LIBRARY OF C0NGRES3,^ Shelf..K.A76 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. KEENEY'S COMPENDIUM OP ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. For the Use of Schools. Corrject^b, Cnlargeb, anb brought bcfett to 1880,. \ ^ ^y By JOHN O'KANE MUREAY, M.A., M.IX-r^F CoSf^ °^ WASHING " History is a record of truth for the instruction of mankind."— J5?atr. " To be ignorant of what has happened before one's birth, is nothing less than to remain in a state of continual childhood."— C^'cero. BALTIMORE: John Murphy & Co. 1882/ THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS WASHINGTON Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1882, by JOHN MUEPHY & CO., in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. ^M^ Press of John Murphy & Co., Baltimore. EDITOE'S PREFACE. I UNDERTOOK the task of preparing this new edition of Kerney's well-known Compendium of Ancient and Modern History at the earnest request of my friend, the late Mr. John Murphy, founder of the publishing house of John Murphy & Co. I have carefully gone over the whole volume, making such changes, corrections, and additions as I deemed necessary. Many portions have been entirely re-written. The history of most of the modern nations had to be carried down from 1820, 1830, or 1840, to 1880. The sketch of the Cathohc Church was continued from the so-called Reformation till 1880. Over a dozen new lives have been added to the Short Biographies. I have written most of the notes scattered here and there, and the initial of my name is placed after the longer ones. Care has been taken to accent all proper names that are liable to be mis-pronounced. While the original plan of the work is sub- stantially preserved, I have attempted to give it more unity, system, and completeness. The division into books and chap- ters is one of the new features. History must find a place in every well-regulated course of instruction. It is one of the most valuable branches of knowl- edge, and no student can ever regret the time and labor spent in its study. The Compendium^ in its improved form, is now oifered to teachers, professors, parents, and all who take an interest in sound education as a truthful, pleasant, and impartial guide in a department of learning where safe guidance is all-important. I think it can fairly claim to be the most complete summary, in one handy volume, of ancient and modern history in the English language. John O'Kane Murray. Beoozlyn, N. Y. June 7, 1882. iii CONTEISTTS. Book I. Introduction.— The Sources and Divisions of History 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. SACREn BISTORT, CHAP. I.— The Creation of the World— The Creation of Man— The Deluge —The Tower of Babel— The Dispersion of Mankind 4 n.— The Early History of the Jews, until their Deliverance from Egypt 9 III.— The Government of the Judges— The Regal Government— The Restoration of the Jews from Captivity 16 IV.— From the Restoration of the Jews to their Native Country to the Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans 33 Book II. — The Great Empires of Antiquity. I.— A Glance at Assyria and Babylon 31 II —The Persian Empire 35 III— The Phoenicians 38 IV.— Egypt 39 v.— Manners and Customs of the Egyptians 43 VI.— Pyramids, Labyrinth, Lake of Moeris 44 Book III. — Greece. I.— Glances at Early Greek History 47 II.— The Fabulous and Heroic Ages 49 III.— Republic of Sparta 51 IV.— Republic of Athens 53 v.— From the Invasion of Greece by the Persians, to the Pelopon- nesian War 55 VI.— From the beginning of the Peloponnesian War to the Reign of Philip of Macedon 61 VII,— Philip of Macedon— The Exploits and Death of Alexander 66 Vin.— From the Death of Alexander to the Subjugation of Greece by the Romans 71 IX.— Grecian Antiquities 74 Philosophy 74 Seven Wise Men 76 Council of the Amphictyons 76 Public Games 76 Literature '• 77 Arts 78 Private and Domestic Life 79 Origin of Tragedy • - 80 1* V vi CONTENTS. Book IV.— Rome. paob CHAP. I.-From the Foundation of ihe City to the Expulsion of Tarquln 82 II.-From the Abolition of the Regal Power to the First Punic War... 87 in.— From the First Punic War to the Conquest of Greece 97 IV.-The Sedition of the Gracchi-Civil Wars-Conspiracy of Catihne.. 104 V —From the First Triumvirate to the Dissolution of the Common- wealth ]f VI.— Rome as an Empire ^J° VII —From Nerva to Constantino the Great i^ VIII -From the Accession of Constantino to the FaU of the Western Empire ^ IX.— Roman Antiquities JX^ X.— Mythology of Ancient Nations ^^ MODEKN HISTORY. Book v.— The Middle Ages. I.— Sixth Century }^ Seventh Century f^ Eighth Century ^ Ninth Century J^J Tenth Century J^ Eleventh Century |?* Twelfth Century }^ Thirteenth Century 1?J Fourteenth Century > ^^^ Monasteries r^ n.— The Saracen Empire ^^^ in.— The Feudal System TZ IV.— The Crusades ^Z First Crusade Jrx Second Crusade :Jq Third Crusade ^.^t. Fourth and Fifth Crusades :[*'* Sixth Crusade ]lt Seventh and Eighth Crusades :J^^ The Results of the Crusades :J'° V.-Chivalry tZ Tournaments and Jousts The Origin of Duels ^^ Book VI.— France, t I.-Foundation of the Monarchy-Merovingian and Carlovingian .,_,. loD Kings jgg IL— Capetian Kings ^^2 III.— Branch of Valois """ "'" ,„^ IV.-From the Accession of Louis xn. to the Reign of Henry III.- 19b V.-House of Bourbon, from Henry IV. to the Death of Louis XV M. VI.— Louis XVL and his Misfortunes f^° Vn.— Bonaparte and his Wonderful Career f^ VIIL-Louis XVin., Charles X., and Louis Philippe........ - •••••••••• ^^ lX.-The New Republic soon succeeded by the Second Empire-Reign and Downfall of Napoleon III.-Glance at the Present French ^ Republic - *••• •*" CONTENTS. Vn ^ook VIL-England. I.— From the Conquest by the Romans, B.C. 55, to A. D. 837 235 II.— The Foundation of the Monarchy 239 JIl.— Norman Family ; William the Conqueror— William II.— Henry I.— Stephen of Blois 245 IV.— Family of Plantagenet ; Henry II.— Richard I.— John— Henry III. —Edward I.— Edward II.— Edward III.— Richard II • 247 Y.— Branch of Lancaster; Henry IV.— Henry V.— Henry VI 259 YI— Branch of York; Edward IV.— Edward V.— Richard III 2tj3 YII.— Tudor Family ; Henry VII.— Henry VIII.— Edward VI.— Mary- Elizabeth 265 YUl.— Stuart Family ; James I.— Charles I.— The Commonwealth— Crom- well — Charles II.— James II.— William and Mary — Anne 275 IX..— Branch of Brunswick; George I.— George II.— George III.— George IV.— William IV 288 X.— The Reign of Queen Victoria 293 Book VIII.— Scotland. I.-Early History 298 U— House of StuaH 301 IIL- Mary Queen of Scots 307 Book IX. — Ireland. I. — Ancient Pagan Ireland 316 II.— Early Christian Ireland 319 III.— From the Invasion of Henry II. to the Invasion of Cromwell 323 IV.— From James II. till the Rebellion of 1798 333 v.— From the Rebellion of 1798 till 1880 337 Book X.— Spain. I.— Its Early History 345 II.— Modern Spain 346 III.— The Inquisition 350 Book XI.— Italy. I.— From the Fall of the Empire of the West to the Death of Pope Gregory VII 354 II.— From the Death of Pope Gregory VII. to the Present Time 359 Book XII. — Germany and Austria. I.— From the Earliest Period to the Accession of the House of Haps- burg 367 XL- A Glance at the History of Six Hundred Years 369 Book XIII. — Prussia. I.— Early History to the Conclusion of the Reign of Frederick the Great 373 n.— From the Death of Frederick the Great till the Present Time 375 Book XIV. — Russia. I.— Early History 378 II.— Russia in the Nineteenth Century 380 Viii CONTENTS. CHAP. Book XV. PAOB I.— Portug-al 383 II.— Poland '. 385 III.— Sweden and Norway 387 IV.— Denmark • 390 v.— Holland and Belgium 393 VI.— Switzerland 393 VII.— Modern Greece 394 VIIL— Turkey 403 Book XVI. — America. I.— Discovery of the New "World 407 II.— Conquest of Mexico and Peru 414 The Manners and Customs of the Indians 417 The Rise of the Republics of South America 419 III.— Settlement of Canada, Virginia, and New York 421 IV.— New England Settlements 427 v.- Maryland and its Catholic Founders 435 VI.— Pennsylvania 437 Vn.— Delaware and New Jersey 438 TheCarolinas 439 Georgia ; 439 VIIL— The French War and the Conquest of Canada • 440 IX.— The Oppressive Measures that finally Led to the Declaration of Independence 444 Book XVII. — The United States of America. L— The War of the Revolution 453 n.— The Administrations of Washington and Adams 461 III.— The Administration of Thomas Jefferson 466 IV.— The Administration of James Madison 468 v.— The Administrations of Monroe, Adams, Jackson, Van Buren, Harrison, and Tyler 475 VL— Polk's Administration 477 VIL— The Administrations of Taylor, Filmore, and Pierce 493 VIIL— The Administrations of Buchanan and Lincoln— The Ci\il War.... 498 IX.— The New National Life— Administrations of Johnson, Grant, Hayes, and Garfield 507 Book XVIII.— The Catholic Church. I.— From the Birth of Christ to the Triumph of Christianity 510 II.— From the Triumph of Christianity to the Protestant Reformation. 520 III.— From the Protestant Reformation to the Present Time 530 Book XIX. Short BiOGRAPHiCAii Sketches of Eminent Personages 541 CHRONOLOGICAIi TABLE 564 Appendix. The Declaration of Independence 583 The Constitution of the United States 588 COMPENDIUM OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. BOOK I. INTRODUCTION. THE SOURCES AND DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. History is a written account of past events. It is a record of the lives of nations. The principal sources of history are : 1. Authentic records, of which the Bible"^ is the most ancient and venerable. 2. Oral tradition, which existed before the invention of the art of writing. From this source, Herod'otus, one of the earliest profane historians, derived the greater part of the facts which he relates. 3. Historical poems, such as the IViad and Od'yssey of Homer, which comprised the only history of the heroic ages of Greece. 4. iVIonuments and ruins, as the Pyramids of Egypt, and the remains of such ancient cities as Bal'bec, Babylon, Troy, Nin'eveh, Palmy 'ra, and Persep'olis, which serve to give an idea of the taste, power, and opulence of those by whom they were built. ' * The Bible contains seventy-two books, forty-five of which belong to the Old Testament, and twenty-seven to the New Testament. 1. What is history? Which is the first source of history? the second? the third? the fourth? 1 INTRODUCTION. 5. Coins and medals have always been of great utility in illustrating history, and of giving some insight into the manners and customs of those nations to which they be- lonQ:ed. , , T n i Inscriptions on marbles.— The most celebrated collec- tion of marbles are those at the University of Oxford, England, called the Arundelian Marbles, from the Earl of Arundel, by whom they were brought from Greece. Of these inscriptions, the most important is the Chronicle of Pa'ros, which contains the chronology of Athens from the time of Ce'crops, b. c. 1582 to b. c. 264. 1. History is divided, with respect to time, into Ancient and Modern. Ancient history embraces the history of the world from the creation of man to the birth of Christ. Modern history comprises all the time subsequent to that period. There is, however, a difference of opinion with re- gard to the line which separates ancient from modern his- tory. Some historians adopt the Christian era for the commencement of modern history; others take the sub- version of the Western Empire of the Romans, A. p. 476; while others again carry it down as far as the estabhshment of the New Empire of the West, under Charlemagne, a. d. 8 Ancient history is distinguished by the creation and fall of Adam and Eve ; the Deluge ; the dispersion of man- kind ; and the formation of the four great Empires ot Assyria, Persia, Greece, and Rome, whicji in turn arose, flourished, and decayed. . , . , .. ^ ■ ^x. f 9 Modern history is chiefly distinguished by the birth ot Christ ; the redemption of mankind ; the foundation of the Catholic Church ; the spread of Christianity ; the fall of the Roman Empire; the rise of the principal modern nations ot Europe ; the rise, progress, and decline of Mahometanism ; the establishment of the Feudal System; the Crusades; Chivalry ; the invention of gunpowder and the art ot print- ino- ; the discovery and settlement of America ; the revival of'^letters ; the so-called Reformation ; the invention of the steam-engine and the telegraph; and many advances and Which is the fifth source of history ? the sixth ? Where is the most celebrated collection of marbles? Which is the most important ot these, and what does it contain?-?. How is ^foiy divided? What is ancient history? What is modern history? What do some his- torians adopt as the dividing line between ancient and modern histoiy . -8. For what is ancient history distinguished ?-9. For whftt is modern history distinguished ? INTRODUCTION. 3 improvements in the arts, sciences, and social condition of man. 10 That period of time extending from the fall of the Western Empire of the Romans, a. d. 416, to that of the Eastern Empire, a. d. 1453, is often styled the Middle Ages. 11. History is divided, with respect to the nature of its subjects, into Sacred, Profane, Ecclesiastical, and Civil. 12. Sacred history is that which is contained in the Holy Scriptures. 13. Profane history is the history of the ancient pagan nations. The earliest profane historian is Herodotus, who is styled the Father of History. He compiled his works about 445 years b. c, and extends his accounts back as far as the year 713 before the Christian era. 14. Ecclesiastical history is the history of the Church of Christ, from the establishment of Christianity to the present time. 15. Civil history is the history of the principal nations, states, empires, and republics that have appeared in the world. For a period of nearly three thousand three hundred years subsequent to the creation of man, there exist no documents, with the exception of the Scriptures, that really deserve the name of history. Our knowledge, therefore, of the early history of the world, the first settlements of the different parts of it, and the primitive state of society, is extremely limited. 10. Over what period of time do the Middle Ages extend? — 11. Name the other divisions of history? — 12. What is sacred history? — 13. Pro- fane history? Who is the earliest profane historian? — 14. What is ecclesiastical history ? — 15. Civil history ? AKCIENT HISTOEY. LESSONS IN SACRED HISTORY. CHAPTER I. THE CREATION OF THE WORLD— THE CREATION OF MAN — THE DELUGE- THE TOWER OF BABEL— THE DISPER- SION OF MANKIND. THE history of the world begins with the first act of the creation, when, in the words of Moses, the most ancient of the sacred writers, '' God created heaven and earth," He called the universe into existence by an act of His almighty power. This wonderful work, according to Holy Scripture, occupied six days ; but it is generally believed that the days of the Creation were periods of great length. We have good reason to think that the earth existed long ages before the creation of Adam.* But v^^hen the world was clothed in beauty, God said: "Let us make man to Our image and likeness." Adam was formed from the slime of the earth, f and the adorable Creator ''breathed into his face the breath of life, and man became a living soul." This extraordinary event took place nearly 6000 years ago. The Almighty gave man dominion over the earth and every creature on it ; and, finally, seeing that all His work was good, rested on the seventh day, which He sanctified as a day to be devoted to religious solemnities. 2. The first woman was formed from a rib, taken from the side of Adam while in a deep sleep; and she was given to him as a companion. In this manner was the sacred in- * See Molloy's Geology and Revelation. f Adam signifies earth-man, or dravrafrom the earth. Sacred History. Chapter T. — 1. When does the history of the world begin ? What is said of the six days of the creation ? Eelate how God created the first man. About how many years ago is it since this event occurred ? What did God do on the seventh day ? — 2. From what was the first woman formed ? 4 THE ANTEDILUVIANS. 5 stitution of marriage ordained by the Creator himself. Adam and Eve* were placed, immediately after their creation, in a terrestrial paradise, called the Garden of Eden. They were permitted to use all the fruits of that lovely abode, except the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil ; this restric- tion was laid upon them as a trial of their obedience, and the penalty of death was threatened if they should transgress the command of their Creator. 3. Yarious opinions have been entertained with respect to the situation of the Garden of Eden ; but following the ac- count given of it in the Old Testament, and judging from the well known names of the Ti'gris and Euphra'tes, we may determine, with some probability, that it was situated in or near Mesopota'mia. It is evident that it was east of Ca'naan, or of the wilderness where Moses wrote his sacred history, though the precise spot cannot now be ascertained. 4. The innocence and happiness of our first parents were of short duration. Scarcely had they begun to enjoy the de- lights of paradise, when the woman, deceived by the subtlety of Satan, in the form of a serpent, plucked and eat of the for- bidden fruit, and at the same time presented it to her hus- band, who likewise followed her example. The efiect was decisive. The whole face of creation was changed. Death and sin were introduced, and from that moment our first parents, with all their posterity, became liable to dissolution, and subjected to all the moral and physical evils which have afflicted the human family to the present time. God called them to an account, and his awful voice filled their souls with dread. 5. Adam being severely reprimanded for his disobedience, began to exculpate himself upon the weak pretence that the woman had first offered him the fruit. The woman hearing herself thus accused, sought to remove the blame from her- self upon the serpent, that had deceived her. But in a for- mal violation of his solemn commands, God admits of no ex- cuse. He cursed the serpent as the first author of the sin, condemning it to creep upon the earth, and eat the dust * Eve signifies life, or the mother of the living. What were the names of the first of the human family ? and where were they placed? What were they permitted to use? Why was this restriction laid upon them? — 3. Where is the supposed situation of the garden of Eden ? — 4. What is said of the innocence of our first parents ? How was the woman deceived ? and what was the effect of their disobedience ? — 5. What sentence was pronounced on the serpent ? 1* 6 THE ANTEDILUVIANS. thereof; but for fear that man should despair under the weight of his afflictions, He promised him a future deliverer, declaring that the seed of the woman would eventually crush the serpent's head, — a declaration which referred, in its full extent, to the person of Jesus Christ, the Savior of mankind. Adam and Eve were then banished from para- dise, and an angel with a flaming sword placed at the east of the garden, to prevent all access to that once happy abode. 6. In the first year of the companionship of Adam and Eve, 4004 years b. c, Cain was born, and the following year is assigned for the birth of Ahel. The two brothers not only followed different occupations, but possessed very different characters. On a certain occasion, as they were both presenting their offerings to God, the offering of Ahel was accepted, while that of Cain was rejected. This circum- stance excited the indignation of Cain, who, availing him- self of the opportunity as they w^ere alone in the field, rose up against his brother and murdered him. On account of this unnatural crime, Cain was immediately punished. God called him to a solemn reckoning, and after hearing with bit- ter anguish his doom pronounced, that he should be a fugi- tive and a vagabond on earth, we are told that he went out from the presence of the Lord, and dwelt in the land of JN'od, east of Eden. t. After a brief account of Cain and his family, the sacred historian presents us with a short but interesting account of Enoch, who is said to have walked with God for the space of three hundred years, and, at the expiration of that time, to have been taken up to heaven without passing through the scene of death. The genealogy of the human family is car- ried down to the time of Noah* and his sous, and the date of the life of each of the patriarchs is minutely given. The descendants of Seth at first continued pure and uncorrupt ; at length, however, by intermarriage with the descendants of Cain, they became like the rest of mankind — exceedingly degenerate. 8. The Almighty, justly provoked by the enormous de- generacy of his creatures, determined to destroy, by a uni- * This name is also written Noe. What promise was made to man? What then became of Adam and Eve ? — 6. When was Cain born ? When was Abel born ? and what is related of the two brothers? — 7. What is said of Enoch? and the de- scendants of Cain ? — 8. What did the Deity determine to do ? THE DELUGE. 7 versal Deluge, the race of man, together with the whole animal creation, except a small remnant destined again to repeople the earth. From this awful sentence which God had pronounced, Noah and his family, eight in number, were the only persons who were exempted. Connected with this intimation which Noah had received concerning the ap- proaching deluge, w^ere several particular instructions rela- tive to his deliverance. He was ordered to build a large vessel, called the Ark, according to the divine directions. 9. The Ark was built of gopher wood, which is supposed to be the same as the cypress. Its form was that of an oblong square, with a flat bottom and a sloping roof, elevated one cubit in the middle ; it consisted of three stories, and was d'ivided into separate apartments.* When completed, Noah entered the Ark, together with his wife, his three sons and their wives, taking with him every species of beasts, birds, and reptiles, by pairs and by sevens, according to the divine command. Immediately after this, the fountains of the deep were broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened ; during forty days and forty nights, without intermission, the waters were poured upon the surface of the globe. In the mean time, the Ark rose with the rising flood, and rode tri- umphant over the raging water, which soon buried beneath its swelling waves all living creatures, without distinction. 10. When the waters began to subside, the Ark rested on the top of Mount A'rai^at, in Arme'nia, and after it had re- mained there for four months, Noah being anxious to know whether they had disappeared from the earth, opened the window of the ark, and sent forth a crow, which did not return ; after this he sent forth a dove, which, not finding a place on which to rest its feet, again returned to the Ark. At the end of seven days, however, the dove was sent out a second time, and in the evening returned bearing in its beak a green olive branch, which iVba/?- joyfully received, not only as a proof that the flood had abated, but likewise as a sign that Grod was reconciled with the world. 11. By the command of God, Noah then went out of the Ark with his family, taking with him all the living creatures, after they had been shut up for the space of a year, and im- * The Ark was about 547 feet long, 92 feet wide, and 54 feet high. Who was exempted from the sentence ? — 9. Describe the ark. When completed, what did Noah do ? How long did the waters con- tinue to fall? — 10. Where did the ark rest? What is said of the crow and the dove? — 11. What did Noah now do? 8 THETOWEROFBABEL. mediately afterwards he built an altar, and ofifered sacrifice to the almighty creator of heaven and earth. God blessed Noah and his sons, and made a covenant with him, engag- ing no more to destroy the earth with a flood, in confirmation of which he set his bow in the heavens.. Shortly after this period, Noah engaged in pursuits of husbandry, and, having been intoxicated with the juice of the grape, was discovered in this situation by his youngest son Ham,"^ who with inde- cent levity informed his brothers of the circumstance ; they, however, treated their father with the highest degree of filial respect. Noah, as soon as he awoke, being informed of all that had passed, condemned the action of Ham, pronounced a curse upon his posterity, declaring that they should be the slaves to the slaves of his brethren, while at the same time he highly commended the piety of Shem and Japhet.f 12. The descendants of Noah soon became very numerous in the vicinity of Mount Ararat, where they first settled after the Deluge, and finding the place too small, they began to think of extending their territories, and of making new settlements in different parts of the globe. Before their separation, they proposed leaving some monument behind them that might make their memory famous in after ages. With this view they undertook to build a city, and in it to erect a tower, the top of which might reach to heaven. Their intention was not merely to signalize their name, but also to provide themselves with a place of security against any future Deluge that might happen. At this time all mankind spoke the same language, and thereby more effect- ually encouraged each other in their impious undertaking. God being offended at their presumption, resolved to stop the progress of their labor. By a stroke of his divine power, they all in a moment lost their uniformity of language, | and were surprised to hear nothing but a confused and discordant sound of words, which no one could understand. The tumult * Also written Cham. t Also written Sem and Japheth. X " There is sufficient connection between all the languages on the face of the earth to show that they had a common origin." — Br. Azarias, Essay on a Philosophy of Literature. What promise did God make ? In what did Noah engage ? What happened to him? What sentence did he pronounce on Ham? — 12. What is said of the descendants of Noah ? AVhat did they undertake ? What did God do? What ensued? Where did the descendants of the sons of Noah settle ? SACRED HISTORY. 9 and disorder that ensued, caused them to desist from their design, and the tower which they had begun was, on that account, called the Tower of Babel, which signifies confu- sion. After this event, mankind separated and dispersed into different nations. The descendants of Shem are said to have settled in the south of Asia ; those of Ham in Syria, Arabia, and Africa, while the posterity of Japhet peopled the west of Asia, and nearly all Europe.* CHAPTER II. THE EARL Y HISTOR Y OF THE JEWS, UNTIL THEIR DELIVER. ANCE FR OM EG YPT. THE Jews, commonly called the people of God, derive their origin from Abraham, the son of Ze'ra, the tenth in lineal descent from Shem, the son of Noah. The call of Abraham is a remarkable event in history, and took place 1921 years before the Christian era. This illustrious man intended to settle in Haran, but in obedience to the will of God he re- moved to the land of Canaan, vv^hich was appointed to be the inheritance of his posterity. After his arrival there, his first care was to erect an altar for the worship of God, who appeared to him and confirmed the promise, which he had before made, of giving the country to his children. When he had lived some time in Canaan, a famine compelled him to remove his family into Egypt, where he resided until the famine ceased, and then again returned. 2. Shortly after this time happened the remarkable visitation of the divine wrath on Sod'om and several other cities. The crimes of these cities cried aloud to heaven for vengeance ; and three angels, in the form of young men, were sent ■*A remarkable change in the duration of human life took place during this age of the world. Before the Deluge men lived to a very advanced age. Adam lived 900 years ; .Tared, 962 years ; Mathusalem, 989 years ; and Noah, 950 years. But after that great catastrophe tlie life of man was so reduced that David, in the eighty-ninth psalm, says, " The days of our years are threescore and ten." Chapter II. — 1. What is said of the .Jews? When was the call of Abraham? Where did he settle? Where did he remove with his family ? — 2. After this time what happened ? 10 SACRED HISTORY. to destroy them. Abraham having entertained the heavenly visitors in his tent, accompanied them on their way to Sodom, and obtained from them, that Lot and his family should be spared. Lot was therefore admonished to depart with his wife and his two daughters, and they were ordered not to look upon the city. But scarcely had he reached a place of safet}^, when Sodom and Gomor'rah, with two other cities, were consumed by fire that fell from heaven, leaving the site on which they stood, and the country in the vicinity, a lake, called at the present time the Dead Sea, the water of which is clear and heavy, but extremely nauseous and bitter to the taste. When the noise of the falling fire Avas heard, Lot's wife, forgetful of the injunction of the angels, looked back upon the city ; but her curiosity was punished on the spot. She was changed into a pillar of salt, to serve as a warning to those who, at any time, cast back a wishful glance on the sinful objects which they have once forsaken. 3. Sa'rah, the wife of Abraham, when far advanced in years, bore him a son, who was called Isaac. When Isaac had grown up, God, to try the faith of Abraham, commanded him to offer his son in sacrifice on a mountain which he should point out to him. The holy patriarch obeyed without hesitation, but at the moment when his hand was raised to strike the victim, an angel was sent to stop his arm, and to assure him that God was satisfied with the readiness of his obedience. Isaac was afterwards married to Rebec' ca, the mother of E'sau and Jacob. Jacob, by the command of the Lord, took the name Isra'el, hence his posterity were called Israelites, or children of Israel. 4. Jacob had twelve sons, of whom Joseph was particu- larly loved by his father, and on that account hated by the rest of his brothers. On a certain occasion, as they were tending their flocks, at some distance from home, Joseph was sent by his father to see how they conducted themselves ; they immediately seized and sold him as a slave to some Ish'maelite merchants, and told his father that he had been devoured by wild beasts. The merchants carried him into Egypt, and sold him to Pot'iphar, an officer of the court. Joseph served Potiphar with so much fidelity, that he soon What is said of Abraham? Who was admonished to depart ? What is the site on which it stood now called ? What is related of Lot's wife? — 3. When Isaac had grown up, what did God command? What did the holy patriarch do ? Whom did Isaac marry ? — 4. How many sons had Jacob ? On a certain occasion, what took place ? W^here was Joseph carried ? SACRED HISTORY. 11 committed to him the care of his household. The wife of Potiphar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph to the com- mission of a shameful crime, but the virtuous youth rejected her proposals with disdain. Incensed at this, however, the malicious woman accused him of an attempt against her honor. On this false accusation Joseph was thrown into prison, where he languished for several years. 5. At length Pha'raoh, the king of Egypt, had two dreams that greatly perplexed him, and he could find no one in Egypt able to interpret them. Finally he was informed of a He- brew servant, then in prison, who had wisely interpreted the dreams of two of his officers ; this was Joseph, who, on being introduced to the king, explained his dreams, and told him. that they predicted an abundant product of the earth for seven years, and afterwards a famine for the same space of time. Upon this he was not only released from prison, but appointed to administer the affairs of Egypt under Pharaoh. 6. During the famine which followed, all his brothers, with the exception of Benjamin, went into Egypt for the purpose of buying provisions. Joseph knew them, but he was un- known to them ; he therefore asked them, as if strangers to him, from whence they had come, and whether they were spies. They answered him with profound respect, that they had come into Egypt with the honest intention of buying corn ; that they were twelve brothers ; that one of them no longer existed, and that the youngest, called Benjamin, was left at home with his father Jacob in Canaan. The name of Benjamin touched the inmost feeling of Joseph's breast. He therefore determined to have him brought into Egypt. For this purpose he seemed to give no credit to their words, and said that, to assure himself of the truth of their account, one of them should remain as a hostage until their younger brother should be brought into Egypt. Therefore retaining Sim'eon, the rest were permitted to depart. 7. Upon their return hom.e, they informed their father of all that had passed, and particularly of the engagement they were under of taking Benjamin into Egypt, where Simeon was detained as a pledge of their promise. Nothing could What is said of the wife of Potiphar ? What happened to Joseph ? — 5. What is said of Pharaoh ? Of what was he informed ? What did Joseph tell him? — 6. During the famine, what took place? What did Joseph ask them? How did the name of Benjamin affect Joseph? What method did he adopt to bring him into Egypt? — 7. What did they inform their father ? 12 SACRED HISTORY. exceed the grief of the aged father on receiving this intel- ligence. He bemoaned his misfortunes. He spoke of his children, and became inconsolable at the thought of parting with the last and dearest of his sons. Joseph, said he, is no more, Simeon is in chains, and must Benjamin, also, be taken from me ? No, I will not consent ; to part with him would wring my very soul with grief, and carry my gray hairs in anguish to the grave. 8. Jacob, however, at length consented to the departure of Benjamin, who accompanied his brothers on their return to Egypt. They were kindly received by Joseph, who finally made himself known to them in these words : '' I am Joseph ; does my father yet live ? " Struck silent with amazement, they were for some time unable to reply. Joseph wept and tenderly embraced them all ; but with greater feeling he threw himself upon the neck of Benjamin, and pressed him to his breast. He then told them to hasten to their father and let him know that his son Joseph was still alive, and to bring him down into Egypt. Jacob accordingly removed with all his family into Egypt, and Joseph assigned them a residence in the land of Goshen, a fertile district situated between the Nile and the Red Sea. 9. Jacob lived seventeen years after his removal into Egypt. Upon being informed of his illness, Joseph, with filial piety, hastened to pay the last duties of affection to his dying father. The venerable patriarch raised himself in his bed at his son's approach, and spoke to him of the inherit- ance which Grod had promised to his seed in the land of Canaan, where he desired his remains to be removed after his death. He called his other sons around his bed, and gave to each a special blessing : the most memorable was that which he spoke of Judah,in which he expressly declared, that from his race the Messi'ah, the expected of all nations, should be born, and that this great event should take place at or near the time when the sovereign power should be entirely taken away from the Jewish nation. Jacob died in the one hundred and forty-seventh year of his age. 10. Joseph, after the death of his father, continued to rule over Egypt until his own death, which occurred about the What is said of the aged father ? What did he say ?— 8. To what did Jacob at length consent ? In what words did Joseph make himself known ? What did he tell them ?— 9. How long did Jacob live ? What is said of Joseph? What did the patriarch do? What did he say of the Messiah ? — 10. What is now said of Joseph ? SACRED HISTORY. 13 year 1635 B. c. In less than forty years after this event, a total change took place in the aifairs of Egypt ; a new King occupied the throne who knew not Joseph, and, forgetful of his administration, cruelly oppressed the Hebrew people. To check their increase and prosperity, the most rigorous meas- ures were adopted ; their lives were embittered by hard ser- vice at public works, and all their male children were ordered to be thrown into the river Nile. 11. After much suffering, God raised up a deliverer of His chosen people, who should rescue them from a state of cruel servitude, and bring them out of the land of bondage. This deliverer was Mouses, the most distinguished personage of ancient times. In consequence of Pharaoh's inhuman de- cree, Moses was exposed by his mother on the banks of the Nile, and was found by the King's daughter, who compassionately adopted him, and thus saved his life. Before the obdurate heart of Pharaoh could be induced to consent to the departure of the Hebrews, a number of ex- traordinary and supernatural events took place, called the ten plagues of Egypt. The first of these plagues was the change of the waters of the Nile, and of all the wells of Egypt, into blood ; and by the last the whole land was cov- ered with darkness for three days. 12. Pharaoh at length consented to allow Moses to con- duct the Israelites into the wilderness for three days, to per- form their religious duties. At the expiration of this time, finding that they did not return, he put himself at the head of his army and resolved to pursue them. Moses retreated until he came to the shore of the Red Sea, where, seeing the hosts of Egypt pressing forward, he extended his arm over the profound abyss, as God had commanded him. The waters suddenly divided and opened a passage to the opposite shore. The Israelites immediately entered the dry hollow of the deep, amazed at the watery bounds that stood suspended as walls upon their right and on their left. 13. Pharaoh, insensible to the miracle, and thinking the passage as safe and as free for him as for the Israelites, en- tered precipitately after them, with all his army, and ad- vanced to the middle of the abyss before he became sensible Of the new king? To check their increase, what was adopted? — 11. What did God raise up ? Who was this deliverer ? What is related of Moses? What was the first and last plague of Egypt? — 12. To what did Pharaoh at length consent ? At the expiration of this time what did he do? What did Moses do? Where did the Israelites enter? — 13. What is related of Pharaoh ? 2 14 SACRED HISTORY. of his danger. By this time Moses, who, with all his fol- lowers, had reached the other shore, stretched forth his hand again over the sea, and thus, hemmed in on every side, the magnificent hosts of Egypt perished in battling with the wild waters of the Red Sea.* 14. The Israelites, after their deliverance from Egypt, wandered through the desert for forty years, during which time they received many signal proofs of the divine favor in their regard. They were supplied with food by manna, which fell regularly every morning, except on the Sabbath. On one occasion, when they were greatly in want of w^ater, Moses supplied them with that element, by striking a rock with his rod and causing a stream to issue from it. In the second year after their deliverance from Egypt, Moses num- bered the children of Israel, and found them to amount to six hundred and three thousand five hundred and fifty men, besides women and children. When they arrived at Mount Si'nai God gave them his divine law, amidst thunder and lightning. Moses was the only person allowed to ascend the mountain, and during his absence the ungrateful Israel- ites fell into idolatry, and worshipped a golden calf. 15. Moses, after forty days and nights spent in this secret interview, received two tables of stone from God, who had engraved upon them, as the Scripture expresses it, with his own hand, the Ten Commandments. In these ten funda- mental precepts are contained an admirable summary of our various duties to God and to man. We are directed to adore but one God, the author of all blessings ; we are com- manded to reverence His holy name, and are reminded of the dreadful vengeance denounced against those w^ho shall trans- fer to idols, or to the creature, that worship which is due only to the Creator. To prevent the neglect of those sacred obligations, we are commanded to abstain from work one day in each week, that it may be more immediately devoted to the duties of religion. Four of the precepts of the Mosaic *Josephiis states that Pharaoh had six hundred war chariots, two hundred thousand infantry, and fifty thousand horsemen, all fully equipped. When Moses had reached the other shore, what did he do ? What happened to the Egyptian host ? — 14. What is said of the Israelites ? With what were they supplied ? On one occasion, what is related ? In the second year, what was the number found to be ? At Mount Si- nai, what was given ? What is said of Moses ? — 15. What did JNIoses receive ? In these, what are contained ? What are we directed, etc. ? To prevent, etc., what are we commanded ? SACRED HISTORY. 15 code comprehend the principles of universal jurisprudence : *' Thou shalt not kill." '' Thou shalt not commit adultery." " Thou shalt not steal." '' Thou shalt not bear false wit- ness." These have formed the basis of criminal law in all civilized nations, and are essential to the good order of society. 16. When Moses descended from the mountain, and found the people worshipping a golden calf, transported with holy indignation at the sight, he threw down the tables of the law, and broke them into pieces ; then seizing the idol he im- mediately broke it down and cast it into the fire ; and placing himself at the entrance of the camp, he proclaimed aloud that all those who still retained a sense of their duty to God should come forth and join him. The faithful tribe of Levi, having arranged themselves by his side, Moses ordered them to march through the camp and pat to death all who came in their way. The order was immediately executed, and above twenty thousand men were put to death, to expiate the guilt of those who remained. 17. Moses, by the express command of God, having pre- pared two tables of stone, like those he had broken, went again to the summit of Sinai, where he received the same words engraved on them which had been engraved on the first. When he came down from the mountain and ap- proached the camp, the Israelites perceived a bright halo of glory which encircled his countenance, and made them afraid to approach him. Being told the cause of their dread, he covered his face with a veil, which he afterwards con- tinued to wear. Moses then caused the tabernacle to be built, which was a quadrangular tent, thirty cubits in length and nine in breadth. The inside of the tabernacle was hung with richly embroidered tapestry, and was divided into two parts by four pillars, before which was suspended a veil of the most exquisite needlework, variegated with the brightest coloring of purple and scarlet. The apartment enclosed be- hind the veil was called the Holy of Holies, and the space between the veil and the entrance was called the sanctuary. The tabernacle being finished, the Ark of the Covenant was made. It measured two cubits and a half in length, one and a half in breadth, and the same in height ; it was made of What do four of these precepts comprehend ? What are these four precepts? — 16. What is now said of Moses? What did he do with the idol ? What did Moses order them ? How many were put to death ? — 17. What did Moses now do? When he came down, what is related of him ? What did he cause to he built ? Describe the tabernacle. The tabernacle beinsr finished, what was made? What did it measure? 16 SACRED HISTORY. incorruptible wood, plated within and without with the purest gold, and covered with a lid, also of solid gold, which was called the mercy-seat. On the mercy-seat were placed two cherubs face to face, with their wings extended, so as to cover the ark. The ark, when finished, was placed in the tabernacle. 18. About this time Moses sent twelve men to survey the land of Canaan; all, with the exception of Josh^ua"^ and Ca'leh, gave an unfavorable report, which caused the people to murmur. In consequence of this offence, God condemned all those who were twenty years of age, when they left Egypt, to die in the wilderness, except Joshua and Caleb. The earth opened and swallowed Ko'rali,-\ Da'than, and Ahi'ram,\ for heading a revolt against Moses ; at the same time fire descended and destroyed two hundred and fifty of those who had participated in their offence. Moses at length died at the age of one hundred and twenty years, on mount Ne'ho, in the land of Moab, having first taken a view of the Promised Land, which he was not permitted to enter. After the death of Moses, Joshua was acknowledged his successor in the supreme temporal command, who, having conquered the various nations that opposed him, and having sur- mounted innumerable obstacles, finally conducted the Israel- ites into the Land of Promise. CHAPTER III. THE GOVERNMENT OF THE JUDGES— THE REGAL GOVERN- ME NT— THE RESTORATION OF THE JEWS FROM CAP- TIVITY. THE period during the government of the Judges was ex- tremely turbulent, and marked by an almost uninterrupted series of hostilities with their warlike neighbors. We are * Also written Josue. f Also written Core. X Also written Ahiron. On the mercy-seat what was placed ? — 18. At this time, what was done ? What was their report? In consequence of this, to what Avere they con- demned ? What is related of Korah ? At what age did Moses die, and where? After the death of Moses, what did Joshua, his successor, do? Chapter III. — 1. What sort of period occurred under the govern- ment of the judges ? SACRED HISTORY. l7 not informed with certainty as to the manner of choosing the Judges, and what was the extent of their power. They appear to have been military chiefs for the command of tlie army, and some of them acquired a distinguished fame by their successful expeditions against the enemies of their country. The most distinguished of those who filled the office of judge were the two last, Eli and Samuel. Eli, who united in his person the duties of judge with the functions of high-priest, appears to have been incapable of discharging the obligations dependent on these two important offices. The people fell into idolatry, and, in punishment of their crimes, were subjugated by an ancient nation called the Philis'tines. In a great battle with the Philistines, the Hebrew army was defeated with dreadful slaughter, the two sons of Eli were slain, and the Ark of the Covenant fell into the hands of the enemy. At the news of this dis- aster, the venerable high-priest, Eli, now sightless with age, fell backward from his seat and expired on the spot. 2. The next and last judge of the Hebrews was Samuel the Prophet, B.C. 1112. He brought back the people to a sense of their duty, and soon restored the fallen glory of Israel by a signal victory over the Philistines. Peace was restored, public virtue again flourished, and Samuel for twenty years governed the Hebrew nation with wisdom and prudence. When age had rendered him incapable of executing his laborious duties, he united his two sons with him in the administration of the government. But the con- duct of Samuel's sons, who inherited not the virtue of their father, gave offence to the IsraeMtes, and they desired to be governed by a king, like the other nations around them. Samuel at length yielded to their request, and privately anointed Saul, the son of Cis, of the tribe of Benjamin, King of Israel. Samuel then assembled the tribes, that they might elect a person to rule over them, and having cast their votes, the lot fell upon the very person of Saul. 3. This event confirmed what had already passed in pri- vate, and indisputably proves that God presides over and directs the affairs of man. The name of Saul was imme- diately echoed through the tribes ; and, on being presented What do they appear to have been? Who were the most distin- guished ? What is said of Eli ? Into what did the people fall ? In a great battle, what took place ? At the news of this disaster, what hap- pened ? — 2, Who was the last judc^e ? What is said of him ? Why did the Israelites desire to be governed by a king ? Who was the first king? — 3. What is said of this event ? 2* B 18 SACRED HISTORY. before them, the whole multitude exclaimed, " God save the King!" This event took place after the government of the Judges had subsided, with some intermission, for three hundred and fifty -six years from the time of Joshua, b. c. 1091. 4. The beginning of the reign of Saul was auspicious, and distinguished by a complete victory over the Philistines, Amonites, and other nations. He was at length ordered by Almighty God, through the Prophet Samuel, to destroy the Am'alekites, an idolatrous and perfidious nation, the ever- declared enemies of the Hebrew people, and not to reserve the least thing that belonged to them. In obedience to this order, Saul put himself at the head of his army and marched against that hated people ; but far from complying with the letter of his instructions, he spared the life of their King, reserved the choicest of the flocks, and took to himself the most precious of the spoils. On account of this and other acts of disobedience, Samuel, on the part of God, declared to Saul that the kingdom of Israel should be taken from him and transferred to another. Accordingly Samuel, by the divine direction, privately anointed David King, and appointed him to succeed to the throne, which Saul had forfeited by his crimes. The whole reign of Saul was a continued series of foreign or domestic troubles ; being at length defeated in a war with the Philistines, he killed him- self by falling upon his own sword, after a reign of forty years, b. c. 1051. 5. David, who had been anointed King by Samuel before the death of Saul, and held» his title by divine appointment, was therefore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. He found, however, a powerful rival in Ish^bosheth, the son of Saul, who founded his claim on the right of descent, and was supported by many of the tribes. A civil war ensued, which continued for seven years, and was finally terminated by the death of Ishbosheth. After this event all the tribes submitted to David, and the crown became hereditary in his family. 6. The reign of David was brilliant and successful. He enlarged the bounds of his kingdom, took Jerusalem, which ■^Vhat did the multitude exclaim? When did this take place? — 4. What is said of the beginning of the reign of Saul ? What was he ordered ? What did he do ? On account of this, what did Samuel do ? Whom did he anoint as king? How did Saul die? — 5, What is said of David? What did he find? What ensued?— 6. What is said of the reign of David ? SACRED HISTORY. 19 he made the capital of his dominions, and enriched himself and his subjects by the spoils of his enemies. He revived among the people an attachment for religion by the institu- tion of solemn ceremonies ; and he introduced a taste for the arts by inviting into the country able artists for the completion of the magnificent edifices which he erected. The latter part of his reign, however, was embittered by severe affliction. The kingdom was ravaged by pestilence, famine, and disastrous wars. His mind was harassed by domestic misfortunes. Some of his sons were disobedient and wicked. His favorite son, Ah'salorti, excited a rebellion against his father, with a design of dethroning him ; but he was defeated and slain. David caused his son Sol'omon to be crowned in the year 1011, before the Christian era, and died the following year, having reigned seven years and a half over Judah, and thirty-three years over all Israel. T. During the reign of Solomon the kingdom of Israel rose to a higher degree of prosperity, felicity, and glory than it enjoyed at any former or subsequent period. He directed the councils of all the petty states situated between the Euphrates and Mediterranean, and held the balance of power between the two great monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. Commerce was in a high degree flourishing ; the vessels of Israel, under the direction of Tyrian mariners, traded to the land of Ophir, which is supposed to be a dis- trict of Ethio'pia, on the eastern coast of Africa. By these lucrative voyages they augmented the wealth of the nation, which David had already enriched by the spoils of war. But at length this prosperity began to decline. Solomon, elated by the uniform success which attended his reign, set no bounds to his magnificence and luxury, and in order to support his profuse expenditure laid heavy taxes upon the people ; this finally alienated the affections of his subjects, and towards the close of his reign gave rise to a powerful faction, headed by a young man called Jerobo'am. 8. The most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon was the building of a magnificent Temple at Jerusalem, which was completed in the space of seven years Two hundred and sixty thousand men were occupied in its erec- What did he do ? What is said of the latter part of his reign ? Of his favorite son Absalom? How long did he reign? — 7. During the reign of Solomon, what is said of the kingdom of Israel? What did he direct ? What is said of commerce ? What did Solomon do when elated by prosperity ? — 8. What was the most remarkable event of his reign? 20 SACRED HISTORY. tion. The plan had been formed by David, and materials, workmen, and money provided for its erection. It was probably the most superb and costly structure of ancient times. The wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes are ascribed to him, either as the author or collector ; they abound with precepts and maxims applicable to every state and condition of life. But notwith- standing the superior wisdom for which Solomon has been so justly celebrated, he appears to have been immersed in sensual pleasures. He married no fewer than a thousand wives, seven hundred of whom held the rank and title of Queens. The pernicious power of these women, chosen for the most part from idolatrous nations, led him into effemi- nacy and neglect of his important duties to God and his people ; and their influence and superstitions at last drew him into idolatry. He died after an illustrious reign of forty years, leaving the world in doubt whether his memory be more worthy of praise or censure, and whether he died a friend or an enemy of his Creator, b. c. 971. 9. With Solomon expired the grandeur and tranquillity of the Hebrews. Upon the accession of his son Behobo'am to the throne, the faction of Jeroboam broke out into open rebellion, and terminated in the revolt of the Ten Tribes from their allegiance to the house of David, leaving only the Two Tribes of Judah and Benjamin loyal to their lawful sovereign. The revolted tribes elected Jeroboam for their king, and the monarchy was thus divided into two separate kingdoms of Israel and Judah. 10. The policy of Jeroboam produced a religious as well as a political separation. Being persuaded that should he permit his subjects to go into the kingdom of Judah, in order to perform the duties of religion in the temple at Jerusalem, they would by degrees lose their respect for his authorit}^ and perhaps return to the allegiance of their former sove- reign, he therefore ordered two new temples to be built, the one at Bethel and the other at Dan ; and in them two golden calves to be set up and divine honors impiously paid to them, as to the God who had conducted the children of Israel out What was it probably? What books are ascribed to him? In what does he appear to have been immersed ? How many wives had he ? Into what was he drawn? When did he die?— 9. On the accession of Eehoboam, what broke out? Whom did the revolted tribes elect? — 10. What did the policy of Jeroboam produce? What did he order? SACRED HISTORY. 21 of the land of Egypt. Jeroboam, after a turbulent reign of twenty-two years, finished a wicked life by an unhappy end. His name is never mentioned in Holy Scripture but with del testation, on account of his having set up the worship of idols, which was continued by all the Kings who succeeded to the throne of Israel, until an end was put to that kingdom by the Assyrians. 11. After this memorable epoch, the history of the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah, for a period of almost four hundred years, exhibits a series of disunion, vice, wars, mas- sacres, servitude, and affliction from famine and pestilence. At length the kingdom of the Ten Tribes was extinguished! The people were transported into Assyria and dispersed into dilTerent parts of the country, from which they never returned. The 'few left in Canaan were intermixed with strangers, and from that mixture of different nations originated a race of people, who were afterwards known by the name of Samar'- itans. This event took place about 720 b. c, after the kino-- dom had subsisted two hundred and fifty-four years. * 12. The tottering kingdom of Judah still continued to enjoy a precarious existence ; it was invaded at different times by the Babylonians. At length rendered tributary, and finally subjugated, its metropolis, the city of Jerusalem, was de- stroyed, the Temple was demolished by the order of the con- queror, Nebuchadnez'zar* ; all the principal inhabitants were stripped of everything valuable, and carried captives to Babylon. Thus ended the kingdom of Judah, after it had subsisted four hundred and sixty-eight years from the begin- ning of the reign of David, and three hundred and eighty- eight years after the separation of the Ten Tribes. 13. The privation of liberty and the miseries of bonda^-e seem to have brought the Jewish people to a sense of their past transgressions. Unable to resist the power of man they now placed their sole confidence in the goodness and mercy of God, who heard their supplications and looked with compassion on their sufferings. Cy'rus, king of Persia having conquered Bab'ylon, published a decree by which the * Also written Nebtichadon^osor. Why is his name mentioned with detestation in the Scripture?— 11. Alter this epoch, what does the history exhibit? What at length happened? What became of the people? When did this event take place .''—12. What is said of the kingdom of Judah? What at length happened to it ? What became of the inhabitants ? How long ha(f it wvf'f ^-iTT • ^""SJ®, *° ""^^^^^ ^^^ P^we^ of i^an, what did they do? What did Cyrus publish ? "^ 22 SACRED HISTORY. Jewish people were set at liberty, and permitted to return to their native country, after they had languished in captivity for seventy years. The decree, moreover, allowed them to rebuild Jerusalem and their temple, of which Cyrus gave them a new plan, and ordered that the expense of erecting it should be paid out of the royal treasury. He also restored to them all the sacred vessels which had been brought to Babylon by Nehuchadnez' zar , when the Temple was de- stroyed. In consequence of this edict, about forty-two thou- sand of the Jewish people commenced their march toward their native country, where they arrived about five hundred and thirty-six years before the Christian era. From this period the Israelites, who returned from captivity, are prop- erly called Jews, because the Tribe of Judah was by far the most powerful after their restoration to liberty. CHAPTER IV. FROM THE RESTORATION OF THE JEWS TO THEIR NATIVE COUNTRY TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM BY THE ROMANS. MANY of the Jews remained at Babylon, while those who returned to Palestine began the work of rebuilding the Temple with vigor and alacrity. When it began to rise above the foundation, the young manifested their delight in tears of joy, whilst the ancients wept to see how far the out- lines of the new edifice fell short of the old. The progress of the work sufl'ered a temporary obstruction, through the in- trigues of their enemies and the caprice of Camby'ses, the successor of Cyrus. But in the beginning of the reign of Dari'us, the decree of Cyrus in favor of the Jews was ratified ; and that prince even contributed liberally towards the ex- pense, and in the sixth year of his reign the Temple was completed and dedicated with great solemnity. 2. Paribus, during the remainder of his reign, continued What did the decree allow ? What did he restore ? In consequence of this edict, what was done? From this period, why are they called Jews ? Chapter IV. — 1. When the temple began to rise above its founda- tion, what is said of the young ? What did the progress of the work suffer ? In the beginning of the reign of Darius, what was done ? — 2. What did Darius continue to do ? SACRED HISTORY. 23 to manifest his favor for the Jews, and their privileges were confirmed by his son Xeroxes. Their interest was still greater with Artaxerxes, called Ahasue'rus in the Scripture, through the influence of his queen, Esther, a Jewess, and also through the services of her uncle, Mor'decai, who had discovered and frustrated a conspiracy against the king's life. From Artaxerxes, Ez'ra obtained liberal donations to be applied to the service of the Temple, and full power to govern the Jews ; and Nehemi'ah was afterwards commissioned to re- build the walls of Jerusalem, and to reform many abuses among the people, Ezra and Nehemiah seem to have been the two last Governors of Judah, which probably became subject to the Governor of Syria, from whom the high-priest derived his authority. 3. From this period most of the calamities which befell the Jewish nation must be ascribed to the men who aspired to the sacerdotal dignity, through motives of ambition and avarice more than zeal for religion. For several centuries the office of High-priest was the chief object of ambition among the leading men of the state. The candidates pur- chased the office from the Assyrian governors, and retained it by means of money. Hence they oppressed the people with taxes that they might meet their pecuniary engage- ments, and the High-priest, Menela'us, sold some of the richest vessels belonging to the Temple. 4. About the year 328 B.C., Alexan'der the Great, having besieged Tyre, was greatly incensed against the Jews, be- cause they had refused to supply his army with provisions during the siege. After the taking of Tyre he marched to Jerusalem with the intention of punishing the Jews for their disobedience to his orders. Jud'dica, the High-priest, was ordered in a dream to meet the threatening conqueror in his pontifical robes, at the head of all the priests in their proper habits, and attended by the people dressed in white garments. Alexander was struck with this religious pomp, and, approaching the High-priest with the deepest respect, embraced him with a kind of religious veneration. He told his attendants, who expressed their surprise at this sub- Through whose influence was their interest still greater with Artax- erxes ? What did Ezra obtain from Artaxerxes ? Who seem to have been the last governors of Judah ? — 3. From this period, to what must most of the calamities be ascribed? From whom did the candidates purchase the office? — 4. What happened about the year 328? What is related of Juddica, the high-priest ? What did Alexander tell his at- tendants ? 24 SACRED HISTORY. missive behavior, that he did not pay this profound respect to the llig-h-priest, but to the God whose minister he was. 5. Alexander, on his departure, granted to the Jews the freedom of their country, laws, and religion, and exempted them from paying tribute every seventh year ; and during his whole reign they enjoyed great tranquillity ; but with him the prosperous condition of their country expired. Judea was successively invaded and subdued by the Syrians and Egyptians, and the people reduced to bondage. The Jews kept the Sabbath so rigidly that they would not, on that day, engage in battle nor defend themselves, although attacked by an enemy. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, having invaded Judea, took advantage of this religious impediment. He entered Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day without resist- ance, and carried away to Egypt one hundred thousand captives. 6. About the year 198 B.C., Anti'ochus the Great, king of Syria, after taking the city of Jerusalem, and plundering the Temple, sold forty thousand Jews to the neighboring nations, and established paganism through Judea. The sacrifices ceased, and for a season there scarcely existed the slightest external signs of religion. During the scene of desolation which stained the land of Judea with the blood of its best citizens, Mattathi'as, a man of the sacerdotal order, undertook the deliverance of his country. He retired into the wilderness with his five sons, surnamed the Mac'- cabees, and was soon joined by a great number of the Jews, who wished to avoid idolatry and religious persecution. An army was shortly raised sufficiently strong to face the enemy in the field. Mattathias, placing himself at the head of his forces, led them against the troops of Antiochus, and forced them to retreat before him, and to fly for safety beyond the boundaries of Judea. 1. After the death of Mattathias, Judas Maccabees, his eldest son, was placed at the head of the army. The achieve- ments of this distinguished man, the deliverance of his country from foreign oppression, his talents, bravery, and patriotism, have ranked him with the most illustrious heroes of Greece and Rome. His patriotism was only sur- passed by his zeal for religion. Having vanquished the 5. What was granted to the Jews by Alexander? By whom was Judea now invaded ? What did Ptolemy, king of Egypt, do?— 6. What was done by Antiochus the Great ? During the scene of desolation, what did Mattathias undertake? Where did he retire? — 7. Who was now placed at the head of the army ? What is said of his achievements ? SACRED HISTORY. 25 enemies of his country, his first care was to repair the de- vastations they had caused. The Temple was in a desolate condition, the altar and sanctuary profaned, the gates burned, and court overgrown with shrubs. Having appointed priests of unblemished character for the performance of the sacri- fices, he repaired the holy places, threw down the altar on w^hich the idol of Jupiter stood, and erected another, dedi- cating it with great joy and religious festivity. The sacred veil was again hung up, and the sacred vessels, golden can- dlesticks, and altar of perfumes were again replaced. Judas Maccabees having thus, by many signal victories, delivered his country from bondage and idolatry, was at last slain in battle, 157 b. c. 8. The brothers of Judas, pursuing the advantage already gained, completely established the independence of their country, and the republican form of government afterwards changed to that of a monarchy. John Hyrca'nus, the son of Simon Maccabees, united in his person the office of high- priest and that of commander-in-chief of the army, and, pos- sessing all the abilities requisite for the military and pontifical offices, he vanquished the enemies of his country and firmly established his authority. His sons assumed the title as well as the power of kings, and the succession remained in his family for about one hundred and twenty-six years. The unfortunate dissensions of this family terminated ultimately in the conquest of Judea by Pom'pey the Great, who took Jerusalem and subjugated the Jewish nation to the dominion of the Romans, 59 b. c. 9. After this event, the Jewish monarchy was reestab- lished by the favor and under the protection of the Romans, who placed Herod the Great,* son of Antip'ater, on the throne of David. This prince demolished the old Temple of Jerusalem, and rebuilt it in a very magnificent manner. He reigned with great splendor, but was cruel and despotic. His public life exhibits a continued scene of battles, tyranny, and violence. His reign is rendered memorable by the birth of our Divine Lord and Savior, Jesus C heist. f When * The first foreigner that swayed the sceptre of Judah. t This great event occurred on the 25th of December, 4004 years after the creation of Adam and Eve. Of the temple ? What did he throw down ? How did Judas Macca- bees die ? — 8. What is said of the brothers of Judas ? Of John Hyrca- nus? What did his sons assume ? Who conquered Judea? — 9. After this, by whom was the Jewish monarchy reestablished? In whose favor? What did this prince do ? For what is his reign memorable ? 3 26 SACRED HISTORY. this remarkable event took place, the Ma'gi, or Wise Men, as the Scripture calls them, came from the east to Jerusalem to adore the new-born king of the Jews, and desired to know where he was to be found. Herod, aware that he had no other title to the crown of Judea than that which the Romans had given him, was much alarmed at this inquiry which was made about another King. He therefore dis- missed the Wise Men with a strict injunction to bring him back an account of the Child when they had found it, that he might go, as he pretended, to adore it. The Wise Men, having paid their adoration to the Infant at the manger of Bethlehem, were admonished, in their sleep, to return by another way to their country. Herod, finding himself thus deceived by the sages, with cruelty that would shock the most savage barbarian, gave orders that every male child born at Bethlehem within the last two years should be put to death. This cruel King died in the first year of the birth of Christ, or the fourth of the common era. 10. During the reign of Herod II., the illustrious St. John the Baptisf^ was beheaded, because he reproyed the monarch for the crime of marrying his brother's wife. It was also during the same reign that our Blessed Savior's Cruci- fixion, Resurrection, and Ascension took place. In the reign of his son, Herod the Great, the Apostle, St. James, suffered martyrdom, and St. Peter was imprisoned ; but the unhappy monarch himself died a miserable death, being devoured by worms. Before his son, Agrippa, who was the last king of Judea, St. Paul pleaded in defence of the Gospel. From this period the Governors of Judea were appointed by the Roman emperors, and in this condition it remained until the final extinction of the Jewish nation. 11. The rapacity and cruelty of Florus, the last Governor of Judea, caused a rebellion of the Jews, in which one hun- dred and fifty thousand persons are said to have perished, A. D. 66. The unhappy Jerusalem was now hastening to its downfall, while the sanguinary and violent factions among the Jews themselves contributed towards this event. In the reign of Vespasian, Ti'tiis, the Roman general, was sent * He died about a year before the death of our Lord. When this event took place, what is related ? Finding himself de- ceived, what orders did he give? — 10. Why was St. John beheaded? What took place in the reign of Herod the Great? From this period how were tlie governors appointed? — 11. What did the rapacity of Florus cause ? In the reign of Vespasian, what took place ? SACRED HISTORY. 27 into Judea to suppress the revolt of the Jews. He com- menced the siege of the city about the festival of Easter, at which time an immense multitude of people was shut up within the walls. With so much ardor did Titus conduct the operations of the siege, that the city was taken within the space of five months, and so completely demolished that not a stone was left upon a stone, except a part of the west- ern wall, and three towers preserved for the Roman garri- son left in Judea. 12. The last siege of Jerusalem was attended with scenes of carnage, famine, disease, and desperation, far more horri- ble than any to be met with in the annals of human misery. During the calamitous progress of the siege, Titus displayed many instances of humanity towards the besieged, and made every effort for the preservation of the city and Temple, but in vain; and viewing the disasters that befell the nation, he confessed that he was only the instrument of divine ven- geance. The magnificent Temple of the Jews perished with the general wreck of the nation, thus literally fulfilling the predictions of our Blessed Lord concerning the utter destruc- tion of Jerusalem. This memorable event took place a. d. 70.* 13. According to the most accurate calculation, about eleven hundred thousand Jews perished during the siege of their capital, and ninety-seven thousand, who were made pris- oners, were sold as slaves to different nations. Since that time the descendants of those who survived the dissolution of the Jewish nation have been wandering from nation to nation, objects of contempt rather than of commiseration. In but few countries have they enjoyed the same privileges as those among whom they are permitted to reside. 14. Antiquities. — The country of the ancient Hebrews was distinguished by several names, such as the land of Canaan, the Holy Land, Palestine, Judea, etc. ; and the people them- selves were variously called the people of God, Israelites, and Jews. After the entrance of the Israelites into the land of Canaan, it was divided into twelve difi'erent portions, * For a full account of Sacred History, see the Holy Bible and the works of Josephus. How long did the siege last ? What is said of the destruction of the city ?— 12. What is said of the siege of Jerusalem ? Of Titus ? Of the temple ? When did this event take place ? — 13. How many Jews per- ished during the siege ? How many were sold as slaves ? Since that time what is said of the inhabitants ? — 14. What is said of the country ? How was it divided ? 28 SACRED HISTORY. which were assigned to the twelve several tribes into which the people were separated. 15. Remains of Ancient Works. — Among the ancient works of Palestine, Jacob's well, the pools of Solomon, Gi'hon, and Bethe'sa, and sepulchral monuments, are the most remarkable. Jacob's well is highly venerated on ac- count of its great antiquity. It is hewn out of the solid rock, about one hundred feet in depth and nine in diameter, and is at present covered with a stone vault. The pools of Solomon, supposed to have been constructed by the order of that monarch, appear to have been a work of immense cost and labor. They are three in a row, so sit- uated that the water of the uppermost may fall into the sec- ond, and from second to the third. They are of equal breadth, being about ninety paces each ; though they vary in length, the longest being two hundred and twenty paces. The pools of Gihon and Bethesa are similar works, and may be ranked among the most stately ruins. The sepulchral monuments are to be found in various parts of the country. The most magnificent remains of this kind are the royal sepulchres within the walls of Jerusalem ; they are all hewn out of the solid marble rock, and contain several spacious apart- ments. 16. Cities. — Of these, Jerusalem, the metropolis of the country and the centre of the Jewish worship, was the most celebrated, and no place in the world recalls so many hallowed associations. The city w^as built on several hills, the largest of which was Mount Zi'on. It was enlarged and embellished by David, Solomon, and other kings. On the east or lower city was Mount Mori'ah, on which stood the magnificent temple of Solomon. After the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, a new city was built in the reign of Adrian, the Roman emperor, and called JE'lia Capitoli'na, but there was a considerable alteration in the site. Mount Zion, the principal quarter of the ancient city, was not com- prised within the limits of the new one. It subsists at the present time in a deplorable condition, inhabited by Turks, Jews, and Christians. Ga'za and As'calon were the other two most noted cities. 15. What are some of the ancient works of Palestine? What is said of Jacob's well ? Of Solomon's pools ? What are the pools Gihon and Bethesa? AVhich are the most magnificent of the sepulchral monu- ments? — 16. Which was the most celebrated city? On what was it built ? When was a new city built ? What are the other most noted cities ? SACRED HISTORY. 29 11. Manners and Customs. — The rite of circumcision has distinguished the Jewish people from the earliest period of their history. It was always accompanied with great feast- ing and other demonstrations of joy. At this time the child was named in the presence of the company assembled, among whom bread and wine were distributed. The diet of the Jews, except on festivals, seems to have been very plain. Bread, water, and vinegar were in common use. Honey was esteemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk of goats was considered excellent for food. Their amusements seem to have consisted chiefly in social repasts, music, and dancing, which partook of a religious character. Their mourning for the death of friends was expressed by rending their garments, tearing their hair, heaping ashes upon their heads, wearing sackcloth, and lying on the ground. From the pains they took to provide a place of burial for themselves and their descendants, it is evident that they considered it a heavy calamity to be denied a burial, and a favor to be interred among their ancestors. Their sepulchres were on their own land, and were often cut out of a rock. 18. Arts, Language, and Literature. — The language of the Jews w^as the Hebrew, the genius of which is pure, primi- tive, and natural ; and it is highly probable that they had very early the art of writing. The materials on which they first wrote were plates of stone ; they afterwards used what was called rolls, which is supposed to be a kind of parch- ment. The arts in which they most excelled were those of war, husbandry, poetry, and music. Their situation made them a warlike people, being surrounded by enemies. Their arms of defence were the shield, helmet, coat of mail, and breast-plate ; their offensive weapons were the two-edged sword, javelin, sling, and the bow and arrow. 