!gN 430 .M2 Icopy 1 INFLUENCE OF ENVIE INDUSTEIF BY OTIS TUFTON MASON FROM THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1895, PAOES 639-665 (WITH PLATE LXIX). WASHmGTON": GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1896. ■^^^d d: INFLUENCE OF ENVIEONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES OE AETS. OTIS TUFTON MASON, FEOM THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1895, PAGES 639-665 (WITH PLATE LXIX). WASHmGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1896. •.; •*• *•• •*" INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES OR ARTS.i By Otis Tupton Mason, THE ARTS OF LIFE. My part in this programme is to speak to you upon the influence of environment upon human industries or arts. By arts of life are meant all those activities which are performed by means of that large body of objects usually called apparatus, imj)le- ments, tools, utensils, machines, or mechanical powers, in the utiliza- tion of force derived from the human body, from animals, and from natural agencies, such as gravity, wind, flre, steam, electricity, and the like. There is a study of the activities of life that belongs to natural his- tory, being concerned with what men are and what they do as mere animals. They eat, drink, sleep, walk about, and help themselves to the bounties of nature, regardless of race. Their bones, muscles, and vital organs in their adult state, in their growth from embryo to decay, in their specific forms, are to be studied alongside of and in comparison with the same parts of other creatures. These natural activities of mankind constitute what, in old-time writers, was the natural as dis- tinguished from the renewed man. In reality, all these natural endow- ments, along with other matters of which I am to speak, form part of the occasioning environment of arts and industries. But our concern now is with inventions, artificial implements, processes, and results. We have to study culture or the doings of the artificial man — the renewed man. All that he does through new devices constitutes his industries or his true industrial life. The higher any subspecies or race or nation has climbed into this renewed life the greater has been its culture. THE ENVIRONMENT OF ARTS. The environment of arts is really the sum total of all that is outside of and in touch with them, including the whole earth and all that on it dwell, the sun and the planets also, and many of the stars, since men ' Saturday lecture in Assembly Hall of United States National Museum, May 2, 1896. 639 640 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTEIES. guide their journeys by them, set their clocks and adjust their cal- endars according to their movements, and invent the most delicate apparatus to gaze upon them. Practically, however, the environment of liuman arts is the combined action of the sun, the moon, and the earth, especially at any given place or in any culture center. When you look at a terrestrial globe the first thing you notice is its smoothness and homogeneity. No-w, if the earth were as smooth and homogeneous, that would end the matter. There would have been no arts, no lectures on their relation to environment, no audiences, and, to make a long story very short, no environment worth speaking about. If you were to look closely at a globe you would see that it is painted to represent a great variety of facts about the earth, to declare its physi- ographic outlines and features, its roughness and heterogeneity. To be precise, the earth consists of three inclosures — the laud, the water, the air — enveloped in the all-pervading ether. The solid portion may be called the geosi)here, the liquid portion the hydrosphere, the gaseous portion the atmosphere. These are not so many distinct things, like a nest of encapsulating boxes, but there exists the most intimate associ- ations among them; they environ one another. The geosphere invades the waters and the air. Nowhere are the w^aters and the atmosphere free from the invasion of solid particles of matter. The hydrosphere invades the other two, rising into the atmosphere in enormous quanti- ties, and sinking into the earth to unknown distances. Finally, the atmosphere is found permeating the waters, making life possible, and finding its way deep into the structure of the solid crust. The compo- nents of the air and of the waters are also the chief ingredients in the structure of the solid portions. There is no element in the air nor in the waters that does not exist in another form in the earth's crust. I speak of this to impress upon your minds the fact that this mother planet of ours is not a mere pile of substances without interest in one another, but a very carefully organized body to do a certain kind of work. I shall not now stop to inquire whether it was intelligently planned to do this wonderful work, of which I shall soon speak, or whether the work is simj)ly the result of its cooperative activities. It will suit my present purpose if I can get you to see with me this mar- velous set of terrestrial cooperations. THE SUN AND THE ENVIRONMENT. The sun in its relation to the geosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere forms a part of the environmental cooi^erations. Our dis- tance from the source of heat and light and actinism, our curve and velocity about it and the speed of diurnal revolution, the degree of inclination of the earth's axis of revolution to the plane of its annual I^ath, and, finally, our journey with the sun through space are all a iiart of one scheme or congeries of natural phenomena out of which the INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. 641 minutest phases of our industrial life spring. By a simple diagram (see i)late) this action of the sun and interaction of earth strata may he shown. The ancients divided phenomena into those of earth, Avater, air, fire — not a bad division wlien we are considering the influence of environment on human actions. The terrestrial fires are responsible for the corrugations on the earth's crust. The solar fires, in cooperation with the moon and the earth's mo- tions and its inclination in its orbit are responsible for the movements of the waters and the air in tides and climate and all the marvelous changes included in that word. The waters of the earth iireserve tol- erablj^ well the spheroidal form, and the winds and climates of the seas conform to the simple laws of s^iherical motion under given conditions. The lands projecting from the seas by their elevations and conforma- tions modify the movements of the air and the waters so as to re-create themselves. The winds of the Atlantic, saturated with moisture, sliding westward as the earth spins eastward at the rate of a thousand miles an hour, strike against the mountaiu barrier of the two Americas, Their waters are precipitated in deluges on the lowlands and blizzards of snow on the high mountains. This provokes the action of disintegrat- ing frosts, of avalanches, of glaciers, of torrents, of rank vegetation to break down the mountains and form the continents eastward. On the contrary, west of this vast upheaval the winds from which the water has been wrung turn