his coming." And until (he vision coutained in Ihe 2d chap- 
 ter of Daniel, and the latter part of the 7th, shall be accom- 
 plished. 
 
 Thus we have seen, how a few military adventurers, under 
 Mahomet, iirevv into power, and overran mitrhty eriipires, 
 states and kinjjilotns : aho, how a small clan of Tartars near 
 the source uf the river Efiphrafes, betran their ilepredations 
 upon I'ieir tjeitihb< rs, and beiug enricht;d and esicourased by 
 their spoib, soon became numerous and powerful; ^nbil <ed 
 the conquests the Mahometans had made aad enjoyed f .ur 
 hundrt <J years; adopted th<Mr religion, enforced it, like Vla- 
 houjet, with the sword, and tbe iMiu of the law; tixed their 
 capital in the seat of the bfast with great iron teeth, and as- 
 pir d to the dominion of the world. 
 
 Thus we have seen, the displays of the goodness of God, in 
 the communications of hinist If, and liis will to men, through 
 the successive ages of the worKI, from ti>*^« creation, to the 
 flood; a period of one thousand six hundred and tifty-six 
 years: from the Hood to the call o\' Abraham, and the foun- 
 ding of his church : from thence, through the medium of his 
 prophet?, God has unfolded all Ihe jjreat events; and the pens 
 of (he several historians have recorded their ac^'omplishment, 
 down to the destruction of tl^e Roman empire, and the es- 
 tablishment ot the beasi and false prophet upon its ruins, 
 
 Fmm the several chaslenin^is, of the ancient and modern 
 churcti, (or Jewish and christian,) we may learn the truth of 
 the creat niaxim of inspiration, that " lo whom moeh is jsiven,- 
 of them much will be required" — and "he that knoweth his 
 master's will, and doeth it not, shall be beaten with many 
 stripes." 
 
 END OF PART FIRST. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 TO PART FIRST. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 The Persian empire, which was founded by Cyrus upon the 
 union of the Babylonian, Medean, and Persian empires, about 
 536 before Christ, passed through a succession of revolutions; 
 first by the conquest of the Greeks ; next by the conquest of 
 the Romans; then by the Saracens, or Arabians; next by 
 the Turks. 
 
 About the close of (he 1 2th, or befiinning of the 13th centu- 
 ry, Jcnghis Khan, a Tartar prince, on the north of Persia, 
 spran!^ up, assumed the style of conqueror, overran Persia, a 
 great part of Hindostan, (or hither Imlia,) and extended his 
 arms into liw east as far as the confines of China, and laid the 
 foundation of that extensive monarchy, known by the name 
 of the Mojiul's empire, (or empire of the great Moprul.) He 
 was succeeded by Timer Bek, or Tamerlane, (another Tar- 
 far prince,) who extended his conquests over all that part of 
 Asia which formerly composed the extensive empire of Per- 
 sia, greatly weakened the growing strentrth of the Turks, and 
 fixed the permanency of the Mogul's empire, 1399. 
 
 The dynasty continued in his line, almost three centuries 
 and a half, until the conquest of Kouli Khan, 1732. This 
 prince, or eophi of Persia, threw oif the Tartar yoke, and like 
 iiustavus Vasa of Sweden, roused up his countrymen to as- 
 jiert their liberties; with this spirit, he broke the usurpation 
 of the Tartars in Persia, and greatly weakened the empire of 
 the M<<fiuls. Since his conquest, the empire of Persia has 
 been governed, like Egypt, by a number of independent sov- 
 ereignties, and has been the theatre of distressin*: civil wars. 
 
 Kouli Khan, also |)enetrated into Hindostan 1735, dissolved 
 the government of the Moguls, and left that country, like 
 Persja, under the government of a great number of indepen- 
 dent sovereignties, styled Soubahs, or Nabobs. The civil 
 wars between these Nabobs, laid the foundation for the ex- 
 tensive conquests and settlements of the English East India 
 company in India, and has guarriuteed to them a revenue, 
 which has enabled England to resist the ambition of the 
 
CHARLES XII. AND KOULI KHAN. 51 
 
 French revolution, furnish money for the support of all con- 
 federated Europe, through this arduous struggle of a twenty 
 years' war, and by a splendid triumph, give peace to the 
 world. 
 
 We should here notice, the display of the government of 
 God, in raising up Charles XII. king of Sweden, to excite a 
 spirit of enterprise in Russia. We now see in Persia, a char 
 acter of the same description, in KouM Khan ; raised up at 
 the same time, and to co-operaie in the same signal events, 
 (although so remott from each other) by laying the founda- 
 tion for those conquests in India, which have furnished the 
 purse for confederated Europe, throuy;h the medium of Eng 
 land, and rendered their sword triumphant. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 This empire, on the eastern extremity of the continent ot 
 Asia, differing from all others in its government, reliaion, man- 
 ners, customs, and extensive population ; is noted for the 
 pride of antiquity. The modern Chinese carry back their 
 origin beyond the flood, and some of them beyond the crea- 
 tion. About two hundred years before Christ, literature be- 
 gan to flourish in China, and the art of printing was dicover= 
 ed ; and their first historian, Sematsian, wrote about ninety- 
 seven years before Christ. 
 
 There is nothing that appears in (heir history with any cer- 
 tainty, further back than the tirst dynasty under prince Yao, 
 or Yu, about two thousand years before Christ. From the 
 nicest investigation of Chinese chronoloiiy, by some modern 
 and learned Chinese, who were educated in France, and re- 
 turned to China in the year 1765, and whose correspondence 
 has since been published at Paris ; it does nrit Sj'pear, that 
 the kingdom was founded earlier than the year of the worid 
 2207. 
 
 The Chinese suffered much from the depredations of the 
 northern Tartars, until the reign of Chi-ho angti, who caused 
 the famous northern wall to be built, extending one thousand 
 five hundred miles, from east to west. This secured the 
 peace of China for several centuries ; but the Tartars, after re- 
 peated assaults, and depredations, finally succeeded in break- 
 ing over the wall, and subduing the empire 1635, and a Tar- 
 tar dynasty is now upon the throne. Uuder this dynasty, all 
 the eastern part of the Mogul's empire has been addtd to Chi- 
 
52 GOVERNMENT OF CHINA. 
 
 na, and the emperor resides in summer in Tartary, and in 
 winter in China ; tliis preserves the union. 
 
 China Proper, is supposed to contain more inhabitants than 
 all Europe, bein«( estimated at three hundred millions, by Sir 
 George Staunton. The love of country is such, in China, 
 that they are never known to emigrate ; they carry on no for- 
 eign commerce, although their exports are immense ; they 
 admit no foreiirners into any of their cities, and only into 
 particular parts of their country near the sea coast, and into 
 the suburbs of a few particular commercial cUies. 
 
 Their government is absolute, and yet patriarchal ; the em- 
 peror is not the tyrant, but the father of his people. Their 
 religion is paean ; but so far mixed with the religion of Bra- 
 ma, that they have pure, and simpk ideas of the supreme be- 
 inj, who presides over the universe : the doctrine of trans- 
 miiir^lion al o, makes a part of the reli;;ion of China. 
 
 This country was first visited by the Portuguese, in their 
 discoveries in the Indian ocean, in the year 1586; w^hen 
 they obtained a grant of the island of MM'ao, at the entrance 
 of the harbor of Canton. Sin< e that time, the commerce of 
 China I as been carried on from Europe and America, by the 
 way of the Capp of Good Hope. 
 
 The pope sent mi'^sionaries, of the order of the Jesuits, in- 
 to China, in the year 1692, when they met with some appar- 
 ent success, until they began to shew a disposition to dictate 
 in the affairs of the government ; then the emperor expelled 
 them in 1742. The Ens^lish government atttmpled to es- 
 tablish a diplomatic intercourse wilh China in 1792, and sent 
 I/t sd M'Car'ney for this special purpose; but the impru- 
 dence of the mlirsiun soon defeated i»s object, by some ma- 
 noeuvres on the coast, particularly in approaching the shores 
 with their shipsj making soundings, &,c. The jealousy of 
 tho emperor was alive to these movements, and it is owing 
 entirely to such jealousy, that China has so long retained her 
 govprnment. 
 
 United America, will doubtless enjoy a free trade with 
 China, from the western shore of this eontinent, in fifteen or 
 twenty years, where will spring up and flourish, some of the 
 largest, and most splendid cities. 
 
 HINDOSTAN. 
 
 This Peninsula, known by the name of India within the 
 
EXGLISH SETTLEMENTS IN IXDIA. 53 
 
 Ganeres, (or hither India] was discovered by the Portugueses 
 in 1497; and in the year 1506, they commenced the settle- 
 ni'-nt of Goa, on tt^e Mnlabar coast. Here they established 
 an inquisition, which conlinii<^s to this dny ; and by the other 
 European nations, in the following order, viz : Visited over 
 land by the Eni^hsh, 1591, and by a private adventure, of 
 three ships, at the same time. This adventure proved un 
 fortunate ; two of the ships were lost, and the third was seiz- 
 ed on by the crew, and the captain, after an absence of three 
 years, returned to En{j;land in another ship. 
 
 Tliis adventure, althou'^h disastrous, laid the foundation 
 for all the future EnL'lish prosperity in India. The intelli- 
 gence brou2;ht home by captain Lancaster, induced a second 
 adventure, which proved successful, and laid the foundation 
 for the charter for the first East India company, Dec. 1600, 
 with a stock of 72,000/. In 1698, a new company was form- 
 ed, and in 1700, the old one was re-esf^bli.^hed, for which 
 they ao;reed to pay to government 400,000/. for five years. 
 In 1773, the British government passed their India Bill, and 
 in 1774 they sent out judges from England, to preside over 
 their India settlements; and the commerce of India contin- 
 ues to increase, and flourish to this day. 
 
 The Dutch next explored the Indian ocean, and touched 
 upon the peninsula of Hindostan 1595. The English East 
 India company made their first voyage 1601. The same 
 year the French doubled the cape of Good Hope, and visited 
 India. In 1612, the Danes made their first voyage to India. 
 All these kingdoms established India companies, after the 
 manner cf the English 
 
 This country, when first visited by Europeans, was divided 
 into a number of viceroyalties, or sovereignties, united under 
 the emperor of Hindostan, or the Mogul's empire ; posses- 
 sing an extensive popniation, an<l enjoying one of the richest, 
 and most fertile soils, with a mild and delightful climate. 
 The frequent wars which sprang u() from time to time, be- 
 tween the princes, or Soubahs, led them to have recourse to 
 the Europeans for aid. 
 
 In 1738, the famous Kouli Khan, after having usurped the 
 Persian tjirone, overran great part of the Mogul's empire, 
 weakened, and destroyed the power of the descendants of 
 Tamerlane, a power which had continued nearly three centu- 
 ries an<l a half; he overran Hindostan, dissolved the unity of 
 the empire, and left it at the mercy of a great number of in- 
 
 5" 
 
54 ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA. 
 
 dependent princes, who soon became rival states, and render- 
 ed this delij^htful country, a theatre of perpetual wars, and 
 devastation. 
 
 This weakness of (!ie natives, was soon turned to the ad- 
 vantage or the Europeans, and enabled them to maintain, and 
 extend their settlements. The English at Bombay, Madras, 
 Calcutta, &LC.; and the French at Pondicherry 
 
 At the peace of 176^, the French ceded Pondicherry to 
 the English, wliich gave them an unrivalled possession of the 
 sea coast of this eastern world, secured the foundation of her 
 extensive commerce, wealth and power; and enabled her to 
 become mistress of the seas, and arbiter of the world. 
 
 The population that has grown out of these settlements, 
 with the extensive concpiests, which the British East India 
 company have since made, amount to about twenty mil- 
 lions ; this, added to the settlements the English have made, 
 and acquired, in the Indian ocean, (including New Hc/lland, 
 and the isles) is estimated at forty millions. 
 
 This extensive, rich, and populous country, has become 
 the theatre of the christian missionaries in the east. The 
 ancient religion (»f this country, was the religion of Brama, 
 who taujiht the doctrine of one supreme being, who made, 
 and governs all things, mixed with the absurd doctrine of 
 metemsychosis, or transmigration of souls at death, into the 
 form of all the different animals, according to their charac- 
 ters in life ; together with the practice of image worship, ge 
 idolatry. 
 
 Into what a state of corruption, ignorance, superstition, 
 and enthusiasm, this religion is now fallen, has been very im- 
 prf^ssively disclosed Ly the Rev. Dr. Buchanan ; together 
 with the successful efforts now making, in translating the bi- 
 ble into the different oriental languages, and diffusing it 
 (through the medium of the press) through this eastern 
 world. A work slow in its progress, but one which will as- 
 suredly prosper, and succeed. 
 
 TARTARY. 
 
 This vast extent of country, lying upon the north of Asia, 
 and extending from the eastern borders of Russia in Europe, 
 (o the northern ocean on the north, and the Pacific ocean on 
 ^be east, embracing Chinese Tarlary, Thibet, and a part of 
 ilindostan on the south ; was ail known to the Greeks and 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE TARTARS. 55 
 
 Romans, under the general name of Srythia. The ancient 
 Scythians defeated Ah^xander, by retirino; before him, laying 
 waste their country, and decoying him into their uncultiva- 
 ted wilds, where he had like to have been ruined, and de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 The same mode of warfare was practised by the Parthians, 
 or Scythians, in the east, upon the Roman general Crassus, 
 who was ruined with his army amidst the sands, and unculti- 
 vated plains of Partliia ; by this mode of defence, they have 
 been able to secure their country from conquest ; but it has 
 been no security against the feuds, civil wars, and massacres, 
 which have constantly arisen out of their savage, barbarous 
 manner of life ; their divided, and wandering mode of sub- 
 sisting, and their total want of union, and energy in their gov- 
 ernment. These civil wars, and massacres, were common, 
 and often attended with the slaughter of three or four hundred 
 thousand. This has kept down their population, and wasted 
 their strength ; and been the chief cause of their submission 
 to the Russian government. 
 
 It is true, that some large, and populous cities are scatter- 
 ed throughout this vast extent of country ; but literature, and 
 the arts have never flourished in Tartary. The mass of the 
 population lead wandering shepherd lives, or subsist by fish- 
 ing, and hunting. The Tartars are noted for their attach- 
 ment to the horse, and of course for their numerous, and fine 
 horses : they also prefer the flesh of this animal to that of the 
 ox, or cow. 
 
 From these regions of barbarism, sprang up Othman, the 
 conqueror of the west of Asia, and chief of the Turks ; 
 Jenghis Khan, and Tamerlane, the conquerors of the middle 
 and southern parts of Asia ; and from Chinese Tartary sprang 
 the present reigning family on the throne of China. Since 
 the conquests of Kouli Khan (the Persian,) early in the last 
 century, there has been a general quiet throughout this east- 
 ern world. *-. 
 
 The war practised by the Russians upon the emperor Na- 
 poleon in 1812 — 13, was a Tartar war; the same as was 
 practised upon Alexander, the Grecian ; upon Crassus, the 
 Roman, and upon all other foreign invasions, The Russians 
 decoyed him info their country, by retiring, and laying waste 
 their country ; and when the emperor presumed that he had 
 secured his object, in the possession of Moscow ; the Tartar 
 governor Rastapchio, set fire to the city, and burnt him out 
 
56 WARS OF THE TARTARS^ 
 
 This mode of dpfence has been invariably practised from the 
 earliest ages, and with invariable success. 
 
 All this n« st of ancient, and modern conquerors, lying east 
 of Russia in Europe, is now un<ler a general sysiem of tiov- 
 ernmenf, and subject to the emperor of Russia ; which will 
 account for the iieneral quiet thai has so lontj pr»^vailed ia 
 this country. Should the ambition of the present, or some 
 future emperor, rouse up this now dormant force ; the same 
 scenes would be acted over aiijain, and the same consequen- 
 ces result from them, as from the invasions of Oihman, 
 Jeuiihis Khan, Tamerlane, &ic. Tiie same countries which 
 were then the theatres of conquests, are now as invitin-i, and 
 as defenceless as they were then ; and when under ihe direc- 
 tion of one government, so well organized, and so energetic 
 as that of Russia, it may well be pr.*sumed that omre serious, 
 and extensive conqui sts may be effected, than any that have 
 been recorded. 
 
 The southern nations are aware of this, and it is said that 
 the Turks have a tradition, that the Russians will subtlue their 
 empire, and that they even fix upon a particular ^aie, at 
 which they will enter when they shall subdue their capital 
 (Constantinople.) 
 
 Thus we have seen, that the southern kingdoms of Asia 
 have been ravaijed, and laid waste by the Tartars, or Scythi- 
 ans of Asia, from time to time, in the same manner that the 
 southern kingdoms of Europe have been ravaged, ?nd laid 
 waste by the Celtii, Tartars, or Scythians of Europe. Even 
 we, the favored inhabitants of America, spransr from the Sax- 
 ons who were a clan, or tribe of Celtii, or Scythians, whi> sub- 
 dued the Britons; planted in that isle the lirst principles of 
 liberty, and pure representative government, and (ransplant- 
 cd them into this new world, where they have flourished, 
 and eclipsed the original stock. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 This kingdom was founded by Mizraim, the son of Ham, 
 in the year before Christ 2188. Possessing the richest soil, 
 and the most inviting climate, it flourished above all other 
 kingdoms, in wealth, splendor, literature, and the arts, and 
 became the nursery from whence the splendid nations of 
 Greece and Rome, derived their literature, and knowledge of 
 the arts aod sciences. Egypt became not only the pride of 
 
CHARACTER OF EGYPT. 57 
 
 the world, but the envy of the world. It continued one thou- 
 sand five hundred and eighty-eight years, when it was brok- 
 en, and subdued by Nebuchadnezzar king of Assyria, about 
 six hundred years before Christ. 
 
 During this period, were constructed those stupendous 
 monuments of the arts, the pyramids; the largest of which 
 covers with its base six acres of ground, and is six hundred 
 feet in height ; these with tlie splendid obelisks, and mum- 
 mies, (those -monuments of the art of embalming their dead,) 
 together wiih the Egyptian cement, which hardened with 
 time, and became more durable than stone ; these, with the 
 cana! that united the Nile with the Red Sea, and the almost 
 innumerable canils that conducted the inundations of the 
 Nilo, and ferfilizt d the wliole face of the country ; were 
 amongst the arts which distinguished Etcypt. 
 
 The conquests of Nebuchadnezzar, plundered, and sacked 
 the kingdom, broke its spirit, and rendered it an easy prey to 
 the successive conquerors. Alexander the great, conquered 
 E'i:ypt about the year 330 before Christ, and after his death 
 it f«-!l under the government of Piolemy, one of his generals. 
 It would have flourished under the Ptolemies, had it not 
 been harassed and distressed, by the perpetual wars with the 
 Selncidae, or kings of Syria. 
 
 With the fall of the Grecian empire, E-ypt fell under the 
 dominion of the Romans, in the year 31 aftt r Christ. It con- 
 tinued a Roman province until the conquest of the Saracens, 
 about the year 625. They estabhshed the Mahometan reli- 
 gion, and governed E^yp! by their caliphs, until the conquest 
 ef the Turks, in the year 1525. 
 
 The Turks confirmed the Mahometan religion in Egypt, 
 and throu;2hout their empire, and prostrated the 'strength of 
 the kingdom, by giving it up to the government of a great 
 number of petty sovereigns, called Beys, who wasted the en- 
 ergies, wealth, and resources of the country, and became trib- 
 utary to the sultan of Constantinople. In 1799, this basest 
 of kingdoms was overran by the French, under general Bona- 
 parte. In 1801 it was conquered by the English; and in 
 1803, ceded by the English back again to the Turks, under 
 whose power it now continues. Tliu^ we see how the pre- 
 diction of the prophet has been fulfilled : " Egypt shall be- 
 come the basest of kingdoms " 
 
 E ypf, in its ori/in, was almost as ancient as Assyria, and 
 Chaldea ; and its duration as a kingdom, has clearly evinced 
 
58 CHARACTER OP EGYPT. 
 
 the importance of those virtuous institutions, on which this 
 monarchy was founded. At this early age of the world, the 
 knowledge of the true God was lost, all men were sunk 
 in a gross, and barbarous idolatry ; the science of civil gov- 
 ernment was in its infancy, and the passions of D»en were cor- 
 rupt. Jn this state of thiiiiis, let us take a view of the princi- 
 ples which constituted the basis of their government, and see 
 how far they became an example for the Greeks, — the Ro- 
 mans ; and in point of moral virtue, have surpassed the gov- 
 ernments of latter ages ; and even in this boasted age of wis- 
 dom, light, experience, religion, and improvement. 
 
 The genius of their government was hereditary monarchy; 
 and to preserve the customs of their ancestors, was one of its 
 fundamental maxims. The service of the king was consid- 
 ered too sacred, to be degraded by a iforeigner; and the ear 
 of majesty too pure, to be polluted with ignoble sentiments. 
 
 The frugality of the kinji, and even the simplicity of his di- 
 et, were considered as objects of importance, deserving the 
 attention of the laws ; and even public business of magnitude 
 and importance, was assi2;ned to the duties of the morning, 
 and became the object of the king wit ii the risinti dawn. This, 
 with the prayerp, devotions, and sacrifices of the temple, to- 
 gether with a rehearsal of the exploits, and customs of his an- 
 cestors, from the sacred records, was prescribed to the king, 
 as the duties of the morning. To enforce these principles, a 
 certain pillar in the temple of Thebes, was inscribed with im- 
 precations agninst thai king, who should dare to violate them. 
 
 To administer justice, preserve order, and support the 
 throne, the king a[»p linled thirty judges, selected from all the 
 principal cities of Eiiypt Wisdom an<l virtue, with a fair 
 and good report, were the sole criterions of preferment; and 
 the judges were supported at the expense of the king. 
 
 The laws governed in E.iypt, and every citizen from his 
 infaney, was tautiht to know and reverence the laws. This 
 established a regular system of habits, which enabled the 
 Ei.y[>fians to preserve their government so long; and is the 
 true maxim of the g:overnnjent of China to this day. 
 
 L.norance and idleness, were alike detested in E^ypt ; to 
 suppress these, it became necessary for every man to enrol 
 his name, together with his employment, upon a public regis- 
 ter in the hands of some magistrate. 
 
 The Ey:yptiJUJ5 exempted froto execution, or the power of 
 the creditor, ail the instruments used by the debtor to obtain 
 
HER HABITS AND MANNERS. 59 
 
 his support; judging it both barbarous and infamous, to divest 
 a man of the means of subsistence, and of paying his debis, 
 on account of his misfortunes; but gave up the debtor in per- 
 son to be in)prisone(l by the creditor. 
 
 The Egyptians paid the hifjhest respect to old age; the 
 young always rose in Iheir presence, and did them reverence. 
 
 Gratitude amongst the E^ryptians was racked with the first 
 of the virtues, and gratitude to the king, claimed the first 
 rank ; and upon this principle, that he who is grateful to men, 
 would be grateful to the nods. 
 
 The relision of the Ej-yptians, was idolatry, wrapped in 
 mysteries known only to the priests, and Jf:ii<; since lost in 
 the ases of obscurity, together wiih that labyrinth of hiero- 
 glyphics, which adorned the pyramids, obelisks, pillars, and 
 •tafues of E'^ypt. 
 
 The superstition of the Egyptians, like all other idolaters, 
 was as great as their deities were numt rous, and it was death 
 for any person to take the life of any one of all the numerous 
 animals they worshipped. 
 
 The Egyptians, like all other idolaters, had this thin veil 
 of covering for their religion, "that tUvy worshipped God in 
 the image, and not the ima*je as God." 
 
 The pyramids of E^ypr, tho^e mausoh urns of the dead- 
 together with their mummies, those n.oiiu»nents of the art of 
 embalming their dead, clearly shew the reverence the Egyp- 
 tians paid to their funerals, and the sacred rites of sepulture. 
 By this means they preserved entire t)u^ [>ersons of their an- 
 'cestors adurned with such hieroglyhics as were commemora- 
 tive of their virtues, — and those onlyj such as were sauction- 
 led by the public voice. 
 
 The hierotilypliical panegyrics upon the dead, regarded not 
 birth, wealth, or honors; all Ei-yptians were considered no- 
 ble. The virtues of the dead, were alone the subjects of praise. 
 The military character of E.ypt, with all her boasted regu- 
 larity of force and discipline, was never illustrious, excepting 
 in the wars of Syria, and in the reign of Sesostris. 
 j^ Ep-ypt early became the nursery of the arts and sciences; 
 in these she excelh d, and left it to all the nations who have 
 isucceeded her, to become only her imitators, and not even 
 jthat in her pyramids, hieroglyphics, the art of embalming, and 
 'her wonderful cement. The study of astronomy, which com- 
 menced upo.'i the plains of Babylon, was carried to great per- 
 fection by means of geometry, which was greatly improved 
 'in Egypt. 
 
60 EGYPTIAN ARTS AND AGRICULTrTRE, 
 
 The medical art was rendered illusfrious in E^ypt, where 
 it was reduced to a regular system, and every physician was 
 by law confined to one disease only. If he treated this ac- 
 cording to the prescribed rules, he was not held responsible 
 for the issue ; but if he made any new experiments, his own 
 life was held r^^sponsible lor the issue. * 
 
 The splendid libraries which were early founded in Ejrypt, 
 shew (heir taste, and improvements in the sciences, and the 
 sacred dedication of thtse libraries, " Office for the diseases 
 of the Soul," shews the reverence they attached to learning 
 and their abhorrence of ignorance. 
 
 The Eiryptians excelled in architecture, painting:, and sculp- 
 ture ; but music never struck their attention; they considered 
 this as a useless art of effeminacy, and beneath their notice.; 
 
 Auriculture was the b.isis on which Eiiypt founded all her 
 greatness, it being the sauree of all her wealth. All employ- 
 ments were alike respected in E ypt, from the king to the 
 peasant ; and he who excelled in hi.- profession, and in virtue, 
 inherited the triumph of public ajiplMUse. This ditJused con- 
 tentment, excited emulation, and raised every employment 
 to its bit^he^t perfection. 
 
 The country of E^ypt was ereatly enriched by their hus- 
 bandmen, who covered the whole face of this earden of the 
 world, with their numerous flocks 'Jm) herds. These consti- 
 tafed she permanent wealth of their cowntry. 
 
 The soil that so richly rewarded the hu-bandmen, was not 
 watered by rains as with us, (these are rare in E^ypt;) buj by 
 the overfluwinir of the river Nile; these inundations are con- 
 veyed by numerous canrtls over the whole face of the coun- 
 try, to fertilize this soil, which has rendered Ejjypt so famous 
 for her corn, and j^ivt support to those vast flocks and herds, 
 Vt^hich cover all her plains. 
 
 The vetretaMon of Eiiypt was not peculiar to that country, 
 exceptino; the papyrus, or plant which served t'nem for paper: 
 the rest was common to countries of the same climate, and 
 continues so to this day. 
 
 The government of Egypt supported a regular system of 
 police, and every department in the kinrrdon) was conducted 
 vviifi the greatest order, regularity ar.d wisdom; ant* the voice 
 of health and plenty, was lieard in all their dwelliniis. 
 
 The military art wa= highly cultivated in Etrypt; bnt Se- 
 soslris aloi.e, carried his arms abroad b'-'yond the plains of 
 Syria. He subdued all the north of Africa, and carried his 
 
EGYPTIAN CONQUESTS AND CORRUPTION. 61 
 
 arms into India, 1491 years before Christ, and left monu- 
 ments of his conquests in Asia Minor and Thrace; and his 
 dominions extended from the GariL'es, to the Danube. Se- 
 Bostris, at the end of nine years, returned into E-y[)t, enrich- 
 ed with the wealth and spoils of conquest ; bu{ left those 
 nominal conquests as free as he found them. Sesostris flour- 
 ished about the time of the departure of the Hebrews. 
 
 These conquests of Sesostris opened (he wa}^ for those col- 
 onies which pHSsed into Greece at this time under Cecrops, 
 Danaus and Cadmus, who carried with them the arts and sci- 
 ences of E^ypt, and planted the first seeds of improvement 
 and literature in Greece. 
 
 The conquests of Sesostris, subverted the religion, habits, 
 manners and customs of E^ypt ; and by its wealth and lux- 
 uries which it introduced, subverted all the virtues, to^^efher 
 with that temperance, industry, sobriety and economy, which 
 were the pillars of E.yptian frreatness; l.iid the foundation 
 for all the fui ure-^ufitVrinfjs of E fypt, and br<jught her to ful- 
 fil thf predi<tion of the prophet — "Egypt shall become the 
 baj-i^st of kinydo'iis." 
 
 Soon after the death of Sesostris, commenced the reigns of 
 Cheops and Cephrenus, who caused all the temples of reli- 
 gion to be closed, nearly one whole • enttiry; built soim^ of 
 the pyramids, prostrated r^^liirion and all the virtues; ^ae 
 themselves up to all the excesses of licentiousness, crufHy 
 ar:'t barbarity, Tfie whole nation followed their e^jr-mijile ; 
 and Ejzypt, this nursery of the arts, thi? £.:;hool of virtU" and 
 moral>, this paraxon of industry, te«'i)-ranre and sobriety, 
 was now become a sink of iuiq-jity, and every hateful lu»t- 
 
 Such is the fate of all natiojis, as soon as they los • thei^ 
 virtue ; and the history of Es^ypt, as coniiected with the his- 
 tory of the Jews, toijether with the history of the four great 
 empires, clearly shews, that she nevf^r recovered her virtue, 
 religion, streutith nor character; but all witness against her, 
 that, she became the basest of kingdoms to this day. 
 
 j DENMARK. 
 
 I This kingdom was first established by Gormo, in the year 
 714. The mr.st disi .tjruished part of the history of this kin^^- 
 dom, consisf? in Us^ invasions and depredations upon tlie isl- 
 and (if Efi-fl.^fi'l. It the y<'yr 877, ihoy =ucce; ded in the cori- 
 ;quesi3 of tiie Saxons, and established Canute upon the throne. 
 I 6 
 
62 DENMARK. 
 
 lo 880 (hey were expelled by Alfred the ^reaf. In the year 
 995 (he Danes ex(orted a (ribu(e from (he Britons of 16,v 00/. 
 to buy ofl (heir depiedadons. In 1002 the Danes broke the 
 treaty, and by tiieir renewed depredaiioits, exforfed from 
 EtI elrcd H. a tribute of 24,000/. In (he year 1412 Norway 
 WHS united (o Denmark. In (he year 1521 t!it kin.^(ioui of 
 Denmark w<is separa(ed from the kingdom of Norway, and 
 in J6(iOUie crown of Denmark beeame hereditary. * 
 
 in (he year 13S4 the kiniidom of Sweden was united by 
 conquest to the crown of Denmark, and was subjec( to her 
 until (he year 1525, when Sweden recovered her iiber(y, un- 
 der (he illus(rious Gu?(avus Vasa; since which (irae, J)en' 
 mark has held a secondary raid-; amonj^st (he na(ions of (he 
 north. In 1B13 the kiny^dnm of Norway was severed from 
 Denntark, and given to the crown prince of Sweden, by the 
 confederated powers of Europe, where it now remaius. 
 
 The local situation of Denmark, gave her high and com- 
 manding a^lvantaices, (o become one of (he first commercial 
 and maritime ua(ions oHhe world ; had not the jealousy and 
 rival strength of England kep( her down. In the year 1536 
 the pr()(e£(an( religion was introduced into Denmark, and in 
 1629 Christian the IV. was chosen head of the protestaat 
 league against (he house of Austria. 
 
 It has been (he policy of the late sovereigns of Denmark, 
 to cultivate a good unders(anding with (he (hrone of England 
 by intermarriages, and (he issue of such an alliance, now gov- 
 erns (he kingdom of Denmark. Denmark still holds some 
 possessions in the Indian ocean, and upon (he wes(ern shore 
 of Africa ; she exercises a sovereignly over east and west 
 Greenland, and a part of Lapland; and holds some small 
 possessions in (he West Indies. Denmark can never rise (o 
 eniinence, being silua(ed between the gigantic powers of 
 England and Russia. 
 
 I have given (he great outlines of all (he kingdoms, slates, 
 and empires, which have ever been distinguished, either for 
 (heir arts or their arms. To give a sketch of the minor 
 states and isles, would swell (his work to a needless expense; 
 I shall therefore leave that part of my plan, for a geographic- 
 al work, which I am about to publish. 
 
 (A.) GREECE CONTINUED. 
 
 Tx) record a faithful narrative of events, is one duty of a 
 
ORIGIN OF LETTERS IN GREECE. 36 
 
 historian ; but to diffurse by his pen, the trne spirit of the vari-, 
 OU3 scenes, events, txploif-s, and achievements which he re- 
 lati'S, is hy far the most ditfij'uft and important pari of his du- 
 ty ; and is as absolutely necessary, to give spirit, interest, 
 enersy and instruction to his narrative, as for a musician, in 
 his performance, to sive expression to the piece he performs. 
 T<> eflfect this, he must assume the spirit of every scene, and 
 every character, which become the stjbject of his story. 
 Hence the reason why the history of Greece so far surpasses 
 ail others ; because those who were the heroes of her most 
 splendid scenes, diiTused the same fire, and the same spirit, 
 throughout tlie historic pa^e of their country, and taujsht pos- 
 terity to feel, what they had achieved. To preserve this 
 fire, is ever essential to the preservation of the history of 
 Greece. 
 
 Greece, wliich was situated in the south part of wliat is 
 now Turkey in Euroj)e, we have al.'eady noticed, with re- 
 gard to its orisrin, and extreme ignorance, in its early aiies. 
 The splendor of Greece in later ages, which save such a lus- 
 ire to the historic page, claims some attention. The first 
 Eettlement in Greece commenced about 2,000 years before 
 Christ, and about 200 years after the building of Babylon by 
 Nimrod. 
 
 Letters were introduced into Greece by Cecrops, Cadmus, 
 and the Esryptian colonies, in the reiirn of Sesostris, king of 
 E:ypt — about 1500 years before Christ. This first period of 
 Grecian history, is only a picture of man in his most r(jde 
 and savatie state. The prosrress of letters, the arts, and re- 
 finement, under (he Ej:yptian colonies, were much slower 
 than in Britain, after th«^ conquest of Julius Cesar. The 
 Egyptian colonies could only teach, they had not, like the 
 Romans, the power to enforce their knowledge. 
 
 The limits of this work will not permit a separate detail of 
 
 the founding, and progressive improvements of the several 
 
 Grecian colornes, kinsidoms, or stares ; they must all be com- 
 
 I prised under one general view. Ti»e first feature of Grecian 
 
 ' history worthy of notice, is the expedition of the Arsionauts 
 
 i to Colchos, after the golden fleece ; about 1260 years before 
 
 j Christ. The floece, which was the object of this voya^ie, 
 
 I mny well be called golden, by a peojde who were like the 
 
 ancient Britons, either naked, or cla«i in the skins of anitn.i!?, 
 
 j taken in the chase. This took place about 300 years aftei* 
 
 ( Cecrops and Cadmus settled in Greece ; and tiad this im- 
 
64 ARGONAUTS. 
 
 portance attached to it ; that it laid the foundation of Grecian 
 commerce and navigation, which afterwards became so con- 
 spicuous. 
 
 The next important period in Grecian history, is the siege 
 of Troy, about 900 years before Christ, and about 300 from 
 the expedition of the Aryronauts. This period of the last 300 
 years, shews the rapid improvements the Greeks have made 
 in letters, arts, and arms, by the size and strength of the city 
 of Troy; by the splendid display of arms durinir this ever 
 memorable siege, of ten years ; and more particularly, in the 
 unparalleleil narrative of the Trojan war, by Homer, the fa- 
 ther of epic poetry. All these combined, serve to shew the 
 power of letters, and of commerce, to expand the mind, ele- 
 vate the soul, and exalt the character of man to the summit 
 of his rational powers. 
 
 The narrative of Homer, like the song of inspiration, dif- 
 fused a sf)irit of ambition and emulatior», throutrhout the 
 states of Greece ; which originated the *;ames of Olympia, 
 about 200 years after the Trojan war, aud about 700 bt^fore 
 Cljrist. It must not be understood, th«t these games origina- 
 ted in Gvcvce at that time, they were in general coinposed of 
 »uch athletic exercises, as have ever been common to all 
 new countries ; but they were reduced to system, and order, 
 under that institution, and greaMy eiilargeci, and improved. 
 
 The exercises of these games, consisted in chariot races, 
 foot races, iic. together with afl such athletic exercises as 
 were calculated to exert miMcular strength, and dexterity ; 
 inspire coiirazeand emulation; and so high were the prizes 
 of the Olympic games estimated, that even kings entered 
 the lists, and sought with avidity the glory of an Olympic 
 crown. 
 
 From the commencement of the Olympic pames, to the 
 Peloponesian war, (wliich rendered Greece one theatre of 
 carnage, about twenty live years.) about 450 years before 
 Christ ; exhibited a period of Grecian history, the most splen- 
 di<l of any other period of her greatness. In this age flour- 
 ishetl, her greatest orators, heroes, statesmen, legislators, phi- 
 losophers, aud artists, together with the seven wise men of 
 Greece. 
 
 In this period, Darius, king of Persia, after he had waged 
 unsuccessful war against the ancient Daci, (or Scythians of 
 Europe, north of the Dioribe,) turned his arms aor^ji »st 
 Greece, and threatened Athens, with an army of 300,000 
 
GRECfAN WORTHIES, 65 
 
 men under Difis. At this evontrnl period, flourished Arisli- 
 de^, Perick;?, Themistocli's, and Milliadcs, who saved Gret-ce 
 by the overthrow of the Persians at Iht- famous battle of Ma- 
 rathon, destroyed their army, and p;ave peace to his country. 
 At the commencermnit of this period, t1 ^urished Lj'euri^us, 
 the rt^nown^ d leirislator of Sparta,"^ and at the close of it, 
 flxirisht^d S)!')n, the famous legislator of At lieiis ;-f- the wis- 
 dom of their institutions, (thou<£h very different,) will ever re- 
 main memorable in the annals of Greece. Uurintc this peri- 
 od, and soon after the invasion of Darius, commenced the in- 
 vasion of Xerxes, whicii has been noticed. 
 
 * Lycurj^us, ihe rcnnwnetl lej^islator of Sparta, travelled into Eg-ypt, 
 Paiesiine, Mild the countries of ihe east ; selecied all that was useful, 
 and vifiuous, from tlieir i^overnnieiivs ; from which he formed a sys- 
 tem of g-ovci'iiinent for his couniry, perfecily simjjle, and practical. 
 This i^oyernment was founded upon the purest principles of liberty, 
 indus.ry, temperance, patience, virttie, justice, and valour. It taug-ht 
 the most sovercig-n contempt of riches, idleness, luxury, effeminacy, 
 cou'ardice, and sloiii ; alike disclaimed the prit\ciple.s of ambition, and 
 conquest ; was sanctioned by the oracle of I)elpho3 — rendered perma- 
 nent by an oadi of his couniry, to maintain the Constitution in his ab- 
 sence, until he should remrn ; sealed by his voluntary banishment and 
 deadt ; cf)ntinued in successful operation about 500 years ; enabled 
 Sparta to triumpii over Athens in the Peloponesian war, and become 
 the arbiter of Greece. 
 
 The ^reat maxim of the g'overn.ment of Lycurgus was, to perpetu- 
 ate the laws, manners, customs, and habits of his country, without in- 
 novation, or chani^e ; and to enfoi-ce this m ixim, he sacrificed his lite. 
 The immortal Lvcurj^us did all this, by a system of instruction which 
 was incorporated into ids government. \!l Sparta was one g-reat 
 sc'iojl ; and die maxims of his g;ovenimeat, were the fimdamental 
 principles of educaiion. Practical knowledg-e, formed the wisdom of 
 Sparta. 
 
 f The difference of character between the Vthenians and Spartans, 
 was such as is common to states whicii .ire uijiiculiural a)ul conuner- 
 cial. Sparta was :t:^ricultural, Athens commercial; the seat of the 
 muses and the arts. Solon as the chief mag-istrate, or Arclion of 
 A'. Uens, atiempied to reform her government, and reduce it to a more 
 regular and praciical sysiem. 
 
 [ He divided Atlier.s into iv/o great classes, the rich and the poor. 
 ;The ricli he again divided into vhree classes, according to their de- 
 igrees of wealth ; all those of five hundred measures, (annual income,) 
 jcomposed "iie first class; those of three iiundrcd tlie second; and 
 those of two, tlie ihird ; these made up die classes of the rich, and to 
 ! these he confined all the public offices. 
 
 Ad >l.ose whose incomes were ie>,s ihan two himdred, composed the 
 |class of he poor. These were debar- ed from office ; but as a com- 
 ^pensation, he left them the privilege of voting in the assemblies, .aiit' 
 
 6* 
 
66 DECLINE or GREECE. 
 
 The conflicts occasioned by the revolutions in the several 
 states, in their struo;ules for power, between the tyrants, and 
 the people ; between monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, 
 were olten distressint: and bloody. (These people, with all 
 their boasted wisdom, knew nothing of that balance of elec- 
 tive iiovernment, which is the basis of English, and Ameri- 
 can liberty.) The conflicts between the rival states for su- 
 premacy, (not withstanding; the Amphictyonic counsel, the 
 Achean league, and other confederacies,) were often severe 
 and desperate : but the Peloponesian war, which commenc- 
 ed between the tw(» great rival states, Lacedenjon and Ath- 
 ens ; involved all Greece in one great strug-jle, which raged 
 twentyfive years, with all the violence of Grecian conflict, 
 closed with the humiliation of Athens, destroyed their bal- 
 ance of power, and established the supremacy of Sparta in 
 Greece. 
 
 From this time, Greece began to decline, became a thea- 
 tre of weakness, intrigue, and disorder, amidst all the splen- 
 
 judgrnents of the people. An appeal was open from the judg-ments 
 of iie magistrates, to the people, which finally placed the balance of 
 power in ihe hands of the poor, when they became the most numerous ; 
 and 'hey by their decisions gave law to the slate. 
 
 These principles, formed the great on lines of the government of 
 Solon, and partook mucii less of the balance of power, so essen ial to 
 gixnl government, than the system of Lycurgus. Solon restored and 
 improved the Areopagus, or high coint of the nation, introduced many 
 wise laws, and regulations, which were calculated to suppress indo- 
 lence, and vice ; and encoiu'age industr\ , viriue, and good order. 
 
 He (hen, after the manner of Lycurgus, obtained an oath from his 
 country, to observe his laws one bandied years ; and went abroad on 
 his travels. At die end of ten years he returned, and found the Athe- 
 nian state, torn with factions and civil wars, which his government had 
 no power to control, and the personal efforts of Solon, no power to 
 regulate, or even check, 
 
 Pisistrattis, one of the competitors for power, amidst the factions of 
 his Country, assumed the mask of meekness, and great humility, be- 
 came the man of the people, robbed them of their liberties, and be- 
 cnme the tyrant of Athens. Solon lived to see Pisistratus twice depos- 
 ed by the factions of his country, and died of old age, at the end of two 
 years ; leaving A' hens under the dominion of the tyrant. 
 
 This usurpation in Athens, caused the wars which followed'between 
 Greece and Persia, and rendered Greece a theatre of carnage, and dis- 
 tress, for so many years, under the invasions of Darius, and Xerxes. 
 The expulsion of the two great Persian invasions, shewed to Greece, 
 what valour could achieve; and the union of Greece, under the gov- 
 ernment of Alexander, shewed to the world, the strength and energies 
 r>f a permanent government% 
 
RUIN OF GREECE. 67 
 
 dor of her boasted refinement, and wisdom, under Socrates, 
 Plato, and Aristotle, with all the eloquence of Decnostlu'nrs, 
 until she fell a prey to the intrigues of Philip kina; of Mace- 
 don, and the arms of his son Alexander ; about 300 years be- 
 fore Christ. The conquests of Alexander we have n<diced : 
 they produced the same effects upon Greece, as the con- 
 quests of Sesostris had done upon Eiiypl. With this blow, 
 her liberties were lost forever ; the arts and sciences sunk 
 with her liberty, until the overthrow of the city of Corinth, 
 by the Roman consul Mummius. — This destroyed the Ache- 
 an league. Greece was then blotted out of the list of na- 
 tions, and became a Roman province ; about 160 years be- 
 fore Christ. 
 
 The trophies of Greece, graced the triumphs of Rome, un- 
 der her successive consuls, and she in her turn became splen- 
 did with the spoil. Greece next became the theatre of Ro- 
 man war, until Rome triumphed over all the neighbouring 
 powers, and carried her arms into the east.— Greece was a 
 province until the year of our Lord 330, when the emperor 
 Constantine transferred the seat of government from R<»me 
 to Byzantium, called it Constantinople, after his own name, 
 and under the power and splendor of the Roman capital, the 
 splendor of learning, and the arts, again flourished whea 
 Greece lay in ruins. 
 
 The arm of despotism sat triumphant in the midst of that 
 country, where liberty, valour, patriotism, economy, indus- 
 try, and fruiiality, with all their attendinjx virtues; where 
 wisdom, philosophy, science and the arts, all shone with such 
 perfect splendor, as rendered Greece the pride, and admira- 
 tion of the world. 
 
 Her heroes slept in death, and witnessed not the distres- 
 sing scene. Her legislators, philosophers, poets, orators, and 
 artists were all hushed in repose, and witnessed not the ruins 
 of their degraded country ; that country, they had enriched 
 and rendered so illustrious, by their wisdom, virtue, enter- 
 prise and arms. Their illustrious deeds are recorded in the 
 temple of immortal fame, and their names can never die. 
 
 Rome held the dominion of Greece from the conquest of 
 the consul Mummius, to the conquest of the Turks, in the 
 year of our Lord 1450, about 1600 years, and with the fall 
 of her Grecian power at Constantinople, fell the last vestige 
 of the gigantic power of Rome. All that remained of Greece 
 or Rome, is now lost in the dominion of the Turk. Virtue 
 
68 ROMAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 is the glory of man ; but luxury, vice, and corruption, ever 
 have been, and ever will be, the ruin of nations. 
 
 (B ) ROME, 
 
 Before Chnst. 
 
 This renowned city and empire, were founded, as we have 
 noticed, by Romuius, one of the descendants of Eneas, who 
 fle(! from the ruins of Troy, and settled in Italy. The pe- 
 riod of three hund't'd and ninety-four years, which passed 
 between the destruction of Troy, and the foundini: of Rome, 
 toijether with the advanfaires which they derived fr'»m the 
 improvements of tiieir country, in arts, and in arms, must 
 have given the Roman colony such early advantages over the 
 rude natives of Italy, as to have enabled them to have acquir- 
 ed at that time, not only a respectable possession, but a su- 
 periority of character, and respectability. To perpetuate 
 these advantages, Romulus, the then head of the colony, 
 founde<l tfje city of Rome in the 394th year after the destruc- 
 tion of Troy, and before Christ 753 
 
 And for the good government of his city, he instituted the 
 senate or council, of ancients, composed of one hundred citi- 
 zens, noted for their wisdom and virtue. By the wisdom of 
 this senate, he was enabh-d to support the title and dignity 
 of king, and thus laid the foundation of the greatness of Rome. 
 R >mulus made it the tirst objer^t of his care, to people his 
 city ; and to this end, he invited and encouraged strangers to 
 settle in it. This, like the settlement of all new countries, 
 increased the male population faster than the female. To 
 obviate this, he exhibited the Grecian games in his little city, 
 and gave a general entertainment to his neighbors ; in the 
 mid^t of these scenes, the Romans seized on the Sabine wo- 
 men, and took them to wife, in the year before Cnrist 750 
 
 This perfidious act, invo|ve<l the Romans in a war, which 
 raged through the life of Romulus, who reigned thirty seven 
 years, died, and was deified. The government devolved up- 
 on the senate for one year, when they elected N ima Pompil- 
 iua their king, who reij;ned in wisdom forty-three years, and 
 made great improvements, and was succeeded by Tullius 
 Hortilius. In his reign was the farrious combat for suprema- 
 cy, between the <hree Roman chiefs, the Horatii, and the 
 three Aiban chiefs, the Curatii. Tne Romans were victori- 
 ous, and the Aiban state was annex nd to Rome. 667 
 
 Thus under a succession of kings, the power and domin- 
 
ROMAN GOVERNMENT. 69 
 
 ion of the Roman city were enlar2;ed, until the wicked reign 
 of Tarquin the proud, their seventh and last kina;. He by his 
 unhallowed abuse of Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, one of 
 the nobles* of Rome, overthrew the government. The virtu- 
 ous citizens, fired with indiiriiation at this flasirant outrage, 
 flew to arms, deposed the king, banished him and his family, 
 destroyed the kinu'ly government, and elected two consuls 
 for one year, with equal powers, as a check upon each other. 
 *These with the senate, which had been increased to the 
 number of two hundred, now became the government of 
 Ru?ne. 500 
 
 During this period, and under the reis:n of the former Tar- 
 quin, the walls of Rame were laid, tfie circus was built, which 
 would contain s 50.000 spectators, the capitol was founded, 
 and the great ouliines of many eteat improvements betrun. 
 The Romans soon experienced a weakness in their govern- 
 ment, which arose out of the divided head, and attempted to 
 remedy this, by creating the cliice of dictator, (a kind of Em- 
 perur,) with supreme power. 493 
 
 TJiis supreme power, added to the consuls and senate, soon 
 became 0|>pressive to the people, and they assumed the 
 reiens of government, and created the office of tribunes of 
 the common people, as a check upon the aristocracy of the 
 three other powers 486 
 
 Qnintus Cincinnatus, was taken from his plough, and made 
 dictator. 450 
 
 Cincinnatus then owned but f »ur jugera of land, about two 
 acres of our measure ; this serves to show, that inerit not 
 wealth, governed Rome at this as/e, and that the people were 
 rather jealous of the rich : huf 'ill this did not satisfy tiiem ; 
 they made a new chanjie in their .'jivernment, an^l ehose ten 
 wise men, called Decemvirs, anti abtdished the office of con- 
 sul, ab Mit the same time. 460 
 
 Th( D- cemvirs. formed a code of laws, called the ien ta- 
 bl'^s, and raused them to be inscribed upon pillars of brass, 
 Tiiey be<*Htrie the standard of the judicial proceedings of 
 Rome. In the second year of the Decemvirs, one of ti»eip 
 body was liuilty of low.lo'ss; the virtue of the people resent- 
 ed the outraii ', revenged the indignity, and nbolished the of- 
 fice, together with that oi' tribune? ; and the dictators an<i sen- 
 ate, governed R one about -even years. Tfieir restless spir- 
 it again became factious, and they created tlie otfice of cen- 
 sor. 443 
 
70 ROMAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The objpct of this ofiife, was to be a check upon (he die 
 (ak?r ajid senate; (his soon failed, af?d they chose military 
 tribi;ri!^s as a substirufe fop the ohl offiip of consiils. Tiiis 
 continued two years, and was then abolished and the office 
 of consuls restored. 
 
 Dfirins; these changes in the government, Rome was har- 
 assed by perpetual wars, with the Gaub, and vari^jus other 
 neighbofinir nations, particularly tlie Samnites, who were the 
 most powerful and warlike of all the tribes of Italy. These 
 nations often distressed the Runan state, and carried their 
 victorious arms to the gates of R >mH. 
 
 / The wars of Rome, had hith^-rto been carried on for the 
 defence of the state, or military ^\ury, by voluntary service ; 
 they first began to pay their troops about the year 400 
 
 The office of consul did not abridge the powers of the sen- 
 ate ; they were as independnnt of each other, as in the tiojes 
 of the kings; and the consuls Wf-re kinu^s at the will of the 
 people; (he consuls l« (I the armies, and the senate governed 
 the state ; but the comiMa or general assemblies of the people, 
 held al! the p, nvf r in their own hands, both of peace and war, 
 and through their tribunes, they h»-ld (he two great springs of 
 government in their hands— re^yar^s andpiinkhmmls. Tliey 
 held at their disposal iJl offices of stale, and all were amena- 
 ble to the peoph for their conduct. 
 
 Th«- consuls were the executi* e, the ^nate the legislative, 
 and the people the electors and arbiters of the whole. Here 
 was energy, wisdom and folly, all ^o commixed, as to create 
 perpetual jealousy, discord and collision between tie gov ern- 
 men\ and the people, and which occasioned such frequent 
 changes, and which the (rue balance of the federal constitu- 
 tion of America, so wisely regulates and controls. 
 
 Poverty was not only respected at Rome, as may be seen 
 in the appointment of Cincinnatus the di(;tator ; bu! it made 
 a part of their policy, in using heavy money oT bra'ss, in imi- 
 tation of the Spartan ironmoney ; which continued to be the 
 money of Rome, until (hey carried (heir arms into Sicily, in 
 the first Punic war; they then found it necessary to coin sil- 
 ver money. ggi 
 
 The virfue and simpficity of manners in the Roman state, 
 were the pal!a<lium of the liberty of Rome. The censors were 
 the immediate guardians of (his palladium ; this office was 
 generally filh d with those, whose virtues had held the first 
 dignities of the state, with the Jiighest approbation ; this office 
 
ROMAN OOVERNMENT. 7l 
 
 protected virtue and suppressed vice and immorality, with a 
 sevi'H y ihnt p!<'rerved Ihe R mr*n virtue pure ; and suppress- 
 ed every iiKfetency, even in (i.e lii^hesl walks of lite. 360 
 
 The pretor., coujposed tiie jiuiieiary of the state ; the ediles 
 were more imineiliately the ina^isirat^s of the eily ; tlie two 
 offiies brcame of hisih irhportance, and in after times be- 
 caiTie the mediufri of jiinbitiou and power. The slrui£g:lcs be- 
 tween the jjovernment and the people, shewed the want of a 
 middle state, to reguliit? these feu<ls. 
 
 The equestrian order, he!<l this raidi in some measure, not 
 by any delesrated powers, but by the influence which their 
 weallli,dio;niiy and imporlauce {;ave them in the commuiuty ; 
 and when united with the pafricians, they checked and con- 
 trolled the licentiousness of the populace. Tiius a partial 
 substitute for the true balance in the government, grew out 
 of the necessity of thino;s, and the virtue of the stale, formed 
 the grand cement to the whole; these combined wi«) a high 
 military spirit and ardor, together with the greatness and no- 
 bleness of ihe Roman soul, raised the Roman state from a sin- 
 gle f)oint, amidst perpetual struggles in arms, to become the 
 mistress of the world. 
 
 Amidst all the guardians of Roman greatness and Roman 
 virtue, stood woman ; she by her smiles, or her frowns, mov- 
 ed the arbiter ()f manners, of moriils, and of virtue; by the 
 dignity and majesty of her character, commanded the admi- 
 ration and respect of all classes and ranks of citizens ; and by 
 the splendor of her virtues, gave a lustre to the Ronsan name. 
 Nothir»g in Rome, was held more sacred than the mMJesty of 
 woman. Such was the character of the Roman mairons, 
 that it stands recorded to their eternal honor, tiiat not one sin- 
 gle divorce, stained the marriage covenants of Rome, for 
 more than tive hundred years after the days of Romulus, and 
 it must be remembered, that Lurrt^tia was a Roman matron. 
 
 Rome in her infancy, thus having laid the foundation of her 
 greatness, was so(jn visited by the pliilosophers of Greece, 
 Pythagoras and others, who introduced the Grecian Mythol- 
 ogy, whicli deified all the virtues, gave them the tirst rank in 
 their temples, and thus perpetuated their value b}' their reli- 
 gious adoration. 
 
 The religious homage paid to the virtues, perpetuated the 
 purity of the state, as their splendid triumphs perppfuated the 
 lustre of their arms. Trained in this school of Jemperan-e, 
 and the virtues, the Roman armies, from the consul to the 
 
72 ROMAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 soldier, carried to the field a Roman soul warmed with Ro- 
 man greatiiesg and valor, and n. veronce dreamed that Ihcy 
 could sheath the sword, until they had executed the decrees 
 of the senate. 
 
 Rome began the second war with Carthage 218 
 
 And the third Punic war 149 
 
 Carthrige was destroyed by Scipio the Roman consul 146 
 Marius the consul obtained the Roman triumph with the 
 conquest and sp'.ils of Numidia and her captive prince, 103 
 These were the days of virtue — these were the days in 
 which Rome, under the consular arms, had subdued all Eu- 
 rope, south of the Danube, from the Atlantic on the west, to 
 thi Hellt'spont on the east. These wer<* the days inuSiich 
 P< ;nppy the ureat, re?cned his country I'rom the civil wais :»f 
 Mrtriiis and Bylla, carried his arms into Asia, and after l<>r r 
 and dislressini; eonqut sts, dedicated to his triumphant coun- 
 try, the whole extent of the states and kingdoms, between the 
 Black Sea « n the north, and the Red Sea on the south, 
 broufi;ht Milliri<laies and Tigranes, the greatest monnrchs of 
 Asia, to submit to the Ritoan arms, and settled the dominion 
 of the East. At the head of his victori.>u.s legions, did hom- 
 age to the laws of his eouisiry, resi^'ued his authority and 
 again became a private citizen, abouf the year 60 
 
 The subv» rsiop of Ron>an liberty under Cesar, we have no- 
 ticed, the {j;lorious reign of Auofuslus, the first emperor, the 
 fatal effects oHhe rlivision of the empire, by Conf<lanline, find 
 the final overthrc'w th it toll >wed the loss of Roman virtue, 
 and the corrupiion of Roman manners. 
 
 So lontr as the Roman virtues and simplic'ty of manners 
 rensained, so lonjj R^roat. wii^dom and the public trood. sup- 
 plied the place i»f '^ balance of power in the government; fhe 
 folly of the populace, was controlled by the wisdom and vir- 
 tue of (he senate, and the energies of the e<»nsuls, supported 
 the gl<N*y of the slate. When Carihase had fall;*n, and vvith 
 her all fears of a rival ; when the wealth and luxury of Asia, 
 with the refinemeiits of Greece, flowed into Roni'^. corrupted 
 her manners and morals^ by changing public respect for vir- 
 tufnjs poverty ; into the adtniration of licenlious wealth ; then 
 mou y supf>lanted all the virtues, bribery and corruption fol- 
 lowed, tl}e folly of t'e popidac;- overpowered the wisdom of 
 the senr»»p, t? '.• consular eners^ies were !u:ned airainst the lib- 
 erties ''f Rome. Ces if trium()he'J over Pompey,aiid this mir^h- 
 ty governmvil, which had given law to the world, fell under 
 the rod of a despot. 
 
DESTRUCTION OF ROME. 73 
 
 Rome in the midst of her corruption could boast of hpi* 
 Catulus, Lenlulus, Cotta; her Horteusiua, Caivud and Cicero; 
 her Metellus, Lucullus, and her Pompey and Cato; but her 
 virtue was gone, her morals were gone, and above all, the 
 majest} of woman was gone; the smiles, or the frowns of 
 this key of virtue, no longer rewarded the pure and control- 
 led the corrupt. Wifh the fall of woman, fell the manners of 
 Rome; and elegance, ptirity and refinement, were swallowed 
 up in luxury, effeminacy, dissipation and corruption. Wis- 
 dom, eloquence, manners and morals, with all the Romaa 
 virtues, together with the glory of Roman liberty, all fell a 
 prey to all conquering: luxury, and corrupt ambition in re* u- 
 lar succession, until they were all swallowed u[), with Rome 
 herself, in the deluge of northern barbarism, A. JD. 410 to 450. 
 
SKETCHES OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 PART SECOND, 
 
 FROM THE REVOT,UTI0N OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE 410, 
 TO THE YEAR 1818 OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 ilevoluHon of the nesfern Roman Empire — chnracter of the 
 Barbarians — lan's of division and tenure of their spoil — 
 character of the Roman Relii^ion — Reliipon of the Barbari- 
 ans — character of the dark ages — origin of thejeudal system. 
 
 Th« luxuries of the Roman empire, which followed their 
 conquests in the east, with ail their train of efteminacy and 
 corruption, swept away thai Roman valour, which had shone 
 so conspicuous in tlie days of Fabius, Scipio and Cesar, and 
 opened the way for the subversion of the western empire, in 
 about one century after Conslantine the emperor, removed 
 the government to Byzantium, (or Constantmople.) 
 
 The norlliern brirbarians, who inhabited the regions of Ger- 
 many, Poland, Denmark, Sweden ar)d Norway; (all then 
 one vast uncultivated forest, thinly peopled with a race of 
 men in a slate of nature, much like the Aborigines of North- 
 America.) lived wandering; lives, without letters and the arts. 
 These peiiple, who inhabited Germany, had been harassed 
 by the Romans, in their concpjests under Julius Cesar, and 
 treated with that severity the Romans were accustomed to 
 bestow upon suc5i barbarians, as they were resolved to tame 
 to their submission. 
 
 Tnese barbarians took advantage of this weak, and divided 
 state of the Roman empire, to revenge their wrongs, which 
 they had suffered from Roman invasions, and began their de- 
 predations in the year 410, under Alaric. 
 
 One success encouraged and invited another, as wave fol- 
 lovvB wave, until the whole northern wilderness was in mo- 
 
ROMAN REVOLUTION. 75 
 
 tion, and the various tribes of Goths, Vandals, Visigoths, 
 Alans, Suevi, &,c. rushed like a torrent down upon the Ro- 
 mans, spreading carnage, desolation and destruction, through 
 the finest provinces. 
 
 This torrent raged, until Attila with his Huns, from the 
 shores of the Euxine sea, sacked Rome, overwhelm«Mi Italy, 
 and destroyed ev<^ry vestige of (he Roman government in the 
 west, together with the arts and sciences, manners anri cus- 
 toms of the Romans; exterminated the Roman population, 
 and planted their barbarous customs upon its ruins. 
 
 Ar the first of the sixth century, the Goths and Franks were 
 possessed of GhuI ; the Ostrogoths and Huns of Italy and 
 Pannonia; the Visigoths of Spain; and the Saxons of Brit- 
 ain. New laws, laniiuages, manners, customs, dresses and 
 even names of m<'n, things and countries, produced a total 
 change in the western Roman empire. 
 
 The object of this part of our work, is to shew the evila 
 that resuKed from tliis change ; and the ultimate good which 
 has resulted from thnse evils; and unfold the wisdom of the 
 divine plan in subverting the despotic idolatry and corrup- 
 tion of the Roman state, to open the way for the religion of 
 the gospel, and the triumph of the " kingdom of the stone, 
 which should be cut out of the mountain without hands, be- 
 come a great mountain and till the whole earth." Daniel ii. 
 34, 36. 
 
 Terrible as was this revolution in its ravaues, effects and 
 consequences; it has lone been well understood, that the 
 good of the world required the subversion of the corrupt, 
 bloody, despotic and idolatrous ii,overnment of Rome, al- 
 though nothing, but a special miracle of God, short of this 
 northern exterminating revolution, could have effected the 
 change. 
 
 The barbarians treated with derision and contempt every 
 mark of Roman splendor, elegance and grandeur, as the de- 
 basing causes wliich rendered the Romans so easy a conquest, 
 and planted their own barbarous customs upon their ruins, as 
 the great instruments of promoting that valour, which had 
 been the immediate cause of all their triumphs. 
 
 To enforce this contempt upon the rising generation, they 
 erected a cottage u[)on the ruins of a palace, and caused 
 tne van(|uish«'d to be fed with elegance, while they partook 
 of their rustic fare, in their rustic form, seated upon the ground. 
 The religion of the two great parties was idolatry ; but differ- 
 ing according to their difference of refinement. 
 
76 JUPITER AND WODEN. 
 
 Jupifer, the ^od of the Romans, presided over the universe, 
 held I he balances of events, and ruled the destinies of men ; 
 by f lie thunderbolts of heaven, enforced obedience to his laws, 
 and took vergeance on his enemies. Mars, one of the lesser 
 deities, wielded the sword ; rewarded with victory the arm 
 of the valiant, and humbled the refractory, avaricious, licen- 
 tious and effeminate, as trophies of the victors ; whilst Apollo, 
 as tlie god of wisdom, directed the councils of the virtuous 
 and wise. 
 
 These, with a host of others, were the gods of the Romans ; 
 but Woden, the god of the barbarians, was a god of ven- 
 geance, who sanctioned all that exterminating malice, which 
 blotted oiit the Roman nauje in the west ; presided over the 
 judicial combats and civil wars, which drenched Europe in 
 blfx-d. throujih the dark ages, of nearly 1000 years; until fe- 
 ropjiy its< If was tilutted with rarnase ; and the sons of these 
 aires, under the benign influence of ihe gospel, received a pol- 
 ish from the revival of htters ; and savage man, was again 
 enrobed in humanity from the improvement of those arts, 
 which their fathers had rendered the victims of their ven- 
 geance, and sacritict d to Woden their god. 
 
 Alinough pf pf ry arose out of this tempestuous sea of ig- 
 norance and barbarity ; jet popery with all its corruptions, 
 was better than the mytholoiry of idolatrous Ronje ; and laid 
 the fourxlation for the display of the angel of the gospel in 
 the refi>rma(ion, under ihe immortal Luther, and opened the 
 way for the kingdonj of the stone, which shall fill the whole 
 earth, tlirough the millennial period, and consummate to man 
 all the blessings of the future promises. 
 
 The genius of the government of these barbarians, was lib- 
 erty and tquali y ; he who was most alert in the chase, most 
 hfcidy in (oils, and most valiant in war, became their chief; 
 ond tl)is wa« common to all the clans. Their <livision of 
 coi.quf '-t and pluntler was by lot, according to their different 
 shirrs, from die chiefs to the soldier ; and the tenure of their 
 puijtrty was a tenure of force. 
 
 One example may s.- rve to illustrate this fact. *' When 
 th-- Franks, (vvtioee origin was mentioned in the first part,) 
 had taken a hmv silver vase from a cerlain church, a peti- 
 tion WHS sent to Clovis, their chief, that he would restore that 
 silver vessel ro t<s sh( red use. Wtien they were about to di- 
 vide the spoil Cl >vis r»^q!jes!f(l that that vase miiiht be ti^iven 
 to him separately, before the division ; to which all consent- 
 
FEUDAL SYSTEM. 7T 
 
 ed but one soldier, who struck the vase with his war club, 
 and exclaimnd, "there shall be no division here but by lot ;" 
 and it was conclu?ive. 
 
 In this state of things, property became a curse instead of 
 a blcssinir ; the weak with their shares, fsdl a sacrifice to the 
 stnms:; this \ei\ the common people to the chiefs for justice 
 and protection, who in their turn, seized on their estates, 
 when it suited their humor or interest; others, to avoid these 
 ilisiresses, yielded up their shares to the chiefs for protection, 
 i\xn\ became their vassals. Thus from the necessity of things, 
 the chiefs obtained what they could not protect; for the 
 wjint of lecal and coercive power, to restrain such a state of 
 weakness, lice:. iiousness and anarchy. 
 
 The same acts of violence and oppression, which destroy- 
 ed the liberties, persons and properties of the common peo- 
 ple, were common amongst the chiefs ; these irsade war and 
 committed depredations upon each other, as suited their lusts, 
 ambition or resentments ; these led them to the kin«: for re- 
 dress ; his decisions, and the common safety, administered a 
 partial reme<{y for a time ; but the chiefs exercised the most 
 despotic sway over their subjects ; they were considered and 
 held, as the property of the chiefs upon their estates ; were 
 bought and sold like cattle, either separately or collectively, 
 with estates, and even matrimony and their children were at 
 the disposal of the lords. This gave rise to, and supported 
 the system of government, called the feudd system. 
 
 This was the military system which subjected the proper- 
 ly of the chiefs with all their vassals, to the controul of the 
 king, for the defence of the nation, and the public weal. — 
 This system became common to all th« se clans or kingdoms ; 
 was the source of all their horrors, throuj:h the dark ages, and 
 from which they all emerged by the same casises, and pro- 
 gressed up to their present stale of civil refinement. 
 
 CHAP. II, 
 
 Clovis — charader of his reign — distracted state of the Franks 
 — Mayors of the palace — reign of Pepin — Charles Muriel 
 — Leavigild — Ecclesiaslical power — Mahomet — Saracens — 
 situation of Spain. 
 
 In our first part, we touched upon the origin of the Franks, 
 
 7* 
 
78 CLOVIS AND CLOTILDA. 
 
 under Phsramonrl and Clovis, sufficienily to ?hpw the eon 
 nfcfion, vvl.ich Wul the foundation, «s w«-ll b^ fu'iue riipport 
 of the p»pal tl:r<ie. "We nolice<! thbt Pfj r. iimhu* IkJ his 
 Fr«»*ks r.ut of G» rinHny, over the Rhine, and setlled in Gaol ; 
 w i''^ w>»« at i! is time shared by ihe Romans, the Gauls, Vi- 
 sigoths, ar»d Bui iindi. 
 
 Chvir, f is surressor. at nineteen years of age, obtained a 
 d< ci<!* d vc^ory over Syaerius, a Roman despot, and estab- 
 lis! mI Ihe kipydorn cf tht Franks 'iSQ. He secured the fruits 
 of i\v.^ viclory by his marriage with Clotilda, niece of Gonda- 
 bfMjr) kint? <»f Burgundy, and thereby opened a way throup;h 
 tt»»- pi< us iii^trufiientahty of the queen, of winning the affec- 
 ti< ns of th» Gt*uls, by favoring tfieir bishops, and flattering 
 th« ir rt h^ion ; and actually led all his people into the chris- 
 liav reliirion, by his own example. 
 
 CIdvis, throujih Ihe instrumentality of Clotilda, was baptiz- 
 ed by the bishop of Rheims 496, and the whole nation fol- 
 lowed hU example. 
 
 Clovis, like his queen, was a catholic ; but the Visigoths, 
 and Burnundians were Arians; this opened the way for Clo- 
 vis to make the most of his religion ; and under the sanction 
 of the Gallic clergy, who were catholics, he drew his sword 
 upon Alaric, king of the Visigoths, and by a desperate battle 
 near Poictiers, expelled Alaric, and added the province of 
 Aquitaine to his king<tom. 
 
 The religion of Clovis, like all other religions of policy, 
 convenience or interest, without the fe lings and sincerity of 
 the heart, sunk under the full tide of his successes, and fell a 
 prey to dissijiation, perfidy, licentiousness and cruelty. Clo- 
 Tis exhibited one more specimen of a corrupt religion, which 
 has been followed by thousands, and tens of thousands of 
 apostates, from that day to this ; he attempted to atone for 
 his corruptions and cruelties, at his death, by building and 
 endowing churches and religions cloisters, and attempting to 
 rctiulale church discipline, which might restrain the licentious 
 hereafter, 61 1. 
 
 The kingdom of Clovis was founded upon the rights of con- 
 quest and a corrupt religion ; and uprm his death, passed un- 
 der the dominion of his four sons, which laid the foundation 
 for all the horrors of those barbarous murders, assassinations 
 and cruelties, which followed ; until Clotain, by the death of 
 the others, a«>ain united the crown of France, and transmitted 
 ittt) hrs four sons, 662^. 
 
CHILPERIC AND FREDEGONDA, 79 
 
 The horrors of the first division, had taught nothing from 
 experience, to this barbarous ane : and the consi querices re- 
 suitin(£ front the second, were more fatal than tho:«e nf the 
 first. The bHrbarities and cruelties of these murderous 
 scenes, were greatly increased by the vindictive malice of the 
 two rival queens, Brunechilda and Fredeiionda, who made 
 every form of treachery t^ubservient to their passions of ri- 
 valry and dominion ; until the princes were all exterminated, 
 and France a^rain united under Clotair 11 son of Chilperic 
 and Fredegonda, 613 
 
 He restored tranquility by layine aside his ambition, insti- 
 tuting a new i»flice of the nature of viceroy, called mayor of 
 the palace; who governed with an influence much like the 
 prime ministers of the courts of Europe at this day. In this 
 capacity, Pepin, duke of Austratia, governed France twenty-* 
 eight years, 656. Pepin died and left his authority to Plec- 
 trude, his vvid(»w, who became regent in otfice to her grand- 
 son, then an infant, who was created mayor. 
 
 Charles Martel, natural son of Pepin, was imprisoned by 
 Ph'ctrude, to suppress his ambition. Charles escaped her 
 power, seized on the mayoralty of Austratia, and the people 
 supported his claims, 732; and in capacity of duke of France, 
 governed France. 
 
 Upon an invasion of the Saracens, he repelled them by a 
 desperate battle, and conjpelled them to take refuge in Spain, 
 751. His son Pepin succeeded to the government, assumed 
 the title of king, to the utter exclusion of the descendants of 
 Clovis, or the Merovintiian race, and was crowned and a- 
 nointed king, by St. Boniface, bishop of Mentz, 752. 
 
 DuriuiT these operations in France, the Visigoths founded 
 a kingdom in Spain, upon the ruins of a part of the kingdoms 
 of the Vandals and Siievi, when the powers of the clergy 
 soon surpassed the powers of the kings, introduced a spiritual 
 tyranny into Spain, where the bishctps became the judges, 
 and when united with the nobles, held the crown at their dis- 
 posal— -467. 
 
 Under this order of things, Spain was a theatre of in- 
 trigues, assassinations, crimes, bigotry, cruelty and blood. — • 
 Leovigild, the champion of Spain, who subdued the Suevi, 
 put to death his son Hermenegild, because he was a catholic, 
 and wouh! not become an Arian. Tliis persecution between 
 the catholics and Arians, extended to the Jews, who were 
 compelled to receive baptism upon pain of death, in the 
 r 
 
80 CRUELTIES IN SPAIN. 
 
 reign of Sisebiit, one of the successors of LeovieiU!. He sub- 
 dued (he Visi'iolhs, added all Spain to his dominions, with 
 some part of Gaul, and Mauritania. ChintiMa, hi-? successor, 
 banirshed the Jt ws, and enforced with rigor all the laws 
 against that people. 
 
 Under the succeeding: reign, the bishops, with the palatines, 
 or jireat oflficers of the crown, assumed the election of the 
 kinf£3 to the exrlusion of the nobility, and they declared 
 Wamba, (the champion of Spain anainst the Saracens,) to 
 be excluded from (he throne, because he had worn tbc habit 
 of a penitent, when laboring under the eiTects of poison : 
 (this precedent of ecclesiaslical finesse, we shall have occasion 
 to nolice hereafter) and at the same time, they decreed the 
 penalty of damnation to any king, who should uiarry a king's 
 wid«»w. 
 
 A civil war sprang up in the reign of Witiza, in conse- 
 quence of the debauchery, and corruptions of this prince, 
 who was dethroned by Roderique 710; who, in his turn, fell 
 a sacrifice to those Saracens, whose rise, progress, and con- 
 quests we noticed in the first part, under Mahomet, (he apos- 
 tate aposde of Mecca, in Arabia. This invasion was imputed 
 to the intrigues of Count Julian, to revenge on Roderique 
 the dishonour he had occasioned his injured daughter. This 
 insult divitled, and distracted Spain, and rendered the con- 
 quest of the Saracens ea?y and perujanent. 
 
 Appas, archbishop of Seville, joined the Saracens, to re- 
 vense the insult ; but Paleologus, a prince of the royal blood, 
 fled to the mountains of Asturias, and founded a christian 
 kingdom which he transmitte»l to his posterity, 717. 
 
 The wretched government of the Moors in Spain, was bent 
 upon nothing but avarice, and plunder; these, together with 
 their civil wars, rendered Spain the theatre of crimes, wretch- 
 edness, strife, carnaiif and usurpation ; and in the midst of 
 these struggles, the Mahometan religion triumphed over the 
 christian ; and a bloody revolution in the superior mahome- 
 tan sects established the triumph, and dominion of the sect 
 of (he Abassides, over the Amiades, and settled the usurpa- 
 tions of Spain. 
 
 At this time, Abdurrahman, or Almanzor the great, fixed 
 the Saracen government at Cordova, as his capital, and ren- 
 dered it the theatre of the arts, of elegance, and pleasure ; 
 and by depriving the bishops of their power, with their liv- 
 ings, and by promoting intermarriages between (he different 
 
KINGDOM OF ALMANZOR. 81 
 
 sects, he rooted out Christianity, without violence ; and led 
 all parties into new scenes of elegance, luxury, excesses, and 
 pleasures, together with elegance, and refinement of manners, 
 which shone with the more brilliance and splendor, in the 
 midst of the thick darkness, of ignorance, superstition, and 
 barbarism, whirh surrounded it. 
 
 We have thus paved the way for a correct knowledge of 
 the successive events, which followed upon this dark, and 
 distressing theatre of Europe ; a theatre preL^nant with events 
 more horrid, vile, and corrupt, than ever before blackened 
 the history of man ; a theatre on which itinonmce, bigotry, 
 and superstition, commixed wilh ambition, avarice and lust 
 of domination, aided with all the concomitant vices, in the 
 extreme, with all the dislressine evils and calamities which 
 followed in their train, reigned triumphant, and rendered it 
 one successive tragedy of carnage and blood, for more than 
 one thousand years : the effects of which still remain, and 
 continue to distract this devoted country ; even down to 
 these later ag-es of the world, and amidst all the improve- 
 ments of religion, literature, jurisprudence, the arts, and civil 
 refinement. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 General affairs of Italy — rise of Popery — Pepin supports the 
 Pope — state oj* Br i lain— origin of Ike Anglo Saxons — Wit- 
 tenagemol or elective government. 
 
 Italy was now divided between the emperors, of Con- 
 itantinople, and the Lon>bards, or Loiisiobards ; and oprned 
 a fihl for anibiiious w»rs : thi* (he f<illy of the emperor Leo 
 IsMunrus, soon gave rise to, by btt< nipting to abolish the 
 worship of images, in Haly, as he ha«l done in the eastern 
 entpire : this inflamed the populace at Ravenna, aiiainst the 
 exarch, when he began to pull down the images, and caused 
 an insurrection. 
 
 Luitprai.d, king of the Lombards, (« race of Goths who ex- 
 pelled the 0-lr«2oths from Italy,) seized this favorable mo- 
 ment to extend his dominions, marched to Ravenna, laid 
 siege to, and t )ok it by storm, and gave it up with all its goth- 
 ic wealth, to the plunder of his army, 728. This struck a 
 
8"2 LEO, LUITPRAND, AND GREGORY II. 
 
 general terror into the cities of Italy, and they submitted to 
 Luifpracd 
 
 This edict of Leo the emperor, against image worship, 
 alarmed the bishop of Rome, then Gregory II. ; (together 
 with the overwhelming power of Lnitprand,) he applied to 
 Ursus, duke of Venice, for assistance: who accepted the 
 overture, equipped a fleet, put the exarch of Ravenna, (who 
 had fled to Venice for succor,) at its head, and recovered 
 Ravenna, in the absence of Luilprand. 
 
 Enraged at this step of the bishop of Rome, Leo the empe- 
 ror, recalled <he exarch, sent a successor with order's to de- 
 stroy the bishop, seize him, and send him in chains to Con- 
 slantinople. 
 
 Here commenced the stru2gle that fixed the papal power. 
 GreL^ory II. excommunicated the new exarch ; Luifprand 
 turne<l his arms to the assistance of the pope ; the citizens of 
 Ravenna rose, murdered the exarch, and ail his abettors, or 
 imai^e breakers; the duke of Naples shared the same fate; 
 and the citizens of Rome rallied round the pope, and with- 
 drew their allegianx'e from the emperor Leo, 730. 
 
 Fired with indignation at this outraiie on his authority, the 
 emperor sent a powerful army into Italy to subdue the pebels. 
 The pope at the same time souirht aid from France, and sent 
 ambassadors to Charles Martel, who iiladly received them, 
 and became the protector of the church, 731. 
 
 Duriuii these prei)arH(iof»s, Gregory II. died, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Gregory III. The emperor Leo died soon after, 
 and was succeeded by his son Constantine Copronymus, 
 who followed the steps of his father. In 741, died Charles 
 Martel, who was succeeded by Pepin ; and also Gregory III. 
 who was succee<led by Zachary, Luilprand resigned to 
 Zachary ail the cities taken Iroio the R iman see, and he di- 
 ed, 743, and was succeeded In' Rachis, who confirmed the 
 peace with Zachary ; but soon broke it and invaded tlje Ro- 
 man states. 
 
 Instead of drawing the sword, the pope went in person to 
 the camp of Rachis, and by his address, persuaded him to 
 shealli his sword, renounce his crown, do him homajje as his 
 spiritual father, and retire to a convent in the habit of St. 
 Benedict, 750. By the influence of Zachary, Pepin, mayor 
 of the palace of France, was raised to the throne, and anoint- 
 ed king by St. Boniface, bishop of Meniz, 752. 
 
 We have now laid the foundation of the papal throne ; the 
 
ZACHARY AND PEPIN. 83 
 
 aucceedina; narrative will show, how this stupendous super- 
 struciur^' was raised. Astulphus the successor of Rachis in 
 Loinbardy, aiined at the dominion of llalj', he sub(]ued Ra- 
 venna and Pentapolis; mHrciied towards Rome, and deinan- 
 de<l the submission of all the dukedom. This alarmed Ste- 
 ph'Mi III- then upon the papal throne, and he again a()plud 
 to France f r rrluf. 
 
 Pepin, now tirnily seated on the throne of Clovis, sent two 
 ambassadors to conduct his holiness itiJo France whrrr e 
 concluded a treaty , Stephen anointed P< pin anew, w\\t^ ho- 
 ly unction, and his two sons, Clin.rles arid Carloman — declar- 
 ini *'ach of fhem, Ramanoruui Patricius; and P.pin, in re- 
 turn, f^uarantee<l Ravenna and Penfapoli-. to the \n^)e or ho- 
 ly see, marched his army into Italy, compelled Astu!phu~ ro 
 restore his conquests, established the pope in the chair, and 
 returned into France. 
 
 When the rod was withdrawn, Astulphus ajrain invaded 
 the papal dominions; and Pepin, u[)on renewed solicitat;<in3 
 from the pope, a<j:ain marched his army into Italy, and re- 
 stored the sovereignty of the popo, and Astulphus ai^ain took 
 refuse in Pavia. Ahirmed at this state of events in Italv tiie 
 emperor Cofjslantine, applied by his ambassadors, to Pepin 
 for a restoration of the exarchate, and Pentapilis, to the em- 
 pire ; to wiiich Pepin replied, " that it had h"ion;zed to the 
 Lombards by (he laws of conquest, that it beloniied to him 
 by the same rigiit, and that under his authority he had tiiven 
 it to St. Peter, to preserve the purify of the catholic faith, 
 and this he was ready to seal 'vith the last drop of his blood." 
 
 Pepin pressed Astulphus in Pavia, by a close siege, and 
 compelled him for his own safety, to relinquish all his con- 
 quests, and put the p )pe in possession of Cammachio, the 
 strong fortress of J!aly. Pepin confi^rred upon pope Steph- 
 en, an<l his successors, forever, the exarchate, Pentapolis, 
 (now Marca D'Ancona,) Emilia, (now Romagna.) with all 
 the cities therein, retaining only the ideal superiority of Pa- 
 tricius Romanorum, (or protector of the Roman people.) 
 Thus the keys, and sceptre, were united to the papal chair by 
 Pepin. 
 
 Pepin, equally respected in France, and in Germany, as in 
 Ital}, dii'd 768, in the tifly fourth year of his at]je,and seven- 
 teenth of his reioin, and left his kingdom to his two sons 
 Charles and Corlornan. We have now broujjht forward the 
 kingdoms of France, Spain, and Italy, to the commencement 
 
84 ^ ROMANS AND BRITONS. 
 
 of the reign of Charlernagr fr^ we will now bring forward the 
 kingdom of England to th same period. 
 
 The Romans held possesgion of Britain from the invasion 
 of Julius Cesar, (tifty years before Christ) to the invasion of 
 the R<iiTian Empire by the northern nations 460, aboui five 
 centuries. No instance occurs on the page of history, of a 
 people so brave, that have been so mtich harassed as the Brit- 
 ons. When the Romans had withdrawn their legions for 
 their own defence, the divided state of Britain again opened 
 the scenes oldis-cord, rapine, and war ; they again applied for 
 aid to the Rtrmaiis, again rebuilt the Roman wall of Antoni- 
 us, (so called) between the Friths of Forth, and Clyde, to 
 check the ravages of the Pictp, and Scots. (Who these dar- 
 ing advenlurfrs descended from, is no more known, than who 
 thi' Irish or Britons descended from ; doubtless all from the 
 stock of Japhet, unrier <lifferent leaders, the same as the na- 
 tions on the continent.) 
 
 Diiring the ravages of Attilla, with the Huns, in the Roman 
 empire, (he Piets^ and Scots, took advantaiie of the abseuce 
 of the Roinan leirions, crossed the Frith of Forth, and broke 
 over the wall a?, the same time, laying waste the country, with 
 fire ajjd sw<»rd. The wretched Britons addressed a letter to 
 their former mastt rs, (the Romans,) for aid, in this style, 
 " Driven by the barbarians into the sea, and forced by the sea 
 back upon the barbarians; we know not which way to turn 
 from the cboice of two deaths." The Romans could give 
 them no assishtnce, and left them to the ctnsolation oi the 
 christian religi<m, which they had embraced long before. 
 
 Driven to de«(>air by these barbarous savages, some who 
 escaped the sword, fled into G ul, (on the continent) and 
 setlle<l a province, which they called Brittany ; some submit- 
 ted to the conquerors, some fled into the woods, and ntount- 
 aiijs, where they dwelt secure, and often sallied forth upon 
 the i'oe, and took desperate revenge for the vvroni;s they had 
 Buff*' red. 
 
 Thus harassed and distressed, tHey invited over the Sax- 
 ons, from the heart of Germany, to secure the peace of the 
 Island. These people sprang from what is now called Jut- 
 land, and had acquired by conquest, the greater part of G t- 
 many, tocreiher with H »liand, and Zealand. Flushed with 
 the successes of t'leir arms, they rt- «ddy obeyed the cdl, and" 
 sent a sjohII fleet, wius about I.tOO fro »ps, under Ihe COfU- 
 Brii nd of .w ^ firoiher ^niefs, Hengis and Horsa, descendants 
 of their god Woden, 450. 
 
BRITONS AND SAXOXS. «5 
 
 The Britons hailed them as their deliverers ; and soon saw 
 (he Picts and Scots, driven again into their native wilds. In- 
 terest is the ruling passion in the heart of man ; the Briions 
 rejoiced to see themselves freed from the Picts, and Scots, 
 the Saxons rejoiced to tind how easy a conqu<>st such a peo- 
 ple as the Britons, miiiht become to their arms. 
 
 Pleased with the fertility of the soil, they sent to their 
 brethren, to come over, and join in the conquest of th<' Isl- 
 and : this ttiey readily accepted, and a stron^i force embark- 
 ed, and landed in Britain ; here 0j)ened a scene too horrible 
 to relate ; sufiice it to my, that afler a succession of severe, 
 ami d'.sperate conflicts, the Britons were not only subdued, 
 but almost extermmatf d ; and t!ie Saxons became masters 
 of the island; until prince Arthur arose; he trave relief to 
 such of his countrymen as had eseaptd the murderous sword, 
 and fled to the mountains, and forests for safety : he collect- 
 ed a band of these fu^^itives, fell upon the Saxons at Ba<!on 
 H'll, 620, end earned such a victory, as gave relief to the 
 Brit'Wjs about foriy years ; fresh invaders haviu;; passed over 
 from Germany, from time to time, tiie Briions were filially 
 subdued ; ♦xceptin^ such as fled to the aiountains of Corn- 
 wall and Wales, where they dwelt securely under their own 
 governments, 584. 
 
 As soon as the common enemy was sulidued, the Saxons 
 divided the country into seven independent soverei2:nlies, 
 called the Saxon Heptarchy, united under one tiead ; these 
 held a general elective council, called Wi(tena;;emot, or t!;en- 
 eral assembly, to consult, and determine on the affairs of the 
 general good. 
 
 CHAP. HI. Continued. 
 
 The Saxon heptarchy was the baiis on which the laws of 
 England, and of course, Eoiilisb and Americrin liberty, w^re 
 founded. Their Wittenagcmot, or cour<cil v»f wise men, was 
 i composed of a select number from all the clans, or K-.tg- 
 J doms; of what class or order of men, is not known, amj j)er- 
 I haps it is well, not to be Jcnown. Their divisioHs inio clas- 
 i serf, were the same as in England at this tim^-, the noble, the 
 I free, and the servile. Tiie nobles wf-re called thanes, and 
 ! were of (wo kinds, the {irealer, and ksser thanes; both were 
 ' dependent »u the kint' ; tlie free men >vere the yeomanry, 
 j or farmers oi the reahii ; but the slaves were the most nu- 
 
 8 
 
86 BRITONS AND SAXONS. 
 
 merous, and were the property upon the estates of the nobles. 
 
 The basis of the Ani^lo-Saxon laws, was the same as the 
 present Enj:li*h, excepting the decision of ordeal in very in- 
 tricate tases ; (the ordeal of tire and sword, were common to 
 the Sdxons in the bevenlh century.) Their criminal code 
 was more mild, than the present EiJirlish ; all crimes might 
 be compensated with money ; (this principlp became ih^ ba- 
 sis of the corruptions of popery.) This heptarchy conliiiufr d 
 until they were msited under Egbert, king of Wessex, 827 ; 
 if that could be called a union, which was both transient, and 
 momentary. 
 
 The heptarchy were converted to Christianity by St. Au- 
 gustine, a catholic monk, about the year 600. Reverences 
 to Hdiiits, and monastic observances, were amongst the tirst 
 of Ih^ir moral virtues; an«l donaticms to the church, atoned 
 for all crimes. These superstitions brought them under the 
 dominion of the Roman pontiffs, and pilgrimages to Rome 
 were common to ail classes of society, from the king to the 
 peasant. 
 
 U|»on t!»is throne of the united heptarchy reigned Eubert, 
 after severe struggles for dominion, and after he had by his 
 sword p«'rsuaded the Saxons, that he was the rightful heir to 
 H'Ugis and Horsa, (tile two tirst chiefs >vho led the Saxons 
 iiito Ehjclflnd.) The reign of Egbert was rendered distress- 
 ing, affd alarming, by the invasions of the Normans, who rav- 
 aged the country, as the Danes had done before. In the 
 midst of Ihese scenes, Egbert died, 838, and left his throne to 
 his son Ellielwolf His superstition, was equal to the weak- 
 ness of his mind ; in his rt ign, E'lgland was again distressed 
 by the ravai-esof the Danes ; and in the midst of Ihese dis- 
 tresses, the king went off on a pilgrimage to Rome, and on 
 his return died, leaving the throne to his sons, Ethelbert and 
 Ethelbahl. 
 
 Th« Danes still continued their ravages, and distracted this 
 divided kiniidom, until both the kings died, and left the 
 crown to their younger brother Alfred, at twenty years of age. 
 This young hero did wonders ; but was soon overpowered, 
 after having fought eight pitched battles in one year ; he was 
 compelltd to abandon the crown, take the garb of a peasant, 
 anri pass as a servant to a grazier. Not content with this sit- 
 uation, he built him a strong castle in the midst of an inac- 
 cessible morass; collected a few of his nobles, and when oc- 
 casion oflferedj fell upon the defenceless Danes without mercy 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT. tj7 
 
 Thus immured, Hke Gustavus of Sweden, he sought oppor- 
 tunity, by reconnoiter'ma; the Danes in their camp, by en- 
 couraginj^ his countrymen, until a favoral)le momt?nt offered, 
 he then fell upon (he Danish camp at E'J(linaton, routed their 
 army, put them to fliiiht, with great slau^Miter ; took Guthrum 
 their kiuii, with the remnant of his banditti, offered therh 
 their lives, and laud to work upon, if they W{)u!d embrace 
 Christianity, and be loyal subjects ; these thv y consented to, 
 and were true to their entiap^ements. 
 
 Althougii Egbert may be considered as the first king, under 
 the Saxon union, his reign was so short, (if it could be fairly 
 said that he ever enjoyed a tranquil throne.) that he had ouly 
 the name of king ; every thing remained for Alfred to do, 
 when he came to the throne, an<l he was exactly fitted for 
 his condition; he did every thing for that nation, in one con- 
 spicuous reign. 
 
 He subdued the Danes, he created a fleet of one hundred 
 and twenty vessels, which was equal to the pr(>tectl«>n of his 
 sea coast ; established a regular police throughout his king- 
 dou), by dividing England into counties, hundreds, and tyth- 
 insii ; and rendering every householder accountable for his 
 family and guests; and every persou who did not register 
 himself m some ty thing, was punished as an outlaw; and no 
 man could change his abode without a certificate from the 
 hea<l of the ty thing. 
 
 Alfred created county courts, and juries, in the manner 
 the>^ are now used in England, and America, and assembled 
 his whole people once a year, by their hundreds, not only to 
 inquire into, and correct Crimea, but also all abuses of power 
 in the magistrates, and at the same time to do military duty •- 
 hence a hundred was called a Wappentake. Alfred framed 
 also a body of laws, which were the basis of English jurispru- 
 dence. 
 
 He was sensible that ignorance was the hot bed of mischief, 
 and that without knowledge, it was impossible for any peo- 
 ple to be free, virtuous and happy. 
 
 Alfred founded schools, and seminaries ; greatly endowed 
 the university of Oxford ; enjoined it upon all freeholders, to 
 send their children to school ; and encouraged merit by pre- 
 ferment. He studied, wrote, and practiced, as he wished 
 his people to do, and thus by precept and example, was truly 
 the fathp-r of his country. He introduced and encouraged 
 manufactures, and commeree ; iivedto enjoy the elegancies, 
 
88 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 and luxuries of life, and laid the foundation for all that is tru- 
 ly great, and good in Eni^land. 
 
 In (he year 901, Alfred died, having fought fifty-six pitch- 
 ed battles, by land and sea, and leff it in his will, " It is just, 
 that the English should ever renihin as free, as their own 
 thouiihts." The real worth, and true greatness of Alfred, are 
 best known, and expressed, by the general good which has 
 ?hewn so consp'r>?uously in the English nation. 
 
 To avoid interruption in the Saxon history, I have contin- 
 ued it throuiih the reign of Alfred ; which brirjiis it forward of 
 the reign of Charlemagne, nearly one whole century. We 
 will now go back, and take up the atTairs of the continent, 
 beginning with Charlemagne king of the Franks, and eu;pe- 
 ror of the west. 
 
 In the reign of Pepin, we noticed the holy consecration of 
 ills two sons, Charles and Carlo man, by pope Stephen, as 
 protectors of the Rjman people. Soon after the death of Pe- 
 pin, died his son Carloman, and left Charles sole heir lo the 
 or«>vvn, 771. The Saxons had made a general conquest of 
 the clans which were spread over Germany, and held them in 
 subjection, after the manner of the age, where subjection, 
 and obj^dience were enforced by the sword, only, and where 
 ravai'irig, and plunder, where the comtnon modes of subsist- 
 mi, amongst a set of pagan idolatrous barbarians, much like 
 our western inriians. 
 
 To qiiiet thn depredations of some of these tribes, became 
 tht early attention of Cliarles when he was called by pope 
 Adrian I. to protect his h(»I)i»es3 against the incursions ofDe- 
 siderius king of the Ti^»nibar<l8, in the same manner of his fa- 
 Iher Pepin, airainst Liiifprand. Charles had married the daugh- 
 ter of B idoiius, and divorced h^er with the c(>nspnt of the 
 pope, ip b«.ing without issue and married another woman. 
 Ti IS had given some occasion for the quarrel between De- 
 siderius, and the p 'pe ; and a serious cause of quarrel be- 
 tween De:iidf'rius, and Charles. 
 
 Upon (he tir.^t sjuumons from Adrian, Charles concluded a 
 treity willi the Saxons, drf w <»ff hi? army, and T?iarched into 
 Itui; in quest of D* siderius, wr.o fled at his approach, and 
 tork shelter m P.ivia. his eapital, where Charles besieeed 
 him, 773. The Lombards made a gallant defence, Charles 
 inv":rtrd the city iviih a part of his army, drew off the other 
 psrt ind i,;'ire?;c-ti ir, Veronn, which soon fell into his hands, 
 togeiher vatii his brother Carioman's widow, (who was also 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 89 
 
 dausrhtpr to De&i<lerius,) with her two sons, who had been 
 sfnt there by her falher for safety; these Charles sent into 
 France, and returned to Pavia; renewed the siege with vig- 
 or, and went in person to Rome to pass the easter festival. 
 
 Adrian receivei! Charles with yjreatpomp, preceded by the 
 iiiairistrates and judges of Rome, with banners ; and the ex- 
 ultations of the clergy " Blessed is he that cometh in the 
 name of the Lord." Charles being fully gralitied with this 
 reception at Rome, confirmed again the grant of Pepin, and 
 retired to Pavia. which a severe plague amongst the besieg- 
 ed soon compelled them to deliver up to Charles, who took 
 Desjderius and his family, and sent them into France ; where 
 they all rlied,and thus put an end to the kingdom of the Lom- 
 bar<Is, 774 ; after a period of two hundred and six years. 
 
 Italy at this time was shared by the Venetians, the Lom- 
 bards, the popes, and the emperors of Constantinople. After 
 the conquest of Lombardy, it was all owned by the pope, and 
 Charles, excepting the dukedom of Naples, and several cities 
 in the two Calabrias, which beloni»ed to the emperors. 
 
 Thus possessed of Italy, Charles received the iron crown 
 of the Romans, at the hands of the pope, with the title of king 
 of the Romans, and emperor of the west. Charles took im- 
 mediate possession, by instituting a new system of laws, a 
 new police, &c. ; and combined the civil, and ecclesiastical 
 government, by uniting the clergy with the nobility, after the 
 manner of France. 
 
 Having thus disposed of his conquests, Charles returned to 
 Frarjce, and marched directly against the revolted Saxons, 
 wliich commenced a war of 30 years with these barbarians, 
 who were finally subdued, and annexed to his empire. Great 
 persecutions accompanied this war, to christianize the hea- 
 then idolatrous Saxons. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Trance, and the Church, through Uie reign of Charlemagne 
 and his successors, io llie sellknienl of' Hollo, ike Norman. 
 
 The connection between the French, and Papal thrones, 
 have been inseparable from the d?iys of Clovis ; and Charles 
 increased (he strength of that union, through every step of 
 
90 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 his reign. He endeavored to compel the Saxons, by fire and 
 sword, to embrace chrii«tianity ; with some he succeeded, 
 wi(h oil5«r!f he found it iniposi^ible ; tiiey fled their country, 
 a*?d took refnsie in the wihJs of Norway. Charles was a real 
 frJMid fo rt htrioij and letters; and to promote both these, he 
 WH& a friend to the clergy, and admitted them into the gov- 
 ernujeni with the nobles ; but he was careful to preserve his 
 disiiiify as head of the church ; and the pope, and clergy 
 yi' If'i d to him this homage. 
 
 In (he lYiidst of the co-operation of Charles, and Adrian I. 
 forrhe exalnfion of the papnl, and French monarchies, died 
 .4()fvqn, arid was succeeded by Leo III. 796, who sent to 
 Cl'iuh ma-jne the Roman standard, " begging him to send an 
 €ifx\m<'»\ to receive the oath of fidelity from the Romans." 
 
 In 799, Charlemagne was called into Italy to redress an act 
 of violence, and an attempt of assassination, ofifered pope 
 Leo, in the streets of Rome. Charles repaired to Rome, 
 passed six days with the pope in the year 800 : assembled 
 the bishops, and nobles, to inquire into the affair. The bish- 
 ops denied the jurisdiction of the court, alleging, that *' the 
 apostolic see cannot be jt.'dj;ed by man ;" Leo acknowledged 
 the jurisdiction of the court, and as no proof appeared against 
 him, he purged himself b} oath. 
 
 On Christmas day, as Charles was assisting at mass, and 
 npon his knees before the altar, in the church of St. Peter; 
 the sovereign pontiff advanced, put an imperial crown upon 
 his head ; and the people exclaimed, " Long live the empe- 
 ror, long life and victory to Charles Augustus, crowned by 
 the band of God — long live the great, and pious emperor of 
 the Romans," and then seated him upon the magnificent 
 throne of the Roman emperors, presented him with the im- 
 perial mantle, and Charles returned, amidst the acclamations 
 of (he people, in triumph to his palace. 
 
 Ilitih raised on the imperial throne of the west, Charles re- 
 ceived, amidst the other mnrks of respect and attention, an 
 overture of marriage from the empress Irene, of Constantino- 
 ple, which he actually accepted ; but was prevented by the 
 interference of Nicephorus, the patrician ; who banished Irene 
 to the irlyiul of Lesbos, and settled with Charles a new treaty 
 of limits, aiirc'cable to his mind, in the year 802. 
 
 Charles received particular notice, and respect from the 
 calipiis of the ^arRcens, particularly the caliph Haroun Alras- 
 <*hid; he ceded to him by his embassy the lordship of JerO"- 
 
CHARLEMAGNE. 91 
 
 sdleiTi, and amonast other presents, sent him a striking; clock ; 
 the first ever known in France. 
 
 The Arabs had retained the arts, notwithslandintr they 
 were lost in Europe : the several successive cahphs of Bag- 
 dad, conlinued this respectful notice to Charles, until they 
 fell into disorder, and civil wars, which ruined the arts and 
 sciences amonjist them. 
 
 Charles was truly a great man, whilst he lived ; but at his 
 death, fell into the same evil which had been practiced by his 
 predecessors, in dividing his kingdom between his three sons, 
 Charles, Lewis, and Pepin. These, had they lived, would 
 have distracted the empire, by their civil wars ; but as only 
 Lewis survived, he found employment for all his time. 
 
 Charles, near the close of his reisn, be^an to feel the sword 
 of revenge from those Saxons, which had escaped his sword, 
 and fled info Norway : these Normans, under Godfrey their 
 leader, landed a strong force upon the coast of France, and 
 threatened the empire ; but just at the commencement of 
 the fatal battle, Godfrey was assassinated by one of his fol- 
 lowers, his army fled on board their ships, a peace was set- 
 tled, and they returned home. 
 
 The relief from, this invasion, was followecf by the death of 
 Charles' sons, Charles and Pepin, together with his daughter 
 Rotrude, anil he associated Lewis in the government of the 
 eo/pire ; and to express the independence of the crown, he 
 placed it upon the altar, and directed Lewis to raise it on to 
 his own head ; thus shewing that he held it of God only. 
 Charles died at Aix la Chapelle 814, aged seventy-one — and 
 having reigned forty seven years. 
 
 The empire of the west then consisted of France, Germa- 
 ny, Italy, part of Hungary, Spain, and the Low Countries; 
 and the head of this empire was Charlemagne. When he 
 fell, his empire fell with him ; those discordant barbarians on 
 the north : those intriguing, factious Italians ; those jealous, 
 superstitious, half christian, half moorish Spaniards ; those 
 discordant, disjunctive, conjoined provinces in France, and 
 upon the Rhine, could not be controlled, but by the same 
 force that subdued them, and under the same wise head. 
 '* The first step Lewis took, was to make, himself impopular 
 with the clergy ; this, at that age, was destruction to any 
 reign : the next, was to divide up his government with his 
 three eons, 817 ; (Bernard, grandson of Charlemagne was in 
 possession of Italy, in bis father's right.) To add to the 
 
92 FEUDS OF FRANC?:. 
 
 scene already opened for feuds, Lewis had one more son, by 
 a second marriage, (Charles the bald;) him lie ;<^sociated with' 
 his eldest son Lothario, in the government of France, by mu- 
 tual consent. 
 
 He was now prepared for all the trouble, which such an 
 a^e, in the midst of such discordant interests, were ready to 
 bring upon him. The feuds opened, by a coalition of the 
 three brothers against the father, 829. This rebellion drove 
 Lewis to the church for consolation, and support : the church 
 fo(}k advantage of this, and the empire was in the midst of 
 distractifm To detail the occurrences of these scenesj 
 would neither improve the understanding^, correct the morals, 
 or mend the heart: suffice it to say, that (Jreiiory IV. took 
 such advantage of these feuds, as to brinjr Lewis into a peni- 
 tential habit, strip him of his throne, and then decreed '* A 
 penitent is incapable of civil offices ; a royal penitent, must 
 then be incapable of reigning ; Lewis is subjected to perpet- 
 ual penance ; he can never ascend the throne." 
 
 Lewis, as a prisoner in the monastery of St. Medard at 
 Soissons, in <lue form, was stripped of his royal robes, in pres- 
 ence of his son Lothario, clad in the penilenlial sackcloth, 
 and assigned to his cell, /or the crime of lakins^ up arms 
 against his rebellious sons. The scene was now reversed 
 from what it was, when tiis father sat in judgment upon pope 
 Adrian I. in Italy ; and the characters were chan;ied. Tnis 
 scene was too gross for even this barbarous age. The feel- 
 ings of these half savages revolted at this triumph of a son 
 over a father, the two brothers united against Lothario, who 
 had degraded his father, restored the unhappy king to his 
 crown, and compelled Lothario to crave mercy at the feet of 
 his father, in presence of the whole army. Lewis granted it, 
 and yielded to him the kingdom of Italy, 834 
 
 The death of Pepin opened a new scene for the infrigues 
 of Ihe queen, in favor of her son Charles the bald ; asiain the 
 empire was torn with feuds ; Lewis again fell a sacrifice to 
 his superstition, and died near Mentz, aged 72; having 
 reigned twenty-eight years, or rather attempted to reign. 
 
 As soon as the father was removed, Ihe sons drew the 
 sword upon each other, and to carry their p<unts, resorted to 
 all possible expedients ; Lothario offered liberty of con- 
 science to the Saxons, (that is, to return to their idolatry) if 
 they would support his sword ; Lewis and Charles Htutk to 
 the church : France was drenciied in blood. A fatal action 
 
CONFLICTS IN FRAN.CE. 93 
 
 was fought, in which Lewis and Charles prevailed over Lo- 
 thario ; 100,000 are said to have fallen in the conflict : this 
 caust<l a new partition, by the help of the clergy. 
 
 Added to these troubles, the Saracens pillaged Italy ; the 
 Normans ravaged France; the nobles set the princes at de- 
 fiance ; these all combined, renden^d th^ empire a scene of 
 indescribable wretchedness, and a fit *' stage to feed conten- 
 tion on." Th<' Normans in their ravajfes penetrated even to 
 the gates of Paris ; and France was an ac^ldama ; kings, 
 princes, nobles, and Norman marauders, all joined in the 
 general d»*3t ruction. 
 
 Amidst these scenes of distress, the clergy assumed the 
 power of disposing of crowns, and held it until a more en- 
 lightened age appeared in later ages. One instance may 
 serve as an example of the times. '' Since the divine favor, 
 through the merits of the holy apostles, and their vicar pope 
 John, has raised you to the throne, according to the judg- 
 ment of the holy ghost, we elect you unanimously, for our 
 protf>ctor and Lord." 
 
 Those Normans who were now ravaging France, and un- 
 der the protection of these fends, desolating the firiest provin- 
 ces, claim our attention. Amidst the conquests of Charle- 
 magne in Germany, he harassed the Saxons, and forced such 
 of them as would not subcnit to his yoke, with their fallen 
 country, to flee, and take refuge in the wilds of Scandin:«vla, 
 or Sweden and Norway, and form a social union with those 
 savages of the north ; and the two nations soon assim lated 
 in their habits, and manners. They were scourgtd by the 
 persecution of Charlemagne, on account of their religion j 
 which was paganism of the grossest kind. 
 
 Woden, their god, was t) them a god of terror, devastation, 
 and carnage: in this character they worshipped him, and 
 they were true to their religion. They abhorred chrisiiani- 
 ty, such as Charlemagne had attempted to enforce upon 
 th'-m. Burning with revenge for the suffering? of their fal- 
 len country, tiioy assumed the name of Normans, (or north- 
 ern men) burst from their northern wilds, and in the reign of 
 Lewis Debonair, (son of Charlemagne) became to France 
 w.'at they had been to En^^land ; appeared on the coasts of 
 France, and spread a general alarm. 
 
 .' Upon the df-ath of L^'wis, and in the reign of Charles the 
 bald, hi? su( c*seor, th**y landed on the coast of France, com- 
 mitted ttie most shocking depredations, with fire and sword, 
 
94 SETTLEMENT OF HOLLO. 
 
 pillaged the country, and carried off their booty, together 
 with all the women they could find, and as many boys as 
 they could seize, to recruit their armies ; they besiejred 
 Charles, burned Paris, and compelled the kina: to pay trib- 
 ute : this money, not only induced, but enabled these barba- 
 aians to repeat thfeir visits, until Rollo, their distinguished 
 chief, took advantage of Charles the simple, one of the suc- 
 cessors of Charles the bald. 
 
 Durinji this weak, and distracted reign, Rollo sailed up the. 
 Seine at the head of his Normans, took Rouen, and fortified 
 it as his strong hold, and bejian his ravages. Charles, alarm- 
 ed at the bold invasion of this daring adventurer, offered him 
 his daughter in marriage, and the province of Neustra, if he 
 and his followers would embrace the christian religion, and 
 do him homage : Rollo consented, and this province took 
 the name of Normantly ; soon became populous, cultivated 
 the arts of civilization with the rest of France, and became a 
 bo<ly of good citizens, for that day, under a brave, and able 
 prince, 91 1. 
 
 Durintr these distressing scenes in France, and Encland 
 too, ttie affairs of Germany were in as distracted a situation 
 Duder the weak princes of the line of Charlemagne ; until 
 they were reli»'»'ed in som^ measure by the elecli;>n of Con- 
 rad 1. upon the extinction of this sluggish race, 912. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Germany Jrom the election of Conrad I. with Italy and the 
 Church, down to the year 1 004. 
 
 To sever the Germanic body from its connection with 
 France, establish, and maintain a firm and indepentlent sove- 
 regnty, was a task which distracted the i eign of Conrad I. 
 To settle the dominion of the duchy of Lorraln engrossed his 
 first att<ntion. and led to sharp conflicts with Charles tfie sim- 
 ple, kins of France. At the same time the Huns, or Hunga- 
 rians, commenced their ravages and depredations upon the 
 empire, with fire and sword ; penetrated to the Rhine, and 
 compelled Conrad to purchase a peace, 917. 
 
 Upon the death of Conrad, (which soon followed,) the 
 states of Germany, by their electors, chose Henry the I. of 
 
AFFAIRS OF GERMANV. 95 
 
 Saxony, as his successor, 920. These electors were com- 
 posed, of sevt'U of the higher orders of the clerjiy, and nobili- 
 ty, viz : the arch bishops of MeriJz, Coloiine, and Treves, 
 (chancellors of the three orpeat districts into which Germany 
 was anciently divided,) the king of Bohemia, duke of Saxo- 
 ny, marquis of Brandenburg, and the count Palatine of the 
 Rhine. 
 
 H« nry drew his sword, marched into Lorrain, settled the 
 fate of that duchy, humbled the refractory, settled the gene- 
 ral internal tranquility, and marched a powerful army atcainst 
 the Hungarians, who were again committing their ravages in 
 the empire; he expelled the invaders at the memorable bat- 
 tle of Mersburg, and reduced them to terms. 
 
 Hiving there established the sovereignty, and tranquility 
 of GermHny, he attempted the conquest of Italy, at the re- 
 quest of the Pope, but was seized with an apoplexy on his 
 way, returned, died, and left the work to his son Otho ti'e I. 
 
 The distracted state of France, at this time, under Charles 
 the simple, amidst the ra varies of the Normans, was truly dis- 
 tressing. Charles died 929: then under Lewis the sfranaer, 
 great <irandson of Alfred the great ; (who had been educated 
 in Eni'land,) his reign was (listracte<i with the usurpations of 
 Hugh, great duke of France. Lewis died 954, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Lothario, who died 98G. arui was succeed- 
 ed by his son Lewis V. who died in trie mi'ist of troubles 
 987, and with him the race of Charlemagne became exiiu«t 
 in France. 
 