19. The literary productions of the Hebrews are collected in the sacred books of the Old Testament, in which we can find more eloquence, more moral and historical truth, more poetry, — in a word, more beauties than we could gather from all other books together, of whatever country or lan- guage. Aside from its supernatural character, this marvel- 17. What rite has distinguished the Jewish people? What is said of their diet? Of what did their amusements consist? How was their mourning for the dead exju'essed?— 18. What is said of their language? On what did they write? What did their situation make them? What were their arms ? — 19. What is said of the Old Testament ? 3* 30 SACRED HISTORY. lous volume stands alone among the literary monuments of other nations for the sublimity of its doctrine and the sim- plicity of its style. It is the book of all centuries, countries, and conditions, and affords the best solution of the most mysterious problems concerning God, man, and the universe. When perused in the right spirit it cultivates the taste, it elevates the mind, and it nourishes the soul with the word of life. It has, in short, inspired the best productions of human genius. BOOK 11. The Grreat Empires of Antiquity. CHAPTER I. A GLANCE AT ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. ASSYR'IA, the first of the four great empires of an- tiquity, derived its name from Ash'ur, the son of Shem, who is said to have been the founder of Nin'eveh, its capital. The foundation of Babylon is ascribed to Nimrod, the grand- son of Ham, who is believed by many to be the same as Be'Uis of profane history. These two cities are supposed to have been founded about the same time, shortly after the dispersion of mankind; but their history for many ages is involved in obscurity. It is commonly supposed that Assyria and Babylon were originally two distinct kingdoms, and con- tinued separate until Babylon was conquered by Ni'nus and annexed to the Assyrian empire. 2. Ninus is represented as a great and powerful sovereign ; he is said to have built, or at least to have enlarged and em- bellished, the city of Nineveh, which stood upon the eastern bank of the Ti'gris. His design was to immortalize his name by the building of a city which, in point of extent and magnificence, could not be surpassed by any other in after times. Nor was he much deceived in his view. Nin- eveh was laid out in the form of an oblong square. It measured eighteen miles and three-quarters in length, eleven and one quarter in breadth, and sixty miles in circumference. The walls were one hundred feet high, and of such thickness that three chariots might stand abreast upon them with ease ; Chapter I. — 1. What is said of Assyria? Who founded Babylon? What is supposed concerning Assyria and Babylon? — 2. What is said of Ninus? What was his design? Describe Nineveh. 31 32 THE GREAT EMPIRES OF ANTIQUITY. and they were fortified and adorned with fifteen hundred towers, two hundred feet high.* 3. Ninus having made extensive conquests married Semir'- amis, who succeeded him on the throne. She is described as a woman of surpassing wit and beauty, boundless ambi- tion, and extraordinary ability for war and government. Semiramis enlarged Babylon and rendered it the most mag- nificent city in the world. 4. The description of Babylon, given by ancient historians, seems almost incredible. The walls are said to have been eighty-seven feet in thickness and three hundred and fifty in height. They were drawn round the city in the form of an exact square, each side of which was fifteen miles in length, all built of brick cemented together with bitumen. On every side of this great square there were twenty-five gates, which were all made of solid brass. From these twenty -five gates the same number of streets ran in lines parallel to the gates on the opposite side of the wall, thus forming fifty streets, each fifteen miles long, and one hundred and fifty feet broad. Around these squares, on every side, stood the houses, all built three or four stories high, and beautified, towards the streets, with all kinds of ornaments. The space within the middle of each square was vacant ground laid out in beau- tiful garden s.f 5. Semiramis, after a brilliant reign of forty-two years, left the throne to her son Ninyas. From the time of Nin- yas to the overthrow of the monarchy under Sardanapa'lus, a period of several centuries, little or nothing is known re- specting the history of Assyria and Babylon. The name of Sardanapalus is almost a proverbial reproach. He is said to have so degraded himself as to adopt the dress and occupation of a female, and to have passed his life in the most disgraceful effeminacy and voluptuousness. At length Ar^baces, governor of Media, with BeVesis, governor of the * To-day no imposing ruins mark the gloomy site of Nineveh. Heaps of earth or grass-grown mounds, revealing not a trace of building, are all that tell you that you are standing where stood that " exceeding great city of three days' journey." See Myers' Remains of Lost Empires, chap. iv. t The mighty Babylon of old now lies in crumbled heaps of ruins, in size mountain-like. Enormous mounds and fragments of lofty walls are all that remain of its glory and grandeur. See Myers' Remains of Lost Empires, chap. viii. 3. What is said of Semiramis ?— 4. Describe Babylon. — 5. How long did Semiramis reign? What is said of Sardanapalus? THE GREAT EMPIRES OF ANTIQUITY. 33 city of Babylon, and several others, disgusted with his in- glorious and shameful life, formed a conspiracy against him. Sardanapalus having sustained a defeat, in order to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies, caused a pile of wood to be made in his palace, and burnt himself, with all his women and treasures. 6. On the ruins of this vast empire were founded three new kingdoms — JfecZm under Arbaces, Babylon under Belesis, and Assyria under Ninus the younger. Ninus was suc- ceeded by Tiglathpile'ser, who invaded Judah during the reign of Ahaz, and took possession of that part of the king- dom of Israel which lies east of the Jordan. Under the reign of his successor, Shalmane'ser, an end was put to the kingdom of Israel, and its inhabitants were carried into cap- tivity. The next sovereign was Senna'cherib, who laid siege to Jerusalem in the reign of Hezeki'ah, but he was compelled to return to his own dominions in disgrace, having lost 185,000 men of his army, who were destroyed in a miracu- lous manner in one night. The fourth king, Esarhaddon, defeated Manasseh, king of Judah, and carried him captive into Assyria. 7. After the death of Esarhad' don, Nahopolas' sar or Nehu- chadnez'zar, king of Babylon, assisted by Gyax'ares, king of Media, besieged Nineveh, and having taken it, killed Sa- racus the king, and utterly destroyed that mighty city, and put an end to the Assyrian monarchy. He was succeeded by his son, Nebuchadnezzar II., who took Jerusalem and carried the Jews captive to Babylon. The particulars of this sovereign's reign are recorded in the book of Daniel. God, to punish his pride, reduced him to a state of insanity, but, after wandering in the forest and feeding on grass like a wild beast for twelve months, he again recovered his mind, and being restored to his throne, by a solemn edict, published throughout his dominions the astonishing things that God had wrought in him. 8. During the reign of Belshaz'zar,^ who succeeded to the throne a few years after the death of Nebuchadnez'zar, the * Also written Balthas^sar. What was the end of Sardanapalus? — 6. What empires were now founded ? What was done in the reign of Shalmaneser ? Who was the next sovereign, and Avhat did he do? What did Esarhaddon do? — 7. What happened during the reign of Nabopolassar ? What did Nebu- chadnezzar do ? How did God punish him ? 8. What was done during the reign of Belshazzar ? C 34 THE GREAT EMPIRES OF ANTIQUITY. Persians under Cyrus, after a siege of two years, by turning the course of the Euphrates, entered the city of Babylon through the dry channel, and took it while the inhabitants were engaged in feasting and riot. The impious Belshazzar was slain, and with him ended the Babylonian empire, after it had continued for about two hundred and ten years. 9. Antiquities. — The government both of Assyria and Babylon was strictly despotic and the crown hereditary. All power was centred in the king ; decrees emanated from him, and he even claimed the worship which belonged only to the divinity. The laws of the empire were in general vague and uncertain, depending wholly upon the will of the sove- reign ; but there was one, however, fixed and irrevocable, which obliged all, particularly the poor, to marry. And in this a singular custom prevailed. No man had any power over his own daughters, but as soon. as they were marriage- able, they were put up at auction ; and the price obtained for the more beautiful was assigned as a dowry for the more homely. In consequence of this curious practice, all the young women were disposed of in marriage ; the beautiful for their charms, and the homely for their wealth. 10. The Babylonians, and particularly the Chaldeans, were early famed for their learning. They were the first who cultivated astronomy and discovered the exact motion of the planets ; they pretended to be able to foretell future events from the heavenly bodies, which was embodied into a kind of science called astrology. They built temples to the stars as being the subordinate agents of the divine power, and by worshipping them they hoped to obtain the good will of the deity. From this they descended, by a natural process, to the worship of objects on earth as the representatives of the stars or the Deity. It is evident that this was the origin of idol worship, from the fact that the names of the principal gods of the heathens in general are those of the sun, moon, and the five primary planets — Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, 31ercury, and Venus. The horrid custom of sacrificing human victims to conciliate their gods was first practised by the Babylonians, and from them it was communicated to the surrounding nations. What was the end of Belshazzar ?— 9. What is said of the govern- ment and laws of Assyria and Babylon ? What singular custom pre- vailed?— 10. What is said of the learning of the Babylonians and Chaldeans? To what did they build temples ? What is said concerning the origin of idol worship ? THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 35 The Babylonians applied themselves only to the more use- ful arts. Their immense buildings prove them to have been well skilled in architecture and geometry. They never at- tained to any superior excellence in painting and statuary ; and music and poetry were probably but little attended to.* CHAPTER 11. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. PEKSIA was the second of the four great empires of an- tiquity. Its history, prior to the reign of Cy'rus the Great, is involved in fable and obscurity. It was originally called E'lam, and the inhabitants Elamites, who were the de- scendants of Shem. We are informed by the Scriptures that one of the kings of Elam conquered the king of Sodom, but was pursued and defeated by A'hraham. In the early ages it was of very limited exteut, but under the reign of Cyrus, who was the founder of the great Persian empire, it became the most powerful and extensive monarchy in the world, comprising Persia, Media, Babylonia, Syria, and Asia Minor ; and to these Egypt was added by Gamhy'ses. 2. Gyrus is represented as a prince of excellent character. He obtained the surname of Great, from his heroic actions and splendid achievements. Having subdued all the nations from the ^gean sea to the Euphrates, he, together with his uncle Gyax'ares, the second king of the Medes, took Baby- lon and conquered the Assyrian empire. After the death of Gyaxares, Gyrus united the two kingdoms and reigned over them for seven years, in the first of which he published the famous edict for the return of the Jews and the rebuilding of Jerusalem. 3. Herodotus, Xen'ophon, and other famous authors, differ materially in the accounts they give of the exploits and char- ■'^ For a fuller account of Assyria and Babylon, see Fredet's Ancient History. To what did the Babylonians apply themselves ? Chapter II. — 1. What is said of Persia? What did it become in the reign of Cyrus?— 2. What is said of Cyrus? What did he do? What edict did he publish ? — 3. How do Herodotus and Xenophon differ in their accounts of Cyrus? 36 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE: acter of Gyrus. According to Xenophon, Cyrus possessed all the abilities of an able and illustrious sovereign, with all the more amiable virtues that adorn humanity ; and, accord- ing to the same author, he died like a philosopher, discoursing of death with tranquillity, and giving the most admirable in- struction to his children, by which to form their character and regulate their future conduct. On the other hand, we are told by Herodotus, that Cyrus, having undertaken an expedition against the Scythians, was surprised and slain by a stratagem of the enemy. The account given by Xenophon has been followed by RoVlin and other modern writers, yet it is supposed by some that it was not the design of that ancient author to exhibit a faithful record of facts, but rather to delineate the model of a perfect prince and a well organized government. 4. Cyrus was succeeded by his son, Camhy'ses, who was arbitrary and cruel. The conquest of Egypt was his prin- cipal achievement. He made himself master of Pelusium by placing in front of his army a great number of those ani- mals considered sacred by the Egyptians, who, not daring to injure them, made no opposition to the Persians. On the death of Camhyses, Smerdis usurped the crown ; but after enjoying the regal dignity for seven months, he was assassi- nated, and Dari'us was elected to fill the vacant throne. The history of Persia, from the reign of this sovereign un- til the overthrow of the monarchy, is much connected with that of Greece. 5. Darius was succeeded by his son Xerx'es, who con- ducted the second invasion of Greece, but returned to his own dominions in shame and disgrace, after sustaining a series of defeats, with immense loss. He was succeeded by his son Artaxer' xes, who enjoyed a long and peaceful reign. The only sovereigns of distinction who reigned after this period, were Artaxerxes II., and Darius Codoma'nus, the last of the Persian monarchs. Codomanus was defeated by Alexander the Great, and finally assassinated ; and with his death the ancient empire terminated, b. c. 331. 6. Antiquities. — The government of Persia was an abso- lute monarchy. The crown was hereditary, and generally bestowed on the eldest son of the deceased king. The sov- 4. Who succeeded Cyrus? How did he make himself master of Pelusium? On the death of Cambyses, who usurped the throne? — 6. What is said of Xerxes ? Who was the last of the Persian monarchs, and what was his end ? — 6. What is said of the government of Persia ? THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 37 ereigns received almost divine honors from their subjects. No one could approach the seat of majesty without pros- trating himself upon the ground, or remain in his presence without holding his hands w^ithin his sleeves. A violation of this ceremony was punished with death. The royal pal- ace at Persep'olis was extremely magnificent. The ceiling and walls of the apartments were covered with ivory, silver, gold, or amber ; the throne was also of fine gold adorned with precious stones.* 7. The Persians are said to have paid more particular regard to the education of their children than any other na- tion. We are told that a son was never admitted into the presence of his father until he had arrived at the age of five years, lest the parent might be too heavily afflicted by the loss, if the child should die before that period. At the age of five years, the children, at least of the higher classes of the state, were placed under the care of learned and virtuous masters, who bestowed on their pupils the utmost attention. 8. The mode of punishment among the Persians was gen- erally severe. It consisted in cutting off the right hand, de- capitation, pressing to death between two large stones, and so on. The most hard and inhuman was that of fastening the culprit in such a manner that he was unable to move hand or foot. His face, exposed to the rays of the sun, was smeared with honey, which invited innumerable swarms of flies and wasps to torment him ; the executioners compelled him, by thrusting sharp instruments into his eyes, to receive nourishment, for the purpose of prolonging his agonies. We are told of one victim, who lived seventeen days under such brutal torments. The Persians were trained to all the mili- tary exercises, but particularly to the use of the bow. They never fought in the night, nor used any stratagem indepen- dent of their valor. * Even in its ruins PersepoUs is magnificent. " Not only youthful trav- ellers glov/ing with imagination," writes Vaux, "but those of sober judg- ment, matured by the experience of many years, seem, as they approach these venerable monuments, to be inspired with the genius of Eastern romance, and their respective languages scarcely furnish epithets capa- ble of expressing, with an adequate energy, the astonishment and ad- miration excited by such stupendous objects." See Myers' Remains of Lost Empires, Chap. XII. What is said of those who approached the sovereign? Describe the palace of Persepolis. — 7. To what did they pay peculiar regard ? What custom prevailed ? — 8. What is said of the niode of punishnient ? De- scribe one severe form, 4 38 THE PHCENICIANS. 9. Their religion was idolatrous, but not so gross as that of some of the surrounding nations. They professed to worship the one all-wise and omnipotent God; but they held fire to the holy, and the purest symbol of the divine nature. In connection with this they adored the sun, and paid a superstitious regard to other elements, such as the earth, air, and water. In ancient times they were destitute of temples, and erected altars for the preservation of the sa- cred fire on the tops of the mountains. At length Zoroas'ter persuaded them, for the sake of convenience, to build over each a pyreum or fire temple. The priests were called 31a' gi, and were held in great esteem on account of their learning. CHAPTER III. THE PHCENICIANS. THE Phoeni'cians were among the most remarkable and early civilized nations of antiquity. They are styled Canaanites in the Scripture, and seem to have been a com- mercial people in the time of Abraham. Their two principal cities, and the most ancient we read of in history, were Ty'^^e and Si' don. The Phoenicians are the reputed inventors of glass, purple, letters, and coinage ; they are regarded as the earliest navigators and merchants in the world ; they carried on trade, not only over all the coasts of the Mediterranean, but even visited the shores of Britain, from which they ex- ported tin. 2. To Hi'ram, king of Tyre, both David and Solomon applied, when proposing to build the Temple at Jerusalem. He furnished them not only with precious materials, but also with a great number of workmen. The Phoenicians sent out a number of colonies to Cyprus, Rhodes, Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain. The foundation of Carthage is at- tributed to Di'do, sister of Pygma'lion, king of Tyre, with a company of adventurers. The city of Tyre sustained two 9. What is said of their religion ? What did they adore ? Chapter III. — 1. What is said of the Phoenicians? Of what were they inventors ? — 2. What is said of Hiram ? Where did they send colonies? What is said of Tyre? EGYPT. 39 memorable sieges, and was twice taken — first by Nebuchad- nezzar, and again by Alexander the Great. CHAPTER ly. EG YPT. EGYPT holds a conspicuous place in history, on account of its early civilization and high attainment in the arts. It was considered by the ancients as the most renowned school of wisdom and politics, and the source from which most of the arts and sciences are derived. Even the most illustrious men of Greece, such as Eo'mer and Pla'to, Ly- cur'gus and So^lon, travelled into Egypt to complete their studies, and to draw thence whatever was rare and valuable in learning. 2. The ancient history of this country is greatly involved in obscurity. Historians, how^ever, unanimously agree that Miz^raim, the son of Ham, was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy ; he is supposed to be the same as Me'nes, who is said to have instituted the worship of the gods and the cere- monies of the sacrifices ; he was succeeded on the throne by his posterity for several generations. Egypt was next gov- erned by a race of foreign princes from Arabia, styled Shep- herd Kings, who invaded the country, and retained possession of the greater portion of it for the space of two hundred and sixty years. 3. The ancient Egyptians seem never to have been a war- like people. The only King of the country whose name stands recorded as a great conqueror is Sesos'tris, who is said to have maintained a numerous army, and conquered a great part of Asia. Little, how^ever, is known of his achievements, or the extent of his conquests. Towards the close of his life he is said to have renounced the profes- sion of arms, and to have devoted himself to the internal improvement of his kingdom. Having become blind in old age, he died by his own hand, after a reign of thirty-three years. Chapter IV. — 1. What is said of Egypt ? How was it considered by the ancients ? — 2. Who was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy ? By whom was Egypt next governed ? — 3. What is said of the ancient Egyptians? of Sesostris? 40 EGYPT. 4. The next sovereign who is particularly distinguished in the history of this country was Nechus, styled in the scripture, Pharaoh Necho. He patronized navigation, and fitted out a fleet, which, leaving the Red Sea, sailed around the coast of Africa, and returned to Egypt through the Straits of Gibraltar. He waged a successful war against the Medes and Babylonians, and defeated Josiah, king of Judah, in the battle Megiddo, and imposed an annual tribute upon the country. 5. Egypt was invaded by the Persians under Cambyses, about the year 525 before the Christian era. The cities of Pelusium and Memphis w^ere taken, and the whole country reduced to a province of the Persian monarchy. Egypt was wrested from the dominion of Persia by Alexander the Great, and after his death it fell to the share of Ptolemy. Under this monarch and his successors the country regained its ancient lustre, and rose to eminence in science and com- merce. The dynasty of the Ptolemies continued from the death of Alexander to that of Cleopatra, embracing a period of tAvo hundred and ninety-three years. 6. Ptolemy Lagus, surnamed also Soter, is said to have been the natural son of Philip, king of Macedon, and half brother of Alexander the Great. At the time of Alexander's death he was governor of Egypt, and afterwards became king of the country. He was a man of great ability, equally eminent as a general and a statesman, distinguished for his learning, and a munificent patron of literature. He founded the famous library of Alexandria, established a museum or academy, and erected the celebrated watch- tower of Pharos, which was reckoned by some as one of the seven wonders of the world. He built a number of new cities, encouraged commerce and agriculture, and con- quered Syria. He died after a prosperous reign of thirty- nine years. 7. Ptolemy Lagus was succeeded by his son Ptolemy Phila- deVphus, whose reign, like that of his father, was useful and prosperous. He patronized commerce and navigation, founded several cities, and erected magnificent buildings. His court was a seat of learning, politeness, and the arts, and was resorted to by men of genius. During his reign, 4. Who was the next sovereign, and what is said of him ? — 5. Who invaded Egypt ? By whom was it wrested from the Persians ? How long did the dynasty of the Ptolemies continue? — 6. What is said of Ptolemy Lagus ? What did he establish ?— 7. By whom was Ptolemy Lagus succeeded ? What is said of him ? EGYPT. 41 the celebrated version of the Old Testament into Greek, called the Sep'tuagint, was made for the use of the Jews, who were settled at that time ill Alexandria. 8. Ptolemy Ever'getes, the son of the late monarch, who succeeded to the throne, was a warlike prince, but also a patron of learning-, and spared no pains to enrich his library. In the early part of his reign he carried on a severe though successful war with Anti'ochus, king of Syria. He was suc- ceeded by his son Ptolemy Philo'pator, a sanguinary tyrant, whose reign was distinguished for a cruel persecution of the Jews. Having invaded Judea, and advanced as far as Jeru- salem, he attempted to enter by force into the holy place of the Jewish temple, into which none but the High-priest was allowed to enter, and that only once a year. Being forcibly prevented from committing this sacrilege, he returned to Egypt, and resolved to wreak his vengeance on the Jews, who had enjoyed the favor of his predecessors. 9. He published a decree, that all the Jews within his do- minions should abjure their religion and sacrifice to the gods of Egypt, under the severest penalties. Only about nine hundred, however, were found to apostatize. After this, he ordered all the Jews in Alexandria to assemble in a place of public diversion, called the Bij/podr^ome, where he had col- lected five hundred elephants for the destruction of that de- voted people ; but the enraged animals, rushing among the crowd, crushed to death a greater number of the spectators than of the Jews. Yet it is computed that about forty thousand of the latter perished on that occasion. 10. The history of the remaining Ptolemies presents little that is interesting. For the most part, their reigns were un- happy, abounding in crimes and calamities. Ptolemy Diony'- sius was the last king of Egypt. He succeeded to the throne at the early age of thirteen years, and reigned in conjunction with his sister, the celebrated Cleopa^tra, who aspired to undivided authority. A war ensued, in which Ptolemy was slain, and Cleopatra assumed the sole government. Her history is connected with that of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony ; she finally caused her own death by poison, in order to avoid being led captive to Rome to grace the triumph of Octavius. After her death, Egypt became a Roman province. 8. What is said of Ptolemy Evergetes? By whom was he succeeded? What did he attempt ? — 9. What did he publish ? How did he attempt to destroy the JeAvs? — 10. Who was the last king of Egypt? What is said of Cleopatra ? What did Egypt become ? 4* 42 EGYPT. CHAPTER' V. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF TEE EGYPTIANS. A STRIKING resemblance with regard to government, religion, customs, and character, is said to exist between the ancient Egyptians and many of the oriental nations, par- ticularly the Chinese. The government was an hereditary monarchy, but the power of the sovereign was restrained by the influence of the priests. At daybreak in the morning, the King arose and read the several letters he received the preceding day. He then went to the temple to attend the offering of sacrifice, and to assist at the prayers pronounced aloud by the High-priest, who invoked the blessing of the gods upon the prince, that he might govern his people with clem- ency and justice. The laws prescribed not only the quality but also quantity of food for the royal table ; as for the quality, it was of the most common kind, because eating, in Egypt, was designed not to please the palate, but to satisfy the wants of nature. 2. The laws of Egypt were generally based upon the strictest justice. Wilful murder was punished with death, whatever might be the condition of the murdered person, whether he was free-born or otherwise. Perjury was also punished with death, because that crime insulted the majesty of the gods, by invoking their name to a falsehood, and broke the strongest ties of human society, namely, sincerity and veracity. No man was allowed to be useless to the state ; and every one was obliged to enter his name on the public register, and give an account of his profession and means of support. Polygamy was allowed in Egypt except to the priests, who could marry but one woman. A revolting cus- tom prevailed among the Egyptians, which permitted the marriage of brother and sister ; hence we find that the queens of the Ptolemies were generally their sisters. 3. In Egypt, the greatest respect was paid to old age. The young were obliged to rise up for the old, and on every oe- Chapter V. — 1. What is said of the manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians? Of the government? Of the king? What did the laws prescribe ? — 2. On what were the laws based ? What was the punish- ment of murder? Of perjury? What was every man obliged to do? What was allowed ? What custom prevailed ? — 3. To what was great respect paid ? EGYPT. 43 casion to resign to them the most honorable seats. The virtue, however, in the highest esteem among the Egyptians, was gratitude ; and it has been said of them, that they were the most grateful of men. But it was especially towards their kings that they prided themselves on evincing their grati- tude. That ancient people honored their rulers while living as so many visible representatives of the deity, and after their death lamented them as the fathers of their country. 4. Never was any people more superstitious than the Egyp- tians ; they had a great number of gods of different orders and degrees. Among these, Osi'i^is and rsis were the most universally adored. Besides these gods they worshipped the ox, the wolf, the dog, the crocodile, the ibis or cat, and many other degrading objects. The wilful killing of one of these animals was punished with death. Diodo'rus relates the circumstance of a Roman, who fell a victim to the fury of the populace of Alexandria, for having accidentally killed a cat. The Egyptians held the absurd doctrine of the trans- migration of souls ; and believed that at the death of a man his soul entered into some other human body. If he had been vicious, his soul was confined in the body of some beast to expiate his former transgressions ; but after some centuries it would again animate another human body. 6. No people paid greater respect to the remains of the dead than the Egyptians. As soon as any person in a fam- ily died, all the relations and friends laid aside their usual habits, and put on mourning, which they continued to wear for forty days or longer, according to the quality of the per- son. The body was then embalmed, by which process it was preserved from decay ; after this it was put into a kind of an open chest, and placed upright against the wall of the dwelling or sepulchre ; so that children seeing the bodies of their ancestors thus preserved, recalled to mind those virtues for which the public had honored them, and were excited to imitate their example. 6. The power of the laws extended even beyond the grave. Before any one could be admitted into the sacred asylum of the tomb, he was obliged to undergo a solemn trial ; and this circumstance, in Egyptian funerals, is one of the most re- What virtue was held in the highest esteem?— 4. Besides Osiris and Isis, what did the Egyptians worship? What does Diodorus relate? What doctrine did they hold?— 5. When a member of a family died, what did the relations do? Describe the ceremony of embalming. — 6. What is said of the power of the laws ? 44 EGYPT. markable to be found in ancient history. The whole life of each person, after death, was strictly examined. If found to be virtuous, his body was embalmed with every mark of respect, and deposited in a sepulchre ; but if his life had been vicious, or if he had died in debt, he was left unburied, and was supposed to be deprived of future happiness. The kings themselves were not exempted from this trial after death ; and if their lives were vicious, they were deprived of funeral rites and the honor of the sepulchre. CHAPTER yi. THE PYRAMIDS, LABYRINTH, LAKE OF MJERIS, ETC. THE Pyramids of Egypt are the most celebrated of those works of grandeur for which that country has been re- nowned. Of these Pyramids, there were three more famous than the rest, near the city of Memphis — one of which was justly ranked among the seven wonders of the world. It is a gigantic structure. The base covers a surface of about eleven acres. The sides of the base correspond in direction with the four cardinal points, and each measures seven hundred and forty-six feet at the foundation. The perpendicular height is about four hundred and eighty feet. A hundred thousand men are said to have been em- ployed for the space of twenty years in erecting this vast edifice. The Pyramids were designed as tombs for the kings, and there is still to be seen, in the middle of the largest, an empty sepulchre, about three feet wide and six feet long, cut out of one entire stone. 2. The Labyrinth of Egypt was an enormous structure of marble, built under ground; it comprised twelve palaces, w^ith a communication leading to each other, and divided into fifteen hundred rooms or apartments. These subterra- neous structures were designed as a burying-place for kings, and also for keeping the sacred crocodiles. The Obelisks, with which Egypt abounded, were quadrangular spires, ter- If a man had lived vicious, or died in debt, what was done? Chapter VI.— 1 . What is said of the Pyramids ? What was the length of each side of the base of the Pyramid near Memphis ? For what were they designed ?— 2. What was the Labyrinth ? For what designed ? What is said of the Obelisks ? EGYPT. 45 minating in a point, often wonderful on account of their height and beauty. Sesostris erected two near the city of Heliop'olis, each one hundred and eighty feet in height. Several of these obelisks, with immense labor, were trans- ported to Rome, where they form, at the present day, the chief ornaments of that city. Many of them were covered with hieroglyphics, that is, mystical characters used by the Egyptians before the invention of letters, and afterwards to conceal the mysteries of their theology. 3. The noblest and the most wonderful of all the struct- ures of the kings of Egypt, was the lake of Mse^-is, which Herodotus considers as even superior to the P3'ramids. This lake was in circumference about one hundred and eighty French leagues, and three hundred feet deep. Two pyra- mids, on each of Avhich was placed a colossal statue, seated upon a throne, raised their heads to the height of three hundred feet, in the midst of the lake, above the surface of the water. It is generally believed that this immense reservoir, with its pyramids, was completed in the reign of one monarch, from whom it takes its name, and was designed to regulate the inundations of the Nile. When that river rose too high, and fatal consequences seemed likely to follow, the water was let into the lake, and covered the soil no longer than was necessary to enrich it. On the contrary, when the inundation was too low, and threatened a famine, a sufficient quantity of water was let out of the lake upon the land. 4. The ruins of a few of the ancient cities and palaces of Egypt still excite the wonder and admiration of the trav- eller. The glory of Thebes, the capital of upper Egypt, fa- mous for its hundred gates, was the theme of admiration of poets and historians at a period prior to the commencement o^ authentic history. Strabo and Diodorus describe it under the name of Diosp'olis, and give such magnificent descrip- tions of its monuments as to cause their fidelity to be called in question, until the observations of modern travellers have proved their accounts to have fallen short of the reality. The ruins of one of the palaces of this city are especially admired, and seem to have remained only to eclipse the glory of the most pompous edifices of modern times. There With what were many of them covered? — 3. What was the noblest work ? What was its circumference ? What was in the midst of the lake? For what was it designed? — 4, What is said of the ruins of cities, etc. ? Describe Thebes. Describe one of the palaces of this city ? 46 - EGYPT. were four avenues of great extent which led to four porticoes of amazing height ; they were bounded on each side with statues, composed of materials as rare and extraordinary as their size was remarkable. Within the middle of this ma- jestic palace there was a hall, supported by one hundred and twenty pillars, thirty-six feet in circumference and of pro- portionate height, which the lapse of so many ages has not been able to demolish. Before the time of Herodotus, Mem- phis had supplanted Thebes, which seems to have been par- ticularly noted for its stately temples, and among them that of the god Apis was the most remarkable.* * For a fuller account of Persia, Phoenicia, and Egypt, see Fredet's Ancient History. What is said of Memphis ? BOOK IIL GREECE. CHAPTER I. GLANCES AT EARLY GREEK HISTORY. AMONG the various nations of antiquity, Greece de- servedly holds the most distinguished rank, both for the patriotism, genius, and learning of its inhabitants, as well as the high state of perfection to which they carried the arts and sciences. It formerly comprised various small independent states, differing from each other in forms of government and in the character of the people, but still united in a confederacy for mutual defence, by the counsel of Amphic'tyons, and by their common language, religion, and public games. 2. The name Greece was never used by the ancient inhab- itants of that country. They called their land EeVlas, and themselves HeVlenes. It is from the Romans that we have derived the word Greece ; but why they gave it a different appellation from that used by the natives cannot be deter- mined. The original inhabitants, who were generally con- sidered as the descendants of Ja'van, the son of Japhet, lived in the lowest condition of barbarism, dwelling in huts, feeding on acorns and berries, and clothing themselves in the skins of wild beasts, when Ce'crops with a colony from Egypt, and Cadmus with a body of Phoeni'cians, landed in Greece, and planted on its shores the first rudiments of civilization. The early form of government in Greece was a limited Chapter I. — 1. What is said of Greece? What did it formerly com- prise? How were they united ? — 2. What was its ancient name ? From whom were the inhabitants descended ? What was their condition when Cecrops landed in Greece? 47 48 GREECE. monarchy, which was finally abolished, and a republican form generally prevailed. 3. The history of this famous land may be divided into two parts : 1st, the period of uncertain history, which ex- tends from the earliest accounts of the country to the first Persian war, in the year 490 b. c. ; 2d, the period of authentic history, extending from the Persian invasion to the final subjugation of Greece by the Romans, b. c. 146. The first period is generally reckoned from the foundation of Sic'yon, the most ancient kingdom of Greece, and comprises a space of about sixteen hundred years. This long succession of ages, though greatly involved in obscurity and fable, is still inter- spersed with several interesting particulars. It contains no records that properly deserve the name of history. 4. Grecian history, however, derives some authenticity at this period from the Chronicle of Paros, preserved among the Arundelian marbles at Oxford. The authority of this chronicle has, indeed, been much questioned ; but still, by many, it is thought to be worthy of consideral3le credit. It fixes the dates of the most important events in the history of Greece, from the time of Cecrops down to the age of Alexander the Great. 5. Sic'yon, the capital of the ancient kingdom of that name, was founded by ^gi'alus; Argos by In'achus, the last of the Ti'tans ; Athens, which afterwards bore such a distinguished part in the history of Greece, was founded by Cecrops, with a colony from Egypt. He was an eminent legislator, and instituted the court of Areop'agus. Thebes was founded by Cadmus, who is said to have introduced letters into Greece from PhoBnicia ; the alphabet, however, only consisted of sixteen letters, and the mode of writing was alternately from right to left, and from left to right. 6. In the time of Cranaus, who succeeded Cecrops, hap- pened the deluge of Deuca'lion, which, though much mag- nified by the poets, was probably only a partial inundation. The other memorable institutions that distinguish this period were the Eleusin'ian mysteries, the Olymp'ic and other games, — of which we shall speak hereafter, — and the marvellous exploits of Her' cities and The' sens. 3. How is the history of Greece divided ? How do these periods ex- tend ? What is said of the first period ? — 4. From what does the Grecian history derive authenticity ? Of what does this chronicle fix the date ? — 5. By whom was Sicy on founded? Ar2:os? Athens? Thebes? What is said of Cadmus ? — 6. In the time of Cranaus, what happened ? What institutions distinguished this period ? GREECE. 49 CHAPTER II. THE FABULOUS AND HEROIC AGES. THE fabulous age comprises the period from the founda- tion of the principal cities to the commencement of civil- ization, and the introduction of letters and arts into Greece. The first great enterprise undertaken by the Greeks was the Argonaut'ic expedition, which appears in its details to par- take more of fable than of history. It was commanded by Ja'son, the son of the king of loFchos, who was accom- panied by many of the most illustrious men of Greece, among whom were Her'cules, The'seus, Cas'tor and PoF- lux, Or'pheus, JEsculap'ius the physician, and Chi'ron the astronomer. 2. They sailed from lolchos, in Thes'saly, to Col'chis, on the eastern coast of the Eux^ine Sea; they received the name Argonauts from the ship Ar'go in which they sailed, said to have been the first sea vessel ever built. This famous voyage, which was probably a military and mercantile ad- venture, is commonly represented to have been undertaken for the purpose of recovering the golden fleece of a ram, which originally belonged to their country. The fleece is pretended to have been guarded by bulls that breathed fire, and by a dragon that never slept. 3. The Heroic Age was particularly distinguished by the Tro'jan war, the history of which rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of his Il'iad,* the noblest poem of antiquity. According to the poet, HeVlen, the daughter of Tyn'darus, king of Sparta, was reputed the most beau- tiful woman of her age, and her hand was solicited by the most illustrious princes of Greece. Her father bound all her suitors by a solemn oath, that they would abide by the choice that Hellen should make of one among them ; and that, should she be taken from the arms of her husband, they would assist, to the utmost of their power, to recover her. * From Ilium, or Troy. Chapter II. — 1. What do the fabulous ages comprise ? What was the first great enterprise? Who commanded it? and who accompanied him ? — 2. From where did they sail ? For what was this famous voyage undertaken ?— 3. For what is the Heroic Age distinguished? What is said of Hellen? How did her father bind all her suitors? 6 D 50 GREECE. 4. Hellen gave her hand to 3IeneWus, and after her nup- tials, Tyndarus, her father, resigned the crown to his son-in- law. Paris, the son of Pri'am, king of Troy, a powerful city founded by Dar'danus, having adjudged the prize of supe- rior beauty to Venus, in preference to Juno and Minerva, was promised by her the most beautiful woman of the age for his wife. Shortly after this event, Paris visited Sparta, where he was kindly received by Menelaus ; but in return for the kind hospitality tendered to him, he persuaded Hellen to elope with him to Troy, and carried off with her a con- siderable amount of treasure. 5. This act of treachery and ingratitude produced the Tro- jan war. A confederacy was immediately formed by the princes of Greece, in accordance with their engagement, to avenge the outrage. An army of one hundred thousand men was conveyed in a fleet of twelve hundred vessels to the Trojan coast. Agamem'non, king of Argos, brother of Mene- laus, was selected as commander-in-chief. Some of the other princes most distinguished in this war, were Achilles, the bravest of the Greeks ; also Ajax, Menelaus, Ulys'ses, Nes'- tor, and Diome'des. 6. The Trojans were commanded by Hec'tor, the son of Priam, assisted by Paris, Deiph'ohus, jE'neas, and Sar- pe'don. After a siege of ten years, the city was taken by stratagem, plundered of its wealth, and burnt to the ground.* The venerable Priam, king of Troy, was slain, and all his family carried into captivity. About eighty years after the destruction of Troy, the civil war of the Heracli'dae began ; it is usually called the return of the Heraclidae into Pelopon- ne'sus. Hercules, king of Myce'nae, a city of Peloponnesus, was banished from his country, with all his family, while the crown was seized by Atre'us, the son of Pe'lops. After the lapse of about a century, the descendants of Hercules re- turned to Peloponnesus, and, having expelled the inhabitants, again took possession of the country. * Much light has been thrown on the ruins of Troy by the recent re- searches of Dr. Schli'emann. 4. To whom did Hellen give her hand ? What is said of Paris ? — 5. What did this treachery produce ? Who was commander-in-chief of the Grecian forces? Mention the other princes. — 6. By whom were the Trojans commanded ? What is said of the city ? Of Priam ? What happened about eighty years after this ? What is &aid of Hercules ? GREECE, 51 CHAPTER III. THE REPUBLIC OF SPARTA. SPAR'TA, orLaced8e'mon,wasthecapitalofLaco'iiia,inthe southern part of Peloponne'sus. After the return of the Heraclidae, the government was administered by the two sons of Aristode'mus, who reigned jointly ; and this double mon- archy was transmitted to the descendants of each for a period of eight hundred and eighty years. 2. This radical principle of disunion, and consequently of anarchy, made the want of a regular system of laws severely felt. Lycur'gus, the brother of one of the kings of Sparta, a man distinguished alike for his great abilities and stern in- tegrity, was invested, by the united voice of the sovereigns and the people, with the important dut}^ of framing a new constitution for his country. The arduous task being at length completed, produced not only an entire change in the form of government, but also in the manners of the people. He instituted an elective senate, consisting of twenty-eight members, whose ofBce was to preserve a just balance between the power of the kings and that of the people. Nothing could come before the assembly of the people which had not received the previous consent of the senate ; and, on the other hand, no action of the senate was effectual without the sanc- tion of the people. The kings w^ere continued, but were nothing more than hereditary presidents of the senate and generals of the army. 3. Lycurgus divided the territory of the republic into thirty-nine thousand equal portions among the free citizens. For the purpose of banishing luxury, commerce was abol- ished. Gold and silver coin was prohibited, and iron money was substituted as a medium of exchange. A uniformity of dress was established, and all the citizens, not excepting the kings, w^ere required to take their principal meals at the public tables, from which all luxury and excess were excluded, and a kind of black broth was the chief article of food. Among some of the admirable ceremonies which prevailed at these Chapter III. — 1. What was Sparta? What is said of the govern- ment after the return of the Heraclidse ? — 2. What is said of Lycurgus ? With what was he invested ? What did he institute ? What is said of the kings ? — 3, How did Lycurgus divide the territory ? What is said of com- merce? Of gold and silver? Of iron money? Of dress? Of public tables? 52 GREECE. public meals, the following is interesting and instructive. When the assembly was seated, the oldest man present, point- ing to the door, said, " No word spoken here goes out there." This wise regulation produced mutual confidence, and ren- dered the people unrestrained in conversation. 4. The institutions of Lycurgus, though in many respects admirable, had still a number of grave defects. Infants, shortly after birth, underw*ent an examination, and those that were well formed were delivered to public nurses ; but all who were deformed or sickly were inhumanly exposed to perish. At the age of seven, children were sent to the public schools. The young were taught to pay the greatest respect to the aged and cherish an ardent love for their country, and the profession of arms was looked upon as the great business of life. Letters were only taught in so far as they were useful ; hence the Spartans, while they were distinguished for many heroic virtues, were never eminent for learning. No produc- tion from the pen of a native of Sparta has come down to modern times. These hardy people were accustomed to ex- press themselves in short, pithy sentences, so that even at the present time this style of speaking is called after them laconic — Laconia being one of the names of their countr}^ 5. The youth were early inured to hardship ; and were accustomed to sleep on rushes, trained to the athletic exer- cises, and only supplied with plain and scanty food. They were even taught to steal whatever they could, provided they could accomplish the theft without being detected. Plutarch relates the fact of a boy who had stolen a fox and concealed it under his garments, and who actually suffered the animal to tear out his bowels, rather than discover the theft. The women of Lacedaemon were destitute of the milder virtues that most adorn the female character, and their manners were highly indelicate. Their education was intended to give them a masculine energy, and to fill them with admiration of military glory. Mothers rather rejoiced than wept when their sons fell nobly in battle. " Return with your shield or on your shield," was the injunction of a Spartan mother to her son, when he was going to meet the enemy. She meant that he should conquer or die. What Avas said by the oldest man present ? — 4, What is said of the institutions of Lycurgus? How were infants treated ? AVhat were the youn.o- tauuht to pay ? What is said of letters? How were they accus- tomed to speak '^ — 5. What is said of the youth ? Of the mariners of the women ? What is said or mothers ? GREECE. 53 G. For five hundred years the institutions of Lycurgus continued in force. During this period the influence of Sparta was felt throughout Greece ; and her government acquired solidity, while the other states were torn by do- mestic dissensions. In the process of time, however, the severe manners and rigid virtues of her citizens began to relax; changes in her laws and institutions were finally in- troduced, particularly during the reign of Lysander, whose conquests filled the country with wealth. From this period luxury and avarice began to prevail, until Sparta, with the other states of Greece, sunk under the dominion of Philip, king of Macedon. CHAPTER IV. THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS. ATH'ENS, the capital of At'tica, w^as distinguished for its commerce, wealth, and magnificence, and as the seat of learning and the arts. The last king of Athens was Co'- drus, who sacrificed himself, for the good of his country, in a war with the Heraclidse. After his death, no one being- deemed worthy to succeed him, the regal government was abolished, and the state was governed by magistrates, styled archons. At first the office was for life, but it was after- wards reduced to a period of ten years ; and finally the archons, nine in number, were annually elected, and were possessed of equal authority. 2. As these changes produced convulsions in the state, and rendered the condition of the people miserable, the Athenians appointed Dra'co, a man of stern and rigid prin- ciples, to prepare a code of written laws. His laws were characterized by extreme severity. Every crime was pun- ished with death. Draco being asked why he was so severe in his punishment, replied that the smallest offence deserved death, and that he had no higher penalty for the greatest 6. How long did the institutions of Lycurgus continue ? In the pro- cess of time, what took place ? What is said of Sparta from this period ? Chapter IV. — 1. For what was Athens distinguished? After the death of Codrus, how was the state governed? What is said of the office of archon? — 2. What is said of Draco ? How were his laws distin- guished? What reply did he make when asked why he was so severe? 5* 54 GREECE. crime. The severity of these laws prevented them from being fully executed, and at length caused them to be entirely abolished, after a period of one hundred and fifty years. 3. So'lon, one of the seven wise men of Greece, being raised to the archonship, was intrusted with the care of framing a new system of laws for his country. His dispo- sition was mild and condescending ; and, without attempt- ing to change the manners of his countrymen, he endeavored to accommodate his system to their prevailing customs, to moderate their dissensions, to restrain their passions, and to open a field for the growth of virtue. Of his laws he said, " If they are not the best possible, they are the best the Atheniaus are capable of receiving." 4. Solon's system divided the people into four classes, according to their wealth. To the first three, composed of the richest citizens, he intrusted all the offices of the com- monvv^ealth. The fourth class, which was more numerous than the other three, had an equal right of suffrage in the public assembly, where all laws were framed and measures of state decreed; and by this regulation the balance of power was thrown in favor of the people. He instituted a senate composed of four hundred, and afterwards increased it to five hundred persons. He restored the court of the Are- op' agus, which had greatly fallen into disrepute, and com- mitted to it the supreme administration of justice. Com- merce and agriculture were encouraged. Industry and economy were enforced. And the father who had taught his son no trade could not claim a support from him in his old age. 5. The manners of the Athe'nians formed a striking con- trast with those of the Lacedaemonians. At Athens the arts were highly esteemed ; at Sparta they were despised and neglected. At Athens peace was the natural state of the republic, and the refined enjoyments of life the aim of its citizens ; Sparta was entirely a military establishment ; her people made war the great business of life. Luxury characterized the Athenian, frugality the Spartan. They were both, however, equally jealous of their liberty and equally brave in war. 3. What is said of Solon? What did he endeavor to accomplish? Of his laws, what did he say ? — 4. What is said of Solon's system ? Of the fourth class? What did he institute? What is said of commerce, etc. ?— 5. What was the striking contrast between the Athenians and the Lacedsemonians ? GREECE. 55 6. Before the death of Solon, Pisistra^tus, a man of great wealth and eloquence, by courting the popular favor, raised himself to the sovereign power, which he and his sons re- tained for fifty years. He governed with great ability, encouraged the arts and sciences, and is said to have founded the first public library known in the world, and first collected the poems of Homer into one volume, which, before that time, were repeated in detached portions. Pisistratus transmitted his power to his sons, Hip'pias and Hippar'chus. They governed for some time with wisdom and moderation, but having, at length, abused their power, a conspiracy was formed against them, and their government was overthrown by Harmo'dius and Aristogit' on. Hip- parchus was slain. Hippias fled to Darius, king of Persia, who was then meditating the invasion of Greece. He was subsequently killed in the battle of Mar^athon, fighting against his countrymen. CHAPTER V. FROM THE INVASION OF GREECE BY THE PERSIANS TO THE PELOPONNE'SIAN WAR.~B. C. 490 TO 431. THE period from the first invasion to the beginning of the Peloponnesian war is esteemed the most glorious in the history of Greece. The series of victories obtained by the inhabitants over the Persians are among the most splendid recorded in the annals of the world. The immediate cause which led to the invasion of Greece seems to have been to avenge the aid which the Athenians gave to the people of lo'nia, who attempted to throw off the yoke of Persia. 2. Darius, King of Persia, having reduced the lonians, next turned his arms against the Greeks, their allies, with the design of making entire conquest of Greece. He despatched heralds to each of the Grecian states, demanding earth and water, which was an acknowledgment of his supremacy. Thebes and several of the other cities submitted to the demand ; but 6. What is said of Pisistratus ? How did he govern ? What is said of Hipparchus and Hippias ? Chapter V. — 1. What is said of this period? What was the imme- diate cause which led to the invasion of Greece ? — 2. What is said of Darius ? 56 GREECE. Athens and Sparta indignantly refused, and, seizing the heralds, they cast one into a pit and another into a well, and told them to take there their earth and water. 3. Darius now commenced his hostile attack both by sea and land. The first Persian fleet, under tljje command of Mardo'nius, was wrecked in doubling the promontory of Athos, with a loss of no less than three hundred vessels ; a second, of six hundred sail, ravaged the Grecian islands; while an immense army, consisting of one hundred and ten thousand men, poured down impetuously on Attica. This formidable host was met by the Athenian army under the command of Milti'ades, on the plains of Mar'athon, where the Persians were signally defeated and fled with precipita- tion to their ships. The loss of the Persians amounted to six thousand three hundred ; while the Athenian army, which did not exceed ten thousand men, lost only one hundred and ninety-two. A soldier covered with wounds ran to Athens with the news, and having only strength sufficient to say, " Rejoice I the victory is ours," fell down and expired. 4. Miltiades, the illustrious general by whose valor this great victory was gained, received the most inhuman treat- ment from his ungrateful countrymen. Being accused of treason for an unsuccessful attack on the isle of Paros, he was condemned to death ; this punishment, however, was com- muted into a fine of fifty talents.* In consequence of his being unable to pay this amount he was cast into prison, where he died in a few^ days of the wounds he received in the defence of his country. 5. The Athenians at this time were divided into two par- ties, under their respective leaders — Aristi'des, the advocate of aristocracy, and Themis' tocles, of democracy. Aristides, who on account of his integrity was called the Just, through the intrigues of his great rival was banished for ten years by the Ostracism. It happened, while the people were giving their votes for his exile, that a certain citizen, who was un- able to write, and who did not know him personally, broujGrht him a shell and asked him to write the name of Aristides upon it. " Why, what harm has Aristides ever done you ? " * About 150,000. How did Athens and Sparta treat the heralds? — 3. What is said of the first Persian fleet ? What was the number of the second fleet ? By whom was this host met ? What was the loss of the Persians? Of the Athenian army? What is said of an Athenian soldier? — 4. What is related of Miltiades, the illustrious general ? GREECE. 57 said he. "No harm at all," replied the citizen, "but I can- not bear to hear him continually called the just." Aristides smiled, and taking the shell wrote his own name upon it, and went into banishment. 6. On the death of Darius, his son Xerx'es, who succeeded to the Persian throne, resolved to prosecute the war which his father had undertaken against Greece. Having spent four years in making the necessary preparations, he collected an army, according to Herodotus, numbering over two millions of fighting men ; and including the women and retinue of at- tendants, the whole multitude is said to have exceeded five millions of persons. His fleet consisted of more than twelve hundred galleys of war, besides three thousand transports of various kinds. T. Having arrived at Mount Athos, he caused a canal, navi- gable for his largest vessels, to be cut through the isthmus which joins that mountain to the continent, and for the con- veyance of his army he ordered two bridges of boats to be extended across the HeFlespont, at a point where it measures seven furlongs in breadth. The first of these bridges was destroyed by a tempest, on which account Xerxes, in trans- ports of rage, ordered the sea to be scourged with three hundred stripes, and to be chained by casting into it a pair of fetters. The bridge being again repaired, the army com- menced its march, and occupied seven days and seven nights in passing the straits, while those appointed to conduct the march lashed the soldiers with whips, in order to quicken their speed. 8. Xerxes having taken a position on an eminence, from which he could view the vast assemblage he had collected, the plain covered with his troops, and the sea overspread with his vessels, at first called himself the most favored of mortals. But when he reflected that in the short space of a hundred years, not one of the many thousands then before him would be alive, he burst into tears, at the instability of all human things ! 9. Most of the smaller cities of Greece submitted at the de- mand of the Persian monarch ; of those which united to op- pose him, Athens and Sparta took the lead. The Persian army advanced directly towards Athens, bearing down all 6. What is said of Xerxes ? What was the number of his array ? Of his fleet? — 7. Having arrived at Mount Athos, what did he cause? — 7. What did he order? How long was the army in passing the straits? — 8. What is now related of Xerxes ? — 9. What is said of the Persian 58 GREECE. before it until it came to the pass of Thermopylae, on the east of Thes'saly. On this spot Leon'idas, one of the kin^rs of Sparta, with only six thousand men, had taken his position in order to oppose its pro.o-ress. Xerxes having arrived at this place, sent a herald to Leonidas, commanding- him te-^ards chosen by the consuls, and finally by the censors. They usually assembled three times a month, but oftener if special business required it. A decree passed by a majority of the Senate, and approved of by the Tribunes of the people, was termed a senatus con- sultum. The Senators were styled patres, or fathers, on account of their age, gravity, and paternal care of the state, and from them the patricians derived their designation. The magistrates of the Roman republic were elective, and pre- vious to their election they were called candidati, or candi- dates, from the white robe which they wore while soliciting the votes of the people. 4. The Consuls had the same badges as the Kings, with the exception of the crown ; and their authority was nearly equal, except that it was limited to one year. In dangerous conjunctures, they were clothed with absolute power by the solemn decree, " that the consuls take care that the common- wealth sustain no harm." In order to be a candidate for the consulship, the person was required to be forty-three years of age. The Praetors were next in dignity to the Consuls, What did it become? By whom was the repubhcan government overthrown ?— 2. What is said of the kings? What did they wear? By whom were they attended?— 3. Of what did the Senate consist? How often did they assemble? What was a decree termed? What were senators called ? — 4. What is said of the consuls ? In dangerous conjunctures, with what were they clothed ? What age was required ? Who were next in dig-nitv ? ROME. 135 and in their absence supplied their place ; it was their duty to preside at the assemblies of the people, and to convene the senate upon any emerg-ency. 5. The office of Censor was esteemed more honorable than that of consul, though attended with less power. There were two Censors, chosen every five years, and their most important duty was to take, every fifth year, the census of the people, after which they made a solemn lustration, or expiratory sacrifice in the Campus Martins. The Tribunes were officers, created to protect the plebeians against the pa- tricians. The Ediles were officers whose duty it was to take care of the public edifices, baths, aqueducts, roads, markets, etc. The Questors were elected by the people to take care of the public revenue. These were of two orders ; the mili- tary Questors, who accompanied the army, and took care of the payment of soldiers, and the provincial Questors, who attended the Consuls into the provinces and received the taxes and tribute. 6. The assemblies of the people, in order to elect their magistrates, or to decide concerning war or peace, and the like, were called a comitia ; of which there were three kinds, the curiata, centuriala, and the tributa. The comitia curi- ata consisted of an assembly of the resident Roman citizens, who were divided into thirty curias. The comitia centuri- ata were the principal assembly of the people, in which they gave their votes according to the census. They elected, during these comitia, the consuls, praetors, and censors ; im- portant laws were enacted, and cases of high treason were tried ; and they were held in the Campus Martins. The comitia tributa were an assembly in which the people voted in tribes, according to their regions and wards ; and thej^ were held to create inferior magistrates, to elect certain priests, etc. The comitia continued to be assembled for upwards of seven hundred years, until the time of Julius Caesar, who abridged that liberty, and shared with the people the right of creating the magistrates. Augustus infringed still further on this right, and Tiberius finally deprived the people altogether of the privilege of election. t. The Priests among the pagan Romans did not form a 5. What is said of the office of censor? Who were the tribunes? Who were the ediles? The questors? Of how many orders were they ? — 6. What was the assemblies of the people called ? Of Avhat did the comitia curiata consist? What was done at the comitia centuriata? What was the comitia tribnta f How long did they continue to assem- ble ? — 7. What is said of the priests ? 136 ROME. distinct order of the citizens, but were chosen from the most honorable men of the state. The Pontifices, fifteen in num- ber, were priests who judged all causes relating to religion, regulated the feasts, sacrifices, and all other sacred institu- tions. The Pontifex Maxinius, or High-Priest, was a person of great dignity and authority ; he held his office for life, and all other priests were subject to him. The Augurs w^ere fif- teen in number, whose duty it was to foretell future events, to interpret dreams, oracles, prodigies, etc. The Haruspices were priests, whose business it was to examine the beasts offered in sacrifice, and from them to divine the success of any enterprise, and to obtain omens of futurity. The Quincle- cemviri were fifteen priests who had the charge of the Sib'yl- line books, which were three prophetic volumes, said to con- tain the fate of the Roman empire ; they were procured from a woman of extraordinary appearance during the reign of Tarquin the Proud. The Vestal Yirgins were females, con- secrated to the worship of Yesta. 8. The Gladiators were persons who fought with weapons in the public circus or amphitheatre for the amusement of the people. These combats were introduced about four hun- dred years after the foundation of the city, and became the most favorite entertainment. The combatants were at first composed of captive slaves and condemned malefactors ; but in the more degenerate period of the empire free-born citizens, and even Senators, engaged in this inhuman and disgraceful amusement, in which numbers were destroyed. After the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles were ex- hibited for one hundred and twenty-three days, in which eleven thousand animals of different kinds were killed, and ten thousand gladiators fought. 9. The toga and the tunica were the most distinguished part of the Roman dress. The toga, or gown, worn by the Roman citizen only, was loose and flowing, and covered the whole body ; it had no sleeves, and was disposed in graceful folds, which gave the wearer a majestic appearance. The toga virilis was assumed by young men at the age of seventeen years. The tunica, or tunic, was a white woollen vest, which came down below the knees and was fastened about the waist by a girdle. The dress of the women was similar Of the Pontifices? Who was the Pontifex Maximusf The Augurs? The Haruspices ? The Quindecemviri ? The Vestal Virgins ?— 8. Who were the Gladiators? When were these combats introduced? What is said of them after the triumph of Trajan?— 9. What was the toc/af The toga virilis f The tunica ? What is said of the dress of women ? ROME. 137 to that of the men ; their tunic, however, was longer and furnished with sleeves ; they wore jewels, bracelets, rings, and various other ornaments in great profusion. Hats and caps were worn by the Romans only on journeys, or at the public games ; in the city they usually went without any covering on the head. 10. The principal meal among the Romans was their sup- per, which they took about four o'clock in the afternoon. The breakfast was not a regular meal : it was taken by each one separately and without order, and their dinner was only a slight repast. In the early ages the diet of the Romans con- sisted chiefly of milk and vegetables, and they sat upright at the table on benches ; but in the latter days of the republic, when riches were introduced by their conquests, luxury was carried to excess, and they then reclined at their meals on sumptuous couches. These couches were similar to the modern sofa, and generally intended to hold three persons. People so reclined upon them that the head of the one was opposite the breast of the other, and in serving themselves the}^ used only one hand. 11. Fathers at Rome were generally invested with the power of life and death over their children. The exposure of infants was at first somewhat frequent, but at length en- tirely ceased. Slaves constituted a large portion of the pop- ulation of Rome. Their lives were at the disposal of their masters. They were not only employed in domestic service, but also in various trades and manufactures. They were considered as mere property, and were publicly sold in the market-place ; and if capitally convicted, their punishment was crucifixion. At the feasts of Saturn and at the Ides of August the slaves were allowed great privileges, and masters at those periods waited on th^m at table. 12. The system of education among the Romans, which was in its highest state of improvement during the reign of Augustus, was much admired. The utmost attention was bestowed on the early formation of the mind and character. The Roman matrons themselves nursed their own children, and next to the care bestowed on their morals, a remarkable degree of attention seems to have been given to their lan- guage. From the earliest dawn of reason a regular course Of hats, etc.? — 10. What was the principal meal? What is said of breakfast ? In the early ages, what was the diet of the Komans ? How did they sit at table? What is said of these couches? — 11. What is said of fathers ? Of infants ? What is said of slaves? — 12. What is said of education ? Of the Roman matrons ? 12* 138 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. of discipline was pursued by some matrou of the family, and as the children grew towards manhood they were habituated to all the athletic exercises that could impart agility or grace, and fit them for the profession of arms. Eloquence and the military art were the surest road to preferment. Oratory, which led to the highest honors in the state, was the favorite study at Rome, and was taught as a science in the public schools. In this art the name of Cicero stands pre-eminent. But Roman prose-writing reaches its highest perfection in the historical works of Lwy, Caesar, and Tacitus. Poetry among the Romans, as with most of other nations, appears to have been the earliest intellectual eifort. The names that adorn the Roman drama are those of Liv'ius Andron'ictis, En'nius, Plau'tus, and CseciVius. In epic poetry, Vir'gil has excelled all other poets of ancient times, with the excep- tion of Homer. Philosophy was first taught at Rome about the end of the third Panic war, and was introduced from Greece. The system of the Stoics was at first most generally received ; the philosophy of Aristot'le was after- wards greatly cultivated ; but with the introduction of lux- ury the philosophy of Epicu'rus became fashionable. CHAPTER X. ' MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. ALL the nations of antiquity, except the Jews, were heathens and idolaters. Their system of religion was called Polytheism, as it acknowledged a plurality of gods, and they worshipped their divinities by various images called idols. The first objects of adoration among the pagan na- tions, after they had lost the correct knowledge of the true God, were the heavenly bodies. Hence we find that the names of the principal gods correspond with the names of the chief planets, such as Sat'urn, Ju'piter, Ve'nus, etc. Osi'ris and I' sis, the principal deities among the Egyptians, are supposed to have been the sun and moon. In the pro- What was pursued ? What is said of eloquence, etc. ? Of orator}' ? Of poetry? Chapter X. — 1. What were all the nations of antiquity? What was their system called? What were the first objects of adoration? Vv^hat do we find ? In the process of time, what did they do ? MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 139 cess of time, they built temples to the heavenly bodies, as being subordinate agents of the divine power, and by wor- shipping them, they supposed they would obtain the favor of the Deity. From this they descended to the worship of ob- jects on the earth, as they were thought to represent the stars or the Deity. Thus idolatry arose shortly after the Deluge. 2. In the course of time, adoration was bestowed on those objects which were thought to confer peculiar benefits on man. Thus the Egyptians regarded the Nile as sacred, because by its inundations it fertilized the earth. Again, great heroes and persons, who, during their lives, had been benefactors to the human race, were deified after their death. From these, the ancient pagans descended to the worship of the most degrading objects, and paid divine honors to beasts, birds, insects, and even to vegetables, such as leeks and onions ; moreover, temples were dedicated to evil demons and the most debasing passions. 3. The Babylonians adored the heavenly bodies, and among them Jupiter was worshipped, under the name of Begins, to whom magnificent temples were erected at Baby- lon. The Ca'naanites and Syrians worshipped Ba'al, Tarn'- muz, Ma'gog, and As'tarte. Mo'loch was the Saturn of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, to whom human victims, particularly children, were immolated. Baal-peor was the idol of the Mo'abites ; his rites were degrading and cruel. Da'gon was the chief god of the Philistines ; his figure was a compound of a man and a fish. Among the Celts, the sacred rites were performed in groves dedicated to their gods, to whom human victims were frequently offered ; colossal images of wicker-work were filled with human criminals and consumed by fire. 4. According to the pagan theology, there were twelve chief deities engaged in the creation and government of the universe. Agreeably to this theory, Jupiter, Nep'tune, and VuVcan fabricated the world : Ce'res, Ju'no, and Dia'na animated it ; Mer'cury, Ve'nus, and ApoVlo harmonized it ; and lastly, Ves'ta, Miner' va, and Mars presided over it with a guardian power, and these twelve were called the celestial deities. 2. What did the Egyptians regard ? Why ? To what was divine honors paid ? — 3. What is said of the Babylonians ? What was Mo- loch ? Baal-peor? Dagon? Among the Celts, where were the sacred rites performed? — 4. Agreeable to this theory what is said of the world? What were these twelve called ? 140 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. Jupiter, who was represented as supreme, and styled the father of the gods and men, was the son of Saturn and Cyh'ele, and was born on Mount Ida, in Crete. He deposed his father, and divided the world between himself and his two brothers, Neptune and Pluto. Neptune had the juris- diction over the sea, and Pluto that of the infernal regions ; but the sovereignty of heaven and earth he reserved to him- self. One of his chief exploits was the conquest of the Ti'tans or giants, who are said to have placed several moun- tains on each other, in order to scale the heavens. He is generally represented as a majestic personage, seated upon a throne, with a sceptre in one hand and thunderbolts in the other. The heavens trembled at his nod, and he governed all things except the Fates. 5. ApoFlo was the son of Jupiter^ and Lato'na, and was born on the island of Delos. He presided over music, medi- cine, poetry, the fine arts, and archery. For his offence in killing the Cy'clops, he was banished from heaven, and obliged to hire himself as a shepherd to Adme'tus, King of Thessaly, in which employment he remained for nine years. His exploits are represented as extraordinary ; among others he caused Mi'das to receive a pair of asses' ears, for pre- ferring Pan''s music to his; he turned into a violet the beautiful boy Hyacinth, whom he accidentally killed ; and changed Daph'ne into a laurel. 6. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was the god of war, and the patron of all that is cruel and furious ; the horse, the wolf, the magpie, and vulture were offered to him. During the Trojan war. Mars was wounded by Diome'des^ and retreating to heaven, he complained to Jupiter that Mi- nerva had directed the weapon of his antagonist. He is represented as an old man, armed and standing in a chariot drawn by two horses, called Fright and Terror. His sister Bello'na was his charioteer. Discord went before him in a tattered garment with a torch, Anger and Clamor followed. T. Mer'cury, the son of Jupiter and Mai' a, was the mes- senger of the gods, and the patron of travellers, shepherds, orators, merchants, thieves, and dishonest persons. He was doubtless some enlightened person, in a remote age, who, on What is Jupiter styled ? What did he do ? What is one of his chief exploits ? How is he represented ? — 5. Who was Apollo ? Over what did he preside ? From where was he banished ? What were his ex- ploits ? — 6. Who was Mars ? Of what was he the god ? During the Trojan war what is said of him ? How is he represented ? — 7. What was Mercury? MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 141 account of his actions and services, was worshipped after his death. He seems to have been the first who taught the arts of civilization. VuKcan, the son of Jupiter and Juno, was the g-od of fire, and the patron of those who wrought in the metallic arts. He was kicked out of heaven by Jupiter, for attempting to deliver his mother from a chain by which she was suspended. He continued to descend for nine successive da3^s and nights, and at length fell upon the isle of Lemnos, but was crippled by the fall. He was the artificer of heaven, and forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter, also the arms of the gods. 8- Juno, styled the queen of heaven, was both the sister and wife of Jupiter. In her character she was haughty, jealous, and inexorable. In her figure she was lofty, grace- ful, and majestic. Iris, displaying the rich colors of the rainbow, was her usual attendant. Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, was the most accom- plished of all the goddesses, and the only divinity that seems equal to Jupiter. She is said to have instructed man in the arts of shipbuilding, navigation, spinning, and weaving. Her worship was universally established, but at Athens it claimed particular attention. The owl was sacred to her. Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter of Jupiter and Dio'ne, or, as some say, she sprurfg from the foam of the sea. Her worship was licentious in a high de- gree, and attended with the most disgraceful ceremonies. Dia'na was the queen of the woods and the goddess of hunting. She devoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and was attended by eighty nymphs. The poppy was sacred to her. 9. Ce'res, the daughter of Saturn and Cyhele, was the goddess of corn and harvest, and the first who taught the cultivation of the earth. The Eleusin'ian Mysteries were celebrated in her honor. Yesta was the goddess of fire and the guardian of houses. She was represented in a long flowing robe, a veil on her head, a lamp in one hand, and a javelin in the other. 10. Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was the second in What did he teach ? Who was Vulcan ? What is said of him ? What did he forge ? — 8. What was Juno ? What was she in her char- acter? In her figure? What was Minerva? What is said of her? What was sacred to her? Who was Venus ? What is said of her wor- ship? Who was Diana? — 9. Who was Ceres? What were celebrated in her honor ? What was Vesta ? How was she represented ? — 10. What was Neptune ? 142 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. rank among the gods, and reigned over the sea. He is rep- resented seated on a chariot drawn by dolphins and sea- horses ; in his hand he holds a trident or sceptre, with three prongs. Oce'anus, a sea god, was called the father of rivers. Tri'ton, also a marine deity, was the son of Neptune and Amphritite ; he was his father's companion and trumpeter. Ne'reus, a sea god, the son of Oceanus, was the father of fifty daughters, who were called Nereides. Pro'tevs, the son of Oceanus, could foretell future events, and change himself into any shape. 11. The infernal deities were Pluto and his consort Pros' - erpine, Plii'tus, Cha'ron, the Furies, Fates, and the three judges, Mi'nos, uE'acus, and Rhadaman'thus. Pluto, who exercised dominion over the infernal regions, was the brother of Jupiter. The goddesses all refusing to marry him, on account of his deformity and gloomy disposition, he seized upon Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, in Sicily, opened a passage through the earth, and carried her to his residence ; and having married her made her queen of hell. There were no temples raised to his honor. Plutus, an infernal deity, was the god of riches ; he was lame, blind, injudicious, and timorous. 12. Cha'ron was the ferryman who conducted the ghosts across the river Le'the, on their way to Pluto's regions. He is represented as an old man, with white hair, a long beard, and garments deformed with filth, and remarkable for the harshness of his speech and ill temper. None could enter Charon's boat if they had not received a regular burial; without this, they were supposed to wander a hundred years amidst the mud and slime of the shore. Each ghost paid a small brass coin for his fare. 13. The Furies were three in number, namely : Alec' to, Tisiph'one, and Megse'ra. They had the faces of women, but their looks were full of terror — they held lighted torches in their hands, and snakes lashed their necks and shoulders. Their office was to punish the crimes of wicked men, and to torment the consciences of secret ofi'enders. The Fates were three daughters of Jupiter and Themis. Their names were Clo'tho, Lach'esis, and At'ropos. They How is she represented ? Who was Oceanns ? Triton ? Nereus ? Pro- teus?— 11. Name the infernal deities. What is said of Pluto? Who was Plutus ? What was he ?— 1 2. Who was Charon ? How is he rep- resented ? What is said of those who did not receive a regular burial ? —13. Name the Furies. What had they? What was their office? Name the Fates. MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 143 decided on the fortunes of mankind. Clotho drew the thread of life. Lachesis turned the wheel ; and Atropos cut it with her scissors. The duty of the three judges was to assign the various punishments of the wicked, adapted to their crimes, and to place the good in the delightful realms of Elys'ium. 14. There were many other divinities of various charac- ters, such as Bac'chus, Cupid, the Muses, the Graces, etc. Bacchus, the son of Jupiter and Semele, was the god of wine. His festivals were celebrated by persons of both sexes, who dressed themselves in skins, and ran shouting through the hills and country places ; these solemnities were attended with the most disgusting scenes of intoxication and debauchery. The fir, the fig-tree, ivy, and vine were sacred to him. Cupid, representing the passion of love, was a beautiful winged boy ; often with a bandage over his eyes, also with a bow and arrow in his hand, with which to wound the hearts of mortals. The Muses were nine in number, namely : Calli'ope, who presided over eloquence and heroic and epic poetry ; Clio presided over history ; Er'ato was the Muse of elegiac and lyric poetry ; Euter'pe presided over music ; Melpom'ene was the inventress and muse of tragedy ; Polyhym'nia was the muse of singing and rhetoric; Terpsich'ore presided over dancing ; Thali'a, the muse of pastoral and comic poetry ; and Ura'nia, who presided over hymns and sacred subjects ; and also the muse of astronomy. 15. The Graces were the three daughters of Bacchus and Venus. They were supposed to give to beauty all its charms of attraction. Besides these, there were several rural deities, such as Pan, the god of shepherds and hunters ; Sylva'nus, who presided over the woods ; -Fria'pus, the god of the gardens ; Ter'minus, who was considered as watching over the boundaries of land, and others. The Si'rens were three fabulous persons, who are said to have had the faces of women, and the lower parts of their bodies like a fish. They had such melodious voices that mariners were often allured and destroyed by them. The What did each one do ? What was the duty of the judo^es ?— 14. Name some of the other divinities. What was Bacchus ? What is said of his festivals ? What is said of Cupid ? What was the number of the Muses, and over what did they preside?— 15. Who were the Graces? What was Pan? Sylvanus? Priapus? Terminus? What were the Sirens ? 144 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. Gor'gons were three sisters, who are said to have had the power of transforming those into stones who looked upon them. The Har'pies were winged monsters, which had the face of a woman, the body and wings of a vulture, claws on the hands and feet, and the ears of a bear. 16. The objects of worship among the ancient nations, particularly among the Greeks and Romans, are said to have amounted to thirty thousand. To these temples were erected, festivals instituted, games celebrated, and sacrifices offered, with a greater or less degree of pomp, according to the de- gree of estimation in which the deity was held. The most celebrated temples of antiquity were those of Dia'na at Eph'esus, of Apollo, in the city of Mile'tus, of Ceres and Proserpine, at JEleusis, and that of Jupiter Olympus, and the Parthenon of Minerva, at Athens. The famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the world, was completed two hundred and twenty years after its foun- dation. It was four hundred and twenty-five feet in length, and two hundred in breadth : the roof was supported by one hundred and twenty-seven columns, sixty feet high, placed there by so many kings. This temple was burnt on the night that Alexander the Great was born, by ErosHratus, who alleged that he perpetrated the deed merely for the pur- pose of immortalizing his name in destroying so magnificent a building. n. Oracles were consulted, particularly by the Greeks and Romans, on all important occasions, and their determi- nations were held sacred and inviolable. The most cele- brated oracles were those of Apollo, at Delphi and Belos ; the oracles of Jupiter, at Dodo'na; and that of Tropho'- nius, where future events were made known to those who sought to know the will of the gods. The responses were generally delivered by a priestess, who was supposed to be divinely inspired ; but usually in verse, and couched in very am-biguous language, so that one answer would agree with various and sometimes opposite events. It must, however, be confessed that sometimes the answers of the oracles were substantially correct, a fact which is proved by many pas- sages in ancient history ; but it is a question among the learned, whether the answers of the oracles should be ascribed The Gorgons? The Harpies?— 16. What was the number of objects of worship ? Name the most celebrated temples. What is said of the temple of Diana at Ephesus? By whom was it burnt? — 17. What is said of Oracles? Which were the most celebrated? How were the responses given? What is a question among the learned? MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 145 to the operations of demons, or only to the imposture of men. The best established opinion is, that demons were the real agents in the oracles, although we find many instances in Grecian history where the Delphic priestess suffered herself to be corrupted by presents, and gave an answer to suit the will or to gratify the passions or inclinations of those who came to consult her. 18. There is one fact, however, deserving of notice, namely, that the responses of the oracles ceased when the Christian religion began to be preached — not on a sudden, but in pro- portion as its salutary doctrines became known to mankind. Tertul'lian, in one of his apologies, challenges the pagans to make the experiment, and consents that a Christian should be put to death if he did not oblige the oracles to confess themselves 'devils. Lactan'tius informs us that every Chris- tian could silence the oracles only by making the Sign of the Cross. When Julian, the Apostate, went to Daphne, near Antioch, to consult Apollo, the god, notwithstanding all the sacrifices offered to him, continued mute, and only recovered his speech to answer those who inquired the cause of his silence, and ascribed it to the interment of certain Christian bodies in the neighborhood. 19. The ancients generally inculcated the belief in a future state of existence, believing that the virtuous would be happy in Elysium, or Paradise, and that the wicked would be miserable in Tar'tariis, or Hell. Of hell, they drew the most gloomy and horrible picture. It was a place where men, who had been remarkable for their crimes while on earth, were punished with a variety of tortures. On the other hand, the prospect of Elysium was described as beau- tiful and inviting in the highest degree. In that delightful region there was no inclement weather, but mild winds con- stantly blew from the ocean to refresh the inhabitants, who lived without care or anxiety; the sky was perpetually serene, and the fertile earth produced, twice a year, delicious fruit in abundance. • What is the best established opinion? — 18. What fact deserves no- tice? Of what does Lactantins inform us? What is related of Julian? — 19. Of what did the ancients inculcate the belief? Of hell, what pic- ture did they draw ? How was Elysium described ? 13 K MODERN HISTORY. BOOK V. YARIOUS periods have been adopted by different his- torians for the commencement of Modern History. Some have chosen the establishment of the Western Empire, under Charlemagne, a. d. 800 ; others again have taken the downfall of the Western Empire of the Romans, a. d. 476, while the majority assume the commencement of the Chris- tian era. That portion of Modern History styled the Middle Ages, will first claim our attention. CHAPTER I. THE MIDDLE AGES. THE period intervening between the fall of the Western Empire of the Romans to the destruction of the Eastern Empire is usually called the Middle Ages,* and by some bigoted authors, the Dark Ages. The great majority of writers in our language unjustly represent Europe, during those ages, as sunk in ignorance and barbarism. How far they are correct in their estimate, we leave for the student to judge, after giving a summary view of these ages sepa- rately. 2. The Sixth Century. — During the early part of the pre- ceding century the Roman Empire of the West had been * Some historians regard the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries only as the Middle Ages. Chapter T. — 1. What period has been denominated the Middle Ages ?— 2. What is said of the early part of the preceding century ? HG THE MIDDLE AGES. 147 rapidly on the decline, until its final overthrow in the year 476. The invasion of the northern hordes of Goths, Van- dals, and Huns, under Alaric, Attila, and other leaders, had> swept from the face of Italy almost every trace of civiliza- tion, and planted on its once fertile plains a wild and savage race of barbarians. Under the oppressive reign of Anasta'- sius in the East, insurrections prevailed in the provinces, and sedition at Constantinople itself. The Empire was as- sailed from without by the Persians, Bulgarians, Arabians, and the barbarous tribes from the North. Under his suc- cessors, Jus'tin and Justin'ian, an uninterrupted series of war continued to rage in different parts of the Empire. Italy and the West had been severed from it towards the close of the preceding century. After a long and sanguinary con- test, during which Rome was repeatedly taken and retaken by the contending powers, Italy was again reconquered by Belisa'rius and Nar'ses, the generals of Justinian. 3. In Gaul, the Burgundians, Franks, and Visigoths were almost incessantly at war. In Africa and in Spain, the Goths and Vandals were constantly engaged in civil broils with each other, or at war with the Romans ; and England, during the whole of this century, struggled for its liberty with the Saxons, Jutes, and Angles, who eventually estab- lished their empire in the island, called the Hep'tarchy. In this violent and general confusion that prevailed throughout Christendom, we may easily infer what must have been the decay of science and literature. The rude barbarians, who had subjugated nations more polished than themselves, were indebted only to their courage for success, and valued no other arts than those of managing, with effect, the buckler and the sword. Literature and the fine arts they esteemed below the notice of warriors who had subdued the kingdoms of the West. Whatever of learning survived the wreck of barbarian devastation found an asylum in the monastic in- stitutions, and in those towns where a bishop held his resi- dence, at which a school of literature and theology was usually established. 4. Among the writers of the sixth century, the following names are eminently distinguished : St. Gregory the Great, What had the invasion, etc., swept from the face of Italy ? What prevailed in the East ? Under Justin and Justinian, what continued ? What is said of Italy?— 3. What prevailed in Gaul? In Africa and Spain ? In England ? In this violent confusion, what may we infer ? What is said of the rude barbarians? Where did learning find an asy- lum? — 4. Name some of the distinguished writers of the sixth century. 148 THE MIDDLE AGES. Pope ; St. Csesa'rius, Archbishop of Aries ; Bvag'rius the Syrian, an ecclesiastical historian; St. Fulgen'tius, an African bishop ; St. Gregory of Tours, who in ten books wrote the History of the Franks ; and also St. John Climac'us. 5. The Seventh Century. — At the commencement of this century, Pho'cas, a tyrant possessed of almost every vice that can inflict disgrace on humanity, without a redeeming virtue, occupied the throne at Constantinople, While he amused himself with the oppression of his subjects, the bar- barians overrun the provinces of the empire, and filled them with carnage and desolation. Under the reign of Herac'lius, his successor, the state was delivered from external foes ; he wrested the provinces from the hands of the Persians, and spread the terror of his arms over the East. But his vast dominions had been depopulated by the continual wars which the empire had to sustain against the ravages of the barba- rians, and by the absolute and arbitrary power of cruel and avaricious governors, while that portion of his subjects which still remained groaned under the weight of oppression. 6. Such was the state of things when Mahometanism rose, and swept like an impetuous torrent over the countries of the East, bearing down before it every monument of art and every trace of civilization. As the conquerors of the West had formerly esteemed no other arts than those of arms, so the new race of ignorant warriors in the East, equally blind to the advantages which science bestows, in the first trans- ports of success destroyed every trace of literature and every vestige of art. Such was the rapidity of their conquests, that before the end of this century they had established their dominion over Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, and Egypt. After the taking of Alexandria, the celebrated library of that city, containing from five to seven hundred thousand volumes, was consigned to the flames. t. The flame of war still continued to rage on the plains of Italy, where the restless Lombards resisted every effort of the Eastern emperors to reestablish their authority. France was portioned out into provinces, nominally gov- erned by kings, who abandoned themselves to the pursuit of pleasure, and indulged in effeminacy and sloth, and left the administration of the government to a minister, styled 5. Who now occupied the throne of Constantinople? Under the reign of Heraclius, what was done ? — 6. In this state of things, what arose ? What did the new race of warriors do ? After the taking of Alexandria, what was done? — 7. Where did the flame of war still con- linue ? What is said of France ? THE MIDDLE AGES. 149 the Mayor of the palace. Spain was in a state of anarchy and civil broils. No less than fourteen kings reigned in that country during this century, and of this number one- half were dethroned, or fell by the hand of some unprincipled usurper. The general state of literature and polite arts continued to decline during this century. While religious fanaticism in the East had absorbed all the faculties of the human mind, in the West continual and sanguinary wars had left but little leisure for the cultivation of science and letters. 8. The Eighth Century. — The empire of the Ca'liphs con- tinued to spread, and by the beginning of this century it extended from Canton, in China, to the southern extremity of Spain. The Emperors of Constantinople, during this period, without attending to the disorders of the state, labored industriously either to enforce some erroneous doc- trine regarding faith, or more laudably to restore tranquillity to the Church. Philip'picus was scarcely seated on the throne when he turned his whole attention towards the estab- lishment of Mon'otheism. Leo, the Isau'rian, and Constan- tine, his successor, were equally industrious in prohibiting the veneration paid to sacred images in the churches, while the Empress Irene zealously labored to reestablish it. The edicts of Leo against sacred images caused not only com- motion in the East, but also produced insurrections in Italy, which the Lombards turned to their own advantage. 9. Under their king, Astol'phus, they possessed them- selves of the exarchate of Raven'na, which, until this period, had remained under the dominion of the Eastern emperors, and subsequently undertook the conquest of Rome. When the imperial city was reduced to the last extremit}^. Pope Zach'ary applied for aid to Pep'in, the son of Charles Mar- tel'. That hardy and enterprising prince readily responded to the call, hastened to Italy, delivered Rome and its terri- tories from the power of the Lombards ; and with a noble generosity bestowed the territory thus acquired by his arms on the Sovereign Pontiff, and raised the head of the Chris- tian Church to the rank of a temporal ruler. 10. Literature, at the early part of this century, was still in the utmost depression; but the flame which had been Of Spain? What is said of the state of literature '^—8. What is said of the empire of the caliphs ? Of the emperors of Constantinople ? Oi Philippicus? Of Leo? — 9. To whom did Pope Zachary apply for aid ? What did Pepin do ?— 10. What is said of literature at the early part of this century? 13* 150 THE MIDDLE AGES. almost extinguished began once more to revive in the East. At the birth of Mahometanism, the Mussulmen declared war indiscriminately against all who refused to embrace their superstitions, and death was the usual portion of the van- quished. But after the first transports of their enthusiasm had subsided, they mitigated the cruelty of this impolitic measure, and for fear of changing their conquered territories into one vast wilderness of desolation, they granted a kind of toleration of all religions, with the exception of gross idolatry. This indulgence caused many who had not lost all taste for the arts and sciences to settle in the dominion of the Caliphs, During the reign of Oramiades and his im- mediate successor, Almanzor, every encouragement was given to letters and learned men. Thus, w^hile the Emperors of Constantinople were wholly employed in compelling their subjects to adopt their own respective innovations in religion, the Saracen Caliphs were endeavoring to diflFuse a taste for science throughout their dominions. 11. In France the arts and sciences, which had taken refuge in the monasteries, were, during the early part of this century, banished from these sacred asylums. The con- tinued hostilities in which the country was involved filled every place with tumult and devastation. Ecclesiastical property was distributed among favorite chieftains, who, instead of providing for the subsistence of a competent num- ber of clergy to serve the churches, filled the monasteries with their soldiery ; and the monks and clergymen, thus compelled to live with the military, gradually imbibed their spirit. Ignorance and vice, as a natural consequence, became almost general, not only in France, but also throughout the continent of Europe, towards the middle of this century. Ireland and England w^ere almost exclusively the seats of learning during this period. 12. Fortunately for the cause of literature, Charlemagn'e at this time was called to fill the throne of France. This illustrious prince formed the noble design of removing the barriers which prevented the diffusion of knowledge, and of furnishing his subjects with the means of instruction. He established schools in all the principal cities and towns, What did the Mussulmen declare? After the first transports, what did they mitigate ? What did this indulgence cause? — 11. In France, what is said of the arts, etc. ? What is said of the monks and clerical men ? Of ignorance and vice? Of Ireland, etc.?— 12. Who was called to the throne of France ? What is said of this prince ? W^hat did he establish ? THE MIDDLE AGES. 151 throughout his vast dominions, for the gratuitous education of children and the ignorant ; he exhorted the bishops and abbots again to establish schools and universities in their respective cathedrals and abbe3^s, for the laudable purpose of teaching the liberal arts and sciences ; and invited into France the most celebrated schojars of the age ; such as Al'cuin, of York, Clement, and others, who were employed with considerable success in the literary regeneration of Europe. 13. The Ninth Century. — The Saracen Caliphs continued to patronize learning, particularly the science of astronomy. This produced a great number of proficients in that beautiful and eminently useful branch of knowledge. Many also ap- plied themselves to the study of judicial astrology, while others distinguished themselves in various other departments of literature. On the contrary, under the Greek Emperors, the liberal arts were much neglected and despised. Leo, the Isaurian, had destroyed everything favorable to literature, and learned men were consigned to oblivion and contempt. 14. Towards the middle of this century, however, we find a taste for literature manifest itself again among the Greeks. It was owing to the efforts of Am on, the Saracen Caliph, to attract Leo, the Philosopher, to his court, that the Emperor Theoph'ilus discovered the treasure he possessed in that great man. He encouraged his labors, and intrusted him with the charge of the public instruction. Bardes, who gov- erned under the Emperor Michael, undertook, with the aid of Pho'tius, to revive learning in the Eastern Empire by establishing professors of the various sciences and polite arts, and attaching to their functions honorary privileges and pecuniary compensations. 15. In the West, sacred and profane learning continued to flourish in the numerous schools established by Charlemagne, until the dreadful disorders of succeeding reigns partially banished the light of science from the kingdom. After the death of that illustrious monarch, his vast dominions were inherited by Louis the Mild, who divided them between his three sons, who seem to have inherited none of the noble qualities of their father. They were continually engaged in hostilities with each other, while their kingdoms w^ere rent AVhat is said of Alcuin, etc. ?— 13. What is said of the Caliphs? Of the liberal arts under the Greek Emperors? — 14, Towards the middle of this century, what do Ave find? What did Bardes undertake? — 15. In the West, what is said of learning ? In what were t*hey continually engaged ? 152 THE MIDDLE AGES, with civil discords, and their provinces were inundated on every side by the irruption of the Danes, Nor'mans, and Sar'acens. 16. Amidst the evils that ensued, we are not surprised that ignorance again prevailed, particularly among the no- bles, who, following exclusively the profession of arms, had but little time to attend to literary pursuits, and even boasted of their want of knowledge. Hence we find that many of the deeds and legal documents of this period terminated in the following words: ''And the aforesaid lord has declared that he did not know how^ to sign his name, owing to his being a nobleman." But while literature was neglected on the part of the nobility, the most strenuous efforts were made to keep alive the sacred flame of science, and to diffuse instruction among the people, by the clergy and prelates of the Church. By a reference to the decrees of the Councils, during this period, it will be seen that the Bishops were un- remitting in their zeal for the extension of knowledge. In the Council of Toul, held in 859, princes and bishops are earnestly recommended to establish public schools, for the purpose of teaching sacred science and polite literature. In all the monasteries and episcopal houses, schools were estab- lished, in which a relish for study and literary acquirements was carefully preserved. Besides the study of the Sacred Scriptures, the students in these institutions were taught w^hat was termed the seven liberal arts ; namely, gram- mar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. 1*7. In England the incursions of the Danes and the rav- ages of civil war had erased almost every monument of art, and banished from the land every trace of learning. The monasteries were burned, the monks murdered or dispersed, the libraries and schools destroyed. Ignorance and vice nec- ervsarily followed. Happily for the island, at this moment of its greatest depression, Alfred the Great w^as called to the throne. Having delivered his country from the dominion of the Danes, and driven the barbarous invaders from his shores, he turned his whole attention towards repairing the evils which their ravages had caused. 16. Amidst the evils that ensued, what is said? How were many of the documents of this period written? By whom were the most strenu- ous efforts made ? In the Council of Toul, Avhat was recommended ? In the monasteries, what were established ? What were the students taught ? — 17. In England, what had the incursions of the Danes erased? Who was called to the throne ? To what did he turn hi& attention ? THE MIDDLE AGES. 153 18. To effect this object he established throughout his dominions schools, in which were taught all the useful branches. He founded the University of Oxford, invited from foreign countries men eminent for their learning, en- couraged architecture, and laid the foundation of the British navy, which for so many centuries after ruled the empire of the sea. To this illustrious Catholic prince, England is in- debted for many of the valuable laws which at present form the fairest feature in her constitution. Although this age was not productive of many eminent scholars, still it has left behind it a few names that would do honor to literature even at this day. Lu'pus, Abbot of Fer- rieres, a writer of this century, is admitted b}^ all impartial critics to have been a man of profound erudition, and few ages can boast of a more distinguished scholar than Alfred the Great, of England. 19. The Tenth Century. — The Greek Empire, during this age, was distracted by a sei'ies of revolts and unnatural con- spiracies. The Emperor, Romanus, was dethroned by his son Constantino. Constantine, in his turn, was deprived of his crown and life by his own ungrateful son, who, at the instigation of his wife, administered a cup of poison to his royal father. The parricide did not long enjoy the fruits of his impiety. The army declared their General, Niceph'orus, Emperor, who, after a short reign, was carried off by the hand of conspiracy, in order to make room for Zimis'ces. This last emperor fell a victim to the treachery of his chief minister, Bas'il, who, dreading the punishment which his crimes had merited, contrived the death of his sovereign. 20. During these revolutions of the state literature was not entirely neglected ; some of the Emperors gave consid- erable encouragement to science, and invited from other countries men of talents to teach at Constantinople. We do not, however, find that the Greek Empire, during the tenth century, produced any distinguished Avriters. Learn- ing was still patronized by the Saracen Caliphs and by the Sultans, who had usurped a great part of their authority. Many of their learned men were employed in translating into the Ar'abic tongue the writings of the ancient philoso- phers, while others applied themselves with much diligence 18. To effect this object, what did he do? Who was a writer of this age? — 19. What is said of the Greek Empire during this age? Of Eo- manus ? — 20. During these revolutions, what was the state of literature ? By whom was learning still patronized ? In what were their learned men employed ? 154 THE MIDDLE AGES. to the study of the translations already set forth in the pre- ceding age. 21. Italy, during this century, was greatly distracted by civil dissensions, and finally reunited to the Germanic Em- pire by Otho I. France was exposed to the incursions of the Normans, in whose favor Charles the Simple ceded a part of Neus'tria, which from them was called Normandy. Tumult and disorder continued to convulse the state until Hugh Cap'et was raised to the throne. The Feudal System, during this period, had risen to its greatest power. During the preceding century the vassals of the crown had been gradually increas- ing in power, so that at the present period we find them pos- sessed of almost unlimited authority. Each nobleman had his fortress and his castle, situated on some commanding eminence which overlooked the surrounding countr}". Here, secure from violence, he oppressed the people, laid all travel- lers and merchants under contributions, and imposed upon them arbitrary tolls by way of tribute, and not unfrequently set at defiance the authority of his sovereign. 22. In Germany the same state of things prevailed. The nobles were continually in arms against each other or at war wdth the sovereign. Nor was England more favored than the nations on the continent ; it was either harassed by new incursions of the Danes or implicated in domestic feuds. The monasteries during these evil times were almost the only asylums of learning. Here, in the silence of the cloister, aloof from the turmoil of the camp, the peaceful monks con- tinued to cultivate a taste for science and classical literature. This century produced several men eminent for their talents ; among these St. Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne, and St. Dun'- stan, in England, were particularly distinguished. 23. The Eleventh Century. — In the Eastern Empire, dur- ing the greater part of this century, treachery, poison, and parricide were the usual means employed in the advancement or deposition of an Emperor. Hence we may easily form an idea of the disorders of the government and the deplorable condition of the people, who were, moreover, daily exposed to the incursions of the Bulgarians, Saracens, and Turks. The arts and sciences were wholly neglected until towards the middle of the century, when the study of letters began 21. What is said of Italy? Of France? Of the Feudal System? What had each nobleman ? What did he do ? — 22. In Germany Avhat prevailed? What is said of England? Of the monasteries during these times ? What did this century produce ? — 23. What is said of the Eastern Empire during this century ? Of the arts, etc. ? THE MIDDLE AGES. 155 again to revive. Grammar and philosophy, however, were cultivated with much care. 24. Literature continued to meet with patronage among the Saracens, who, after subjecting Persia, Syria, and Pales- tine, granted protection to learned men and founded several academies. The extraordinary power exercised by the Sov- ereign Pontiffs, even over temporal princes, during this and several succeeding centuries, is no doubt a matter of surprise to the reader at the present day. Of this subject I will speak more at large under the head of Italy ; suffice it to say, at present, that this power, invested in the Pope, although it may appear derogatory to the rights of princes, had, never- theless, a salutary influence in correcting the abuses of the times and of restraining the lawless passions of sovereigns. Fewer acts of violence were committed, the churches and monasteries were more respected, order and discipline better observed ; the sciences were cultivated in peace ; public acad- emies were opened for all who wished to improve ; the schools were crowded with students full of noble emulation, which ^diffused itself through all ranks and conditions of life. 25. During the eleventh century the method of Alcuin was adopted in the schools under the name of Triv'ium and Quadriv'ium. The Trivium included grammar, logic, and dialectics, while arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music constituted the Quadriviiim. But as the number of scholars multiplied, the works of Aristot'le and Av'iyen'na, with the categories attributed to St. Augustine, were very generally studied in the West. The most remarkable event towards the close of this century was the commencement of the Crusades, or sacred wars undertaken for the recovery of Palestine from the dominion of the Turks, a. d. 1096. This century, with the latter part of the preceding, was distin- guished for several important and useful inventions.* 26. The Twelfth Century. — At the commencement of this century anarchy and confusion reigned in the East. The new states which the Christians had established in Palestine were * See Chronological Table. What is said of grammar ? — 24. Where did literature still meet with patronage? What will no doubt be a subject of surprise? What is observed of this power? What is said of the sciences? Of public acad- emies ? — 25. During the eleventh century, what method was adopted in the schools? What did the Trivium include? What constituted the Quadrixmim ? As the number of scholars multiplied, what was studied in the West ? What was the most remarkable event of this century ? — 26. At the commencement of this century, what reigned in the East ? 156 THE MIDDLE AGES. subjects of continual war ; the Sultans were constantly in the field, to arrest the progress of the Crusaders. The Em- perors of Constantinople, unable to repel the invasion of the Saracens, and jealous of the success of the Crusaders, tampered with both, without being able to take advantage either of their victories or defeats. The state of literature, notwithstanding the unfavorable aspect of things, was gradually improving. In the midst of the confusion of war, the Caliphs and Sultans, being gener- ally men of learning, paid much attention to the advancement of science. The schools and academies estabUshed through- out the Mussulman Empire were highly flourishing. 2t. The Greeks were somewhat improved from their fre- quent intercourse with the Saracens. The emulation which had been excited in the West during the preceding century, the patronage of princes, combined with the propagation of the Religious Orders of Citeaux, Cluni, and the Carthusians, greatly multiplied the number of schools and academies. Every abbey and almost every monastery was an institu- tion for the diffusion of literary and religious knowledge^ The art of writing was cultivated with greater application and success during this than at any former period ; and the manuscripts which have descended to the present time are standing monuments of the exquisite perfection to which that art was carried during the twelfth and following centuries. The University of Padua and that of Paris were founded about the year 1180. The writers of this age most deserving of notice are the great St. Bernard, Peter, Abbot of Cluni, Peter of Blois, and Pope Innocent III. 28. The Thirteenth Century.— The East, at the beginning of this century, was occupied by the Mo'guls, Saracens, and Turks, among whom an almost uninterrupted series of wars continued to rage. Genghis-Khan and his successors reduced a considerable portion of the Saracen and Turkish Empires ; while the princes of the West took Constantinople, and estab- lished there a Latin Emperor, whose successors swayed the Greek sceptre until the middle of this age. The Greek Em- perors, after their restoration, were continually harassed by the Turks, who finally reduced a considerable portion of the Grecian provinces. What is said of the Sultans ? Of the Emperors of Constantinople ? Of the state of literature? Of schools, etc.?— 27. What is said of the Greeks? What did the emulation, etc., do? What is said of the art of writing ? What universities were founded ? Who were writers of this age?— 28. What is said of the East ? What did tlie princes of the West do? THE MIDDLE AGES. 157 29. In the West, Germany was convulsed by the factions of competitors for the empire. Otho was at length acknowl- edged by the people, and crowned by Pope Innocent III., after a solemn promise to protect the patrimony of the Pon- tiif. The Emperor, however, on account of some disagree- ment with the Romans, proceeded to avenge himself by in- vading and ravaging the territories of the Church. Upon this he was deposed by a Council assembled by the Pope, while the princes of Germany elected Frederick II. in his place. Otho was not disposed to yield without a contest, and thus involved the empire in all the horrors of civil war. Frederick was finally successful ; and the death of his rival left him in quiet possession of the throne. 30. France was either involved in hostilities with England, or engaged in a calamitous warfare with the Albigen'ses, who had desolated her southern provinces. Consequently, the West was still the theatre of discord and civil dissension. Science was still patronized by the Moguls, and learning continued to flourish throughout their vast empire ; while, on the other hand, the conquests of the Turks had greatly tended to retard it within the limits of their jurisdiction. Some few men of learning flourished among the Greeks, but most of their eff'orts were made in vain attempts to justify their schism, and to refute the writings of the Latin theo- logians. In the West, science, which had been hitherto chiefly confined to the abbeys and monasteries, now burst forth from its confinement, and enlightened by its rays the whole face of Europe. The great Universities of Naples, Vienna, Sala- manca, Cambridge, and Lisbon, institutions of which Europe is proud at the present day, were founded during this cen- tury. Among the scholars of this age the following were the most distinguished : Roger Bacon, an eminent English monk and philosopher ; Matthew Paris, an accurate English historian, also distinguished as an orator and a poet; the names of Alber'tus Mag'nus, St. Bonaventure, and St. Thomas Aqui'nas stand preeminent as writers on philosophy and theology.* 31. The Fourteenth Century. — The fourteenth century be- * See Biography of Eminent Personages, at the close of this volume, for sketches of Si. Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, and Alhertus Magnus. 29. In the West, what was Germany ? Wiiat did the emperor do ? What was done by the council ? What was the result of the civil war ? — 30. What is said of France? What is said of science in the West? What universities were founded? Who were the most distinguished scholai-s of this age? — 31. What did this century behold? 14 158 THE MIDDLE AGES. held the rise and progress of the savage and warlike nation of Ottomans, who were destined, at a future period, to de- stroy the last vestige of Roman power. Hitherto the con- quest of the Turks had been confined to Asia, but under their celebrated chief, Or'can, they crossed the straits of Constantinople, and carried their victorious arms into the plains of Europe ; they took several important towns, and finally made the city of Adriano'ple the seat of their empire. The Greek Emperors, alarmed at the progress of the Turks, and feeling sensibly the want of supjiort from the West, used the most strenuous efforts to effect the reunion of the Greek with the Latin Church ; but the long-settled prejudice of their subjects placed an insuperable barrier to all their endeavors. 32. Notwithstanding the distracted state of Christendom during the greater part of this century, occasioned by wars between England and France, Germany and Italy, and the great schism of the West, science continued to advance and to gain a liberal support in every part of Europe. Such is a concise view of the condition of society and the state of literature during that period denominated the Middle 33. A few of the most remarkable institutions which char- acterize the history of Europe and the state of society during the Middle Ages were the Feudal System, Chivalry, the Crusades, and Monastic Establishments. We shall speak of the first three under their proper heads. As centres of piety and learning, the monasteries were a blessing to the society of the Middle Ages. 34. In these excellent institutions, particularly the larger monasteries and abbeys, schools of instruction were estab- lished, in which a taste for the classics and the more useful branches of study were carefully preserved. In all, the monks had their various duties assigned them. While numbers were employed in transcribing books for the use of the Church and schools, others were engaged in teaching in the academies at- tached to these institutions, while others again were occupied in manual labor, in attending to the duties of the farm, the garden, and the like, having at the same time certain hours * For a fuller account of the Middle Ages, see Father Gazeau's History of the Middle Ages. What is said of the conquests of the Turks ? Of the Greek emperors ? — 82. What is said of literature durino^ this century? — 33. Wliat are some of the most remarkable institutions, etc. ? Which deserve a ])ass- ing notice? Wliat are they admitted? — 34. In these institutions what were established? What were the duties of the monks? SARACEN EMPIRE. 169 set apart for devotional exercises. Even at meals, one of the monks read aloud while the others were silently eating):, 35. Previous to the discovery of the art of printing-, books were extremely scarce, and only procured at an immense price ; this circumstance, of course, tended materially to re- tard the progress of science. The labor of transcribing a work was great, and the process tedious, hence the multiplication of books was extremely slow. The monasteries, however, supplied in some measure this deficiency, always employing a number of their inmates in the laudable work of transcrib- ing books. The good monks not only transcribed such books as were immediately used in the Church and schools, but also care- fully transcribed and preserved the writings of ancient authors; hence, whatever we have of ancient literature, has been chiefly transmitted to us through the medium of the moyiaderies. 36. The monks, in truth, were the teachers, the mission- aries, the printers and publishers, and the real civilizers of the Middle Ages. They converted the rude, warlike barbarian, and gradually moulded him into a Christian. They were the fathers of the poor. They were the guardians of knowledge, and taught Christian Europe how to read. From the hands of a monk England received its first book and its first library. In short, during the early and middle ages we look to the monastery for nearly all that was greatest in virtue and learning. Who can mention the names of St, Benedict, St. Columbkille, St. Gregory the Great, St. Augustine, St. Bede, St. Anselm, St. Bernard, and St. Thomas Aquinas without feelings of grateful veneration ? CHAPTER II. SARACEN EMPIRE. THE RISE OF MAHOMETAN ISM, SARACEN CONQUESTS, ETC. rpiIE Saracens were a people who inhabited the north- JL western part of Arabia. Like the other tribes of the country, they traced their descent from Ishmael, and pro- 85. Previous to the discovery of printing, what were scarce? What did 1 lie monasteries supply? What l)ooks did the monks transcribe? — 8G. What is said of the monks as teachers and civilizers? Chapter II. — 1. Who were the Saracens? 160 SARACEN EMPIRE. fessed a mixed religion, made up of Judaism and idolatry. They had but little intercourse with the neighboring nations, except when they occasionally sold their services, as mer- cenaries, to those who paid them the most liberal reward, and were usually noted for their courage and bravery. Many of the Christian sects, in order to avoid persecution, had taken refuge in Arabia, and towards the end of the sixth century Christianity prevailed in some parts of the country. 2. Such was the state of Arabia when Mahom'et or Mo- ham' med, the famous impostor, appeared. He was a native of Mec'ca, and was born about the year 5t0. At the age of forty he assumed the quality of a prophet, and pretended that he had received a divine commission to restore the Jew- ish and Christian religions, which, he maintained, had greatly fallen from their primitive purity. Upon this foundation he established his system of religion, which consisted of a com- pound of Judaism, Christianity, and of his own fanciful notions. Being subject to fits of epilepsy, he falsely attrib- uted them to the visits of the Archangel Gabriel, by whom he pretended he was taught, but whose presence he said he was unable to bear without trances and convulsions. 3. As Mahomet was a man of no education, even unable to read or write, the Ko^-an, or Alcoran, the book which con- tains the principles of his doctrine, was compiled with the assistance of a Jewish Rab'bi and a Nesto'rian monk. The Koran consists chiefly of some beautiful sentences taken from Holy Writ, Vvith a strange medley of the most absurd ideas, without connection or design, though expressed in a lofty and animated style. The two leading principles of his re- ligion were : " There is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet." He taught that others, at various times, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, had been divinely com- missioned to teach mankind, but that he himself was the last and the greatest of the prophets. 4. He propagated his religion by the sword, and stimulated the courage of his followers by the promise of a martyr's crown in a paradise of delights, to every one who should fall in battle. It was inculcated as a fundamental doctrine that, What had they? What is said of the Christian sects? — 2. When and where was Mahomet born ? What did he pretend ? Being subject to fits, to what did he attribute them? — 3. How was the Koran com- piled? Of what does the Koran chiefly consist? What were the two leading principles of his religion ? What did he teach ? — 4. How did he propagate his religion? What was inculcated as a fundamental principle ? SARACEN EMPIRE. 161 "to fight for the faith was an act of obedience to God," Hence the Mahometans styled their fierce and bloody ravages Sacred Wars. They termed their religion Islam or Islamism, and called themselves Mussulmans or Moslems, that is, true believers. Mahomet, at the commencement of his efi*orts, had but little success in making proselytes. His first converts were his wife Kadija, his slave Zeid, his father-in-law A'bubeker, and his cousin, the famous Ali. These, with ten others, were all whom he had persuaded to acknowledge the truth of his mission at the expiration of three years. 5. A popular tumult being raised against him at Mecca, he was obliged to retire in order to save his life. He fled, in disguise, to Medina. This event, called the Hegi'ra, or the Flight, forms the Mahometan era, corresponding to a. d. 622. He was received at Medi'na in triumph, and there as- sumed the sacerdotal and regal office. Shortly after this he placed himself at the head of an army of his followers, and commenced to propagate his religion, according to his maxim, by the sword. He first attacked the caravans which passed through Arabia, for the purpose of trade, and thus enriched his soldiers with the booty. Encouraged by this success, he took the city of Mecca, which he entered in triumph, about the year 629. From this period until his death he was con- stantly in the field. He fought in person nine battles, sub- dued all Arabia, extended his conquest to Syria, and after a career of victory, died at Medina, at the age of sixty-three, ten years after his flight from Mecca to that city. 6. One of the principal causes of the success which at- tended the arms of Mahomet was the inflexible severity he exercised towards the vanquished. It was his usual practice to propose to those whom he threatened with war three con- ditions, namely, the adoption of his religious system, the payment of a tribute, or an appeal to the sword. If they chose the latter, no quarter was granted to them ; only the women, the children, and aged persons were spared, and re- duced to slavery. Another cause of his success was the absolute assurance of future bliss which he held out to his What were his ravages called? What did they term themselves? Who were his first converts ? — 5. What obliged him to retire? What is this event called ? How was he received at Medina? Shortly after this, what did he do? How many battles did he fight? Where and when did he die ? — 6. What was one of the causes of his success ? What were the three conditions he proposed to those whom he threatened with war ? What was another cause of his success ? 14*' L 162 SARACEN EMPIRE. followers, whereby they were rendered equally happy, either to conquer or to die on the field of battle for the propagation of their religion. 7. Mahomet was succeeded by his father-in-law, A'bu- beker, a man of great repute among the Arabs. He is styled the first Caliph, a title which signifies in Arabic successor or vicar. He, pursuing a career of conquest similar to that of his predecessor, invaded Syria and took the cities of Bostra, Palmyra, and Damascus ; the latter city was taken after a siege of six months, and most of its inhabitants inhumanly put to the sword by order of Kaled, who was at that time the commander of the Saracen forces. Abubeker died in the third year of his reign and the sixty-third of his age, having previously named O'mar his successor. 8. Omar, aided by the celebrated general, Obedi'ah, in the course of one campaign subdued Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopo- tamia, and Chaldea, and in a second reduced the whole of Persia. His army, under Am'rou, took the city of Alexan- dria and subdued Egypt. Amrou, being requested to spare the Alexandrian library, which at that time contained up- wards of five hundred thousand volumes, wrote to the Caliph for directions respecting the books. Omar answered, that if they agreed with the Koran they were useless, and if they difl"ered from it they were dangerous ; in either case they were to be destroyed. The books were, accordingly, dis- tributed throughout the city, and served, it is said, to warm the public baths for six months ! 9. Omar, during a reign of ten years, reduced upwards of thirty thousand cities and villages to his dominion, and is said to have demolished four thousand Christian churches and to have erected fourteen hundred mosques for the Ma- hometan worship. He was finally assassinated at Medina in 644, by a Persian slave, whose complaints against his mas- ter he had refused to hear. Oth'man was immediately chosen his successor, who added Bactriana and a part of Tartary to the dominion of the Caliphs. On his death Ali, the son-in- law of Mahomet, was chosen to succeed him. Ali is re- garded as one of the bravest and most virtuous of the Caliphs ; his reign was illustrious, although it lasted only 7. By whom was Mahomet succeeded? What did he invade? — 8. AVhat did Omar subdue? What city was taken? What number of vohmies was in the Alexandrian library ? What was Omar's answer respecting it? AVhat was done with the books ? — 9. During his reign, how many cities did he reduce ? How many churches did he demol- ish ? What was his end ? Who succeeded him ? SARACEN EMPIRE. 163 five years. In the space of less than half a century the Sar- acen dominions were more extensive than what remained of the Roman empire ; and in one hundred years from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, the empire of his successors extended from India to the Atlantic, comprehend- ing Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, north of Af- rica, and Spain. 10. During the reign of Ali a schism took place among the followers of Mahomet, w^hich continues to divide them to the present time. Abubeker, Omar, and Othman are re- garded as usurpers by the partisans of Ali, and are branded by the name of Shy'ites, or schismatics. On the other hand, these three Caliphs are held in the greatest veneration by the opponents of Ali, who style themselves Son'nites, because they follow the traditions of their Mahometan ances- tors, while the Shyites acknowledge the Koran only. The Persians are of the sect of Ali. The Turks are the Sonnites and Ottomans, or the disciples of Othman. Between the two parties a mutual hatred and animosity still exists. 11. Ali removed the seat of the Mussulman empire from Mecca to Cufa, on the Euphrates, and during the year T68 it was removed by Almanzor to Bagdad, which became the most illustrious caliphate in the history of the Saracens. Next to Bagdad the other most distinguished caliphate was that of Cordova, in Spain. Almanzor, who built the city of Bagdad and transferred to it the seat of the Saracen empire, was a liberal patron of learning and science, and the first Caliph who introduced the cultivation of them among the Saracens. The reign of Haroun'-al-Rasch'id, twenty-fifth Caliph, who was contemporary with Charlemagne, was the most illustrious in the whole dynasty, and is regarded as the Augustan age of Ar'ahic literature. This prince distin- guished himself by his valor and generosity, also by his equitable government and his patronage of learned men. Schools at this period were established in the principal towns. The sciences chiefly cultivated were medicine, geometry, and astronomy ; also poetry and works of fiction commanded some attention. 12. From the time of the removal of the seat of govern- In less than half a century, what is said of the Saracen dominions ? — 10. During the reign of Ali, what took place? Who are regarded as usurpers? Of what sect are the Persians? The Turks? — 11. What did Ali do? What is said of Almanzor? Of the reign of Kaschid? Of schools at this period? — 12. What is said of many of the interior provinces ? 164 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. ment to Bagdad, the importance of Arabia began to decline. Many chiefs of the interior provinces asserted their inde- pendence, and only regarded the Caliph as the head of their religion. As the conquests of the Saracens extended, their states became disunited. Spain, Egypt, Morocco, and India had at an early period their separate sovereigns, who con- tinued to regard the Caliphs of Bagdad as the successors of the prophet, although they acknowledged in them no tem- poral jurisdiction. Thirty-seven Caliphs of the house of Abbas reigned in succession. For four hundred and ninety years, Bagdad continued to be the seat of the Saracen Em- pire, during which time it sustained several obstinate sieges, and was the seat of various revolutions. 13. In the six hundred and fifty-sixth year of the Hegira, A. D. 1258, Bagdad was taken by HuFaku, the grandson of the celebrated Genghis Khan. Al Mostasem, the last of the Caliphs, was put to death, the Caliphate abolished, and the Saracen Empire terminated. The manner in which Al Mos- tasem was put to death was somewhat singular. He had been noted for his pride and ostentation ; when he appeared in public he usually wore a veil to conceal his face from the people, whom he considered as unworthy to look upon him. After the taking of the city, Hulaku, with the design of punishing his pride, ordered the wretched Caliph to be con- fined in a leather bag and to be dragged through the streets till he expired. At the present time the Saracens, once so powerful, possess little other territory than the deserts of Arabia, and are usually known by the name of Arabs. CHAPTER III. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. THE Feud'al System had its origin among the Goths, Yan'dals, Lom'bards, and other barbarous nations that overrun the continent of Europe on the decline of the Roman Empire. It was adopted in France during the reign of What had Spain, etc., at an early period ? How long was Bagdad the capital?— 13. When and by whom was Bagdad taken? Relate the manner in Avhich Al Mostasem was put to death. At present, what is said of the Saracens? Chapter III.— 1. Where had the Feudal System its origin? When was it adopted in France ? THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 165 Charlemagne, and is generally supposed to have been intro- duced into England by William the Conqueror. 2. When the northern barbarians had overrun the Roman Empire, the conquered provinces were divided by lot among the different chieftains, without any other obligation existing between them than that of uniting their forces in case of war for their mutual defence. But the fundamental prin- ciples of the Feudal System were established in the following order : The king or chief, who led his respective tribes to conquest, retained for himself by far the largest share of the conquered territory, dividing the remaining portion of the land among his followers according to their rank, who bound themselves to render him merely military services. The example of the king was imitated by his nobles, who, under similar conditions, graated portions of their estates to their dependents. The grantor was called Lord, and those to whom the grant was made were styled Feudatories or Vassals. 3. The feudal government, though well calculated for de- fence, was nevertheless very defective in its provisions for the internal order of society. The great barons or lords pos- sessed extensive tracts of country, erected on them fortified castles in places difficult of access, oppressed the people, slighted the civil authorities, and frequently set their sov- ereigns at defiance. 4. A kingdom resembled a number of confederate states under one common head: the barons or lords acknowledging a species of allegiance to their sovereign, yet when obedience was refused, it could only be enforced by an appeal to arms. But the great mass of the people, who cultivated the land, were called serfs or villains, and lived in the most servile condition. They were not permitted to bear arms, nor suf- fered to leave the estates of their lords. As each of the feudal lords was independent within the limits of his own immediate possessions, and as the thread of unity existing between them was at all times feeble, it was natural to sup- pose that frequent disputes and sanguinary contests were the consequence. Such in reality was the case ; hence we find that Europe, during the existence of the Feudal System, When in England? — 2. In what order were the principles estab- lished? What was the grantor called ? And those to whom the grant was made ? — 3. What is said of the feudal government ? Of the great barons? — 4. What did a kingdom resemble? What is said of the people ? As each lord was independent, etc., what was natural to sup- pose? 166 THE CRUSADES. exhibited an almost uninterrupted scene of anarchy, turbu- lence, and destructive warfare. 5. Some of the causes assigned for the gradual decline of the Feudal System were the Crusades, the extension of commerce, the increase and distribution of wealth and knowl- edge, and, lastly, the change of warfare which followed the invention of gunpowder. It still exists in a partial degree in some parts of Europe, particularly in Russia, Poland, and in some portions of Germany. CHAPTER ly. THE CRUSADES. THE Crusades were military expeditions undertaken by the Catholics of Europe for the purpose of delivering the Holy Land, and particularly the Sepulchre of our Savior, from the oppressive dominion of the Turks. As early as the year 637, Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Saracens, who, for political reasons, permitted the Christians to visit the city. In 1065 the Seljukian Turks, a wild and ferocious tribe of Tartars, obtained possession of the Holy City ; from this period the Christian inhabitants were exposed to every species of outrage and insult. The Christians of Europe, actuated by motives of religion, were often induced to visit those places hallowed by the footsteps and sanctified by the sufferings of the Savior of man. But if, after travelling thousands of miles, amidst dangers and hardships, they reached Palestine, they were only allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem on the payment of a certain sum of money, and if they succeeded in gaining admittance they were ex- posed, like other Christian inhabitants, to all the rigors of Mahometan brutality. It is even stated by creditable his- torians, that some were loaded with chains and compelled to draw a cart or plough, while others were condemned to an ignominious death. 5. What are some of the causes assigned for its decline ? Where does it exist in a partial degree ? Chapter IV. — 1. What were the Crusades? In the year 637, what took place? And in 1065? From this period what is said? What did the Christians of Europe do ? After travelling thousands of miles, what is said of them ? What is stated ? THE CRUSADES. 167 2. Such was the condition of Palestine when Peter the Hermit, a famous priest and native of Amiens, in France, undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Moved at the sight of the cruel oppression which weighed upon the Christians of Asia, he prevailed upon Simon, the venerable Patriarch of Jerusalem, to write to the Pope and to the princes of Europe, for the purpose of soliciting their aid in arresting the cruelty of the Turks exercised against their Catholic brethren in the East, offering himself to be the bearer of these letters. The patriarch having assented to this measure, Peter immediately returned to Europe and presented himself before Pope Urban II. He was kindly received by the Pontiff, who readily entered into his views, and commissioned him to go forth and preach in favor of the suffering Christians in Palestine, and the deliverance of Jerusalem from the hands of the Infidels. 3. Peter, who was eminently qualified for this important office, travelled through Italy, Prance, and other countries, and, by his pathetic and glowing eloquence, enkindled in the breasts of his hearers the same zeal that animated his own. Finally, the subject was brought before a council held at Placentia, and afterwards before the council at Clermont, in France, towards the close of the year 1095. After Peter had spoken on the subject of the holy war with his usual ardor, the Pope himself addressed the assembled bishops and princes in an eloquent and animated discourse, which he concluded in the following words : "Go now and take the sword of the Maccabees, protect the people of God and defend your persecuted brethren against the implacable enemies of the Christian name. Mussulman impiety has overspread the fairest regions of Asia. Ephesus, Nice, and Antioch have become Mahometan cities. The barbarous hordes of the Turks have planted their colors on the very shores of the Hellespont, whence they threaten war to all the states of Christendom. Unless you oppose a mighty barrier to their triumphant career, how can Europe be saved from invasion ? " 4. At the conclusion of this discourse the whole assembly exclaimed, "It is the will of God;" and hastened to enrol their names for the sacred expedition. As a mark of their 2. Who now undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ? Moved at the sight of the oppression what did Peter do ? How was he received by the pontiff? What commission did he receive? — 3. What is said of Peter? Where was the subject finally brought? After Peter had spoken, who addressed the assembly ? How did he conclude ? — 4. At the conclusion of the discourse what was said ? 168 THE CRUSADES. engagement, it was proposed that a cross of red material should be worn on the right shoulder, and from this circum- stance the name of the Crusade is derived. Such were the views entertained by the first Crusaders, and such were the circumstances that called the Crusades into being. 5. The First Crusade. — The enthusiasm which had mani- fested itself at the Council of Clermont was soon difi'used throughout every part of Christendom ; thousands from every part of Europe hastened to enlist under the banner of the cross. Domestic quarrels and private animosities were buried in oblivion. The sovereign and the noble, the prince and the peasant, animated alike with a kindred feeling, began to prepare for their departure to the East. 6. Among the princes who engaged in the first Crusade, the following were the most conspicuous : Kaymond, Count of Toulouse ; Kobert, Duke of Is^ormandy, brother to the King of England; Hugh the Great, Count of Yermandoise, and brother to the King of France ; Robert, Earl of Flan- ders ; Godfrey of Bullion, Duke of Lorraine, and various persons of distinguished rank. Among these, Godfrey of Bullion, equally eminent for his amiable virtues and extraor- dinary valor, held the most prominent place, although it does not appear that he was invested with the chief command. 7. Early in the spring of 1096, the army of the Crusaders, amounting, according to some authors, to more than seven hundred thousand persons, commenced their march towards the East, in two difi'erent directions. The first division of this vast multitude, under the command of Peter the Hermit, being destitute of that subordination and discipline so requi- site in large armies, met, in general, with a disastrous fate. Many of them were slain on their march through Hungary and Bulgaria, by the inhabitants, whose attacks they had provoked by the outrages they committed ; those who suc- ceeded in reaching Asia were met by sultan Sol'iman, on the plains of Nice, and almost entirely annihilated before they came in sight of Jerusalem. 8. The second division, under the command of able and ex- perienced ofiicers, such as Godfrey and Baldwin, his brother, acted with more prudence, and arrived safely at Constanti- From what is the word Crusade derived ? — 5. What is said of the en- thusiasm of the Council of Clermont? Of domestic quarrels? Of the sovereigns? — 6. In the first Crusade, who were the most conspicuous princes? Who held the most prominent place? — 7. What was done early in the spring of 1096 ? What is said of the first division ? Where were many of them slain ? — 8. What is said of the second division ? THE CRUSADES, 169 nople. The Greek emperor Alexis, alarmed at the multitude of warriors that surrounded his capital, lost no time in facili- tating their departure. He treated the leaders of the Cru- saders with every courtesy, and concluded a treaty with them, by which they agreed to conquer in his name, and restore those cities which had formerly belonged to his empire, on condition that he should aid them in the conquest of the Holy Land. He then gave orders that his vessels should be prepared without delay, to convey them across the Bos'phorus to the Asiatic coast. 9. The Christian army, which amounted to about six hun- dred thousand infantry and one hundred thousand cavalry, commenced its march towards Nice, a city in Bithynia, to which they laid siege. Nice, reduced to the last extremity, was on the point of yielding to the Crusaders, when the Greek Emperor, by private embassies, prevailed on the in- habitants to surrender to him rather than to the Latins. This duplicity on the part of Alexis highly displeased the Crusaders, and from the little inclination manifested by the Greek monarch towards fulfilling his engagements, the Latin Lords thought themselves no longer bound by the treaty. After the reduction of Nice they proceeded eastward, con- quered Edessa, defeated an army of six hundred thousand Saracens near Durylseum, in Phrygia, took Antioch, where they were reduced to the utmost distress by famine, and finally advanced to Jerusalem, which they took after a siege of forty days. 10. Dreadful was the scene that followed the first trans- ports of victory. The Crusaders, exasperated by their long suffering and by the obstinate resistance of the Saracens, and being probably afraid of new dangers, put to the^ sword nearly all the garrison and inhabitants of Jerusalem. The streets, the mosques, and citadel were all filled with blood. After this the attention of the princes was directed towards the defence of the recently conquered city. The heroic and generous Godfrey, Duke of Lorraine, who had abstained from all the carnage that followed the taking of the city, was chosen King by unanimous consent. He accepted the ap- Of the Greek emperor? How did he treat the leaders? What orders did he give? — 9. What was now the amount of the Christian army? When Nice was on the point of yielding, what did the Greek Emperor do ? What was the effect of this duplicity ? After the reduc- tion of Nice, where did they proceed, and what did they do? — 10. After "taking Jerusalem, wliat did the Crusaders do? After this, to what was their attention directed? Who was chosen King? 15 ^ 170 THE CRUSADES. pointment with diffidence, but constantly refused the diadem and other insignia of royalty, saying that he could never con- sent to wear a crown of gold where the Savior of the world had worn a crown of thorns. 11. Scarcely was he proclaimed King when the approach of an army of four hundred thousand Saracens threatened the destruction of the kingdom. With about twenty thou- sand followers the pious and intrepid Godfrey sallied forth to meet this powerful host. The two armies met on the plains of As^calon, and, notwithstanding the disparity of numbers, the Saracens suffered a ruinous defeat, and Godfrey returned in triumph to Jerusalem. 12. The Crusaders, having divided Palestine and Syria into four states, and seeing the object of their expedition ac- complished, began to think of returning to Europe ; but as they withdrew their forces the Turks gradually recovered their power. Godfrey, after enjoying the regal dignity for the short space of one year, also returned to Europe, and was succeeded in the kingdom of Jerusalem by his brother, Bald- win I. 13. After the death of Baldwin II., in 1130, jealousy and Violent dissensions began to prevail among the princes in the kingdom of Jerusalem, and from this period its prosperity began rapidly to decline. The Saracens, taking advantage of these disorders, renewed their attacks, took Edessa, and threatened the entire destruction of the Christian kingdom in the East. Surrounded by these calamities, the Christians of Palestine found themselves constrained to the necessity of soliciting aid from the princes of Europe. This circumstance gave rise to the second Crusade. 14. The Second Crusade. — Immediately aft^r the arrival of the deputies who had been sent from Syria for the purpose of obtaining assistance from Europe, a second Crusade was preached, under the direction of Pope Eugenius III., by the celebrated St. Bernard, the learned and eloquent Abbot of Clair vaux, a. d. 1147. 15. Louis YII., of France, and Conrad III., of Germany, What did he refuse, and what did he say? — 11. What threatened the destruction of the kingdom? What did Godfrey do? Where did the two armies meet, and what was the issue of the battle ? — 12. Of what did the Crusaders now begin to think ? What is said of Godfrey ? — 13. After tlie death of Baldwin, what took place? What did the Sara- cens do ? What did the Christians find themselves constrained to do ? — 14. After the arrival of the deputies in Europe, what was done? — 15. What princes assumed the cross ? THE CRUSADES. 171 with three hundred thousand of their subjects, assumed the cross and began to prepare for an expedition to the East. Conrad, who proceeded in advance of the French monarch, was defeated by the Turks near Iconium, and Louis himself sufi'ered a signal overthrow near the city of Laodic'ea, in Phrygia, with the loss of the flower of his army. After these disasters the two monarchs succeeded in reaching Palestine, and, having arrived at Jerusalem, they summoned all the Latin princes of Asia to a council, where it was de- termined to abandon the design of reconquering Edessa, which had been the first object of the Crusade, and to make one united effort against Damascus. After their operations had been carried on for some time with every appearance of success, their designs were suddenly frustrated by a' violent disease that broke out in the Christian camp ; the siege was consequently abandoned. Louis and Conrad, disgusted at the conduct of the Latin princes in Asia, left them to their own wretched condition and took their departure for Europe. Thus terminated the second Crusade, with immense loss to the West, without having produced the slightest advantage to the Christians of the East. 16. The famous Saladin, who, about the year 1174, had raised himself to the sovereignty of Egypt, Arabia, Syria, and Persia, formed the design of reconquering Palestine from the Christians. He defeated their army in the battle of Tiberias, and laid siege to Jerusalem, which was forced to surrender by capitulation, the Christian inhabitants being permitted to depart on the payment of a certain sum of money. Thus again the Holy City fell into the hands of the Saracens, eighty-eight years after it had been conquered by the first Crusaders, a. D. 1187. 17. The Third Crusade. — When the intelligence of the fate of Jerusalem reached Europe, the deepest affliction per- vaded all ranks of the people. The venerable Pontiff, Urban III., was so affected at the news that he died of a broken heart. This, however, was soon succeeded by a desire to retrieve the loss sustained by the Christians in the East. The most illustrious monarchs reigning at that time in Europe, were Philip Augustus of France, Henry XL of Eng- What happened to Conrad ? Louis ? What broke out in the Chris- tian camp? What did Louis and Conrad finally do? — 16. What is said of Saladin? What did he defeat?