the western slopes almost to a desert. The Eastern Hemisphere has other codes of behavior for the earth, the air, and the water. The results are the long slope toward the Arctic and a series of rivers whose mouths are stopped with ice at the moment when their higlier channels are in the periods of inundation. The Eussiau and Siberian wastes are the result, and the long north sloping- Piedmont from the North Sea to Lake Baikal, These coordinating activities result in the rich rivers of China, the garden spot of Jajjan, the overwatered regions of southeastern Asia, the great desert region of central Asia, the varied climate of India, the excessively complex arrangement of elevation, heat, precipitation, and water front about southern and western Europe. In Africa and the Indo-Paciflc Archipelagos the phenomena also form part of a single scheme. To the arts of man all mountains, all rivers, forests, prairies, and deserts are necessary, — the deep sea no less than those prolific feeding- grounds into which early men ventured and learned their first lesson in self-confidence, the end of which would come to be familiarity witli the whole globe. In fact, the whole world is now, and always has been, a single envi- ronment for man, fitted up witli more or less spacious environments in which the first human groups settled, and as they became ricber and stronger they took larger and larger apartments. Each one of these environments Lad a character of its own and the only possibility for a SM .95 41 642 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. race to occupy more tlian one was to become more and more artificial and to multiply its wants. SPECIAL ENVIKONMBNTS. In this connection, it will be profitable to note bow tbe cosmic forces have cooperated to create special environmental relationsbips in tbe three kingdoms of nature. The arts of mankind have to do with the mineral, vegetal, and animal resources of the earth, to i^rocure them, to manufacture them, to transport them, to count, weigh, measure, and value them, to exchange them, and to enjoy them, in answer to an ever- increasing body of wants, working them as materials by means of tools and machinery, according to methods which constitute the processes of the arts, always with definite ends in view. Now, these three kingdoms of nature, though they may have no king apparent to our senses, are far from being for our race a purposeless rabble. As with the three spheres of the earth, they also play into one another indefinitely under the sway of the imperial sun. This relationship has been represented as in the diagram (see plate). In the case of the spheres, it was easy to see that if the earth were perfectly homogeneous and smooth the movements of air and water would be tolerably uniform; but as things are arranged this would not be so with our three kingdoms. There would be tropical, tem]>erate, and arctic i^lants and animals even then. But with the present order of contours and movements in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geo- sphere, the kingdoms of minerals, vegetables, and animals undergo an endless variety of changes, creating no end of subvarieties in the environments and stimuli to action and artificial life. The mineral kingdom is awakened by the sun ; not only its mechanical movements are quickened in the air, the water, and the earth, the cur- rents of the ocean, the rains, snows, ice, frost, and heat, but somehow his beams are entangled with life itself, for only in his presence are the fields and forests clad in emerald, the organs of regeneration made resplendent in flowers of every possible hue, and new beings come into life at his bidding. It is only in the unfathomable abysses and in the unillumined earth that life is not. The stream of life flows into the veg- etal kingdom through the mineral, and a return current brings liberated oxygen and the jiroducts of decay. The stream of life flows from the vegetal into the mineral with return currents of carbonic acid gas, decayed matter, and the preparation of the soil. The stream of life descends from the animal to the mineral, with return currents in the form of air to breathe, water to drink, and a host of mineral substances wrought into our blood, brains, and bones.^ The invisible iDr. C. Hart Merriam's studies iu the relation of fauna to annual heat units is interesting in this connection, since they really stand for the total solar force, luminous, actinic and heating. (Smithsonian Report, 1891, pp. 365-415.) Smithsonian Report, 1895. Plate LXIX. Fig. 1. Chart showing how the sun, operating on the geosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere, makes of them a single environment for the whole human species. The air invades the earth and the waters; the waters invade the earth and the air; the earth invades the waters and the air. Their mutual activities depend upon the sun. ■tmi Fig. 2. Showing how the three kingdoms of nature are in their totaUties under the rule of the sun and how their interdependencies are created by that luminary, the whole con- stituting a single environment of man. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTEIES. 643 motions i^rocluced. by the sun's Ibrce becomes visible in the rising vapors; the motions of the air in the movements of theclonds; the secret motions of the snow and rain, the dew and the frost in the downward movement of the lands; the unseen movements of the land appear in the families, genera, and species of animals; finally, the dis- tribution of these reveal themselves in ways not known to us in the specific cultures of mankind belonging to the areas where they arose. Do you not see that the total result of these natural activities gives us a world that almost mimics a thoughtful being, with something to bestow, many things to suggest, power uulimited to lend, and, mark me, an intelligent discrimination of rewards and punishments whose effect has been to glorify the good and to destroy the unfit, I do not say that the world is alive and thoughtful, that its provinces or areas of separate environmental characterizations are each governed by a viceroy, but the law of the ingenious mind of man working in these makes it appear so. His subjective activity is projected upon the background of the earth, until it is quite certain that he is in coop- eration with the power that governs it. It is not yet decided how far this force obtrudes itself upon his will, since it is certain that his con- servatism imi)els him to certain activities against the environment. KINDS OF ACTIVITIES. There are six kinds of human industrial arts as regards the environ- ment, to wit: (1) Taking the gifts of nature: Man is then a quarryman or miner, a gleaner, a fisherman, a hunter, and later a domesticator, (2) Changing the form of natural objects: Man is then a manufac- turer, mechanic, artisan, an inventor of tools and machines. (3) Changing the i^lace or position of himself and of things: Man is then a traveler, a carrier, an engineer, a subduer of force. (4) Intelligent accounting for things and measuring: Man is then a statistician, a measuier, surveyor, ganger, weigher, a maker of clocks and almanacs, a