 During this distracted state of France, Otho, that took the 
 sword of his father, humbled the Hungarians who again in- 
 vaded the empire, at the tamcius battle of Dortmond,in West- 
 phalia ; hujobled the Bohemians, who had revolted, and 
 compelled these pagan barbarians to embrace Christianity, 
 937 ; he drew his sword, and humbled the refractory spirit 
 of the duke of Bavaria, who atteujpted to act the part of 
 Hugh, duke of France. 
 
 This overbearing spirit of the great fiefs, began generally to 
 prevail at this time, and distract tlie governments of Europe : 
 to counteract the spirit of the nobles, Otho au^imented the 
 powers of the c!ers:y, ard [irojiagated Christianity by tire and 
 sword, after the example of Charlemagne ; and exf»Mided it 
 even into Deufnark, 948. Having thus settled the -tfaiis of 
 the north, he prepared to redress the wrongs of Adelaide, 
 
96 AFFAIRS OF ITALY. 
 
 widow of Lothario, son of duke Hugh, who was imprisoned by 
 the usurper Berengarius. 
 
 . Ofho marched into Itaijs relieved Adelaida, married her, 
 subdued the country, and returned into Germany to subdue 
 his son Ludolphus, who had conspired against him, with sev- 
 eral of the great tiefs of Germany. Otho received the sub- 
 mission of his son, and sent him into Italy to quell an insur- 
 rection under the same Berengarius, from whosse power he 
 delivered ./\delaida, whep*. he died, and the rebel triumphed 
 over the kiujrdom of Lombiirdy, and in his turn began to up- 
 pre?s the Pope John XII, then only eighteen years of ajie. 
 
 Otho obi'yed with alacrity the call of John, summoned a 
 diet at Worms, caused his son, Otho II. to be elected his suc- 
 cessor, marched into iJaly, deposed Berengarius, was crown- 
 ed at Pavia, king of Lombardy, and Milan, 962, entered Rome 
 in triuroph, and was crowned by the Pope, emperor of tiie 
 Romans^ with the tide of Aujrnstijp, and his Holiness swore 
 allegiance to him upon the tomb ot St. Peter. 
 
 Otho, in his turn, confirmed to his Holiness the grant of 
 Pepiu, and Charlemagne ; " saving in all things, his own, and 
 his sous, and successcirs authority." This reservation i .us- 
 ed a revolt upon the first absence of the emperor, and John, 
 by an unnatural alliance with Adelbert, son of Berengarius, 
 took up arms aiiainst the empt ror. 
 
 Fred wit'] indi^^r^tion. Otho marched to Rome, deposed 
 John, an<l caused Leo VHI. (a virtuous layman,) to be elect- 
 ed Pope. Vpm the first absence again of Otho, a faction re- 
 stored Johr< upon this maxim, " that no inferior can degrade 
 a superior ;" and John died by assassination, and Benedict V. 
 was elected Pv^pe. 
 
 Fired with indignation, Otho refurne<l to Rome, restored 
 Leo, deposed Benedict, and banished him to Hamburjj^, and 
 extorted this concession from Leo, the clergy, an«l the Ro- 
 man people ; " that Otho, and his successors in the kintcdom 
 of Italy, should always have the power of choosing a succes- 
 sor, naming a Pope, and .ivina investiture to bishops." 
 
 During the stay of Otho in Italy, Leo III. dit'd, and the im- 
 perial commissioners elected John XIII. ami Olho return* d 
 to Germany. The Italians again revolted, and expelled 
 John. Fired attain w?ln indignation at the restless, factious 
 spirit of Italy, Otho marched aj,ain to Rome, took vengeance 
 on the fa<*tious leaders, banisited the consuls, hanged the tri- 
 bunes, and caused the Roman prefect to be whipped through 
 
OTHO AND THE POPES. 97 
 
 the streets on an ass; restored the Pope, and relired to Ca- 
 pua, where he received overtures of alluince from the Greek 
 emperor between his daughter and the son of Olho, no\y 
 Otbo II. which was delayed by the treachery of her father; 
 but in the reign of bis successor, the match was consummated 
 in Ifaly, 970, and Otho returned to Germany, under the ap- 
 pellation of Otho the great, where he died, 973, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Otho II. 
 
 In this reign (he factions in Germany were kept under; 
 but the factions in Italy prevailed again, and the scene a^^ain 
 changed ; the factions had now elected three popes at the 
 same time, and when the imperial poj)e was established, the 
 ex-pope had recourse to that power which the kings of France 
 had delivered them from ; and again applied to the Greek 
 emperor at Constantinople for relief: such is the caprice, such 
 is the insatiable thirst of ambition, and thelustof power in mnn. 
 
 Otho II. like his father, drew his sword, marched into Italy, 
 chastised the rebels at Rome ; but in his turn, was chastised 
 hy the Saracens, who invaded Italy through the instigation 
 of the Greek emperor. Otho died at Rome, and was succeed- 
 ed by his son, Otho 111. at tweHe years of age, 983. During 
 his minority, the torch of civil war was again lit in Germany, 
 and Italy ; but when he came of age, he like his grandfather, 
 drew his sword, hushed the storms, expelled the Danes Ifrom 
 Germany, and compelled them to receive christian missiona- 
 ries into Denmark and Norway: ^-iving quelled a second 
 revolt, and settled a second papal election in Italy, Otho 
 marched into Poland, at the request of duke Bolislaus, and 
 created him king, reserving Poland as a fief of the German 
 empire, in the year 1000. 
 
 The Saracens, taking advantage of Otho's absence, again 
 entered Italy, and penetrated to Rome : Otho again entered 
 Italy, expelled the invasion, relumed to Rome, where he fell 
 a sacrifice to the poisonous treachery of an injured woman. 
 Otho left no issue, and of course a contested throne, which 
 finally was settled upon Henry II. grandson of Otho II 
 
 The troubles of Germany and Italy, were the same in this 
 reign, as in that of the three Othos. The feuds of Germany, 
 Italy and Poland, so greatly harassed Henry, that he attempt- 
 ed to retire from the throne in 1004, and actually took the re- 
 ligious habit ; but at the same time resumed the sceptre again, 
 by this artful tinesse of the abbot of St. Val. " Monks awe 
 obedience, said the abbot, to their superiors. I order you to 
 
 9 
 
98 ENGLAND ANT FRANCE. 
 
 continue at the helm of government." This was not the on- 
 ly expression of the weakness of Henry; and yet he liad en- 
 ergies which were adequate to the exigencies of the times^ 
 and the peace and prosperity of his crown continued to in- 
 crease durin.ji the remainder of his reijyjn, which closed by his 
 death, 1024. 
 
 I have dwelt the more minutely upon the feuds of Italy, 
 that the foundation of the subsequent civil and er clesiastical 
 feuds, between Italy and Germany, and also the strife between 
 GermaDy ar.d France, fur the dominion of Italy, may be the 
 more correctly understood ; together with the intrigues of the 
 popes, to oblain and exercise universal sovereignty, both 
 temporal and spiritual. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 England and France, from the rise of Edward I. to the Nor- 
 man conquest, 1066. 
 
 During these struggles on the continent, the affairs of Eng- 
 land under Edward, son and successor to Alfred the great, 
 continued to flourish as Alfred left them. The Danes contin- 
 ued these ravages, through his reign ; but without obtaining 
 any advantages, and he died victorious 925, and was succeed- 
 ed by his nalural son, Athelstan, who attempted to practice 
 the same policy with the Danes in Northumberland, that 
 Charles the bald had practised with Rollo the Norman, in 
 France ; he confered this district upon Sitheric, a Danish 
 chief, with the title of king, and gave him his sister in mar- 
 riage, but not with the same success. 
 
 This occasioned a war between Athelstan, and Scotland, 
 which secured to him a peaceful reign. He passed a law for 
 the encouragement of commerce, by confering the title of 
 lesser thane, on every merchant, who should make two voy- 
 ages to distant lands on his own account, and was succeeded 
 by his brolher Edmund, 941. 
 
 Nothing of importance took place in this reign, and Ed- 
 mund was assassinated in the midst of a feast, by a notorious 
 robber, Leolf, whom he had banished, and was succeeded by 
 his brother Edred. He took all possible care to check the 
 incursions of the Danes, and devoted the greatest part of his 
 reign to extend and cultivate the monastic life in England. 
 
EDWY, ELGIVA, DUNSTAN. 99 
 
 The first preachers amongst the Saxons, had laid the foun- 
 dation of the doctrine and practice of celibacy ; but in this 
 reign it was carried to its extreme. Edred died 955, and 
 was succeeded by Edwy, son of hi* predecessor Edmund, at 
 the a2;e of 17. E(5wy, charmed wi(h the person of Elgiva, 
 his second or third cousin, ventured to marry her. This 
 roused up the whole force of monastic indignation ; Edwy 
 was denounced by the monks, which proceeded to open vio- 
 lence and even to abuse of the queen, by DunsJan, the abbot 
 ofGlastenbury, wl.'O was at the head of the treasury, and by 
 the >irch bishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Edwy resented the insult and punished Dunstan. The 
 arch bishop denounced the queen, caused her to be seized, 
 her fatal beauty to be (!estr(5jed, by burning her face with red 
 hot ir on, then banished her (o Ireland for life ; and compel- 
 led Edwy to consent to a divorce, which was pronounced 
 by the arch bishop. 
 
 Fearing the royal Psufferer might return to the embraces of 
 the king, they caused her to be murdered ; dethroned Edwy, 
 placed his brother Edgar upon the throne, at thirteen years of 
 age, and made Dunstan regent. 
 
 At the commencement of the reign of Edwy, Dunstan 
 with the title of St. was abbot ofGlastenbury, and made head 
 of the treasury. Upon the deposition of Edwy and the ac- 
 cession of Edgar, he was made bishop of Worcester, then of 
 London, then arch bishop of Canterbury ; and held the reins 
 of government during the minority. He triumplied over the 
 unfortunate Edwy, by the unrelenting vengeance of ecciesias- 
 ticn! excommunications; and persecuted him even unto death. 
 
 The atfairs of Enjiland flourished generally, under this 
 monkish reign ; and Edgar, by sacrificing every thing to their 
 humor, obtained the title of St. and a virtuous man ; notwith- 
 standing he was a most debauched libertine, and very much 
 the prototype of Henry VIH. 
 
 Edgar was succeeded by his son Edward, 975, by the in- 
 trigues of Dunstan, In three years he was murdered by the 
 intrigues of Elfrida, his step-mother, to make way for her son 
 E(helrcd. 
 
 This was a bloody succession, and a bloody reign. The 
 Danes renewed their depredations upon England, and Ethel- 
 red purchased a sliamefu! peace. This invited new depreda- 
 tions, which were appeased as before; and to revenoe these 
 incursions, Ethelred gave secret orders for a general massa- 
 
100 ROBERT, BERTHA AND THE POPE. 
 
 ere of (he Danes, throughout England, upon a particular day. 
 This fatal order was as fatally executed upon all ranks and 
 classes of every age and sex. 
 
 Tlie vengeance of heaven followed this barbarity. Sweyn, 
 Isfing of Deriinark, entered England with a powerful force, and 
 ravaged the country with fire and sword. Tlie distresses of 
 tlje nation were incomparably great; Ethelred fled to the pro- 
 lection of Richard, duke of Normandy, his brother-in law, un- 
 til the death of Sweyn : he then returned to his tlirone ; but 
 not in peace : Canute the successor of Sweyn, assembled an 
 anny, harassed the country and hunted Ethelred to his death, 
 1016. He was succeeded by his son Edmond, styled Iron- 
 side. His efforts to restore the tranquillity of England were 
 worthy of better success ; he fell a sacrifice to the Danish 
 treachery, and left the throne to Canute the Dane, 1017. 
 
 During this distracted state of affairs in England, Germany 
 and Italy, in which we have seen a change of dynasty, the 
 same causes produced the same events in France, and estab- 
 lished the feudal system in that kingdom ; which was now be- 
 come a monstrous asserabiage of members, wilhout a head. 
 
 Hugh Capet, who had become the greatest nobleman in 
 France, and whose influence had given law to the several last 
 reigns, upon the death of Lewis V. seized on the crown by his 
 address in securing the favour of the clergy, associating his 
 son Robert with him in the government, with the title of king 
 and retaining his former title of duke, he secured the throne 
 to the exclusion of the rightful heir of the house of Lorrain; 
 establisiied his dynasty and left his son in quiet succession, 996. 
 
 Robert fell under the same misfortunes of Edwy of Eng- 
 land, and became the object of the same ecclesiastical cen- 
 sure and tyrannic power. Robert espoused his fourth cousin 
 Bertha ; this consanguinity gave offence to pope Gregory V. 
 and he undertook to dissolve the marriage, although confirm- 
 ed by several Bishops. Robert was strongly attached to the 
 queen, and by persisting m the connection, tell under the 
 bull of excommunication, with all its rigors. His own cour- 
 tiers would not eat with him, his own domestics all forsook 
 him, exc/pt two ; these threw to the dogs what food he left, 
 and purified the dishes by fire on which he ate, and told 
 fri:ihtful stories about the queen. Tiie pope succeeded; 
 Robert yielded to the censure, divorced his queen, who was 
 the idol of his heart, and married a termagant. This sacri- 
 fice restored him to the favour of his holiness. 
 
\ 
 CANUTE THE DANE. 101 
 
 Robert refused (be crown of Germany upon the death of 
 Henry IJ. the last of the Saxon line; and after haviiM strug- 
 gled long with (he intrigues of Constance, his queen, in rej^u- 
 laling the succession U[)(>n the death of his eldest son Hu^h, 
 he died 1031 ; and left his crown to his son Henry I. at the 
 age of twenty-seven ; who was obliged to ttke refuiie in Nor- 
 mandy, to avoid the intrigues of his mothir, in favor of her 
 youngest son, Robert. 
 
 Here he assembled an army, entered France, humbled the 
 queen, established his throne; and Henry, in {grateful return 
 added several provinces to the duchy of Nr^rinandy. At this 
 lime, Robert, duke of Normandy, set out on a pilgrimajre to 
 Jerusalem, where he died, and left his natural son William, 
 (hen a minor, to inherit his possessions. 
 
 Henry I. of France, and Alan, duke of Bretaiine, (although 
 constituted guardians of William, by his father, before he 
 left Normandy ;) both became competitors for the duchy : 
 but William, by the assistance of Henry, triumj)hed over 
 Alan, and obtained his estate, 1046. General tranquillity pre- 
 vailed in France, through this reiLin,and during the minority 
 of Philip 1. son and successor of Henry ; who died 1060. 
 
 At this time Canute had established hirnself upon the 
 throne of England, and reversed the scene ; he oppressed the 
 English with severe and heavy taxes, and bestowed, at the 
 same time, great favors upon his Danish followers. This 
 roused (he seeds of jealousy, indignallon, and revenge. — The 
 English sought lor an opportunity to redress their wrongs; 
 this led Canute to change his f)olicy, send off such Danes 
 as could be spared, without weakening his government, and 
 at the same time, lie sent Eiiwin and Edward, the two sons 
 of Edmond ironside, (during their minority,) into Sweden, 
 imder pretence of receiving their education ; but really for 
 the purpose of being privately despatched, to secure the tran- 
 qi illity of his throne. The king of Sweden did not com()ly 
 with his wishes, but sent (hem into Hungary : here they found 
 a protector. 
 
 Edwin married the sister of his protector, and died wilhout 
 issue. Edward married the sister-in-law of king Solomon, 
 and dauiihtcr of Henry H. by whom he had Edgar Atheling, 
 Margaret, queen of Scots, and Christina the nun. The two 
 sons of Ethelred, Alfred, and Edward, were under the pro- 
 tection of their uncle Richard, duke of Normandy, who had 
 
 9* 
 
10-2 
 
 DUKE OF NORMANDY 
 
 made some preparation to restore the princes to the throne 
 of their father. 
 
 The craHy Canute resolved to break this storm ; accord- 
 ingly he made overtures of marriage to Emma, the sister of 
 Richard, and queen ofEthelred, by his second marriage, and 
 mother of Alfred, and Edward ; this overture was accepted, 
 the marriage consummated in England, and Emma restored 
 to the throne of Ethelred, by the hands of the conqueror, and 
 usurper : this marriage restored general tranquilHty to England. 
 
 Canute made a visit to Denmark, and, by the valor of his 
 Eni:;!i5h subjects, subdued Sweden", and upon a second visit 
 subdued Norway ; returned home in triumph, made a pil- 
 grimage to Rome, hnmbled Malcolm king of Scotland, and 
 died 1035 ; and left his crown to his son Harold barefoot, to 
 the exclusion of Hardicanute, the rightful heir, by queen Em- 
 ma, These princes were only the stepping stones to the 
 rightful succession of Edward, son of Ethelred, then in Nor- 
 mandy ; this succession at tirst gave great satisfaction in Eng- 
 land ; but his weakness led him to shew the same partiality 
 to the Normans, Canute had done to the Danes, which pro- 
 duced (he same jealousy, and discontent; by a foolish vow, 
 he obtained the title of confessor, from the monks; but left 
 his throne open to competitors, which under earl Godwin be- 
 gan to distract the kingdom, and extorted from him the con- 
 dition, that all foreigners should be banished the kingdom. 
 Godwin, after having extorted this concession from the king, 
 died, and left his estate to Harold his son. 
 
 The death of Siward, at this time the hero of England, 
 who had killed Macbeth, the usurper of the crown of Scot- 
 land, and restored Malcolm to the throne of his ancestors, 
 was a severe loss to Edward ; and left an opening for Har- 
 old to disturb the government of Edward, by his arms, and 
 infrigues; and when Edward died, he left Harold, Edgar 
 Atheling, (the sole surviving heir, who had been sent tirst to 
 Sweden, (hence to Hungary, thence into Entiland by the 
 voice of the people,) and William, duke of Normandy, cous- 
 in to Edward, as competitors for the crown. 
 
 Harold, being at the head of that army with which he had 
 subdued Wales, stepped into the throne, and supported his title 
 with the sword. Neither Edgar A(hermg, nor William gave 
 him any trouble ; but his brother Tosti, who had been ex- 
 pelled from his tyrannical government in Northumberland, 
 by his oppressed people, and taken refuge in Flanders, im- 
 
CONQUERS ENGLAND. lOS 
 
 mediately entered into a league with Halfagar, kinp: of Nor- 
 way, and invaded England with a powerful fleet, and army, 
 landed their forces, and began their ravages. Harold roused 
 to the contest, assembled an army, met the invaders, gave 
 them battle, killed Halfagar and Tosti, the chiefs ; destroy- 
 ed, and dispersed the invaders. 
 
 In this distracted moment, William, duke of Normandy 
 appeared in England at the head of his troops, claimed the 
 crown, by right of the will of Edward the confessor, and sum- 
 moned Harold to surrender the throne : the chiefs were at 
 issue, and appealed to the sword, an instrument equally fa- 
 miliar to both. Harold collected his forces, and marched to 
 meet the invader, and give him battle. The two armies 
 met at Hastings, a parley ensued ; but without success, and 
 both armies prepared for action. The English passed the 
 night in riot, and feasting ; the Normans in prayer, and pre- 
 paration, and at the dawn of day, William drew up his army. 
 Upon the signal given for battle, he began the charge with 
 the famous song of Roland, the renowned chief of Charle- 
 magne. 
 
 Harold, posted on an eminence, with inferior numbers, re- 
 ceived the violence of the onset, on foot, at the head of his 
 infantry ; the conflict was terrible, the Normans were broken, 
 and began to fall into disorder. William rallied them in per- 
 son, and led on to the charge ; the English gave way in theiF 
 turn ; but resisted with firmness as they retired. 
 
 William beat a retreat, and retired into the plain, where hie 
 cavalry could act with more advantage, and the English pur- 
 sued in triumph. William faced about, the conflict became 
 desperate, bis cavalry fell upon the wings of the English, 
 they fled again in their turn ; William pursued, and again 
 practiced the same stratagem, and succeeded as before ; 
 drew tlie English army into the plain, and aiiain faced about ; 
 the conflict was again terrible, the carnage on both sides 
 equallel their valor : Harold fell at the head of his auards, 
 and with him fell the crown of England : the army fled, and 
 dispersed, leaving a carnage of more than thirty thousand 
 upon both sides. William entered London in triumph, and 
 took possession of the English throne, October, 1066. 
 
 If William was a conqueror, Harold was an usurper, the 
 terror of whose sword had reduced to him the crown of Eng- 
 land ; not the choice of the people. By the nobility, William 
 was kindly received, and by the people, cheerfully obeyed. 
 
I"04 CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 An ungnarded step in William, in retiring to Nornnandy too 
 soon after his conquest, occasioned a rebellion wbii'h created 
 great distress to the nation, and opened the way for the ruin 
 of Saxon liberty, by the tyranny of the feudal system in Eng- 
 land, and divided the kingdom up into baronies, which ha- 
 rassed, and distressed the nation, down to the reign of Henry 
 Vlll. in the sixteenth century. 
 
 CHAP. vn. 
 
 Spain and the church, with Germany, and Italy, through the 
 reign of Henry IV. to the year 1099. 
 
 The affairs of the continent now claim our attention, par- 
 ticularly those of Spain, the Saracens, and the Greek, or 
 Roman empire at Constantinople ; these we left about the 
 year 768, upon the death of Abdurrahman, the Moorish king; 
 in Spain. At this time Portugal, and jibout three fourths of 
 Spain, were under the dominion of the Moors, Arabs, or Sar- 
 acens, and of course under the Mahometan religion. The 
 conflicts between the christians, and Mahometans, together 
 wilh the private quarrels which arose from jealousy, strife, 
 and ambition, between the divided interests of the two great 
 parties, rendered Spain (he theatre of carnage, crimes, in- 
 trigues, and desolation, for several centuries. 
 
 To enumerate the exploits of Ramiro H. king of Leon, and 
 Oviedo ; of Almanzor, the hero of Hissem, king of Cordova ; 
 of Sancho the great, king of Navarre, could neither interest 
 the feelin^^s, nor improve the heart. They all achieved some 
 acts worthy, of notice ; but many more to be abhorred, and 
 forj.'otten. 
 
 During this period the same dissensions, and divisions, 
 sprang up amongst the followers of Mahomet, as .. e have 
 seen in Christendom. Lust of power, and domination, arm- 
 ed with all the excesses of ignorance, and fanaticism, spread 
 carnage, and desolation, not only in Spain, but in the Sara- 
 cen states in Africa, and Asia, nnd by their feuds, divisions, 
 and contentions, p:»ved the way for the dominion of the 
 Turks, which rose upon their ruins. 
 
 During these distressing scenes in the dominions of Ma- 
 homet, and 8i. Peter, the two feet of the Roman empire ; 
 
POPERY. 105 
 
 the main stock at Constantinople stood like a rock in the 
 midst of the ocean, lashed with the waves, and beaten bv the 
 tempests, with here and tiiere a fragment torn off, yet firm on 
 its base ; torn by internal feuds, jealousies, intrisr'ies, an f ror- 
 rupiions, it was often a prey to factious ; but preserved its 
 unity, its splendid excellence in the arts, and sciences, in the 
 midst of the dark cloud of ignorance, and wretchedness, 
 which huno; around her. 
 
 Even here the arts were nursed in the lap of luxury, efi^m- 
 inacy, licentiousnes-s, and corruption; and even here, that 
 church, which Consianline had so faithfully nursfd, and 
 adorned, was seated in the sam»^ lap, and partook of tlie 6a?ne 
 corruptions with the arts; and even here, the hon mots o^ 
 Clovis, and Chiiperic, his araads^n, might as well ap|)l\ , as 
 in the dominions of Sf. Peter. " St. Martin serves his fritnds 
 very we!! ; but he makes them pay roundly for his trouble" 
 — Clovis. " Our treasure is poor ; our riches are gone to the 
 church ; the bish'jps are the kinsfs" — Chiiperic. 
 
 Thus we have noted with particular attention, the rise and 
 pro8;ress of the papal church, and power, from the days of 
 Clovis, until this time ; we have seen how the popes availed 
 them elves of the genius of the religion of the barbarians; 
 idolatry, avarice, and despotic power ; and how they raised 
 the papal throne, upon this broad, and corru{>t basis, and up- 
 on the ruins of Christianity. They engrafted the heathen 
 mythology of the Greeks, and Romans, together with these 
 principles of the barbarians, upon the old Jewish stock : the 
 pope became high priest, laid aside his miire, took the triple 
 crown and sceptre, and retained enough of Christianity, to 
 exercise the spiritual power of St. Peter, and witli the keys 
 of eternal justice, become arbiter of the world. 
 
 Money amongst the barbarians compensated for all crimes; 
 this principle exactly suited the exigencies of the popes. 
 Money purchased the frowns, or favors of the church, and 
 the sale of indulgencies, together with the price of redemption 
 from purgatory, raised a revenue, that enabled the popes to 
 support the most splendid throne upon earth. These ages 
 were not only dark and ignorant, but corrupt in the extreme ; 
 to found a cloister, or endow a church, atoned for a whole 
 life of the blackest crimes : this became another source of 
 the wealth, and splendor of the church. 
 
 Thus hijih raised to power, and enthroned on igjnorance, 
 superstition and corruption, the pope held all Europe at hrs 
 
106 HENRY IV. AND GREGORY VII, 
 
 nod. One example from St. Eaiidius, bishop of Noyon, may 
 serve as a specimen of the spiritual stjle of the pulpit. '• Re- 
 deem your souls from destruction, wtiile you have the means 
 in your power ; offer presents and tythes to churchmen ; 
 come more frequently to church; humbly iirtplore the pat- 
 ronage of the saints; for if you observe these things, you 
 may come with security in the day of the tribunal of the eter- 
 nal Judge and say, Give us, O Lord, for we have pven imto 
 thee." Armed with such power, and such principles, with 
 ignorance, bigotry, corruption, and fanaticism for their 
 instruments, the popes wajred successful war with all the 
 powers of Christendom, by their intrigues, and spintual thund- 
 ers, (or bulls of excommunication,) and extended the papal 
 dominion, in regular succession, until the yp'mj^u of Gregory 
 VII. : he, by his triumph over Henry the IV. of Germany, 
 placed the top sione upon this stupendous fabric of human 
 invention, and brought all Christendom to his feet. 
 
 We have witnessed the triumph of the spiritual thunders 
 over Edwy, king of England, and Robert, king of France ; 
 we are now called to witness the spiritual conflicts with Hen- 
 ry III. and IV. of Germany. Duiing the reign of Henry III, 
 the feuds in Italy ran so high in the church, as to cause three 
 popes to be elected, and alj to preside at the same time. 
 Henry III. marched into ftfily, deposed these popes, elected 
 and established Clement HI. and continued to control the pa- 
 pal elections during his reign. 
 
 Upon his death, Henry IV. his son, succeeded to the throne, 
 then only live years of age ; but the government continued 
 in the hands of the empress his mother, during his minority. 
 During this regency the popes recovered their strength, and 
 the clergy of Italy had decreed, that " none but the cardin- 
 als should elect the pope." When Henry came to the throne, 
 he became immediately engaged in a war with the rebellious 
 Saxons, and at the same time received a summons from 
 pope Alexander II. to appear before the tribunal of the holy 
 see, and defend his encroachments upon the rii;hts of the 
 church. Henry treated with contempt the mandate of the 
 pope, and Alexander II. died. 
 
 In the year 1073, Hildebrand was elected pope, and took 
 the title of Gregory VII. He commenced his reign, by pro- 
 claiming war with his spiritusl thunders, upon all the poten- 
 tates of Christendom ; but more particularly against Henry, 
 and compelled him to answer submissively to the demands 
 
HENRY IV. AND GREGORY VII. 107 
 
 of pope Alexander IL his predecessor, and make his peace 
 vvilh the church. Gregory next proposed a crusade to Hen- 
 ry, in order to exalt the papal throne ; when this project fail- 
 ed, he commenced a direct attack upon Henry, accused him 
 of simony, and threatened him witii immediate ( xcoramuni- 
 cation, if he did not cease to bestow investitures. 
 
 Fired with indignation, Henry dismissed the. (estates, con- 
 voked an assembly of the princes, and dignified clertry at 
 V/orms, who passed their censures upon Grer, ory, for usurpa- 
 tion, ambition and scandalous deportmr i;t lo the emperor, 
 and decreed ffiat he oui^ht to be deposed, and a successor 
 appointed. Henry accordingly, by his ambassador, formally 
 deposed Gregory, and called a council in Itaij, who unani- 
 mously decreed, that the pope had just cause to depose Hen- 
 ry ; and Gregory issued the following thunder. *' In the 
 name of Almighty God, and by your authority, I prohibit 
 Henry, son of our emperor Henry, from governing the Teu- 
 tonic kingdom, and Italy ; I release all christians from their 
 oath of allegiance to him; and I strictly forbid all persons 
 from serving, and attending him as a king." Struck, as with 
 a shock of the palsy, as to his power, Henry was at once 
 deserted by his friends, and beset by his enemit^s, with no 
 alternative left, bat to make his peace with the pope. To 
 effect this he appeared before the gates of the pope, where 
 he was. compelled to stand three days, barefoot, in the month 
 of January, clad in sackcloth, and fasting ; whilst his holi- 
 ness was acting the part of confessor to the pious Matilda, 
 duchess of Tuscany, &,c. 
 
 At lersgth his holiness graciously condescended to admit 
 bim into his presence, permit him to throw himself at his feet, 
 swear obedience to his holiness, in all things ; and then his 
 holiness most graciously condescended to grant him absolu- 
 tion, and restore him to his throne. Thus Gregory display- 
 ed to the world the maxims of the church ; that " bishops 
 are superior to kings," and that it was the duty of popes " to 
 pull down the pride of kings." 
 
 Henry returned to his throne, but the storm was not lay- 
 ed ; Gregory intrigued with the Germans, to elect a new em- 
 peror, and they chose Rodolph, duke of Swabia, aud crown- 
 ed him at Mentz. The imperial throne had now become like 
 the papal throne in the reign of H^nry HI. when three ptpcs 
 existed at one^ and the same time ; and Gregory held the 
 balance of power between the rivals. 
 
103 HENRY IV. AND C4REG0RY VII. 
 
 Fired with indifftiation, Henry drew his sword, and struck 
 a serious blow to his rival in Germany. This called forth 
 the second bidl from Gregory, against Henry ; together with 
 a golden crown as a present to his rival. This extraordinary 
 bull close«l with this extraordinary apostrophe to St. Peter, 
 and St. Paul : " Make all men sensible, that as you can bind 
 and loose every thing in heaven, you can also on earth, take 
 from, or give to, every one according to his deserts : empires, 
 kingdom?*, principalities : let the kings and princes of the age 
 then feel your power, that they may not dare to despise the 
 orders of your church : let your justice be so speedily exe- 
 cuted upon H^nry, that nobody may doubt that he falls by 
 your means, and not by chance." 
 
 Henry assembled immediately a council of bishops, de- 
 nounced Gregory, caused him to be deposed, and the arch- 
 bishop of Ravenna to be elected, under the title of Clement 
 in. ; a[^ain drew his sword upon Rodolph, his rival, humbled 
 him in the famous battle of M< rsberg, dispersed his army, 
 and triumpheil over his enemy, who lost his right hand in the 
 action ; marched to Rome, took it by sform, after a siege of 
 two years, beseiged Gregory in the castle of St. Angelo, and 
 set his thunders at defiance ; consecrated Clement HI. and 
 established a quiet succession over Gregory, who died soon 
 after at Salerno, 1085. 
 
 This bold stroke of Henry, raised a new storm. The Ital- 
 ians elected a second pope, with the title of Victor the HI and 
 upon his death, they chose 'Urban 11. who bcr?me the author 
 of the first crusai'e. At the same time. Urban, by the in- 
 trigues of the duchess Matilda, as before mentioned, caused 
 Conrad to rebel againsrt his father, Henry, and assume the 
 government of Italy, 1090 ; who by the direction of his fa- 
 ther, passed under the ban of the empire, and he died 1099, 
 
 Upon the death of Urban, succeeded Paschal H. He, like 
 Gregory, kindled the torch afresh ; excommunicated Henry ; 
 caused his son, Henry the rebel, to support the faith, who af- 
 ter various intrigues, deposed his father, reduced him to pov- 
 erty and distress, by his savage treatment, and held the 
 throne. Thus we have seen how by a steady and regular 
 succession of events, the papal (hrone has acquired the most 
 despotic sovereignty, overtiie lives, and consciences of men; 
 and how the ten horns have agreed " to give their power to 
 the beast." Rev. xvii. 13. 
 
 Would you know the origin, and character of this power, 
 read the xiii. chapter of St. John's Revelation. 
 
PETER THE HERMIT. 109 
 
 CHAP. Yin. 
 
 The church— first crusade — chivalry^ and the ?nonastic rage. 
 
 To detail the events of the subsequent reigns, would be 
 only a continuation of the saorie feuds, and the same black 
 catalogue of crimes. The popes claimed and exercised the 
 supremacy, through a period of more than four centuries, 
 compelling kings and emperors to iiold the stirrup when they 
 mounted their horse ; issuing their bulls of excommunication, 
 and bringing them to their feet. The great subject which 
 confirmed this supremacy, now claims our attention. 
 
 We noticed the plan of Gregory Vil. (during the persecu- 
 tions of Henry IV.) for a general crusade to redeem the holy 
 sepulchre, at Jerusalem, from the hands of tSie infidels. This 
 failed at that time ; but was now renewed by Peter the her- 
 mit, who had made a pilgrimage to Jerusahm, and on his re- 
 turn, came over the Rhine out of Germany, and with a cruci- 
 fix in his hand, proclaimed the first crusade, throughout the 
 southern kin^rdoms. Urban II. spread ihe flame, by as^eni- 
 bling a council of more than 30,000 priests, and laymen, who 
 all declared war against the i' fidels. 
 
 This first council, and Pet< r, kindjed the fire ; and a se- 
 cond couiicil of the great prelates, and nobles, spread the 
 flame, by a drcree, as if by immediate inspiration, " It is the 
 Toice ot God." This, under tlie banner of the cross, became 
 the rally ioff point in the exploits of this mad adventure. 
 Kmk's and nobles assembled liieir vassals, mortga^^ed, or sold 
 their estates, (when it became necessary) to raise money, 
 ar d embarked in the war. Peter, and Walter the moneyless, 
 led the van, with about 300,000 men, through Hungary to 
 Constantinople, trusting to the miraculous interposition of 
 heaven, for subsistence, and supplies. When this failed, 
 they robbed and plundered the Jews, as the murderers of 
 Christ, plundering and butchering all such as refused bap- 
 tism : when this resource failed, they plundered the countries 
 through which they passed, until the inhabitants, armed in 
 their own defence, destroyed almost all this bonditti, and 
 left Peter, on his arrival upon the plains of Constantinople, 
 the starving remnant of about 20,000 ; here, joined by nu- 
 merous other adventurers, they swarmed into the plains of 
 Asia, where they were all cut to pieces by the sultan of Nice ; 
 Walter was slain, and Peter escaped to Constantinople. 
 
 le 
 
110 CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 The emperor of Constantinople favoured what he could 
 not rtisist, and ^ave the christians a free passage, as they ar- 
 rived, whose regular force amounted to about 160,000 horse 
 and 600,000 foot, when assembled on tlie plains of Asia. 
 
 They subdued the sultan of Nice, or Syria, and the sultan 
 of Antioch, broke the power of the Turks in Asia minor, en- 
 tt^red Syria, and laid siege to Jerusalem, then under the do- 
 minion of the Saract ns, or caliphs of Esypt. 
 
 Greatly dimini:-;hed at this time by famine, sword, pestilence, 
 and every calanufy, they were not equal in number to the 
 garrison they had summoned. The resistance was firm ; yet 
 inlivews el; sthi^y entered Jerusalem, by assault, gave the city 
 up to piib|.e and slauiihter, and exhibited a scene of cruelty, 
 barbarity, carnage and distress, too shocking to be conceiv- 
 ed of or described ; and when neiJher age nor sex remained, 
 to glut the vengeance of their swords, they approached the 
 sepulchre, {heir Imnds yet warm with the blood of the aged, 
 the infant, and the mother, and paid their devotions at the 
 shrine of the Prince of Peace. What madness will not en- 
 thusiasm kindle, and support in the breast of man ! 
 
 Godfrey, king of France, was chosen king of Jerusalem ; 
 Urban II. having lived to see the triumph of his plan, died 
 and left the papacy to Paschal II During this period, the 
 partizans of the popes and emperors, took the names of 
 Guelphs and Ghibelines, and became distinguished in the 
 feuds of Europe. Three successive crusades of the same 
 stamp and style, distracted Europe about two centuries. As 
 the madness and power of the popes, as well as the low, igno- 
 rant, degraded and enthusiastic state of Europe, are more ful- 
 ly displayed in this adventure, than the pen or the pencil 
 could express, 1 will p:i?s over the details of the other two 
 crusades, together with the dark, wretched and distracted pe- 
 riod of about four centuries, in which nothing appears, but 
 the blackest catalogue of crimes, murders, assassinations, 
 sanctioned by the intrigues of civil and ecclesiastical strife, 
 competition and power. Suffice it to say, that the struggles 
 for supremacy, between the popes and sovereigns of the sev- 
 rral kingdoms ; the struggles for succession, claims of juris- 
 diction and conquest ; together with the contests between the 
 cities and barons ; kings and barons : and civil wars, fill up 
 this whole period, with a catalogue of crimes of the blackest 
 dye and exhibit such scenes of rapine and cruelty, as nothing 
 could produce, or tolerate, but these ages of darkness, this 
 
CHIVALRY. Ill 
 
 mighty struggle of religion with superstition, reason with 
 madness, and refinement with barbarism. 
 
 A narrative of these scenes, with the achievements of the 
 particular characters and of the events as they occurred, can 
 give no adequate idea of the reality : language cannot de- 
 scribe, the pencil cannot express, the distresses of these king- 
 doms during this eventful period. The crusades laid the 
 foundation ; these by the aid of chivalry, broke the charm, 
 and opened the way for commerce and letters, to accom 
 plish the refinement of Europe. 
 
 Chivalry, which for ils excesses became the subject of rid- 
 icule in later ages, and called forth the keen satire of Cer- 
 vantes, (author of Don Quixotte,) had its origin in the elev- 
 enth century, sprung from the purest motives, had for its ob- 
 ject the most laudable purposes, and was accompanied with 
 the most beneficial effects, until its virtues were lost m its ex- 
 cesses and extremes. Valor, humanity, courtesy, justice, 
 virtue, chastitj' and honor, were the characteristic principles 
 of chivalry : religion, without its enthusiastic zeal, would 
 have been one of its shining virtues; but with this zeal, be- 
 came one of its excesses. Even kings paid the highest trib- 
 ute of respect to knighthood. 
 
 Chivalry was regarded as the school of honourable refine- 
 ment, encouraged the most delicate intercourse between the 
 sexes, and enforced the nicest observance of all tiieir engage- 
 ments : as the standard of valor, religion, love and virtue; its 
 influence was irresistible. 
 
 Chivalry rescued woman from the fangs of de>:Traded weak- 
 ness, oppression and wretchedness, and paved the way for 
 all the enjoyments she has since obtained. Wlien chivalry 
 run mad, Cervantes destroyed it with his pen : then com- 
 merce, literatnre and the arts, became the refiners of manners, 
 and brought civil society to its present state of refinement. 
 Even the crusades themselves, were nothing more nor less, 
 than chivalry upon a large scale, and produced the same ef- 
 fects upon society. 
 
 The monastic life, was a steadj'^ opposer to chivalry : this 
 ran into the opposite extreme : this took its rise amongst the 
 christians in the east, and extended throughout the christian 
 world. Not only solitude and celibacy with all their rigors, 
 becarae general ; but their extravagauf austerities threw a 
 cloud over Christendom. 
 
 In order to strip human nature of its humanity, they took 
 
112 MONKERY, 
 
 up their abodes in (Ipds and caves, amongst the beasts of the 
 forest, as wild, «s naked, and as savage as themselves. They 
 dwelt in the clefts of cragged rocks: the more distressing and 
 tormenting their situation, the higher the marks of sanctity. 
 Others, styled Slylites, took their stand in some conspicuous 
 position, upon the top of some lofty pillar, where they stood 
 Ditiht and day, for years; through all the extremes' of the 
 weather and the seasons ; whilst thousands, and tens of thou- 
 fauds, were immured in their monastic cells, secluded from 
 tbeir friends, society and the world. 
 
 In the midot of these extremes o( chivalry nnd solUtide, so- 
 ciety have lonij since decidetJ, which of tlu two became the 
 most corrupt; and which of the two, were guilty of (he great- 
 est excesses, and became the most obnoxious to men. and to 
 God — but I forbear: the exfrenjes of all the virtues become 
 (■corruption ; and the example of former ages, ought to serve 
 as beacons, io guard us against the same evils. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 England through the reign of William I. — William II. — Hen- 
 ry I. — Germany and France to the second crusade. 
 
 William the conqueror, by his conciliatory deportment, 
 soon found himself tirmly s* ated upon the English throne, and 
 ventured to pay a visit to his friends in Normandy. This 
 proved unseasonable : he had founded his usurpation upon 
 the ruins of English liberty, and secured it, as he supposed, 
 by placing: in the gorernment of both church and state his 
 chosen Norman friends, to the utter exclusion of every Eng- 
 lishman. 
 
 This had «own the seeds of disaffection, which broke out 
 into open violence, as soon as the conqueror was withdrawn ; 
 and England became a theatre of insurrection and civil war. 
 Foreign alliances were formed, and a general revolution con- 
 templated. William, alarmed for the safety of his kingdom, 
 hastened back, drew his sword, ravatjed the kiuiidom with 
 fire and sword, until he had quelled the rebellion ; with sreat 
 Sf verity, confiscated all the estates of the insurgents, estab- 
 lished a despotic sovereignly, and an eceb iuslical indepen- 
 dence in England, and set the pope at defiance, by arresting 
 
WILLIAM 11. US 
 
 and imprisoning, (beyond sea,) Odo, earl of Kent, in the char- 
 acier of Bi?hop of Bayeaux ; who was intriguing for the pa- 
 pacy. William determiried to humljle the spirit of these 
 hausihfy Britons, by not ordy placint: all power in the hands 
 of his Normans, bwt by rdotintr out even their lan^ua^e. For 
 this purpose, he caused the Norman language to become the 
 lani^uasie of the court, and of all records ; to be taupjht in all 
 the schools, and become the lan^ua^'e of the bar ; caused a 
 survey of all estates in Enjiland, which instituted doomsday- 
 book, (so called,) which is of value to this day. 
 
 William humb!e«l a rebellion headed by his son Rob^^rt, io 
 Normandy ; chastised Philip f. kinar of France, for an ifiso- 
 lent witticism at his expense, by carrying tire and sword into 
 his dominions ; and died from a bruise, received in this mad 
 career, 1087. William left the duchy of Normandy to Rob- 
 ert, England to William, and to Henry, his younirest son, the 
 possessions of his mother, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl 
 of Flanders. 
 
 William 11. |)ursued the policy of his father, in his severi- 
 ty towards his English subjects ; and with the suppression of 
 several insurrections, increased their humiliation, carried his 
 arms into Normandy, where he met with a perilous escape, 
 humbled the Scotch and Welch ; on his return, purchased 
 Normandy of his brother Robert, for ten thousand marks, 
 took possession of the duchy, and his brother became an ad- 
 venturer in the first crusade, 1096. He humbled St. Anselm, 
 archbishop of Canterbury ; set the pope, Urban H at defi- 
 ance, and took the prelacy into his own hands, about five 
 years. 
 
 He restored the crown of Scotland, by his arms, to Mal- 
 colm 111. the rightful heir; expelled the Danes, (or Normans,) 
 from the island of Anglesea, and they have never since inva- 
 ded England. He built the tower, London brid;xe, and West- 
 minster hall ; lasting monuments of the greatness of his mind. 
 William was upon the point of embarking for France, to take 
 possession of the provinces of Guienne and Poictiers, by pur- 
 chase ; (this sale was made also, to raise money to embark 
 in the first crusade,) when he was shot by Walter Tyrrel, a 
 French gentleman, who accompanied the king upon a hunt- 
 ing match in his new forest, 1100. 
 
 William died without issue. His brother Henry stepped 
 into the throne, and was proclaimed king. Henry secured 
 his throne, by promising to restore the laws of Edward the 
 
 10* 
 
114 HENRY I. 
 
 confessor, an»' by restorine <h»^ archbishop Anselm to the see 
 of CariierJuirv : «itd ir:arried Matilda, I'au^hter of Malcolm 
 II'. krnjj of Scotland, and niece of Edgar Atheling. These 
 Wisf mra-nres secured the throne to Henry, against the dis- 
 affected Ni>rirar» har«>ris, a^rainst the invasion of bis brother 
 Robert, upon his return from the crusade, and the friendly 
 assistance «rf tie archbishop, procured him a quiet possessioa 
 of the thf^vr +^ of E')tflan<J. 
 
 Henry by his intrigues, took advantage of the feuds in 
 Normandy, seized Robert, conveyed him to Ent:land, took 
 possession of the duchy, and suffered his brother to languish 
 twenty-eight years in the castle of Cardiff, where he died. 
 B» T ry, by his liberality, and intrigues, held at bay the claims 
 of William, son of Robert, upon the duchy of Normandy, and 
 by his sword established his dominion. The loss of his son 
 William, on his return from Normandy, was made up to Hen- 
 ry in some measure, by a son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, eld- 
 est son of Count Anjou, and husband of Matilda, his only 
 daughter. 
 
 Henry made this grandson his heir, by causing his English 
 and Norman subjects to swear fealty to him ; then took up 
 his residence in Normandy, where he died, aged sixty seven, 
 having reigned thirty-live years. Henry was a lear ied, wise 
 and valiant prince. 
 
 Henry promised to restore the laws of Edward the confes- 
 sor, as a guarantee to their Saxon liberties ; but as soon as 
 be found himself firmly seated upon the throne, he confirmed 
 the policy of William I. and esti*b^I^hed the feudal system, 
 with all its rigors, upon the ruins of Saxon liberty in Eng- 
 land ; and by his confiscations, and attainders, seized on 
 great possessions. With these he enriched the Norman bar- 
 ons ; these he protected by his military force, and with these, 
 he formed a national assembly ; creatures of his power, and 
 creatures of his will^ who riveted the chains of slavery upon 
 every free born Englishman. 
 
 Despotism now commenced the reiirn of terror in Eng- 
 land ; and avarice, with all her corruptions, augmented the 
 distreE^Fes of the scene, and laid the foundation for all ti>e fu- 
 ture struggles of prerogative, and privilege, which cost Eng- 
 land so much blood, and treasure, to recover her Saxon lib- 
 erties, in after days. Henry carried on successful war with 
 Lewis VI. of France, styled the cross, who had succeeded 
 Philip the I. and who, after a wise aod popular reigD, died, 
 
CASTLE OF WEINSBURG. 115 
 
 leaving the throne of Guienne, and Poictou to his son, Lewis 
 VII 
 
 Henry V. of Germany, having left no issue, Lothario, duke 
 of Saxp Supplember^f, was elected, and crowned at Aix !a- 
 CliHpelle. He in his turn, marched into Italy, settled a quar- 
 rel bf^tween the rival popes, Innocent II. and Ana«letus II.; 
 called Innocent out of France, and placed him in »he chair; 
 and was crowned by the pope, emperor of Germany, and 
 supported Innocent ai^ainst all the wealth and force of Anac- 
 letus, who died of grief and mortification. 
 
 Lothario died on his way to Germany, and was succeeded 
 by Conrad HI. duke of Franconia, and nephew to Henry V. 
 The family of Guelphs, undor Henry, duke of Bavaria, com- 
 menced a claim upon the imperial crown. The contest was 
 sharp ; Henry soon died, but his brother Guelph prosecuted 
 the claim with his sword. The pope espoused the cause of 
 Henry ; which fixed the name of Guelph to the partizans of 
 the popes, hereafter. 
 
 Frederick, duke of Swabia, brother of the emperor, de- 
 fended Conrad. He was born at the village of Heighibeline, 
 which gave to his party the name of Ghibelines; and these 
 epithets continued to distinguish the parties of the popes, and 
 emperors, in all their after struggles. This contest gave rise 
 to a curious anecdote worthy of notice. 
 
 Conrad besieged Guelph, and bis followers, in the castle of 
 Weinsburg, who being about to surrender at discretion, the 
 dutchess requested permission, that she, and the women 
 might retire, with what they could carry, to a place of safely. 
 The emperor granted the request ; and to his asionishment, 
 beheld the dutchess march out with her husband upon her 
 back, together with all the women, staggering along under 
 the weight of their husbands. Conrad applauded that conju- 
 gal affection which had saved their husbands from the ven- 
 geance of his sword. 
 
 During these scenes in Germany, a revolution was at- 
 tempted in the government at Rome, and quelled by pope 
 Eugenius III. A second crusade was preached by St. Ber- 
 nard, against the Saracens ; another against the Moors in 
 Spain, and another by the Saxons in Germany, against the 
 pagans of the north. The last was a war of extermination, 
 without one solitary convert. Conrad died 1152, and was 
 succeeded by his nephew. Frederick, duke of Swabia, styled 
 BarbaroBsa. 
 
116 SECOND CRUSADE. 
 
 Durins the civil war in Germanyj Lewis VII. king of 
 Fiance, in thp iniilstof his feudal wars, (caused the lown of Vi- 
 tri to be btimt, which consumed It^OO persons in one church, 
 who had fled to this sanctuary fur mt'aty. This horrid act, 
 caused such remorse in the nriind of Lewis, as led him to fa- 
 vor the second crusade, to atone for his crut lly. 
 
 St. Bernard, like Peter the hermit set at defiance the re- 
 monstrances of Suger, abbot of S>. Dennis, and primate of 
 France, proclaimed the crusade tlr ujrhoul France, Italy, 
 and Germany, and drew in his traio, Lewis, king of France, 
 Conrad III. emperor of Germapy, and Frederick, duke of 
 Swabia, (afterwards emperor,) with the knights of France, 
 Germany, and Italy, jienerally. Each army could muster 
 70,000 knights in c<implete armor, and the whole force, ac- 
 cording to Mr. Rnssell, amounted to 1,600,000. 
 
 Here the old scents of the first crusade were renewed ; the 
 same sutf»-ring8 by the way, and the same excesses ; the same 
 disasters in Asia minor. Conrad, emperor of Germany, met 
 w ith a total overthrow by the sultan of Iconium ; fled to An- 
 tioch for safety ; thence to Jerusalem as a pilgrim ; thence 
 back to Germany as a fugi«ive, in distress. 
 
 Lewis VII. met with a similar overthrow near Laodlcea ; 
 lost his queen by the amours of the prince of Antioch ; fled 
 to Jerusalem as a pil2;rim ; and back to France, with a few 
 rageed followers, in distress and despair. 
 
 The divorce of queen Elenor, caused her marriage with 
 Henry Plantagenet, duke of Normandy, count of Anjou and 
 Maine, and presumptive heir to the crown of England, and 
 carried with her the provinces of Poictou, and Guienne : all 
 which laid the foundations for the future wars between 
 France and England. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 England during the reign of Stephen — Henry II. — irte church, 
 with a continuation oj the second crusade — Germany, wid 
 the third crusade. 
 
 Upon the death of Henry of England, Stephen, count of 
 Boulogne, pad grandson of William the conqueror, by his 
 daughter Adela, seized upon the throne, to the exclusion of 
 
ENGLISH BARONS. 117 
 
 Matilda, and her young son Henry. The barons and clergy 
 supported Stephtn, as beinij better adapted to the necessity 
 of the times, than a wc^inan, and an infant. Stephen, in his 
 turn, granted thena every indulgence consistent with the safe- 
 ty of his crown ; even to coin money, erect castles, and to 
 garrison them with their own troops. 
 
 These indul^encies not only weakened, and almost de- 
 stroyed the authority of the crown, but laid the foundations 
 for those wars of the barons, which afterwards drenched Eng- 
 land with blood. Tn the midst of this anarchy, David, king 
 of Scotland, invaded England with a powerful army, to en- 
 force the cfaims of his niece Matilda ; was defeated at the 
 battle of the Standard, with great slaughter, and made his es- 
 cape into Scotland. 
 
 Matilda next landed in England from Normandy, asserted 
 her own rights, and kindled a civil war, which raged with 
 such violence as to produce a general famine, which greatly 
 distressed the kir:q;dom. Stephen was taken prisoner, load- 
 ed with irons, and thrown into prison. The storm was ap- 
 parently hushed. Stephen was called from his prison, and 
 exchanged for Robert, the brother and champion of Matilda, 
 and the war was rekindled This again was soon quelled by 
 mutual consent, and Matilda returned to Normandy. 
 
 Prince Henry, now sixteen years of ase, went over into 
 England, thence into Scotland, thence into Normandy again, 
 and upon the death of his father, he took possession of the 
 provinces of Anjou, and Maine, espoused Elenor the divorc- 
 ed queen of Lewis VH. king of France, who brousrht him 
 Guienne and Poictr-u, and placed him upon a foundation, to 
 recover his claims upon the crown of England. 
 
 Two years after this, Henry invaded England, the barons 
 espoused his cause, and in the midst of the alarming state of 
 the parties, the claitos of Henry were settled with Stephen, 
 by treaty ; that Henry should succeed to the throne upon the 
 death of Stephen, and he withdrew from the kingdom. Ste- 
 phen {\h(\ the next year, and Henry succeeded to the throne. 
 
 The wretchedness of England at this time was truly dis- 
 tressing: ; famine, distress and desolation, raged on all sides ; 
 multitudes tied into exile, others built sorry huts in the 
 churchyards, took refuge in these sanctuaries of the dead, 
 and [t'il on pulse, roots, dogs and horses : whole villages were 
 des'Ttt d, and thousands died of hunger. 
 
 Henry gave a new face to this wretched country. He 
 
118 THOMAS A BECKET. 
 
 dismissed all the foreign mercenaries of Stephen, and restor- 
 ed the charter of liberty of Henry I. ; and all this mighty 
 storm was hushed into a general calm : but the war which 
 broke out between Henry, and Lewis VIT. of France, led 
 Henry to see the unwieldly mode of waging war by means 
 of the barons, and their vassals, (according to the feudal 
 mode.) He therefore levied a tax of three pounds upon each 
 knight's fee ; with this money he levied the first independent 
 army^ and brought the war to a speedy close. 
 
 Henry next turned his attention to the church, where he 
 found the sale of indulgencies, and the composition of pen- 
 ancies, raised more annual revenue than the crown : he set 
 himself to work to correct this : a task indeed ! The church 
 had become the sink of corruption, and claimed exemption 
 from all civil jurisdiction : murders, robberies, and assassin- 
 ations, were committed daily by ecclesiastics, with impuni- 
 ty ; and more than one hundred were proved upon men in 
 holy orders, since his succession, without even an inquiry, 
 why, or wherefore. 
 
 To etfect this great object, and correct the abuses of the 
 mitre, Henry advanced Thomas a Becket, his chancellor, to 
 the see of Canterbury ; the first instance of English promo- 
 tion, since the days of William the conqueror. 
 
 Becket was a splendid courtier, gay in his amusements, 
 fond of diversions, a jovial sportsman ; yet he knew how to 
 render his industry useful to his master. Becket knew the 
 motives of the king ; felt his elevated station, and deter- 
 mined to make the most of it. He threw off the character 
 of the chancellor, and put on the character of the saint : as- 
 sumed the severest monkish austerity, and mortification ; 
 wore sackcloth next to his skin ; and became a beast of dirt 
 and vermin ; his food, bread and water; and his back was^ 
 often lacerated with penitential scourdngs, [a true flagellant.)' 
 Daily upon his knees, in imitation of the saviour of men, he 
 virashed the feet of thirteen beggars, and dismissed them with 
 presents. The sanctity, and mortification of the holy pri- 
 mate, together with his sacred devotions, all became the won- 
 der, and admiration of the nation. * 
 
 This knight of the cross, in this citadel of sanctity, levied 
 war upon the king. A parish clerk in Worcestershire first 
 debauched a gentleman's daughter, and then murdered the 
 father. Henry demanded that the offender should be deliv- 
 ered up to the magistrate. Becket claimed the privileges of 
 
THOMAS A BECKET. 119 
 
 the church, and demanded that he should only be degraded. 
 Henry summoned a council to try the question ; thoy were 
 unsoun J. He summoned another at Clarendon, conjposed 
 of bishops and nobles ; submitted the great question, which 
 produced what was called the constitutions of Clarendon. 
 Henry ordered the constitutions to be reduced to writing, and 
 signed, and sealed by all the prelates, with a promise to observe 
 them legally, and \n good faith, and \v\i\\Q\xifrandj or reserve, 
 and sealed the whole by oath. With all this, the primate 
 Becket was obliged (though with great reluctance) to com- 
 ply- 
 
 The copy of the constitutions of Clarendon, as signed, 
 sealed, and sworn to observe, Henry sent to the pope, Alex- 
 ander HI. for the ratification of his holiness; he abrogated, 
 annulled, and rejected them; this kindled afresh the austeri- 
 ties of Becket, aud he declined all ecclesiastical duties, ut'til 
 he had received absolution from the p^jpe. This he soon ob- 
 tained, and then gave full scope to his obstinate ambition. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON. 
 
 Voted, without opposition, that no chief tenant of the 
 crown shall be excommunicated, ur have his lands put under 
 an interdict, without the kin»j;'s consent ; thai no appeals in 
 spiritual causes shall be carried before the holy see, nor any 
 clergyman be sutfered to depart the kingdom, unless witb 
 the king's permission ; that laymen shall not be accused in 
 spiritual courts, except by le^al, and respectable promoters, 
 and witnesses ; and lastly, tuat churchmen, accused of any 
 crime, shall be tried in the civil couj j^. 
 
 The rejection of these articles by the pope, and the haugh- 
 ty overbearing spirit of Becket, cat'ed forth the energies of 
 Henry. He summoned Becket to ^ive an account of the 
 revenues of all the abbies, preUv-ies, and baronies, which 
 were subject to his management, as chancellor. This 
 kindled the fire ; Becket intrenched himself again more 
 strongly in his citadel of austerity, and sanctity, delied the 
 arm of 4he law, strictly prohibited all his suffragans to assist 
 in any manner, in r^ny trial ai^ainst him ; put himself under 
 the protection of the vicar of Christ, and made his appeal to 
 his holiness, in the face of the constitutions which he had 
 signed, sealed, and sworn to jhey ; and this was his style : 
 " The indignation of a great monarch, such as Henry, with 
 
120 THOMAS A BECKET. 
 
 his sword, can only kill the body ; while that of the church, 
 entrusted to the primate, can kill the soul, and throw the dis- 
 obedient into infinite, and eternal perdition." 
 
 Becket upon this retired to France, where he was honor- 
 ed, and distineuished by the pope, and other potentates. The 
 exclamations of the exile, filled Henry with anxiety, and all 
 Christendom with intrijinp, about six years. The primate 
 triumphed over Henry, so far, that he was honorably restor- 
 ed to his see of Canterbury, and enjo)^ed his usual honors. 
 
 Henry had retired into Normandj' d'jring^ this controversy, 
 and Becket rode in triumph through En^^land, and proclaim- 
 ed war ajiiainst Her.ry, with renewed violence, threatening 
 with spirifual thunders, all the prelates who had assisted at 
 the coronation of the king:. AH this was more than the high 
 spirit of Henry could bear ; and he exclaimed, " Will my 
 servants still leave me exposed to the insolence of this un- 
 grateful, and imperious priest ?" This armed four of the 
 kinir's household, who passed over into England, and Becket 
 fell by the hand of the assassin. 
 
 The death of the primate filled Henry with more distress, 
 than his life ; he shut himself up three days, denying hims* If 
 all sustenance, as well as the lisht of the sun ; and by a so- 
 lemn embassy, attempted to appease the vengeance of the 
 pope, by protesting his innocence. 
 
 His holiness listened graciously; whilst all Europe re- 
 sounded with the praises of the holy martyT, whose sacred 
 tomb wrought all manner of miracles ; restored the dead to 
 life, both men, women and children ; dogs, horses and cows ; 
 and was loaded with presents from all parts of Christendom, 
 to obtain his intercessions in heaven ; even that tomb, which 
 received the devotions of more than one hundred thousand 
 pilgrims in one year. 
 
 In the midst of this religious frenzy, Henry undertook the 
 conquest of Ireland, then in its most rude and barbarous state ; 
 governed by the laws of force, execute d by murders, assas- 
 sination, and pilla2;e. 
 
 After the conquest of Ireland, Henry repaired to Nor- 
 mandy to meet the pope's legates; settled his peace with the 
 church, by clearing himself by oath, from all concern in 
 Becket's death ; made some concessions which were satis- 
 factory, and this storm was hushed ; but another sprung up in 
 its place. 
 
 His son, prince Henry, demanded accession to the throne 
 
HENRY AT THE TOMB OP BECKET. 121 
 
 of England or Normandy ; Elenor his queen, his two young- 
 er sons, backed by the king of France, then Lewis VII. sup- 
 ported the claim. This threw Henry into a new (hlemma, 
 brought him to the feet of that sovereign pontiff, (to pny 
 out thunders upon his enemies,) whose power he had so bold- 
 ly withstood in the affair of Becket. 
 
 Alexander III. poured out his thunders most powerfully ; 
 but without effect. Henry drew the sword, and to prepare 
 the public mind for the conflict, he did pen?mce for the death 
 of Thomas a Becket, by going barefoot to the tomb of Beck- 
 et, and watching the holy relics, one whole day and night, ex- 
 posing his naked back to the flagellations of the monks, which 
 the}'^, remembering the old grudge, put on severely. He 
 then received absolution, and the reconciliation of heavea 
 was announced by a signal victory obtained that day, by his 
 generals over the Scots ; their king was taken prisoner, and 
 tranquillity restored : what cannot ignorance, and supersti- 
 tion perform ! This peace in England, was followed by a 
 peace with Normandy. Henry now floated quietly upon the 
 tide of superstition, and enacted many wise and salutary laws, 
 for the good of his people, and the security of his crown. 
 
 Even Lewis Vil. king of France, under the influence of 
 fanaticism, made a pilgrimage to Becket's tomb, to obtain 
 his intercession in heaven, for the recovery of his sick son. 
 Philip recovered, and the next year succc^eded to the throne, 
 upon the death of his father, and took the title of Augustus. 
 
 Philip It. excited, and supported an insurretlion in Hen- 
 ry's son against his father, which humbled his power, broke 
 his spirits, and brought him to his grave, at the Castle of Chi- 
 non in Normandy, in (he fify eighth year of his ai^e. The 
 whole reign of Henry had fanned that tire of liberty, which 
 was so immediately connected, in ^fter days, with privilege, 
 and prerogative, and restored the Saxon privileges. 
 
 The dep< ndence of the emperors of Germany, upon the 
 popes, for the crown of the Romans, (beneticium Roman! 
 Imperii,) and the independence they claimed as sovereigns 
 of the German empire, kept up a constant collision between 
 the two sovereignties ; occasioned all those quarrels wtiich 
 have blackened the annals of both parties, and rendered the 
 popes so contemptible ; and called forth the sword of the 
 Othos, and Henries to do themselves justice, and humble 
 the haughty pontiffs. 
 
 Adrian IV. a mendicant friar, an Englishman, and son of 
 U 
 
122 ADRIAN IV. AND FREDERIC. 
 
 a mendicant, was now upon the papal throne, dealingr out his 
 conditional permissions to Heiny 11 to conquer Ireland ; de- 
 manding of Frederic, the emperor, that he should kiss his 
 great (oe, hold his stirrup when lie mounted his horse, ai<d lead 
 him by the bridle when he had mounted. All this rous*^d 
 the i/idiLnaiion of the empfror; he set »he pope a! dttiance, 
 hunihlfd (he rcvoitfM} Boiiemians, concju^^red Poland, secur- 
 ed the fidt-lity of Germany and a tranquil throne, until the 
 feuds of the papacy again entangled him in the contested 
 election of two pop«-s, Victor IV. and Alexan<ler III. 
 
 This cor»{rovei?y entbroiied the euipire with the states of 
 Italy, who were supported by the emperor of Constantinople, 
 and the contlict in I'aly was severe and bloody. In (his civ- 
 il war in Italy, the city of Milan was given !»p to the flames, 
 and reduced (o a heap of ruins. The emperor escaped very 
 r.arrowly, in his desperate contests with the confederates, 
 especially in a naval action with the Venetians, in which his 
 eldest son Henry was made prisoner. 
 
 Alexander III. triumphed over his rival; the emperor was 
 obliged to submit to the demands of his holiness, kiss hi^ feet, 
 hold his stirrup, and lead his horse Frederic, upon this, re- 
 ceived the submission of ltf<ly, with the oath of allegiance, 
 and returned into Germany, where he found more work cut 
 out for him. 
 
 The war in Italy had raged, from H59 to 1177, and the 
 emperor was now called to humble Henry, duke of Saxony, 
 whose pride was swelled by his marriage with a daughter of 
 the king of Englyid. Frederic soon put him to the ban of 
 the empire, sent him otT to England, where he raised up the 
 slock that founded the house of Brunswick, from which 
 sprang the present reigning family on the throne of England. 
 
 At this time, 1181, Saladin the great, caliph of Egypt, 
 overran Syria, took vengeance on the christians, destroyed 
 the kingdom of Jerusalem, and of Antioch, took rhese cities, 
 and chased the christians from all their conquests in Asia. 
 All Christendom was full of consternation. Clement the III. 
 ordered a third crusade to be preached throughout Christen- 
 dom ; Frederic Barbarossa put himself at their head, with 
 his son, the duke of SuabiH, with an army of 150,000 men j 
 laid Hungary under contribution in his route ; humbled the 
 Greek emperor ; marched triumphant on to the plains of 
 Asia; made the cities of the east, and their troops, tremble 
 hi his sword ; bathed in the cold river Cydnus, after the 
 
JPAFAX. STUF]RIBMA(iTY'a 
 
 Polie Alexander IlLeom2u7.9 Frrden'c ZEniJierw of G^rtna:f^i\; 
 tokiss Jus (/f^at toe. This tn'uni^Ti of the Beast qfiened 
 
 ifie wcey f/r that Jnnniliationi^Jiuh will idliinatelv residt in 
 his ^xiitr . Cha0 X Fd'^e 122. 
 
DEATH OF FREDEBIC. 123 
 
 manner of the hero of Macedon, took a disease, and died. 
 Thus fell the hero of the third crusade, in the midst of thh 
 mad career of glory, in the thirty-* iiijhth year of his age, and 
 was succeeded by his son Henry VI. 
 
 Pliilip the I was now in quiet possession of the crown of 
 Fraijce, and Richard I. son of Henry I!. n[»on the death of 
 his father, was in possession of the crown of^EnirlMnd. These 
 two princes were engage(j, heart and hand, in this crusade, 
 and upon a new plan. They assemb!ed,an army of one hun- 
 dred thousand men on the phiins of Vezelny, in France ; 
 mr^rched to the ports of Genoa, and Marseilles, where they 
 each enibarked his army for the holy land ; were forced by 
 stress of weather to winter at Messina ; were entangled in an 
 intrigue with the king of Nfiples ; quarrelled with the Mes- 
 sirtians ; quarrelled with ench other : Richard seized on the 
 city of Messina, and planted his standard on the walls; set- 
 ih^A their quarrels, and again embarke<I upon their adven- 
 tu-f- 119!. 
 
 Richard was wrecked on the isle of Cyprus, some of his 
 vessels plundered, and their crews imprisoned : Richard took 
 Tengeance on the tyrant, repaired his fleet, and again set sail. 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 Third crusade continved — Richard, king of Engl. %,d, a cap- 
 tive in Germany — John, successor to Richard — Magna 
 Charta. 
 
 The christians had pushed the siege of Ptolemais, a strorig 
 seaport tow n in Palestine, in possession of the Saracens. 
 This siege had proved fatal to Frederic II. son and successor 
 to Frederic 1. emperor of Germany, and ruinous to his ar- 
 my. Here Richard landed his army, joined Philip again, and 
 took part in the siege. Here Richard displayed his true 
 English valor; Ptolemais was taken, after a desperate de- 
 fence the governor stipulated *' that the great Saladin should 
 pay a round sum of money for the ransom of the garrison ; 
 dismiss tw^o thousand five hundred christian prisoners of dis- 
 tinction, tind restore the true wood of tiie cross.*' 
 
 Thus fell Ptolemais, the citadel of Palestine, after a two 
 years siege, " which cost the christians three hundred thou- 
 
124 PALL OF PTOLEMAIS, 
 
 sand men, exclusive of persons of superior rank ; six arch 
 bishops, twelve bishops, forty earls, and five hundred bar- 
 ons." 
 
 The martial superiority of Richard, disgusted Philip ; he 
 renewed his oath of peace, and anjity,left Richard ten thou- 
 sand men under the duke of Burgundy, and returned with 
 his yr>fiy to France, touched at Italy on his way, and applied 
 to Clement III. to absolve him from his oath, who refused : 
 and he attempted to manage by intrigues, when he returned 
 to France, what his oath restrained him from doing by open 
 hostility. 
 
 Rjchard put himself at the head of the confederates, and 
 marched to the siege of Ascalon ; Saladin with an army of 
 three hundred thousand men, disjjuted his passage ; an ac- 
 sion ensued, as memorable as the siege of Ptolemais ; the 
 conflict was desperate, the carnage terrible ; forty thousand 
 Saracens strewed the field of death ; the christians were tri- 
 umpbant ; Ascalon fell into their hands, and opened a way 
 to Jerusalem. 
 
 In full view of the great object of their enterprise, and la- 
 bors, a magical languor seized all the princes, they resolved 
 to abandon the enterprise, settled a peace with Saladin, and 
 ieturned to Europe. This peyce stipulated, " that the chris- 
 tians should keefj possession of the strong towns they had 
 conquered in Palestine ; have a free, and safe access to Je- 
 rusalem, for their pilj-rimages, for ihe space of three years, 
 three mo • hs, three weeks, and three days. Saladin died at 
 Damascus soon aHer. 
 
 Richard, on his return home, in the garb of a pilgrim, was 
 ieiz(^d,and irisprisoned by Leopold, duke of Austria, who was 
 hi? companion in arms, at the siege of Ptolemais, and who 
 sold him to the emperor Henry VI. who loaded him with 
 irons, and immured him in a dungeon in the heart of Germa- 
 ny. At the same time, Philip, king of France, exerted all his 
 powers of intrigue, to purchase Richard, seize on Normandy, 
 and even by an intermarriage with a princess of Denmark, to 
 recover to himself the Danish claims on the throne of England. 
 
 Amidst these scenes of perfidy, the clamors of the pope, 
 and the diet of Germany, compelled the emperor to with- 
 hold the sale of Ri-.hard from the king of France, and restore 
 him to his own subjects ; which he did, for the ransom of fif- 
 ty thousand marks : (three hundred thousand pounds ster- 
 ling.) These are the princes who were the champions of the 
 
KING RICHARD. 125 
 
 €fOss, and these scenes serve to slu w the perfiily, corruption, 
 and depravity of (hat enthusiastic a<i;e of harbarisjn. 
 
 The joy of the Enghsh nation, upon the arrival of Richard, 
 was inexpressible : but the cha«;rin and alarm of Philip, were 
 best expressed in this caution to John, brother of Richard, 
 who had been his confederate in his intri^ut s ; " take care of 
 yourself, Richard has broke loose." Ris hard had no sooner 
 recovered his throne, than he carried war into Normandy, to 
 reveni;e the perfidious intrijrues of Philip, and his brother Jshn. 
 John submitted, craved pardon, and Richard {^ranted i', With 
 this expression : •' I hope I shall as easily forget his otfences, 
 as he will my pardon." 
 
 Richard returned t-i England, besieged count Vidomar in 
 his ct;stle, for the sak ' of j)iander, was woun«h d by an arrow, 
 and died. Thus fel* Richard I. kin^ of Eitijland, the hero of 
 Palestine, and the idol of En;:land, with the title of Cceur de 
 Lion, (or the lion hearted hero.) 
 
 The pardoned John, his brother, of Normandy, (stained 
 wiih the blood of Arthur, his nephew, who was his competi- 
 tor for the crown, and whom he slew with his own hands, 
 whilst upon his knees, bes^iiing for mercy,) succeeded to ihe 
 throne, 1199. The inhuman murder of Arthur, drew upon 
 John the vengeance of his English subjects : they even made 
 overtures to P liiip, king of France, to revenge the barbarity. 
 Philip embraced the favorable moment, seized on Nor- 
 Piandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, and part of Poictou, aarl ad- 
 ded them to the crown of Fiance. John fled to England : 
 here he became the sport of his barons, and the pope. 
 
 Clement III. attempted to exercise his sovereignty, in ap- 
 pointing an archbishop of Canterbury : John opposed ; Clem- 
 ent issued his spiritual thunders, with a sentence of deposi- 
 tion. To enforce these thunders, the pope proffered to Philip 
 of France, the eternal joys of heaven, together with the 
 crown of England, if he would enforce the decrees. Phiiip 
 II. readily accepted, levied a great army, together with a 
 fleet of seventeen hundred vessels, to execute the decree. 
 John prepared as formidably for defence, and all Europe was 
 alive to the issue. 
 
 In the midst of this vast preparation, Innocrnt III receiv- 
 ed the submission of John ; sent Pandolfo, his legate, into 
 England to receive (he homage of the king ; and at the 
 hands of John, took the crown of England to himself. John 
 upon his knees before tht throne of the legate, resigned hi^ 
 
 11* 
 
126 HOMAGE OF KING JOHN. 
 
 crown, and swore fealty to Innocent III. and this was the 
 fityle : 
 
 " I John, by the grace of God, king of England, and lord 
 of Ireland, for the expiation of my sins, and out of my own 
 free will, with the advice and consent of my barons, do give 
 unto the church of Rome, and to pope Innocent III. and his 
 successors, the kingdoms of England and Ireland, together 
 with all the rights belonging to them ; and will hold them of 
 the pope, as his Tassal. I will be faithful to God, to the 
 church of Rome, to the pope my lord, and to his successors 
 lawfully appointed, and I bind myself to pay him a tribute of 
 one thousand marks of silver yearly, viz. f^even hundred for 
 the kingdom of England, and three hundred for Ireland." 
 John was absolved, and after five days, again invested with 
 the regalia of majesty, 1213. 
 
 Philip, stung with mortification and rage, to be duped by 
 such a pious fraud, resolved to execute his purpose, even 
 against the commands of the pope. A coalition took place 
 between Otho IV. emperor of Gerniany, and John : the two 
 inonarchs assembled an army in Flanders, and threatened 
 the ruin of Philip. This was the first German^ and English 
 fonfederacy in Flanders, 1214. 
 
 Philip triumphed over this league, in a desperate battle 
 near Lisle, and gained an honorable peace; and John would 
 have been content with destroying the French naval arma- 
 ment, could he have enjoyed his crown in peace ; but he 
 was called to pass through new scenes. 
 
 Ent^land, by tiie Norman conquest, had become a feudal 
 military kingdom, the despotic power of the crown was plant- 
 ed upon the ruins of Saxon liberty, and the people were vas- 
 sals to the king, and the barons. The voice of the people 
 had long b« en smothered under this oppression, and the bar- 
 ons had ofien complained of the oppressions of the crown ; 
 now all parties were agreed to commence an attack upon the 
 crown, and bring this weak king to terms. 
 
 Privilege set up her claims atiainst prerogative, and drew 
 the sword. John soon yielded, and upon a conference at 
 the ever memorab'e Runemede, sis^ned, and sealed the ever 
 memorrible Magna Charta, (or great charter,) the palladium 
 ofE^'lish liberty, June 19, 1215. 
 
 This charter, so dear to every Englishman, was also the 
 pallaiiiuni c f those liberties, which our fathers brought out 
 into this wilderness, and which have rendered their sons il- 
 
NEW CRUSABE. 127 
 
 lustrious and happy, beyond all former example. Thus we 
 see, how the sovereign of the universe, rides on the whirl- 
 wind, and directs the storm, and causes the wrath of man to 
 praise him 
 
 Henry VI. emperor of Germany, instituted three crusades, 
 with the price of Richard's ransom ; one airainst the maritime 
 towns of the northwest of Germany, Hamburg, &tc. ; one 
 against Palestine, and Jerusalem ; and the other against Na- 
 ples and Sicily, then in rebellion. The last, he headed him- 
 self, after he had secured a successor, by causing his infant 
 son then in the cradle, to be crowned king of the Romans, 
 under the title of Frederic H. 
 
 Henry waged war with great cruelly, and barbarity, hum* 
 bled the rebels, and in the midst of his career, died of poison, 
 by the order of his queen, (as was then supposed.) The 
 feuds in Germany raged with great violence during the mi- 
 nority of Frederic, under the regency of his uncle Philip, 
 duke of Suabia, and the intrigues of pope Innocent III. 
 which threatened Germany, and Italy, with civil war. At 
 this eventful crisis, a new crusade was formed, to recover the 
 holy land, and the feuds of Germany, France, and Italy, 
 were all swallowed up in preparations for the new hojy war, 
 1202. 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 Crusade against Conslantinople — Germany — France^ and a 
 new crusade — England and France — borough elections in 
 England. 
 
 Baldwin, Earl of Flanders, headed this crusade. The 
 storm first burst upon Zena, a city of Dalmatia, which was re- 
 duced and taken in defiance of the pope. The storm next 
 broke upon Constantinople ; this fell an easy conquest, 1204, 
 and notwithsfanding it was the seat of that christian church, 
 which was the glory of the Roman empire in the days of 
 Constantine, and under the protection of the religion of the 
 cross, to that day ; it was given, up to pillage, rapine, and 
 rage ; their churches plundered, their altars robbed, and 
 made the theatres of every excess ; and Baldwin, after hav- 
 ing ordered the emperor to be thrown from tbe t(kpof a lofty 
 column, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor. 
 
123 NEW CRUSADE. 
 
 The confederates divided up the spoil, toojether with the 
 empire, and provinces ; delivered up the dominion of the 
 church to the pope, and returned, abandonincr the holy war to 
 such only, as got no part of the booty of the Greek empire. 
 The pope closed the scene with this holy consolation : '* God, 
 willinii to console his church by the reunion of the schismat- 
 ics, has made the empire pass from the proud, superstitious, 
 disobedient Greeks, to the humble, pious, catholic, and sub- 
 missive Latins." 
 
 As soon as these champions of the cross had retired, the 
 Greeks took up arms in various quarters ; called in the aid of 
 their neighbors; expelled the emperor Baldwin; pursued, 
 and took him prisoner near Adrianople ; cut oif his head, 
 legs, and arms ; gave his carcase to the wild beasts ; and re- 
 covered their ruined city, 1206. 
 
 The feuds of France and Germany raged under Philip and 
 Otho, during these movements in the east : the pope inter- 
 fered, and crowned the young Frederic II. emperor, in order 
 to check Otho. Thi kindled the torch with more violence, 
 until Otho quit the field, and fled into retirement, where he 
 sunk into contempt ; and the peace of Germany was restored 
 by the coronation of Frederic, at Aix la-Chapel!e, 1215. 
 Tins feud was in its turn succeeded by a new crusade under 
 pope Honorius Ilf. All Christendom was now rallied to the 
 contest ; assembled their armies in Spain and Italy ; em- 
 barked for Syria, and landed at Ptolemais ; undertook seve- 
 ral adventures, and failed ; then laid siege to Damietta, and 
 took it. The duke of Austria withdrew his forces, and return- 
 ed home ; whilst the emperor sent out fresh recruits under 
 cardinal AJbano. 
 
 This Benedictine monk claimed the chief command as the 
 immediate representative of his holiness, which after much 
 debate and intrigue, was by the express orders of the pope, 
 yielded to him. 
 
 The cardinal general posted his army upon the Nile, in 
 Esypt, where he was soon endangered by the overflowing of 
 the river, and compelled to sign a convention with the soldan 
 of Egypt ; by which he bound himself and followers, to-wiih- 
 draw fmm the war for eight years, and deliver up Damieffa, 
 wliieh had been taken by the division from Spain : then 
 Et;ypt was relieved, 1221. 
 
 Vioh n» disputes c-ntinued ♦o rage in Germany and Italy. 
 Gregory IX. succeeded to the chair upon the death of Hono- 
 
NEW CRUSADE. 129 
 
 rius. He came out with his thunders against the emperor 
 Frederic II. to compel him to lead another crusade ; who 
 finally yielded, and embarked for Syria, yet under the cen- 
 sures of the pope, which he treated with contt^mpt. This 
 expedition proved successful, and he obtained by treaty with 
 Meledin, soldan of Egypt, Jerusalem, Joppa, Bethlehem, 
 Nazareth, Tyre and Sidon, with all their neighboring coun- 
 tries, upon the conditions of a truce of ten years, and return- 
 ed to Italy. 
 
 Here the old quarrel was renewed with violence with the 
 pope, whose mortification was extreme, that the emperor 
 should exceed all the champions of the cross in his conquests, 
 when under the censures of the church. Gregory sowed the 
 seeds of rebellion in Italy and Germany, and lit the torch by 
 a new fulmination, in the following style : 
 
 " A beast of blasphemy, replete with names, is risen from 
 the sea, with the feet of a bear, the face of a lion, and mem- 
 bers of other beasts ; which like the proud, hath opened his 
 mouth against the holy name, not even fearing to throw his 
 arrows against the tpbernacle of God, and the saints that 
 dwell in heaven, &lc." to a great extent. 
 
 Frederic met this bull by a reply, in which he stiles his 
 holiness, *' The great dragon, the antichrist," of whom it is 
 written, " and another red horse arose from the sea, and he 
 that sat upon him, took peace from the earth," Stc. This 
 quarrel rekindled the two factions of the Guelphs and Ghib- 
 elines ; whose cities were given up to indiscriminate butch- 
 ery, without mercy, and without quarter. Crfegory died: 
 Celestine IV. succeeded but eight days : then Innocent IV. 
 succeeded to the chair, who fled into France, rekindled the 
 war by a new bull of deposition, with orders to choose anew 
 emperor. 
 
 The bishops of Germany (without the nobles) assembled, 
 and chose Henry, landgrave of Thuringia, and the civil war 
 raged afresh Henry died : the same council chose William, 
 count of Hollnnd ; the war raged with movf violence. Fred- 
 erick, pressed upon all pides, retired to Naples to recruit his 
 army, where he died in the fifty-fifth year of his age, 1250. 
 
 The war still raged ; the clergy took up arms against the 
 laity ; all laws, human and divine, were set at defiance ; and 
 Germany was drenched iu blood, until the death of William, 
 1256. This opened iUe way Ihrou^ih all the factions of a 
 long and disf ressing interregnum, for the election of Rodolpfa? 
 count of Hapsburg, 127?. 
 
130 HENRV HI. 
 
 Durino: this interregrniim, the marilime rilies of the west 
 formed the fHrrx.ds Hanseatic leauut f<»r ihe protection of 
 commerce, in the whole, eik'lHy four iowrjs. \i the head of 
 these stood Cologne, Bruwfcvvic, Luh^c, Danfzic, Thorn, <kc. 
 Italy and Sicily also changed their gov«^r. ments. All the 
 good that resulted from this long and dis'resBing struggle, 
 must be looked for in the field of commerce, where alone, 
 if any wh^ re, it remains to be found 
 
 The feuds in England, kept pace with the feuds in Gerraa* 
 ijy. As soon as the storm was laid by masna charta, John 
 determined to recover his liberties and prerojjative. He se- 
 cre'ly employed in his service, foreign mercennry troops, 
 aiM) sent to the pope, prayins for a bull of interdiction against 
 his refractory barons, and obtained his request. Thus arm- 
 ed with the spiritual thunders of the chnich, John drew his 
 sword, and began the attack ; carrying tire and sword into 
 the castles of the barons, and throughout their villages : all 
 England was one scene of desolation and distress. 
 
 The barons in despair, applied to Philip, king of France 
 for succor; he readily ob«yi^d the sumrrions, assembled aa 
 army, Lewis his eldest son embarked, and landed in Efig- 
 land. John was deserted by his foreign mercenaries, sunk 
 under the pressure of the war, and died, atied 49. 
 
 John was a weak, corrupt, malicious, unfeeling, unprinci- 
 pled king ; whose whole life was full of evil, without any 
 good, but that great charter which was extorted from him, 
 and which will ever perpetuntf his memory. John was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Henry III. then nine years old. The earl 
 of Pembroke, then mareschal ot England, and at the head of 
 her armies, was chosen protector and guardian of Henry. 
 
 I.ewis penetrated to London ; but after the death ot John, 
 he found the protector not only at the head of the army and 
 government, but of the nation. Reunited all parties, and |, 
 Lewis settled a truce, procured indemnity for his adherents,!! 
 with a free passage to France, and set sail ; leaving England 
 to enjoy the fruits of ail her struggles, under a general calm, 
 1217. 
 
 Henry, when he came to the throne, made war upon 
 France, and attempted to recover the ancient provinces || 
 which Philip had seized ; but failed, lost the remainder off 
 Poictou, and retunie«l in disgrace, 1243. During this reign I 
 the pope fleeced England, and drew by his arts a greater rev- * 
 ecue than the crown. In addition to this, he entangled Henry 
 
HENRY III. 23 J 
 
 in the controrer^v for the crown of Sicily, upon the death of 
 F«pd< lie II Fiiitlmor his resources inadequate to the enter- 
 prise, he offered it ^o Richard, earl of Cornwall, the richest 
 subj, cf in Europe : Richard refused. This project exhaust- 
 ed E»i*ilaiid, aiid f".,iled; the pope took the disposal of the 
 crown to hims^'tr, 1255. 
 
 The feud:^ of Germany at this time, led them to invite to 
 the throne, the same Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother of 
 Ht-nry III. Allured with the title of emperor, he accepted 
 and spent all his fortune in a vain pursuit to establish his 
 crown, and returned to England in poverty and disappoint- 
 ment, 1257. ' 
 
 /Vain the claims of privilege, and prerogative, were re- 
 new, u m En-land, and Henry laid the storm by a renewal of 
 t!)e great charter. H-nry soon rekindled the storm ; the earl 
 oi Leicester again took the lead of the disaffected barons • 
 both parties look the tit Id ; a decisive battle was fought in 
 Sussex ; Henry, prince Edward, and all the royal family were 
 taken, and Leicester took (he helm of government; 'isseni- 
 bied a new parliament, composed of two kniirhts from each 
 shire, and two deputies from each borough. 
 
 CHAP. XHL 
 
 Ensriand— France, and a new crusade under Lewis F///.-^ 
 Spain from 1007 to 1027-^thence to 1303-^soine symp- 
 toms of order, ^ 
 
 The last chapter has disclosed to us, how privilege tri- 
 umphed over prerogative, and introduced the borough elec- 
 tions into parliament. This branch of the government, 
 (which has been a bone of contention in after days,) became 
 the instrument of establishing the commonwealth, under 
 Cromwell, and thereby swallowing up prerogative. These 
 controversies make no part of (his narrative ; facts, not opin- 
 ions, are the object of this work. 
 
 Leicester began his persecutions in his turn ; young Ed- 
 ward made bis escape, the royalists assembled, a fatal battle 
 was fought near Evesham, Leicester was slain, his army rout- 
 ed, Henry restored to his throne, and the nation became tran- 
 quil without further effusion of blood. 
 
132 ST. LEWIS. 
 
 Prince Edward made an expedition to the holy land 1270, 
 returned the next year, and succeeded to the throne upon the 
 death of his father, Henry III. who died aged 64, after along 
 reign of tifty six years. 
 
 During: this long reign, Philip II. of France, had enriched 
 his crown with all the English possessions on the continent, 
 and left bis throne to Lewis VIII. : he did nothing worthy of 
 notice, died, and left his fhrone to Lewis IX. or St. Lewis, 
 1226, then twelve years old, and the regency was conducted 
 by the queen mother during the minority. 
 
 When Lewis came to the throne, he united in himself three 
 characters, hitherto considered as incompatible with each 
 other; the monk, the hero, and philosopher; and took the 
 incontrovertible principles of justice, for the basis of his 
 reign, 1235. Lewis, agreeable to a vow which he made 
 when sick, passed four years in arranging the affairs of his 
 kingdom, and collecting his forces, to make an expedition to 
 the holy land. 
 
 In 1248, he embarked upon his expedition, accompanied 
 by his queen, his three brothers, and all the knights of France, 
 touched at Cyprus, and landed in Egypt — eighteen hundred 
 ships carried the army and vast military preparations of the 
 monarch of France ; Lewis found himself at the head of six- 
 ty thousand men. 
 
 The city of Damietta was abandoned by the Saracens, and 
 fell an easy conquest to the arms of Lewis, 1249. This was 
 his only success in Etfypt, and this he was soon obliged to 
 abandon by a convention, to recover his own libcrry, which 
 he had lost by falling into the hands of the soldan of Egypt, 
 in a fatal battle at Massoura : here his brother Robert was 
 slain by his side, and his other two brothers, with all his no- 
 bility, made prisoners with himself. This treaty with a thou- 
 sand pieces of sfold, restored all the captives, and enabled 
 h m to draw oflf the shattered remains of his army into Pales- 
 tine, where he remained four years. 
 
 Durin<? this time, the queen mother, by the assistance of a 
 monk, attempted to raise 100,000 paupers in France, for the 
 relief of ht-r son. Tnis proved the worst evil of the two ; 
 these shepherds filled all France with their excesses of rob- 
 bery and pillfige- and like a civil war, they were subdued by 
 force of arms. L^wis r<-turned to France 1258, and ruled 
 with wisdom, moderation, and ju^^tice. 
 
 In 1264, he was created sole umpire, by the conteqding 
 
FRANXE UNDER LEWIS VIII. 1 3o 
 
 parties in En<iland, to settle their quarrels, and decided with 
 (hat wisdom, which has ever rendered his justice illustrious. 
 It has been imputed as a fault to Lewis, that he sutf'^red (he 
 pope to shed the blood of the duke of Austria upon the scaf- 
 fold, in his controversy for ttie crown of Sicily ; and by the 
 instrumentality of the count of Anj(iu, to suffer the pope to 
 hold the crown. 
 
 Lewis made one more crusade against the infidels, not of 
 Asia, but of Africa. He landed a strong army near the bay 
 of Tunis, and attempted sword in hand to compel the king 
 of Tunis to become a christian. The intide! refused : Lewis 
 soon saw his army wasted with sickness ; one son die, and 
 another ready to die ; and in the midst of this awful scene, 
 the same plague took him off. .n the tifty-sixth year of his 
 aze. Philip, his son, recovered, held the Moors at bay, and 
 led back the remains of the army into France. 1271. 
 
 L^^wis made a general reform of abuses in France, correct- 
 ed the evils occasioned by his lonj^ absence on his several 
 crusades ; established judicial tribunals, which checked the 
 power of the nobility ; suppressed private feudal wars ; ab )1- 
 ished the ordeal of single combat, and relieved France from 
 the exfjctions of the popes. Lewis, by his wisdom, virtue 
 and j jstiee, secured the peace of France during his reign. 
 
 We have now bruu-rht forward Firso;land, France, Italy, 
 and Germany, more than two centuries in advance of Sp^n, 
 in order to preserve t^e jjreat chain of events uni>roken, 
 through the rage of the crusades : we will now go back, and 
 bring forward Spain from the reign of Ferdinand the great, 
 son of Sancho, who united the kingdoms of Castile and Leon, 
 1037. 
 
 Here commences the reign of knight errantry. Spain 
 was at this time divided into about twenty kingdoms, besides 
 many independent Lordships, all filled with ignorance, super- 
 stition, violence, and civil wars. The lesser sovereigns were 
 often engaged as mercenaries in the civil wars of the kings. 
 They ranged the country on horseback, armed cap a-pie with 
 coats of mail, followed by their atrendants, or squires, as ad- 
 venturers of the sword, and entered into the service of such 
 kings as required their arms. The sword was their instru- 
 ment of support, and war their trade ; h^-nce the reason why 
 Spain w^as tilled with all that enthusiasm of single combat, 
 down to the close of the seventeenth ren(ury. 
 
 A few instances of this romantic chivalry, may be worthy 
 12 
 
134 CHIVALRY AND CIVIL WARS. 
 
 of notice. The quarrel between Sancho, and his sister Au- 
 rica, occasioned his assassination, wliilst he besieged her in 
 the city ZHniora. Three knights c ntered the list against Don 
 Dief>;o de Lara, tlie chairipiun ot Sancho, and accuser of Au- 
 rica. It n.ust not be undeistooil, that these three knights at- 
 tacked Don Diesio at once ; this was not agreeable to the hon- 
 orable laws of chivalry : the contest was sin^iie combat. 
 
 Two cliamj/iojjp, armed cap-a-pie in coats of mail, entered 
 the lists, mounled i^n horses trained to the fii;ht. At such 
 distance as was ajirecd, each took his stand, armed wish a 
 Ions spear; this he hold with his riirht hand, presented to his 
 antagonist, with the other end fixed firm in its rest: upon the 
 signal given, they advarv^e full speed to tlie chan^^e, and as 
 thej'^ passed, each L^et liis champion with the point of his 
 spear ; this either j)enetrated the armour and wounded, or 
 killed the knijiht, and thsew him from his horse ; or unhors- 
 ed him by the violence of the shock without a wound ; or 
 glanced, by a side stroke, and let him pass. This was the 
 pfiStime of these chainpions of ch.ivrdry. 
 
 Df)si Diego killed two of the champions of Anrica, and the 
 third was ct>rried out of the lisis by the violence of ids horse, 
 and the contest remained doubtful. Tlie city of Toledo was 
 thi^n in the hands of the IMoors, and Alphonso VI. king of 
 Castile, undertook to subdue it by siege 1084. In this war, 
 a renowned knight, known by the name of Don Roderigo, or 
 the Cid, fdlcd Europe with his fame, and broujiht many 
 knights and princes frvim France and Italy to the siege of To- 
 ledo. The city wijs carrif d after a siege of one year, and all 
 Europe was filled with the exploits of these champions of 
 chivalry. 
 
 The war was a religious war, Almanzor, king of Toledo, 
 and Alphonso were friends, and under mulual obligations to 
 each other ; but their religions were different, and they con- 
 tinued so by treaty, upon the surrendry of Toledo, and both 
 parties continued to enjoy the same civil and religious privi- 
 leges as before. 
 
 Alphonso violated the treaty, by calling an assembly of 
 bishops, and placed a catholic at th(' head of the bishopric of 
 Toledo, and pope Urban !I. confirmed it. This kindled the 
 war afresh ; two knights entered ti.e lists, and drew the sword 
 to decide the question by single combat ; (the sword, as well 
 as the s|)ear, became the instrument of single combat in 
 kiiight errantry.) The catholic champion was foiled ; a new 
 
5PAI.Y CONTINUED. 135 
 
 trial was obtained by the archbishop, in defiance of all. the 
 laws of chivalry, and they made their appeal to the ordeal of 
 fire. Both liturgies were thrown into the fiarnes ; both were 
 consumed, and both parties exercised their religion. 
 
 This spirit of these parties raaed with sucli violence in 
 Spain, as to in<iuce Alphonso to invite the Riiramolin of Af- 
 rica, (or kin^r of ihe Moors,) to assist in subduing the Moou3 
 in Spain. This invitation he accepted, took advantajjie of 
 their divisions, seized on the city of Seville, and confirmed 
 the <lominion of the Moors, 1097. These wars drenched 
 Spain in blood, under ail the extremes of chivalr5^ 
 
 In 1 147, Alphonso Henriquez, count of PortutinI, expelled 
 the Moors fr5m Lisbon, and caused himself to be proclaimed 
 king of Portu^ral. 
 
 In the year 1212, the Miramolin of Africa took advantaj];e 
 of these incessnnt wars in Spain, passed over with a numer- 
 ous army, and threatened (he conquest of the whole country. 
 This, a^ain, was a relijiious quarrel : knig;hts and princes, 
 from all parts of Europe, assembled to (he war. Alphotiso 
 led the christian army, preceded by the archbishop of Tole- 
 do, bearing; the cross. The Miramolin led the Moorish array, 
 bearing; the Koran in one hand, an<l the sabre in the odier. 
 
 The conflicts of Pihstine, and the prowess of Jerusalem, 
 were renewed in the Jefiles of the black mountains of Spaiii; 
 the champions waded in blood ; the standird of the cross 
 prevailed ; and the ever memorable I6(h of July is still cel- 
 ebrated in Toledo. The Moors were vanquished ; but the 
 war stil! raged, and Spain knew not the enjoyment of ono 
 moment's repose. 
 
 In 1236, appeared Ferdinand III. or St. Ferdinand, in the. 
 midst of ihese bloody conflicts, which still rag'^l with vio- 
 lence, lie took thecity of Cordova, and drove out the IMoors; 
 also the province of Murcia, and the city of Sevill-; he died 
 1252, and his name will ever be memorable in Sfjain. 
 
 Alphonso the wise, or astronomer, son of Ferdinand, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne. He greatly improved the learning and 
 laws of Spain, and tlie improvements in astronomy do honor 
 to his reign. He died in a league with the Moors, defending 
 his crown against his rebellious son Sancho, who usurped the 
 Ihrone upon the death of his father 1303. His reign was 
 short, hut tranquil, and he was succeeded hy his son Ferdi- 
 nand IV. ; his reign was turbulent, and his death worthy of 
 Rotice. 
 
136 EFFORTS FOR GENERAL PEACE. 
 
 Two noblemen were thrown by his tyrannic race from the 
 top of a high rock, and dashed to pieces; at the moment of 
 their fail they summoned the kinj; to meet them in the pres- 
 ence of God, in one month ; Ferdinand obeyed the summons 
 at the time, and died. 
 
 This chivalry which raeed in Spain, was a part of the same 
 spirit that armed Europe against Asia, and under the banner 
 of jhe cross, drenched the plains of Asia-Minor, Syria, and 
 Palestine in blood these two hundred years. 
 
 The effects of these crusades at first increased and confirm- 
 ed the power of the popes ; but at the same time increased 
 the power of the kinjis, which in process of time rose superi- 
 or to the power of the popes. They greatly promoted com- 
 mf rce, and enriched the cities of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, 
 who were the more immediate carriers for Europe in the la- 
 ter expeditions. They (aught the Europeans the arts and 
 sciences, particularly the use of the shuttle and the loom; and 
 the manufacture of silk soon be«an to flourish in Italy. Ar- 
 chitecture made a part of these improvements, cities began 
 to rise and flourish in Italy, and throughout Europe ; and the 
 maanificent castles which filled Europe with the palaces, as 
 well as the strong-holds of the barons and nobles, were the 
 effects of the crusades. 
 
 The collisions which sprang up between the barons and 
 the cities, and between the rival cities themselves, called for 
 the interposition of the king; his interposition, which gener- 
 ally required force, called for the aid of the people ; they 
 made advantage of the strife, and obtained some degree of 
 that liberty of which they were entirely deprived before; 
 when the wealth of the cities could support the authority of 
 the crown by money, the king set the barons at defiance, be- 
 came the man of the people, and they supported him. This 
 secured what liberty the ignorance of the age was able to 
 bear; but feuds, quarrels and wars still raged. 
 
 To give some check, or even respite from these bloody ca- 
 lamities, recourse was had to the church. R^liajious socie- 
 ties were formed, by messatres, ascribed to the special inter- 
 position of Heaven, to deter men from hostility. 
 
 One styled " the truce of God" set apart those days of (he 
 week in which Christ suffered, lay entombed, and rose again, 
 as days of general peace and reconciliation, to be observed 
 as a festival of (he church ; this restrained the people, but not 
 the barons. 
 
ENGLAXD. WALES, AND SCOTLAND. 137 
 
 Another association was formed for the purpose of coerc- 
 ing by arms the refractory and ilje quarrelsome, styled "The 
 broth<trhood of God." These became jjeneral, supported 
 the power and authority of the kings, and produced -jireat and 
 good effects, la the midst of these improvements, the code 
 of Jjisiinian's laws was discovered in Italy, and altnoup;h lit- 
 tle understoo)!, yet claimed atiention as a monument of Ro- 
 nun wisdom and grtatness, was studied, and became useful. 
 
 The science of law, as a profession, grew out of this, and 
 opened the way for other professions ; schools be^jan to be 
 established, colleges to be founded, and men began to feel 
 something of what they now enjoy. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 England under Edward I — affairs of Scotland — Edward IL 
 
 EnwARD I. of England had succeeded to the throne of his 
 father John, 1274, and during the reijjn of Alphonso the wise, 
 in Spain. Edward took magna charta for the siaudard of 
 his reign, and upon this foundation, established a system of 
 wise and vigorous measures, which changed the aspect of 
 affairs, and gave order and tranquiliity to England. 
 
 Edward tnarched into Walos at the request of David and 
 Roderic, to settle the controversy for the crown, then in the 
 hands of tlieir broth^^r Lowi'llyn, besieged Lewellyn in hio 
 stronojhold, among the hills of Snov^'don, compelled him to 
 submit and resign his crown. As soon as Edward had with- 
 drawn his army, Lewellyn flew to arms, and roused up his 
 countrymen to revenge the insuUs of the English. 
 
 Edwaril ajj^aia entered Wrdes, and by his general, Robert 
 Mortimer, defeated Lewellyn, who fel! in the conflict, and 
 added Wales to the crown of England. Edward caused Da- 
 vid the competitor of Lewellyn to be executed, together with 
 all the Welch poets, that he might at one blow break the spirit 
 of these hardy sons of liberty, and bury with them the fame 
 of fiieir exploits, in the songs of their bards. 
 
 Sf'.otlar.d next claimed the altentioii of Eaward. These 
 hai (ly sons of liberly had wa^ed perpetual wars with the Picts, 
 their nrishbort^, tiirouih all the invasions of the Danes, Ro- 
 mans, Saxons, Normaus and Fr'^nch ; and in o 00 hud triumph- 
 
 1 2- 
 
i38 IMPROVEMENTS IN GOVERNMExNT. 
 
 ed over the Picfs, and unifed Ihe two kingdoms under Ken 
 neth II. their 69th kins. This united kingdom had long beeni 
 formidable to Eniiland. until Henry II. subdued William, king 
 of Scots, and ronipf^llrd him to do homaire for his crown. 
 
 Richard I. absolved him from this; and Edward I. being 
 called as umpire to settle the contested succession to the 
 crown, between John Baliol, and Rfib» rt Bruce; (competi- 
 tors under female claims, about one century after the death 
 of AViJIiam,) by stratagem took the crown to himself, and per- 
 suaded them, when at a council in Norham castle upon Tweed, 
 (in obedience to his summons, together with all the barons of 
 ScotJand,) to acknowlediie Scotland as a fief of the crown of 
 England, and swear fealty accordingly. Edward then de- 
 manded possession : this also was granted. He then confer- 
 red (he crown upon Baliol : this was universally approved, 
 and Baliol did homage to Edward, and was put in possession. 
 
 The expenses of Edward obliged him to have recourse to 
 his parliament for money, and was the means of establishing 
 (he borough elections, which we noticed before, under the 
 earl of Leicester; which, to this day, make a part of the house 
 of commons in England. The avowed principle of Edward, 
 v,?hich led to this step, was published in his writs of election 
 by way of preamble : "As it is a most equitable rule, that 
 whaf concerns alK should be approved by all, and common 
 dangers be repelled by united efforts," ^c. 
 
 In this specjmen may be seen the first features of Saxon 
 liberty, issuing from <hp throne, to give life, strength, and un- 
 ion to a nation so long oppressed by feudal despotism, and 
 feudal wars. This sentiment, well comported with that in 
 Uie will of Alfred: "It is just that every Englishman should 
 *e\ er remain as free as his own thoughts." 
 
 Tiiis third estate (then held so contemptible in England, 
 and throughout Europe.) has been the means of forfning that 
 creai balance of power in the parliament of England, of king, 
 lords, and commons ; these, united to their judiciary system, 
 constituted a government wiknorvn to former ages, and unri- 
 vaUed in ihe improvements of man. This government formed 
 the basis of those hue governments which our fathers plan- 
 fed, and which their sons have perfected in the wisdom of our 
 federal system. 
 
 As soon as Edward had replenished his treasury, and re- 
 cruited his army, he made war upon king Baliol, entered 
 Scotland, took him prisoner, carried him to England, and 
 
ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 139 
 
 confined him in the (ower; destroyed fhe archives of Scot- 
 land, and exercised the sovereignty, 1290. 
 
 Two years after, Edward sutfered Baliol to depart to 
 France, where he died, an<l Edward followed with a view to 
 recover the province of Guienne, then seized by Philip IV. 
 styled the fair. To eflfect this, money and allies were neces- 
 sary : to obtain the first, he had recourse to his parliament 
 with success ; he demanded of the cleruy a fifth of all their 
 moveables ; this they refused, and plead the bull of the pope. 
 Edward granted their plea, and at once placed them in a state 
 of outlawry, by interdicting all their claims in the courts of 
 justice, and leaving them exposed to the rigors of the law. 
 They were soon harassed with insult, indignity, and piliai{e, 
 without redress, and their spirit was broken : here was no 
 plea for persecution ; they yielded their supplies to the sup- 
 port of the crown, and they were restored to the protection 
 of the laws. 
 
 The ambition of Edward, led him to push this money ex- 
 action too far : the barons, the clergy, and the people resist- 
 ed ; Edward yielded — added one more article to the liberties 
 of magna charta, and settled the tranqudlity of England. 
 Philip, alarmed for the safety of his kingdom, restored Gui- 
 enne to Edward, and he preserved his popularity. 
 
 During these preparations against France, and whilst Ed- 
 ward was in Flanders, an insurrection broke out in Scotland, 
 headed by one William Wallace, a desperate adventurer, on 
 whom nature had bestowefl ail the great properties of a for- 
 midable leader in arms. His successes over earl Warren, 
 (whom Edward had left to finish the war with Baliol) had ac- 
 quired him the confidence of his countrymen ; the nation 
 were in arms ; expelled the English out of Scotland, entered 
 the north of Eijgland, laid waste the country, and gave it up 
 to plunder. 
 
 Fired with indignation at this outrage, Edward returned 
 into England, assembled an army of one hundred thousand 
 men, entered Scotland in triumph. Wallace, (now become 
 the envy of the nobles,) resigned his command, and left the 
 insurgents in i'ne hands of the nobles ; Edward attacked their 
 camp, routed, and dispersed their army, and broke the re- 
 bellion ; but did not subdue it. Flying parties fled to the 
 mountains, and carried on predatory war, and maintained 
 their struggle for lib( rty, with some success. Wallace was 
 betrayed to Edward, sent into England, condemned and ex- 
 ecuted as a rebel. 
 
140 ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 
 
 This despotic act, roused again the spirit of Scotland ; 
 they were indi2;nant at the execution of a man, who had by 
 hit^ valor won their hearts, and wiio had never sworn fealty, 
 or alle-f^iance to any pririce. They tiew to arms. At the 
 same time, Robert Bruce, son of Robert the competitor of 
 Baliol, who was then in Entiland, tlew to the support of hia 
 country ; assembled the nobles, and dnclared his purpose to 
 live, <»rdie free at their head. This was universally approv- 
 ed, excepi by one Cuiomin, who made his objections, and 
 retired: Bruce followed, and with his sw .nl sealed his op- 
 position. The die was now cast. Robert repaired to Scone, 
 was crowned kin:^ of Scotland, and the nation were in arms. 
 
 Edward was ready, an army soon entered Scotland, the 
 parties engaged, the conflict was desperate, Robert was de- 
 feated, and fled to the w^estern isles of Scotland. Edward 
 advanced into Scotland with a powerful army, to complete 
 the c'^rquest, sickened, and died ; and with his last breath 
 enjoined ii upon his successor, to prosecute the war. 
 
 Edward revived the Saxon laws, liberties, and judicial tri- 
 bunals of Alfred ; made gre'dt improvements, and reduced 
 the whole to one jrreat system of English liberty. Edward 
 II. ((hen the first English prince of Wales,) succeeded to the 
 throne, 1307. 
 
 Here o[)ens a field which fully shews the contrast in the 
 characters of men, and fully pn)ves how much the strength, 
 and happiness of a kingdom depends upon the character of 
 the kins;. Ail men were prepared to see younsr Edward put 
 himself at the head of that army which his father had left 
 him, and in the absence of Robert, strike the fatal blow to the 
 liberties of Scotland. Bui what must be their astonishment, 
 wiien they saw him marcn back into England, disband this 
 formidable force, ^ive himself up to the society of that worth- 
 Jess favorite his father had banished, and leave kin^ Robert 
 to return to his throne, and establish the liberties of Scotland. 
 
 Enraged at this baseness in their prince, the nobility flew 
 to arms, compelled Edward to dismiss his favorite, and hunt- 
 ed him to his execution. 
 
 Robert now invaded England in his turn. This roused up 
 Edward ; he assembled an army of nearly one hundred thou- 
 sand men ; entered Scotland, determined to deci-Ie the war 
 at a blow, Robert met him w^ith thirty thousand men and 
 gave him battle. The champions advanced at the head of 
 their troops ; Robert engaged with Henry de Bohua at the 
 
©EATH OF EDWARD II. 141 
 
 head of (he English cavalry, and with his hatfle ax cleft his 
 head to his chin. The English, hke the Philistines of old, 
 fled ; the Scots pursued ; Robert by a stratagem threw them 
 into confusion ; the carnage was great ; and Edward narrow- 
 ly escaped, by taking refusie in Dunbar castle, from thence 
 he sailed into England. Robert pursued, entered Engl::nd, 
 ravaged the northern counties, and filled the kingdom with 
 the terror of his arms. 
 
 Robert sent an army under his brother io subdue Ireland, 
 and an insurrection at the same time broke out in Wales. 
 Edward, sensible of his own weakness, raised the earl of Lan- 
 caster to the head of the council, and consented to be gov- 
 erned by a minister. This excited jealousies and intrigues, 
 and threw the councils of the nation into disorder. 
 
 Here originated that system of ministerial governmenf, 
 which has since proved so important to the English crown. 
 Edward, by his unguarded attachment to his favorite Spen- 
 cer, threw the nation into a civil war, which compelled the 
 king to banish his favorite, and insult the queen. 
 
 This roused Edward from his torpor ; he assembled his for- 
 ces ; took vengeance on Lancaster who headed the faction ; 
 executed, imprisoned, and drove into banishment ail the oth- 
 ers ; confiscated their estates; concluded a truce with Scot- 
 land for thirteen years, and recalled Spencer. This incens- 
 ed his queen ; she retired to her brother, of France, Charles 
 the fair : here she fell in with that Robert Mortimer, who had 
 escaped from the tower, when under sentence for high trea- 
 son ; and with the intrii^ues of Mortimer, and several fugitive 
 Eniilish barons, they plotted the ruin of Edward. 
 
 The queen by a public declaration, disclosed her resent- 
 ment against Spe»jcer. The nobility supported her; she 
 landed in Eui land ; Edward fled into Wales for safety, and 
 the favorite Sp»^ncer and his father were both sacrificed to 
 popular rane The queen summoned a parliament ; Edward 
 was deposed ; the young prince, then fourteen years of age, 
 placed upon the throne, and the queen appointed regent. - 
 
 Here stands a catalogue of crimes, too black to be record- 
 ed. But what shall we say, when we read that Edward soon 
 fell a sacrifice, and expired under the most barbarous, and 
 horrid murder, 1327. These scenes would add one more 
 Bhade to the crimes of the fifth century. 
 
H2 HOUSE OF AUSTRIA, SWITZEELAXD, 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 Germany and Srvilzerlaml — Italy — France — Knights 
 Templars. 
 