^ How long had the Holy City re- mained in possession of the Christians? — 17. When this intelligence reached Europe, wliat is said ? Who were the most illustrious sover- eigns at this time in Europe ? 172 THE CRUSADES. land, and Frederic I. of Germany. These three sovereigns, with the principal Lords of their respective dominions, as- sumed the cross, and began to make preparations to enter on a third Crusade. 18. Frederic, at the head of an army of one hundred and fifty thousand men, was the first of the three monarchs that commenced his march towards the East. Victory and suc- cess attended his arms whenever he advanced, until an un- fortunate circumstance frustrated his brightest hopes. Hav- ing crossed into Asia Minor, and passed the defiles of Mount Tau'rus, the German monarch proceeded at the head of his army, along the banks of the Cydnus, in which he was ac- cidentally drowned while bathing in the river. In the inter- val Henry II. of England died, and .was succeeded by his son Richard, surnamed CoBur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted, on account of his extraordinary valor. To the adventurous and military spirit of Richard, the Crusades presented an irresistible attraction ; and, after making the necessary preparations, he joined Philip Augustus of France, and embarked on an expedition to the Holy Land. 19. The two monarchs, in conjunction, took Ptolemais; but unhappily a misunderstanding between them prevented their further action in concert. In consequence of this, Philip, leaving a part of his forces in Palestine, returned to France, Richard having been left to the sole command, ably sustained the contest against the sultan Saladin, whom he signally defeated in the memorable battle near As'calon. The feats of arms displayed by Richard on this and other occasions more resemble the achievements of a hero of ro- mance than the deeds of a prince of authentic history. On one occasion it is related, that with one stroke of his sword he severed the head, right shoulder, and arm, from the body of a Saracen chief. On another, he threw himself with so much ardor into the thickest of the contest, that for some moments he disappeared amidst the host of his enemies ; when he returned, his horse was covered with blood, and so numerous were the darts and arrows, fastened in his shield and dress, that, according to an eye-witness, he resembled a cushion covered with needles. 20. His army being at length reduced by famine and fa- What did they do?— 18. AVhat is said of Frederic? What was his end? What is said of Eichard? — 19. What is said of the two mon- archs? Being left to the sole command, what did Eichard do? What is said of his feats of arms? On one occasion, what is said of him? — 20. What did he conclude? THE CRUSADES. 173 tigue, the English monarch began to think of returning to Europe. Accordingly, having concluded a truce for three years and eight months with Saladin, on terms advanta- geous to the Christians, he took his departure for his own do- minions. The vessel in which he sailed being wrecked on the coast of the Adriatic sea, Richard resolved to pursue his course by land ; but as he passed through Germany with only a few attendants, he fell into the hands of the emperor Henry lY., by whom he was retained a prisoner until he was ransomed by his subjects, who paid for his release the sum of £300,000. He finally reached his own dominions after an absence of four years. Such was the result of the third Crusade. Although it did not terminate in the recovery of the holy city, still it led to the conquest of the island of Cyprus, and the surrender of Acre, a town of considerable importance to the Christians. 21. The Fourth Crusade. — A fourth Crusade was under- taken about the year 1195, in which Henry lY., emperor of Germany, bore the most distinguished part ; but his death, which happened before he reached Palestine, and the unfor- nate quarrels among the other leaders, frustrated the lofty design of recovering the Holy Land. 22. The Fifth Crusade. — About the close of the twelfth century, during the pontificate of Pope Innocent III., a fifth Crusade was undertaken by Boniface, Marquis of Montfer- rat, and Baldwin, Earl of Flanders. Having made the neces- sary preparations, they collected their forces at Zora, a city in Dalmatia, for the purpose of transporting them to Pales- tine by sea. But before their departure from this place, Alexius, the son of Isaac, the Greek emperor, arrived at the camp, bearing the intelligence that his father had lately been dethroned and inhumanly deprived of his sight, and was then in the hands of the usurper of his crown. At the same time he pledged himself, in the most solemn manner, to aid the Crusaders in the recovery of the Holy Land, to maintain during his life five hundred knights for its defence, and offered, moreover, the payment of a considerable sum of money, if they, on their part, would lend assistance in ex- pelling the usurper, and restoring his father to the throne. What is said of the vessel ? What happened to him as he passed through Germany? What was paid for his ransom? — 21. When was the fourth Crusade undertaken? Who bore a distinguished part? — 22. W^hen was the fifth Crusade undertaken? Where did they collect their forces? Before their departure, what took place? What did Alexius pledge himself to do ? 15* 174 THE CRUSADES. 23. After some deliberation, the Crusaders accepted his proposals ; and sailing immediately from Zora, they directed their course to Constantinople, which they took after a siege of ten days. The usurper made his escape. The old empe- ror being released from prison and restored to his throne, im- mediately ratified the engagements made by his son to the Latins. But scarcely had the Crusaders departed on their march towards Palestine, when a sudden revolution in the city obliged them to return. The emperor and his son Alexius fell victims to the intrigues and perfidy of one of their courtiers, surnamed Murzuph'lis, who placed himself upon the throne. 24. As soon as the news of this murder and usurpation reached the camp of the Crusaders, they resolved to avenge the death of the unfortunate princes, their allies and bene- factors. Marching back to Constantinople, they took the city after a furious assault, though it was defended by up- wards of two hundred thousand men, and contained a popu- lation of about one million of inhabitants. Having thus a second time, in the short space of a few months, conquered the great capital of the East, the Latins proceeded to elect an emperor from their own body. The choice fell upon Baldwin, Count of Flanders, who was ac- cordingly invested with the ensigns of royalty, and quietly ascended the imperial throne, a. d. 1204. 25. Here terminated the efforts of the Crusaders ; satisfied with this splendid acquisition, they attempted nothing further against the Saracens. Such were the circumstances that led to the establishment of the Latin Empire at Constantinople. Few events on the page of history are more curious and interesting than this singular revolution. It was destined, however, to be of short duration ; after a precarious exist- ence of fifty-seven years it again fell under the dominion of the Greeks. 26. The Sixth Crusade.— The last expedition having failed to accomplish the object for which it was designed, namely, the recover}^ of the Holy Land, a sixth Crusade was shortly afterwards undertaken. Among those who bore a distin- 23. After some deliberation, what did the Crusaders do? What is said of the old emperor? What happened to the emperor and Alex- ius ? — 24. As soon as this news reached their camp, what did the Cru- saders do ? Having thus conquered the capital of the East, to what did they proceed ? On whom did the choice fall ? — 25. Satisfied, etc., Avhat did they attempt? How long did the empire last?— 26. What was shortly afterwards undertaken ? Who was the most distinguished ? THE CRUSADES. 175 guished part in this expedition was John of Brienne, a French nobleman, who, at the head of one hundred thousand men, made a descent upon Egypt, with a design of destroy- ing- the power of the Sultan at the seat of his government. He took Damietta, but owing to subsequent disasters, par- ticularly the inundation of the Nile, he was finally com- pelled to abandon his conquests and to evacuate Egypt, A.D. 1221. 27. About the same period the famous Frederick II., Em- peror of Germany, led an army into Palestine, and obtained by treaty from the Sultan the restoration of Jerusalem ; but so little precaution did he take to defend it, that it shortly fell again into the hands of the infidels. Palestine was after- wards visited by several other princes of Europe, without being able to effect little more than to conclude a treaty of peace. After the departure of Richard, Earl of Cornwall, brother to the King of England, a sudden irruption of fierce barbarians from Korazan laid waste the Holy Land, and left Palestine in the most deplorable condition. 28. The Seventh and Eighth Crusades. — At this period, A. D. 1214, France was under the mild administration of St. Louis IX., a prince equally distinguished for his heroic for- titude and for all the more amiable virtues that adorn the Christian heart. The deplorable state of Palestine deeply afflicted his generous soul, and on the recovery from a dangerous illness he resolved to assume the cross, and by his exhortations induced many of his nobles to imitate his example. After four years' preparation he set out on the ex- pedition, accompanied by his heroic Queen, his three brothers, and all the knights of France. He began the enterprise by invading Egypt, and, after losing one-half of his numerous army by contagious diseases, he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Saracens. Having ransomed himself and his army, he proceeded to Palestine, where he remained for several years in endeavoring to secure the welfare of the Christian colonies, by repairing the fortifications of the towns which yet remained in their possession. The death of his mother, to whom he had intrusted the government during his absence, obliged him to return to France. 29. About thirteen years after his return from his first What city did he take ? — 27. What did Frederick II. do and obtain ? After the departure of Richard, what took place? — 28. At this period, who reigned in France? What did he resolve? How did he be^in the enterprise? Having ransomed himself, where did he proceed? — 29. When did he undertake a second Crusade ? 176 THE CRUSADES. Crusade, Louis was induced to undertake a second. Having" provided for the government of his kingdom in his absence, he embarked with sixty thousand chosen troops, landed in Africa, and laid siege to Tunis. Before anything of im- portance could be effected, a raging pestilence carried off one- half of his flourishing army, the king himself being numbered among its victims. This terminated the last of the Crusades, A.D. 12Y2. 30. The Results of the Crusades.— The period during which the Crusades continued has been styled by some his- torians, ''the heroic age of Christianity." No other military enterprise ever claimed thb attention of the Christian world so long and so universally as the Crusades. For nearly two centuries Catholic Europe continued to send forth her legions to conquer or die upon the plains of Asia. The two most powerful agents that can operate upon the human mind com- bined to call them into being ; namely, zeal for religion and sympathy for suffering humanity. 31. To see the land of Palestine, so hallowed by all the associations dearest to the Christian heart, that land sancti- fied by the footsteps and watered by the tears and blood of the Son of God, that land where the'^first light of Christianity dawned, trodden down by the footsteps of infidelity ; to see that Calvary where died the Redeemer of man, that Sep- ulchre in which he was laid polluted and defiled by Mussul- man impiety, is even at this distant day capable of producing the deepest emotions. To deliver this land from the power of the infidels, who only held it by the right of conquest, was at that period deemed not only a lawful, but even a holy and sacred, duty. 32. On the other hand, the cruelties exercised against the defenceless Christians of Palestine and the pilgrims, whom a religious zeal had drawn to the holy city, cried aloud to the princes of Europe for their interposition. The evils which marked the progress of the Crusades were similar to those that follow in the train of other great military enter- prises. It is computed that two millions of Europeans, during their continuance, were buried in the East. What was the fate of his army? Of the king himself? When did the Crusades terminate ?— 30. What has this period been styled ? What is said of the enterprise? What agents combined to call them into being? — 31. What is capable of producing the deepest emotion ? What was deemed a sacred duty? — 32. What cried aloud for the interpo- sition of the princes of Europe? How many were buried in the East? THE CRUSADES. 177 33. The Crusades are justly regarded as masterpieces of policy, which not only secured the independence of Catholic Europe, but were otherwise beneficial to mankind. In the first place, they checked the alarming progress of the Sara- cens and Seljukian Turks, who were thus prevented from penetrating into the very heart of Christendom. Secondly, they greatly contributed towards the gradual decline of the Feudal System, which at that period prevailed throughout Europe. The great Barons who engaged in the Crusades were obliged to sell a portion of their lands in order to pro- cure the means of conveying their troops into a foreign country. By this means the aristocracy was weakened, wealth more widely diffused, and the lower orders of society began to acquire property, influence, and a spirit of inde- pendence. The sovereigns, in like manner, impelled by the same pecuniary necessity, sold to towns important privi- leges and immunities, such as the right of electing their own magistrates, and being governed by their own municipal laws, 34. Thirdly, these expeditions had a most beneficial influ- ence on commerce and navigation. Previous to this period commerce had been carried on only in a very limited scale. The attention of the people of Europe had never been suffi- ciently drawn to the great advantages of water transports, until the disasters of the first Crusaders, in attempting to march their forces by land, impressed upon the minds of those who succeeded the expediency of conveying their troops by water. Hence, by the frequent voyages to Palestine, the arts of navi- gation and ship-building were rapidly improved, and from this period may be daled the great commercial prosperity and power of Venice and Genoa. Moreover, several new and valuable articles were imported from the East, which have since formed important branches of trade, such as the sugar-cane, with its various products, and silk, which began to be manufactured in Italy about the year 1209. 35. Finally, the Crusades, although in some respects in- jurious to literature, were, nevertheless, ultimately beneficial to it. The frequent communication of the people of the 33. How are the Crusades regarded? In the first place, what did they do ? In the second place ? What were the great barons obliged to do? By this means what was done? What is said of the sover- eigns ? — 34. Previous to this period what is said of commerce ? Of the attention of the people of Europe ? * From this period what may be dated? What is further observed? — 85. What was one of the most powerful helps towards the revival of learning ? M 178 THE CRUSADES. West with Greece and Syria, which the Crusades necessarily- occasioned, was one of the most powerful helps towards the complete revival of learning. At the time when the Crusades were undertaken, owing to the almost uninterrupted series of hostilities, civil feuds, and sanguinary wars that had deso- lated the face of Europe, literature was, comparatively speak- ing, much neglected. In the East, however, particularly at Constantinople, learning and the arts were still cherished to some extent. The Crusaders, therefore, by their intercourse with a people more polished and enlightened than themselves, acquired a taste for the arts and sciences which they did not fail to improve on their return to Europe. 36. Hence we find that the principal universities of Europe, even at the present day, were founded during the period of the Crusades, or immediately after. The University of Padua was founded in 1180, and that of Paris the same year ; that of Naples in 1230 ; that of Vienna in 1238 ; that of Salamanca in 1240; Cambridge in 1280; and that of Lisbon in 1290. 3t. The Crusades are among the most colossal events in the annals of history. In them '' we see numberless nations arise, march across deserts, bury themselves in countries with which they are unacquainted, and expose themselves to all the rigors of seasons and climates. And for what pur- pose ? To deliver a Tomb I Grand and immortal movement, where hundreds of nations advance to certain death — not in pursuit of a miserable self-interest, not to find an abode in milder and more fertile countries, not from an ardent desire to obtain for themselves any earthly advantages — but inspired only by a religious idea, by a jealous desire to possess the Tomb of Him who expired on the Cross for the salvation of the human race. When compared with this, what becomes of the lofty deeds of the Greeks, chanted by Homer ? Greece rises to avenge an injured husband — Europe to redeem the sepulchre of Christ."* * For a fuller account of the Crusades, see Fredet's Modern History. At the time when the Crusades were undertaken, what is said of litera- ture ? What did they acquire ?— 36. Hence what do we find ? When were these universities founded ? — 37. How do the Crusades stand in history ? What do we see in them ? How do they compare with the deeds af the Greeks chanted by Homer ? CHIVALRY. 179 CHAPTER V. CHIVALRY. OHIYALRY, or Knighthood, Avas a military institution prevalent in Europe during- the Middle Ages, and forms a remarkable feature in the history of that period. Nothing can be conceived more truly noble than the leading objects of Chivalry. It united in its institution a love of arms and military renown, an eagerness to support the weak, to pro- tect the oppressed, to avenge the wrongs of the widow and the orphan, to restrain the lawless and to refine the rude ; it blended with religion the highest sentiments of honor, and inculcated a devoted attachment and inviolable fidelity to the female sex ; in short, it combined in its component ele- ments, valor and honor, courtesy and religion. 2. The early history of Chivalry is involved in obscurity ; the particular nations and the peculiar circumstances in which it had its origin are not precisely known ; still the leading principles by which it is distinguished may be found among the manners and customs of the Gothic nations, by whom the profession of arms was the only employment esteemed honorable, and who were remarkable for the delicate and re- spectful gallantry which they manifested towards the female sex. It was embodied into a form and regulated by certain laws under the Feudal System, and afterwards brought to maturity and gained the meridian of its splendor during the Crusades, when it assumed the aspect of a religious institu- tion. Chivalry prevailed in almost every part of Europe, but in France, Spain, and Germany it attained its greatest purity. In England its introduction was later and its pro- gress slower. 3. There were three degrees of Chivalry, namely. Knights Ban'nerets, Knights, and Esquires. The first rank, to which peculiar privileges were allowed, could only be attained by those who had passed through the other two degrees. The second, and by far the most numerous class, consisted of Knights who were generally persons of noble birth, although Chapter V. — 1. What is Chivalry? What is said of it? What did it combine as its component elements ? — 2. What is said of its early history ? Where may its leading principles be found ? When was it embodied into a form? Where did it prevail? — 3. What were the three degrees ? What is said of the first rank? Of the second? 180 CHIVALRY. it frequently became the reward of merit, and soldiers dis- tinguished for their valor were sometimes admitted into this class. The third class was the Squirehood, consisting of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior in rank to the knights, but superior to the common soldiery. 4. Those who were destined for Chivalry were placed for education, at the age of seven years, in the castle of their father, or that of some neighboring noble, where they re- ceived the appellation of page or valet, until they arrived at the age of fourteen, when they obtained the title of Esquire, and were authorized to bear arms. They were kept in active employment in the castle, being obliged to wait upon the lord and his lady at home, and attend them abroad, and thus become accustomed to obedience and courteous demeanor. Surrounded by noble and virtuous ladies, and valiant knights, the first impressions made on their minds were those of vir- tue and love, honor and valor. From the ladies they learned the first rudiments of religion and love ; and in order that they might practise in some degree the lessons they received, it was customary for each youth to select some young, ac- complished, and virtuous lady as his patroness, before whom he might display all his gallantry, and whose duty it was to improve and polish his manners. 5. The Esquires were employed in various offices in the castle until the age of twenty-one, which was the proper age for admitting them to all the honors of knighthood. The can- didate was required to prepare himself by rigid fasting, pass- ing the night in prayer, and by a solemn confession ; and as a type of the purity of the life and manners that would be required of him, he was clothed in white. Having performed these preliminary rites, he then entered the church, where an examination took place; and if judged worthy to be admit- ted into the order of knighthood, he received the Sacraments and took the oath, consisting of twenty-six articles, in which, among other things, he solemnly pledged himself to defend the Church, to respect the priesthood, to protect the ladies, and to redress the wTongs of the widow and the orphan. 6. While 3^et on his knees, he received from the hands of the knights and the ladies the insignia of Chivalry — the spurs, cuirass, coat of mail, and other parts of his armor, and lastly, Of the third ? — 4. Where were those destined for Cliivalrv placed ? How were they kept ? By whom were they surrounded ? What was customary for each youth ? — 5. How were esquires employed ? How was the candidate required to prepare ? What did he solemnly pledge himself to do? — 6. While on his knees, what did he receive? CHIVALRY. 181 his sword, which was previously blessed by the priest. The concluding ceremony was performed by one of the most dis- tinguished Chevaliers present, who bestowed on the young knight the accolad'e, which consisted in giving him a slight blow on the shoulder or cheek with his sword. 7. The most important equipments of a knight were his horse and his lance; his other ofiensive arms were his sword, dagger, battle-axe, and mace. The endowments of an ac- complished Knight at the most flourishing period of Chivalry, were beauty, dexterity in dancing, riding, hunting, and tilt- ing ; while piety, chastity, modesty, courtesy, liberality, and sobriety, and, abol^e all, an inviolable attachment to truth and invincible courage, were regarded as his necessary virtues. 8. The professed Knight possessed various privileges and dignities which were not confined to the territories of his own sovereign, but extended through a greater part of Europe. He could roam where he pleased in quest of adventures, and was at liberty to challenge all those of his Order he met to single combat. The laws of the institution made it the duty of every Knight to protect the chastity and honor of the ladies, and forbade him to speak disrespectful of them, or to suifer others to do so in his presence. It was moreover in- cumbent upon him to warn them against the commission of anything that might lower them in his opinion. Strictly decorous and respectful towards them himself, he expected that they would never forfeit their claim to his esteem. If, how- ever, a lady transgressed the laws of decorum or prudence, he did not fail to stigmatize her fault in the most pointed manner. If he passed the castle of one of this character, he marked it in some striking manner as the dwelling of a lady unworthy to receive a true chevalier. 9. Chivalry enjoined, in a special manner, the three virtues of hospitality, humanity, and courtesy. Every loyal Knight was expected to have the door of his castle constantly open. As soon as one chevalier entered the castle of another, he considered himself at home, and was treated as if he were one of the family. Everything that could contribute to his comfort and his luxury was at his command. If he arrived wounded, every possible care was taken of him by the ladies, What was the concluding ceremony ? — 7. What were the equipments of a knight? What were his endowments? His virtues? — 8. What did the professed knight possess ? What did the rules of the institution oblige every knight to do ? If a lady transgressed the laws of decorum, what did he do?— 9. What did Chivalry enjoin ? — As soon as one Cheva- lier entered the castle of another, what did he consider? 16 182 CHIVALRY. who were proud of having in their possession the remedies proper for such occasions. To a vanquished foe the most scrupulous and delicate attention was paid ; he was treated rather as a conqueror than one who had been conquered. 10. Tournaments and Jousts. — Tournaments were military exercises performed by two parties of cavaliers, with hurt- less weapons. No amusement was more patronized by the knights, or even sovereigns themselves, than these images of war, which were often celebrated with a splendor beyond description, particularly at coronations, royal marriages, and after important victories. If the occasion was solemn, it was announced at the courts of different sovereigns, who were invited to attend. Not only Knights, but even Kings and Princes, who valued themselves upon their valor and gal- lantry, frequently entered the list. 11. At a tournament the place enclosed for the combatants was surrounded by sovereigns and other nobles, by Knights of distinguished fame, and by ladies of the highest rank, who were always appointed judges on these occasions — a privilege, however, which they seldom exercised, generally deputing their power to a knight, who on that account was called the Knight of Honor. When the Knights reached the lists their arms were examined by the constables, in order that only hurtless weapons might be used. But, notwith- standing this precaution, there existed, in many instances, a disposition to convert the tournament into a real battle, and thus much blood was often uselessly spilt. 12. Nothing but the reality could exceed the performance of these hazardous and animating scenes. Frequently lances were broken, horses and Knights were overthrown, and some- times, though seldom, death ensued. While the tide of vic- tory flowed to either side of the lists, the air was rent with the acclamations of the ladies, the minstrels, and the whole assembled multitude, while the successful Knight was hailed with triumphal honors little inferior to those bestowed on a hero returning wreathed with the laurels of victory over a vanquished foe. The Catholic Church was justly hostile to tournaments, refusing the rite of Christian burial to those who fell on the tilting-ground. If he arrived wounded, what was done? — 10. What were tourna- ments ? What is said of them ? If the occasion was solemn, what was done? — 11. At a tournament, by whom was the place surrounded? Who was the Knight of Honor f When they reached the lists, what was done? — 12. What frequently took place? What is said of the Catholic Church ? CHIVALRY. 183 13. Jousts were generally a combat between two Knights, and usually took place at the conclusion of the tournaments. A Knight who had acquired a distinguished fame would ride through the lists and call on the surrounding cavaliers to en- counter him in three strokes of the lance. If the challenge was accepted, the combat was conducted according to speci- fied rules, but such was the dexterity of the combatants that the encounter with the lance seldom proved fatal. 14. The origin of the duel, which, happily, is now little used as a mode of private revenge, may be traced to the Gothic nations. Under the Feudal System and during the age of Chivalry it was greatly patronized, and it so far pre- vailed, at an early period, among the Franks and nations of Germany, that none were exempt from it but women, invalids, and such as were under the age of twenty-one and above the age of sixty. It was resorted to as a method of discovering truth, establishing innocence, and vindicating the character from a real or imaginary imputation. It is not surprising that a practice so absurd should have found adherents during those ages when the profession of arms was regarded as the only honorable employment, and at a time when the human mind was, comparatively speaking, unenlightened. 15. Whatever opinions we may entertain of Chivalry at the present day, it certainly had a powerful influence in pro- ducing a favorable change in the manners of society during the ages in which it existed. It infused humanity into war at a period when men made it almost a business of life ; it introduced courtesy of manners among those who possessed but little refinement ; it fostered in its maxims a delicate sense of honor and a scrupulous adherence to truth ; it cher- ished the finest feelings and respectful attachment towards the female sex ; and no institution, perhaps, ever had a more powerful influence to elevate woman to her proper sphere than Chivalry. 16. Chivalry embraced various orders or associations of cavaliers, formed for specific purposes, generally of a benev- olent character, many of which remain to the present time. These orders were generally of two descriptions, namely, military and religious, and were established in diff'erent countries, particularly in Palestine, England, Spain, France, 13. What were jousts ? How was the challenge given ? If accepted, what was done ? — 14. Where may the origin of the duel be traced ? For what was it resorted to? Was it not surprising? — 15. What had chiv- alry? What did it infuse ? What did it introduce and foster? What did it cherish? — 16. What did Chivalry embrace? 184 CHIVALRY. and Italy. The foundation of the order of the Knights Hospitaliers, who afterwards became so famous as the Knights of Malta, was laid about the middle of the eleventh century by a few Neapolitan merchants, who obtained per- mission of the Saracen Caliph to erect at Jerusalem a house for pilgrims. They afterwards founded, in honor of St. John, a church and hospital, from which they took their name, and, besides attending to the sick and pilgrims, they bound themselves by vow to defend the Christians of the Holy Land against the insults of the infidels. Thus the Hospitallers, without ceasing to be a religious, became a mil- itary Order. It. The Order of the Knights Templars was instituted in the year 1118, also at Jerusalem, by several French and Flemish noblemen. They occupied a house in the city which stood near the site of Solomon's Temple, from which they derived their name. The Teutonic Order was estab- lished by a few noblemen from the cities of Bremen and Lubeck about 1190, and was intended for the relief of the German pilgrims. Where was the foundation of the Knights Hospitallers laid ? What church did they build ? — 17. When and where Avas the Order of the Knights Templars instituted? When was the Teutonic Order estab- lished ? BOOK VL FRANCE. CHAPTER I. THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY; MERO- VINGIAN AND CARLOVINGIAN KINGS.— FR 031 A. D. 420 TO 987. THE history of France is intimately connected with that of England, as the kings of the latter, for a long period, assumed the title of King of France, and held possession in it of varied extent, from the time of William the Conqueror to the reign of Queen Mary. The kingdom of France was originally possessed by the Celts or Gauls, a brave and war- like people, who were reduced to the Roman power in the time of Julius Csesar. The Franks, from whom the country receives its name, emerging from the forests of Germany, made an irruption into Gaul about the year 420, and gradu- ally increased in power under their successive kings, Phar'- amond, Clo'dio, Merove'us, and ChiFderic. 2. In 481, Clo'vis, the son of Childeric, became King of the Franks, and is generally regarded as the founder of the French monarchy. He embraced Christianity through the influence of his virtuous queen, ClotiKda, the daughter of the Duke of Burgundy, and received Baptism on Christmas day. His example was immediately followed by three thou- sand of his subjects. Clovis made Paris the seat of his government, and after a long and prosperous reign, he left his kingdom, according to the custom of the country, divided among his four sons, a. d. 511. Chapter I. — 1. What is said of the history of France? By whom was the kingdom originally possessed? What is said of the Franks? — 2. What is said of Clovis? What did he embrace? How did he leave his kingdom ? 16 * 185 186 FRANCE. 3. In the year 690, Pep' in d^HeristaV became Mayor of the Palace, the first office under the crown ; at his death he was succeeded in the office by his son, Charles Martel', one of the most renowned warriors of his age. He defeated the Saracens in a sanguinary battle between Tours and Poictiers, in which, according to many historians, three hundred thou- sand of the enemy were slain, while the French lost only about fifteen hundred. Charles was succeeded in the office of Mayor by his son, Pepin the Short, who continued to govern France for several years, while the weak and indolent Childeric III. was nominally King. 4. Such was the state of things when Pepin first thought of assuming the title and ensigns of royalty, while exercising the duties of the sovereign. Finding the people favorable to his views, and having obtained a favorable answer * from Pope Zachary, who had been consulted on the subject, he finally concluded to prosecute his design. Accordingly, in a great assembly of the people, he was proclaimed king, while Childeric was removed to a monastery, where he died three years after this event ; and with him ended the dynasty of the Merovin'gian sovereigns, a. d. 752. 5. About this period the Lombards, who were already masters of a great part of Italy, aimed at subduing the whole, and had extended their conquests over the province of Raven'na. Even Rome itself was on the point of falling into their hands, w^hen Pope Stephen applied for assistance to the Emperor of Constantinople, in whose name the gov- ernment of Rome was still exercised. But Constantine, who was at that time too much engaged in his disputes with the Church to give his attention to the affairs of state, neglected to send assistance to the Romans, who in their extremity were obliged to turn for aid to the monarch of France. 6. Pepin immediately responded to the call, but previous to any act of hostility, he sent, at the Pope's request, depu- ties to AstoFphus, the King of the Lombards, requesting * The answer of the Pope was in the following words : "It were better that he should be king, in whom the sovereign authority resides." — Eginard Annal. 3. When did Pepin become mayor of the palace ? What is said of Charles Martel ? By whom was Charles succeeded ?— 4. Finding the people favorable to his views, what did Pepin do ? What became of Childeric?— 5. What is said of the Lombards? What did Pope Ste- phen do? What is said of Constantine? To whom did the Romans next turn for aid ? — 6. What did Pepin do ? FRANCE. 187 him to desist from his hostile designs. His proposals, how- ever, were only answered by threats and insults. Pepin, therefore, hastily collected his army, crossed the Alps, de- feated the Lombards, and obliged Astolphus to accept humil- iating conditions of peace. But scarcely had he departed from Italy when the perfidious Astolphus recommenced hos- tilities, and laid siege to Rome. Pepin a second time crossed the Alps, and having again defeated the Lombards, solemnly bestowed on Pope Stephen and his successors in the pon- tifical chair his conquests in Italy. Thus began the Temporal Power of the Popes, a. d. 755. Y. Pepin was succeeded by his two sons, Charles and Car'lomon, but the latter dying shortly after the death of his father, Charles was left in possession of the undivided sovereignty. This distinguished monarch, known in history by the name of Charlemagn'e, or Charles the Great, is said to have been seven feet in height, of a robust constitution and majestic appearance. He was eminent as a statesman, and as a warrior he far surpassed all the sovereigns of his age. He carried on a long and sanguinary war with the Saxons, which finally resulted in the reduction of their whole country. At the earnest solicitation of the Romans, he turned his arms against the Lombards, who, under their king, Desidrius or Dideir, had broken the treaty concluded by Astolphus, and spread their ravages so as to endanger the city of Rome. He defeated them, and completely de- stroyed their power in Italy. He afterwards conquered a part of Spain, and about the year 800 the rank and title of Emperor of the West was conferred on him by Pope Leo III. 8. His empire comprised France, Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, a part of Italy and Spain. He labored inces- santly to diffuse a spirit of literature, and encourage the useful arts, throughout his vast dominions. He invited to his court, from foreign countries, men distinguished for their genius ; among whom was AFcuin, a learned and virtuous English monk, who opened an academy in the palace of the French monarch. Charlemagne himself, with his sons, fre- quently assisted at the lectures of this distinguished man. How were the proposals answered ? What was the result ? What did Pepin do after crossing the Alps a second time ? — 7. By whom was Pepin succeeded ? What is said of this monarch ? At the solicitation of the Romans, what did he do ? What title was conferred on him ? — 8. What did his empire comprise ? What did he labor to difiiise ? W^hom did he call to his court ? 188 FRANCE. With regard to his table he was extremely frugal, and in his dress he was generally plain. The ladies of his court were usually employed at the needle or distaff, and he even took delight in appearing ornamented with the productions of his wife and daughters. 9. Charlemagne died in 814, in the seventy-first year of his age, and forty-seventh of his reign. He was succeeded by his son, Louis I., surnamed le De'honnaire, or the Mild. The reign of this monarch was inglorious, and rendered unhappy by the unnatural rebellion of his sons, who twice deposed and imprisoned their father, and again restored him to the throne. Louis died in 840, leaving his dominions divided among his three sons. Charles II. presided over France ; Louis obtained Germany ; and Lothair'e reigned in Italy, under the title of emperor. Bitter contentions between the three brothers soon involved their subjects in sanguinary wars. Charles and Louis united their forces against Lothaire, who endeavored to deprive them of their inheritance. The rival brothers at length met in the famous battle of Fontenoy, where Lothaire was de- feated, and compelled to retire to his Italian dominions. The loss on both sides, in this battle, is estimated at one hundred thousand men. 10. Charles, after a weak reign, was succeeded by his son Louis, the Stammerer, who, after a short reign, left his king- dom to his two sons, Louis III. and Carlomon. After the death of these princes, Charles the Fat was elected to the throne, but he governed with so much weakness that he was deposed, and the crown transferred to Eudes, during the minority of Charles the Simple, who afterwards succeeded to the throne. During the reign of this prince the Normans, under their celebrated chief, RolOo, invaded Neus'tria, and established themselves in the north of France, which from them took the name of Nor'mandy, A. d. 912. The remain- ing kings of the Carlovin'gian line were generally weak princes, and their reigns were not distinguished for any re- markable events. After the death of Louis Y., who died without issue, the French Lords refused as his successor his What is said of him with regard to his table, etc. ? — 9. When did Charlemagne die ? By whom Avas he succeeded ? What was the reign of this monarch? How did he leave his dominions? What is said of Charles and Louis? Where did the rival brothers meet ? What was the loss on both sides? — 10. By whom was Charles succeeded? Who was next elected ? During the reign of this prince, what took place ? After the death of Louis V., to whom was the crown transferred ? FRANCE. 189 uncle Charles, Duke of Lorraine, and transferred the crown to Hugh Carpet, Duke of France, who, after defeating his rival, obtained possession of the throne, and thus formed the third or Capetian race of French kings, A. d. 987. CHAPTER II. THE CAPETIAN KINGS. FROM HUGH CAPET TO PHILIP VI. OF VALOIS.—A. D. 987 TO 1328. HUGH CAPET was an able sovereign, and his adminis- tration was directed with wisdom. He enacted several salutary laws, added considerably to his territory, and again made Paris the seat of government. Either through modesty, or a fear of exciting the jealousy of his nobles, he never as- sumed the ensigns of royalty ; even on great and solemn occasions he appeared in a plain and simple dress. 2. Robert, the son of Hugh, succeeded his father in 996. This prince is described as handsome in person and gentle in disposition, but his reign presents few events of importance. His son Henry I. succeeded to the throne in 1031 ; his reign was generally tranquil and free from any extraordinary in- cidents. The reign of Philip, who succeeded his father in 108-0, was distinguished for the preaching of the First Cru- sade by Peter the Hermit, and the invasion of France by William the Conqueror. The latter event laid the founda- tion of that long continued rivalship and series of hostili- ties which for several succeeding centuries existed between France and England. 3. Philip died in 1108, and left his dominions to his son Louis VI., surnamed the Fair, an able and accomplished sovereign, who enjoyed a useful and prosperous reign. On his death-bed he addressed his son, who succeeded him, in the following words : '* Remember that royalty is nothing more than a public charge, of which you must render a very strict account to Him who makes Kings and will judge them." Louis VII. was the next sovereign who swayed the sceptre Chapter II. — 1. What is said of Hugh Capet ? What did he never assume? — 2. Who succeeded? What is said of him? Who was the next sovereign ? By what was the reign of Philip distinguished ? — 3. To whom did Philip leave his dominions? On his death-bed, how did he address his son ? Who was the next sovereign ? 190 FEANCE. of France. In conjunction with Conrad III., of Germany, he headed the third Crusade to Palestine, but was most un- fortunate in that expedition. Louis had married El'eanor, heiress to the great duchy of Guienne, but divorced her for her levity and vices ; and in a few weeks afterwards she married Henry Plantag'anet, earl of Anjou, who, in the fol- lowing year, became Henry II. of England, and who, by his marriage, acquired a great addition to his possessions in France. 4. Philip II., surnamed Augustus, succeeded to the throne in 1180. No prince since the reign of Charlemagne sur- passed Philip in military skill and enterprise. He signalized the commencement of his reign by the expulsion of the Jews from his dominions, and shortly afterwards joined his great rival, Richard I. of England, in the third Crusade. After the death of Richard, John, his brother, who succeeded him, was strongly suspected for having murdered Arthur, his nephew ; for this he was summoned by Philip, as his vassal, to be tried by a court of his peers. But on his refusal, Philip invaded Normandy, and wrested that important province from the English monarch. 5. Philip died in 1223, and was succeeded by his son, Louis YIIL, surnamed the Lion, on account of his valor. He died after a short reign of three years, on his return from an expedition against the Albigen'ses, who had disturbed the south of France. Louis IX., commonly called St. Louis, succeeded to the throne at the early age of twelve years ; and during his minority his mother, Blanche, of Castile, filled the office of Regent, in which she displayed great abil- ities. In the person of St. Louis were united all those em- inent qualities that distinguish an illustrious sovereign with all the virtues that adorn the Christian. His benevolence, piety, and purity of intention are conspicuous in every ac- tion. In the earl}^ part of his reign he vigorously repelled the invasion of Henry III. of England, whom he signally defeated near Taillebourg, and finally compelled him to sign a treaty of peace. His zeal for religion prompted him to engage in the two last Crusades. This illustrious monarch What did he do ? Whom did he marry ? — 4. Who next succeeded to the throne ? What were the principal events of his reign ? — 5. By whom was Philip succeeded? When did he die? By whom was he succeeded ? In the person of St. Louis, what were united ? In the early part of his reign what was done? In what did he engage? Where did he die ? FRANCE. 191 died of a fever near Tunis, in the fifty-sixth year of his age and the forty-fourth of his reign, a. d. 1270. 6. St. Louis was succeeded by his son, Philip III., sur- named the Hardy, who continued the war against the infidels with vigor. He defeated the Saracens and compelled the King of Tunis to conclude a peace on terms favorable to the Christians. Philip lY., surnamed the Fair, from the beauty and elegance of his person, succeeded to the throne in 1285. One of the most remarkable events of the reign of this monarch was the suppression of the Order of the Knights Templars. Charges of the gravest nature being brought against them, Philip ordered all the Templars of his kingdom to be arrested on the same day. A committee was appointed at Paris, before which one hun- dred and forty Knights were examined, all of whom, with the exception of three, freely acknowledged themselves guilty of the denial of Christ, of sacrilege, and other enormous crimes. t. But as the persons accused belonged to an order which was religious as well as military, it became necessary to refer the matter to the ecclesiastical authorities. Accordingly, a General Council was convened by Pope Clement V. at Vienne, before which the investigation into the conduct of the Templars and their trials, which had now occupied nearly five years, was laid. After a deliberation of several months the Order was suppressed, and the property belonging to it was transferred to the Order of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John, who were still fighting the battles of Christendom against the infidels, from whom they had lately recovered the island of Rhodes. It appears that the Order of the Templars, though generally corrupt, was not equally so in all places, which fact accounts for the different treatment its members received in different countries. Many were ac- quitted, particularly in Germany and Spain ; some were con- demned to perpetual or temporary imprisonment ; while others, who, instead of repenting, obstinately repeated the free avowal of their guilt, were delivered to the secular power, to be punished according to the rigor of the law. Fifty-nine were burnt at Paris, and several others in the south of France. 6. By whom was St. Louis succeeded? Who was the next sovereign? What was one of the most remarkable events of his reign ? Of what did they acknowledge themselves guilty?— 7. But as the persons accused, etc., what became necessary ? Where was a Council convened ? After a deliberation of several months, what was done? What appears? How many were burnt at Paris ? 192 FRANCE. 8. Philip died in 1314, leaving his dominions to his son, Louis X., surnamed the Wrangler, who was succeeded, after a reign of a few months, by his brother, Philip Y., whose short reign was distinguished for his severity against the Jews. With the succession of Charles lY. ended the Ca- petian line of kings, a. d. 1328. CHAPTER III. BRANCH OF V ALOIS; FROM PHILIP VL TO CHARLES VIIL —A. D. 1328 TO 1498. ON^ the death of the late monarch the crown devolved upon Philip of Yalois, the grandson of Philip III., the near- est male heir, as, according to the laws of the kingdom, fe- males were excluded from the throne. His succession, how- ever, was disputed by Edward III. of England, who claimed the crown of France in right of his mother, Isabella, the daughter of Philip the Fair. Philip maintained that a mother could not transmit to her issue a right which she never possessed, and the case being laid before the peers and barons of France, they unanimously declared in his favor. 2. In the meantime, Edward prepared to enforce his claim by an appeal to arms. He invaded France with an army of thirty thousand men, and gained the famous battle of Gressy, in which his eldest son, the Black Prince — so called from the color of his armor — first displayed those splendid military abilities which afterwards rendered him so illustrious. Ed- ward, pursuing his good fortune, besieged and took Calais, which remained in the hands of the English until the reign of Queen Mary. It was during the reign of Philip that the title of Dauphin was given to the eldest son of the King of France. 3. Philip died in 1350, and was succeeded by his son, John II., surnamed the Good. It was during the reign of this prince that the famous battle of Poictiers was fought, in 8. When did Philip die ? Who were the next two sovereigns ? On the accession of Charles IV., what took place ? Chapter III. — 1. By whom was the succession of Philip disputed ? What did Philip maintain ? — 2. In the meantime, what did Edward do ? What battle did he gain? What did he take ? — 3. By whom was Philip succeeded ? During his reign w^hat took place ? FRANCE. 193 which Edward the Black Prince added to the glory which he had already gained at Cressy. The French monarch, at the head of sixty thousand men, advanced against the Prince, whose army did not exceed sixteen thousand men; still, not- withstanding the disparity of numbers, the scale of victory turned in favor of the English. The French were signally defeated ; their King fell into the hands of the conquerors, and was led captive to London. The conduct of the Prince towards the fallen monarch deserves the highest commenda- tion. He endeavored to console him in his misfortune, waited on him at table, and, in every manner in his power, manifested towards him the utmost courtesy and respect, John was afterwards released on condition that he should pay one million five hundred thousand pounds sterling as the price of his ransom. But on his return to France, finding himself unable to comply with his engagement, he returned again to England, saying that, " If honor were banished from every other place, it should find an asylum in the breasts of kings." He was received with every mark of re- spect by Edward, who assigned him, as his residence, Savoy Palace, where he shortly afterwards died, A. D. 1364. 4. On the death of John, Charles Y., surnamed the Wise, succeeded to the throne. This distinguished prince labored incessantly to retrieve the losses of the preceding reign, and so successful was he in his efforts, that in the course of a few years the English were expelled from all their possessions in France, with the exception of Calais, Bayonne, and Bordeaux. Charles himself did not appear in the field, but from his cab- inet directed the operations of his armies by his wise and prudent counsels. He raised to the office of constable of France the celebrated Du Guesclin', one of the greatest generals of the age. Besides being an eminent statesman, Charles was a distinguished patron of literature. He pos- sessed a library of nine hundred volumes, which was a con- siderable number for the period, when the art of printing was yet undiscovered ; and he may be regarded as the founder of the present magnificent library of Paris. On his death, in 1380, his son, Charles YI., surnamed the Well- Beloved, ascended the throne. 5. The reign of this sovereign was signally unfortunate. What is said of the conduct of the prince ? Of John ? On returning to England, what did he say? — 4. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of him ? Of what was Charles a patron ? By whom was he succeeded ? — 5. What is related of this monarch ? 17 N 194: FRANCE. He fell into a state of insanity, which rendered him incapable of attending to the administration of the government. In consequence of the king's incapacity, regents were appointed, whose misconduct threw the kingdom into a civil war. During these calamities which afflicted France, Henry Y. of England invaded the country, and gained the memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this victory, and other advantages gained by Henry, enabled him to conclude a treaty by which his succession to the throne of France was acknowledged on the death of Charles. Henry and Charles both died shortly after this event, a. d. 1422. 6. Charles YII., surnamed the Victorious, asserted his right to the throne of his father, while at the same time the infant Henry VI. of England was proclaimed King of France under the regency of his uncle, the Duke of Bedford. The English laid siege to Orleans, a place of the greatest impor- tance, and so successful were they in their operations against this and other places, that the affairs of France began to wear a most gloomy aspect. The tide of misfortune, how- ever, was successfully turned by one of the most extraordi- nary events recorded in history. t. When the hope of saving Orleans was almost aban- doned, a young girl named Joan of Arc, about seventeen years of age, who had lived an humble life in a village on the borders of Lorraine, presented herself to the Governor of Yaucouleur, and maintained with much earnestness that she had been sent by Divine commission to raise the siege of that city, and procure the coronation of Charles in the city of Rheims. After undergoing a most rigid examination before a committee of persons appointed for that purpose, and also before the court and the King himself, it was gener- ally admitted that the commission was supernatural. She was accordingly intrusted with the liberation of Orleans. As she approached the city, her presence inspired the inhab- itants with confidence, while it spread dismay and conster- nation among the English, who hastily raised the siege and retired with precipitation, but being pursued by the heroine at the head of the French army, they were entirely defeated at Patay, with a loss of nearly five thousand men, while the During these calamities, who invaded France? What was Henry enabled to do?— 6. What is said of Charles VII.? To what place di'd the English lay siege? — 7. When the hope of saving Orleans was almost abandoned, what is related ? As she approached the city, what is said of her? FRANCE. 195 French lost only one of their number. From this event Joan was called the Maid of Orleans. 8. The second part of her mission, which yet remained to be accomplished, was equally arduous and dangerous. The city of Rheims and the intermediate country being in pos- session of the English or their allies presented apparently insurmountable difficulties. Charles, however, placing full confidence in her guidance, commenced his march, and as he advanced every obstacle disappeared ; the citizens of Rheims, having expelled the garrison, received him with every dem- onstration of joy. After the coronation was performed, Joan threw herself at the feet of Charles, declaring that her com- mission was accomplished, and solicited leave to return to her former humble station ; but the King, unwilling to part with her services so soon, requested her to remain for some time with the army, with which at length she complied. She afterwards attempted to raise the siege of the city of Cam- piegne; but good fortune seemed to have deserted her. This wonderful girl fell into the hands of the English, who, to gratify their revenge for the many losses they sustained through her valor, condemned her, under a charge of various pretended crimes, and caused her to be burnt in the public square at Rouen ! 9. By this cruel measure the English hoped to check the success that had attended the operations of Charles. In this, however, they were disappointed. Such was the im- pulse which the heroine had given to the affairs of France that the English in a few years were expelled from all their possessions in the country, with the exception of Calais. Charles passed the remainder of his reign in improving the internal condition of his kingdom. The close of his life was embittered by the unnatural conduct of his son, who at- tempted to poison his father. He died in 1464, a prince of acknowledged virtue, justice, and discretion. ' 10. Louis XI., who succeeded to the throne, was distin- guished for the cruelty and tyranny exercised against his subjects. He left, however, some good regulations for the encouragement of commerce and the promotion of justice. His severity occasioned a revolt, which was called "the war of the public good." His sanguinary disposition was dis- 8. What is said of the city of Kheims ? What did Charles do? After the coronation, what did Joan do ? What was her fate ? — 9. What is said of the impulse which the heroine had given to the affairs of France ? How did Charles pass the remainder of his reign? — 10. What is said of Louis XL? 196 FRANCE. played on a certain occasion, when he pronounced the sen- tence of death on one of his nobles. He ordered that the children of the unfortunate victim should be placed under the scaffold, that they might be sprinkled with the blood of their dying parent. His own life was rendered miserable, particularly towards the close, from the knowledge that he was despised by his subjects, and from the terrors of a guilty conscience. 11. Charles YIII., the son of Louis, succeeded to the throne in 1483, at the age of thirteen years, under the re- gency of his sister, the Princess Ann. His father had ac- quired a claim to the kingdom of Naples. The young King, on coming of age, undertook an expedition against that country, which he easily subdued. Charles, who was re- markable for the sweetness and affability of his disposition, died in the twenty-eighth year of his age, and with him ended the direct line of the house of Yalois. CHAPTER IV. FROM THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XII. TO THE REIGN' OF HENR Y III.— A. D. 1498 TO 1589. THE Duke of Orleans, who was the nearest heir after the death of Charles, succeeded to the throne of France un- der the title of Louis XII. He was a wise and popular sov- ereign. By his frugal policy he greatly diminished the bur- den of taxes, and gained the title of the Father of his People. Being urged to punish those who had been his enemies dur- ing the preceding reign, he replied, ** It is unworthy of the King of France to avenge the injuries done to the Duke of Orleans." 2. He reduced Milan and Genoa, and prosecuted his claim to Naples with some advantage, but was ultimately unsuc- cessful. He joined the League of Camhy^ay against Venice, which, on account of its wealth, acquired by its commerce, excited the jealousy of its neighbors ; but the confederates afterwards quarrelled among themselves, and a new league What did he leave? On pronouncing the sentence, what did he order? — 11. Who succeeded Louis? • For Avhat was he remarkable? Chapter IV. — 1. What is said of the Duke of Orleans? What re- ply did he make v/hen urged to punish, etc. ? — 2. What did he do ? FRANCE. 197 was formed against France. The French, under the cora- mand of Gaston de Foix, Duke of Nemours, gained an im- portant victory over the confederates at the battle of Ra- venna, in which the Duke lost his life. After the death of this distinguished General, Louis soon lost all his possessions in Italy, and was compelled to evacuate the country. Before he was able to recover these losses he suddenly died — an event which filled the hearts of his subjects with the deepest sorrow. The exclamation that ''The good King is dead I" was heard on every side. 3. As the late King had died without leaving any male issue, his cousin, the Earl of Angouleme, ascended the throne under the title of Francis I. Francis, then in the flower of his age, was of a romantic disposition and fond of military glory, and soon distinguished himself by the conquest of the Milanese. On the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Ger- many, in 1519, Francis and Charles Y. of Spain became rival candidates for the imperial crown, Charles was the success- ful candidate, and Francis, deeming himself injured, availed himself of this pretence for commencing hostilities against his rival. 4. His first operations against Navarre were successful; but an unfortunate misunderstanding taking place between Francis and the High Constable, De Bourbon, one of the ablest of his generals, the latter basely abandoned his country and his sovereign and offered his services to the Emperor Charles. Bourbon fought against the French in the battle of Biagrassa, in which they were defeated with the loss of their celebrated general, the illustrious Bay^ard, surnamed the Knight without fear and without reproach. Bourbon is said to have wept like a child over the dying hero. " Weep not for me," said the noble Bayard, " but for yourself. I die in the service of my country ; you triumph in the ruin of yours." 5. Francis, now taking upon himself the command of the army, hastened into Italy and laid siege to Pavia, but was there defeated and taken prisoner by the imperialists under the command of Bourbon. After thirteen months of cap- tivity, Francis obtained his liberty, and having crossed the "What did the French gain under the command of Gaston de Foix ? What is said of his death ?— 3. Who succeeded to the throne ? What is said of Francis and Charles V.? — 4. What was the consequence of the misunderstanding between Francis and De Bourbon? What did Bayard say while Bourbon wept over him? — 5. What did Francis now do? After he obtained his liberty, what is said of him? 17* 198 FRANCE. boundary of his own dominions, he mounted his horse, and, waving his hat, he exclaimed, "I am yet a King I" The conditions on which he obtained his release were so unrea- sonable that Francis, on regaining his liberty, refused to comply with them. The violation of this treaty again in- volved the two rival sovereigns in another sanguinary war. The Sovereign Pontiff having declared in favor of Francis, Bourbon, who commanded for Charles, laid siege to Rome, but was killed in an attempt to storm the walls. The city, however, was taken, and for two months abandoned to the pillage of the infuriated soldiery, during which time it pre- sented a scene of ruinous desolation, more frightful than that which it endured when it fell beneath the hand of the Goth or Vandal. 6. After the war had raged for some time with but little advantage on either side, a truce was concluded, and the two rival monarchs were brought to a personal interview at Aigues Mortes, in France, where the warmest expressions of friendship passed between them. The following year Charles obtained permission to pass through France on his way to the Netherlands ; he remained for six days at Paris, where he was entertained with great magnificence. The war, how^ever, was again renewed between the two sover- eigns respecting Milan, which terminated unfavorably to Francis, who died shortly after peace was restored, in the fifty-second year of his age, a. d. 1547. Francis possessed, in many respects, the reputation of a great sovereign. His impetuous courage, his frank and generous disposition, gained him the affection of his subjects. He was a liberal patron of literature and the arts, which made great progress in France during his reign, and the French court acquired that polish and refinement which have since rendered it so con- spicuous. 7. Henry II., who succeeded Francis, was brave, affable, and polite. He inherited in some degree the abilities and courage of his father. His reign, which continued for thir- teen years, was almost one uninterrupted series of hostilities with Charles Y. and his son, Philip II., of Spain. Henry gained an important advantage over the imperialists at the siege of Metz, but Philip, in his turn, gained the famous vic- What was the fate of Bourbon ? What is said of the city ? — 6. After the war had raged for some time, what was concluded ? What took place the following year ? When did Francis die ? What did he pos- sess? Of what was he the patron ?— 7. Who succeeded Francis ? With whom was he engaged in hostilities ? FRANCE. 199 tory of St. Quentin. The reign of Henry was also signal- ized by the recovery of Calais, which was taken, after a siege of eight days, by the celebrated Duke of Guise, after it had remained in the possession of the English for two hundred and ten years. Henry's severity against the Hu'guenots gave rise to those sanguinary civil wars which for several succeeding reigns distracted and desolated France. His death was occasioned by an accident which happened to him at a tournament. 8. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., who, after a short reign of one year, left the throne to his brother, Charles IX., then a boy, in the tenth year of his age, who commenced his reign under the regency of his mother, Catharine de Med'icis. At this time the Protestant religion began to make considerable progress in France, and had gained the patronage of several distinguished men, among whom were the Prince of Conde and Admiral Colign'y. The leading men in the administration were the celebrated Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. In order to bring about an accommodation and to settle the difficulties without further bloodshed, a conference was held at Poissy for the purpose of discussing the points in dispute between the Cath- olics and Protestants. The conference was attended by the King and the most prominent personages of the court. The Protestant cause was supported by the famous Theodore Be'za, while the Catholic doctrine was defended by the dis- tinguished Cardinal of Lorraine. 9. After this conference an edict was published granting important privileges to the Protestants. But the spirit of discontent still prevailed between the two parties, and the flame of civil war again burst forth and deluged the fairest portion of France in devastation and blood. The Catholics, under the command of the Duke of Guise and Montmoren'cy, defeated the Huguenots, under the Prince of Conde and the Admiral Coligny, in several engagements. During the con- test the Protestants lost their most able leader, the Prince of Conde, who fell in battle ; while, on the other hand, Charles had to lament the loss of the firmest support of his throne, the Duke of Guise, who was cut off by assassination. Peace By what was his reign signalized ? What occasioned his death ? — 8. Who were the next two sovereigns? What is said of the Protestant religion at this time? Who were the leading men in the administration? What was the object of the conference at Poissy?— 9. After this, wliat was published ? What is said of the spirit of discontent ? During this contest whom did the Protestants lose ? What had Charles to lament ? 200 FRANCE. was at length restored, and the Protestants obtained free tol- eration for the exercise of their religion. 10. The most memorable transaction in the reign of Charles was the massacre of the Protestants, which took place on St. Bartholomew's Day. So various and contradictory are the accounts given of this lamentable event by different writers as to the number of the victims and the motives that prompted it, that it is a difficult task at the present time to arrive at the true state of the facts. On the occasion of the marriage of the sister of Charles to the King of Navarre, Coligny and other distinguished Protestant leaders were in- vited to court. During the celebration of the nuptial cere- monies various circumstances happened which contributed to bring about the odious measure that followed. As Coligny passed through the streets he was severely wounded by an assassin. The public voice attributed the attempt to the young Duke of Guise, in revenge for the murder of his father at the siege of Orleans. It proceeded, however, from the Queen-Mother, Catharine de Medicis, who was alarmed at the gradual influence which the Admiral seemed to acquire over the mind of Charles. 11. The wounds which Coligny had received were not dangerous ; but his followers crowded to his residence. Their threats of vengeance terrified the Queen, and in a secret council the King was prevailed upon to give his sanction to the destruction of the leaders of the Protestant party. From the close connection of events immediately preceding the massacre it would seem that it originated in the animosity of the French court against the Protestant leaders, and was dictated rather by a momentary impulse than by any studied or preconcerted plan. The young King, whose mind was harassed by the frequent revolts of the Huguenots against his authority, was only induced to consent to this cruel meas- ure after the positive assurance of his mother and chief coun- sellors that his safety required that the leaders of the party should be cut off, and that if he waited until morning his most faithful officers, his family, and perhaps himself, would be sacrificed to their vengeance. 12. In this state of mind he gave his consent to the pro- 10. What was the most memorable transaction of the reign of Charles? During the celebration of the nuptials, what took place ? From whom did it proceed? — 11. In a secret council, what was the king prevailed on to do ? From what would it seem to have originated ? When was the king induced to consent to the cruel measure? — 12. V/hen did it take place ? FRANCE. 201 jected massacre, which took place during- the night of the twenty-third of August and a part of the day following. The residence of Coligny was forced, and he was put to death, with his principal counsellors. The populace joined in the work of blood, and every Huguenot who fell in their way was furiously sacrificed. Although the massacre was only intended for the capital, still it extended to several prov- inces ; the Governors, though instructed to prevent similar excesses, had not always the power or the will to check the fury of the people, and the bloody tragedy of Paris was im- itated in several other towns. With regard to the number of the victims it is impossible to speak with certainty. Some writers exag-gerate the number to seventy thousand ; others estimate thirty, twenty, or fifteen thousand. The Reformed Martyrologist adopted a means of ascertaining the real num- ber by procuring from the ministers in the diiferent towns where the massacre took place a list of the names of the per- sons who suffered. He published the result in 1582, and in all France he could discover the names of no more than seven hundred and eighty-six persons. 13. Charles, in order to palliate the shame of this murder- ous edict against the Huguenots, wrote to every court in Europe, stating that, having just detected their horrid plots against his authority and person, he was fortunate enough to escape from the imminent danger to which he was exposed by cutting off the leaders of the party. Many, deceived by this statement and yet unacquainted with the true nature of the facts, congratulated him on his good fortune. Among others. Pope Gregory XIII., on receiving the account of the transaction as given by Charles, offered up public thanks, not that he rejoiced at the death of the supposed traitors, but for the preservation of the French monarch and his kingdom from ruin.* * ^^ Religion had nothing to do with the massacre, Coligny and his fel- low Huguenots were slain, not on account of their creed, but exclusively on account of their alleged treasonable designs. If they had nothing but their Protestant faith to render them odious to King Charles, they would never have been molested ; for neither did Charles nor his mother ever manifest any special zeal for the Catholic Church, nor any special aversion to Protestantism, unless when it threatened the throne," — Ahp. Gibbons. What was the fate of Coligny ? With regard to the number of vic- tims, what is said ? What do some writers exaggerate it to ? What was the number according to the Eeformed Martyrologist? — 13, What did Charles do in order to palliate the shame? What is said of Pope Gregory XIII, ? Was the massacre of the Huguenots a religious or a political measure ? (See note,) 202 FRANCE. 14. Charles did not long survive this event; he died shortly afterwards of a pulmonary complaint, and was suc- ceeded in the throne by his brother, Henry III., a weak and fickle prince. In the beginning of his reign he granted im- portant privileges to the Protestants, but he afterwards joined the League projected for the defence of the state and religion, and took the field against them. By this conduct he lost the confidence of both parties. He v/as finally assassinated by a Dominican named James Clement, in the fourth year of his reign, a. d. 1588. CHAPTER Y. THE HO USE OF BO URBON. FR OM HENR Y IV. TO THE DEA TH OF LOUIS XV.— A. D. 1589 TO 1774. OX the death of Henry III., the King of Navarre ascended the throne of France under the title of Henry lY. He was afterwards called the Great. His accession was, how- ever, greatly opposed by a powerful party in the state. The Cardinal of Bourbon was proclaimed King by the army of the League, then under the command of the Duke of May- cnne, and took the title of Charles X. But the army was signally defeated by Henry in the famous battle of Ivry. The difficulties and dangers which surrounded Henry daily increased. He had been educated in the reformed religion, which he still continued to profess, while the greater part of his subjects were Catholics. The King began now seriously to turn his mind to the subject of religion, and, having asked several Protestant divines if he could be saved by professing the Catholic doctrine, and being answered in the affirmative, he concluded that it would be a safer policy, in his peculiar situation, to embrace that religion. Accordingly, in 1593, he abjured Protestantism and declared himself a Catholic. 2. The event was productive of beneficial results to France. His claim was immediately acknowledged by all orders of the state, and the sanguinary civil wars which had so long 14. By whom was Charles succeeded? What is said of Henry? How did he die ? Chapter V. — 1. On the death of Henry III., who ascended the throne? Who was declared king by the army of the League f — In what had he been educated ? What did he do in 1593 ? — 2. Of what was this event productive ? FRANCE. 203 afflicted the kingdom were happily terminated. Henry, hav- ing gained quiet possession of the throne, was governed by principles of the wisest policy. By the celebrated Edict of Nantes he granted to the Protestants the free exercise of their religion, confirmed all their rights and privileges, and gave them full admission into all the offices of honor and emolument. 3. Henry now turned his attention towards the improve- ment of his kingdom. A civil war of nearly thirty years' duration had produced the most calamitous effects. The land was untilled, the people poor and wretched, the crown loaded with debt. But by the wise and prudent measures of the King these evils were soon removed and prosperity began again to diffuse itself throughout the country. The wisest of his counsellors w^as the Baron de Rosny, after- wards Duke of Sully, in whom he found an able minister and a faithful friend. 4. Henry, by his great abilities, having elevated France from the wretched condition in which he found it at his ac- cession to the throne to a high state of prosperity and hap- piness, fell a victim to the fanaticism of a man named Francis Ravaillac, who had long planned his death. As the King rode through the streets of the capital he was accidentally stopped by some obstruction in the way. Ravaillac, who was always on the watch, seized this favorable moment, mounted on the wheel of the carriage, and stabbed the King twice before any one could oppose the wretched murderer. Thus fell Henry lY., who may justly be ranked among the greatest of the French monarchs, in the fifty-seventh year of his age and in the twenty-first of his reign, a. d. 1610. 5. When the fatal event was made known in Paris, the whole city presented a scene of mourning. Ravaillac was seized and put to the most cruel tortures to induce him to confess the names of those who were his accomplices, but to the last he persisted in maintaining that no one except him- self was concerned in the action. As a King, Henry was deservedly great. To promote the happiness of his people seems to have been his predominate passion ; he was kind and familiar to the lowest of his subjects, and was beloved What did he do by the Edict of Nantes ? — 3. To what did he now turn his attention ? Who was the wisest of his counsellors ?— 4. How did Henry die ? Relate the circumstances of his death. — 5. What is said of Paris when the news was made known ? What is said of Henry as a sovereign ? 204 FPwANCE. by them to a degree bordering on enthusiasm. His private life was far from being so commendable, and the manners of his courtiers were rendered profligate from the example of their sovereign. 