scientific explorer. (5) The exchanging of the fruits of labor, commerce, business, money : Man becomes a merchant. (6) The arts of enjoyment: Man becomes a user of food, houses, fur- niture, utensils, equipage, fine art in all its branches. It is certain that Ave are brought into relation with nature or envi- ronment in and by all of these. Indeed, it is due to the great diversity of environments that they are all possible. If you will run your eye along the perspective of human history, you will see cultures running into one another like the streams of a river or the lines of a great struc- ture. Each culture was developed in a special environment. The union of two environments eventuates in the union of two cultures, widening both. 644 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES, CHARACTERISTICS OF ENVIRONMENT, We- may now be allowed to enumerate some of those characteristics of this composite nature of things whose influence upon our daily- activities we are now contemplating. And first we can not help seeing that the environment is the i^rovider of all raw materials. This seems trite, and in its simple statement may be so. Bat see how each people of the earth is characterized by its raw materials. An Eskimo collec- tion is white; the same ideas are expressed by the Haidas south of them in jet black. The art of the British Columbian is red, of Oregon and California yellow, of the Pueblos ecru, of Mexico gray. All this is plain enough when j'ou know the color of walrus ivory, of slate, and mountain goat horn, of cedar, of grasses and spruce root, of fire clay when baked, and of volcanic building stones. People express them- selves in the material at hand. The Egyptian was furnished with lime- stone and syenite, so he hammered away at that. His ideas could mount no higher than the material. On the other hand, the Greek was provided by environment with the whitest, finest, and thickest quar- ries of marble on earth. It was expected of him that he should give the highest expression of the aesthetic faculty in sculpture and archi- tecture, though his potterj^ was somewhat inferior. When the whole world is brought into one environment by the art of transportation, then other lands have hope to imbibe some of the genius engendered and fostered about the quarries of Pentelicus. But in the generative period of industrial forms, before the world-embracing commerce, it was not so. Nature or environment appears to us, secondly, in the light of a pur- veyor of force. At first our race had only the force of its own frail but versatile bodies to dei)end upon, yet men will never cease to marvel at this mechanism as an economic device for storing and utilizing power. Whether we regard a machine in the light of saving fuel, of si)eed, of ability to change rectilinear motion readily into that of any curve or succession of curves, the body of man will ever remain for inventors to wonder at and imitate. Long ago backs and hands and feet were wearied with ever-increasing burdens, and so the dog, the reindeer, the horse, the ass, the cow, the camel, the llama, the ele- phant, and even the sheep were handed over in innumerable packs and herds to give additional power to industry. These creatures not only fed and clothed men, they made men's legs longer, their backs stronger, their hands more skillful. Then came the wind to blow upon the mat, the sail, the mill, and the water, moving in its natural currents and then iu artificial channels to turn the wheels of industrialism. How bountiful has nature been in the supply of force! Who ever dreamed of exhausting it? How many ships upon the sea would it take to use up all the winds that blow, and how many turbine wheels would it INFLUENCE OP ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. 645 require to take up and transform iuto useful arts the force of all water- falls? ]t is true there are euvironmental gifts that may be ruthlessly wasted. As Professor McGee has shown, the resources of fertility wasted in the United States every year exceed those reproduced in crops. Six liundred million tons of coal are the output annually in the United States. Many species of most useful animals have been irre- trievably extinguished, but who ever thought of exhausting gravity, elasticity, the mechanical i^owers, the forces of the environment. How- ever, we must admit that even these natural forces are unequally dis- tributed, and that gives character also to the arts. There are no turbine wheels in the desert, no sails cross the zone of calms, and each domestic anii^ial has its geographic range beyond which it becomes unprofitable. In the third place, the environment manifests itself as the teacher of industries, I should be the last iiersou in the world to rob the ingen- ious miud of man of its glory in achievements through human industry; but the fact remains that wherever you enter his workshop, called the world, you will see hanging ou the walls and lying about him all sorts of i>atterns and models, and a multitude of processes are going ou which he falls iuto as ''heir of all the ages." There were cave dwellers before there were men ; spiders, mud wasps, beavers, and birds spun and worked in clay and cut down trees and made soft beds for tlieir young long ago. Plants reared \essels and mol- lusks produced dishes that even now are the patterns of the most skillful potters. There were hammers, gimlets, pins, needles, saws, baskets, and sandpaper at hand when the human artisan first became an apprentice. And I would ask you whether there is any possibility of this suggestiveness of nature ever being exhausted. Whisperings are yet going ou iu her school. The little birds have not told all the secrets. The processions toward the patent office prove that the grow- ing coordinations of environment in relation to the common industries have turned the village school, with its circumscribed advantages, iuto a world-embracing university. Lastly, I must not fail to tell you that the environment itself is capa- ble of unlimited education and improvement in relation to the com- monest wants of life and our ways of satisfying them. There is one thought about the nature of the common things among which we min- gle that fillvS me with ever-increasing delight. It is the sj^mpathetic response of nature or environment to every affectionate touch. An industrious and wise farmer settles upon a piece of land. Soon you behold remunerative crops replacing the forest and the waste. The man is enriched; he then enriches the land, and by a kind of mutual admiration they two grow fat together. When a progressive race has settled down in a part of the earth not too icy, not too torrid, not 646 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. discoiiragiugly luxuriant, not absolutely a desert, the same lias been true. The wild and cooperatively relentless wolves have become faith- ful dogs. The capability was slumbering there. The feeble grasses are transformed simply by giving the best a chance into prolific grains. The modest wild flower becomes the florist's delight, landscape garden- ing the composite expression of all testhetic pleasures in form, color, number, odor, and