 During Ihese operations in England, Roilolph of Haps- 
 bursr, who had obtained the imperir.l throne, (af(er (he long 
 interre^tuim,) devoted himself (o quiet the feud?, excesses, 
 and abuses which had sprung up in Germany ; acquitted him- 
 self successfully, and became very popular. He suffered 
 some disappointment in the loss of his son Rodolph, duke of 
 Sunbia, and in failing in his attempt to procure ttie crown of 
 the Romans, for his eldest son Albert, whom he had made 
 duke of Auslria, and caused this duchy to be annexed to the 
 electoral college. This gave rise to the house of Austria, 
 1282. 
 
 Allhous^h Rodolph's crown had been confirmed by Grego- 
 ry X. Italy had not yielded to his authority ; and when he 
 could not procure for his son Albert, the Roman crown, he 
 endeavored to console himself with asgrandizing the duchy 
 of Austria, and died 1291 ; having done every thing for his 
 country. 
 
 Adolphus of Nassau, was raised to the imperial throne, 
 1292. His injustice soon rendered him unpopular, and the 
 archbii^hop of Menlz, at the tjead of a faction, deposed him, 
 and raised Albert, duke of Austria, to the throne. * 
 * Albert drew his sword to maintain his claim ; and Adol- 
 phus advanced at the head of his army, to dispute the prize. 
 They met near R.^seudel, and an action ensued. Adolphus, 
 in the heat of the action, espied his rival, put spurs to his 
 horse, advanced to the c mbnt, and exclaimed : " Here you 
 shfill resifijn me the emj>ire, and your life." " Both," replied 
 Albert, " are in the hHpds <>f God ;" and struck his competi- 
 tor dead at his feet. Albert was crowned at Aix-la-Chapeile, 
 1298. 
 
 Three German princes had refused to Albert their votes : 
 these soon became the tools of pope Boniface VIII, ; but 
 were brought to submit upon political motives, and Boniface 
 obtained a concession from Albert, that " emperors and 
 kinjTS derive their re^al power from the pnpe." 
 
 During this reiiin, the oppressions of Albert throuirh his 
 governors, roused the spirit of the provinces of Switzerland ; 
 and when Grisler the governor, compelled William Tell to 
 
SICILIAN VESPERS. J 43 
 
 strike off with his bow and arrow, an apple placed upon the 
 head of his son, to save his own life; the nation were alive 
 at the outra^-e. Teli struck ofiflhe apple, and at the same 
 time discovered another arrow unUer his cloke, which he de- 
 clar^<I was designed for the heart of Grisler,'had he killed 
 his son 
 
 Grisler in a rase, doomed him to perpetual imprisonment. 
 The Swiss rose,seiz'^d all the Austrian governors, conducted 
 them safely to the fronrier, made them swear never to serve 
 against bwilzerland, dismissed them, and delivered their 
 country. 
 
 Albert attempted to march to the subjection of Switzer- 
 land, but his career was arrested by his nephew John, who 
 stabbed him on his way, in presence of all his courl. 'The 
 enterprize was abandoned, and the liberties of Switzerland 
 were preserved. 
 
 In the year 1^09 Henry count of Luxemburg was ejected 
 emperor, crowned at Aix !a Chapelle, and immediately turn- 
 ed his attention to Italy, which had been neglected during 
 the lon^ feuds and interregnums of Germany. Here the fac- 
 tions of the Guelphs and Ghibeiines raged* without mercy, 
 and rendered both parties the subjects of indiscriminate 
 butchery, without feelini^, or remorse. 
 
 The old quarrels of emperors and popes, were now lost in 
 the strife of faclions, and the pope, Clement V. no longer 
 safe in Rome, took s'lelter in France several yefirs. 
 
 Sicily was relieve^d from the Frejich, by the massHcre of 
 the Sicilian Vespers, and the house of Arragon seized on the 
 Island. The same spirit of intria;c8, faction, cruelty and 
 blood, raged throughout Italy, nm] rendered it an acildiima. 
 
 In the imhUt of these scenes of wretchedness and dii^tress, 
 Henry appeared, and caused hi^i self to be crowned kiijg of 
 Lombardy, by a new iron crown, in place of the old one 
 which Ihey had rt n»oved. Ht nry marched through the cities 
 of Italy, received their submission, and repaired" to Rome, 
 where he humbled the factions with his sword, and was 
 crowned by ttie Ccirdinals. 
 
 Henry proceeded to a,)point a Roman governor and levy a 
 tax upon the cities of Italy, "when he was taken otfby poi- 
 son, given him in the consecrated wine of the sacrament, by 
 a Dominican friar, 1313." At this time the knights of the 
 teutonic order seized on Dantzic, and purchased Pompera- 
 uia of the duke of Brandenburg. ^ 
 
144 states' general of France. 
 
 France, at this time under Philip III. had been involved in 
 a war to secure the crown of Sicily for his uncle Charles, 
 who had been expelled by means of the massacre of the Si- 
 clian Vespers, 1282. This event took place in conse- 
 quence of an insult offered to a younjr Sicilian bride, as she 
 passed with her nuptial train near the city of Palermo. The 
 populace, who hated the French, resented the affront ; and a 
 yountf Sicilian, fired with indisfnation, killed the offender. 
 
 The people assembled, a conflict b.^jjan, butchery ensued ; 
 th^ populace enraged, took ven-ieance on the offenders, cry- 
 in^j *' kill the French, kill the French." A general butchery 
 followed, with<jut reuard to either ai^e or sex, until every 
 French person was exterminated in Palermo. The rage then 
 became general, until the massacr*^ extended throughout the 
 island ; even the sanctuaries of religion were violated, and 
 the priests butchered all the French penitents 
 
 Pnilip Il[. attempted by his intrlsnes with the pope, to se- 
 cure the crown of Sicily to his own family, amidst these con- 
 fiictiny; passions ; but failed, and th»' advet»ture ternii^iated in 
 the ruin of the parties, the death of Charles the ex king of Si- 
 cily, the ruin of his fleet, the capture of his son, and the death 
 of philip in. 
 
 Philip IV. (his son) styled the fair, succeeded to the 
 throne. He began to form the «:overnment oi" France upon 
 the English plan under Edward I. with the three estates which 
 forms a!i important epoch in the annals of France Philip 
 composed the feuds of his kingdom, by the mediation of Ed- 
 ward r. of England, and paid him, by supporting the Scotch 
 reb; llion with open war. 
 
 Philip adopted the measures of Edward I. by exacting sup- 
 plies from the rich clergy for the support of (he crown. 
 Bonltacc VIII. put his veto upon ecclesiastical revenues be- 
 ing ap()lied to the support of princes, by his special bull ; and 
 the parties were at issue. 
 
 B jniface sent the bishop of Pamiers to Paris, to denounce 
 Philip, and interdict his kingdom, if he did not desist from 
 his purpose. Philip delivered him over to ecclesiatieal cen- 
 sure and confinement, under the power of the archbishop of 
 Narbonne. 
 
 Boniface came out with a bull, declarinz, " that the vicar 
 of Christ, is vested with full authority over the kiu'^s and 
 kins^doms of the earth," Tiie clergy of France were sum- 
 moned to Rome. PfaiMp ordered the bull to be burnt, and 
 
KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. 146 
 
 the clergy not to leave the kingdom. Many, however, obey- 
 ed the mandate of the pope, and Philip confiscated their es 
 tates. He then summoned his parliament, (which for the 
 first lime • dmitted the representatives of cities,) they set the 
 bull at defiance, and supported the king. 
 
 Hire was the origin of the assembly of the states' general 
 in France ; here Philip found himself supported by the na- 
 tion, and set the pope at defiance. The affair ended in the 
 disgrace and death of Boniface, and he was succeeded by 
 Benedict IX. He attempted, by mild and equitable measures, 
 (o heal the divisions of the church, and vva^ poisoned fur the 
 pood he attempted to do. Clement V. succeeded to the chair. 
 He was a Frf ncliman, and took up his residence in France. 
 
 Unuer the sanction of this pope, Philip undercook to abol- 
 ish the order of knights templars in France. This body of 
 men were associated into a reiio;ioiis society of kniiihthood, 
 HI the time of the crusades, amongst the most distiuiiui-hed 
 champions of the cross. At this time they were nntnerous 
 in France ; rich, and passed their lives in case, and elegant 
 amus<m<^nts, as j^entlenien of France. 
 
 Piiilip detiounced the order, doomed them all to imprison- 
 ment, tliroughout France, in one day,a=Ml published the most 
 daring accusations against them. To support these accusa- 
 tions, he put them to the rack, to extort confessions of their 
 guilt. Some denie<l the charges, and died with firmness ; 
 .some, through weakness, confessed whatever they were 
 charged with ; others declared ti-e absurdity of such proceed- 
 ings, and pit ad tlie religion, zeal, ^nd gallant exploits which 
 had so long rendered their order illustrious; but ail without 
 effect. They were rich ; lived a\ ease ; and their dt-struc- 
 tion was sealed. This vindictive p< rsecution was pursued, 
 until the rack, the scaffold, and the flames, exterminated the 
 templars in France ; and Philip confiscated their estafes. 
 
 Clement V. yet in France, ascembled a council at Vif una, 
 abolished the whole order, aod thus by the plenitude of his 
 power confirmed th^ir ruin, 1312. This bull of the p )pe 
 led to the same violence against the templars throughout Eu- 
 rope. They were thrown into prison, sacrificed, plundered, 
 and their estates c5nfiscated. Philip soon sunk j-nder the 
 weiiiht of such accumulated guilt and distress ; Ian uished 
 with a consumption, and died in the forty-seventh ye'-ir of his 
 age, LSI 4. 
 
 Philip was succeeded by his son Lewis X. Avarice and 
 13 
 
146 EDWARD III. 
 
 cruelty, with some ambilioiij were the characteristics of his 
 reign, and he died 1316. 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 France and the Salic Law — England and Scotland — England 
 and France — Battle of Cressy. 
 
 The momentary wppeRrance of a female succession, in an 
 infant daughter of Lewis X. was sufficient to call the atten- 
 tion of the French nation to the Salic law, (so called,) wiuch 
 excluded all females from the throne of France. This sup- 
 posed law, was found to exist only in a usage, or custom, 
 borrowed from the Salian tribe, who dwelt in Gaul whea 
 Pharaniond came over the Rhine with his Franks. This 
 usage, amoniijst those barbarians, so essential to their safety 
 and peace in that barbarous ai;e, w?s adopted into the gov- 
 ernment of the Franks, and conlinues to be the usa^e of 
 Frc^nce. In defect of male issi^e, Philip de Valois, cousin of 
 Lewis, succeeded to the throne, 1328. 
 
 This dispute in France, opened a field for the talents of 
 Edward III. king of England. When Edward had caused 
 the persecutions which were carried on by earl Mortimer, 
 and the queen mother, against the earl of Kent, and Vae:. earl 
 of Lancaster, to be suppres ed, by giving up Mortimer to the 
 vengeance of an incensed nobility, and the queen to the judg- 
 ment of his parliament ; he ^ave his attetition to those abus- 
 <^s which had arisen out of the murder of his father. He is- 
 sued orders to the judijes, to cause the laws to be executed 
 upon all criminals, of whatever class, or distinction. He 
 soon suppressed the murderous depredations of the barons; 
 and the ministers of Justice, by their vigilance, and rigid exe- 
 cution of the laws, restored the public order and tranquillity. 
 
 Under this prosperous state of atfairs, Edward turned his^t- 
 iention to i\n rebellious Scots. The renowned Bruce, who 
 had recovered the liberties of his country by his treaty with 
 earl Mortimer, as regent, was now dead, and the crown in the 
 hands of Randolph, earl of Murray, as regent for David, the 
 son of Bruce, then a minor, 
 
 Edward Baliol, (son of John Baliol, the former competitor 
 of the former Robert Bruce,) was now immured in a French 
 
AFFAIRS OF SCOTLAND. I4T 
 
 prison, by a suit of lord Beaumont, a baron of England, iipou 
 a contested claim in Scotland. Many other English noble- 
 men were in the same condition with Baiiol. 
 
 These all made application to Edward IH, to assist them 
 in the recovery of their liberties and estates, Edward en- 
 couraged, what he considered unwise openly to avow ; Baii- 
 ol was released from confinement, (totrether \vith tht other 
 English nobles,) revived his claims on the crowt; of Scotland, 
 assembled a force of about three thousand men, and with his 
 adherents, landed in Scotland. Bruce, the victorious, was 
 gone ; the ear! of Murray was soue ; lord Douglas was on a 
 crusade in Spain aicainst the Moors. 
 
 Baiiol availed himseifof this sJaie of affairs, landed liis par- 
 ty, attacked the earl of Mar, (who was ready to receive him, 
 with forty thousand men ;) routed, and put to flight his army 
 with great slaughter ; followed his victory into the heart of 
 Scotland, took Perth, and arrived at Scone, where lie was 
 crowned ; and Scotland was subdued with an army oi three 
 thousand men. 
 
 The good fortune of king Baiiol caused his ruin ; he for 
 some unwise purpose dismissed his English followers, and in 
 this weak situation Lord Douglas surprised him by a sudden 
 attack, routed and dispersed his army, slew his brother, and 
 pursued him into England a fugitive in distress. 
 
 Edward could no longer conceal what it n(jw became his 
 interest to support ; he yielded to the overtures of king Bail 
 ol, raised an army, and enterf d Scotland to restore the kine 
 The two armies met at Halfdown-Hill, a desperate action 
 was fought, thirty one thousand Scots were slain, the nobility 
 were all destroyed or taken, a parliament was asst'mbhd 
 Baiiol restored to the throne, the superiority again acknowl- 
 edged, and Edward received the fealty of Scotland 1334. In 
 two years the Scots had rebelled, expelled Baliul, recovered 
 their liberties, set Edward and his army at defiance, and the 
 intrigues of France supported their claims. 
 
 This interference of France kindled a resenhnent in the 
 breast of Edward, and he resolved to remove this opposition 
 by puttins: in his claim to the contested crown of France. 
 During this paper controversy of claims, Robert de Artois. 
 brother-in law to Philip VI. a valiant Prince, fled from the 
 persecutions of Philip, and took refuge at the court of Edward 
 
 The address of Robert to Edward was, " I made Philip 
 VI. kh.g of France, and with your assistance 1 will depose 
 
143 ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 
 
 him for his iDgpatitude." This language grratified the resent- 
 ment of E<!ward, and the field of controversy, was now open, 
 that field of confroversy, which kindled a train of passions 
 that have never been exlin^juished, and which can never be 
 exlin^uished, so long as the independence of the two nations 
 shall continue to exist. 
 
 The predecessors of Philip VI. have excited a jealousy in 
 the low countries (or Flanders) towards the French, and the 
 ambition of Philip the fair had fanned the flame — here Ed- 
 ward turned his attention for aliiance and support in the war 
 he contemplated against France. 
 
 Hib first object was to find a demagogue whom he could 
 attach to his interest, and who could unite the Flemings in 
 his cause ; such a man he soon r>and in James D'Arteville, a 
 brewer of Ghent. This was the most popular and influen- 
 tial man in Flanders, and was ready to throw all bis, influence 
 into the scale of the king of England. 
 
 Edward who had secured the support of his father-in-law 
 the duke of Hainault, the duke of Brabant, the archbishop 
 of Crologne, the duke of Guelder, the marquis of Juliers, and 
 the ccunt of Namur, had opened the way tor its future ope- 
 rations, and was ready to put all his vast plans and prepara- 
 tions into operation. 
 
 Edward embarked a body of troops, repaired to Flanders, 
 set up his claim to the crown of France, and the allies with 
 D'Arteville, and his Flemings were ready to support his 
 claims. Philip was prepared, and the campaign in Flanders 
 was opened ; long and intritjuing conferences wasted the 
 season, the armies remained inactive, and little whs done. 
 Edward, distressed for mojif^y and supplies, abandoned his 
 enterprise, and returned to England. 
 
 The next season opened the theatre of war upon the wa- 
 ter. Edward, with a powerful fleet, obtained a signal victory 
 over the French fleet, took and destroyed one hundred and 
 thirty ship-, and killed thirty thousand men. Both admirals 
 fell in the engag* m«Mit. 
 
 Flushed with the splendor of this victory, Edward again 
 assembled an army, embarked for Flanders, joined the allies 
 as b» fore, and becan his operations by invading the frontiers 
 of Frau'e at the head of more than one hundred thousand 
 mm. 
 
 Philip acted the Fabius, declined the combat, and left Ed- 
 ward the employment of wasting the campaign in fruitless 
 
eOUNTESS OF MOUNTFOKl. 14^ 
 
 sieges. Edward, tired of this warfare, and impatient to end 
 a war he was in no situation to proiono:; for tlie want of mon 
 ey, sent arhaiienge to Philip to decide their claims by single 
 combat. Philip replied " It does not hfcome a vassal to 
 challenge his liege lord," (referring to Edward's homaoe for 
 Guienne in France.) This was conclusive, and a truce was 
 concluded for one year, 1340. 
 
 This truce opened the way for a new scene, which brought 
 into view the splendid talents of the countess of rvLuntfort, 
 and shewed to the world what wooiau can do when called to 
 act. The count of Mounlfort seized on the duchy of Britta 
 ny, in exclusion to Charles of Blois, brother of Philip VI. re- 
 paired to the court of Edward, negotiated an aifiarice, by of 
 fering to do homage to Edward for Brittany, as king of 
 France. The terms were soon settled and the parties prepar- 
 ed for action ; the count was taken prisoner soon after, and 
 the countess stepped in and assumed the defence. Fired 
 with indignation for the wrongs of her husband, she viewed 
 in person all the fortresses of defence, supplied and animat- 
 ed the garrisons, and waited at Hennebone the succors of 
 Edward. 
 
 Charles entered the duchy, laid siege to Hennebone, de 
 termined to secure the duchess before the succors of Edward 
 could arrive ; the prize was the duchy of Brittany and the 
 countess of Mountfort, and the efforts of the s ege v/ere con- 
 ducted accordingly ; attacks were frequent, sharp, and even 
 desperate and bloody ; the defence was rendered desperate 
 by the al{-comman(Jing presence of the countess, a breach 
 was made in the walls, the conilict became still more despe- 
 rate, the garrison were v/eakened by their repeated conflicts 
 and losses, despair began to seize on the citizens, and the 
 countess ascended her tower once more, to take a view of 
 that sea, from whence she had so often looked in vain for 
 Edward her deliverer. 
 
 She discovered the fleet ; Edward had sent Sir Walter 
 Manny to tsie relief of the countess, his ileet entered the har- 
 bor, landed his troops, joined the bessetied, made a desperate 
 sally drove Charles from his camp, and saved the town. 
 
 The war now raged with trtsh violence ; Charles redoub- 
 led his etforts ; Sir Walter did valiar*'.!}', with inferior num- 
 bers ; Edward sent over a reinforcement under Robert of 
 Artoii= : Robert was slain, Edward then wQni in personj a truce 
 
 )5^ 
 
150 BATTLE OF CRESSY. 
 
 was conclutlfd for three years, and the countess held quiet 
 po'sessin o^ Brittany, 1343. 
 
 Ttie f.3 i; iHient of Eiiiiland now became useful to the 
 crown ; they ent^^red with spirit into the wur, {jfranled libt Tdl 
 sufiplifs, and by their zeal, Edward invaded Nt^rmand} the 
 nes^t year, to recover the possessions of his ancestors. This 
 enierprise was successful in Normandy, and led Edward to 
 the gates of Paris; but Philip, at the head of one hundred 
 thousand men, compelled Edward to retire towards Flanders. 
 His situation now became critical : the river Somme ob- 
 stru* ted his march, and covered the position of De Ftiy, at 
 the head of a powerful army, who had destroyed the bridges. 
 
 Pressed on his front and rear by two such powerful ar- 
 mies, in the heart of France, Edward saw that safety depend- 
 ed on immediate action. He drew his sword at the head of 
 his army, plunged into the river, like the hero of Macedon, 
 at the Graimicns, attacked De Pay, drove him from his po- 
 siHon, and recovered the plains, at the critical moment when 
 Piiiiip carr^e up with his whole army. Edward was delivered ! 
 
 That tide, which by its ebb had opened a passaiie for the 
 Enijlisb army, now by its return, obstructed the French. So 
 critical are the operations of wars. Edward, resolved to 
 avail himself of his successes, and turn the ardor of his troops 
 to his best advanlasre, took a position near Cressy, and waif- 
 ed the approach of Philip. 
 
 Philip advanced : the onset commenced at 3 o'clock — the 
 conflict was general, desperate and bloody. Edward was 
 victorious — Philip 3ei\ — Edward pursued, and the carnage 
 was terrible: forty thousand French strewed the plains of 
 Cressy, and niirht only, saved Philip and his army from total 
 ruin, August 26th, 1346. The young prince Edward, distin 
 guished himself in the action, and shewed that he vvas worthy 
 of his sire. Here was the first trial of cannon in the wars of 
 Europe : Edward supported his line by four pieces of iron 
 cannon. Edward h ft Philip to pursue his fiigiit, drew ofif bis 
 army, and invested Calais. 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 
 
 England mid Scotland — general plague — invasion of France 
 by .Edward Ihe black Prince — bailie ofPoidiers — civil wars 
 
QUEEN PHILIPPA. 151 
 
 of France — Edward the Black Frince renews the war tvilh 
 France — peace and conditions. 
 
 Philip V[. by hh intrigurs, excited a war in Scotland, in 
 order to weaken E<hvard, and cramp his ambilious plans 
 against France For this purpose, David Bruc:', (deyc^;nd- 
 ant of the great Robert,) who had been seatnl upon the 
 throne of ^(^otland, assembled an army, and entered Eng- 
 land victorious. 
 
 England was now doubly armed — Edward was in f^rance, 
 contending for the crown of that kingdom, w>>ich pfrpefuates 
 the custom of the Saline tribe, and deems womnn unfit to 
 rule. Edward's queen, Philippa, was in England to support 
 the royal power, and secure the peace of the realm. 
 
 Fired with just indiijnation at the daring: invasion of Da- 
 vid, Philippa put herself at the head of twelve thousand men, 
 marched out to meet the marauder — an action commenced ; 
 the gcots were overthrown with great slaughter ; fifteen thou- 
 san<l fell in the action, with their principal chiefs ; David, and 
 his nobility were taken ; England was delivered, and Philip- 
 pa triumphant Oct. 17, 1346. 
 
 This signal exploit, at this critical moment, was a severe 
 phlippic upon the Salic law, and might have taught France 
 that woman could rule. Philippa secured her royal prison- 
 er, set sail for France, and joined Edward before Calais. 
 The sie^e was pushed with vigor, and in twelve months, Cala- 
 is added one more trophy to the successes of Edward. 
 
 Pope Clement VI. sent his legate as mediator between the 
 parties : a truce was settled, Calais confirmed to Edward, 
 and he returned to England, 1348. 
 
 The successes of Edvvard, and queen Philippa, kindled a 
 spirit of ambition and emulation in the court of Edward, un- 
 known before in England. Chivalry, and gallantry, temper- 
 ed with English manners, gave a lustre to the English, unri- 
 valled, if not unknown, in Europe : and amidst the festivity 
 of these scenes, an incident, innocent and trifling in itself, 
 gave rise to this memorable motto : " Honi soit qui mal y 
 pense :" (evil to him that evil thinks.) This motto, with its 
 incident, occasioned the order of the garter, by Edward. 
 
 Amidst the excesses of the passions of this age, God visit= 
 
 ed the earth with his judgments, by pestilence, as well as by 
 
 ' the sword. A general plague prevailed throughout Asia, 
 
 Africa, and Europe, and swept off about one third of the 
 
152 GENERAL PLAGUE, 
 
 whole family of man. Wars were suspended ; dissipatioK 
 was changed into gloom ; and the whole earth bt- came one 
 jrreat hospital of the sick, the <lyinif, and the dead. Fifty 
 thousand fell a sacrifice in the single city of London. 
 
 Philip the VI. died, and left his throne to his son, John 
 III. 1350. During this reign, a civil war raajed in France, 
 headed by Charles, king of Navarre, surnamed the bad. 
 This appellation was the more forcibly true, when contrasted 
 with the good qualities of John. Charles sprang from Lewis 
 X. by the mother's side, and laid claim to the crown of 
 France. He made court to Edward IlL; excited Charles, 
 the eldest son of John II. to favor his plans; and filled 
 France with his intrigues. In the midst of these scenes, 
 Charles repented of his folly, and did penance, by delivering 
 the king of Navarre, and other nobles of his party into the 
 hands of his father John, who delivered them up to execu- 
 tion and imprisoned the king of Navarre. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes, the truce with Edward at Ca- 
 lais was closed, and war was renewed The prince of 
 Wales, who had signalized himself at the battle of Cressy, 
 took the field, and penetrated, like his father, into the heart 
 of France, at the head of only twelve thousand men. John 
 assembled sixty thousand, took the field, and met the prince 
 near Poictiers ; Edward, with his little army were immedi- 
 ately surrounded, and all hope of escape cut off. 
 
 John, at the head of his superior army, was too impatient 
 to wait the retrular fall of the prince, by a want of suppHes ; 
 but drew his sword, and advanced to the conflict, determined 
 to reduce him at a blo\v. Edward was ready — the crisis was 
 desperate, and the conflict terrible ; the English received the 
 shock vv'ith firmness ; the Frencii were charged in their turn, 
 broken, routed, and fled ; the carnage was great, and John a 
 prisoner. Edward received the captive king with great dig- 
 nity and complacency, and gave God the praise, Sept 19, 
 1356. 
 
 Edward styled the black prince, (from the colour of his 
 armor,) concluded a truce of two years, conducted the cap- 
 tive king to England, where he continued to discover the 
 same greatness of soul, in his amiable, and dignified deport- 
 ment to king John, and rendered his residence in En^tland 
 such as became a king. David, king of Scotland, was at 
 this time the companion of the king of France in captivity in 
 England. 
 
CIVIL WAR IN FRANCE. 153 
 
 The affairs of France were now become desperate, 
 Charles, the <!auphin prince, (so styled from the province of 
 Dauijhmy's beiiir; annexed to the crown, like the principality a, 
 ' of \Vj.les in England,) assumed the reins of government in the 
 absence ot his father, b.m\ to provide supplies for the support of 
 the crown, had recourse to his states' general, after the man- 
 ner of Edward ill. of Ensilaud ; but not wiili the same suc- 
 cess. They met him ; but with demands to redress their 
 own grievances, and to deliver the king of Navarre, (Charles 
 the bad.) 
 
 Marcel, provost of Paris, espoused the cause of the assem- 
 bly, put himself at the head of the populace of Paris, mur- 
 dered all tiie great mareschals of France, in the presence of 
 the dauphin, threatened all the court, and hfld the dauphia* 
 under their control ; Charles withdrew, and they levied opea 
 war. 
 
 All France took the alarm, flew to arms, and assumed the 
 government ; the days of the tifih century were renewed, and 
 the first volume of the late Lewis XVI. was opened; anar- 
 chy, rapine, desolation, and carnage, ravaged France. The 
 war of peasants ajrainst the Nobles, or more extensively, the 
 poor against the rich, filled France with every description of 
 cruelty, and unh allowed barbarity ; neither ag;e nor sex were 
 spared; the castles of the nobles were pillasred, sacked, and 
 destroyed, th*Mr proprietors hunted like wild beasts of the for- 
 ests, and France filled with excesses too shockina; to relate. 
 
 The tocsin of the late revolution, marked then, the title 
 page of this first revolutionary volume : " Peace with the cot- 
 tage, war with the palace." Nine thousand of these unhal- 
 lowed sons of rapine, burst into the ciiy of M{'RUX, where 
 the princess of the Driuphio, the duchess of Orleans, and 
 more tl an three hundred olh< r ladies of distinction had taken 
 sheit '•. Chivjdry, armed with the protecting sword of the 
 ill' :*trious Count de Foix, tiie C tptal de Buche, with six'y 
 other kiji</hts, flf w to tiieir relief, and by their d^'sperate val- 
 or dr<.)ve off the boors, pr(»tected defenceless innocence, and 
 added one more illustrious example, that chivalry was the 
 protector of chastity and virtue. 
 
 During these scenes, Charles, king of Navarre, made his 
 escape, set up his claim to thn crown (»f France, anfl became 
 the head of the banditti. The death of Marcel distracted 
 the mob of Pttris, and they began to feel the pressure of dis- 
 tress, and turned their attention to the dauphia to restore 
 tranquillity. 
 
154 FRAKCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 With the change in the capital, it became general ; and or- 
 der was restored to France, as far as the situation of the na- 
 tion under their distresses, could be capable of enjoying or- 
 der ; a way was at least prepared for the restoration of so de- 
 sirable an event. The truce of the Black Prince was now 
 ended, and he again entered France in the midst of that 
 calm, which had just opened the ej-es of the nation to a sense 
 of those scenes of rapine and desolation which had filled all 
 the kingdom with wretchedness. 
 
 He commenced his operations by ravaging and pillaging 
 their country, and levying contributions upon (heir towns, un- 
 til desolation itself, compelled him to conclude a peace, stip- 
 ulate for the ransom of John 11 at three million crowns in 
 gold, renounce all claims upon Normandy, and the other 
 provinces, claimed, or owned by England, in exchange for 
 the provinces of Poictou, Xaintonge, le Angenois, and six 
 others ; together with Guienn^? and Calais, which were to 
 belong to the crown of Eniiland : and France renounced all 
 feudal claims of homage, &.c. King John returned to France j 
 but when insurmountable obstacles obstructed the execution 
 of this treaty, he broke through his opposing court, repaired 
 to London to negotiate for the removal of difficulties, took up 
 his old lodgings, sickened and died, 136-^. 
 
 CHAP. XVHI. 
 
 Farticidar remarks — affairs of France, and Spain — Black 
 Prince renews the war with France— battle of the champions 
 — Germany and Italy. 
 
 In the events of the last chapter, we have seen what could 
 be done by a king of England, like Edward HI. who knew 
 how to improve to advantage, the powers which his crown 
 derived from the union of the three estatf^s in his govern- 
 ment, and what force a well balanced liberty could give to 
 the energies of his sword. We have seen an example of 
 what John 11. king of France, or rather the dauphin, in his ab- 
 sence, could 7ioi do, for the want of such a free government ; 
 and what the licentiousness of despotism when transferred 
 from the throne to the po|)ulare did do. Permit me Xo add, 
 we have in our own times witnessed the second volume of 
 
AFFAIRS OF SPAIN. lj;j 
 
 the same scenes, arising from the same source, and upon the 
 same theatre of action. The choice is left open to the world. 
 
 Charles V. succeeded to the throne of his father, at a peri- 
 od, perhaps, of all others fhe most difficult : his resources 
 were so exhausted, that he held hut the shadow of power ; 
 thfi king of Navarre was yet in arms ; forty thousand Enghsh 
 adventurers of the sword, had taken possession of the newly- 
 acquired provinces, and threatened the peace of the kint:dom. 
 
 In the midst of this pressing state of things, Peter the I. 
 succeeded to the throne of his father 4.lphonso XI. kintr of 
 Spain, and was acting over in Spain, a trairedy, much like 
 the late tragedy in France, in the rei^n of Joiin U. Count 
 Trastamara, brother of Peter^ fled into France for safety and 
 succor, and made application to the king. Charles embra- 
 ced the favorable moment ; met his request, by a permission 
 for count Henry to enlist these formidable knights of the 
 sword, who had formed themselves into bodies, styled com- 
 panies, or companions. These readily embraced the offers 
 of Henry, entered into his service under one Du Guesclin, 
 and assembled at Avignon : here they demanded of pope, 
 Innocent VI. (who resided in France during the long feufls 
 of Italy,) absolution from thar bull he had thundered aj^amst 
 them, and their horrid barbaritif^s ; together, with a sum of 
 two hundred thousand livres. Innocent hesilate<l : to pardon 
 for money, was orthodox ; but to pardon, and pay money, 
 was an alarming innovation — Du Gueselin added ; '• My fel- 
 lows, I believe, can make a shift to do without your absolu- 
 tion ; but this money is absolutely necessary." His holiness 
 Ittvied this sum upon the people, and paid the demands of 
 Da Guesclin. 
 
 The bandit shrunk from tlie act, and exclaimed ; " It is 
 not my purpose to oppress the innocent people : the pope 
 and cardinals can spare me double the sun from their own 
 coifei's ; I therefore insist, that this money be restored to the 
 owners ; and if I hear that they are defrauded of it, I will r;^- 
 turn over the Pyrenees, and oblige you to make them resti- 
 tution." Innocent obeyed, and paid the money. 
 
 The enterprise in Spain pr jved successful ; Peter was 
 driven from his throne, fled into France, and took refut^e at 
 the court of Edward the blnck prince, in Guienne. Edward 
 espoused his cause, recalled the English troops under Du 
 Guesclin, put himself at the head of thirty thousand men, 
 entered Spain, met Henry with an army of one hundred 
 
156 DEATH OF EDWARD IH. 
 
 thousand men upon the banks of the Ebro, near Najara, an 
 action commenced, Edward was victorious — twenty tiuju- 
 sand French and Spaniards strewed the field of the dead ; 
 Du Guesclin was taken prisoner, and aH Castile submitted to 
 Edward, who restored Peter to his throne, and returned to 
 Guienne. 
 
 This successful expedition ruined the prince. Peter re- 
 fused to pay according to stipulation: the debts of Edward 
 cramped his titfairs, and constrained him to levy upon his 
 siibj' ct« ; tliey complained to the king; of Francp ; he cited 
 Edward to apf)*'ar at Paris, and justify his condnrt towards 
 his Vffssals. Edward (.heyed, not the cujranons of Charles, 
 but of his own retentnHnt; pii< himself at the head of his 
 army, and took the field ; wnr coivnn -net d, and raged ; Ed- 
 ward's health deeliiie*!, and hi? -itT/drs declined, until he fell a 
 sacrifice to his disease, and with his death the possessions of 
 Eni^land soon returned back lo the crown of France, except- 
 ing B')rdeau'i, Buyonne, and Cahiis. 
 
 At this time, the s^alinnlries of Edward III. had weakened 
 his government, and rendered it neces&ary to confer the 
 crown upon his son, the duke of Lancasler. He survived 
 his son one year, and died in the sixly-fifth year of his age, 
 1377. His name will ever live. 
 
 During these struggles in Fmnee and Spain, and the long, 
 and prosperous reign of E'lward IH. in England, a furious 
 civil war rated in Germany, to s(?pply the sucees?ii'ii, alter 
 the interreE^num, which followed the death of Henry VII. 
 Frederic, duke of Bavaria, and Lewis, duke of Austria, were 
 the competitors in this controversy. In ihe midst of this 
 war, two champions agreed to select fifteen from each party, 
 and decide the claims of the competitors by conibat. The 
 champions met accordingly near M.ddorf, the conflict was in 
 Ihe presence of both armies, a»icl the rencounter so desperate, 
 that every man fell, not one was spared. Both armies rush- 
 ed to the combat ; the conflict was terrible ; Frederic was 
 routed, and retired from the fi* uf: he soon recovered the b'ow, 
 and entered Bavaria to take vengeance on his rival ; L^wis 
 appeared with a powerful cirmy, a battle was fought near Ve- 
 chivis ; Frederic was taken prisoner, his army di>^persed, and 
 Lewis bore awriy the palm, and wore the imperial crown. 
 
 Durinii th'jse struyciles in Germany, Ausiria had made one 
 great effort to humble the Swiss ; but the famous battle of 
 Morgart defeated the Austrians, and established the liberties 
 of Switzerland. 
 
COUNCIL OF FRANKFORT. 157 
 
 Lewis V. maintained a controversy with pope John XXI T. 
 and marched into Italy, deposed John, and created Nicholas 
 V. Upon his return into Germany, John was restored, Nich- 
 olas deposed, carried to Avignon with a rope about his neck, 
 constrained to do penance for his temerity, thrown into pris- 
 on, and died, 1330. 
 
 During this controversy, John died, and Benedict XII. was 
 raised to the chair ; he renewed or confirmed the bulls of 
 John. This, tocsether with a war with the duke of Austria in 
 support of his sou, the margrave of Brandenburg, found em- 
 ployment for this year. In the memorable year 1338, the 
 prince^ of the empire, civil and ecclesiastical, assembled at 
 Frankfort, with a determination to put a final close to the in- 
 fluence of the popes in the councils of Germany, and stop 
 the effusion of blood in these civil wars. 
 
 They established irrevocably the following constitution : 
 " That the plurality of suffra«;es of the electoral colles^e, con- 
 fers the empire, without the consent of the holy see ; that the 
 pope has no superiority over the emperor of Germany, nor 
 any right to approve or reject his election ; and that to main- 
 tain the contrary is hij^h treason." They also declared the 
 elector Palatine of the Rhine, to be vested with the govern- 
 ment during an interregnum. 
 
 During this time, Benedict XII. died, and was succeeded 
 by Clement VI a native of France, where he then resnled. 
 Clement confirmed all the bulls of Benedict and John against 
 Lewis the V. ; but v/ithoat effect. He then came out with 
 what he considered as his great bull of terror, which was to 
 palsy the power of Lewis, and this was the style : '^ May the 
 wrath of God, of St. Peter and St. Paul crush him in this 
 world and the next : may the earth open and swallow him 
 up alive ; may his mercy perish, and all the elements be his 
 enemies ; may his children fall into the hands of his adversa- 
 ries, even in the sight of their father." 
 
 Clement issued a new bull of election; it failed in part, 
 but was the means of electinif Charles IV. margrave of Mo 
 ravia, king of the Romans, 1347. 
 
 Durinjr thete struiigles with the papacy, Nicholas Rienzi, a 
 private citizen of Rome, by his address, was proclaimed tri- 
 bune by the people, took possession of the capitol, and de> 
 clared all Italy free : he, like the Gracchi of old, fell a sacri- 
 fice to bis temerity, and was murdered by the patricians. 
 
 Charles IV. on his return to Germany, called a new diet at 
 14 
 
J53 DIET AT NUREMBERG, 
 
 Nuremberg, to fix the imperial (flections more definitely, thaa 
 wa& exprpi sed by the diet of Ffankfort. This diet framtd, 
 and [lubiibbed the famous golden bull, which has quieted the 
 ele- lions of the empire to this day. The style of this bull, 
 aiiii the manner in which it wa? put into operation at the cor- 
 onation of Charles IV. are worthy of notice ; but such par- 
 ticulars exc-ed the limits of this work. Charles left the im- 
 perial crown to his son Wsnceslaus, 1378. 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 Jffair!^ of England under Richard U. and Hemry IV. —Scotland 
 —Get many ^ and the States of Italy — council oj Constance. 
 
 We have noticed the successive steps in the government 
 of England to recover her liberties, and the j;ood etfects they 
 have produced : let us now notice the distinction between 
 liberty, and licentiousness, mark the contrast, and revere that 
 hue system of government which is able to maintain and pro- 
 tect the pure principles of liberty, by the trae principles of 
 justice, equity, and sound policy 
 
 When Richard the II. of England, succeeded to the throne 
 of Edward 111. his minority was supported by the weight of 
 character and influence of his three uncles, the dukes of Lan- 
 caster, York, and Gloucester and the tranquillity of the 
 throne was secured. 
 
 The continental wars of Edward, had exhausted his funds, 
 and entailed upon Richard, not only poverty, but the neces- 
 sity of devising an expedient to replenish his treasury. This 
 might have been effected by a resort to his parliament, after 
 the manner of Edward, but this was overlooked ; and he had 
 recourse to a direct tax of three groats upon the head of each 
 person, male and female, over sixteen years of age, called 
 the poll tax. This threw the nation into a ferment, raised 
 the clamour of inequality and injustice, set men to weigh 
 each other in the balance of equality, then of liberty, and led 
 the vassal to say, that if his head was taxed as much as his 
 lord's, he was as good as his lord. The passions of the na- 
 tion were roused ; and a single incident, between a tax gath- 
 er r ;M)d a young woman^ kindled the fire into a flame ', and 
 the nation, as one great mob, flew to arms. 
 
MOB. 159 
 
 One hundred thousand men invested London, under Wat 
 TyU r their leader, and demanded a conference with the king, 
 who had taken refuge in the tower. A conference was at- 
 tempted, but the riotous multifude rendered this impractica- 
 ble ; and they broke into London, gave it up to pillage, and 
 inurdere<l all the gentlemen they could find. 
 
 The king ajrain attempted a conference, which was effect 
 ed ; and they demanded abolition of slavery, free market 
 towns, and a tised rent on lands, instead of eervicea by ville- 
 nase. Those demands would have been instantly granted, 
 but Wat Tyler became so insolent with his sword to the lord 
 mayor, that he struck him to the ground, where he was slain. 
 Great tumults arose, and the mob were about to take instant 
 vengeance upon the lord mayor, the king and all his atten- 
 dants. Richard, then sixteen years of age, stepped out in 
 presence of the mob, and exclaimed, " 1 am your king, and 
 will become your leader; follow me into the field, and you 
 shall have whatever you want." The mob was hushed, fol- 
 lowed the kinsf, he granted their demands, (as above,) dis- 
 missed them peaceably, and they repaired to their homes. 
 
 Thus we see, how critical is the state of a nation, when 
 balancing between despotism and liberty, how much the 
 good of a government depends upon the wisdom of the 
 prince, and how feudal vassalage was abolished in England. 
 
 Richard IL was the sport of faction during his weak rf i^ii, 
 fell into the hands of the duke of Lancaster, who was making 
 ambitious attempts upon the crown, was exposed to the insult- 
 and scorn of the nation, died, and Lancaster succeeded to ti»e 
 throne under the title of Henry IV. 1399. Henry, like all 
 Other usurpers, laid the foundation of his throne in blood, and 
 paved the way for a religrious persecution in England. 
 
 Wickliff, the first English reformer, who was educated at 
 Oxford, and from his character and learning, had been thought 
 worthy the society of Edward, when duke of' Lancaster, now 
 beean to figure in England, 1400. 
 
 The pure principles of liberty, which Wickliff drew from 
 the gospel, were deemed by Henry, incompatible with the 
 dignity of his crown; he cherished a bitterness which the cler- 
 gy harboured against Wickliff, and caused a law to be passed, 
 which consigned to the fiames, all relapsed heretics. This, 
 as was intended, opened the way for the pf^rsecutions of the 
 faggot ; and William Saulure, a clergyman of London, fell 
 the first victim. 
 
i60 BATTLE OF SHREWSBURY. 
 
 These arbitrary measures, soon involved Henry in wars. 
 An insurrection broiie out in Wales, which gave him much 
 trouble: another in Scotland, under Harry Percy, styled Hot- 
 spur : this war baffled the efforts of Henry through one cam- 
 pais^n, and he returned to England. The next season he en- 
 tered Scotland with about twelve thousand men ; the two ar- 
 mies were equal — they met near Shrewsbury : here com- 
 menced one of the most desperate and bloody actions, for 
 the number of combatants, we have witnessed. Henry, and 
 bis son, prince of Wales, were engaged with desperate val- 
 our ; Percy, lord Douglas, and other Scottish chiefs, met the 
 conflict with equal bravery. Hotspur fellj Edward prevailed, 
 the carnage was terrible, more than two thousand gentlemen 
 fell in the confiict, the rebellion was quelled, and peace was 
 restored without further sacrifice, 1405. 
 
 The battle of Glendour quelled the rebellion in Wales, and 
 Henry was left to the quiet enjoyment of his crown, 1409. 
 This continued four years, when he fell a sacrifice to distres- 
 sing fits, and died in the forty sixth year of his age, 1413. 
 
 Winceslaus, whom we left upon the throne of Germany, was 
 soon embroiled in a quarrel between popes Urban VI. and 
 Clement HI. who were contesting their claims to the chair, 
 with all the violence and bitterness of Italian wars. The em- 
 peror assembled a diet at Nuremberg, who resolved to protect 
 Urban. The plague which raged in Bohemia, led the empe- 
 ror to repair to Aix-Ia-Chapelle, where he remained buried 
 in debauchery, while the war of the popes raged in Italy. 
 
 This war was heightened by the broils of Joan, ex-queen of 
 Naples, (noticed before in the distresses of that Island,) who 
 fell a sacrifice to the rage of the parties, and left her claims to 
 Ihe crown of Sicily in a labyrinth of controversy, 1393. 
 
 Urban triumphed over Clement, took Rome, and Clem- 
 ent retired to France. Urban next seized upon the crown of 
 Naples, and usurped the throne. 
 
 At this time, Margaret, queen of Denmark, seized on the 
 kini;dom of Sweden, to relieve the Swedes from the tyranny 
 of king Albert ; annexed Sweden to Denmark, and acquired 
 the appellation of the Semiramis'of the north, 1388. During 
 these struggles, Germany fell into disorder under the rei^n of 
 the corrupt Winceslaus, who remained at Aix-!a Chapelle, 
 where he caused his cook to be roasted, because he did not 
 please him, and was deposed by the diet of Laenstein, and 
 Frederic, duke of Brunswick, raised to the throne. Frede rio 
 
COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 161 
 
 was murdered, arui Robertj count Palatine of the Rhine, was 
 elf^cted eojperur, 1399. 
 
 R(»b« rt atituupteci tO quiet the wars of Ital} by force; hut 
 the tampaigu was unsuccessful, and the duke of Milan Hcquir- 
 ed great power in Italy. At ihis time J >iin Huss appeared 
 in Boheniia, euibraced the principles of Wicklilf, cijarmc d tiie 
 pope, and kindied a fire in the chucch. Gregory Xff ex- 
 communicated Huss, he api)ealed to the Holy Triniiv, and 
 claimed tfie priviieiie ('( makin;; his defence before tne uni- 
 versity of Prague. The church was now thrown into the 
 greatest confusion 
 
 Two popes were at once in power. G'^egory XII. assem- 
 bled a council at Aquilea, and invited seve sal princes : Bene- 
 dict XIII. neld a councd in Catalonia : the cardinals convok- 
 ed a third at Pisa, and the emperor assembled a diet at Fraak- 
 fort for the ?ame purpose, and ail was division and discord. 
 
 To lay the storm, the cardinals deposed both the popes, 
 and raised Alexander V. to the chair; this added fuel to the 
 fire, and the scliism raged afresh. Robert, the emperor, died 
 during this strugjile, and Sigismaad was raised to the impe- 
 rial throne, 1411. 
 
 Si<i;ismund convoked a ireneral council at Constance, un- 
 der the sanction of John XXIII. who had succeeded pope 
 Alexander V. This was the most numerous, splendid, cor- 
 rupt, debauched council, ever known in Europe. 
 
 The first resolve of the fathers was, that the three popes 
 should all resign the chair ; John, who presided, at once com- 
 plied with this, (provided that the others should consent,) 
 amidst the acclamations of joy in the council; but this was of 
 short duration, pope John repented, left the council, declared 
 it dissolved by his absence, and fled in disguise, 1415. 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 ^'^ffiiirs of Germany — of England — of France, 
 
 G<»D, in his ailwise providence, sufTred the papal church to 
 make a full display of their iniquities in tSie corruptions 
 which producf'd the famous council of Constance, to open 
 the way for the great events he was about to unfohi for the 
 good of his church. The council, after the departure of 
 
 14^ 
 
102 HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 pope John, proceeded to determine that no other pope should 
 be chosen without the consent of the council, and to exclude 
 John, Gregory, and Benedict from the chair. 
 
 John and Gregory yielded, and resigned ; but Benedict 
 stood out, and the emperor Sigismund made a special jour- 
 ney into Spain, attended by twelve deputies from the coun- 
 cil, to oblain the influence of Ferdinand, kini^ of Arragon, to 
 persuade'Benedict to resign : the pope took refuge in the 
 castle of Paniscola, and defeated the embassy. 
 
 Ferdinand agreed with the emperor, by his deputies, that 
 the council should cite Benedict to appear at Constance, and 
 upon his refusal, proceed to choose another pope. During 
 the absence of the emperor, the council proceeded to try Je- 
 rome of Prague, an associate with John Huss in principles, 
 condemned, and burnt him at the stake. He suffered with 
 great firmness ! 
 
 Upon the return of the emperor, Benedict was deposed, 
 Blartin V. elected, and crowned with great pomp. The em- 
 peror, and the elector of Brandenburg, led a most magnifi- 
 cent white horse, on which sat the pope, Martin V. ; kings, 
 princes, with their ambassadors, and the fathers of the coun- 
 cil, graced the procession to the cathedral, where the triple 
 crown was placed upon the head of his holiness ; and the 
 same solemnity honored his return. 
 
 The Hussites gave loose to their enthusiasm against the 
 opposition of the church, which had excluded them from 
 their communion : they raised a mob, entered the town- 
 house, and murdered all the magistrates who had opposed 
 them. In the midst of these riots, Winceslaus died, and was 
 succeeded in Bohemia, by Sigismund the emperor. This 
 religious war raged with great fury in Bohemia to the year 
 1436, when Sigismund layed the storm by a general amnes- 
 ty, granted them the privileges of the sacrament, and they 
 returned to their duty in triumph. 
 
 Sigismund led these subjects against the Turks in the year 
 1347, where he died, and left the crown of Bohemia and 
 111! irary to Albert, duke of Austria, his son-in-law: this estab- 
 lished the house of Austria upon the imperial throne, 1438, 
 ThiB^jnion formed a most important epoch in the history of 
 Eur«Tf(;. 
 
 During these feuds in Germany and Italy, Charles VI. had 
 taken possession of his throne of France, when be soon fell 
 into a state of frenzy, which attended him occasionally, and 
 
BATTLE OF AGINCOURT. 163 
 
 distracted his reign. Nottiing; worthy of notice appeared in 
 France ; the kingdom was given up to anarchy, licentious- 
 ness, and dissipation, and the court took the lead. The court 
 of Henry IV. of England, kept pace with the court of Prance, 
 until he died, and left the crown to his son, Henry V. 1413. 
 
 The disciples of Wickliff had now become numerous in 
 Ensland, under the denomination of Lollards, and were sjp- 
 ported by sir John Oidcastle, and lord Cobham, noblemen of 
 distinction. The archbishop of Canterbury, alarmed for the 
 safety of the church, obtained the king's permission to sup- 
 press the sect of the Lollards, by an attack upon lord Cobham. 
 Henry complied ; the attack commenced, and the persecu- 
 tion raged until Cobham was executed, and the Lollards sup- 
 pressed. Henrj^ then resolved to take advantage of the dis- 
 tracted state of France, assembled an army of thirty-six thou- 
 sand men, and landed at Harfleur in France, dismissed his 
 transports, and trusted to the valor of his sword. 
 
 Henry was met by a powerful French army of forty thou- 
 sand men, which checked his progress and compelled him to 
 retire towards Calais. In this retreat, he had occasion to pass 
 the river Somme, under circumstances very similar to the 
 passage of Edward HI. The French here, took post in his 
 rear, upon the plains of Agincourt, and checked his move- 
 ments : a battle was the only alternative. Henry saw his 
 army reduced to half their numbers, by fatigues, skirmishing, 
 sickness and hunger, now in the presence of a French army 
 of four times their number, headed by the dauphin, and the 
 best blood of the nation, full fed, and in high spirits. Henry 
 consoled himself with the battle of Cressy and Poictiers, (so 
 famous in English history,) took the same wise measures in 
 posting his army, and awaited the attack. The French, im- 
 patient for the victory, advanced to the attack with their usual 
 impetuosity ; the English received the shock with firmness, 
 and charged the French in their turn ; their ranks were brok- 
 en, thrown into disorder, and put to flight. Henry rushed 
 out of his camp at the head of his guards, and took vengeance 
 on the fugitives, with their battle-axes : a terrible slaughter 
 ensured ; the plain of ApJncourt was covered with the wound- 
 ed, the dead, and the dying. The loss was very inconsider- 
 able to Henry, but ruinous to France. Henry returned 
 to England to recruit his army, and France was torn and dis- 
 tracted with civil war. 
 
 Tfie Duke of Burgundy attempted to seize on the crown. 
 
164 xMARRIAGE OP HENRY AND CATHARINE. 
 
 and through the extreme corruption of the French court, ac- 
 tually engaged the queen molher, whilst regent to her son, 
 the dauphin, to favor his plans and promote his interest, 
 Charles VI. at this time in a state of frenzy, was secured, the 
 duke of Burgundy entered France with a powerful army, an 
 insurrection by his party, se;ized the dauphin, and commenc- 
 ed a general butchery of his party and friends, burst open 
 the prisons, and dragged forth to indiscriminate slaughter, all 
 the noblemen they could find. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes, Henry returned, and the pope's 
 legate, at a conference, attempted to persuade him to with- 
 draw, and leave the French to their fate, or conclude a peace. 
 Henry urged his claims to the crown, and plead the good he 
 was about to do, in eiving law to this distracted nation. 
 
 At this time the duke of Burgundy was slain, and the queen 
 settled a treaty with the new duke — agreed that Henry V. 
 should marry the princess Catharine, possess the throne of 
 Fmnce as heir apparent, and take the government as regent, 
 during the life of the king, Charles VI. and support the crown 
 by his arms. 
 
 Henry married Catharine the next day — established 
 Charles, his father, at Paris, settled the affairs of the king- 
 dom, lived to see an heir to the throne of France by his 
 queen, sickened at Paris, sent for his principal confidants in 
 England, arranged his affairs, and died, leaving the regency 
 of France to his brother, the duke of Bedford, 1422. Charles 
 
 VI. rhe old king died soon, and the dauphin took the throne 
 as Charles VH. and was crowned at Poictiers. 
 
 Catharine, the widow of Henry V. married Sir Owen Tu- 
 dor, a gentleman descended from the ancient princes of Wales, 
 anfl bore him two sons, (who became the earls of Richmond 
 and Pembroke :) they will claim our notice in their place. 
 
 The duke of Bedford exerted himself to support the French 
 crown for the infant heir, Henry VI. and the dauphin, 
 Charles VII. made all possible efforts to recover his claims. 
 Here the parties were at issue. James I. was at this time in 
 prison in England, and the Scots shewed their resentmf^nt by 
 supporting with their arms the cause of the dauphin, Cnades 
 
 VII. To obviate this, the Ensrlish, agreeabi: to the advice 
 of the regent, the duke of Bedford, entered into aili^snre with 
 Jam«^s< r■'^(\ sei him at liberty ; but he wus goon mu'-dere*! by 
 his kinsman, the earl of Athol, 1437. 
 
 The duke regent overran France, aad gained the battte ojT 
 
MAID OP ORLEANS. 165 
 
 Vernueil, which appeared to be ruinous to the cause of 
 Charles VII. but by a wonderful train of events, proved ruin- 
 ous to the cause of the regent, and occasioned the loss of all 
 the English possessions upon the continent. The city of 
 Orleans had now become the key of the contending parties, 
 and covered their divided provinces. Charles held posses- 
 sion, and the duke recent resolved to dispossess him ; till 
 Lurope considered the fate of the kinsdom to depend on the 
 siege of Orleans ; the contending parties exerted all their 
 valor and prowess upon both sides ; Charles VII. began to 
 despair, and actually made arrangements to withdraw into 
 Languedoc and Daupliiny, for the security of his army. 
 
 The kind remonstrance of his queen and other favorites at 
 court, diverted Charles from his purpose, and he resohed 
 to defend the city At this critical moment, a very sint'ular 
 adventure struck the attention of Europe : Joan De Arc, a 
 country girl of the village of Domrimi, on the borders of Lor- 
 rain, from a low and obscure station, was raised up as the 
 deliverer of the city of Orleans. 
 
 Joan announced that by immediate communications from 
 heaven, she had received a special commission to go, and re- 
 lieve the city. She went to the governor of the city of Vau- 
 couleurs, and obtained his permission to repair to the court 
 of Charles VII. ; repaired to his court at Chinon, where she 
 was favorably received, offered to execute the commission 
 of heaven, and deliver the city ; and demanded a particular 
 sword in the church of St. Catharine Fierbois. 
 
 After serious and mature deliberation, her request was 
 granted, and the sword delivered. Joan, armed cap ft pie, and 
 mounted on horseback, took her departure at the head of a 
 numerous retinue, and entered the city of Orleans, arrayed in 
 her armor, under the display of her consecrated standard, and 
 amidst the acclamations of the garrison and citizens. 
 
 The scene was opened : Joan had promised to raise the 
 siege of Orleans, and cause Charles to be crowned at Rfieims: 
 the one was invested, but the other lay in a remote part of 
 the kingdom, j.uarded by detachments of Enghsh troops, in 
 all the passes that led to it. 
 
 A general anxiety began to shew itself in the English army, 
 and heaviness had seized their spirits. Joan joined count 
 Dunois the commander of Orleans, and by several desperate 
 and successful sallies, drove, thf- Eiglish fr«m their intrench- 
 meats, and actually obliged them to raise the siege. 
 
166 DEATH OF JOAN DE ARC. 
 
 She then pressed Charles to accompany her immediafely 
 to Rheims, which he did, at the head of 12,000 men. Ti^eir 
 irarch was rapid and easy ; Rheims opened ht r trates, and 
 Joan and Charles entered in triuniph. Charles VII. was 
 crowned, and anointed with that hf>!y oil which the pigeon 
 was said to have brought from heaven to Ciovis ; and all 
 France was ready to submit lo his authority. 
 
 This simple story needs no comment — we will pursue thfe 
 facts in their consequences. 
 
 To counterbalance this, the duke regent sent for the young 
 king from Enjiland, Henry VI. and had him crowned, and 
 conducted all his ii-ovements with the caution of a Fabius, 
 to elude the attack of Charles. 
 
 Joan, at the coronation of Charles at Rheims, declared her 
 commission closed, and demanded permission to retire, but 
 was overpersuaded to attempt the defence of the town of 
 Compf'ign, then beseieed by the duke. Here she attempt- 
 ed the same sallies as at Orleans, was taken prisoner, condemn- 
 ed by an ecclesiastical court as a witch and a sorceress, and 
 committed to the flames. 
 
 Thus perished the heroine of Orleans, who deserved a bet- 
 ter fate, 1431. The duke recent died soon after — factions 
 sprang up in England, when Henry took the throne ; Charles 
 recovered all the English possessions in France, except 
 Calais ; the storm of war hushed into a calm, whilst the af- 
 fairs of England took up the attention of Henry, and the par- 
 lies withdrew from the contest without even a truce, 1453. 
 France contmued to recover her order, and England contin- 
 ued to decline. 
 
 We left Albert Duke of Austria upon the imperial throne, 
 where he attempted an expedition against the Turks, but fell 
 a prey to a dysentery 1439, and was succeeded by his broth- 
 er Frederic HI. duke of Austria, and Albert's infant son La- 
 disiaus inherited Hungary and Bohemia, under the guardian- 
 ship of Frederic HI. A grand council was now assembled 
 at Brasil by order of the council of Constance, " to reform 
 the church universal, both in its head and members." This 
 couruil had raised to the chair Felix V. in opposition to Eu- 
 genius IV. who opposed the meeting of this council. 
 
 Frederic III. repaired to his council, after having enjoyed 
 an interview with their pope Felix, who he endeavored to per- 
 suade to resign the chair to Euii-nius and restore peace to 
 the church ; Felix resigned, Eua:enius died, and Nicholas V. 
 was raised to the chair, and the schism was healed. 
 
CAPTURE OP CONSTANTINOPLE. 16? 
 
 The healing of this relij^ious faction made Frederic very 
 popular, at d opened a new scene. The factions of Genna- 
 ny had for a lon^r time W^t the states of Italy a prey to their 
 intriiiues and civil wars, and the e?nperor now entered upon 
 a tour of Italy, to heal the contentions, to meet Eleonora, 
 sister to the king of Portu^fal, to whom he was engai^ed in 
 marriasie, and to receive the Roman crown. 
 
 All the cities of Italy vied with each other in testifying 
 their re8{)ect for the emperor; arnbassadors and deputations 
 from all the principal cities, met him at the foot of the Alps, 
 courted his attention, and pcraced his train 
 
 Venice, Milan, Florence, and Bologna, received the empe- 
 ror with isreat ma^niticence, and Sienna witnessed the lirst 
 interview with the prmcess Eleonora, where he gave audi- 
 ence to the legates of the pope.* The emperor had now tak- 
 en the tirst step to enter Rome, he next approached the ciJy 
 by the way of Viterbo, (where he was insulted by th« popu- 
 lace and his life endangered) and pitched his tent und^r the 
 walls of Rt)me, according to custom, and passed the nisrht. 
 The next morning Frederic entered Rome attended by the 
 whole college of cardinals, amidst the acclamations of the 
 people, and was crowned king of Lombardy ; on the third 
 day his marriage with the princess Eleonora was consumma- 
 ted, the concordat of the German Empire ratified with the 
 j pope, arid the emperor returned to Germany, 1452. 
 
 At this time the Turks entered Constantinople in triumph, 
 
 ! overthrew the last vestige of the Roman Empire, and put an 
 
 end to the legs of iron in the great image of Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 , Thus far we have traced the prot;ress of man through all 
 
 the mazes of revolution, in the rise and fall of the four great 
 
 * Here Fi-ederic complied with the usages of Emperors before he 
 entered Rome, and took the following' oath : "I Frederic king of the 
 Romans, promise and swear by \he Faihei-, Son, and Holy Ghost, by 
 the wood of the vivifying cross, and by these relics of saints, ihat if by 
 the permission of the Lord I shall come to Rome, I will exalt the holy 
 Roman church and his holiness who presides over it, to the utmost in 
 
 I my power. Neither shall he lose life, limb, or honor by my council, 
 consent, or exhortation. Nor will I, in the city of Rome, make :i'iy 
 
 I law or decree touching those things that belong to his holiness, or the 
 
 I Romans, without the advice of our most holy Lord Nicholas. What- 
 ever part of St. Peter's patrimony shall fUll in.o our hands, we will re- 
 store it lo his holiness ; and he to whom we shall commit the adminis- 
 tration of our kingdom of Italy, shall swear to assist ius holiness l, de- 
 
 1 fending St. Peter's patrimony to the utmost of his power. So help me 
 
 \ Gt)d and his holy evangelists.'* 
 
168 MURDER OF THE DUKE OP GLOUCESTER. 
 
 empires of the earth, distinguished also by the four beasts la 
 the vision of the prophet Daniel, chapter vii. verse 1 to 8 in- 
 clusive ; of whom it was said, " arise, devour much flesh." 
 We have also traced the revolutions which have distressed 
 the work! under the reij;n of that little horn, which j^rew out 
 of the horns of the fourth beast, and the plains of ancient 
 Greece, formerly so renowned in the Persian and Roman 
 wars, have now become the theatre of christian and mahom- 
 etan conflict. 
 
 CHAP. XXL 
 
 Recapitulation — civil wars in England — of France — rvar in 
 Flanders. 
 
 The feet of the Roman empire are now distinctly formed, 
 as in the great imai^e of Nebuchadnezzar, where the iron h 
 mixed with the clay. The beast and the false prophet are 
 DOW firmly seated in the two o;reat capitals, and exercise uni- 
 Tersal sovereignty. The kingdoms of the west under the do- 
 minion of the little horn, will continue to claim our attention. 
 
 We have noticed the struggles in France, during the minor- 
 ity of Henry VI. under the regency of his uncle, the duke of 
 Bedford, and the ruin of the aff*airs of England which follow- 
 ed the death of the duke renent : the character and reign of 
 Henry VI. in England, now claim our attention. 
 
 The weak reign of Henry, opened the way for Richard, 
 duke of York, to set up his claim to the crown, which he 
 bad derit^ed from his mother, Philippa, only daughter of the 
 duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III ; and claimed 
 precedence of the title of the duke of Lancaster, who was 
 third son of Edward. 
 
 The duke of York had high claims, was valiant, very rich, 
 allied by marriage to the best blood of the nation, and gene- 
 rally beloved. 
 
 The queen inother, assisted by the earl of Suffolk, still con- 
 tinued the regency in England, where they were not only un- 
 popular, but accused as the secret cause of all ihe loss* s ia 
 France ; and as Margaret was a French woman, they were 
 even accused of treachery ; and the murder of the duke of 
 Gloucester, which was also imputed to them, confirmed all 
 suspicions, and rendered them odious to the nation. 
 
CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 169 
 
 The duke of York knew how to avail himself of (his state 
 of things ; proceeded to accuse Suffolk in parliament, had 
 him banished for five years, and caused him to be murdered 
 on his passage to France. 
 
 The duke of Somerset succeeded in the administration, 
 and in the esteem of the queen ; this transferred the public 
 odium to him ; and the parliament approached the throne 
 with a petition that the duke of Somerset might be excluded 
 from the councils of the nation. Somerset was arrested, 
 sent to the tower, and the duke of York appointed lieutenant 
 of the kingdom, with all the powers of regent, 
 
 Henry VI. recovering from the depressed state of his health 
 and spirits, attempted to check tlie overbearing power of 
 Richard, by force. The duke was prepared, and a battle 
 was fought ; Richard was victorious, the king was taken, his 
 army dispersed, and a general accomtnodation took place be- 
 tween the parties, which was sealed in the public view, by a 
 mutual procession and te deum, in the cathedral of St. Paul, 
 1458. 
 
 The trifling incident of a quarrel between two servants of 
 the contending parties, again threw the nation into a civil 
 war, and caused the battle of Blow-heath, where again Rich- 
 ard was successful. This increased the violence of the par- 
 ties, and the jealousy of the nation towards Richard ; and the 
 treachery of one of his principal generals, who deserted to the 
 king, obliged Richard to flee to Ireland, and abandon his cause. 
 
 In this critical state of aftairs, the earl of Warwick appear- 
 ed in Kent, assembled an army by the influence of his popu- 
 ular talents, marched to London, from thence amidst the tri- 
 umph of popular applans*^, he advanced to meet the king. 
 The two armies met at Northampton, an action was fou,-iht, 
 Warwick was^^ictorious, the king was taken, and carried in 
 triumph to London. 
 
 Richard returned to England, approached parliament with 
 great dignity, modesty and firmness, plead his title to the 
 crown, and retired. The house of peers, with the advice of 
 the commons, ratified the claims of Richard, made him re- 
 gent during the life of Henry, and upon his death, secured 
 the throne, as the true and lawful heir. 
 
 Margaret the queen had flefl during these struggles, into 
 Scotland, where she raised a powerful ^rmy of twenty thou- 
 sand men, and entered England to dispute the prize. 
 
 Richard advanced to meet the queen ; a battle was fought 
 16 
 
170 CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 
 
 near Wakefield, Richard was slain, and his second son, earl of 
 Rutland, taken and murdered ; the earl of Salisbury shared 
 the same fate, and opened the way for a war of extirinination. 
 
 Marjjaret marched towards London ; the earl of Warwick 
 met her at St. Albans, a battle ensued, Warwick was beaten, 
 and fled to London, and Margaret ripcovered her captive king. 
 
 This victory was checked by the approach of younir Ed- 
 ward, (then twenty years of a-.e,) son of the late duke of York, 
 with a strony; force, elated with their late successes. The ' 
 queen retired to avoid an action : Edward entered London in f 
 triumph, set up his claim to the crown in right of his father, 
 was owned and received by the acclamations of the people, 
 confirmed by the house of lords, and crowned king, as Ed- 
 ward iV. 
 
 Here opened the exterminating scene of carnage and de- 
 struction in the civil war of the houses of York and Lancas- 
 ter, (or war of the white and red rose.) The two armies 
 were now augmented to about forty thousand men : they 
 met near Towton, an action commenced, both parties drew 
 the sword and rushed to close combat, the conflict was ob- 
 stinate, the carnage was great, the Lancastrians fled, Edward 
 pursued, no quarter was the order of the day, and the butch- 
 ery was awful : thirly-six thousand fell on the field, and in 
 the flight. The action was decisive, and Margaret and H^^ury 
 fled to Scotland for safety and succor. 
 
 The divided state of Scotland, under the reign of James 
 III. (who had succeeded James IL) was in no situation to 
 heal her own faction ; yet she ventured to protfer assistance 
 to Margaret, upon the condition she should deliver up the 
 conquered fortress of Berwick, and contract her son in mar- 
 riage with a sister of James Jjf. This being settled, Marga- 
 ret assembled an arm.y of English, Scots, ^nd French, and 
 advanced into England, 1464. 
 
 Lord Montecute met her at Hexham, attacked, routed, 
 and destroyed her army, either in the field or on the scaffold. 
 Margaret and her son fled into a <leep forest, where she was 
 robbed by one set of banditti, and protected, with her son, by 
 another, until she found her way into France. Henry was 
 discovered after one whole year's conceahnent, carried to 
 London and committed to the tower ; and the tranquillity of 
 the nation was restored. 
 
 Edward sent the earl of Warwick into France, to negotiate 
 a treaty of caarnage with the sister of the queea of France, 
 
CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 171 
 
 and in bis absence was smitten with the charms of lady Eli- 
 ZHoeth Grdy, (whose husband fell in the battle of St. Albans, 
 and whose estate had been confiscated by Richard ;) he offer- 
 ed her his hand, and the half of his crowr. ; was accepted, 
 and the marriaiie consummated without the privity of War- 
 wick. This raised his irreconcilable revensje : he returned 
 to England, put himself at the head of the Lanca?^(rians, and 
 took the field. Edward, deserted by his friends, fp|t himself 
 unsafe at the head of his army, and fled into H'>itand ; a?!d 
 Henry VI. was once more restored to the throne, and the 
 parliament declared Edward IV. an usurper, 1470. 
 
 The factions in Enjiland operi^d the way for Edward to re- 
 turn the next year. He entered London in triumph, after 
 having routed the army of Warwick, and seen him and his 
 brother tlie marquis of Montague, both dead before him, and 
 his army given up to the exterminatiny; cry of wo quarter 
 
 Margaret, with her youni; son, eighteen years of age, lan- 
 ded from France, on the fatal day, and took shelter in the ab- 
 bey of Beauiieu, where she assembled an army by the assis- 
 tance of her friends, took the fiehl, and met Edward at T« wks- 
 bury. An action ensued ; Margaret was routed, her army 
 cait to pieces and destroyed, she and her son taken prisoners, 
 her son n>urdered, Margaret thrown into the tower, and Ed- 
 ward again restored to the throne. 
 
 Having exterminated all his rivals, Edward assembled an 
 army to divert and unite the nation ; embarked for France, 
 and alarmed Lewis XL into an honourable treaty and return- 
 ed to En;^!and with seventy-five thousand crowns, and a stip- 
 ulation for fifty thousand more annually for hfe, with fifiy 
 thousan<l more for the ransom of Queen Margaret, who retir- 
 ed to France, and lived and died in peace. 
 
 Factions were generally laid now in En^rland, and Edward, 
 after causins; the restless spirit of the duke of Clarence to be 
 appeased in a butt of malmsey wine, enjoyed a tranquil 
 throne, and died in the forty second year of his age, 1483. 
 
 Edward V. then thirteen years of ajre, succeeded his father, 
 under the regency of his uncle Richard, duke of Gloucester, 
 who was choseki protector, and fixed his eye upoii the crown. 
 
 Between Richard and the throne stood the sons of Ed- 
 ward IV. and two of the duke of Clarence, with their powerful 
 friends. The latter were dispatched in bloody succession, 
 whilst the yount princes were snug in the tower ; R'chard 
 swam in blood to the throne through the acclamations of the 
 
172 HOUSE OF TUDOR. 
 
 mob. sealed his power by the murder of the princes in the 
 lower, and reiijnf d the scourge and terror of the nation. 
 
 Catherine of France, relict of Henry V. had married sir 
 Owen Tudor (as was noticed) and left Henry earl of Rich- 
 mond, who was descended from John dukefof Lancaster, son 
 of Edward 111. by the side of the mother, and the only branch 
 of the contending family of Lancaster ; the enemies of Rich- 
 ard entered into secret negotiations to restore the throne to 
 the true line, through Henry, under the management of the 
 duke of Buckingham. 
 
 Richard, in order to defeat these plans, proposed to marry 
 the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. and sister of 
 the murdered princes, and actually obtained the consent of 
 the queen mother; when Henry landed from France with six 
 thousand men, and erected his standard in Wales. The 
 V/elch rallied round the standard of a descendant of their an- 
 cient kings, and at their head Henry advanced into England. 
 Richard was prepared ; the two armies met at Bosworth, a 
 battle was fought, the conflict was obstinate, Henry was tri- 
 umphant, Richard fell, and the justice of the sword took ven- 
 geance on this monster of cruelty, tyranny, and blood. 
 
 Henry was at once crowned king by his army (with the 
 rrown Richard wore in the action,) and hailed as the deliver- 
 er of the nation; his title was acknowledged by parliament, he 
 was next married to the princess Elizabeth, and commenced 
 the dynasty of the house of Tudor,underthe title of Henry VH. 
 
 During these struggles in England, Charles VI 1. king of 
 France, organized and established his government, secured 
 the possessions acquired from the English, established a reg- 
 ular army, raised a revenue for their regular pay, and estab- 
 lished a regular conscription throughout France, of one archer 
 iVom each village, who was exempt from tax. This laid the 
 foundation in France for the title ofgeniletneny both in name 
 and in arms. 
 
 Jn the midst of these wise measures, Lewis XI. rebelled 
 against his father, caused his death, and usurped his throne, 
 1461. This produced such changes as opened a civil war; 
 his disaffected nobles flew to arms, and both parties took the 
 field ; they fought, but without decision, and Lewis gained by 
 riegociation what he could not obtain by his sword, and set- 
 lied the peace of his crown, 1465. 
 
 The rapacity of Lewis soon led him into new troubles and 
 entangled him in a quar^-el with Charles the Bold, son of Phil- 
 
MARRIAGE OF MAXIMILIAN. 173 
 
 if) duke of Burgundy ; both parties took the field, but Lew's 
 bought off witii money, and held a priyaie interview sv h 
 Charles at Peronne, (tnen in possession of diaries;) here 
 Cliarles caused Lewi? to be secured in the castle, and held 
 him as his prisoner, compelled him to march a^iainst Liei^e 
 in support of Charles' claims, and assist in the reduction and 
 ruin of Liege. 
 
 Upon the return of his liberty, he attempted to unite to his 
 crown Burgundy, Franche Compte, Artois, Flarsders, and al- 
 inosi all the Netherlands, by a mnniage between his son 
 Charles the Dauphin (then seven years of age) and the Prin- 
 cess, daughter of the duke of Burgundy, who was sole heiress. 
 
 This failed, and the Princess Mary, was married to Maxa- 
 miiian I. son of the Euiperor Frederic' \l\. which laid tUe 
 foundation for all those wars between France and Austria, 
 which desolated the low countries, 
 
 Lewis settled a truce in Flanders, but the troubles of France 
 contliiued to kh death, and the horr^irs of this scene inflicied 
 some punishnient on him for the cruelties of his life. Li-wls 
 was the first king of France who assumed the title of most 
 christian majesty ; he was succeeded by his son Charles Vill. 
 at fourteen years of age, and the regency was conducted by 
 the duke of Orleans, (afterwards Lewis Xli.) 
 
 CHAP. XXU. 
 
 „1 general view ofEuropp ; League ofCambray ; commence- 
 ment of the Refonnalion. 
 
 Thus having surveyed this dark and distressing period of 
 eleven centuries, we oine dcuvn to (hat epo«'h in the history 
 of Europe, when the reigns of Charles the VIH. of France, 
 Ferdinand and l?abella of Spain, Henry VII. of EasJaad, 
 M.'ximilian L of Germany, aad Pope Sixtus the lVfh,an<! Al- 
 exander VI. formed a new constellation in ttie we^^tern hemis- 
 phere, a pf riod when the bRlance of power firr^t be^ian to be 
 felt arid understood ; (hat balance of power which has been 
 the sirbject of such distressing and expensive wars, and con- 
 tinues to this day to waste li'e blood and treasure of Europe. 
 Chhrles Vill. w.;? a prince of ^reat -vmbition, and upon the 
 commencement of his reign found all the great fiefs of France 
 
 15- 
 
174 BALANCE OF POWER. 
 
 united to the throne, except the duchy of Brittany; this it be- 
 CJJiiip the ioterest of (he nation to unite to the crov^n by a mar- 
 riage between Ciiarles and the duchess. This, after the re- 
 ni(^ al of several important obstaclesjwastinallyaecowiphshed, 
 and Charles found himself at the head of an undivided throne. 
 
 The union of the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, under 
 Feidinand and Isabella, was accomplished by a similar mar- 
 riaiie in Spain, and under their patrona^^e, Chistopher Colum- 
 bus opened a new world to the family of man, J 492. Henry 
 the Vll. by the victory of Bosworth, the death of Richard the 
 III. tl-e last of the Piantagenets, and by the marriaj^e of Eli- 
 zabeth, daughter of Edward IV. quieted the civil wars of 
 En-land, and restored tranquillity to an undivided throne. 
 
 M-iximilian I. by creatins the high court of the imperial 
 chamber In Germany, quieted in a great measure the feuds 
 which had long distracted the empire, established a union ve- 
 ry rrsuch like the Achean league in ancient Greece, and se- 
 cure^! the tranquillity of his throne. 
 
 Of th. se popes like all their predecessors, we cannot tind 
 one goifd tiling to say, and pass over the many corrupt things 
 we might say, and let them rest in silence. 
 
 The system of the balance of power which now began to 
 regulate the great theatre of European politics, took its rise 
 in rhe Italian cl^.ims, and was now contirmed by the expedi- 
 tion of Charles Vlll. to support his title to the kingdom of 
 Naples, which he claimed as heir to the house of Anjou. 
 
 Charles marched into Italy, took an uncontested possession 
 of the throne of Naples, marched to Rome, took possession 
 as a consequence, humbled pope Alexander VI. in the castle 
 of St. An^elo, prescribed conditions to the smaller states, and 
 then gave law to Italy. He cause<l himself to be proclaimed 
 emperor of the east, upon a grant of Paleologus, when the em- 
 pire of Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks. This 
 bold stride of Charles called forth a confederacy composed 
 of the emperor Maximilian I. Ferdinand and Isabella, the Ve- 
 netians, and the duke of Milan, sanctioned by the pope. 
 
 This union laid aside their private animosities, formed one 
 cominon interest, compelled Charles to retrace his steps, re- 
 turn to France, and resign the conquests of Italy in less time 
 than it had tnken him to acquire it. His excesses soon clos- 
 ed his life, and he died 1498, leaving his throne to Lewis XII.; 
 the fruits of jhts coalition isave been the means of preserving 
 the balance of power by a similar resort to this day. 
 
LEAGUE OF CAMBRAY. 175 
 
 Henry VII. of England made an effort to recover the prov- 
 nce of Brittany in the reign of Charles ^'^III. but was appeased 
 with a round sum of money, and Briitany, together with Bur- 
 gurn.y, passed into the hands of Lewis Xll. then to Francis L 
 and the kingdom has remained entire. The success. of the 
 coalition against Charles VIII. led to a new theatre of events. 
 
 The repubHc of Venice, together with, Genoa, became 
 the carriers of Europe in the time of the crusades, which laid 
 the foundation for that commerce which had now raised 
 those cities above all others in Europe, both in wealth, splen- 
 dor, and the arts. Venice had not only enriched and embel- 
 lished her city, but enlarged her state by seizing on the do- 
 minions of her neighbors, and had become so formidable as 
 to alarm the tears and jealousy of pope Julius II. 
 
 Venice, situated at the head of the Gulf of Venice, or Ad- 
 riatic Sea, had supplanted the ancient city of Tyre, and en- 
 grossed the commerce not only of Europe, but of Asia and 
 even Africa; her government which was altogether in the 
 hands of the nobles, had stood unshaken amidst all the storms 
 that surrounded her, and set at defiance the domination of 
 the chair of St. Peter. 
 
 Julius formed a coalition to humble Venice, known by the 
 league of Cambray. The principals of this league were 
 Maximilian I. of Germany, Lewis XII. of France, Ferdinand 
 of Spain, toj/ether with the princes of Italy generally. The 
 Venetians ?uflfered this storm to gather and burst upon their 
 heads without one effort to divert it; their long uninterrupted 
 prosperity had corrupted their policy, and lulled them into 
 security. 
 
 Overwhf^Imed by this mighty force, they abandoned all 
 their conquests, shut themselves up in their city, and sued for 
 per^.ce. Julius, who was at the head of this lea^iue, and who 
 had thrown his keys into the Tiber, drawn his sword to as- 
 sert his dominion and become a champion of Mars, seized on 
 and recovered such territory as lay within, and contiguous to 
 his ecclesiastical estates, and settled a peace. 
 
 Alarmed at the formidable force of Lewis, as well as the 
 rest of the allies, Julius absolved the Venetians from his spir- 
 itual thunders, united them in his interest to expel all for- 
 eisners out of Italy, and drew his sword upon Lf'wis. Julius 
 di' erted Ferdinftnd from the league, united the Swiss in Jiis 
 inieresi, an<l solicited ami obtained the aid of Henry VIII. of 
 England, who co-operated in the war. 
 
176 MARTIN LUTHER. 
 
 The famous battle of Ravenna lost Lewis all his claims in 
 Italy, and his flight was as rapid as the fliglit of his predeces- 
 sor Charles Vlll Julius succeeded in all his plans and died 
 at an advanced age, leaving the chair to Leo X. 1613. 
 
 Henry VIII. followed up the blow, formed a league with 
 Maximilian, and the two sovereigns took Ihe field in Flanders 
 against Lewis XII. where the emperor Maximilian served in 
 the pay and under the command of Henry Vlll. of England, 
 
 Here commenced the English and Gernian coalitions in 
 Flanders against France. Henry was entangled in a war with 
 Scotland, and Lewis with pope Leo X. at the same time. 
 The wa.K-in Flanders became a war of posts ; the campaign 
 closed V'itiiout advantage to the parties, Henry returned to 
 England, a peace was settled generally by intf niiarriages the 
 Bes.t season, and the siorm of war was attain hushed. 
 
 Lewis died 1515, and was succeeded by his son-in law, 
 Francis I ; and the next year died Ferdinand of Spain, and 
 was succeeded by his R;randson Charles, heir to the archduke 
 Philip, sovereign of the low countries, who alio was elected 
 emperor of Germany, upon the death of Maximilian, undtr 
 the title of Charles V. 1519. 
 
 Amidst this bright constellation of princes, upon the 
 thrones of England, France, Spain, and Germany, appeared 
 Martin Luther, the angel of the gospel, and the champion of 
 the reformation. All these added to the use of letters, under 
 the art of printing, to the use of gun powder in the art of war, 
 to the use of the mariner's compsss in the art of navigation, 
 with the improvements of husbandry, manufactures, and 
 commerce, together with the discovery of a new world, com- 
 menced a new era in the annals of man, opened a new field 
 for the display of taler-ts, enterprise and ambition, gave to the 
 religion of the gospel a triumph over the bigotry, idolatrous 
 superstition and corruption of popery, and opened the way 
 for the establishment of a pure church in Europe, and this 
 wilderue&s of the modern Canaan of God. 
 
 CHAP. XXTII. 
 
 General state of society, co/nmerce, navigation, and the arts in 
 Europe— foreign adventures and discoveries — reformation 
 continiied. 
 
 Before we enter upon that all-important scene, the re- 
 
DISCOVERY OF INDIA. 177 
 
 formation under Martin Luther, let us take a view of com- 
 merce, navigation, the arts, and state of society generally, at 
 this eventful age. 
 
 Portugal which had been erected into a kingdom by duke 
 Alphonzo Henriqu^-z. 1 139 ; was torn by feuds, and distract- 
 «d by perpetual v/ars with the Moors, until the reign of king 
 John, 1385. He, like Alfred of England, turned the attention 
 of the nation to their fleet. His successor, Don H^nry, 1414, 
 enlarged and improved the plans of his father, cultivated the 
 sciences with great success, applied the science of astronomy 
 to the art of navigation, taught the Portuguese how to ex- 
 plore distant lands, and by their successful efforts, were in- 
 spired with a spirit for distant adventure. The saOM spirit 
 grew and increased under the succeeding reign of lohn II. 
 who transmitted it tofeis successor, Emanuel I. 
 
 At the commencement of his reign, he found that the whole 
 coast of Africa, upon the shore of the Atlantic, had been ex- 
 plored by his predecessor, as far as the cape of Good Hope ; 
 the Azores and Cape de Verd Islands, opened to their view, 
 and the vine, and sugar cane, were introduced into Madeira 
 with success. 
 
 Emanuel, alive to the spirit and successes of national en- 
 terprise, sent a fleet of four ships under Vasco de Gama, to 
 explore the Indian Ocean, who discovered Hindostan or hith- 
 er India, 1498, touched at the city of Calicut, on the Malabar 
 coast, then greatly enriched by the trade of the Arabs, who 
 were the carriers of the wealth of India, by the wny of the 
 Red Sea andEaypt, or by the way of Palmyra to Tyre and Si- 
 don ; from whence the Venetiri'.s and Genoese conveyed it 
 to Europe. 
 
 Do Gama, after a perilous but successful voyage, returned 
 to Lisbon, and thus laid the f sundntion of the commerce of 
 India, by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. Pope Alex- 
 ander VI. cauiiht the tire, and itranted to Emanuel all his 
 new discoveries, and all su"h as he should discover, provided 
 he should propagate the christinn religion. 
 
 Fired with zeal and epterptize, commerce, and religion, 
 the whole nation caught tne tinme ; and on a second adven- 
 ture with thirteen ships, under Alvarez de Cabral, thev tra- 
 versed the great Atlantic, explored the coast of Brazil on the 
 continent of South America, in 1500, took possession under 
 the title of the land of the holy cross, pursued their voyage by 
 the way of the Cape' of Good Hop. to India, established with 
 the sword an independent trade, and returned to Lisbon. 
 
178 DISCOVERY or INDIA. 
 
 A strojiff force was sent out iu 1602, which confirnipd the 
 forrrif-r establishmenr ir» Intiia, burnt Calicut, nnd nwnln G^.a, 
 the emporium <»f Portu; ucse commerce in India, 1510. In 
 111, Albuquf'rq-ie, (he PutuL'uese uovernor t;t India, took 
 the city oi" Malacca, 1513. He ruiii^^d (he commerce of 
 Ejrypt with India, by his depredations on the shares of the red 
 sea, and thus turned the wenlth of Jndia to Lisbon. 
 
 Albuquerque, after all ihese services for his country and 
 the world, like his great prototype, Christopher Columbus, 
 fell a sacriSce to the envy and malice of his enemies, and 
 died of a broken heart, in poverty and disi^race. 
 
 The Portuguese afterwards extended their commerce to 
 China and Japan. The di&coveries of Christopher Colum- 
 bus, 149S, we will reserve for the history of America. — The 
 Enclisb. the Spaniards, and the Dutch,*were soon engaged in 
 this commerce of the east ; and a!) that wealth which ustd to 
 pass into the west, by ihe way of the Persian gulf, to Tyre 
 and the Red Sea, to Cairo Hnd Alexandria, and from thence, 
 by the ships of Venice and Genoa, to Fl-^nders in the low 
 countries, and Dantzic and other ports on the Baltic, and 
 thence generally diffused over Europe — 'Was at thi? time 
 brought to Lisbon, by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 which continues to this day the highway of the commerce of 
 the west with the east. 
 
 The angel of the gospel commenced his labors in the heart 
 of Germany, of unfolding to the world the mystery of iniqui- 
 ty which had for so many centuries been veiled in the rayste- 
 rits of popery, by publishing the pure doctrines c^f the gospel 
 in a language familiar to ail, and disclosing the corruptions 
 of thf» beast without morals, without religion, and without the 
 autiiority of God. 
 
 France and Spain were now engrossed in the strife be- 
 iwiVii Charles V. and Francis L for supremacy in Italy. 
 Henry Ylll. of England was engaged in holding a balance of 
 power between them, whilst Luther was left in the heart of 
 Germany to publish good tidings of good things. 
 
 He was opposed by pope Clement VII. who summoned a 
 diei at Worms to check the progress of Luther, who had con- 
 verted to the faith nearly one half of Germany, and gained 
 the confidence of a great part of the remainder. The edicts 
 of - diet of Worms, and the spiritual thcnders of Clement, 
 were lost iti the asr; Luther set them at defiance. 
 
 Charles V. alarmed for the safety of the church, and the 
 
DIET OP SPIRES. • 179 
 
 peace of Germany, assembled the diet of Spires to take Into 
 consideration the state of religion ; they conlirmed the edicts 
 of Worms ; this called forth the protest of the EJeetor of Sax- 
 ony, the Landgrave of Hesse, the duke of Lurenburg, the 
 prince of Anhalf, with the deputation of fourteen free impe- 
 rial cities, against the edict of Spires, and fixed to the follow- 
 ers of Luther the name of protestants, which continues to 
 this day. 
 
 Melancthon, who co operated with Luther, drew up a sys- 
 tem of prineipies, styled the confession of Augsburg, which 
 became the strong hold of attack and defenee, through this 
 wonderlu! contest ; which resisted the sword, the torch and 
 the gibbet, with all the malice of hellish assa sination ; stood 
 the palladium of the reformation, triun*phed over the beast 
 with his ten horns, and has transmitred the blessings of 
 " peace on earth, and good will to men," down to us in this 
 w^stnrn world. 
 
 Thd field of foreign enterprise led olT the attention of the 
 maritime states of the soulli of Europe, and the great contest 
 in Italy between Charles V. and Francis I. in which Francis 
 failed, and was led a prisoner from the siege of Pavia into 
 I Spain, all served to divert the attention of these powers, and 
 j open the way for the more easy spread of the reformntion— 
 I .and the effects of these very struggles, and this commerce 
 I were, to expand the minds f>f men, and facilitate the easy and 
 ; - general circulation of the scriptures of triHh. 
 I Henry Vlll of England, with a steady eye to the balance 
 I of power in Europe, effected the restoration of Francis I af- 
 j tera captivity of two years, entered into the religious quarrels 
 I of the day, and by his defence of popery, obtained from t'«e 
 \ i pope the title of defesider of the faith ; but when his holinnss 
 I refused to sanction the divorce of his wife, he threw off she 
 -mask, severed his kinadom of Eng;land from the holy see, 
 I founded the reformed proiesiant episcopal church, by a de- 
 I cree of his parliament, placed himself at its head, and at one 
 j bold stroke abolished all the religious cloisters of England. 
 I Thus at one radical blow rooted out popery, by the ttestruc- 
 1 tion of these sinks of corruption, together with the influence 
 I of the monks, those pests and drones of society, who govern- 
 j ed them. 
 
 I Henry proceeded to divorce his Grst wife, Catharine of 
 Spain, and in succession married five others; divoreed two, 
 beheaded two, and two died natural deaths. Henry was no 
 
iSt) DEATH OF MARTIN LUTHER. 
 
 Lutheran, and so full was he of the ideas of heretics, that he 
 denounced all who questioned his supremacy, and brought 
 to the block all who advocated the doctrines of Luther — and 
 the six articles called the blood bill which Henry forced 
 through his parliament, proved him to be yet an orthodox 
 catholic, and the observance of the six articles he enforced 
 with the punishment of death. 
 
 Henry VIH. went very far to promote the reformation in 
 England ; yet he was as bloody an enthusiast and tyrant, as 
 many of the popes of Rome, and died as he lived, a Catholic. 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. 
 
 Affairs of Germany — of England — France — massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew. 
 
 The confession of Augsburg, and the league of Smalkalde, 
 which united the faith and energies of the protestants in Ger- 
 many, maintained a firm resistance to the powers of the em- 
 peror and the pope, until they were broken by the civil wars, 
 and the reduction of Saxony. This stroke gave strength 
 and confidence to the emperor ; he convoked the diet of 
 AuL'sburg, and published his interim. 
 
 This mongrel thing placed Charles between two fires, ex- 
 cited the' indignation of the Pope, and his despotic sway unit- 
 ed more firmly the protestant league of Smalkalde, and 
 brought in prince Maurice, who had subdued Saxony for the 
 emperor, to oppose Charles, and support the protestant league. 
 In the midst of these scenes, died Clement VII. and Francis 
 I. and were succeeded by Paul HI. and Henry H of France. 
 
 This chauiie of mea«ures iu Maurice, humbled the haughty 
 plans of Charles, and fixed the reformation upon an immova- 
 ble basis in Germany. 
 
 In the midst of these troubles, and immediately after the 
 league of Smalkalde, died Martin Luther ; having sown the 
 seeds of the reformation, and having lived to realize that 
 waters could not quench, and that floods could not drown 
 them ; but that a way was already prepared for them to illu- 
 minate the world. 
 
 Thus we have seen how the prediction of the prophet has 
 been fulfilled in this angel of the gospel ; and QYery protest- 
 
"EDWARD VI. 131 
 
 ant divine from that day to this, has added one more blast to 
 the trump of the immortal Luther ; and all who shall follow, 
 will continue to swell the blast, till the commencement of the 
 millennial day. 
 
 In the midst of the triumphs of the reformation in Germa- 
 ny, died Henry Vlll. of Eni;land, and was succeeded by his 
 only son, Edward VI. at nine years of a^e Henry settled 
 his crown by will ; first upon Edward, (by Jane Seymour ;) 
 then to Mary, (by Catharine of Arragon ;) then to Elzabeth, 
 (by Anne Bolyn ) During; the minority of Edward, the re- 
 gency devolved upon his uncle, the duke of Somerset, with 
 the title of protector, together with five other executfjrs, with 
 archbishop Cranmer at their head. Under this protectorate, 
 a war sprung up between England and Scotland, which occa- 
 sioned the Scots to send the young princess Mary into Prance 
 for her education, produced no decisive events, and closed 
 with the triumph of the reformation in England, and the es- 
 tablishment of the church and Liturgy, as they now stand at 
 this day. 
 
 The intrigues of the earl of Northumberland, which 
 brought to the block the rejrent and protector, and upon 
 the death of Edward VL conferred the throne upon Lady 
 Jane Gray, to the exclusion of the heir named in Henry's wiil 
 —the arm of justice, supported by the voice of the nation, 
 which set aside lady Jane Gray, brought the earl of Northum- 
 berland to the block, and placed the crown upon Mary, the 
 rightful heir — we shall pass over, together with the bloody 
 reign of queen Mary, in which she attempted to restore the 
 Catholic religion, with the union and sovereignty of the holy 
 see, at the expense of the best blood of the nation. 
 
 In this bloody reign, a John Roijers, a Latimer, a Cran- 
 mer, and other worthies of the protestant church, fell a sacri- 
 fice An insurrection to resist these sanguinary scenes, and 
 restore lady Jane Gray and her husband, lord Dudley, to the 
 throne, brought these worthies to the block, together with 
 some of the best blood of the nation who abetted their cause ; 
 and the triumph of popery swam in blood five years, when 
 the nation was relieved by the death of Mary, and tlie acces- 
 sion of the illustrious Elizabeth, 1668. 
 
 In the same year, Charles V. at the age of fifty-six, bestow- 
 ed his crown and sceptre upon his son, Philip II. King of 
 Spain, and husband of Mary queen of Englasjd — passed the 
 remainder of his days in retirement and private life, and left 
 
 16 
 
182 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 the reformation (rlumphant in Germany, part of Bwitzerlaud, 
 in England and Scotland, with favorable prospects in France 
 and Ireland. 
 
 One of the first steps of Elizabeth was, to extend the arm 
 of protection to the protesiants in Scotland, already worn 
 down by a popish persecution, under the rej^ency of queen 
 Mary, instigated and supported by ihe intrigues of France, 
 under the influence of her husband, Francis II. who had suc- 
 ceeded Henry II. The refornihtion, after a severe and des- 
 perate struggle, triumphed over all opposition in Scotland, 
 by the assistance of queen Elizabeth, and establi9he<l the pro- 
 testant presbyterian church, as enjoyed at thisday in Sc«)»!and. 
 
 The death of Francis II. at this time, left the queen of Scots 
 without issue, gnarantfed to the profestants of Scotland the 
 enjoyment of their reli^^ion, and to Elizabeth the tranquillity 
 of her throne. 
 
 Charles IX. succeeded to the throne at tea years of age, 
 and the kingdom fell under the regency of the queen mother, 
 and the king of Navarre was named lieutenant general of 
 France. At this time the reformation had taken deep root 
 in France ; and the catholics and protestants were so nearly 
 balanced, that some degree of toleration became necessary 
 on the part of the crown, to appease the violence of party. 
 An edict was accordingly^ published, allowing to protestants 
 the free enjoyment of their religion, without the walls of cities. 
 This edict led to a civil war, in which Philip II. of Sj)ain en- 
 gaged in the bitjerness of his heart against the protestants ; 
 and Elizabeth of England, that champion of the reformation, 
 in their support. Tlie protestants after a severe struggle, 
 were successful, and obtained a further guarantee of their 
 privileges. 
 
 Upon the return of Mary, from France to Scotland, upon 
 the death of her husband, Francis II. king of France, she car- 
 ried with her all the elegance and splendor of her person, pol- 
 ished by a French education, and jmisoried with the princi- 
 ples and bigotry of the catholic religion; this, notwithstand- 
 ing all her efforts to prevent it, poisoned the nation, and em- 
 bittered her life, by alienating the affections of her people, ex- 
 citing their jealousy and distrust, and inflaming the protestants 
 to open acts of disrespect, insult, violence, and rebellion. 
 
 This rebellion in Scotland led Mary to France for counsel 
 and support, where the reformation was denounced, and a to- 
 tal overthrow upon the continent, especially in France, Spain, 
 
PROTECTOR OF PROTESTANTISM. 183 
 
 and the low countries, concerted at Bayonne by the holy, or 
 catholic league. A¥hen Mary became acquainted of this, she 
 determined to co-operate in Scotland, and suppress the re- 
 bellious protestanls by severity, or even extermination. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes f)f distress in the nation, Mary 
 married lord Darnley, against the will of the protestaiits, by 
 whom she had a son, James VI. : soon after this event, died 
 Darnley, the husband of Mary, by an explosion of gun pow- 
 der. The flames of discord, by the imprudpncies of Mary^ 
 were again kindled into a civil war ; and Mary was constrain- 
 ed to f](-e hito England, place herself under the protection of 
 her sister Elizabeth, where she was confined, and by an or- 
 der of Elizabeth, languished in her prison, a subject of intritiue. 
 
 During: her confinement, Scotland was torn by the con- 
 flicting interests of the CHtholic and protestant quarrel ; 
 France became au:ain the theatre of a relioious civil war ; and 
 the low countries were drenched in blood, to enforce the ca- 
 tholic leai'ue, and exterminate the htigunots or protestants. 
 The illustrious queen Elizabeth, high raised on the protestant 
 throne of England, sat clothed in ail the majesty of herself, 
 and held the balances. Again under her auspicious influ- 
 ence, the protestants triumphed in France, and by a favora- 
 ble peace, secured the enjoyment of their principles. 
 
 The queen of Scots, durini: her confinement, had recourse 
 to Charles IX. of France, and Philip il. of Spain ; but the 
 distracted state of their own dominions, left them no leisure 
 to attend to her unhappy cause. The persecutions in iUe low 
 countries, under the duke of Alva, that blo(»d thirsty bigot of 
 Philip II. drove the ecven provinces of Holland to unite in 
 their own defence, raise the standard of rebellion, and assert 
 their independence of the crown of S(.»nin. This opened a 
 severe and bloody contest : they applied to Elizabeth for 
 aid ; again she held the balances, severed tlie low countries 
 from Spain and established their independence. Elizabeth 
 also put an end to the catholic persecutions in Scotland, by 
 giving up Mary to the executioner ; and the protestants tri- 
 umphed in S»^'o{land. 
 
 N(*t so in France ; the catholic league filled the heart of 
 Charles IX. ; he atfected to form a union with the catholics 
 and protestants, by giving his sister in marriage to the young 
 king of Navarre, and upon the grand celebration of the nup- 
 tials in Paris, where the protestants r.'sorfi-d upon the occa- 
 sion, from all parts of France, he ordered a general massacre 
 
184 SPANISH ARMADA. 
 
 fo commence and extend throughout the kingdom. More 
 Jhan seventy thousand protestants of every age, sex, and con- 
 dition throughout France, fell a sacrifice to this bloody edict. 
 All France, amidst the horrors of this distressing scene, was 
 filled with rejoicings for the triumphs of the church militant 
 upon the massacre o<f St. Bartholomew. In the midst of 
 these scenes died Charles IX. at twenty four years of age, of 
 a horrible disease, and was succeeded by Henry III. 157'^'. 
 
 CHAP. XXV. 
 
 Affairs of the Reformation generally — Spanish Armada, 
 
 These conflicts of the reformation in the west of Europe 
 feave given an entire change to the aflfairs of Christendom, 
 pr< duced new scenes and new theatres of action, and the 
 spirit of commercial enterprise has given a new spring to the 
 mind of man. ^ 
 
 The emperor Ferdinand, who succeeded Charles V. 1557, 
 made one grand effort to unite the discords of religion in 
 Germany, by the council of Trent, 1561, which offered a de- 
 gree of toleration upon the plan of the interim of Charles V. 
 and was in like manner rejected by both parties ; the council 
 was dissolved 1563, Ferdinand died 1564*, and was succeed- 
 ed by Maximilian II. 
 
 The ambition of Selim II. Sultan of Constantinople, in his 
 wars with the Venetians, and upon Hungary, gave full em- 
 ployment to the reign of Maximilian. The massacre of St. 
 Barthhlomew tilled all Europe with horror, and all France 
 with revenge. These barbarous and sanguinary principles of 
 popery ereatly promoted the protestant cause, caused a civil 
 war, and Henry III. put himself at the head of the protestants. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes, Philip H. king of Spain, great- 
 ly enriched by commerce and the ndncs of Mexico and Peru, 
 and highly incensed against queen El'-zabeth, as the protect- 
 or of the protestants, prepared for the invasion of England, 
 with the most formidable fleet then ever known, styled the 
 invincible armada, to tear from Elizabeth the balance's of 
 Europe, hurl her from her throne, an<l, like William of Nor- 
 mandy, wield the sceptre of England, and restore the rights 
 of the holy see. 
 
BEATH OF ELIZABETH. 185 
 
 Elizabeth at the same time narrovvljr escaped from the 
 blacUt SI conspiracr, under Babbini;;ton , and the plans of 
 Phibp were left to (he success of his invincible armada. 
 The armada pu! to sea, and appeared off the coast of Eng- 
 land, fhrew Ihe nation into ai slate of consternation, called 
 forth all the iriajesty and energies of Elizabeth, who by a spe- 
 cial act of heaven, was soon reliev ed from her alarm. A vio- 
 lent tempest arose, which overwhelmed the armada, dispers- 
 ed and dashed the ships ajjainst the rocks, and left the fujfi- 
 tives an easy prey to the ships of Elizabeth, and at a blow 
 her throne was secured ; which called forth from the queen 
 this memorable expression — " Deus flavitdissipantur." (God 
 blew znd tney are scatiered.) 
 
 Henry the 111= of France, at the head of the protestants, at 
 the same time laid siege to his capitol, then in the power of 
 the catholics, vThere he was assassinated by a Daniinican friar, 
 and left his crown to the king of Navarre, Henry iV. (first of 
 the Bourbons,) who pressed by the catholic league, had re- 
 course to Elizabeth. She sent him aid, by the means of 
 which he lield the catholics at bay; and in order to secure 
 the tranquillity of his kingdom, embraced the cathoSic reli- 
 gion, and published his famous edict of Nantz, which guaran- 
 teed to the protestants the quiet enjoy merU of their relij^ion. 
 Thus Henry restored peace to his throne in the jnidst of jeal- 
 ousy, gave tranquillity to France, and settled a i)eace with 
 Philip of Spain, 1598. 
 
 At this time died Philip II. and the war siiil laged with 
 \ioience in the low countries, which was clufed by a truce 
 for twelve years, between Philip HI. and the United Provin- 
 ces, 1609. At the sam.e time, Philip caused the Moors to be 
 expelled from Spain, (more than one million of hardy, indus- 
 trious inhabitants :) tisis, to<relher with the loss of tiiearmadaj 
 the seven United Provinces, together with the pride and in- 
 dolence arising from the great influx of wealih from Mexico 
 and Peru, and the desiradinii; elTecls of ihe inquisilioa upon 
 the mind of man, humbled the pride of Spain, and placed her 
 in a de:i:raded situation, from which siie has never risen. 
 
 Immediately after the death of Philip li. <iied queen Eliza- 
 beth, 1601. and left her throne to James YI. of Scotland, son 
 of Mary, whom she had behead< d in England. James unit- 
 ed ui« kingdoms of Eniiland and Scotland: and was the first 
 kina of Great Britain under the title of James i. 
 
 The reign of queen Elizabeth, is above all comment f 
 16* 
 
186 HENRY IV. 
 
 star.{?s unrivalled in the annals v»i E.i. land, and of the world, 
 and opeiied the way for all that is valu«bh t ^ne protest mt 
 cause. 
 
 Henry IV. succeeded to a throne greatly inspoverish^^dj 
 and almost ruined by the relis;iou? civil wars in France. His 
 energy, talents, and nmbition, ti,t-d him to fill the throne of 
 France at ihh time: he quieted the feuds of France, and mt<de 
 one . reat effort to quiet the feuds of the continent, by his plaa 
 of one .reat confederated republic, with France at its head. 
 
 To efff ct thip, he encouraned and promoted the prottstant 
 caube ii; Germany, and the low countries, and in the midst 
 of his visionary plans, fell a sacrifice to the dagger of a monk, 
 in the streets of Paris, 1610, and was succeeded by Lewis 
 Xm. then a minor. 
 
 France, under the regency of the queen mother, fell aeain 
 into ail the scenes of discord and civil war; and the conti- 
 nent was now torn with the conflicts of the two great parties, 
 known by the names of the evangelical union, and the catho- 
 lic leagiue. 
 
 Germany was one continued scene of civil war, and at the 
 same lime entangled in the wars of the Franks, through the 
 reikns of Rodolph H. and Matthias, down to the death of 
 Philip HI. of Spain, who held his share in these feuds, to aug- 
 inent his power in Italy, 1621. 
 
 The United Provinces, notwithstanding they were torn 
 with severe religious feuds amongst the protestants them- 
 selves, immediately after the pacification of 1609, had now 
 greatly extended their commerce in the east, takeA Brazil in 
 the west, and were the immediate commercial rivals of all 
 the maritime states of Europe. 
 
 France was now torn and distracted with a religious civil 
 war which raged with more vi<dence than the former ; the 
 same religious feuds continued to distract Germany, and the 
 parties prepared to settle ail their disputes with the sword, 
 upon the great theatre of Germany. 
 
 A marriaire took place at this time, between Charles I then 
 prince of Wales, and Henrietta, sister of Lewis XHL of 
 France, which produced the same consequences in England, 
 as the marriage of Mary queen of Scots, with Francis IL of 
 Fiance, had done in Scotland. 
 
 This war between tlie protestant union, and the catholic 
 !eagu«' comnii need about 1610, became general throughout 
 Europe, called icto action all the great taleots of Europe and * 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 18? 
 
 was the first general display of arms upon the great theatre 
 of Gt rtnany. 
 
 Upiui this isrand theatre of action, flourished the jjreat Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, in support of the evaujieli- 
 ckI union, and crowned with his death, the famous victory of 
 Lutzen. 
 
 This triumph of Lutzen, was (he triumph of the reforma- 
 tion; and the treaty of Prajrue, 1635, guaranteed to the un- 
 ion, from the court of Vienna, all the claims of the champi.ms 
 of the reformation : but the war sMIl raged with France, un- 
 til the death of Lewis XIII 1635, then under Lewis XIV. 
 until the peace of Westphalia, 164B. This again confir^ied 
 to the union all former treaties, and gave them an unmler- 
 rupted eajoyment of their religion, together with an equal 
 share in the grand councils of Germany, and broke the pow- 
 er of the catholic league. 
 
 CHAP. XXVL 
 
 Reformalion coniinued — Great Britain under James /.— 
 under Charles I. 
 
 Upon the death of queen Elizabeth, we found James the I. 
 son of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, as the rightful 
 heir ; and agreeable to the wishes of Elizabeth and the two 
 nations, upon the throne of England. James I. was great 
 grand-son of Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII. ; and 
 upon the failure of the male line in the house of Tudor, he 
 was the true heir, and commenced the dynasty of the house 
 of Stuart : the change was easy and regular. 
 
 James was courted by all the potentates of Europe, and af- 
 ter the defeat of the conspiracy in favor of his cousin, Ara- 
 bella Sluart, enjoyed a tranquil throne, gave his whole atten- 
 tion to the sciences, and by his writings, proved the pope to 
 be antichrist, and modern Rome the whore of Babylon. 
 
 Emboldened with confidence at these public sentiments of 
 the king, the sect of puritans, which had now greatly increas- 
 ed in England, ventured to approach the throne, with hopes 
 to obtain the aboHtion of episcopacy. This bold approach 
 alarmed the king, and he returned this steady reply ; " do 
 bishop no king." 
 
185 JAMES I. AND SCOTLAKi>. 
 
 Tiie puritans were ordered lo conform. James declared 
 himself the husband of one wife, destroyed the barriers of the 
 frontier towns, and brought the two kiii.doms together, as his 
 one wife. These popular measures of James, did not satis- 
 fy the puritans, nor the catholics; and the latter consented 
 to the diabolical scheme of destroying both king and parlia- 
 ment at a blow, by the famous gun powder plot, 1605. 
 
 Upon the detection of this plot, a vast quantity of ^un pow- 
 der in barrels, was found concealed under the house of lords, 
 the day before the session of parliament, witii one Fawkes, 
 (a Flemins;,) placed as the sentinel, and executioner, with his 
 matches ready prepared. The detection of this plot, involv- 
 ed many catholics of the first distinction ; whose conviction 
 and execution, spilt some of the best blood of the nation. 
 The detection of this plot, and the knity of James, secured 
 his popularity, and absolved him from all suspicions of popery, 
 durinij; his reign. 
 
 James made great efforts to civilize the English, Scotch, 
 and particularly the Irish ; and took more delight in the arts 
 of peace, than of war. James, by his weakness, distracted 
 his reign, bestowing unmerited favors upon undeserving fa- 
 vorites. To support these, he offended the nation, by selling 
 to the Dutch the cautionary towns, pledged to queen Eliza- 
 beth when she granted them support in their revolutionary- 
 struggle. 
 
 James' next unpopular step, was, to attempt to establish a 
 uniformity of worship in Scotland, as v.ell as England, togeth- 
 er with church discipline ; and for this purpose the king visit- 
 ed his native country. 
 
 The nobility of Scotland were attached lo the government 
 of James, the people were under a certain degree of feudal 
 vas-alage, and of course slaves; but the kirk, or religion of 
 Scotland, was free, independent, and of the presbyterian or- 
 der. This order existed at this time in Switzerland, upon 
 the plan of Zuinglius, and John Calvin, the great apostles of 
 Switzerland. 
 
 The first unpopular stroke of James in Scotland was, to 
 permit certain catholic lords, who had been banished Scot- 
 land, to return to the kingdom. This lit up a fire, he never 
 could extinguish, raised an insurrection which placed James 
 at the mercy of a mob in Edinburgh. This occasioned a 
 convention of the states of Scotland, where James obtained 
 an acknowledgment of his Bupremacy over the ecclesiastical 
 
CHARLES I. 189 
 
 affairs of Scotland, with the power of settling the forms of 
 worship and church discipline, with the consent of the arch- 
 bishops, bishops, and a competent number of ministers. 
 
 This dangerous power was opposed by his parliament, and 
 relinquished by James: but the next year he introduced some 
 ceremonies, by the consent of the kirk. This kindled the fire 
 in Scotland ; and the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh, the 
 projector of the colonies in North America, stamped an odi- 
 um upon the reign of James which followed him to his grave. 
 
 In addition to this, the match he was planing for his son 
 Charles, then prince of Wales, with the Infanta of Spain, rous- 
 ed the feelings and resentment of the nation, and brought on 
 a collision between James and his parliament, and opened 
 the controversy of privilege and prerogative, which had for 
 its object to destroy the true balance of power in the govern- 
 ment, by throwing too great a weight into the scale of mon- 
 archy, under the claim of prerogative, or too great a weight 
 into the scale of democracy under the claim of privilege. 
 