6. Louis XIII., the son of the late monarch, succeeded to the throne at the age of nine years, under the regency of his mother, Mary of Medicis, who displeased the nobility by her partiality for Italians, and during her administration the kingdom relapsed into many disorders. Louis, on assuming the reins of government, chose for his prime minister the famous Cardinal Rich'elieu, one of the greatest men of his age. During the reign of this monarch the kingdom was again distracted by civil war ; the Protestants attempted to throw off their allegiance and to establish an independent state, selecting BocheUe for the capital. Richelieu laid siege to this city, which finally surrendered after an obstinate re- sistance of twelve months. The fall of this city terminated the civil war and greatly weakened the Protestant power in France. A second rebellion was excited by the Duke of Or- leans, the King's brother, and supported by the Duke of Montmorency ; but it was finally crushed and Montmorency executed for treason. 7. The great abilities of Richelieu were conspicuous in all his undertakings. While he extended the glory of France and commanded the respect of all the powers of Europe, he became also the zealous patron of literature and science, and founded the French Academy. He died in 1642, and was followed to the tomb in the succeeding j^ear by Louis him- self, in the forty-third year of his age and the thirty-fourth of his reign. 8. Louis XIY. succeeded his father at the early age of five years, under the regency of his mother, Ann of Austria. She made choice of Cardinal Mazarin' for her prime minister. His administration was particularly distinguished by the de- feat of the Spaniards at Rocroy, Friburg, and Lens, who, taking advantage of the King's minority, had commenced hostilities. On the death of Mazarin, Louis, at the age of twenty-two, took upon himself the entire direction of the aftairs of government. To the happy choice he made of his Of his private life?— 6. Who succeeded to the throne? Who was chosen prime minister ? During the reign of Louis, what is said of the kingdom? By whom was a second rebellion headed? — 7. What is said of the abilities of Richelieu ? When did he die ? — 8. Who succeeded ? Who was made prime minister ? How was his administration distin- guished ? FRANCE. 205 ministers may be attributed the brilliant achievements that distinguished the early part of his reign. The financial af- fairs were regulated by the famous Colbert', an able and sagacious statesman ; his armies were commanded by the Princes of Conde and Turenn'e, two of the greatest generals of the age, while the genius of Vauban' was employed in fortifying his towns. 9. He subdued Franche Comte, which he annexed to France ; conquered a part of Netherlands ; overran Alsace, and twice desolated the Palatinate. Alarmed at the success that attended the arms of the French monarch, the League of Augsburg was formed, in which Holland, Spain, Sweden, and several other of the German states united against him. In nOl a second League was entered into by England, Ger- many, and Holland against the power of France. The splendid career of victory which marked the early part of his reign was now exchanged for a series of reverses which attended the close of his long and eventful life. His armies were no longer directed by the master spirits of Turenne and Conde ; they had, moreover, to contend with the genius of the Duke of Maryborough and Prince Eugene, who gained over them the celebrated victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and at the peace of Utrecht Louis lost nearly all the advantages he had formerly gained. 10. Louis died in the seventy-eighth year of his age and the seventy-third of his reign, a. d. It 15. His reign, which is one of the longest recorded in history, is illustrated by many brilliant achievements. The most impolitic measure of his long administration, and one that has incurred the censure of subsequent historians, was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, granted by Henry lY. for the toleration of the Protestant worship. By this act all the Protestant ministers who refused to abjure their tenets were commanded to quit the kingdom within the space of two months. As to the other Protestants, they were allowed to remain in France, where they might freely carry on their business, '' without being molested or harassed on account of their religion," to use the words of the repealing act. Many, however, pre- ferred to follow their ministers into exile ; but as to the num- Who regulated the financial affairs? Who commanded his armies ? — 9. What did he do? What league was formed against him ? In 1701, what was formed ? What is said of his career of victory ? What vic- tories were gained by Prince Eugene ? — 10. When did Louis die ? What is said of his reign ? What was the most impolitic measure ? By this edict, what was commanded ? 18 206 FRANCE. ber of persons who thus went into banishment it is impos- sible to ascertain. Some authors swell the number to five hundred thousand, while Larrey and Benoit, both Protestant writers, admit it to have been about two hundred thousand. The Duke of Burgundy, whose candor and ample means of research entitle him to credit, assures us that the French refugees did not exceed sixty thousand in all. 11. Although the King, with the advice of his ministers, adopted these severe measures against the Huguenots, it can- not be supposed that this portion of his subjects was en- tirely without blame ; their frequent manifestations of hos- tility to the government, their many open revolts, which had plunged the kingdom into all the evils of civil war, might be offered as some palliation for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. To this may be added the fact that all the Protestant governments of Europe at the time exercised the most brutal severity against the Catholic portion of their subjects. This, however, is but a feeble excuse. One wrong does not justify another. In our own age, happily more liberal and enlight- ened, we disavow the savage and unchristian spirit of perse- cution. 12. Louis is said to have been handsome in his person and to have excelled in all the polite accomplishments of the time. The love of glory was his ruling passion ; this he pursued, not only by his military achievements and the splendor of his conquests, but also by the patronage which he gave to literature and science, by promoting all the useful arts, and by giving encouragement to commerce, manufactures, and public works. The capital was embellished, the palaces of Versailles and Louvre were built ; the Canal of Languedoc and other useful w^orks were constructed. The reign of Louis XIV. has been styled the Augustan Age of French literature, and is distinguished for the number of eminent men who flourished during that period. Conde and Turenne at the head of the armies have acquired imperishable fame ; Colbert in the cabinet ; Bossue't, Fenelon', Massillon', and Bourdalou'e in sacred eloquence ; Pas'cal and Descar'tes in mathematics and philosophy ; Racin'e, Moliere, and Boil'eau in poetry. What is said of the number who went into banishment ? How many do some authors state ? — 11. What cannot be supposed? What might be offered as some palliation for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes f To this what may be added ? What do we disavow ? — ] 2. What is said of Louis ? What has his reign been styled ? Mention some of the most distinguished men. FRANCE. 207 13. Louis Xy., the great-grandson of the late monarch, succeeded to the throne at the age of five years, under the regency of the Duke of Orleans. The Duchess of Venta- dour was appointed governess to the young King, a lady well qualified for the important charge reposed in her. Louis, on coming of age, chose for his chief minister the virtuous and amiable Cardinal Fleury, who was then in the seventy- third year of his age, but still retained his vigor and activity till near ninety. By the wise and pacific counsels of this distinguished man the prosperity of France was revived and its tranquillity preserved for near twenty years. 14. After the death of Fleury, France was engaged in the war of the Austrian Succession, which took place on the death of the Emperor Charles YI. The two competitors for the imperial throne were Ilaria Teresa, the eldest daughter of the late Emperor, and Charles, the Elector of Bavaria. The claim of the former was supported by Great Britain, while the cause of the latter was espoused by France and Prussia. The English and their allies under George II. gained the battle of Dettingen, and the French in their turn obtained the victory at the battle of Fontenoy. Peace was restored by the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, and the claim of Maria Teresa was acknowledged. 15. In 1755 war was again renewed between England and France respecting their American possessions. This was terminated by the peace concluded at Paris in 1763, when the most important of the French possessions in North America were ceded to Great Britain. Louis died in 1774, in the sixty-fifth year of his age and in the fifty-ninth of his reign. The reign of this monarch and that of his predecessor oc- cupied the unexampled period of one hundred and thirty-two years. 13. Who succeeded to the throne? Whom did Louis choose for his chief minister? By his wise counsels, what was revived? — 14. In what was France engaged ? Who were the two competitors ? By whom were they supported? By what was peace restored? — 15. In 1755, what war was renewed? How did it terminate? When did Louis die? What was the length of his reign ? What period did these two monarchs occupy ? 208 FRANCE. CHAPTER yi. LOUIS XVI. AND HTS MISFORTUNES; THE REVOLUTION AND ITS EXCESSES.— FROM 1774 TO 1795. LOUIS XYI., the grandson of the late King, succeeded to the throne in the twentieth year of his age. The situation of this virtuous and benevolent prince was beset with difficulties of no ordinary character. The prodigality of his predecessor had impoverished the nation and loaded the people with taxation ; a general corruption of morals and contempt for religion were manifested by those who were at the head of the government ; while the principles of atheism were widely disseminated through the infamous writings of Yoltair'e, Rousseau', and others. 2. The deranged state of the finance first claimed the at- tention of Louis. He placed at the head of this department Turgo't, an eminent statesman, and chose Malesherh'es as his prime minister. These distinguished men, after several unsuccessful attempts to remove the evils and to reform the abuses of the state, resigned their situations and retired from office. The celebrated Neck'er, a native of Geneva, having succeeded Turgot at the head of the finance, pursued the same system of economy and reform, but, becoming unpop- ular with the courtiers, he was finally removed. 3. About this period two commissioners from the United States arrived at Paris to solicit the aid of France in behalf of the Americans, who were then struggling for their inde- pendence against the power of Great Britain. Although the American envoys were at first denied an audience in a public capacity, still the cause in which their country was engaged excited the deepest sympathy among the French nobility and obtained many private volunteers, among whom the Mar- quis de Lafayet'te was the most conspicuous. When the news of the failure of Burgoyne's expedition reached Paris a favorable change took place in the French cabinet in regard to America. The Queen, who had always favored the inter- ^ Chapter VI. — 1. Who succeeded to the throne ? What is said of his situation ? What were manifested ? W^hat were disseminated ? — 2. What claimed the attention of Louis? Who was placed at the head of this department ? Who succeeded Turgot ?— 3. At that period, who arrived at Paris ? What is said of their cause ? When the news of the failure of Burgoyne's expedition reached Paris, what took place ? FRANCE. 209 est of the Americans, now espoused the cause for which they contended with renewed ardor. The King and his ministers, who had hitherto acted with caution and reserve, at length determined openly to acknowledge the independence of the United States. The American commissioners, Franklin and Deane, were received as public ambassadors, and in February, 17t8, a treaty of amity and commerce was signed between France and the new Republic. As soon as this event was made public, the English am- bassador was immediately recalled from Paris, and war de- clared by Great Britain against France. 4. Various causes have been assigned as the origin of the French Revolution. The public debt, which had been greatly increased by the benevolent efforts of Louis in assisting the people of the United States in gaining their independence, left the state of the finance in the most embarrassed condi- tion. The return of the French officers and soldiers after the successful termination of the American Revolution dissemi- nated through France a spirit in favor of liberty and repub- lican principles ; a general corruption of morals and open contempt for religion became more prevalent, particularly among the higher orders of the state, while atheism and in- fidelity were daily increasing. These and other circumstances contributed towards exciting that fearful storm which spread devastation and blood over the plains of France and convulsed the whole continent of Europe. 5. After every plan for restoring the deranged condition of the finance had proved ineffectual, Louis convoked an as- sembly called the Notables, composed of persons selected from the highest orders of the state, to whom it was pro- posed to levy a tax on all classes without exception, in pro- portion to their prosperity ; but they refused to sanction this measure, as they perceived it would subject them to some personal sacrifices. After this a demand was made for the convocation of the States- General, a body consisting of the three orders, nobility, clergy, and commons, which had not been assembled since the year 1614, and never had a regular existence. 6. The assembly of the States-General convened on the In 1778, what was done ? What was done by Great Britain ? — 4. What are some of the causes assigned as the origin of the French Revolution ? — 5, What did Louis convoke? What was proposed? After this, what demand was made ? — 6. When was the States-General convened ? What did the commons do ? Of this body who was chosen president ? By its first act, what did Louis find ? 18* O 210 FRANCE. 5th of May, IT 89, at Versailles, where it was addressed by the King in a mild and conciliatory speech. It was not long, however, before the members of the assembly dis- agreed among themselves. The commons, with such of the nobility and clergy as were disposed to join them, seized the legislative authority, declared themselves the representatives of the people, and styled themselves the National Assembly. Of this body Bailly was chosen president, while Mirabeau' and the Duke of Orleans, (a man of the most abandoned character,) were the two most prominent members. By the very first act of the National Assembly Louis found himself, in a great measure, deprived of his authority ; and all who refused to unite with the commons saw themselves shut out from power, and all their rights and privileges invaded. 1. While these things were transacting at Versailles an insurrection broke out in Paris which was characterized by the most ungovernable violence. The Hotel des Invalides was taken by surprise, and thirty thousand muskets were seized. The prison of Bastile was demolished, the governor was massacred, and his head fixed upon a pike and carried through the streets amidst the shouts of the infuriated rabble. When the news of these violent proceedings reached Ver- sailles the King hastened to the capital with the hope of be- ing able to allay the tumult. He addressed the multitude with the warmest expressions of friendship, and succeeded in restoring a temporary calm ; after this he again returned to Versailles. But scarcely had he departed, when the insur- rection was renewed with increased violence. The infuriated populace directed their vengeance against all those whom they considered their oppressors, and the whole city of Paris was deluged in blood. 8. They finally proceeded to Versailles, and demanded that the King should return to the capital. In compliance with their request, the unfortunate monarch, accompanied by the royal family, left Versailles and proceeded on his way to Paris. He was, however, protected from violence through the influence and efforts of the 3Iarquis de Lafayette, who commanded the National Guard. 9. The progress of the revolution now made rapid ad- vances. The States- General underwent a change and was 7. What broke out in Paris? What was done? When this news reached Versailles, what did Louis do ? Against whom did the popu- lace direct their vengeance ? — 8. Where did they proceed, and what did they demand ? By whom was Louis protected ?— 9. What is said of the progress of the revolution ? FRANCE. 211 styled the National Assembly, The royal authority was nearly annihilated. The privileges of the nobles and clergy were abolished. The church lands confiscated. The mon- asteries suppressed, and France divided into eighty-three Departments. The next measure of the National Assembly was the for- mation of a new constitution, and from this circumstance it was styled the Constituent Assembly. 10. In the meantime, Louis and the royal family escaped from the palace of Tuileries, and reached the frontiers of the kingdom, when they were detected and again brought back to Paris. The new constitution was at length completed, and received the sanction of the King. ,It established a limited monarchy, and placed all orders of the state upon an equality. After this the assembly dissolved itself on the 30th of Sep- tember, 1*791. The next assembly that met on the 1st of October was styled the Legislative Assembly. 11. At an early stage of the revolution various political clubs were formed, among which the Jac'obin Club (so called from the place of its meeting) was the most predominant. This factious association long continued to possess a power- ful influence in the capital and to govern the proceedings of the Assembly. Another association, styled the Club of Cor- deliers, surpassed the Jacobins in avowed contempt for re- ligion, government, and law. On the 21st of September, 1792, a new body was convened, styled the National Con- vention; at its first meeting the regal government was abolished, and France declared a republic. The next step was to consummate the drama. The King himself was ar- raigned at the bar to answer to various charges brought against him. 12. In vain did Louis refute the absurd charges of which he was accused. In vain did the eloquence of Deseze vin- dicate his innocence ; his enemies thirsted for his blood, and the sentence of death was pronounced against him. The ill- fated monarch, who had passed through all these trying scenes with a fortitude not usually met with under similar circumstances, bowed in perfect resignation to that fate which How was France divided ? What was the next measure of the Na- tional Assembly? — 10. In the meantime what did Louis do? What did the new constitution establish ? What was the next assembly styled ?— 11. At an early stage of the revolution, what was formed? What were the two principal clubs ? At the first meeting of the National Conven- tion, what was done? — 12. What is said of Louis? What sentence was pronounced against him ? 212 FRANCE. he saw he was unable to avoid. On the 21st of January, 1793, after taking an affectionate -leave of his Queen, his children, and his sister, the Princess Elizabeth, who had attended him in the most trying scenes, he was led to the place of execution. With a firm step he ascended the scaffold ; for a moment he surveyed the multitude with calm serenity, and then addressed them in a few words : '* I die innocent ; I pardon all my enemies, and I pray that France may not suffer for the blood she is about to shed." At this moment the noise of the drums drowned his voice ; he then calmly placed his head under the guil'lotine, and as the axe descended, his confessor exclaimed, *' Son of St. Louis, ascend to Heaven." Thus perished Louis XVI., in the thirty-ninth year of his age, a virtuous prince of noble character. 13. After the death of the King, his amiable and virtuous consort, Ma7'He Antoinet'te, was marked out for destruction. On the 16th of October, 1793, having received the sentence of death, she was brought from the prison, meanly clad, w\i\\ her hands bound behind her, and conducted to the place of execution in a common cart, attended by her confessor, the Parish Priest of St. Landry. As she passed through the streets, she occasionally raised her tearful eyes, and gazed for a moment on the words Liberty and Equality inscribed on the houses. On the scaffold the royal lady conducted herself with her usual fortitude, until she was desired to lay her head upon the block ; but at that awful moment she grew pale and became apparently insensible. She was beheaded amidst the brutal cries of Vive la Republique."^ * It was of Marie Antoinette that the great Edmund Burke wrote: " It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the Queen of France, then Dauphiness at Versailles, and surely never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a more delightful vision. I saw her just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she had just begun to move in, glittering like the morning star, full of life, and splendor, and joy. Oh ! what a revolution, and what a heart must I have to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall ! Little did I dream when she added titles of veneration to those of enthusiastic, distant, respectful love, that she should ever be obliged to carry the sharp antidote against disgrace concealed in that bosom ; little did I dream that I should have lived to see such disasters fallen upon her in a nation of gallant men — in a nation of men of honor and of cavaliers. I thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their On the 21st of January, what was done ? What words did he address? What did his confessor exclaim? — 13. Who was next marked out for destruction? On the 16th of October, what is said of her? As she passed the streets ? On the scaffold ? FRANCE. 213 14. During the May of 1794, the amiable and beautiful Princess Elizabeth, the sister of Louis, was brought forth to execution ; and about a year later, the young Dauphin, an interesting child, died in prison of a disease contracted from confinement, and from the barbarous treatment he received from the guards. Of all the members of the royal family, the daughter of Louis, afterwards Duchess of An- gouleme, was the only one who did not fall a victim to the furious storm that desolated France. 15. The National Convention was soon divided into furious factions, of which the principal were the Mountain party, headed by Robespier're, Dan'ton, and Mara't, men of the most unparalleled cruelty and depravity ; and the Girondists, of which Brisso't, YergniauM, and Condorce't were the leaders, and were less extravagant in their views. The Mountain party, under Robespierre and his associates, whose bloody dominion is styled "the Reign of Terror," having gained the ascendency, committed the most fearful massacres. Brissot and Yergniaud, the leaders of the Girondists, with twenty of their partisans, fell a sacrifice to the vengeance of the predominant faction. That monster of vice and cruelty, the Duke of Orleans, suffered the same fate from the hands of those very men whom he had been instru- mental in bringing into power. 16. The Convention now indulged in mad schemes and the most extravagant excesses. The Christian religion was suppressed, and a decree passed, declaring that the only deities hereafter to be worshipped in France should be Liberty, Equality, and Reason. Nearly everything sacred was swept away. A republican calendar was established. The Sunday was abolished, and in its place every tenth day was appointed as a day of rest. The churches were despoiled of their ornaments and treasures; even the bells were melted and cast into cannon. IT. After these wild and impious proceedings, the Con- vention was again divided into two violent parties ; Rohe- scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult. But the age of chivalry is gone ; that of sophists, economists, and calcu- lators has succeeded, and the glory of Europe is extinguished forever ! " Reflections on the French Revolution. 14. During the May of 1794, what was done? About a year later? — 15. How was the National Convention divided? What is said of the Mountain party ? Of Brissot, etc. ? Of the Duke of Orleans ?— 16. What was done by the convention? What is said of the churches? — 17. After this, what is said of the convention ? 214 FRANCE. spierre at the head of one, and Danton the leader of the other. Robespierre prevailed, and all his most conspicuous opponents were brought to the guillotine ; but his own bloody career was soon destined to terminate. Being condemned on a charge of tyranny, he was executed in July, 1194. After the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin Club was sup- pressed, and during the following year a third Convention was formed, and the executive power vested in five Di- rectors. 18. The sovereigns of Europe, alarmed at the extravagant proceedings of the revolution in France, began to consider the propriety of uniting their forces, in order to oppose its fearful progress. At an early stage of the convulsion a coalition was formed between Prussia and Austria for the purpose of reestablishing the royal authority and restoring tranquillity to the country. After the execution of Louis, the first of the five great coalitions was formed between Great Britain, Holland, Russia, and Spain against France. The combined forces, under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, invaded France, but were hurled back in rout and confusion. The French, elated by this triumph, began to think of carrying their arms into the dominions of their assailants. Accordingly, under the command of Dumourie'z, they subdued the Netherlands, Holland, Switzerland, and a part of Germany. CHAPTER yil. BONAPARTE AND HIS WONDERFUL CAREER.— FROM 1796 TO 1815. IN 1796 the command of the French army was given to Napoleon Bo'naparte, then a young man in the twenty- seventh year of his age, who had previously distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon. This extraordinary genius soon astonished the whole continent of Europe by his brilliant victories. He completed the conquest of Italy, and compelled Who prevailed ? What is said of his own career ? After the fall of Robespierre, what was done? — 18. What is said of the sovereigns of Europe ? At an early stage of the Revolution, what was formed ? And after the death of Louis ? Chapter VII.— 1. In 1796, what was done ? What is said of Na- poleon Bonaparte? FRANCE. 215 the Austrians to sign the treaty of Campo Formio, by which the French conquests in the Netherlands were confirmed. The Venetian territories were given up to Austria, and the Milanese was ceded to the Cisalpine Republic, which was newly formed out of the Austrian and Papal territories in Italy. 2. Bonaparte next directed his victorious arms against Egypt, utterly destroyed the Mam'elukes in the famous battle of the Pyramids, and took possession of Cairo and all the Delta. In 1198 the French fleet was defeated by the English, under the celebrated Nelson, in the Bay of Ahoukir. In IT 99 a second coalition was formed between England and Russia, in which Austria and several other powers afterwards engaged. During the campaign which followed, the French were most unfortunate. The Aus- trians, under the Archduke Charles, and the Russians, under their general Suwar'row, gained several important victories in the north of Italy and in Germany, and by uniting their forces they threatened the frontiers of France. 3. At this crisis, Bonaparte found it necessary to return to Paris to remedy the disorders caused by the misconduct of the Directory at home. By the aid of his partisans, Fouch^, Tal'leyrand, and others, he succeeded in abolishing entirely the Directory, framed a new Constitution, and caused himself to be elected First Consul. From this moment the affairs of France took a new turn. Bonaparte finding himself placed beyond all control, by his energy and activity surmounted every obstacle caused by the intrigues of his enemies ; and by suppressing various factions which had long existed in the country, succeeded in restoring order and tranquillity in every department of the government. 4. Placing himself again at the head of his army, he effected the celebrated passage of the Alps, and defeated the Austrians in the memorable battle of Marengo. This vic- tory was followed by a second defeat of the Austrians at Hohenlind'en by the French under Moreau. These and other advantages on the part of France were followed by the peace of Luneville, with Austria, and the German em- pire ; and in the succeeding year, 1802, after the peace of Amiens with England, Europe for the first time since the 2. Where did Bonaparte next direct his arras? In 1798, what took place? Who gained several victories in the north of Italy, etc. ? — 3. At this crisis, what did Bonaparte find it necessary to do ? By the aid of his partisans, what did he do ? What did he now do ?— 4. What did he now effect ? After the peace of the Amiens, what is said of Europe ? 216 FRANCE. commencement of the Revolution enjoyed the blessing of universal tranquillity. 5. Bonaparte spent the short interval that elapsed between the cessation of war and the renew^al of hostilities in per- forming various acts of public utility. In compliance with a previous contract with Pope Pius YII., he re-established the Christian religion in France, which had been suppressed by order of the impious Convention. He published a civil code ; offered great facilities to commerce ; and greatly em- bellished the city of Paris by new buildings and monuments. But at the same time his course was marked with cruelty and blood ; he exercised the utmost rigor against Moreau' and Pichegru', two famous generals, who w^ere accused of partici- pating in a conspiracy ; the former was exiled, and the latter strangled in prison, while a number of others were brought to the guillotine. The Duke d^Enghien', a prince of the Bourbon family, after a mock trial, was shot during the night at the castle of Yincennes. 6. During these transactions, the mind of Bonaparte was actively engaged in maturing schemes of a higher ambition. After causing himself to be elected Consul for life, with power to appoint a successor, he began to think of assuming the sceptre. Addresses were made by the civil and military bodies, offering him the imperial dignity, w^hich he conde- scended to accept. He w^as accordingly crowned in 1804, by the Pope, Emperor of France, and in the following year he assumed the title of Ki7ig of Italy. T. The peace of Amiens was of short duration. In 1803, the war had been renewed between England and France ; and in 1805, a third coalition was formed by England, Aus- tria, Russia, Sweden, and afterwards by Prussia. The Em- peror immediately placing himself at the head of his army, took the field against the combined powers. At Ulm he captured the Austrian army of thirty-three thousand men under Mack; and in the memorable battle of Austerlitz, he defeated the united forces of Russia and Austria. At this battle the three Emperors w^ere present. This brilliant vic- tory terminated the campaign, and brought about the peace of Presburg, by which Austria ceded to France her Venetian 5. How did Bonaparte spend the short interval ? In compliance with the contract with Pope Pius YII., what did he do? What did he pub- lish ? What acts of cruelty did he exercise ? — 6. After causing himself to be elected consul for life, what did he begin to think of? When and by whom was he crowned emperor? — 7. What was done in 1803 and in 1805 ? What did he do at Ulm ? At Austerlitz ? FRANCE. 217 territories. A few weeks previous to the battle of Auster- litz, the English fleet, under Lord Nelson, gained a great victory off Cape Trafalgar, over the combined fleets of France and Spain. The English captured nineteen ships of the line, but had to lament the loss of their celebrated Admiral, who fell in the action. 8. As the King of Naples had permitted the English and Russian army to pass through his dominions, he drew upon himself the indignation of the Emperor of France, who de- posed him, and placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, upon the Neapo'litan throne. He next compelled the Dutch to receive his brother Louis as King of Holland. After this, he subverted the constitution of the German Empire, and formed a union of the several states, under the title of the " Confederation of the Rhine ; " obliged Francis II. to resign his title of Emperor of Germany and King of the Romans, and take that, of Emperor of Austria; and raised the Electors .of Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Saxony to the rank of Kings. 9. In 1806, Q, fourth coalition was formed, in which Rus- sia, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and England united against France. The Emperor, with his usual good fortune, anni- hilated the Prussians in the great battles of Jena and Auer- stadt ; immediately entered Berlin, and here commenced the Coyitinental system against English commerce, declaring the British Islands in a state of blockade, and ordering all ports to be closed against them. Peace was restored in the follow- ing year by the treaty of Tilsit, when Bonaparte bestowed on his brother Jerome the provinces wrested from Prussia, which he erected into the new kingdom of Westphalia. When the news of the Berlin Decree reached England, the British government issued their Orders in Council, by which all neutral vessels trading with France were compelled to stop at a British port and pay a duty. In consequence of these orders, the Emperor, who proceeded to Italy after the peace of Tilsit, issued his llilan Decree, by which all vessels submitting to the British search, or consenting to any pecun- iary exaction, were confiscated. 10. Elated by the astonishiug success that attended his arms, the Emperor of France gave full scope to his ambition. What did the English fleet gain ? Who fell in the action?— 8. What is said of the King of Naples? What did he compel the Dutch to do? After this what did he subvert, etc.?— 9. What was formed in 1806? What did the emperor? What took place the following year? At the news of the Berlin Decree, what was done by the British government? What did the emperor issue ? — 10. On what did he next fix his attention ? 19 218 FRANCE. and set at defiance all principles of justice and moderation. He next fixed his attention upon Portugal, and so decisive was he in the execution of his plans, that the royal family- was forced to quit the kingdom and embark for Brazil. He compelled Charles lY. of Spain to abdicate his crown in favor of his brother Joseph Bonaparte, who was in consequence trans- ferred to the Spanish throne ; and Mura't, who had married the sister of Napoleon, was raised to the throne of Naples. 11. The Spaniards, in this emergency, applied for aid to England, which readily granted them assistance. This cir- cumstance gave rise to the Peninsular war, which continued to rage from 1808 to 1813. In the mean time hostilities again broke out between France and Austria ; and fortune favored Bonaparte with his usual success. Having gained several important victories over the Austrians at Abensberg, Batisbon, and Wagram, he compelled the Emperor Francis to submit to a humiliating treaty at Vienna, by which he agreed to accede to the conti- nental system, and to give his daughter, Maria Louisa, in marriage to the Emperor of France. In consequence of this treaty, Bonaparte was solemnly divorced from the Empress Josephine, a woman of the most amiable character, and be- came allied to the imperial house of Austria. 12. By the Treaty of Tilsit, Alexander, the Emperor of Russia, had acceded to the continental system against Eng- land, and agreed to exclude British goods from his dominions ; but finding this measure extremely injurious to his subjects, he thought proper to retract his assent. In consequence of this, Bonaparte determined on the invasion of the Russian empire. Early in the spring of 1812, he collected a splendid army, consisting of four hundred thousand infantry, sixty thousand cavalry, and one thousand two hundred pieces of artillery, and on the 24th of June he crossed the Niemen on this memorable expedition.* 13. His progress towards Moscow, to which he directed his march, was interrupted by the Russians, whom he de- * The composition of this enormous force illustrates the almost uni- versal dominion to which Napoleon had attained. tScarcely half the number were Frenchmen; the reaiainder were Austrians, Germans, Italians, Poles, and Swiss. What did he compel Charles IV. to do?— 11. What gave rise to the Peninsular war? What did he compel the Emperor Francis to submit to' In consequence of the treaty, what followed? — 12. What is said of Alexander, emperor of Russia? What was the number of his army ? — 13. What is said of his progress towards Moscow ? FRANCE. 219 feated at Smolensk, and the tremendous battle of Borodi'no. The latter was distinguished over all the bloody encounters of that time by its enormous slaughter. One hundred thou- sand men lay dead or mangled on the field of Borodino ! He afterwards proceeded to Moscow, which he found enveloped in flames and abandoned by its inhabitants. The city had been set on fire by the Russians to prevent its affording an asylum to the French army. Bonaparte, in this emergency, thought it prudent to retreat towards the frontiers. But there is scarcely to be found in the annals of history a parallel to the suffering which the French army now endured from cold and famine. It is stated that nearly thirty thousand horses perished in a single day from the severity of the weather ; and of the immense host with which he invaded Russia, only about thirty thousand men remained to recross the Niemen. 14. In the meantime, the Emperor, leaving the remnant of his army after it had crossed the Beresina, near the fron- tiers, fled in disguise to Paris, raised another army of three hundred and fifty thousand men, and found himself opposed by 2k fifth coalition, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, and several of the confederate states of the Rhine. Without losing a moment of time, he put himself at the head of his army, defeated the allied powers in the battle of Bautzen, repulsed them to Dresden, w^here Moreau, one of the ablest of their generals, was slain ; but was utterly over- thrown in the dreadful battle of Lcipsic, with a loss of forty thousand men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The com- batants in this great engagement, called the Battle of Nations, exceeded four hundred thousand, a greater number than has ever been known to have been engaged in any one battle in modern times. 15. After this battle the Emperor fled to Paris, and made a vain attempt to rouse the French people. Without loss of time, however, the Allies crossed the Rhine, penetrated into the heart of France, and entered the capital. Napoleon, find- ing the situation hopeless, abdicated the throne of France, and, after various deliberations, the island of Elba was fixed What is said of the terrible battle of Borodino ? How did he find Moscow? How many horses perished in a day? How many men re- crossed the Niemen?— 14. In the meantime, what did the emperor do? Where did he defeat the allied powers ? Where was he overthrown ? What is said of the combatants in that engagement ? — 15. After this battle, what did the emperor do? What is said of the Allies? What place was fixed for his residence ? 220 FRANCE. upon for his future residence ; but he was allowed to retain the title of Emperor. Matters being thus arranged, Louis XYIII. was restored to the throne of his ancestors. 16. While the allied sovereigns were yet holding a congress at Vienna, for the purpose of arranging the affairs of Europe, Napoleon returned from exile and made another effort to re- gain the throne of France. Landing at Frejus, he marched with only eleven hundred and forty men, without opposition through the country ; presented himself in an open carriage to the royal army at Melun ; was received with shouts of applause ; entered Paris the same evening ; and was again proclaimed Emperor, amidst the loudest acclamations. Thus in twenty days after his landing at Frejus, he found himself quietly seated on the throne, without having spilled a drop of blood. This exploit, which is regarded as one of the most extraordinary of his life, is without a parallel in history, and evinces in a striking manner his vast ascendency over the French people. It. As soon as his return to France was made known at Vienna, he was declared by the Congress a traitor and an outlaw. A new and formidable coalition was formed against him by nearly all the powers of Europe. He placed himself once more at the head of his army, but was entirely defeated by the Allies, under Wellington and Blucher, on the 18th of June, 1815, in the memorable battle of Waterloo, with a loss of upvf ards of forty thousand men in killed and wounded. 18. This battle sealed the fate of Bonaparte. He fled to Paris, abdicated the throne in favor of his son, and shortly afterwards surrendered himself to Captain Maitland, of the English ship-of-war Bellerophon, asking an asylum in Eng- land, which, he said in a letter to the Prince Regent, was the most powerful, the most constant, and most generous of all his enemies. But it was unanimously agreed among the allied sovereigns that he should be sent a prisoner to the Isle of St. Helena, where he arrived on the 17th of October, 1815, and there died on the 5th of May, 1821, in the sixth year of his captivity, and in the fifty-second of his age.* * See Biography of Eminent Personages. 16. While the allied sovereigns were holding a congress at Vienna, what took place ? Landing at Frejus, what did he do ? What is said of this exploit ? — 17. As soon as his return was made known, what was he declared ? Where was he defeated by the Allies ? With what loss ? —18. After this battle what did do ? Where was he sent ? When did he die? FRANCE. 221 CHAPTER VIII. REIGNS OF LOUIS XVIII. ; CHARLES X. ; AND LOUIS PHILIPPE.— FROM 1815 TO 1848. AFTER the second dethronement of Napoleon, Louis XYIII. was again placed on the throne of France, which was now reduced to nearly the same limits as before the Revolution. The government was compelled to restore a considerable amount of the plunder collected at Paris, to pay £28,000,000 sterling towards the expense of the war, and maintain for five years an army consisting of one hun- dred and fifty thousand of the allied troops, to be placed in difi'erent fortresses on the frontiers. Mura't, who had been raised to the throne of Naples, and Marshal Ney, having both taken part with Bonaparte after his return from Elba, were sentenced to be shot. 2. Louis XYIII. was succeeded in 1824 by his brother, the Count d'Artois, then a man of sixty-six, under the title of Charles X. The reign of this monarch was signalized by two foreign enterprises ; one in favor of the Greeks, in which France united with England and Russia, the other against the city of Algiers, which surrendered to the French after a siege of six days, on the 5th of July, 1830. This reign was also disturbed by the contests between the ultra-royalists and the liberal party. 3. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies made a strong stand against the ministry ; and in consequence of this, the chamber was dissolved by the King and new elections or- dered. On the 26th of July, it having been ascertained that a great majority of the newly-elected members were liberal, an ordinance was issued by the government, dissolving the chamber before it met, suspending the liberty of the press, and altering the mode of elections. 4. The publication of this ordinance caused the greatest commotion in Paris. The citizens took up arms against the government, and on the 29th of July gained a decided ad- vantage over the King's guards. The trembling monarch Chapter VIII. — 1. Who was again placed upon the throne? What was the government compelled to do ? — 2. Who succeeded Louis XVIII. in 1824? What two enterprises marked the reign of Charles X. ? — 3. What conflict took place between the government and the chamber of deputies in 1830? — 4. What did the Parisians do? 19* 222 FRANCE. now withdrew the fatal ordinance ; but it was too late. That document had sealed the ruin of a line of sixty kings. Charles fled to England, and died a helpless wanderer. The chamber of deputies met on the 3d of August ; the throne was de- clared vacant, and the Duke of Orleans was called to accept the crown. On the 9th of August, 1830, the Duke took the oath prescribed, and became ruler of France under the title of Louis Philippe, King of the French. 5. The first four or five years of this reign were years of fear and unquietness. The citizen King found himself surrounded by difficulties. Arrayed against him were the adherents of the fallen dynasty, those who cherished the brilliant memory of Napoleon, and the Republicans, who were now rapidly increasing in numbers. Each party was actively engaged in conspiring its own future triumph, and none of them shrank from the idea of employing force to gain its ends. There seemed to be a yearning for fresh ex- citement. Universal distrust prevailed. A complex force of police found ample employment in watching the move- ments of men who were suspected of dangerous projects. 6. While the elements of disturbance were thus abundant, a wretched fanatic, named Fieschi, set up at a window, before which Louis Philippe and his sons were to pass, a machine composed of twenty-five gun-barrels, which he discharged at once against the royal family. Forty persons fell, killed or mangled ; but the King passed on unharmed, although a bullet grazed his forehead. Despotic laws were immediately enacted. The press was fettered. A picture could not be sold without official permission. Insurrection was confronted by cannon. The government was hated, but disorder quailed before its cold, remorseless strength. France, however, if not contented, grew tranquil. T. A system of public schools was established in the early years of the reign of Louis Philippe; and in 1838 France saw its first line of railway constructed. These were steps on the road of real progress. 8. Thiers gave expression to the changed national feeling when, in 1840, on the part of the government, he asked Eng- land to restore to France the bones of Napoleon. The re- quest was courteously granted. A French ship of war was To what country did the kina^ fly ? Who was now called to accept the crown ? — 5. Describe the difficulties of the new reign and the state of political parties in France. — 6. Who attempted to murder the royal family, and with what result ? — 7. What is said of public schools and railroads ? — 8. What is said of the remains of Napoleon ? FRANCE. 223 sent to carry the remains home. The lonely grave under the willow-tree, at St. Helena, was opened. The body had been so skilfully embalmed that nineteen years of death had not effaced the expression of the well-remembered features. Once more men looked with reverence and pity upon the almost unchanged countenance of him who had been the glory and the scourge of his age. King and lord and peasant attended the vast funeral procession that wended its Avay through the streets of Paris to the church of the Invalides, where the remains of the greatest military genius of modern times found a suitable resting-place. 9. Down to the very close of Louis Philippe's reign, France toiled to establish her supremacy over the city of Algiers and that portion of northern Africa which she had marked as her own. It was a fair and ample region — the Libya of the Romans, and one of the chief sources of their supply of wheat. The natives, however, refused to yield to their new masters. Pitiless and incessant war was waged, and whole tribes annihilated. The most formidable antago- nist encountered by the French was the brave Emir, Abd-el- Kad'r. For thirteen years he battled with varied fortune, and it was only in 184Y that he surrendered to Gen. Lamo- riciere. France was now mistress of Algeria. 10. Though the period of Louis Philippe's rule was peace- ful, the expenses of himself and his go\ernment were an enormous strain on the kingdom. He had learned little from experience and misfortune.* The taxes became heavier year after year. Furnaces, it is said, were heated in the royal kitchen at an annual expense of about a quarter of a million dollars. The standing army was large and its cost immense. The crops failed in 1845 and 1846, and prices rose to a famine point. Under such a weight of depressing circumstances, the people grew more restless and discontented, and the clouds of a sweeping revolutionary storm began to gather over Europe. 11. For some time previously to the year 1848, various incidents occurred to give indications of the disturbed state of society and the approaching upheaval of the masses. The * Louis Philippe was obliged to fly from France in 1793 — the terrible time of the Revolution. He had taught school in Switzerland, and had been a wanderer in England and America. 9. Where did France toil to establish her supremacy ? How did the natives act ? Who was the most formidable antagonist encountered by the French? — 10, What is said of the expenses of Louis Philippe's reign? What happened to the crops in 1845-6 ? How did the people act? — 11. Previously to the year 1848, what occurred? 224 FRANCE. flame of revolution had already burst forth in Italy and Ger- many, and was not long in communicating its effects to the excitable Parisian populace. In the early part of January, 1848, an open demonstration was made in favor of reform, and reform banquets were arranged to take place in various cities, especially in Paris. The government not only pro- hibited these reform festivals, but the King, in a speech from the throne, censured in severe terms the whole movement as tending to excite blind and hostile passions. These measures only tended to exasperate the minds of the people. They paraded the streets in crowds, with the cry of reform and " down with Guiz'ot," the Minister of Foreign Affairs. One of these processions, on the night of the 23d of February, 1848, halted in front of the foreign office, and while still in that situation, a gun was discharged, and the military posted there thinking themselves attacked, fired upon the crowd, and fifty-two persons fell, either killed or wounded. 12. This was a signal for an open revolt. The news spread quickly through Paris ; the alarm-bell was sounded, and in a few hours the whole city was in the wildest state of excite- ment. The people flew to arms, and were joined by the National Guard. King Louis Philippe, alarmed at this sud- den change of affairs, and fearing for his own safety, imme- diately abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count de Paris, and fled with his queen* to England, where he was shortly afterwards joined by the other members of his family. CHAPTER IX. THE NEW REPUBLIC SOON SUCCEEDED BY THE SECOND EMPIRE. — REIGN AND DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON IIL — GLANCE AT THE PRESENT FRENCH REPUBLIC. WHEN the flight of Louis Philippe became known, the monarchy was abolished, and a republican form of gov- ernment proclaimed. As soon as the news of the success of ■^ The royal pair travelled under the simple name of Smith — Mr. and Mrs. Smith ! Where had the flame burst forth ? To what did these measures tend ? What took place on February 23d, 1848 ?— 12. What followed ? What became of the king ? Chapter IX.— 1. What followed the flight of the king? FRANCE. 225 the insurrection reached England, Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte * hastened to Paris, and addressed a few lines to Lamarti'ne, then the head of the provisional government, announcing his arrival, and his willingness to place himself under the banner of the republic. To this letter the govern- ment replied by ordering him to quit Paris within twenty- four hours, and he again quietly withdrew to England. A few months afterwards, Louis Napoleon was elected to the Constituent Assembly from the Department of Seine, by a large majority, and after some opposition took his seat in that body. In the meantime an insurrection broke out in Paris ac^ainst the new government. It was instigated by the Socialist leaders, who wished to destroy every distinction of rank and fortune, and aimed at elevating themselves to power, and enriching themselves by plundering their more wealthy neighbors. The streets were barricaded and the most for- midable preparations were made to resist the government forces. Alarmed at the bold determination of the insurgents, the National Assembly invested General Cavaignac' with dictatorial power, and intrusted to him the suppression of the revolt. After a sanguinary conflict, which lasted three days, the government triumphed. The barricades were car- ried, and the rebels dispersed. This, however, was not ac- complished without a serious sacrifice of life and destruction of property. Among the victims who fell on the occasion, none were more deeply lamented than Archbishop Affre of Paris. During the contest, this brave and illustrious man approached the barricades, with a view of soothing the angry feelings of the combatants. His presence inspired respect, and both parties for a short time ceased from the conflict. But, unhappily, while he was holding a conference with the insurgents, he received a mortal wound, and was borne in a dying state from the barricades. 2. As soon as order was restored, an election for President * Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was a son of Louis Bonaparte, ex-king of Holland and brother of the Emperor Napoleon I. His career before this date had been very eventful. He was born at Paris, in 1808. He had lived in Switzerland, Italy, the United States, and England. Who hastened to Paris? To this letter what answer was given? What happened a few months after this ? In the meantime, what hap- pened in Paris ? By whom was it instigated ? Who was clothed Avith dictatorial power ? How was the insurrection suppressed ? Who were among the victims ? — 2. Who were the candidates for the presidency, and who was elected ? P 226 FRANCE. of the new Republic took place. There were no less than six candidates, the most prominent of whom were Louis Na- poleon, General Cavaignac, and Lamartine ; the first named, however, was elected by a large majority over all his com- petitors.* Napoleon entered on the duties of his office of President with energy, and soon succeeded in giving stability to the government. As his term of office drew towards a close, a formidable conspiracy was entered into, chiefly by the members of the Assembly, having for its object the over- throw of the existing government, and the arrest and im- prisonment of the President. Louis Napoleon, however, being made aware of the movement, anticipated their designs^ by seizing on the government and dissolving the National* Assembly. He saw a crown within his reach, and grasped at the royal bauble. He then appealed to the people, who approved of his coup d^etat, and invested him with the su- preme sovereignty, by a vote of nearly seven millions of a majority over all opposition. In 1852 he became Emperor under the title of Napoleon Ill.f France craved rest under a strong government. She got it, and was satisfied. In 1853 Napoleon married Eugenie de Montijo, Countess of Teba, a gifted and most amiable lady ; and three years later the Prince Imperial was born. 3. Notwithstanding a saying attributed to the new Em- peror, " L^ Empire, c^est la paix " — the empire is peace — the French were soon engaged in war. In 1853, the Czar Nicholas, thinking the moment opportune for carrying out his long-cherished scheme of aggrandizement at the expense of Turkey, declared war against that power and invaded the Danubian Provinces. The flimsy pretext for this aggressive measure was of protecting the Greek Christians persecuted by the Turks, although they enjoyed, in reality, more religious liberty than did the Catholic Poles, in the"^ Czar's own do- minions. France and England formed an alliance with the Sultan, and deckred war against Russia, in 1854. The allied powers soon drove the Russians from the Danubian Prov- * Louis Napoleon received five and a half millions of votes, while his fiv^e competitors did not together receive two millions. t The son of Napoleon I. died at Vienna in 1832. After the abdica- tion of his father in 1815, he was proclaimed Emperor under the name of Napoleon II., but it was an empty title, as he never reigned. What conspiracy was entered into, and how did Napoleon act? When did he become Emperor ? — 3. What did the Czar Nicholas in 1853? What powers allied themselves against Russia ? What did the allies? FEANCE. 227 inces ; but they aimed to greater results, and they resolved to strike a blow that would check forever Russia's ambitious schemes. 4. With this view, the combined forces of England, France, and Turkey, numbering sixty thousand men, landed at Eupa- to'ria on the 4th of September, 1854, and marched on the Russian stronghold, Sebas'topol. On the 20th they encoun- tered the enemy, and defeated him in the bloody battle of Alma. They then pushed vigorously their operations against Sebastopol, upon which the attention of the civilized world was to be drawn for nearly a year, by the heroic daring of the besiegers and the stubborn defence of the besieged. The entrance of the harbor having been obstructed by the Russians by sinking several battle-ships and frigates, the allies resolved to take the place by land, and on the 11th of October they com- menced the bombardment with two hundred pieces of heavy artillery. This siege may be called one continued battle, for day and night the work of bloodshed and destruction was carried on with ever renewed vigor. Reinforcements were continually arriving, and in January, 1855, the allied army was strengthened by a corps from Sardinia. The forts at the entrance of the harbor had been silenced or blown up by the French and English fleets ; the doomed city itself was a pile of ruins when the general assault was given, September 8th, 1855. The French finally succeeded in carrying by storm the famous tower, Malakoff, and Sebastopol was now untenable. The Russian commander, Prince Gortschakoff, after a fruitless attempt to intrench himself in the city and protract the defence, sank his fleet, blew up the fortifications, and evacuated the place. Sebastopol was taken. 5. During the siege, the Czar Nicholas died, it is said, of a broken heart at the failure of his plans. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander II., who after the fall of Sebastopol agreed upon an armistice. Peace was finally concluded, and by the treaty signed at Paris in March, 1856, Russia renounced her protectorate over the Danubian Provinces. The navigation of the Danube was declared free, and the Black Sea neutral water, wherein no vessel of war can navigate. Turkey, on the other side, solemnly confirmed all the privileges heretofore granted her Christian subjects. 4. Where did they land in September, 1854? What great battle was fought? What place did they besiege? — 5. Give an account of the siege of Sebastopol. What became of the Czar Nicholas? Who suc- ceeded him ? When was peace concluded ? What were the conditions of the treaty ? 228 FRANCE. Russia's power, if not her desire to oppress Turkey, was for the time effectually paralyzed. 6. Such is the brief outline of the bloody conflict known as the " Crimean War," and during which the world saw the extraordinary spectacle of the banners of the Cross and the Crescent floating side by side, and the two old enemies, France and England, fighting in one common cause. Truly, the designs of an all-wise Providence are impenetrable. 7. The year 185t saw France and England again united in a war against the Emperor of China, to obtain redress for insults proffered to their flags, and to punish the Chinese for cruelties perpetrated upon their missionaries. The allies took Canton, and advanced on Pekin so promptly that the Chinese Emperor hastened to sign a treaty of peace ; but, no sooner relieved from the presence of his enemies, he broke his faith and persecuted the Christians anew. Another ex- pedition was sent to China, and the victorious army of the allies entered Pekin in October, 1860. A new treaty of peace was then signed, far more advantageous to the western powers than that of 1858. By it they secured the right of having an ambassador at Pekin. The Christians were guaranteed the free exercise of their religion, eight Chinese ports were opened to European commerce, and, finally, France and England received each a war indemnity of sixty thousand francs. 8. Another and similar expedition to Cochin-China was undertaken, in 1858, by France and Spain, the Emperor of Annam having given them the same grounds of offence as that of China. The allies captured Tourane and Saigon, and suspended operations for a time, Spain having accepted a pecuniary compensation, and withdrawn from the conflict. But France resumed active hostilities in 1862, and compelled the Emperor of Annam to recognize the rights of the Chris- tians, to pay her an indemnity and cede her three provinces, and to open three ports in Tonkin to commerce. 9. Simultaneously with these minor expeditions, France became involved in another continental war. A quarrel had sprung up between her ally, Victor Emmanuel, King of Sar- dinia, and the Emperor of Austria. The latter having taken alarm at warlike preparations that were in progress in Sar- 6. What singular spectacle was presented by the Crimean war ? — 7. What expedition did France and England undertake in 1857 ? Why ? What caused a renewal of hostilities ? How did the war end ? — 8. Give an account of the expedition to Cochin-China. — 9. In what other war did France become involved ? FRANCE. 229 dinia, protested against them, and, being unheeded, ordered his army in the Lombardo-Yenetian provinces to cross the Tessino and invade the Sardinian territory. This act of hostility caused Napoleon to send immediately a French army into Italy. A short but bloody war ensued. On the 4th of June, 1859, the contending armies fought the cele- brated battle of Magen'ta, which was gained by the French. On the 24th it was followed by the still bloodier engagement of Solferi'no, which lasted sixteen hours. Napoleon and Francis Joseph were in command of their respective armies, and their presence seemed to instil new fury into the combat- ants. Finally, the Austrians having suffered terrible losses, retreated acoss the Mincio, leaving the French in possession of the battle-field. Thus Napoleon III. humbled Austria and aided the ambitious projects of his friend, Victor Emman- uel. 10. A truce followed. The two Emperors had a personal interview at Villa-franca, and agreed upon the basis of a treaty of peace, which was finally concluded at Zurich. Sar- dinia obtained Lombardy, and France had for her share Savoy and Nice. 11. But the Old World did not afford sufficient scope for the scheming and restless Emperor of France. The republic of Mexico, ever a wild chaos of misrule and disorder, had become lately so intolerable that France, Spain, and England were provoked into sending a military force in the hope of applying remedies to evils that were a scandal to Christen- dom. England and Spain, however, soon withdrew their forces, and the whole weight of the expedition fell upon France. The French army under General Forey rapidly subdued the country, and entered the city of Mexico in May, 1863. The President fled. Napoleon had upon his hands a nation without a government. It was resolved to found a hereditary monarchy, and to ofi'er the crown to the Arch- duke Maximilian, brother to the Emperor of Austria. The unhappy young man accepted the fatal gift. Soon France withdrew her army, and Maximilian found himself surrounded by enemies. He was betrayed and brutally murdered in 1861. The Mexican war was one of the greatest of Napoleon's mistakes. It cost France much blood and treasure, and How did Austria act ? What were the two principal battles fought ? With what result? — 10. What followed? Upon what conditions was peace made? — 11. What new enterprise was undertaken by Napoleon? By whom was the French army commanded, and when did it enter Mexico ? What is said of Maximilian ? 20 230 FRANCE. none of the objects for which it was undertaken were ever realized. 12. From the early part of his reign the bad faith of Na- poleon towards Pope Pius IX. was apparent. The grasping dishonesty of Victor Emmanuel, w^ho grew at the expense of his weaker neighbors, met with his silent approbation. In September, 1860, ''the Pope's temporal sovereignty disap- peared with the flag that was lowered on the crumbling walls of Ancona-/' and just ten years after that event the star of Napoleon set forever behind the black clouds that overhung the disastrous field of Sedan' 1 13. On withdrawing his army from Mexico, the French Emperor looked around for some fresh enterprise. The boundaries of France might, perhaps, be enlarged, and he cherished the idea of a war with Prussia. But it did not come in a moment. The great Industrial Exhibition of Paris, in 18GT, brought the King of Prussia and Count Bismarck to that gay capital. Some of the ablest military men of Germany visited the northeastern portions of France, and made a thorough study of the country and its resources. By and by such knowledge would become very useful. 14. The distracted Spaniards were searching over Europe for a king, and they chanced upon a certain Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern, whom they invited to rule over them. He was a kinsman to the King of Prussia. Napoleon objected to him as a candidate for the Spanish throne. It was a trifling affair, but grave complications arose. France de- clared war against Prussia in July, 1870. The Emperor joined the army at Metz, but it was soon discovered that he was really unprepared for a great campaign. He found him- self at the head of only about half as many troops as he had expected.* Supplies of every description, even of food and money, were wanting. But, prepared or otherwise, he must now meet the terribly armed and disciplined hosts of Germany. * Only about two hundred and twenty thousand ; twice that number should have been ready. What is said of the Mexican war and Napoleon? — 12. What was Napoleon's conduct towards Pius IX. ? AVhat occurred just ten years after the fall of Ancona? — 13. What scheme had the French Emperor in view after withdrawing his army from Mexico? What is said of the great Industrial Exhibition of Paris in 1867 ? — 14. Give the cir- cumstances that led to the Franco-Prussian war. When did France declare hostilities? Was Napoleon really prepared for a great cam- paign ? FRANCE. 281 15. The first engagement was at Saarbriick, where a small force of Prussians fell back before the advancing French. But no use could be made of this success, and in two short weeks four hundred and fifty thousand perfectly equipped Germans stood face to face with the rash and ill-prepared forces of France. The crash of arms and the thunder of artillery told of woful destruction and the rage and struggle of contending thousands. An overwhelming force of Ger- mans, under the Crown Prince, defeated the French on August 4th at Weis'senburg. France was invaded. The victors pushed on rapidly towards Worth, where Marshal MacMahon* was striving to draw his scattered forces to- gether. He was surprised in the early morning by a force far outnumbering his own, for the Germans soon had a million of men in the field. The French fought with des- perate courage, but were defeated, and MacMahon was obliged to fall back. 16. Napoleon was filled with dismay at this accumulation of disasters. He was at Metz. There he vainly strove to hasten the concentration of his whole army ; but at every point his plans were frustrated by the rushing flood of armed Germans who overran the country, and dashed all his com- binations into hopeless ruin. He made over the command of the army at Metz to Marshal Bazaine. It was not two weeks since the first blow had been struck, and already the war was lost beyond all hope of recovery. The whole Ger- man army was now in France. 17. Bazaine was hemmed in at Metz by two German armies, and vainly attempted to escape. He fought bloody and indecisive battles at Rezonville and Gravelotte. But he was obliged to withdraw his disheartened troops to the shelter of the forts.f MacMahon was ordered to hasten from Chalon and relieve Bazaine. He had only one hundred and forty thousand exhausted and poorly equipped men, but he bravely set out on what he considered a desperate enter- prise. Two German armies fell in with MacMahon in the course of his march towards Metz, and he was forced to * He was born in France, in 1808. He is of Irish descent, t Bazaine, with his whole army of one hundred and seventy thousand men, capitulated in October. 15. Where did the first engagement take place? With what result? Where were the French defeated on August 4th ? Describe the battle of Worth. — 16. How did Nap#leon now exert himself, and with what result ? Who commanded the French at Metz ?— 17. What is said of Bazaine's position at Metz ? What was MacMahon ordered to do ? 232 FRANCE. retreat northward to the town of Sedan. A message was sent to the unfortunate Emperor, who arrived there late at night, and walked almost alone from the railway station into the place where the crowning agony of his career was to be endured. 18. The French occupied a range of heights which over- look Sedan. The Germans, in overwhelming numbers, had gathered themselves around this position, and advanced to the attack before daybreak. The French stood their ground. Early in the action, however, Marshal MacMahon was struck down by a bursting shell, and as they bore the faithful vet- eran from the field he was met by Napoleon, who spoke a few kind words. It was their final parting. In vain did the French, with heroic courage, maintain for a time the hopeless struggle. One by one their positions were carried by the indefatigable Germans. The vanquished flung out a flag of truce. Napoleon surrendered himself to the King of Prussia, and the French commander, General Wimpffen, who succeeded MacMahon, made the best terms he could for his shattered forces. Eighty-three thousand Frenchmen laid down their rifles and surrendered on September 1st, 1870. No such shame had ever fallen upon the arms of France. 19. With the disaster at Sedan perished the government of Napoleon III. He now disappears from history.* The Parisians, who, a few weeks before, had shouted, " On to Berlin," deposed their hapless Emperor and erected a Re- public. The road to Paris was open, but the new govern- ment resolved on a stern defence. Several German armies marched on the capital, surrounded it completely, and, after a siege of four months, Paris was given over to the enemies of France. The countless hosts of Germany marched in triumph through its most magnificent streets. A treaty terminated their occupation, but not the miseries of Paris. The wretched Communists seized the devoted city and bade defiance to the republican government. For many weeks a French army, under Marshal MacMahon, besieged and shelled the capital. At last an entrance was forced. The fiendish insurgents were crushed, but not before they had destroyed some of the finest buildings in Paris and slaughtered many * He afterwards joined his family in England, and died in 1873. To what town, however, was he obliged to retreat ? What is said of Napoleon? — 18. Describe the battle of Skedan. — 19. What happened to Napoleon III. after the battle of Sedan? What is said of the siege of Paris and the Germans? What did the Communists do? FRANCE. 233 innocent prisoners, — among others, several Jesuit Fathers and the illustrious Archbishop Darboy. 20. France was terribly punished for the blunder of Na- poleon III. The final terms of peace with Germany, known as the Treaty of Frankfort, were signed May 10th, 18tl. France, bleeding and humbled, had to give up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, and pay an indemnity of five billions of francs. It was an enormous burden. But once more the marvellous ability of France to recover from military and pecuniary disaster astonished the world. Thiers was now President of the Republic, and within the appointed time he was able to discharge in full the huge claims of Germany. 21. The aged Thiers resigned the Presidency in May, 18t8, and was succeeded by Marshal MacMahon, the con- queror of the Communists, and the leader in many a bold and desperate conflict. Under his faithful guidance, France continued to grow in prosperity. MacMahon resigned his office in 1879, and was succeeded by Grevy, the present Presi- dent of the French Republic. 22. The recent unjust re-enactment of obsolete codes against the Jesuit Fathers and other Religious Orders proves, however, that in name only is France a republic. Liberty is dead where impiety and fanaticism rule. It seems that the great land of St. Louis is going through a course of purification ; but the Almighty Ruler of nations alone knows what will be the result. 23. Under the present constitution of France there are two legislative bodies — the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Every citizen of twenty-one years of age is entitled to vote at an election. Any citizen of twenty-five may be a Deputy ; any citizen of forty may be a Senator. The legis- lators receive payment for their services. The President is the head of the government. He is elected for seven years, and the Senate and Chamber of Deputies meet in national assembly. The President appoints his ministers, and they are responsible to the Chambers. 24. Ninety-eight per cent, of the French people are Catho- 20. Mention the final terms of peace between France and Germany. Who was the first President of the new French Kepublic ? What did he pay ?— 21. Who succeeded Thiers ? When did MacMahon resign ? Who is his successor ? — 22. What is said of the recent laws against the Religious orders? — 23. What are the legislative bodies oiP France? Who is entitled to vote ? At what age may a citizen be a Deputy ? A Senator? What is said of the President and his powers? — 24. Of what religion is the majority of the French ? 20* 234 FRANCE. lies, but all religions are equal in the eye of the law. Edu- cation made great progress during the reign of Napoleon III. and the rule of Thiers and MacMahon, but the republic is now doing its best to put fetters on knowledge. It is send- ing into exile the greatest and most devoted teachers of the nation. French law divides all landed possessions equally among the children of the owner ; and this arrangement has resulted in an extraordinary multiplication of proprietors. Nearly two-thirds of the French householders are land- owners. 25. The present century ias given many distinguished names to the literature of France. Among them are: Chateaubriand, De Stael, De Bonald, Be Maistre, Guizot, Thierry, Michelet, Thiers , Ber anger, De Tocqueville, La- martine, Hugo, Feval, Lacordaire,"^ Montalemhert, and Du- panloup. * See Biography of Eminent Personxiges. Are all religions equal ? What is remarked of education ? How does the French law divide landed possessions, and what is the result ? — 25. Has the present century added any distinguished names to French liter- ature ? Name some of the great French writers of this age. BOOK YIL ENQLAND. CHAPTER I. ENGLAND FROM THE CONQUEST BY THE ROMANS.— B. G. 55 TO A. B. 827. IN pursuing the history of England, the mind is forcibly struck with her gradual rise from the lowest state of barbarism to the highest point of civilization and refinement. Early records represent her as a weak and defenceless province prostrate at the feet of a foreign empire, while her present history exhibits her as a nation ranking among the highest in power, in the arts of peace and war, and with her commerce holding communion with the most distant regions of the earth. 2. The authentic history of England can only be traced from its conquest by the Roman arms. A part of the island was invaded and conquered by Julius Caesar, fifty-five years before the Christian era. According to ancient writers, the first inhabitants were a tribe of Gauls or Celts, who had landed on the island from the neighboring continent. This is probable, as their language, manners, and mode of govern- ment bear a striking resemblance to each other. Although, comparatively speaking, in a state of barbarism, the inhabit- ants had made some slight progress in civilization and had gained some knowledge of agriculture previous to the in- vasion of the Romans. They lived in huts built in the forest, clothed themselves in the skins of beasts, and lived on the milk and flesh of their herds. They were not wholly Chapter I. — 1. In pursuing the history of England, how is the mind struck? How do early records represent her? Her present history? — 2, What is said of the authentic history ? According to ancient writers, what were the inhabitants ? How did they live ? 235 236 ENGLAND. ignorant of the arts of war ; their armies, which consisted principally of foot soldiers, were equipped chiefly with the bow, the shield, and the lance. They had, moreover, a kind of war-chariot set with scythes, which caused dreadful slaughter when driven among their enemies. 