motion. Professor McGee has called our attention to the partial desert as the best possible arena for starting certain forms or epochs of this artificial life which we are now considering, and it is. Indeed, in this perfectibility of the environment of which I am now speaking it seems to be the manifest destiny, the natural pi^oclivity, the ambition of the desert to blossom as the rose. How delightful to con- temiilate this readiness of nature to respond to the touch of man. AMERICAN ENVIRONMENTS. It must have frequently occiirred to my hearers that the more cir- cumscribed the environment the more dependent the activity must be upon it and therefore the more monotonous the life must have been. This is true in the kingdoms of life and also true as among genera and species of animals. It has been also true among the races of men. The best examples, therefore, of environment affecting arts and indus- tries will be found where the tribes are still living in the eiidogamic stage of social culture, so that the happy arrangement between the arts and their surroundings have been as little disturbed as possible. Taking the Americas at the time when they were first revealed to the historian you will find that they range through natural conditions diversified enough to bring into prominence arts adapted to each cul- ture area and obtrusively different from those of other areas.^ For our present purpose, there may be said to have been eighteen American Indian environments or culture areas, to wit: Arctic, Atha- pascan, Algonquian, Iroquoian, Muskhogean, Plains of the Great West, North Pacific Coast, Columbia drainage, Interior Basin, California- Oregon, Pueblo, Middle American, Antillean, South American Cordil- leran, Andean Atlantic Slope, Eastern Brazilian, Central Brazilian, Argentine-Patagonian, Fuegian.^ These will be given seriatim with the factors constituting the motives and processes of the arts of life. A table will follow with the factors at the top. By writing the chai'acter- istics of each factor for each environment you would have at a glance 'These culture areas should he compared with Major Powell's linguistic map, 7th An. T?ep. Bur. Ethnol., with Thomas's mouud maps, 12th An. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., with Bancroft's geographic areas in his Native Races of the Pacific States, hut especially with Franz Boas's Anthropology of the North American Indians, Mon. Internat. Cong. ofAnthrop., Chicago; C. Hart Merriam's Geographic Distribution of Life in North America, Smithsonian Report, 1891, and J. A. Allen's Geographic Distribution of North American Mammals, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, Vol. IV. =See Powell (J. W.), 7th An. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.; Brinton (D. G.), The American Race, New York, 1891. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. 647 the whole result of our inquiry. This elaboration uiay be tabulated to ;uiy degree of miuuteness, but for the preseut we must be satisfied with — (1) Climate aud physiography; (2) Predomiuaut miuerals, vegetables, auimals; (3) Foods, drinks, narcotics, stimulants, medicines; (4) Olothiug aud adornment of the body; (5) House, fire, furniture, utensils; (G) Arts in stone, clay, plants, animal tissues; (7) Implements and utensils of fishing, bunting, and war; (8) Locomotion. ENVIRONMENTS AND OHARACTEEISXICS. The Arctic environment, according to the eight classes of character- istics laid down, may be thus defined as having — (1) Intensely cold climate, six months day and six montlis night, abundance of ice and snow, no vertical zones, much water line aud level coast. (2) Chert, slate, soapstone, pectolite; driftwood, wreckage, no timber, berries; aquatic invertebrates, mammals and birds, reindeer, land car- nivores, and rodents. (3) Little vegetable diet, meat of fish, birds, aquatic mammals, aud deer; pi^je aud snuff' introduced. (4) Dress of furs, birdskius and intestines, labrets and tattooing. (5) Underground houses or igloos, snow house, stone lamp-stove, steamed wood for dishes. (6) Chipping, sawing, boring, grinding, and carving stone; carving bone, antler and ivory; a little pottery at Bristol Bay; textile in bas- ketry, sinew twining and braiding, tailoring in skins ; ingenious weapon makers. (7) Hunting implements, harpoons, bird darts, fish darts, lances, fish- hooks, nets, composite bows and arrows. (8) For travel, poor snowshoes, ice creepers, sleds, kaiaks,. umiaks. The Athapascan environment has the following characteristics : (1) The drainage of the Yukon and the Mackenzie and the barren ground southward to British Columbia. (2) Poor in the industrial minerals; birch, conifers, and poplars; fish, birds, caribou, bear, and fur animals in profusion. (3) Fish, meat, berries, cooked by boiling with hot stones or roasted. (4) Deerskin clothing, with or without fur, bonnet, shirt, pantaloons, moccasins; much ornamented; no tattooing. (5) Bark lodge, movable; bark and basketry dishes; fur bedding; open fire. (6) Manufacture of hunting implements, basketry, bark work; excel- lent skin working; no pottery. (7) Plain bows, arrows Avith bone heads, lances, fishing nets and hooks, gigs. 648 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. (8) Snowshoes of finest webbing, sleds, bark canoes. The Algonquin-Iroquois cbaracteristics of environment are: (1) Climate temperate to subarctic; wide expanse of lowland; exten- sive inland waters and indented Atlantic coast. (2) Materials for industry, quartzite, diorite, sandstone, etc., for chip- ping, battering, and polishing, and mines of jasper, copper, and steatite; hard wood, birch, conifers, wild rice; game birds and mammals, lish, mollnsks. (3) Dietary of great variety in the animal products of land, fresh water, and salt water; maize, pumpkins, beans, natural fruits; boiling with stones or in pots, roasting; tobacco pipe. (4) Shirt, breech clout, leggings, moccasins of tawed skin, in winter fur clothing; body frequently exposed in the southern partof the area. (5) Dwellings of bark lodges, skin lodges, bark and skin long houses or arbors, communal barracks, village camps; tires in center; little furniture; extensive use of mats woven or sewed together, and skin robes. In this area there are the largest number of geometric earth- works, fortifications, mounds, and shell heaps. (G) The arts were not of high order ; they included chipped, battered, and i)olished stone; poor, red i^ottery; bark, dugout, and wicker ves- sels; quill work; tawed skin, sinew, and thong or babiche work; mortar grinding. (7) The weapons of war and capture were clubs, stone knives, lances, plain bow and stone-pointed arrows, barbed spears, fish pounds, traps, hooks, gigs, scalps were taken, (8) They traveled afoot, along well-known trails, on snowshoes in Canada; on the water in birch canoes or in dugouts; portages. The Muskhogean area includes the Southern States of the Union below the northern boundary of Carolina. In it were other tribes and j)arts of Northern families, but the area dominated the activities of all. (1) Low mountains, rich river valleys, abundant rain, ocean and gulf coast, climate temperate to subtropical. (2) Eiver gravels, and mines of flint, mica, and copper; abundant timber, cane, tobacco, and natural fruits; deer, turkeys and other birds, fish and aquatic invertebrates in profusion. (3) Food of maize, melons, pulse, fruits, the products of the chase, and the rich harvest of the waters;' roasting, pot boiling, baking in hot ashes, smoked and fire-dried food. (4) The dress of this area was partly of tawed skins, little clothing was worn, in fact. The caves reveal cai^es and iietticoats of bast and native hemp, woven and fringed. Feather work, shell beadwork, and pearls were used in jirofusion. (5) They lived in small huts and grass lodges and in wattled houses daubed with mud. These were collected in fortified villages. The furniture was of cane and matting, vessels of clay and diagonal bas- ketry; open fire. Here abound geometric mounds and earthworks, shell heaps, and shell mounds. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. 649 (()) The avts were chipping, pecking, and polishing stone; pottery making of a distinct school; twined and plaited textiles of cane and native hemp; feather working; grinding in log mortars. (7) The weapons of capture and war were plain bows, reed arrows, reed knives, stone tomahawks, lances with stone points, clnbs for braining. (8) Traveling on foot, and packing; on water were used canoes hollowed from the soft poplar and gum trees, which are abundant. The plains of the Great West have constituted a definite culture area characterized by — (1) A piedmont sloping down to the immense prairies of the Missouri, the Platte, and the Arkansas; temi^erate climate. (2) Few good industrial minerals and those prized and guarded by intertribal agreements; plants restricted to small trees for tent poles, arms and cradles, apocynum for textiles; buffalo overwhelmingly. (3) The dietary was meat flavored and supplemented with berries; kinnikinic; no farming. (i) Skin clothing in excess, hood, shirt, clout, leggings, moccasins, robes; paint the body. (.j) Skin lodges in circles; earth lodges like those south; furniture of hides, fur, and intestines; dung for fuel; jerked meat; stone boiling in small pits lined with rawhide; roasting. (()) Stone chipping, ijecking, carving, and polishing a little; skin dressing, tailoring, embroidery in quill, spinning iiax without spindle occupied the entire time of the women. The men were hunters preemi- nently. (7) The weapons of capture and of war were compound, sinew-backed, and self-bows, and stone pointed arrows, stone tomahawks and casse- tetes, clubs armed with jagged blades, lances. (8) Travel was on foot and the dog was a beast of burden; for crossing rivers the bull boat or buffalo-hide coracle was ever at hand. The North Pacific area extends froui Mount St. Elias to the Straits of Fuca, embracing Tlingit (Koloschau), Haida (Skittagetan), Tsimshian, and Nutka, or Wakashan, tribes. Its characteristics are: (1) Moist, temperate climate; archipelagic and mountainous coast. (2) Its material resources are slate and granular rocks, immense for- ests of conifers, sea fauna inexhaustible by savages, herring, salmon, halibut, oolachon, mollusks of great size. (3) Fish diet, mixed with fruits; no grain; snuff and tobacco; stone boiling and roasting. (4) Woven clothing of goat, sheep, and dog hair and cedar bark; labrets and tattooing. (.5) Their dwellings were communal barracks, with totem posts; cen- tral fires; furniture and utensils of stone, wood dugout, woven bark, and exquisite twined and checker basketry. (6) Their arts were stone carving by battering and scraping, no chipping; wood carving, twined and plain weaving; no pottery. 650 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. I (7) The weapons of war and capture were retrieving harpoons, gigs, and the like; fish traps, clubs, few appliances for land animals, (8) They traveled in dugout cauoes altogether, keeping close to shores and water courses. At the extreme north the fine snowshoe, borrowed from the Athapascan, was in vogue. The Columbia drainage area includes the entire basin of that stream and some contiguous patches. It is very difl'erent from the foregoing, having the following characteristics: (1) Stern, islandless coast, but prolific tide water and streams; rich lands; mild climate. (2) Its material resources for savagery are siliceous and granular rocks; textile plants and forest quite varied; salmon and waterfowl; abimdauce of edible roots and fruits. (3) Their dietary included fish and mollusk, with camass, kouse, and other roots and fruits in abundance; no agriculture; stone boiling and pit roasting. (4) The tribes dressed partly in skins, partly in textile garments, but the mild climate allowed them to expose their bodies much. (5) Their houses were likewise communal barracks, with interior iuclosures, but the huge totem post is lacking; furniture of greatly varied matting, wallets, rigid baskets. (G) The arts were chipping and battering stone; no pottery; many types of weaving and basketry, including plain, checker, diagonal, twined bird cage, coiled meshes, and stitches; an exceedingly mixed region. (7) Tlieir weapons of capture and war were bows and arrows, har- poons, lances, clubs, hooks, and traps. (8) They traveled in bark canoes, Amoor type, and near the salt water in excellent dugouts. On foot in winter they used coarse snow- shoes. The interior basin of the United States includes the lauds between the western slopes of the Kockies and the eastern slopes of the Sierras. It lies north of New Mexico and Arizona, and includes the most of Col- orado, Utah, Nevada, eastern Oregon, Idaho, and a corner of Wyoming. Its characteristics are : (1) Partial deserts among mountains with rich and wooded patches. (2) Materials for savage arts, siliceous and friable stone, deer, ante- lope, and other game, few fish, nutritious plants, poor timber, and textile plants. (3) Diet meager, meat scarce, bread, mush, and soups of acorns and wild plant seeds; insects and grubs eaten; cooking with hot stones and roasting or x)arclung in trays with hot stones. (4) Buckskin shirts, clouts, leggins, moccasin excellent, hats of coarse, twined basketry; no tattooing. (5) Shelters of brush by the side of bluff's or in the open ; partial cave dwellers; stick beds, vessels of basketry dipped in pitch; no pottery; fire out of doors. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. 