 The Spanish match, after a most courteous interview of 
 Charles in Spain, with the Infanta, was closed by intrigues, 
 which produced a war between England and Spain, and an al- 
 liance was formed between Charles and the princess Henriet- 
 ta of France. Charles succeeded to the throne upon the 
 death of his father, 1625. The attempts of James to lord it 
 over the forms of religion in Scotland and England, drove 
 from his kingdom thai little band of puritans, with their pious 
 minister the Rev. John Robinson, who fled to America, and 
 will become the subject of notice in the American narrative. 
 
 The duke of Buckingham, who had accompanied Charles 
 to Spain, and been the instrument of brt^aking off the Spanish 
 match, had thereby become very popular with the parliament. 
 This increased the insolence of Buckingham, until he ruined 
 Charles and himself, in (he esteem of the nation, and paid for 
 bis folly and temerity by the knife of the assassin : but it was 
 now too late ; the war of prerogative and privilege between 
 Charles and his parliament, had jrone too far. Charles tried 
 the t.xpe<iient of dissolving his parliament ; but this only fan- 
 ned the fire ; the war against Prance in support of the Hugu- 
 n<'fs, had done the same, and even the fall of the obnoxious 
 Buckingham had given no relief. Thf passions of the par- 
 ties liad surniounte<l their understandings, and what was hest 
 for the nation, was now involved in the poinl, who i^hould rule. 
 
 The queen, who was a catholic, and archbishop Laud, who 
 
190 CHARLES I. 
 
 was a haughty, violent prelate, had both great influence with 
 Charles ; strengthened his obstiuate resolutions, and fixed his 
 fate. 
 
 A specimen of the religious principles, which were the ba- 
 sis oi* ail this national struggle, may be seen in the consecra- 
 tion of the church of St. CHtherine, near the borders of Scot- 
 land. Arciibishop Laud marched in procession with great 
 pomp and solemnity, to perform the holy ('fifice of consecra- 
 tion. When he approached the church, a loud voice ex- 
 claimed, " Open ! open ! ye everlasting doors ! and let the 
 king of glory in"~the doors flew open, the archbishop en- 
 tered — fell on his knees, and exclaimed with extended arms, 
 and uplifted eyes, " this place is holy, the groutuf is holy ; 
 in the name of the father, son, and holy ffhost, 1 pronounce it 
 holy." He approached the communion table, and bowed 
 frequently towards it ; then marched in procession round the 
 church, repeating the 100th psalm ; then said a form of pray- 
 er, concluding with these words : " We consecrate this 
 church, and separate it unto thee as holy ground, not to be 
 profaned any more to common uses ;" uttering imprecations 
 on all who should profane that sanctuary, bowing towards 
 the east upon every imprecation, and exclaiming " Let all 
 the people say amen." He then pronounced benediclions 
 on all who should nurse, and enrich that church by their tem- 
 poral gifts ; and upon every benediction bowing towards the 
 east, exclaimed : " Let all the people say amen." Such were 
 the counsellors, and such the religion, which distracted the 
 nation under the externals of privilege and prerogative. 
 
 In this state of things, a change of ministry, even under a 
 privilege ac^ministration, produced no change in the public 
 feeling. The same measures distracted both England and 
 Si'Oiland, and the jurisdiction of Presbyteries, synods, and 
 other democratic courts, were abolished, and the general as- 
 seiTfhly had fftllen into neglect for more than two years ; all 
 this kindled the fire in the kirk of Scotland, and an attempt 
 was made to revive the colleize of justice, between the cler- 
 gy and laity, as before the reformation. All cl»sses of peo- 
 ple took the alarm, and popery, was the general cry. 
 
 When the dean of Ediuburnh attempted to introduce the 
 lifurey into the cathedral of St. Giles, arrayed in his surfdice 
 = — * a pope ! a pope !" vociferated from all parts of the church ; 
 am\ tiie lumull was so great as to require the interposKion of 
 civil authority to protect the service. All these arts, led 
 
OLIVER CROMWELL, 19} 
 
 the Scotch to unite in a solemn covenant, to resist the usm- 
 patiuns of the crown, and protect the kirk. 
 
 Tills coalition of power, proved a barrier to the encroach- 
 ments of Charles, called forth the best talents of the nation, 
 opened a civil war, and the parliament of England co-ope- 
 rated with the covenanters, and their vengeance fell first on 
 the minister of Charles, the earl of Stafford ; who, after the 
 most masterly and diiinified defence, was convicted of trea- 
 son : and in spite of all the efforts of Charles to save him, 
 broujjht to the block. 
 
 This sacrifice produced a momentary suspension of the 
 evils ; but the fire soon began to rage, both in England, Scot- 
 land and Ireland, and produced from the English parliament 
 the famr,^:s remonstrance, which was an appeal to the people, 
 although addressed (o the king; and was fully a manifesto, 
 and a signal for (he last extremity. The violence of the par- 
 ties increased daily ; excess followed excess, and violence 
 and extreme sux^ceeded vi«)knce and extreme, until privilege 
 swallowed up prerogative, the voice of the kiug was lost in 
 the usurpations of parliament, a civil war rated, the king was 
 overpowered and fled, archbishop Laud was accused of high 
 treason, an<l brought to the block, the king was taken, 
 brought to London, imprisoned, tried, executed, and hia 
 death laid the foundation of the commonwealth, under the 
 protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. 
 
 CHAP. XXVIL 
 
 Great Britain under Oliver Cromwell — Charles 11. — Francfi 
 under Louis XIV. 
 
 During the reign of Charles I. the civil and religious lib- 
 erty of the nation engrossed their whole attention, their agri- 
 culture and commerce were neglected, their foreign posses- 
 sions languished, the Dutch seized on some of their most val- 
 uable spice islands, and the affairs of the nation were low. 
 As soon as they had recovered their Jiberfies, and establish- 
 ed the commonwealth, the spirit of the nation rose with the 
 spirit of liberty ; they chastised their hauihty, insolent, ava- 
 ricious neij£hbors the Dutch, in sever^tl desperate, bloody, 
 and decisive naval combats, extended their commerce, Im- 
 
192 CHARLES II. 
 
 prored their agriculture, cultivated the arts, sciences and 
 manufactures, and opened the way for the restoration of the 
 monarchy under the splendid reign of Charles II, 
 
 Charles succeeded to the throne through the artful policy 
 of general Monk, who relieved the nation from the feeble, 
 imbecile reign of Richard, son of Oliver Cromwell, whose 
 talents were far below the ambition of the nation, and who 
 reigned only seven months. Charles II. more intent on his 
 own pleasures, and the gratifications of his courtiers, than the 
 good of his people, sulfered the commerce of the nation again 
 to decline, and the Dutch to rival ihem in India. 
 
 Ti'e etforts to settle North America were successful, and a 
 foundation was laid in this reign, for the succeeding prosper- 
 ous enterprise of the nntion in the new world. 
 
 That spirit of the reformation which had resisted the vio- 
 lent measures of Charles I. and flourished so conspicuously 
 under the commonwealth, was in its full strength in Scotland, 
 at the accession of Charles II. and displayed its zeal and en- 
 thusiasm, in large and frequent rrlijiious assemblies, in the 
 open field, such as are with us called camp-meetings, and 
 then called conventicles. 
 
 That liberty which always accompanies such zeal, Charles 
 consirjered as incompatible with the dignity of bis crown, 
 and sent the earl of Lauderdale to check and suppress it. 
 Again the spirit of the reformation was called to assert its lib- 
 erties against the violent measures of the crown ; but not with 
 the same success. The power of the crown prevailed, and 
 through the extremes of violence, cruelty and severity, the 
 spirits of the enthusiasts were humbled. 1 f such things could 
 be done in the green tree, wrat could not be done in the dry : 
 if a protestant adndnistrafion could be guilty of such severity 
 and cruelty, what might not be expected from popery. 
 
 Whilst the nation were shocked with the severities of 
 Charles, and distresses of Scotland, they were roused, as by 
 a clap of thunder, by the alarm of the popish plot. This, 
 whether a reality, or an artful finesse, is still doubtful ; but at 
 that time, as a serious reality, it excited strong appr*^hensions, 
 and threw the nation into the highest state of alarm, opened 
 again the sharpest conflict between the king and his parlia- 
 ment ; excited the same feelings in the nation, as in the reign 
 of Charles I. sp'lt some of the high blood of the nation, and 
 nothius' but the conciliatory address, and high popularity of 
 the king, could have prevented another civil war. ' 
 
LEWIS XIV. 193 
 
 The infrigues of France, at this time, had a powerful influ- 
 ence in the court of Charles ; he made the most of it, and by 
 a money compact with the cabinet of Lewis XIV. became 
 independent of his parliament, assumed a dictatorial style, 
 set them at definace, humbled their refractory spirit, and tri- 
 umphed in their submission. 
 
 The doctrine of passive obedience, and non-resistance, be- 
 came the order of the day, and were echoed from the desk 
 and the bar throuj;h the nation. Charles enjoyed his suc- 
 cesses in triumph, deprived the city of London of its charter ; 
 the other cities tendered a vohintary resignation of theirs, 
 and sealed the independence of the crown. 
 
 Although these measures excited the passions and indigna- 
 tion of these sons of liberty, roused the resentment of the 
 Ryehouse plot, (so called,) a plot destined to restore the 
 commonwealth by another revolution. This was discover- 
 ed, and some of the best blood of the nation, laid the founda- 
 tion of that permanent strength in the monarchy, which alone 
 has supported it throsjgh all the successive struggles of the 
 nation, and enabled it to triumph over that disorganizing 
 spirit of liberty, which became so factious in the time of the 
 French revolution. 
 
 It placed in the power of the crown, (or of the minister,) 
 the control of the borough elections, which constitutes three- 
 foiirthsof the members of parliament, and thereby has, to this 
 day, given the minister the control of that branch of the govern- 
 ment, and rendered the crown despotic. Charles disclosed 
 all the religion he had at his death, partook of the papal eu 
 charist at the hands of a catholic priest, and died. James II. 
 duke of York, and brother to Charles, succeeded to the 
 th.pone. James was a violent catholic. 
 
 Thus we see how God has overruled the conflicting pas- 
 sions of men, in this mighty struggle, of the reformation with 
 popery, and liberty with tyranny, and placed the government 
 and the church, exactly in that point, which have proved to 
 this day, to be best adapted to the peace and prosperity of 
 that naiiorii and the good of the world. To illustrate this re- 
 mark, let us take a view of the gigantic power of Lewis XIY. 
 king of France. Lewis XIV. succeeded Lewis XIII. 164-3, 
 in the midst of the reign of Charles 1. During his minority 
 and under the regency of the queen and cardinal Mazarine, 
 France v»^as, like England, distracted with feuds. 
 
 When Lewis took possession of the crown, hew as the most 
 17 
 
194 LEWIS XIV. 
 
 splendid, ambitious monarch that ever filled (he throne of 
 Fiance. He cherished the discords in England, and at the 
 same time revived all the ancient claims of the crown under 
 Charlemagne, and erected the standard of conquest to recov- 
 er them. 
 
 Spain attempted to avail herself of the feuds in France, 
 which arose out of the management of Mbzarine ; but Lt wis, 
 united with Cromv ell, the protector of the commonwealth 
 of England, soon humbled Spain, and closed this war. The 
 struiigle for su|)iemacy upon the ocean, which bejran between 
 England and the seven United Provinces of Holland, in the 
 reign of Charles 1. still ccmtinued ; and England under Crom- 
 well, gained a decided superiority over the Dutch. 
 
 Upon the accession of Charles II- Lewis availed himself of 
 ibis strife, and engaged England in his views, to humble the 
 Dutch, and add the low countries to France. For this pur- 
 pose he assembled a most splendid military force, took the 
 field in person, and entered Flanders at the head of his vic- 
 torious army. 
 
 'At the same time the combined fleet of France and Eng- 
 land, amounted to one hundred ships. The United Provin- 
 ces were thrown into the highest state of alarm ; they collect- 
 ed their fleet to guard and protect their ports, inundated their 
 country, and sued for peace, and offered the most flattering 
 terms ; but all to no efifect : their ruin was sealed by the vin- 
 dictive malice of Charles, and the all conquering ambition of 
 Lewis. The terms were rejected, and the war pursued with 
 vigor. 
 
 This roused up the energiesof the Dutch, who had by their 
 efforts, ransomed their country from the ocean, and enrich- 
 ed it by their commerce. They declared the prince of Or- 
 anee, stadtholder, or chief magistrate of the nation ; and pre- 
 pared for their defence. The throne of William was secured 
 by the violent death of the Dewitts, and other opposers ia 
 Holland ; and he took the field in person. — The conflict on 
 the Ocean was desperate, and the confederates successful ; 
 but the stadtholder triumphed over Lewis in the low coun- 
 tries, and he was compelled to abandon all his conquests. 
 
 Spain and Germany, by an alliance, supported the stadt- 
 holder. The distracted state of Endand compelled Charles 
 ILto withdraw from the war, and offered his mediation. The 
 war became a war of posts, and was attended with great dis- 
 plays of tactics and valor. At this time Sweden became con- 
 
LEWIS XIV. 195 
 
 federate with France, and Charles II. a pensionary to Lewis, 
 by a secret treaty. 
 
 Lewis became formidable at sea, and successful ajSjainst 
 the combined fleets of Spain and Holland, in a splendid na- 
 val action on the coast of France, and sealed this victory by 
 the death of the gallant De Ruyter, the Dutch admiral. The 
 affairs of France ajiain became prosperous, and Lewis suc- 
 cessful at all points, both against Holland and Spain. He 
 triumphed over England, through the venality and corruption 
 of Charles 11 ; triumphed over Spain, Holland and the em- 
 pire, and laid the foundation for the future splendor of his 
 crown, by the possessions he retained in the low countries, at 
 the peace of Nimeguen, 1678. 
 
 CHAP. XXVIII. 
 
 France continued — Europe geyierally — League of Augsburg 
 — Remurks. 
 
 Lewis XIV. notwithstanding the exhausted state of his 
 treasury, still kept up his powerful military forces, and with 
 those, that passion for glory, and lust of ambition, with which 
 he commenced his reign, and which were the characteristic 
 features of this haughty monarch. He assumed the dictato- 
 rial style of Charlemagne, seized on Strasburg, and rendered 
 it impregnable, by the talents of the famous Vauban. He 
 began to flatter himself that all Europe would soon feel his 
 sway, and that he should establish the ancient dominion. To 
 this end, he distracted the empire of Germany with feuds, 
 excited the Turks to war against them, to humble the house 
 of Austria, which would have been ruined, had not the king 
 of Poland interposed with a powerful army, compelled the 
 Turks to raise the siege of Vienna, abandon their conquests 
 in Germany and Hungary, return to their former limits, and 
 settle a peace. 
 
 Lewis embraced this favorable moment to extend his do- 
 minions, by seizing on several important parts of the low 
 countries, and settled a peace with Spain, and the Emperor of 
 Germany, and turned his whole attention to his fleets. 
 
 At this critical moment, died the illu6tri«»us Colbert, prime 
 minister of Lewis, and whose sagacious mind, as aetatesman, 
 
196 LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG. 
 
 and financier, raised Lewis to tliis summit of his greafnese. 
 With the- death of Colbert, fell the greatness of Lewis, and 
 I>"ft bis pride and ambition, like a ship in the midst of a tem- 
 pest, without a pilot. 
 
 Lewi? revoked the memorable edict of Nanfz ; that shield 
 of the reformation under Henry IV. and put forth all his ef- 
 forts to establish popery upon the ruin and convirsion of pro- 
 testantism ; but without effect. This cruel artifice of priest- 
 craft, butchery, and military executions, ruined the manufac- 
 turing interest, which the immortal Colbert had promoted 
 and encouraged amonjjst the protestants. One twentieth 
 part of the whole number, fell a sacrifice to these barbarous 
 and impolitic measures; a price was set on the heads of the 
 remainder, they were hunted like wild beasts of the forest, 
 and forbidden,withtiiepenalty of death, to leavr the kinttdom. 
 
 In the face of all this severity, more than six hundred thou- 
 -sand protestants left the kiniidum ; ruined the manufacturing 
 interest of France, and transplanted it into the neighboring 
 kingdoms. This severity was not the result of submission to 
 the Roman pontiff; his haughty spirit led him to humble 
 pope Innocent XI. in the most humiliating manner, and tri- 
 umphed over all his excommunications. 
 V This cruel, and vindictive persecution ag^ainst the reforma- 
 tion, arose from the haughty imperious spirit of Lewis, and 
 from the weakness of his uninformed mind. He soon felt 
 (he rashness of these measures. The protestants in Germa- 
 ny, throughout the empire, formed the famous league of 
 Augsburg, to restrain the overbearing spirit of France. 
 
 The emperor Leopold added Hungary to Austria, and pla- 
 ced bis son Joseph upon that throne, upon the suppression of 
 the Turkish invasion, and was now ready to become party in 
 the league of Augsburg, against France. 
 
 Thus we see how God makes use of his means, to effect 
 his ends, and with what wisdom all his great purposes are ac- 
 complished. 
 
 The art of printing had greatly facilitated the improve- 
 ment i)f letters, and swept away that gross ignorance which 
 had prevailed through the dark ages, (that nursery of bigotry 
 and superstition,) given expansion to the mind of man, and 
 prepared the way for the reception of those great and impor- 
 tant truths, the immortal Luther was destined to unfold. 
 
 The excesses, corruptions and abuse of power, which at 
 this time had become notorious ia the catholic church, led to 
 
COPERNICUS, KEPLERj GALLILEO. 197 
 
 a general inquiry amongst tiie learned, and better informed 
 part of society ; d<uibls began to arise with rei^ard to many 
 of the dogmas of the church, and the abuse of power in the 
 sale of indulgencies (which had now become notoriously cor- 
 rupt) staggered the faith of some disgjusted the feelings of 
 others, and shocked all common sense. 
 
 The pen of Erasmus was pointed and severe, well calculat- 
 ed to excite doubts, and lead the public mind to pause, reflect 
 and consider, whether all this was founded upon the authori- 
 ty of God. 
 
 The waste of blood and treasure, which had so long ac- 
 conipdhied this despotic power, had fairly op; ned the way 
 for the introduction of those truths, the immortal Luther was 
 (kstined to unfold, and Germany was well prepared to be the 
 great theatre of action. 
 
 Armed with the authority of God, Luther stood forth, the 
 great champion of truth ; unf( i'led the pure principles of that 
 gospel which had been so long corrupted and abused ; set at 
 defiance that power which claimed and exercised the right of 
 extirpating all opposition by force ; raised the public mind to 
 resist that infallibility, they had now been led to doubt ; and 
 by his firmness, learning, and talents, established the refor- 
 mation upon an immovable basis. 
 
 (Germany, which had suffered most severely from the des- 
 4)otic power of the popes Ihroujih the dark ages, was now 
 destined to become the lijiht of the world, in reliL'ion, and in 
 science. Luther stood forth as the angel of the gospel ; Co- 
 pernicus, (of Thorn) unfolded the mysteries of the heavenly 
 bo<lies, and taught the true doctrine of the solar system, and 
 Krpler illustrated the true fiiiure of their orbits : all these 
 combined, gave such expansion to the mind, as led to a more 
 genera! inquiry, opened the way to a more general and cor- 
 rect imderstanding of the truths of religion, of nature, and of 
 nature's God. 
 
 Italy at this time was favored with her Gallileo, whose in- 
 ventive genius greatly ifnproved the Telescope, by which the 
 sysii ms of Copernicus and Kepler were confirmed, and the 
 rotation of the sun upon its own axis, the satellites of the sev- 
 eral planets, the phases of Venus, and the mountains in the 
 mooii were all discovered. 
 
 Alj itese 'jreat events combined, excited a general inquiry: 
 this wis increased, and strengthencil by the persecutio.Ms of 
 the popesj who denounced the whole as cue great system of 
 
 17- 
 
198 
 
 JAMES II, 
 
 absurdity, and heresy. The inquisition of Italy, so late as 
 1633, passed a decree, declaring the solar system of Coperni- 
 cus expressly contrary to the holy scriptures, false and ab- 
 surd in sound philosophy, as well as erroneous in the faith ! 
 
 These great luminaries of Germany, have diffused their 
 light, as we have noticed, throughout the christian world, aild 
 have unfolded to men that great system of religious and lite- 
 rary truth which they now enjoy, and which, under their fu- 
 ture improvements, they are destined to enjoy. 
 
 The several successive steps pursued by the reformers in 
 Germany we have noticed, and the league of Augsburg united 
 the whole protestant cause of Europe, as one great family, to 
 resist the overbearing power of that chastising rod, Lewis 
 XIV. king of France ; and his long and distressing wars con- 
 firmed, what had now been growing and improving almost 
 two centuries ; illumined Europe with its truths, and planted 
 *his modern Canaan of God, m this wilderness of the west. 
 
 CHAP. XXIX. 
 
 E^igland, and Europe generally from the accession of James 
 II. to the rise of I fie order of the Jesuits. 
 
 At this eventful period commenced the unhappy reign of 
 James II. as successor of Charles II. of England. His char- 
 acter as a papist, under the title of duke of York, had occa- 
 sioned iriuci) warmth of feeling and expression, during the 
 reign of Charles, and was yet remembered. Notwithstand- 
 ing his flattering assurances, he discovered the purposes of 
 his heart, in his imperious spe'ech to his parliament. 
 
 Conspiracy soon kindled into a fiame, and raised an insur- 
 rection ill the nation. At this time he commenced a career 
 of jeneral favor and indulgence to papists, both in Eng- 
 land and Ireland, and issued a declaration of general indulg- 
 ence, or liberty of conscience, by his own absolute and arbi- 
 trary power ; sent an ambassador to Rome, in order to unite 
 thf crown of England again to the holy see ; gave a public 
 audience to the pope's nuncio, and consecrated four popish 
 bishops in the king's chapil ; permitted 'he monks lo appear 
 at court in their respective habits ; attempted lo introduce 
 Roman catholics into' the church and umvergities; endeav- 
 
WILLIAM AND MARY. 199 
 
 ored to gain the protestant dissenters, and to form them into a 
 union with the catholics, by ordering a new declardiioa of 
 induljjence, and causing it to be read in the pulpit by all the 
 established clergy. 
 
 The clergy resisted, and a general alarm was excited 
 throughout the nation. They invited William, prince of Or- 
 ange, (who had married Mary, daughter of James) to assume 
 the government. He complied with the call of the nation, 
 landed in England with a strong naval and military force, 
 amidst the popular commotions and struggles, seized on the 
 crown, and James fled to France. The Scotch submitted to 
 the government of William ; he summoned a convention to 
 settle the affairs of the nation ; who settled the crown upon 
 William aiul Mary, by an instrument of settlement, which 
 closed all the struggles of privilege and prerogative, and fixed 
 the eonstitution upon a permanent basis. 
 
 During these mighty struggles, episcopacy had been estab- 
 lished in England and Scotland ; this occasioned at this time 
 some division of sentiment, and some warmth of feeling ; but 
 ihe presbyterians, who composed the mass of the people in 
 Scotland, favored and supported the throne of William and 
 Mary. 
 
 James, at the same time sealed his own ruin by favoring a 
 catholic insurrection in Ireland, and by the aid of Lewis XIV. 
 actually embarking in France with a military force, and pla- 
 cing himself at its head. This occasioned a warm conflict 
 between the English and Irish parliaments, excited a general 
 alarm in the nation ; William ileclared war against Lewis, 
 and became a parly in the league of Au^^sburg. 
 
 At this time the divisions in Scotland were settled by the 
 sword, and the government of William quietly established. 
 James met with a warm resistance from ihe protestants in Ire- 
 land, who v/ere supported by William in person, and triumph- 
 ed over Jajues, defeated and destroyed his army, and he fled 
 atjain to France : the iijsurrection was soon quelled, and all 
 Ireland submitted to the government of William. 
 
 The spirit of faction was not yet quelled in Eugland ; the 
 fire of the parties soon revived, appeared in parliamentary 
 feuds, and was kindled into a blaze by the rashness of William, 
 at the massacre of Glericoe, in Scotland. This excited a 
 general alariti, roused up the nation t^- a spirit of opposition ; 
 this graiifi^' (i the spirit -f Lewis XIV. feing of FiHnce— -lie 
 immediately furnished James with a powerful naval and mill- 
 
200 LEWIS XIV. 
 
 tary force, and he put himself at their head to invade Eng- 
 land, and recover the crown; but a decisive action eain. li at 
 this critical moment over the French fleet by the Eut^hsh, 
 checked the expedition, and (losed all the fuiure prospects of 
 James ; and after a few more feuds in England, settled and 
 established the government of William, and the reformation 
 was atiain triumphant in Eutiland. 
 
 The league of Aujisburji had now called forth all the efforts 
 of Christendom, to humble the haughty, overbearing spirit of 
 Lewis, and roused him up, like a lion of the forest, to lake 
 Ten^eance on his enemies. He cherished his alliance with 
 the Turks to ir.'dke a diversion in Hungary ; assembled an 
 army of f(»ur hundred thousand men, and entered Germany 
 and. the low countries, with various success, and the fleet of 
 Lewis trained a signal victory over the English and Dutch. 
 
 L*'vvis took the field in person, and appeared with great 
 splendor in Flanders ; the war became general, and raged in 
 Hungary, Germany, Flanders, Spain and Italy, with various 
 success. Europe t»ad never before witnessed such splendid 
 armies under such splendid captains, together with such dis- 
 plays of valor and military tactics. Mathematics, as applied 
 to the art of gunnery and foriificaiion, at this period, attained 
 their highest perfection, and opened a field for the display of 
 the talents of a Vauban. The war became generally a 
 war of posts, and raged with various success from 1688, 9, to 
 the peace of Ry?wick, with France, 1698, and of Carlowits 
 with the Turks, 1699 
 
 This war gave a general triumph to the reformation over 
 popery, leagued with the infidels, and greatly facilitated the 
 pn>i£ress of the arts and sciences, eave a new polish and lus- 
 tre to military tactics, and a new splendor to society in Eu- 
 rope. The good effects of the reformation were generally felt, 
 and acknowledged, throughout Christendom ; this excited a 
 general spirit of inquiry and learning amongst the catholic 
 clergy, and a general improvement in their morals. 
 
 This ecclesiastical spirit of science and morale* was greatly 
 improved by a new monastic order which sprani"; up at this 
 time, styled the order of the Jesuits, from the frequent use 
 they ma<le of the name of Jesu. This order became the im- 
 mediate champions of the pontiffs — they became the confes- 
 sort of oil tne catholic monarcbs of ChristeJidom, afid i»y that 
 m^^ans the organ* of inteliigenite to fi.eir masters t e popis, 
 arJ if ndere'? f .; i-Mnir of St. Peter the repository of all the 
 inirigues of Europe. 
 
IIEFINEMENT OF MANNERS, 201 
 
 They also served as ambassadors to the popes in all for- 
 eign courts, and thus the oiiiaas of the secrets of all the courts 
 in the world. The zeal, intrigue, and corruption of this or- 
 der caused its ruin in the eighteenth century. That ceneral 
 iniprovement of mantiers, literature, taste and refinement, 
 which befijan to dawn in Europe in the distinguished reigns of 
 Charles V. of Snain and Germany, Francis I. of France, and 
 Henry ^^lll. of England, received a polish in this war, which 
 with the couinii ncement of the eighteenth century, com- 
 menced a new order of things in Europe. 
 
 CHAP. XXX. 
 
 Jlffairs of Europe generally — northern confederacy — capture 
 of Gibraltar by the Engtiih. 
 
 From the time that Francis I. of France introduced the la- 
 dies at court, (about the mifidle of the seventeeth century) 
 the drama of life in Europe has experienced an entire change ; 
 ferocity has given place to urbanity, and barbarism to refine- 
 ment. Although a general corruption of morals grew out of 
 this, in its early stages, which soon was refined into an ele- 
 gant sensuality, and next into a polished system of gallantry, 
 and romantic effeminacy ; it was the means of giving that 
 high polish to the rt ign of Lewis, XIV. 
 
 In this spJenriirl reign, the sword in single combat (which 
 was also sanciioned by the former example of Francis I.) 
 gave a check to ostentation, pride and haughteur, protected 
 the characters and virtues of the fair sex, and united with 
 their ex-^mple had a commanding influence, in forming the 
 manners of this splendid reign. 
 
 All that splendid taste in the fine arts, and all that classical 
 elegance, which had been revived in Italy a century before, 
 were now transplanted into France, and flourished in the 
 reign of Lewis XIV. The spirit of the reformation had giv- 
 en expansion to the mind of man ; suppressed the overbear- 
 in<z ignorance and bigotry of the catholic domination ; awak- 
 ened (reedora of thought, and freedom of speech, and diffus- 
 ed a general spirit of toleration throughout Christendom, <\c- 
 companied with a general influence on government and man- 
 ners : these combiaed, gave a general soring to the mind of 
 
202 PARTITION TREATY. 
 
 Dian, and paved the way for that liberty, literature, and 9ci- 
 ein e, vv»)ich lias come down to us, and which we so richly 
 enjoy. 
 
 liuiTiediately after the peace of Ryswick, the declining 
 health of Charles 11. of Spain, opened a new field of inlriy;ue 
 amoniist the competitors for the crown, and kindled a new 
 flanj.^ In Europe. Tnese competitors were no less than Lew- 
 is XIV. the emperor Leopold the I. of Germau> , and the 
 elector of Bavaria. Their claims of consan^ruinity, were 
 nearly eq.ial, and Ihe genera! interest, and tranquillity of Eu- 
 rope, requi»ed the succession of the elector of Bavaiia, be- 
 cause it would produce (he least effects on the balance of power. 
 The intrii^ues of the competitors ran hi^h ; all Europe took a 
 lively interest in the struggle ; the Spanish nation favored the 
 lineal succession of the house of Bourbon, but lite queen, 
 who was a German princess, favored the emperor Leopold. 
 
 During this contlici of intrigue, a treaty of partition was 
 framed in the most secret manner, between England, France, 
 and Holland, to divide the kingdom and provinces of Spain, 
 amongst the contracting parties, upon the demise of Charles. 
 The secrets of this treaty soon reached the ears of Charles, 
 and fired him, like a shock of electricity, with indignation 
 and resentment. He summoned an extraordinary council, 
 made his will, conveyed the succession to the elector of Ba- 
 varia, and recovered his health. The sudden death of the 
 elector, defeated the will, and renewed the treaty of partition,- 
 upon an entire new plan. By this treaty it was stipulated, 
 that no dauphin, or king of France, should ever wear the 
 crown of Spain, 
 
 During this struggle of intrgue in the south of Europe, a 
 new drama commenced in the north, under the reigns of 
 Frederic, king of Denmark ; Charles XII. king of Sweden ; 
 AugUritus, elector of Saxony, and king of Poland ; and Peter 
 the I. emperor of Russia. The im()rovements of the north, 
 bad lain dormant, in a great measure, with their long tran- 
 quillity, and had not kept pace with the refinements of the 
 south ; until this splendid constellation arose, and diffused its 
 lu*tre over the regions of the north. 
 
 I shall pass over this mighty conflict, and treat of it at 
 larii-e, in the third part of this work, and continue the affairs 
 of the south. The sudden death of the elector of Bavaria, 
 gave a new turn to the aflairs of Spain, and placed Charles II 
 in a new dilemma ; he took the dernier resort, and appealed 
 to the pope for counsel. 
 
GRAND ALLIANCE. 203 
 
 His holiness, dreading the power of Austria, at once advised 
 him to bestow the crown of Spain upon (he family of Bourbon: 
 this advice was positive, and positively obeyed. Charles, by a 
 private will, annulled his former will, and conveyed the crown 
 of Spain to the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin. 
 
 Durinic these intriijues, Charles died, the will was disclosed 
 — Lewis XIV= at once accepted, and placed his grandson up- 
 on the throne of Spain, under the title of Philip the V. then a 
 minor, and prepared to support him. This accession of strength 
 to the house of Bourbon, already considered too powerful 
 for the peace of Europe, and durinfl; th»^ ahirjiiing reign of 
 Lewis XIV. was considered as incoir^patiblt^ with the interest 
 an<l safety of every free state. It roused all the potentates 
 in the south to (he protection of the common cause, and pro- 
 duced the srand alliance (so called) in 1701, signed by the 
 plenipotentiaries of the emperor of Germany, the king of 
 En land, and the states' general, of the United provinces. 
 
 The grand object of this league was to counteract the suc- 
 cession of the house of Bourbon to the crown of Spain ; and 
 obtain a general security for the balance of power, and the 
 peace of Europe ; with a reserve, that England and Holland 
 might retain all their conquests in both the Indies. The op- 
 erations of the grand confederacy in the north against Swe- 
 den, had already commenced, and were now in their full op- 
 eration. 
 
 At this eventful period, James II. who had taken refuge in 
 France, died, and Louis had the temerity to acknowledge the 
 son of James, as king of Great Britain and Ireland, under the 
 title of James III. This struck the fatal blow to the peace of 
 Europe ; William resented the indignity, and prepared for 
 action, and the grand confederacy prepared to co-operate, 
 Lewis, sensible of his error, attempted to palliate the blow 
 by an apoloiiy. The parliament of England passed a bill of 
 attainder against the young prince, James III. and prepared 
 to support the dignity of the crown. 
 
 At this critical juncture, William was thrown from his 
 horse, and received a contusion which occasioned his d« ath, 
 and was quietly succeeded by queen Anne, eldest surviving 
 daughter of James II. 1702. She entered with spirit into the 
 measures of William, in support of the grand alliance, and 
 prepared for action. 
 
 Lord Godolphin was placed at the head of the treasury, and 
 the earl of Marlborough at the head of the armies; war was 
 
204 GENERAL WAR. 
 
 declared against France in London, the Hasue and Vienna at 
 the sanne time. The protection of Ihe general safety, ren- 
 dered a union of interest more permanent and formidable in 
 this eumpact, than in any (hat Europe had ever witnessed ; 
 and iiKhough Lewis was apparently strengthened by the un- 
 ion of the crowns of France and Spain, in his own family : it 
 proved the reverse, and Spain was only a burthen on his 
 hands, to be protected at home and abroad. 
 
 The gold of Am^^rica was the only advantage that resulted 
 to him — and this, the exhausted state of his treasury very 
 much required. The earl of Marlborough took the field in 
 Flanders, as commander in chief; he soon acquired the title 
 of duke, and his exploits gave a lustr^ to the arms of the con- 
 federates. 
 
 The successes of the first campaign, led the duke of Savoy, 
 and the king of Portugal, to join the confederates, 1703 ; al- 
 though the duke was of the house of Bourbon, grandson of 
 Lewis, XIII. and father-in-law to Philip V. (he young king of 
 Spain. This union of the duke with the allies, (like the late 
 union of the emperor Francis against his son-in law Napole- 
 on,) was considered by Lewis as the ruin of his cause. AH 
 Europe, from north to south, was the theatre of a general war, 
 and divided into two great parties. In the south u'nder the 
 grand alliance, the war raged in Flanders, in Bavaria, in 
 Spain, in Italy, and upon the ocean. 
 
 An insurrection broke out in Hungary, which penetrated 
 to the gates of Vienna, and threatened the ruin of the house 
 of Austria. Feuds sprann up in Scotland, founded on their 
 resentment against king William, for neglecting the Scotch 
 settlement upon the isthmus of Darien during his reign, which 
 endangered the peace of England, by the sharp contest be- 
 tween whig and tory factions. 
 
 The war raged this year with various success by sea and 
 land ; but the conquest of Gibraltar has proved a most valu- 
 able acquisition to the English, 1704. This year the empe- 
 ror Leopold died, and was succeeded by his son Joseph, who 
 entered warmly into the measures of the alliance. 
 
 The French were successful in Italy, the confederates in 
 Spain ; but nothing decisive. The war raged in Germany 
 and Flanders with various success, hut nothing decisive, 1705. 
 This year the confederates were success^ful, under the illus- 
 trious Marlborough in Flinders, and in Spain, under prince 
 Charles, who entered Madrid, and was tlien crowned king of 
 
CONFEDERATES SUCCESSFUL. 206 
 
 Spain, umler the title of Charles III. ; but was soon compel- 
 led to retire. 
 
 The Enjjlish took the islands of Majorca and Ivica. Lew- 
 is XiV. under this pressure of his atTftirs, had recourse to the 
 liiuij of Sweden, Charles XII. then in his successful career in 
 Poland and Snxony — but without effect : Charles had set his 
 face for Moscow. 
 
 Lewis, upon this failure, sued for peace ; but without ef- 
 fect — the confederates resolved, '' that no peace shall be 
 made with the house of Bourbon, so lona; as a prince of that 
 house is on the throne of Spain." The successes of Encjland 
 in Flanders, the conquest of Gibraltar, and the isles of the 
 Mediterranean, gave *rene^th to the crown, and caused that 
 union oi" England and Scotland, which has since proved so 
 salutary to tlie two kinedoins. The splendor of the duke of 
 Marlborough in Flanders, of prince Euj^enc in Italy, and the 
 arch duke Charles in Spain, save strength and spirit to the 
 confederates this year, and humbled the pride of Lewis, 1706. 
 
 CHAP. xxxr. 
 
 General Jiffairs of Europe, to the dealh of Lewis XIV. and 
 the suppression of the insurrection in Scotland — Remarks. 
 
 The exhausted treasury of Lewis XIV. compelled him to 
 desperate measures ; he ordered bills to be ilrawn upon his 
 mint, and resolutely prepared for aclion ; the confederates 
 were triumphant in Italy, and the French abandoned their 
 conquests by a convention — the French were victorious in 
 S[)ain, at the battle of Almanzar, and the prospects of Philip 
 V. stood high. 
 
 Prince Eugene, and the duke of Savoy penetrated into 
 France, laid siege to Toulon, and failed, 1707 : this, with the 
 successes in Spain, and feuds which sprang up in the coun 
 cils of England, revived the hojies and spirits of Lewis, 1707 ; 
 but the success of the confederates in Flanders and Italy, and 
 the suppression of the feuds in the Eno[lish cabinet, to^iether 
 with the capture of Sardinia and Minorca, by the Eiijrlish, 
 joirsed to the low state of his funds, pressed Louis to make 
 advantaj^eous overtures of peace to the confederates, 1708, 
 
 18 
 
206 WAR CONTINUED. 
 
 These Ihey haughtily rejected, and pushed the war with re- 
 newed vigor and success in Flanders, 1 709. 
 
 Louis again pressed his overtures for peace, and conferen- 
 ces were appointed at Gerlruydenburg, 1710. Lewis made 
 concessions at this conference which were huniihating to him, 
 and served to flatter the pride, and raise the spirits, as well 
 as the demands of the confederates : they rejected the over- 
 tures, broke ofif the conferences, and took the field, with re- 
 newed success, in Flanders. Charles HI. entered Madrid at 
 the head of his victorious army ; but was soon compelled to 
 restore it to Philip V. ; and the war in Spain raged with vari- 
 ous success. 
 
 At this time a new feud sprang up ir^the councils of Eng- 
 land, and divided the champions of the nation, Godolphin and 
 Marlborough, and their power began to decline. The tories 
 exult, and cry out danger to churchy and state, and the pulpit 
 echoed the cry. This produced a change in the minisfry : 
 Marlborough supported his popularity, and Godolphin was 
 succeeded in the treasury by Harly, earl of Oxford. This 
 feud again revived the claims of the pretender, and Godol- 
 phin espoused his cause ; and the tories triumphed in a new 
 parliament, 1710. This year the arch duke Charles succeed- 
 ed to the imperial throne, upon the death of the emperor Jo- 
 seph, which gave some check to the bold plans of the duke of 
 Marlbo: ough. The parliament of Eriiiland voted liberal sup- 
 plies, and the war was pushed with vigor. The feuds in par- 
 liament called forth the best talents of the nation ; and a dig- 
 nified speech from the queen, would have quieted, and united 
 the councils of the nation, had not the influence of Marlbo- 
 rough produced an overheated zeal in the house of lords, 
 which sacrificed his pop^ilarity and command, and produced 
 a secret treaty between England and France. 
 
 This fired the parties of England, with warmth and bitter- 
 ness — it was not contended by the whigs, that Spain could 
 be conquered at that time, and Charles 111. placed upon the 
 throne of Philip V. by the sword ; but they did contend, that 
 under the existing state of the armies, together with the low 
 stale of the finances of Lewis, that the cowfederates under 
 Marlborough in Flanders, might, in one more campaign, have 
 penetrated to Paris, and compelled Lewis to depose his grand- 
 son, Philip V. and place the arch duke upon the throne r)f 
 Sfirtin, and also have established a barrier on the north, which 
 would have effectually humbled the house of Bourbon, 1712. 
 
PEACE or UTRECHT. 207 
 
 These truths the whi^s in Ensland realized ; these truths 
 the confederates all realized, and were severely mortified at 
 their disappointment. They made j^reat efforts, by the aid 
 of prince Eugene, (who was invited by the whigs over into 
 EniiJand for that purpose,) to renew the confederacy, and 
 prosecute the war, but to no effect : the tories were estab- 
 lished, and the C(3uncih firm ; and conferences .for a general 
 peace were opened at Utrecht. 
 
 The successive deaths of several of the princes of France, 
 at this time, increased the apprehension, lest the crowns of 
 Fr irice and Spain should be united in one head, upon the 
 doHth of Lewis ; and called forth all the enerffies of k}ie con- 
 trai tinsj parties, to guftrd against this, by positive stipulation : 
 which wns, ultimately, though reluctantly, complied with, by 
 Lfvvis, nd he guararjteed the renunciation of his srrandson, 
 P'i'lip V. to all claims »ipon ti.ie crown of France. This pro- 
 dticed a secret cessation of arms on the part of England, 
 which St parated the English forces from the confederacy, and 
 an op« n avowal of the treaty ensued. 
 
 Th ■ Dutch, the <luke of Savoy, and the kings of Portugal 
 and Spain, followed the example of the English ; and the 
 cp'peror beinsj left alone in the war, a general peace was con- 
 clinked at Utrecht, and the storm of war once m' re hushed 
 in the south, 1713. The parties ran high at this time, in Eng- 
 land ; it became now well understood, that not only Go;!t)l- 
 phin, the ex-minister, but the duke of MarSboroui^h him^< if, 
 secretly favored the cause of the pretender ; and that great 
 efforts were made to induce his sister, the quf en, tc [)rovide 
 for his restoration. 
 
 James III. was a violent catholic, and as obstinately so as 
 his father : this roused all the fears of ttse protestants, and 
 when united with the feuds produced at the peace, dlbtracted 
 the nafioH. 
 
 A party, called Jacobites, were actually engaged to restore 
 the pretender ; this called forth a vote of parliamen«, of ae 
 hundred thousand pounds, to whoever should apprrheiio \'ui 
 in Great Britain, 1714. During the violence of thfse nn as- 
 ures. Queen Anne died, and was succeeded by Ge- rue I. 
 elector of Hanover ; who placed the whigs at the head i»f -he 
 administration, commenced a general inquiry info tlie state 
 of the nation, and the negotiations of the peac^- of Ufr-'cht, 
 as the surest means of quieting the parties, and establishing 
 his throne. 
 
208 DEATH or LEWIS XIV. 
 
 In the Midst of these scene?, died Lewis XIV. king of 
 Franco, and was succeeded by Lewis XV. then a minor; and 
 tht iovernnient of France fell under tlie regency of the duke 
 of Orleans, 1715. He espoused the cause of James IIL (the 
 {>r»'ieiMier.) and secretly co operated with ttie Jacobites in 
 KM«:!and aitd S«'-ntland, to effect his restoration. Great pre- 
 parali<ni6 were made this year, for the reception of James HI. 
 in England ; and Ihe jacf)bites invited him to land at Plym- 
 outh. A general insurrection took place in Scotland, and 
 these hanly sons of the mountains, who boasted thai they 
 never had been conquered, tendered their services to James, 
 in s^npporf of his claims lo the crown of England. 
 
 This formidable conspiracy in Engtend and Scotland, cal- 
 led forth all Ihe energies of George ; and the kingdoms of 
 Eii<j:Iand and Scotland, were again torn with the distresses of 
 a civil war. 'i'he pretender land^-d in Scotland: again the 
 protestant cause is triumphant — ihat G'»d who rides on the 
 whirlwind and directs the storm, appeared in support of the 
 rexumalion. The sirug^de was short ; the fatal battle of 
 Shtrriflfniuir decided the fate of the pretender, and his popish 
 cause forever in England ; his partisans dispersed, and he fled 
 to France. A tew executions suppressed the rebellion, re- 
 stor« (1 l!ie trarsquiniiy of the nation, and established the throne. 
 
 The conllictmg passions, which had harrassed, and distres- 
 sed Europe, in the south, during the long and ambitious reign 
 oi-Lnwis XIV. were once more hushed into a general calm. 
 Tilt exhausted state of finances, Ihrouihout these kingdoms, 
 rendered a general peace not only necessary ; but actually 
 foih-ide the renewal of hostilities. 
 
 France was content lo secure her ancient limits, with the 
 ficqujsition of the crown of Spain, to a branch of the house of 
 Bourbon. Efrglfin<l !iad sfcured a proiestant succession, and 
 the union of Seotland ; hut the emperor of Germany had ob- 
 taifi. (i no ad« quale compensation for the blood and treasure 
 expended in the war, excepting the union of Hungary, with 
 the house of Austria. 
 
 At the close of the last war, by the peace of Ryswick, we 
 turned our attention slightly, to the general improvement of 
 manners, literature and the arts, since the reigns of Charles 
 V. Francis I. and Henry VIH. in the middle of the sixt' enih 
 century : let us now take a view of the changes, which the 
 long reign of L* wis XIV. has produced, in the relative con- 
 nection of the kingdoms in the south of Europe* 
 
BALANCE OF POWER. *09 
 
 The hish claims and prctenliong, which marked the com- 
 in<riceinenf <>f the re\i£u of this haughty, ovf^rbearino: mni- 
 arcn, call'^d up ^he ^renera! attention of (he nations to their 
 cotisrih n safety. an(i led them to enquire into the principles of 
 their commoo interest and security. These pri?,*iple3 led 
 Spain, ItalVr Germany, En<iland and Holland to suspend their 
 private interests and views, together with their private [liques, 
 anti ohjeefs of ambition, and form ^>ne grand confednracy, to 
 check tite hiijh menacini: ambition of France, The success- 
 es of this coalition were displayed in the peace of Ryswick. 
 
 When the intrig;iies of Lewis to accornpliish the union of 
 the crowns of France and Spain, upon the death of Charles 
 il. ajiain threatened to commit the peace of Europe, and de- 
 stroy the ^ener^l interest, which the peace of Ryswick had 
 see.ured — again the southern kint^doms coalesced, first under 
 the triple alliance, anrJ then ijenerally ; humbled the ciy;antic 
 power of France, reduced her to the last extremity, sev; red 
 the union then contemplated, by express stipulation ; and the 
 treaty of Utrecht, guaranteed to Europe a balance of power, 
 which ramained untlisturbed down to the French revolution. 
 
 Thus we see, how from the private quarrels of individuals 
 in the early aa;es, of neiijhborinir chiefs, of neighborinii and ri- 
 val cities, of neighborina: states, or kingdoms, either separate- 
 ly, or with private alliances, to promote, or check ambition, 
 the nations of Etirope have become one great family, with 
 separate views ; but one great union of interest, founded up- 
 on that balance of power, which they have effected by tbeir 
 great coalitions, J.rid which has become inseparably interwo- 
 ven, not o!]ly with the general safety and tranquility but 
 with their very existence, as independent states and sove- 
 rei^initieso 
 
 CHAP. XXXII. 
 
 FAiropc scPMeraUy, from, the commencement of the quadruple 
 alliance, to the accession of Francis I ofjluslria. " 
 
 Wmen the mighty struggle of ambition, which called forth 
 th" 'riple alliance, and in succession involved all the south of 
 Europe in a distres-in^ and eventful war, to prevent the un- 
 ion of the croivus ofFrance and Spain, in the house of Bour- 
 
 13* 
 
"210 QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. 
 
 bon, had been so successfully clos' d ; when Lewis XIV. Ihe 
 author of this mighty struggle, had guarantored an exlernal 
 exclusion, to the union of the two crowns in the house- of 
 Bourbon, in order to restore that tranquillity which his ambi- 
 tion had disturbed, by exciting a war which he could no long- 
 er maintain, and to guarantee to this grandson Philip V. the 
 the quiet possession of the crown of Spain : when Philip 
 had voluntarily sanctioned the measures of Lewis, his grand- 
 father, and was quietly enjoying all that he possessed, or 
 could in honor or justice claim : when all the contracting 
 parties were contentedly enjoying that quiet, which the great 
 interest ot Europe required and demanded, after so long and 
 arduous struggles as she experienced, during the long reign 
 of Lewis XIV : it was to have been expected, that a repose 
 so desirable, might have been continued. 
 
 Vv^hat shall we say, when we announce, that the same spir- 
 it of ambition which fired the breast of Lewis, inflamed the 
 heart of Philip V. and led him to light a^iain the torch of war, 
 hy his intrigues to obtain the regency of Prance, during the 
 minorily of Lewis XV. and thereby secure the union of the 
 two crowns of France and Spain. Although the conspira- 
 tors were discovered in the house of Bourbon, and duly pun- 
 ished, and the duke of Orleans more tirmly established in the 
 regency ; the powers of Europe resented this outrage, and the 
 union of England, France, Holland and Germany, under the 
 quadruple alliance, (so called) declared war against Spain, 
 1718. 
 
 The French invaded Spain on the northern frontier; the 
 English triumphed over the Spanish fleet, took the islands of 
 Sicily and Sardinia : Philip complied with the terms prescri- 
 bed, disgraced his minister, and su^d for peace. 
 
 At this time, the famous Mississippi scheme (so called) ap- 
 peared in France, and through the infatuating spirit of John 
 Law, ruined their system of finance, and spread distress and 
 ruin throuL^h the nation. The same spirit spread into Eng- 
 land, and blew up what was called the south sea bubble, and 
 produced the same efl"ects upon the funds, and upon the na- 
 tion, as the scheme of Law had produced in France. This 
 damped the s[»irit for war in the two nations ; the operations 
 of the alliance languished ; the death of the d kp of Orleans 
 in the year 1723, paved the way for peace by the treaties of 
 Vienna and Hanover. 1725 j which was finally settled by the 
 peace of Seville, 1727. 
 
GENERAL PEACE. 211 
 
 Pending these ne^otiafions, died George I. and was suc- 
 cee<1ed by his son George II. Under tins succesMnn, pnrties 
 ran hij^h in England ; corruption, jefdousy and strife, distract- 
 ed the councils of the nation. During; these struggles in 
 Enstland, died Augustus, kinij of Poland, 1733; and Lewis 
 XV. of France, now on the throne engaijed with Spain and 
 Sardinia, in a war against the emperor of Germany, to rf-cov- 
 er the crown of Poland for his father in law, Stanislaus Leck- 
 zinski, who once held it under the favor and protection of 
 ChajlesXlI. king of Sweden, by usurpation, and had fallen, 
 and fled to France upon the restoration of Ausiustus. The 
 Frt^nch invaded Germany and Italy, with such success, that 
 the emperor sued for peace. Lewis relinquished his claims 
 on the crown of Poland, and obtained for Sfanislaus the 
 duchy of Lorrain, with its cession to France, upon the death 
 of Stanislaus, and peace was concluded 1736. 
 
 During the distressing wars in Eurr>pe, for the last century, 
 the commerce, and colonial possessions of Ensrland, France, 
 Spain and Holland, rapidly progressed in North, and South 
 America, and both the Indies, and became the source of the 
 wealth, by which these powers were enabled to equip such 
 vast fleets, and raise and support such vast armies. 
 
 Although it was the means of increasing and prolonging 
 the distresses of the nations, it became the instrument of eu- 
 couraainy: and promoting the arts and sciences, of softening 
 and polishing their ferocity of manners, of disseminating the 
 principles of toleration in teligion, and thereby establishing 
 the reformation upon a more permanent basis. 
 
 During this period of commercial spirit and enterprise, the 
 strife, and conflicting interests of England and Spain, led 
 them into a commercial war, 1739. This war became a war 
 of plunder : The English exerted all their force to augment 
 their maritime strength ; to plunder and rifle the Spanish 
 commerce, particularly those ships laden with the treasures 
 of Peru. 
 
 They seized on the most wealthy commercial ports of 
 Spain, in South America, and under various successes, were 
 enriched with the spoils of the war ; particularly by the cap- 
 ture of a Spanish galleon, otf the coast of Chili, by lord An- 
 son, who traversed the great Pacific with his prize, visited In- 
 dia, returned to England by the way of the cape of Good 
 Hope, landed his treasure in England, where it was carried io 
 great triumph, and deposited in the toWer, 1744t. 
 
212 MARIA THERESA. 
 
 At the commencement of this war, died (he last prince of 
 the house of Austria, Charles VI This death opf-nt^d a pew 
 fi hi for the powers of Europe The treaty of Seville, which 
 closed the war of the quadrupk- alliance aijainst Spain — con- 
 tem[)latinsi the exposed situation of the house of \ustria, and 
 antieipatinir the claims that would commence upon the death 
 of the emperor, Charles VK guaranteed by a treneral confed- 
 eration, the ritjht of succession to Maria Theresa, eldest 
 dauiihier of Charles VI. and then wife of Francis, duke of 
 Lorrain. Maria Theresa was acknowledjieil by all the states 
 of Austria, and soon became extremely popular 
 
 At this time, a secret league took place, between Lewis 
 XV. Fredt ric III. king of Prussia, and the elector of Bavaria, 
 to divide the Austrian dominions. The king of Prussia open- 
 the war upon Silesia, and soon placed his standard on the 
 Wfdis of Bre^law, the capital. The forces of France entered 
 Germany, formed a junction with the elector, in Bavaria, and 
 penetrated to Vienna. The empress retired to Pres-bur^, in 
 Huniiary, where, by her artful address, she roused up the zeal 
 and spirit of the nation, under old count Paify, who so(»n ap- 
 peared for the relief of Vienna.* The allies did not wait his 
 his approach, but filed off into Bohemia, invested, and took 
 Prague, and crowned the elector of Bavaria kin^ of B<. he-, 
 mia ; from thence he proceeded to Frankfort, and was crown- 
 ed emperor, under the title of Charles VII. 1742. 
 
 The t;ii£antic strides of France, the dan^^erous state of Aus- 
 tria, and general interest of Germany, that enirrossed the at- 
 tention of Georiie I. tojjether with the ^ood effects which re- 
 sul'ed to the allies from the connection between England and 
 Austria, in humbling the pride of Lewis XIV. induced Geor^re 
 11. to espouse with warmth and zeal, the cause of Maria 
 Theresa. 
 
 Georo;e carried with him the spirit of his people : he de- 
 
 * This address of the empress is worthy of record. When ihe em- 
 press had assembled the states of Hung-ary, she aj)peared .-u \heir head, 
 and hearini? her eldest, and her infant son in lier arms, thus addressed 
 them : " Abandoned by my friends, persecuted by my enemies, ard at- 
 tacked by my nearest relations, I have no resource left, but in y^ur fi- 
 delity and valor. On you alone, 1 depend for relief; and into your 
 hands I commit the son of your sovereip^n, and my just cause." Fired 
 with indit.';nation and rag-e," they drew their swords, and wi.h tears of 
 zeal and compassion, ihey exclaimed : " We will die for our kiiii^.'* 
 The nobility were inblauily in arms, and at the head of thirty thousand 
 men. 
 
TREATY or WORMS. 213 
 
 posed his opposing: ministry ; filled their places with such as 
 were ready to second his views ; his parliament liberally 
 granif'd supplies, and George asserr.bled an army in Flanders 
 of 36,000 men ; and the Austrians penetrated into Bavaria, 
 and took Mrmich. 
 
 At this critical moment, the court of France were struck, 
 as with a clap of thunder, by the tidinjijs of the treaty of Brea- 
 lavv. and peace belw»^eii Pruijsia and Austria. 
 
 The allies were closely invec-f^^d in Prajiue, and their fate 
 considered as desperate. The French, on the Rhine, made 
 an effort to relieve Prague, but it failed; and the duke De 
 B' llf isle, by an artful movement, stole a march upon the be- 
 sie-iers, abandoned Pra-ue, and led back his army, with ail 
 his ba^<i;ai!;e and artillery, to the banks of the Rhine. 
 
 Spain, in alliance with France, pushed the war in Italy, 
 wiih such success, as to rouse up the king of Sardinia to an 
 alliance with the empress, and kint; of England, and the war 
 raided by sea and Innd, with various success. At the com- 
 mencement of 1743, the French sued for peace — the allies 
 refused. This artful policy, kindled afresh the feuds of op- 
 position in the Bri'ish parliament ; George reinforced his ar- 
 my in Flanders, and took the field in person. This occasion- 
 ed such suspicious movements, particularly at the battle of 
 Dettingen, as damped the spirit of the allies, and caused the 
 British general, the earl of Sfain to resign in disgust. 
 
 The treaty of Worms, between the arch duchess, Maria 
 Theresa, and the king of Sardinia, strengthened her pros- 
 pects; and her imperious deportment led several German prin- 
 ces to negotiate with the new emperor, Charles Vll. at 
 Frankfort. 
 
 These movements called forth a secret treaty at Fontain- 
 bleau, between France and Spain, to recover the sovereignty 
 of the Mediterranean, and at the same time all the old in- 
 trigues for the restoration of the pretender were renewed, cor- 
 respondences opened between E igland, Scotland and France, 
 an army of fifteen thousand men assembled in France, under 
 the celebrated count S.ixe, and actually embarked for Eng- 
 lami, to restore the prfr't«-nder. This diversi<m lailed, and was 
 defeated by violent storms, and all further movements pre- 
 vented by a superior British fleet, 1744. 
 
 The VHrioiis operdlions, and various successes of th- ?)ar- 
 ties through 5his year and the next, in Flanders, Italy, Sp tin 
 and Germanyj are too numerous and complicated for detail ; 
 
214 CHARLES III. IN SCOTLAND. 
 
 suffice it to say, that at the close of the year 1746, all the 
 contending powers were hushed to peace, excepting France 
 and Austria : and the husband of Maria Tiieresa was crown- 
 ed emperor, under the tith- of Francis I. 
 
 The successes of this war, stren^iltiened and confirmed 
 that mutual dependence and Pup[)ort, which the oth( r alliance 
 had encourajjed, between Great Britain ancl the house of Aus- 
 tria. As it proved to b*« then, so it has continued to be to 
 this day, the ^^reat barrier ascainst the overbearing ambilioD, 
 and the gigantic strides of France. 
 
 CHAP, xxxin. 
 
 Europe generally, froin the accession of George II. of England, 
 to the confi.deracy against the king oj Frussia^^ and rear of 
 1756. 
 
 The violent opposition to the continental war, which dis- 
 tracted the British councils', at the accession of George II. 
 «nd rendered a change of ministry so necessary — went into 
 retirement with the ex miisisters, and laid the foundation for 
 that faction, which promoted and encouraged the return of 
 the pretender, to seize on the crown of England. This spirit 
 spread into Scotland, that hot-bed of rebellion, where an in- 
 surrection was soon in reafliness to receive the pretender, and 
 place him upon the English throne, 1745. 
 
 Fired with ^hese expectations, together with the flnttering 
 prospects from France, Charles III. son of James III. em- 
 barked from France, anr? landed in Scotland unattended, and 
 unsJipport^MJ ; (his supplies from France havini: been blown 
 back and blockaded, as before observed.) The Scottish 
 chiefs rallied round his standard — they marched into England 
 with apparent success, but were soon compelled to retire into 
 Scotland, where Charles e.-jjoyed for a few days, the pride of 
 mock majesty ; fought the fatal battle of Culloden, deserted 
 his siandard and his friends, left them to their fate, and retir- 
 ed to France. 
 
 The severity of the government, in punishing the insur- 
 gent chiefs, and stripping them of their hereditary jurli^dic- 
 ti(m, throughout the highlands, humbled this rebellious ^()int 
 in Svoilarxl, and secured ihe crown of England against all fu- 
 ture claims from the pretender. 
 
DEATH OF PHILIP V. 216 
 
 The war which continued on (he continent, between 
 France and Austria, was rendered illustrious in Flanders, un- 
 der marshal Saxe, by their sifccesses in this campaign ; but 
 the campaiun in Italy was closed with various success, 1746. 
 
 The treaty of Fontainbleau, between France and Spain, 
 w^as V iolated by a secret treaty, between France and the king 
 of Sardinia, which roused the Spanish jealousy, and distract- 
 ed the operations in Italy ; and at this critical juncture died 
 Philip the V. The government of Spain devolved upon the 
 queen — but Ferdinand Vi the son of Philip, succeeded to 
 the throne. 
 
 The cause of France and Spain, soon became desperate in 
 Kaly — they retired to Genoa, and were soon compelled to 
 abandon that city to her fate, and retire into France. The 
 military exactions which the Austrians enforced upon Genoa, 
 humbled, and almost ruined that haujihfy republic ; yet left 
 them a. spirit, which roused up and repelled their oppressive 
 conquerors, and recovered their liberty. This closed the 
 cart.paiirn. The French, at the same time threatened Hano- 
 ver ; J his caused a secret treaty between England and Prus- 
 sia, and a subsidary treaty between England and Russia. 
 Thus arrayed, the parties prepared for action. 
 
 Georiie II. published a spirited manifesto. The king of 
 Prussia penetrated into Saxony, took Dresden, and compel- 
 led Augustus III. king of Poland, to take refuge with his army. 
 
 He next penetrated into Bohemia, with apparent success, 
 under desperate conflicts, at the same time the capture of the 
 whole Saxon army, opened his way to fall back into Saxony, 
 and take up his winter quarters at Dresden. — Here he dis- 
 covered the plan of the allies, to divide up his kingdom ; par- 
 ticQlarly Austria, Russia and Saxony, and preparations were 
 made to op^^n the campaign with vigor. 
 
 France opened the campaign, by a movement of eighty 
 thousand men, to invade the electorate of Hanover, and at 
 the same time sent a small force into Germany, to co operate 
 with Austria. George II. entered with zeal into the war, dis- 
 graced his opposing ministry, and strengthened his cause, by 
 appointing his friends, and sent the duke of Cumberland into 
 Germany, to defend Hanover, at the head of forty thousand 
 men. The Russians prepared to co-operate with Austria. 
 
 The king of Prussia anticipated all their movements, enter- 
 ed Bohemia in four divisions, triumphed over one Austrian 
 army, united his forces, triumphed over the main body of the 
 
216 BOHEMIA EVACUATED. 
 
 Austrian force in Bohemia, and invested them in Prague. 
 Elated with the successes of this victory, with too much confi- 
 d^-nce, he detached a part of his army to check ohi marshal 
 Daun, and soon followed in person with another detachment. 
 
 These two great champions of the ajie met, and a battle 
 en?ued ; the carnage of 20.000 men witnessed the valor and 
 obstinacy of the conflict , both sides claimed the victory. 
 The king of Prussia retired, raised the siege of Prague, and 
 evacuated Bohemia. The remarks which have fallen from 
 the pens of some of the greatest captains, in marking the 
 errors of the king of Prussia, at this critical juncture, and 
 shewinir how he might not only have remedied his misfor- 
 tunes, but have triumphed over marshal Daun, are too lengthy 
 for ihis work. 
 
 It must be evident at first view, to every reader, that the 
 successes of the king, had inspired him with too much self- 
 contidence, and too much contempt for his enemies — and 
 that this caused his loss of Bohemia. 
 
 At this critical state of the king, the Russians entered Prus- 
 sia on the north, with an army of one hundred thousand men, 
 and triumphed over one of his best generals, in a signal vic- 
 tory ; the contest was sharp and desperate, the spirit of the 
 Prussian charge, was received by the Russians upon the point 
 of the bayonet, which di^^played the tirmness of their charac- 
 ter and discipline ; the Prussians retired with great loss. 
 The valor and tirmness of the Russians had not been experi- 
 enced in tile south, at that day ; and this war opened a field 
 for the cultivation of their discipline, and laid the foundation 
 for such future operations as have been witnessed. 
 
 The English made some diversion on the coast of France 
 this year, but without ♦ ffect ; and the French seized on the 
 English settlement of Madras, in the East Indies. This clos- 
 ed the naval operations of this year, 1747. The campaign 
 was opened this year, by a great accession of strentrth to all 
 the parties, and the arms of France were again rendered il- 
 lu^fii»>u-= in glanders under marshal Saxe ; they overran all 
 the low countries, and threatened Holland. The general 
 alarm r(»used up the spirit of the Dutch ; they itivested the 
 prmce of Oranjre, with the title of " stadf holder, captain gen- 
 eral arid commander in chief, of all the United Provinces j" 
 and made viu:or'»us etfarts to defend their country. 
 
 T le illus(ri''Us m:«rshal Saxe triumphed ov«^r all opposi- 
 tion ; and with the fall of Bergen-op zoom, (the key of Dutch 
 
CONGRESS OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 217 
 
 Brabant,) became master of the navio:atiDn of the Scheldt. 
 Tbe allied house of Bourbon were again unsuccessful, in all 
 their efforts in Italy this year. The triumph of Enijland, 
 over the navies and commerce of France, by the capture of 
 twelve ships of the line, and fifty East and West India mer- 
 chantmen, struck a severe blow to the spirits of Lewis XV. 
 and called his attention to a peace, 1748. 
 
 This year opened with a general congress at Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle. The affairs of Lewis, although so highly successful in 
 Flanders, had now become desperate : the ruin of his com- 
 merce and navy, cut off the resources of his treasury; the 
 failure of his hopes in Italy — the appointment of the grand 
 duke, emperor, and thereby defeatincr the prime object of the 
 war, in establishing the claims of the arch duchess Maria The- 
 resa ; the (reajy of Breslaw, which detached the kin^ of Prus- 
 sia from the confederacy ; the new powers of the stadthold- 
 er, which presented a formidable barrier on the part of Hol- 
 land ; but above all the hiiih state of the Enu^lish funds, their 
 liberality, particularly in subsidizing the empress of Ru?<^ia, 
 and at the same lime despatchinji a powerful fleet to the East 
 Indies, to recover Madras, and redeem Pondicherry — all 
 pressed Lewis to efforts for peace. A cessation of arms sooa 
 ensued, and the peace of Aix la-Chapellej soon closed the 
 sanguinary conflict, 1748. 
 
 In this peace, the treaties of Westphalia, Rysa, &.c. were 
 confirmed ; all conquests were restored, the accession of the 
 arch duchess confirmed, and the guarantee of the prasm itic 
 sanction renewed by all the firmer contracting parties, and all 
 thinofs remained in statu quo, except the acquisition of Silesia 
 to the kinj: of Prussia. 
 
 This war is 2;enerally considered, as a useless, wanton waste 
 of blood and treasure for no adequate purpose. — This is strict- 
 ly true, so far as regards France and Spain ; but far different 
 with Ene;land : this war established the superiority of the 
 Ens[lish navy and commerce, confirmed the policy of the two 
 former wars, of wasting the treasure, and humbling; the house 
 of Bourbon by continental alliances, whilst Eni^land bestow- 
 ed her whole attention upon her navy, her commerce, and 
 her colonies m the East and West Indies, and in North Amer- 
 ica, and laid the foundation <>f all her future greatness. The 
 perils of this war, saved her North American colonies. 
 
 The most flattering prospects of general tranquillity in Eu- 
 rope, succeeded the peace of Aix la-Chapelle, aad continued, 
 
 19 
 
^18 CAPTURE OF MINORCA. 
 
 with the exception of some feuds and intrigues in the courts 
 of England, France and S[min, down to the year 1756. Dur- 
 ing this period, sc»nie strife and intrigfues sprang up, between 
 the settlements of Enjiland and France in the East Indies ; 
 but nothing decisive, and a trealy settled their claims in statu 
 quo. 
 
 In 1754, some collisions commenced between the English 
 and French colonies in North America, which continued, and 
 were interwoven with the seven years war 1756, which raged 
 generally in Europe. The operations of this war in America, 
 I shall d«fer,and consider in the general history of America. 
 
 The English took advantage of these collisions in Ameri- 
 ca, and commenced general depredations upon the com- 
 merce of France, and captured more than three hundred sail 
 of merchant ships : at the same time commenced their in- 
 trigues upon the continent. 
 
 The state of the French funds, led the court of Lewis XV. 
 to a new system of policy ; he bore the depredations of the 
 English, without making reprisals — he remembered the perfi- 
 dy of the king of Prussia, in tleserting the confederates by 
 the treaty of Breslaw ; he remembered the cause of resent- 
 ment the house of Austria justly entertained against that 
 prince, for his alliance with France, to oppose the claims of 
 the arch duchess, and for the acquisition of Silesia, which he 
 obtained by the treaty of Aix-laChapel!e. 
 
 He felt the ascendency which George the II. had obtained 
 in the two last wars, by his continental influence ; this he as- 
 cribed to his power, as elector of Hanover, Lewis cherish- 
 ed the resentment of the house of Austria, against the king of 
 Prussia, and the two powers formed an alliance to punish the 
 kine of Prussia, and divide up his dominions ; they had the 
 address to unite Russia and Sweden in this confederacy, and 
 the war commenc^-d by the invasion of Minorca, by the 
 French, which was carried, through the defection of the Brit- 
 ish admiral Byng. 
 
 A general exultation reigned in France, and a general de- 
 spowdency in EnglHud, and their former high martial spirit, 
 now tamely submitted to the introduction of German troops 
 into England, to repel a threatened invasion from France, 
 1757. 
 
WAR IN PRUSSIA OF 1756, 219. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. 
 
 General affairs of the seven years war in Europe^ to the peace 
 of Paris y 1763. 
 
 During these operations in Bohemia and Prussia, the duke 
 of Cumberland retired before the French under the marshal 
 De Etrees, took refuge under the cannon of Stade, and saved 
 his army, by sis^ninsj the convention of Clasterseven, aban- 
 doning; Hanover to the French arms, and retiring to England, 
 left the kina? of Prussia to his fate. This occasioned a new 
 revolution in the cabinet of George H : the ex-minister was 
 restored, and some diversion planned and executed against 
 the coast of France; but without success. 
 
 During these misfortunes in Europe, together with some 
 losses in America, the English felt sensibly their disgrace ; 
 when the spirit of the nation was relieved by a favorable turn 
 in their affairs, and a successful recovery of their former loss- 
 €s, with some valuable acquisitions in the East Indies, togeth- 
 er with an exaction of two millions, to indemnify the expens* 
 es of the war. 
 
 The losses of the king of Prussia, constrained him to act on 
 the defensive. The allied French and Austrians, invaded 
 Saxony, and summoned Leipsic. The king advanced to 
 meet them; a battle ensued ; the king was victorious — and 
 the allies retired. Old mareschal Daun, at the same time ad- 
 vanced into Silesia, invested Schweidnitz, and carried it by 
 storm ; attacked and subdued the prince of Bevern, took him 
 prisoner, and entered Breslaw. 
 
 The king flew to the relief of Silesia, united his scattered 
 forces, and prepared for action. Mareschal Daun, and prince 
 Charles, advanced to meet the king, with the same confi 
 dence, that led the king into his misfortunes in Bohemia, viz. ; 
 too much self-confidence ; and they in their turn experienc- 
 ed the same misfortune. 
 
 The king met the allies at Luthen, strongly posted, and 
 awaiting his attack. Here was exhibited the decisive advan- 
 tage of Prussian tactics and discipline, over the superior forces 
 and position of the allies. 
 
 The king commenced the attack, by a movement on the 
 right of the enemy's position ; and when mareschal Daun 
 had weakened his left, to support his right, the king by a mas 
 terly display to the right, fell with his whole force upon their 
 
220 WAR CONTINUED. 
 
 Jeft : the battle was decisive, the carnage was great ; the a!- 
 lies were driven from their commanding position, and the 
 kins followed up his victory ; the allies retired out of Silesia, 
 and the king entered Breslaw in triumph. 
 
 The successes of the king, set the example to all his gene- 
 rals, and the Russians and Swedes, were soon driven out of 
 Prussia. These j^lorious successes of the king of Prussia, in- 
 spired his friends with fresh confidence, and roused up the 
 electorate of Hanover, to assert their liberties. George II. 
 placed the duke of Brunswick at their head, and by his suc- 
 cessful valor, he compelled the French to retire out of Hano- 
 ver, and repass the Rhine. These spirited measures in Prus- 
 sia and Hanover, inspired the cabinet of George with fresh 
 confidence, and led his minister, Mr Pitt, to say, that Amerir 
 ca must be saved in Europe, and that the king of Prussia 
 must be supported. 
 
 A new trf aty was negotiated with the king of Prussia, and 
 the parliament were liberal in their supplies for the war. A 
 change took place in the French ministry, and the war raged 
 upon the Rhine with various success. During these opera- 
 tions, the king of Prussia advanced in pursuit of mareschal 
 Daun ; penetrated into Moravia, and laid siege to Olmutz 
 
 Upon the intelligence that the Russians had entered Bran- 
 denburg, he raised the siege of Olmutz, retired in the face of 
 (bat <dd hero, and returned into Prussia — met the Russians, 
 and after a terrible confliict and carnage, he triumphed over 
 them in the battle of Zorndorf : the Russians retired into Po- 
 land, and the king, by a masterly movement, again appeared 
 in Saxony, for the relief of his brother, against the imperial 
 and Austrian armies : the latter under old mareschal Daun. 
 A desperate action ensued, the king retired — but gained his 
 purpose, and was not pursued. 
 
 He passed again into Silesia ; expelled the Austrians, re- 
 li7rned into Saxony ; compelled mareschal Daun to raise the 
 siege of Dresden, and entered it in triumph. The splendid 
 and triumphant dii^plays of the arms of the king of Prussia, 
 together with several successful diversions of Ensrland, on 
 the coast of France, and the triumphant display of the Eng- 
 lish flag in the British channel, gave a new aspect to the af- 
 fairs of Europe, and closed the campaign of 1758, gloriou«^ly. 
 
 The successes of the last season, enabled the kins of Prus- 
 sia, to open this campaign, with a train of splendid successes, 
 against the Russians in Poland; against the Swedes in Pome- 
 
WAR CONTINUED. 221 
 
 rania : and against the Austrians in Silesia, Bohemia end 
 F h<couia. Tfjese, together with his plans of operation wilh 
 th»' duke of Brunswick, gave promising assurajices oC a 
 spc^Kly issue to the war: when sudden reverse of fortune, 
 bfasted all his fair prospects, and gave a new turn to the ope- 
 rations of the campaign. 
 
 The French penetrated into, Germany with splendid suc- 
 cess, and a^ain threatened Hanover; the duke of Bruusv, ick 
 retired to (he confines of the electorate, and gave battle to 
 the French The success of this action, saved Hanover : the 
 French retired towards the Rhine, and the duke posted a part 
 of his army for the defence of Hanover, and detached the re- 
 mainder to the relief of the kini^ of Prussia, whose forces had 
 received a severe check by the Russians in Silesia, where 
 the king was about to repair in person; when ohl mareschal 
 Daun reinforced the Rassians, and rendered that army about 
 one hundred thousand strong : they took up a commanding 
 position, and awaited the approach of the king. 
 
 Fired with resentment at the ravages of the enemy, and 
 inflamed with the passions of war, the king with only fifty 
 thousand men, hastened to the contest ; the Russians were 
 broken, and routed: they again rallied to the contest; and 
 took post on a commanding eminence — the king made seve- 
 ral desperate efforts to dislodge them ; but failed. The Aus- 
 trian cavalry charged the Prussians in their turn, with suc^ 
 cess ; the action became general ; thrice the king at the head 
 of his brave troops, led them to the charge — thrice his horse 
 was shot under him, and his clothes pierced with balls ; but 
 without effect ; the mass of force was against him, and baf- 
 fled his power. The king retired, leaving a earnase of thir- 
 ty thousand men ; more than half of which were Prussians j 
 night closed the scene, and prevented a total overthrow. 
 
 A angular anecdote of the king, in this memorable action, 
 may be worth notice. Upon the success of the first charge, 
 when the Prussians were in the Russian trenches ; the king, 
 in the heat of the action, wrote the following message, and 
 despatched it to the queen. " We have driven the Russians 
 from their entrenchments; expect within two hours to near of 
 a glorious victory." Immediately upon the change in the 
 fortune of the day, the king addressed a second message to 
 the queen, from the field of action. " Remove from Berlin 
 with the royal family. Let the archives be carried to Potz- 
 
 \0^ 
 
222 WAR CONTINUED. 
 
 dam. The town may make conditions with the enemy.^' 
 S(« fickle h the fortune of war. 
 
 His majesty fell back, took a commandinff position, re- 
 cruited and reinforced his army, was able to cover his capiial, 
 and to the astonishment of Europe, to act on the offensive, and 
 recover all his losses in Saxony, except Dresden ; and by a 
 n»asterly movement, compelled the Russians to retire into 
 Pt.land — and in spite of the Austrian generals he marched 
 into Saxony, and old mareschal Daun fell back upon Dresden. 
 
 Fired with his prospects, th^ kins resolved to cut off the 
 retreat of mareschal Daun, by a detachment from his own 
 army, reduce the Austrian army at a blow, and close the 
 campaijrn with the recovery of Saxony, by the total over- 
 throw of Daun. This rash measure, lost him the whole 
 force, detached to intercept the retreat of the old mareschal ; 
 Who took up his position in his fortified camp, and the king 
 retired into winter quarters. 
 
 Thus the campaij^n closed, after the most active operations, 
 desperate carnage, and brilliant displays of arms, exactly 
 where it began ; except the fall of Dresden to tiie Austrians. 
 
 The operations of the winter opened a new scene — the suc- 
 cesses in America, led the Enj^Hsh to make the most of their 
 fit et, and they commenced a general attack upon the French 
 West India colonies, and with general success. The French 
 and Dutch, made several efforts to ravage the English settle- 
 ments in India, but failed. 
 
 During the winter, a new scene of operations commenced. 
 The French assembled their forces, equipped their fleets, and 
 threatened to revenge the depredations of the English upon 
 their coast, by invading England : this brought the theatre of 
 action upon the water. A general blockade of the ports of 
 France, with several desperate engagements between the 
 English and French, closed this scene ; but nothing decisive, 
 1760. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. Continued. 
 
 The campaign opened this season with a general distribu- 
 tion of force, about I be saine as at the commencement of the 
 Tast, with a contiouaiion of the general plan. Again, the 
 
WAR CONTINUED. 223 
 
 duke of Brunswick protected Hanover, by the decisivp ac- 
 tioi5 of Warbura;. The kina; of Prussia, sensible of his rash- 
 ne«is the Irtst campaiiin, particularly at the close, resulved to 
 mniotain his stroni£ oosition, and hcI on the defensive. 
 
 He saw his domliiions invaded by three powerful armies: 
 th«' Russians upon the north ; one Austnan army in Saxony, 
 under mareschal Daun ; and another in Silesia, under jreneral 
 Laurlohn. By a movement, and success of Laudohn, the 
 kitii: was constrained to abandon his defensive plan ; by a 
 rapid movement, he marched into Saxony, and laid siej.e to 
 Dresden : mareschal Daun obliged him to retire, and without 
 an action. 
 
 At the same time Laudohn invested Breslaw ; and prince 
 Henry compelled him to abandon it. Ttie king;, alarmed at 
 the prospect of losinp: Silesia, by a junction between th< Rus- 
 sians and mareschal Daun, made a masterly movement and 
 flew to its relief with his whole army, passed five large rivers, 
 with all his artillery and baggage, traversed a country more 
 than two hundred miles in extent, and appeared in Silesia; 
 here he was enclosed by these three powerful armies, and his 
 fate considered desperate. 
 
 The very night, on which an attack was concerted by the 
 three generals, upon the camp of the king, he cautiously re- 
 tired, took a strong and commanding position, and watched 
 the movements of the enemy. They advanced to the at- 
 tack, as was agreed, in dead of night ; but to their astonish- 
 ment, the king was gone. At break of day he fell furiously 
 upon Laudohn, and before mareschal Daun could arrive with 
 succor, he routed and dispersed his army. 
 
 The Russians withdrew from the scene, and mareschal 
 Daun retired, and took up a strong position in the mountains, 
 and the king was again relieved : but his relief was only to 
 follow the Russians to his capital, where they penetrated, ri- 
 fled his magazines and royal treasures, laid the city under con- 
 tribution, with other ravages atteadant on war. and retired. 
 
 This spread a general gloom over the affairs of the king. 
 He, filred with indignation and rage, resolved to take ven- 
 geance on his enemies. With this view, he rushed into Sax- 
 ony, with an army of fifty thousand men ; mareschal Daun 
 followed him with an army of eighty thousand, took up a 
 strong position, and watched the king. 
 
 Resolved to attack him in defiance to ail his security, the 
 king reconcoitered his position, drew out his army, and ad 
 
224 WAR COiVTINUED. 
 
 vanced to the charge. Mareschal Dnun received him with 
 tht' diri'har«:e o^ more than two hundre«i pit ceg ot" crtunoji ; 
 vi< tory loojj; stood perched over the ti-M — now this, and i^w 
 that scale prevailetl. until the great Daun was wounded, aid 
 CHrried off th*- field ; victory soon d« tlared for the kinii — .he 
 Au*trians fled, and left the field strt^wtd with a teirble car- 
 natre, and night only, saved the ruins of their army. 
 
 This victory revived the spirits of his friends, and the na- 
 tion, and by his su»lden movements, he recovered all Saxony, 
 exc«^^pt Dresden. The Auslrians abandoned Silesia, the Rus- 
 sians abandoned Pomerania, and retireci into Pidand, and itie 
 Swedes retired under the cannon of Stritlsund. 
 
 Tims a>iain the theatre of Europe has been drenched in 
 blood, the most masterly military movements have been 
 made, the most desperate and sanguinary battles have been 
 foutiht, the greatest feats of prowess and skill have been dis- 
 played, and no decisive event has occurred. 
 
 The great contending parties are again balanced, as at the 
 close of the last campaign ; but the successes of the English 
 in America, have richly cou»pensated them for their liberal 
 supplies afforded in the war. The French received a blow, 
 which ruined their interest in North America, by the fall of 
 Quebec, and the loss of Canada. 
 
 The French were equally unsuccessful in India, by the 
 loss of Fondicherry, which fell into the hands of the English, 
 January, 1761. This closed the French power in Hindostan, 
 and confirmed to the English the supremacy of the whole 
 Coromandel coast. 
 
 Again, we see the fruits of Continental alliances ; so often, 
 and so violently clamored against in the English parliament. 
 The French are ruined in America, in India, and have suffer- 
 ed serious losses in their navy, commerce, and West India 
 islands, all the fruits of the continental wars. 
 
 In the midst of this great continental struggle, and the suc- 
 cesses of his reign, died George II. and was succeeded by 
 his grandson, George III. then twenty three years of age, 
 1761. He commenced his reign under the most favorable 
 auspices, and received the applause of the nation, by a most 
 popular speech to his parliament, in which he exclaimed — 
 " Born in England, I glory in the name of Briton." 
 
 The eyes of all parties, at home and abroad, were fixed on 
 the king At ihi^ eventful crisis, all Christendom became 
 sensible of the wisdom of that continental system of policy, 
 
CONGRESS OF AUGSBURG. . 225 
 
 which commenced in England, at the accession of William 
 an<i Mary,* under the memorable reign of Lewis XIV. of 
 France, and which, by continuing down to this time, has 
 wasted the resources of France and Holland, (the great naval 
 and commercial rivals of England,) and enabled her to place 
 her naval and commercial strength upon such a basis, as to 
 hold the purse for confederated Europe in one hand, and 
 wield the sword of destiny with the other, and thus sit arbiter 
 of the world. 
 
 When Georiie announced his resolution to his parliament, 
 of supporting the continental system, it was applauded by a 
 vote of supply of twenty million sterling; a supply, which 
 astonished Europe, struck dismay into the confederates, and 
 led them into serious dispositions for peace. 
 
 The finances of France were drained ; her navy and com- 
 merce were depressed ; herafTiirs in India and America ruin- 
 ed, and her West India colonies lay at the mercy of an Eng- 
 lish fleet, prepared to invade them. The courts of Vienna, 
 Russia and Sweden, were in no better condition to prosecute 
 the war. 
 
 A congress was accordingly assembled at Augsburg, to ad- 
 just the differences of the continental po\\<irs generally ; but 
 neijociations opened at London, between France and Eng- 
 land, for a separate peace : and at this critical state of aflfairs, 
 died Ferdinand VI. king of Spnin, and was succeeded by his 
 brother, Don Carlos, king of Naples and Sicily, now Charles 
 III. This momentous event, gave a new change to the af- 
 fairs of Christendom, and laid the foundation for the famous 
 family compact of the B jurbons, upon the ihrones of France 
 and Spain. f 
 
 The principle of uti possidetis,]: or mutual retention of pos- 
 
 * It must be remembered, that continental coalitions first began, m 
 the reign of Ciiarles VIII of France. 
 
 •j- The resentment shovvn by Vf r. Piit, closed at once the family com- 
 pact between the courts of France and Spain. This conipact roused 
 the indi;^naiion of Mr. Put, and he called for a declaration of war 
 agiinst Spain ; this was opposed w'i>\\ equal warmth, and ihe minister 
 resigned in disgust. Upon the change of ministry in England, the 
 courts of France and Spain, recalled iheir ministers from London, and 
 issued mutual declarations of war, and ai the same time, ai tempi ed to 
 coerce the king of Portugal into a co operation, in the war ; this failed, 
 and they declared war against Portugal. 
 
 t The English had conquered from France, in >3')''th-A.merica— No- 
 va Scotia, with the city of Louisburg— Lower Canada, with the cities 
 
226 INVASION OP PORTUGAL. 
 
 sessions acquired by the parties in the war, epun out the ne- 
 gociations at London : at the same time Charles III, sensible 
 of the triumphs of England, over France, in America, by the 
 great acquisitions of colonial territory, and alarmed for the 
 security of Spahish America, attempted to interpose bis influ- 
 ence in the negociations at London; but without success, 
 and they were suspended. 
 
 Thus we see, that the negociations for peace, at Aujjsburg 
 and London, have resulted in a general war, and again the 
 whole south of Europe are engaged in the struggle. Pending 
 these negociations, no cessation of hostilities had ensued : the 
 war raged in Germany, the Enijlish invaded the coast of 
 France, and took BeHisle. The French made another effort 
 to enter the electorate of Hanover, but without success; and 
 the year closed without any thing decisive, 1762. 
 
 This year commenced with the invasion of Portugal, by the 
 arms of France and Spain, but without success. The French 
 renewed their attempts on Hanover — but without success. — 
 The death of Elizabeth, empress of Russia, and the succes- 
 sion of the duke of Holstein, under the title of Peter IH. gave 
 some relief to the affairs of the king of Prussia. 
 
 Peter turned hi;, whole attention to the organization of the 
 affairs of his empire, took the position of mediator, between 
 Austria and Prussia, and when his efforts proved abortive, 
 declared war against Austria, and joined the king of Prussia. 
 This change produced a peace between Sweden and Prussia. 
 These two events left the king of Prussia at liberty to tura 
 his whole attention to the two great champions of Austria, 
 mareschal Daun and Laudohn. 
 
 At this critical moment died Peter the ITT. suddenly, by a 
 revolution, and was succeeded by Catharine 11. She con- 
 firmed the peace of Peter, but withdrew her troops, and left 
 the Austrians and Prussians to settle their quarrel. — The king, 
 by a grand movement, foiled the efforts of his opponents, re- 
 covered Schweidntz, and settled a truce with Austria, for 
 Saxony and Silesia. This produced a general truce through- 
 out the empire. 
 
 Pending these movements in Russia and Germany, the 
 English pursued the policy which they had now so fully ma- 
 
 of Quebec and Montreal, together with all French America, except 
 NeH'. Orleans. T^iey had, the last year, conquered Pondirlierry, to- 
 ge or vvivh all the possessions of France in India, and some oi" her 
 Wesi-lndia islands. 
 
PEACE OF PARIS. 227 
 
 tured : their naval expedition was crowned with the conquest 
 of Martinico, and the city of Havannah, the capital of the isl- 
 and of Cuba, and key to the g.ulf of Mexico. 
 
 An expedition from Madras, in India, against Manilla, was 
 crowned with the conquest of all the Philippine isles, la 
 this triumphant position, the British minister announced his 
 overtures of peace: they were accepted by France and Spain; 
 approved by parli«Hient, and the war closed by the peace of 
 Paris, February, 1763. 
 
 By this peace, the king of Prussia retained all his domin- 
 ions, with the confirmation of Snxony and Silesia ; England 
 retained all her conquests in North- America, and she rest<>r- 
 ed to France and Spain, her conquests in the East and West- 
 Indies. The close of this war, sealed the policy of the conti- 
 nental system of England, and established her upon the broad 
 basis, of mistress of the seas, and arbiter of the world. The 
 war in Germany was closed by the treaty of Hubert&burg, the 
 same year. 
 
 CHAP. XXXV. 
 
 General remarks — aholilion of the order ofJesuiis — discovery 
 and settlement of Narth- America — to 1775. 
 
 The splendor of the arts and sciences in Europe, kept 
 pace with the splendor of commerce and arms; these com- 
 bined, eave a lustre to the affairs of the continent, and a new 
 polish to Christendom. The improvements of the stasie, kept 
 pace with the improvements of the age : here, poetry, music 
 and action combined, gave an expression to the theatre un- 
 known before, to any age of the world The general expan- 
 sion given to the mind, by the reformaiion, kept pace with, 
 and marked the progress of this bright luminary of the west. 
 The persecutions of the papal power, had softened into a sul- 
 len state of tolerance. 
 
 The feuds in the councils of Lewis XIV. which called 
 forth the bull Uni genitus from pope Bt nedict XIV. to decide 
 the religious controversy between the Jansenists and Jesuits, 
 and which kindled a fire that continued to rage throuirh the 
 tevjn of Lewis XV. deserves some attention. The hauiihty 
 impatience, and violeat measures of Lewis XV. in dissolving 
 
228 GENERAL REMABKS. » 
 
 the parliament of France, called up the ceneral attention of 
 the nation to this violence done to their liberties, and threat- 
 ened the life of the king, by an attempt to assassinate him. 
 
 The king escaped with a wound only : this broujjht him to 
 his senses. H^: restored the parlinment: their resentment 
 fell on the order of the Jesuits, and they fell a sacrifice to the 
 resentments of the day. The kin^, by an edict, expelled 
 them his kingdom, and abolished tf^eir order in France. 
 
 This triumph of the p{»rlian>ent over the crown, and this 
 triumph of the Jansenists parly over the order of the Jesuits, 
 laid the foundation for the union of philosopliy with infiflelity, 
 of freedom of inquiry with the violence of liberty, and paved 
 the way for all the future sufferines of France. 
 
 In this ape, flourished Montesquieu. Helvetius, Voltaire, 
 De Alembert, Diderot, Ro-seau and Buff.>n. The sair»e ex- 
 pansion of the mind in Enp:Iand, kept pace with lib* rty, and 
 the reformation ; a Locke, a Swift, with Addison, P'»pe, and 
 others ; tocrether with that host in the councils, and in the 
 field, in the reitin of queen Anne, who were the champions 
 of all the future greatness of England. 
 
 In this ao:e, appeared Bolinjibroke and Hume : these, hav- 
 ing drank at the fountain of Hobbes and Shaft^bury, by their 
 talents and address, diffused the poison of infidelity through 
 the channels of science, and corrupted the nation. 
 
 The arts in this age, have ki»pt pace with the sciences: 
 music, paintinir, sculpture, architecture and husbandry, may 
 now claim a fair competition, with the most refined ages of 
 Greece, or Rome — and the science of government, as display- 
 ed in the balance of power in the English system, stands un- 
 rivalled in the annals of time. 
 
 We have traced the progress of man on the great theatre 
 of Europe, from that state of barbarism, into which he was 
 precipitated, by the violence of the revolution in the western 
 Roman empire, with all the extremes of ignorance, violence, 
 superstition and licentiousness, throujih which he strugtiled 
 for more than one thousand years — and marked the more 
 prominent causes, which have produced the eventual chan^- 
 ges, and raised Christendom to her present state of civil re- 
 finement. 
 
 The discovery of America, we noticed ; but the settlement 
 and growth of this new world, has been reserved, as a tlistinct 
 subject, that the narrative of events in Europe might not he 
 inlerrupted, and that a proper field might be given for the \[- 
 
DISCOVERY OP AMERICA. ^29 
 
 lustralion of this extensive, and important subject; a field so 
 novel, and yet so interesting, so full of instrucllon. 
 
 The first outlines of the history of America, 1 have com- 
 pressed into a ciironolofijical form, shewing in the co.'cisest 
 manner, the first adventures, which led to the first discoveries 
 and settlement of the several parts of this new world. 
 
 Before we enter upon the settlement of the continent of 
 North-America, I will devote a part of the chapter, to a sum- 
 mary narrative of the particular adventures, that led to the 
 particular discoveries and settlements, upon this most inter- 
 esting theatre of the world. 
 
 Christopher Columbus, under the patronage of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, king and queen of Spain, discovered the islands 
 of St. Salvador and Cuba, in the West Indies, and returned 
 to Spain, 1492 
 
 Made a second voyage, which proved unsuccessful, 14^93 
 Made a third voyage, and discovered South America, 1 i93 
 Americus Vespucius, under the patronage of the merchants 
 of Seville, followed the track of Columbus, touched upon the 
 continent of South America ; returned, published a pompous 
 account of his voyage and discoveries, and gave his name to 
 the continent of America, 1499 
 
 John Cabot, a Venetian, obtained a grant from Henry VII. 
 of England for foreign discoveries, explored the coast of 
 North-America, touched upon the coast of Labrador, and re- 
 turned to England, 1495 — G 
 He in a second voyage explored the whole extent of the 
 coast, from Davis* Straits to Florida, discovered Newfound- 
 land, and returned to England, 1497 
 Sebastian Cabot, (son of John Cabot) under Henry VII. 
 pursued the adventures of his father, visited Newfoundland, 
 and carried several natives to England, 1602 
 Brazil discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, on his voyage to 
 India, 1500 
 Cortez, the Spanish adventurer, conquered Mexico, 1619 
 Peru was conquered by the Spanish adventurer Pizar- 
 ro, 1520 
 Terra Firma was settled about this time, 16^0 
 The Portuguese settled Brazil, 1549 
 Francis I. king of France, made some efforts for discove- 
 ries in the new world by one John Verzano, a Florentine, but 
 without success; Verzano was lost in bis second adven- 
 ture, 1524 
 
 20 
 
230 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 Ten years after this, Francis made another effort, by James 
 Quarlier, who touched at Newfoundland ; discovered, and 
 gave name to the gulf of St. Lawrence ; and made an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to find a passage to China. The next year 
 he explored the St. Lawrence up to the rapicis, wintered io 
 the country at a fort which he built on the isle of Orleans, 
 (where Montreal now stands) and in the spring carried back 
 with him some of the natives to France, 1534 
 
 Ferdinand^le Soto, a Spaniard, made the first settlement in 
 Florida, where he remained three years and died, and left 
 his conquest to Alverdo, 1639 
 
 Francis I. sent James Quartier to complete a settlement 
 in Canada (or New-France,) where he r maired at a settle- 
 ment called Charlebourg, about two years, and then retired 
 to Newfoundland, 1546 
 
 Francis 1. sent out other adventurers to strengthen the set- 
 tlement in Canada, where they wintered, and returned to 
 France in the spring following : this failure, checked all fur- 
 ther efforts for setlling Canada on the part of France during 
 this reign. These adventures to Canada, were succeeded by 
 adventures from Europe, for the discovery of the north-east 
 passage to India, all of which failed, on account of the ice in 
 the northern Ocean. About this time be^an the Newfound- 
 land fisheries, which have since proved so profitable to the 
 world, 1542 
 
 This year the French under Chatillon, made some further 
 discoveries in East Florida, and attempted a settlement, 
 which failed, 1562 
 
 Charles IX. sent out three ships, and made a settlement on 
 the river St. Mary, built a fort, and called the settlement Car- 
 olina, ^ 1564 
 
 This colony was overpowered 4his year, by a fleet of i^ix 
 vessels from Spain, and all massacred, 156$ 
 
 The French sent out to Florida this year, a fleet of Uiree 
 ships, to revenge on the Spani; rds the murder of their coun- 
 trymen. The enterprise proved successful, they butchered 
 the Spaniards, burnt and destroyed their fort and settlement, 
 and returned to France : this closed the adventures from 
 France to America for fifty years, 1568 
 
 The discovery of a north-east passage to India having fiul- 
 ed, the English began this year to explore the north west 
 passage to India, under captain Frobisher, and under Sir 
 Francis Drake, 1576 
 
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 231 
 
 Queen Elizabeth granted letters patent to Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert this year, (1679,) for foreign discoveries, and in 1583 
 he touched at Newfoundland, and from thence to the conti- 
 nent, and took possession of Norih-America, for the English 
 crown. In this adventure he was lost in a storm, and the en- 
 terprise failed, 1583 
 
 This year, (1584,) the coast of Virginia was discovered, 
 (and named after the virg;in queen.) and settled by one hun- 
 dred and seven passenaiers, near the river Roanoke, and in 
 1586 they all returned to Ensjiaiid with Sir Francis Drake, 
 who touched there on his homeward passage. This year Sir 
 Walter Raleigh sent out seven ships, with another colony, to 
 the same setllement on the Roanoke, where they also endur- 
 ed extreme hardships, and were, in their turn conveyed back 
 to England by Sir Francis Drake. Soon after they were 
 gone, a new colony arrived to support the first, with fifty men, 
 who concluded to stay, notwithstanding the others had gone. 
 The next year Sir Walter sent out a third colony to support 
 the second ; when they arrived at Roanoke, not a vestige of 
 the former colony remained. This third colony consisted of 
 one hundred and fifteen, who attempted to renew the former 
 settlement at Roanoke. 
 
 This year governor White came over again, to recruit the 
 iittle colony in Virginia ; but alas ! they had all shared the 
 fate of the two former, and not a vestige of them was to be 
 found, 1696 
 
 This year the English explored the coast, as far norlL as 
 Capo Cod, and called the country North Virginia ; but m.ule 
 no settlement, and returned to England, 1602 
 
 This year the English made two adventures to Virginia, 
 and not finding the third colony at Roanoke, and being roUi:;h- 
 ly handled by the natives, they all returned to England, 1603 
 
 This year the French began the settlement at Fort Royal, 
 and other places on the bay of Fundy, 1604 
 
 This year the English explored the coast of the province 
 of Maine, made no settlement, and returned to England, 1606 
 
 This year the London company (by virtue of letters pa- 
 tent, under James I. king of England,) sent out a colony to 
 South Virginia, and began a settlement at Powhaltan, or 
 James rver. 1606 
 
 This year they seat out a second colony, and settled James 
 Town in South Virginia, on James river. This was the first 
 towzi planted in North America, notwithstanding all the ef 
 
232 DISCOVERY OP AMERICA. 
 
 forts which had been made : and the next winter, James 
 Town was burnt. This year the Plymouth company sent out, 
 and settled a small colony at the mouth of Saeadehoc river, 
 in North Virginia, of forty-five persons, under captain Pop- 
 ham their president : the severity of winter, tojjether with 
 the loss of iheir stores by tire, ruined this colony : and the 
 few that remained returned in the spring to Enjiland. This 
 misfortune deterred all further settlements in North Virginia 
 for several years. This year and the next, the French be^an 
 the settlement of Quebec. 1607 
 
 These two years, (1608 &. 1609) the London company sent 
 out supplies, and a recruit of two hundred persons, to strengthen 
 the colony at James Town, which now amounted to five hun- 
 dred men. Admiral Somers, on his passage to America, with 
 a part of this little fleet, was wrecked on one of the Bahama 
 islands, lost his ship, but the crew and passengers were all 
 saved, and remained there until the next year, when they 
 were aii taken off by lord De la War, on his passage to Vir- 
 ginia, to enter upon the government of this little colony — 
 which the last year consisted of five hundred men, now re- 
 duced to sixty ; who had abandoned the colony, and embark- 
 ed for England ; but being met by their new governor, they 
 were persuaded to return to James Town, where they all ar- 
 rived safe, June 10th, 1610. Here commences the history 
 of Virginia. 
 
 This year, (1611) two supplies of three hundred men each, 
 were sent to this colony, together with cattle, swine, hue. to ena- 
 ble them to cultivate their own supplies. In 1609, captain 
 Henry Hudson, under a commission of king James I in the ser- 
 vice of the East India company, in quest of a north west pas- 
 sage to India, discovered North, or Hudson's river, and the 
 same voyage discovered Hudson's bay. In 1613, the Dutch 
 West India couipany opened a trade to this river ; and in 
 1623 established trading houses on Connecticut river, claim- 
 ed all tiie country from Cape Cod to Cape Henlopen, and 
 calkil it New Netherlands : this commenced the settlement 
 of New York. At this time the Virginians sent and dislodg- 
 ed the French from all their settlements in North America, 
 exceptintr Quebec ; and brought all their effects to Virginia, 
 with all their vessels. At this time the French, Dutch and 
 Eturlish carried on an advantageous trade with the natives ; 
 and in coasting along the shores for this purpose, made fur- 
 ther dibcoveries, and drew charts, one of which, drawn by a 
 
SETTLEMENT Or NORTH AMERICA. 233 
 
 captain Smith, chantied the name of North Virginia, to that 
 qf New-Eriiiiand, which it continues to hold. 
 
 At this time Baffin's bay was discovered, by William Baf- 
 fin, in search for a north west passage. 1615 
 
 The distres-^es of war, fajriine and pestilence, amont'st the 
 natives of New England, prepared the way for a more quiet 
 possession— and the little colony of puritaris, under the reve- 
 rend John Robinson, to make their Bettlement at Plymuiitb, 
 as will be noticed. 
 
 The whole extent of coast being now explored from the 
 gulf of Mexico to Davis' Siraits, it will exceed the limits of 
 this work to detail the subsequent adventures and settle- 
 ments ; I shall therefore comprise the whole in one short 
 chronoioj»:ical table. 
 Quebec, the capital of Lower Canada settled by the 
 
 French, 1608 
 
 Newfoundland by the English^ 1610 
 
 yirsinia, do. IQIO 
 
 New-Yorb, > ^^ j614 
 
 New- Jersey, ) 
 
 New Plymouth, by the puritan colony, 1620 
 
 Nova Scotia was next settled by the Scotch, under Sir 
 
 William Alexander, 1622 
 
 Confirmed to the Eny;Iish by France, after several 
 
 changes, at the peace, 1648 
 
 New Hampshire settled by the English, 1623 
 
 Delaware and Pennsylvania, by the Swedes and Fins, 1627 
 Massachusetts Bay, by the English, 1628 
 
 Maryland do. 1633 
 
 Connecticut and Rhode Island, from Massachusetts 
 
 B^y, 1635 
 
 New Jersey, under a grant to the duke of York, by the 
 
 English, 1664 
 
 South Carolina, do. 1669 
 
 Pennsylvania, by a grant to William Penn, do. 1682 
 
 N >rtij Carolina, by the English, 1728 
 
 Georgia, do. 1732 
 
 Vermont, by New-Hampshire and New York, i764> 
 
 K<niucky, from Virginia, under Col. Boon, 1773 
 
 O ii«>, from Connecticut and other states, 1787 
 
 Tennessee, do. 1789 
 
 The territories of Michigan, Iliiuois and Indiana 
 
 about 1780^1802 
 
 20^ 
 
234 SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA, 
 
 Louisiana purchased of France for fifteen millions of 
 
 dollars, 1803 
 
 Territory of Orleans erected into a state, 1812 
 
 This chronological table will ever be valuable to every 
 American. By this table may be seen the most rapid and 
 extensive settlenients, that have ever been witnessed in the 
 family of man; embracins an extent of territory, from the 
 gulf of Mexico on the south, to the Hudson's bay on the 
 uorth.and from the Atlantic shores on the east, to the interior 
 wilds of Louisiana on the west — more than 2000 miles square, 
 embracing; a population of more than fourteen millions of 
 free people, — all accomplished in the space of two centuries : 
 those very two centuries in which we have witnessed the con- 
 Hicts and distresses on the continent of Europe, since the 
 reigns of Charles V of Spain, Francis 1. of France, and Hen- 
 ry Till ofEnjfland. 
 
 That age of the reformation, when the immortal Luther 
 commenced his glorious career, and accomplished the pre- 
 tliction of the prophet St. John, in Revelations xiv. 6 — laid 
 the foundation for the relijsious liberties of Europe, and the 
 civil and religious liberties of America. 
 
 A history of the rise and progress of the several States of 
 America, their private disputes, their conflicts with the 
 natives, together with the genius and forms of their govern- 
 ment, from the great similarity that was common to the 
 whole, would be tedious and uninteresting. I will select the 
 colony of Plymouth, and with this, commence and continue 
 the history ot America. 
 
 This little family of puritans, consisting of one hundred 
 persons, fired with the civil and relijiious zeal, at the close of 
 the reign of James I. which shone so conspicuous in resisting 
 Uie overbearing influence of popery, and the usurpations of 
 the crown, and establishing the commonwealth in England, 
 in the reign of Charles I. — rallied round their clergyman, the 
 Rev. John Robinson, a pious godly man, retired from the 
 perfeculions of their country, and pass^^d over into Holland : 
 nnt pleased with the Dutch, they embarked for America, and 
 laniled at Plymouth Nov. 20, 1G20. The sufferings they en- 
 dured, from the seventy of t\\e climate, the hostile character 
 of 'he natives, a«d the want of supplies, were too distressing 
 to be described ; yrt they were endured, with all that 
 patience and resi;;nation which the gospel t^tfords, to all those 
 w' «) lovt afu' i>bt y its ♦lictates, acd cherish in their hearts 
 the purity of its principles. 
 
COLONY OF PLYMOUTH. 235 
 
 At this time a general spirit of foreign adventure prevailed, 
 and commenced settlements extensively upon the Atlantic 
 shores of North America, as may be seen by the chronologic- 
 al table ; the emigrations from England, (althousjh in detach- 
 ed parts,) retained a general union and harmony, as having 
 sprung from one great family. They all brought out with 
 them those principles of liberty which prevailed over lyraa- 
 ny in England, and established the commonwealth under Oli- 
 ver Cromwell — yet in forming their civil institutions, they re- 
 tained the true principles of that balance of power in the three 
 branches of the British government, with an elective chief 
 magistrate, which secured to them all the blessings of civil 
 and religious liberty ; this they enjoyed, and laid the founda- 
 tion of that great national compact, which we now enjoy. 
 
 The use of gun powder trave the first settlers of America 
 a superiority over those wild, barbarous, untutored savages 
 of this howling wilderness, which nothing of human invention 
 could have supplied ; this, by spreadiujr terror and astonish- 
 ment, with carnage and destruction, overawed those hardy 
 sons of nature, and either repelled them from their borders, 
 or tamed them to peace and submission. 
 
 Although the rapid progress of the settlements encroached 
 upon their rights, robbed them of their corn-fields and their 
 hunting grounds ; kindled resentments, which often broke 
 out into resistance, violence and savage war, these were soon 
 subdued by the all conquering force of fire-arms. Treaties 
 were made with the chiefs, lands were purchased, or ceded 
 by the rights of conquest, and in 1755 the colonies of New- 
 England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
 Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, had all estab- 
 lished colonial governments, and were able to assert and 
 maintain their rights against the savage and barbarous depre- 
 dations of the natives, and the encroachments of their neigh- 
 bors the French. The French were settled on the north, oa 
 the Island of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and the Can^das, 
 with a line of military posts extending from Quebec through 
 the western line of the colonies to New-Orleans. 
 
 A this time the governmeiit of France had become jeal- 
 ous of the rising str»^nglh of British America, and fired with 
 that ambition of givin-; law to the ivorld, which we have seen 
 displ ived in the reisrns ..f LeiVK- XIV. and XV. they contem- 
 plated the conquest >r all B jtish A«.ierica ; and by an attack 
 upon these colonies in 1755, commenced that seven years' 
 
^^Q OLD FRENCH WAR. 
 
 war, which drenched Europe and America in blood : that 
 war, vvhici) was rendered so illujitrious in Europe, by th^ suc- 
 cessful displays of the talents of the king of Prussia, and was 
 so gloriously closed, 1763. 
 
 CHAP, xxxvr. 
 
 General operations of the seven years^ war in America, to the 
 peace of 1763 — with some remarks. 
 
 A particular detail of the events and operations of the war 
 of 1755 — 6, in America, will give a more distinct character 
 of the natives, and their savage wars, as well as the characierj 
 genius, and civil and religious institutions of the colonies, 
 than can otherwise be obtained. 
 
 Tne settlement of Nova Scotia, (which was made by the 
 Scotch,) after successive strusgles, was ceded by France to 
 Etjgland, by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. During these 
 atrucroles, and when France was in possession, the French 
 population surpassed the Scotch and Englisli, and rendered 
 Nova Scotia distinctly a French colony, to which France had 
 given the name of Le Acadie, and ihe inhabitants assumed 
 the name of neutrals. 
 
 The Enorlish government, being dissatisfied with the neu- 
 trality of Le Acadie, in the war of 1746 ; immediately upon 
 the peace of Aix la Chapelle, sent out a colony from Eng- 
 land, to settle and build the town of Halifax. The objt ct of 
 this commanding position was, to hold a' balance of power in 
 those seas, and protect the valuable fisheries. 
 
 This movement thwarted the views, alarmed the pride, 'ind 
 excited the jealousy of France. A question of limits and 
 boundary, sprang up between the two powers in Nova Sco- 
 tia, and soon extended through the whol^' line, from the ^ulf 
 of St. Lawrence, to the mouth of the Mi5sissipi)i. 
 
 The particular controversy about limits and boundaries, 
 through this va>t and extensive howling wilderness; bouuda if s 
 which neither of the parties had ever enjoyed, but which both 
 oOijtemplated fo enjoy hereafter, would be useless here — -suf- 
 fice it to say, the French, fired with resenlfnent, first pus-'d 
 thrir encroacha«ent8 in Le Acadie, or Nova S.^otia, u^xt ex- 
 cited fi-e naiives or Frenct^, to make depredations. 
 
 They seized on a trading establishment, which Virginia 
 
©LD FRENCH WAR. 237 
 
 had made on the Ohio ri?er, massacred all the settlers, plun- 
 dered and OHiried off their booty, to the amount <*f twenty 
 thousand pounds, and claimed the jurisdiction as beh^oging 
 to New France, (comprehendino; the Canadas and Louii*iaua.) 
 They next seiz* d on another Virginia settlement, at the forks 
 of ;he Monon^ahela, with a f;)rce of one thousand men, and 
 eighteen pieces of cannon. 
 
 These formidable encroact mpt>ts threw the colonies into 
 the hijihest alarm, soon produced an order from En^^land to 
 repel force witti force, and war comrQeuced. Here com- 
 menced in America the scour^iig of that rod, which instead 
 of a curse, as was then considered, has proved the means of 
 co7isolidating and securing, all the blesoings of free and inde- 
 pendent Jimerica. 
 
 The orders of the crown were cnej '• I ; but what could be 
 the resistance of the colonies, in Vau discordant, disjoined 
 atate, against a power acting ptomp>lj under one head, and 
 that, the governor of all New France. 
 
 The same controversies which .iistracted the English na* 
 tion, were carried with the different colonies into the new 
 world. The strife of religion and government, sowed the 
 seeds of bitterness in the several colonies — they quarrelled with 
 governors, they quarrelled with ihe crown, and they quarrel- 
 led with each other, about limits and jurisdiction. The spirit 
 of their relijrions were different; some catholic, some protest- 
 ant ; this rendered the genius of their governments different, 
 some verging towards monarchy, others to democracy. All 
 producing a want of union and concert. 
 