3. The religion of the ancient Britons was that of Druidism, a degrading form of superstition. Their priests, called Druids, possessed an unbounded control over the minds of the people. They taught the absurd doctrine of the transmigration of the soul, and offered human victims to appease the wrath of their gods. The oak was considered the peculiar residence of the deity, and at their religious solemnities both the priest and the people wore chaplets of oak, and covered the altars with the leaves. No vestiges of their sacred groves are now to be found, but the ruins of their temples which still remain show that they attained at an early period a considerable advancement in the mechanical arts. 4. Such was the condition of Britain when it attracted the ambition of the Roman power. Julius Cassar, who had spread his conquests over Germany and Gaul, now cast his eye upon the isle of Britain. He was not allured by the prospect of wealth nor the richness of the soil, but led on by the ambition of carrying his arms into a region which before was considered inaccessible to the flight of the Roman eagle. With this view, having collected a numerous fleet, he em- barked with about ten thousand of his troops. On his arrival in sight of the coast he beheld it covered with Britons, prepared to dispute his landing. Not a little surprised on meeting with such determinate resistance, the Roman soldiers remained some time in doubtful suspense, until the standard- bearer of the tenth legion, leaping into the sea, advanced towards the shore, declaring that he would do his duty to Cassar and to Rome. 5. His example was followed by his companions; they gained the shore and put themselves in order for battle. The undisciplined Britons, unable to cope with Roman legions, were routed and fled in confusion. Although discomfited for the present, they were not conquered, but rallying under their respective leaders, they soon obliged:' the invader to retire to the continent with all his forces. Caesar, however, Of what did then* armies consist? — 3. What is said of religion? What did they teach and offer? What is said of the oak? What do the ruins of their temples show ?— 4. What is said of Csesar ? By what was he allured ? — What is said of the Eoman soldiers ? — 5. What is said of the Britons ? What did they soon oblige the invader to do ? ENGLAND. 237 was indefatigable in whatever he undertook. Returning the following year, he again invaded the island, forced the inhabi- tants to a subjection rather nominal than real, obliged them to give hostages for their future obedience, and again returned to Gaul. 6. In the reign of Claudius, A. d. 44, the Roman arms were again directed towards the final subjugation of Britain. For nine years the famous Carac'tacus bravely defended his do- minions against the power of Rome ; but being at length defeated by the Roman general Ostorius, he was taken pris- oner and led captive to Rome, As he passed through the streets and beheld the splendor of the city, he was heard to exclaim, ''Alas! how is it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home, should envy Carac'tacus in his humble cottage in Britain." In a. d. 59, during the reign of the Emperor Nero, Sueto'nius was sent to conduct the war against the Britons. He defeated them under their cele- brated Queen Boadice'a, who put an end to her own life to avoid falling into the hands of the conquerors. But the final subjugation was effected during the reign of Titus by Agric'- ola, who conquered Galcagus, a distinguished Caledonian chief, and established the Roman dominion over all the south- ern part of the island, a. d. 78. T. In order to prevent the incursions of the barbarians from Caledonia, the Romans built three walls across the northern part of the island. The first was of turf, built by the order of the Emperor Adrian, extending from Solway Frith to the mouth of the river Tyne ; a second of wood, by Antoninus, between the frith of Clyde and Forth ; and a third of stone, by the Emperor Severus. In order to repel the irruptions of the Goths and other barbarous tribes from the North, who now found their way into the plains of Italy, the Romans were obliged to recall their legions from the protection of their more distant provinces. Impelled by this necessity, near the middle of the fifth century, they withdrew their forces entirely from Britain, leaving the inhabitants to their own resources, four hundred and sixty-five years after the landing of Julius Caesar. 8. The northern inhabitants, the Scots and Picts, no longer What did Caesar again do?— 6. What took place in 44? What is said of Caractacusf What did he exclaim? In A. D. 59, what took place? When was the subjugation finally effected? — 7. To prevent the incursions of the barbarians, what did the Romans do ? By whom were they built ? When were their forces entirely withdrawn from Britain ? — 8. What did the northern inhabitants do ? 238 ENGLAND. intimidated by the Roman legions, demolished the walls and carried their devastations over the southern part of the island. The Britons, unable to protect themselves, sent deputies so- liciting the aid of the Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting the north of Germany. The invitation was gladly accepted. A Saxon army of sixteen hundred men, under the command of two brothers, Hen' gist and Hor'sa, was sent to their re- lief; and the Scots and Picts were soon compelled to retire to their own dominions. The Saxons, having expelled the Scots and Picts, instead of returning to their own country, turned their arms against the Britons themselves, and send- ing for a reinforcement of Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, they took possession of the country and reduced the inhabitants to subjection. From the Angles, the name England is derived. 9. A series of contests ensued between the inhabitants and the invaders. Among the chieftains who opposed the Saxons, Arthur stands conspicuous. This renowned prince, whose name is famous in legend and history, is said to have defeated them in many signal engagements, without, however, being able to effect a deliverance of his country. After a contest of nearly one hundred and fifty years, the Saxons succeeded in establishing their power, and erected a Hep'tai^chy, or seven Saxon kingdoms, which continued for about two hun- dred years, and exhibited during that period an almost un- broken series of dissensions and sanguinary contests. At length Eg'bert, king of Wessex, a* man of superior talents, prudence, and valor, first united them in one kingdom, under the name of England, about the year 828. 10. Previous to this period, the light of Christianity had shone upon the island. Towards the close of the sixth cen- tury, St. Augustine was commissioned by Pope St. Gregory the Great * to carry the glad tidings of salvation to the inhabi- tants of Britain. The Saint, accompanied by forty monks, set out for England ; and having arrived in the island, an- nounced to Eth/elhert, king of Kent, the object of his mis- sion. Ethelbert and his Queen, f attended by a vast retinue * This illustrious Pontiff died in 605. f Bertha, Queen of Kent, was the daughter of the king of Paris, and had previously embraced Christianity. To whom did the Britons apply for aid ? Having expelled the Scots and Picts, what did the Saxons do? — 9. Among the chieftains, who is conspicuous ? What is said of him ? After a contest of one hundred and fifty years, what did the Saxons establish ? What is said of Eg- bert? — 10. Towards the close of the sixth century what took place? What is said of St. Augustine ? ENGLAND. of their warlike subjects, kindly received the missionaries, and gave them an audience in the open air. St. Augustine explained the doctrines of the Catholic Church. The King shortly after this received Baptism publicly, and such was the salutary influence of his example that ten thousand of his subjects are said to have been baptized in a single day. CHAPTER II. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE MONARCHY TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST.— A. D. 827 TO 1066. DURING the reign of Egbert the coast of Britain was visited by a formidable enemy in the Danes, who re- peatedly plundered and devastated the land, destroying every- thing by fire and sword, and continued to be a scourge to the country for upwards of two hundred years. 2. Nothing of great importance occurred from the reign of Egbert to that of Alfred the Great, the sixth king of England. On coming to the throne he found himself sur- rounded on all sides by those inveterate enemies, the Danes. In one year he is said to have defeated them in eight dif- ferent battles, and succeeded in forcing them to retire from his dominions. But it was only for a short time ; returning with reinforcements they extended their ravages, and obliged Alfred to solicit a peace. In his distress the King was com- pelled to seek shelter for his safety by retiring into obscurity, and, thus disguised in the dress of a peasant, he passed sev- eral months in the cottage of a herdsman in the capacity of a servant. While in this humble abode he was ordered by the herdsman's wife to take care of some cakes that she had left baking at the fire. But Alfred, whose mind was other- wise employed, forgot the injunction he had received, and let the cakes burn ; for which neglect he was severely rep- rimanded by his mistress, who told him that he was always pleased to eat her cakes, though negligent in toasting them. 3. From his retreat he carefully observed the movements What did he explain, and what followed ? Chapter II, — During the reign of Egbert, by whom was the coast of Britain visited? — 2. On coming to the throne, how did Alfred find himself? In this distress, what is related of him?— 3. From his re- treat, what did he carefully do ? 240 ENGLAND. of the Danes, who from success had become remiss, and watched the earliest opportunity of again placing himself at the head of his followers, who had lately gained some slight advantage over their enemies. In order to ascertain the state of the Danish army, he disguised himself as a harper, entered their camp and played for the amusement of the soldiers ; he was even introduced to Guthrum, the Danish prince, in whose tent he remained for several days. Having thus learned in person the unguarded condition of the Danes, he returned to his followers, and placing himself at their head, he attacked the enemy by surprise, and routed them with great slaughter. 4. Having subdued the enemies of his country and re- stored peace to his kingdom, Alfred turned his attention towards repairing the evils they had caused, and improving the moral condition of his subjects. He invited to his do- minions the most eminent scholars from all parts of Europe ; established schools for the instruction of his people ; founded the University of Oxford, composed a code of laws, and, according to many historians, he established the trial by jury, and translated various works into the Saxon language. It is recorded of Alfred that he executed forty corrupt judges in one year; and so exact and impartial were the police that he even suspended gold bracelets by the highway, and no one was found to lay a rapacious hand upon them. 5. He usually divided his time into three equal parts ; one of which was employed in study and devotion ; a second in the discharge of business ; and the third in sleep and recre- ating his body by exercise and diet : these divisions he ex- actly measured by burning tapers of equal length. Alfred has been justly regarded by all subsequent historians as one of the wisest and most illustrious princes that ever adorned the English throne. He was distinguished equally for his private virtues and his public character, justly reputed the greatest writer, warrior, legislator, and statesman of his age. He was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the Elder , A. D. 901. Edward inherited much of the military spirit of his father, and his reign was almost one continued contest with the Danes and Northumbrians. 6. Edward was succeeded by his brother At'helstan, a In order to ascertain the state of the Danish camp, what did he do ? — 4. Having subdued his enemies, what did Alfred do? What is recorded of him ? — 5. How did he divide his time ? For what was he distin- guished ? By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of Edward ? — 6. By whom was Edward succeeded ? ENGLAND. 241 prince of great abilitj^; he carried on a successful war against the Danes, Scots, and Northumbrians ; strengthened and enlarged his kingdom, caused the Scriptures to be translated into the Saxon language, and enacted a law conferring the title of thane, or gentleman, on every merchant who should make three voyages to the Mediterranean Sea. 7. Edmund, his brother, succeeded to the throne. The reign of this king was short, and his death tragical. As he was celebrating a festival in Gloucester, the notorious robber Leolf, whom Edmund had banished, entered the hall where the King was dining, and took his seat among his attendants ; being ordered to leave the apartment, he refused to obey ; upon this Edmund rose and seized him by the hair ; Leolf, drawing his dagger, killed the King upon the spot. Edmund was succeeded by his brother Edred, whose reign was dis- tinguished by the final subjection of Northumbria. He had for one of his principal advisers St. Dun'stan, the learned and venerable Abbot of Glastonbury. The King deposited with him all his treasures and the title of his lands, and earnestly besought him to accept the vacant bishopric of Winchester, which preferment he declined. Edred, whose constitution was naturally weak, expired in the tenth year of his reign, and left the throne to Edwin. 8. Edwin, or Edwy, is generally represented by cotem- porary writers as a prince of a profligate character, whose reign would scarcely be worthy of notice were it not for several disputed points which occupy a considerable space in some of our modern historians. Elgiva, a lady of high birth, conceiving the design of securing for herself, or daughter, the dignity of queen, and with the view of cap- tivating Edwin's affections, one or the other, was constantly in his company. On the day of his coronation, after the ban- quet was over, Edwin hastily left the hall where his nobles were seated, and repaired to the company of Elgiva and her daughter. His nobles, considering his departure as an in- sult, appointed the Bishop of Litchfield and the Abbot of Glastonbury, in the name of the whole assembly, to go and recall the King. They found him in a most unbecoming situ- ation with Elgiva and her daughter, and, having placed the crown upon his head, they conducted him back into the hall. What were his principal acts? — 7, Who succeeded to the throne? Relate the circumstances of his death. By whom was he succeeded ? To whom did Edred leave the throne?— 8. How is Edwin rex)re- sented? What is said of El-^iva? On the day of his coronation, what is said of Edwin ? What did his nobles do ? 21 Q 242 ENGLAND. 9. Shortly after this, St. Dunstan was banished from the kingdom at the instigation of Elgiva, and Edwin was married. This event, it was natural to expect, would put an end to his amorous connections with Elgiva. Whether on that occasion she was sent home to her husband, or com- mitted to the care of her relations, does not appear ; but the King, instigated by his passions, or by her solicitations, carried her off by force, and placed her on one of the royal farms. Archbishop Odo undertook to remove the scandal by enforcing the laws prescribed against women of aban- doned character. Through his influence she was removed from the farm and banished to Ireland. 10. In the second year of his reign, the Mercians having rejected his authority, Edwin marched against them in per- son, but was defeated, and fled with precipitation into Wessex. Elgiva, who had returned from banishment, accom- panied him on his flight. At Gloucester she fell into the hands of the insurgents, who put her to death in a most cruel manner. That she was not married to Edwin, at least at the time of his coronation, will appear evident by consult- ing the original extracts from the historians of that period, to be found transcribed in Lingar^d^s notes to his History of England. ( Vol. 3, page 311.) 11. Edwin died shortly after the Marcian war, and was succeeded by his brother Edgar, a. d. 959. One of the first acts of the new monarch was to recall from exile the Abbot of Glastonbury, who received episcopal consecration, and was appointed to the bishopric of Worcester, but was after- wards translated to the metropolitan see of Canterbury. The reign of Edgar was rendered memorable for being the period in which England was freed from wolves ; by ofl'ering a reward for each head, he produced such diligence in the search of them that the race shortly disappeared. 12. Hearing of the extraordinary beauty of Elfrida, daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, he sent his favorite Athelwold to ascertain if her beauty corresponded with the report. Athelwold was so completely overcome by the charms of Elfrida, that he resolved, if possible, to espouse her himself. Accordingly on his return he represented to the King that her beauty had been greatly exaggerated, and 9. Shortly after this, what took place? What did Odo undertake? — 10. In the second year of his reign, what took place? AVhat is said of Elgiva? What will appear evident? — 11. What was one of the first acts of Edgar ? For what is his reign memorable ? — 12. Hearing of the beantv of Elfrida, what did he do? What is related of Athelwold? E N GLAND. 243 that she was not handsome ; but on account of her wealth, he thought she would be a suitable match for an Earl, and thus obtained the King's permission to marry her. Having afterwards discovered the treachery, Edgar, resolving to be avenged, brutally murdered Athelwold with his own hand while hunting, and shortly afterwards espoused Elfrida. 13. Edgar was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the Martyr, in consequence of his having been assassinated at the instigation of his step-mother, Elfrida, who was in- duced to this crime for the purpose of procuring the crown for her own son. Ethelred II. next ascended the throne. Historians have given him the surname of Unready, from his want of prompt- ness when called to duty. He was a weak and inactive prince. During his reign the Danes again invaded the kingdom under Sweyn their king. Ethelred fled to Normandy, leaving the kingdom in the hands of the invaders. The people, thus left without a leader, quietly acknowledged the Danish sovereign; but on the death of Sweyn, Ethelred was again restored. After an unfortunate reign of thirty-five years, Ethelred died, leaving the throne to his son Edmund, sur- named Ironside, on account of his great strength and valor; but courage and abilities were unable to save his declining countr}^ 14. Canu'te, the son of Sweyn, having succeeded to the throne of Denmark, asserted his claim to the crown of Eng- land, invaded the country with a powerful army, and com- pelled the English monarch to divide his dominions with him. In a month after this event, Edmund was murdered at Oxford by the treachery of Edric, his brother-in-law, and Canute was acknowledged sole monarch of England. He was one of the most powerful rulers of his time, and received the appellation of Great, from his talents and the success of his name. The early part of his life was stained with acts of cruelty, but the latter part was distinguished for mildness and benevolence. After a reign of eighteen years, he died much lamented by his subjects. 15. Canute was succeeded by his son Har'old, whose prin- cipal amusement was the chase ; he received the surname of What was his end? — 13. By whom was Edgar succeeded? What was his end? Who next ascended the throne? Who invaded the kingdom? What became of Ethelred? What did the people do? By whom was Ethelred succeeded? — 14. What is said of Canute? What was he ? By what was his early life stained ? — 15. By whom was Can- ute succeeded ? 244 ENGLAND. Barefoot, from his swiftness in running. He was a prince of a weak and profligate character. He reigned only three years, and was succeeded by his brother Hardicanute, the last of the Danish kings, whose reign was only distinguished for his cruelty and vices. 16. As the late king left no issue, the English availed themselves of this opportunity to shake off the Danish yoke, and again restored the Saxon line in the person of Edward, the brother of Ironside. Edward was distinguished for the mildness of his disposition and for his personal virtues. After his death he was canonized by the Pope, and received the surname of the Confessor. By the death of Edward, England was replunged into all the miseries of war. As he died without issue, the English crown was claimed by several competitors, among Avhom Harold, son of the famous Earl of Godwin, and William Dalie of Normandy, were the most powerful. Harold, how- ever, being present at Edv^ard's death, quietly stepped into the vacant throne, and was joyfully acknowledged by the whole nation. William of Normandy resolved to assert his claim to the crown of England by force of arms. Having collected a numerous fleet, he sailed from St. Valena, in France, and landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, with an army of sixty thousand men. 17. He was met by Harold with an army equally nu- merous. The night previous to the engagement the two armies had pitched their camps in sight of each other, and waited with impatience for the return of the morning. As soon as the day dawned, they were drawn out in array, and awaited the signal for the combat. The two monarchs ap- peared at the head of their armies, William on horseback, and Harold on foot, in the centre of the host. The memo- rable battle of Hastings followed. Long and bloody was the contest. At length the valor of the English yielded, and victory declared in favor of the Normans ; the nation sub- mitted to the sceptre of William, who in consequence was called the Conqueror. What is said of him? — 16. As the king left no issue, what took place ? How was Edward distinguished ? By whom was the sceptre claimed? What did Harold do? What did William resolve?— 17. The night previous to tlie engagement, what is said of the armies? Of the two monarchs ? Describe the battle. ENGLAND. 245 CHAPTER III. THE NORMAN FAMILY; WILLIAM /., THE CONQUEROR ; WILLIAM II. ; HENRY I.; STEPHEN OF DLOIS. — FROM A. D. 1066 TO 1154. AFTER the battle of Hastings the spirit of the English was broken ; city after city submitted to the con- queror, until he found himself firmly seated on the English throne. Though William was a sovereign possessed of great abil- ities as a statesman and a warrior, yet many of his acts have stamped upon his reign the blot of cruelty and oppres- sion. He was remarkable in his person, being tall and well proportioned, and possessed of such strength that few per- sons of that age were found who could bend his bow or wield his arms. 2. As was natural to expect, he entertained a partiality for his Norman followers, and advanced them to all the posts of honor and distinction — a measure which did not fail to excite the disaffection of the English subjects, who made several attempts to throw off the yoke ; but their endeavors were fruitless, and only tended to tighten the chains of their bondage. He endeavored, in a manner, to abolish the English language by causing the youths through- out the kingdom to learn the French tongue. No other language was used at court and among the more fa& aion- able society ; hence proceeded that mixture of French words which we find at present in the English tongue. Being much addicted to the pleasure of the chase, he reserved to himself the exclusive privilege of killing game throughout the kingdom, and formed the New Forest by depopulating a tract of land nearly thirty miles in circuit. One of the most useful acts of his reign was the completing the Dooms- day Book, which contained a register of all the estates of his kingdom. 3. His domestic repose was somewhat imbittered by the disunion of his three sons, who resided in a castle in Nor- mandy. He did all that lay in his power to compromise Chapter III. — 1. After the battle of Hastings, what is said of the English ? Of William ? In his person ?— 2. What did he entertain ? What did he endeavor to abolish ? What was one of the most useful acts of his reign ? — 3. What is said of his domestic repose ? 21* 246 ENGLAND. their differences without effect. His unnatural son, Robert, openly revolted and declared war against his father. William besieged him in the castle of Gerheroy, where many en- counters took place, resembling more the combats of chivalry than the contests of hostile armies. In one of these it hap- pened that Robert encountered the King himself, who was concealed by a helmet. A fierce personal combat ensued. At length the young prince wounded and dismounted his father. The King called out for assistance ; Robert, hearing his voice, recognized his parent ; and, struck with remorse, he alighted from his horse, threw himself at the feet of William, and implored his pardon. Then assisting him to mount, he saw him return to his camp. A reconciliation soon after took place through the interposition of his Queen, Matilda, whom William tenderly loved. Having reached the sixty-third year of his age, William died on the con- tinent, at the monastery of St. Gervais, in the thirty-first year of his conquest of England. 4. William 11. , surnamed Bufus, from his red hair, suc- ceeded his father in the English throne, a. d. 1087. His reign was marked by many acts of cruelty and perfidy. As he was hunting in the New Forest, he was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel, who had aimed an arrow at a stag, after a reign of thirteen years. 5. Henry I., the younger brother of William, taking ad- vantage of the absence of his brother Robert, the rightful heir, who was then on a crusade to the Holy Land, ascended the throne. Robert, on his return, made preparations to gain, by force of arms, the crown of England, of which he had been deprived during his absence. An accommodation, however, was effected between the two brothers; but Henry, shortly after this, infringed upon the treaty, and made war upon Normandy, the conquest of which he effected after the severe fought battle of Tenchelray, where Robert was taken prisoner. This unfortunate prince was detained in custody during the remainder of his life, which lasted twenty-eight years, in a castle in Wales ; leaving a melancholy proof of how feeble are the barriers which the nearest ties of kindred can afford to the raging impulse of ambition. Henry was rendered inconsolable in the latter part of bis life by the Of his son Robert ? What did William do ? On one occasion what happened? When did he die? — 4. By Avliom was William succeeded? What was his end ? — 5. Who next ascended the throne ? What is said of Robert ? Shortly after this what was done by Henry ? How long was Robert detained a prisoner ? ENGLAND. 247 loss of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy ; after the news of this accident he was never seen to smile. Henry was, in many respects, an able and accomplished sovereign, but ambitious and ungrateful. 6. On his death he left the throne to his daughter, Ma- tilda ; but Stephen, Earl of Blois, and nephew to the late King, a noble of great ability and unbounded ambition, seized the crown. Matilda immediately determined to as- sert her right by force of arms, and, raising an army, she defeated Stephen and took possession of the throne ; but by a strange occurrence of events, which are tedious and by no means interesting, Stephen, in his turn, having defeated her and compelled her to leave her dominions, again ascended the throne. Henry, the son of Matilda, resolving to main- tain his rightful inheritance to the English crown, invaded the country at the head of a powerful army ; but an accom- modation ensued by which it was agreed that Stephen should reign until his death, after which the crown should fall to Henry. CHAPTER IV. FAMILY OF PLANTAG'ENET; HENRY IT. ; RICHARD 1.; JOHN; HENRY III.; EDWARD I.; EDWARD II.; EDWARD III.; RICHARD II.— FROM A. D. \\U TO 1399. HENRY II., in whom were united the families of the Saxon and Norman monarchs, now ascended the British throne, at the age of twenty-one. By his marriage with EVeanor, heiress of Guien'ne, he possessed by inheritance nearly half of France. The most important achievement of this monarch's life was his unjust invasion and conquest of Ireland, which country has remained, more or less, in a state of unhappy subjection to the English crown down to the present time. During the early part of his reign the famous Thomas a Becket, a man of extraordiuary abilities, held the first place in the favor of the King, who promoted him to the 6. To whom was the throne left? What did Matilda determine? Who invaded the country ? What ensued ? Chapter IV. — W^ho now ascended the British throne? Whom did he marry? What Avas the most important achievement? What is said of Thomas a Becket ? 248 ENGLAND. office of High Chancellor, and made him preceptor of the young princes. Becket displayed a magnificence equal to his dignity ; his table was free of access to every person who had business at court ; he took precedence of all the lay barons, and among his vassals he numbered upwards of a hundred knights. 2. Henry lived on terms of the greatest familiarity with his Chancellor, and seemed to have resigned into his hands the government of his dominions. About this time it hap- pened that the See of Canterbury became vacant, and Becket, on account of his situation, was pointed to as the person most likely to fill it. Accordingly the King sent a message to the Chancellor, who was then on the continent, to repair to Eng- land, intimating to him at the same time that in a few days he would be Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket replied that if the King were serious he begged permission to decline the preferment, because it would be impossible for him to perform the duties of that station, and at the same time to retain the favor of his sovereign. But Henry was inflexible, and in- sisted on his accepting the preferment. Becket at length, much against his own judgment, was induced to acquiesce. Shortly after his return to England he was ordained priest, and in a few days received episcopal consecration. 3. Becket, whose private life had always been marked by the strictest integrity and morality, now began to think more seriously of acquiring those virtues that more particularly adorn the episcopal character. The ostentatious parade and worldly pursuits of the Chancellor were instantly renounced by the Archbishop. The train of knights and noblemen who were accustomed to attend him were exchanged for a few companions, selected from among the most virtuous and learned of the clergy. His diet was abstemious and his charities were abundant. His time was occupied in prayer, study, and in the discharge of his highly responsible duties ; and as he found it difficult to unite the functions of his pres- ent station with those of Chancellor, he resigned this latter office into the hands of the King. 4. The good understanding which for some time subsisted between the Primate and the King was not destined to be of long continuance. Henry began to make encroachments on the rights of the Church and the clergy ; sought to deprive What did he display? — 2, About this time what happened? AVhat message did the king send? How did Becket reply? What is said of Henry?— 3. What is now said of Becket? How was his time occu- pied ? — i. What did Henry begin to do ? ENGLAND. 249 them of the privilege of being tried for offences in the eccle- siastical courts, which privilege they had enjoyed from a very early period, and required that a clergyman, after he had been degraded by the sentence of his spiritual judges, should be delivered into the custody of a lay officer to be punished by the lay tribunal. To this it was replied, that it would be placing the English clergy on a footing inferior to their brothers in any other Christian country. It was repugnant to those liberties which the King had sworn to preserve at his coronation, and that it violated the first principle of law, by requiring that the same individual should be twice pun- ished for the same offence. 5. The King grew indignant at the opposition of the Bishops, and, in order to bring the matter to an issue, sum- moned a great council to meet at Clarendon. Here, by en- treaties, threats, and intimidation, he prevailed on the Bishops to sign what is called the " Constitution of Clarendon.^^ As several articles in this constitution were derogatory to the rights of the Church, and infringed on the papal jurisdiction, by prohibiting appeals to the Sovereign Pontiff, without the King's consent, the Bishops, in signing it, had sacrificed their conscience. 6. As the Primate returned, he meditated in silence on his conduct in the council, and saw the error into which intimi- dation had betrayed him ; he bewailed his fault and imme- diately retracted his assent. His conduct inflamed anew the indignation of Henry. At length the Archbishop thought it prudent to withdraw for a season from England, and re- tired into France. 7. A reconciliation was soon after effected between Henry and the Primate, who again returned to England, carrying letters of suspension or excommunication from the Pope, against the Bishops of York, London, and Salisbury. The Bishops, on receiving these letters, burst into violent com- plaints against the Primate, and hastened into Normandy to seek redress from the King. Henry, in a moment of irrita- tion, exclaimed, " Of all the cowards who eat at my table, is there not one who will free me from this turbulent priest ? " Four of his knights who were present, taking this for the What did he require? To this what was replied? — 5. What did the king summons? Here what did he prevail on the bishops to sign? What were several articles in this constitution? — 6. As the primate returned, what is said of him ? What did he think proper to do? — 7. What was soon after effected? What did the bishops do on re- ceiving these letters ? What did Henry exclaim ? 250 ENGLAND. royal approbation, bound themselves by oath to carry off or murder the Primate. 8. They immediately set out for England, hastened to Canterbury, and entering the palace of the Archbishop, they upbraided him with insolence to the King. As they left his apartment, the hour for Vespers arrived, and the undaunted prelate went unattended to the cathedral. He was ascending the steps of the choir when the wretched assassins entered the church. One of them cried out, " Where is the traitor ? " To this no answer was returned. But when another asked, " Where is the Archbishop ? " the prelate replied, " Here is the Archbishop, but no traitor." Upon this one of the murderous ruffians aimed a blow which wounded him on the head. As the saintly and heroic man felt the blood trickling down his face, he clasped his hands, and bowing down, he said, '' In the name of Christ and for the defence of His Church, I am ready to die." In this posture he turned to- wards his murderers, and under their repeated blows he sunk to the floor, at the foot of the altar of St. Benedict. 9. Thus perished St. Thomas a Becket, a martyr to duty and religion. His death was the triumph of his cause. The Church seemed to derive new vigor from the death of her champion. The first news of this event filled Henry with consternation and alarm ; he now lamented, when too late, the hasty expression that had led to the commission of so terrible a crime. But subsequent events caused the monarch to think more seriously on this transaction than at present. Some few years afterwards he beheld his ov»^n sons uniting in rebellion against him, in conjunction with his perfidious barons. Such things, he concluded, were not in the ordinary course of nature ; they could be no other than the effects of the divine wrath which he had enkindled by his persecution of the holy Archbishop: 10. The name of the prelate had been lately enrolled by the Pope in the catalogue of the saints, and the fame of the miracles wrought at his shrine resounding through every part of Europe, Henry, to expiate his offence, resolved to make a pilgrimage to the tomb of the martyr. For this What did the four knights do ? — 8. As they left his apartment, what took place ? What did one of their number cry out ? What did the prelate reply? Upon this, what was done? In bowing down, what did he say ? — 9. What is said of Henry at the first news of this event ? Some years afterwards, what did he behold ? What did he conclude ? — 10. What is said of the name of the prelate ? What did Henry resolve to do? ENGLAND. 251 purpose he hastily set sail for England, and when he came within sight of Canterbury, he dismounted from his horse and walked, without any covering on his feet, towards the city. As he entered the gate, it was observed that his foot- steps were stained with blood. Without making any delay, he hastened to the cathedral, and there threw himself at the foot of the tomb, while the Bishop of London addressed the spectators. As soon as the prelate had concluded his dis- course, Henry arose and repaired to the chapter-house of the convent, where the monks, a few Bishops, and Abbots were assembled. Before them, the royal penitent on his knees, confessed his crime, and received on his shoulders, with a knotted cord, a few stripes from each. After this extraor- dinary act of humiliation he returned again to the shrine and spent the night in prayer. 11. The latter part of his life was imbittered by the un- natural conduct of his sons, who joined in a second rebellion against their father, aided by the king of France. On- re- ceiving a list of those who had conspired to deprive him of his crown, the first name that caught his eye was that of his favorite son, John. He read no more, but returned the paper with a broken heart. At first he sank into a deep melancholy. This was followed by a raging fever, during which he called down the heaviest denunciations of heaven on his ungrateful children. He died in the fifty-eighth year of his age and thirty-fifth of his reign. Henry, in some respects, may be ranked among the ablest of the English monarchs. He pos- sessed distinguished abilities as a statesman and warrior. But his character was really contemptible, and his private life anything but edifying. His passion was said to be the raving of a madman — the fury of a w^ld beast. He was alternately the sport- of pride, anger, ambition, and duplicity. 12. Richard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion, or the Lion- hearted, now ascended the throne, and endeavored to atone, in some measure, for his ungrateful conduct towards his father, by renouncing those who had assisted in the unnatural rebellion, and receiving into his favor the ministers of the former reign. Richard was a prince of a chivalrous and romantic turn of mind. Shortly after his accession to the throne, he engaged in the Crusades, and in conjunction with Relate what followed.— 11. What is said of the latter part of his life ? What are the circumstances of his death? When did he die? What is said of him? — 12. Who succeeded to the throne? In what did he engage ? 252 ENGLAND. Philip Augustus of France, embarked on an expedition to the Holy Land. Here his personal valor was conspicuous in every engagenaent. He defeated the celebrated Saladin in the memorable battle of Ascalon, in which forty thousand Saracens were slain, and finally compelled him to conclude a treaty of peace. 13. On his return homeward, being shipwrecked, he en- deavored to pass in disguise through Germany, but w^as discovered and detained a prisoner by the emperor, Henry YI., who released him, after a long confinement, on the payment of £300,000. Having regained his liberty, he re- turned to his own dominions, from which he had been absent for nearly four years. The year following, having laid siege to the castle of Chains, he received a wound of which he died, in the tenth year of his reign and the forty-second of his age. Richard has been styled the Achilles of modern times ; his achievements more resemble the deeds of a hero of 4'omance than those of a wise and political sovereign. 14. John, the brother of Richard, succeeded to the throne. His reign is regarded as one of the most infamous in English history. His nephew, Arthur, the son of Geofi'rey, an elder brother, w^as the rightful heir to the crown. The young Prince happened to fall into the power of John, by whom he was basely murdered, lest at any future period he might assert his claim. This act of treachery excited universal disgust. Philip Augustus, of France, supported the claim of Arthur, and, to avenge his death, deprived the English monarch of his French possessions. 15. John, although his Queen was yet alive, indulged a base passion for Isabella, daughter of Aymar, Count of Angouleme, a lady who had been already betrothed to the Count de la Marche, yet, by reason of her age, the marriage had not been consummated. Having procured a divorce from his own wife, he espoused Isabella. The Sovereign Pontiffs, during the Middle Ages, were frequently called on to interpose their spiritual power to shield the people from oppression, and to arrest the vices and check the passions of their rulers, and even the jurisprudence of that period acceded to the Pope, on some extraordinary occasions, the power of absolving the people from their allegiance to their sovereign. Whom did he defeat?— 13. On his return, what happened to him? What occasioned his death ? What is said of Richard ?— J 4. Who suc- ceeded to the throne ? What act of treachery did he commit ? Of what was he deprived ? — 15. What is now related "of John? What is said of the Sovereign Pontlfis ? ENGLAND. 263 16. On this occasion, Innocent III. remonstrated with John without efifect. Another circumstance, which hap- pened at this tima, caused the Pope to put in execution the full extent of his spiritual power. It had been a custom from an early period, in England, to consult the King in the appointment of a bishop to fill any of the vacant sees. It happened at this time that the bishopric of Canterbury be- came vacant, and Lancton was chosen to fill it. The Pope thought proper to depart from the usual custom, and con- firmed the appointment without consulting the King, whose late conduct had given so much scandal to his subjects. John, highly incensed at this, sent two of his Knights to expel the monks from the convent, and vented his rage on all who had any hand in the instrument. For this infringement of his spiritual jurisdiction the Pope proceeded to place the kingdom under an Interdict, an instrument which was only resorted to on extraordinary occasions, and one calculated to strike the mind with sensations of awe. 17. While it remained in force the nation was deprived of all the exterior exercises of religion ; the altars were despoiled of their ornaments ; the crosses, relics, pictures, and statues of the saints were laid on the ground and covered up ; the bells were removed from the churches ; Mass was celebrated with closed doors ; the laity partook of no religious rites except Baptism and Communion to the dying ; the dead were not interred in consecrated ground, and marriage was celebrated in the churchyard. 18. John, at length overcome by the evils which he had brought on his kingdom, yielded his obstinacy, became recon- ciled to the Church, and, fearful of the invasion of the French monarch, he surrendered his crown to the Pope, from whom he consented to hold it as a vassal. In the meantime his natural disposition for tyranny seemed to increase. He de- spised his nobles, and sought every opportunity of infringing upon their privileges. The barons at length, unable to sup- port his tyrannical exactions, under the direction of Cardinal Lancton, the Primate, formed a confederacy against him. They met at Bvnnymede, and compelled him, after much opposition, to sign and seal the famous document called Magna Charta, which is even now regarded as the great 16. Relate the circumstance which caused the Pope to put in exe- cution the extent of his spiritual power ? To Avhat did the Pope now proceed? — 17. While it remained in force, of what was the kingdom deprived? — 18. Fearful of the invasion of the French monarch, what did John do ? What is said of the barons ? Where did they meet ? 22 254 ENGLAND. bulwark of English liberty, and by which important liberties and privileges are secured to every order of men in the king- dom, A. D. 1215. John died the following year, after an odious reign of eighteen years, with scarcely a single virtue to redeem a thousand vices. His son, Henry III., succeeded to the throne at the age of nine years, under the guardianship of the Earl of Pem- broke. The history of this reign consists of little more than a recital of a series of internal contests between the King and his turbulent barons. Henry was a weak and timid prince ; gentle and mild in his disposition ; but he greatly displeased the nation by his partiality to foreigners. The barons, with the Earl of Leicester at their head, took up arms and compelled the King to resign his authority to twenty-four of their number, and having thus divided all the offices of the government among themselves, they disre- garded the privileges of the crown and trampled on the rights of the people. But the knights of the Shire, who now began to assemble separately from the lords, indignant at the usurpation of Leicester and his confederate barons, took up arms in favor of the King. A battle was fought at Lewes, in which the royal army was defeated, and the King, with his son Edward, was made prisoner. 19. Leicester now compelled the King to ratify his author- ity by a solemn treaty ; assumed the character of regent, and called a parliament, consisting of two Knights from each shire, and deputies from the principal boroughs. From this period is generally dated the first outline of the present English House of Commons. Young Edward having at length regained his liberty, in conjunction with the Duke of Gloucester, took the field against Leicester, who was de- feated and slain in the famous battle of Evesham. Henry was again restored to the throne, but died shortly after this event, in the sixty-fourth year of his age and the fifty-sixth of his reign, a. d. 12Y2. 20. Edward, who had early given indications of distin- guished military abilities, was absent on a crusade at the time of his father's death. On one occasion, as he sat in his tent, an assassin entered and aimed a poisoned arrow at his breast; he found means to ward off the blow, but re- What was he compelled to sign? AVhen did .John die? Who suc- ceeded? What is said of his history? What was he compelled to do by the barons? What battle was fought?— 19. What did Leicester now do? What is said of young Edward ? What is said of Henry ? — 20. What is said of Edward ? On one occasion what happened ? EXGLAXD. 255 ceived a wound in his arm. His devoted Queen, Eleanor of Castile, saved his life, at the evident risk of her own, b}^ ex- tracting the poison by applying her mouth to the wound. He had advanced as far as Sicily on his return, when he re- ceived information of his father's death. 21. On his arrival in England, he was received with joy by all classes of the people, and immediately turned his attention towards removing the disorders which filled the state during the preceding reign. Having restored order and tranquillity at home, he turned his arms towards the sub- jugation of "Wales, and having defeated and slain Llewe'lhm, the King, he p.nnexed that country to the English crown, and created his eldest son Prince of Wales, a title ,which at the present time distinguishes the eldest son of the English monarch. Edward was shortly afterwards made umpire in a dispute between Robert Bruce and John Ba'liol, respecting the succession of the Scottish throne. He adjudged the crown to Baliol, who engaged to hold it as a vassal of the English monarch. He, however, threw off his allegiance, and Edward invaded Scotland with a powerful army, defeated the Scots in the battle of Dunbar, subdued the kingdom, and carried Baliol captive to England. 22. The Scots, who had unwillingly submitted to the yoke of subjugation, were roused to assert their independence through the influence of the renowned hero, Sir William Wallace ; but after a series of brilliant achievements their efforts failed for the present. The illustrious Wallace was basely betrayed into the hands of Edward, and put to death with barbarous cruelty. The Scots found, however, a more successful champion in the person of Robert Bruce, a grand- son of Baliol, who, after he had expelled the British from the country, was restored to the throne of his ancestors. Edward having made preparation for a second invasion of Scotland, died at Carlisle, in the thirty-fifth year of his reign. This English King was eminently distinguished as a legislator and warrior, but his cruelty towards the Jews, and his cold- blooded massacre of the bards of Wales, have stamped upon his memory an indelible blot of tyranny and rapacity. 23. Edward II. succeeded his father to the throne, and 21. Edward having restored tranquillity at home, what did he do ? Being made umpire between Bruce and Baliol, to whom did he adjudge the crown? What is said of Baliol? What did Edward do?— 22. By whom were the Scots roused to assert their independence? W^hat was the fate of Wallace ? In whom did they find a more successful cham- pion ? How was Edward distinguished ?— 23. What did Edward II. do ? 256 ENGLAND. immediately invaded Scotland with an army of one hundred thousand men, which was met at Bannockburn by Robert Bruce, with thirty thousand. A dreadful conflict ensued, in which the English were signally defeated. Edward pos- sessed but few qualities to distinguish him as a sovereign ; he was mild in disposition, but weak and indolent, fond of pleasure, and allowed himself to be governed by unworthy favorites, which excited against him the turbulent spirit of his barons, and filled his reign with civil dissensions. 24. Isabella, his queen, a woman of the most infamous character, fixed her affections upon Mortimer, a young and powerful baron, with whom she entered into a conspiracy against the King, and compelled him to resign in favor of his son. Edward was cast into prison, and barbarously murdered at the instigation of Isabella, in Berkeley Castle, A. D. 1328. 25. Edward III. succeeded to the throne in the fourteenth year of his age. During his minority, a regency of twelve persons was appointed ; yet Mortimer and the infamous Queen maintained their power and exercised the chief control. Almost the first act of Edward, on coming of age, was to punish the murderers of his unhappy father. Mortimer was publicly executed. Isabella was confined in the castle of Risings, where she remained for twenty-eight years, a memorable example of blasted ambition. Edward's first expedition was against the Scots, whom he defeated with great slaughter in the battle of Hallidon Hill. 26. He claimed the crown of France, which he pretended he inherited from his mother, and resolved to maintain it by force of arms, in opposition to Philip of Yalois, who had ascended the French throne. Having collected a powerful armament of two hundred and fifty sail, he departed from England, and having encountered a French fleet of four hundred ships on the coast of Flanders, he gained one of the most memorable naval victories recorded in history. The loss of the English is said to have been only four thousand men and two ships, while thirty thousand of the French fell in the engagement, with the loss of two hundred and thirty of their vessels. 27. He then invaded the country at the head of thirty thou- What is said of him? — 24. What is said of Isabella, his queen? What was the fate of Edward? — 25. Who succeeded to the throne? What was his first act on comina: of age ? What was the fate of Morti- mer and Isabella?— 26. What did he claim? What did he do? What was the loss on both sides? — 27. What did he then do? ENGLAND. 257 sand troops, and spread devastation wherever he advanced. He met the French monarch, who advanced to oppose, at the head of an army of one hundred thousand men, and defeated him in the famous battle of Cressy. This battle is rendered memorable for being the first in which the English made use of cannon ; also for being the scene in which Edward, the Black Prince — so called from the color of his armor— the King's eldest son, then in the sixteenth year of his age, com- menced his brilliant military career. While the battle raged in its greatest fury, a messenger was dispatched desiring that succor might be sent to the aid of the Prince. Edward re- plied to the messenger, " Go tell my son that I reserve for him the glory of this day ; he will be able, without my aid, to repel the enemy." Edward having taken the city of Calais, after a memorable siege, returned again to England. 28. While the English monarch was conducting his con- quests on the continent, the Scots made an irruption into his dominions at home, but were defeated in a battle at Neville's Cross by Philippa, his heroic queen, and their king was led captive to London. John, who succeeded his father in the throne of France, resolved to expel the English from his dominions, and took the field with an army of sixty thousand men. He was met by the Black Prince and defeated in the memorable battle of Poictiers, in which he was made prisoner and conducted to London by the Prince, where he was detained a fellow-captive with David, the Scottish king. 29. Edward, who in the early part of his life had acquired such brilliant military renown, towards the end of his reign sunk into indolence and indulgence, and before his death he had lost all his conquests withthe exception of Calais. The death of the Black Prince, whose heroic deeds were only sur- passed by the amiable virtues that adorned his mind, filled the nation with sorrow, and left his father disconsolate for the loss. The King only survived this event a few months ; he died in the sixty-fifth year of his age and fifty-first of his reign, a. d. 1377. 30. Edward was one of the most illustrious princes of his age. His military achievements in France and Scotland, By whom was he met ? For what is the battle memorable ? While the battle raged, what was done ?— 28. While the English monarch, etc., what did the Scots do ? What battle was fought ? What did the king of France resolve ? By whom was he met ? Where was he conducted ? —29. What is now said of Edward ? When did he die ?— 30. What was Edward ? What is said of his military achievements ? 22* R 258 ENGLAND. though unjust in their object, cast a lustre on his reign and render it one of the most brilliant in English history. Daring his reign Chivalry was carried to its height in England. Edward himself and his son, the Black Prince, possessed in a high degree all the accomplishments of the knightly character. He instituted the order of the Garter, and also built the magnificent castle of Windsor. The French lan- guage was discontinued in courts of justice during his reign. 31. Edward was succeeded by Richard II., son of the Black Prince, at the age of eleven years. During his minority the administration of the government was intrusted to his uncles, the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester ; of these, however, the Duke of Lancaster acted the most prominent part. In the early part of his reign the parlia- ment levied a poll-tax of three groats upon all over the age of fifteen years. This gave great dissatisfaction on account of its injustice in exacting as much from the poor as from the rich. 32. The flame of insurrection spread through the kingdom. The insurgents found a leader in the person of Wat Tyler, a blacksmith by profession, who in a short time finding him- self at the head of one hundred thousand followers, led them to Smithfield, where the King invited him to a conference. His haughty demeanor here excited the indignation of one of the King's attendants, who struck him dead upon the spot. This rash act, committed in the presence of the mutineers, would have proved fatal to the King and his attendants, had it not been for the presence of mind displayed by the youth- ful Prince, who, riding up towards them while their bows were bent for execution, exclaimed, " What, my people ! will you kill your King ? I myself will be your leader ; follow me into the field, and you shall have what you desire." 33. The flattering hopes which the nation had formed of Richard's future greatness from his conduct on this occasion, greatly declined as he advanced in years. The northern borders were thrown into disorder by the rivalship between the family of Percy, of the north of England, and the house of Douglas, of Scotland. A sanguinary battle was fought at Otterhurn, in which Percy, surnamed Hotspur, was taken What did he institute? What was discontinued? — 31. By whom was Edward succeeded? In the early part of his reign, what was done ?— 32. What followed ? Who was the leader of the insurgents ? What was the fate of Tyler ? Riding up to the insurgents, what did the king exclaim? — 33. What is said of the hopes the nation had formed of Richard ? Where was a battle fought ? ENGLAND. 259 prisoner and Douglas slain. On this battle, it seems, is founded the celebrated ballad of Chevy Ghace. 34. While Richard was absent in Ireland to quell an in- surrection in that country, the young Duke of Lancaster excited a revolt against his authority in England. The King, on his return, after undergoing a mock trial, was compelled to resign his crown ; while the Duke in the meantime ascended the throne under the title of Henry lY., a. d. 1399. The deposed monarch was imprisoned in the castle of Pomfret, where he was shortly afterwards put to death in the most cruel manner. CHAPTER Y. BRANCH OF LANCASTER: HENRY IV.; HENRY V.; HENRY VI.— FROM A. D. 1399 TO 1461. HENRY thus succeeded to the throne by the deposition and murder of his lawful sovereign, and to the exclu- sion of the rightful heir, Edward Mortimer, whose descend- ants, as we will see in the sequel, after a series of contests between the York and Lancaster families, succeeded in es- tablishing their disputed claim to the crown. Henry soon found that the diadem that glitters upon the brow of monarchs bears with it an empty name, and conceals beneath its splen- dor a thousand imbittering cares unknown to the man of the humbler walks of liffe. 2. Scarcely was he seated on the throne when an insurrec- tion was raised against him, headed by Northumberland, and joined by the Scots under Douglas, and the Welsh under Owen Glendower; but they were defeated by the royal forces in a desperate battle fought at Shrewsbury. The latter part of his life was imbittered by the profligate conduct of his son, the Prince of Wales. On a certain occasion, one of his com- panions was indicted for some misdemeanor before the chief justice. Sir William Gascoigne. The young Prince, who What ballad was founded on it? — 34. What is said of Richard while absent in Ireland ? On his return, what took place ? What became of the deposed monarch ? Chapter V. — 1. What is said of Henry? What did he soon find? — 2. By whom was an insurrection headed ? What is said of the latter part of his life? What is related of Chief- Justice Gascoigne? 260 ENGLAND. was present, became so exasperated at the issue of the trial, that he struck the judge in open court. The venerable magis- trate, impressed with the dignity of his office, ordered the Prince to be committed to prison ; the Prince willingly sub- mitted to the order of the judge. When the circumstance was related to the King, he exclaimed, " Happy is the King who has a magistrate endowed with courage to execute laws upon such an offender ; still more happy in having a son who is willing to submit to such a chastisement." Henry died in the forty-sixth year of his age and fourteenth of his reign, A. D. 1413. 3. Henry Y., on succeeding to the throne, agreeably sur- prised the nation by a sudden reformation of his conduct. Calling together all his abandoned companions, he acquainted them of his design, and forbade them to appear in his pres- ence until they had followed his example. He received with respect the faithful ministers of his father; commended Gas- coigne for his impartial conduct, and exhorted him to con- tinue in a strict execution of the laws. 4. Henry having revived his claim to the crown of France, and taking advantage of the internal disorders of that king- dom, invaded the country at the head of only fifteen thousand men, and defeated the French army, amounting to sixty thousand men, in the famous battle of Agincourt. The French lost, on this memorable occasion, eleven thousand killed and fourteen thousand prisoners, while the English lost only forty slain. After having reduced Normandy, he was declared regent of France and acknowledged heir to the crown. But having reached the summit of earthly glory, his brilliant career was cut short by the hand of death ; he died in the thirty-fourth year of his age and the tenth of his reign, a. d. 1422. 5. Henry YI., on the death of his father, succeeded to the throne at the age of ten months, and was proclaimed King of England and of France. During his minority his uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, were appointed pro- tectors of his dominions, the former of France and the latter of England. The French, considering this a favorable mo- ment, resolved to shake off" the English yoke, and again assert the independence of their country. In this they suc- What did the king exclaim ? When did Henry die ? — 3. What is said of Henry V. ? Whom did he receive ? — 4. What did he revive ? What battle did he gain ? What was the loss on both sides ? When did he die? — 5. Who succeeded? Who were appointed protectors? What did the French resolve? ENGLAND. . 261 ceeded, and Charles YII., the Dauphin, recovered by degrees the greater part of his kingdom. 6. The city of Orleans was so situated between the prov- inces possessed by Charles and those commanded by the regent, that it afforded an easy access to either. To this point, therefore, the forces of each w^ere directed ; the French to defend, the English to reduce it. At length, after the French were reduced to the last extremity, the English were compelled to raise the siege through the courage of the re- nowned heroine, Joan of Arc, and shortly after they were deprived of all their possessions in France except Calais. T. Henry, as he advanced in years, exhibited a mild and inoffensive disposition. He might, perhaps, have reigned with credit at some less turbulent period, but he was ill cal- culated to manage the reins of government at the time in which he lived. He married Margaret of Anjou, daughter of the King of Sicily, a woman of a heroic mind, and emi- nently distinguished for the part she bore in the wars that distracted his reign. The insurrection of Jack Cade was an event of considerable importance. Cade, under the assumed name of John Mortimer, collected an army of twenty thou- sand followers, but was defeated and slain. 8. The Duke of Gloucester was heir to the crown in case the King died without issue ; he had opposed the marriage of Henry with Margaret, a circumstance which did not fail to render him odious in the eyes of the Queen, and his death took place, a short time after, in a very suspicious manner. This event, in connection with the weak character of the King, encouraged the Duke of York to assert his claim to the crown. At this period the sanguinary contest between the houses of York and Lancaster was commenced, and by it England was for thirty years cursed with the din of arms. The nation was drenched in all the horrors of civil war, in- volving alike the inmates of the cottage and the castle ; all the social ties of affection seemed rent asunder ; often was the father armed against his son ; the son against his father; brother against brother, and the nearest friends against each other. The adherents of the house of Lancaster chose a red rose as a symbol of their party, while the house of York wore the white rose; hence this unhappy struggle is known . ^ — . 6. What is said of Orleans ? How was the siege of the city raised ? — 7. What is said of Flenry ? Whom did he marry ? What insurrection took place ? — 8. What is said of the Duke of Gloucester ? At this pe- riod what commenced ? What is said of this contest ? What were the symbols of each party ? 262 ENGLAND. in history as the War of the Roses. During this period more than one hundred thousand men were sacrificed at the unhallowed shrine of ambition. 9. In the battle of St. Albans the L an caster ians were de- feated, and the King taken prisoner ; but Queen Margaret still kept the field, and gained the battle of Wakefield, in which the Duke of York was defeated and slain. But Ed- ward, his son, inherited all the ambition and abilities of his father ; he was then in the bloom of youth, remarkable for the beauty of his person, his bravery and affability, which gained him the affection of the people. Confiding in his popularity more than in his right to the crown, he entered London with a numerous army, amidst the shouts of the citizens, and was proclaimed King, under the title of Ed- ward lY., A. D. 1461. CHAPTER VI. BRANCH OF YORK; EDWARD IV.; EDWARD V.; RICH- ARD III.— FROM A.D. 1461 TO 1485. EDWARD, who had now attained the summit of his ambition, soon found that the throne was not a place for the enjoyment of tranquillity and repose. The undaunted Margaret, having collected an army of sixty thousand men, a,2:ain took the field against him. Edward and the Earl of Warwick, at the head of an army much inferior in number, marched to oppose her. A tremendous battle was fought at Towton, in which Edward gained a decisive victory, leaving thirty-six thousand Englishmen dead upon the field. 2. The unfortunate Queen, with no other attendant than her son, a boy about eight years of age, while flying from her enemies, was benighted in Hexham forest, and fell into the hands of ruflBans, who despoiled her of her jewels and treated her with the greatest indignity ; they, however, dis- puted about the spoils, and while engaged in dispute, she How many were sacrificed? — 9. What happened in the battle of St. Albans? What is said of Edward ? Confiding in his popularity, what did he do ? Chapter VI.— 1. What is said of Edward? Of Margaret? What battle was fought ? — 2. What is related of the unfortunate queen ? ENGLAND. 263 effected her escape with her son into the thickest of the forest. But when overcome with fright and fatigue, and about to sink in despair, she was suddenly aroused by the approach of a robber with a drawn sword. Finding no possible means of escaping, she determined to throw herself upon his gener- osity. She arose as he approached, and said, "Friend, here is the son of yoar King ; 1 commit him to your protection." The man, pleased with the confidence placed in him, offered every assistance in his power, and safely conducted her, with her son, to a seaport, from which she escaped, and sailed for Flanders. 3. Edward, now finding himself securely seated on the throne, began to exhibit the bias of his character. The Earl of Warwick, the most powerful nobleman in England, and one of the greatest generals of his time, had been com- missioned to France to procure Bona of Savoy as queen for the young monarch. While he was absent, Edward hap- pened, during a hunting-party, to pay a visit to the Duchess of Bedford, at Grafton, and saw, for the first time, the young and beautiful lady Elizabeth Gray, daughter of the Duchess. Struck with her beauty and accomplishments, he raised her to the throne, forgetful of his engagements with Bona of Savoy. 4. The Duke, on his return to England, was inflamed with indignation, and leaving the court in disgust, he retired to France, where he entered into a league with Queen Mar- garet, and espoused the interest of the .fallen monarch. Through his exertions Edward was deposed, and Henry, after having remained a prisoner in the Tower for six years, was again reinstated on the throne. Thus Warwick having restored Hsnry, whom he deposed, and now having removed Edward, whom he had raised to the throne, obtained the title of King-maker. Edward, who had retired to the court of the Duke of Burgundy, shortly after returned with reinforce- ments, and defeated the forces of Henry in the bloody battle of Barnet, in which the brave Warwick was slain. 5. The intrepid Margaret, on learning this overthrow, yielded to her destiny almost in despair, and bursting into a flood of grief, she retired to an abbey in Hampshire. But Finding no means of escaping, what did she do? What did the man offer and do ? — 3. What is now said of Edward ? Where was the Earl of Warwick sent? During his absence what took place? — 4. What is said of the duke on his return to England? Through his exertions what was done ? What was he styled ? What did Edward again do ? — 6. What is said of Margaret? 264 ENGLAND. at the urgent solicitation of her adherents, she again left her retreat, and made a last and desperate effort to regain the crown in the battle of Tewkesbury, which blighted forever the last remnant of her hopes. She was taken prisoner with her son ; the King asked the prince how he dared to invade his dominions, to which the youthfnl Edward replied, " I have entered the dominions of my father, to avenge his in- juries and to redress my own." The ungenerous King, enraged at this magnanimous reply, struck the prince with his gauntlet. Some of his attendants, taking this as a signal for further violence, hurried the prince into the next apart- ment and dispatched him with their daggers. 6. The unhappy Queen, after sustaining the cause of her husband in twelve different battles, after surviving her friends, her children, and her fortune, passed the remainder of her days an exile in France, w^here she died in obscurity and neglect. Henry terminated his eventful life by assassination in prison. Edward lY. passed the remainder of his reign in acts of tyranny and cruelty. He caused his brother, the Duke of Clarence, to be condemned for a trifling offence, and being allowed to choose the manner of his death, he was drowned in a cask of Malmsey wine. These acts of cruelty were soon terminated by the death of the King himself; he died in the forty-second year of his age, A. D. 1482. During this monarch's reign, the art of printing was introduced into England by William Caxton of London.* T. Edward lY. left two sons. The eldest, being only thirteen years of age, succeeded to the throne under the title of Edward Y. The Duke of Gloucester, brother of the late King, being appointed protector during the young King's minority, after causing Lord Hastings, and other distin- guished persons, to be put to death without trial, seized upon the crown, under the pretence that his nephews were illegitimate, and caused himself to be proclaimed king, by the title of Richard III. The two young princes shortly afterwards disappeared, and are said to have been barba- * The first book printed in England was The Game and Play of Chess, in 1474. At the solicitation of her adherents, what did she again do? What was her fate ? What was the reply of the youthful Edward ? What was his end? — 6. What is said of the unhappv queen? Of Henry? Of Edward IV. ? What did he cause ? When did he die ? By whom was printing introduced ?— 7. What did Edward leave ? What did the Duke of Gloucester do ? What is said of the two young princes ? ENGLAND. 265 rously smothered in the Tower by the order of the King himself. 8. Richard, who had gained the throne by imbruing his hands in the blood of lawful heirs, was not destined long to enjoy the ill-gotten crown. Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, the only surviving heir of the house of Lancaster, advanced his title to the crown, and assisted by the King of France, once more revived the almost extinguished spirit of his party. A decisive battle was fought at Bosworth, in which Richard was slain ; his rival was crowned upon the field of battle, and assumed the title of Henry VII. This event terminated the long and bloody contest between the houses of York and Lancaster, which had entailed so many evils upon the nation, and reduced it almost to a state of barbarism — the arts of peace being entirely neglected for those of war. CHAPTER VII. TUDOR FAMILY: HENRY VIT. ; HENRY VIIL ; EDWARD VI.; MARY; ELIZABETH— FROM A. D. 1485 TO 1603. THE succession of Henry to the throne was an event highly favorable to the nation, as it put an end to the ruinous civil wars that had so long devastated the kingdom. By marrying Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., he strengthened his claim, and thus united the two houses of Lancaster and York. The early part of his reign was dis- turbed by the appearance of two successive pretenders to the throne ; the one in the person of Lambert Simnel, the son of a baker, who attempted to counterfeit the Earl of War- wick ; the other was one Perkin Warheck, who made an attempt to counterfeit the Duke of York, who had been murdered in the Tower by order of Richard III. 2. Lambert, after being proclaimed king of England and Ireland at DuJjlin, was made prisoner, but Henry, instead of consigning him to the scaffold, made him a servant in his kitchen. Warbeck, however, supported his cause for some 8. What is said of Richard ? Of Henry Tudor ? Where was the battle fought ? What was the result ? Chapter VIL— 1. What is said of Henry's accession? Whom did he marry ? By what was his reign disturbed ? Who were they ? — 2. What is "said of Lambert ? Of Warbeck ? 23 266 ENGLAND. time with better success ; many of the nobility flocked to his standard, and he was acknowledged as sovereign of England by the kings of France and Scotland. After a variety of adventures, he surrendered himself to the King under a promise of pardon; but having been detected in a conspiracy with the Earl of Warwick, to effect their escape from the Tower by murdering the lieutenant, he was hanged at Ty- burn, and the Earl was beheaded. 3. After a prosperous reign of about twenty-four years, Henry began to think of preparing for the last and trying scene of life ; having ordered in his will that restoration should be made to all whom he might have injured, he died in the fifty-second year of his age. Henry, in many respects, may be considered, if not the most conspicuous, at least one of the most useful monarchs that occupied the throne of England from the days of Alfred. He was a prince equally distinguished for his wisdom in the cabinet and conduct in the field. He enacted many wise and salutary laws ; en- couraged industry and extended commerce ; allowed the nobles to dispose of their estates, by which means their power was weakened, while property and equality were more widely difi'used among all orders of the state. 4. It was during the reign of Henry VII. that the great Christopher Columbus discovered America. Accident alone prevented Henry from having a share in that celebrated enterprise. However, five years after the first voyage made by Columbus, the English monarch employed Sebastian Ca- bot, a native of Bristol, who discovered Labrador, Newfound- land, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It was on this dis- covery that England founded her claim to North America. The greatest stain upon the character of Henry YII. was his avarice ; by his frugality and exactions, he accumulated im- mense wealth, and at his death he is said to have left in money the sum of £1,800,000, equal to £10,000,000 at the present day. 5. Henry YIIL, son of the late monarch, succeeded to the throne under the most favorable auspices. His title to the crown was undisputed ; the treasury well filled ; the nation at peace ; the country prosperous and happy. He possessed every quality that might endear him to the aifections of his people ; he was in the eighteenth year of his age, of a hand- What was their fate? — 3. After a reign of twenty-four years, of what did he beajin to think ? In many respects, what may Henry be consid- ered ? What did he enact, etc. ? — 4. During his reign, what took place ? What is the greatest stain upon his character? — 5. Who succeeded? What did he possess ? ENGLAND. 267 some person, polite in his deportment, frank and open in his disposition, and possessed an accomplished education. But we will see in the sequel of his history that all these prom- ising qualities, as he advanced in years, degenerated into the most detestable vices, and that Henry became one of the most cruel, brutal, and unprincipled tyrants that ever dis- graced a throne. 6. By his prodigality and profusion he soon exhausted the treasury, which he found full when he ascended the throne. In the early part of his reign he declared war against Louis XII. of France, invaded his dominions, and gained over him the battle of the Spurs (so called from the flight of the French cavalry), but failed to improve his good fortune, and after taking Tournay returned to England. About the same time the Scots, who had made an incursion into the northern part of his dominions, were defeated by the Earl of Surrey at Flodden Field, where James IV. of Scotland, with the greater part of his nobility, was slain. The English King was also somewhat involved in that long and bloody contest between Charles Y. of Germany and Francis I. of France. 7. About this period Henry wrote a book against Luther, the famous Reformer, on which account he was styled by the Pope, "Defender of the Faith;" a title which is retained by his successors to the present day. The most memorable transactions of Henry's reign were his matrimonial alliances, and the unhappy consequence that followed from them. His first wife was Catherine of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand of Spain, who had formerly been betrothed to his brother Arthur, who died before the marriage was consummated. 