651 (6) Chippiug stone, good skin dressers, basketry in tNsined ware, rough and coarse by reason of tbe material; excellent gleaners and millers. (7) Tbeir weapons are sinew-backed bows, sbort, stone-pointed arrows, clubs, and land nets. (8) Traveling on foot, no artificial appliances for land or water; carrying in conical baskets by means of headband. The Californian-Oregon area embraces a part of Oregon and all of California, except the southeastern third. Its characteristics are: (1) A series of short and isolated valleys, descending to the ocean, and without harbors, or to San Francisco Bay. Though there are mountains, there are no vertical zones of culture. The climate is vigorous and salubrious. The isolation is obtrusively shown in the fact that here twenty-six linguistic families were packed. (2) Materials lor arts were siliceous stones for chipping, superb; no fictile clay; fibers, fruits, and woods excellent; fish and game plentiful. (3) Diet of acorns, seeds, fish, birds, and mammals. Cooking with hot stones in mush and in pits; open roastry; tubular pipes. (4) Dress of buckskin, rabbitskin, and grass fringes, scanty ; tattooing. (5) Insignificant shelters, varied, partly below ground; granary baskets ; shell heaps. (G) Stone chipping admirable; stone and basketry mortars ; basketry of every type in seven distinct species of weaving: flax twine. (7) Weapons, neatly made sinew-backed bows and elegant arrows in many styles, with most delicate stone points; fish si^ears, retrieving arrows, fish and animal traps. (8) Poor boats; rafts and balsas in the south; snowshoes rare and rude; conical baskets and carrying bands. The Pueblo culture area includes New Mexico and Arizona, with extensions into Utah, southern Califoruia, and northern Mexico. Its characteristics are: (1) Arid, hot climate, elevated mesas, canyons, irrigable valleys, mountains. (2) Materials of industry, shales, clays, turquoise, volcanic rocks; mesquite, oak, cottonwood, yucca, basket shrubs, cultivated foods, and fruits; deer, rabbits^ goat, mountain lion, coyote. (3) Maize, pulse, melons; little meat until the introduction of sheep ; griddle cakes, mush, and pottage; cigarettes. (4) The clothing is somewhat scant, for a long time of buckskin and woven fabrics, formerly rabbit-skin robes, feather robes, weaving in apocynum and agave fiber, paints, no tattooing. (5) Pueblos, either underground, crater, cave, cavate, cliff, mesa, or lowland; towers, (6) Chipping, polishing, and boring stone; smooth and painted pot- tery in great profusion; mythological in motive; basketry in wicker, diagonal, twined, and coiled ware; weaving in frames and with grating harness, in plain and diaper; wrapped ornamentation; bone and horn work rude; mealing stones in sets; sand painting, irrigation. 652 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. (7) Weapons of war and the chase were bows and arrows, shields, rabbit clubs for throwing, laud nets, clubs. (8) On foot only, no conveyance by land or by sea; carrying on the head with ring, or on the back with forehead band. Middle American culture area, including southern Mexico and Cen- tral Amerfca. The characteristics are: (1) IMouiitains, terraces, and table-lands; vertical zones of climate from torrid seacoast to temperate uplands; wet and dry season; no good harbors; culture forces centrifugal. (2) Materials are obsidian, volcanic building stone, gems; yuccas, agaves, excellent timber, cotton, food plants; animals inferior, abun- dance of beautiful birds, fish and shellfish on the const, (3) Food largely artificial, of maize, pulse, flesh, fish, chile In many forms; chocolate, pulque. (4) Sandals of fiber, scanty body garb of poncho and serape, straw hats, feather clothing superb, labrets. (5) Thatched hut, open fire, hammock, pyramids, great buildings of hammer-dressed and carved stone; vessels of gourd and clay. (6) The arts were mining, metallurgy, stone cutting, gem cutting, grotesquely modeled pottery, loom weaving, netting, feather embroid- ery, gourd work, inetate milling, paper and bark cloth; irrigation. (7) Weapons were atlatl and spear, bladed clubs, obsidian daggers, bow and sling not i:)romineut. (8) Dugouts and reed floats, canals, professional carriers, headband and breastband. Antillean or insular area, called also the West Indies. To this region belongs also southern Florida, a portion of the northern coast of South America : (1) Perpetual summer (77° to 82° F.); mountainous insular areas in deep, clear sea; currents northwestward; islands easily accessible one from another. (2) Granular stone, little for chipping, great canoe trees, cacao; mol- lusks and fish; great mammals, none. (3) Dietary of manioc, sweet potato, cacao, fish, iguana, turtles; snuff and cigarettes. (4) Clothing meager, of vegetal fiber wholly. (5) Thatched shelters near the sea chiefly, pile dwellings, hammocks, no storage, open fires, and hammock fires. (G) The arts of Antillean peoples : Excellent carving and polishing of stone and wood ; red ])ottery rudely modeled and engraved; diagonal weaving, metate grinding, canoe making. (7) Weapons were spears, clubs, tomahawks, with celt in perforated handle. (8) Sandals for foot travel, dugout canoes; carrying on the head, i)er- haps introduced from Africa. South American mountain or Cordilleran culture area, including the INFLUENCE OF ENVIEONJVIENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. G53 moiiataius and especially the Pacific slope of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. The families of Indians were those usually called civilized. The characteristics are: (1) Elevated and continuous plateaus broken here and there by lofty mountains, beneath the plateaus vertical zones of climate; gener- ally arid, desert in the south; gorges in the west slope, coast plain little indented ; culture forces centripetal. (2) Materials of arts, volcanic, architectural rocks, gold and silver; coca, reeds, cinchona, cacao, maize, potato, beans, fish, llama, guanaco, vicuuya, paco; timber scarce. (3) Food of frozen potatoes on the plateau; maize, beans, meat, fish, lower down. Coca is chewed to economize strength. (4) The clothing was woven stuffs of llama wool and cotton, tine in quality and characteristically figured; sandals. (5) The buildings were thatched huts in fortified villages, furnished with hammocks or beds on the ground; open fire, dung fuel, griddle and i)ot cooking. (6) The arts were hammering and carving of stone, building with huge blocks, metallurgy, pottery modeling and molding; diagonal, twilled, and open weaving; irrigation, quipu. (7) Stone-headed club, sling, wooden saber. (8) Traveling afoot, or on balsas of logs or reeds; carrying on human backs or llamas, post roads and susiiension bridges. Andean Atlantic slope, including the eastern margin of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. It is in fact the loop in which arise the great rivers that feed the Amazon. Its characteristics are: (1) A tropical piedmont, sloping eastward, profusely watered and forested. (2) Its resources for culture have been little studied; iniueral sub- stances are little used; the vegetation is absolutely overpowering. (3) The food of the scanty population is fish, monkeys, peccary, and such natural fruits as may be found. (4) Little or no costume was anciently worn, except in the form of ornament, which consisted of gorgeous plumage of birds sewed to bark cloth and teeth and pretty seeds and wings of gorgeous beetles strung in armlets, leglets, and necklaces. (5) Wooden houses thatched with palm leaf were the habitations, with sleeping bunks. (G) The arts of life were those of savagery alone; little agriculture was known. To hunt, to fish, to war, to combat nature and one another was their continuous occui)ation. They were good woodworkers and feather workers; had no pottery. (7) Weapons in this area were and are blow tubes and poisoned arrows, rectangular sectioned, long bows, shields, trident lances, throw- ing sticks, drum signals, dried heads, ourari. 