 This was well understood by France, and soon realized by 
 Great Britain and ihe colonies. To remedy these eviU, and 
 to be able to call forth the resources of the colonies witti en- 
 ergy, a congress of all the colonies was proposed, and held in 
 the city of Albany, and the chiefs of the Iroqu »is, (or six na- 
 tions,) were invited to attend. The intrigues of the French, 
 defeated the plan of engaging the Iroquois in the war, and 
 their neutrality was secured by presents from the crown of 
 England, and the promise of repelling the French from their 
 country. 
 
 Fired with zeal and unanimity, the congress resolved to 
 prosecute the war. and support the British claims in North 
 America. M^jor Washington was d*^Rpatched from Virtjinia, 
 to watch the motions of the enem> , and to recover the set- 
 tlements OB the Ohio and Monongahelaj but without any de- 
 
238 brabdock's defeat. 
 
 cisive operations. The iofrijEues of the courts of France and 
 Eii^sland, dissuised all their operations under the mask of 
 peace, and at the same time, sent pf>\verfui fleets and arma- 
 ments to support their claims in America. 
 
 A collision between these fleets, in the gulf of St. Law- 
 rence, awd the capture of two sixty-four gun ships by the 
 Enelisb, closed this diplomatic farce, and commenced the war. 
 This success gave spirit to the British nation, and kindled a 
 flame of ardor, zeal and vigor, throughout the colonies. 
 
 The legislature of Massachusetts bay, passed an act of non- 
 intercourse with Louisburg, and sent reinforcements to Nova 
 Scotia. The successes of colonel Moncton, soon established 
 the British government, and restored tranquillity to Nova 
 Scotia. 
 
 During these general operations, the French had establish- 
 ed themselves upon the Monongahela, and built the strong 
 post, called fort Duquesne, at the confluence, (where Pitts- 
 burg now stands.) An expedition was planned to co-ope-: 
 rate with major Washington, under the command of the Bri- 
 tish general Braddock, to reduce this post. General Brad- 
 dock, unacquainted with Indian warfare, and tired with the 
 ambition of his nation, was precipitated into a scene, unknown 
 in the tactics of Europe, and indescribable in the language of 
 America. 
 
 At mid day, near the object of his destination, and in the 
 midst of security, a terrible tire of musketry poured in upon 
 him, on all sides, accompanied with the most hideous and tre- 
 mendous yells, of those hellhounds of the forest ; the wholC; 
 thicket was in a blaze with the explosion of an Indian ambus- 
 cade, and not an enemy to be seen ; the whole wilderness 
 resounded with the terrors of the war whoop — 'the plain was 
 strewed with heaps of dead, and the troops appalled with the 
 horrors of the scene, and the groans of the dying. Braddock 
 was slain. The illustrious maj tr, (now colonel Washington,) 
 cor^iiucted the retreat, and led off the shattered remains of 
 tbi 1 army, with the loss of all their artillery, baggage, &c. to- 
 geKier with their general and all the principal tttfio^rs. The 
 re- idar force retired to Albany, under general Shirley — and 
 Vir rinia was left to her fate. 
 
 Thp want of union irt their councils and measures, render- 
 ed tf<o efforts of the southern states fe^^ble and i'n^ffpciual; but 
 New-York and N -w-Jer^ey, co!nbining with New England — 
 passed^decrees of non- intercourse with ail the French setlle- 
 
OSWEGO TAKEN 239 
 
 ttienfs in North America, and united ic two grand expeditions 
 against Crown Point and Niagara : the first under sir William 
 Johnson, and the second under general Shirley. 
 
 The colonial troops were assembled at Albany, when the 
 news of the defeat at fort Duquesne, was announced ; this 
 damped the ardor of the enterprise : the attempt upon Niau^a- 
 ra was deferred, and the expedition to Crown Point abandon- 
 ed, (affer some successful skirmishing.) The armies went 
 into winter quarters, and closed the campaign of 1757. 
 
 In 1758, the spirits of England and America were raised, 
 by the restoration of Mr. Pitt to the head of the administra- 
 tion ; but the coventton of Closter-seven, in Germany, and 
 the failure of Mr. Pitt's grand expedition to the coast of 
 France, damped their ardor. Great supplies of troops and 
 military stores were sent to America, and an expedition was 
 planned against Louisburg, under lord Loudon ; but just at 
 the critical moment of attemptino; the enterprise, intelligence 
 arrived, that Louisburi; was reinforced from France, by a 
 strona: fleet and armament— and that enterprise was abandoned. 
 
 Durintt these movements, the French had s- ize<l on fort 
 0<wego, at the confluence of the river of the same name 
 with Lake Ontario, which secured the ascendency over 
 the Iroquois, (or six nations,) tosjether with all the tribes 
 that surround the great lakes, and left the whole extent of 
 the colonial settlements exposed to their ravages ; and the 
 finest villages fell a sacrifice to savage depredations. Flush- 
 ed with these successes, the French planned an expedition 
 against fort William Henry, (upon the south side of lake 
 George.) and carried it almost without opposition ; and the 
 garrison, although protected by a capitulation, were permit- 
 ted to suffer all the horrors of an Indian massacre. 
 
 These misfortunes overwhelmed the kingdom and the col- 
 onies, with a eloom and melancholy, borilering on despnir. 
 They began to fear that all was lost — when a ray of light ap- 
 peared in the East : the P»ritish arms triumphed over the 
 French in India— 'the town of Calcutta was restore<!, by the 
 efforts of the famous colonel Clive : the company were rein- 
 stated in all their privileges and possessions, and extensive 
 and valuable acquisitions crowned their conquests in India. 
 
 Pending these operations in the east, lord Loudon had 
 been succeeded in America, by eeneral Abercrombie, and 
 the expedition of Louirbur^ renewed. A strong detachment 
 from Nova Scotia, under general Amherst, supported by a 
 
240 CAPTURE or LOUISBURG. 
 
 powerful fleet, joined general Abercrombie, and appeared be 
 fore Louisburff. The place was invested by sea and land ; 
 and in six weeks, the success of the British arnris was crown- 
 ed by the capture of Louisbur;:, and the whole island of Cape 
 Breton, together with an important naval force, stationed for 
 the defence of the harbor. This secured to the English the 
 command of the fisheries, and the gulf of St. Lawrence, and 
 raised the spirits of the colonies. 
 
 Flushed with the successes of Louisburg, general Aber- 
 crombie repaired to Albany, took the command of the army 
 of the north, and commenced an expedition against Ticonde- 
 roga and Crown Point. He embarked upon lake George, 
 with about 16,000 men, after slight successes, and little op- 
 position, and appeared by forced marches before Crown 
 Point : here he found a strong position, defended by a morass, 
 a strong breast work, and a chevau de frise : his impa- 
 tience led him to commence .the attack, before his artillery 
 had arrived ; the assault was desperate, the defence firm, and 
 the defeat decisive : the general was compelled to retire, 
 with the loss of about 20t0 men. To repair this loss and 
 disgrace, general Abercrombie detached colonel Bradstreet, 
 with 3,000 nien, to reduce fort Frontenac, at the confluence 
 of Lake Ontario, with the St. Lawrence. 
 
 This expedition was crowned with success : the fort, with 
 an immense quantity of provisions and military stores, with 
 sixty pieces of cannon, and nine armed sloops, were the tro- 
 phies of this victory. 
 
 CHAP. XXXVL Conlinmd. 
 
 This success gave spirit to the expedition now planned 
 against ForlDuquesne, under Gen. Forbes. The French ap- 
 palled at the loss of Louisburii, and Frontenac, abandoned 
 the fort and retired down the Ohio to their settlements on the 
 Mississippi. These successes in America gave strength and 
 confidence to the English administration — spirit and union to 
 the colonies, secured a general quiet throughout their exten- 
 sive frontier, and closed the operations of ) 758. 
 
 Great preparations were made in England and America, 
 during the winter, to bring the war in America to a close the 
 ensuing campaign. The balance of the great contending par- 
 ties on the continent, still found employment for the arms 
 
BATTLE OF THE PLAIN. 241 
 
 and resources of France, and left England at liberty to turn 
 her whole attention to the American war. The minister as- 
 sumed a train of the boldest movements, and was peculiarly 
 fortunate in his selection of officers to command. 
 
 He sent a strong land and naval force up the St. Lawrence 
 to invest Quebec, under the command of the illustrious 
 Wolfe, concerted a plan of opf^rations under Gen. Amherst, 
 by the way of Lake Champlain, to penetrate into Canada, 
 and CO operate with Gen. Wolfe, in the capture of Quebec. 
 
 The movements were made with great firmness and skill. 
 Wolfe appeared with his fleet before Quebec, early in the sea 
 son ; here he found a fortress prepared for his reception, 
 strongly garrisoned, and supported with a powerful force of 
 French, Canadians and Indians, and rendered impregnable 
 both by nature and art. Struck with astonishment at the ob- 
 ject before him, he took up his position, and put forth all the 
 efforts of his genius to accomplish his purpose. 
 
 In the mean time, the army under Gen. Amherst was ear- 
 ly in motion, the fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, 
 became the trophies of his victories ; the garrisons had retir- 
 ed to the isle Au Noix, and waited his approach. 
 
 The Gen. advanced to the attack, but finding the position 
 too strong, and the season far advanced, retired to Crown- 
 Point, and took up his winter quarters, without havin<j learn- 
 ed the fate of Gen. Wolfe. Not so with Wolfe — .he spun out 
 the season with various efforts; but his prospects were so 
 faint that the energies <>f his mind began to abate, the insur- 
 mountable obstacles o[)pofed to the ardor of his spirits, wat- 
 ed his health, and the approach of winter led him to despair 
 of success. 
 
 He called a council of war, in which it was resolved to car- 
 ry their future operations above the town, and if possible, 
 force the French general, Montcalm, to an engagement. Ac 
 cordingly the fleet moved with the tide, in the silence of 
 nijiht, up the river, passed the city, and with unprecedented 
 alacrity and skill, the whole army was landed, and conducted 
 up a precipice by their gallant general, in the dead of night ; 
 a precipice considered almost impassable by an individual 
 in the light of day. 
 
 On the approach of morn, the whole British army were 
 formed on the plain, with their general at their head. The 
 enemy soon had intelligence of their position, and Montcalm 
 marched out of his strong camp to give him battle. 
 
 21 
 
^-42 FALL OP QUEBEC. 
 
 The regulars of France, with the Canada militia, commen- 
 ced a distant fire, accompanied witli the hideous yells of 
 their numerous Indian allies, and appeared to be able to over- 
 whelm with numbers this hero, with his little phalanx. Gen- 
 eral Wolfe took the precaution to reserve his tire, and receive 
 the enemy at the distance of about forty paces ; he then open- 
 ed a tire upon them which checked their career ; this, when 
 renewed, threw them into disorder; again, when repeated, 
 threw them into flight ; at this critical moment fell the illus- 
 trious Wolfe, the hero of the plains of Abraham — the cry of 
 " they run,^^ reached his ear; he raised his head and exclaim- 
 ed who run ? The reply was, "^/ie enemy run'^ — he exclaim- 
 ed, then I die in peace, and expired. 
 
 The gallant jxeneral Murray took vengeance on the fugi- 
 tives with the bayonet, and the highland broadsword ; the 
 gallant Montcalm was mortally wounded ; the plains of Abra- 
 ham were strewn with the carnage of the dead and the dyin^. 
 The victors pursued and threatened to enter the city com- 
 mixed with the fugitives, and in the midst of triumph to have 
 planted their standards upon the walls of Quebec; but they 
 checked their career, and in five days the city fell by capitu- 
 lation. 
 
 Thus fell Quebec, the key of French America, and thus 
 fell sieat Wolfe, at thirty-tive years of age, the pride and or- 
 nament of his country, and his country's arms. This was 
 not the triumph of Wolfe over M'^ntcalm, not the triumph of 
 conquest over the fall of a city, however strona; the fortress, 
 nor the triumph of England over France. The God of our 
 Fathers stootl arbiter of the scene, and wielded the destiry. 
 The triumph, was the triumph of the reformation ; religion 
 over superstition, patriotism, over tyranny, and liberty over 
 despotism. It was the triumph of the church in the wilder- 
 ness; it was the triumph of the motto of our fathers: " Qui 
 translulil suslinet f^ (He who transplanted sustains.) By the 
 fall of Quebec, protestantism, triumphed over popery, and 
 the colonies were hee. 
 
 The French affain put forth their efforts to suppress the 
 growing pouer of Enji^land, in India ; the conflicts were sharp 
 and desperate, but the English were triufuphant. The 
 French abetted a conflict of rivalry between the Dutch and 
 English in India, but the Ensilish were again triumj)hant. 
 
 These muiiiptied successes of England tlepressed the spir* 
 its of the French; they in their turn, like the English, had re- 
 
CAPTURE OP MONTREAL, &C, 243 
 
 nation. Boats and small craft were assembled in the ports 
 of France, and formidable preparations made for the desired 
 ohj ri ; bill ibe viiiilance and superiority of the Enjiiish navy, 
 rej.df red abortive all such plans (iftliey ever seriously exist- 
 ed) arui triumphed over the fleets of France successively, as 
 thej put to sea. 
 
 'Fhese naval victories, added to the triumphs in America 
 and ladia, raised the spirit of England, and shewed them 
 where their true stren*i(h lay, viz, to cherish the wars of the 
 continent by libeial supplies, and follow their naval and 
 commercial system. Three million sferling was voted by 
 way of subsidy in Germany, and twenty five thousand troops 
 to protect the electorate of Hanover, and support the king of 
 Prussia. 
 
 The operations commenced in Canada, with the opening 
 of the spring ; that part of the army of Montcalnj, which filed 
 off towards Montreal, in the victory of general Wolfe, were 
 there reinforced by Canadians and Indians, under the com- 
 mand of Monsieur de Levi, who had succeeded Moidcalm in 
 the command. With this force, the French general concert- 
 ed measures to recover the city of Quebec. 
 
 He embarked his army in the month of April, with all his 
 artiib ry, &:c. under the convoy of six stout frigates, fell down 
 the river, and appeared before Quebec. The garrison uruJer 
 the commar/d ot the brave general Murray, which in autumn 
 consisted of live thousand men, was now reduced to three. 
 With this small, but intrepid garrison, general Murr-^y march- 
 ed out on to the plains of Abraham, and gave the emnsy bat- 
 tle ; but overpowered by numbers, he was compelled to re- 
 tire, with (he loss of one thousand men. This effort gave a 
 check to the enemy, and spirit to the jjarrison ; a vitrorous 
 siege and defence commenced. A fleet from England, arriv- 
 ed in the month of June, put an end to the siege, and the 
 French general retired to Montreal. 
 
 During these operations, Gen. Amherst concerted meas- 
 ures for (he reduction of Montreal He gave orders to iiene- 
 ral Murray to embark his armj a; Quebec, proceed by water, 
 and meet him at Montreal. He directed one operation against 
 the Isle Au Noix ; another upon the enemv by the way of 
 Oswego, and took the direction himself of Lake Champlain, 
 with his whole artrsy ; the movements all succeeded, and gene- 
 rals Amherst and Murray appeared the -ame dr^y before 
 course to the expedient of iavasion, to rou&e tbe spirits of the 
 
244 PEACE OF PARIS, 1763. 
 
 MonfreaJ, and the detachment arrived the next day from the 
 Isle Au Noix. 
 
 Thp vUy was summoned, a capitulation signed, and De- 
 troit, Michilimachinac, and every other French military post 
 or depot were surrendered to the arms of his Britanic Majesty 
 — the French troops were returned to France, and the Candi- 
 das cleared. 
 
 This hlow sealed the fate of France in America, and left 
 thf m nothina but the pitiful subterfuge of excitinir the mur- 
 derous tomahawk and scalping knife of the Cherokees, 
 av^ainsf the colony of South Carolina. This was soon sup- 
 pressed by spirited exertions ; the Cherokees punished, their 
 towns burnt, and these savaaes humbled. 
 
 The town of Nf^w Orleans stood alone to France a solitary 
 monument of all her vast possessions in America. The war 
 in India still rajjed, and the successes of the Enelish the last 
 year, excited them to attempt the conquest of Pondicherry, 
 which was taken frcun the French, 1761. In the midM of 
 these triumphs died George IL and whs succeeded by his 
 grandson George III. 
 
 With the conquest of Canada, and the suppression of the 
 Chf^rf.kees, the war closed in America. The British forces 
 returned to Eny land, excepting such as were necessary to 
 garrison the military posts in Canada, and upon the frontier; 
 and the colonies were left to pursue their dome<^tic repose, en- 
 joy their commerce, and extend their settlements The 
 peace of Pfiris, in 1763, closed the war in Europe, America 
 and India, and all Christendom was again hushed to rt pose. 
 
 The colonies hail learnt one most important lesson this war, 
 that was, how to unite their discordant interests, and render 
 private considerations subservient to the general good A 
 lesson, which nothing but the disasters of the tirst campaigns 
 could have taught, and brought them to practice. This les- 
 son, (which alone was worth two such wars as the last,) the 
 prilicy of the English government continued to cultivate and 
 strengthen, by checking and controlling the spirit of some of 
 the colonies, which appeared too independent in their govern- 
 ments, and in withdrawing their charters, and sending over 
 governors appointed by the crown. 
 
 This soon sowed the seeds of jealousy between the crown 
 and colonies, which began to ripen early into indignation and 
 resentment, by frequent and severe collisions, between the 
 people and the governors, accompanied with spirit, and some- 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 245 
 
 CHAP. XXXVII. 
 
 Causes nhich led lo the jlmerican Revolution — general events 
 to the invasion of New- York. 
 
 The rapid settlements and population, together with the 
 prosperous commerce of the colonies, united to that ardent 
 active spirit of enterprize, which had shone so conspicuous 
 through the war, becran to excite the attention of Enoiand. — 
 They foresaw, that such a combination of power, would at 
 some future day become independent, and that then was the 
 time to put on the shackh's to check and controul it. With this 
 view, tliey conmienced a system of taxation, by dudes on 
 commerce, 1764, and on stamps 1765, under the flaitering 
 pretext of raisin«5 supplies, to indemnify the expenses of the 
 war. 
 
 The colonies resented this infrin«;ement upon their rights, 
 resisted the encroachments by spirited remoustances, and 
 this was the ir maxim : " that taxation without representation, 
 was an infringement of liberty ;" and the demand was — 
 " withdraw your taxes, and leave the fiscal concerns of A- 
 merica, (or the colonies,) to be conducted upon the floor of 
 tJ eir own councils ;" here they were at issue. Sprung from 
 one common stock, the same blood flowed in the veins, the 
 same spirit fired the breast of both parties — and this was the 
 result : 
 
 Virginia re&isled by spirited resolves, May, 1765 
 
 Virginia, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New- 
 York, N'W Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and 
 South-Carolina, sent a representation and formed a colonial 
 Conirress at New York. Oct. 1765 
 
 This, like the jrrand assembly at Albany, gave union, 
 strength, and spirit to the colonies ; tumults commenced in 
 B'iston, and spread through the country ; acts of non impor- 
 tation were passed, which lessened the imports from Britain 
 this year, 880,811/. 1766 
 
 At this time a ijeneral estimate of free white population in 
 the colonies was 926,000, extended on the sea coast, from 
 Georgia to thf^ province of Maine. The dignified and manly 
 resis'ence of the colonies, caused the repeal of the duties on 
 stamp? this year, 1766 
 
 A repeal of the duties on paper and glass, June, 1767 
 
 21* 
 
246 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 
 
 These partial repeals of duties, strengthened the confi- 
 dence, and increased the enerjjies of the colonies. Circular 
 letters, tumults, kc. became the order of the day generally, 
 this year, 1768 
 
 Acts of non-importation became general this year, 1769 
 
 The British force stationed at Boston fired on the popu- 
 lace, and caused the famous massacre of Boston this year, 1770 
 
 This outrage spread such a flame through the colonies, 
 that the British eovernment repealed all the taxes this year 
 excepting the duty of 3d per pound on tea. This led to as- 
 sociations through the colonies, not to drink tea ; and all who 
 violated these associations, were held and considered as lo- 
 ries and traitors. 1770 
 
 This year an armed schooner belonaing to the British, was 
 burnt by a mob in disguise at Rhode-Island. 1771 
 
 Tea sent back by some colonies, 1772 
 
 This year a cargo of tea was seized in the port of Boston 
 by a mob in disguise, and thrown into the dock, 1773 
 
 Upon the news of this, the government of England sent out 
 a naval and land force, and took possession of the port of Bos- 
 ton, under the command of Gen. Gage, 1774 
 
 The colonies, fired with indignation at this outrage on their 
 liberties, assembled a general Congress at Philadelphia, and 
 elected Peyton Randolph, President, and Charles Thomson, 
 Secretary, Septenjber 5, 1774 
 
 Congress passed several resolutions highly important to 
 the interest of the colonies, and dissolved, Oct. 26, 1774 
 
 They were now resolved to repel force by force, and an 
 action commenced at Lexington and Concord, between a 
 detachment of the British forces in Boston, and a scattered 
 collection of militia of those places ; the British, galled by a 
 scatt<-ring fire from the stone walls, hedges and other coverts 
 nipde a hasty retreat into Boston, and left the field to the vic- 
 tors. April 19, 1775 
 
 The news of this conflict spread like lightning through the 
 country: hill illumined liill, and man electrized man. The 
 heroes of the old war, left their teams in the field, and their 
 plouirhs standing in the furrows, and in their rustic dress, re- 
 paired to the field of action, and enrolled themselves in the 
 ranks of their country. 
 
 The m4d councils of England, and the more than mad sys- 
 tem of their mea^ioN's had now put the sword into their own 
 right hand, and armed the nation against itself. Here com- 
 
CONGRESS OF 1774. 247 
 
 menced (he sanguinary conflict of liberty against usurpation, 
 on those very fields which their fathers (driven by the perse- 
 cutions o^ their own country) had wrested from the savajres 
 of the forest, and where they had planted the pure seeds of 
 the reformation one hundred and fifty years before ; the sons 
 of those sires were summoned to arms in defence of their al- 
 tars, their farms and their firesides, to repel the murderous 
 domination of Britain : the conflict was desperate, but the is- 
 sue was glorious. 
 
 Without arms or discipline, without money , without credit, 
 without allies, without military stores, and without union ; — 
 with a scattered population, not then exceeding one million ; 
 these sons of the puritans, entered the lists with the gigantic 
 power of Britain, then mistress of the seas, and arbiter of the 
 world. 
 
 Their first step was, to collect an army ; this was effected 
 by an assemblage of the militia of the vicinity generally, and 
 by detachments from the militia of the neighboring states, 
 and next from the colonies gen«- rnlly. The English were in- 
 Tested in the town of Boston, under the command ofG«^n. 
 Ward, and at the same time he sent off a detachment, and 
 seized fort Ticonderoga, May 10th, 1775. Their next step 
 was to promote union. A Congress was elected from all 
 the colonies, and assembled at Philadelphia, May 10th 1775. 
 The resolves of this conjiress will ever stand on the historic 
 pai^e, a splen lid monument, of the wisdom, firmness, dignity 
 and spirit of the American character. 
 
 They settled the fundamental principles of union, action 
 and support ; and upon the motion of two members to enter 
 their protest against the measures of the congress, the spirit 
 of the day was expressed by that old patriot, Samuel Adams 
 of Boston : " I should advise persisting in our strutrgle for 
 liberty, though it were revealed from heaven, that nine hun- 
 dred and ninety-nine were to perish, and only one of a thou- 
 sand to survive, and retain his liberty. One such free man, 
 must possess more virtue, and enjoy more happiness, than 
 one thousand slaves — let him propagate his like, and transmit 
 to them, what he hath so nobly preserved." This is a fair 
 sample of the general spirit of coni:ress, and of the nation. 
 
 Durinii these transactions, great efforts were made, both in 
 America and Entiland, to effect a reconciliHtion, and heal the 
 differences. The old earl of Chatham stood forth in parlia- 
 ment, the champion of virtue, eloquence, and his country's 
 
248 BATTLE or BUXKER^S HILL. 
 
 interest ; his reasoninir was pure, nervous and forcible, and 
 to an audience with tiearts open to conviction, would have 
 been irresistible ; but it was lost upon parliament, and with it, 
 the loss of the colonies. 
 
 Congress now assumed the style of the twelve United Colo- 
 nies, June 7, and elected George Washington of Virginia, 
 commander in chief of the American armies, June I5tri ; he 
 accepted the command, and repaired to Cambridge. The 
 coUiTratulations which he received, and his dij^nifird re[)lie', In- 
 terested the feelings, confidence and affections of the nation. 
 
 Method, order and discipline began to be felt through the 
 army, and the enemy were completely invested in Boston, 
 Congress at this time, published a declaration, by the way of 
 manifesto, unfolding to the world, the causes of the contest 
 — and the resolutions of the colonies. They drew and sign- 
 ed a petition to the king, and an ad«lress to the inhabitants of 
 England ; recommending the regular forming and training 
 the militia, throughout the colonies, and a detachment of one 
 fourth as minute men, for all sudden emergencies ; and cal- 
 led the attention of the colonies, to their armed vessels, and 
 the defence of their seaports. 
 
 They established a {general po>t otfire, to extend from 
 Georgia to Maine, and appointed Benjamin Franklin p'ist 
 master general : they also established a hospital for 20.000 
 men These general outlines being settled, all pc.r.ies pre- 
 pared for action. 
 
 The torch of war was again kindled, by the murderous 
 destructive battle of Bunker's Hill, and the conflagration of 
 Charlestown. The flames flashed through the country, and 
 kindled afresh the spirit of patriotism, and the ardor of re- 
 venge ; and the public feeling was alive to the contest, from 
 Georgia to Maine. This was one of the most important move- 
 ments in the American revolution. 
 
 The operations in the siege of Boston, were changed into 
 a rei!-ulcir approach, for the purpose of atteutp.ing a general 
 attack : and at the same time an exp<dition was formed, and 
 sent Up the Kennebec river into Canada, under Col. Arnold, 
 to c » operate with the main army, which were advancing by 
 the way of lake Champlain and Montreal, under Gen Mont- 
 gomery, to reduce the city of Quebec. General G.sge re- 
 tired from the command at B*>ston, and Gen. Howe suc- 
 ceeded hitn, Sept. 
 
 The destruction of the town of Faltaoutb, by the British, on 
 
EVACUATION OF BOSTON. 249 
 
 the eastern shores of Massachusetts, ag;ain kindled the flames 
 of revenge, October, 1775 ; and the ardor of the occasion 
 was seized, for an attack on Boston. To facilitate the ope- 
 rations, several rich store ships from En;iland, laden with ord- 
 nance, small arms, camp equipaiie and military stores — were 
 captured by the Americans, and conveyed to the army. 
 
 During these movements, the army, destined to the cap- 
 ture of Canada, under Gen. Montg;omery, proceeded by the 
 way of Lake Champlain, took Montreal, (November 16th,) 
 and the other military posts in its vicinity — proceeded down 
 the river, and joined Col. Arnold, about the 1st December ; 
 they commenced an attack upon the city by assault : it fail- 
 ed — and gen. Montjjomery fell in the attempt. The sies^e 
 was continued, and the army reinforced from Montreal and 
 the states ; where they suffered severely by the small pox, 
 and Jhe severities of winter. In the month of May, they a- 
 bandoned the sieee, upon the arrival of succor from England, 
 and returned to Montreal. 
 
 General Washington, in the sprinj;, erected a redoubt upon 
 Dorchester heights, and threatened to bombard Boston. — 
 This approach excited alarm, and Gen. Howe made immedi- 
 ate preparations to evacuate the town : he assembled his fleet 
 embhrked his troops, and set sail for Halifax. 
 
 General Washington, penetrating the design of the enemy, 
 drew off his army, retired to New-York, and made prepara- 
 tions to receive him : passed over witn his army to Long-Isl- 
 and, and fortified the narrows, to prevent the passage of the 
 enemy into the harbor of New-York. 
 
 CHAP. XXXVIIL 
 
 Revolution continued to the capture of Gen. Prescoty at Rhode 
 Island, September, 1777. 
 
 About the first of January, 1776, the Liverpool frigate ar- 
 rived off Norfolk, (Virginia) from England, and laid that rich 
 commercial town in ashes ; and in the month of February 
 the British began their depredations in North Carolina and 
 Geor-jia. which were serious in their operations and conse- 
 qu« nces. In the month of June, a strong naval British force 
 made an attact upon Charleston (S C.) ; thty were opposed 
 with tjreat firmness, and obliged to abandon the enterprise, 
 with severe loss. 
 
*i50 CAPTURE OF NEW-YORK. 
 
 General Clinton and lord Cornwallis expected to have Ian- 
 dei! a sfn-'iiji force, and conunt'nced flieir s^onthern conqut^sts 
 at Ihis time; but the severe losses su^^lained by their tieet, 
 defeaied Itje entHr[)nse, and they retired ro New-York, la 
 the rnotith of August, lord Dunmore sent t»tf bis ne^ro booty 
 (say lOuO) to Bermuda, withdrew from Virginia, and repair- 
 ed to New York. 
 
 On the 12th of July, lord Howe arrived at the Hook from 
 Eiitfland, by the way of Halifax, with a fleet and reinforce- 
 ments, and charged with a con ndssion to nesrociale sepjirafe- 
 ly and individually with fhe states, for a return of peace. He 
 made known the duties «>f the commissioners, to G^-n. Wasii- 
 injrton and tocoi»'rres>, and they were circulated ihrou^ih the 
 country, in the public prints. Conjrress at the same rime 
 met the commission with a publication of the Declaration of 
 Indep^^ndence. which passed the 4th of July; the canipaijiii 
 wa> opei;ed. and the armies put in motion. 
 
 G« nerhl Howe Ian«led hi^ army upon Lonz-Fsland. sup- 
 ported by yienerals Clinton, Grant, earl Percy and lord Corn- 
 wallis, and comnnenced his operations atiainst general VVash- 
 inglon, who had chosen this position, to cover New York. 
 
 The action of Flatbush, compelled general Washinjiton to 
 retire with loss, and under cover of the night, cross over into 
 Nf vv-York. This he accomplished by a most masterly move- 
 ment, without loss; left a detachment for the protection of 
 the city; garrisoned the forts at Haerlem and Kingsbridge, 
 and made a stand. On the 15th of September, general Howe 
 took possession of New York, and bi gan his operations 
 
 General Washington invested New-York U'^^itil the 18th of 
 October: he then abandoned his position, to defeat an enter- 
 prise concerted by general Howe, to cut off his communica- 
 tion with New-Enaland, then attempted, by landing a strong 
 fonte in his rear. Gen. Washington retired to White Plains, 
 where he sustained an assault from general Howe, which was 
 firmly resisted, and general Washington retired to the high 
 grounds, and took a strong position. Gen. Howe retired to 
 Kiuiisbriilie, and concerted plans of future operations ; com- 
 m» iiced an attack upon the American forts, and carried by 
 assault, such as were not abandoned by the Americans, aiid 
 butchered the garrisons. 
 
 The fall of these posts, opened the passage of the Hudson 
 to Gen. H .vve ; Gen. Washington was compelled to cross 
 over into New Jersey, and retired to Newark. The losees ia 
 
RETREAT OF GEN, WASHINGTON. 25t 
 
 the action at Flatbush, at White Plains, and in the forts ; the * 
 departure of the MassachuBetts militia, whose term of service 
 had expired ; the gloomy state of the army, retreating before 
 a stron<^ victorious British force, rendered the American cause 
 desperate, at this eventful moment. 
 
 General VVashinq;ton could assemble at Newark, only thir- 
 ty-five hundred troops, to support the cause, of liberty against 
 the whole British army (say ten thousand strong.) Even 
 general Wr-'shington himself, gave up all as lost, and with his 
 most confidential officers, talked of retiring hastily into Vir= 
 ginia, or beyond the Alleghany, f<»r security. 
 
 This scene is too distressing to be continued ; a whole week 
 passed before general Howe joined lord Cornwallis, and com- 
 menced his operations ; an(l during all this time, not one 
 comfjauy, even of Jersey militia, joined the army 
 
 On the 28th of Nov. Gen. Washington retired from New- 
 ark to Brunswick: lord Cornwallis entered it almost at the 
 same hour ; Gen. Washington retired to Princeton ; his lord- 
 ship held his position at Brunswick according to orders. 
 
 At this critical moment, the service of the Jersey and Ma- 
 ryland brigade expired, and they withdrew at the moment, 
 against the most pressing remonstrances. 
 
 Oetobt r 7, Gen. Washington retired from Princeton, as lord 
 Cornsvaliis entered it, and the next day his lordship entered 
 Trenton. JMst as Gen. Washington had crossed the Delaware, 
 about midnight. Gen. Washington secured the boats upon 
 the Delaware, and prevented his lordship's pursuit. 
 
 At this critical moment, lord Howe issued the proclama- 
 tion of the king's commissioners, offering pardon and peace 
 to all who should submit in sixty days. 
 
 The low state of the army, and of the public feeling, ren- 
 dered this proclamation highly alarming at this time. Men 
 of distinction, in great numbers, in that part of the country, 
 embraced the overture, and mnde their submission. 
 
 General Lee, who harrassed the rear of the British army 
 with a small force, was surprised and taken at (iiis time, and 
 the British boasted that they had taken the palladium of 
 America, and considered the contest at a close, Dec. 13. 
 
 Under this pressure of distress, well might an army des- 
 pond, reduced almost to a cypher, without pay, without 
 cloths, without supplies, and staining the snow with their 
 blood-stained steps, as they fled before the victorious enemy ; 
 well might their country despond, when they saw their liber- 
 
252 BATTLE OF TRENTON. 
 
 ties waste away, and about to expire under pressure of an 
 overwhelming foe. 
 
 At fills eventful crisis, general Washington by the assist- 
 ance of general Mifflin, collected a body of Pennsylvania, 
 militia, from Philadelphia and the interior, and gave support 
 to his army. With this force, he resolved to strike a bold 
 stroke, and attempt to recover the losses and spirits of the 
 army, and of the nation : accordingly, he took advantage of 
 the enemy's not passing the river in their pursuit, and pre- 
 pared to act on the offensive. 
 
 On the night of the 25th of December, 1776, general 
 Washington recrossed the Delaware under cover of a thick 
 snow storm, and commenced an attack, — gained a signal vic- 
 tory — put the enemy to flight — and took up his position at 
 Trenton, with about one thousand prisoners, with all their 
 camp utensils and arms. 
 
 Upon the recovery of the enemy, under a strong reinforce- 
 ment, general Washington sent off bis prisoners into the 
 country, and retired to Princeton ; where he exposed his per- 
 son between two fires, repulsed the enemy, and pursued them 
 to Brunswick. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis assembled alibis forces, made a bold stand 
 and general Washington took up his position at Morristown. 
 The depressed state of the army when they evacuated New- 
 Jersey, had not only alarmed the nation, but congress ; and 
 the sudden successes resulting from the affair at Trenton, had 
 not only rekindled the spirit of the country, but called forth 
 an act of congress, empowering general Washington " to col- 
 lect sixteen thou=»nnd infantry, three thousand horse, three 
 regiments of artillery, and a corps of engineers, appoint their 
 officers and establish their pay : to call from all the states 
 su<*h militia as he shall judge necessary; form such depots 
 of mag zines and stores as he may think proper ; to displace 
 all officers under a brigadier, and fill ail vacancies ; to take 
 whatever he may want for the service, w'lerever he may be, 
 paying reasonably therefor ; and to confine all who shall re- 
 fusf* the paper currency ; all this for the term of six months." 
 
 Despair had roused congress from their cautious security 
 and the successes of Trenton and Princeton fully evinced, 
 that under God, Washington must be the saviour of his coun- 
 try. Thus light arose out of this thick darkness, and order 
 out of this confusion, and the f mndation was laid on which 
 the liberty of America was secured. 
 
CAPTURE OF GEN. PRESCOT. 255 
 
 The brutality of the British, had now roused the indigna- 
 tion of New Jersey ; the fire of Lexinijton was a^ain rekind- 
 led, and spread throu2;h the nation ; Lord Cornwallis was 
 closely invested in his camp at A.mboy, after being surprised 
 and driven from Elizabethtown with great loss ; and the 
 whole state were alive to the contest ; the state was general- 
 ly cleared, and the winter passed without any important op- 
 erations 
 
 Durinaj these movements in New Jersey, the American 
 army under generals Gates and Arnold, retreated out of Can= 
 ada, before sir Guy Carleton and general Burgoyne, which 
 will be noticed under the northern expedition. 
 
 Gen. Howe took the field in person, and embarked the heavy 
 baitgage of the army from Amboy for New York, and prepar- 
 ed to revenge the affair of Trenton upon gen. Washington ; 
 he made a feint to embark his army, and by a sudden move- 
 ment, recalled the troops, formed and commenced a sudden 
 attack upon a detachment of the American army ; but was 
 compelled to retire with loss, and embark his army on to 
 Staten Island, June 30, 1777. 
 
 Thus ended the expedition into Jersey, an expedition when 
 viewed in its operations and effects, must be evident to all, 
 that the hand of God was most conspicuously displayed in 
 the salvation of the American cause ; turned the councils of 
 her enemies into foolishness, and out of weakness brought 
 forth strength. 
 
 Tryon, the tory governor of New-York, made an attempt 
 with a strong force from New York, in hje month of. April, to 
 destroy the American stores at Danbury, afi4-&u^€eeded ijen- 
 erally ; the party was pursued, and severely harrassed by 
 general Wooster, who fell with glory in pursuing the enemy, 
 and by general Arnold, who distinsruished himself in this af- 
 fair. Governor Tryon embarked his force, and returned to 
 New York. 
 
 General Howe remained in New York, assembled his fleet, 
 selected a detachment of his best troops, making a strong 
 and well appointed force, with ordnance and stores for a dis- 
 tant expedition, embarked on board his fleet, and fell down 
 to the Hook. 
 
 ■ At this time, whilst general Howe was manoeuvering with 
 his fleet to deceive the American general with regard to bis 
 de.^i.ination, a party of volunteers and militia under colonel 
 Barton, passed over on to Rhode-Island, surprised gen. Pres^ 
 
 22 
 
254 EXPEDITION TO PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 cot in his quarters at Newport, and brought him off safe, witU 
 one of his aids. Gen. Prescot, with a strong British force, 
 had taken possession of Newport in December, 1776, about 
 the time of the battle of Trentoti. 
 The expedition of Gen. Howe now claims our attention. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIX. 
 
 Revolution continued, from the expedition of general Howe to 
 Philadelphia, September Mil ^ to the battle of Cainden in 
 North Carolina. 
 
 In 1777, general Howe embarked about sixteen thousand 
 troops on board liis fleet at New- York, and put to sea upon a 
 seeret expedition. General Washingtoii detached the flower 
 of the American 'Avmy, into the state of New-Jersey, to watch 
 his motions, and to be in readiness to cover Phil.idelphia. 
 
 General Howe, after several movements with his fleet up- 
 on the coast, entered the Chesapeake bay, and landed his 
 troops at the ferry of Elk. General Wa5hiny;ton advanced to 
 meet him ; an action was fought at Chad's-Ford, St-ptember 
 1 1th, and general Howe was successful : general Washington 
 retired, and after several days manoEuvering, general H-we 
 entered Philadelphia, September 26th, and congress remov- 
 ed to Lancaster. 
 
 On the 4th of October, the action of Germantown was 
 fought, with a detachment of the British ; the Americans 
 were successful, and the detachment retired to Philadelphia, 
 where they were closely invested through the winter. The 
 American army was, at this time, in the most distriHsed situ- 
 ation ; without clothes, shoes, stockings, and even breeches 
 and blankets: more than two thousand were marched with- 
 out shoes, through frost and snow, leaving the traces of their 
 inarch by their blood stained steps. 
 
 ' Dnrin&- these movements, lord Howe moved his fleet round 
 into the Delaware — which occaeioned the conflicts of fort 
 Mifflin and Red bank ; and the protection of the fleet, secur- 
 ed the communication with the sea. 
 
 During these operations, general Burgoyne had been sent 
 out from England, to Canada, with a strong force to co-ope- 
 rate with the British forces at New-York, and form a junction 
 
CAPTURE OF GEN. BURGOYNE. 255 
 
 at Albany. Sir Gny Carlton, with the aid of general Bur- 
 goyiie, soon recovered Canada — and the American army re- 
 tired by the way of lake Champlain. General Burii:oync 
 pursued, and appeared oa the plains of Saratoga, (state of 
 ISfW York,) in the month of October : at the same time, a de- 
 tachment of the naval and land forces at New-York, proceed- 
 ed up the river, am! burnt the town of Esopos. This again 
 exrited the public feeling. 
 
 The successful action of Bennington, against a detachment 
 of the army of Buriroyne, had given high spirits in that vicini- 
 ty ; the Am- rican army under general Gates, was reinforced 
 with fresh drafts of militia, and was soon able to invest gene- 
 ral Burgoyne in his camp, at Saratoga. Alarmed at his criti- 
 cal situation, he ai'iempted to retire ; this w&i impracticable 
 — the Americans had destroyed all the bridges: he next pro- 
 posed to give battle — this became desperate; the Ameri- 
 cans were strong, their spirits were high, and their attacks 
 wt re sharp and desf)erate. Struck with astonishment, gene- 
 ral Burgoyne proposed to surrrender; a capi'J^jlation was 
 signed, and the whole British army laid down their arms, and 
 beca»rie prisoners of war, October 16, 1777 
 
 The general depression which had alarmed the public 
 mind, during these formidable operations, was removed at a 
 bl >vv : again a general impulse was given to the public feel- 
 ing : the plan of severing the eastern and western, (or south- 
 ern) states, fell with the fall of Burgoyne, and new eneriiies 
 and new efif«»rts were diffused through the nation. A success 
 so novel^ and yet so important, bumbled the pride of Britain, 
 in her counsels — gave a lustre to the American arms at home 
 and abroad, and closed (he campaign of 1777 
 
 France, Spain and Holland now became parties in the war. 
 In the course of the winter, commissioners from England ap- 
 peared at Philadelphia, with artful terms of accommodation, 
 to weaken the union and energies of America: these wpr« 
 properly treated. At the opening of the spring, sir H^-nry 
 Clinton, seeing no advantage resulting; from his position at 
 Piidadelphia, prepared to re^rn to New- York. 
 
 About the 1st of June, il^S, sir Henry Clinton evacuated 
 Philadf+lphia, and took up his march. General Washington 
 pressed close upon his rear : both armies were about ten 
 th >usand strong. At Monmouth, in N^-w-Jersey, general 
 Wasidngton came up with sir Henry, and ordered genera! 
 Lee, at the head of the advance guard, to comtneace asi at- 
 
256 
 
 NAVAL ACTION OFF NEWPORT. 
 
 tack, for the purpose of a general action, and assured him of 
 bis support with the main army. The failure of this attack, 
 by Gen. Lee's doubtful movements, caused the failure of the 
 action, and caused also a court martial, which deprived Gen. 
 Lee of his command. Sir Henry withdrew in the night, and 
 the Americans who bad lain on their arms impatient for the 
 attack in the morning, were disappointed of their hopes. 
 
 Sir Henry retired by forced marches to Sandy-Hook, 
 where he was met by the fleet under lord Howe, embarked 
 bis army and passed into New York, July 5. 
 
 At Ibis time a French fleet arrived at Delaware bay, for 
 the purpose of blockading the British squadron ; learning 
 their departure for New- York, they pursued and arrived oflf 
 the hook, where they received a communication from gene- 
 ral Washington, with a request to repair to Newport, and co- 
 operate with the Americans, in reducing the British force un- 
 der general Prescott. They repaired to Newport, according- 
 ly—the British fleet slipped their cables, put to sea, and met 
 the French j^ an action commenced — both fleets were severe- 
 ly shattered: the English withdrew, and retired to New York, 
 and the French to Boston, to refit, and from thence to the 
 West Indies ; and the attack upon Rhode-Island failed. 
 
 Sept. 1779, a French fleet of 20 sail of the line, frigates, 
 Sec. was destined against the Island of Grenada, (in the West- 
 Indies.) At the request of Gen. Lincoln, who was then post- 
 ed at Charleston, (S. C.) Count De Estaing, the French 
 Admiral, repaired to the American coast, and co-operated 
 with Gen. Lincoln, in an attempt to dislodge the English 
 from Savannah in Georgia. This was the first foreign aid 
 the Americans had received, excepting the attempt upon 
 Khode-Island in 1778, and opened the way for future, and 
 more important operations. 
 
 The attempt failed, and the French Admiral withdrew 
 from the American coast, and repaired to his station in the 
 West Indies. Sir Henry Clinton, upon the departure of the 
 French fleet, resumed his southern enterprise, and dispatch- 
 ed Hdmiral Arbuthnot on the 26th of December 1779, with a 
 squadron, detached from the fleet at New-York, to recover 
 the losses of 1776, at Charleston, and subjujrate the southern 
 .states. For this purpose he also embarked a land force of 
 7000 men, under his command, accompanied by lord Corn- 
 v.aliis, io sieze on the city of Charleston, (S. C.) and subdue 
 the southern states. 
 
CAPTURE OF CHARLESTON, S. C. 257 
 
 Sir Henry proceefled to his destined port, landed his (roopg, 
 and latried the city of Charleston by a re^jular siege. The 
 garrison, under the brave Gen. Lincoln, made a dignified de- 
 fence, but were overpowered by a commanding" ?nperiority 
 of force, and made prisoners of war. Maich 4, 1780. 
 
 Tie illustrious Gen. Grt ei.e, was detached to the southward, 
 to counteract this formidable expedition. Lord Cftruwallis 
 penetrated into South Carolina, and the cavalry aita<hed to 
 the expedition, under the command of Lieut. Col. Tarlton, 
 scoure<l and ravaged the country. 
 
 At this time the affairs of America had again become des- 
 perate. The hard winter of 1780, set in with all its severity, 
 immediately u{ion tht; departure of the expedition ; and the 
 privations and distresses of tht army under G«^n. Wast»in:zton, 
 were iuexpressible through th»^ winter and spring; a mutiny 
 ensuedj arid the cause of liberty was in danj^er of being lost 
 forever. 
 
 Gen. Greene wrote Gen. Washington from Maryland, that, 
 " ihe want of money, supplies, horses, &.c. would render it 
 impoasible to provide for the march of the Maryland troops." 
 These embarrassments greatly retarded the southern opera- 
 tions. 
 
 During this distressing period, the young Marquis La Fay- 
 ette, arrived at head quarters, from France; the tidings he 
 brought gave new spirits to Gen Wasliington, and to Con- 
 gress. On his passage fronj Boston to France, he narrowly 
 escaped a consqiiracy, formed to assassinate him, by some 
 Brilish sailors on board the ship. Through his personal ef- 
 forts in France, he cegociated for America, supplies adapted 
 to her wants ; aitd announced tliat a ileet and armament 
 would soon follow him from France. 
 
 Congress immediately resolved, " that bills he immediate- 
 ly drawn on Dr. Frardilin, minister at Paris, for twenty five 
 thouBand dollars, and on Mr. Jay , minister at Madrid, for twen- 
 ty five thousand di»!lars, and the money applied to the imme- 
 diate benefit of the armies." 
 
 The darkness which hung over the political horizon of 
 America, was dispelled by this auspicious event ; extensive 
 arrangements were made to fill up the armies by rejiulars, and 
 militia, and supplies extensively collected. At the same 
 tifrie, the arms of F^ord Cornwallis spread terror, and con* 
 st< rnation through»»ut the southern states ; South Carolina, 
 fell m regular successioD, into a state of submission to the 
 
 22^ 
 
^^^ BATTLE OP CAMDEN. 
 
 arras of the conqueror, and were acknowledged, and protect- 
 ed as British subjects, under a rejiular government. 
 
 During these operations. Sir Henry Clinton set sail for 
 
 ^•Th Jnnn '"^^, ^^'^ ^^ ^^^ ^^'^^^' «"^' '^f* Lord Cornwallis 
 Hith 4000 regulars, to finish the conquest of the south. Up- 
 on the capt.ire of Gen. Lincoln, Gates, then in Virginia, was 
 appointed to succeed him, and immediately repaired to big 
 command. 
 
 Amonsjst the distressing embarrassments of the nation at 
 this time, the depreciated paper money was not one of the 
 least : to obviate this, congress made an effort to call in by 
 taxes, two hundred million of dollars, and burn it, and redeem 
 rriJ ^ ""^"^ emis-^ion at the rate of one dollar for twenty, 
 ibis plan succef d^d. and thousands of the b« st patriots of the 
 nation were ruined by the depreciated redemption of a cur- 
 rency, they had endeavored to support at par ; i. e. equal to 
 gold and silver. At this time Mr. Adams left London (where 
 be had been sent in 1776 to negociate a peace,) and went by 
 the way of Spain to Holland, to bring to a close the plans of 
 alliance and commerce, which had been two years in agitation. 
 Lord Cornwallis having overrun South Carolina, and set' 
 tjf^i] a system of government, began to penetrate into North 
 Carolina. The army under Gen. Gates were so miserably 
 supplied with men and stores, that they maintained a feeble 
 resiMance, and with an army of four thousand, (lees than one 
 thousand of whieh were continental troops) he directed his 
 marflh for Camden in North Carolina. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis having reached Camden the day before 
 (unknown to general Gates) concerted an attack upon general 
 Gates in the night, in bis camp at Clermont. At the same 
 hme, br)th armies began their march, viz ; about half past 2 
 o'clock, in the morning. Their advance parlies met in the 
 woods : a conflict ensued— upon the tirst shock the Ameri- 
 cans fell into some disorder ; this was soon recovered, and 
 skirmishing continued through the night : when the morning 
 appeared, both parties being informed of their situation by 
 their captives, anxiously awaited the issue. 
 
 An action soon commenced ; the field was contested with 
 Tarious success : the bayonets of the British carried the day • 
 the regular troops were firm, but the militia fled, and dispers- 
 ed as they flf d— ncrer to be recovered. The general and his 
 regulars were abandoned to their fate. 
 
 Several parlies of militia, who were advancing to join the 
 
GENERAL OPERATIONS, 259 
 
 army, turned their arms against Uw fu^iifives, and thus com- 
 pleted the overthrow The pursuit continued tor morn tiian 
 twenty miles, and the road was strewed with the fra^m^^nts 
 of this routed army, the wounded, the dead and the dying. 
 Such was the general panic through the neighborinii country, 
 that a party of horse, supported by more than one hundred in- 
 fantry, and at the distance of more than eighty n»iles from 
 the scene of action, upon the first intelligence, sought safety 
 by Sight. 
 
 The losses of his lordship, his want of supplies, and the sick- 
 ly season, all constrained him to give over his pursuit, and 
 remain at Camden, and pursue his plan of forcing and oriiani- 
 zing the submission of the slate of North Carolina ; an<! the 
 more effectually to accomplish this, he seized all such princi- 
 pal characters as were firm to their country, and sent them 
 prisoners to Charleston and St. Augustine, and secured their 
 effects. 
 
 CHAP. XL. 
 
 Revolution continued to the capture of Lord CornwalHs at 
 York Town, October 1781. 
 
 The cavalry under Col. Tarlton continued to ravage the 
 country, burning, plundering, and destroying all in their way, 
 sp<iring neither whig nor tory. Operations continued by de- 
 tached parties, and with some success to the Americans. 
 Lord Cornwallis made a retrograde m-ivement to strengthen 
 his position, and general Gates put forth all bis efforts to col- 
 lect an army to oppose him ; but his efforts w^^re not very suc- 
 cessful ; he moved from Hillsborough and took up his head 
 quarters at Charlotte. At this time general Greene arrived, 
 disclosed his commission from his excellency general Wash- 
 ington, and took the command; general Gates retired, and the 
 distresses of North Carolina continued. 
 
 During these operations at the southward, great and per- 
 plexing difficulties had nearly ruined the army under general 
 Washington. The frequent changes in the army, owinij to 
 short enlistments, the want of discipline amons:st the raw 
 troops, the want of pay, clothing, provisions, &c. had repeat- 
 edly distressed the army, and were at last accoojpanied with 
 tlie revolt of the whole Fennsylvama line. 
 
260 DEFEAT OF COL. TARLTON, 
 
 Id defiance to all the efforts of general Wayne, and all the 
 other officers, they seizt^d on six pieces ot arliUery, to k up 
 their march, and repaired to Princeton. 8ir HeMry Clinti.n, 
 upon the first intelhireiice, made some important movements 
 from Stateu Island, and setjl spies at the sairte time to coun- 
 tenance and encourajre the revolt in his name, with wry fa- 
 vorable proposals. This was not their object ; they were 
 patriotic, but determined to be heard. 
 
 A committee from con^iress, waited npon the mutineers, at 
 Princetoii, and by liberal assurances, endeavored to purchase 
 their return to duty ; general Washin^rton sent a strong de- 
 tachment to enforce obedience : and they returned to their 
 duty. A ireneral arrangement was made by congress, to sup- 
 ply the armies, both by foreign and domestic aid and resources. 
 
 The war raged in the south with various success: p:eneral 
 Greene took the command of only 2,31*7 men, without clothes, 
 or magasines, and without discipline ; subsistin i on daily col- 
 Jections, in the heart of a disaffected country, and in the face 
 of a victorious enemy. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis, on the receipt of a reinforcement of 1 ,500 
 men, commenced his operations, and advanced. — Col. Tarl- 
 lOn was detached, to dislodge general Morgan from his posi- 
 tion at the, Cjwpens : he commeficed his movements with 
 his usual impetuosity, traversed the country for several days, 
 Jay ins: waste every thing in his course, until he arrived at 
 M »riiH{-i's position : an action commenced with the same im- 
 petuosity, and with signal success — the Americans were dis- 
 lodiied, and thrown into disorder ; but they rallied to the 
 coarge, and were victorious in their turn ; Tarlton was de- 
 feated, his army routed and destroyed, his artittery and baj?- 
 jja .e captured ; and he, with the mounted fugitives, fled to 
 lord Cornwallis, January 17, 1781. 
 
 This defeat, roused up his lordship : he commenced a pur- 
 suit, and the operations were such, as the flight of the Ameri- 
 cans, and the rapid pursuit of his lordship, through a country 
 thinly settled, without intermission, would necessarily pro- 
 duce. 
 
 General Greene had the address, to harass his lordship in his 
 flight, and yet avoid a general action, until he halted at Guil- 
 ford, near the confines of Virginia, and gave hm) battle. 
 The movements wt^re well concerted ; and general Greene, 
 ivith his 2000 men, had hopes of success, against his lord- 
 ship's pursuing army, greatly superior. 
 
5ATTLE OF CAMDEN. 261 
 
 The conflict was sharp : the militia gave way — the res:u- 
 lars were overpowered, and general Greene drew off his army 
 in good order, took a strong position to collect the stragglers, 
 and commenced his retreat. The severity of the action oc- 
 casioned his lordship to make a hasty retrograde movement, 
 to recover his losses. 
 
 During these movements, the murderous sword of civil 
 war, raged between whig and tory, and threatened to depopu- 
 late the country. At this time general Clinton detached a 
 fleet with 1,500 troops, entered the Chesapeake, landed their 
 forces, and began the most alarming depredations in Virginia : 
 several efforts were made to dislodge them, but without ef- 
 fect. At this critical moment, general Greene made a move- 
 ment to return to North Carolina, and carry the war into 
 what had now become the enemy's country. 
 
 He boldly advanced to Camden with his little army, and 
 gave battle to lord Rawdon, April, 1781 : a desperate con- 
 flict ensued — victory for a long time held a doubtful balance ; 
 both parties withdrew, and left the field covered with the dead. 
 
 On the 28th of April, general Greene thus expressed him- 
 self to the French minister * " This distressed country, I am 
 sure, cannot struggle much longer, without more effectual 
 support ; they must fall, and I fear their fall, will sap the in- 
 dependence of America. We fight, get beaten, rise, and 
 fight again— 'the whole country is one continued scene of 
 blood and slaughter." 
 
 After the battle of Camden, his lordship retired in bis turn ; 
 general Greene advanced, carried the war into South Carolina, 
 and by a desperate attack, was on the point of carrying by 
 assault, the strong fortress of Ninety six, the reduction of 
 which would have recovered all South Carolina, excepting 
 Charleston. 
 
 At this critical moment, appeared a reinforcement of one 
 thousand seven hundred foot, and one hundred and fifty 
 horse, which had arrived at Charleston, landed, and flew to 
 the relief of the fortress. General Greene retired, and aj^aia 
 invested his lordsliipin Camden; not being sutficiently strong 
 to a'tack him, he made a movement towards Charleston ; 
 this induced his lordship to leave Kis position, and with a de- 
 tachment retire to Charleston, August, 17ul. 
 
 The war now ra<:ed in Virijinia, under the command of 
 general Phillips. The marquis La Fayette, with a small 
 force, attempted to cover Richmond — but failed; and the 
 
262 COUNCIL OF WAR. 
 
 British entered the capital. Lord Cornwallis, after the ac- 
 tion at Guilford, iefl general Greene to pursue his southern ex- 
 pedilion, and moved to Wilmington ; from thence he com- 
 inen(^ed a rapid riiarch to Richmond in Virginia, to join gene- 
 ral Phillips, and at a blow, reduce the state to obedience. 
 Phillips had died ; but a reinforcement of 1,800 regulars join- 
 ed bis lordship at Richmond. 
 
 The command devolved on his lordship ; and the young 
 marquis La Fayette, with a litth- arnty of 3,000 men, was 
 cow destined to enter the lists with this victorious hero of the 
 
 EOIith. 
 
 Flushed with his triumphs, his lordship, in his communica- 
 tion to sir Henry Clinton, thus expresses himself: " the boy 
 cannot escape me." His lordship attempted to surprise the 
 marquis, and bring; him to an action — but wilhout etfect : he, 
 with great adroitness, eluded his wiles, and held him at bay, 
 until he was reinforced by a detachment from the north, un- 
 der general Wayne, and th«' baron Steuben ; and his lordship 
 took up his quarters at Williamsburg, after having spread car- 
 nage, terror and desolation, tJirouJTh the states of South Caro- 
 lina and North Carolina, say one thousand miles, and planted 
 his victorious standard in the heart of Virginia. Here let him 
 rest. 
 
 At'fhe commencement of these operations in the south, a 
 French fleet under the command of the chevalier de Turney, 
 with 6,000 men, under the command of count Rochan>beau, 
 arrived at Newport, Rhode-Island, July 10, 1780. The town 
 WHS illuminated, and the il!n«trious allies were received with 
 every expression of resp»^ct, and grateful applause. This 
 was the fleet, promised by the marquis La Fayette, when he 
 returned from France, and which he had been the great in- 
 strument of procuring. 
 
 In the month of September, a conference was proposed by 
 general Washington, to the French commander at Newport, 
 and they met at Hartford, in Connecticut General Wash- 
 ington was aceompani^d with the young marquis La Fayette, 
 and i^eneral Kfjox. The avowed object r>f ♦^unferenc*' was, 
 to concert measures for an attack upon the city of New-York. 
 
 In the midst of this conference, an express arrived from 
 the fortress at West Point, on the Hudson, announcing the 
 trail'»rous desiirns of i^eneral 4rn dl. The council wa** clos- 
 ed — 'he parties reiire<l to their posts, ard genernj Wastii.'ig- 
 ton flew to the relief of West Point. On his arrival, he found 
 
MAJOll ANDRE, 2G3 
 
 the cannon disnaounted, the fortress dismantled, and Arnold 
 bad flfd, and taken refuge on board a British sioop of war^ 
 posted for the occasion. 
 
 Whilst his excellency was employed in repairing the for- 
 tress, a prisoner was announced, who proved to be the unfor- 
 tunate major Andre, who had volunteered his services to sir 
 Henry Clinton, to upgociate this treacherous operation with 
 general Arnold. His ch/iracier was that of a spy, his fate 
 was death! Let us pass over mis distressiut: scene : the 
 righteous sacrifice ei'eatly interested the feelings, and touch- 
 ed (he sympathy of every American breast. 
 
 His excellency, general Washington, repaired to head- 
 quarters, and commenced his system of operations, to reduce 
 tlu'city of New-York. An attack was contemplated by land, 
 wMiilst the French fleet should bl >ckade the city by sea. To 
 this end, the French troops were i luded at Newport, and pro- 
 ceeded by land, to New-York : heavy cannon and mortars, 
 left at the siejje of Boston, in 1776, were transported at threat 
 expense, across the country to the Hudson river, and down 
 to the army before New-York. 
 
 The public feeling was alive to the enterprise— the Britisk 
 collected their fleet, fortified the port and city of New York, 
 and put themselves in the best p issible state of defence : the 
 American army was strena;thened by drafts of militia ; and 
 upon the arrival of the French troops to join genera! wl^sh- 
 inut« n the French fleet at New«)ort,{ laving been reinforced 
 from Frans-e.) put to sea. 
 
 In Ni w-York, all was anxiety and aiartn, and a momenta- 
 ry attack was expected. At this crilical moment, treneral 
 Washinttton, with the best troops of the army, in conjunction 
 with the French troops, made a rapid move^nent into New- 
 Jersey, and flew to Philadelphia: the first rei*ular intellit^ence 
 of his movement, announced the allied army at the head of 
 the river Elk, and the next,* announced his arrival before 
 Y )rk Town, in Virginia, where lord Cornwallis had retired, 
 upon ajimctionof general Washingon, with the Marquis La 
 Fayette. 
 
 At this critical juncture, the English fl^^et, stationed to pro- 
 tect his lordship, had slipped their cables upon the approach 
 of the French fleet, met them at the mouth of the Chesa- 
 peake, bfen beaten in a severe action, and fled to New Y »rk. 
 The viittorious French, sailed up the bay, to co-operate with 
 the allies, in the reduction of York Towb. 
 
264 CAPTURE or lord CORNWALLIS, 
 
 The town was invested, the trenches were opened on the 
 6th of October : the approaches were regular, the cannonade 
 terrible, and the resistance desperate. The overwhelming 
 destruction which bore down, wasted and destroyed the Brit- 
 ish, forced his lordship to request a parley on the 18th, and 
 on the 19(h, the articles of capimlation were signed, and his 
 lordship, with his wJiole army, marched out, prisoners of war, 
 Ociober 20iii, 1781. Tiius fell this hero of ttie south, by a 
 stratagem concerted at Hartford, Connecticut. 
 
 CHAP. XLI. 
 
 General affairs of America, to the adoption and organization 
 of the federal Constituiion, March, 1789 — remarks. 
 
 His Excellency General Washington closed the gloriou3 
 scene ai Y-fvk Town, by pubhshing in his general orders, the 
 grateful efi'usions of hi^ heart to the army, both officers and 
 soldiers, and ordered the whole army to be assembled in ^■ 
 brisijades and divisions, to attend divine service, and render 
 thanks to that God who had given them the victory. 
 
 Congress next passed a vote of thanks to general Wash- 
 ington, count Ruchambeau, count De;jrasse, the officers of 
 the different corps, and the men under their command : ap- 
 pointed a day of general thanksgiving to Almighty God, 
 throughout United America ; moved in procession to tUe 
 Dutch Lutheran church, and returned thanks to God, for this 
 distinguiBhed success. 
 
 All United America resounded with grateful acclamations 
 of joy , and every breast glowed with the warmest emotions 
 of gratitude to the God of their fathers. 
 
 Congress ordered a marble column to be erected in York- 
 Town, adorned witti emblems commemorative of the French 
 and American alliance, and an inscription, expressing the 
 surreuder of the British arms. 
 
 The several corps returned to their former stations, and 
 his excellency general Washington repaired to Philadelphia, 
 to give repose to his mind, and to confer with congress up- 
 on the future exigencies of the nation. 
 
 The French flt-et, undt-r count Degrasse, sailed for the 
 West Indies, on the 5tb November, and the operations of 
 
NAVAL ACTION. 265 
 
 the season were generally closed. Virginia, North Carolina, 
 and all South Carolina, excepting CharK-ston, were recover- 
 ed, and general order restored. 
 
 The theatre of war was now removed to the West Indies 
 where France and Spain assembled a fleet of sixty ships of 
 the line, and spread a general alarm throughout the British 
 islands. This was opposed by a British fleet of equal force. 
 One of the most desperate and sanguinary conflicts ensued 
 then ever known, between the French under count Deorrasse, 
 and the English under sir George Rodney. Sir Georjie, un- 
 der press of sail, bore down upon the French lines ; the 
 French nailed their colors to their masts, and fout:ht with 
 desperation. Admiral Degrasse fousiht his ship, until only 
 two men with himself remained, and then struck his colors. 
 The English were victorious. The French suffered the loss 
 of three thousand killed, and twice as many wounded — the 
 English suffered severely. This action was decisive in those 
 seas, and the remains of the French and Spanish fleets with- 
 drew. 
 
 Congress pursued the plan of lo^ns from France, Spain and 
 Hftliand, to prosecute the war : and throuiih their ministers, 
 liberal supplies were obtained. All further operations in 
 South Carolina ceased, and Charleston was evacuated on 
 the 14th of December, 1782, with the most perfect order, and 
 in two days the regular police of the city, and the govern- 
 ment of the state were restored. The French troops, ren- 
 dered so illustrious at the siege of York Town, now took up 
 their march for Boston, where they embarked for France. 
 
 We pass over the efforts of Spain to recover Gibraltar, af- 
 ter the conquest of Minorca, together with all further naval 
 operations. 
 
 The subject of peace now became general in Europe and 
 America. Ne^ociations were opened at Paris under Dr. 
 Franklin and John Jay, as ministers of America ; and the 
 count de Aranda, minister of Spain ; and the count de Ver- 
 gf nfies on the part of France ; with Mr. Fitzherbert and Mr. 
 Oswald, on the part of Great Britain. Mr. Adams was at 
 this time negociating a commercial treaty with Holland. 
 
 Many points labored ; the netrociation spun out ; the Eng- 
 lish ministers could not be prevailed on to take the starting 
 point, and acknowledge the independence of America, until 
 they had sent to EpQ;land, and received positive instructions. 
 
 The fisheries nest labored with England, and France did 
 23 
 
^GQ PEACE OF PAEIS, 1783. 
 
 not favor all the American demands upon this point. Dur- 
 ing this strujigle in this council, Mr. Adams left Holland, at 
 the request of Mr. Jay, and repaired to Paris ; and upon a 
 consultation, they agreed to negociate with the British minis- 
 ter separately, if the count de Vertrennes did not yield to the 
 American claims on the fisheries, &.c. This movement suc- 
 ceeded and brought the negociations to a favorable close. 
 
 At this critical juncture, a new scene opened to the gener- 
 al in chief. The army before New York became infected 
 with a general mutiny, founded upon a demand for arrearages 
 of pay, and adeqiiate indemnification for their services and 
 sufferings, with siitlicient guarantee, before they were disban- 
 ded. The general, alarmed at this dangerous conspiracy, 
 requested the gener^il and field officers, with one officer from 
 each company, and a proper representation from the staff of 
 the army, to assemble on Saturday the 15th. He at the same 
 time used all his influence to soften the violence of their pas- 
 sions. 
 
 According to appointment the officers met, general Gates 
 was appointed president : his excellency general Washington 
 addressed the council in a short, but a most pathetic and dig- 
 nified speech, which touched their honors, touched their feel- 
 ings, touched their interest, and touched their hearts. They 
 voted an address of thanks to his excellency, and retired, re- 
 lying with full confidence on the assurances of his excellency, 
 and the wisdom and liberality of congress : the mutiny was 
 qu'^'lled. 
 
 On the 24th of March, it was announced in congress, by a 
 letter from the marquis la Fayette, bearing date Feb. 5, that 
 a general peace had been signed at Paris. 
 
 Congress settled the requirements of the army to their sat- 
 isfaction, and they were disbanded. On the 4th of April the 
 treaty arrived in America ; general rejoicings resounded 
 through the country. On the 25th of November, the British 
 evacuated the city of New-York, and the Americans took 
 possession with great dignity and good order. His excellen- 
 cy general Washington with his principal officers, the gov- 
 ernor of New- York, &.c. advanced in procession, attended 
 by a vast concourse of people. The ceremony was conduct- 
 ed with great solemnity, and did honor to the occasion. 
 
 When the festivity and hilarity of this interesting scene 
 were closed, his excellency general Washington took an af- 
 fectionate leave of the otficersj who were bis compaoions in 
 
RESIGNATION OF GEN, WASHINGTON. 267 
 
 arms, retired to Philadelphia, and exhibited his accounts to 
 the controller, in his own hand writing. He then retired to 
 Annapolis, where congress were then sitting (by adjourn 
 ment,) and on the 20th of December, 1783, resigned his com- 
 mission as commander in chief. Congress being assembled, 
 the house and galleries crowded by a numerous and splendid 
 collection of ladies and gentlemen ; when his excellency, 
 agreeable to appointment, and by notice from the presidentj 
 arose from his seat, and with the dignity of himself, address- 
 ed the house in an appropriate speech. 
 
 Thus closed the greatest revolution that had ever been un- 
 dertaken, accompanied with the greatest displays of wisdom, 
 patience, fortitude, disinterested patriotism and feats of arms, 
 ever before r^^corded, and with a general success, uncontem* 
 plated by the most sansiuine sons of liberty. 
 
 The liberty of America was now sealed, by the resignation 
 of that illustrious chief, who had been the instrument in the 
 hand of God, of obtaining and securing all her blessings, and 
 on whose sword hung the destinies of America. The father 
 of his country retired to his seat in Virginia, there to enjoy in 
 the bosom of repose, the prayers and benedictions of a free 
 and grateful people. 
 
 The general interest of the nation claimed, and received 
 the unremitted efforts of congress, to give credit to the papet 
 medium, (now almost a cypher by depreciation) — to satisfy 
 the claims of the army, and the creditors generally-— to 
 strengthen the union, by securing credit at home, and con- 
 fidence abroad. 
 
 The individual states pursued the same plans, extended 
 their commerce, improved their agriculture, and a general 
 tranquillity prevailed. Several of the states, by legislative 
 act, infringed such articles of the treaty as regarded the pay- 
 ment of British debts, which gave to Great Britain a pretext 
 for infringing that part of the treaty, which related to her re 
 linquishing the military posts on the western frontier: these 
 be<.'ame subjects of collision, and after discussion. 
 
 It was early foreseen after the war, that the national com 
 pact was too feeble to secure the tranquillity of the states ; 
 two events rendered this evident to all. It became the inter- 
 est of the nation, that congress should lay a national impost, 
 to increase the revenue for the general good. This was ac- 
 ceded to by all the states, except Rhode-Island ; her nega- 
 tive put a veto upon the measure ; the impost failed i—con^ 
 
268 FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 
 
 gress could only recommend, but had no powers to enforce. 
 About the same time, an insurrection broke out in the state 
 of Mfissachusetts, under captain Daniel Shays, which became 
 highly alarming, and threatened the destruction of liberty and 
 the laws. 
 
 These two important events, called up the attention of the 
 stales, to their general interest : they unanimously resolved, 
 in their general assemblies, to call a convention, to be hc^ld at 
 Philadelphia, to frame a constitution, which should more ef- 
 fectually secure the peace an<l prosperity of the nation. 
 
 The delenates were chosen by all the states, and assembled 
 at Philadelphia, 1787. The father of hi^; country, as delegate 
 from Virginia, was unanim(»usly elected president of the con- 
 vention. A constitution was framed — received the signa- 
 tures of the convention, and was transmitted to the states, for 
 their approbation and acceptance. 
 
 Conventions of the several states were assembled; the 
 constitution was regularly discussed, and adopted by a ma- 
 jority of the states. His excellency George Washington was 
 elected president, by the unanimous suffrages of his country, 
 and the honorable John Adams, vice president. Members of 
 a new congress were regularly chosen by all the states, — as- 
 sembled at New York, regularly organized, and his excellen- 
 cy president Washington with great solemnity, was inducted 
 into otiice, March 4, 1789. 
 
 The government was organized, and became responsible 
 for the interests of the nation. He who had shone so con- 
 spicuous in the field, added a new lustre to his name, by bis 
 wisdom in the cabinet. 
 
 With the new government, sprang up new energies through- 
 out the nation ; union, peace, concord, public confidence, 
 public and private credit ; a spirit of agriculture, commerce 
 and enterprise, universally prevailed ; a foundation was laid 
 for all that unrivalled prosperity America has enjoyed, and 
 of all that greatness she is destined to enjoy. 
 
 Here let us pause, and admire the wisdom and goodness 
 of the God of our fathers, in his watchful, guardian care, over 
 this vine of the reformation, this little church in the wilder- 
 ness. If they had not been harassed by the savaijes in their 
 early settlements; would they have preserved their virtue? 
 If they had not been pressed by the alarming dnngers of the 
 old French war ; would they have ever united ? If they had not 
 been oppressed by Britain ; would they have become a na- 
 
ls:A.iiriJTrBATi(0)2r off i?MM mimwT- ^WAswm&W([m. 
 
 The Mi^sjiidous 4o,.of March i789, when tfie Father of M^Comi- 
 tr}', as President of United Anierica,^ave the first enetyiesr^f 
 that Federal Com/tOet zvhidt TtMs/iroved the RiUadiuni of 
 the uVation . Ch aji !XLIf Fafe ^74. 
 
PRESIDENT WASHINGTON. 269 
 
 don ? If they had not been alarinfMl by insurrections under 
 the old confederation ; wouhl they have delej^ated such poW' 
 ers to the new federal coinpact ? If the new federal coni- 
 pa<'f had not been framed, and put into operation just at that 
 critical time, just upon the explosion of the French revolu- 
 tioij ; who will dare to say, what would have been the fa(v of 
 United America at this <lay ? Let us adore the God of oui 
 fathers, who has done all this for us. 
 
 CHAP. XLII. 
 
 Jffairs of America continued — war with France — peace — war 
 with England — peace — 7var with the Barbary powers — gene- 
 ral peace^ 1 8 1 5 — general remarks. 
 
 We have noticed that auspicious day, the 4th of Mnrch 
 1789, when the father of his country, as President of the Uni- 
 ted States of America, gave the tirst energies to that fech ral 
 compact, which has proved the palladium of the liberty and 
 prosperity of the nation. 
 
 On the 5th of May following, commenced that terrible ex- 
 plosion, the French revolution, which overthrow the rellLion 
 and trovernment of France, subverted almost ever}^ throne io 
 Christendom, and threatened the peace and libertN of Ameri- 
 ca. To this compact, under God, we are indebted, for ail 
 that peace and prosperity, she has been able to maintain 
 through this mighty struggle ; for her successes in the war 
 with France, 1799, aad her laie war with England, during 
 this distressing period. 
 
 The war with France was short, and of too little moment 
 to claim particular attention. Tfie late war with England 
 commenced in 1812, and closed February, 1815, was serious 
 in its operations — eventful io its consequences, and claims 
 some particular notice. 
 
 The collisions of France and England, with the commer 
 cial interests of America, excited a warmth of feelins in Amer- 
 ica, and a spirit of hostility against both nations ; this was ex- 
 pressed by congress, according to the stren;:th and predomi- 
 nancy of the two great parties in our natiotial councils; re- 
 monstrances produced negociations, the fluctuating state of 
 Eijrope, rendered negociations critical and doubtful. 
 
 When the emperor JNapoleon commenced his career of 
 23^^ 
 
270 WAR WITH ENGLAND. 
 
 conquest into Russia — when all Europe were alive to the 
 events of ttie day — the American government embraced the 
 favorable moment, to redress the wrongs she had so long, 
 and sf» patiently endured from British depredations on her 
 commerce, and the rights of the American flag. — They pro- 
 claimed war against England, and at a blow, attempted the 
 conquest of the Canadas ; it failed, and the war became a na- 
 val war. 
 
 Great Britain prepared to secure her possessions in the 
 Canadas, by powerful armaments on the lakes; America con- 
 tinued her operations against the Canadas, and prepared to 
 meet her on the water ; she at the same time commenced 
 o:eneral depredations upon the commerce of England, with 
 privateers and frigates, and the contest became sharp and 
 bloody. 
 
 The English government sent their ships of war, and frig- 
 ates, on to the American coast, with full confidence, that the 
 small naval force of America, would soon be overpowered 
 and destroyed. The Americans sent their cruisers, and 
 fri' ates, into every sea, and every clime, with high confidence, 
 and distinguished success. The particular operations of this 
 war, upon the water, claim some notice. 
 
 On the 2 1st of June, 1812, (three days after war was de- 
 clared,) an American squadron ot two frigates, and two sloops 
 of war, under commodore Rogers, sailed from New- York on 
 a cruise. On the 13lh August, the United States frigate Es- 
 sex of 44 guns, commanded by captain Porter, fell in with 
 and captured his Britannic Majesty's sloop of war Alert, of 
 20 guns, after an action of eight minutes. On the 19fh of 
 August, the United States frigale Constitution, of 44 guns, 
 captain Hull, fell in with and captured his Britannic Majesty's 
 frigate, Guerriere, of 38 guns, James Dacres, commander, af- 
 ter an acti'»n of twenty five minutes. The Guerriere lost fif- 
 teen men killed, and sixty-four wounded ; the Constitution 
 had seven killed, and seven wounded 
 
 At this time the government of Algiers commenced depre- 
 dations upon the American commerce in the Mediterranean, 
 and raptured the brij? Edwin of Salem. October 18th. the 
 UniU'd States sloop of war. Wasp, of 16 gu«=, captain Jones, 
 fell in with hi? Britannic Majesty's sloop of war. Frolic, of 18 
 guns, captain Wyngates, and raf)ture<l her in forty-three niin- 
 utr? ; the Frolic had thirty kilhd, and fifty wounded; the 
 Wasp had five kiUed, and five wounded. 
 
NAVAL WAR. 271 
 
 His Britannic Majesty's ship of war the Poictiers, of seven- 
 ty four jtiuns, fell in with and captured (he Wa?p and her prize 
 soon after the action. October 25, the United States frigate, 
 United States, of forty-four guns, commodore Decatur, fell 
 in with, and captured his Britannic Majesty's frigate Macedo- 
 nian of 38 guns, J. S. Garden comnaander, after an action of 
 one hour and thirty minutes ; the Macedonian lost thirty-six 
 kilTed, and sixty-eiijht wounded ; the United States five kil- 
 led and seven wounded. December 29th, the United States 
 frigate Constitution, 44 guns, commodore Bainbridge, fell in 
 with and captured his Britannic Majesty's frigate Java, of 
 thirty-tour guns, captain Lambert, after an action of fifty five 
 minutes ; the Java lost sixty nine killed, and one hundred and 
 one wounded ; the Constitution nine killed, and twenty-five 
 wounded. 
 
 Durin<i these operations on the water, the Americans were 
 unsuccessful in all their land operations against Canada, and 
 the war on that side wore an unfavorable aspect. February 
 24, 1813, the United States sloop of war Hornet, of sixteen 
 guns, captain Lawrence, fell in with and captured his Britan- 
 nic Majesty's brig Peacock of eighteen guns, captain Peake, 
 after an action of 15 minutes ; the Peacock had 33 wounded, 
 which were saved with the prisoners of the crew ; and the 
 killed, with their captain, went down with the Peacock; the 
 Hornet lost 1 killed, 4 wounded, and 3 sunk in the prize. 
 
 August. — At this time, the skirmishing on lake Ontario 
 commenced with various success; the Creek and Choctaw 
 Indians, began their depredations with success ; and the Eng- 
 lish blockaded the ports south of the Chesapeake bay, under 
 sir J. B. Warren. September 3 — the U. S. brig Enterprise 
 of 16 gmis, captain Burrows, fell in with, and captured his 
 Britannic majesty's bri^ Boxer, of 18 guns, captain BIythe, 
 after an action of 45 minutes ; the loss of the Enterprise 9 — 
 the Boxer lost 45 ; both captains fell in the action. 
 
 The limits of this work will not permit me to pursue this 
 brilliant scene of naval war, and shew, in detail, the capture 
 of his Britannic Majesty's fri^-ates Cyane and Levant, by the 
 United States frigate Constitution, in a desperate action ; of 
 his Britannic majesty's frigate Penguin, of thirty-two guns, by 
 the United States sloop of war Hornet ; of his Britannic Ma- 
 jesty's bri Epervier, of eighteen guns, by the United States 
 sloop of war Peacock ; of his Britannic Majesty's slo<!p of 
 war Reindeer, by the United States sloop of war Wasp ; or of 
 
^72 PERny's victory, 
 
 his Britannic Majesty's brii^s Lettice and Bon Accord and 
 sir...,, of war Avon, by the Wasp : (he last of tvhicb, sunk im- 
 mediately after the action. 
 
 Triese captures were the result of close action, in sharp 
 and desperate conflicts ; many of these prizes, were stripped 
 of every spar, and several so cut to pieces, as to become ua- 
 manaoeabie, and were burnt at sea; others sunk in the ac- 
 tion, or immediately after. 
 
 The general movements for the reduction of Cana<Ia were 
 now completed ; the fleets on lake Erie, and lake Ontario 
 were now about equal in numbers and force, and prepared 
 for action. The American forces under the command of 
 Gen. Harrison, moved towards Detroit, and an action com- 
 meneed on Lake Erie, between th» American fleet, und» r the 
 co)nm ind of com. Perry, and the Brilisli fleet under the cora- 
 maJid of commodore Barclay, Sept lOth. 
 
 The fleets were equal : commodore Barclay, an old dis- 
 tin;.uighed oflficer, in the school of Nelson, had seen much 
 service ; commodore Perry, a young officer, and without ex- 
 perience. The conflict commenced— the action was jjener- 
 al ad desperate— commodore Perry's ship being disabled he 
 chHnjjed his flag, on board another ship, in an open boat, in 
 the heat of the action, and at once bore down with the' re- 
 mainder of his fleet upon the enemy : both fleets were close 
 enjiaged— the action was short— the carnage was terrible, 
 and the whole British squadron surrendered to com. Perry. 
 Two ships, two mii^s, one sloop, and one schr. were the tro- 
 phies of his victory. 
 
 The British, upon the news of this victory, evacuated De- 
 troit, and retired to Maiden, in Upper Canada. Gen. Harri- 
 son took possession of Detroit, Sept. 28th, and pursued into 
 Canada. The illustrious Perry joined him, and bf^came hu 
 companion in arms. Gen. Harrison gained a victory over 
 gen. Proctor, in Upper Canada, with distiuijuished advantage; 
 and captured and destroyed his whole army, Oct. 5. At the 
 same time, commodore Chauncey took and destroyed seven 
 of the British squadron on lake Outario. 
 
 Nov. 4th. — Overtures for peace arrived from England : at 
 the same time gen. Wilkinson arrived, and took command of 
 the expedition into Cnnada. The operations continued 
 with various success, through the month of December, and 
 both armies took up their winter quarters. 
 Feb. 181^,— Ttie U. Stales frigate President, commodore 
 
CRUISE AND CAPTURE OF THE ESSEX. 273 
 
 Rogers, arrived after a cruise of seventy days. The United 
 States friii^ate Essex, of thirty-two guns, capt. Porter, which 
 had sailed early in the war, on a cruise to South America, 
 took several valuable prizes on the coast of Brazil, doubled 
 Cape Horn, atid cruised with great success on the coast of 
 Chili and Peru ; captured and destroyed the British whale 
 ships in those seas, and repaired to the bay of Valparaiso, on 
 the coast of Chili, to obtain supplies ; here she w iS overtaken 
 and bli'ckaded by a superior British force, consisting of the 
 friijate Phoebe, of thirty-six guns, and the sloop of war Che- 
 rub, of twenty-two guns, and was captured, after an action of 
 two hours and a half. 
 
 At this time gen. Jackson took vengeance on the Creek 
 Indians, for their predatory ravages. July 3 — The opera- 
 tions against Canada were now commenced, with various 
 success. August. — A British squadron entered the Potomac, 
 proceeded up to the city of Washington, landed a body of 
 British troops, took the city, burnt the Capitol, President's 
 house, &,c. and retired, and plundered Alexandria ; from 
 thence they proceeded to Baltimore, and after an unsuccess- 
 ful attack, were compelled to retire. 
 
 Sept. 1 1.— The town of Plattsburg was assaulted by a land 
 force from Lower Candida, under the command of gen. Pre- 
 Tost, and a formidable naval force, under the command of 
 commodore Downie. The harbor of Plattsburg was defend- 
 ed by the American Squadron, under the command of com. 
 Macdonou^h. The merits of this action, so glorious to the 
 American navy, may be seen by the following official report 
 of comm' (lore Macdonough. 
 
 U. S ship Saratoga, off PlcUtsburgh, Sept. 11, 1814. 
 Sir,— The Alaiighty has been pleased to grant us a signal 
 • victory on Lake Champlain, in the capture of one frigate, one 
 brig, and two sloops of war, 
 
 I have the honor to be, very respectfully, 
 
 Sir, your most obedient servant, 
 
 T. MACDONOUGH. 
 Hon. "William Jones, 
 
 Secretary of the Navy. 
 This signal victory, obliged general Prevost to retire with 
 a^ rapid movement ; the American troops pursued, and he 
 returned into Canada. The op; rations on the Imes continued 
 j with various success. The British invaded the city of New- 
 Orleans with a formidable force, with a view to make a con- 
 
274 WAR WITH ALGIERS. 
 
 quest of Louisiana ; but were repulsed in a signal victory 
 under general Jackson, and abandoned the enterprise, Jan. 
 8,1815. On the lltb February, the treaty of peace with 
 Great Britain arrived, and closed the conflict. Al! things re- 
 turned into their former state. Feb. 18, the treaty was rati- 
 fied and peace was established. 
 
 On the 2d of March, 1815, war was declared by the Amer- 
 ican government against Algiers, and a squadron of eleven 
 frigates and armed vessels, was dispatched to the Mediterra- 
 nean, in two divisions, under commodores Bainbridge and 
 D«^catur ; and in four months, all the Barbary powers were 
 united in treaties of peace with the United States ; our own 
 captives, and those of several European states, released, and 
 expressions of submisiion from several of those powers ob- 
 tained, not hitherto contemplated, and such as had never 
 been extorted by any other nation. A jusl tribute to the 
 American flag. 
 
 Relitrion, patriotism and valor, supported by industry and 
 economy, joined to resolution, perseverance and enterprise, 
 marked the character of our fathers : these virtues combined, 
 made the western wilderness blossom like the rose, and this 
 savage desert become vocal with the praises of our God ; led 
 them to resolve, that as the bible was the standard of their re- 
 ligious faith and practice, they would take the bible for the 
 standard o€ their civil government, until they could find a bet- 
 ter. 
 
 Under this standard, they planted a system of religious, 
 civil and literary institutions, the most free, pure and perfect 
 ever before known ; protected by a system of military disci- 
 pline, the most independent in the support of that all-impor- 
 tant military principle, true merit, ever before witnessed ; the 
 whoje, supported by that balance of power in the three de- 
 partments of government, unknown to all former republics ; 
 a balance of power, which originate«l in the Saxon heptarchy 
 in the fifth century — was greatly improved by Alfred the great, 
 in the ninth century — and has been completed in America. 
 
 Upon this inestimable basis, stands the illustrious republic 
 of United America. Ttie success of these systems, stands un- 
 rivalled in the annals of time, and so long as they are preserv- 
 ed in their purity, will continue to stand unrivalled, until they 
 are eclipsed by the glories of the great millennial day. 
 
 All t he literature of the ancients, together with all the ex- 
 tensive improvements of the raoUeros, in the arts and scien- 
 
REMARKS. 275 
 
 ces have flourished in America, and equafled, if not surpass- 
 ed the learning of Europe. The manufactures of America 
 are yet in their infancy ; although her improvements have 
 been flattering, she never can excel, so long as an unbounded 
 forest invites tojdistant enterprise, and promises a rich reward 
 to the hardy sons of labor. 
 
 The agriculture of America has kept pace with her general 
 improvements; her inventive genius shines conspicuous; and 
 her enterprise on the ocean, has rendered her the second 
 commercial nation in the world. Her naval j^lory stands un- 
 rivalled, tmd the late war with England has evinced to the 
 world, that America has stripped the laurel from the brow of 
 the mistress of the seas. 
 
 The most distinguished features in the American charac- 
 ter, are displayed in that unshaken virtue, which formed her 
 national republican compact : a compact, which has so bal- 
 anced the independent sovereignties of the several states, as 
 to give the most flattering assurances, that states may be mul- 
 tiplied to any extent, even to overspread the whole northern 
 continent, and yet our free elective government be support- 
 ed, and the free independent republics preserved. 
 
 Let every American cherish the religion and virtues of our 
 forefathers ; cultivate and preserve their habits, manners and 
 
 ! customs, together with their wise and virtuous institutions ; 
 remembering, that these are the basis of all our boasted ac- 
 quirements and enjoyments : that when we abandon these, 
 we abandon the God of our fathers, the vine which he has 
 
 i planted, and desert the standard of the church in the wildep- 
 
 I ness. We may then take up our lamentation, with an eter- 
 nal adieu to all our greatness, to all our peace, to all our 
 boasted enjoyments. We shall then add one more example 
 to the many already gone before us, that republican liberty 
 without virtue, is dead. We shall theo have a master, and 
 
 ; that master must be a despot. 
 
SKETCHES OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 CHAP. L 
 
 Causes that led to the French Revolution ; cau^s that led to 
 the great events which controlled it ; northern confederation 
 against Sweden ; the rise of Peter I. ; rise oj Charles XII. ; 
 character of Sweden, Russia, Denmark, and Poland — inva- 
 sion of Denmark, and peace — siege of Narva ; battle of 
 Narva ; battle of the Dwina ; intrigues of Charles XII. in 
 Poland ; character of the Polish nation and government ; 
 intngues of the Archbishop of Gnesna — distracted state of 
 Poland. 
 
 That brit^ht luminary of the wesf, the reformation, which 
 the immortal Lulher ha<l kindh^d in 1517, and which had now 
 illuminated, in some degree, all the states of Europe, amidst 
 the bloody and cruel persecutions of the popes and the crea- 
 tures of the papal church : ant! enjoyed the protecting power 
 of Henry VHl. of England, Henry the IVth. of France, and 
 queen Elizabeth of Eniiland ; had triumphed over the vindic- 
 tive malice of Philip the U. of Spain, and the overhearing; 
 hauteur, and exterminating persecution of Lewis XIV. of 
 France ; had taken to herself the wings of a great eagle, and 
 fled into the wilderness, where she continues to be nourished 
 and supported by the power of the miuhty God of Lutlier ; 
 was now destined to witness new and sanguinary scenes, to 
 endure new and sanguinary suflPerings, and experience the tri- 
 umphs of her enemies. 
 
 Enemies, more fatal to the church than the whole catalogue 
 of two hundred and sixty popes, and more vindictive against 
 the reformation, than the thirty-eiiiht papal despots, who 
 have flourished since the days of Luther. — Enemies, who 
 have combined all the violent subtlety of the disciples of Ig- 
 
INFIDELITY. 27T 
 
 natiiis Loyola, (that saint of Gregory XV.) with all the areh 
 malice and venom of the school of modern philos <phers, atid 
 wrio have attacked her with the whole host of infidelity, un- 
 der tLe masked assault of reason, philosophy, and illiimina- 
 tism ; have arm^d a ureal nation by a desperate and destruc- 
 tive revolution, to rifle her temples, violate her altars, pillage 
 and butcher her friends, and by one solemn national decree, 
 announce " that there was no God, and that death was an 
 eternal sleep." 
 
 The reiiuhr and progressive order of things in Europe, 
 which paved the way to this eventful crisis, together with the 
 irif'ans which at the same time were rejiularly progressing to 
 control it, claim some particular notice. 
 
 The great conflicts which sprang up in the south of Eu- 
 rope, at the commencement t)f the eii^hteeuth century, and 
 wtiich drenched the south in blood, by the lust of dominion, 
 pride, subtlety, intrigue, luxury and corruption, paved the 
 way for the gratification of that black catalogue of passions 
 which flow from the total depravity of the human heart, and 
 under the mask of science and refinement, opened the thea- 
 tre of a twenty years war, and threatened the extermiuatioa 
 of the very name of religion. 
 
 Tbe first syrnptom of this sanguinary scene appeared, when 
 Lewis XV. interfered in the quarrel of the Jaus^enists, and 
 Jesuits, the violence of the parliament shewed that the poi- 
 son had begun to work, and the attempt on the life of the 
 kinj;, was a specimen of the same subtle and vindictive mal- 
 ice that destroyed Henry IV. and rendered the abolition of 
 the order of Jesuits, absolutely necessary. 
 
 This demon of subtlety and discord then assumed a new 
 form, and continued to work with the same means, under a 
 new name, until it arain drenched the world in blood, and 
 was constrained to lan^^uish under the rod which its own vio- 
 lence and excesses had raised up, to check and contn:! jt. 
 When and how God had prepared this rod of correction, 
 clams our next attention. 
 
 In detailing the great events of Europe in succession, jve 
 noticed tUe mighty conflict in the north, which sprang up in 
 the reign of Lewis XIV. of France, between Russia, Poland 
 and Denmark, leagued against Sweden, passed over the ope- 
 rations and events of this war, and left them for this place, as 
 bein^ mare immediately connected with the great subject of 
 this part of our work. 
 
 24 
 
278 PETER i. 
 
 The Ion ^ and distressing reigns of Lewis XIV. and XV. 
 had kindled a fire of ambition in the breast of man, which 
 had jiiven a polish to his manners, a brilhancy to the arts, and 
 a lustre to his arms, which far surpassed former ages, and 
 which the states of the north had not acquired. 
 
 That God, who renders his means always adequate to his 
 ends, had now raised up a bright constellation in the north, 
 which should enable their dignity and improvements to vie 
 with the south. The two champions of this northern con- 
 stellation, were Peter 1. of Russia, and Charles Xll. of Swe- 
 den. 
 
 In 1696, Peter had rendered his arras illustrious, in his war 
 with the Turks, particularly in the acquisition of Asoph, and 
 the dominion of the Black Sea. Flushed with the acquisi- 
 Tmns of this war, he resolved to make Russia the centre of 
 trade for all that northern world — to this end he contemplated 
 a city upon the Baltic, and a chain of water comumuication, 
 from thence to the Black Sea, to the Caspian Sea, to Arch- 
 angel on the North Sea, and to China. 
 
 To accomplish these great objects, he sent three ambassa- 
 dors into the south of Europe, to the courts of England, 
 France and Holland, and followed in their train as a private 
 gentleman. He passed into Holland ; there he entered the 
 dock yards, and served as a common laborer to learn the 
 art of ship building : he passed over into England, where he 
 was courteously received, and returned into Russia, carrying 
 with liim some carpenters from the dock-yards of En^^^land 
 and Holland, and was master builder for the first ship built in 
 Russia. 
 
 In his travels, he studied the arts and sciences generally ; 
 he studied men, manners and things, with a view of laying 
 the foundation of the future greatness of his country. 
 
 The peace of Carlowilz closed the war with the Turks, 
 and guaranteed to Peter the conquests upon the Black sea. 
 Fired with the successes of this war, his mind aspired to lie 
 dominion of the Baltic, to accomplish the whole extent of 
 his ambitious plans. To this end, he entered into an alliance 
 with the king of Denmark, then Frederic II and with the 
 king of Poland, then Augustus, elector of Saxony, to seize 
 on the dominions of Charles XII the yountj king of Sweden. 
 By this blow, Peter hoped to open a way to the ocean, 
 through the sovereignty of the Baltic, and establish the un- 
 controuled commerce of his new capital. All this was mask- 
 
GUSTAVUS VASA. 279 
 
 ed, under the pretext of recovering the territory of his ances> 
 iors, particularly the provinces of Ingria and Livonia. 
 
 The dominions of Peter, at this time, embraced the whole 
 north-eastern section of the continent of Europe, together 
 with the whole northern section of Asia, extending from the 
 shores of the Baltic on the west, to the ocean on the north, 
 and the Pacific ocean on the east ; the most extensive, and 
 the most barbarous empire on the earth, and now under the 
 sovereign dominion of one of the greatest, and most ambi- 
 tious monarchs in the world. 
 
 Sweden, which was the Scandinavia of the ancients, (or 
 Gothland,) from whence issued th"e northern swarms of those 
 tribes which overwhelmed the western Roman empire, had 
 been distinguished for its heroes, and the love of liberty, un- 
 til it fell under the dominion of Denmark, in the reign of Mnr- 
 garet, 1492, and the distresses which ensued upon the divis- 
 ion and intrigues of Christern, king of Denmark, and Upsa!, 
 archbishop and primate of the kingdom, (a creature of the 
 pope.) 
 
 These oppressions, roused up the nation to a sense of their 
 Wrongs : when Gustavus Vasa, a prince from the ancient 
 kings of Sweden, who had been ilriven into obscurity b} the 
 revolutions of his sutfering country, and in the character of a 
 peasant, had been immured in the mines of Sweden, burst 
 fr»m his long concealment ; disclosed his character to his 
 eountrymen ; put himself at their head ; with his sword took 
 vengeance on his enemies, and restored the liberty of his 
 country. Gustavus took vengeance on the creatures of the 
 pope ; exterminated the papal religion, and established the 
 reformation of Luther, which continues to be the religion of 
 Sweden. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, his son and successor, styled the great, 
 protected the reformation in the heart of Germany, humbled 
 the house of Austria, and made the pope tremble upon his 
 throne, in the midst of his triumphs, he crowned the battle 
 of Lutzen with his illustrious death, and was succeeded by 
 Christiana, who did nothing more than evince to the world, 
 that she was unworthy of the crown of Sweden, appoint her 
 successor, and resign her crown to Charles Gustavus. 
 
 He, like his ancestor Gustavus Adolphus, was illustrious in 
 arms, and died young, in the midst of successful enterprise, 
 and left hi? crown to Charles XI. who also was distinguished 
 in arms, died early, and left his crown to the immortal 
 Charles XIL 
 
^0 ' CHARLES XII. 
 
 Charles succeeded to the throne of this illustrious Hdb of 
 ancestors, at fifteen years of age, in the year 1699, the same 
 year that Peter the I. returned from his travels, and formed 
 the desifiin of dismemberiiitr his kingdom. The heroes of 
 this distinguished dynasty, had trained the hardy Swedes to 
 war ; and their spirit of liberty, joined to the principles of the 
 peformalion, had rendered their victorious arms illustrious on 
 the fields of Germany, and inspired their neighbors with a 
 high sense of their valor. 
 
 Auiiustus, king of Poland, at this time, was seated upon a 
 Ihrone, rentlered splendid by the high polish of his own per- 
 sonal elegance, address and manners ; his kingdom was un- 
 der the full power of the feudal system. Augustus was but 
 thf shadow of a king, the nobility held (he power. 
 
 Denmark was governed at this time, by Frederic If. in 
 possession of Norway, and claiminL' ine sovereignty of one 
 half of Sweden ; possessing the spirit of those ancestors, 
 whose depredations we have so often ivr'nfssed in England 
 and France, and who was now leagued with Peter and Aujj us- 
 tus. lo dismember the kintj;dom of Sweden, during the early 
 agt^ of the young king, Charles XII. H' began the war by 
 invading the duchy of Holstein, then owned jointly by the 
 duke ,?f Hnlstein, and his brother in-law Charles X?I. — 1700. 
 
 Upon Ihe first tidings of the war, the senate of Sweden 
 were assembled, and the young king appeared in the midst of 
 his council. During the all-important deliberations, all eyes 
 were fixed on him ; he was cool, thoughtful, and silent. 
 When impatience was ready to distract the council, he ex- 
 claimed, •' I will never begin an unjust war, nor end a just 
 oiif, but with tlie destruction of my enemies" — immediately 
 made the necessary arrangements, embarked his troops at 
 Carlescroon, on board his fleet, set sail for Copenhagen, land- 
 ed on the island of Zealand, and invested the city. 
 
 Upon the landing of the troops, Charles was the first on 
 shore ; and whtn he heard the whistling of the bullets from 
 the Danes, who opposed his landing, he said to an officer who 
 was near, *' what noise is that in the air ?" upon being an- 
 swered, it is the whistling of bullets, he replied, *' evermore 
 let this be my music." 
 
 A deputation immediately attended the king from Copen- 
 fajtij n. beseeching him not to bombard their city — Charles, 
 on h<jrsrback at the head of his troop«, received them on 
 their knees, and upon a promise to pay four thousand rix dol- 
 
PEACE OF DENMARK. 281 
 
 lars, he granted their request, concluded a treaty, and in six 
 weeks, Denmark was severed from the confederacy by an 
 honorable peace, and the duke of Holstein indemnitied for 
 ail his losses and expenses in (he war. 
 
 During these operations, Peter I he Czar, with the allies, en- 
 tered the provinces of Livonia and Ingra ; Peter laid sie2:e to 
 Narva, with eighty thousand men, and Au^iustus laid s'lexe to 
 Riga. Charles advanced to the relief of Narva, crossed the 
 gulf of Riga, with tifteen thousand foot, and four thousand 
 horse, and landed in Livonia. The Czar had opened iis 
 trenches in October, before Narva, with one hundred and fifty 
 pieces of cannon, and eighty thousand men, with a reserve of 
 thirty thousand, then on their march to join him at Narva. 
 
 The character of the Swedes had been formed, under the 
 succession of heroes who iuid tilled the Swedish throne, but 
 the character of (he Russians was yet to be formed. This 
 army of the Czar, was rather an assembled muitiiude, tl.an 
 a regular army ; composed of the peasantry of Russia, in a 
 rude, savage, undisciplined state, many of them clad in the 
 skins of wild beasts, armed with war clubs, and bnvs and ar- 
 rows, few of them had tire arms, and commanded by their 
 chiefs, as unaccustomed to discipline as their soldiers. 
 
 The Czar had given the command of this army to a Ger- 
 man general, the duke De Croix, on whose experience and 
 abilities he had great confidence ; and held, himself, the sta- 
 tion of a lieutenant, for the double purpose of learning the 
 military art, as he had learnt the ship carpenter's art, through 
 the regular grades of service — and to set the example of sub- 
 ordination and discipline to the chiefs in his service, who had 
 bef'n accustomed to absolute sway, over their untutored 
 slaves. 
 
 The Czar had posted 30,000 of this besieging army in ad- 
 Tance from Narva, one league ; and 20,000 more in advance 
 of the former, in order to intercept the approach of Charles, 
 to the relief of Narva ; and 5,000 more, as an advance guard ; 
 and had gone himself to hasten the march of an army ot 
 40,000 men, then on their way to join his army before Narva. 
 
 C >arles resolved to attack the Czar in his camp, put him- 
 self at the head of 4,000 horse, and 4,000 light troops, and 
 made a rapid movement to the relief of Narva. 
 
 Upon the approach of the king of Sweden, the advanced 
 guanl of the Russians, consistinsi of 5.000 men, fl.;! ; tho rout, 
 terror, and disorder of their fliiiht, with the Swedes close at 
 
 24* 
 
2f*^ BATTLE OP NARVA. 
 
 Uieir hf-els. threw thf 20,000 in Ibeir way, into (be 9am« ilis- 
 or^Ur; they in tht^ir fli::ht, spread terror and ron^hrit 'ion 
 thr uirhout Ihe camp. T k ^^r p r')fi< r!s had i:iven \<iy lit- 
 th s neck to the advance of th»^ kuh. « ? Bweden : he now np- 
 peared before the Russian camp, well iMlrtiM-hed. and deft nd- 
 ed by one hundred and tifty pieces of cannon. Charles, re- 
 solved to avail himself of the general panic, advanced to the 
 attack ; the Russians made a tirm resistance ; the Swedes, 
 having made a breach with their cannon in their intrench- 
 inents, atlvanced to the chartje with tixed bayonets, favored 
 by a i'dent snow storm, and overthrew all in their way. A 
 terrible carnase ensued ; the Russians fled on all sides, and 
 abandoned their camp, artillery and basgat^e : the rout and 
 consternation became general: Charleg, with his little troop, 
 pursued to the river— the riuht wing in attempting to cross, 
 broke down Ihe bridy:e, and met with another overthrow ia 
 th» river ; the left wing returned to their camp, where, after » 
 slivini defence, they all laid down their arms to the kin^: of 
 Sweden, who received their submission with great civility. 
 
 Charhs detained only the general officers, and dismissed 
 the reroainder in the most courteous manner, suppi ed them 
 with boats to cross the river, and they returned into Russia. 
 Ei: hieen thousand Russians had fallen in their intrenchments, 
 besides those that had fallen in their flight, and were drowned 
 in the river : the Swedes lost bui six hundred. 
 
 This almost unexampled overthrow, saved Russia : it 
 taui^ht Peter, thai numbers, without discipline, would rather 
 ruin, than save his country ; and he profited by the Ies9«»ii. 
 It inspired Charles with too much confidence in his owe 
 strength, and too much contempt for bis enemies ; these two 
 evils ruined his cause. 
 
 Charles, wrapped up in his cloak, threw himself upon the 
 ground, (then covered with snow,) and gave himself a fe\Y 
 iiorirs repose. At break of day. he prepared to attack a body 
 (of 30,000 Russians, not yet subdued, when he received from 
 their general, overtures of submission, with a request, that the 
 king would grant them the same favor he had granted to Jhe 
 other captives : he sent his assurances, and the 30,000 laid 
 down their arms, and the king received their submission with 
 their heads uncovered, at the head of less than 7,000 Swedes, 
 sent them all free, back into their own country, and entered 
 Narva in triumph. H< r* he treated the general of!i<*ers of 
 the Rusi^ians, who were dclained as prisoner*, with jjreal lib- 
 
PASSAGE OP THE DWINA. 
 
 283 
 
 eralUv ; restore*^ their swords, supplied them with money, 
 an ' ^- inducted with great modesty. 
 
 This overthrow, caused Augustus to raise the siege of Ri- 
 ga. The Czar received the news of the destruction of liis 
 ar.ny before Nnrva, when advaucin*r hy forced marches, with 
 40 000 men, to intercept the retreat of the kinir of Sweden, 
 anri in hiiih expectations of enclosing: him between the (wo 
 armies, and thus sealing his ruin : he abandoned his enter- 
 prise, returned to Moscow, and devoted himself to the disci- 
 pline of his army. 
 
 Upon the r»^quest of Augustus, they soon had an interview 
 at Birsen, in Lithuania, to concert measures of genpral defence 
 and safety ; andjrave themselves up to dissipatitmti teen days. 
 
 Charles passed the winter at Narva, and upon the opening 
 of spring, appeared in Lithuania. The Saxons had taken the 
 field under Mareschal Stenau, and Ferdinand, duke of Ctiur- 
 land, and opposed his passage of the river Dwina. 
 
 Charles assembled his boats, and embarked his troops with 
 a favordble wind ; at the same time he let oflfa great number 
 of boats, filled with burning hay, straw, &cc. ; this smoke 
 blew over upon the enemy, and concealed the movements of 
 the king. He passed in good order, and, as at Copenhagen, 
 Jeapt into the water at the head of his troops, landed his can- 
 non, and formed his army on shore, before the smoke was 
 sufficiently cleared away to give the Saxons opportunity to 
 make resistance. 
 
 Mareschal Stenau, as soon as the air was cleared, lost not 
 a moment ; he fell upon the Swedes with the flower of his 
 cavalry : the shock was violent ; the Swedes were broken, 
 and fled into the river ; Charles, with great composure, re- 
 covered the shock, rallied his troops in the water, advanced 
 to the charge and recovered the plain. 
 
 An action commenced — the Saxons fought with great 
 bravery, and the duke of Courland thrice penetrated into i\^e 
 king's guards, had two horses killed under him, was repuls- 
 ed, wounded, and carried off the field. The Saxons fled, 
 and the king advanced to Mittau, the capital of Courland ; 
 here he received the submission of the whole duchy. 
 
 He next marched into Lithuania, and formed the plan of 
 deposing Augustus, king of Poland, through the intriiiues of 
 his own subjects. The operations and success of this in- 
 trigue, will give the best illustration of the strength and genius 
 of the feudal government of Poland. 
 
i84 GOVERNMENT OF POLAND, 
 
 Thl8kin2;dom is lander than France, wfttered with large 
 an<! fine rivers, and possessing a rich and fertile soil ; bul the 
 natives are indolptit, the nobility rich, and the peasantry 
 slaves. The population of Poland was at that time p.reat€r 
 than that of Sweden, but the character of the nation, and en- 
 ergies of the oovernmenr tery dilferent, and far inferior. 
 
 The constitution of Poland was purely gothic. Every 
 gentleman may vote for the choice of a kin?, and even be 
 chosen himself; this general liberty of suffrage and election, 
 exposes the crown always to the highest bidder. The nobil- 
 ity and clergy are independent of the crown ; but the peas- 
 antry are bouisht and sold like cattle upon the estates, and, 
 even their lives are at the disposal of their lords. 
 
 In the midst of this wretchedness, the Polanders are proud 
 of their liberty, and of their republic ; and ulory in the title 
 of ^'lectors of kings, and destroyers of tyrants. The very 
 seeds of discord, riot and rebellion, are sown in the constitu- 
 tion of P.ilarid ; and at the coronation of the king, he absolves 
 his subjects from their allegiance, upon his infringing the cou- 
 stitution and the laws. 
 
 All offices are at the disposal of the crown, and nothing is 
 hereditary, but the estates of the nobility ; yet the balance of 
 power is on the side of the people. The kins cannot remove 
 an office he has once conferred, but the people can depose 
 the king, if he violates one law of the republic. 
 
 Two great parties, are ever the standinir monuments of fac- 
 tion in this government — the one in office, and the other in 
 caballing to obtain promotion. The same bitterness and 
 jealousy that prevails against each other, involves the king; 
 both jeal'.us of their power, hold themselves as the guardians 
 of their liberties. 
 
 The diets, or states general, regulate all the affairs of the 
 republic. Tliese are composed of the clergy, nobility, and 
 gentry, which form an elective body, over which the arch- 
 bishop of Gnesna, as primate of the republic, presides ; and 
 in case of an interregnum, he becomes viceroy. 
 
 This council meet alternately in Poland and Lithuania, and 
 sit armed in council, after the manner of their forefathers — • 
 and every gentleman of this body has a negative upon the 
 sejiate, and by his sincle protest or vote, can stop the unani- 
 mous resolves of all the others : and if lie then quits the ciiy 
 or town where the diet sits, he dissolves the assembly. 
 
 These seeds of rebellion often break out into open vio- 
 
©OVEHNMENT OF POLAND. 185 
 
 ience; the diets break up, and the parties hold separate diets, 
 under the sanctity of the king's name, and often without, or 
 against his knowledge aed consent, as the parliament of Eng- 
 land did, in the reign of Charles I. : custom, not law, aanc* 
 tions these cabals. 
 
 In this feudal government, the nobility constitute the mili- 
 tary strength of the nation ; the peasantry are not trusted 
 with arms : and to secure their own power against the 
 crown, they do not build forts, or castles of strength them- 
 selves, nor suffer the king. These armies, like the old feu- 
 dal service in the south of Europe, are assembled on sud- 
 den emergencies, keep the field but a short time for the want 
 of discipline and regular supplies, and often disband in dis- 
 gust. 
 
 In addition to this force, a regular guard is provided for 
 the kingdom, consisting of two parts, under two generals, in- 
 dep^^ndent of each other. The first, in Poland, to consist of 
 30 000 men, and the other in Lithuania, of 12,600 men.— < 
 Tiiese generals are appointed by the king, but are amenable 
 only to the republic. It is the duty of the state to support 
 Wiis force ; but upon their neglect, each officer is bouud to 
 support his separate corps under his command ; which he 
 does by depredations upon the peasantry. 
 
 Such was the civil and military strength of Poland, when 
 Charles XII. appeared upon their borders. In adilition to 
 this imbecile state of Poland, a civil war raged in Lithuania, 
 between two rival families of the nobles. Charles, by throw- 
 ing his weight into the scale of the one, destroyed the resist- 
 ance of the other, and secured Lithuania. 
 