8. Among her maids of honor the Queen had Anne, the fair and beautiful daughter of Sir Thomas Bo'leyn. This accomplished lady, then in the bloom of youth, so captivated the fickle King's affections that he resolved to make her his wife. But his prior marriage with Catherine presented an insuperable obstacle. He had been contracted to her at an early period, through the influence of his father, and married shortly after he ascended the throne. But now, after living with this virtuous Princess for eighteen years, Henry as- What will we see in the sequel ? — 6. ' By his prodigality, what did he do? Against whom did he declare war? Where was James of Scot- land defeated and slain ? — 7. About this period, what did Henry do ? "What were the most memorable transactions of his reign ? Who was his first wife ? — 8. Who was among her maids of honor ? What is said of this accomplished lady ? Of his prior marriage ? 268 ENGLAND. serted that he began to feel conscientious scruples respecting his marriage, on account of her having been the wife of his brother, and applied to Clement YII. for a divorce. The Sovereign Pontiff, however, unable to grant his request, held him for a time in suspense, hoping that delay might change the mind of the English monarch. In his prime minister, the celebrated Cardinal Wolsey, Henry expected to find an obsequious agent. But perceiving that the Cardinal did not meet his expectations, he resolved on his ruin, and ordered him to be arrested for high treason. 9. This extraordinary man was born at Ipswich, in Suf- folk, of humble parentage, but gifted with superior talents and great abilities, he rose to the highest preferments in Church and State ; having been elevated to the arch-episcopal See of York, then created Cardinal, and soon afterwards Lord High Chancellor of England and Prime Minister. The fame of his talents, riches, and power was known throughout all Europe. On his way from York to London, to stand his trial, he stopped at Leicester Abbey, where he died after a short illness. A few moments before his death he uttered these remarkable words, in reference to the in- gratitude of his sovereign : " If I had served my God as faithfully as I have served my King, He would not have abandoned nie in my gray hairs." From the fate of this great man we may learn the instability of human greatness and the weakness of human power. 10. In the meantime the headstrong King pushed forward the divorce with all his energy. The See of Canterbury having become vacant, he pitched upon the famous Cranmer to fill it. In this unprincipled man Henry found a ready and willing instrument, not only to accomplish his present wish, but also to serve him in similar circumstances on a future occasion. Growing impatient of delay, and failing to obtain the Pope's consent for the divorce, he resolved to carry the measure without his consent. For this purpose he assembled a court, over which Cranmer presided ; this tribunal, after a short deliberation, pronounced his marriage with Catherine invalid, and immediately proceeded to grant the divorce. The King, whose amorous affections would the Pope? AVho was his prime minister? — 9. What is said of this extraordinary man ? Of the fame of his talents ? Before his death, what remarkable words did he utter ? — 10. Who was chosen to fill the see of Canterbury ? Growing impatient, what did he resolve ? For this purpose, what was done ? ENGLAND. 269 not permit him to delay, had been previously married to Anne Boleyn, even before he had received the decision of the court appointed to annul his marriage with Catherine.'^'' 11. Henry nov^r threw off all decent restraint; abolished the Papal jurisdiction in England, and caused himself, by act of Parliament, to be proclaimed head of the English church. He arrogated to himself infallibility, and con- demned all, both Catholics and Protestants, to the stake who held opinions contrary to his own. The venerable Bishop Fisher and the celebrated Sir Thomas More, then High Chancellor, were brought to the scaffold for refusing to acknowledge his supremacy. By an unjust act of Par- liament the monasteries in England, to the number of six hundred, were suppressed, besides a much greater number of other religious institutions ; their estates were converted to the use of the crown, and their revenues swept into the royal exchequer. Speaking of these institutions, Collier says: **To the abbeys w^e are indebted for most of our best historians, both church and state ; the youth there had their education with little charge to their parents ; the nobility and gentry a credible way of providing for their younger children." 12. Nor did Henry stop here. He even extended his rapacious hand from the dwellings of the living to the silent, sacred repose of the tomb. He plundered the rich shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury, despoiled it of its ornaments of gold and silver, converting the w^hole to the royal treasury ; then ordering the Saint to be indicted for high treason committed against his sovereign, Henry II., he condemned him as a traitor. The holy martyr's bones were dug up and scattered to the wind.f 13. In less than three years after his late marriage he * Pope Clement annulled the sentence given by Cranmer, as the cause was at the very time pending before himself, and excommunicated Henry and Anne unless they should separate before the end of Sep- tember, or show cause why they claimed to be considered as husband and wife. The College of Cardinals subsequently pronounced a defini- tive sentence, declaring the proceedings against Catherine unjust, and ordering the King to take her back as his legitimate wife. — Lingard. t For a full account of the Reformation in England, see Cobbett's History of the Reformation. What had the king done before receiving the decision of the court ? — 11. What did the king now do? What is said of Bishops Fisher and More ? What was done by act of parliament ? What does Mr. Collier say of these institutions? — 12. What did he plunder? What did he order ? — ^13. In less than three year^, what happened ? 23* 270 ENGLAND. caused the new Queen, Anne Boleyn, to be condemned and beheaded for real or imputed crimes, and on the day after her execution he married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of Prince Edward. His fourth wife was Anne of Cleves, from whom he obtained a divorce because he had been deceived in the estimate he had formed of her personal appearance. Thomas Cromwell, who was the son of a blacksmith in Putney, now created Earl of Essex and prime minister, having been instrumental in bringing about the unhappy marriage, lost the favor of the King, and suf- fered on the scaffold. His fifth wife was Catherine Howard, who also ended her days on the scaffold, in a few months after her exaltation to the throne. His last wife was Cath- erine Par, the widow of Lord Latimer, whose life was saved by the death of the brutal King, which took place in the thirty-seventh year of his reign and fifty-sixth of his age, A. D. 1547. And thus passed away one of the vilest despots that ever disgraced a throne or lorded it over a nation of slaves. 14. Henry YIII. was succeeded by his son, Edward YL, in the tenth year of his age, the Duke of Somerset, his uncle, being appointed Protector of the kingdom during his minority. The reign of this prince is distinguished by the important change in the religion of the realm. During the reign of his father the principles of the so-called Reforma- tion, w^hich had been introduced into the kingdom, were now patronized and tolerated. By degrees the forms of the ancient Church were removed in order to make place for those of the new. A new liturgy in the English language and a book of Common Prayer were composed by Arch- bishop Cranmer. By the adoption of this liturgy, which was done by act of Parliament, all the rights and cere- monies of the Catholic Church were abolished, and a form of worship nearly resembling that of the present Church of England established throughout the kingdom. 15. The young King, who possessed many amiable quali- ties, was suddenly carried off by death, in the sixteenth year of his age. Previously, however, he had been prevailed on, by the influence and intrigues of the Duke of Northumber- land, the Protector, to set aside his two sisters, Mary and Who was his fourth wife? What is said of Thomas Cromwell? Who was his fifth wife ? Who was his sixth wife ? When did Henry die? — 14. Who succeeded? For what is the reign of this prince dis- tinguished? What was composed by Cranmer? By the adoption of this liturgy, what was effected ? — 15. What is said of the young king ? ENGLAND. 271 Elizabeth, and to leave the crown to Lady Jane Grey, who had married Lord Guilford Dudley, the son of the Pro- tector. Through the influence of her friends, Lady Jane Grey was immediately proclaimed on the death of Edward ; but, after wearing the crown for ten days, she resigned the ensigns of royalty and retired again into a private station. After this unsuccessful attempt of Northumberland to snatch the crown from the brow of the rightful heir, Mary, the sister of Edward, quietly succeeded to the throne. 16. The Duke of Northumberland and two others were the only persons who sufiTered on the scaffold to atone for this conspiracy against their lawful sovereign. Lady Jane, who was considered as a mere instrument in the hands of the duke to work out his ambitious designs, was pardoned by Queen Mary. But shortly after this a second conspiracy was entered into against Mary, at the head of which ap- peared the Duke of Suffolk and his brother ; they were defeated, and atoned for their rebellion by the sacrifice of their lives. 17. Mary, who had been much blamed for her lenient conduct at the termination of the former conspiracy, was now induced, by the urgent persuasion of her ministers, to sign a warrant for the execution of Lady Jane Grey and her husband. On the fatal morning permission was given them to take leave of each other ; the indulgence Jane re- fused, saying that they would shortly meet in Heaven. From the window of her cell she saw her hasband led to execution and his bleeding corpse brought back to the chapel. When led forth herself, she mounted the scaffold with a firm step. She acknowledged, in a few words to the spectators, her fault in consenting to the treason of North- umberland, although she was not one of the original con- spirators ; and, after repeating a psalm, she laid her head upon the block. At the first stroke of the axe it was severed from the body. 18. Mary has been much censured in consenting to the execution of this unfortunate lady. It is true that her life had been spared as a pledge for the loyalty of the house of Suffolk ; that pledge had been forfeited by the late rebellion of the duke ; but still '' it would have been to the honor of To whom did he leave the crown ? What is said of Lady Jane Grey? — 16. Who suffered on the scaffold? What Avas again entered into against Mary? — 17. What was Mary now induced to do? On the fatal morning what is said of her? When brought forth, what did she do? — 18. For what has Mary been censured? 272 ENGLAND. Mary," as Dr. Lingard observes, "to have overlooked the provocation, and refused to visit on the daughter the guilt of the father." Mary, in the second year of her reign, married Philip II., of Spain, a measure unpopular at the time, and productive of much unhappiness to herself; and towards the close of her reign the French took Calais, which had remained in possession of the English for upwards of two hundred and ten years. This event hastened her death. The royal lady never seemed to recover from the stroke, and was often heard to say that the word Calais was written on her heart. She died in the forty-sixth year of her age, after a reign of six years, a. d. 1558. 19. The heaviest charge against the memory of this Queen is her persecution of the Reformers.* It may be remarked, not, however, in vindication of her acts, but as an apology for her conduct, that she lived at a time when the principles of religious toleration were not understood or practised by either Catholics or Protestants ; when the extirpation of erroneous doctrines was inculcated as a duty by the leaders of every religious part}''. It was the misfortune rather than the fault of Mary, that she was not more enlightened than the wisest of her cotemporaries. With the exception of this she is regarded, even by many of those writers who differed from her in belief, as a Queen possessed of many amiable qualities ; they have borne honorable testimony to her vir- tues ; have allotted to her the praise of piety and clemency, of compassion for the poor and liberality to the distressed. '•The Queen's private life," says Collier, "was all along strict and unblemished. The other world was always up- permost with her. She valued her conscience above her crown. She was not of a vindictive or implacable spirit." 20. As Mary had always remained firm in the belief and practice of the Catholic Faith, one of her first measures was to restore the ancient religion of the kingdom, the public exercise of which had been nearly banished during the reign of her brother. 21. Upon the death of Mary, her sister Elizabeth ascended the throne. Elizabeth, during the reign of her sister, had ^ The principal sufierei^ were Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, and Hooper. What does Dr. Lingard observe? Whom did she marry? What place did the French take? When did she die? — 19. What is the foulest blot upon her memory? What might be remarked? With this exception, how is she regarded ? What does Collier say of her ? — 20. What was one of her first measures ?— 21. On the death of Mary, who ascended the throne ? ENGLAND. 273 been a Catholic, but shortly after her accession she openly avowed herself the protectress of the Reformers, established Protestantism as the religion of the realm, assumed the title of supreme head of the English Church, and revived all the penal statutes against non-conformists, to v^hich were added many others of the most cruel and oppressive nature. It was made high treason to deny the Queen's supremacy, or acknowledge the jurisdiction of the See of Rome within her dominions, or to absolve, persuade, or withdraAV any one from the Protestant to the Catholic Church. 22. Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, the grand-daughter of Henry YII., was the next heir to the English throne. This fact did not fail to excite the fears and jealousy of Elizabeth, who never ceased in her resentment until she brought her unhappy cousin to a premature and tragical end. The young Queen of Scotland had been renowned throughout Europe for her beauty and accomplishments. She had been edu- cated at the French court, and married Francis II., who died shortly after that event, and Mary returned to her own dominions. After a strange succession of events, which come more properly under the head of Scotland, the Scottish Queen was compelled to quit her dominions and take refuge in England, where she was detained in captivity for nearly twenty years, and finally put to death by order of her cousin Elizabeth. 23. In 1588, Philip of Spain projected the invasion of England, to avenge the Queen's interference with his sub- jects of the Netherlands, who had revolted against his authority. For this purpose he fitted out the Invincible Arma'da, which consisted of one hundred and fifty ships, carrying three thousand pieces of cannon and tAventy-seven thousand men. It entered the English Channel in the form of a crescent, and extended to the distance of seven miles. It was met by the English fleet, under the command of Lord Admiral Howard, aided by Drake, Hawkins, Fro'- bisher, and RaFeigh. Being gradually weakened and dis- persed by a violent storm, the In/vincible Armada was completely overthrown ; only one-third of the vessels, with six thousand men, returned to Spain. What is said of Elizabeth ? What did she assume and revive ? What was made high treason ? — 22. Who was the next heir to the throne ? What is said of the young queen? After a succession of events, what took place? — 23. In 1588, what was done? For this purpose, what did he fit out? Who commanded the English fleet? What was the fate of the Armada ? S 274 ENGLAND. 24. In the administration of the government, Elizabeth was assisted by many eminent statesmen ; among whom were Bacon, Burleigh, and Walsingham. But her chief favorites were men of abandoned characters. Of these, in the early part of her reign, was the Earl of Leicester ; and after his death the Earl of Essex seemed to hold the first place in the Queen's affections. Elizabeth and Essex had various quarrels and reconciliations; at last, unable to re- strain the impetuosity of his temper, he broke out in open rebellion against her, for which he atoned by his death on the scaffold. 25. After the death of Essex the health of the Queen visibly declined. At length she fell into a profound melan- choly, which nothing could alleviate, and terminated her life in sorrow and gloom. All the splendor of royalty faded from her view ; the time was come, to use her own ex- pression, when "men would turn from the setting to worship the rising sun." She expired in the seventieth year of her age and in the forty-fifth of her reign. 26. Elizabeth doubtless possessed eminent abilities as a sovereign, and was distinguished for her talents in directing public affairs. But in principle she was despotic, jealous, cruel, and revengeful ; overbearing to her ministers in coun- cil; imperious to her servants in the palace ; and in her con- versation often grossly profane. Her private character is even less to be admired. She was a shameless woman, — the mere sport of vice, vanity, and passion. She possessed none of those milder and graceful qualities that adorn the female character. Her reign, however, was distinguished for men of genius and learning; among whom Bacon, Shakespeare, and Spenser were the most distinguished. The custom of smoking tobacco was introduced by Sir Walter Raleigh ; and potatoes were also brought to Eng- land from America at this period. 24. Who were some of her eminent statesmen ? Who were her fa- vorites ? — 25. At length into what did she fall ? What expression did she make use of? When did she expire? — 26. What did Elizabeth possess ? What was she in principle ? Of what did she possess few ? By what was her reign distinguished ? What was introduced by Eal- eigh ? ENGLAND. 275 CHAPTER YIII. STUART FAMILY: JAMES I.; CHARLES I.; THE COMMON- WEALTH; CROMWELL; CHARLES II.; JAMES II.; WILLIAM AND MARY; ANNE.— FROM A. D. 1603 TO 1714, ELIZABETH shortly before her death nominated as her successor the son of unhappy Mary Stuart, James VI. of Scotland, who was the rightful heir by descent. On ascending the English throne he took the title of James L, and thus were the crowns of the two kingdoms united. Shortly after his arrival in England, a conspiracy was formed against him in favor of his cousin, Arabella Stuart. It was prematurely discovered, and Sir Walter Raleigh, under a charge of being concerned in the plot, was sentenced to death, which was carried into execution after he had lan- guished in prison, with little intermission, for fifteen years. 2. Another conspiracy followed, of a more serious nature. This was the famous Gunpowder Plot, which was a design of a few daring adventurers to blow up the Parliament House, and involve in one common ruin the King, Lords, and Commons. It was fortunately discovered on the eve of its accomplishment, and one of the leaders, named Guy Fawkes, was taken with matches in his pocket for firing the magazine. 3. It was the misfortune of James to be attached to un- worthy favorites, such as the Earl of Somerset and the Duke of Buckingham, men whose only merits were their personal appearance and superficial accomplishments. During the reign of Mary the Puritans made their first appearance in England, and during- the last reign their number had greatly increased. At the accession of James, who had been educated a Presbyterian, they flattered themselves that their views would meet the royal approbation. Being dis- appointed in their expectations, some of their number sought an asylum from restraint in matters of religion in the wilds of America, and formed a settlement on the shores of New England. Chapter VIII. — 1. Who succeeded Elizabeth? After his arrival in England, what was formed against him ? What is said of Ealeigh ? — 2. What other conspiracy followed? Who was one of the leaders? — 3. What was the misfortune of James ? During the reign of Mary, who made their appearance in England ? At the accession of James, what did they expect? Where did many of them go? 276 ENGLAND. 4. In 1625 the King was seized with an illness which terminated his life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age and the twenty-second of his reign over England. James pos- sessed many virtues, but few free from the contagion of the neighboring vices. His generosity bordered on profusion ; his learning on pedantry ; his friendship on a puerile fond- ness. His leading passion seems to have been a love of arbitrary power. The divine right of kings to govern with- out control was with him a favorite theme. Being naturally averse to war, his reign was peaceful. He was fond of flattery, which was dealt out to him with an unsparing hand by his bishops and courtiers, who regarded him as the Brit- ish Solomon, yet by others he seems to have merited the appellation given him by the Duke of Sully, — that of the ''wisest of the fools of Europe." 6. Charles I. succeeded his father to the throne under many apparent advantages. He had not assumed the reins of government long before he proved that he had imbibed the arbitrary principles of his father; he patronized the same unworthy favorite, Buckingham, who still retained all his former influence and authority. He married Hen- rietta Maria, daughter of Henry lY. of France, a princess distinguished for her devotedness to her husband throughout all the eventful scenes of his life. 6. The refusal of the Parliament to grant adequate sup- plies to enable him to carry on a war against France and Spain, led Charles to adopt a resolution of ruling without their aid, and of levying money without their authority. This manifestation of a tyrannical disposition on the part of the King first roused the Parliament against him. Charles could not brook the denial of supplies, dissolved the Par- liament, and issued a warrant for borrowing money of his subjects. T. After an unsuccessful expedition against France, Buck- ingham, who had long since rendered himself detestable to the Parliament, was assassinated by one FeltoD. The death of his favorite, however, did not deter Charles from his arbitrary proceedings. A new Parliament was formed, as uncompromising as the former, and exhibited a spirit of 4. When did the king die ? What is his character ? What was he styled by the Duke of Sully? — 5. Who succeeded? Whom did he patronize? Whom did he marry? — 6. What led him to adopt the resolution of ruling without the aid of parliament? What did he dissolve? 7. What was the end of Buckingham? What was a new parliament formed for ? ENGLAND. 277 determined opposition. A petition of rights was passed by both Houses, which declared the illegality of raising money without their sanction, or of enforcing loans from the sub- jects, and annulled all taxes imposed without the consent of Parliament. 8. At this period the current of public feeling seemed to run strongly in favor of Puritanism, which had been on the ascendency since the accession of James to the English throne. Charles now proceeded to a very injudicious and unpopular measure, which was to enforce, throughout his kingdom, a strict conformity to the liturgy of the Church of England ; and, through the indiscreet zeal of Archbishop Laud, the measure was rigidly enforced. Not satisfied with attempting to enforce the liturgy in England, the King en- deavored to impose the new liturgy upon the national Church of Scotland. Here the measure met with the most deter- mined opposition, and excited the strongest sensations among all ranks of people. An association was entered into, called the National Covenant, by which the parties bound them- selves by oath to resist all religious innovations. 9. After eleven years of intermission, the King found him- self obliged again to convoke the Parliament ; but that body, instead of listening to his demand for supplies, began with presenting the public grievances, complaining of the infringe- ment of the privileges of Parliament, illegal taxation, and the violence done to the cause of religion. Charles, finding that nothing could be obtained from this assembly, so deter- mined to oppose all his measures, dissolved the Parliament, but shortly afterwards convoked another. 10. One of the first acts of the new Parliament was the impeachment of the Earl of Strafford, the minister of state, and Archbishop Laud, on a charge of endeavoring to sub- vert the constitution and to introduce arbitrary power. Strafford was arraigned for trial before the House of Lords ; his defence on this occasion is said to have been one of the most pathetic pieces of eloquence ever delivered ; but noth- ing could save him from the vengeance of his enemies. He was found guilty, sentenced, and beheaded. This was a severe stroke to the King, who lost in the Earl a faithful What was passed? — 8. At this period, how did the current of public opinion seem to run? To what measure did Charles now proceed? How was he met in Scotland? — 9. After eleven years, what did the king do? What is said of this body? What course did the king pur- sue ? — 10. What was one of the first acts of the new parliament ? What is said of Strafibrd's defence ? 24 278 ENGLAND. minister and the firmest supporter of the prerogative of the crown. 11. The contention between the King and the Parliament from this period began to wear a more alarming aspect, until at last both parties resolved to decide the issue of the contest by an appeal to the sword. And thus the standard of civil war was unfurled during the year 1642. The first serious overthrow of the royal forces happened at Marston Moor, where Charles and Prince Rupert were defeated by Oliver Cromwell, who commanded the parlia- mentary forces. After this victory Archbishop Laud, who had remained a prisoner in the Tower since the impeachment of Strafford, was brought to trial, condemned, and executed ; and on the same day the liturgy of the Church of England was abolished, and the rigid principles of Puritanism estab- lished in its place. 12. After the war had raged about five years, the Royal- ists were entirely defeated in the battle of Naseby, and Charles very imprudently surrendered himself to the Scot- tish army, by which he was basely delivered into the hands of the Parliament for the sum of £400,000. In the House of Commons a vote was passed declaring it treason in a King to levy war against his Parliament, and instituted a high court of justice, composed of one hundred and thirty- three members, to try Charles for that offence. This measure was rejected by the House of Lords, but the Commons, sup- ported by the parliamentary army, disregarded their dissent and issued an order for the trial. The King, having been arraigned before this self-created tribunal, refused to answer any questions put to him, disavowed its legality, and denied its jurisdiction ; but all was of no avail ; his enemies thirsted for his blood, and nothing less than his death would satisfy their vengeance. The trial proceeded. Charles was found guilty, and the sentence of death was pronounced against him as a tyrant, traitor, and murderer. 13. The unfortunate monarch bore the sentence of death, and all the unworthy treatment he received at his trial, with a degree of fortitude that excited the admiration even of his enemies. Permission was given him to see his children. 1 1 . What did the contention between the king and the parliament begin to wear ? When did the war break out ? Where was the first overthrow? After this victory, what is said of Archbishop Laud? — 12. Where were the royalists defeated, and what did Charles do ? What was done in the House of Commons ? What did they refuse ? What was the issue of the trial ? — 13. How did he bear the sentence? ENGLAND. 279 He took his last leave of them with tenderness and affection, and spent the short respite that was allowed him in private devotions with Juxton, Bishop of London, in order to pre- pare himself for the trying scene through w^hich he was about to pass. On reaching the scaffold, which was erected before Whitehall, he surveyed the preparations with a coun- tenance undismayed, addressed a few words to those who were near him, declared his innocence, and freely forgave his enemies. He then laid his head upon the block, and at the first stroke of the axe it was severed from the body. Such was the unhappy end of Charles I., in the forty-ninth year of his age and twenty-fourth of his reign. 14. If we take a survey of this period, we will find much to admire and much to condemn. That Charles had com- mitted errors in the administration of the government is obvious to all ; but that these errors were such as to sanc- tion the proceedings against him, few are willing to admit. That many of those who first opposed his arbitrary meas- ures were actuated by a sense of justice and a desire of maintaining the libertfes of the people may be admitted ; while the result will show that there were others who only aimed at hurling the monarch from his throne that they themselves might exercise his arbitrary principles. The House of Commons ordered a new Great Seal to be made, bearing the words, " On the first year of freedom, by God's blessing, restored, 1648." The King's statue in the Ex- change was thrown down, and on the pedestal was inscribed, Exit tyrannus, Begum ultimus — the tyrant is gone, the last of the kings. 15. After the death of the King the Commons proceeded to abolish the monarchy and the House of Lords, and to establish a republican form of government. A proclamation was issued, stating that the supreme authority of the nation was vested in the representatives of the people, and it should be high treason to give to any person the title of king with- out the consent of Parliament. Nothing, perhaps, in the history of this period is more remarkable than the sudden revolutions in religion. After the execution of Laud, we have seen that the Anglican Church was abolished and Bresbyterianisni established in its stead. We are now to How did he take leave of his children ? On reaching the scaffold, what did he do ? When was he executed ? — 14. What is said of Charles and of those engaged in his death ? What did the House of Commons order? — 15. After the king's death, what did the Commons do? What was issued ? 280 ENGLAND. behold the Presbyterian interest decline in favor of the In- dependents, who began to gain the ascendency. Through the management of Cromwell, the power which had been vested in the King was transferred to the army, and meas- ures were taken to exclude the Presbyterians from Parlia- ment. In this manner the Presbyterians, who had been instrumental in subverting the church and throne, fell victims to the power of the army, through whose agency they had accomplished their designs. 16. The people of Ireland and Scotland were still faithful in their allegiance to the fallen monarch, and unfurled the royal standard in favor of his son, Charles II. Cromwell, having procured for himself the appointment of commander- in-chief of the forces directed against Ireland, landed at Dublin ; thence he proceeded to Brogheda, which was well fortified, and garrisoned with three thousand men, under the command of Sir Arthur Aston. The place was finally taken by a furious assault, and only one of all the garrison escaped the barbarous massacre that followed. After this the country submitted to his authority. It. He next marched into Scotland at the head of sixteen thousand men, defeated the royalists at Dunbar, overthrew them again in the desperate battle of Worcester, and com- pletely established the sovereignty of the Parliament. After this battle young Charles, having with difficulty escaped from the scene of defeat, assumed the disguise of a peasant, and travelled in the least frequented roads, pursuing his journey by night, and frequently passing the day in obscure cottages. On one occasion he passed the day concealed in the branches of a large oak ; while in this situation he heard and saw his pursuers passing beneath him. After many adventures he efTected his escape to France. 18. At this period the republic astonished all Europe by the brilliancy of its naval achievements. The famous navi- gation act, which prohibited any state from carrying into England any commodity which was not the growth or man- ufacture of the country to which the vessel belonged, pro- duced a war with Holland, in which Admiral Blake obtained What are we now to behold ? What was effected through the influ- ence of Cromwell? — 16. What is said of the people of Ireland and Scotland? Of Cromwell? After taking Drogheda, what followed? — 17. Where did he next march? After this battle, what is said of young Charles? On one occasion how did he pass the day? — 18. At this period, what is said of the repubUc ? What did the navigation act produce ? ENGLAND. 281 a great naval victory over the celebrated Dutch commanders, Van Tromp and De Ruyter. 19. The Parliament, which had been in session for eleven years, and known by the. name of the Long Parliament, attempted to reduce the army, with a view of diminishing the power of Cromwell, who, perceiving their design, and being secure of the attachment of the soldiery, resolved to wrest the sovereign power from their hands. An unfavor- able reply being returned to a petition which he sent to Parliament, he rose in a violent rage, and taking with him a strong guard, he entered the house with marks of indigna- tion in his countenance, and after loading the members with reproaches, he cried out, '' For shame ; get hence ; give place to honest men. I tell you, you are no longer a Parliament; the Lord has done with you." Having turned them out, he ordered the doors to be locked, and, taking the keys, he de- parted to his residence at Whitehall. 20. This fanatical despot then called a new Parliament in quite a novel form. He took the census of the Congrega- tional churches in the several counties, and reported the names of such persons as were deemed qualified to fill the high office; of these, one hundred and sixty-three represent- atives were selected, and on the day appointed presented themselves, to the number of one hundred and twenty, in the council chamber at Whitehall. This body, composed of men imbued with all the wild fanaticism of the time, received the name of the Barehone Parliament from^one of its lead- ing members, who bore the singular name' of Praise-God Barehone. The Barebone Parliament, after a session of a few months, resigned all their authority into the hands of Cromwell, a measure which he had probably intended or expected. The Parliament immediately dissolved, and the officers of the army, by their sole authority, declared Crom- well Protector of the Commonwealth of England. 21. The Protector entered on the duties of his new office with energy and ability. He was assisted by a council of twenty-one members ; declined the title of Majesty, but re- ceived that of Highness ; refused the title of King, although he possessed the power and assumed all the ensigns of 19. What is said of the parliament? An unfavorable reply being returned to a petition, what did Cromwell do ? What did he cry out ? — 20. How did he call a new parliament? What name did this body receive? What did the officers of the army do? — 21. What is said of the Protector? What title did he receive ? 24* 282 ENGLAND. royalty. His administration, however, advanced the mili- tary glory of England. Abroad his fleets and armies were victorious ; he obliged the Dutch to sue for peace and hum- bled the power of Spain. 22. Having attained the height of his ambition, Crom- well found that his situation was by no means enviable. The nation despised the man, who, under the pretence of espousing the liberties of the people, had aspired to unlimited power. He was aware of this hatred, and the dread of assassination caused him to wear armor under his clothes. His health began to decline, and he was at length seized with a fever, which terminated his life, in the fifty -ninth year of his age, a. d. 1658. 23. His son, Richard Cromwell, who inherited neither the abilities nor the ambition of his father, was proclaimed Protector in his place ; but, after holding the oflBce for a few months, he resigned the title and retired to private life. A military despotism for some time succeeded, the army direct- ing the affairs of government at will. At length General Monk, who then commanded an army in Scotland, marched into England, crushed the contending factions, and caused a new Parliament to be assembled. After the meeting of the members, some time intervened before the King was mentioned. At length they were informed that a messenger was at the door with a letter from the King to the Com- mons. The letter was received and read, the Parliament assented to the proposals, and in this manner Charles II. was restored to his kingdom and to the throne of his father, A. D. 1660. 24. The whole demeanor of Charles at the commencement of his reign was such as to inspire the affection of his sub- jects, and to render him generally popular. He was in the thirtieth year of his age, possessing a handsome exterior, familiar and affable in his manners; but at the same time much inclined to indolence and pleasure. An act of general indemnity was passed, except to those immediately con- cerned in the late King's death. Accordingly, Harrison, Scott, Jones, and several others engaged in the trial of his father, were executed. But the vengeance of the King What is said of his administration?— 22. What did Cromwell find? What did the nation do? When did he die? — 23. Who was pro- claimed Protector in his place? What did he do? What succeeded? What is said of General Monk ? Of what was parliament informed ? How was the letter received ? — 24. What was the demeanor of Chaxles ? What act was passed ? Who were executed ? ENGLAND. 283 passed from the living to the dead. The bodies of Crom- well, Bradshaw, and Ireton were dug up from their graves, and, after hanging for some time, were cut down and buried under the gallows. 25. Charles was soon distinguished for the same arbitrary principles which seemed hereditary in the family of the Stuarts. The doctrine of passive obedience and non- resistance now came into use; from which originated the distinguishing epithets of Whigs and Tories. The former opposed the pretensions of the crown, the latter were its advocates. A new parliament was assembled, consisting chiefly of high churchmen and loyalists; the Anglican church was restored, and an act of conformity in religion was passed. 26. The next year Charles married Catherine of Por^w^aZ, and with her obtained a dowry of five hundred thousand pounds, a sum which greatly relieved his present necessities. But his prodigality kept him always in want. He bar- tered away Dunkirk, which had been acquired by Crom- well, to the French for four hundred thousand pounds sterling, which was soon squandered on his pleasures. He soon after this declared war against the Dutch, which con- tinued to rage for several years, until at length a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the Dutch ceded the colony of New York to the English. 2Y. During this war London was visited with a plague, which carried off ninety thousand of its inhabitants ; and in the following year a fire took place by which thirteen thousand houses were laid in ruins. To perpetuate the calamity, a monument was erected, bearing an inscription, falsely charging the Catholics as the authors of the con- flagration. This lying inscription was erased in the early part of the present century by order of the British Par- liament. 28. Towards the close of the reign of Charles, the Whigs having the ascendency in Parliament, distinguished them- selves by their hostility to the Catholics, and insisted on the What was done with the bodies of Cromwell, etc. ? — 25. For what was Charles soon distinguished? What doctrine now came into use, and what epithets originated from it ? What is said of the new parliament ? — 26. Whom did Charles marry ? What did he barter away ? What war was declared? How did it terminate? — 27. By what was London visited ? In the following year what took place ? To perpetuate the calamity, what was erected ? — 28. How did the Whigs distinguish them- selves? 284 ENGLAND. King's assent to a bill for the exclusion of his brother, the Duke of York, who had lately embraced the Catholic Faith. To this highly unjust and unnatural measure Charles could not consent, and in consequence dissolved two successive Parliaments. A pretended plot was discovered by the in- famous Titus Oates, (a man guilty of almost every crime in the catalogue of human vices,) which occasioned the un- just execution of Lord Stafford and several other eminent Catholics. Another conspiracy was shortly after detected, in favor of reform, called the Rye-house plot, in which Lord Russel and Algernon Sidney were accused of being con- cerned. They were brought to trial, found guilty, and be- headed. 29. The King himself did not long survive these acts of severity, being seized with an apoplexy, he died in the fifty- fifth year of his age and twenty-fifth of his reign. Shortly before his death, he sent for a Catholic clergyman, and re- ceived the Sacraments from his hands. During the reign of Charles, the famous act of Habeas Corpus was passed, by which persons were freed from arbitrary imprisonment. The most distinguished poets of this period were Milton, Waller, Cowley, Butler, Dryden, and Roscommon. A remarkable instance of longevity is mentioned of Thomas Parr, a labor- ing man in Yorkshire, who had lived in ten reigns, and completed one hundred and sixty years. 30. As Charles had left no legitimate issue, his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne, under the title of James II., with every mark of public approbation, notwith- standing his open profession of the Catholic Faith. It is probable that James might have reigned in tranquillity, and have ended his days on the throne of his ancestors, had it not been for his own imprudence, and the unfortunate choice he made of his ministers. The early part of his reign was disturbed by the rebellion of the Duke of Ilonmouth, who aimed at seizing the crown. Encouraged by the Prince of Orange and Sunderland, the perfidious minister of James, the Duke landed in England, caused himself to be pro- claimed King, and unfurled his standard at Taunton. After wearing the empty title of royalty for a few weeks, he was What pretended plot was discovered ? What other conspiracy was detected ? Who where accused of being concerned in it ? — 29. How did the king die? What act was passed in his reign? Who were distinguished poets? What is said of Parr? — 30. Who succeeded to the throne? By what was the early part of his reign disturbed? What was the fate of Monmouth ? ENGLAND. 285 defeated, taken prisoner, and atoned for his rebellion on the scaffold. 31. A special commission was issued to Jeffrys, the Lord Chief Justice, for the trial of the rebel prisoners. Jeffrys, in the execution of his commission, is represented as guilty of wanton cruelty ; for although there was no doubt of the guilt of the accused, yet the number of those who suffered made the acts of public justice assume the appearance of cruelty and revenge, while all the odium of these severities fell upon the King. 32. James, now finding himself firmly seated upon the throne, proceeded to a measure that did not fail to excite the disaffection of a great number of his subjects. As he had openly professed the Catholic Faith, it was his ardent wish to restore the ancient religion of the kingdom. By way of preparation for this important step, the King, on the 4th of April, 1687, from his royal prerogative, issued a proclamation, granting to all his subjects entire liberty to worship God according to the dictates of their own conscience. This indulgent grant, so honorable to the sovereign, so desirable on the part of a free people, and so suitable to the mild spirit of Christianity, was joyfully received by the Catholics and dissenters of all denominations; by others, it was loudly censured, as tending to overthrow the national church estab- lished by law, which they still conceived necessary for its support. 33. Another proclamation granting full liberty of con- science followed during the April of 1688, which was ordered to be read in every church and chapel in the kingdom after the service had ended. This order occasioned considerable opposition, and six of the bishops, who resisted the mandate, were immediately committed to the Tower and indicted for disobedience. 34. The contest with the bishops completed the King's un- popularity. His enemies, without being suspected, had pre- pared the kingdom for a general revolt ; they secretly applied for aid to the Prince of Orange, the son-in-law of James, and offered him the crown as the reward of his services. On receiving this invitation, William, with the utmost haste, 31. To whom was a commission issued? How is Jeffrys represented? — 32. What is said of James? What was his wish ? In 1687, what did he issue? How was this grant received? — 33. In 1688, what followed? What did the order occasion? — 34. What did his enemies do? To whom did they apply ? On receiving the invitation, what did William do? 286 ENGLAND. fitted out a fleet of five hundred sail, carrying four thousand men, and landed in England. In a few days he was joined by the greater part of the English army ; and James found himself deserted, even by those who owed all to his bounty. Among others who left him in the hour of distress was his favorite daughter Anne, who secretly withdrew to join the standard of the man who had invaded the dominions of her father, and was about to snatch the crown from his brow. 35. At the news of the ungrateful conduct of the daughter whom he tenderly loved, his constancy gave way, and in bitter anguish he exclaimed, "God, help me ! my own children have forsaken me in my utmost need." Having previously sent his Queen and infant son, the Prince of Wales, to the French court, he shortly after followed, leaving his kingdom in the power of his rival. 36. After the King's departure, a convention met, consist- ing of members of the House of Commons during the reign of Charles II., as those of James were deemed illegal. They declared that James, by quitting the kingdom, had deserted the people, — although it was evident that the people had deserted him, — and that the throne was vacant. They passed a bill excluding the Catholics from office, and settled the crown on the Prince of Orange and the Princess, and their heirs ; but the administration of the government was placed in the hands of the Prince alone. 37. After some time spent in France, James resolved to make an effort to regain his crown, through the loyalty of the people of Ireland, who still adhered to his interest. Hav- ing arrived at Kinsale, he made a public entry into Dublin, amidst the acclamations of the inhabitants. In the year 1690 was fought the famous battle of the Boyne, between the forces of the King and those of his rival, William. The battle was maintained for some time with equal bravery on both sides ; at length, owing to the pusillanimity of James, who, seeing his forces gaining some advantage over their opponents, cried out, "to spare his English subjects," the scale of victory turned in favor of William. 38. James fled from the scene of defeat and escaped to In a few days, how did James find himself? Who left him, among others? — 35. At the news of this defection, what did he exclaim? Where did he send his queen and son? — 36. After the king's departure, what was done? What did they declare? What did they pass? — 37. After some time, what did .James resolve? What took place in 1690? What did James exclaim? What was the issue of the battle? — 38. What did James do ? ENGLAND. 287 France, where he remained a pensioner on the bounty of the French king. The exiled monarch passed the remainder of his days at Saint Germains, where he gained the esteem of all who knew him, for his exemplary piety and for his mildness and affability. He died in the sixty -eighth year of his age, a. d. 1101. William of Orange was naturally of a feeble constitution, which he endeavored to repair by exercise. As he rode from Hampton Court to Kensington, his collar-bone was fractured by falling from his horse; this was followed by a fever, which terminated his life in the fifty-second year of his age and the fourteenth of his reign. His reign was memorable for the establishment of the Bank of England. 39. On the death of William, the crown devolved upon Anne,, the second daughter of James II., who had married George, Prince of Denmark. On coming to the throne, she communicated to the Houses of Parliament her determi- nation of declaring war against France. In conjunction with Germany and Holland, war was accordingly declared. The Duke of Marlborough, one of the greatest generals of his age, was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied army. PiHnce Eugene commanded the imperial forces. After the power of Louis XIY. had been considerably weakened by the several victories of Blenheim, Ramilles, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, gained by the allied armies, the war was terminated by the peace of Utrecht, in the year 1713. 40. The most memorable event of this reign was the union between England and Scotland, which destroyed the Scottish parliament, and included the two countries under the common title of Great Britain. It was during the reign of Anne that Gibraltar was taken by the English, which has remained in their possession to the present time. At this period party spirit was carried to extremes, and distracted the kingdom during the greater part of her reign. The Queen's health had been for some time on the decline ; at length she passed from the turmoil and splendor of the palace to the humble quietude of the tomb, in the fiftieth year of her age and the thirteenth of her reign, a. d. IT 14. Where did he pass the remainder of his days? When did he die? What occasioned the death of William ? — 39. On whom did the crown now devolve ? What war was immediately declared ? Who was ap- pointed commander-in-chief ? What victories were gained ? How was the war terminated ? — 40. What was the most memorable event of her reign ? What was taken by the English ? When did the queen die ? 288 ENGLAND. This period has been so prolific in men of literary genius, that it has been styled the Augustan Age of English letters. Some of the most distinguished names are those of Pope, Swift, Addison, Parnell, Rowe, and Gay. CHAPTER IX. HO USE OF BRUNSWICK: GEOROE I. ; GEORGE II. ; GEORGE III. ; GEORGE IV. ; WILLIAM IV.— FROM A. D. 1714 TO 1830. ON the death of Anne, George I., Elector of Hanover, suc- ceeded to the throne, with general approbation. The features of his reign were generally pacific, and afi'ord few events of importance in history. Upon assuming the reins of government, he attached himself to the Whig party, which had strenuously advocated his accession, and entered into violent measures against the late Tory ministry. 2. A committee of investigation was appointed to inspect the papers relative to the treaty with France ; and Lord Bolingbroke, the Earl of Oxford, and the Earl of Mortimer, with several others of the Tory party, were impeached for high treason. These vindictive proceedings excited the in- dignation of the people, and the flame of rebellion broke out in Scotland. The Earl of Mar, at the head of ten thousand men, proclaimed the son of James II. as the lawful mon- arch of Great Britain. The rebellion, however, w^as soon crushed, and the most exemplary severity exercised against the leaders. Various Lords and Earls were impeached, and suffered death on the scaffold ; many others of inferior rank were executed, and about a thousand transported to North America. 3. At this period a plan was devised for lessening the national debt, by lowering the interest, called the South Sea Scheme; the measure, however, gave a severe stroke to public credit, and ruined the fortunes of thousands. George died suddenly of a paralytic disorder, while on a What has this period been styled ? What were some of the most distinguished names? Chapter IX,— 1. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of his reign ? — 2. What committee was appointed ? Who were impeached ? What did these proceedings excite ? What is said of the rebellion ? — 3. At this time what was devised ? When did George die ? ENGLAND. 289 visit to his electoral dominions of Hanover, in the sixty- eighth year of his age and the thirteenth of his reign, a. d. 1121. 4. George II., who succeeded his father in the forty-fourth year of his age, was a prince possessed of considerable abilities, of a violent temper, and distinguished in military exercise. Like his father, he inclined to the Whig party, and was particularly biassed in favor of his continental dominions, on account of which he involved England in an expensive war. The most prominent person in the admin- istration during the reign of George was Sir Robert Wal- pole, a man of eminent abilities, but accused by many as guilty of a system of corruption and venality which he practised while in office. 5. The military operations during this reign were ex- tensive, and the British arms were generally triumphant. England espoused the cause of Maria Teresa of Austria against the Emperor Charles and Louis XY. of France. In this contest, called the war of the Austrian Succession, the principal states of Europe were involved. "Various was the success that attended the contending powers. The English, with their allies, under the command of George 11. in person, defeated the French in the celebrated battle of Dettingen, and the French, in their turn, under Marshal Saxe, gained the victory at Fontenoy. After war had raged for some time, peace was again restored by the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, and the claim of Maria Teresa to the throne was confirmed. 6. During the absence of the King on the continent, Charles Edward, the eldest son of James II., assisted by Louis XY. of France, made a last and dying effort to regain the throne of his ancestors. He landed in Scotland, and placing himself at the head of an army, he defeated the royalists in the battles of Preston-Pans and Falkirk ; but on the 16th of April, 1*746, was fought the famous battle of Culloden, in which Charles was signally defeated by the royal forces under the Duke of Cumberland. By this battle the hereditary pretensions to the crown of England were for- 4. Who succeeded ? To what was he inclined ? Who was the most prominent person in the administration ? — 5. What is said of the mili- tary operations of this reign ? What did England espouse ? What was this war called ? How was peace restored ? — 6. During the absence of the king, what took place? Where did he l^nd? What took place in 1746 ? 25 T 290 ENGLAND. ever extinguished. The Prince, after a series of adventures, escaped to France. Y. Towards the close of this reign, the war was again renewed between England and France, on account of the encroachments of the latter on the British colonies in America. The war was finally terminated by the surrender of all Canada on the part of France. It was during this war that the heroic General Wolf perished in the moment of achieving the capture of the city of Quebec. During their operations in America the British also carried on a war in India. 8. George II. died in 1760, at his palace of Kensington, in the seventy-seventh year of his age and the thirty-third of his reign. His reign was distinguished for many eminent writers and men of genius ; among the poets may be men- tioned Young, Akenside, and Gray. 9. George III., the grandson of the late monarch, suc- ceeded to the throne in the eighteenth year of his age. He commenced his reign at a favorable period, when the national arms were everywhere triumphant, and the ad- ministration of the government was directed by the genius of William Pitt, (Lord Chatham,) one of the most eminent and popular ministers in the annals of the nation. It was at this period that an oppressive and unjust course of policy was adopted by the British government towards her American colonies. Against these measures Pitt exerted all the power of his eloquence, but in vain. The colonies were finally driven into hostilities with the mother country, and Great Britain, after a long and expensive warfare, was compelled to acknowledge their independence."^ 10. The other most important events of this reign were the extension of the British possessions in India, where Hyder Ali and his son distinguished themselves by their opposition to the encroachments of the English ; the Irish rebellion, which took place in 1798, and the subsequent union of Irelandf with Great Britain, and her long and sanguinary conflicts which grew out of the French Rev- olution. * See United Slates. f See Ireland. 7. Towards the close of his reign, what took place ? How was it ter- minated ? During this war, what happened ? — 8. When did George II. die? Among the poets who stand pre-eminent? — 9. Who succeeded to the throne ? How did he commence his reign ? What took place at this period? What is said of Pitt? — 10. What were the other most important events of this reign ? ENGLAND. 291 11. Some of the principal achievements of the British during this period were the famous naval victories of the Nile and Trafalgar, by Lord Nelson, and those of Tala- vera, Salamanca, Yittoria, and Waterloo, by Wellington. George died on the 29th of January, 1820, in the seventy- eighth year of his age, after a reign of sixty years, the longest we find in English history. During the last ten years of his life he was afflicted with insanity, which dis- qualified him for all public business, and his son, the Prince of Wales, acted as regent. The subversion of his intellect is supposed to have been brought on by the death of his favorite Amilia, aided by advanced age and toils of state. His natural endowments were not great, although a good monarch and much beloved by his subjects. 12. George lY., who succeeded to the throne, was a prince in some respects able and accomplished. The early part of his life, however, was distinguished for unrestrained dissipation and prodigality. His reign was generally peace- ful and prosperous. Some of the most important events were the war in India, by which the English gained a great part of the Burman Empire ; the celebrated trial of his Queen in the House of Lords for misconduct ; the interposition i^ favor of the Greeks in their struggle for independence, during which was gained the celebrated naval victory at Navarino, over the Turks, by the united fleets of England, France, and Russia ; and also the passage of the Catholic Relief Bill, by which the disabilities of the long and unjustly oppressed Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland were removed, and by which they were placed on an equal footing with mem- bers of the established church, vvith three exceptions : exclu- sion from the throne, and from the offices of Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Chancellor of that kingdom, and of England. 13. George lY. died at Windsor on the 26th of June, 1830, in the sixty-eighth year of his age and the eleventh of his reign, and was succeeded in the throne by his brother, William, Duke of Clarence, under the title of William lY. His short reign was not distinguished for any important event ; and at his death, in 1831, he was succeeded by the Princess Yictoria, only child of the Duke of Kent. 11. What were some of the achievements of the British during this period? When did George die? What is said of the last ten years of his life? Of his abilities?— 12. Who succeeded to the throne? What were some of the most important events of his reign? What are the three exceptions to the Catholic Relief Bill? — 13. When did George die, and by whom succeeded? At his death who succeeded? 292 ENGLAND. CHAPTER X. THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA.— A. D. 1837 TO 1880. Its Changes — Agitations — Wars — Literature — Inventions — And General Progress. QUEEN Yictoria, at the age of eighteen, was crowned in June, 1838 ; and about a year and a half later, she was married to her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg. Her reign has been unusually long and eventful. 2. The agitation for the repeal of the Union of Ireland to Great Britain had been going on for some time. At last a crisis came, and the progress of the movement was arrested. " The year 1843," said O'Connell, " is and shall be the great Repeal year." He organized huge meetings in Ireland; vast multitudes hung on his words. But the Government grew alarmed, had the great Agitator arrested, tried, and con- demned to fine and imprisonment. On O'ConnelPs appeal, however, to the House of Lords, the sentence was reversed, and he was set at liberty. 3. It was towards the early part of the reign of Victoria that a memorable movement began in the Church of Eng- land. The University of Oxford was the centre of this reli- gious movement, and its leading spirit, John Henry New- man.* This great man became a Catholic in 1845, and soon he was followed by a host of Protestant scholars, lords, and ladies.f Since that time the Ancient Faith has been rapidly gaining ground in England, especially among the higher and better educated classes. 4. The agitation on the subject of free trade led, in 1846, to the repeal of the Corn laws through the persevering efforts of Cobden and Bright. Grain of every kind was allowed to * Now Cardinal Newman. t During the last thirty-five years over two thousand graduates of Oxford and Cambridge and persons of rank in England have joined the Catholic Church. Among them are Cardinal Manning, Archbishop of Westminster, and the Marquis of Bute, Governor-General of India. Chapter X. — 1. When was Victoria crowned? Whom did she marry? — 2. What is said of the repeal of the Union and O'Connell? — 3. What religious movement marks this reign ? Who was its leading spirit ? When did Newman become a Catholic, and what was the re- sult? — 4. What laws were repealed in 1846 ? ENGLAND. 293 enter England free of duty. The famine in Ireland began with the partial loss of the potato crop in 1845. The misery increased fearfully in 1846 and 184T. Ireland starved, and over two millions of her brave but unhappy people died or fled to foreign lands. The Irish famine is the gloomiest chapter in the annals of the present reign. 5. In 1850 Pius IX. restored the Catholic Hierarchy of England, and placed the learned Cardinal Wiseman at its head, appointing him Archbishop of Westminster. But the fanaticism of the whole country was aroused, and the supposed aggression of the Pope was fiercely denounced. During this period of stormy excitement a ridiculous Bill — known as The Ecclesiastical Titles Bill — passed both Houses of Parliament and received the royal signature. It forbade Catholic Bishops to take titles from the Sees they held in Great Britain and Ireland. But it was never put in force. It troubled nobody, and many years after, in 1871, it was quietly repealed. 6. We have already referred to the causes that led to the Crimean war.* France and England combined to aid Tur- key and to punish the ambitious designs of Russia. War was declared in the summer of 1854. In September, twenty- seven thousand English, thirty thousand French, and seven thousand Turks landed on the shores of the Crimea. The first battle was fought on the banks of the little river Alma. On the heights that fringed the river, the Russians in great strength had taken up a splendid position, under the com- mand of Prince Mentschikoft The allies, under Lord Rag- lan and Marshal St. Armand, made the attack with head- long courage, and at last carried all before them. It was an heroic scramble. The Russians fled. Other engagements followed at Balaklava and Inkermann. Reinforcements ar- rived, and the siege of the Russian stronghold, Sebastopol, was commenced. After a long and obstinate siege, the city fell in September, 1855 — not, however, before the Russians had made it another Moscow. Peace was restored by the Treaty of Paris, March, 1856. Russia was humbled, Tur- * See France, Chap. IX. When and how did the Irish famine begin? What was the unhappy result of this famine?— 5. What did Pius IX. do in 1850? Was Eng- land pleased at this step? What is said of the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill ? — 6. When did France and England declare war against Russia ? Describe the battle of Alma. What city stood a long and obstinate siege? When did it fall, and what is said of how the Russians left it? By what treaty wae peace restored ? 25* 294 ENGLAND. key allowed to live a little longer, and France and England had the barren honor of a few victories. Y. British rule in India received a rude shock in 1857. The army by which England maintained her authority over India was composed mainly of natives, to which the name of Se'poys was given. Dissatisfaction spread among these dusky troops, and soon ripened into excitement, open revolt, and scenes of terrible bloodshed. At Meerut the native regiments murdered their officers and many European women and children. The same horrors were perpetrated at Delhi, and the deposed native king raised his standard over the ancient palace of the Mogul. In a short time the sepoys mutinied at twenty-two different stations, and slaughtered every European that came in their way. But the barbarous massacre of European women and children at Cawnpore capped the climax of appalling horrors. After much hard fighting, however, the British troops overran the revolted districts. Delhi was besieged and retaken ; but the arms of England were darkened by a dreadful and indiscriminate massacre. The streets of the city were red with streams of blood. The rebellion was beaten to the ground by a policy of merciless retribution. Mutinied sepoys, when captured, were hung in squads upon any convenient tree, or were fastened to the muzzles of cannon, w^hose discharge shattered their bodies into fragments ! 8. In 1857, France and England, after enduring much provocation, declared war against China. The frightened Emperor of that mysterious country soon hastened to sign a treaty of peace, which, however, with bad faith, he barely kept till the allies were out of sight. He again persecuted the Christians. But France and England sent another ex- pedition to China. The capital was taken in 1860, and a new and more advantageous treaty finally concluded. The humbled Chinaman was glad to grant all that was asked. 9. By the stoppage of the supply of cotton in 1861, the American war was the cause of much injury to the com- merce of England. The English cotton-spinners were re- duced to misery, and their pitiable condition invited a relief 7. Where did British rule receive a rude shock in 1857? "Who were the sepoys? What did they do at Meerut and Delhi? What is said of Cawnpore"' How did the British put doAvn the rebellion? How were captured sepoys punished ? — 8. Give an account of the war that France and England carried on against China. — 9. How did tlie American war injure the commerce of England? What is said of the cotton-spinners ? ENGLAND. 295 in money and provisions, which was freely bestowed by both English and Americans. The successful laying of the ocean telegraphic cable in 1866 brought the two countries into more intimate relations. 10. The unhappy condition of oppressed Ireland furnishes ceaseless diflBculties for English legislators. The Repeal movement died out with O'Connell, and the Young-Ireland- ers, who succeeded, soon ceased to be a political force. But an organization known as the Fenians took the place of both. Their membership was wide-spread, and their revo- lutionary movements kept the English government in a con- stant state of uneasiness, and brought down upon the people of Ireland the severest measures of repression. The cap- ture of Stephens, the Fenian chief, did not end the trouble. In 1865, numbers of Irishmen were convicted and sentenced to various degrees of punishment. Two years later, three brave men, Allen, Larkin, and O'Brien, were executed in England. Other points in relation to the Fenians are no- ticed in the chapters on Ireland and Canada. 11. It must be said, however, that the fear inspired by the Fenian movement forced England to throw a few more crumbs of justice to Ireland. In 186t, the bigoted law ex- cluding Catholics from the office of Lord Chancellor of Ire- land, and forbidding Catholic mayors and judges to attend in their robes of office at their own places of worship, was repealed. The next step towards pacification was the dis- establishment of the Protestant Church in Ireland — a meas- ure which was effected in 1870. In the same year an amnesty was granted to a large number of the Fenian pris- oners. The English universities were opened to lay stu- dents of all creeds on equal terms in 1871 ; and during the following year, the settlement of the Alabama claims took place at the Conference of Geneva. England agreed to pay the United States three millions of pounds sterling.* 12. For the last twenty years, the quarrels of England * The famous Confederate steamer Alabama left a British port and began her career of destruction on the shipping of the North. Our government held England responsible for all the damages that followed — hence the Alabama claims. Of the ocean telegraphic cable ? — 10. Eelate what is said of the Feni- ans. — 11. Had the Fenian movement any effect on England? What law was repealed in 1867 ? When was the Protestant Church dis-estab- lished in Ireland? What liberal step was taken by the English uni- versities in 1871 ? When and how were the Alabama claims settled? — 12. What is said of the quarrels of England ? 296 ENGLAND. have been petty and inglorious skirmishes with some bar- barous nation. In 1868, an expedition was sent to punish the Abyssinians. It was a war of one battle, and is chiefly memorable for its enormous cost. The rude Ashantees were also whipped. Then came the war with the Zulus, of the origin and early conduct of which England has the deepest reason to feel ashamed.* And, finally, the war with the Afghans has brought no glory to the arms of Britain. 13. Remarks on English Literature, Science, and Educa- tion duping the Nineteenth Century. — The nineteenth cen- tury has been a bright and fertile age in English letters. Among the chief British writers of this period are : Scott, Byron, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Sidney Smith, Lingard, Carlyle, Dickens, Thackeray, Grote, Macaulay, Wiseman, Ruskin, Browning, Tennyson, Newman, and Man- ning. As distinguished writers on the natural and physical sciences, we may mention : Brewster, Faraday, Herschel, Owen, Miller, Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, and Mivart. At the beginning of the present century, England was plunged in an abyss of ignorance. There were only three thousand three hundred and sixty-three schools in the king- dom. Forty per cent, of Englishmen and sixty-five per cent, of English women were unable to write their names. But schools have multiplied. Education is now compulsory, and the number of people that can read and write has greatly increased. For England this has been truly an age of progress. When the battle of Waterloo was fought, it took the despatches three days to reach London. The first line of telegraph was constructed in 1831. Shortly after Fulton's invention, steamboats were seen plying on the rivers of Scotland and England. The Atlantic was crossed by steamers in 1838. Stephenson's steam-engine ran on the Liverpool and Man- chester railway in 1830 ; and Sir Rowland Hill invented postage-stamps, which first came into use in 1839. Eighty * It was during the petty struggle with the Zulus that the young Prince Imperial, son of Napoleon III., was killed, June 1, 1879. 13. Has the nineteenth centuiy enriched English letters? Name some of the chief British writers of this age. Mention some distin- guished scientists. What is said of education in England? Has this been an age of progress in England ? When was the first line of tele- graph constructed? The first steam-engine? When were postage- stamps first used ? ENGLAND, 297 years ago newspapers could only be multiplied by a rude printing-press, which could turn out no more than one hun- dred and fifty copies per hour ; now, a machine, driven by steam, is fed with huge rolls of paper, and gives out news- papers, cut and folded, at the rate of twenty-five thousand copies per hour.* * For a fuller account of English history, see Lingard's History of England, abridged by Burke ; and Justin MacCarthy's History of Our Own Times. What is said of the improved printing-press ? BOOK YIII SCOTLAND. CHAPTER I. SCOTLAND IN EARLY TIMES, THE early history of Scotland is greatly involved in fable and obscurity. The claim of the Scotch to a regular suc- cession of kings from the time of Alexander the Great seems entitled to little credit. Fergus I. they consider as the founder of their monarchy, and he is said to have been the first who displayed on his banner the royal emblem of Scotland — namely, a red lion with his tail folded on his back, the atti- tude which that noble animal assumes when roused to anger. When the Romans took their final leave of England, in 410, the people of Scotland were divided into a number of hostile tribes, the principal of which were the Scots and Picts ; the latter was subdued by Ken'neth II., who became King of all Scotland, a. d. 843.* * The original Scots were an Irish colony that conquered a portion of Caledonia and settled there. Ireland, it must be remembered, was called Scotia in early ages, and its inhabitants Scots. King Niall of the Kine Hostages, monarch of Ireland at the close of the fourth century, was the first who gave the name of Scotia Minor, or " Little Scotia," to Scotland. Before that "Scotland" went by the name of Alba. The Scots (or Irish) and the Picts lived as good neighbors till about the year 840, when Kenneth II., King of the Scots, defeated the Picts. About the year 900 the Scots became masters of the rest of the country, and from" that time all North Britain took the name of Scotland, or land of the Scots. At a somewhat later period, Ireland gradually lost the name of Scotia, which was thus AvhoUy transferred to the neighboring coun- try that she had conquered and colonized. Such, in brief, was the origin of the name Scotland. Nearly all the great old Scottish families — as the MacDonalds, Campbells, Murrays, etc. — are lineal descendants of the ancient Irish that colonized and became masters of North Britain. — Little Lives of the Great Saints, by John O'Kane Murray, M. A., M, D. Chapter I.— 1. What is said of the history of Scotland ? Whoni do they consider as the founder of their monarchy ? What is said of him ? How were the people divided ? By whom were the latter subdued ? 298 SCOTLAND. 299 2. Little of importance or interest occurs in the history of the country from the time of Kenneth until the reign of Alexander III. Upon the death of Alexander a number of competitors for the crown appeared, among whom Robert Bruce and John Ba'liol seemed to have the nearest claim. They were both descended from David, Earl of Huntington, third son of David I. To avoid, however, the miseries of civil war, they resolved to refer the case to Edward I. of England as umpire, and submit to his decision. Edward finding Baliol the more obsequious, decided in his favor, and Baliol consented to receive the crown as a vassal of Eng- land. 3. But the fierce and warlike barons could not brook the passive spirit of John, and the encroachment of their liberty by the English monarch. A war ensued between the two kingdoms. Edward marched into Scotland at the head of a powerful army, and, after defeating the Scots in a battle near Dunbar, reduced the whole country to subjection. The weak and timid spirit of Baliol induced him to surrender the crown into the hands of the English king. 4. At this critical juncture, when the liberties of Scotland lay prostrate at the feet of the conqueror, the dying energies of the nation were roused by the valor and patriotism of Sir William Wallace. The deeds of this hero are, in many in- stances, colored with fiction ; yet, divested of all their em- bellishments, they remain sufficiently great to render him worthy of the exalted name of patriot. He almost single- handed ventured to take up arms in defence of the kingdom, and by his boldness revived the spirit of his countrymen. He persuaded Robert Bruce to assert the right and vindi- cate the honor of his country. The Scots flocked to the standard of Bruce, who, after a variety of victories, suc- ceeded in restoring the independence of his country, and was elevated to the throne, A. d. 1306. 5. Edward again made preparations for invading Scotland, and had advanced as far as Carlisle, when he suddenly died. In the reign of his successor was fought, near Stei^ling, the famous battle of Bannockbu7^n. It was in 1314. Edward commanded the English forces in person, and Robert Bruce 2. On the death of Alexander, what took place ? To avoid civil war, what did they resolve ? What did Edward do ? — 3. What is said of the barons? What ensued ? What did Edward do ? — 4. At this critical juncture, what took place? What is said of his deeds? What did he persuade Bruce ? What is said of the Scots ? 5. In the reign of his successor, what battle was fought ? Give the date of it. 300 SCOTLAND. those of Scotland. The engagement terminated in the signal defeat of the English army, and firmly established the vic- torious Bruce on the throne of his ancestors.