654 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTKIES. (8) Travel afoot in the forests, now using the ever faithful machete; use headband iu carrying; water travel in canoes down the cataracts of the upper rivers. Eastern Brazilian area, from the Tocantins Eiver eastward. The characteristics of tliis area are : (1) Tropical climate, elevated table-lands between sierras, forested, rivers filled with cataracts. (2) Little economic stone for savagery, or rather other useful sub- stances easier to work more abundant; gems; vegetation immense; food mammals scarce; birds of i)lumage, fish, and marine invertebrates plentiful. (3) Food partly natural, partly cultivated, cassava, fish, mollusks, turtles. (4) Clothing little or none, bark cloth; decoration of the person with labrets, tattoo, and jewelry of teeth and other animal tissues. (5) Immense huts and shelters, open below, thatched roofs, ham- mocks, central and individual fires. (6) Polished stone, no chipping: pottery massive ; diagonal weaving; shell heaps or sambaquis, agriculture. (7) Weapons are rounded bows decorated with feathers and geomet- ric seizing; ari'ows barbed with bone or bladed ; clubs. (8) Travel afoot; navigation of rivers difficult by reason of rapids; on the coast of Brazil canoes and house boats. The central Brazilian area, thci Matto Grosso, lying between the east- ward sloxiing roof of Brazil and the Andean Atlantic slope, largely between the Araguay and the western boundary of Brazil. It is a most complicated area in its environmental resources, its stocks aud tribes, and its arts. Its characteristics are: (1) Hot climate, wet, alluvial, forested; rivers flowing into the Ama- zon and the Paraguay, abounding in cataracts. (2) Materials of arts: Few minerals, replaced by bone, shell, and teeth; palm wood, hard woods, excellent reeds, gourds, cotton; fish, turtles, birds, monkeys. (3) Dietary mixed vegetable and animal, cultivated and wild; manioc, yam, beans, fish. (4) Dress, little; clouts, pretty feather ornaments, jewelry of teeth, masks, labrets, nose ornament; no tatoo. (5) Houses open shelters with palm-leaf roofs; hammocks, open fires; gourd and pottery dishes. (6) Tools of shell, teeth, bone; spindle, diagonal weaving, sand paint- ing, (;assava manufacture, agriculture; ijottery quite suggestive of mound-builders' ware, (7) Bows of Peru and of east Brazil and intermediary forms; arrows with bone and reed points; throwing sticks Australian type, clubs, axes. (8) Barefoot travel, headband and carrying frame; canoes of a single Ijiece of bark (wood skins) and dugouts. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. 655 Soutli of the Matto Grosso, or mixed region, lies tlie Argentinian pampas, shading down to Patagonia. Differing much in features from place to place, the culture is not altogether to be dissociated from that farther north. The characteristics are : (1) Monotonous plains, pampas, from high grassy chaco to the bleak wastes at the south. (2) Only near the western border any stone for working ; fish, guanaco, American ostrich {Rhea darwinii). (3) Food consists of roots, fruit, aquatic products in some places, flesh of guanaco, and rhea; no husbandry; Paraguay tea. (4) Dress scanty, guanaco robes, woven blankets ; foot gear of peltry, hair side out. (5) The house, or toldo, of the Patagouian is an awning of guanaco skin; fuel of grass, open roasting ; skin beds; pai)poose hammocks and frames, the iirst south of California. (6) Arts are skin dressing, sewing with ostrich sinew thread, weaving, and hunting; no pottery; no chipped stone southward. (7) The weapons were the spear, the lasso, and the bolas. (8) Locomotion aboriginally altogether afoot; now on horseback. The Fuegian culture area terminates the American Continent south- ward, and yet on this desolate point, 55 degrees south, Brinton finds three linguistic families. The characteristics are : (1) Eocky islands with numerous inlets between dangerous head- lands; cold and wet climate. (2) The material resources are siliceous rocks, beech trees, rushes; land mammals scarce; marine fauna rich; dogs. (3) The dietary is mollusks and fish largely, sea mammals, whales, fungi; cooking in hot ashes. (4) Clothing scanty; a skin worn hanging on the neck as a wind break ; paint and ornaments. (5) Their houses are miserable huts of wattling covered with grass; no furniture; fire made with pyrites and carried about in canoes. (6) Their arts are in wood, bark, bone, and textile; shell knife; no stone art. (7) For weapons t\xej use stones thrown from the hand, poor bows and arrows, barbed harpoons, slings, limpet sticks, nets; no fishhook. (8) Little travel afoot; small canoe sled; large canoe of beech bark, made in three sections, to be easily taken apart in portages across headlands. 656 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. Table shoiving American environments in Area and physiography. 1. Arctic. Six montlis day; ice and snow ; country low along the coast. 2. Athapascan. Tuton and Mackenzie drainage; lowland, stiljarctic fanna and flora. S. Algonquin — Iroquois. Subarctic to temperate; lowlands, prairies, and indented waterw ays and coasts. 4. Southern United States . Eich riror valleys and low mountains; abun- dant rain; Gulf Coast 8uhtroi)ical. 5. Plains of the West. Piedmont sloi)ing to im- mense prairies of Mis- sissippi Valley. 6. North Pacific. Moist, warm climate ; archipelagoes and mountainous coast. 7. Vancouver to Columbia. Stern coast, prolifie in- land waters ; rich lands coast to mountains. 8. Interior Basin. Partial desert among mountains. Chief minerals, plants, and animals. Soapstone, chert, slate, pectolite ; stunted vegetation, drift; abundance of fish, birds, and mammals of sea and land. Poor in industrial min- erals ; birch, conifers, poplars ; cariboii.bear, birds, fish, and fur animals. Quartzite, sandstone, soapstone, d i o r i t e ; hard woods,birch, wild rice, tobacco; game, fish, moUuslvS. River gravels ; stone, granular .and siliceous in place ; timber, cane, tobacco, maize ; game, fish, and sea products. Few minerals ; jasper, pipostone; apocy- nuni,hois diarc; buf- falo, overwhelmingly. Slate, granular rock ; immense forests of conifers : sea fauna inexhaustible. Siliceous and granular rocks; textile plants and forest timber, edible roots ; fish, waterfowl. Siliceous and stratified stone; few fish; deer and other game ; tim- ber poor ; seed plants abundant. Alimentation. llress and adornment. Drink water only ; eat fish, seal meat, whale, reindeer, raw and seethed. Drink water ; meat, fish of lakes, berries, and bark. Diet varied, meat, fish, marine invertebrates, wild grains and fruits, maize; granaries; to- bacco. Fish, meat, mollusks, maize, wild fruits .nbundant; granaries; tobacco. Meat; fish a little; wild fruits, jjemmican, kin- nikinic. Fish diet, mixed with berries ; snuff and pipe. Fish diet, mixed with roots and henies ; no agriculture; stone boiling in basket and pit roasting. Dietarj' meager; bread, mush, soups, meat; in some cases grubs and insects: hot stone and roasting. Sleeved coats and hoods; skins of birds, seal, reindeer, and intestines ; tat- too; labrets. Tawfd caribou skin, much adorned witli quill work and beads; gaiter-like moccasins. Tawed-skin shirt, leg- gins, moccasins (low and adorned); tat- too and paint. Slight ; deerskin robes, mantles of wild hemi) ; bodies paint- ed; moccasins. Skin clothing; low moccasins ; feather and (juill decora- tions; body paint and mutilations. Clothing of bark and hair, woven in twin- ed pattern; tattoo- ing of totems. Skin and bark clotli- ing: gaiter mocca- sins ; head flattening. Buckskin clothing, rabbit-skin robes ; high moccasins; no painting or tattoo- ing. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. 657 association with aboriginal industries. House and house life. Manufactures. Hunting, fishing, war. Locomotion and trans- portation Uudergrouml igloos of Chipping, sawing,grind- Harpoons, bird darts. Fur boots, ice creeper. oartli on timbers or ing, carving stone and fish darts, lance, fish- sled, dog, kaiak. whalebone ; s n o %v hard tissue ; tailoring hook, net, trap, bow umiak ; snowshoes, huts and summer iu skins ; pottery a compound and sinew- rude . tents; stone lamp little in the west. backed. stove, dishes of wood. Conical bark lodges; No pottery ; coiled bas- B)w and arrow, lance. Snowshoes, excellent; baskets, pots, and ketry; bark vessels, nets, hooks, traps. bark canoes, tobog- dishes of wood, bark. excellent skin dress- and pounds, abundant gans, dogs; much and basketry; stone ing and working; and varied. portage. boiling. curved knife. Conical and cylindrical Chipped and polished Club, stono knife, lance. On foot; in canoes and lodges of skin or bark ; stone; poor pottery; tomahawk, bow and dugouts ; snowshoes, barracks, shell heaps ; bark dugout and arrow plain, barbed dogs, and portages at central fire; roasting wicker vessels; mor- spear, pound, trap. the north. and boiling. tar grinding ; skin working ; twined bas- ketry. weir. Huts of cane, with mud Chipping and polishing Bows and reed arrows, On foot; dugout ca- cli inking, grass stone; gray pottery, blow tubes, weirs, noes ; rafts of cane. lodges, earthworks, stamped; diagonal tomahawks. snell heaps ; open fire, weaving. smoking, roasting. seething. Skin lodges in circles; Stone chipping ; pipe Little fishing ; plain, Onfootandsnowshoes ; earth lodge; furniture making; hammer- compound, and sinew- bull-boat; dog and and utensils, and fuel stone, hafted ; twined backed bow, short ar- horse for riding and from the buffalo. basketry ; quill and row, club, lance, tom- packing. hide work ; little pot- ahawk. tery. Communal barracks; Carved wood, slate, bone ; Harpoons, floats, gigs. Dugout canoes alto- totem posts, central twined, square, and weirs ; arts created by gether ; little land fires ; furniture and diagonal -weaving in fishing; daggers, skin travel except pack- utensils of stone and wood,bark, and grass; armor, slat armor. ing over the moun- wood ; stone boiling in no pottery. slave killer. tains. dugouts. "- Communal houses ; fur- Flinty and granular Harpoon, club.fishhook, Dugouts, bark boats, nitui'e in greatly va- stonework; carving traps; daggers, bows monitor shape; ried textiles; fire in in soft and hard mate- and arrows. open-work snow- pits. rial ; no pottery ; bas- shoes; packing over ketry of five types. the mountains. Shelters ; lire out of Chipping stone; no pot- Sinew-lined bow, plain No artificial travel ; doors ; stick beds ; ves- tery; good skin work- arrow, short clubs ; carrying in conical sels of twined baskets, ers ; twined baskets round shields. baskets with head- pitched ; mush bas- for vessels; seed gath- band. kets; fire outside. ering, milling, and cooking. SM 95- -42 658 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. Table ahoioing American environments in Areaanfl physiography Chief minerals, plants, and animals. Alimentation . Dress and adornment. .9. California and Oregon. Short valleys isolated en- No clay, siliceous and Diet of fish, meat,acorns, Buckskin and grass- closing rirers stocked friable stone; fibrous piuyon; mush; stone fringed skirts,rohes. with sea products. plants, fruits, and woods abundant ; fish, moUusks, and game. boiling. and moccasins. 10. Pueblo region. Arid mesas and canyons Shales, clays, gems; Maize, pulse, melons. Tawed skin and wo- among mountains; ir- mesquite, yucca, little meat ; griddle ven garments; for- rigable lands. agave, oak; deer, rab- and cooking pot. merly rabbit robes, bit, antelope, coyote. ^ feathers and paint; puma. no tattooing. 11, Middle America. Mountains and table- Friable stone, obsidian, Maize ground, frijoles. Woven and bark gar- lands, wet and dry sea- jade-liko stone, silver griddle cookiu g ; ments, sandals of son, isothonn 82° to yucca, agave, cotton. pulque, mescal, cacao. twine, hats, feather 59° r.; vertical cli maize,beans, peppers, iguana. work, labret.s. mate zones. fish, birds. I?. Iilttoral and Intvlar Americas. Perpetual summer ; no Granularstone.no chip- Fish and moUusk, ca- Little clothing, bark snow; mountains and ping; shells, great cao, cassava, batatas. cloth, featlicr work. insular areas in deep. canoe trees, cacao. turtle, iguana, chlcha. dear seas ; currents manioc ; no great snuff. northwestward. mammals; fishes, birds, and mollusks. 13. Cordilleras of South America. Elevated plateaus, with Volcanic rocks, gold Bread of maize, pota- Woven stufis of cot- high mountains, and silver; maize, po- toes, fish, llama, ton and wool ; san- gorges, desert coast. tatoes, cotton, coca, guanaco, coca, chi dals, poncho. rainless, vertical cli- cinchona, cochineal ; cha, salt. mate zones. llama. 14. Andean Atlantic Slope. Orinoco, Amazon, Maian- Minerals scarce; vege- Fish, turtle, monkeys. Bark cloth; feather yon, Madeira, Napo, tation reeking; ani- Ijeccary, manatee. ornaments, jewelry etc. ; tropical prod- mal life arboreal and of teeth . ucts ; well watered and aquatic. forested. 15. Eastern Brazil. Tropical ; elevated table- Friable stone, clay ; for- Some maize and cassava. Cotton, bark cloth, lands between low ests, palm trees, hard- but chiefly on natural scanty clothing ; sierras ; forested ; woods; mollusks and products of the soil; labrets. rivers full of cataracts. fish. roasting and boiling. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT UPON HUMAN INDUSTRIES. 659 associatio7i xoitli ahoriginal industries — Continued. House and house life. Insignificant shelters, some under ground; no order in camiis; sliellheaps.granaries; fire in doors. Under ground, crater, cave, cavato, c 1 i if, lijesa, and lowland pueblos ; ladders ; fur- niture and utensils of clay and textiles ; ovena and open fire. Thatched and daubed hut, cut- stone build- ings and temples, hammocks, granaries. Thatched huts, often daubed or on posts; hammocks ; no stor- age; chair.s from sin- gle blo(;k. Fortified villages; thatched huta; bed on the ground ; clay dishes; open fire; llama, dung fuel. Wooden houses, thatch- ed; sleeping bunks, couvade. Manufactures. Excellent stone chip- ping; composite mor- tars ; seven styles of basketry ; twine, nets. Polishing and boring stone; smooth, paint- ed pottery ; basketry five kinds, cloth ; wall building; irrigation. Stone hammering and chiseling, gem cut- ting, grotes