 His next object v/as to dethrone Augustus in the same 
 way. T:ie king had rendered himself unpopular, by intro- 
 ducin^i Saxon troops into Poland, when he laid siege to Ri- 
 ga ; this jealousy weakened his dependence upon the army, 
 then only about 13.000 strong, and rendered the situriti in of 
 the king very critical ynd alarming : his only alternative was, 
 to assemble a diet. This council, when assembled, were uot 
 so much prepared to grdot him relief, as to scrcitinize bis 
 measures ; and it soon appeared, that Charles XII. had the 
 strongest party in the diet. 
 
 Ai the head of the party of Charles, stood the archbishop 
 of Gnesna, primate of the kijigdom. and president of the 
 council. Thi^ 4rariil diifnitary. being well versed in rhe in- 
 trigues of Poland, fired with resentment for some former dis» 
 
286 INTRIGUES OF CHARLES XII. 
 
 appointments, began to open the way for the great revolution 
 of Poland 
 
 He issued circular letters, disclosing the weakness and 
 cabals of the diet, and exhorting to national union ; at the 
 same time, he despatched an address to the king of Sweden, 
 conjuring him to give peace to Poland and her king. A ne- 
 gociation soon ensued between the minister of Charles, and 
 the prelate ; and the intrigues at the prelate's house, regula- 
 ted the movements of the diet. Charles seconded these 
 measures whilst he lay with his army in Lithuania, by pub- 
 licly declaring, that he did not make war against the Poles, 
 but only against Augustus and his Saxons ; that the great ob- 
 ject of his visit was, to restore (he liberty of Poland. 
 
 At this time, Peter sent 20,000 Russians into Lithuania, to 
 support the cause of Augustus, agreeable to treaty. These, 
 by their ravages, distressed the Lithuanians, rendered the 
 cause of Augustus still more unpopular, and served for em- 
 ployment to the Swedes, to harass, and drive them back in- 
 to Russia. 
 
 CHAP. IL 5 
 
 Augustus attempts a secret peace with Charles XIL^batile of ^ 
 Cracow — battle of the Bog — war in Polish Prussia — in- 
 trigues of the Primate — Augustus deposed — Stanislaus Lee- 
 
 zinski elected king — capture of Leopold — coronation oj I 
 
 Stanislaus. ■ 
 
 In this critical and alarming state of Poland, the diet broke 
 
 up, Feb. 1702 ; but the senate continuecl at Warsaw, making \ 
 
 proviiiional laws and regulations for the safety of the king- ; 
 
 d<^m ; a practice, sanctioned by custom, not by law. They ■ 
 decrn-d an embassy to the king of Sweden, the assembling 
 
 the Dobles in defence of the state, ant! attempted at the same | 
 
 time, to diminish the power of the king. This attack upon ^ 
 
 the f-rovvn, decidi d the fate of Poland. ' 
 
 Angustuii resolved to make a secret peace with Charles 
 
 Xn. To etfect this, he enjiasied in his interest the countess I 
 
 of Conigsmark, (a Swedish lady, to whom he was attached,) 1 
 
 obtained her con.^ent to negociate for him with the kini'^of ] 
 
 Sweden, under cover of her payin:.^ her respect^; to that sove- • 
 
 reign, in whose dominions she had resided, upon one of her i 
 
 estates. : 
 
INTRIGUES OF CHARLES XII, 237 
 
 The countess was the handsomest, and most accomplish- 
 ed woman of the a2;e, (and, h-t me say, mother of tlie great 
 mareschal Saxe, who became so iiiustrious in the rei§;n of 
 Lewis XV. king of France.) She repaired to the camp of 
 the king of Sweden, and ^rained access to his minister, but 
 not to (he kinji; ; he cautiously avoided her. 
 
 Resolved to accomplish her purpose, the countess met the 
 kinij in a narrow pass, stepped from her coach, and threw 
 herself in his way. He coolly turned ab'»ut his horse, and 
 returned to his (ent, choosing to evince to the world, that he 
 preferred beinii vanquished, rather than being subdued by a 
 woman. The countess returned to Augustus. 
 
 At this time, the resolve of the senate had reached Au- 
 gustus ; he to«»k advantage of il, and despatched his own 
 minister to negociate the treaty. Him Charles imprisoned, 
 and then marched to Grorio. The deputation from the sen- 
 ate, next waited upon Charles ; these he received with grtnt 
 coolness and dignity. T'le conference was guarded, and 
 nothinii concluded. Charles then seized thn critical moment, 
 assured them that he would settle their affairs at Warsnv, 
 took up his march, and entered that city the fifth of May. 
 1702. 
 
 This movement overawed the nation, and left the king as 
 a fugitive, without strength, without troops, and without re- 
 sources : these he attempted to supply from Saxony ; but 
 these troops only increased the general jealousy and alarm. 
 
 At this critical moment, the cardinal primate repaired to 
 the kini£ of Sweden, where he held a long conference with 
 the king, standing, which the king closed by announcing, "I 
 will never give the Polea peace, until t^xey have elected a 
 new king :" this, the cardinal caused to be published through- 
 out Poland. 
 
 The crisis had now arrived ; Auiiustjs had assembled his 
 Saxons, and gone in quest of Charies, then advancing to Cra- 
 cow with an army of 12.000 men. Augustus m( t him upon 
 a spacious plain with 24.000 men ; the action com neuced 
 by a discharge of artillery, and the young duke of Holsteia 
 fell at the head of the Swedish cavalry. 
 
 Struck with the loss of this brave oi!icer, and fired with 
 ardor and rage, Charles rushed at the head of his guards, in- 
 to the heat of the action ; the contest was bravely supported ; 
 the prize was the crown of Poland. Tue Saxons were bro- 
 ken—retired, and rallied to the charge again and again, until 
 
288 INTRIGUES OF CHARLES XII. 
 
 overpowered by the resistless impetuosity of the Swedes, 
 they fled in disorder, leavinja: their camp, artillery and bag^atre 
 io the hands of the victors. Charles passed these withoCrno- 
 tice pursued the vanquished to Cracow, and would have en- 
 tered, the city commixed with the fugitives, if the gates had 
 Dot been closed upon him : these were instantly forced, and 
 Charles entered in triumph ; not a ii:un was fired ; the sol- 
 diers fl« d to the castle ; Charles entered the casfle, commix- 
 ed with the fugitives, and the city was reduced without a 
 gun. 
 
 Charles immediately left the city, to pursue Augustus in 
 his flight, determined to strike the finishing blow. In the 
 midst of his zeal, his career was arresied by a fall from his 
 horse, which broke his thigh. This confined him ai Crac(»w 
 six weeks, and gave Augustus time to recover in some meas- 
 ure his defeat. He caused it to be published extensively, 
 that Charles XII. was dead, by the fall. This was generally 
 believed, and involved the Poles in a new diUmma. Augus- 
 tus seized the favorable moment, and assembled a dier, first 
 at Marienburg, and next at Lublin : the representation was 
 full, and the car<linal primate was present. 
 
 The misfortunes of tlie king, had learnt him to become 
 more afl'able and conciliatory, and his sufferings had soCten^'d 
 the passions of the diet ; a general harmony prevailed, and 
 Augustus received a new oath of allegiance from the diet, 
 the purport of which was, " that they never had, and never 
 Would attempt any thing prejudicial to the cause of Augus- 
 t> s ;" and the diet resolved to maintain an army of 50,000 
 men, for the protection of the crown. 
 
 Charles was now well ; he summoned a new diet at War- 
 saw, by the intriiiues of the primate, set this diet to counter- 
 act the late diet of Auiiustus, by their disputes and decrees ; 
 and havinu recei\ ed 6000 fool and 8000 horse fiom Sweden, 
 he went in qtiest of general Stenau, at the head of the Sax- 
 ons. May, 1703— he came up with him behind the ri»er 
 Bog, near the confines of Prussia. Charles plunged his horse 
 into the river, at the head of his cavalry ; the resistance was 
 slight, the Saxons fled, the king pursued, and their army was 
 dispersed. 
 
 Auyuslusfled to Thorn, in Polish Prussia; Charles pur- 
 sued, and laid siege to Thorn. To reduce this strong city, it 
 became necessary to receive cannon, men and supplies from 
 Sweden ; these in their way, met wim some delay in passing 
 
INTRIGUES OF CHARLES XII, 289 
 
 by Dantzic, another free city of Polish Prussia, at the mouth 
 of the Vistula ; this slight offence cost them 100,000 crowns. 
 Upon the reductioD.of Thorn, at the expiration of one 
 month, Charles rewarded the g;overnor for his bravery, but 
 exacted a contribution of 40,000 crowns. Upon a sliuht of- 
 fence from the city of Elbing^, Charles exacted at the point 
 of the bayonet, a contribution of 260,000 crowns. All this 
 secured the overthrow of Augustus. 
 
 During these operations of Charles, the cardinal primate 
 repaired to Warsavv, attended by a retinue of soldiers from 
 his own estates ; he threw off the mask, and published in the 
 Dame of the assembly, " that Augustus, elector of Sax(»ny, 
 was incapable of wearing; tlie crown of Poland ;" and all the 
 assembly pronounced the throne vacant. 
 
 The cardinal now flattered himself that he had accomplish- 
 ed his purpose, and restored the crown to the family of John 
 Sobieski, in the person of his son James ; who was waiting 
 with impatience at Breslaw for the issue. 
 
 Aug:ustus, alive to the views of the primate, sent a party of 
 horse, surprised Jam^s Sobieski, on a iiunting party with his 
 brother, conveyed them into Saxony, and Imprisoned them 
 at Leipsic. The same disaster awaited Augustus. Genera! 
 Reiischild surprised him at a table with his friends, near Cra- 
 cow — Au'^U!*tus tied — Renchild pursued — ^the fli^iht continu- 
 ed four days, almost in close view ; but Ausjustus escaped-^ 
 and the king: of Sweden was victorious in Poland. 
 
 Charles, next offered the crown of Poland to Alexander, a 
 
 third son of John Sobieski. Alexander refused, allejiing, 
 
 " that nothing should induce him to make advantage of his 
 
 brother's 9:)isfortunes." Charles, agreeable to the views of 
 
 bis minister, offered the crown to his favorite, Stanislaus Lec- 
 
 zinski. He in his turn refused it. 
 
 I Charles sent a message to the assembly at Warsaw, " that 
 
 j they must elect a king of Poland in five days, and that Stan- 
 
 I islaus must be the man." The cardinal pri?r)ate u^ecl all his 
 
 I intluence to defeat the election, b»t without effect ; he with- 
 
 I drew from the council, and Stanislaus was elected, and pro- 
 
 I claimed kin jt, amidst the acclamations of the diet, July 12, 
 
 I 1705. Charles repaired (incog) to Warsaw, and witnessed 
 
 the scene. 
 
 Charles compelled the cardinal, with all the absentees and 
 opposers, to appearand do liomage to the new kiny, and at- 
 teod him to the quarters of the king of Sweden : who paid to 
 
 25 
 
290 KEVQLUTION OF POLAND. 
 
 Stanislaus all the honors due to the king of Poland, and sup- 
 plied him with troops and money, to secure his power ; took 
 up his march to finish the conquest of Poland, and laid siege 
 to Leopold. 
 
 This strong; town was carried by assault, after a siege of 
 one day, and yiehled an immense treasure to Charles. Stan- 
 islaus remained at Warsaw with the cardinal primate, the 
 bishop of Posnania, and some grandees of Poland, who com- 
 posed his court, to arrange the affairs of his kingdom, with a 
 guardof about 6000 men. 
 
 Augustus, apprised of the situation of Charles, and the fail 
 of Leopold, collected a force of about 20,000 men, mostly 
 Scixons, and by a rapid movement, fell upon Warsaw by sur- 
 prise. The city was unfortified, and defenceless, a>{ainst such 
 a force. Stanislaus fled, his family and his friends scattered, 
 and thus made their escape ; his youngest daughter was con- 
 cealed, and afterwards found in a manjrer, (a humble station 
 for her who was destined to become queen of France.) 
 
 Augustus withdrew from Warsaw with his forces, commit- 
 ted the command to count Scullemburg, left the country to 
 the ravages of the two kini^s, retired into Saxony, and forti- 
 fied his capital. Scullemburg had the adroitness to elude the 
 pursuit of the king of Sweden, and get ofif his army in jiood or- 
 der, thus leaving Stanislaus in quiet possession of his crown. 
 
 The pope threatened all the ecclesiastics of Poland, with 
 the thunders of his power, if they attempted to assist at the 
 coronation of Stanislaus, or to take any measures contrary to 
 the interests of Augustus. 
 
 Charles set his thunders at defiance, and witnessed (incog) 
 the magnificent coronation of Stanislaus and his queen at 
 Warsaw, October 4, 1705, by the hands of the archbishop of 
 Leopold, together with several other prelates; and the crown, 
 placed upon Stanislaus, was so far placed upon the object of 
 the labors of Charles. 
 
 CHAP. HI. 
 
 Reduction of Narva, by Peter I. — Peter commences the city of 
 Petersfmr^ — Charles XI I. enters Saxony — peace rvith >u- 
 gustus — Distresses of Poland — Charles XII. commences his 
 march into Russia — Battle of the Berezina. 
 
 During these operations in Poland, the Czar of Russia was 
 
PETERSBURG, 292 
 
 not idle ; he had learnt in his travels in Holland, how the 
 Dutch recovered their country from the sea, by their unre- 
 mitted efforts, and caused the finest, and most commercial 
 cities in Europe, to rise up in the midst of the waters, and 
 stand firm upon the softest mud. 
 
 Peter was now engaged in rescuing from the Baltic, a scite 
 for his new city of Petersburg. To accomplish this, it be- 
 came necessary for him to obtain possession of Narva, lying 
 in the neighborhood of his object. He laid siege again to 
 jN^arva, and carried it by assault, August, 1703, after a regular 
 siege : here he was constrained to draw his sword against his 
 own soldiers, to check their cruel licentiousness towards the 
 inhabitants, after their surrender. 
 
 Upon the fall of Narva, he drew the plan, and laid the 
 foundation of (he city of Petersburg, which, for its com- 
 merce, wealth, regularity and beauty, has become the admi- 
 ration of Europe. To effect this, he bad the same obstacles 
 to overcome, that were peculiar to Amsterdam, in Holland, 
 a foundation of mud, unconquerable to any other man than 
 Ppter, together with a climate so inhospitable as to destroy 
 two hundred thousand men in the early stages of the enter- 
 prise. 
 
 Firm to his purpose, Peter surmounted all this in the midst 
 of an unsuccessful war, and even when his allies were falling 
 beneath the sword of his haughty overbearing rival. This 
 very war he turned to his advantage, to prosecute his plan, 
 and bring forward his city, whilst Charles was employed in 
 giving away crowns in Poland. 
 
 In 1704, Petersburg had become the residence of more 
 than three hundred thousand souls, which Peter had trans- 
 planted there from different parts of his dominions, and in 
 1705, when Stanislaus was crowned king of Poland, Peters- 
 burg had become a commercial city, and its harbor was full 
 of foreign ships. The liberality of Peter drew stranaers of 
 all descriptions, from all parts of Europe, and Petersburg was 
 soon filled with commerce and the arts. 
 
 Tn the midst of these labors, he rendered some assistance 
 to Augustus ; but his means could not accomplish both ends 
 — his new city grew, but Augustus fell. This fall, roused up 
 the Czar to new efforts ; he saw his own dominions laid open 
 to the conqueror, upon this event ; and he put forth his efforts 
 to recover, what he had not been careful to prevent. He in- 
 vited Augustus, (by his minister Patkul,) to a conference at 
 Grodno ; and repaired there with an army of 70.000 men. 
 
292 PETERSBURG. 
 
 Augustus met him, attended by general Scullemburg, and 
 the scattered remains of his troops. The conference was 
 short : the Czar was called suddenly to quell an insurrection 
 in Astracan, and left his army to co operate with Augustus, 
 in recovering the crown of Poland. 
 
 Augustus soon after ordered his minister, John Patkul, to 
 be arrested, and imprisoned at Dresden, upon a suspicion of 
 an intrigue, to settle a separate peace between the Czar, and 
 fht king of Sweden. 
 
 The plan of Augustus in distributing his Russian and Saifon 
 troops into small divisions, to harass and distress the Poles, 
 as wtll as the king of Sweden, led to the most active opera- 
 tions. Charles co operated with Stanislaus, and they fell upon 
 fhese several divisions with such rapid succession, that Po- 
 laid was soon cleared, and the Russians were driven behind 
 the Boristhenes, and all the treasures of Augustus and bis 
 Russian allies, fell into the hands of Charles ; together with 
 an entire regiment of French soldiers, whish had been taken 
 by the Saxons at the famous battle of Hochstet, in their war 
 with Lewis XIV. 1704, and entered into the Saxon service. 
 
 Charles received this regiment at their request, into his 
 service, on the same day of their capture ; having settled the 
 conquest of Poland ; secured the crown to Stanislaus, and 
 prepared to enter Germany. Charles by rapid movements, 
 marched into Saxony, where he was triumphant, and gave 
 law to the electorate. 
 
 On his passing through Silesia, he gave a general alarm to 
 the empire, already torn and harassed by the distressing wars 
 with Lewis XIV. who was supporting the claims of the house 
 of Bourbon upon the throne of Spain. 
 
 Tiiey were soon relieved ; his stay was short in Saxony ; 
 he visited the field of Lutzen, rendered so famous by the 
 death of the great Gustavus Adolphus, paid a tribute of res- 
 pect to his memory, and exclaimed : *'I have endeavored to 
 live, like him, God perhaps may one day grant me as glorious 
 a death." 
 
 Charles proceeded to levy enormous contributions upon 
 Saxony, to the amount of 625,000 rix dollars per month, 
 v/ith daily rations for his army whilst he staid ; established a 
 new and energetic police ; attended the great fair of Leipsic ; 
 and the whole electorate enjoyed the most profound tran- 
 quillity, duiuig the stay of the king of Sweden. 
 
 During these movements in Saxony, Augustus, deprived of 
 
Designation of Augustus. 293 
 
 both of his crowns, was a wanderer in Poland. In the depth 
 of despair, he wrote to the king; of Sweden secretly, by the 
 baron de Imhoff, and sued for peace. Ctiarles received (he 
 letter, and replied, " I consent to give peace to Augustus up- 
 on the following conditions, which can never be altered : 
 
 1. " That Augustus renounce? the crown of Poland forev- 
 er: that he acknowledire Stjuiislaus as lawful king ; and that 
 he promise never to mount the throne of Poland, not even af- 
 ter the death of Stanislaus." 
 
 2. '' That he renounce rdl other treaties, and particularly 
 those he has made with Muscovy." 
 
 Pendinf^ this negocialion, a Russian army, under prince 
 Menzikotf, appeared in Poland, joined Au^:uslus, and threw 
 him into the greatest embarrassments. An action commenced 
 at the same time, with a deicichment of Swedes, in which, for 
 the first time, the Russians were victorious; and Au^iustu* 
 entered Warsaw in triumph. In the midst of Te Deum, 
 which Augustus had ordered for the successful action, a mes- 
 senger arrived with the treaty of peace from Charles. 
 
 Augustus signed it, resigned his crown, and set off for Sax- 
 ony to meet Charles. The two sovereigns met : Charles re- 
 ceived, and treated Au^rustus respecffolly, and gave him the 
 right hand ; but compelled him to write a letter of ron/,rotu- 
 lation to Stanislaus, renounce the title of king of Poland, and 
 to erase it from the public prayers. 
 
 Fired with resentment at this inglorious peace, the Czar re- 
 entered Poland at the head of 60,000 men, flew to Leopold, 
 assembled a diet, and ordered a new king of Poland to be 
 elected. The factions of Leopold, controlled the diet ; Pe- 
 ter transferred the diet to Lublin : factions still prevailed — 
 they made no choice, renounced both kings, and dissolved 
 the diet 
 
 This threw the republic into Ihe most unparalleled state of 
 wretchedness : ihe sword of civil uar was drawn ; the torch 
 of civil war was lit ; conflict, carnage, pillage, and conflagra- 
 tion marked the movements of all the parties, both f lends 
 and foes — and ihe Poles abhorred alike their kings, the Czar, 
 and Charles X)l. 
 
 In ihe midst of this state of wretchedness and distress, 
 Stanislaus appeared in Poland with a body of troops from 
 Saxony ; the discipline of his troops, and his money, rallied 
 the Poles around his standard, and he was soon at the head 
 of such a force, as compelled the Czar to abandon Poland. 
 
 25^ 
 
2?4 CHiPLES XIU 
 
 At (his critica] moment appear**^ a fbird party in Pol«»nd, 
 headed by count Sink-usky, grand ueneral of flie rnn\ii. 
 He mH(]e great eff»rtsto be titcted kins; and failed, and was 
 now become fhe head of a party of some considerable force, 
 whns* only subsistence was pillage. This third scourge of 
 Pol uid. was of short continuance ; they soon ^bur-doned their 
 chiefs, rnpair-Md to the standard of Stanislaus, and he became 
 the acknowledged sovereign of P >land. 
 
 During these movements in Polaid, Charles held his c(»urt 
 at AI{ran?ta<U, where he received ambassHdors from all the 
 powers of the south of Europe, then enta^» <l in the jireat 
 contest about the Sf)a?iish succension. Altixm jh Charles had 
 ph dged hims»df in 1700, that he would not interfere in the 
 qtijrrel — yet the great duke of Marlborough, couid not be 
 per&uaded, that money would not make a man change bis 
 opinion, and even bis word, until, as ambassador of queen 
 Ann, he had visited Charles X!I. king of Sw» den. 
 
 Charles had now passed one whole year in Saxony, where 
 by his diplomatic skill, he had humbled the emperor of Ger- 
 mmy, protected the Lutherans in Silesia, dethroned one king, 
 €ri>wned another, and rendered himself the admiration of Eu- 
 rope, and the terror of the north. He prepared to dispart. 
 
 On the approach of his departure, he ordered the grand 
 Marescha! of his household, to Iry before him. the rout fnsm 
 I/fipsic, to all the capitals in Europe : and, September 1707, 
 hi'. coniKienced his march for Poland at the head of 43 000 
 men, to join count Levenharpt, with 20,000 more, together 
 with such recruits as were olten arriving frrm Sweden. At 
 U;e head of this army, he rec* ived an ambassad( r from (he 
 iuStan of Constantinople, with a present of one hundred 
 Swedes,, purchased t;f the Tartars, and the compliments of 
 the ambassador, upon the acce^-sion of Stanislaus. 
 
 Charses, at the head of this strong force, ch artd Poland of 
 Jill the Russians, settled the tranquillity of the kingdom, left 
 iSlftnislaus 3 000 Swedes, for the protection of his crown, 
 and commenced his march, amidst frost ai d snow, in the 
 iiiffnth of January, 1708. to suprise the Czar in Grodno. 
 
 Pi ter had the good luck to escape at the north gate, when 
 Chas-Ses entered at the south ; and made his retreat The 
 r.ext day, Peter, finding that Charles had advanced by a ra- 
 pid movement, with only 600 of his guards, surprised the 
 king <:f Sweden in his turn, at Grodno, with a force of 1500 
 cjen : an acfion ensued a»id ti:e impetuosity of Charles, com- 
 pelled Peter to flee with precipitation; and secure hie retreat. 
 
BATTLE OF THE BEREZINA. ^9& 
 
 Peter collected his forces in Lithuania, and retired into 
 Mii«!Covy, by forced marches, and laid waste the <"ountry, 
 Charles pursued wifh rapid movements — harassing and dis- 
 tressing the R.rfsians in their fliirht : the wilds of M'iscovy, 
 covered only wilh morasses and deep forests, almost impen- 
 etrable, with a scanty supply of subsistence — rendered this 
 fli-iiht extremely distressinti ; and to crown all, it was in the 
 heart of a Russian winter. The Czar continued to retire, 
 through the winter and spring. Charles advanced ; and on 
 the 25th of June, they met on the opposite banks of the Bere- 
 zina. Here the Czar had collected his forces, intrenched his 
 camp, and awaited the approach of the king of Sweden. 
 
 Charles, by gaining a pass, crossed the river, and attacked 
 and routed the Czar — who retired on to the Boristhenes, de- 
 stroying the roads and bridjies, and layiuic waste the country, 
 
 Charles fell in with an army of 30,000 Russians, strongly 
 intrenched behind a morass : impatient for the attack, he de- 
 tached a party of horse, to take th-- enemy in flank — plunged 
 into the morass, at the head of his guards, and commenced 
 the assauH : the resistance was tirra, but t^e Russians w^re 
 broken and dispersed, and the action was decisive. This 
 memorable action, caused this memorable medal. Upon 
 one side was inscribed — Sylva, pallidas, aggeras, hostes, victi. 
 Woods, marshes, mounds, and enemies conquered. Upon 
 the other — Victrices copias aliwnlaturusin orbem. Wafting 
 his warlike troops to the other world. 
 
 Upon the loss of this action, the Czar sued for peace : to 
 which Charles replied, " I will treat at Moscow." Charles 
 advanced to Smolensk : here he attacked a body of 10 000 
 horse, and 6,000 Cossacs, with his accustomed impetuosity. 
 The troops were routed, and fled : Charles pursued ; the 
 Cossacs ambushed him at the head of his truard, and cut otf 
 his communication wilh his main body: a desperafe conflict 
 ensued — the king was dismounted, his horse killed, and he 
 engaged, hand to hand, with these savages of the north, and 
 by his desperate valor, he killed and kept at bay these despe- 
 rate assailants^ with the loss of all his attendrints, except live. 
 
 In this critical and alarming situation, a colonel Dnrdof, at 
 the head of a little band, broke through the Tartars, relieved 
 the king, and put the enemy to flight. Charles, with his usu- 
 al intrepidity, mounted his horse, put himself at tl»e head of 
 bis* troops, and pursued the fugitives, more than two leagues 
 on his route to Moscow. 
 
296 BATTLE OF THE MORASS. \ 
 
 Charles, who had advanced tnore than five hundred leasrues, 
 into the heart of an enemy's country, amidst the most unpar- 
 alleled successes — began now to feel tlie want of recruits, to 
 supply the place of those who had purcjiased his victories by 
 their death ; and others who were sick, or dead, witli the fa- 
 tio'ues and diseases of the march ; together with supplies and 
 military stores for his army, through the sevirifies of a Rus- 
 sian winter. lino wing; that Pt^rer had laid waste the country, 
 and destroyed ihe bridges and (he roads leading to Moscow — 
 he be8;an to pause and consider: his only dependance now 
 was, on the arrival of general Levenhanpt, with stores and 
 recruits from Sweden, to reinforce and refresh, as well as sup- 
 port his array. 
 
 In this situation, Charles commenced a negociation with 
 Mazeppa, prince of the Ukraine Cossacs, who enj^aged to 
 supply him with 30,000 men, ammunition, provisions, mon- 
 ey, &tc. and to meet him, with these supplies, at a given time 
 and place. 
 
 Pleased with this new fund of resources, and having the 
 more confidence in Mazeppa, as a Polander by birth and ed- 
 ucation, and then at enmity with the Czar — Charles turn- 
 ed aside from the road to Moscow, and attempted to pene- 
 trate, by devious ways, into the almost impenetrable forests 
 of the Ukrain, in quest of the prince of the Tartars. 
 
 In this attempt he lost almost all his artillery and baggage, 
 in passing the rivers, and deep morasses of the forests : ex- 
 hausted with falii?:ue,and in want of almost all things, he arriv- 
 ed at the place of general rendezvous, at the time appointed. 
 Mazeppa appeared ; but to the astonishment of the kin^i, it 
 was only to announce, that Peter, apprised of his treacl»ery, 
 bad intercepted all his plans, destroyed his army, and carried 
 off his treasures ; and, instead of an ally, Charles found a fu- 
 gitive, who relied upon his protection, and who was pursued 
 by the same troops that had ruined him. 
 
 At this eventful moment, Levenhaupt arrived ; not with 
 the 15,000 Swedes he had led out of Sweden— not with the 
 convoy of provisions and military stores, to replenish the ar- 
 my of the king — but with the news, that the Czar had attack- 
 ed him, on the 7th of October, 1708, near the town of Lerno, 
 upon the Boristhenes, with a greatly superior force ; that he 
 bad had the honor to rout the Czar, in five successive engage- 
 ments, and had cut his way through the Russians, with the 
 loss of ten, or twelve thousand men, together with all his 
 
SIEGE OF PDLTOWA. 29"f 
 
 convoy of proTisions and military stores, and after saffering 
 incredible hardships, to penetrate to the camp of the king, 
 wifh this handful of men. 
 
 The memorable winter of 1709, had now set in. In the 
 midst of these disasters, Charles made a movement to seize 
 on the town of Pultowa, (a strong magazine of the Czar's, up- 
 on the eastern extremity of the Ukrain,) defended by a res:u- 
 lar force of 10,000 men, and covered b)- the Czar, with an 
 array of 70,000. The Swedish king had now about 30,000 
 men : 2,000 of these, he had the distressing mortification to 
 witness the loss of, by the severity of cold and hunger, on 
 his march to Pultowa. 
 
 On the 10th of May, he sat down before the town, and 
 commenced the siege. During the operations of the siege, 
 Charles received a wound in his heel, which deprived him of 
 the use of his leg, but not of his spirits. On the 1 1th of July, 
 the Czar advanced to the relief of Pultowa: Ckarles marched 
 out of his trenches to meet him, carried on a litter. 
 
 This was not the action of Narva ; the Russians were now 
 trained to arms and discipline. Tne Swedes charged the 
 Russians with their usual impetuosity ; the Russians were 
 routed ; they recovered, and rallied to the charge, penetrated 
 the camp of the king, three times shot away his litter, and 
 af'er a desperate conflict of two hours, routed and destroyed 
 his army. Charles fled on horseback ; and attended with a 
 few of his principal oflQcers, and a few stragglers, (in all about 
 three hundred,) took refuge with the Turks. 
 
 Thus closed the most brilliant, mad career of glory, the 
 world had ever witnessetl, since the days of Alexander ; and 
 the fatal battle of Pultowa, sealed the fate of Charles XI I. 
 with a long adieu to all his visionary schemes, to all his great- 
 ness ; placed his rival triumphant upon the throne of tiie 
 Czars, as the arbiter of the north, and secured to him the en- 
 joyment and prosecution of all his vast plans. 
 
 Peter pushed the enlargement and impr<»vements of his fa- 
 vourite city, extended the contemplated canals, amended his 
 code of laws, to govern, tame and civilize his subj-^cts ; ex- 
 tended his commerce, manufactures and agriculture, by eve- 
 ry possible encouragement; and thus triumphed over Charles, 
 by the greatness of his life, as well as by Ve feats of his arms. 
 The war which the Spanish succession had kindled in the 
 south, still rrtjied with violence ; but the fall <»f Cljarles XII. 
 damped the ardor of Lewis XIV. and led him to despair of 
 
298 CHARLES XII. IN TURKEY. 
 
 that aid, which he had vainly hoped for, from the king of Swe- 
 den, and make humiliating concessions, with overtures for 
 peace ; concessions, such a^ nothing but the overbearinjr de- 
 mands of the allies could have rejected. The spirit of the 
 parties was not yet tamed, and the war continued to rage. 
 
 Peter restored the sovereignty of Poland, to Augustus; de- 
 posed Stanislaus, expelled the Swedes, took possession of the 
 provinces upon the Baltic, and jiave peace to the west. 
 
 Charles, agreeable to a generous maxim of the Turks, was 
 honourably received, and conducted to Bender, (a frontier 
 town on the north of Turkey in Europe,) and saluted, upon 
 his arrival, with a discharge of artillery— where agreeable to 
 his wishes, he and his retinue were lodged in a little camp, ou 
 the banks of the Niester. 
 
 Charles and his camp, became the objects of the day ; 
 were visited by all the neighbouring country, and became the 
 resort of strangers. His temperance and devotion endeared 
 him to the Turks, and they were ready to acknowledge him 
 as a true musselman. 
 
 Charles repaired to Bender, with a design to kindle a war 
 between the Turks and Russians ; and he commenced his in- 
 trigues with the sublime Pjrte, immediately, for that purpose, 
 through the influence of his envoy, and his friend, Poniatow- 
 ski, a Polish nobleman ; who commixed with the Turks, in 
 free and tamiliar intercourse, and often presented the king of 
 Sweden's memorials to the Sultan, Achmet HI. on his way 
 to mosque. By this means, he obtained the favors of the 
 Sultan, for the king of Sweden, and at the same time caused 
 the grand vizier to be deposed. 
 
 One instance of these intrigues, was conducted in the fol- 
 lowing manner : — " The grand Seignior goes every Friday to 
 mosque, (a Mahometan temple,) «surrounded by his Solacs, 
 or guards, whose turbausare adorned with such hiijh feathers, 
 as to conceal the Sultan from the view of the people. When 
 any one has a petition to present, he endeavors to mingle 
 with the guards, and holds up the paper aloft. Sometimes 
 tha Sultan condescends to receive it himself; but he more 
 commonly sends an Aga to take charge of it, and causes it 
 to be laid before him on his return from mosque. Poniatow- 
 ski had no other method of conveying the king of Sweden's 
 complaint to Achmet." 
 
 The effects of this petition were, a present from the Sultan 
 to the king, of twenty -five fine Arabian horses: one of which 
 
TRIUMPH OF PETER THE GREAT. 299 
 
 having carried his sublime Highness, was covered with a 
 sad(ile, ornamente<l with precious stones, and furnished wi.h 
 stirrups of pure gohl — accompanied with a polite letter, with 
 marks of approbation towards the vizier; but he was soon 
 banished to Crim Tartary. 
 
 The new vizier was as averse to war with the Czar, as the 
 former, and endeavored to persuade Charles to return home; 
 gave him eight hundred purses, of five hundred crowns each, 
 to defray the expenses of bis journey ; but all to no effet : 
 Charles was not ready. The Czar was on the throne of R«ig- 
 sia, and Charles was determined the Turk should take him 
 otf. To accomplish this, he ceased not !o insinuate, that the 
 successes of Peter, would enable him to gratify his amhiM^m, 
 and make himself master of the Blark Sea, subdue the Cos- 
 sacs — carry his arms into Crim Tartary, and even threaten 
 Constantinople. > 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Peter I enters Moscotv in trwmph — War between Turkey and 
 Russia — penlous escape of Peter I. — Peace — intrigues of 
 Charles XII — Battle of Bender — War rages in the Swedish 
 provinces of Germany. 
 
 During these intrigues of the fugitive king, Peter the great, 
 appeared at the head of his empire in all the majesty of a 
 great monarch To impress his own subjects, and the world, 
 with the splendor of his arms, and the majiuitude of his vic- 
 tories — after he had placed Augustus upon the throne of Po- 
 land, and given peace to the north, he made a triumphant en- 
 try into Moscow, in a most splendid and magnificent style, 
 after the manner of a Roman triumph — under seven trium- 
 phal arches, decorated in the most superb style; the whole 
 illustrative of the conquests at Pultowa, by a display of the 
 trophies of that victory. 
 
 A regiment of guards led the procession, followed by the 
 artillery taken from the Swedes, each piece drawn by eight 
 hor^^es, covered with scarlet housings, hanging down to the 
 ground ; next the Swedish kettle-drums, colours, and stand- 
 arils, carried by the officers and soldiers who had captured 
 thein, succeeded by the finest troops of the Czar — and in snc- 
 
300 WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TURKEY. 
 
 cession to these was drawn the litter of Charles XII on which 
 he was carried at the battle of Pultowa, all shattered by the 
 cannon shot, and displayed conspicuously upon a chariot — 
 then in a train followed all the Swedish jjenerals, officers and 
 soldiers taken at Pultowa, two and two, together with the 
 kinsr of Sweden's prime minister. 
 
 Next followed the Czar, mounted on the same horse he 
 rode at the battle of Pultowa, and foILtwed by the trenerais 
 who commandt'd on thnt glorious day. A vast train of wai;- 
 ons loaded wirh Swedish miliinry stores, preceded by a re ^i- 
 ginfent of Russian trunrds, ol< &e«l tho ^rH\n(\ pmcessiiin. 
 
 Tliis spl»^ndld and m;sj![iiifirFnl disijjay, opmed a new field 
 for the admiration of ihese u^iulore*! .4(»ris of fhe n>rt'i, inspir- 
 ed them with veneration for the Czar, far their C'*untry, laws, 
 religion and arms, »nd excited a new spirit of emulati'Tt ia 
 Russia. Charles availed himself of this triumph, to tra^ify 
 his own mHliimant ntortificHtion, bv representing thmugh 
 fresh intrigues, the dam erous ambition of Peter; caused a 
 second strand V'zier to be deposed, and obtained a successor 
 to his wishes; him he inspired with the spirit of war. Ach- 
 met himself, ha<l n«)w cnuirht the flame, and the Janizaries 
 Wt^re ripe for a war with Russia. 
 
 The vizier assembled an army of two hundred thousand 
 men, imprisoned the Russian ambassador in the seven tow- 
 ers, (which is the Turkish method of declarinij war,) and 
 prepared to enter the dominions of the Czar. Peter, upon 
 the first intelligence, withdrew his troops from Poland, and 
 the provinces of the west, and prepared for the conflict. — 
 The vizier assembled his army, according to cu; torn, in the 
 neiirborhood of Adrianople, and in three days after the first 
 review, took the field, and commenced operations. 
 
 Peter had already taken the field ; on his way to the thea- 
 tre of action, he entered Moldavia, received the submisson of 
 this Turkish province, and the eovernor, prince Cantemir, 
 became his ally in the war. This inflamed the confidence of 
 Peter; he advanced into the heart of the province, upon the 
 river Pruth, near to the capital. The vizier advanced to 
 meet him, with an army of 250,000; crossed the Pruth, and 
 invested Peter in his camp. 
 
 Thus caught in the toils, Peter saw himself involved in the 
 same error of the king of Sweden at Pultowa, and that the 
 fate of his army must depend upon the fate of an action, upon 
 the most unfavorable terms* 
 
PEACE. 301 
 
 At this critical moment, count Poniatowski (who accom 
 panied the vizier) sent an express to the king of Sweden at 
 Bender: Charles rode post night and day, to witness (he fail 
 of his rival. Peter attempted to withdraw in the ni^ht, but 
 the Turk discovered the movement, fell upon his rear, and 
 threw his army into confusion : they rallied, and made a firm 
 stand against two successive attacks. The vizier then chang- 
 ed his operations, and invested the Czar in his camp ; this 
 reduced him to the alternative of starving, or fighting, under 
 such disparity of numbers, with a victorious enemy. 
 
 Peter retired to his tent in despair, resolved to try tlie 
 dreadful experiment, of forcing his way at the point of the 
 bayonet, with 30 000 men, throujih an army of 250 060, flush- 
 ed with their recent successes — and forbade any one to ap- 
 proach his tent. 
 
 In this critical moment of distress, Catharine, whom from 
 a country girl, he had made empress, ventured to repair to 
 his tent ; she flung herself at his feet, and entreated him to 
 permit her in his name, to offer proposals of peace to the 
 grand vizier ; Peter consented : she presented him a letter, he 
 signed it ; she selected an officer on whom she could depeiid, 
 and despatched the letter, with a present, according to cus- 
 tom, and received for answer from the visier: " Let the Czar 
 semi m»' his prime minister, and 1 shall then consider wiiat 
 is to be «lone." 
 
 The chancellor of Peter repaired to the camp of the vizier ; 
 a negociatioq took place, accompanied with a cessation oi* 
 arms, for six hours ; and a treaty was concluded, ia which 
 Peter stipulated — " to restore Azjph to the Porte, destroy 
 the harbor of Snngerou, and demolish his forts on the Pains 
 lVIa3tis, withdraw his troops from Poland, give no further dis- 
 turbance to the Cossacs, and permit the king of Sweden to 
 return to his own dominions." 
 
 At the eventful moment, when the treaty was signed, and 
 Peter was enjoying the fullness of plenty in his camp, pro- 
 tected by a peace, arrived Charles XII. Slung wiih cifa- 
 grin, mortification and disappointment, nt the folly of tlie vi- 
 zier, the escape of his enemy, the ruin of ali his eff^ts, and 
 the disappf)intment of his high expectations ; he flew to the 
 tent of the vizier, reproached him keenly for the irea'y he 
 had made ; threw himself on his sopha, and with an eye of 
 indignant scorn, thrust out his leg, entangle<l his spur in his 
 robe, purposely tore it ; rose with the most sullen silence, and 
 
 26 
 
302 BATTLE OF BENDER, 
 
 returned to Bender. The treaty was received at Constanti- 
 nople with applause and pubhc, r*'j'>icin;-s, yt t Charles fo md 
 means to be reveucied on the vizier, and he was disu;ra<*od 
 
 This affair did not rest here. Charles was not so ff»riunate 
 in the next vizier ; his supplies, of 500 crowns per day, were 
 withdrawn, together with the rich supplies of his table. The 
 sultan became deaf to all further tlioulihts of war with Rus- 
 sia, and determined to send out of his dominions, this in- 
 trijjuing, fusjitive kinij. 
 
 The sultan wrote Charles to this effect with his own hand : 
 and aft»r sty!in«; him " Most powerful amoni£ the kings who 
 worship Jesiis, brilliant in majesty, a lover of irlory and hon- 
 or," he positively assure<l him that he had laid aside ail fur- 
 ther views of war with the Czar, and pressed him to return to 
 his own dominions. 
 
 Charles was not yet ready to go : he did not comply — but 
 continued his intrigues. The sulian sent to Cttarles, to pre- 
 pare imme<liat(ly for his departure ; with 1200 purses, under 
 the care of the bashaw of Bender, to provide for his journey. 
 Charles deceived the bashaw, sot the monc y, but still refus- 
 ed to go : this occasioned the bashaw much trouble and ad- 
 dress, to save his head. 
 
 The sultan assembled his divan, in which it was advised to 
 send away the king of Sweden by force. The bashaw of 
 Bender communicated this order to the king of Sweden : 
 Charles replied, " Obey your master, if you dare, and leave 
 my presence immediately." The Bashaw obeyed, and pre- 
 pared to execute the sultan's orders: Charles prepared to re- 
 sist, and the Bashaw besieged him in his little camp, drew up 
 his army of Turks and Cossacks, opened his tire from his ar- 
 tillery, and advanced to the charge ; the camp was carried, 
 and 300 Swedes made prisoners. 
 
 Charles being on hor?eback, dismounted, and took to his 
 lionse : here, amidst his general officers and domestics, he 
 made a stand with musketry, against the assault of the whole 
 Turkish force. By a spirited tire from the windows, they 
 killed about 200 Turks. The Turks tired the house ; and 
 when the roof fell in, Charles, by the advice of one of his at- 
 tendants, rushed out<»fthe flames, at the head of his litle 
 band, and with the sword attempted to cut his way through 
 the Turks, to the Chancery house, and there make a stand. 
 Pressed by the Turks, he tripped with his spurs, and fell ; the 
 Janizaries seized him, and bore him away. The bashaw re- 
 
CHARLES XII. RETURNS TO SWEDEN. 303 
 
 ceived him in his own house, guarded him close ; but treat- 
 ed him hke a king. The next day he sent him to Demirtash, 
 near to Adrianople : h«^re he learnt that king Stanislaus was 
 a prisoner amongst the Turks : here he renewed his intrigues, 
 aiKl complained to the sultan of the unprecedented severity 
 of his treatment. The sultan covered his own character, by 
 a iieneral sacrifice of his ministers ; but Charles remained a 
 prisoner, and to avoid being sent awny by force, took to his 
 be(i,andlay ten montiis, served alone by his principal ofl5<"ers. 
 
 Durino; these scenes, the generals of Charles were perform- 
 ing feats of valor, in defending his provinces in Germany, 
 from the rHva!>;es of rhe Danes and Saxons. The allies bom- 
 birded the city of Stacie, in the duchy of Bremen, and re- 
 duced it to ashes. Steei-bock, the Swedish general, defeated 
 the allies in a desperate battle, and revenged the barbarity of 
 Stable, by burnini; Altena, a city of the kiiig of Denmark. 
 Fired with the spirit of his master, Steenbock did valiantly; 
 but a junction of ihe Rusi=ians, with the Danes and Shxoms, 
 drove him into Holstein, hi^sieg'^d him in Toningen, and 
 made him a prisoner, with all his army. 
 
 The baron De Gortz then undertook to mana<re by in- 
 tri J^up, the atfairs of the kin'j; of Sweden, and effect by nego 
 ciation, what Steenbock had failed to accomplish by arm5= 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Charles XII. returns to Sweden; defence qfSiralsimd; na- 
 val operations upon the Baltic ; Peter I. enters Petersburg 
 in triumph ; fall of Stralsund. 
 
 Despairing of success from his intrigues, tired of this inac- 
 tive life, and alarmed for the fate of Sweden, Charles roused 
 from his confinement and prepared to depart. The Vizier 
 furnished him with an escort and supplies accordinyi to his 
 wishes, and he set out by the vv^y of Germany with sixty loaded 
 wasr/ons, and an escort of thre*^ hundred horse to return to 
 Sw^-ilen. On the confines of Transylvania he dismissed his 
 escort. to'>k leave of his friends, and attended by one ofii er, 
 rode post night and day throuj^h Germany, and arriv<^d a£ 
 Sirahund November 21 1714. Here he passd the winter, 
 m dvin iieneral arrangements to prosecute the war with vig- 
 or In the spring. 
 
304 NAVAL VICTORY AND TRIUMPH OF PETER I, 
 
 The war which the Spanish succession had kindled in the 
 south of Europe, and which had raged with so much violence 
 in Flai)d(Ms, Spain, Italy, Germany, and upon the ocean, was 
 now hushed to peace by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, 
 March, 1714. 
 
 The flame of war, which was kindled under the northern 
 ieagne, a<rainst the younu king of Sweden, had never bt en 
 extin«:iiished ; the parties were now exerting all their efforts 
 to accomplish their i^rand purpose, and divide up Sweden. 
 Prussia, Denmark and Saxony were ready to invest Stralsund 
 at the opening; of the spring;. Peter, with a fleet of thirty ships 
 of war, rode triumphant upon the Baltic, the fruits of his own 
 persevering genius, and iii part, the labors of his own hands. 
 
 He became, from actual experience, the best carpenter, ad- 
 miral and pilot of the north ; these he acquired by the succes- 
 sive grades of merit, from the lowest service up to the high- 
 est ; he became admiral, as he became master builder in his 
 dock-yards, and general in his armies, 
 
 Peter, having completed the reduction of Finland, put to 
 ■iQ'd with a fleet of thirty sail of the line, eighty gallies, and 
 forty half gallies, with twenty thousand land forces, all from 
 his new port of Cronslot. near to Petersburg;, to make a de- 
 scent upon the Island of Aland, on the coast of Sweden, near 
 io Stockholm. 
 
 He created Apraxin admiral of this fleet, and served as vice- 
 admiral himself. On the 16th of July, 1714, he fell in with 
 the Swedish fleet, commanded by vice-admiral Erinchild — 
 en action commenced which lasted three hours. The Czar 
 attacked the Swedish vice admiral, and took him, after a se- 
 vere engajiement ; sixteen thousand troops were landed on 
 I he island, at the same time ; they took and carried on board 
 the fleet all the troo{)s found upon tht Island, and Peter re- 
 turned to Cron«lot in triumph ; with the vice-admiral's ship ; 
 three others, one frigate, six gallies, the trophies of his victo- 
 ry. Havins assembled his fleet, he set sail, and entered the 
 harbor of Petersburg amidst the triple discharge of one huu- 
 drf«J »nd fifty pieces of cannon. 
 
 Here cotnnienced a new scene. This Petersburg, where 
 in the year 1700 not one solitary house was to be seen, where 
 not even a fishinii boat was to be found, and when the yreat 
 founder of it was a commtm carpenter in the dock yard^^ of 
 Hollan«1. now displayed the macnifieence of thirty four thou- 
 sand tive hundred houses, in the most superb style of modern 
 
THE CONTRAST. 305 
 
 archifecture. That port, which Peter had formed with inde- 
 fatiiiibh^ efforts and labor, now witnes!ie<J the triuiiiphaut en- 
 try of a virforioiis fleet of Ihirly sail of th*- line, with the pri- 
 zes of the SwKJish fleet ; and to crown the whole, the Cz-f 
 repeated at Pe«ersbirri>; the splendor of the triumphs of Mos- 
 cow ; he made his triumphant entry into Petershurii, and 
 amidst the display of the trophies of hi.- victory, the Swedish 
 vice admiral j^raced his train. The conquests of Peter, were 
 devoted to the benefit of Petersburg : all that was valuable 
 in manufactures, and the arts and sciences, were desnned to 
 enrich and improve his new caffital. Triumphant over Swe 
 den, by lafid and sea, he now became the arbiter of Poland, 
 and held the balance between Augustus and his nobles. 
 
 Mark the contrast. Charles XI I. all this time, was intri- 
 guijijr in Turkey, tiiihtinif the bashaw of Bender, or lying 
 a bed ; and havinq; rode post fifteen days and nighJs, was now 
 prepared to defend Stralsund against the allies. His country 
 in his absence, had been ravaa;ed and despoiled of nearly all 
 his foreign possessions ; her veteran troops, once so formida- 
 ble, had fallen, wasted and perished: more than one hun- 
 dred thousand were prisoners in Russia, and as many more, 
 the Tartars had sold to the Turks ; and the enterprise and 
 ardor ot Sweden, had wasted with her commerce, her money, 
 her credit, and her troops. 
 
 The scales were turned : Peter now stood on that hicrh 
 ground, which Charles ha<J abandoned ; and Charles, in his 
 turn had to be«nn anew. Charles, havinir arraniied the de- 
 fence of his kini^dom, prepared to defend Stralsund. His ar- 
 rival had rekindled the ancientspiritof Sweden; man vied wi h 
 man, in the general preparations. The Prussian and Danish 
 fleet sunk and destroyed five Swedish ships before Stralsund. 
 
 Peter rode triumphant before Stockholm, with twenty 
 .ships of the line, one hundred and fifty transports, and 30,000 
 men threatening: a descent ; he filled all Sweden with al^ rm. 
 At the same time, he overran and subdued ail Finland, e;'st 
 of the Gulf of Bothnia, and held possession. The kine f 
 Prussia seized on the island of Usedom,and the city of Stetifij 
 at the mouth of the Oder, and dispossessed the Swedes. 
 
 During these operations, Charles conducted the defence 
 of Stralsund, with a jrarrison of 9,000 men ; besieiied by the 
 kinus of Denmark and Prussia, at the head of 36,000 men. 
 Stralsund was a place of great strength and importance; ia- 
 
 26^ . . 
 
306 BATTLE OP RAGEN. 
 
 accf-ssible by land, and considered so by water ; defended 
 by Charles XII. who was confident it could not be taken. 
 
 An accident discovered to the besiejjers, that the fortress 
 which protected the city, was accessible on the side of the 
 sea, and that the Baltic receded under a strong west wind, 
 ai(«i left but three feet of water. The besie<r< rs availed them- 
 selves of this ; the same nij^jht a party ot 1800 men plunged 
 into the water; at the same time, another party of 2,000, 
 commenced an attack by land. The troops in the water 
 penetrated to the walls, entered unobserved, and carried the 
 fortret^s with a cruel slauiihter : part of the garrison fieri to 
 the town ; the conquerors pursued, and entered pellmell with 
 the fugitives; but their course was arrested at the drawbridge 
 — ^thpy were all taken, and the town saved. 
 
 The b^'sieiu:ers attempted to make a lodgment upon the 
 island nf Ruiren, opposite the harbor of Stralsund. This 
 place Charles kr>ew the importance of securinsj : to this end, 
 he repaired to Ruijen, with a few of his principal officers, to 
 encourage and support the little garrison of 2,000 men, who 
 were stationed for its defence. The same night the besieg- 
 er? sailed on to the island, witi) a fleet of transports, carrying i 
 15.000 men under the com^iand of the prince of Anhalt. * 
 TJie cautious prince, intrenched his camp, in the dead of ^ 
 niirht, with a deep ditch and clievaux de-frise, with as much |: 
 caution and strength, as if he knew the king of Sweden had ? 
 been there with his army. Charles, apprised of the landing, ^ 
 but isrnorant of the force of the enemy, drew out his little ^ 
 band, marched three leagues in dead of night, and at two in ; 
 the morning, his soldiers began to pull up the chevaux de- 
 frise This gave the alarm ; and the prince and his party 
 stood to their arms. Charles advanced, and discovered the 
 ditch ; struck with surprise, he leapt into it, and his soldiers 
 followed his example : by the greatest personal exertions, '\ 
 they penetrated the camp — the action commenced — the im- | 
 petnosity of the Swedes bore down all before them ; bui the 
 weiiiht of numbers soon checked the onset. The erjemy 
 rallied, arul ciiar^ed in their turn ; the conflict was desperate 
 — (tie Swedes retired — Charles fled, ignorant of his pursuer — 
 the prince pursued, alike ignorant of those who fled before 
 him : Charles rallied his troops to the charge — the carnage 
 was terrible — the king witnessed the fall of his favorites, Gro- 
 thusen, and i^enf ral Dard-'fl", by his side. Deerinff, who rode 
 post with him through Germany, fifteen days, lay dead at his 
 
FALL OF STRALSUND. 307 
 
 feet. Chades was then announced by nanne, by a Danish 
 lieutenant, who knew him, and had seiz^^d him by the hair, 
 a>*d with uplifted sword, was ready to sever his devoted head. 
 Claries drew a pistol from his sash, and shot the lieutenant 
 dead in the act. The name of the kini», thickened the cloud 
 about him, and he received a ball under his left breast At 
 this critical moment, Poniatowski, who had saved the king 
 at Bender— appeared with his horse, penetrated to the king, 
 and set him thereon ; the Swedes retired to their fortress, 
 and secured the king. The next day he abandoned his brave 
 Swedes to their fate, returned to Stralsuud, and his little baud 
 surrendered prisoners of war. 
 
 The brave count Vlllelongue, who jeopardised his life for 
 the king, at Adrianople, was takt-n at the head of that French 
 regi«rient, which joined the king of Sweden in Poland, when 
 taken from Augustus ; and now passed into the service of the 
 prince of Anhalt. Shut up in Stralsund, Charles felt the se- 
 verities of a bombardment— and half the town was in ruins : 
 the citizens were all b^eome soldiers, and rallied with cheer- 
 fulness around their king. Charles continued' to repel the 
 attacks and assaults of the enemy, until all hopes oi' resistance 
 failed ; he then yielded to the voice of bU friends — to ahan- 
 don a town wiiose defence had become desperate, and pro- 
 Tide for his safety. This had now bec.»me as difficult and 
 dangerous, as the defence of Slrafsund. 
 
 It WHS now the 20th of December, 1715 ; the frost had set 
 in, and the harbor was frozen ; but Charles made the attempt, 
 in a small fishing boat, accompanied by only ten persons. 
 Suffice it to say, they succeeded in breaking the ice unmo- 
 Ir-^ted by the enemy's shipping; passed the fort with only 
 the loss of two men, from an incessant fire ; landed at Scania, 
 and from thence Charles passed to Carlscroon. (the port 
 from whence he embarked on his expedition against Copen- 
 hagi^n. in tlje year 1700, to give law to the north.) The next 
 day Stralsund surrendered. Charles rode post to visit his 
 sister, by appointment, on the banks of lake Weten, and on 
 Ihe next day returned to Carlescroon, and passed the winter. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Invasion of Norway— Baron de Gortz^ckaih of Charles XIL 
 
308 BARON DE GORTZ. 
 
 pence — characters of Peter I. and Charles XII. — Immediate 
 causes oj liie French RevoluHon. 
 
 Charles had inspired all Sweden with the samf zeal 
 whioh he bad kin<lled in StrHlsu.'td, and the r adinese with 
 which Ibtjj lalliod rou'id his standard, and open«^d their treas- 
 urf'S to supply his armi-s, i^ave him «u«'h confidiMJce, that in- 
 stead of lUfi^ntWnii Swt^den aiainst a cons* r(r<l attack from 
 thr DatiPrt a?)d RH*i iJis : in the month of MarcM, he assem- 
 bled an army ; braved the severity of this early season, and 
 iU^ sreatfr severity of roads almost impassable ; he passed 
 into Norway, and laid siejj^e to Cnri-tiana. 
 
 This bold stroke * ave some eclat to his arms, and excited 
 a general attention ; but the approach of the Danish fleet, and 
 the' want of supplies obliiied him to return into Sv^eden. At 
 this time, the intrijups of his prime minister, the baron de 
 G«4rlz. be^an to take some eff* ct. De Gortz had p<»wn the 
 seeds of jealousy between Pt ter, an<l me states of Germany ; 
 and was now tliffusirig the same seeds between Peter,andthe 
 kin: of Denmark. Hv carried his intrigues info al! the courts 
 of Europe; favored the pretender in France, and fl ttered 
 Ci.arles Xlf . wiih the prospect of invading Scotland ; and in 
 short, the operations of war were changed into finesse and ia- 
 trigue. 
 
 Peter at this time airain visited Holland and France, to 
 perfect that education which he had beiiun fifteen years be- 
 fore Here he had an interview with the baron de G<»rtz, 
 who obtained ^reat influence, by attacliini: Peter to that my s- 
 teiious system of politics, he was so insidiously s<ywing 
 thr JUjrhout Europe, and induced him to listen to term:? of 
 pf ace with Charles ; flattered him that the arms of Russia 
 ai! Sweden united, mig;ht mj^ke an easy conquest of D^ n- 
 mark, establish the independent sovereignty of the Baltic, and 
 a sre^- intercourse with the ocean ; hinted, that such a peace 
 would fjuarantee to him the provinces conquered from Swe- 
 den, which had been so much the object of Peter. Tliese 
 hijds, with such others as Peter foresaw were connected with 
 them, added to the low state of his funds, led him to listen 
 seiinnsly to de Gonz. 
 
 Chiirles had now recovered some strensth, he a^ain enter- 
 ed Norway, Derember, 1718, and laid siege to Fredrickshall. 
 He opened t?>e trenches in the midst of frost and snow, and 
 assisted in person in the most arduous operations. Here; in 
 
DEATH OP CHAELES XII. 309 
 
 directing the approaches by starlight, he was killed instant- 
 ly, by a o;rape-shot, which passed throuL-^h his head. Charles 
 seiz <! the hilt of his sword, and died without a groan. 
 
 This mojnentous event, put a new face upon Europe, and 
 was fdilowed by a {reneral cessation of arms. The prince of 
 Hesse, bro(her-in law to Charles, led back the Sweden from 
 Norway into their own country, unmolested by the Danes. 
 The senate of vSweden ordered the baron de Gortz to be ar- 
 rested, tried, condemned, and executed as a maladvi^^er to 
 the king, and an enemy to Sweden. They next elected Ul- 
 rica Elionora (sister of Cfiaries XII.) their queen, and ren- 
 dered the crown (if Sweden elective : she conferred it upon 
 her husband, the prince of Hesse. Sweden soon settled a 
 peace with all her enemies, bu Peter : he continued the war, 
 and ravaged the coast of Sweden, until the peace of 1721, 
 which guaranteed to the Czar the provinces of Livonia, Es- 
 thonia, Ingra, a part of Carelia, and of Finland. The . zar 
 then took the title of emperor, which was acknowefi/ed by 
 all Europe. The eharacters of these two heroes of the north, 
 are here drawn at large ; never were two characl*^rs so uni- 
 formly great, and so uniformly different. The eifeets -nd 
 consequences which resulted, ar^ the best comment it is in 
 the power of man to make, or language to express; in the 
 efifects are displayed the true cotttrastof their characters. 
 
 We have witnessed how ambition without judirment, has 
 humbled the first naticni (»f the north ; and now ambition uni- 
 ted with judgment, has tamed a wilderness of barbarians, into 
 a nation of soldiers ; has created ports, cities, fleets and com- 
 merce, in the midst of almost impenetrable forests, and rais- 
 ed their aueust author to Uie hiah station of arbiterof tlie north. 
 
 Three i.bjVcts in partinnar are desiiiUed in this minute nar- 
 rative of the reiiins of Cliarles and Peter : the tirst is, to shew 
 the '.istory of the two i«ations, in connection with the other 
 nations of Europe ; second, the rise, progress and improve- 
 ments of the Russian nation ; and third, the effects of this, in 
 controling the French revolution. 
 
 The north, after the peace that followed the death of Charles 
 Xn.enj>yedan uninterrupted repose d )wn to the French 
 revolijiion, excepting, such connection as they had with the 
 great wars of the south, which we have noticed in the second 
 p;«rr ; toiether with a short, hut successful war, between 
 Russia and the Tnks, frorj 1736 'o 1738. We also noticed 
 in detail, the efforts of diaries VtU. Lewis Xli. Francis L 
 
310 CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, 
 
 Henry IV. and Lewis XIV. kings of France, to recover the 
 iron crown of Charlemogne, and the eirpire of the west. — i 
 We noticed also, the feuds which s(>run;i up in France in tiie 
 reign of L^ wis XIV. between the Jansetiists and Jesuits ; be- 
 tween the Uin^ and the parliament ; and the genera' excite- 
 ment of the ijation, occasioned by the pope's bull Uni jreni- 
 tus ; the supjixssion of Ihe Jesuits, and the suspension of the 
 parliaments by Lewis XV. ; t«)gether with a hint upon the 
 rise of intidel philosophy. We will now pursue the great ob- 
 ject of i:!».^ third part, and illustrate the origin, causes, etf«-cts, 
 and operations of the French revolution. 
 
 The labors of LuJher, and the li^iht of the reformation, had 
 disclosed the mysteries of iniquity, and shewn to a certain 
 portion of Europe, the fallacy and corruption of auricular 
 confession, the sale of induli::encies, pardon and remission of 
 sins, the absurdity of pur.:atory, and papal supremacy. The 
 expansion given to the mind by the arts and sciences, led the 
 philosophers of France, and of Europe, to discover the same 
 nriystery of iniquity throuaih another channel ; and in their 
 turn, to set at defiance the corruptif»ns of popery, and the su- 
 premacy of the pope. The bull Uni»enitus, kindled the tire 
 that rallied the parties to the contest. The power of the 
 kin^s of France, had been from the time of Clovis, Pepin, and 
 Charletnatj^ne, inseparably interwoven with the supren>acy of 
 the pope: of course, Lewis XIV. supported the bull; the 
 parliaments, the body of the nation, together with many of 
 the hioher, as well as the lower orders of the clergy, oppos- 
 ed the bull — and th*^ nation was divided into two great pnr- 
 ties; the pope and the kin^ on one side, and the parliaments 
 and the p»'ople upon the other ; hut the death of Lewis nave 
 a check to the quarrel. The licentiousness which the diike 
 of Orleans introdueed at court, and diflfuseil through the 
 nafion, diverted thf quarrel, until Lewis XV. came to the 
 throne. The arh?lrary spirit of Lewis, led him to espouse 
 the cause of the pope, and the Jesuits ; parliaments as warm- 
 ly espoused the cause of the people. Arbiirary power unit- 
 ed in the pope and kina:, togethi r with the absurd supersti- 
 tions of the chureh (»f R'"ime, became the subjects of dispute. 
 
 Here, as in all such controversies, was displayed the ex- 
 tremes of the passions ; liberty was arrayed against tyranny, 
 iicenliousness asainst superstition and science and philoso- 
 P'*y> HjJTriinsr ignorance find corruptiitn : t!ie conflict wa^ vio- 
 !ent ; Lewis pushed bis powers to the extreme ; the pailia- 
 
KEVOLUTION COMMENCED. 311 
 
 nipnts were firm ; Lewis dissolved the parliaments ; their 
 spirit was unbroken ; the people clamored ; one Franci? Da- 
 mien, (a fanatic) stabbed the king ; this brouj^ht him to his 
 senses : he recovered of the wound, and restored tht* pKtlia- 
 ments. They now friumpbed in their turn ; they demanded 
 that the Jesuits, who had caused the quarrel, should be sup- 
 pressed : Lewis complied, abolished their order, gave tht ra 
 up to civiJ prosecufions, and banished them from FrHis.-e. 
 The corrupt'ons of their insliJute were discovered, and ex- 
 posed to the world ; their colleg;es were seized ; their estates 
 confiscated ; and {hey became the reproach of the world. 
 
 Elated with this great victory, the parliaments altempf. d 
 to limit and humble the crown. They not only refiised to 
 res:»ster certain obnoxious edicts of the kins ; but comrrjenc- 
 ed prosecutions au^ainst such authorities, as dared Jo t)[)p se 
 thetn : here they were at issue again, and the contest coa- 
 tinued. 
 
 CHAP. VIL 
 
 Janspnists and Jesuils ; assembly of the Slates-General ; Rev- 
 olulion opened ; Paris becomes one great inob ; the king a 
 cypher ; flight of the king ; convention formed ; new Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 I In the midst of the disputes in France about liberty and 
 ! prerogative, died Lewis XV. and was succeeded by Lewis 
 XVL 1774. The vreat parlies which sprang up in the reiiin 
 of Lewis XIV. and distracted the reiiin of Lewis XV. still 
 raijed in France. The dispute of the Jansenists and Jesuits 
 about free srace, free will, &,c. had called forth the pens of 
 I the most learned religious writers — the cause of liberty, 
 against civil and ecclesiastical tyranny, called forth the pens 
 I of the learned of all classes, excited a general attention and 
 inq'iiry through the nation ; all descriptions of character be- 
 icaine party in the quarrel. 
 
 I The American Revolution, gave a diversion to the vio- 
 'lence of the contest, for a time ; when that was closed, it rag- 
 ed with renewed violence; the abolition of the parliament 
 Ibad only increased the flame, until the people, impatient of 
 j all further restraiot, were resolved to govera tberaselves. 
 
312 REVOLUTIOX. 
 
 They accordinely assembled at Versailles, on the 5th ot 
 May, 1789, a jieiifral deputation from ail the sections of 
 France, under the denomination of the States-General, and as- 
 sumed a share in the jiovernment ; and on the 16th of June, 
 they resolved themselves into a national assembly. Over- 
 awed in some measure by the Swiss guards of the crown, 
 they saw the necessity of a military force^ — they resolved 
 that 48.000 citizens should be enrolled as national guards, 
 and in iwo days 270,000 men were enrolled in the city of 
 Paris. These were without arms ; they seized on all the de- 
 pots of arms that fell in their way ; an immense mob assault- 
 ed the hospital of invalids, took 30,000 muskets, and 20 pie- 
 ces of cannon ; they intercepted all the couriers of the court, 
 and disclosed their dispatches. Flushed with these success- 
 es, the national assembly sent a deputation to the king, with 
 a demand that the large body of troops posted in the Champ 
 de Mars, should be withdrawn — the king rt^plied, " I have 
 alrt^ady made known to you the measures the disorders of 
 Pans have oblijit d me to adopt ; / alone have the rijiht to 
 judiie of the necessity, and in that respect can make no 
 chariye ;" the troops however withdrew in the night. I 
 
 On the next day, June 14th, the people, still in quest off 
 arms, went to the bastile, and sent a small deputation to the 1 
 governor, who were admitted; soon a tirinji commenced in I 
 the prison — this enrajied the populace; they flew to the bas- f 
 tile, with a strong military force ; the governor fired on the i 
 m<ib with cannon and grape ; this threw the populace into a I 
 rage — an assauir commenced, the governor displayed the I 
 white fla^ ; a parley ensued, and a second deputation was '. 
 admilted, and a second firing commenced within the prison. | 
 T.his became a signal of general assault ; a violent conflict ' 
 en.-ued, the prison was forced, the governor was massacred, 
 the principal «.fficers were executed, and their heads exhibit- 
 ed on poles tHiouiihout the city of Paris. TI.e prisoners 
 were set at liht . fy, and the ktys carried to the national as- 
 se.nbiy ; they liecreed the destruction of the bastile. This f 
 was immediately executeil, amidst the excesses of those pas- I 
 sions which fired the populace to take vengeance on the ob- | 
 jects of their haired and fury. This violent triumph over this j 
 detested rod of despotism, diffused a iieneral spirit of enthu- f 
 siasm throui;ia the nation, and may be called the tocsin of tt^at \ 
 liberty, which evontua'ly chantied the political character of I 
 France. The king, alarmed at this outrage, repaired the ". 
 
REVOLUTION. 31 S 
 
 next day to the hall of the assembly, and by a speech, at- 
 tempted to soothe the violence of the proceedings. 
 
 The die was cast, nesrociation was at an end, violence had 
 commenced, blood had been spilt, and the naticm was in arras. 
 The explosion had disclosed the passions which had been 
 ripeuinii; for nearly half a century ; and opened the field of 
 harvest for those seeds, which ^vere sown in the rei<i;n of 
 Lewis XIV The princes of the blood, the nobles of church 
 and state, alarmed for their safety, fled into voluntary banish- 
 ment. Fired with resentment at this, the populace took ven- 
 geance on such as remained, cut off their heads, and exposed 
 thejn in triumph on poles throuijh the streets — August 4. 
 
 The assembly decreed the inviolability of the kin^r, and at 
 the same time abolished all privileged orders, (Aug. 15,) free- 
 don» of opinion in matters of religion, liberty of speech, liber- 
 ty of the press, and the rights of man. At this time the 
 alarm became general ; the king sent the plate of the crown 
 to the mint ; the assembly sent the plate of the church to the 
 mint ; a national L^iard of 60,000 men, conducted the king 
 from Verseilles to Paris, and lodged him in the palace of the 
 Thuilleries: the same ni^lit, the assembly sent hirn a deputa- 
 tion with the declaration of the rights of man, which the king 
 accepted. 
 
 Nov. 1. — The assembly decreed the abolition of all letters 
 de cachet, and all arbitrary imprisonments, all distinction of 
 orders, and the confiscation of ecclesiastical estates; a free 
 toleration in relijjion, with an equality of privileges. These 
 vi(dent proc»r'edings in such raj>id succession, alarmeil the 
 friends of the crown, and led them to attempt a union of ef- 
 fort, to check this mad career, rescue the king and iiovern- 
 ment from this licentirtusness, and restore the authority of the 
 crown. This efl'irt existed only in name, and served only 
 to inflame the populace. The system had long been matur- 
 ed, and every means was regularly seized to progress the 
 plan. A government was now fixed in the national assembly ; 
 a military force was formed, and armed ; the bastile was de- 
 stroyer} by violence, wiMiout opposition ; the king was no 
 better than a prisoner, or cypher in his palace, his preroga- 
 tiv'' set at defiance, with the decree of the rights of man. 
 
 Ttiat eler.'^y, who had so violently as^^isted the crown to 
 enforce the bull Unigenitus, were now stripped of their pow- 
 er, by the act of free toleration, and the confiscation of their 
 estates. Money was now wanting ; this it would not do to 
 
 27 
 
314 REVOLUTION. 
 
 supply by taxes oti the people : assisnafs, or paper money ; 
 was issued, and the Jews of Spniti. Portugal, and Avijrnon \ 
 were decreed citizens of France, January 1790, and their ex- | 
 (ra taxes abolished ; the civic oath was Hdministered to the i 
 kin^, and the whole city of Paris ; ail relipous cloisters were 
 abolished forever, and their estates confiscated ; the nriinister i 
 Neckar sent in his resignation tf) the assembly ; they decreed i 
 a monument to be erected to the memory of J. J. Rosseau, 
 and that his widow and family be supported at the public ex- j 
 pense. These were the outlines of the proceedin-:s of the j 
 assembly this year ; the violent agitation of the publi<', mind 
 g^enerally, and the (Hstractions of the city of Paris particular- j 
 !y, can never be described. ' 
 
 April, 1791. — The kintr atten)pted to go with his t'amily to < 
 Bt. Cloud, to pass the Easter holidays: a violent tunmit en- 
 dued ; here, for the first time, Lewis realized that he was a ' 
 prisoner in his palace : here, for the first time, the marq;ds \ 
 La Fayette bfgan to realize, that it was easier to excite the ■ 
 popular tumult, than to control it ; and that what he and his j 
 friends had contemplated, as a reform in the government, | 
 had become a revolution, irresistible and uncontrolable. i 
 
 The king was compelled to return to the Thuiileries, under f 
 a strong euard. The complaints of the kins, to the assem- \ 
 biy. produced no more effect, than the remonstrances of the | 
 marquis La Fayette, to the mob. The kinir was a prisoner, | 
 the orovernment subverted, and the etforts of man, could not I 
 control the violence of the tornado. | 
 
 The minister at w^ar, announced to (he assembly, that the | 
 emigrants were assembled on the frontier, to invade France, 4^ 
 thr^t they had been reviewed by the prince of Conde, that j 
 their uniform was black, faced with yellow, and their motto — V 
 •' Conquer or die." This inflamed the assembly and the na- 1 
 tion like a shock of electricity, they decreed the ashes of Vol- h 
 taire worthy the Pantheon ; the populace assembled in the .♦ 
 Palais Royal in Paris, and burnt the pope in effi y ; the vio- 1^ 
 lence of the new principles were now displayed, Voltaire was H 
 deified, and the pope consumed. This was in miniature the - : 
 triumph of the old parties, the fall of superstili ^n, and the tri- 
 umph of philosophy ; but the triumph of the srvord of Charle- 
 magne was yet behind the curtain — this was in the hands of a 
 set of men who had not yet disclosed it, it was yet concealed. 
 
 The king, aware of the eventful crisis, attempted to con- 
 vey his family in a secret flight to Montmedy, a strong town 
 
REVOLUTION. 31 
 
 on the east of France ; he was recognized on bis way, at Va- 
 i-ennes, arrested by the populace, and conducted back to Pa- 
 ris, under an escort of 30,000 men, and again committed to 
 the Thuilleries, June 29. Pla'^arils were posted upon the 
 walls of Paris : " Whoever shal! applaud the king, shall be 
 soundly cudi^elled : whoever shall insult the kinir, shall be 
 banjred." The general alarm was ^real ; but the escort was 
 conducted with great solemnity, and the naiional assemhiy 
 became permanent. They sent a depataiion to the king, to 
 inquire into the cause of his departure ; and Use king assured 
 them, it was not his intention to leave the kingdom, but only 
 to reside at Montmedy, until the nation became tranquil, and 
 the constitution settled ; and remonsliated auainst the riotous 
 abuse, the queen received from the mob, in Paris, and ex- 
 pr«'ssed his anxiety for her safety. Tise queen replied, that 
 she only accompaivted her faruiiy and husband to a plact- of 
 nK»re safety. The ashes of Voltaire, were, according to the 
 decree, removed to St. Genevieve, July 17. This move- 
 ment of the king, had kindled anew the fiames of the revolu- 
 tion. — Robespierre appeared in the Champ de Mars, at the 
 'head of a vast multitude, who petitioned for the king to be 
 dethroned. At this eventful crisis, the famous convention 
 to<»k place, between the emperor Leopold, and the king of 
 Prussia. 
 
 Auiiust 1. — The minister at war announced, that the emi- 
 grants, to the amount of 8,000, were assembled upon the 
 M -use and Moselle, under the prince of Conde, and were sup- 
 pcrrtel by another body of 10.000, headed by the two broth 
 ers of the king. The spirit of liberty was now sown in the 
 island of St. Domingo : the coloiiiHl assembly decreed the 
 the liberty of the mulattoes to the floor of their assembly. 
 This produced great confusion, and became the cause oC 
 great contention. In this sta*e of things, the new constitu- 
 tion of France, was tinished, and presented to the kin^, by a 
 deputation of sixty members, Stptea»ber 14 ; and the assem- 
 bly decreed, that the constitution be solemnly published 
 throughout France. 
 
 CHAP. YIII. 
 
 Lewis XVL signs lite netv Consiitution — Clubs of the Feuil- 
 
316 NEW CONSTITUTION. 
 
 lans and Jacobins — Decrees of the Nalional Assembly — 
 Treaty of Vienna — Riots in Paris — Coalition — Duke of 
 Brunswick — Flight of the King. 
 
 The kinof received the constitutilion, and repaired imme' 
 diately \o the ball of the National Asstmbly, to sign if. He 
 closed his meiiiorable speech, on this occasion, with these 
 words : *' I come, solemnly to consecrate my acceptation of 
 the constitutional code ; an<l I swear to be faithful to the na- 
 tion and the laws, and to en>ploy all the power with which I 
 hm enl rusted, to maintain the constitution decreed by ihe 
 National Assembly, and to cause the laws to be executed. 
 IVihy this great anc< memorable epoch, be the cause of re-es- 
 t^lblishin^ peace and union, and become the basis of the wel- 
 fare of the people, and the prosperity of the empire." 
 
 The burst of applause which filled all parties upon the oc- 
 casion, cannot be described. A urand festival was glTcn in 
 the Champs EIi?ses; " One hundred thousand citizens danc- 
 ed upon the occasion ; and at the distance of every hundred 
 yards, was constructed a hii^hly illuminated orchestra, where 
 the musicians played : and the air resounded, every half- 
 hour, wi'h the discharge of one hundred and thirty pieces of 
 cannon, placed on the banks of the Seine. On a tree, plant- 
 ed on the old scite of the Bastile, was displayed the following 
 inscription. Translation. Here is the epoch of Liberty. 
 We dance on the ruins of Despotism. T/ie Constitution is fin- 
 ished. Long live Fatriolism.^^ The constituent assembly 
 closed, Seiirenib^'r 30. 
 
 October 1. — The legislative assembly was organized un- 
 der the new constitution, and sat, for the first time. The 
 king of the French, despatched letters to all the emigrant 
 princes, conjuring them to return to France. They had car- 
 ried with them into exile, the seeds of the old quarrel : they 
 were not cordial to this new order of things, it went to de- 
 stroy all Iheir power; and they refused to return. The 
 count Di Artois declared, that they had taken up arms to re- 
 store the Roman Catholic religion, and its ministers, anil to 
 give the king his liberty and authority. The Assembly pas- 
 sei! a decree to compel the emigrants to return ; this the king 
 Tf fu?»^d to sanction. The fiames of liberty were now kind- 
 led in St. Domingo, and the mulatroes burnt three hundred 
 ho!*s«>'-. Wf come now to the eventful p«^riod which disclos- 
 es ihie maio-spriog which set the vast machine in motion, and 
 
REVOLUTION. 317 
 
 appearfid oppnly (o regulate and control all i(s moveraeiits 
 and (iptrafioiis. 
 
 A society of Moderates styled Fuillans, was formed, and 
 bi-i^an to diffuse tiuir influeisce and sentiments, to re^^ufate 
 the i£o%'ernmrrtt — this society breathed the o()inionsof reformj 
 not revolution, in government ; limited monarchy, not are- 
 publican system, such as the Marquis La Fayette and others 
 contemplated. This club called into view the jacobin club 
 —this oriiiinated in an asscmblaje of abi>ut forty literary 
 gentlemen in the {ifeiime ot Voltaire, and in therc^JL^n of Lew- 
 is XV. for the purpose of ditfusinir general information m 
 France, and to counteract the corrupt and despotic power of 
 popish superstition, and throuuh the means of a more general 
 knowledge, to rouse up the nation to a sense of their rights, 
 and of their power, and through the me<lium of these, to 
 open the way for France to reeover all her ancient greatness. 
 
 The club of the moderates were opposed to this, and the 
 jaobins were then forced from their concealment. They 
 assembled reeularly, their numbers were small, but their 
 names had great weight, and these gave strength, and added 
 nuFobers to the club ; it soon bore down and destroyed the 
 moderates. The great plan of this club was, to discuss such 
 questions as were most likely to claim the atrentiivn of the 
 njilioual assembly, and through this medium, influence and 
 control that body. To render this the more effectual, a reg- 
 ular president, secretary, ijcc. were chosen, and the debates 
 conducted with the greatest regularity. x4iuditors were ad- 
 mi'led into the galleries, who caught the spirit of the club, 
 an<{ by their applause, proclaimed it through the nation — he 
 influence of this club became great, bore down all other 
 clubs, and gave law to the nation. 
 
 At this eventful crisis appeared Condorcet's manifesto, 
 adtlressed to all slates and nations: t!ie national assenibly 
 decreed it and presented it to the king — two sentences of tt.is 
 will be a sufiflcient sample of the whole : " Peace, which im- 
 pcisture, intriiiue, and treason have banished, will never cease 
 to he our first wishes. France will take up arms, compelled 
 to do so, for her internal peace and safety — she will be seen 
 to lay them down with joy, the moment she is assured, that 
 there is nothing to fear for that liberty, for that equality, 
 which is now the ordy element in which Frenchmen c;ji live.'* 
 Condorcct was a jacobin, and here disclosed the sum of the 
 
318 REVOLUTION. 
 
 whole matter, which had so long been concealed, and in con- 
 eehhneni wroutrht such astoiii^hinii effects. 
 
 Tie compact for a riulifary repubhc was formed, and the 
 kinj: was like Charles I. of England, only a cloak, or tool, for 
 thi? club to work with. January I, 1792, the assembly pas- 
 sed a decree a^fainst the emiirrant princes — the king of Prus- 
 sia psiblicly declared, " that Lewis XVI. having accepied the 
 new constitusion prevented his acting in his defence." Ttie 
 a{!air?of the revolution began now to excite a general alarm 
 throughout Europe — they all knew what France once was, 
 and what she had not ceased to become again, viz. the em- 
 pire of the west — they dreaded a military republic in the 
 heart of Europe, armed with all the resources, military expe- 
 rience, and wild enthusiasm of France ; they prepared to do 
 something:, and at the same time knew not what to do — if 
 they lay idle, they feared the union and strength, France 
 I7ii.„ht £ain. in ripening her plans — ^if they made a movement, 
 they fe-ftred that it might endanger the king, and drive the na- 
 tion to union for their common safety, and kindle with vio- 
 lence the torch of war. The king of Bohemia and king of 
 Pi u-sia, entered into a secret treaty, to prepare for the worst. 
 February 20th, the national assembly published, through 
 their ambassadors, to all the courts of Euroj)e, " France re- 
 nounces all armaments with a view of makiitg conquests, and 
 will never eniploy her forces against the liberty of any state." 
 The secret treaty of Vienna was soon known to France, and 
 ex( ited alarm. 
 
 Lewis XVI. to secure his own safety, wrote immediately 
 to the emperor: " I «)emand of the kins of Bohemia, an en- 
 tire renunciation of all coalition and armament against 
 France ; and I declare to him, that it he does not do this, the 
 king will regard him from the present, as in a state of war." 
 The emperor died in 36 hours, and was succeeded by his 
 eldest son, Francis II. He immediately , through his minis- 
 ter, announced to the world, that he had adopted the politi- 
 cal system of the emperor, his father. A. general change 
 took place in the French ministry. At Ihife.time, the Eng- 
 lish government abolished slavery; and count Aukerstrom 
 assassinated Gustavus HI. kinti of Sweden. 
 
 A new court of inquisition commenced in France »t this 
 time, known by (he name of the revolutionary tribunal : 
 Dolhint like this hm] appeartd since the iiquislion (tf ('Itl ; 
 aod a Dew instrument of death was invented, called the guilio- 
 
REVOLUTION. 31S 
 
 tine, (from the name of Iht* inventor.) These enthusiastic 
 SOPS <it librrfy, wlio had invei/.hed so bitterly a,nin-t the 
 ov<Tbearini£ persecutions of t'te pope and the crown, were 
 now in their turn bfcome the instruments of a persecution, 
 tenfold more bitter and bloody than either ; not for orthodoxy 
 in r«libri(»n, but under the sanction of the sacred name of lib- 
 erty. They had yet to learn, that the mnxim of "■ compel 
 them to corr»e in." was as cruel as unjuslififible, in social, as 
 in relijiious riehts ; and that the maxim when applied to lib- 
 erty, can no more be justified, than when applied to the bull 
 Uriigenifus, or the Alcoran. 
 
 The jacobins had carefully originated a new system of lo- 
 gic, which served as a smoothinji plane for the violation! of 
 every moral principle, and at once destroyed all the sympa- 
 thies of the heart. '• The end justifies the means :" a vv rse, 
 or mor« danci:erows principle than this, never existed amidst 
 the wilds of Gothland ; and the rava'.'^es wljich marked the 
 overthrow of the western Roman Empire, with all their ex- 
 terminating train, were never founded upon a maxim so <-or- 
 ru()t as this ; but upon their savai^e usages of war, in dispos- 
 inir of conquest. 
 
 June 20. — A mob in Paris of 100,000 men, armed with 
 muskets and artillery, assaulted the palace of the king, in or- 
 der to compel him lo come in to their measures, and sanction 
 two decrees which he had declined. The tiates were thrown 
 open, the n»ob entered the palace ; they presented to the 
 kifiii the red cap of liberty, on the end of a pike ; he took it, 
 put it on, and the queen with great good humor, distributed 
 ribbands and May branches amongst the mob, as they passed 
 througii thv apartments, to the number of 40,000 men in 
 aruis. The kiny; the next day issued a proclamation con- 
 cerning these tumults, and com[)!ained of the violence done 
 by the mob. Francis II. at this time, whs elected emperor 
 of Germany at Frankfort, 1792 — and the kiuii announced to 
 the national assembly, that a Prussian army of 52,000 men, 
 were on their march against France July 9. — The minister 
 for foreign affairs announced, that Germany, Russia, Turin, 
 Naples, Rome, Spain and Portugal, had conspired against 
 Fiance ; the assembly decreed the nation in danger, and de- 
 nounced fifty-seven persons as guilty of high treason Tfie 
 duke of Brunswick published a clear, and lacrinic manifesto. 
 
 The king, alarmed at this manifesto, addressed a letter to 
 the president of the national assembly , disclaimed all con- 
 
320 MASSACllE OF THE GUARDS. 
 
 nection with (iiis movement, and ikclared, " that it was to 
 the nation that he owed himself — and that he wa? one, and 
 the same with tier.'^ At the same Bitting, Pelion, at the head 
 of (he couimonatty of Paris, apj>eared at the bar of <h<^ assem- 
 bly, and demanded, "that the kiii;^ be excludi d from the 
 throne, and a ministerial government be api)ointed, until a 
 new kin}i should be chosen." This threw otf the mask, the 
 kingf now realized his fate, he saw before him the grave of 
 Charles I. ; he again attempted to escape in the t^arb of a 
 peasant; but was recognized by a centinel, and secured. 
 H» re appeared the result of the federation in t!ie Champ de 
 Mars, of the ISlhofJiily. Their deputation now appeared 
 at the bar of the assembly, August 10, bearing a petition, sign- 
 ed by thousands of citizens, preceded by a pike, bearing a 
 red woollen cap, with this label : " Deposition of the king." 
 
 Alarmed for his immediate safpty, the kin?, attended by 
 bis Paris guards, the queen, his sister, and the royal children, 
 took his seat by the side of the president, and said : " I am 
 come amongst you to prevent a horrible crime, convinced 
 that whilst here I am safe." 
 
 CHAP. IX. ^ 
 
 Mob of the 10 fh of August — bold measures of the Assembly — 
 Dumourier — La Fayette- Massacres — National Convention 
 — Trial of Lewis XVi. — Condemnation. 
 
 The materials, which had long been collecting-, now took 
 fire, and involved the whole city of Paris in the explosion. 
 The collection of the mob, on the morning of the 1 0th of Au- 
 gu<if, together with the alarming rage of the populace, reniler- 
 ed it necessary for the king to take this step. Acts of open 
 violence soon commenced : the mob attacked the Swiss 
 guards at the palace — the guards made a firm resistance ; the 
 coi'flict became desperate ; a horrible carnage ensued ; and 
 the guard- were shot down and butchered almost to a man. 
 A^inut 25.000 fell in this horrible massacre. The mob en- 
 tered the palace in triumph, and with unrestrained fury, burst 
 open the apartments, carried '^»(f the treasures of the queen, 
 overti?rew the statues of Lewis XIV. and XV. and laid them 
 in ruius J and when they had wreaked their vengeance on these 
 
PALL or LA FAYETTE. 321 
 
 monuments of their kini:8, and laid waste, by their ravages, 
 this sanctuary wf royalty — they retired and dispersed. 
 
 This horrid scene had filled all Paris with terror and con- 
 sternation : the national assembly were shocked witt* the out- 
 raiie, and caujjht the aenera! alarm : some members trembled 
 for their own safety ; others retired, or absented themselves. 
 In the midst of this scene of distress, they ordered the roll of 
 the house to be called— decreeil, and took the foll«»winj:; oa'vi : 
 " I swear, in the name of the nation, to maintain Liberty and 
 Equality, or die at my post." Decreed, " that the French 
 p* opie be invited to call a national convention ;" and " that 
 as the executive power was provisionally suspended, the six 
 miuisters, now in power, shall become the executive, and 
 present the plan for appointini; a governor for the youn^ 
 prince royal ; and that the king and royal family remaia 
 under the protection of the assembly, be considered as under 
 the safeguard of the law, and their defence entrusted to the 
 national guards of Paris. Denounced as traitors and infa- 
 mous, all who should quit their posts ; and ordered these de- 
 crees to be proclaimed to all Paris, and throughout the ei<£h- 
 ty-three departments. These bold measures, were received 
 with general applause, through the nation ; and produced a 
 torrent of addresses to the assembly, of plaudits and congrat- 
 ulations. The ministers, who fi*'ted upon the lop of the 
 popular tide at this time, were Da;iton, Le Brun, Roland, 
 Servan, Monge and Claviere. Tne royal famdy wa- next 
 removed from the convent of the Feuillans. (or modi-rates,) 
 and confinetl in the temple ; and the mniq )is Lf Friyette 
 moved his army towards Pans, in order to anest tiie vioh ut 
 proceedings airainst tf e royal family : but alas ! it was lu w 
 too late ! He had now to learn in tiis turn, that it was ea-ier 
 to raise, ttian to c ntrol popular tumult. 
 
 T!ie assembly, ap|)rised of i)h movement, decreed his ar- 
 rest, and sent a d< pu^ali »n 'o enfone the decree : the mar- 
 q- is caused the dnpufation to be arrested and imprisoned. 
 This enra?red the assembly ; and they decreed, that the mar- 
 q!i;8La F.:yette be brought, dead, or alive, to the bfir of tne 
 Assembly. This decree alarmed the maiquis, an«I he fled in- 
 to Germany; he was seiz« d ai R )»•' r)rt,hy the Austrian gene- 
 ral, and sent to N-imur, and from thence to thestnm; fortre^ 
 of Ofmuiz i.j Mnravia. where he was attended by his wife 
 ani? ;' 'n','»)fer, throu/h .» I>ny! and di'tr.^ssiiii co ifixinent. 
 
 General Dumourier, who hail preceded thtj marquis iu iti? 
 
322 RIOT IN PARIS. I 
 
 command, had also attempted a compromise, to save the j 
 royal family, boe»i de»iouiH*ed, and conHl)ls^iorlers sent to ar- , 
 rest, and brinL- him bf fore the bar of the assembly : titese he , 
 arrested, and sent to the Austrian general, as hostages for the \ 
 safety of the'kin^: ; and threw him.eif upon the mercy of ^ 
 tlie emperor of Germany. These two chain{)ions of the rev- 
 olution, now felt the (ruth of what marshal Ney afterwards ] 
 said to the emperor Napoleon — '' Sire, revolutions never go \ 
 baekV The tornado had now acquired such force, thai all i 
 who attempted to arrest its course, became like a feather in ■ 
 a tempest — they were swept away. I 
 
 We come now, to the oif morable 2d of September. A^ J 
 
 decree of the assembly, rf quiriui: that ail the clerijy should > 
 
 take the civic oath, had be^n but partially con»plied with : j 
 
 this opened the way for vengeance to tail upon the old quar- | 
 
 nd of Jansenist and Jesuit, with all the bitterness and violence ^ 
 
 of party. A jieneral riot commenced in Paris — another hor- | 
 
 rid massacre commenced; one ex bishop, and about one ' 
 
 hundred nonjiirinu pviesis were butchered ; the prisons were % 
 
 ail violated, the debtors rele. sed, and a general p<vlitical mas- n 
 sacre prevailed. Three or four thousand stained the annals 
 
 of France with their blood, on this mf morable day, under the j 
 
 sanction of the mob, stykd Septi^mbt risers. The trophy of *• 
 
 this infuriated mob of barbarians, was the mangled body of ; 
 the princess De Lamballe, borne in lriuu>ph to the temple, 
 and Exposed to the vitw of the royal tamily, with her hfrad 
 elevated upon a pole, and presented before tlse window of 
 their apariment. The assembly passed a silent decree < f 
 approbation and applause, upon this murderous scene, by an 
 
 oath, " that they held royally in detestation ; and swore, that ' 
 
 no king or monarch, should ever be a stain upon the liberties | 
 
 of ihe people." ! 
 
 At this time, fifty four national prisoners of distinction, j 
 
 weri^ arrested at Orleans ; and on their way to Saumer, they f 
 
 passed thr«»ui£h Versailles, where they were attacked by the ji 
 
 populace, and all butchered : the princi|)al amomj the sufifer- ( 
 
 ers, Were, the duke of Brisac, and the bishop of Maur^es : \ 
 
 and on the same day, ninety priests were butchered at St. Per- j 
 
 min. These massacres of the clergy were frequent and nu- ! 
 
 im rous in Paris, and throughout France, at this time. 1 
 
 The assembly decreed, thai the marriai^e covenant miyht | 
 
 be dissolved at the req .est .^.f either party, or up<'n the ^im- :r| 
 
 pie alh nation of incompatibihty of ttmper, in either party, or , 
 
 other grounds, 6ic. \ 
 
TRIAL OF LEWIS SVI. 323 
 
 The declaration of war on the part of the German empire, 
 againsi Fr<5iire, was announced by the ministt^r of foreisju af- 
 fairs; and the assembly declared war against S>irdinia. A 
 new f^poch was (hen announced in this scene of horror ; the 
 convention had been els^cted, and were then formed in the 
 p dace of the Thuilleries : M Grciioire, bishop of Blois, at 
 the hfad of twelve com»nissioners, said : " Citizens, the con- 
 Tention is consfifuted, and we are deputed to announce to 
 you, that it is about to repair here to commence its sittin/s." 
 The presid* nt then said — '* The lejtislative assenibly declares 
 its sittintjs closed " 
 
 October 9, 1792. — The national convention opened its de- 
 crees, with death against all emi^jrants The subject of a 
 new constitution, next claimed their attention, and they ap- 
 pointed a committee to frame one, and present it to the con- 
 vention : this committee was composed of sixteen; at their 
 head, stood the noted names of Sieyes, Thomag Paine, Bris- 
 sot, Danton, Condorcet. kc. At the motion of Barrere, (one 
 of the members of this committee.) a decree was passed, 
 *' invitintr al! the friends of liberty and equality, to present to 
 the committee, in any form, and in any lanstuaije whatever, 
 the plans, methods, or means, which they thuuaht the best 
 calculated to form a iiood constitution for the French repub- 
 lic :" passed with this addition — " Whoever shall attempt to 
 establish royalty, or any other -3/5tem of government, deroga- 
 tory to the sover^itinty of the French people, shall be punish- 
 ed with death." The eventfu? period, for which the national 
 body was organized, was now arrived : the necessary previ- 
 ous steps had been taken ; the public mind was now prepar- 
 ed ; and the unfortunate Lewis XVI. called to the bar of the 
 convention, to pass through the awful scenes of Charles I of 
 Enjiland, before the mock parliament. Upon his approach, 
 the president thus addressed the king : — 
 
 *' Lewis, the French nation accuses you : the convention 
 decreed, on the 3*1 of December, that you should be tried by 
 itself: on the 6th it was decreed that you should be brought 
 to the bar : they are about to read to you the act, which an- 
 noences the crimes imputed to you. You may sit down." 
 
 The accusation was ttien read, in the usual form, and the 
 king interrogatf:!d upon each charge, by the president — what 
 he bad to say in his own defence ? At the close, the kinji re- 
 plied — "I desire a copy of the act of accusation, as well as 
 t>f all papers ioteoded to serve as proofs against me, and that 
 
324 CONDEMNATION OF LEWIS XVI. 
 
 I may be allowed council in my defence." Lewis, the unfor- 
 tunate, was then permitted to retire ; and after some debate, 
 his request was granted, and counsel allowed. Messrs. Tron- 
 chet and Lemoijtnon de Malesherbes, became counsel for the 
 king ; the latter an old man of seventy-eight. The prosecu- 
 tion against the unhrsppy monarch of France, was conducted 
 in t\tw forro ; and on (he 17(h of January, 1793, his punish- 
 ment was determined, by an appel nominal ; (the question 
 was put to each member, and his answer noted.) 
 
 The president then announced that the number of votes, 
 was 721. 
 
 Answers for imprisonment tlurins the war, - - 319 
 Answers for perpetual imprisonment, - - - 2 
 
 Answers for a suspension of the sentence of death, until 
 
 the expulsion of the family of Bourbons, - - 8 
 Answers for a suspension of death, unless the French 
 
 territory should b«" invaded, - - - - 23 
 
 Answers for deatii, with commutation of punishment, 1 
 
 353 
 Answers for death, - - • - - - 366 
 
 Majority for death, 13 
 Impressed with the solemnity of the scene, the president 
 then rose, took «*ff his hat, and d^ dared, in a low and solemn 
 tone of voice, (he " the punis'sment pronounced by the con- 
 vention, ai£ain*l Lewis C pe(, is death." Philip, duke of Or- 
 leans, a rela'ive of Lewis XVI was a member of the conven- 
 tion, and srave his vote, death : hut Thomas Paine, voted on- 
 ly for banishment. This is that Philip, duke of Orleans, who 
 requested the convention to give him a new name ; and re- 
 ceived that of Philip Egalite, (or equality.) The fate of the ] 
 king was announced on the 20th of January, 1793 ; all Paris | 
 was illuminated, and no person permitted to appear abroad ; J 
 the wh<<le city was buried v\ the mosfsi lernn silence, and 
 the military in large bodies patroled the streets. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 ExecuiioH of Lewis XVL — violence of the Convention — Char- 
 
EXECUTION OP LEWIS XVI, 32i> 
 
 lotle Corde— trial and execution of the ^ueen — triumphs of 
 philosophy. 
 
 On Monday, of the fatal, the solemn, awful 2 1st, about two 
 o'clock in the morning, the gloom of silence was here and 
 there interrupted, by voices of lamentations in broken ac- 
 cents, expressing the distress of the feelings, and increasing 
 the horrors of the gloom. 
 
 Lewis, with great composure and eminence of soul, passed 
 Sunday in preparing for ihe solemn change. The auspicious 
 morn of Monday came; the queen, the princess royal, the 
 dauphin, and madam Elizabeth, took their parting leave of 
 the king. The distresses of this scene, might have been re- 
 alized by the sensibilities of a feeling, sympathizing heart, 
 bui can n^ver be expressed by the pen. Lewis was calm, 
 and posf^essed the dianitied composure of himself; he retired 
 for a few mumtnis with his confessor, and devoted hi<riself 
 to the sole/Mniiies of religion, and the devotions of his God. 
 The solemn stroke of eight from the Paris clock, announced 
 the solenjn hour; the royal niarlyr wasted forth to execu- 
 tion ; placed in a coach bi-tween two soldiers, (or gens de 
 arms) ne was conveyed ro ihe place de la Revolution, amidst 
 a larjie military escort, and an immense concourse of people. 
 Lewis, with a firm step, ascended the scatf >ld, attended }oy 
 his confessor, and several aiunicipai officers ; wi(h great com- 
 placency he belield (he multitude, and matle an effort to ad- 
 dress the spectators— but was stopped by an officer, who ex- 
 clainie«f, " come, come, no speeches, no speeches :" this was 
 accompanied by a flourish of music. Lewis saw at once that 
 his last hope was cut off, and exclaimed — " 1 forgive my en- 
 emies, may God forgive them, and not lay my innocent blood 
 to the cnarieof the nation; God bless my people" — gave his 
 affectiimate blessing to his confessor, stretched him^t'lf upon 
 the fatal iiuiiiotine, au'l with great serenity met his fate — 12 
 o'clock, January 21, 1793. 
 
 Desperation seized every department, and witnessed every 
 measure now in France. The nation was n )w like a ship ia 
 the mi<lst of a tempest, without a pilot, tossed with violence, 
 and at the mercy of the waves, and the storm. The request 
 of the unhappy king to be buried with his fathers, was treated 
 by the convention with the silence of apathy ; and his b uiy 
 was thrown into a pit with q licklimn, and consumed. Ono 
 of the eX"king'a guards, assasHi«uited Le Pelletiere, oae of the 
 
 2« 
 
32S TRIAL OF THE QUEEN. 
 
 convention, whose vote aijaingt the kins: was <1path ; and the 
 convention attended his funeral on the 24ih. The sanguinary 
 seene was opened afresh, and the convention in their turn 
 began to bleed ; the righteous vengeance of heaven never 
 spared them, until they had by their own blood, made some 
 atonement for this outrnge on the life of the kini:. Great heat 
 and bitterness, now marked the proceedings of the conven- 
 tion. TUe barbarian Marat, outrage*! all common decency, 
 in his attack? on the members in dvbate, with the opprobrious 
 epithets of " incendiary, assassin, villain, scoundrel, &.c. ; 
 which called forth a decree, tSiat " whoever should use such 
 injurious language towards any member, should be expelled." 
 Marat denounced the framers of the decree as conspirators. 
 The convention were now at issue. The violence of those 
 pks.Tions which had wreaked their rage and fury upon the un- 
 fortunate king, were now turned upon themselves. They 
 denounced Condorcet as a traitor to his country, and he met 
 bis fate: to denounce and execute, were now synonymous 
 terms. The famous Charlotte Corde, took venireance on 
 Marat, and sacrificed him uj)on the altar of her country, by 
 stabbing him to the heart ; for which, she suffered death in 
 her turn, by a decree of the revolutionary tribunal. The en- 
 thusiasm of this heroine may be learnt from her last words : 
 *' 'Tis guilt brings sharne, not the scaffold." 
 
 Duriuii these di^^lressing scenes in the interior of France, 
 their armies under Gen. Dumouri r and others, had been suc- 
 cessful ; the allies had moved with caution, lest they should 
 endanger the life ol the king: they were now advancins into 
 Flanders, laid siege to, and took Valentiennes. This enraged 
 the convention ; they denounced the queen, ordered her to 
 be arrested, and conducted to prison, Aug. 1. The decree 
 was executed the same ni^rht; the queen was roused from her 
 repose, and hurried in a most unfeeling: manner from her 
 family, to her place of confinement, a cell, a dan;reon, eight 
 feet square — doomed to lodge on a couch o^ straw ! Struck! 
 struck ! with the severities of the niuht, and the horrors of the 
 cell, she fell into a swoon, and passed the rest of the night, in 
 those violent struggles of nature, which threaten momentary 
 dissolution. The approach of morn, witnesseil the ravages of 
 distress upon the graces of the queen : she lived ; but ah ! 
 how chanj^ed. She languished in this horrid cell, until the 
 15th and 16th of the month, when she was summoned to her 
 trial before this revolutionary tribunal, and after the usual 
 
EXECUTION OF THE QUEEN. 32? 
 
 forms of (rial, the jury (after one hour) returned a verdict of 
 guilty of ail Ihe charges allejied. The president then rose, 
 and after the usual ceremonies, pronounced the following 
 sentence: — '-The tribunal, alter the unanimous declaration 
 of the jury, in couformily to the laws cited, condemn the said 
 Maria Antoniette, called of Lorrain and Austria, widow of 
 Lewis Capet, to the penalty of death ; her goods confiscated 
 for the benefit of the republic : and this sentence shall be ex- 
 ecuted in (he Place of the Revolution." The queen receiv- 
 ed (his sentence with the same composure which she had sup- 
 ported through the whole trial. The trial spun out, through 
 the night ; and at half past 4 o'clock in the morninjj:, the 
 queen was re-conducted to her cell, in the prison La Concier- 
 gerie : no time was allowed her for reflection or repose ; "at 
 5 o'clock the generate was beat — at 7 o'clock the whole arm- 
 ed force was on parade, cannon were planted upon the 
 squares, and at the extremities of the bridjies, from the pal- 
 ace, to the {)lace La Revolution — at 10 o'clock, numerous 
 patroles passed through the streets — at half past 1 1 o'clock, 
 the queen was brought out of her cell, dressed in a white disha- 
 bille; she was conducted to the place of execution in an open 
 cart; her hair from behind was cut ofT; her hands were lied 
 behind her back, and her back turned towards the horse: on 
 her right, sat the executioner ; on her left, a constitutional 
 priest," (or one who had taken the oath lo support the con- 
 stitution.) The queen passed to her execution, insensible to 
 the shouts of Vive la Liberty. Jbas la Tyrannie, Vive la Re- 
 public ; -he beheld with mdiff< rence, the vast military escort 
 of 30 000 men ; she viewed with indifference, the [)lacards of 
 liberty and equality, posted on the houses where she passed ; 
 she ascended the scaffold in some haste, cast her eyes upon 
 the populace, with a look took leave of her palace, laid her 
 head upon the guillotine, and met her fate at 12 o'clock, atred 
 thirty-eiiJiht : the same place, and same hour, witnessed the 
 death of her husband, just eiglit months and twenty six (lays 
 before. The executioner according to the usual form exhi- 
 bited the head from the four corners of the stage; and (he 
 populace as usual, exclaimed, Vive la Republic^ Vive la Lib- 
 d'flU' Her body was thrown into a trrave of quick lim", in 
 the same place and manner of her husband's. 
 
 Thus fell Lewis XVI. thus fell M iria Antoniette — kin>r and 
 queen of Fr tnce ; victims to the snaie passions which cin- 
 lueDced in the reigu of Lewis XIV. which occasioned Lewis 
 
328 HORRORS OF THE CONVENTION. 
 
 XV. to dissolve his parliament, and which armed the knife of 
 the assassin who stabbed the king, and by a wound, restored 
 the parliaments, and expelled the order of the Jesuits. The 
 same passions rekindled ; and when transferred from the 
 schools of the Jesuits, to the schools of the philosophers, were 
 swelled into a mighty blaze, which inflamed the whole na- 
 tion, and were now shedding torrents of blood, by the revo- 
 lutionary tribunal, guided and controlled by the Jacobin club. 
 
 This club which commenced under the auspices and di- 
 rection of the philosophers of France, had now become very 
 numerous, embracing all the choice spirits of violence and 
 corruption in the nation. 
 
 The king and queen are now dead ; and no longer the ob- 
 jects of that dread and hatred, which served as a rallying 
 point, for the members of the revolutionary tribunal. The 
 Bame fire of ambition and revenge, which destroyed the roy- 
 al family, is now commencing its ravages upon their own body. 
 
 The allies pushed the war in Flanders. England dismis- 
 sed the French minister, and proclaimed war against France. 
 Horror and alarm seized on the convention : Brissot, with 
 twenty other members, were denounced as conspirators, and 
 executed. The ravages of the rev ''utionary tribunal, were 
 marked with blood, through the nation ; mobs, insurrections 
 and massacres, rendered all France, one great theatre of car- 
 nage, and one dark scene of horror. The ravages of the 
 guillotine, threatened to exterminate the clergy : all fled that 
 «ould flee ; others resigned their ecclesiastical functions. 
 
 Gobert, bishop of Paris, with all his grand vicars, divested 
 themselves, at the bar of the convention, of their letters of 
 priesthood : Lindet and Gregorie followed their example. — 
 Seventy persons were guillotined in one day at Lyons ; on 
 the next day, sixty eight were shot, and eight guillotined. 
 
 The insurrection in La Vendee, now raged with violence ; 
 and the French arms under general Turreu, (afterwards min- 
 ister to the United Slates,) ravaged the country. Philosophy 
 now triumphed over religion, as well as over the clergy : the 
 convention abolished all religion, and decreed, " //lere was ?to 
 God, and that death was an eternal sleep.''* 
 
 CHAP. XL \ 
 
 Insurrection in La Vendee ; fall of Robespierre ; Grand dr- 
 
V/'AR IS LA VENDEE. 32D 
 
 misfice of La Vendee : Jacobin Insurredion ; death oj Lew- 
 is Ike son. of the king ; new constitution ; revolution in Hol- 
 land. 
 
 Tut: war in La Vendee now claimes some attention. Th(e 
 causes which produced these sanguinary and iiisir >s niig; 
 scenes, were the triumph of philosophy over relijiion, and 
 the triumph of phiJosophers over every vestige of moral vir- 
 tue, and the moral sytopathies. 
 
 They had anuouncod that the cl^raty could never have 
 raised this world and rendered it sub^^ervient to their domin- 
 ion and controu!,if they had not tix"<i ;ae lev^^r up.»n t ;o >lh- 
 er world. They had now struck awr-y all support of the lev- 
 er, an(i announced no God ; and funher. that doath was an 
 eternal sleep. That quiet after death, vvfiich had been pur- 
 chased with so many pilijri.'na2;es, crusidfs, or h)!}'^ war* — 
 by whole lives of penetential self denial, with the purchase of 
 so much money to obtain the viaticum of the holy unction, 
 was now rendered free to all, in the doctrine that " death was 
 an eternal sleep," 
 
 The churches of reliainn became republican tribunes, 
 wh re republicpn principles were to be preached, and (he 
 disciples of the philosophers to become the orators of the 
 day. The national convention decreed, " that the remains 
 of Mirabeau should be removed from the Pantheon, and those 
 of Marat be put in their place." 
 
 Under the sanction of these feelings and these principles, 
 the war raored in La Vr-ndee. Five hundred royahsts, pris- 
 oners in La Ven<lee, were shot by order of the commissioner 
 Leicuino ; the commissioners, Turreu and Prieur, announced 
 to the convention a terrible action in La Vendee — six thou- 
 sand slain, and three hundred driven into the Loire: this 
 rei'in of Robespierre drenched the convention and the nation 
 with blood. 
 
 January 1, 1794, Thomas Paine was arrested, and a dL'pii- 
 tation of Americans appeared at the bar of the convention to 
 petition for his release ; and to shew him not guilty, l}ut a 
 inii' aposlle of liberty. 
 
 Carrier made a report on the war in La Vendee, in which 
 he stated that more than 400 leagues were in arms ; that 
 (he rebels were more than 150,000 ; that in one battle were 
 slain more than 20,000 ; that 4 or 500 prisoners jterished dai- 
 ly, eidicr by sliooting or drowning, and that some pits con- 
 
330 FALL OF ROBESPIERRE. 
 
 tainecl 5000." (Their mode of drowning was to crowd the 
 hold of vessels with prisoners, set them afloat on tht: river, 
 scuttle the vessel, and let them sink.) 
 
 At this time, the convention decreed the people of color, 
 and blacks, in the French West India colonies, all free. A 
 terrible denunciation fell on thirteen members of the con- 
 vention, and was sealed with the guillotine ; amongst the 
 niimber, were Danton, Lacroix, Phillippeauz, &.c. Robes- 
 pierre triumphed again That jealousj and ambition which 
 railed throuiihout the nation, and marked its ravages with 
 blood, still raged in the convention and rendered that body 
 an a( eMoraa. 
 
 Old Mdesherbes, who defended Lewis XVF. at the aa^e of 
 seventy-eight, was now convicted of corresponding with the 
 enemy, and guillotined : and madam Elizabeth, sister to tlje 
 kins^, met the same fate. Cecilia Regnault, imitating the ex- 
 ample of Charlotte Corde, attempted to assassinate Robes- 
 pierre and Collot de Herbois, and met the fate of Charlotte 
 Corde, the next day — July 27. 
 
 The cup of veniteance was now full ; the tyranny of Ro- 
 bf spierre and his party, had now become insupportable : the 
 vials of wrath were ready to be poured out upon them ; they 
 were denounced, and their arrest ordered ; a gens de arms 
 attempted to seize the tyrant ; he attempted to defend him- 
 lelf with a knife ; a squabble ensued ; he was subdued ; an 
 act of outlawry passed against him ; he was ordered for im- 
 mediate execution, with Robespierre the younirer, Couthon, 
 fit. Just, and fifteen or twenty others, creatures of the tyrant ; 
 and next in turn was arrested, Tinville, public accuser to the 
 revolutionary tribunal. 
 
 In the njidst of these revolutionary scenes of distress, the 
 world was struck with a republican rhapsody from Geraud, 
 apon the subject of national education. After observing that 
 France was elevated upon the pinnacle of earthly splendor, 
 4hat the eyes of mankind were fixed upon those doctrines and 
 principles, which had effaced the ignorance, degradation and 
 slavery of fourteen centuries ; that the slaves of despotism 
 had been struck with a mortal terror ; a protecting divinity 
 had elevated her empire upon the smoking ruins of a throne, 
 and on the bloody remnants of expiring factions ; he ex- 
 claimed :— . 
 
 " Mandatories of a great nation ! Let us consecrate a dura- 
 ble monument to the rising generation ; the Areopagus of 
 
SUFFERINGS OF LA VENDEE. 331 
 
 Europe ought now to conrulidafe the m.-jestic edifice of our 
 immortal revolution, on the immovabte basis of puhli. in- 
 struction. Before we abirdon the helm of public affdirs, let 
 us announce to our cinstiruents, with a true republican bold- 
 ness, to France, to all Europe, that we contemplate with one 
 inviolable maxim, that without public education, the empire 
 of morals must be destroyi^*d." 
 
 That system of education thus contemplated, nunht to be 
 in'operaiion many centuries in France, to accomplish that 
 degree of intelliirence and information, amongst the lower 
 classes of her citizens, which could enable her to support a 
 republican government, even if she could be wholly di\Hfited 
 of her monarchical prejudices and habits; and her philoso- 
 phers, with all their boasted liijht and wisdom, ought to have 
 known this, or if thpy did know it, they ought not to have 
 bailt their ambitious schemes upon a foundation, which 
 must of course swim in blood. 
 
 We have again witnessed how the blood of the royal mar- 
 tyrs has again stained the convention. The followiri-- ex- 
 tract of a letter from tjeneral Danicamp will shew, how the 
 war raged in Li Vendee. " I will prove that old men w^re 
 murdered in their beds, that infants were murdered at their 
 mother's breasts, and that pregnant women were guillotined. 
 I will tell you in what place, at what time, and by whose or- 
 ders, I have seen ma^iazines of all kinds burned. Tiie prac- 
 ticf of drowning was not confined to Nantz, it extended thir- 
 ty leagues up the Loire : I will demonstrate that the men 
 who now assume the mask of philanthrophy, were then the 
 murderers." Immediately upon this, Carrier, commissioner 
 in Lh Vendee, was arrested and executed, for the horrid cm- 
 elti^^s practised by him in La Vendee. 
 
 February 19, 1795 — An armistice was concluded in La 
 Vendee, and Carnot presented to the convention a list of ttje 
 principal victories obtained in La Vendee this campaign — 
 viz : " twenty seven victories, of which eight were pitched 
 bHttles : 121 actions of less importance ; 80.000 enemies 
 slain, 9 1 ,000 taken prisoners ; 116 strong towns, or important 
 places taken, 36 of them by siege or blockade ; 230 forts or 
 redoubts; 3800 pieces of canon ; 70,000 muskets ; 1,000,000 
 lbs. of powder ; and 90 pair of colors — all within the space of 
 seventeen months " 
 
 May 5. — Fresh scenes of distress still await the devoted 
 city of Lyons, aod she is agaio doomed to a most shocking 
 
332 INSURRP.CTION OF PARIS. 
 
 Kiasfsfcrr, The not Jl i in?ill< ; (who progeculcd the queen) 
 wiJ- i»t5 Hcconiiji'ccs, '.yere rx-ciled at P«iis !he 12;h, id 
 on tlie 20fh a inost ''^f rible insu r-^cti m ; r '^e out in P iri.:-, <>a 
 fh' part of thf^ JHc buin, to recver the bhi'%' ihpy recfivvii bjr 
 th« fall of Robi spif^rre. The deputy Ferijt* i! was assasj^innt- 
 eri in the convention, and his head carried throujih the hail 
 stuck u|)on H poip : a strikin^i proof of the remark of Gerand 
 — "elevated upun the pinniele ofearfidy -piendour." 
 
 Nineteen perssius were guillotined in P iri?, for aiding in the 
 insurrection of the '20th of May. At fhis (iirsf, died in his pris- 
 on, Lewis, son of the late king Leivjs XVi. at:ed 11 years. 
 An address from the insurgent chiefs of Lh Vendee, to the 
 kiny; of England, expressive of their aratefid recoUectio'i of the 
 succor atforded them during their ardisoii^ strui^gle, and their 
 hopes of fut'ire aid; shewed, what all the w >rld supposed, that 
 this in5urrer/ii!>n was an effort of Easinrid, to weaken the 
 arms of France This, with other operations on the part of 
 Eujiland, led to a numerous meeting at Copenhaj;en-house 
 near London, to petition his majesty to discontinue the war. 
 
 At this eventful period, France, opened a new scene: a new 
 coniilitiition was framed, adopted, and a new legislature were 
 assembled Dec. 28, organized, and composed of a council of 
 ancients, and a council of five hundred, with an executive of 
 five, called the directory, who were installed in Paris Nov. 1 : 
 the plan of this executive was, that each should reijin in his 
 turn. On the 26th of Dec. Charlotte Anloniette, daughter of 
 Lewis XVi. was taken from the temple by the minister of the 
 interior, conducted to his own hot^l, and from thence sent to 
 Vienna, where she arrived safe — 1796. 
 
 At this time, parties ran hifdi in En-land ; Charles Fox 
 flasteredthe populace, and disturbed the government; their 
 m <jesties were insulted in the streets of London, and the toob 
 abused the king's servants. A revolution had con»menced 
 in Holland ; the stadtholder had retired to England with his 
 fan)ily. in January, 1795. The national convention of Hot- 
 land, was oro;anized March 1, 1796, and citizen PhiMus elect- 
 ed president An extract of the order of procession will be a 
 specimen of the genius of the Batavian Republic. — " Amongst 
 other dis|)lays in this splendid procession, appeared a waggon 
 covered with cloth so as to conceal its wlieels, having three 
 benches : on the hindermost, was seated an old man, bowed 
 down with, aue, canyitig a flag with this inscription :—' I liv- 
 ed in slavery ; but I rejoice in dying free. My posterity who 
 
REVOLUTION OF HOLLAND. 333 
 
 are before me, will feel all the benefits.' On the bench be- 
 fore the old man were seated two aged women, who repre- 
 sented his daughters; and before them were two men with 
 their children on their knees. The horses were led by four 
 youn^ men, the wa^tjon was surrounded by six burgeose with 
 drawn swords, preceded by a herald carrying a banner, with 
 this inscription : ' We will protect them that cannot protect 
 themselves ' The powerful effect of such a display of ad- 
 dress to the populace, is more readily felt than described." 
 
 The revolutionary principles which had spread into Eng- 
 land, distressed the government; the military were in con- 
 stant readiness to keep the peace : the c^overnment ordered a 
 national fast. The chief in the insurrection of La Vendee, 
 La Charette, was taken prisoner and, shot April 1. Pichegru, 
 who had succeeded La Fayette in Flanders, was now suc- 
 ceeded by Gen. Moreau, and prince Charles set out from Vi- 
 enna to command the Austrian armies. Mr. Pitt brought for- 
 ward his budget for a loan of 7,000,000, and Thomas Paine 
 amused the French directory, with a pamphlet upon the de- 
 cay and fall of the English system of finance ; which was or- 
 dered to be printed and distributed to all the members of the 
 I national council. On the 22d of June, the insurrection in La 
 I Vendee was wholly quelled, and the republic acknowledged* 
 
 I CHAP. XIL 
 
 ( 
 
 I Stale of France — moveinents of the Armies — Napoleon Bona^ 
 parte — peace with Spain — conquests in Italy — Milan. 
 
 We have now run over, in a cursory manner, the distress- 
 es of the interior of Prance, and have omitted the operations 
 of the armies for a separate detail, that the events might not 
 be blended together, and that the general occurrences might 
 be more distinctly marked. The operations of the armies 
 I now claim some attention. T/ie movements under generals 
 JDumourier and La Payette we have noticed, together with 
 ' the appointment of gen. Pichegru. We have shewn the jaco- 
 bin club to bp- the spring of all the movements of the national 
 I councils. We have shewn the origin of this revolutionary 
 ' mob, how it irevv int « p nver, by overbearing and destroying 
 I the Feuiilans. or moderates. 
 
334 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 These two factions afterwards, became blended in (be club, 
 and in the convention ; they were restrained from open 
 violence and hostility against themselves, during the life of 
 the royal martyrs : but when these objects of their attention 
 were removed, all restraint was withdrawn, and that balance 
 of power, which marked the strength of the parties in their 
 sentence upon the kins:, was at once turned upon itself. — 
 Thes^e were distinguished by the apellation of Giron<)ists, 
 aijd the Mountain ; of the latter, were Robespierre and the 
 Jacobins, 
 
 Under this government, Dumnurier carried the arms of 
 France into the heart of Austrian Flanders, and subdued 
 Bt leium^ — watched, resrulated, directed and controlled by 
 commissioners from the jacobin faction, in the national coun- 
 cil. These sowed the seeds of French philosophy, and 
 French liberty, by establishinsj revolutionary clubs in every 
 city they entered; these clubs inspired the conquered pro- 
 vinces, on all sides of France, to pour in their addresses to 
 the national council, congratulating them upon their succes- 
 es, and praying; to be incorporated with the jilorious republic. 
 
 In the midst of these flattering prospects, the scenes were 
 chafige<l — the low state of the finances of France called for 
 supplies to conduct her ambitious plans and operations ; the 
 Jacobins compellnd Dumourier «to levy contributions in the 
 conquered provinces; this excited alarm; these fell short 
 of the pressing exigences of the armies ; they ordered him to 
 rifle the churches, seize on the plate, and apply it to the use 
 of the army ; this struck a fatal blow — the Beljiians had not 
 yet imn^olated these altars to French philosophy, denoua- 
 ce«) their God, and buried their religion in the death of eter- 
 nal sleep. 
 
 Fired with a just indignation, they resisted the outrage ; 
 and by the assistance of the Prussians, drove the French out 
 of B^^Iiiium. To obviate this fatal rashness, as well as to 
 save the king — Dumourier and La Fayeite, attempted a com- 
 promise by nej;ociation ; both fell a sacrifice to jacobin fury, 
 and fled into exile. Gen. Pichegrn, (who succeeded to the 
 coiumarjd in 179i,) sensible of the rock, on which both par- 
 ties had split — by his popularity healed the breach, secured 
 the conquest of the Low Countries, ajul penetrated into Hol- 
 land. The Dutch, alarmed for their ?afVty, inundated tbeir 
 country about Amsterdam, and made a firm resi?*tanct. 
 
 In the month of January, 1795, the frosts were so severe, 
 
PALL OF AMSTERDAM, 335 
 
 that the ice became plipsible ; and Pirhetjru moved his army 
 across info AmsUnlam, and it fell an easy cuiquesr fo the 
 French. With the fall of Amsterdam, the other provinces 
 of Holland iell in quick succession : their Siadtholder and 
 bank wrre removed to En^ihtnd, January, 1795, and on the 
 Isr of March, the republic of Batavia was oraaniz* d. 
 
 The factions in ihe French convention, kept the example 
 of Cesar, in his triumph over the Roman republic, and the 
 example of General Monk, in the restoration of Charles I of 
 EfiirJaiifl, as great retlectinsi mirrors, constantly before their 
 eyes. To guard aiiainst a repetition of these examples, ihey 
 kept their commissioners with their armies, to watch t'jeir 
 generals. The successful campaign of general Picheirru. *^x- 
 pcsed him t(» this jealousy ; and tie was rej^ularly guc< ee tt;d 
 in command, b} iceru ral Moreau — who was appointe*! by 
 the convention, to lead the expediti;>n of the French army 
 upon the Rhine anci Moselle. 
 
 G»'neral Jourdan was appointed to the cowimand of anoth- 
 er army on the Meuse. The object of these two armies 
 was, to pursue the former plans of France, in their wars — 
 (as far back as Francis I.) to penetrate into Germany, form a 
 junction upon the Danube, and march <lf>wn to Vienna, and 
 there form a junction with another army, destined to pene- 
 trate by the way of Itnly and the Tyrol. The command of 
 this third army was entrusted to general Bonaparte, who was 
 raised to this important command, at the me of twenty five. 
 Asfhiscampaiofn was one of the most important the French 
 had then ever witnessed, on the side of Ualy, I will give a 
 short sketch of the ori,^in of this young hero of France. 
 
 Napoleo • Bonaparte, was born on the island of Corsica, in 
 the year 1769 ; he received his education, partly in France, 
 and partly at Pidia, in Italy, at the loilitary school : he en- 
 tered the French service, as a mililarj'^ adventurer, and pas- 
 .sed without much notice, until the famous massacre of Paris, 
 on the 10th of Auaust ; here he so distinguished himself by 
 his coolness and firmness, in protecting the directory, that 
 they raised him to the command of the army of flaly. Whea 
 he had accepted the trust, he was interrogated by some 
 friends, with this question : " Are you not too younii a awo, 
 to take command upon so distant an expedition .?" to w-tirh 
 t'se young 'general replied — *' 1 shall be older when I - • .;e 
 bacjv." 
 
 Spain, at this time, made a part of the coalition against 
 
336 GENERAL BONAPARTE, 
 
 France. General Bonaparte made a sadden movement with 
 his army towards Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, eutered the 
 northern provinces, without mwch opposition, settled a sepa- 
 rate peace, returned into France, and pursued his march into 
 Italy. On the plains of Monlenotte, he gained his first victo- 
 ry, over general Bolieu ; his second victory over the united 
 Austrians and Piedmontese at Milessimo ; and his third, 
 at Mondovi, over the same forces; and he announced to the 
 directory, the capture of twenty-one stands ot colors. The 
 following extract of an address, published by genera! Bona- 
 parte, to the municipalities of Milan and Pavia. may serve as 
 a specimen of the artful policy of general Bonaparte. 
 
 " Ttie sciences, which do honor to the human, mind ; and 
 the arts, which embellish human life, and transmii illustrious 
 actions to p{»sterity, should be peculiarly respected in ail tif e 
 gov;rnmenls. Ail men of genius, all who have obtained a 
 distinuuished rank in the repufjiic of letters, are Frenchmen^ 
 whatever may be the country in which they were born. The 
 states of Milan did not enjoy the consideration to which they 
 were entilled : inclosed in the recesses of their laboratories, 
 they esteemed themselves tiappy, if the kiuiis and priests 
 were good enough to do the-n no harm. At this day, it is 
 not so : opinions are free in Italy, ir^quisitions, intolerance, 
 and despots are no more. 
 
 *' I invite the learned to assemble, and to propose to me, 
 their views, their names, or the assistance they may want, to 
 give new life and existence, to the sciences and fi-e arts. All 
 tho?e who may be desirous of goini to France, shall be re- 
 ceived with distinction by the government. The people of 
 France, seta greater value upon the acquisition of a learned 
 mathematician, a painter of reputation, or any distinguished 
 man, whatever may be his profession, than in the possession 
 ot the richest, and most abundant city. Be you then, citi- 
 zens, the organ of these sentiments, ti) all persons in the Mi- 
 lanese, distinguished for their learning." 
 
 The effects of this popular stroke were best expressed by 
 the exhibition of popular applause, which witnessed his tri- 
 umphant entry into the city of Milan. Gen. Bonaparte was 
 me< by a deputation of the council general, who presented 
 him with the keys ; the deputation, with the archbishop at 
 thesr head accompanied by ttie magistrates and nobless-, with 
 their splendid equipages, fallowed thn iien'-ral in grand pro- 
 cession, as he advanced into the city of Milan, preceded by 
 
CAI«PAIGN OF ITALY. 337 
 
 a large detachment of infantry, and his guards — the national 
 guard of the Milanese closed the procession. 
 
 This procession moved with great order to the archducal 
 palace, as the quarters of the general, where he was entertain- 
 ed with a grand dinner of two hundred covers ; French and 
 Italian music graced the scene with alternate airs — vive la 
 liberty, vive la republicli\\ei\ tlie great square around the tree 
 of liherty. The ladies of Milan, dressed in the national colors 
 of France, gave splendor to a ball, which closed this scene 
 of general hilarify. General Bonaparte moved to Verona ; 
 he also seized on Loretto and Ancona, cities of the papal do- 
 minions, and at the same time, concluded an armistice with 
 the king of Naples— which the general announced to the di- 
 rectory. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 Battle of Castifrlione — brids:e of Lodi — panic of the 4000 — 
 sieo;e of Mantua — campaign of the Rhine, Meuse and Mo- 
 selle — victories of Prince Charles— fall ofKehi — of Mantua, 
 
 An action commenced at Castiglione, which lasted five 
 days successively ; the Austrians and Italians werecomuiand- 
 ed by old tield mareschal Wurmser, in which the French 
 were victorious ; 70 field pieces, with all their cnissons, 6000 
 killed and wounded, and 15,000 prisoners, were the trophies 
 of this victory. 
 
 At the memorable bridge of Lodi, the Austrians had plant- 
 a strong park of artillery, resolved to make a tirm resistance, 
 and check the French. At sight of the enemy, general Bo- 
 naparte ordered the charge ; the order was obeyed ; the 
 destructive fire of grape-shot caused the French to halt at the 
 bridge, and shew some disorder ; general Bonaparte advanc- 
 ed, seized a standard, and exclaime«l, " follow your gene- 
 ral :" the bridge and whole park of artillery were carried ; 
 the Austrians were broken, and put to tiigbt, and the victory 
 was complete. An adroitness of general B(maparte at the 
 close of this action, will serve to shew the power of his mili- 
 tary fame, and the g;eneral panic of the enemy. General 
 Bonaparte repaired after the action to tiie village of Lonado, 
 with 1200 of his guards, to reconnoiter the enemy ; a body 
 
 29 
 
33^ CAMPAIGN OF ITALY, 
 
 of 4000 Austrians which had been severed from the main ar- 
 my, appeared at Lonado, and summonsed the pla«:e ; general 
 Bonaparte returned for answer — " Go and tell your general 
 that the commander of the army of Italy is here, with his 
 brave troops ; and that if he with his division do not lay 
 down their arms in eis^ht minutes, he, with ail the general offi- 
 cers, shall be responsible for the insult, and be sacrificed with- 
 out mercy." The whole column of 4000 surrendered im- 
 mediately. At this time, his holiness alarmed for the safely 
 of the ecclesiastical states, published an edict prohibiting all 
 maledictions against Frenchmen. 
 
 After the decisive action of Casti^lione, general Wurmser 
 fell back into Mantua, and secured his n^treat in this strong 
 fortress, which is the great key between Italy and the Tyrol : 
 this movement prevented general Bonaparte from penetra- 
 ting to Vienna. General Berthier, in the namp of the com- 
 mander in chief, summoned the governor of Mantua to sur- 
 render — and received for answer; "July 17. — ^The laws of 
 honor and duty, compel me to defend to the last extremity, 
 the place entrusted to me. I have the honor, &lc " 
 
 The general successes of the armies, had excited through- 
 out France genera! energies. The government and the na- 
 tion had recovered a general tranquillity ; the general joy 
 these had diffused, was expressed by a grand celebration at 
 Paris of the memorable fall of Robespierre. With the fall of 
 Robespierre, fell the bloody sovereio;nty of jacobinism. 
 
 At this time a division of the French army entered Leg- 
 horn, and seized property to the amount of eight millions of 
 livres. Aug. 14. — General Bonaparte gained three actions 
 over the Austrians, at Coronna, Montebaldo, Proabolo, and 
 pushed his victories to Roverdo. These victories destroyed, 
 with a terrible catnage, the army sent to the relief of Mantua. 
 Again, on the 16th of September, he was successful at the 
 action of Cavela. During the sietje of Mantua, general Mar- 
 mont, aid-decamp to general Bonaparte, was announced, 
 and presented to the directory by the minister at war, who 
 by an address pronounced this eulogy : " Posterity will 
 scarcely credit the evidence of history, that in one campaign, 
 all Italy was conquered ; that three armies were successive- 
 ly destroyed ; that upwards of fifty stands of colors remained 
 in the bands of the victors ; that 40,000 Austrians laid down 
 their arms ; in fine, that 30,000 Frenchmen, under a general 
 of twenty- five years old, had accomplished all this." 
 
GAMPAIGN OF ITALY. 339 
 
 During these operations of the armies,. England sent lord 
 Maiiiishury to Paris, to arrest the progress of the French arms 
 hy a peaee ; the negocialion failed, and he returned to Lon- 
 don, October 26. 
 
 Durintj; the memorable siege of Mantua, the emperor of 
 Germany sent down two armies, to co operate with t!.e gar- 
 rison for the rt lif'f of Mantua : these were destroyed in the 
 baMles last mentioned. A third army from Vienna now ap- 
 pi^ared, composed of recruits and volunteers, all young men, 
 the flower of Austria. To give spirit, dignity and energy to 
 this i-nterprise, the empress presented one regiment of vohm- 
 teers with a standard, wrought with her own hands. General 
 Wurmser commenced a sortie with the garrison^to co-operate 
 W'iih this army ; he was too soon, his sortie was rep*^lled. 
 G'oeral Bcmftparte next turned his whole attention to the ad- 
 vancing army ; they w^re destroyed with a dreadful carnage. 
 The king of Naples made terms with the conqueror of Italy, 
 antl si<^ned a peace. Mantua was now closely invested. 
 
 Wt^ will now turn our attention to the armies of the Rhine, 
 Meuse and Moselle, under the command of generals Moreau 
 and Jourdan, and opposed by the hero of Austria, prince 
 Charles. On the 26th of June, general Moreau crossed the 
 bridge at Strasburg with his army, took the strong fortress of 
 K^'hl, and advanced into Suabia, to meet prince Charles. At 
 Renchen he gained a very considerable victory, and took 
 1200 prisoners from the Austrians, June 28. On the 9th of 
 July, general Moreau defeated prince Charles near Ettingea 
 in a severe action : the Austrians retired, and the French pur- 
 sued, and on the 18th advanced with rapid strides into the 
 heart of Germany. This alarmed the duke of Wirtemburg, 
 and brought him to such terras, as occasioned a suspension of 
 arms between him and general Moreau. This successful 
 general concluded at the same time an armistice with the 
 margrave of Baden, continued to pursue prince Charles, cros- 
 sed the river Neckar, and made peace witti the circle of Sua- 
 bia. General Jourdan penetrated into Germany, upon the 
 M^nse, at the fame time, took the city of Frankfort, and levi- 
 ed a contribution of six million of livres in cash, and two million 
 in supplies, July 22. At the same time the strong fortress of 
 Koenighotfen surrendered to a division of Jourdati's army, 
 commanded by general Lefebre. August 5, general Moreau 
 met with a check from prince Lichtensteio, near Kircbein; 
 this he recovered by an attack upon Ntre>-he»m, the Austri- 
 ans were routed, acd the French carried the place. 
 
340 DEFEAT OF GEN. JOURDAN, 
 
 Alarmed at these rapid strides of France in Italy and Ger- 
 many, the emperor issued a proclamation to ail his subjects, 
 to rally around the standard of their country, their constitu- 
 tion, and the laws, and thus concluded : *' Behold the still 
 smoking ruins of Ital}', the excesses and most inhuman cru- 
 elties conimitted there ! Behold the devastation which the 
 once flourishing territories of Germany have suffered, inun- 
 dated by the armies of the enemy, and you cannot remain 
 dubious about the terrible fate which threatens every coun- 
 try, and every nation, on beinji invaded by such terrible ene- 
 mies." The armies continued their movements. Prince 
 Charles made a sudden movement and attacked general Jour- 
 dan — a terrible conflict ensued for fourteen hours ; the field 
 was disputed with such obstinate valor that the conflict ceas- 
 ed upon the field of action, throujih excessive fatigue ; the 
 carnage was terrible, both parties withdrew. The next day 
 general Moreau advanced and took possession of Nordlingen, 
 and anotlicr severe action near Donawert compelled Prince 
 Charles to retire and cross the Danube. General Jourdan 
 advanced and took possession of Newark and Castel. The 
 Austrians retired behind the river Nab. 
 
 Alarmed again for the fate of Germany, the emperor issued 
 another proclamath)n, calling on the kingdom of Bohemia to 
 to enroll a militia for the safety of that kingdom. A junction 
 now took place between prince Charles and general Werten- 
 sleben — the prince availed himself of this united force, attack- 
 ed Jourdan, and drove him from his position on the Nab, 
 with the loss of 7000 men ; this junction, and this action open- 
 ed an advantage to general Moreau, which he improved by a 
 .splendid victory near the Lech, which opened a passage for 
 the French arms into the heart of Bavaria ; Munich and 
 Augsburg, were the trophies of these victories, August 23d 
 and 24th. The elector of Bavaria sued for peace. A treaty 
 of alliance offensive and defensive, was signed August 29, 
 between France and Spain. Prince Charlf^s continued to 
 press Jourdan, and he retired behind the Mayne, and from 
 tht-nce to Hamelberg, with the loss of 4000 men. The peace 
 concluded this campaign in Germany, with the smaJI states 
 near the Rhine, laid the foundation of that league which after- 
 wards became the confederation of the Rhine. 
 
 This masterly stroke of Prince Charles, in uniting with 
 Wertensl^ben to overpower Jourdan, reridered the advance 
 of Moreau into the heart of Bavaria easy ; but when a sue- 
 
PALL OF MANTUA. 341 
 
 cession of victories over Jourdan had weakened his force, 
 and comptflhd him to retire, general Mc'reau was k'>tex}».'S- 
 ed : he aoou felt his critical situation, and aUeinpted lO extri- 
 cate himself by a seasonable retreat ; in which he acquu*<;d 
 more honor, than in his victorious advance. 
 
 The Autslrians pressed the French close and severe ; and 
 even the peasantry took up arms hi revenjie their suff^riniis. 
 In the midst of this pursuit in Suabia. Moreau made a bold 
 attack upon the advance jiiuard of the Auslrians, trained a de- 
 cided advantage, killed, took and wounded 5,000 men, with 
 twenty pieces of cannon. 
 
 September 2. — Generals Jourdan and Moreau, continued 
 to retire before the overpowering- force of prince; Charles, re- 
 crossed the Hhine. and entered France, leaving a strong foice 
 in the fortress of K' hi. 
 
 This fortress was invested by prince Charles, with all the 
 ardour of a conqueror ; the garrison made a desperate resis- 
 tance : prince Charles, anxious to detach a part of this vic- 
 torious army to the relief of Mantua, which continued to be 
 close invested by general Bonaparte, and impatient of every 
 inoment's delay, brought his whole force to bear upon Kehl ; 
 and after a resistance of forty days, under the most desr-perale 
 encounters, the prince carried Kehl by a general assault ; and 
 drew off part of his army to the relief of Mantua. The same 
 day, Mantna fell a conquest to the conqueror of Italy, about 
 the 1st of February, 1797. 
 
 CHAP. XIV, 
 
 Suhynlssion of ike Pope — triumphs of the campni^yi — treaty 
 ofCampo Fonnio — armament of Toulon — capture of Malta 
 — battle of the Nile — conqupst ofEgypt—clpjeatat Acre — 
 general Bonaparte returns to Egypt — to France — new coa- 
 lition. 
 
 With the fall of Kehl and Mantua, the illustrious and splen- 
 did campaign of 1796, closed j^eneraliy. On the 17lh of No- 
 vember, died Catharine li. empress of Russia : and the great 
 duke P tul. succeeded to the throne. After the fall of Man- 
 tua, all further resistance on the jiart of Austria, ceased in Ita- 
 ly j and general Bonaparte advanced into the states of th* 
 
 29^ 
 
242 SUGCESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 pope under a fruitless resistance, and threatened Rome. His 
 holiness addresst-d an affectionate letter to general Bona- 
 parte, under the tender appellation of My dear son, and by 
 bis envoys sued for peace : to which the general replied, with 
 the rf spt^cttul appellation of HolyJaihei\ settled a peace, and 
 retired into the Tyrol, to meet prince Charles : a terrible ac-^ 
 tion enswed — general Bonaparte was victorious, and prince 
 Charles retreated with precipitation into the heart of Austria. 
 
 The emperor took the alarm, and sued for peace ; a truce 
 of six days was granted by general Bonnparte ; a conference 
 WHS «>pened, the preliminHries drawn, and the peace of Cam- 
 po Formio, guaranteed to France all her conquests in Italy. 
 
 At this time a general sketch of the successes of the war, 
 was published at Paris, siatinu, " that from the 8th of Febru- 
 ary, 1793, to the 19th of February, 1797 — France had gained 
 261 victories, including 31 pitched battles ; killed 162,000 of 
 the enemy ; taken 197,784 prisoners, 288 strong places, 319 
 forts, camps, or redoubts, 7.966 pieces of cannon, 187,762 
 guns, 4,318,150 pounds of powder, 207 standards. 6,486 
 hordes, ^c. &:c. This treaty stipulated with the emperor of 
 Gi many for t le release of the marquis La Fayette from the 
 prison of Olmufs ; and the marquis, ^ifh his wife and dauah- 
 ter returned into France. Lord Malmsbury was sent, the 
 SOfh of June, by the English court to negotiate a peace at 
 Lnle, and returned the 1st of September without effecting his 
 purpose. 
 
 At this time, the republic of Genoa was united to France, 
 under tite name of the Ligurian republic. The young hero 
 of Italy now returned in triumph to France, November 24, 
 1797, after having accomplished in one campaign what Lewis 
 the XI ( harles VIII. Lewis XI Francis 1. Charles IX. Hen- 
 ry IV. Lewis XIV. and XV kings of France, had. each in his 
 reii.'n attempted to accomplish, at the expense of the best 
 blood and treasures of France, and failed. This young hero 
 was not only "older when came back," but illustrious in 
 arms; the trump of fame had proclaimed the successes of 
 this ever memorable canipai^n, to France, to Europe, and -to 
 the world. Alarmed «t the triumphant popularity of the con- 
 queror of laly, upon his return into France, the directory be- 
 gan to tremble in their seats, and to provide for their safety ; 
 this they soon found in their fleet at Toulon. 
 
 The directory assembled and equipped this fleet, with all 
 possible expedition; consisting of 17 ships of the line, and 
 
BATTLE OF ABOUKIR, 343 
 
 15.000 men, destined for a secret expedition upon foreign 
 service, and gave the command to eeneral Bitniparte. On 
 the 9fb of April, 1798. general Bonaparte lefl Paris, and re- 
 paired to TtJulon to take the command of this armament; 
 and on the 19th set sail. This fleet was watched by au Eng- 
 lish fleet of an equal force, under the command of Lord Nel- 
 son, off the straits of Gibraltar, to intercept their passage to 
 Ireland, should they attempt it, as was then contemplated. 
 
 Upon the first tidings of the sailino of the Toulon fleet, his 
 lordship pursued up the Mediterranean, and at Malta I+^arnt 
 the fafe of that island, which the French had taken in their 
 passatie. He next sailed to the coast of Egypt, and recon- 
 noitered the bay of Aboukir. Not findint; the French flt-et, 
 he sailed to the coast of Syria. Not finding the French upon 
 this coast, he returned to Ejiypt ; and to his ^reat joy dis- 
 covered the fleet in the bay of Aboukir, anchored close un- 
 der the forts and batteries of the harbor, in the form of a cres- 
 cent, at the distance of about one cable's len<£th from each 
 other, with the Lc- Orient, admiral Brueyes, in the centre. 
 
 During his lordship's passage to, and return from Syria, 
 the French fleet had arrived, anchored in the bay, and land- 
 ed the general with his army, &,c. His lordship, on the afier- 
 noonofthe 1st of August, upon his first arrival, gave an im- 
 mediate signal for an attack, in the following order: — The 
 fleet to advance in two divisions ; the first to pass within the 
 French, between their fleet and the land ; the second division 
 to p ss without their fleet, the two van ships to engase the 
 Le Orient in the centre of the French fleet, and the other 
 sbi{?8 to engage the ships of the French lying between them. 
 The signal was obeyed without any other accident, than the 
 grounding of the Cullodeu, in the first attempt to pass be- 
 tween the French and the land : this ship serv< d as a guide to 
 the rest of the division, and had no share in the action. 
 
 In this position of the two fl^-ets, the action commenced ; 
 the conflict was terrible ; the Frenah made a desperate re- 
 sistance ; but before the half O' their fleet v^^hich were not en- 
 gaged, could slip their cables, and come into action, the Le 
 Orient took fire, and blew up, with an explosion which shook 
 the deep to its centre, and filled the dark vault of heaven 
 with its blaze. The rest of the fleet engaired, were silenced 
 and taken ; and the half which were not engaged, were all 
 taken in the bay, except two — these were afterwards taken 
 at sea. Thus fell at one fatal blow the vast armament of 
 
344 DEFEAT AT AGRB. 
 
 Toulon. Not so the general — he with his arnoy were upoii 
 the heights of Alexandria, witnessing the destruction of his 
 fleet, in the midst of a cannonade whose flashina; thunders, 
 like the bursting of Etna, fililed with horror the solemnity of 
 the night scene, and diffused terror and distress through the 
 horrors of the t^looni. 
 
 General Bonaparte planted his eagles, without opposition, 
 upon the walls of Alexandria ; from thence, by easy marches 
 he penetrated to Cairo, which, in its turn, fell an easy con- 
 quest. The resistance of the beys was feeble ; the conquer- 
 or brought them into subjection by an artful policy, flattering 
 some, encouraging others in their party quarrels, and subdu- 
 ing the obstinate by force. By these means, he soon placed 
 himelf at their head, as a conqueror, and at Grand Cairo he 
 settled the government, and gave law to Egypt. General 
 Bonaparte left a small force to protect his new government, 
 and marched his army into Syria, to plant his eagles at Jeru- 
 salem, and ^ive law to that country. 
 
 His march was rapid and unmolested, until he appeared 
 before tho coramandinjj city of St. Jean de Acre, (a seaport 
 of Syria ;) it became absolutely necessary to conquer this 
 place before he could accomplish his plan. He set down be- 
 fore the city, opened his trenches, and b* sian the attack ; up- 
 on the tirst appearance of a breach, he ordered an assault — 
 the attempt was made, but the desperate resistance of the be- 
 siejied, atided to a galling fire from the small squadron of Sir 
 Sidney Smith, (which raked the French from the bay as they 
 a«lvanced to the charge,) obliged the columns to retire ; tjen- 
 eral Bonaparte ordered the charge to be renewed — the 
 French advanced with threat firmness and impetuosity ; the 
 conflict was terrible ; the trenches before the city were filled 
 with heaps of slain; the resistance was desperate; the 
 French retired ; and niuht closed the awful conflict. The 
 next day, the general ordered the assault to be renewed ; 
 the issue became the same. S(un2 with chagrin at the re- 
 pulse of his invincible legions, and fired with indifination at 
 the obstinate resistance, he ordered the assault to be renew- 
 ed : his army exhausted with the fatigues and distresses of 
 the conflict, and shocked with the horrid stench of their com- 
 rades, who lay in heaps in the trenches, (now become putrid 
 by the heat of the climate,) and over whom they had to march 
 to the assault ; one regiment dared to disobey the order- 
 Struck with aatonisbmeut at the bold refusal, and fearing a 
 
OEN. BONAPARTE RETURNS. 345 
 
 general revolt, the hero of Italy, and conqueror of Egypt, 
 abandoned his enterprise ; beat a retreat ; led back his army 
 into Egypt, and returned to Cairo. Here he i;ave a srand 
 fete in honor of the conquest of Syria, and inflicted a severe 
 punishment upon the regiment which disobeyed at Acre, by 
 causing them to march in review, with their arms reversed, 
 and slung behind their backs. This severity of punishment, 
 settled again the discipline of his army. 
 
 General Bonaparte settled the government of Egypt, pro- 
 ceeded to Alexandria, where he ordered a frigate to be in 
 readiness to attend him, wrote, and delivered a sealed letter 
 to general Kleber, selected his favorite general Berthier, em- 
 barked on board the frigate, and set sail for France. 
 
 When the time had expired for general Kleber to open his 
 letter, he found to his astonishment, that the general had 
 abandoned his army, returned to France, and appointed hina 
 his successor in the army of Egypt. General Kleber shewed 
 to the general officers his new commission, and assumed the 
 command in general orders. 
 
 General Bonaparte, after several hair-breadth escapes from 
 
 the English cruizers, arrived in France ; landed near the 
 
 {place where he had embarked the preceding year, and re- 
 
 t paired directly to Paris. Here he was hailed as the deliver- 
 
 ' cr of France. 
 
 During his absence, new scenes had been opened, new and 
 , distressing events had occurred. The arms of France had 
 I been weak* ned, her resources had declined, the confidence 
 ' and energies of the nation had sunk, the government ent^.e- 
 bled, and the constituuou almost a cypher. France, in his 
 '] absence, fitted out the Brest fleet, with troops to assist the 
 insurgents in Ireland ; they were taken and destroyed by the 
 I English on their passage, and the expe<lition failed. 
 
 A new coalition was formed December 18, 1798, between 
 ' England, Russia and Austria, to co-operate in the war against 
 JF'ance. Old field mareschal Snwarrow was appoiht* <! to 
 J ih' comniijud of the Russian and Austrian army, destined to 
 1 the conquest of Italy. This army to be paid by England and 
 Austria. 
 
 CHAP. xr. 
 
 General Suwarrow enters Italy— bailie of Smitzerland-^inva- 
 
346 DEFEAT OF GEN. SUWARROW. . 
 
 sion of Holland — General Ronnparte first consul — hatUeoJ ' 
 Marengo — infernal machine — northern anned neutrality — 
 peace of Limeville-^—war between Spain and Forlugcd — bat- 
 tle of Copenhagen, 
 
 General Suwarrnw entered Italy by the way of the Ty- 
 rol. The city <»f Mantua fell an ensy conquest ; together 
 with the other cifies* ?«r Italy, taken by general Bonaparte, and 
 the French generals McDonald, 4n<rereau and others, retired 
 before the conqueror. At this time the war raged generally ; 
 general Jourdan crossed the Rhine and took Mnnheim, March 
 2, 1799. General Bonaparte was then in Syria. General 
 Massena was stationed in Switzerland, where he was watch- 
 ed by prince Charles upon the Rhine, and another Austrian 
 artny which lay towards Vienna. Suwarrow in his march, 
 took possession of all the cities and strong hohls in Italy, in 
 the name of the emperor of Russia : this excited jealousy JMid 
 distrust in the coalition. England checked her supplies, Aus- 
 tria grew cold ; prince Charles neglected the necessary ac- 
 ranj^emects, to form a necessary co-operation. 
 
 As Suwarrow approached Switzerland, to attack Massena, | 
 the French general anticipated his movements, commenced . 
 a desperate attack upon the Austrian army which watched 
 him on the side of Vienna, routed and destroyed it, before 
 Su varrow could pass the mountains and afford assistance. 
 H«^ then by a sadden movement fell upon Suwarrow with his ! 
 victorious troops ; the conflict was short, but terrible ; Su- 
 ivarrow was beaten, obliged to take advantage of the moun- 
 tains, tile off into Germany, and secure his retreat. Here he|| 
 proposed to form a junction with prince Charles, who refused.*; 
 
 This old hero of the north, this champion over the Turks,!; 
 this conqueror of Warsaw and of Italy, was recalled by his]; 
 master, banisDed*the court, and died in disgrace. Massena^ 
 held his strong position in Switzerland. The Austrian army '. 
 in Italy advanced and laid siege to Genoa ; the English^ 
 in CO operation with Russia made a descent np^jm Holland,j' 
 anil took and carried off the Dutch fleet, September 1 ; att- 
 the same time they landed a strong force under the com-,| 
 mand of the duke of York, and attempted the conquest of' 
 H diand. This opened a new scene — the Dutch and French| 
 uoited their f<»rces, and by a succession of victories, the' 
 Dike of Ynrk, with his Efiffiish and Russian army, were com-^ 
 pelled to sign a convention, and resign up the Dutch fle^tr 
 
BATTLE OF MAftEN'^GO, 347 
 
 which they had carried off a few months before, as a pledge 
 for the safe embarkation of their army. This convention was 
 the second volume of the old convention of closter seven in 
 Hanover, in the oid seven years war. 
 
 In the midst of these events, general Bonaparte arrived at 
 Paris, by the efforts of his friends put himself at the head of 
 a small military force, appeared at the hall of the national 
 council, entered with his sword drawn, and at the point of the 
 bayonet dissolved their sitting and power, locked up the hall, 
 took the key, and retired Sieyes and others of the directo- 
 ry were in the secret — they immediately fram^^d a new con- 
 stitution, after the form of the old Roman consular gov* rn- 
 ment, with three consuls, a senate, &.c. and general Bona- 
 parte was elected first consul for ten years, December 13, 
 1799. During the operations in Holland, the English seiued 
 on the city of Rome, and the Roman States in Italy. The 
 consul addressed a letter to the king of En^rland on the sub- 
 ject of peace, and at the same time assembled an army of re- 
 serve at Dijon ; organized the government put himself at the 
 head of the army of Dijon, crossed the Alps, and appear»"d 
 on the plains of Italy before the Austrian general (who was 
 I pressing the siege of Genoa) had knowledge of his move- 
 1 roents. Placed between two fires, he raised the sieye and 
 retired to meet the consul, who awaited him on the plains of 
 Marengo : here the conflict which was to decide the fate of 
 Italy, commenced, in the morning; the Au^trians advanced 
 I on to the plain, the consul retired and took his position in a 
 j strong defile in a pass of the mountains ; the conflict was 
 I desperate, the consul resisted the impetuosity of the Austrian 
 ^ attacks, until a column of fresh troops, (posted by desiitn fif- 
 teen miles distant) were conveyed in waggons to the scene of 
 action ; this column, with their brave general Dessaix at their 
 head, entered the pass, and rushed like a torrent upon the 
 plain, overwhelming all opposition ; the conflict was short, 
 I the carnaae terrible, and the gallant Dessaix crowned with 
 his death the victory of Marengo. This action was of itself 
 a campaign ; the army of Austria was destroyed, her power 
 j in Italy subdued, and all Italy recovered to France. The 
 " consul, by a rapid movement, entered Milan without opposi- 
 I tion, and enjoyed the triumph. June 4th, — He dispersed 
 j the remnant of the Austrians at Montebello, and settled an 
 1 armistice for Italy, June lOtb, and established the Cisalpine 
 I Republic. The movements on the Rhine, had been stayed 
 I during these important Diovement« of the consul. 
 
 I 
 
348 CONVENTION OF LUNEVILLE. 
 
 On the 18th of July, Gen. Mor^au gained an important vic- 
 tory over the Austrians at Blenhein, and again at Newburg on 
 th<^ 28lh ; these successes were followed by preliminaries of 
 peace, which were si^^ned at Paris, July 28, 1800. Paul em- 
 peror of Russia, made the first motion for a convention, for 
 an armed neutrality, which was followed by a convention of 
 all the northern powers, Dec. 24. At this time an attempt 
 was made upon the life of the 1st Consul by the infernal ma- 
 chine (so called) as he rode to the theatre ; this ma- 
 chine was about the size of a barrel, filled with gunpowder, 
 and spikes, ballets, &.c. instruments of death, with a machine- 
 ry to strike fire for an explosion, like the torpedo, which 
 could be regulated for any particular time. This machine 
 was placed in the way of the Consul where his carriage would 
 pass, that evening, to the opera, and the explosion took effect, 
 directly after the Consul had passed ; the shock and alarm 
 were great, some of the materials were thrown over the tops 
 of the houses, but no essential damage was done. The Con- 
 sul passed on to the opera, without regarding the event, staid 
 the usual time, and retired. ^Notwithstanding the prelimina- 
 ries of peace were signed between France and Austria, the 
 French pushed their advances in Italy, and Germany ; they 
 seized on Tuscany, and met with a check in Italy, which oc- 
 casioned the armistice of Treviso. They penetrated on the 
 Danube near to Vienna, which caused the convention of Lune- 
 ville, between Austria and France, Jan. 28, 1801. The de- 
 finitive treaty was signed Feb. 23. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1801, the English assembled a fleet 
 at St. Marmorice, for the purpose of conquerinji Eijypt — the 
 command of this armament was jiiven to Lord Kf ilh, and he 
 set sail on the 27th of February; all Eiypt was subdued in 
 one campaign ; the French army taken by capitulation, and 
 sent back to France, and Egjpt was restored to the TurUs, 
 May 1803. At this time Spain proclaimed war against Por- 
 tugal, which was settled in one month by the treaty of Bada- 
 jos. A new convention was now effected between England 
 and Russia, and the preliiDinaries of a general peace were 
 signed at London, Oct. 1, 1801. The storm of war was now 
 hushed throughout the world, for the first time since the year 
 1793. The northern confederacy in 1800, which supported 
 their armed neutrality, gave a general alarm in Enj^land; they 
 reuiembfTHd the depredations which formerly ravaged their 
 island, from the mouth of the Baltic, and they were jealous 
 
BATTLE OF COPENHAGEN, 34? 
 
 of this confederacy, and resolved to suppress it. T!ie Eng- 
 lish laid an embargo upon all the ships and vessels of Russia, 
 Denmark and Sweden , and dispatched a fleet, under the 
 command of lord Nelson, to attack the Danish tieet in the 
 harbor of Copenhagen, Au^. 1 80 1 . The Danes collected their 
 whole fleet, to the number of twenty-eight sail of the line, in 
 the harbor of Copenhagen, under the cover of their forts and 
 batteries ; they also constructed a number of floating batteries 
 for the occasion, and put their harbor in the best possible 
 state of defence. Lord Nelson entered the Baltic sound, 
 and with great labor, warped his fleet through the passage, 
 Wuere a fleet had never passed before, and by this mtaii?, 
 entered the harbor of Copenhagen with a fair wind. The 
 Danes were prepared, and the action commenced : here the 
 thunders of Aboukir were renewed . the attack was tierce 
 and terrible — the resistance firm, desperate and bloody. The 
 caruaae oii board the batteries was so great, that they uvre 
 repeatedly manned from the shores, with fresh troops. Tne 
 cannonade from the fleets, the batteries, the forts and the 
 shores, was awfully sublime ; their thunders shook the land, 
 the ocean and the heavens : the fleets swam in blood : the 
 D ines were subdued ; and awful was the scene of silence, so- 
 lemnity and ii;loom that ensued. His lordship landed in per- 
 son, attended the king, settled a peace, and conducted the 
 shattered remnins of the Danish fleet in triuaiph to England. 
 This p"ace severed the northern confederacy, and brougtit 
 Russia into an alliance against France. 
 
 CHAP. xvr. 
 
 Revolution in St. Domingo — cliaracter of the Black Chiefs — 
 conquest of Uartoier— first Consul clioseufor lif — inadeeni- 
 
 I peror of France — .Jusiriaii war—^fall of Vicjina — battle of 
 Aasterlitz — peace with Jiastria — tvar bettveen England and 
 
 ] Spain. 
 
 A general joy was diffused throuijhont Europe and Ameri- 
 'ca. This was of short continuance — the rage of lib»M'ty .ind 
 Jequaliiy in France, early in the ro volution, had abolished ^i ive- 
 ry in ull the Freiicii W^est-India l-:l.iiids; a violent revolus >n 
 lof liberty and equality commenced immediately at St. Do 
 ' 30 
 
350 WAR OF ST. ©OMINGO. 
 
 mingo, which raged with all (he horrors of rapine, murdersj 
 massacres and confiscation; (he beauiiful (own of Cape Fran- 
 cois was in ruins, and the blacks in arms; the whiles and peo- 
 ple of colour were the'victims of their rage. The consul em- 
 braced this calm to check this violence in the colonies — h« 
 had lost the contidence of the army of Eo;ypt, by deserting 
 them, and he could place no confidence in an army \f ho in 
 his absence'had murdered the ir general, (Kleber;) he appoibt^ 
 ed Gen. Le Clerc to the command, and sent out this army of 
 Euypt to subdue therebtl blacks in St. Domingo. The blacks 
 made a desperate resistance — the horrors of St. Domingo ex- 
 ceeded the horrors of Eiiypt and Syria, ai?d the swor<ls of the 
 blacks, together with the fatal West India climate, ruined and 
 desLf-oyed the whole of this army ; the blacks maintained 
 their liberty, and established the kingdom of Hayti, 1802. ft 
 is worthy of notice, that in the Island of St. Domingo, Afri- 
 can slavery first commenced, and here they first obtained 
 their liberty, and established an independent government. 
 
 During this revolution in St. Domingo, appeared, Tosisant, 
 Christophe, and other Chiefs, who possessed strong minds, 
 great dignity, firmness, and strength of character, with a gen- 
 eral knowledge of men and things, joined to a correct knowl- , 
 edge of the military art. They made a figure at the head of j 
 their armies, which commanded obedience and respect ; their j 
 troops were regularl}'^ formed and disciplined, their cause was 1 
 the» desperate cause of liberty, and they defended it with des- j 
 perate valour, and they rose superior to Frencli tactics, dis- | 
 cipline and intrigue. When they had organized and estab- l 
 lished their government, there appeared at the head of it, and | 
 of the several dejjartments, a description of characters, fully 
 competent to the duties of their stations, and the govern- 
 ment was, and continues to be, administered, with energy, 
 wisdom, fiininess and dignity; commerce and the plantations 
 flourish, and the government, and the laws are respected in j 
 the kingdom of Hayti. | 
 
 The peace of Europe remained undisturbed until June 7, 1 
 1813. At this time, England, alarmed at the growing power I 
 of the French, declared war. The consul had been consti- \ 
 tuted consul lor ten years more, after the first term of ten j 
 years should expire, and afterwards had been elected consul j 
 for life, by a t^ubscriptive vote of more than three million of 
 citizens ; and his njilitary preparations had excited a general j 
 alarm in Europe, particularly in England, on account of the * 
 
CAPTURE OF HANOVER. 351 
 
 hostile movements upon the French coast. They had evac- 
 uated Egypt, the 16th of May, and called home their fleet 
 and troops, for the defence of their island. The consul an- 
 nounced to the nation, that England had declared war; and 
 made great preparations upon the coast, for the invasion of 
 England ; sent a strong military force into the west of Ger- 
 many, and seized on Hanover, the hereditary dominions of 
 George III. kiny; of Enjiland, June, 1803. The spirit of the 
 French nation was high, at this time: the invasion of England, 
 with delenda est Carthago, (Carthage must be destroyed,) be- 
 came the order of the day ; boats, {^allies and small craft, 
 were built and collected from all the ports of Prance and 
 Holland, and assembled at Boulogne ; soldiers were trained 
 (\mly, m the order of embarking and disembarking ; a gen^^r- 
 al alarm prevailed in England, and the consul reigned in the 
 hearts of the French people. The licentiousness of liberty 
 had been checked in some degree by a decree of the dirf ctory, 
 prohibiting the circulation of ft>reign newspapers in France, 
 in 1797. This check had been improved by the first com^ul, in 
 suppressing the licentiousness of the press? and confining the 
 publications to licensed papers only. This led to an anec- 
 dote, which ma^ serve to mark the difference of characters, 
 and ditftrence of the times, in France. When the maupiis 
 •La Fayette (who had been released by Gen. Bonaparte, at ue 
 peace of Campo Formio, from the dungeon of Oimutz ) was 
 called upon to give his subscriplive vote to the first coti-ul, 
 for consul for life, he addressed this note to the consul : — • 
 " Tne marquis La Fayette presents his compliments to G<n. 
 Bonaparte, aud will most cheerfully give him his vote for first 
 consid for life, provided he will restore freedom of speech, 
 and freedom of the press to the French people." The con- 
 sul returned this reply: — •" Gen. Bonaparte returns his com- 
 pliments to the marquis La Fayette, and assures him, that 
 should he comj)ly with his wishes, neither the marquis La 
 F^^yette, nor general Bonaparte, would be in France in six 
 months." This difference of character caused the difference 
 in the affairs of Prance, and gave her at this time, the power 
 of distressing her ancient rival. 
 
 The consul signified to the marquis La Fayette, that he 
 might retire upon one of his estates, remote from Paris : the 
 mrir<iuis withdrew. Jealousy, distrust and apprehension pre- 
 yaiied throughout England ; parties ran high in the cabinet ; 
 the goYernment and the nation were alive to their common 
 
35i EMPEROR NAPOLEON. 
 
 safely ; and Ihe military kept the peace. Austria, alarmed 
 for the safely of Europe, joined a new confederacy against 
 France, to give a check to the movements against En^^land. 
 She assembled a powerful force in Suabia, upon the Danube, 
 under general Mac, who took up his head-quarters at the 
 strong and commanding position of Ulm. 
 
 The English were successful in the East and West Indies, 
 and took the island of Demerara. The consul caused gene- 
 rals Pichegru and Moreau to be arrested in Paris : Piche^iru 
 died in his prison, and Moreau was banished, and fled to A- 
 merica, where he remained until 1813. 
 
 This year the emperor of Russia, Alexander, (who had suc- 
 ceeded to the throne upon the death of his father Paul) made 
 great movements to co-operate with England and Austria 
 against France. This year a new revolution took place in 
 the French government, and an imperial government was es- 
 tablished May 5 ; the consul was vested with the imperial 
 dignity, and crowned by the pope at Paris, by the almost 
 unanimous voice of the nation August 1 1, 1804. The empe- 
 ror continued his operations upon the coast, and the invasion 
 of England became every day more popular in France, and 
 m<»re alarming in England, and increased the preparations 
 for defence and security. During these operations, the em- 
 peror put himself at the head of the army of England {so 
 called,) and by a sudden projected movement passed the 
 bridge of Strasburg, and appeared in Suabia, before Ulm, Oc- 
 tober, 1805. The same rapid movements which brought 
 him before this city, obliged general Mac to abandon it, al- 
 BM-st without resistance, and led the French soldiers to say — 
 " Our emperor makes us use our legs, if we do not use our 
 muskets." General Mac retired down the Danube ; the em- 
 peror pursued by forced marches, penetrated to Vienna, took 
 it November 14, left a garrison, and filed off wilh his army in- 
 to Moravia to meet the emperor Alexander, with his Russian 
 army. The two young emperors lay in sight of each other 
 several days; when Ihe emperor Napoleon made a sudden 
 retrograde movement : this deceived the emperor Alexan- 
 der, who suspected his enemy was about to make his escape. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon retired several miles, and made a 
 halt upon an eminence, to observe (he motions of his enemy. 
 The emperor Alexander put his army in motion to purstse ; 
 and in order to intercept his retreat, he detached a division 
 of bis army, with orders to gain the rear of the emperor Na- 
 
BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ, 353 
 
 poleoii . such a movement on the part of (he kincr of Prussia, 
 towards old mareschal Daun in Silesia, provfd fatal to the 
 enterpiize. Napoleon saw the result— !ie had caujiht Alex- 
 aruH r in the trap he had set for him, and exclaimed. " They 
 will ali be L^iven into my hands before nijrht." He ordered 
 a cluirie lo be made upon the detached division: the onset 
 was violent ; they wer*- overthrown with crrat slaurrhter ; put 
 to the sword, or driven at the point of the bayonet into a 
 neii^hbonni]; lake, where they almosl all perished. A. general 
 charge was ttien made on the main body of the Russian ar- 
 my ; the conflict was short, the caruaie was sreat, and the 
 victory decisive, Dec. 2, 1 805 T;ie emperors drew off their 
 armies, settled a peace, and the emperor Alexander returned 
 Vvith his shattered army into Russia. The emperor Najjole- 
 on returned to Vienna, settled a peace with the emperor, 
 which stripped him of the title of emperor of Germany, 
 and of his dominions in the Tyrol, (these were addt-d 
 to Italy) and left him only the title ofesnperor of Austria. 
 This blow severed the union of the Germanic body, and 
 left them without a head The emperor Nf'poleon then 
 led back his victorious army in triumph into France, again 
 posted them on the seaboard, and retired to his palace. 
 
 The invasion of England was aijain renewed; the success^ 
 es of the last year, ha<l kindled anew the zeal and ardor of 
 the nation, and the disasters of the allies, had as areatly de- 
 pressed the English nation ; all was anxiety and alarm. 
 ' Thus we see, that Najmleon, under the imperial crown, in 
 one campaign, iiad triumphed over the grand coalition, in the 
 capital of Austria ; triumphed over the emperor of Russia in 
 the famous battle and peace of Austerlifz ; triumphed over 
 the Germanic body, by deposing their head ; and over the 
 house of Austria, by annexing the country of the Tyrol, to 
 the conquests of France in Italy ; and made his enemifs sup- 
 poi-t the war. The easy access to Ulm, v/as the first fruits 
 of the confederation of the Rhine, which commenced as early 
 as August 1796. The object of this confederation was, to 
 withdraw the small states near the Rhine from the contest be- 
 tween the great rival powers, and prevent their becoming the 
 perpetual theatre of war. 
 
 The emperor Napolerm, by his powerful forces ufibn the 
 coast, overawed the republic of Huiland ; changed their con- 
 sti ufion ; placed at their head a tool v^f :)is own, under the ti- 
 tje of grand pensionary ; and thus assumed the dominion of 
 
 30^ 
 
354 BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR, 
 
 Hi^lland, lf^05. England at (his time issued leflers of marque 
 and r^{MiB4l aj.aifi^t Spain, to prosecute Ihe war which had 
 been declared the Mth of December, 1804. 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 
 
 Emperor Napoleon on the throne of Charlemagne — battle of 
 
 Ti(i/atgar — corfederafion of the Rhine — Prussian war — 
 
 baUte of Jena ; ofEylau ; of Friedland — peace of Tilsit — 
 
 Berlin Decree — treaty of Fontainhleau — Bayonne Decree — 
 
 fall of Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. — capture of Madrid. 
 
 On the 1st of May, 1805, the emperor Napoleon was 
 crowned king of Kaly. Again the Franks were gratified to 
 see a successor of Charlemaitne upon the throne of France, 
 and (he iron crown of the Romans placed upon the head of 
 an emperor of the west. The spirit of the nation was high, 
 but the conscription beuan to gall, and the conscripts began 
 to be sent to the armies, chained in pairs ; internal gloom and 
 murmur began to dampen the spirit of patriotism, and the 
 voice of applause. The senate of Genoa decreed the union 
 o^the Ligurian Republic with France. The English made a 
 daring attempt to burn the flotilla in the harbor of Boulogne 
 with carcases ; but failed, Aujrust 31, and the general prepa° 
 nations forin?a6ion went forward. 
 
 October 21, 1805. — During these great preparations for the 
 invasion of England, the combined fleets of France and Spain, 
 lay secure in the harbor of Cadiz ; but the blockade of the 
 English under Lord Nelson w?is so close, as to cut off all sup- 
 plies by water ; and the supplies from the country failed, 
 and they were obliged to change their position. To this effect, 
 they put to sea in order to gain the port of Toulon. Lord 
 Nelson pursued, and the fleets were soon in sight of e^ch 
 other off the cape of Trafalgar. The con)bined fleet, to the 
 number of tweniy or thirty sail, moved in form of a crescent, 
 ViViiU'T an easy sail, before the wind. When Lord Nelson came 
 up. he or<!ered his fleet to bear down upon the enemy in two di- 
 visions, break through their line, and commence the attack. 
 Th*' sii-'nal was obeyed, and the action commenced. 
 
 T! e thunders of the Nile, and of Copenhagen were renewr- 
 ed; 'hf- conflict became general; the battle was desperate, 
 and the carnage terrible. The English were victorious j the 
 
NEW COALITION. . 355 
 
 allies lost the creatost part of their fleet, taken, sunk, or de- 
 str«»\ f-d, aud the remnant made their es«ape to Toulon. 
 
 Thus failed the threat of the emperor Napoleon. " I will 
 eat my Christmas dinner in London." Nelson the great ; 
 the hero of Aboukir; of Copenhajien ; of Trafalgar, &c. ; 
 the champion of the ocean ; the pride, the boast, and the orna- 
 ment of his country, and his country's arms, crowned with 
 his death the victory of Trafali^^r. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon had ventured to say, that he should 
 keep his Christmas in London ; this was fixing a day ; this 
 rendered certain, what hnd before been only oonjecfure, that 
 he was in earnest, and that he intended to lead the enterprise 
 in person ; the whole political horizon was at this time ddik 
 and gloomy, this eloom was heijitened in Ameri< i, (where 
 parties ran high) by a total eclipse of the sun at mid day (a 
 sublime display of the majesty of the heavenly bodies,) June 
 16, 1806. , , 
 
 A resolution originated in the House of Lords, and pMSsed 
 the national council, for the abolition of slavery, and at this 
 time a treaty was signed at Paris between France and the 
 States of Bavaria, Wirtembur.',', Baden, and several smaller 
 German states, such as Lower Saxony and H.^sse Cassel, by 
 which these states renounced their connexion with the German 
 empire, and under the name of the confederation of the 
 Rhine, placed themselves under the protection of France. 
 This closed the compact of the confederation of the Rhine, 
 ' which had been so long in agitation. This confederation 
 opened to France a free access into the heart of Germnny, 
 and brought the two great powers of Austria and Prussia, up- 
 on their frontier ; destroyed al one blow all that chain of bar- 
 rier towns which had called forth the genius of a Vauban in 
 the reign of Lewis XIV. and been the object of all succeedmg 
 treaties, for the safety both of France and Germany. 
 
 This freaty opened to France an easy passage to the cap- 
 itals of al! the States of Germany ; and the rival spirit be- 
 tween Prussia and Austria, which Lewis XIV. had sown, and 
 Lewis XV. had cherished, now eave the emperor Napoleon 
 an opportunity to improve it. Ensiland and Russia, alarm-'d 
 at the gigantic strides of France, formed a new coalition with 
 ' Pru^i'^ia to protect the king against the encroachments of the 
 ' emperor of France ; and to stren^ithen the defence of Eng- 
 land The emperor Napoleon was now prepared for the 
 campaign, to defeat this coalition. He had reapt the firsi 
 
 r 
 
•i56 BATTLES OF JENA AND EYLAU. 
 
 fruits of the conquest over the divided rival slates of Austria 
 and Prussia, by huriiblio? the house of Auslria, vvJiiJsl the 
 kini: of Prussia rt niained an inactive spectator ; he was now 
 prepared to strip the ancient laurels from the br()\vs of the 
 other rival, and shew to the king of Prussia the truth of this 
 sacred maxim, " 'l.nt a hous<^ divided ajiainst itself must fall.'- 
 
 The emperor Napoleon knew, and the kinji of Prussia 
 ouirht to have known it, that a union of Prus-^ia with Austria, 
 would have prf^vented the defeat of <:enpr;i| M;!C at Ulm ; if 
 not, it would have prevented the fall of Vienna, an<l i^iven the 
 emperor of Ru'^^^ia lime to unite his forces; this would have 
 produced the s:»me eftects, as resulte<l from the sam«^' union 
 at Leipsic, 1813. This was now too late, the die was cast, 
 Austria wa;^ humbled, and Prussia stood alone. France held 
 Hanover by coriquest in 1803. The emperor Napoleon had 
 concluded a treaty at Paris with the Russian Minister. This 
 treaty the emj)eror Alexander refused to ratify, prepared to 
 CO operate aijainst France, and published his manifesto. 
 
 The French pressed upon the borders of Prussia, and oc- 
 casioned a collision, and rencounter. Prince Lewis of Prus- 
 sia was killed, and war commenced ; both parties were pre- 
 pared for action, both sovereigns took the field ; and the em- 
 peror of Russia put his army in motion to co-operate. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon advanced into Germany at the 
 bead of the victorious army of the Danube ; the two armies 
 met at Jena, (a stronsj town in Lower Saxony,) the conflict 
 was terrible, the victory decisive ; the Prussians (led — the 
 French pursued into the heart of Prussia; the king reinforced 
 as he retired, until winter checked the operations of the cam- 
 paicrn, and the emperor took up his winter quarters in Prus- 
 sia, a!id watched the king. The Prussians hoped to take ad- 
 vantasre of tfjeir climate, and engage the French, by surprise, 
 in their, quarters. Accordingly, the kmi at dead of night, in 
 the severity of winter, attacked the emperor Napoleon by sur- 
 prise in his camp at Eyiau. A terrible conflict and carnage 
 ensued, the veterans of the Danube, of Austerlilz, and of Je- 
 na, were firm and unshaken, the attack was well concerted, 
 and well executed, and as well resisted ; both parties claim- 
 ed the victory, and took up their quarters. 
 
 With the opening of the spring, the emperor NMpoieon 
 commenced ^tis operations. Dantzic and Conigsburiil>, were 
 the trophies of his victories. The Prussians retired behind 
 the Fregel, where they met the Russians ; Napoleon advanc^ 
 
BERLIN DJECREE. 357 
 
 ed; the two armies met at Friedland. Here the fate of Prus- 
 sia was sealed, by an action as great, as important, and as 
 decisive as either of the two armies had experienced ; the 
 victory was complete. The allies sued for peace, and the 
 emperor Napoleon dictated the peace of Tilsit, which jjuar- 
 imteed the friendship of Alexander, and secured his safe re- 
 turn into Russia. It opened all Prussia to the arms of Na- 
 polfion, stripped the king of all but the name of king, with a 
 scanty pittance to support it, and guaranteed the peace of 
 Germany, June 26, 1807. This treaty secured to the empe- 
 ror Napoleon, the whole sea coast from Riga, on the confines 
 of Russia, to the Bayonne, on the confines of Spain. 
 
 Napoleon repaired to Berlin, and passed his Berlin decree, 
 interdicting all commerce with England ; and had high ex- 
 pectations, that this decree would banish all English com- 
 merce from the continent. This was one of those decrees 
 which called forth the noted orders in council in England, 
 which together, distressed neutral commerce, excited gene- 
 ral complaint in America, and caused the war with England, 
 1812. A general blockade by the British ships of war and 
 amried vessels took place on the coast of Europe, and in the 
 Baltic ; also a proclamation calling in all their seamen abroad, 
 in whatever service. This brought on collisions between 
 British armed vessels and neutrals, and involved the question 
 of the ritiht of search. The president of the United States 
 issued his proclamation, forbidding all intercourse with Brit- 
 ish ships of war : this expelled the English naval force from 
 the American ports. Thp^e orders of council, led the em- 
 peror of Russia to declare war against England, July 27, 
 1807. The expedition into Prussia, being thus closed, the 
 liberties of Germany sealed by the treaty of Tilsit, and Rus- 
 sia engagf<l in a war with England ; all further coalition in 
 a war with England was closed. Napoleon now was at liber- 
 ty to turn his attention to the peninsula. He led back his 
 troops in triumph again into France, stationed them upon the 
 
 tsea board, and repaired aj;ain to his palace. 
 
 I Parties ran high this year in America ; the English, as well 
 
 |as the French, ha«l envied ner prosperous commerce; and 
 having realized that America was enriched by the quarrels of 
 Europe, they had both struck her a severe blow, by their de- 
 
 jcree, and orders in council. This blow brought America 
 into :Uecont»'jentHl ^vstem, in December, 1807. A 'lational 
 embargo commeiicedj whicti lasted seven years, and finally 
 
358 INTRIGUES WITH SPAIN. 
 
 resulted in a war with England, and terminated at the peace 
 of 1815. 
 
 A new field of operations opened to employ the energies 
 of Napoleon, he now aspired to the universal sovereignty of 
 Europe, if not of the world, and found it necessary to hold the 
 dominion of Spam, in order to accomplish his plans. 
 
 He remembered, that Portugal oridually was a parf of 
 Spain, and that on the sequestration of Alphonzo Henriquez, 
 1 139, it had been united into a kingdom : that Spain had again 
 recovered it in 1580; and a^ain it was sequestered by the 
 duke of BraganzH, 1640 ; he knew that it would be an object 
 with Spain, again to recover Portugal, and accordingly ne- 
 gociated a treaty at Fontainbleau,to co operate with Spain in 
 the conquest, and partition of Portugal ; with some assuranc- 
 es to aid in the recovery of Gibraltar. Charles IV was upon 
 the throne of Spain, a very old man, and his son, Ferdinand 
 VII. ready in waiting to succeed him. Napoleon moved a 
 larire army to Bayonne, (near the confines of Spain,) passed 
 his Bayonne decree, to strengthen his Berlin decree against 
 English commerce. He next prepared to execute his plan ; 
 commenced an intrigue with Charles IV. and induced him to 
 resign his crown to his son Ferdinand ; he next intrigued with 
 Ferdinand, and drew him into liis camp at Bayonne, where 
 he detained him a prisoner; he then sent general Murat, 
 grand duke of Berg, at the head of a strong military force in- 
 to Spain, to take possession of Madrid. 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 Spanish Junta declat-e war ; Joseph Bonapaile king of Spain 
 —fall ofBupont — conquest of Rome — kingdom of Holland 
 — confere}/ce of Erfurth — battle of Corunna — Just ian war 
 — hatlle of Ratisbon—fall of Vienna — battle of Loheau — of 
 Was^ram — peace with Justria— invasion of Holland, by the 
 English. 
 
 Charles IV. revoked his resignation, appointed general 
 Miirat, lieutenant general of Spain, and repaired to Bayonne, 
 whjM'e he and his son. both made a formal surreudry of the 
 crown of Sp:tin, tt> Napojpon ; who conferred it upon his 
 brother Joseph Bonaparte, and detained Charles IV, and 
 
INVASION OF PORTUGAL. 359 
 
 Ferdinand VIT. as prisoners in France. Si'ung vvilh chairrin 
 and indipjnation, at tbisoutrajie upon (he sovereij^nSy of Sjjain, 
 the Spaniards butchered about 5,000 of the Frencli, under 
 Miirat, at Madrid, and the French about as many Spariiards 
 in their turn. The Junta of Spain, Laujiht the Hlarrn, asbun- 
 bled an army, declared war aiiainst Frarue, and retire<i into 
 the south as far as Seville, and were supported by (he E'l^'ish 
 at Cadiz. Th« emperor Napoleon having thus securt d the 
 crown of Spain, prepared to support the litle of his brothf r. 
 He framed a new constitution for Spain, al Bayonne, passec! 
 the Pyrenees, and entered Spain, at the he^d of the vict(jriuU3 
 ar/fv of Germany; marched to Madrid, placed hir* biolher 
 Joseph on the thr(>ne', caused him to be crowned, atul s*'!it 
 one army to cooperate with the Spanish arniy in the con- 
 qiiest of Portugal, and another to the south, ro invngi the 
 Junta in Seville Both {)lans succeeded: the French and 
 Spaniards entered PortUiral, and penetrated to Lisbon. The 
 royal family retired to Brazil, in South America. General 
 Soult pushed the conquest of the south of Spain, and invest- 
 ed Cadiz. The EutJish sent a fleet to protect Cadiz. The 
 Enalish sent a strong force to Lisbon, drove out the Freneh, 
 and prepared to co-operate with the Portuguese, in recoier- 
 iii^ their coimtry : they trained the Portuijuese soldiers to 
 arms and discipline, and tauiiht them how to beat the French. 
 
 At this time, treneral Duponr, with an ariny of 14,000 men, 
 surrendered to the Spanish patriots, July 31, 1808. This 
 blow shook the throne of king: Jose[)h ; he considered all as 
 lost ; and suffered the churches in Madrid to be rifled, to- 
 gether with other excesses and irreijularilies — collected ids 
 ^oops, and evacuated Madri<l, Au;iust 21, 1808. The 
 French, at the same time, entered Rome, in Italy, decreed 
 the papal throne vacant, and deprived tlie Pope of his eccle- 
 siastical states, to compel him to enforce the continental sys- 
 tem. The emperor Napoleon subverted the repul>lic y)( Hol- 
 land, erected it into a kingdom, and placed his brother Louis 
 upon the throne. 
 
 At this time, sir Arthur Wellesley began to ti-;;ure in Portu- 
 gal, and gained the action at Vimeria, which proved fatal to 
 the French arms in P<»rtUiral, and compelled them to sue for 
 an armistice, which was ^ranted ; and they evacuated Portu- 
 gal by a convention, October 1, 1808. In this state of Ihiuiis, 
 the emperor Na^P'tKon proposed an interview to the emperor 
 Alexander, at Erfurth, (a strong town in Tburiogia, in Lower 
 
360 AUSTRIAN WAR. 
 
 Saxony, in Germany,) then under the dominion of the 
 French This in(erview took place October 12, and lasied 
 several days, attended with niuch etiquette ; and closed, with 
 mutual assurances of friendship and good humor. 
 
 The result of this eoUference was, a mutual overture to 
 England, for peace : this was rejected ; and thf English sent 
 a strong armament to the north of Spain, un«ler jrenerals 
 Mtiore and Baird, and assembled then* foice at Salamanca. 
 Alarmed at this movement, tne emperor repaired to Madrid 
 wiui a strong force, restxireO king Joseph to ttie throne, and 
 took the tield in person. At the approach of the emperor, 
 the British army retired towards the coast ; the Frt^ncti pres- 
 sed close under their rear ; some sharp encounters ensued, 
 but^nothiog decisive, until they reached Corunna, (the port of 
 embarkation. Here, sir John Moore was compelled to sus- 
 tain a general action, to c(»ver u\e embarkation : the Fi t nch 
 were victorious ; the English suffered very severely, ynd sir 
 J. Moore fell in the action. Thus Spain, on the nortr,, was 
 cleared at a blow. Napoleon returned to Paris, and lett king 
 Joseph in quiet possession of his crown. 
 
 Great Britain, alarmed at ttie conference at Erfurth, enter- 
 ed into a negociation, and settled a peace with the Turks, in 
 order to find employment for the Emperor Alexander. 
 
 Napolean aditressed a letter to the Emperor Ah xander, in 
 which he styled him Emperor of the East, and received, in 
 reply, the title of Emperor of the West — and hosliliiies com- 
 menced immediately, between Russia and the Turks. 
 
 At this time, Mr. Madison succeeded Mr. Jefferson, in the 
 presidency in America ; and Mr. Erksine concluded with 
 the American government a treaty of accomnu'dation to re- 
 gulate the commercial differences between England and 
 America, and commerce was restored by the president's proc- 
 lamation. This negotiation was disavowed by the British 
 government, and things remained as they were. 
 
 The rupture contemplated between France and Austria 
 row became inevitable — Austria had renewed her strenvih 
 during the conflicts in Spain, assembled another army atUlm, 
 and prince Charles was now invested with the supreme com- 
 mand ; published his manifesto and took the field, Marca 14. 
 
 Fired with indignation at this new coalition, the Eu»peror 
 Napoleon, (now on the coast superintending the preparations 
 fo. iiivasi!>:),) rvpaired to Paris, made a demand on the bank 
 for an immense sum, guaranteed the safety of the bank against 
 
BATTLE OP LOBEAU. 3Gi 
 
 al! runs that should affect its credit, and protected it by a 
 military force ; returned to his army, put himself at their 
 head, crossed the bridge at Strasburo[, and appeared in Suabia. 
 The victories of Puffenhoff^n, Tarn, Abensburir, Landshut, 
 and Eckiaul, on the 20th, 21 st, 22d and 23d of April, announ- 
 ced the approach of the conqueror. He advanced without 
 further opposition, and met prince Charles at Ratisbon ; here 
 a terrible conflict en?ued ; the prince was routed, and retired 
 in disorder, upon the left bank of the Danube : the emperor 
 Napoleon passed through Ratisbon on the 29(h, took the riiiht 
 bank, and by forced marches appeared before Vienna, be- 
 fore prince Charl s arrived ; took the city, and rested his ar- 
 my, the 21st and 22d of May. The prince passed on the op- 
 posite bank, a tew miles below the city, and foptitied a strong 
 camp, upon the heights of Aspern and Ei^ling, opposite to the 
 island of L tbeau ; the centre of his camp was supported by 
 an immense park of artillery, in the form of a crescent : 
 here he awaited the French. 
 
 When the emperor Napoleon had rested, and refreshed his 
 army at Vienna, he moved down to Lobeaa, caust-d a bridge 
 of boats to be thrown across on to the ii?lHnd, and from 
 thence to the opposite bank ; and put his army in motion to 
 cross : when about one half of the army had itained the op- 
 posite bank, the prince caused a large quantify of lo^is (which 
 he had prepared for the purpose,) to be let loose; these de- 
 stroyed the emperor's bridge, upon the opposite bank, and at 
 the same time, Charles commenced an attack. 
 
 The emperor saw himself out iieneraled ; his situation was 
 critical, and his measures desperate. He ordered the bridi^^e 
 to be repaired, and at the SHUje time commenced an attack 
 Wpcm the Austrian camp — but without success : he renewed 
 the attack — but without success: he then ordered mareschal 
 Lannes, at the head of the French cavalry, to chartie the cen- 
 tre of the Austrian camp, and carry the whole crescent of ar- 
 tillery : this desperate assault was executed with all (he In- 
 trepidity and valor of mareschal Lannes — but without suc- 
 cess ; and he crowned this assault with his death. 
 
 This desperate attack astonished the prince, and gave a 
 check to his eff< rts ; and Napoleon (having repaired his 
 bridiie) drew off his army, repassed the Danube, and return- 
 ed to Vienna : here he reste<l and recruited his army a whole 
 month. The tribute of respect the emperor paid to the 
 memory of mareschal Lannes was, to cause bis body to be 
 
 31 
 
3Q2 BATTLE OF WAGRAM. 
 
 conveyed to France in a coach of state, covered with a black 
 pall, attended by a military escort. 
 
 After the action of Lobeau, prince Charles moved down 
 (he river, and fortified a strong; camp on the plains of Wa- 
 gram, aod awaited the emperor. When the emperor Napo- 
 leon had fully reconnoitered the position of the prince, he put 
 his army in motion, crossed the river aijain at Lobeau, and 
 under cover of a dark, rainy, dismal ni^ht, led his army 
 through byroads considered as impassible for an army, and 
 in the mornins: appeared on the plains of Wajjram, in the 
 rear of the prince. The prince in his turn was out-general- 
 ed ; he was compelled to fi^ht in a position uncontemplated ; 
 his fortitied camp was now rendered useless; the conflict 
 was short, but terrible — and fatal to the prince : his army 
 was cut to pieces, routed and destroyed, and a remnant fled 
 into Hungary. The emperor advanced as far as Presburg, 
 halted his army a few days, returned to Vienna, settled a 
 peace wilh the emperor of Austria, dismembered again the 
 southern section of Austria, by a line running from Switzer- 
 land to Hungary, and annexed it to Italy : this included the 
 country of the Grissons — November 8, 1809. 
 
 During these operations, the duke of Sudermania was elect- 
 ed king of Sweden, under the title of Charles XI! I. May 14 ; 
 and on the 9th of Auj^ust the English invaded the coast of 
 Holland with an army of 40,000 m^n, and took the island of 
 Walcheren ; but were soon oblii^ed to abandon it, to save 
 their army from the pestilence of the climate. 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 ^he imperial continental system — divorce of the empress Jo- 
 sephine^ and marriage of Maria Louisa ofMtMria — war in 
 Spain — war in Twkey — war in Portugal — birth of the im- 
 perial heir of France — preparations for the Russian war — 
 J^nerica, 
 
 The emperor returned to France; again formed the line 
 of invasion upon the sea coast, pushed the war in Spain, and 
 pressed the continental system, in France, Spain, Italy, Hol- 
 land, Austria, Germany, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden and Nor- 
 way; also in Hamburg, and the cities of the Hanseatic league, 
 
IMPERIAL MARRIAGE. 363 
 
 This system at this time embraced all Europe, except Tur- 
 key and Russia. The emperor of the French now beheld 
 himself upon the throne of Charlemagne, with an extent of 
 dominion greater, and a population far more numerous, en- 
 riched with all the treasures of commerce, and adorned with 
 all the refinements of t>he sciences, and the elegance and 
 splendor of the arts. A throne unrivalled in the annals of 
 (imf . The war in Spain was only considered as a lield day 
 exercise, to keep the troops in motion, and amuse the 
 French people. 
 
 The ambition of this mighty conqueror was not yet satisfi 
 ed. In his early career of glory under his consulate, he had 
 married the favorite of the director Barras, who filled the 
 throne, as empress, with dignity ; but remained without issue. 
 To remedy this evil, and to strengthen his crown. Napoleon 
 divorced his wife Josephine, and offered his hand to the arch- 
 duchess Maria Louisa, of Austria. This overture was accept- 
 ed, and general Berthier, prince of Neufchatel, was despatch- 
 ed to Vienna to celebrate the nuptials, and escort the em- 
 press into France : where aijain they were celebrated, with 
 all the pomp and splendor, becoming the empress of the em- 
 perpr of France. The emperor passed but a short time at 
 Paris : he assembled a large force at Bayonne ; pushed the 
 war in Spain, and strengthened the line of invasion of Eng- 
 land ; anr' passed the season of 1810 in visiting his domin- 
 ions, accompanied by the empress ; particularly the sea-coasf. 
 The war raged this year in Spain with various success ; but 
 nothing decisive. The emperor of Russia prosecuted the 
 war against the Turks with vigor, and acquired some very 
 considerable advantages in the provinces of Moldavia and 
 Wallachia. The emperor Napoleon, viewed with a jealous 
 eye, these movements of the emperor Alexander, and deter- 
 mined to check him. He asain pressed him to etiforce the 
 continental system in Russia ; not succeeding in this, he en 
 tered into secret treaties with the courts of Austria and Prus- 
 sia, to furnish such a quota of men, &.c. to compel the empe- 
 ror Alexander to adopt the continental system : all under the 
 mask of coercins England to a peace— 1810. 
 
 These plans being settled, he began to push the war in 
 Spain and Portugal, with vigor ; sent general Massena into 
 Portuiia! at the head of 70 000 men, and invested the Eng- 
 lish and PortU;!uese in Lisbon. The English fleet protected 
 the city, and the French made no assault. 
 
364 WAR IN PORTUGAL. 
 
 General Massena drew off his army from before Lisbon, 
 and retired up the Tagus with a view to cross that river, and 
 carry on his operations against Lisbon upon the left banks, 
 ravage the south country of Portugal, and bombard Lisbon 
 from the heights opposite the city. Lord WelUngton pressed 
 him so close with the British and Portuj^uese army, as to defeat 
 (his movement ; and gained some important advantages in 
 the mountain, in the battle of Busaco, ovt r general Massena, 
 November 15, 1810. The emperor reinforced this army, 
 and general Massena advanced again ; drove Lord Welling- 
 ton into Lisbon, and invested the city. The Spanish patriots 
 were .a sembled in arms throughout the interior, and harassed 
 the French with frequent and sharp skirmishes, and the spirit 
 of opposition increased daily in Spain. The emperor, at 
 this time, saw himself at the head of 800,000 men in arms ; 
 450.000 of this force were in the interior of France, and on 
 the sea board ; and the pressure on England increased daily. 
 Expectations of ruining the English system of finance, were 
 very hieh in France ; but Russia €till held out. 
 
 At this time the credit of the English funds stood high ; 
 their flag waved in every clime, and every sea. By a fortui- 
 tous concurrence of events, the whole trade of South Ameri- 
 ca had been opened to England : this supplied her West In- 
 dia colonies, as well as augmented her revenue. Loans to 
 immense amount were filled as soon as opened ; they 
 strengthened their position at Lisbon ; augmented their ar- 
 my ; and laid the foundation for the successes of 1812. 
 
 At this time, the empress presented the emperor with an 
 heir to the throne, April 20, 1811 ; who was named Napole- 
 on Francis Charles Joseph. Parties at this time ran high in 
 America, and the government looked for a war with England. 
 
 The emperor had now completed his plans, and began to 
 put his machines in motion : he organized his system of fi- 
 nance, to meet the importance of the movements : he in- 
 trigued with the Poles, and promised to restore the unify and 
 sovereignty of Poland : drew his best troops from Spain, and 
 replaced them by detachments from the north of Germany, 
 and the banks of the Vistula ; and pressed the king of Den- 
 mark into a compliance with his measures. He dissolved 
 the kingdom of Holla»!d, annexed it to France, incorporated 
 it with the empire, and brousht king Louis to Paris. 
 
 At this time, general Massena again fell back from before 
 Lisbon, for want of supplies for his army. Lord Wellington 
 
WAR IN SPA1.\. 3G6 
 
 again pressed close upon the Fretich, and gained some advan- 
 tages. Thi- war raided sharp in Spain, betvvcen lord Wei- 
 Iin!(r(on and general Massena, and because a war of poate. 
 The French invested Cndiz, and attempted to reduce it by 
 storm ; but the Enyjlish protected the city, and set them af 
 detimce. General Snult assembled and concentrated his 
 forces, and by severe and repeated actions, protected Bnda- 
 jos. General Massena in the same manner covered Cindad 
 Roderiiio. These movements and operations, called forth 
 the talents and energies of some of the greatest captains ; 
 and the desperate conflicts which f-requently took place, to- 
 gether with the harassing parties of the Spanish patriots, ren- 
 dered Spain one theatre of carnage and distress. These 
 scenes continued to waste and distress that devoted country, 
 under various successes, through the years 1811 and 12, dur- 
 ing the grand operations of the Russian war ; until the over- 
 throw of the emperor Napoleon in the north, gave to his ene- 
 mies the superiority in the south, and secured to lord Wel- 
 lington a triiimph, w^hich broke the power of Napoleon in 
 Spain, and drove the French from the Peninsula. 
 
 During the operations of 1811 in Spain, the whole chris- 
 tian world was one theatre of intrigue. The emperor of 
 Russia waged successful war with the Turks ; but at the 
 same time made overtures for peace. England favored these 
 overtures, with a view to unite Russia, Austria, and the Turk, 
 in one grand coalition against France. Ttus failed— Napo- 
 leon had guarded against this, by a secret treaty with the 
 emperor of Austria. Great etTurts were made to relieve 
 Prussia from her fallen situation ; but to no effect— Prussia 
 was down, and entangled in a secret treaty with the emp» ror 
 of France ; and the grand coalition against Russia, was 
 formed. 
 
 The war in Spain, gave employment for the troops of Eng- 
 land, and her fleets scoured the coast of Etirope upon the At- 
 lantic and the Baltic, and enforced her system of general 
 blockade, whilst the great internal mov«^ments and military 
 preparations in Austria, Prussia, Poland, Italy and through- 
 out the confederation f>f the Rhine ; tOit.ether with the prt'pa- 
 rations in Russia, rendered Europe one great theatre of in- 
 trigue and alarm ; whilst Spain, and European Turkey, were 
 the theatres of desolation and carnage. The intri-u.'^ which 
 excited and put in motion all these great plans and opera- 
 tions, extended to America ; distracted her councils, lullametl 
 
 3F 
 
366 REMARKS. 
 
 the passions, roused the public feeling, and in addition to the 
 continental system of Dec. 1807, led her into the war. 
 
 A jiericH, under her neutrality, had become the carriers 
 apon the ocean for the continent of Europe, through this long 
 and desperate strutigle ; her flag waved in every sea, and ev- 
 ery clime. Her commercial field was truly great, and the 
 harvest was great. The wealth and commerce of America 
 increased beyond all former example. This excited a spirit 
 of envy and jealousy at home and abroad, which endangered 
 her internal peace, and in 1812 entangled her in a war with 
 Eoiiland. 
 
 The continental system of 1807, gave a check to the tide 
 of prosperous and successful commerce in America ; and the 
 war in England, destroyed it, even to the coasting trade, 
 down to the peace of 1816. 
 
 The ruin and distress which so suddenly succeede<l this 
 anrivalled prosperity of America, where the necessary efifects 
 of such opposijte extremes ; they were such as the feelings 
 of the nation could express — but not the pen. 
 
 if the morals of the nation have been improved, and li- 
 cenciousness and dissipation checked : If union, and general 
 barmony have in some measure grown out of this chastise- 
 ment : If, as the fruitj of a two year's war, America has ac- 
 quired a naval glory, which shall cause her flag to be more 
 respected hereafter ; she may derive some consolation for all 
 her suQVrings, through this long period of distress 
 
 America not only became entangled in the quarrels of 
 Europe, when she adopted the continental system by her 
 general embargo — but she actually became a party in the 
 grand coalition of 1812, when she declared war against Eng- 
 land ; and, painful as this may have been to the nation, it is 
 jjrpatly to be hoped, that a general goo<l has resulted, and 
 will continue to result, which shall fully counterbalance all 
 her f^ufiFerings. 
 
 We hi-.ve now unfolded the myster-es of intirgue, which 
 entangled in one general quarrel the whole christian world ; 
 opened the greatest lield of military ent»»rprize, produced the 
 greatest (tistresses, and resulted in the greatest eventS; of any 
 other war that has ever been retiorded. 
 
RUSSIAN WAR. 367 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 Commencemenl of the Russian war — American war — /noue- 
 ments in the Russian war — battle of Smolensk — of Borodi- 
 no—fall and destruction of Moscow. 
 
 1812. — This auspicious year has come, big with the fate of 
 Napoleon and of France. The ernperor of the west, like the 
 main spring of a watch, now put in motion all the vast ma- 
 chine of power, which he had constructed to tix the destinies 
 of Europe. He again renewed his demands on the ernperor 
 Alexander, to adopt the continental system, and dema:id< d 
 that Riga should be garrisoned with the troops of France. — 
 These were rejected with that dignity and tirmness, which 
 distinguished the character of Alexander. 
 
 The emperor then called into the tield, the armies of Aus- 
 tria and Prussia, as stipulated by treaty, in the year 1811; and 
 assembled an army in Prussia and Poland, from all parts of 
 his vast dominions, of French, A.istrians, Prussians, Germans, 
 Italians and Poles, of from four to six hundred thousand men, 
 and took up his head quarters at Warsaw. 
 
 The emperor of Russia, assembled an army at Wilna, in 
 Poland, to watch the French, under the command of prince 
 Bagration— entered into a convention with England for gen- 
 eral safety and defence, sent the Russian tleet to Enjrland, to 
 secure it from the French, but more particularly, as a pledge 
 for the general exigencies of the war ; opened a negociation 
 for peace with the Turks, un<ler the influence of England, and 
 repaired to Wilna. Negociation was soon closed, and both 
 armies took the field. „ ^. . v„ , . r 
 
 Here opens the second volume of Charles XII. kmg of 
 Sweden— over the same country, and the same rapid move- 
 ments. The emperor moved his grand army to attack the 
 prince at Wilna : the prince retired to Drissa: at rhe same 
 time, a Prussian army under gen. M'Donald, pnnetrated mto 
 Ru:»sia, by the way of Riga, towards Petersburg. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon now saw the two capitals of R'lS- 
 sia (the great objects of his enterprise) in the view of expect- 
 ancy, and began to realise, that this grand movement would 
 fix the fate of Europe, and crown bim lord of Christendom. 
 
 Every movement was announced, by a special bulletm 
 from the emperor Napoleon, proclaiming the advance and 
 successes of the grand army. All Europe, both Turks aod 
 
368 BATTLE OF BORODINO. 
 
 christians, were alive to the scene, and anxious for the event. 
 
 At this critical moment, America proclaimed war against 
 En riand, and made a sudden descent upon IJanada : Den- 
 mark had furnished the fine horses of H Ostein, to fill uj) liie 
 cavalry of the French armies, and the vvnole christian world 
 wer«- now leagued ai^ainst Russia and Eiiii;land, excepung 
 Sweden ; she alone remained neuter : even (he Turk with- 
 draw from the war, gave up his advantaii;es, and settled a 
 peace with the emperor Alexa i»ler. 
 
 Thus armed, thus arrnfi^ed, tlie awfal, the eventful scene 
 is opened before us. From Drissa, tUe ijrand army moved 
 to Polotsk; the prince a-jain retired to Witepsk ; ti e empe- 
 ror advanced ; the prince a^jain retired to Smolensk, and 
 made a stand : the emperor advanced : here the two armies 
 met lor the first time, and a severe action ensued ; the Rus- 
 sians f )U2ht for their fires and their altars— they were over- 
 powered by numbers, and retired with firmness towards Mos- 
 cow. 
 
 Flushed with the successes of Smolensk, the grand army 
 advanced. On the hills of Borodino, the prince, with some 
 reinforcements, attain made a stand. The emperor pursued 
 with a strons; column, as his advanced guard, and found the 
 Russians strongly intrenched upon an eminence, under cover 
 of a formidable redoubt, lined with artillery, and determined 
 to await the issue of a battle, in the view of Moscow. 
 
 The emperor beheld at a distance, the object of his wishes 
 —Moscow, like a little world, filled all the plain. The French 
 soldiers, fired with the prospect of reaping the spoils of Mos- 
 cow, as a reward for all their toils, burnt with impatience for 
 the combat. 
 
 Napoleon cherished this ardor ; and before the day closed, 
 commenced a desperate assault upon the grand Russian re- 
 doubt, and carried it at the point of the bayonet : the conflict 
 was sharp— but the Russians retired, and left this bulwark of 
 their dvfence, in the hands of the French : night closed the 
 scene. 
 
 The next day opened a solemn scene. — ^The two armies in 
 view of each other, passed the day in reconnoitering, and in 
 strengthening their positions, to complete the work of death. 
 Nijiht closed this scene without a blow. The auirel of death 
 sat brooding over the night, to indul;re in a repose, that should 
 serve to heighten the carnage of the mornins. The fatal morn 
 appeared : the sun rose clear, and with bis first beanas, caught 
 
€(0):^]P]LA( 
 
 An. Ocean of riame . " ^mjt. Najwleon . 
 
 This stu/undmi.<t sacrifice restored libet^tt/ to EuroJie,and mil 
 
 /i^y)haM:i/ result in the triunthh of'tlie jRefbrmcUi/)fi,arid the 
 
 establishment of tfte Mn^dom oCtheStotie tAroiwh^ict tJte 
 
 werld. ' Fart 3rdFa.^e S&O. 
 
CONFLAGRATION OF MOSCOW. 369 
 
 the eye of the emperor Napoleon ; who exclaimed with em- 
 phasis, " His the sun of Austerlitz." Df>ath roused t>o,„ his 
 slumbers, ami opened the scene. Prince B^ ^ration com- 
 menced an attack, to recover the redoubt he ha<l lost the pre- 
 cedm;^; day ; a strong Russian column moved to the charge • 
 U was now impregnable; and vomited forth dfath into Ihe 
 Russian ranks, and broke the column. The whole armies 
 became engaged in the conflict : the ardor and impetuosity 
 of the French, forced the Russians to recoil ; but it was only 
 to concentrate their force, and advance in solid columns to 
 the charge. The cf.nflict now became terrible ; the ardor of 
 the French, and the Srmness of the Russians, opened a dis- 
 play of valor and heroism, amidst the thunders of a cannon- 
 ade, and the carnage of a field, that will ever render memor 
 rab!e, the battle of Borodino ; horrors, vhich neither the pen, 
 n .r the pencil can describe. The French retired, and l^ft the 
 field to the defenders of their country ; and the great Bagra- 
 tion crowned with his death, the victory of Borodino. The 
 emperor Napoleon drew oflf Ijis army, to recover his losses ; 
 and published in general orders—" Soldiers ! This is the first 
 action I ever lost ; you must wipe off the stain, with the 
 blood of the Russians." The losses in this action were severe 
 upon both sides— but nothing decisive : it had not become 
 the sun of Austerlitz— the stratagem failed Old prince Kutu- 
 soff, who now became the Russian chief, did not pursue : be 
 victory ; had he done it, it would then have been the sun oi 
 Austerlitz— the emperor Napoleon would have brought into 
 action hh corps de reserve, and the action would have be- 
 come the action of Austerlitz The scene was reversed :— 
 Kutusoff retired to Moscow, marched throuL'h, collecte*! all 
 the treasures and inhabitants of the city, and carried off fhe 
 fire engines ; and when the emper<»r of the French entered, 
 the Russians divided into three armie-, and iiavested him in 
 Moscow. Rastapchin. the governor, save a seneral notice 
 i to the inhabitants, who had made a iieneral preparation for 
 I removal ; and in the midst of the triumphs of the emperor, 
 I they fired the city : the convicts in the prisons, w^re set at 
 , liberty }V»r this awful scene ; and in one hour, the flame burst 
 i forth from ?li paris, and raged throughout the city. Thus, 
 \ thi^ >'.ntient ci^pital of Russia, the pride and boast of Miisco- 
 Ty, a city, it n miks in extent, and thirty or forty mdrs in 
 chcui^ Whs uTrjpi jn flames, and consumif>g with one ge.ier- 
 ai conflagration, which can neither be conceived of, Dor de- 
 
370 CHARACTER OF THE WAR. ' 
 
 scribed : the awful sublimity of the scene, was best express- 
 ed by the emperor Napoleon — ^' an ocean of Jlame." But \ 
 the wealth and splendor of Moscow were soon smoking in ru- \ 
 ins. Fatal was the battle of Pultowa, to Charles^ Xll, : fata! ; 
 was the destruction of Moscow, to the emperor Napoleon. i 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 
 
 Character of the Russians — overtures of peace^firmness of '■ 
 the emperor Alexander — views of Napoleon — retreat of the ^ 
 French— flight of Napoleon — destruction of the French ar- 
 my —the emperor Napoleon in Paris — again in Saxony, at i 
 the head of a new army — battle ofLeipsic — Napoleofi in Pa- , 
 ris — successes ofLoid Wellingloti-^-^^storation of the fami- ^ 
 ly of Bourbon — Napoleon at Elba — lord Wellington in Pa- \ 
 ns — Napoleon in Paris — battle of Waterloo — Napoleon in 
 England — at St. Helena — Lewis XFIIL again in Paris — I 
 Lord Wellington again in Paris — the empress Maria Lou- 
 isa, with her little son, at Milan, ' 
 
 The Russians are the descendants of the ancient Seythi- j 
 ans : the war was a Scythian war ; and the result, such as has i 
 been common to the invasions of Scythia. The French- gave I 
 ITloose rein to ali the passions in Moscow ; and rioted in cor- J 
 rupfion amidst the distresses of the scene. The emperor Na- \ 
 poleon took up his quarters in the Kremlin, the citadel of ! 
 Moscow, and cradle of the Czars of Russia. Here he made | 
 overtures of peace to the emperor Alexander : the emperor \ 
 amused him until he had collected his forces, strengthened 
 his armies, and sent orders for the army of tlie Danube to ad- 
 vance, in the rear of the French, to intercept their retreat. | 
 
 This army had been trained to arms, in the successful ; 
 campaii^ns ag^Hinst the Turks, in 1810 and 11. Then the ] 
 emperor Alexander rejected the overture, and published in . 
 his manifesto — " I will never make peace, bo long: as Napo- 
 leon, or any of his family, are upon the throne of France." 
 
 Napoleon now saw before him, the dreadful alternative, j 
 That confidence which le«l him to the conquest of Moscow, 
 led nim to believe, that he should winter there ; and he had 
 nea;lected even one solitary preparation to facilitate a retreat, i 
 The Russiaas, on their retreat, laid waste their country ; and . 
 
FL/GHT OF NAPOLEON, 37] 
 
 what the Russians left, the French army destroyed ; so tliat 
 the whole Fxtent of way, from Moscow to Polotsk, on the 
 confines of Poland, wa^ literally a desert ; and the Russians 
 were now dtstroyiuir all the bridjres, throu-h all this extent 
 of way. The emperor Napoleon now felt the destruction of 
 Moscow. Instead of riotin-i, with his army, throiiirh the win- 
 ter, in the spoils of Moscow. Insteaf! of restoring; the ancient 
 sovereignty of Muscovy, placing his brottier Louis on the 
 throne of the Czars, who should r^ign in the north, the ^ip^t 
 ally of France, l»umhie the emperor Alexander, and bar his 
 Bword from all further wthhi in the jireat -cale of Europe. 
 Instead of returning in the sprinir with his victorious army in- 
 to France, to swell the trump of fc.me with the triii.uphs of 
 another campai-n. Instead of assembling.' all confederated 
 Europe on the banks of (he Dctitube, and under the protecting 
 sword* of his ally of Muscofy— (this contemplated shield ol 
 the north) — marching at the head of his lenions to the banks 
 of (he Hellespont, and planting bis eagles on the walls of 
 Constantinople. May I yet say, instead of triumphinir over 
 Asia armi America, and erectinjr his standard upon th^ ruins 
 of the liberties of man. This hero of Burodino and of Mos- 
 cow, became the hero of a new scene. He wreaked his ven- 
 geance on the Kremlin, by blowing np, and destroying the 
 cradle of the ancient soverei,rns of Muscovy ; collected the 
 remaining treasures of Moscow, and took up his retreat, in or- 
 der to recover his former position in Poland. His first move- 
 ments were regular; but the assembled armies of Russia, un- 
 der that old veteran,'prince Kutusofif fired with revenge for 
 the smoking ruins of their country, pressed on his rear, and 
 soon overtook the spoil-incumbered foe. Torn with a suc- 
 cession of murderous conflicts ; galled by the (listressing rav- 
 ages of the Cossacs ; stune with the severities of a Russian 
 winter ; this conqueror became a fugitive ; stripped of his ar- 
 tillery and baggatie by the death of his horses, the spoih of 
 JMoscow fell into the hands of the Russians. Pressed by the 
 ^Russians, murdered by the Cossacs, their retreat became the 
 flight of a confused mass, without order, without discipline, 
 without supplies, a prey to death in every form; deslro)ed 
 by, and destroying, every thing in its route. He who so late 
 bad. been the idol, now became the reproach of this wrt ck of 
 an army ; himself no longer safe in the midst of these fugi- 
 tives ; he now became a fp;;iti\ e and dpserte<l his myrmidons 
 In the midst of death. On the coofiDes of Krasnoy, on the 
 
372 BATTLE OF LEIPSIC. \ 
 
 banks of the Dneiper, Napoleon fled ; fled m dis2uiae ; and 1 
 fled alone ! just at the time, when the arrny of the Danube j 
 appeared in his rear, to intercept his flight. Languajre can- ] 
 not paint, imagination cannot conceive of the distresses of « 
 the scenes that followed ; suffift^ it to say, that this mitrhty 
 force, which under the appellation of the grand army, had | 
 marched into Ruf^sia victorious : when it reached Poland, had j 
 vanished " like the baseless fabric of a vision, and left not a 1 
 wrfck behind " ■ 
 
 The armies of Prussia, which entered Russia by the way of ; 
 Riira, returned entire, and the army of Austria separated from ' 
 i\M^ ^rand army in the retreat, a«id returned with j^reat loss ; 1 
 but escaped ruin. Napoleon repaired to Paris, as Charles ; 
 XII. returned through Germany ; assen»bled his senate, dis" 1 
 closed his losses, and put the Empire under a fresh requisi- \ 
 tion, for men, money, and arms; in two months, assembled ? 
 a new army, put himself at the head, and took the tield in I 
 Saxony. The emperor of Rusrsia, in (he mean time, entered 
 Prussia, and joined the kin-:, with his victorious aruiy ; the ' 
 emperor of Austria entered Bohemia, wi!h one hundred th<»u- j 
 sand men, as mediator for his son in law, Nc«p;denn The ' 
 allies brought into the field Bernadotte, prince of Pon»ee,irvo, \ 
 now crown prince of Sweden ; with an nrmy of one hundred 
 thousand men, to enter the lists with Napoleon his old mas- ; 
 ter. This Bern?Mlotte whs a distinguished oeueral in the i 
 Prussian war of 1C06 — 7, in the service of the emperor of i 
 France, and was elected crown prince of Sweden, when in I 
 the French service, upon the deposition of Gustavus IV. 
 
 The sovereigns of Russia and Prussia, took up their head- 
 quarters at Dresden, in Saxony. Prince Bernadotte, took ) 
 the field, at the head of his Swedes ; the emperor Napoleon I 
 was encamped at Leipsic. Balanced in tr»is awfu! state of I 
 suspense, the armies awaited the decision of the emperor of , 
 Austria. When they were ready for a( tion, his mediation "■ 
 was closed ; he declared ff>r the allies, a-^iainst his son in law •, 
 Napoleon, and the conflict bei^an. Ttie thunders of Borodi- ^ 
 no were renewed upon the plains of Leipsic. the conflict was ] 
 desperate, and the carnasje terrible. The French vv* re true ' 
 to their emperor; but the contest was unequal; — overpow- ] 
 ered by numbers, they gave way, fled in disorder, and were . 
 butchered and destroyed, with a horrible slaughter. 
 
 The brave general Moreau, who had returned from Amer- ^ 
 ica, and joined the crown prince of Sweden, fell in the heat ; 
 
CAPTURE OF THE EMPEROR NAPOLEON. 313 
 
 of the action. The three sovereians of Russia, Austria anc! 
 Prussia, beheld the awful scene from their quarters, and vvhon 
 the victory was announced, they fell on their knees, and 
 gave Ihanks to God. Napoleon, with the shattered ren.ains 
 o} his army, fled into France, and repaired to Pari?, assem- 
 bled the wreck of his army, and prepared for hi^ defence ; 
 O'G allies of Rus.ia, Austria and Prussia, pursued into 
 France, invested Nsp-deon in Paris, and took him by capit- 
 ulation ; stripped him of his crowns, and banished him to the 
 island of Elba. 
 
 They next subdued the French forces in the west of Ger- 
 many, established the sovereignty of Holland, and restored 
 the Stadtholder. The English, Portuguese and Spaniards, 
 recovered Portugal and Spain— drove out kinii Joseph, and 
 entered France victorious, under the duke of Wellington, to 
 CO operate with the allies in the conquest of Napoleon^ The 
 allies restored the Bourbon family, under Lewis XVIII. ; 
 crowned him kinsj ; established a strong force at Paris, under 
 the duke of Wellington ; the enjperor of Russia, and king of 
 Prussia, visited England — retired to Vienna, formed a con- 
 gress to settle the claims of the several powers, for their loss- 
 es in the war. Nothing had ever appeared in Europe like the 
 violence of the Fiench R^ivolution. It had ovt^rthrown the 
 ancient civil and religious establishments, destroyed the an- 
 cient balance of power, changed many of the ancient limits 
 and boundaries; involved all the states in enormous debts, 
 and laid the foundation for a labyrinth of claims. The con- 
 gress at Vienna had spent six months upon this important sub- 
 ject, when they were roused from their sittin.', as by a clap 
 of thunder, with the news, " tiiat Napoleon was in Paris, and 
 at the head of the army." Struck with alarm, they closed 
 thr'ir sitting, repaired to the head of their armies, and took the 
 field. 
 
 The Russian and Austrian armies took their position upon 
 : the Rhine, on the east of France, to iruard the biidiie of Sfraf«- 
 Iburg. The Enj:lish and Prussian armies were posted in PIhu- 
 ders, with the Eui^lish army in advance, twenty or thirty 
 j miles. One French army lay on the east to watch the Rus- 
 sians and Austrians, and another in Flanders to watch the 
 jEnglifih and Prussians. Ttie emperor fortitiffd his capital, 
 and attempted to renew flie conscription, but this failed, 
 France had long been tired of this wasting conduit, t jrough 
 
 32 
 
574 BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 
 
 which the blood of her sons had flowed so freely — he saw 
 hiiiself (leserttd by the nation, but supixjrted by the armie?. 
 His plans were fixed : he Seft Paris in the night, (according 
 to his usual custom,) put hifnseifat the head of the arujy of 
 the north, and cortimenced an attack upon the English army, 
 under lord Wellington, with txptctations of destroying this 
 array at a blow ; then the Prussian army at another blow ; 
 and then the armies of Russia and Austria wouhl have 
 fallen an easy conquest to the united forces of the victorious 
 emperor, and his psipularity would have enabled him to re- 
 new the conscription. 
 
 The allies had set for this old fox, his own tr^p of Auster- 
 litz and Borodino. He commenced a furious assault upon 
 lord Wellington — his lordship had seen the French in S{»ain 
 —he received the charge of the French with firmness : the 
 conflict was severe and obstinate ; the English retired, and 
 resisted as they retired ; the Prussians advanced, and the ac- 
 tion continued. On the second day, the allies formed a junc- 
 tion— the action b^caine general, and the carnage was great. 
 On the tlrird day, the action was renewed : the French, ex- 
 hausted with the long conflict, and overpowered by numbers, 
 gave way : Napoleon rallied to the chHri>e, again and again J 
 the conflict became desperate — the allies opened a battery of 
 aiiiliery upon the centre of the army of Napoleon — the de- 
 <=;truction was terrible ; he drew vp his guards to support his 
 centre; they fell almost to a man : Napoleon exclaimed to 
 the officer near him " 'tis time for us to go." He fled into 
 France, a^d left his army to their fate ; resigned his crown to 
 his son ; made for the sea coast ; delivered himself up to the 
 captain of an English frigate ; and was conveyed to England. 
 The allies assembled at Paris; restored Louis XViJI.; 
 cstHbli^hed again >h^! duke of Wellington, with a strong force 
 (o protect the king — where he now remains : and secured 
 the tranqnillily of Europe. The sovereigns again retired to 
 Viei'ua ; opened their congress, and sentenced Napoleon to 
 the Island of St Helena, for life : where he now remains. 
 
 The empress Maria Louisa, (upon the tirst invasion of 
 France b} the allies in 1813.) retired with her son into Italy, 
 and troU up her abode at Milan, and devoted herself to the 
 care of her son ; who has now become a fine lad, seven years 
 of age, and is considered as 'heir apparent to the throae of 
 France, upon the demise of Louis XVIIL 
 
SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 We have noticed in our remaiks upon England, tlie decided sover- 
 eignly of the island, al and before the Roman invasion ; that during the 
 period of nearly five centuries, the Romans kepi the peace between 
 the petty sovereigns, and when tliey wididrew their power, the Saxons, 
 Tmdcr Hengis and llorsa, seized on the island ; and subdued all ihese 
 small hordes under ihe dominion of tiie Hcpiarchy, and tluis laid the 
 four.dation of the representative goveinn»ent. 
 
 The union of this Heptarchy, under 
 Alfred the jieat, was also noticed, 
 who may be fairly styled the tiist 
 English monarch,and"laid the foun- 
 dation of the government, . 380 
 Alfred was succeeded by his son, Ed- 
 ward the elder, ' . . . 9 10 
 
 A^helstan, 9i5 
 
 Edmund, , . . . • 941 
 
 Edred, 9-18 
 
 Edwv, ^-^5 
 
 Edgar 9''9 
 
 Edward"the Martyr, . . . 97S 
 
 Ethelred, 978 
 
 Edmond Ironside, , . . lOiti 
 
 Canute the Dane, Danish line. lOl" 
 
 Harold Harefooi, Danish line. 1035 
 
 Hardicanute, DeiJtisk line. . 10*9 
 
 Edvi-ard the Confessor, . . lO-ll 
 
 Harold, ..... 10H6 
 
 William the Conqueror, Danish une. )OfiH 
 
 William Rufus, .... lOu>7 
 
 Henry I HOC 
 
 Stephen, 1135 
 
 HenrvII 1'51 
 
 Ri:hardl. . . . • .1189 
 
 J^hn 1199 
 
 Henry HI. 
 
 Kdwaid I. 
 
 Kdwaid II. 
 
 Kd war dill. 
 
 Richard II. 
 
 Henry IV. 
 
 Henry V. 
 
 Henry VI. 
 
 KdvvirdlV. 
 
 Edward V. 
 
 Richard ffl. 
 [Henrv VII. 
 
 liem-'v VIM 
 (Ed wild Vi. 
 .Mary, 
 
 Kliiabeth, 
 
 James I 
 
 Cl.urles I 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 .lames 11 
 
 William and Mary, 
 
 Ann, 
 
 (leorofe I. 
 
 Geor^'ell. 
 
 Geor-clll. 
 
 llcgency of the Prince 
 
 AValc^. 
 
 lio-: 
 i3:fi 
 
 137'7 
 1.393 
 1412 
 ] V2-2 
 14-0 
 H33 
 ].;33 
 Mr;5 
 ]d09 
 ]5 4G 
 155.} 
 156S 
 lr.n9 
 IC 5 
 U. 18 
 IfnS 
 \<i8 
 1'02 
 1714 
 17. '7 
 1 .bO 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OP FRANCE. 
 
 We have noticed the origin of the 
 kingdom of the Franks, or France, 
 tmder Pharomond — who led his 
 Eranlis over the Rhine, in the Cfili 
 ct^ntury ; from whom descended 
 Clovis — who commenced hi.s reign, 
 
 The next sovereign worthy'of notice 
 was Clotair I. ... 
 
 Clotai: II. . , . . . 
 
 Dagobert, 
 
 010*15 II 
 
 Pepin Heristcl 
 
 Charles Martel, 
 
 'epin, son o 
 
 f Charles, 
 
 End of the first race of kings. 
 
 
 1 Charlemagne, 
 
 •;7i 
 
 
 Le-.vis, Debonnair, 
 
 !■''•; 
 
 
 Lothario 
 
 340 
 
 
 Lev/is 11. . 
 
 . i-:5." 
 
 
 iCbarles the bald. 
 
 . 3 * ' 
 
 486 
 
 Lewis the Stammers- 
 
 . 87' 
 
 
 Lewis III. 
 
 t7>' 
 
 511 
 
 Charles the fat, 
 
 LSI 
 
 Cl.T 
 
 Cba.Jeblll. 
 
 Ki^o 
 
 632; 
 
 Robert, 
 
 9J2 
 
 644; 
 
 Rodnlph 
 
 v-:,i 
 
 t;yo. 
 
 Lewis the stranger, 
 
 9.16 
 
 714| 
 
 Lolhari- 
 
 954 
 
 75l| 
 
 Lewis Vf. 
 
 9f.ri 
 
 
 ' End of ikt second rC'-" ''J ^ 
 
 Jr,"?, 
 
376 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 Iluijh Capet, .... 
 
 987 
 
 Kobejt, , . . . 
 
 996 
 
 Henry I 
 
 lOJJ 
 
 Philip I 
 
 10.^.9 
 
 Lewis VI. . . . . 
 
 IlOb 
 
 L.'wis All, .... 
 
 1137 
 
 Phihp II —stvled august, 
 
 J 180 
 
 Lewis Vlll. 
 
 12J3 
 
 LewjsIX 
 
 12-.'.i 
 
 Pl.ihp III. —styled hardy. 
 
 3271 
 
 IMulip IV —styled the fair, 
 
 1285 
 
 Lewis X. , . . . . 
 
 13J4 
 
 Johnl. . ■ . 
 
 13.6 
 
 Philip V. — surnanied the Long, 
 
 13)6 
 
 Charles IV. — styled the fair. 
 
 )3.'v 
 
 Philip VI 
 
 13-1'. 
 
 .7o^n 11 
 
 IjoO 
 
 Edw.iid Slf of England — by consan 
 
 - 
 
 guinity, and bv conquest, 
 
 1357 
 
 rhar!.;sV. .' . . 
 
 1304 
 
 fhailes VI 
 
 1380 
 
 Charle,s VII. . . . 1432 
 
 Henry VI. of England, . . 1430 
 
 Le\n3 XI 1461 
 
 Charles VIII 1433 
 
 Lewis XII H98 
 
 Francis I. I5i5 
 
 Francis II 1559 
 
 Charles IX ]560 
 
 Henry III 1574 
 
 Henry IV. . . . . . 1589 
 
 Lewis XIII. . . . . IblO 
 
 Lewis XIV ten years of age, . , 1643 
 
 Clowned, . . 1664 
 
 Lewis XV 17J5 
 
 Lewis XVI. — Guilotined in the revo- 
 lution. ..... 1774 
 
 Lewis XVII aged ele\ en year.s — Poi- 
 soned in the revolution. . . l795 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, l^mperor, . 1804 
 Lewis X^ III. crowned. . . I8l4 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF SPAIN. 
 
 Sovereigns of Spain, under the Visi- 
 goths, who founded their kingdom 
 in Spain, ..... 
 
 Their barbarous superstition render- 
 ed Spain one continued scene of 
 butchery, nearly tJdO years ; in 
 which time, her kings fell, in such 
 rapid succession, as to leave not 
 more than three or four on record, 
 ■worthy of notice. 
 
 Lo>egild, . . . , . 
 
 Sisebut 
 
 Wamba, 
 
 PelagUiS, 
 
 Abdunahman, Caliph of the Moors, 
 
 IPpain, during three centuries, contin- 
 ued divided into a great number of 
 small kingdoms, until they began to 
 be united under Ferdinand the great 
 
 Pp.nclio, . , . . . 
 
 jMphonso, ..... 
 
 Alj'honso VII. .... 
 
 AlphonsoVIII 
 
 Sancbolll 
 
 Ferdinand II. — died suddenly. 
 
 Alphonso IX. .... 
 
 Htnrv I 
 
 467 
 
 1027 
 1065 
 1072 
 1209 
 1122 
 1)57 
 i:58 
 1158' 
 1214; 
 
 jFeidinand III. 
 
 I Alphonso X. . . . . 
 jSancho IV .... 
 
 JFeidinand IV. .... 
 
 |Alphonso XI 
 
 I Ftter, the cruel, 
 
 Henry II 
 
 John I. 
 
 Henry III 
 
 .)ohn II 
 
 Henry IV 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 
 Philip I . . . . 
 
 Charles I.— -Emperor Charles V. 
 
 Philip II 
 
 Philip III 
 
 Philip IV, ..... 
 
 Charles II 
 
 Philip V 
 
 Ferdinand VI 
 
 Charles 111 
 
 Charles IV 
 
 resigned t« Ferdinand VII. 
 
 Both, by intrigues of the Emperor 
 Napoleon, resigned to Joseph Bona- 
 parte, ..... 
 
 Ferdinand restored. 
 
 12)6 
 1252 
 1284 
 1295 
 1312 
 1350 
 1368 
 1379 
 
 isyo 
 
 1406 
 1454 
 1474 
 1504 
 1516 
 1555 
 1591 
 1612 
 1P65 
 1701 
 1725 
 17-16 
 
 1803 
 1313 
 
 EMPERORS OF GERMANY- beginning with Charkmagne. 
 
 Charlemagne, .... 800 
 
 Lothario 1 8-10 
 
 Lewis II. 855 
 
 Charles the bald, ... 874 
 
 Charles the fat, .... 879 
 
 Arnold tSS 
 
 Lewis IV. at seven years of age, 899 
 
 Knd of the race of Charlemagne 
 
 Conrad I- of Germany, . . 911 
 
 Henry I of Saxony. . . . 9)8 
 
 Olho'l.— styled great. . . . 9'-G 
 
 t tho 11 973 
 
 OthoIII «83 
 
 iL:i,rv H 1002 
 
 Conrad II 1024 
 
 Henry HI 1039 
 
 IHenrv IV 1056 
 
 I Henry V HOG 
 
 Lothario II 1125 
 
 Conrad HI 1137 
 
 Frederic 1 1151 
 
 Henry VI. 
 Philip, 
 Otho IV- 
 Frcdcric 1 1. 
 Conrad IV 
 
 Rooolj^h of Hap.sburg 
 JAdolphus of Jfassuu, 
 
 1190 
 1197 
 1203 
 1212 
 1250 
 1273 
 J291 
 
SOVEREIGNS 
 
 Albert I. of AusLiIa, . ■. . 1-293 
 
 Henry VII 1 309 
 
 Fiedejic the handsome, and Lewis V. Ic!l5 
 
 LewisV Ii22 
 
 Charle«; IV .... 1347 
 
 Winceslaus, .... 1378 
 
 Robert, Count Palatine, . . 139^ 
 
 Sisrjsrnun(l, ..... 14! I 
 
 Albert II of Austria, . . 14381 
 
 Frerleric III 14)0] 
 
 Maximiliun I. . . , • !493, 
 
 Charles V. King of Spain, . 1519, 
 
 Ferdinand I. . , . . 1558 
 
 Maximilian II 15G4 
 
 OF EUROPE. 
 
 377 
 
 IRodolphll. . . . . 
 
 1.57r. 
 
 Mathias 
 
 If, 12 
 
 Ferdinand II. 
 
 it;i9 
 
 Ferdinand III. 
 
 i<;)'> 
 
 Leopold I. . . . . 
 
 It,--,.: 
 
 Joseph I. • . . . 
 
 1705 
 
 t^harlesVI 
 
 17 1: 
 
 Charles Vn. of Bavaria, 
 
 . 1742 
 
 Fiancis I. of Lonain, 
 
 174.^ 
 
 Joseph U 
 
 . I7',5 
 
 Leopold 11 
 
 17-0 
 
 Francis II 
 
 . 179J 
 
 now 00 the throne, 
 
 1318 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OP RUSSIA. 
 
 Peter I. 
 
 Catherine I. 
 
 Peter II. 
 
 Anne, 
 
 John the Infant, 
 
 Elizabeth, 
 
 1632 
 17 ?o 
 1727 
 1730 
 1740 
 17411 
 
 Peter III. 
 Catherine II. 
 Paul, 
 Alexander, 
 
 now on the throae, 
 
 I7fi2 
 170? 
 1795 
 1800 
 
 i8ia 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 The antiquity of Scotlund stands unrivalled in Europe ; she boasts 
 her loyul line of Kings, from Fergus I. ; who settled in ScoMand, as 
 eatly as the subversion of the Medo-Persian empire, by Alexander ; 
 three hundred and thirty years before Christ. She claims a regular 
 succession of one hundred and fifteen Kings, througli a period of one 
 thousand nine hundred aiid tliirty-two years, down to the time of her 
 union widi England, under James I. 1602 ; and from thence to 'lie 
 confirmed union of 1707, when the crown of Scotland was united with 
 the crown of England under the title of Great-Britain, 
 
 The history ot this nation, in connection with the history of England, 
 has claimed and received our attention. A list of her Kings, would 
 swell the size of this work without advantage ; since her poiidcal ex- 
 istence has become incorporated with England. 
 
 SOVEREIGxNS OF POLAND. 
 
 Sigismund, . . . . 
 
 Uladisiaus, . . J 
 
 John !I 
 
 Michael, . . . 
 
 Frederic II. Elector of Saxony, 
 Stanislaus I. . . . 
 
 Frederic II. restored, 
 
 17J.^ 
 Stanislaus 11 .... 1"<31 
 
 fell with the part-tun of 
 Poland, between Russia, Aiwiria 
 
 and Prussia '3?o 
 
 died at Petersburg-, l'« 
 
 1583; Frederic III 
 
 16-»2| 
 1^48 
 16691 
 16971 
 17041 
 17!0l 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF SWEDEN. 
 
 Giistavus Vasa, 
 
 Sigismtindl. .... 
 
 Charles IX. . . . . 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, 
 Christiana, six years of age, 
 Charhs GuHavus X. 
 Charles XI aged four years, 
 Charles XIL fifteen years of a^e, 
 
 I5-23;1 Ulrica, Charles' sifter, 
 15921 Adolphus, 
 I6(>6 IGustavusIII. 
 
 1611 
 1633 
 1651 
 1660 
 1699 
 
 I murdered by count An- 
 
 j kerstrom. • . . . • 
 'Gusta 113 IV. deposed, 
 
 ,(h<irlesXlII 
 
 'General Bernadottc crowned Piicc» 
 
 32' 
 
 1718 
 1751 
 1771 
 
 1792 
 IS 09 
 ISK' 
 
378 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF DENMARK. 
 
 Frederic I. 
 Christian III. 
 Frederic II. 
 Christian IV. 
 Frederic III, 
 Christian V. 
 
 l5-'3 1 Frederic IV 1699 
 
 1554 Christian VI. .... 17.30 
 
 1558 I Frederic V 1746 
 
 1559 ^Christian VII. . . . 1807 
 iei48, '.Frederic VI. now on the throne, 1811 
 16701 [ 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUG.^L. 
 
 Alphonso Henriquez, first Kin":, 1139 
 His line held the throne, with little 
 
 interruption, down to John 1. 1385 
 
 Don Henry 1414 
 
 John II. 1464 
 
 EnDanuel I. .... . 1495 
 
 Don Sebastian, .... 
 
 Henry the Cardinal, . . . 
 
 Philip II. King of Spain, 
 John III. 
 
 John IV. ... 
 
 Alphonso, 
 Peter II. 
 I'JohnV. 
 Joseph, . . 
 Viary, 
 
 1581 
 
 . 1^40 
 , 1646 
 
 1683 
 . 1706 
 
 1750 
 . 1777 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF PRUSSIA, 
 
 Frederic !• 
 Frederic II. 
 Frederic lil- 
 
 nnijjFredericIV. 
 17] tl Frederic V. 
 17401 1 
 
 1786 
 17?8 
 
 PRESIDENTS AND VICE PRESIDENTS OF THE 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 FRESIDENTS 
 George Washington 
 
 re-elected, 
 
 John Adams, 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 
 James Madison, 
 James Monroe, 
 
 re-elected, 
 re-elected, . 
 
 VICE-PRESIDENTS* 
 
 l789llJohn Adams, 
 
 1793, 
 
 re-elected, 
 
 ISO I Aaron Bun-, 
 1805: 'George Clinton, 
 1809 
 
 re-elected, 
 18l7llDaniel D.Tompkins, . 
 
 ISl3,Elbridge Gerry, 
 8l7llDa 
 
 1789 
 1793 
 1797 
 1801 
 1805 
 1809 
 1813 
 1817 
 
A CHRONOLOGICAL 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 FROM THE CREATION, TO THE SUBVERSION OP THE ROMAN 
 EMPIRE, 1450. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 History — Us divisions and 7ise~-from the creation, to the fiood^thetice to 
 
 the buiUUnif of JVine'veh and Babylon. 
 A.M. ^ '' ^ Page 
 
 Introductory remarks, ..... 5 
 
 1 The creation of ihe universe, .... 6 
 
 The happy state of man, ....." 
 
 The apostacy, . .....'• 
 
 The curse that followed, ....•" 
 
 A ransom promised in the seed of the woman, • . . " 
 
 The employnaent and wretchedncKS of man, . . . " 
 
 AV'orsLip by sacrifice eai ty instituted, . . . . 7 
 
 129 The first war — Cain slew his brother Abel, . . . .. 
 
 God the judje and avenijer of blood, . . . " 
 
 This violence marked the character of the old world, . . " 
 
 J656 Noah, the ark, and the deluge, . . . • . " 
 
 16.57 Noah and his family began to people the earth, • . • " 
 
 The employment of men, .... 8 
 
 17'70 The buildJtin; of Babylon and Nineveh, . . • • " 
 
 and The influence of these cities on the manners of that age, and their coB- 
 3771 qae*ts, . .,..•" 
 
 Genera! religious character of man, ..,.*' 
 
 CHAP. IL 
 
 From the call of Abrahmn and his fa^nily, to the death of Joseph his 
 
 grandson in Egypt. 
 B C. 
 
 3931 God called Ahram to found his church, . . . . 8 
 
 J871 GoA tried thf faith of Abraham in the sacrifice of Isaac, , . ^ 
 
 Hagar and Ishmae! rejected, ■ • ' • ' 
 
 The ansfel comforts Hag-ar with the promise of God, . . " 
 Character of the Arabs, his descendants, ..." 
 1837 Marriage of Isaac — birth and character of Esau and Jacob, 
 
 J8 M Death of Abraham — Jacob and his twelve sons, . . • " 
 
 1716 iJeath of Isaac. .... "^ 
 Jacob wrftiitles with the angel, and obtains the.name of Israel, 
 
 Jacob's partiality to Joseph causes his brethren to sell him, . '' 
 
 Joseph's character and trials in Kgypt, ' * ' . i 
 
 1715 Is raised to power, and next to the !tmg, . • • • ^^ 
 
 1707 Sends fo-r his father's family down into Egypt, . . • ]' 
 
 168M Where good old Jacob, or Israel di'*d . . . • 
 
 And was conveyed by his sons to Canaan and entombed, • - J* 
 
 1635 Joseph aad his biethicE—his character— death ajid prophecy. 
 
380 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 From the death of Joseph, to the call of Moses— -the plasties in Egypt'-' 
 
 the departure of the Ilebrexvs under JMoses and Aaroti, and the destruc- 
 
 tion of Pharaoh at the Red Sea. 
 
 B. C. Page 
 
 1577 Commencement of a new era in the family of Abraham, . . 12 
 
 Oppression of his descendants by the destruction of the children, . «' 
 
 1571 Moses born, and hid in fh« flags of the nvar, . . . «» 
 
 His preservation and education, ..,.•• 
 
 He kills an Egyptian, and flies into Midian, . . . «« 
 
 H9l Is commissioned by God from the burning '>u3h. . . . 13 
 
 Moses and Aaron stand before Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and demand the 
 deli'-erance of the Hebrews, . „ . ' . " 
 
 Confirm their commission by miracles • • . . «. 
 
 1491 These compel Pharaoh to send away the Hebrews, . . 14 
 
 Pharaoh pursues — the iniracJe of the Red Sea, . . . «' 
 
 The triumphant song of the children of Israel. • • . •' 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Fro?n the passage of the Bed Sea, to the giving of the Moral Laiv at 
 mount Sinai — the death of Mos.s and Aaron — the possessioii of {he land 
 of Canaan imder Joshua, and the change of government %tnder their 
 kings. 
 B. C. 
 
 General remarks — displays of Mount Sinai. ... 15 
 
 The idolatrous apostacy of Aaron, and the qamp of Israel, . . 16 
 
 Moses in h;s wrath breaks the tables of the Moral Law, punishes the idola- 
 ters, and returns into the Mount, whire God inscribed two other tables 
 as before, . . . . . • '• 
 
 Mo-es gave offence to God at the waters of Meribah, . . •' 
 
 i451 Dea(h of Aaron and Moses, and appointment of Joshua, . . •« 
 
 to Remarks — passage of the river Jordan, . , , •• 
 
 1453 Miraculous reduction of Jericho, .•.,•« 
 
 This closes the 400 years sojourning predicted by God io Abraham, . <« 
 
 Death of all over M years of age in the wilderness, . . 17 
 
 Division of Canaan — Their form of government — Their happy state— Their 
 
 idolatry and corruption, . . . . " 
 
 Remarks — Recapitulation of the family of Abraham, . . " 
 
 Gsneral remarks. ...... 18 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Change of Jexiish Theocracy io the gover^iment of their kings — dispersion 
 
 of the ten tribes, by Psalmanaxer— remarks. 
 B. C. 
 
 1095 Saul, the first king of Israel anointed by Samuel, ... 19 
 
 10H5 David the shepherd Wing — to the exclusion of Saul, . . . " 
 
 1015 to 1005 Solomon— the temple — and temple worship, ..." 
 
 975 Rehoboam, and the division of the tribe", . . . •' 
 
 721 Dispersion of the ten tribes by Psalmanazer, . . . £0 
 
 Thus the prophecy of Moses is fulfilled, . . . • " 
 
 Conjectures upon the ten tribes— remarks, ..." 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Destruction (yfJVineveh^ conquest of JS'sbuchadnexzar-^siege of Tyre--' 
 
B. 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 CONTENTS. 332 
 
 STn "'^ ^^'yP^-^^'Pii^ity ^f the t-wo tribes^dispiaijs of Godm 
 
 Pnn ^p"^'*''."'^''°» «f Nineveh, and union of Chaldea and Assyria, . ^^^jt 
 
 DfJ!,^'^ ^?V ! tnb,8 of J..dah and Benjamin, by Nebuchadnezzar. 'jl 
 
 mspla'sol God in Babylon, . , i ^^ 
 
 569 Humiliation of Nebuchadnezzar, , ' . ' ' ' o'<j 
 
 562 His re.-loration and gratitude to God, .*.".' ' f. 
 General remarks, 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 €o7iguest of Cyrus— fall of Babijlon— restoration of the Jtrm-^expedition 
 
 of Darius^of Xerxes— pass of TUeymopyloe. 
 B- C 
 
 562 Death of Nebuchadnezzar, and succession of Belshazzar, . f24 
 
 555 Cyaxares and Cyrus- wage successful war with Behha/.zar—afld BabvloD 
 
 538 IS subdued by rvrus, . . . . . ' 
 
 536 Cyrus lays the t'oundation of the Medo Persian empire, 
 
 Delivers the Jews from captivity, and restores them to their land, 
 
 529 His rei^n, and death, 
 
 500 Darius — his expodition and overthrow in Scylhia, 
 
 481 Xeri!e'> — his expedition into (ireece, ....". 
 
 Character of the, Greeks, . , 
 
 Leonidas at the .'ass of Thermopylae, . . .'.'•• 
 
 Na»al action of Salaiiiin, ..... •♦ 
 
 Glorious victory of Platea, . . . . . •• 
 
 Civil war iu Persia between Cyrus the younger, and Artaxerxes, • 28 
 
 The Greeks engage as auxiliaries, . . . •• 
 
 341 Defe;i t and death of Cyrus, and retreat of 10,000 Greeks, . ', •» 
 
 Improvements in Greece, . . , •> 
 
 S40 The am.bition and death of Philip king of Macedon, ... 29 
 
 336 Rise and character of Alexander his son and successor, . . <» 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Expedition of Alexander— ^fall of the Persian Monarchy. 
 B.C. 
 
 "View of the vision of the prophet Daniel, .... 30 
 
 335 Alexander begins the conquest of Asia, ....,•• 
 
 Battle cf the Granicus, . • . . . . . •• 
 
 Battle of I.'^sus — flight of Darius king of Persia, . , ', 31 
 
 Siege, aud conquest of Tyre — Conquest of Egypt. ... " 
 
 Alexander returns into Syria, and visits Jeru.salem, ..." 
 
 Is confirmed in his ambition by the Jewi^h scriptures, , . .32 
 
 330 He proceeds into Peisia — fights the battle of Arbela, routs and destroys 
 
 Darius, and conquers Babylon, . . . . , . " 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Alexander establishes the empire of the Greeks upon the ruin of the Per- 
 sian — dies— division of the Grecian empire —rise of (he liomaii empire 
 
 of the Carihagenian — their -wars— fall of Carthage— revolutions of 
 
 the Roman empire. 
 B.C. 
 323 Alexander subdues the eastern and northern provinces, . . S3 
 
 Establishes the Grecian, upon the ruins of the Persian government, but Re- 
 tains the Persian custom? and manners— and kills Clitus and Calisthenes, 
 323 He d ;• in the midst of lio-nt ousness, . • " 
 
 His four principal generals divide his empire. . . • " 
 
 Anticchus, one of the Selucida; of Syria, distresses the Jews, and tbc wars 
 i 
 
382 CONTENTS. 
 
 B. C. Page 
 
 of Syrb and Egypt are almost perpetual down to the conquest of the 
 
 Konians — yet Ishmael dwells safe — remarks. , . . 34 
 
 Origin of ihe Romans, ..,•.•« 
 
 Trojan war, and Grecian colony, .... " 
 
 Homer the father of epic poetry, . . . . " 
 
 3233 Carthage founded by Dido from Tyre, . . . . S5 
 
 753 Romulus founds Rome, ....." 
 
 . Wars of Carthage and Rome. . , . . • 36 
 
 Their governments and wars continued, . . . . '• 
 
 241 Hamil<:arand Hannibal — End of the first punic war, . . " 
 
 Hannibal carried his arms »ulo Italy, and Scipio cariied the Roman arms 
 into Africa, ...... " 
 
 20J Second Punic war closed, ..,..' 
 
 Commencement of the third Punic v/ar, . . . . *' 
 
 Distressing siege of Canhage, . . ... 37 
 
 146 Decree of ihe Roman Senate, fall and nan of Caithage, . . •' 
 
 The Romans distribute the spoils of Carthage to all the cations who claim 
 their own, ...... *' 
 
 They conquer Greece, Egypt, the west of Asia, and of Europe, . , " 
 
 Civil war of Cesar and Pompey, , . . , S8 
 
 47 Triumph of Cesar, defeat, flight and death of Pompey, . • " 
 
 Fatal effects of corrupt ambition, . . • . " 
 
 Fall of Cato, of Roman liberty, and of Cesar, . . . 39 
 
 Fresh cnil wars at Rome. . . . • • " 
 
 Fall of Brutus and Cassius — Anthony and Tully, ..." 
 
 27 Augustus Cesar beQoines emperor, atid gives peace to the world, • " 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Advent of the Jtfessiah-^his life cvtid doctrines, death and resurrection-^ 
 prophecy tipon Jerusalem-^ destncciion of Jerusalem — dispersion of the 
 Jews— division of the Roman empire — rise of the papal poxver. 
 A.D. 
 
 The whole system of prophecy fulfilled in the advent of the Messiah, . 39 
 
 Hi;- benevolent example, instructions and doctrines, . • 40 
 
 His sufferings, death, resurrection and ascension, . . .41 
 
 His prophecy upon Jerusalem, .... " 
 
 His commission of Saul of Tarsus, his reproof of Pharisaical hypocrisy, *' 
 
 Judj^ments upon the Jews and Jerusalem, ... 42 
 
 70 With their overthrow and ruin, ■ • • • • " 
 
 637 The Romans in Palesliiie subdued by the Saracens, . . •' 
 
 The Jews which remained, again distressed, and ihe whole nation in their 
 dispersion preparing to return to Palestine, where they will be horn by 
 the spirit of Chr-st ;nto the faith of the gospel, . . • " 
 
 The true church of Christ, his peculiar care, ... 43 
 
 Jler triumphs in the niid.-t of persecutions, ..." 
 
 Her deep humility under the barbarians and popes, 
 4-20 Rise of the Franks, or French; their connection with the papacy— Charac- 
 ter and tiih- of the pope, . . . • ■ ^5 
 His means of revenue from indulgencies and purgatory, . 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 Kingdom of Charlemagne—of Mahomet— of the Turks— fall of the Ro- 
 man empire at Constantinople. 
 A. D. ^ 
 
 800 Charlemagne king of the Franks and emperor of the West, ' , . • 
 
 1093 Peter the hermit preaches the first crusade, or holy war— Character of this 
 war, and of the nations engan-ed in it. • • • 
 
 606 Rise of Mahomet, ■ ~^ • ■ • ' * 1- 
 
 His chnract-T, religion, bible or !{oran, and conquests, . • ^^ 
 
 1450 Rise of tile Turks and coaquests— Remarks, . • .4a 
 
CONTENTS* gg3 
 
 4PpejYdix to part first, 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 536 Founded by Cyrns, revolutions considered, . i , ?n 
 
 A. D. 1300 Jenghis Khan founds the Mogul's empire, .. " " .. 
 
 1399 Tamerlane confirms this power, . ' . " ' * " 
 
 173 ' Kouli Khan subverts it, . : . ■ ' ' \\ 
 
 1735 And in Hindostan — Remarks. . . ,' " !' 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 B C. 
 
 2^207 Was founded by prince Tao or Yu— their character, . 51 
 
 A. D J6;)5 Tartars invade China, breakover tbeir wall and subdue it, .'. . •• 
 Population, gcernmcnt, <^c. , . . ' ' . hi 
 
 3586 China visited by the Portuguese, , , ,'.'•• 
 
 1692 The pope sent missionaries to China, . . . ,. 
 
 1742 They were expelled, , ...'•• 
 
 J792 The English sent an embassy to China, . . , >'. 
 
 HiNDOSTAN. 
 
 A. P. 
 
 1497 The Portug-uese first discovered Hindostan, ..." 
 
 150.. They built the citv of Goa, ... . •• 
 
 ]59i Was vi-jt-d by the English. . . . . .. 
 
 1600 They, formed their lirst'East India company, . . . <• 
 
 16^8 They formed th'^ir second, . . . . . •< 
 
 1700 They renewed their fust charter, and proceeded to establish their govern- 
 ment, ......." 
 
 1595 The Dutch commenced their India trade, . . . •• 
 
 161-2 The Danes commenced (heir India trade, . . . •• 
 
 1738 Causes of the successful settlements in Hindosfr.n, . . •< 
 
 1763 TbeFninch ceded Pondicherry to the English, . . .54 
 
 Character of the religion of India, and the successful eiforls of christian mis- 
 sionaries. ...... " 
 
 TARTARY. 
 
 Ancient name and character of this country, , . .54 
 
 Their mode of warfare, ..... 65 
 
 Their massacres — attachment to the horse, ..." 
 
 The nursery of great conquerors, . . . .56 
 
 Character of the Russian war of 1812-13— Remarks, 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 21G3 Before Christ this kingdom was founded, ... 56 
 
 Her soil and character, ,...." 
 
 600 Before Christ it was subdued by Nebuchadnezzar, . . 67 
 
 A. D. A?ain by Alexander 333 bafore f;hrist, ... •• 
 
 31 It f<*ll under the dominion of the Romans, , . . " 
 
 6-25 It wns subdued by the Saracens, ...•'' 
 
 15-25 It was conquered by the Turks, . ■ • • ■ " 
 
 1799 ft was o-^erran by the French, .... '| 
 
 1801 Conquered by the English, • • • • • " 
 
 1803 Cedfd by the Eniftish back to the Turks . • " co p' 
 
 Characlerof the Egyptians, and government, •. . 63 to 61 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 A.D. , 
 
 704 Gormo founded this kingdom. • • • 61 
 
 They invade England from time to time, ... 
 
 887 Possess England, . • • ■ • " 
 
 880 Were expelled by Alfred, . i • ■ • '' 
 
 995 They render F.ngland tributary, . . . . f^- 
 
 100-2 Renew the tribute, . . , • ■ 
 
 341-2 Conquer Norway, . . > 
 
 i History of Denmark continued. . ,. . 
 
384 dONTENTS. 
 
 GREECE CONTINUED. 
 
 B. C. • Page 
 
 2000 Greece was first settled by Ion, son of Japhet, eld<;st son of Noah . 63 
 
 150'> Letters were introduced from Egypt, . . . . " 
 
 IJO'l Character of the tJreeks at the time of the Argonauts. . , 64 
 
 9U0 Their character at the time of the Trojan war. . . . «• 
 
 700 Which gave rise to Homer, and afterwards to the Olympic games. , " 
 
 460 Peloponesian war, and character of Greece continued, . . «' 
 
 With the mvasions of Darius, and of Xerxes, . . . " 
 
 Character and governments of Lviuigus and Solon, . . 65 
 300 Decline of Greece, to the reign of Philip and Alexander ; when she fell un- 
 der the rod of a despot. . . . • .60 
 
 150 And became a Roman province, .... 67 
 
 A. D. 330 Greece became the seal of Roman government, under the emperor Con- 
 
 stantine, — Remarks, ..... " 
 450 Greece, under the Roman capital, until the conquest of the Turks, where it 
 
 now remains, .... • • ^- 
 
 ROME CONTINUED. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 700 The city of Rome founded by Romulus, and government by a king and senate, 68 
 
 See the chronological history, to the 73d page, and remarks, . 73 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE, 410, 
 TO THE YEAR 181 8, OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Hevolntmi of thexvestern Roman empire — character of the Barbarians — 
 laws of dividon, and tenure of their spoil — character of the Roman re- 
 ligion—religion of the Barbaiians —character of the dark ages — origin 
 of L he feudal system. 
 A i>. 
 4i0 ''haracter of the Romans— of the Barbarians, . . . 74 
 
 450 Tht'ir ravages m the Roman empire, . . . .75 
 
 Reli;ijn of the Ron.ans and Barbarians. ... 76 
 
 486 Genius of their government under Clovis — Feudal system, .. 77 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Clovis— character of his relgn—distructed state of the Franks— moj/ors 
 of the palace — reigns of Fepin ■ Charles Martel — Leovegild— ecclesi- 
 astical poxver— Mahomet — ISaracens — situation of Spain. 
 A.D. 
 
 Pharamond— CloMs, and the religion of the Franks j his victory and con- 
 quest of the Visigoths, . . • .78 
 511 fJtath of Clovis — his successors and feuds, . . . " 
 656 Character of Pep;n, mayor of the palace, . . . 79 
 73-i Charles Martel his successor, • • • • • " 
 752 Pepin his successor, • ' • • • " 
 Visigoths in Spain — Distresses in Spain, . • . . 80 
 Remarks, , • • • • • .81 
 
 CHAP. HI. 
 
 General affairs of Italy— rise of popery^ Pepin supports the pope^statc 
 
CONTENTS. 383 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Italy under the Lombards, , , P^za 
 
 Rise of the papal power, / ' -81 
 
 752 Pope Zachary, and Pepin kinor of the Franko, * * "' 
 
 ,.^„ ?,"""?S>«^°f'taly— Pope Stephen, and Pepin, ' • • 82 
 
 '08 Death of Pepin— his successor, . . ' ' . " 
 
 At:A ^'■'*^-'"' ""'ie'' the Romans, and after their departure ' ' ^'^ 
 
 450 .■\njlo-SaxoDS, their couquest of Britain, their heptarchy, ' . ^^ 
 
 CHAP. III. CONTINUED. 
 
 9^" ^^''t'"."""^"*' manners and customs of the heptarchy, down to E-bert, and 
 oil to his s.icc. ssor, . . '^ * 
 
 nn? rJ-^^'*^^ "^'' great— the character and government of Alfred, ' . ' pt 
 
 90 1 His death, . . . . 'la 
 
 771" Rise of Charlemasrne— recommences the history of France—Charles sun 
 
 ports pope Adrian I. . . . ' .^^ 
 
 "74 Puts an end to the kin-dom of the Lombards, in Italy, and is crowned em- 
 
 tJerorof the West, . . . . , ^ 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 France and the church, through the reign of Charleinac^ne and his sue- 
 cessorSf to the settletnent of RuUo the JVo-man. 
 
 The connection between the papal and French monarchies, , , 39 
 
 800 Imperial coronation of Charles, . . . yO 
 
 802 Respect paid to Chariee, by ihe powers of the east, , , '.• 
 
 81,4 Character of Charles — his death, and the extent of his empire Lewis, 
 
 his son and successor — bis government and fend-— is deposed bv ponJ 
 Gregory IV. for taking up arms agiainst his rebellious sons, and his sos 
 Lothario succeeds to the throne, . . • . 92 
 
 834 Lews restored, and l,othario made king of Italy — Lewis Jies— the feuds 
 continue, and the Saracens in-, ade Italy ; the JVorrnans ravage France, 
 and burn Paris; and amidst ail these distresses, the clergy assume the 
 disposal of crowns, .... .• 
 
 Durm<j thece distresses, Rollo the Norman chi.f begins his ravaires in 
 Fr-nce, . . . . . ' . 93 
 
 911 Marries the daughter of Charles the simple, and .»eftles in Nei:- ua, which 
 
 becomes the province of Normandy, . ■ , 9V 
 
 The distractions of Germany, keep pace with the feuds of France, under 
 the successors of Charlemagne, until they are succeeded by the emperor 
 
 912 Conrad L . . . . . • . '• 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Ger7nany, from the election of Conrad I. ivith Italijand the churchy down 
 
 to the year 1004. 
 A. D. 
 
 917 The Huns invade Germany, and force a peace. . . . 94 
 920 Conrad succeeded by Henry I. of Saiony — Who are the electors of the 
 
 Germanic body — Henry, by his sword, gives peace to Germany, . 95 
 
 936 Attempts the conquest of Italy, and dies, . . . ffi 
 
 937 The race of ("hariemasfne becomes extinct in France, . . •• 
 Otho I. son of Henry I, supports with dignity, the imperial throne of Ger- 
 
 943 many, propagates christiaittty even into Deemark, and ^ines law to Italy. " 
 962 Is crowned king of the Romans, ... •• 
 
 Otho chastises the perfidy of pope John XII . . . •■ 
 
 The feuds of Italy, compel Otho to support a "uccessiori of fopp,«— he con- 
 970 tracts an alliance between his son, Otho il. and a princess of the Greek 
 
 eiijpire, at Constantinople— Bonsummaied, . • ,97 
 
 33 
 
38& CONTENTS. 
 
 ■^ ^' Pape 
 
 973 Otho the great died, and !eft his throne to his son, Otho II.— He, like his 
 father, was valiant in arms ; but amidst the feuds of Italy, he was ha- 
 rassed by ihe Saracens, . . . , .97 
 933 Died, and was succeeded by his son, Otho III. . . . •» 
 
 1000 Olho III. created Bolislaus king of Poland, • . . .. 
 
 lOOi The -Saracens enter Iialy, besiege Rome, and are expelled by Otho, who 
 
 Hies of poison, and was succeeded by Henry II. . . n 
 
 ]004 Henry, harassed by fruds, attempted to retire : but was prevented by the 
 commands of the abbott of St. Val, and continued to rei^n with success- 
 
 )024 ful prosperity until his death, and was succeded by Conrad II. . 93 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 England and France ^ from the rise of Edrvard I. to the JSTormaii con- 
 quest, 1066. 
 A.D. 
 
 901 Edward I ascended the throne of his father Alfred, and maintained the 
 
 Saxon liberties through a succes.sl'ul reign, ... .92 
 
 925 Died, and was succeeded by Athelstan. who established Sitheric, the Dan- 
 ish chief, in Northumborland, with his sister in marriage, which produ- 
 ced a wai- with Scc*!an;<, • . . . . »' 
 941 Athelstan enco'najefl coinmerce— died, and was succeeded by his brothel 
 Edmond ; who was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother Eddred ; 
 who was a friend to monastic life, through his rei^n, . . <« 
 955 Died and vas succeeded by Edwy, the son of Edmond, who suffered great 
 persecutions from the clergy, was divorced from his queen, dethroned, 
 and his brother Edgar succeeded him, at thirteen years of age, . 99 
 Edg-ar favored Montrery. and was sainted, ." . . •• 
 975 Died, and was succeeded by his son Edward, who was murdered in three 
 
 years, ...,-." 
 
 973 And succecaed by Etheheu, who ordered a general massacre of all the 
 Danes in England ; which occasioned his expulsion, by Swein, king of 
 Denmark, and bis persecution to his death, . . . •• 
 
 ]0l6 He was succee.Ifd by his sjn. Edmond Ironside, . . 100 
 
 J0l7 Who died, and left the throne to Canute the Dane, . . JOI 
 
 996 The feuds of France, at this time, opened the way for Hugh, duke of 
 France, to fceize on the crown, and confer it to his son Robert, who fell 
 under the same, ecclesiastical despotism, of Edwy of England, . •• 
 
 i031 Died, and left his crown to his son, Henry 1 who fled to Normandy for suc- 
 cor, and by bis sword, entered France, and recovered his crown, . " 
 Robert, duke of Normandy, died on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and left 
 1046 bis throne to his natural son William, then a minor, who was crowned in 
 
 the midst of strife, ..... 102 
 
 Canute sends Edwin, and Edward, sons of Edmond Ironside, into Sweden, 
 
 to be despatched — they are preserved in Hungary, . , »• 
 
 Canute, at the same time, gives tranquillity to England, by marrying Em- 
 
 mr., their mother, and queen of Kthelred, . . . •' 
 
 Canute subdues Sweden, and Norway, humbled Malcolm king of Scotland, 
 
 lC3ii died, and left bis throne to his son Harold barefoot who was succeeded 
 
 by Edward, son of Ethehed, who.died, and left his throne to Harold II. 
 
 who was invaded by his brother Tosti. and next by William, duke of 
 
 jOC6 Normandy, who usurped the throne, and established the feudal system, 103 
 
 CHAP. vn. 
 
 Spain and th^ church, ■with Germany and Italy, through the reign of Henry 
 IV. to the year 1099. 
 
 AD. 
 
 763 Spain, the Saracens, and Greek empire from 765, . . 104 
 
 Portugal under the AraUs — all one general scene of distress, . " 
 
 Constantinople, and the arts and sciences, and the Greek church, all in the 
 
 midst of cornuition — Remarks, .... 105 
 
 Fends of Italy down to 1073 . . . . 10© 
 
CONTENTS. 387 
 
 D. 
 
 Henrj IV. emperor of Germany, is persecuted by pope Greeory VII and^''^* 
 excommunicated. . . in'i 
 
 Gregory causes Rodolph, duke of Suabia. to be elected emperor ' 
 Henry by a council, deposes Gresory, and by h.s sword, humbles Ro- 
 dolph, and all Germany and Italy are involved in the quarrel, . lOS 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 The church— 'Jlrst crusade— chivaby, and the monastic rage. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1095 RAiarks— First Crusade, general disasters, . . . if.i^ 
 -Amount of the christian forcesin Asia, , . ' . ' no 
 Coiiquestof ^erusulera, . . . . ' . ., 
 Godfrey, king of Fiance, made kinj of Jerusalem, 
 
 Guelpbs and Ghibelincs, become conspicuous in the subsequent feuds of Eu- 
 rope — Remarlts, . , . , _ jjj 
 Chivalry — its character, . . , .... 
 Monastic life— its character—Remarks, . . . 112 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Englmul through the reign of William I. William II. Iferiry I.— Ger 
 
 many and France to the second crusade. 
 A. D. 
 
 William I. visits Normandy, returns to quell a rebellion — subdues the Bri- 112 
 tish spirit, and establishes the French iatigiiage, quells a rebellion in Nor- 
 1087 mandy, ravag^es France, and dies, leaiing the crown of Knjland to his 
 
 son, William II. . . . . " . lig 
 
 1096 William II. pursues the policy of his father, purchased Normandy of his 
 
 brother Robert ; and set the pope. Urban II at detiance, 
 IlOO Was killed on a hunting match in his new park, . . . •• 
 
 Henry I his brother, succeeded to the throne, . . . " 
 
 Seized his brother Robert in Normandy, and imprisoned him in England 28 
 years, where he died, . . 114 
 
 1135 Caused his Enghsli subjects to acknowledge Henry Plantagenct, his grand- 
 son, then a minor, his heir, and died, . . . •' 
 
 Despotism, and the reign of tcri-or, laid the foundation for the future strug- 
 gles of privilege, and prerogative, . , . •• 
 
 New struggles arise in Germany and Italy nnder Lothario, and his succes- 
 sor, Conrad III. — Anecdote of the castle of Wtinburg — New crusades, llT. 
 1152 Conrad dies, and is succeeded by Fredf.'nc Barbarossa, . *' 
 
 13(X) persons burnt in the church of Vitri, by order of Lewis VII. king of 
 
 * France, who favors St. Bernard in the second cntiade, to atone for this 
 crime, . . . . . . 116 
 
 Amount of the arrny of the crusade, aud events, 
 
 CHAP, X. 
 
 England during the reign of Stephen — Henry II.— the church, with a con, 
 
 tinuation of the second crusaile — Germany and the third crusade. 
 A. I). 
 
 1 135 Stephen, count of Boulogne seizes the throne — weakens the crown by indul- 
 ging the borons in building castles — David, king of Scots, and Matilda 
 wage war in support of Henry II. the rightful heir, which is s'ttled by 
 compromise — These civil wars produce a distressing famine in England, 11 • 
 Henry II. upon the death of Stephen, succeeds to the throne, and humbles 
 Lewis VI! jjing of France, by the first independent army, . '"' 
 
 1161 Appoints Thomas a Becket, primate of England, to correct the abuses of 
 
 the church — Becket's character, . . . . li^ 
 
 1162 Open war between Henry and Becket, . . ■ • '' 
 C^onstitution of Clarendon, . . . . llT* 
 Flight of Becket, his return, triumph and death, • > . 1^*J 
 Superstitiops of Meckel's tomb, • • ■ 
 
388 CONTENTS. 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 Henry conquers Ireland, and repairs to Normandy to settle his peace with 
 
 the pope's legate, and ch.-ars himself by oath from the death of Becket, 120 
 Prince Henry, his son, demands a share »n the government— Elenor his 
 queen, and Lewis VII. king of France, support the demand — Henry ^oes 
 penance at the tomb of Becket— obtains by his generals a victory over 
 the Scots, and takes their king, • . . . Ii21 
 
 il23 Lewis \ II. king of France, makes a pilgrimage to Becket's 'omb, dies, and 
 
 Philip n bucceeds to the throne, . . . n 
 
 i!C9 Henry dies in Normandy — Improvement' of Henry, . , •• 
 
 Alexander III. brings i redenc II. empeior of Germany, ta kiss his feet, <5-c. 122 
 Victor III. and Alexander 111- rival popes. . . . <• 
 
 ii6y-1 177 Milan destroyed .-miusl these rival ttuds, . . . i" 
 
 The house of Brunswick arose out of thfSc leuds, ..... »■ 
 
 1181 Saladin, caliph of Egypt, recovered Palestine, which occasions another cru- 
 sade under Frederic Barbaros.sa, who died in Asia Minor, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Henry VI. .... 123 
 il9l Philip I of France, and Richard I of Kngland, engage in this new cresade, 
 
 and take their rout to Palestine by water, . , . •• 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 Tfie third crusade contimied— Jiichard^ king of England^ a captive in 
 Gennamj — John successor to liichard — Magna Charta, 
 
 They besiege and take Ptolemai?, .... J23 
 
 Characters of Richard and Philip, . . . . •• 
 
 1192 Richard gains the famous battle of Ascalon, and the conquest of that city — 
 
 The confederates, in sight of Jerusalem, abandoned the enterprize, and 
 return home, ...... 124 
 
 1193 Richard is seized in Austria, and sold to the emperor of Germany, impris- 
 
 oned, and ransomed by bis subjects for 300 OOtl. sterling, . " 
 
 1199 Was wounded at the siege of the castle of Vidomer and died — John, his 
 
 brother, succeeded to the throne . , , . 125 
 
 l'i05 Philip of France seized on all the English possessions in Normandy, . " 
 
 John falls under a papal interdict, and resigns his crown to the pope, to- 
 gether with an annual tribute of 1(00 marks — John and Otho IV. fojm 
 the first German coalition against France, • • ", 
 
 1215 John grants to the barons. Magna Charta, . ■ • 12o 
 
 Henry VI emperor of Germany, institutes three crusades with the price'of 
 Richard's ransom, and died in the midst of his wars, in Italy, by poison 
 from his queen* . . . • . . " 
 
 CHAP. xn. 
 
 Crusade against Constantinople— Germany — France, and a neiu crusade 
 
 — England and France—borough elections in England. 
 A.D. 
 
 liOl Baldwin, carl of Flanders, heads a new crusade, . , 128 
 
 Takes Constantinople, was proclaimed emperor of the Greeks, . " 
 
 J20t5 Becomes unfoitunatc. is defeated, and slain, . • • " 
 
 1215 The feuds of Germany closed, at the coronation of the emperor Frederic II. " 
 
 All F.urope engage in the new crusade under Honorius HI — Cardinal Al- 
 
 bano made general in chief, . • • • • " 
 
 1221 Becomes unfortunate, and the cnofederates aJandon tlie war by a truce. 
 
 New feuds io Germany compel Frederic IL to engage in anotlier crusade 
 
 under Gregory IX —Frederic is more successful in the east than any of 
 
 the preceding champions, . • • • . • '' 
 
 1229 Concludes a truce, and returns home, and is involved in new feuds with the 
 
 pope, . . . . . • 'l^^ 
 
 1266 And the civil wars rage until his death, . • .f,', 
 
 1273 An interreanum succeeds, until the election of Rodolph, count ol Hapsburg ; 
 
 the Haiiseatic league is formed during this interregnum, • • _• 
 1216 Philip of France engages in the support of the civjl wars in England against 
 
 John, and he died, • • • " ' \^ 
 
 2217 Henvy III. son of John, gives union and peace to England. 
 -iW Henry attempted to jecover the English posscJiioas in France, . u^- 
 
CbNTENTS. 339 
 
 ^ n.ent. ^ilh bo "ujh elec,tionl '"' '' ''''""' " "^^'^ P"^'- 
 
 Remarks on the parliament, . ' ^ ' " '2' 
 
 CHAP. Xlfl. 
 
 ^n^^anrf-.Fra.c. a;,^ a nerv cna,ade render Lervu VmSpain /.on. 
 
 !2?0 ?r!n.T pf '; ^'^ '^T"' ^""^ Leicester is slain. . 13, 
 
 tS? R T ^'*^*':'* eng-aged in the holy war wth success. ■ ^, 
 
 1236 Who in his turn left it to Lewis IX. a minor. ' ' .. 
 
 rhrerbZ'hVrs' 'r?f:.^^'^"'"''^'^ "^''^'^- HoIv wars, with his queeo. 
 1544 To^-l'".*^''" *^*^''°'-"'so'' France. ' . . 134 
 
 1249 Is defeated and ken .n the fatal battle of Massoaro. is ransomed by trea- 
 
 SeTorfryTa" "' ^''"' ^^^ -" 'he CapUve.. and reUres to Pales- 
 
 n58 Returned to France t'o settle the mobs of the Idnsdom. ' . " . 
 
 Entered upon a cru.ade a^.nin.-t the infidels of Africa, lost bis eldest son 
 1271 France! "^' ^">"*^lf' ^^d b» second son led back bis army to 
 
 Character of Lewis, , ' ' ' " " ,, 
 
 nil Pow!!' .T^ ^''' n''"«^ K-'.i-ht-errantry. from 1073 to the sequestration of 
 ;i4/ rortujal, under Don Henrique/:, . 
 
 Spain continued, her conflicts with the Moors. ' . ' * I'ik 
 
 121-2 Battle of the Biacl^ mountains. . " ,35 
 
 \fr!l ^j": of ^'erdinand III or St. Ferdinand-his conquests and death. " . 
 i^n^ Alphonso the wise succeeds— his reian and death, 
 loVS ^ancho his son succeeds— his tranquU rei-n and death, 
 
 ^erdinand IV. his son succeeds— his turbulent rei-n and extraordinary death. J36 
 
 Kemarks upon chiyahy and the crusades. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 ^ ^En^Iand, under Edivard l-^ajairs of Scotland-Edtvard II. 
 
 1274 Edward F. succeeds his father, 13V 
 
 Subdues Wales, and destroys their bards', ' ! '. 
 
 1291 feubdued Scotland bv stratagem, . . 139 
 
 1295 Borough elections ekabli.hed in the house of commons, in En-laud, ' 
 
 Kemarks on g-overnment, . <• 
 
 1396 Conquest o/ Scotland, by F.dward r. 
 
 He comp(^ls tlie clergy to furnish supplies . ' . . "' 
 
 Is oblige^ to abnadon his exactions, and add one more article to the great 
 
 charter to restore tranquillity, ....«> 
 
 Edvrard's ambitious plans against France, opened the way for a rebellion 
 :n bcotland — the Scots expel the En^jlish in their turn— are a?ain subdu- 
 jQAt 13 V 1 -^ fc^dward, and William Wnllace. their chief, taken and executed. 
 IJOi. Kebel ion again renewed, under Robert Bruce, and the English a-ain ex- 
 pelled. . . , ."'.'' 140 
 
 1307 Kdward enters Scotland in triumph— dies, and left his tl^one to his son, Ed- 
 
 ward ri . . ' . 
 
 1308 And the Scots restore their power, under Robert Bruce, who invades En-- 
 1^14 -rt '"S- ' ,•' '*^^ ''"'"*''^ Edward 11 to the conquest of Scotland. . ' .. 
 iJi- ihe English are defeated, and flee ; and the Scots under Robert Bruce 
 »-!=> i:' ^?ain enter England, and invade Ir.fiand. . « 
 ^.o23 Jorce a peace, and secure their lioerties. 
 
 ^327 Civil wars of England, here follow to the death of Edward. 
 
390 CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAP. XY. 
 
 Germmiy and Stoiizerland — Italy — France — Xnighls Templars. 
 A. D. Pa^f 
 
 l.!92 Rodolpl) of Hapsbur^, and the rise of the house of Austria, . !« 
 
 129! To thedealh of Rodolph, . . , •• 
 
 l-29'2 The succession of Adol()hus of Nassau, and Albert, duke of Austria, •' 
 
 J293 Triumph of Albert, at the battle of Rosendel, and his coronation, . " 
 
 1308 Resolution and liberties of Switzerland, ... " 
 
 Death of Albert, and succession of Henry VII. . . . J43 
 
 Affairs of Italy, , . . . . . •• 
 
 ;313 Death of Henry VII. . . . . . . »• 
 
 Knights of the Teutonic order, purchase Dantzic. <S'C. . • «• 
 
 France, during; these strug-gles, had been involved in war, under J'hilip III. 
 
 rn iiccount of the crown of Sicily, .... 144 
 
 !2P2 Vv^hich fell under the massacre-^some account of that event, . •» 
 
 1235 Philip III attempts the recovery of Sicily — fails and dies. His son, Phil- 
 ip IV succeeds to the throne of France — institutes parliaments upon the 
 plan of Kdward I. of F-n<rland, . ..■••« 
 
 ■.S(^3 Quarrels v/ith the pope and clergy — burns the pope's bull — summons his 
 
 first parliament, who support the kinp:, ... '• 
 
 Boniface dies of chaj^rin — Benedict IX. succeeds — was poisoned for his 
 
 good deeds, and left his chair to Clement V. a Frenchman, . 146 
 
 '^iO Philip, the pope and states of Europe, persecute and destroy the Knights 
 
 .312 Templars, ...... " 
 
 .314 Philip dies, and is succeeded by his son, LewiiJX . . *» 
 
 'C'ib Who died after a short, but cruel and avaricious reign, . . " 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 France and the Salic lato-^Erigland and Scotland-— England and France 
 
 battle oj Cressy. 
 A. D. 
 
 i3 23 The origin of the Salic law examined — succession of Philip de Valois, 14& 
 
 ,330 F.dward" III. punishes the maladministration of earl Morfimer and the 
 
 queen mother, and restores tranquillity, . . . 147 
 
 i33-2 Raises Edward Baliol, from a French prison, to the throne of Scotland, •' 
 
 •333 He is expelled, and flies into England, ■ • • _ . n 
 
 1334 Edward, by the sword, again restores Baliol to his throne, and receives the 
 
 submission of Scotland, . - ■ . . " 
 
 j33fi The Scots again expelled Baliol, and France supported the insurrection, •• 
 
 i338 Edward put' in hi.s claims to the crown of France, opened his negocialions 
 
 in the Low Countries, or Flanders, and invaded France, 143 
 
 J339 Edward is succes.sful against the French at sea, '• 
 
 3340 He again invades France, with his allies in Flanders, and challenges Phil- 
 ip, which produced a truce, ..... 149 
 i343 This truce displayed the talents of the countess of Mountforf, in the defence 
 
 of the prowice of Brittany, . • • _ . " 
 
 i346 Edward by the a.ssistance of his parliament, is enabled again to enter 
 
 France— passage of the Somine, and battle of Cressy — use of cannon, 150 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 
 
 England and Scotland — general plagne— invasion of France by Ed-ward 
 III.— battle of Faictiers — civil ivara of France — peace and conditions. 
 A. D. 
 ;346 Bruce, kin? of Scotland at the instigation cf Phihp. king of France, enters 
 
 England victorious, • . • • • 151 
 
 Edward invades France, to support his claim to the crown, and his que^n 
 Philippa gains a battle over the Scots— takes David their king and all his 
 court prisoners, . • . • . • " 
 
 5347 Ph'lippa joins Edward in France, and they take Calais, . " 
 
 3348 F'dward settles a peace, and returr.s to England, . . " 
 
 'J50 Character of the En-^lish Court, and order of the garter, . . •• 
 
 Geceral jlague throughout the wcrlJ ; Philip VI, drj^i • ^^'3 
 
CONTENTS. 3gj 
 
 D. 
 
 Civil war in France under Charles the bad. ^^ge 
 
 ^.dward renews the war in th.s distress, and the prince of Wales ' ' '" 
 
 g-ains the 
 
 '''' ""thTseVs'tresi^fto'mi' '^f^'" 'T'^ ^'•"""- '^"'^ '"""^ n^van'ta^e of '"' 
 nfii wi ^l^'i^^^'^S' to make a favorable peace, restored John to his throne .. 
 
 1364 Who again returned to England to revise the treaty, and died, ' ,[ 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 Particular remark s-ajaivs of France and Spain-Black Prince renews 
 ^ Me -war loitli France-battle of the champions^- Gennany and Itahj. 
 
 Remarks on the last chapter. . ... 
 
 Accession of Charles v.— his difficulties, ". '. ' .. 
 
 Charles lends his aid to quiet the civil wars of Spain, . " ,55 
 
 Ou Guesclin and pope Innocent VI. contend, and Innocent yields to his"de- 
 
 Edward enters Spain with 100,000 men, gains" the battle of Najara. on the 
 ».T,A TP? ™' restores Peter I, to his throne. . 
 
 Vilb Edward's affairs decline in France, and with his death the Endish lose 
 
 rr,"*^""^^" t"*^"" Pos'^essions in France, . ,cc 
 
 J377 The next year Kdward III. died in England, . . ' .. 
 
 - The ci^il wars continued to rage in Germany, thirty competitor^ appear' to 
 decide the controversy between Frederic, duke of Bavaria, and Lewis 
 duke of Austria ; every man falls into the. conflict, and the armies en^a-e' 
 and Lewis is triumphant, . ' "^ ,. 
 
 Switzerland secures her liberty at the same time, and the coun-il of Frank- 
 fort check the insolence of the popes The struggles continue until the 
 diet of Nureraburg, by their golden bull, quiet the feuds of the imperial 
 elections, . . . , ^ 4 ibt 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 Affairs of England under Richard II. and Henry IV.—Scotland-' Ger- 
 many and the states of Italy— council of Constance. 
 A. D. 
 
 Remarks — accession of Richard 11 —state of his treasury, . 158 
 
 1 The poll tax causes an iusurrection under V'at Tyler. . . 159 
 
 Richard lays the-storm, upon the death oi' Tyler, by abolishing feudal vas- 
 ! salage in England, • ■ . . . 
 
 j 1399 Richard dies, and is succeeded by the duke of Lancaster, as Henry IV. by 
 a bloody usurpation. • . . . . 
 
 • 1400 He persecutes WicklilT and his followers, 
 I 1403 This kindles a civil war, which was quelled with severfty, . 160 
 
 I 1393 The papal contests between Urban VI. and Clement III were very severe 
 j in Italy, and involved the states of Germany, and the kingdom of Naples, 
 
 1383 Margaret, queen of Denmark, seized on Sweden, 
 I VVinceslaus, emperor of Cer.'riany, died — Frederic, duke of Brunswick, suc- 
 
 I 1399 ceeded— was murdered, and Robert, count palatine, of the Rhine, suc- 
 I ceeded, . . . . ... 
 
 John Huss, a disciple of Wickliff, appeared in Bohemia, and threw the 
 church into great confusion, and occasioned the councils of Catalonia, 
 Aquilia, Pisa, Frankfort and Constance, 
 1411 Sigismund succeeded to the throne upon the death of Rebertj 
 
392 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 , Af art's of Germany— of England— of France. 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 Remaiks — the council of Constance, .... l6i 
 
 Sigismund the emperor repairs to Spain, to settle the papal feuds with Ben- 
 edict XIIl ... . . 
 
 Martin V. Elected pope, ..... «» 
 
 1436 Insurrections, and murders in Bohemia, . . . . " 
 
 14J8 Sigismund left the imperial throne to Albert, duke of Austria, toj^ether with 
 
 the crown of Bohemia ; this was important to the house of Austria, . " 
 France was distracted under Charles VI . . . «» 
 
 1413 Henry IV. of England, died in the midst of feuds, and left his throne to 
 
 Henry V who suppressed the Lollards, or followers of Wickliff, . . " 
 1415 Henry invades France, and ^ains the battle of Agincourt, returns to Eng'- 
 
 land, and leaves France torn with feuds, . . 163 
 
 I4i0 Henry rs turns to France, seizes the gooernment, and marries the pr'ncess 
 
 Catharine, ...... «' 
 
 Henry dies, and left the throne of France in the hands of his brother, duke 
 of Bedford, as recent for his infant son, ^lenry VI — Charles VI. dies, 
 and his son, Charles VII is crowned at Poictiers, . . . " 
 
 Catharine marries sir Owen Tudor, and bears the dukes of Richmond and 
 Pembroke, . .... 164 
 
 1429 The duie of Br-dford presses the affairs of Charles VII. and lays siege to 
 
 the city of Orleans, ..... " 
 
 Affair ofthe maid of Orleans, ..... 165 
 
 1431 Her successes, misfortunes, capture and death, . . . 166 
 
 1435 Death of the duke of Bedford, . . . . " 
 
 1453 Loss of all the English possessions in France, except Calais, . " 
 
 1439 Frederic HI. succeeded to tlie throne &f Germany, after the short reign of 
 
 Albert, . • . . . . , . " 
 
 1441 Visits the council of Basil, . • . . . » 
 
 1452 Visits Italy — is crowned at Rome, and married, . . . 167 
 The Turks take Constantinople — General remarks, . ^ " 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 
 
 Recapitulation — civil roars in England — of Fraiice-'ioar in Flanders. 
 A. D 
 
 Remarks, ...... ]6S 
 
 1450 Richard, dHke of York, and Henry VI contend for the crown of England, 
 
 Fall of the dukes of Gloucester and Suffolk, . " 
 
 1458 Henry VI. ta«en by Richard, in a fatal bh.ttle, and a genera) accommoda- 
 tion followed, ......«< 
 
 1453 Ci> il war renewed— Richard fled to Ireland— returns to England, and falls 
 
 in the battle of V/akefield, . . .169 
 
 Edward IV hrs son, appeared with a strong force, to support the claims in 
 right of his father, . . . . . . 170 
 
 1464 Is crowned at London, ..... . •• 
 
 The action of Towtown, between Henry VI and Margaret his queen, and 
 
 and Edward IV commenced the ext'^rminating icene oi nn quarter, and 
 drove Henry and Margaret into Scotland iVtarijaret collects an army in 
 Scotland, advances into England, fights the battle of Heiham, is beaten, 
 and escapes to France, .....*' 
 
 1465 Henry is taken and confined in the tower, ..." 
 i4"70 Civil war continues, and Henry VI recovers his throne. Edward again re- 
 covers his crown and capital, after another battle of extermination and no 
 quarter. ....... 171 
 
 14-71 Henry VI dies, . . . . . . •' 
 
 Edward invades France successfully, and quiets the feuds of England, by 
 the death of the duke of Clarenre, . , . . " 
 
 1483 Dies, and leaves his throne to Edv.'ard V at thirteen years of age, . " 
 Richard duke of Gloucester i.'? chosen regent, and usurps the throne, by his 
 
 bloody power, as Richard III ..." 
 
 1484 Henry Vll defeats Richard in the battle of Bosworth, and recovers the 
 
 crown to the true line, under the new dynasty of the hou^e of Tudor, " 
 
 1453 Charles VU. king of France, at this time establishes a regular conscription 
 
 in Frances . . - . . . . 172 
 
J7i 
 
 CONTENTS. 393 
 
 Jf |:tf ^.fS• *f.?,-''„»L^''„';-;: "»'P' .- .^..^ ana ,.,„. /- 
 
 1435 Dies a horrid death-hi3 son Charles VIII. succeeds, * . ' . 7.'^ 
 
 CHAP. XXII. 
 
 ^ ^^eneralvle.. of Europe-league of Chambr ay- commencement of the 
 j^ ^y reformation. 
 
 149. Remarks-^Charles VIII. unite, the duchy of Brittany to his crown by m.r- 
 
 "'' b';±e"LTr-a^'^"'^ "°''^ ^'^ "^^'^ °^ '^-^"^ -<> Arra,;n. .n Spain. 
 
 '"'" "c"{ eLS.' ' ''' ''"' ""^ '■" E^S'-'^' Vv a ajarriage with the prin- " 
 
 ^'ShSr ^"^''"'^ '^' '■^"''^ °^ ^'^^'"^"y- '^y Ihe c;urt of tLe imperial " 
 
 2 '^t^^^^^^^^Z^^^''-^^^--^ and-recovereitheprovince ^^^ 
 The league of Cambray was formed, by pope Julius II. \o humble the state 
 Character of that state, ." . ' . ' * * \1^ 
 
 "'"df^En-Tand ^ confederacy against Lewis XIl". with the aid of Henry VIIl'. 
 1513 Lewis is expelled from Italy and Henry VIII. in coalition with Maximi- 
 
 Son.fF f'T'^Vn '^' ''^^ °<^ Flanders, which forms the first CO- 
 
 aJition of England and Germany in Flanders, 
 , Lewis dies, and is succeeded by Francis I. . * , * * ,, 
 
 \\\^ Ferdinand king of Spain, dies, and is succeeded by Charles V. ' nfi 
 
 J6J7 Martm Luther filled up the bright constellatioQ of Europe, and opened the 
 
 way lor the spread of the Gospel, . . . . /■ 
 
 CHAP. XXUI. 
 
 General state ofsocietif, commerce, navigation and the arts in Ettrope— 
 
 foreign adveiitures and discoveries— reformation contimied. 
 A. D. 
 
 1139 Alphonso Henriquez. sequesters the kingdom of Portugal, . 177 
 
 l-iQa His successors become navigators and adventurers, until Emanuel I. sent a 
 fleet under Vaaco de Gama. and discovered Hindostan— the voyage was 
 successful, . . . . . . . •« 
 
 1500 Emanuel sen^Js a second fleet to India, they discover Brazil in South Amer- 
 ica, and repair to India, . . . . " 
 
 1513 This voyage secures to the Portuguese the commerce of India, . 173 
 
 15-20 All the maritime states of Er.rope, engage in this commerce, and Martin Lu- 
 ther continues his successful labors, in publishing the gospel, in defiance of 
 the dietof Woims, . . . . . . I* 
 
 Charles V. assembles the diet of Spires, to suppress the doctrines of Luther 
 this occasions a general protest against iheir decrees, gives to the refor- 
 mers the name of protestants, and led to the confession of .Augsburg, by 
 Melancthon, which serted as a rallying point for the reformers 179 
 
 16^4 The strife for supremacy, between Francis i and Charles V upon the the- 
 atre of Italy, terminated in the defeat and capture of Francis, at the siege 
 ofPavia, ' . . . . . «' 
 
 Henry VIII. obtains the title of defender of the faith, from the pope ; but by 
 a.-i open quarrel, severs the kingdom of Eaia;land from the holy see, es- 
 tablishes the episcopal church, and dissolves all monastic institutions in 
 England, . , . . , . " 
 
 •^47 Henry b-comes very fickle and cruel, in his marriage rcla'.ioDS ; disclosed 
 
 th«'princip!es of bis religious faith, and died a catb-lic, . • '•' 
 
394 CONTENTS.. 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. 
 
 Affairs of Germany — of England— France—Massacre of St. Barthola- 
 
 meiv. 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 The union of the piotestants under the confession of Augsbtirgf, and league of 
 Smalkalde, supported their cause aga!n«t the direct attacks of the papal 
 power, and the insidious attacks of the interim of Charles V. of Spain, 180 
 
 1'546 Luther died iu the midst cf his successful labors, . . . " 
 
 155-2 Prince Maurice supported the protestant cause in Germany, . " 
 
 1547 During the minority of Edward VI. son and successor of Henry VIII. a war 
 commenced between England and Scotland, which confirmed the reforma- 
 tion in Kngland as it now stands, . • . ISI 
 
 J5S3 Edward VI dies and lady Jane Gray succeeds, expressly against the will 
 cf Henry VIII and spilt the best blood of the nation, and brought Maiy 
 to the throne, ......" 
 
 1554 She reigned in bloody persecution against the Protestants five years, and by 
 
 ber death made way for the illustrious reign of Elizabeth . '* 
 
 Upon the accession of Mary, Charles V. of Spam left his throne to his son, 
 Philip II. and retired to private life, and Philip married queen Mary *' 
 
 1539 The reformation was supported universally by Elizabeth, and confirmed in 
 
 England and Scotland, . '. . . l82 
 
 1565 Mary, queen of Scots, had married Francis II. of France, and upon his death 
 returned to Scotland, where she attempted to suppress the reformation ; 
 but failed, married lord Darnely, by whom she had one son, James VI. " 
 
 1568 Upon the death of her husband, she was compelled to flee into England to 
 
 her sister Elizabeth for succour, where she languished in prison. . 133 
 
 1572 Charles IX. of France, who succeeded Francis 11. causes the massacre of 
 
 St. Bartholomew, . . . , . . " 
 
 1574 Charles IX. dies of a horrid disease, . . . , •• 
 
 1587 Mary, queen of Scots, tried, condemned and executed, . ► " 
 
 CHAP. XXV. 
 
 -Affairs of the reformation generallij — Spanish Armada—'Bemarks. 
 A. D. 
 
 1537 The emperor Ferdinand succeeded Charles V. . . . 134 
 
 3361 And called the council of Trent, to heal the feuds of the church, • " 
 
 1564 Maximillian II succeeded upon the death of Ferdinand, . • '• 
 
 1588 Philip II. invades England by bis invincible Armada, which is wholly lost 
 
 and destroyed, . .. . . ■ . " 
 
 1589 Henry IM of France, supports the Protestants— is assassinated by a Domi- 
 
 cau Friar, and is succeeded by Henry IV. who supports the Protestants, 
 
 1598 And publishes the edict of Nan.z, and settles a peace with Philip II. king 
 
 of Spain, ....... 
 
 1599 Philip II died, and was ucceeded by Philip III. 
 
 1609 Philip III closed the war in Holland by a truce of tv/elve years, and expel- 
 
 led the Moors from Spain, ..... 
 
 1601 Upon the death of Philip lU died queen tllizabeth, and was succeeded by 
 James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary, and first king of Great-Britain, as 
 James I. . . . . • 
 
 1610 Henry IV. forms the plan of an European Republic, with France at its bead 
 
 and is assassinated by a Monk. — Lewis Zvlll succeeds to the throne, 
 1621 Here commences the distressing scenes, between the evangelical union, 
 
 and the Catholic League, which raged through the reign of Philip III. 
 1635 And throurf^h the reign of Lewis XIII. 
 
 1643 Then nndei Lewis XIV. to the peace of Westphalia, when the Union tri- 
 umphed over the League, . . . . • 
 
 1&6 
 
CONTENTS. 395 
 
 CHAP. XXvf. 
 
 Reformation cntinued^Great Britain under Jame. launder Charles I. 
 J605 James I. the first of the House of Stewart o.;t.^««<r.-„ . -. r, - ^*S* 
 
 1625 James kindles a fire in the church by his violent relio-,n,„ ^ .. . '^' 
 
 '''' ^tXTiSVSdr' by the violence of the duke of Buckin.han,. 
 }€49 Then the execution of the king, and the triumph of the Comnionwealtb, ii 
 
 CHAP. XXVII. 
 
 Great Britain under Oliver Cromwell- Charles 11— France under 
 
 A.D. Le^sXIV. 
 
 1560 Character of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell-Character of 
 Richard Croniwell at the accession of Charles II -Character of Charles 
 D ~ u f ''^"'y toward the reformation in Scotland is checked by the 
 Popish plot. . . 19=^ 
 
 3676 Charles becomes tributary to Lewi, XIV. to become independent of his re- 
 
 iractory parliament, . . ,93 
 
 1683 His despotic sway occasions the Rye-house plot, to restore the Common- 
 wealth which occasions the boroui^h elections , ... 
 
 3685 Charles died a Catholic —James II duke of York, and brother to Charles, 
 
 succeeded. — Remarks, ■ .... a 
 
 3643 Affairs of France upon the accession cf Lewis XIV. his character, and am- 
 bitious wars in Flanders, .... 194 
 
 l€78 And triumphs at the peace of Nimeguen, . . * . ' «. 
 
 CHAP, xxvni. 
 
 France continued— Europe generally— League of Augshurgh— Retnarks. 
 
 1683 Lewis XIV excites a -.var of the Turks against Austria, . . 195 
 
 John Sobieski, king of Poland, relieves Vienna, ... " 
 
 Lewis concludes a peace with .Spain, and the emperor, and auzmenta his 
 
 fleets, . ' . . 
 
 The strength of Lewis falls with the death of his minister Colbert. •' 
 
 J6&5 Lewis revokes the edicts of Nantz, and gives np the Protestants to exter- 
 mination, . . .196 
 1626 The;^ flee from France, and ruin the manufacturing interest. . " 
 1687 Lewis humbles Pope Innocent XI. and the Protestants form the League of 
 
 Augsburg — Remarks. ..... 197 
 
 CHAP. XXIX. 
 
 England and Europe generally, from the accession of James II. to the rise 
 \ of the order of tlie Jesuits. 
 
 A. D. 
 11685 James II. commenced his reirn under the most unfavorable impressipns, 
 
 ! and attempts the restoration of Popery, . . 198 
 
 1680 The nation resist, ard invite William, prince of Orange, son-in-law to 
 James, to assume the gf vernment. — He set< sail from Holland yrilh a 
 strong armament, is well receired in England and Scotland, . . l99 
 
 iJ689 James atteiDpts to head an insurrection of the Catholic: in Ireland, failed 
 
396 CONTENTS. 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 and fled to France, and William became party in the League of Augs- 
 burg, and the reformation again triumphed in England, . 199 
 Lewis put forth all bis efforts, to resist the League of Augsburg ; took the 
 field in Flanders, at the head of a powerful army, and the war became 
 general, . . . . 200 
 
 1697 Great display of talents, by Vauban, and the war closed, by the peace of 
 
 Ryswick— Remarks, .,.,.<' 
 
 CHAP. XXX. 
 
 %^ffairs of Europe generallif'-^northern confederacy—capture of Gibraltar^ 
 
 by the English. 
 A. D. 
 
 General remarks, , . , . . , 201 
 
 1698 The Spanish succession, upon the declining health of Charles IL opens a 
 ifi99 new field of ambition and intrigue, by secret partition treaties, . 202 
 
 The grand confederacy of the north, opens a new drama, . . '• 
 
 1701 Charles II upon his death, confers his crown upon the young duke of Anjou 
 
 — of the Bourbons, . . ... 20$ 
 
 This prodin-ed the grand alliance, and Lewis XIV supports his grandson, " 
 
 1702 Upon the death of James II. Lf WIS XIV. supports the claims of his sod, 
 
 James III te the English throne, . . • ^' 
 
 William proclaims war, and dies — Quean Ann succeeds, and supports the ,^ 
 
 war, .... . •« 
 
 Lord Godolphin and the Earl of Marlborough take the helm of the cabinet 
 
 and the field, • ..." 
 
 1704 The war raged generally in the south, and Gibraltar was taken by the 
 
 English, ..." 
 
 1706 The successes of the war united England and Scotland, and pressed Lewis 
 
 to sue for peace, . ... 204 
 
 CHAP. XXXI. 
 
 General ajfairs of Europe to the death of Letvis XIV. and the suppress 
 sion of the insurrection in Scotland — Remarks. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1707 Lewis XIV draws bilN on his mint, and prosecutes the war, which rages 
 
 with various success until 1710, 2QS 
 
 1700 Whei! Lewis again sues for peace, and obtains the conference of Gcrtruy- 
 
 denbufg — this failed and the war raged, . . 206 
 
 1711 Q,uFen Ann charges her ministry, and parties ran h:.hin England, and a 
 secret treaty was the > esult in consequence of the death of the emperor Jo- 
 seph of Germany, . • • " 
 
 1713 The treaty of Utrecht was signed March 31, . . 207 
 
 1714 Treaty of Rastadt with the emperor, Karch fi. . . <• 
 The English parliament offer a bounty on the head of James III. . M 
 Q,ueen Ann dies, and is succeeded by George I. . . '" 
 
 1715 Lewis XIV. dies, and is succeeded by Lewis XV. and the duke of Orleans 
 
 takes the regency, ■ • * 208 
 
 General conspiracy in England and Scotland, in favor of James III the pre- 
 tender, and he lands in Scotland, is defeated, and flies to France, and 
 George I secures the throne, ..." 
 
 General remarks, . . . ; . 209 
 
 CHAP. xxxn. 
 
 Etir^pe generally^ Jrom the commencernent of the quadruple alliance, to 
 
 the accession of Francis I. of Austria. 
 A.D. 
 
 General Remarks, . . '. . 910 
 
 1718 Q,'jadruple alliance against Spain, . • " 
 
CONTENTS. 3i97 
 
 ^- ^' » Pa...- 
 
 1719 Mississippi scheme m France, and South Sea scheme in Eniland. . sFo 
 
 1723 The war rao:ed generally until the death of the duke of Orleans opened the 
 
 way for the peace of Seville, . -. . "^ ,, 
 
 1727 At this time, died George I and was succeeded hy his son, Georg-elf. •, and 
 Lewis XV. acceded to the throne of France, and obtained for'stanislaus 
 Leckzinski, ex-king of Poland, the duchy of Lorrain— remarks, . 211 
 
 1739 War between England and Spain, which becomes a war of plunder on the 
 
 water, . , . ■■ 
 
 1744 Lord Anson takes a Spanish galleon of Chili, and conveys the treasnrs by 
 
 way of China, to England. . . . . . «• 
 
 The death of Charles VI. of Austria opens the way for the confederacy 
 against the empress Maria Theresa, . " . . 212 
 
 1742 The elector of Bavaria is crowned king of Bohemia, and emperor of Ger- 
 many, as Charles VII "•-.." 
 The allies take Prague, and upon the treaty of Breslaw, make a masterly 
 
 retreat, •■•.... 213 
 
 Spain pushes the war in Italy, and the French sue for peace, which is re- 
 fused, . . . , « 
 
 3744 This refusal kindled afresh the feuds in England, nnd the claims of the pre- 
 tender were renewed, and his va«t armaments for the invasion of Eng- 
 land, blockaded in France ; and a g-ncral peaee was concluded in favor 
 of Maria Theresa, and her husband the emperor Francis I. . " 
 
 CHAP. XXXIII. t 
 
 Europe generally, from the accessmi of Georqe II. to the confederacy 
 
 against the king of Prussia, and roar of 1756. 
 A. D. 
 J745 Charles III. son of J ame'? III. the pretender, landed in Scotland without 
 
 hit armament — fought the battle of Ciillodenvand fled again to France, 214 
 Philip V. dies, and 13 «ucceeded by Ferdinand VI. . . 215 
 
 1746 Prussia and .Russia unite with England in the war, . . •• 
 
 1747 Russia unites with Austria and Saxony, to invade Prus«ia — War in Bohe- 
 
 mia, and battle of. Prague, ' ..." 
 
 1748 The war rages generally, and is closed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle — 
 
 Remarks, ..... 216 
 
 1754 Collisions in North America open the scene for the seven years war, 218 
 
 1755 The English commence depredations upon French commerce, . *' 
 
 1756 France, Austria, Russia and Sr.eden unite again.st Prussia, and the French 
 
 take Minorca, ...,•''' 
 
 1757 England receives German troops to repel a French invasion, . '"' 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. 
 
 General affairs of the seven years -war in Europe, to the peace of Paris, 
 
 1763. 
 A. D. 
 
 This war raged generally with various success, aud was closed in Europe, 
 bv the peace of J7ti8. leading the parties in statu quo, . • . 2!9 
 
 1761 In the midst of '.his struggle, died George II and was succeeded by bis 
 
 grandson. George III. . . . • " „ 
 
 Remarks, . ■■■','. 
 
 George III becomes popular by proseeating the war, • ■ " 
 
 A congress assembled at Augsburg to settle the preliminaries of peace, and 
 
 another negociation opened at London ; but both failed. • "*^ 
 
 1762 The family compact of the Bourbons in the courts of France and Spain kin- 
 
 dles the flame afresh, • ' 
 
 1763 The successes of England in the East and West Indies, force the peace ot 
 
 Paris, and the peace of Hubertsburg, ... -' 
 
 34 
 
398 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XXXV. 
 
 General remarks-^ abolition of the order of the Jesuits-^ discovery and 
 
 settlement ofJVorth America — to 1775. 
 A. P. Page 
 
 Remarks, . . . . . . 227 
 
 1713 The bull Ugenitus of pope Benedict XIV. kindles into a flame all France, 
 
 in the quarrel of the Jansenists and Jesuits, . . '• 
 
 nb6 Lewis XV. interferes, and is wounded by the assassin, . , " 
 
 Consequence to the nation, ..... 228 
 
 Character of the age, ..... 232 
 
 M92 to 181-2 Chronological summary of the discovery and settlement of America 
 
 —and remarks, ..... 2^.29 to 235 
 
 1756 Causes that led -to the old French war, . . . 237 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. 
 
 General operations of the seven years nvar in America^ to the peace of 
 
 1763 — loith some remarks. 
 A. r>. 
 
 Causes Jbat led to the old French war, continued, . • 237 
 
 Commelicement of operations on the Ohio, and Mononsfahela, . '* 
 
 17.56 War commenced by a naval action in the gulf of St. Lawrence, . 23S 
 
 1767 General Braddock's defeat at fort Duquesne, • . . . *• ■ 
 
 The French take Osweg-o, ..... 239 
 And fort William Henry, ....." 
 
 1758 Louisburg taken. — Froiitenac fort taken, . . , 240 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. CONTINUED. 
 
 1759 The French abandon Duquesne. — Expedition by land and sea ag-ainst 
 
 Canada, ...... 240 
 
 4769 Q,uebec taken, and the gallant Wolfe, and the French general Montcalm 
 
 both slain, . . • . • . 241 
 
 Remarks, . • - . . . • " 
 
 1760 The French under De Levi attempt to recover duebec, • 243 
 Montreal, Canada, and ail French America fall this year, and all further 
 
 operations, in America cease,— Remarks, . • • 244 
 
 CHAP. XXXVII. 
 
 Causes lohich led to the American revolution— 'General events to the in' 
 vasion ofA''e7v-Tork. 
 
 1765 Remarks, . . • . ... 246 
 
 to Chronological summary, .....»• 
 
 1775 War commences —Battle of Lexington. — Remarks, . . 246 
 
 Boston besieged, and Ticonderoga taken, . . . 247 
 
 General Congress at Phil.Tdeliihia — General Washington appoinl-ed com- 
 mander in chief, and the British are invested in Boston. — Congress pub- 
 lislied their Manifesto, find prepared seriously for action, . «' 
 
 Battle of Bunker- Hill and destruction of Charlestown. — Expedition by way 
 of Kennebec, to Q,iiebec. — Gen. Howe succeeds general Gage. — Fal- 
 mouth burnt — Expedition to Canada under general Montgomery — The 243 
 united forces of Montgomery and Arnold, commence au assault Upon Que- 
 bec, and fail.— Montgomery killed, . . .249 
 n76 Geneial Washington fortifies the heights of Dorchester, which occasions 
 general Howe to evacuate Boston. — (ieneral Washington withdraws 
 from Boston to New-1'ork, and meets general Howe on Long-Island, •• 
 
CONTENTS. 399 
 
 CHAP. XXXVIII. 
 
 Bevolution continued to the capture of general Prescott,at Rhode-hl 
 and, Seplember 1777. 
 
 ■^•^- Page 
 
 1776 The British burnt Norfolk, Vir.— British expedition to South Carolina fail- 
 
 ed.— Lord Howe arrives at New-York with a commission to settle a •Gen- 
 eral or separate peace with the Colonies, . . .° 250 
 
 General Washington loses the action of Flatbush, and retreats off of Long 
 Island, retires from New-York, and invests the city.— General Howe dis- 
 lodges general Washin'^ton from his position, gains the action of White 
 Plains, and takes the forts at Harlem and Kingsbridge— General AV^nsli- 
 ington retired into New-Jersey, general Howe pur.Mjcd, general AVash- 
 ington, retires in distress by forced marches, and crosses the De4aware at 
 Trenton, ..... 251 
 
 Kecrosses on the night of the 25th of December, and gains the battle of 
 Trenton, . ..... 25i 
 
 General and extensive powers given to general Washington by Congres;, 
 nnd the caii.«e revives from deep despair, . ^ . . •« 
 
 5777 General Washington continues offen^ve operation?, and drives the British 
 out of New-Jersey, into New- York— Sir Gny Carlton and general Bur- 
 goyne drive the Americans ont of Canada — General Howe, in person, at- 
 tempted to surprise general Washington in his camp, but failed— Govern- 
 or Tryon, by a sudden expedition, burnt the American stores at Uanbury 
 -—Gen. Howe embarks an army from New-York, upon a secret expedi- 
 tion — ^^Colonel Barton, with a party of militia, surprises general Prcscott 
 and bis aid, on Rhode-Island, and secure their prisoners, . 2a»' 
 
 CHAP. XXXIX. 
 
 Revolution continued, from the expedition of general llotve to Pluladel- 
 
 phiaf Sept. 1777, to the battle of Camden in Xorth Carolina. 
 A.D. 
 
 1777 General Howe enters Chesapeake Bay, and lands at Elk ferry — General 
 
 Washington advanced to meet him— Battles of Chad's-ford and German- 
 town — Capture of Philadelphia — distresses of the American army, tiny 
 invest general Howe in Philadelphia, . . . 2j4 
 
 GeneralBurgoyne, at this time, had pursued his victories, and penetrated to 
 Saratoga, state of New-York, where he was taken witii all his armv, 355 
 
 1778 France and Spain, engage in the war — Sir Henry Clintoii, who had succeed- 
 
 ed general Howe, evacuates PhiiadeliihiK — General Washington pursues 
 him into New-Jereey — gains the battle of Monmouth — General Lee is 
 cashiered, ...... " 
 
 Sir Henvy regains New-York by forced marches — A French fleet arrive on 
 the coast — battle off Khode-Island — .A.nother French fleet arri\ e on liie 
 coast of South Carolina, co-opera.te with general Lincoln against the Bri- 
 tish at Savannah, failed and withdrew, . . • 2j6 
 V)iO Sir Henry Clinton, with Lord Cornwallis, commence theii southern expedi- 
 tion, and take Charleston, S. C. March 4, . . • 257 
 
 General Green detached upon the southern command — Marouis La Fayette 
 returns from J>ance, with good tidings— Lord Co'nwallis subdue* South 
 Carolina — Sir Henrv Clinton returns to New-York, , . '• 
 
 Congress redeem 200,000,000 dollars of paper money- Lord Cornwallis pro- 
 ce^eds to Camden, in South Carolina, tights general Gatci;, arjd.^di:(,iroya 
 his arm^y, ...... ♦53 
 
 CHAP. XL. 
 
 Rovolution continued to the capture of Lord Cornivallis at Yorkloian, 
 October, 1781. ";, 
 
 General Greea succeeds general Gates in the southern commanJ : j9 
 
400 CONTENTS. 
 
 A.D. Page 
 
 The whole Pennsylvania line revolt, undergeneral Washington, . 359 
 
 Jan. They are recovered to their duty, .... 260 
 
 1781 The'wav raged in the south — battle of the Cowpens, . . " 
 Battle of Guilford — General Greene returns to North Carolina, fights lord 
 
 Rawdon at Camden, and despairs of the cause. . . 261 
 
 General Greene carries the war into South Carolina, . . '* 
 
 Lord Cornwallis advanced into Vir°:inia, where he is opposed by marquis 
 La Fayette, "general Wayne, and baron Steuben— A French fleet arrives 
 at Newport, R. I — Council of war at Hartford, Connecticut, . 262 
 
 Arnold's conspiracy at West-Point — Capture and execution of Major Andre 
 — Siege of New-York — French fleet is reinforced at Newport from 
 Fiance, and put to sea : meet the English fleet oif the mouth of the Chesa- 
 peake, gain an action, and in* sst lord Cornwallis at Yorktown— General 
 Washington at the same time proceeds by land, and invests the British at 
 Yorktown. ...... •* 
 
 I. '/ei Lord Cornwallis with all his army taken, Oct. 20th, . . 264 
 
 CHAP. XLI. 
 
 General affairs of America^ to the adoption and organization of the Fede» 
 ral ConstiiutioHf JVlavch, 17 89— Jiemarks. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Religious gratitude of the American army and nation, upon the capture of 
 Yorktown, ...... 264 
 
 The French fleet retire to the West Indies— All the south is recovered ex- 
 cepting Charleston — Desperate naval action in the West Indies — Charles- 
 ton evacuated, and negociations opened at Parig for peace, . 265 
 
 General mutiny in the army of general Washington — is quelled. , 266 
 
 1782 Peace is announced by a letter from the marquis la Fayette — The British 
 
 evacuate New-York, .....«• 
 
 General Washington exhibits his accounts to Congress — Resigns — Remarks, 267 
 
 :788 The confederation proves insufficient in time of peace — A general conven- 
 tion frame and recommend, the federal constitution — The several states 
 adopt it, ...... 268 
 
 i789 His Excellency general Washington, chosen president— The honorable 
 
 John Adams vice-president— General good effects — Remarks, . ♦• 
 
 CHAP. XLH. 
 
 Affairs of America continue d-^-war -with France— peace— -war loith Eng' 
 land— peace— war ivith the Barbary potvera— general peace, 1815 — 
 general remarks. 
 
 A. D. • „^ 
 
 1789 Federal compact, and French revolution, . • • "69 
 
 17^9 War with France — Peace, . • • • • " 
 
 lai 2 War with England— general operations, particularly at sea, . 270 
 
 1813 General Harrison retakes Detroit, and enters Canada victorious— Commo- 
 dore Perry captures the whele British fleet upon Lake Erie, . 272 
 General Harrison triumphs over General Proctor— Commodore Chauncey 
 victorious on Lake Ontario, . • • _• " 
 ;8I4 The British take Washington, &c. — Commodore Macdonough victorious at 
 
 Plattsburg, . • • ■ • . ' „ " 
 
 K-f!5 General Jackson defeats the British at New-Orleans— Peace with P.ng- 
 land. 4th of February — America declares war against Algiers, and forces 
 ii submissive peace in four month?, , . • "'^ 
 
 General remark*, . . , . • " 
 
CONTENTS. 401 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Causes that led to the French revohi ion— causes that ted to the great 
 events -ivhich cunt role dit—nort hern confederation against Sivcden- rise 
 of Peter I.— rise of Charles XII.— character of Sweden, Uiissia, Ben- 
 mark and Poland— invasion of Denmark, and peace— sie^e of J\\i va 
 — battle of JSjarva— battle of the Jjivina- -intrigues of Charles XIL in 
 Poland—character of the Polish nation and government— intviguts of 
 the arch bishop of Gresna— Distracted state of Poland. 
 
 A_.D. ^ Page 
 
 1789 The reformation, in tlie midst of triumph, is called to endure new trials— 
 
 General effects of infidelity, * . . . -'■'■• 
 
 1697 Peter I visits the south of Europe— INTorthern confederacy, . '-*'"■ 
 
 1700 Character of the northern powers, . • ' . . 2 79 
 CbHrlesXII invades Denmai-k, and forces a peace, . . -'^■" 
 Passes into Livonia, and g-fins the battle of Narva, . . 5il 
 Particulars and effects of this battb, . . . . '• 
 Augustus raises the siege of Rija, . . . • -°5 
 
 1701 CharlesXII and general Stenace, fight the bat'le of the Dwina, 
 
 Character of the republic of Poland, . . . • 234 
 
 1702 General diet of Poland, ..... 2'i6 
 
 CHAP. U. 
 
 Angnstns attempts a secret peace with Charles Xfl battle of Cracoiv— 
 battle of the bog— ^var in Polish Prussia — intrigues of the primate — 
 ^^ngustxis deposed— Stanislaus Leckzinski elected king-^ capture of 
 Leopold-^coronation of Stanislaus. 
 
 A. D 
 
 1702 The diet dissolve — Charles XII. evades overtures for peace from Augustus, 
 
 and enters Warsaw, ..... -"^ 
 
 Charles routs Aujustus at the battle of Cracow, . • _ 288 
 
 1703 Attain at the river B05 — carries the war into Polish Prussin, and levies 
 
 heavy contribution' ujion the chief towns, 
 
 1704 Deposes Augustus, and causes Stanislaus to be elected king of Poland, 2P9 
 
 1705 Parties become more violent, . ..." 
 Charles causes Stanislaus and his queen, to be crowned at Leopold, 
 
 28S 
 SP9 
 
 jgo 
 
 CHAP. in. 
 
 deduction of J\i*ar7^a, by Peter I —Peter commences the ciiy of Peteis- 
 burg- Charles XII enters Saxony— peace -with Jugnstus- distresses^ 
 of Poland— Charles XII. commences his tnarch into Russia— battle of 
 the Berezina. ^ 
 
 ^ T). 
 
 1704 Peter Mays the foundation of Petersburg', • • • *'' 
 
 1705 Distresses of Poland, continued, , • • • . 
 
 1706 Charles enters Saxony, forces Augustus 1 - a peace, levies enormcu^ coulri- ^^ 
 
 butions, . ' . . • • 
 
 3.707 Charles remains in Saxony, and the distresses of Poland continue— the duke 
 
 of Marlborough visits Charles Xlf. . • ' u' r 
 
 2708 Charles drives the Russians out of Poland, and commences his march for ^^^ 
 
 Moscow, . . . . • • I \T ' 
 
 Gains the battles of Boristhjnes and moras?, conr.mences a treaty with >iii- ^^ 
 
 2epFa, . . . • . . ,^ 
 
 3i* 
 
402 CONTENTS. 
 
 -AD. Page 
 
 1709 Passes this -winter in the Ukrain, and loses his supplies from Sweden under 
 
 general Levenhaupt. ..... 296 
 
 Charles connmences the siege of Piiltowa, in May, and ia wounded — is de- 
 feated 'oy the Czar, in Jul v', and flies into Turkey, . . 297 
 Peter 1 prosecutes the building of Petersburg, recovers Poland, and re- 
 atores Augustus to his crown — Charles intrigues with the Sublime Porte, 298 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Peter I. enters Moscow in triutnph—-ivar betiveen Turkey and Russia — 
 perilous escHpe of Peter I. —peace^-ivtrigues of Charles XII. — battle 
 of Bender — war rages in tfie Swedish provinces of Germany. 
 
 3710 Peter's triumphant entry of Moscow, . , . 299 
 
 J711 The Vizier declares war against Russia, . . . 300 
 
 Perilous escape of Peter — peace, .... 301 
 
 1712 Intrigues of Charles continued — Battle of Bender, . . 302 
 
 1713 War rages with violence in the Swedish provinces, . . *' 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Charles XII. returns to Sweden — defence of Stralsund — naval operations 
 upon the Baltic — Peter I enters Petersburg in triumph— fall of Stral- 
 9und. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1714 Charles XII leaves Turkey on his return to Sweden, . .303 
 Peter gains a signal naval victory, and enters the port of Petersburg in 
 
 triumph, . . . . • . 304 
 
 57i5 The enemies of Charles invade his dominions, . . . " 
 
 Charles attempts the defence of Stralsund, and fails — battle of the island of 
 
 Rugen, . ..... 306 
 
 >7i6 Stralsund surrendered, . . - . . 307 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Invasion of J^or-imy—Baron Be Gortz— death of Charles XII —peace- 
 character of Pettr I. and Charles XII — immediate causes of the 
 French revolution. 
 A. D. 
 
 Charles XII. invades Norway, and fails — Peter I. again visits France and 
 Holland — Baron De Gortz turns the war of the north into mtrigue, 3C8 
 
 J7i7 Charles XII. again invades Norway, and is killed before Frederishall, «• 
 
 17)3 The prince of Hesse leads back the army to Sweden — peace with Denmark 
 ensues — De Gortz is executed — Ulrica Eleonora is elected queen, and 
 confers the crown upon her husband, the prince of Hesse, . 309 
 
 1721 Peace between Sweden and Russia, . . . ♦• 
 
 Remarks upon Charges and Peter, and upon th-e causes of the French revo- 
 lution, . ..... 310 
 
 CHAP. VH. 
 
 Jansenists and Jesuits — assembly of the states-general — revolution opened 
 — Paris becomes one great mob — the king a cypher— fight of the kirig 
 — convention formed--neiv constitution. 
 
 AD 
 
 2774 Slate of France, at the accession of Lewis XVI. * . . 311 
 
 Q,uarrel of the J aoseoisls and JesuiU c«iith:aed, . j " 
 
CONTENTS. 403 
 
 AD. 
 
 1739 Revolution commenced, with the destruction of the Bastile. . tf* 
 
 17i*0 The national assembly assume the govcium.-nt, and the king is conducted 
 from Versailles to Paris, by 60.000 men, lodged m his palace, and h^ld 
 under duress, . . . _ q., 
 
 1791 The emigrants assemble in arms, on the frontier, and threaten an kivasion 
 
 which excites violence, and general alarm, . . , ' 31* 
 
 New constitution is finished, . . . ' ' o.c 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Lewis XVI. signs the 7\eiv constitution — clnbs of the FeiiiUans and Jaco- 
 bins — decrees of the JVational Asscmbbj—treuty of Vienna^riots in 
 Paris— coalition— duke of Brunswick— fight of the king. 
 
 1792 Speech of Lewis XVI when he signs the constitution— general festivity of 
 
 Paris, . . . . . . .316 
 
 New legislative assembly— the Jacobin club arose upon the ruins of the Feu- 
 illans, , . . . . . .317 
 
 Condorcet's manifesto — Convention between the kings of Prussia and Bohe- 
 fi'ia. . . . . . . .318 
 
 Orgauization of the revolutionary tribunal — Invention of the guillotine. 3l9 
 
 JVew poli ical logic, " the end justifies the means," — great mob of Paris, 
 June 20, , . . . . . .. 
 
 Duke of Brunswick took the field against France, which caused the depo- 
 sition of the king, . . , . . . " 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Mob of the 10th of August — bold measures of the assembly — Doumourier 
 — La Fayette -^massacres — JVational Convention — trial of Leivis XVL 
 — condemnation. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1792 Twenty-five thousand fell in the massacre of the lOth of August — Decree of 
 
 the assembly, for the cai! of a convention, . . . 330 
 
 The king and royal family confined in the Temple — Marquis La Fayette is 
 denounced, flies, and is imprisoned in Olmutz — The Old quarrel of Jan- 
 senist and Jesuits, broke out in the memorable mob of Paris bept- 2, . 321 
 Massacree at Orleans — Germany declares war against France, . . 322 
 The Convention commence their sitting, and appoint a commitle to frame a 
 new constitution, ... . . 323 
 
 .Tan. 1793 They call Lewis XVI. to their bar, try and condemn him, majority for 
 
 death, thirteen, . . • • • • " 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Execution oj Leids XVL — violence of the Convention— Charlotte Corde^ 
 
 trial and execution of the Queen— triuviphs of Philosophy. 
 A.D. 
 
 1793 Horrors of the awful 21st of January, • • • - 336 
 Execution of the king — assassination of La Pallitiere, . . " 
 Assassination of Marat, by Charlotte Corde— Arrest, trial and condemna- 
 tion of the queen, ,...•• 326 
 
 Execution of the queen, February 16, .... 327 
 
 The schools of the Jesuits and Philosophers, united in the Jacobin club, and 
 became the instrument of their own niin — General distress of the nation, 
 particularly in La Y .aJc-'j— The convention decree "no God and death an 
 eternal sleep," , , . ■ • -i-' 
 
404 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 Insurrection in La Vendte'—fall of Robespierre— grand armistice of La 
 Vendee —Jacobin insurrection—death of Lexvis, son of the king — heiv 
 constitution — revohUioii in Holland. 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 1794 War continues to rag^e in La Vendee — Triumph of philosophy, • 3-^9 
 Carrier's report on the Vendecan War— Fall of R,obespiene and Tinville, 330 
 Rhapsody of Geraud. . . . . . . " 
 
 1795 ArinJslice in La Vendee, and report of Carnot, . . » S31 
 Horrors or Paris and of the convention, . , . . . " 
 New constitution and murder of the dauphin, . . . 332 
 
 1795 The princess Maria Antoniette sent to Vienna, . . • *' 
 Grand revolution in Holland, . . . • • *' 
 
 CHAP. XU. 
 
 State of France— movement of the armies— JSTapoleon Bonaparte— peace 
 
 ■ivith Spain— -cojiquests in Italy — Milan. 
 A.D. 
 
 Recapitulation, ...... 353 
 
 1794 Conquest of Belgium, under general Dumourier, . . . 334 
 
 He levies contributions, rifles their churches ; which raise insurrections, 
 and lose the conquests, ....." 
 
 179.5 General Pichegru succeed* Dumourier, and subdues Holland, . " 
 
 1796 General Moreau succeeds Pichegru, and invades Germany, . . 335 
 View of the plan of the campaign, . . . , " 
 Napolean Bonapafte — becomes general in chief of the army of Italy— in- 
 vades Spain, and forces a peace, ..... " 
 
 Invades Italy — gains the battles of Montenotte and Millessimo, • 336 
 
 His addiess to the cities of Milan ani Pavia, . . . " 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 Battle of Castiglione — bridge of Lodi— panic of the 400— siege of J\f an,' 
 tiia — campaign of the JRhine, JMense and Moselle— victories of prince 
 Charles— fall of Kehl—of Alantua. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1796 Action of Castiglione, and affair of Lodi, . . . • 337 
 Siege of Mantua, ...... 333 
 
 Successes of general Bonaparte over three successive armies, sent to the re- 
 lief of Mantua — England sends lord Maimsbory to Paris, to negotiate for 
 a peace — which fails . .... . " 
 
 Mantua i? closely invested, . . . . . . 339 
 
 General Moreau and Jonrdan p£netrate into Bavaria in triumph, over prince 
 Charles, which calls forth a proclamation of the emperor of Germany, '• 
 
 Actions of Donawert and Nordingen compel prince Charles to cross the Dan- 
 ube, . . . . . . . 340 
 
 General Moreau penetrates into the heart of Bavaria; but the successes of 
 prince Charles over genera! Jourdon, oblige thera both to retire out of 
 Germany, and recioss the Rhine with a se>. ere less, . . " 
 
 1797 The French sustain a siege in the fortress of Ke hi forty days, and at last 
 
 surrender to prince Charles by assault, . . . S41 
 
 Mantua surrenders to general Bonaparte the same day, . . " 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 Submsssion of the pope— triumphs of the campaign — treaty of Campo For- 
 mio-»armament of Toulon^capture of Malta — battle of the JWe^.coii- 
 
343 
 
 CONTENTS. 4Q2 
 
 ^uestofE^ypt^defeat at Mre-^eneral Ronaparte return, to Ecrm 
 —to France— ne-iv coalition. -^sUpt 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1797 With the fall of Kebl and Mantua, the campaign close, generally ^ o|t 
 
 The pope becomes bubmissive, . . ocnciauy, . . 341 
 
 General Bonaparte triumphs o^^er prince Charles in the mountains of the " 
 
 Tyrol, and the emperor sues for peace, "«u"uiajH» 01 me 
 
 Feb. 19 The peace of Campo Form.o closes the war. and liberates the marauis ^^^ 
 
 La Fayette from Olmutz— Successes of the war, marquis 
 
 1793 The popularity of Bonaparte causes the armament at Toulon, and expedi- 
 
 Battle of Aboukir, 
 
 Capture of Alexandria, and conquest of Egypt.— invasion of Syria, and dc 
 
 feat at Acre, • • . . 
 
 1799 General Bonaparte returns to Egypt—from thence "to France ; there learns ^^ 
 
 the distresses arising from the new coalition, . . g^r 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 General Survjarro^ enters Italy— battle of Sivitzer land— invasion of Hoi. 
 land— general Bonaparte frst consul— battle of Marengo— infernal 
 maclune— northern armed neutrality— peace of Luneville—ioar bet-ween 
 Spain and Porttigal— battle of Copenhagen. 
 
 A. D- 
 
 1799 The war is renewed generally, in Germany and Italy— Suwarrow is trium- 
 I phant, until his overthrow in Switzerland by Massena, which proves his 
 
 I '■"in. . . . • . 346 
 
 The duke of York invades Holland, is unsuccessful, and sig-ns a convention 
 to save bis army, • • . . . <• 
 
 ' General Bonaparte, by a revolution establishes a consular government, and 
 
 ( becomes first consul for ten years — gains the battle of Marengo and recov- 
 
 ers Italy, . . . . . . ^ g^iy 
 
 1800 This with the successes in Gen»any cause the peace of Paris, July, . 343 
 I Northern armed neutrality, ... . . •• 
 
 I ISOl The French push the war, until the general peace of Luneville, Jan. 28, 
 I The Englifh invade Egypt, under lord Keith, . . . .• 
 
 j Egypt was subdued, and universal peace ensued, Oct — A general embargo 
 
 upon the powers of the northern confederacy, by England, producedi^a 
 I rupture with Denmark, which closed with the battle of Copenhagen, 349 
 
 \ Russia declares war against France, ..... '^ 
 
 CHAP, XVI. 
 
 \ltevolution in St. Domingo — character of the black cJdefs— 'Conquest of 
 \ Hanover- -first consul chosen for life — made emperor of France^^Aus- 
 1 trian war— fall of Vienna — battle of Austerlitz— peace istth Austria — 
 I "war betiveen England and Spain. 
 |A.D. 
 
 ilo02 The universal peace opened the way for the consul of France, to send the 
 army of Kgypt out to St Domingo, under general Le Clerc, to subdue the 
 the excesses of liberty and equality amongst the blacks, . • 330 
 
 This expedition failed Hod established the kingdom of Hayti, . • " 
 
 \ Character of the black chiefs and government, ... " 
 
 !' First Consul made Consul for iife — controuls the press, • • '' 
 
 Anecdote of the marquis La Fayette, . ... 331 
 
 1803 England declares war against B'rance, and the French take Hanover, 
 1304 First Consul made emperor, by a suhscriptive vote, . • _ " 
 
 1805 Austria strengthens her position at Ulm, and joins a new confederacy against 
 
 France, ... ' ' j ' 
 
 The emperor Napoleon, by a sudden movement, appears before Ulm, de- 
 feats general Mac: appears before Vienna, takes It ; appears in Mora«-ia; 
 gains the battle of Austerlitz, over the emperor of Russia ; settles a peace, 352 
 
406 CONTENTS. 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 returns in triumph to France ; again threatened England, and revolution- 
 ized Holland, ...... 353 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 
 
 Emperor Jstapoleon on the throne of Charlemagne — battle of Trafalgar — 
 confederation of the Rhine — Prussian -war — battle ofJena—ofEylau — - 
 of Friedland — peace of Tilsit — Berlin decree — treaty of Fo7itainbleau — 
 Bayonne decree— fall of Charles IV. and Ferdinand VIl."~capture of 
 Madrid. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 May I. The emperor Napoleon crowded king of Italy and becomes regular suc- 
 cessor of Charlemagne, ..... 354 
 
 Oct. 21 Battle of Trafalgar, . . . - . . . " 
 
 1806 Confederation of the Rhine closed — New coalition of England, Russia, and 
 
 Prussia against France, ..... 355 
 
 The emperor Napoleon advances into Germany, and gains the battles of 
 Jena, Eylau and Friedland, . . . . . 356 
 
 1807 Dictates the peace of Tilsit, and passes his Berlin decree, . . " 
 
 This was followed by the embarsro in America, • . 357 
 
 ISQ8 He ijext^&trig:ue9 with Spain for the reduction of Portugal', seizes on the 
 
 crown of Spr.in, and places it upon bis brother Joseph, . • 358 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 Spanish Junta declare ivar — Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain—fall of 
 general Dupont — conquest of Roine — kingdom of Holland-' conference 
 at Erfurth — battle of Corrunna — ^iiutrian war — battle of Jiatisbon — 
 fall of Vienna — battle of Lobau — of Wagram — peace -with Jhtstrior^ 
 invasion of Holland by the English. 
 
 Massacree at Madrid — French and Spaniards enter Lisbon, and the royal 
 family retire to Brazil — General Dupont is taken, with his whole army ; 
 which occasions king Joseph to qu*t Madrid — The emperor Napolean 
 erects Ho'land into a kingdom, places his brother Louis on the throne — 
 Meets the emperor Alexander at Ei furth, . . . 359 
 
 Repairs to Spain, and gains the battle of Corrunna, . . 360 
 
 1809 War commences between Austria and France, . -- . . *' 
 
 The emperor Napoleon, by rapid movements, gains the battle of Ratisbon, 
 over prince Charles; takes Vienna, loses the battle of Lobau, gains the 
 battle of Wagranri. and pursues the prince to Presburg, . . 361 
 
 Nor. 8. Returns to Vienna, and dictates a peace to the emperor of Austria — The 
 
 English take the island of Walcheren in Holland, . . 362 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 The imperial continental syntem—^divorce of the empress Josephine, and 
 marnuge of Maria Louisa of Austria-^ -Luar iviih Spain — xvar in Tur- 
 key — your in Portugal — birth of the imperial fieir of France^prepara- 
 iionsfor the Russian ivar-^America. 
 AD ' 
 
 1809 The emperor Napoleon returns to France, and press^is his continental system, 362 
 13 lO Divorces his wife Josephine, and marries the arch duchess, Maria Louisa of 
 
 Austria, ....... 363 
 
 Prepares for the Russian war, by secret treaties with Austria and Prussia — 
 sends generil Massena. with 70.000 men, to subdue Portiigal — War rages 
 in Spain and Pc-tugal, with various success — Amount of the emperor Na- 
 goleoa's force — Causes of the suj^port of the English funds, . " 
 
0ONTENTS. 407 
 
 A. D. 
 
 "" wSf;:!''*' ""''" '° N«P°^«°^-I°t"gues of Poland-Union of Holland^''' 
 -12 War rages in. Spain and Portugal, .vith'various success, ' . ' ^ 
 
 i he whole chnsl.an world, both in Europe and America, becomes one -^reat 
 theatre of intrigue, and Ar"""-;"^ ^^:^o .u i:..--_ ccoim.s onegreai 
 
 lGll-12 War ra-es in Spain and Portugal, with" various r * ' ^^"^ 
 
 both in Europe and Am 
 war with England, '"'""'"' ^''"' '^' •^°"'**'°" ^S-i^^' Kussia^by a 
 
 377 
 
 ' CHAP. XX. 
 
 Gommencement of the Rxmian tmr— American tuar—movemenis in the 
 Jiussian tvar— battle of Smolensk-of Borodino-fall and destruction 
 sf Jrloscoto. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon assembles his army, in Poland, for the Russian war, 567 
 Coni-ention between Russia and England— Movements of the armies— Bat- 
 tle of Smolenslf, 
 
 Battle of Borodino, 
 
 368 
 
 Capture and destruction of Moscow, .... 369 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 
 
 Character of the Russians — overtures of peace^frmiiess of the emperor 
 Alexander — views of jYapoleon — retreat of the French— fight of J\'a- 
 poleon—desti^iction of the French army— the emperor JVapoleontn Pa- 
 ris — again in Saxony, at the head of his nexv army — buttle of Leipsic - 
 
 JVapoleon in Paris — successes of Lord Wellington — restoration of the 
 
 family of Bourbon — JVapoleon at Elba — Lord Wellington in Paris 
 
 JYapoleon in Paris — battle of Waterloo — JVapoleon in England— at 
 St. Helena — Lcxvis XVIII. again in Paris — Lord Wellington again 
 in Paris—the empress Maria Louisa^ ivith her little son at Milan. 
 
 A. D 
 
 1312 The emperor Napoleon makes overtures of peace in Moscow, which the 
 
 emperor Alexander reje<'*«=, .... 370 
 
 The emperor Napoleon begins his retreat — Deserts his army at Krasnoy, 
 and flias to Paris ; and his army is ruined, . . . 371 
 
 1313 Assembles a new army, and repairs to Saxony — Meets the allies of Russia, 
 
 Austria, Sweden and Prussia — Fights the battle of Leipsic, . 37i 
 
 And flies into France — The allies pursue, enter France, to co-operate with 
 Lord Wellington, who had driven the French out of Spain, in the siege 
 of Paris — They take Napoleon, and banish him to Elba — In six months 
 he is again in Paris, at the head of the government — Fights the battle of 
 Waterloo, flies into France, resigns his crown, delivers himself up to the 
 captain of an English fri'.;ate, is conveyed to England, sent to St Helena 
 for life, and Lewis XVIII restored to his throne, protected by lord Wel- 
 lington, — The empress Maria. Louisa in Milan, with her sod, 373 to 374 
 
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