* Bruce died in 1329, and was succeeded by his son, David II., at the age of four years. During his minority, the Earl of Murray was appointed Regent of the kingdom, and fulfilled the duties of his station with justice and moderation. 6. About the year 1331, Edward Ba'liol, the son of John Baliol, taking advantage of the King's minority, began to bring forward pretensions to the crown. Aided by many of the English barons, he landed in Scotland and defeated the Earl of Mar, who had succeeded Murray in the office of Regent. Baliol was immediately crowned King, and ac- knowledged the English monarch as his superior. Thus was Scotland a second time reduced to a state of dependence and subjection to England. t. The spirit of freedom which had so long characterized the Scots slumbered for a season, but was not extinguished. The faithful adherents of the deposed King watched the earli- est opportunity to strike for the liberty of their country, and to shake off the hateful English yoke. At length the Scot- tish valor prevailed. Baliol was expelled from the country, and David II. was again restored to the throne, a. d. 1341. 8. David was a weak but virtuous prince, and passed through many reverses of fortune. He was taken prisoner by the English in the battle of Durham, and remained in cap- tivity for eleven years ; but he was at length ransomed by his subjects, and died in 1370. He was succeeded by his nephew, Rohei^t Stuart, the first of that family who swayed the sceptre of Scotland. The race of the Stuarts is, perhaps, the most unfortunate in the annals of history ; with few exceptions, they all became the victims of some ill-fated or tragical end. * At this famous battle the English army numbered one hundred thousand men ; the Scotch and their Irish allies, thirty thousand. The English lost a large portion of their army, and it was with difficulty that Edward saved himself by flight. The body of brave Irish archers sent by Donald O'Neill, King of Ulster, to aid Bruce — among whom were a number of O'Kanes — seem to have made a deep impression on the English, for the poet, Chaucer, writes : " To Albion Scots we ne'er would yield — The Irish bowmen won the field.'' How did it terminate ? When did Bruce die ? By whom was he succeeded?— 6. In the year 1331 what took place ? What followed? — 7. What is said of the spirit of freedom ? Of Baliol ?— 8. What is said of David ? By whom was he succeeded ? SCOTLAND. 301 CHAPTER II. THE HOUSE OF STUART: FROM ROBERT II. TO JAMES VI. —A. D. 1370 TO 1603. ROBERT IL, a prince characterized for the mildness of his disposition, was quite unequal to the task of man- aging his fierce and ungovernable subjects. His reign was marked by a series of contests which took place between the English and Scottish borderers. The great families of Doug- las and Percy, whose estates lay near each other, were at continual variance. On one occasion they met at Otterhurn. An obstinate battle ensued, in which the English were routed, but the Earl of Douglas was slain. It is said that the celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace was written to com- memorate the single combat between Douglas and Percy. Robert died in 1390, and was succeeded by his son, under the title of Robert III. 2. The reign of this prince was rendered unhappy through the conduct of his turbulent nobles. The Duke of Albany, the brother of the King, a man of the greatest ambition and cruelty, having represented to Robert some misconduct of his son, prevailed on the King to deliver him into his custody. Having obtained possession of the person of the young prince, he conducted him to the castle of Falkland and cast him into a dungeon, where he died in a short time for want of food. 3. Robert, now old and infirm, was unable to revenge this outrage; but having another son called James, then eleven years of age, he resolved to send him to France to avoid the power and cruelty of the Duke. On his way, the young prince unfortunately fell into the hands of the English, by whom he was taken to London, and by order of Henry com- mitted to the Tower. At the news of this disaster, Robert was so overpowered with grief that he died shortly after with a broken heart, a. d. 1405. 4. James was detained eighteen years in captivity in England, during which time he adorned his mind with every Chapter II.— 1. What is said of Eobert II.? Of the Earls of Douglas and Percy ? On one occasion, what took place ? When did Robert die ? — 2. What is said of the reign of this prince ? Of the Duke of A Ibany ? Where did he conduct the young prince ? — 3. What is said of Robert ? On the way, what happened to the prince ? At the news, what is said of Robert ? — 4. How long was James detained in captivity ? 26 802 SCOTLAND. valuable accomplishment, and had leisure to learn the su- perior wisdom of the English laws and government. It was during this period that he wrote a poem,* which gives him a high place among the poets of the fifteenth century. In 1424 he married Lady Joan Beaufort, the daughter of the Earl of Somerset. The young King of England presented him with a suit of gold cloth for the ceremony, after which he departed for Scotland, and was crowned the same year at Scone under the title of James I. 5. James, on his arrival, found the affairs of Scotland very different from those of England. During the regency of Albany the kingdom was filled with great disorders, and the royal authority had fallen into utter contempt ; in every section of the country some barbarous chieftain ruled at pleasure, without regard to the authority of the King or the interest of the people. The first object of James was to curb the exorbitant power of the nobility. A law was passed in parliament, by which the leagues and combinations which rendered the nobles so powerful were declared illegal. He caused a number of the most refractory to be arrested and brought to trial. The King himself presided in person, dressed in his royal robes, with the sceptre and globe in his hand. The turbulent chiefs were found guilty and publicly executed. 6. James having thus reduced order in his kingdom, and being a Prince of refined accomplishments and one of the most elegant scholars of his age, turned all his attention towards the improvement and civilization of his subjects. But the check that he had given to the power of the nobility had irritated the whole body, and they only waited a favor- able opportunity for conspiring against him. While holding a feast at Perth, he had taken up his abode at the Convent of Blackfriars, there being no palace or castle convenient, and had quartered his guards among the citizens. A con- spiracy was entered into, at the head of which appeared the Earl of Athol and Sir Robert Graham, and this was deemed a favorable moment for carrying it into execution. Y. The King had passed the 20th of February, 143t, in * The King's Quire. It contains one hundred and ninety-seven seven- lined stanzas. In 1424, what did he do? With what was he presented by the king of England ? — 5. On his arrival, how did he find the affairs of Scotland ? What was the first act of James ? What did he cause ? — 6, To what did James turn his attention? At Perth, where did he take up his abode? What was entered into against him? — 7. How did the king pass the 20th of February? SCOTLAND. 803 various amusements with his nobles and the ladies of his court, and was cheerfully conversing with his Queen and her attendants, when suddenly a noise was heard, and the flam- ing of torches was seen in the convent gardens. At the first alarm, the King, judging that his life was in danger, ordered the doors to be closed, while he endeavored to effect his escape. Lady Catharine Doug'las hastened to bolt the outer door at the hall, but not finding the bar, she resolutely pushed her arm through the staple, which was broken by the conspirators in forcing the door. Dunbar, a young noble- man who attempted to guard the antechamber, was struck dead ; and the Queen herself received several wounds from the assassins. James, who was remarkably strong and active, defended himself for some time with great resolution ; but at length, overpowered by numbers, he fell under re- peated blows of the conspirators. 8. The traitors immediately retreated to the Highlands^ but by the unremitting exertions of his Queen they were all taken in the short space of a month, brought to trial, and executed. The Earl of Athol, to whom it had been predicted that he should die a king, was crowned with a red-hot diadem as king of traitors ; and after that horrible ceremony, he was beheaded. James I. was murdered in the forty-fourth year of his age and in the thirteenth of his reign. He was one of the wisest and most accomplished sovereigns that ever swayed the Scottish sceptre. 9. James II. succeeded his father to the throne at the early age of six years, while the affairs of state were chiefly under the direction of Alexander Livingston and Sir William Crichton. At this period the house of Douglas had reached the height of its power. The Douglases were remarkable for their courage and military talents, also for the pomp of their retinue and the number of their armed followers. In 1438 the Earl of Douglas died, leaving two sons, the eldest a youth of sixteen. Livingston and Crichton thought this a favorable opportunity for crushing forever the powerful house of Dovglas. With this intention they invited the young Earl and his brother to court, as companions for the At the first alarm, what was done ? What is said of Lady Catharine ? Of Dunbar ? Of James ?— 8. What is said of the traitors ? Of the Earl of Athol ? When did James die ? What was he ? — 9. Who succeeded ? In 1438, what took place? What is related of Livingston and Crich- ton, and what was the fate of the two sons of Douglas ? 804 SCOTLAND. young King. Without suspecting the base design in con- templation, they accepted the invitation and set out with their attendants to Edinburgh castle. They were received with every mark of respect, especially by James, who had no suspicion of the treacherous intentions of his guardians. A splendid entertainment was given them, in the midst of which a party of armed men rushed into the apartment, and seizing upon the unsuspecting companions of James, dragged them into the court of the castle, where, undergoing a mock trial for the insolence of their ancestors, they were con- demned and beheaded. 10. James II. is said to have been a handsome man, and of a quick, impetuous temper. His reign was distinguished by his strenuous efforts to humble the power of his haughty nobles. In 1460, he laid siege to the castle of Roxburgh for the purpose of recovering it from the hands of the English. During the siege, James ordered the artillery to fire upon the castle, when one of the guns burst, and killed him upon the spot, in the twenty-ninth year of his age. 11. James III., who succeeded his father, possessed neither his abilities nor his talents. He secluded himself in the castle of Stirling, where he devoted himself to pursuits ill becoming a sovereign, and raised the indignation of his barons by his attachment to unworthy favorites. At length a powerful league was formed against him, which was joined by most of the southern lords. The King marched towards the north, and, having arrived at Stirling, was refused admittance by the governor. He then demanded his son, but was told that the young prince had been carried off by the rebel lords. 12. Upon receiving this intelligence, the King immediately advanced at the head of thirty thousand men to meet the in- surgents. The army was arrayed in three divisions, the King himself commanding the rear. The battle commenced with fury on both sides, and for some time was sustained with equal success. At length the western borderers, charging with their long spears, bore down all before them. James, unable to stand the charge, turned and fled. As he retreated, he passed by a small hamlet near a mill ; his horse, taking fright at a woman who came out for water, suddenly turned and precipitated the King to the ground, who, being ]0. What is said of James? How was he killed? — 11. Who suc- ceeded? What is said of him? What was formed against him? — 12. On receiving this intelligence what did the king do? Describe the battle. As he retreated, what happened ? SCOTLAND. 305 heavily armed and stunned by the fall, was unable to rise. The people soon collected, and removed him into the mill. When he recovered, he called out for a priest. Being asked by the miller's wife who he was, he replied : " I was your King this morning." The woman, struck with surprise, hastened out and called loudly for a priest to attend the King. Upon this a stranger rode up and said : "I am a priest, lead me to the King." He was immediately introduced, and kneeling down, asked James if he thought he was dan- gerously injured. The King replied that he thought not, but in the mean time desired that his confession might be heard, and that he might receive absolution. ''This shall absolve you," replied the assassin, and drawing a poniard, plunged it into the breast of the unhappy monarch. And thus died James III., in the thirty-sixth year of his age. 13. The throne was immediately occupied by his son and successor, James lY., a great and accomplished prince, re- spected by his nobles, and beloved by his subjects. He loved magnificence, and his court was renowned throughout Europe. He bitterly regretted his misfortune, in being compelled to appear in the field with the rebel lords ; and considering himself in a manner accessory to his father's death, he imposed upon himself a voluntary penance, which he continued to observe during the remainder of his life. He caused an iron girdle to be made, which he wore under his clothes ; and, as if desirous that his penance might increase with his age, he every year added a new link to its weight. 14. In 1502, he married the princess Margai^et, daughter of Henry YII. of England, an accomplished and virtuous woman. James, who excelled in all the martial exercises, and particularly delighted in tilts and tournaments, was eager for an occasion to display his prowess. During the reign of Henry YIII., the harmony which had subsisted between England and Scotland began gradually to weaken, until at length it broke out into open rupture. James, con- trary to the advice of the ablest and most prudent of his ministers, and against every entreaty of his Queen, resolved upon the invasion of England. 15. Having with much difBculty obtained the consent of Parliament, he gave orders for the forces of the kingdom Being asked who he was, what did he reply ? What was his end ? — 13. By whom was the throne occupied? What did he regret? What did he cause? — 14. Whom did he marry? In what did he excel? During his reign, what was weakened ? — 15. When did he enter Eng- land? 26 * U 806 SCOTLAND. to meet him at Edinburgh. After having completed his prep- arations, the King, on the twenty-second of August, entered England at the head of his army, attended by the flower of the Scottish nobility, and pitched his camp on Flodden Field. Here he was met by the English army, commanded by the Earl of Surrey, who, confident of his superior strength, en- deavored to bring the Scottish King to an engagement. IG. After some mutual suspense, the signal for the battle was given, and the combatants on both sides rushed to the contest with equal vigor. At the first onset, the forces of James threw the right wing of the English into disorder ; but at that moment, Thomas Howard, at the head of his English division, bore down upon the Scots, while at the same time they were charged in the rear by Sir Edward Stanley. Dreadful was the carnage that now ensued. The King fought on foot in the thickest of the contest. His nobles, to whom he was dear, pressed and entreated him to escape. Night at length put an end to the conflict, during which the Scottish army silently withdrew, leaving the King and the flower of his nobility numbered among the slain. 17. James Y., who succeeded his father, was then an in- fant of only a year old ; during his minority, the office of regency was conferred on the Duke of Albany. The Duke, however, being a native of France, and quite unacquainted with the manners and customs of Scotland, met with consider- able opposition from the turbulent nobles ; and after an un- successful struggle, he voluntarily resigned his office, and retired to France. The young King, now in his thirteenth year, assumed the reins of government, with eight persons appointed as his chief counsellors, of whom the Earl of Angus was the most prominent. James bore the empty title of King, while the ambitious Earl exercised the regal authority. His person was guarded by a body of one hundred men ; but all the higher offices of his household were filled by members of the Douglas family, and relatives of Angus. This was a restraint which the young monarch reluctantly bore, and waited every opportunity to free himself from the power of the Earl. Having at length effected his escape, he rode to Stirling, assembled around him his faithful adherents, and issued a proclamation, declaring any of the Douglas Where did he pitch his camp? — 16. After the signal was given, what is said of the combatants ? Describe the battle. What was the fate of James? — 17. By whom was he succeeded? In his thirteenth year, what did the king do ? What is said of his person ? Having efiected his escape, what did he do ? SCOTLAND. 307 family a traitor who should dare to approach within twelve miles of his person. Angus and his adherents were accused of treason in Parliament, their goods were forfeited, and they themselves driven into exile. 18. The education of James had been much neglected; his character was that of a great but uncultivated mind ; his passions were violent, yet he was distinguished for the affa- bility of his deportment. Henry YIII. having declared war against Scotland, James prepared to defend his dominions. At the approach of the Scottish army, the English retired. James proposed to pursue them ; but his barons resolutely refused to advance beyond their own borders. The King, mortified and disappointed, disbanded his army, and returned to his capital. Shortly after this, it was proposed to make an attack upon the English borders, and the troops for this purpose were placed under the command of Oliver Sinclair. But the barons, indignant to see a person of inferior rank placed over them, basely surrendered their whole army, con- sisting of ten thousand men, to the enemy, without the slight- est resistance. When the news of this event was brought to the King, he burst into a transport of rage ; after which a distressing melancholy seized upon his mind. While in this state, he was informed of the birth of his daughter, after- wards the unfortunate Queen Mary. At this news he ex- claimed : " It will end as it began. The crown came with a woman, it will go with one. How many miseries await this poor kingdom." These were his last words ; he expired of a broken heart, in the thirty-first year of his age, A. d. 1542. CHAPTER III. THE EVENTFUL AND UNFORTUNATE CAREER OF MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. MARY, Queen of Scots, so celebrated for her beauty and mis- fortunes, was but a few days old at the time of her father's death. Hamilton, Earl of Arran, was appointed regent of 18. What was his character? What was done by Henry VIII.? What did James propose ? What did the barons do ? What after this was proposed ? What did the barons again do ? At this news, what is said of the king? Of what was he informed? What did he exclaim ? Chapter III. — 1. What is said of Mary, Queen of Scots ? 308 SCOTLAND. the kingdom. Proposals were made, by Henry the YIII. of England, of marriage between the infant queen of Scots and his son Edward, who was then also a child. The proposals were rejected by the Scots, in consequence of which hostilities were declared by the two countries. The conflict was carried on for some time with various success. 2. All prospects of a union between Mary and Edward being now at an end, it was resolved that she should form an alliance with the Dauphin of France, and should be sent to that country that she might be educated at the French Court. Accordingly, in 1648, the young queen, then in her sixth year, embarked for France, while her mother, Mary of Guise, was made Regent of Scotland, in place of Hamilton. On the death of Queen Mary of England, Elizabeth, her sister, succeeded to the throne of that country. But as the divorce between Henry and his first Queen had never been ratified by the Pope, the Catholics, naturally regarding Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn, as illegitimate, looked upon the young Queen of Scotland, the grand-daughter of Margaret, Henry's sister, as the rightful heir to the English crown. Mary was induced to assert her claim. Money was even coined, on which Mary and Francis assumed the title and arms of England and Scotland. 3. The so-called Reformers in Scotland, assisted by Eliza- beth, had taken up arms against the Queen Regent, and the English army, under the command of Lord Grey, having entered Scotland, was joined by the members of the congrega- tion from all parts of the kingdom. The Queen Regent, un- able to withstand their united forces, retired to the castle of Edinburgh, where she shortly after died. She was a princess possessed of great abilities and many amiable qualities. After her death, peace was restored and a treaty concluded, by which great concessions were made to the Reformers. Dur- ing the contest, many of the most splendid churches and beautiful buildings were demolished by the Protestants. The abbeys and monasteries, with the cells of the monks, were levelled to the ground by a generation of destroying fanatics. 4. In 1560, Francis II. of France died ; after which Mary resolved to return to her native kingdom. During her resi- What proposals were made, and how were they received ? — 2. All prospects of a union being ended, wliat was resolved ? As the divorce, etc., had never been ratified, what did the Catholics regard and look upon ? Wliat was Mary induced to do ? — 3. What is said of the Re- formers ? Of the queen regent ? During the contest, what took place ? — 4. In 1560, what happened? What did Maiy resolve to do? SCOTLAND. 809 dence in France, her education had been particularly attended to. She was mistress of several languages ; wrote both prose and verse with elegance and ease ; excelled in music and all the accomplishments of her sex. She was condescending and gay in her manners, graceful in all her movements, and was reputed to be the most beautiful woman, at that period, in Europe. With the deepest regret, she bid adieu to France, where she had passed the happy scenes of childhood, and after a short passage, landed at Leith in her own dominions, where she was received with every demonstration of joy by her subjects and nobles, who conducted her to Holyrood, the palace of her ancestors. 5. As she rode through the streets of the capital, the inhab- itants were dazzled by her splendor, and struck with admira- tion at her beauty. Her warlike nobles, as they crowded around her, were softened into the deepest reverence. Happy for Mary, if she could have gained equally the affection of all her subjects. But there was one class over which all her gen- tleness could not exert the slightest influence. She was a Catholic. The upstart Reformers, therefore, regarded her as an enemy to their belief, although she had early declared her determination to molest no one for the free exercise of reli- gion. The reformed preachers spoke openly against her with the most intemperate violence. The rude John Knox even boasted that he had spoken so roughly to her, when she condescended to expostulate with him, as to bring tears to her eyes. On the Sunday after her arrival, she had Mass celebrated in the chapel at Holyrood, but such was the in- tolerant spirit of the populace, that the priest narrowly es- caped being murdered at the altar. 6. The most powerful princes of Europe solicited the hand of the Scottish queen. But Mary rejected them all, and turned her affections towards a young nobleman of high birth, connected with the royal family both of England and Scotland. This was Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, the eldest son of the Earl of Lennox — a man whose only recommen- dation seems to have been his personal appearance and ex- ternal accomplishments. Queen Mary and Lord Darnley were married on the 29th of July, 1565. 1, Shortly after the Queen's marriage, an insurrection was What is said of her education and accomplishments? Where did she land? — 5. What is said of her as she rode through the capital? What was she ? What happened on the Sunday after her arrival ?— 6. What is said of the princes of Europe ? On whom did Mary turn her affections? — 7. After her marriage, what took place? 310 SCOTLAND. excited against her, at the head of which appeared Mary's own brother, the Earl of Murray. The Queen appealed to the loyalty of her subjects, and the alacrity with which thev responded to the call, proved her popularity. She rode at their head to inspire them with courage, and led them against the insurgents. The insurrection was soon quelled, and order again restored. 8. Mary soon found that her union with Darnley was likely to produce but little comfort or pleasure. He was a man of no stability of character ; naturally haughty and jealous ; rendered giddy by the height to which he was raised by his marriage with the Queen of Scotland, he demanded the crown matrimonial, that is, an equal right in the crown with his consort. This concession Mary refused, without the consent of her parliament. He grew impatient, and set no bounds to his resentment. In conjunction with several of the nobles of his court, he determined on the death of Rizzio, the Queen's Italian secretary. This atrocious deed was perpetrated at Holyrood palace, in the very presence of the Queen and several ladies of her court. 9. Darnley, a few months after this event, being seized with a violent illness, was advised, as soon as the state of his health would permit, to remove to a house near Edinburgh, called the Kirk of Field, for the benefit of the air. Mary frequently visited him here, with every mark of affection. On the 9th of February, 156t, the house in which Darnley resided was blown up with gunpowder ; his body, with those of several of his attendants, was thrown into an adjacent garden. 10. The suspicion of the murder fell upon the Earl of Bothwell, and the Queen herself was unjustly accused of be- ing an accomplice in the death of her husband. In a few days, the Earl of Lennox came forward and openly accused Bothwell. Bothwell and several others were impeached as the murderers, and a day was appointed for their trial. At the appointed time, Bothwell appeared in Edinburgh to stand his trial, accompanied by a large body of soldiery, and at- tended by four thousand gentlemen. A motion made by Lennox to suspend the trial for forty days, was rejected ; and no prosecutor appearing, the jury, with the consent of the nobles and gentlemen, returned a verdict in favor of the What is said of the queen ? — 8. What did she soon find ? What did he demand ? What did he do ? — 9. A few months after this event, what is said of Darnley ? On the 9th of February, 1567, what took place? — 10. On whom did the suspicion fall? AVhat is said of Both- well and several others? W^hat did the jury do? SCOTLAND. 311 accused. Bothwell, disregarding the murmurs of the people against this mockery of justice, invited the nobles to a splen- did entertainment, and prevailed on them to sign a bond, in which they not only declared him innocent of the King's death, but recommended him to Mary as the most suitable person for her future husband. 11. Shortly after this, as Mary was returning from Ster- ling, where she had been on a visit to her son, she was met by Bothwell, at the head of a thousand horse, and led cap- tive to the castle of Dunbar, from which she was only re- leased after she consented to become his wife. Mary requested time, that she might consult the King of France and her rela- tions of the house of Guise. But the ambition of Bothwell was too impatient to run the hazard of delay. The only remain- ing obstacle, his marriage with Janet Gordon, the sister to the Earl of Huntly, was in a few days removed by a divorce, which he obtained on the grounds of consanguinity. In the short space of one month after his trial, Bothwell led the now unhappy Queen to the court sessions, where she forgave him the outrages committed against her person, and created him Duke of Orkney. On the following day, they were married in the hall of Holyrood House. 12. To explain this extraordinary transaction would too far exceed the limits of these short outlines ; suffice it to say, that many of the ablest historians have deduced the clearest evidence to prove that Mary was innocent of all participa- tion in the death of her husband, and that her marriage with Bothwell was eff'ected by force.* 13. The nobles, roused by the insult cast upon themselves and their sovereign, flew to arms. A battle was fought at Carherry Hill, in which the forces of the Queen were routed. Bothwell fled from the field, and Mary surrendered herself into the hands of the lords, and was conducted by them to Edinburgh. As the Queen rode through the streets of the capital, she was accosted in the most insulting language by the populace, and upbraided as the murderess of her husband. On the following morning, she was escorted by a strong * See Meline's Mary, Queen of Scots, and Lingard's History of England. What did Bothwell now do? — 11. After this, what is related of Mary? What did she request? What obstacle was in the way? Where did Bothwell lead the queen?— 12. What have many of the ablest historians deduced?— 13. What is said of the nobles? What battle followed ? What is said of Mary ? On the following morning, where was she conveyed ? 812 SCOTLAND. force, and conveyed to the castle Lochleven, situated en a small island in the middle of a lake. 14. Here she was compelled to resign her crown in favor of her infant son, and the Earl of Murray was immediately appointed Regent. Mary, after languishing in captivity for some months, effected her escape, and, assembling her faith- ful adherents around her, made an unsuccessful effort to re- gain her crown. She was met by the Regent at Langside, and after an obstinate engagement, the Queen's forces were completely routed. Mary having witnessed the defeat of her arms, contrary to all the entreaties of her friends, took the fatal resolution of throwing herself upon the mercy of Elizabeth, the English Queen, from whom she received the warmest expressions of friendship and ofifers of protection. Accordingly, on the 16th of May, she crossed the Solway in an open fishing-boat, with a few attendants, and landed on the shores of England. 15. But Elizabeth, instead of affording the promised pro- tection, basely sent the unhappy Queen to Tutbury castle, where she was placed in the custody of the Earl of Shrews- bury. Yarious circumstances contributed to render Eliza- beth jealous of her rival, the chief of which was her preten- sion to the English crown. For eighteen years the Queen of Scots languished in captivity in the dominions of her hard-hearted cousin. At length the English government resolved to crown the measure of her sorrows by an igno- minious death. After much affected delay and regret, Eliza- beth signed the warrant for Mary's execution. 16.. When the messengers sent to inform her of her fate arrived at Fotheringay castle, they found Mary, with her female attendants, engaged in evening prayer. She received them with her usual serenity, and heard her sentence read with the greatest composure. After which, placing her hand upon her Bible, she solemnly protested her innocence of the crimes laid to her charge, particularly that of conspiring against the Queen of England. The fanatical Earl of Kent observed, that as the book was a "Popish "* Bible, her oath was of no avail. Mary replied with dignity, that her oath * See note, p. 336. 14. What was she compelled to do here? What did Mary do after some months ? Where was she met ? What resolution did she take ? — 15. What is said of Elizabeth ? How many years did the queen lan- guish in captivity? At length, what was resolved? — 16. How did the messengers find Marv ? How did she receive them ? What did she protest? What did the Earl of Kent observe ? What did Mary reply? SCOTLAND. 313 on that account was the more solemn, as she herself was a Catholic. Being informed that her execution would take place on the following morning, she began immediately to prepare for that trying scene, and asked that she might be allowed to see her confessor, who had not been permitted to visit her for some time previous ; but she was barbarously denied this simple and only request. The unhappy Queen was thus refused the consolation of the last rites of her religion. 17. On the evening previous to her execution, she wrote several letters — one to the King of France, and another to Elizabeth — in a mild and dignified style, in which she ex- pressed her gratitude that the period of her sorrowful pilgrim- age was drawing to a close, and requested that her remains might be conveyed to France, and placed beside those of her mother. Before retiring, she called together her servants, and taking a glass of wine, she drank to them all. They pledged her in turn upon their knees, and asked her pardon for any neglect in their duty. On her part, she humbly asked their forgiveness for any offence towards them, and after distributing among them what remained of her money and jewels, she took her leave of them in the most aifec- tionate manner. 18. She retired to rest at her usual hour, although she slept but little, being engaged the greater part of the night in prayer. As it grew towards morning, she arose and dressed herself in a rich robe of silk and velvet. When the sheriff entered her room and informed her that the fatal hour had arrived, she replied that she was ready, and followed him with a cheerful countenance. On passing through the hall she met Sir Andrew Melville, the master of her household, who, in tears, lamented the ill-merited fate of his mistress. She told him not to weep, but rather to re- joice, that she was so soon to be released from all her afflic- tions. She then delivered to him her last farewell to all her friends, and to her son in particular. Up to this moment Mary seemed to bear all the circumstances of the trying scene with a fortitude that elicited the admiration even of her enemies. At the mention of her son, however, she was no What did she ask ? — 17. On the evening previous to the execution, what did she do ? Before retiring, what did she do ? What did she ask? — 18. What did she do as it inclined towards morning? When the sheriff entered, what did she reply ? Whom did she meet ? What did she tell and deliver to him ? At the mention of her son, what is said of Mary? 27 314 SCOTLAND. longer able to restrain the emotion of her heart ; all the love, the affection, and the tenderness of a mother was recalled : she burst into tears. 19. She bore without shrinking the gaze of the spectators and the sight of the scaffold, the block, and the executioner ; and advanced into the hall with that grace and majesty which she had so often displayed in her happier days and in the palace of her fathers. With an ivory crucifix in her hand, she seated herself on a stool, while the Dean of Peter- borough, in a discourse, exhorted her to renounce the reli- gion of her ancestors, and di^ in the Protestant faith. Mary replied that she had been boTn in the Catholic religion, in that she had lived, and in that she had resolved to die. She then offered up her prayers aloud for the Catholic Church, for her son, and for her cousin. Queen Elizabeth. Having taken her last farewell of her faithful attendants, without the least emotions of fear, she calmly resigned her head to the block, which was severed from her body by the second stroke of the axe.* Thus ended the eventful life of the illustrious Queen of Scots, an event which has stamped an indelible stain upon the memory of Elizabeth. 20. James YI., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, who was only an infant when placed upon the throne, assumed the reigns of government at the age of fourteen. His partiality to unworthy favorites excited against him the indignation and jealousy of his nobles. The consequence was that a number of conspiracies were formed against him, and on several occasions the King narrowly escaped with his life. No event of importance occurred during his reign in Scotland, In 1603, Elizabeth of England died, having previously ap- pointed James her successor to the English throne. On the * The reader may ask, " What did her son, King James of Scotland, do ? " " It may appear surprising," says Lingard, " but a full month elapsed before the King of Scotland received any certain intelligence of the execution of his mother. At the news he burst into tears, and talked of nothing but vengeance; but Elizabeth's partisans at the Scottish court supported the cause. They admonished James to re- collect that he was now the next heir to the English crown, and advised him not to forfeit that splendid inheritance by offending a princess who alone could remove him from it. His indignation gradually evapo- rated ; and his mouth was sealed with a present of £4,000."— History of England. 19. How did she advance to the hall of execution? What did Mary reply ? For what did she offer her prayers ? Having taken leave of her attendants, what did she do ? — 20. What is said of James VI. ? In }603, what took place? SCOTLAND. 315 Sunday before his departure for England, he repaired to the church of St. Giles, and took a solemn farewell of his Scottish subjects. On the 7th of May he entered London, and was received with shouts of approbation by the people. From this period the history of Scotland becomes united with that of England. During the reign of Queen Anne, the legis- lative union between England and Scotland was effected, by which the latter was deprived of her national Parliament, and both included under the common title Great Britain, A. D. 1101, On the Sunday before his departure, what did he do ? During the reign of Queen Anne, what was effected ? BOOK IX, IRELAND. CHAPTER I. ANCIENT PAGAN IRELAND. THE early history of Ireland carries us back to a period more remote than does the story of ancient Greece or Kome. The first inhabitants of this beautiful island, accord- ing- to the best authorities, were descended from the Celts, who first peopled the western part of Europe. This is evident from the striking similarity between their modes of worship, their objects of adoration, and the language of that ancient people, the purest dialect of which still exists in Ireland. 2. That Ireland was inhabited at a very remote period of antiquity is admitted by all impartial historians ; but to pursue its early history to that extent necessary to g-ivc a clear view of this early period, would too far exceed the limits of these outlines.* A few particulars must suffice. 3. Five distinct bands of adventurers had possession of Ireland at various periods before the age of Christ. We learn that it was first colonized, about 2000 years b. c, by a chief named Partlio'lan, and a thousand followers. After settling the country for about three hundred years, they were swept away by a terrible plague. Then followed the Neme'dians, For'mo'rians, Fir'holgs, and, last of all, the Mile'sians. * "There can be no doubt that this nation (Ireland) has preceded in time all those which have flourished on the earth, with the exception, perhaps, of the Chinese, and that it remains the same to-day." — Th6- baud. The Irish Race. Chapter I. — 1. What is said of the early history of Ireland ? The first inhabitants? How does this appear evident? — 2. What is admitted by all impartial historians ? — 8. AVhat chief first colonized Ireland, and when? What other colonists followed at various periods? 316 IRELAND. 817 4. The Milesians came from the north-west of Spain ; and took their name from a famous chief called Mile'sius. He died in Spain, but his wife Sco'ta,^ and her two sons, Heher and Heremon, led the colony into Ireland, and sub- dued the country, b. c. 1234. The Milesians thus became the ruling race, and furnished the kings of Ireland for over two thousand years. 5. The religion of the ancient Irish was similar to that of nearly all the Eastern nations. The chief object of adora- tion was the sun, under the name of Baal or Beat. They also adored the moon, under the title of Be. The adoration of fire, once common to all pagan nations, constituted also a part of the worship. Annually, at the time of the vernal equinox, the great festival of La Baal-tinne, or the day of Baal fire, w^as celebrated, and in every district of Ireland it w^as strictly ordered that all the fires should be extinguished, and no one was permitted to light them, under pain of death, until after the pile of the sacrifice in the palace of Tara was kindled. With the w^orship of fire that of water was usually associated ; hence we find that certain fountains and w^ells were held sacred among the Irish. The pagan priests, who Vv^ere held in the highest veneration on account of their learn- ing, were called Druids. 6. Ireland, at an early period, was divided into five king- doms, each governed by its own king, and the whole subordi- nate to a supreme monarch, who had, rather nominally, the control over their proceedings.f In addition to the chief king of each province, every subordinate prince, or head of a large district, also assumed the title of king, and exercised within his own dominions all the powers of sovereignty. To the right of primogeniture, so generally acknowledged in * Scota's grave is still pointed out in a valley named after her, in the County of Kerry. It was from this lady that Ireland received the name of ScoHla. Ireland has been known at various periods of history as Erin, Hibernid, and Scotia. It Avas called Hibernia by Caesar, Pliny, Tacitus, and other Roman writers. The name of Scotia was exclusively applied to Ireland until the eleventh century, M'hen it was transferred to Scot- land, called Alba and Scotia Minor before that period. Ireland has been 60 named by the English during the last seven or eight centuries. See note, page 298. t Ireland was divided into five kingdoms by the Firbolgs. 4. What is said of the Milesians ? When did they arrive in Ireland ? — 5. What was the religion and chief object of adoration ? What else ? What was annually celebrated ? With the worship of fire, what was as- sociated ? What is said of the priests ? — 6. How was Ireland divided ? What is said of every subordinate prince ? Of the right of primogeniture ? 27* 818 IRELAND. those ages, no regard was paid by the Irish. Within the circle of the relations of reigning princes, all alike were eligible to succeed him. The monarch himself was not only- created by election, but even previous to his death a suc- cessor was chosen by the same process. From this state of things, so badly designed for the preservation of order, we may easily infer that discord frequently prevailed. The crown itself was often regarded as a prize to the strongest ; hence faction pervaded all ranks of the people, from the cottage of the peasant to the palace of the supreme monarch. 7. In the long list of kings who have passed like a shadow through that dim and distant period of Irish history, ex- tending from the Milesian invasion to the birth of Christ, the name of Ollave Fola is pre-eminently distinguished as a great legislator. He began his reign 918 b. c. Many of his most useful institutions are said to have enjoyed but a short existence ; but the act which renders his reign an important era in legislation was the establishment of the Triennial Convention at Tar a, the ancient residence of the monarchs of Ireland. In these periodical assemblies we observe a near approach to a representative form of government. The leading per- sons of the three orders, of which the political community consisted, namely, the king, the druids, and the chiefs, were convened for the purpose of passing such laws and regula- tions as the public good of the nation seemed to require. 8. Among the important offices transmitted hereditary in Ireland, were those of heralds, bards, and musicians. To the profession of these arts, Ollave Fola assigned lands for their use. He also instituted at Tara a school of general in- struction, which afterwards became celebrated under the name of the College of the Learned. He reigned thirty years. At the commencement of the Christian era, the Irish throne was occupied by Conary the Great, of whose reign we have but few particulars. 9 One of the most illustrious of the pagan Irish mon- archs was Gormac Ulfada, who flourished about the middle of the third century.* To his munificence and love of * A. D. 244 to 267. Of the monarch himself? From this state of things what may we infer? — 7. In the long list of kings, what name is distinguished? What renders his reign an important era ? In these assemblies, what do we observe? Who were the leading persons?— 8. Wliat offices were transmitted hereditary? At the Christian era, who occupied the throne? — 9. Who was one of the most illustrious monarchs? IRELAND. 819 learning the country was indebted, it is said, for the founda- tion of three academies at Tara, in the "first of which the science of war was taught ; in the second, historical litera- ture ; while the third was devoted to the cultivation of juris- prudence. Under his auspices a general revision of the annals of the kingdom took place ; the national records, preserved in the Psalter of Tara since the days of the illus- trious Ollave, were corrected and improved. According to an ancient custom of the country, no one could retain pos- session of the throne who was affected with any personal blemish ; and as Cormac, in defending his palace against a rebellious attack, had incurred the loss of an eye, he was thereby disqualified for retaining the sovereignty. After his abdication of the regal power, Cormac retired to an humble cottage, where he devoted the remainder of his days to literary pursuits, while he was succeeded in the throne by his son. CHAPTER IT. SKETCH OF EARLY CHRTSTIAN IRELAND.— FROM 432 TO 1014 A. D. 1^0 event of importance occurs in the history of Ire- xM land from this period until Christianity was introduced into the island by the illustrious apostle, St. Patrick.'^ This holy missionary, according to the most authentic accounts, was born in France, of respectable parentage, about the year 38*7. In his youth he was taken captive to Ireland, and sold to a man named Milcho, by whom he was em- ployed in attending flocks. After six years of servitude he escaped to his native country ; and having spent some time with his parents, he repaired to the celebrated monastery or college of St. Martin, near Tours, where he remained for several years, and is believed to have been initiated into the ecclesiastical state previous to his leaving that institution. 2. The attention of the Roman Pontiff had been for some * Patrick is from the Latin, and signifies noble. To him for what is the country indebted ? What ancient custom of the country is mentioned ? What happened to Cormac ? Chapter II. — 1. By whom was Christianity introduced ? In his youth, what is said of him ? Having escaped, where did he repair ? — 2. What is said of the attention of the Roman Pontiif ? 820 IRELAND. time directed towards establishing the Christian faith in Ire- land ; at length Pope Celestine resolved to send a Bishop to that country, and Palladius was the person appointed for that mission. But on the death of Palladius, which hap- pened shortly after his appointment, St. Patrick was selected to succeed him in the mission. Having been consecrated Bishop at Ebona, a town in the north of France, the saint proceeded on his passage to the scene of his labors, and after some short delay in Britain he arrived in Ireland, as the Irish annals inform us, in the first year of the pontificate of Sextus III., A. D. 432. 3. The most abundant fruit followed his labors ; proceed- ing from province to province, he preached the truths of the gospel, and by his eloquence converted to Christianity all who heard him. He was permitted to explain the object of his mission before Laegrius, the supreme monarch of the country, at a meeting of the great council of the nation then assembled at Tara, and numbered among his converts the chief bard and several members of the royal family. It does not appear that the monarch himself embraced Christianity, although he allowed the holy man to pursue his mission un- molested. In a few years, St. Patrick built a great number of churches and founded monasteries designed for the educa- tion of persons for the priesthood. He is said to have ban- ished all the vipers and noxious animals from the island ; but whether this be the fact or not, it is certain that they will not live in that country at the present time. The saint died at Saul on the 17th of March, a. d. 465, in the seven- ty-eighth year of his age. The day of his death is still held in grateful remembrance by the Irish people, no matter in what part of the earth fortune may have cast them. 4. During the sixth, seventh, and the greater part of the eighth century, literature flourished in Ireland. The fame of her institutions spread to other climes, and numbers from all parts of Europe flocked to her shores to study in her schools, while at the same time Irish scholars were invited to impart instruction in foreign countries. Hence we find that Charlemagne patronized several distinguished Irish scholars ; and during the reign of Charles the Bald, the learned. On the death of Palladius, who was selected ? When did he arrive in Ireland? — 3. What is said of the fruit of his labors? What was he permitted ? In a few years, w^hat did St. Patrick do ? What is he said to have done? Where and when did he die? — 4. During this period, what is said of literature ? Of the fame of other institutions ? Hence what do we find ? IKELAND. 321 thoug'h subtle, John Scotus Erigena received not only the ro3^al patronage, but was made the intimate companion of that monarch. 5. The monastic schools of ancient Ireland were open to all. The poor and the wealthy had free access, and paid nothing. In these noble institutions were trained an entire population of philosophers, writers, architects, painters, mu- sicians, poets, and historians ; but, above all, they turned out countless preachers and missionaries, destined to spread the light of the Gospel and of Christian education throughout Europe. Among the most celebrated of the Irish schools were Armagh, Clonard, Lismore, Bangor, Clovfert, Cashel, and Clonmacnois. The College of Bangor at one time was attended by over three thousand students, and Armagh fur- nished education to seven thousand. 6. Towards the close of the eighth century, Ireland was invaded by the Danes, who continued to hold possession of the chief maritime towns of the country for more than two hundred years. During this period an almost uninterrupted series of warfare was carried on between the natives and the invaders ; but to follow the history of the country through that period would too far exceed our present limits. It will be sufficient to notice the great victory gained by the Irish heroes on the plains of Clontarf, where the death-blow was given to the Danish power. As this is one of the most memorable battles recorded in the Irish annals, it deserves a particular notice. 7. About the year 1014, the Danes, whose chief power was concentrated at Dublin, began to make preparations for reducing the entire country. For this purpose they not only collected all their forces from ihe different parts of Ireland, Scotland, Hebrides, and Orkneys, but, moreover, brought fresh reinforcements from Denmark. It happened at this time that the chief throne of Ireland was occupied by the famous Brian Boru. This aged and illustrious monarch, aware of the intention of the Danes, lost no time in oppos- ing their designs ; and, placing himself at the head of his own forces of Munster, and joined by those of Meath, under Malachy, and by the troops of Connaught, commanded by O'Kelly, the king of that province, he marched directly to 5. What is said of the monastic schools of Ireland? Mention some of the most famous of the Irish schools. — 6. What took place towards the close of the eighth century ? What will it be sufficient to notice ?— 7. In 1014, what did the Danes do? Who at this time was the chief king ? What did he do ? V 822 IREI.AND, the vicinity of Dublin, and took up his position on the plain of Clontarf. The Danes, confiding in the superiority of their numbers, were anxious for the engagement. At the dawn of day, on Good Friday, the 23d of April, the battle began, and raged with unceasing fury until the close of the evening, when victory declared in favor of the Irish, and the Danes were routed with immense slaughter. 8. Brian, who is said to have triumphed in fifty battles over the enemies of his country, was now destined to fall in the moment of another victory by the hand of an assassin. In the midst of the confusion and carnage that followed the retreat, Bruadair, one of the Danish chiefs, took refuge in a small wood in the vicinity of Brian's tent, and perceiving that the monarch was almost entirely unattended, and at that moment engaged in prayer with his hands upraised to heaven, rushed into the tent and plunged a dagger into the royal veteran's heart. The heroic King had reached the age of leighty-eight. Never did the power of the Danes recover from the overthrow it received on the plains of Clontarf. The blow struck on that memorable occasion by Brian was followed up by his able successor, Malachy ; hence we find that these enemies of Ireland gradually diminished in numbers, until at length their feeble remains are mingled with the general mass of the population, and disappear as a distinct people. 9. Irish literature, which had been so renowned through- out the west, naturally decreased from its former state of advancement during the Danish invasion. The schools and monasteries, though frequently ravaged and burnt by the Danes, again arose from their ashes, and once more re- sounded with the voice of instruction and prayer as the in- vaders retired. Hence during the eleventh century her literary institutions became famous abroad, and her shores were visited by foreign students. When was the battle fought, and what was the issue ? — 8. What is said of Brian ? Kelate the circumstances of his death. What is said of the power of the Danes ? Of the blow struck on this occasion ?— 9. What is said of Irish literature ? Of the schools ? Of her literary in- stitutions ? IRELAND. 323 CHAPTER III. FROM THE INVASION OF IRELAND BY HENRY II. OF ENG- LAND, A. D. 1171, TO THE REIGN OF JAMES IL, 1685. FROM the overthrow of the Danes in the great battle of Glontarf, there is nothing to recount in the history of Ireland until we come to the memorable struggle which terminated in the utter extinction of her national indepen- dence, and the subjection of the country to the dominion of England. As early as the year 1155, the English King, Henry II., had conceived the design of invading Ireland ; but having neither a legal right to the possession of the country, nor any ground of a quarrel to justify an invasion of it, he saw that by no other means could he plausibly attain his object than by concealing the real motive of his enterprise under a pretended zeal for the interest of religion and mo- rality. 2. With this view he applied to Pope Adrian, an English- man by birth, who had been lately raised to the pontifical throne, for permission to invade and subdue the Irish for the purpose of effecting a reformation among them. A bull, giving the requisite authority, is indeed attributed to Adrian, but the best historians are about equally divided as to its authenticity. If the Pope did issue the document, he had no right whatever to do so, as Ireland never belonged to Rome, and such an action on his part would be wholly unjust. Adrian lY., however, was a man of piety, and so long as we are without positive proof of his guilt, it is wrong to blacken his character by attributing to him the lies and base motives contained in the bull in question. After stating falsely, "that the kingdom of Ireland and every island upon which Christ, the sun of justice, shone, belong of right to St. Peter and the Holy Roman Church," the pretended bull adds, that in con- sideration of "an annual tribute to St. Peter of one penny from each house in Ireland," Henry might enter that country and, for his own glory and the honor of God, eradicate vice, implant virtue, promote religion, and extend the church.* * Brennan, Catechism of Irish History. — Henry II. was about the last Chapter HI.— 1. As early as 1155, what had Henry II. conceived? What did he see ? — 2. With this view, to whom did he apply ? What is said of Pope Adrian's bull ? 324 IRELAND. But either from the internal commotion of his kingdom, or from some other cause, Henry was restrained from carrying into effect his projected invasion of Ireland for many years after he obtained the pretended grant of the country from the Pope. 3. An opportunity at length presented itself favorable to his ambitious views. Dermot, King of Leinster, having been expelled from his country on account of his crimes and cruelty, fled to England for aid. On his arrival, however, find- ing that the English King was absent in Normandy, he imme- diately sailed for that country, and threw himself at the feet of Henry, offering, if restored to his kingdom, to hold it as a vassal of the English crown. The English monarch re- ceived, without hesitation, the proffered fealty of his new liegeman, and as the only way in which he could at present forward his objects, he gave him letters-patent for the pur- pose of raising forces in his dominions. 4. Having been thus successful in the object of his mission, Dermot hastened back to England and succeeded in inter- esting in his cause several persons of distinguished rank, among whom Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke, sur- named Strongbow, was the most prominent; also two brothers of high rank, Maurice Fitz-Gerald and Robert Fitz-Stephen, who, like the Earl of Pembroke himself, were persons of broken fortunes and ready to embark in any enterprise, however desperate, which held out the prospect of a speedy relief. To the Earl of Pembroke, Dermot promised his daughter Eva in marriage, and to secure to him the succession to the throne of Leinster, on condition that he would raise an efficient body of men, and transport man in the world to select for such a lofty mission. He was a descendant of Duke Robert '* the Devil." His manners, morals, and temper were those of a wild man, or a demon. It is said he violated oaths the most solemn. He was an audacious liar. Lingard tells us that while in a passion Henry's eyes were spotted with blood, and his talk was the ravings of a madman, and the fury of a savage beast. While in such a degraded condition, he would sometimes tear off his clothes, roll on the floor, and gnaw anything that came within his reach. And his sons were worthy of such a father. " The custom in our family," wrote his eldest son, Richard, " is that the son shall hate the father. To detest each other is our destiny. From the Devil we came, and to the Devil we shall go."— M. 3. What is said of Dermot? AVhat did he offer to Henry? How was he received by the English monarch ? What did he give him ? — 4. What did Dermot now do ? What did he promise to the Earl of Pembroke? IRELAND. 325 them into Ireland during the following spring. To the two brothers, Maurice and Robert, he engaged to grant the town of Wexford and the adjoining land ; while they, on their part, engaged to transport into Leinster a body of English and Welsh forces, to aid him in recovering the throne of his kingdom. 5. Being thus assured of foreign assistance, Dermot re- turned, probably to Leinster, where, after some short time, we find him making the most unqualified submission to Roderick 0^ Connor, then the chief, and the last of the Irish monarchs, renouncing the claim to the government of Leinster, requesting to be allowed only ten cantreds of that province. This specious submission was only intended to disguise his treacherous designs, as his subsequent conduct proved, until the arrival of his expected succors. In the mean time, the English adventurers hastened to fulfil their engagements, and in the month of May, during the spring of 11G9, the first landing of the Anglo-Normans on the coasts of Ireland, under the command of Robert Fitz- Stephen, took place. 6. The traitor, Dermot, full of joy at the welcome intelli- gence, instantly collected all the forces in his power and hastened to join the invaders. The first attack was made on the city of Waterford which finally yielded to their arms. An instance of cruelty committed by the invaders about this time deserves particular notice. Seventy of the principal inhabitants of Waterford were made prisoners during their attack upon the city. Every offer was made by their fellow citizens for their ransom, even the surrender of the city Itself was proft'ered as the purchase of their liberty. It was determined, however, by the English chieftains, to decide the fate of the prisoners in a council of 'war, in which the cruel advice of Henry of Mount Maurice, who thus early urged a policy which has been only too faithfully pursued by the English government to the present time, *' of striking- terror into the Irish," unfortunately prevailed. The un- happy prisoners were borne away to the adjacent rocks, where they were brutally put to death, by first breaking their limbs and then casting them into the sea. Y. Subsequent to this event, the Earl of Pembroke arrived What to the two brothers ? — 5. After some short time, what do we find him doing? What was this submission intended for? In 1169, what took place ? — 6. When was the first attack made ? What is said of seventy of the inhabitants of Waterford ? What was determined ? What was their fate ? — 7. What took place subsequent to this event ? 28 326 IRELAND. in Ireland with reinforcements, and in a short time Dublin, Waterfoi^d, and other important places fell into the hands of the English. In the mean time, the English monarch having made all the necessary preparations, embarked for Ireland, and, after a short voyage, landed at Crook near Waterford, on the eighteenth of October, a. d. 1171. The design of the King, if we may judge from some of his acts immediately after his arrival, was clearly to impress upon the minds of the people that he came rather to protect them from the oppression of others, than to acquire any ad- vantage or possession for himself. This refined policy, com- bined with a total want of a united or national spirit among the people, will account in some measure for the little resist- ance the royal invader met during the progress which he made through the country. 8. MacCarthy, of Desmond, was the first Irish prince who paid homage to the English King. Henry advanced at the head of his army to Lismore, and from thence to Cashel, where he received the submission of Donald O^Brien, King Thomond. The example of these faithless princes was followed by many of the inferior chiefs, who, after meeting with a courteous reception, were dismissed to their terri- tories, laden with presents from the English monarch. From Cashel, Henry returned through Tipperary to Waterford, and after making but a short stay, he marched to Dublin, a city which, from the extent of its commerce, had risen at that time to such importance as to become the rival of London. 9. Here, we are told, he was joyfully received by the in- habitants ; while all the neighboring chieftains hastened to profifer their allegiance ; and among the rest who now joined in the train of the English sovereign was 0''Rourke, of Brefny, and finally Roderick 0^ Connor, who was the last chief monarch of Ireland.* In 1175, a treaty was concluded between Henry and Roderick, in which it was solemnly agreed that the Kings of England should be, in all future time, the lords paramount of Ireland ; that the fee of the soil * Roderick O'Connor was afterwards dethroned by his own sons, and ended his days in the monastery of Cong. When and where did the English monarch land? What was the first design of the king?— 8. Who was the first Irish prince that paid homage to Henry? Where did the English king now go? What is said of the example of these princes? How did Henry return? — 9. Here, what are we told? Who was among the rest? In 1175, what took place? IRELAND. 827 should be invested in them, and that all succeeding monarchs of Ireland should hold their dominions but as tenants or vassals of the English crown. 10. In 1185, Henry transferred the government of Ireland to his son John, then a youth twelve years of age. The foolish, insolent, profligate behavior of the young prince and his courtiers roused the indignation of the Irish chief- tains, who now began to perceive, when too late, that they had intrusted their liberties to treacherous keepers, whose object was to render them not only tributaries, but slaves. Forgetting all local and personal differences, they agreed to unite against the enemies of their country ; and so success- ful were they in their efforts, that, according to the English chronicles themselves, John lost, in his different contests with the Irish, almost the whole of his army. Henry, being informed of the danger that threatened the very existence of his power in Ireland, instantly dispatched orders recalling the prince, and placed the whole power of the government, civil and military, in the hands of John DeCourcy, a man of great energy and ability. Such is the brief outline of the establishment of the Eng- lish power over the Irish nation ; a power that has placed the two nations in the attitude in which we see them at present, the one subjected without being conquered; the other a ruler without being a master. 11. In 1315, Ireland was invaded by Edward Bruce, brother of the King of Scotland. He landed on the island with three thousand adventurers, and was joined by seve- ral of the Irish lords of Ulster. These chiefs convened an assembly at Dundalk. The Scottish Prince was elected King of Ireland, and crowned amid great pomp and rejoicing. After committing various devastations, a decisive battle was fought, in which Bruce was killed, and the Scots compelled to retire. Bruce's impatience was his ruin. Instead of waiting for the arrival of help from Scotland, he led his shattered regiments against the vastly superior forces of Sir Richard Bermingham. 12. In 136*7, Lionel, a son of King Edward III., and gov- ernor of Ireland, held the memorable Parliament at Kil- kenny, wherein the infamous Statute of Kilkenny was en- 10. In 1185, what did Henry do? What is said of the behavior of the young prince ? What did they agree ? What did Henry do when informed of this danger?— 11. What took place in 1315? Where was Bruce crowned King of Ireland? What was the cause of his ruin? — 12. In what year was the infamous statute of Kilkenny enacted? 828 IRELAND. acted. From its commencement, each year of English rule weighed heavier and more unjustly on Ireland.,- But now the natives of the country were to be trampled down, if they could not be trampled out of existence. Among the enact- ments of the *' Statute of Kilkenny," were : (1.) Any alli- ance with the Irish by marriage was punishable as an act of high treason. (2.) Any Englishman taking an Irish name, or using the Irish dress or language, should forfeit all his land. (3.) The English were forbidden to admit any Irish into convents or monasteries. (4.) They were also forbid- den to allow an Irish horse to graze upon their lands. The result of such a sickening and insane code was to fill un- happy Ireland with hatred, riots, and civil war. The ''mere Irishman" was to be dealt with as one who had no rights in his own country. 13. In the reign of Henry YII., of England, the power of the Governor of Ireland was much diminished by decree- ing that no act passed, or Parliament held, without the con- sent of the King of England, would be deemed valid. Thus, by this measure, the Irish legislature first became depen- dent on that of England. 14. The tyrannical efforts of Henry YIII. to introduce his new religion into Ireland utterly failed. In 1535, he ap- pointed George Brown, an apostate priest, first Protestant Archbishop of Dublin. The royal robber also seized many abbeys, convents, and monasteries ; but the faithful Irish regarded his religious schemes with horror. 15. The long reign of Elizabeth was one of continual dis- turbance in Ireland. The north of Ireland was the last stronghold of Irish independence. John O'Neill took the title of "King of Ulster." Elizabeth feared the brave old Irish Prince, and, in order to obtain peace, offered him the title of "Earl of Tyrone." When the English Commis- sioners brought him the offer, he said : " If your mistress, Elizabeth, be Queen of England, I am O'Neill, King of Ulster. I never made peace with her without having been previously solicited. I care not for the abject title of Earl. My birth and family raise me above it. To no one will I yield precedence. My ancestry have been kings of Ulster. What were some of the clauses of this statute?— 13. What occurred in the reign of Henry VII.?— 14. What is said of Henry VIII.?— 15. What is remarked of the reign of Elizabeth and the last stronghold of Irish independence? What is said of John O'Neill? How did O'Neill answer the English when they came to present him with an English title ? IRELAND. 829 I have gained thaj: kingdom by my sword, and by my sword I will preserve it." Every effort was made to undermine and destroy O'Neill, and he finally perished by the treacherous and blood-stained hand of an English officer named Piers. For his services, this murderer received the sum of one thousand marks from the government. 16. Hugh O'Neill, a cousin of the murdered prince, lifted himself into power and prominence during the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth. He was a fearless and accomplished soldier, and was the first Irish leader who kjiew how to use policy in his dealings with the crafty English. Being goaded into rebellion, he organized a confederacy, which included nearly all the Irish princes. But his chief allies were O'Donnell, Maguire, and O'Kane. For years O'Neill baffled and defeated the armies of Elizabeth. She ratified terms with him on her deathbed. The campaigns against O'Neill cost England over fifteen millions of dollars, and the destruc- tion of the flower of her army. The Irish also suffered im- mensely, as the war was carried on with reckless barbarity. lY. When James I. came to the throne, he at first treated O'Neill and O'Donnell with considerable respect. He soon, however, re-enacted the ferocious penal laws against Catho- lics, and turned his mind to the precious project of plunder- ing the Irish chiefs of Ulster, in order to supplant them with Scottish and English adventurers. And only too w^ell did he succeed. O'Neill and O'Donnell were forced to fly to the continent ; and James confiscated three hundred and eighty- five thousand acres of the best land in Ulster. This is com- monly called "the Plantation of Ulster." To this day are felt the results of the robbery and spoliation carried out under that soulless and grasping monarch. 18. The loyalty of the Irish to the ungrateful house of the Stuarts manifested itself after the execution of the un- fortunate Charles I., in declaring in favor of his son, after- wards Charles II. To quell the insurrection that followed, Cromwell was appointed to the command of the parliament forces, and despatched to that country. After some delay at Dublin, where he landed, he determined to lay siege to What was O'Neill's fate?— 16. Who was Hugh O'Neill, and what qualities did he possess ? What did he organize ? Who were his chief allies? How did this struggle end? — 17. What is said of James I. and his cruel policy? — 18. What is said of the loyalty of the Irish in favor of the Stuarts ? Who was sent to the country ? To what place did he lay siege ? 28* 330 IRELAND. Drogheda. The town was garrisoned by Sir A. Aston, with two thousand soldiers and a regiment of horse, besides sev- eral volunteers. On coming before the town, Cromwell sent a formal summons to the governor, which was peremptorily- rejected, and a blockade was accordingly commenced. 19. The besiegers were delayed some time by the want of artillery; but when the cannon arrived from Dublin, they opened a tremendous fire from their batteries, which the walls of Drogheda were unable to resist. A practicable breach was soon made, but the attempt at storming was twice repulsed with great slaughter. Cromwell rallied his men to a third attack, and placed himself at their head. The resistance was vigorous ; but the Irish Colonel Wall, being killed at the head of his regiment, his soldiers surrendered the town under a solemn promise of quarter. This engage- ment, made by his officers, Cromwell, on entering the city, refused to ratify, and ordered the garrison to be put to the sword. The inhuman massacre was continued during the two following days. Thirty of the brave defenders of Drogheda alone survived, and these were sold as slaves. 20. Cromwell next took the city of Wexford, where all the horrors of Drogheda were renewed. The ferocious con- queror strictly forbade his soldiers to give quarter. Starfford, the governor, with some few others, escaped by swimming their horses across the river. The excuse for these awful barbarities, was the necessity, it was said, of striking im- mediate terror into the Irish, in order to prevent them from future opposition. After these, and similar acts of unex- ampled severity, the whole country submitted to the power of the Puritan Parliament. 21. At the conclusion of the war, the greater part of the Irish nobility and gentry, with the flower of the army, had sought an asylum in foreign lands ; their estates were for- feited, and the English Commonwealth prepared to put into execution a system of confiscation more cruel, extensive, and complete than that which had been attempted by Elizabeth or James I. A law was made out for the settling of Ireland, which declares, in its first clause, that it was the intention of the English parliament " to extirpate the Irish nation.^'' 22. In the year 1658, preparations were made to put this 19. On taking the town, what did Cromwell order? How many sur- vived ? — 20. What city was next taken, and what was renewed ? What was the excuse for these barbarities? — 21. At the conclusion of the war, what is said of the nobilitv and gentry ? What ordinance was made out ?— 22. In 1653, what was done? IRELAND. 331 act into execution, and another ordinance was passed for the satisfaction of the adventurers and soldiers. By this decree the forfeited lands in the counties of Limerick, Tipperary, and Waterford, in the province of Munster ; the King and Queen's counties; east and west Meath, in the province of Leinster ; Down, Antrim and Armagh, in the province of Ulster, were all to be charged with the money advanced by adventurers, and to be divided among them by lot. Thus a large portion of Ireland was distributed among the followers of Cromwell and the supporters of the parliament. In this division, the fanatical Puritans declared that they were di- rected by the example set by the Israelites in the division of Canaan, and believed that they were justified. Thus were the ancient Irish robbed, driven out, and displaced by a crowd cf hungry, crime-stained adventurers from Scotland and Eng- land; andamidevery succeeding change these new proprietors have preserved a firm hold on their ill-gotten possessions. 23. That the act which gave them the lands of the king- dom was an unparalleled public robbery and the most atro- cious instance of unprincipled spoliation recorded in history, no one can deny. Few, however, felt any scruples at that period. The country they deemed theirs by the right of conquest — a right which they supposed to give them absolute author- ity over the lives and property of the vanquished. The sufferers were Catholics, and they had been taught to look upon them as idolaters, whose punishment was most ac- ceptable service in the sight of Heaven. Many of the native inhabitants were kept as bondsmen and slaves to the new proprietors ; they were looked upon as an inferior race, a de- graded caste, for whom they could feel no sympathy. The very name of Irish was with them and their descendants an expression of contempt, and associated with ideas of in- tellectual and moral degradation. The peasants were for- bidden to leave their parishes without permission, and strictly prohibited from assembling for religious worship or any other purpose. The Catholic clergy were ordered to quit the country under penalty of death ; and it was, moreover, de- clared a capital offence to celebrate Mass, or to perform any ceremony of Catholic worship. By this decree what lands were forfeited ? In this division, what did the Puritans declare? — 23. What is said of the act? How did they deem the country ? Who were the sufferers ? What is said of many of the native inhabitants ? Of the very name of Irish ? What were the peasants forbidden ? What were the clergy ordered ? 332 IRELAND. CHAPTER IV, FROM THE REIGN OF JAMES 11. TO THE REBELLION OF 1798. "VrOTHING occurred in the history of Ireland of any par- XM ticular importance until after the dethronement of James II. The Irish still remained firm in their allegiance to the unfortunate monarch, and unfurled the royal standard in his favor. On the 12th of March, 1688, James landed at Kins- dale, in Ireland, with a small body of French forces. Pro- ceeding immediately to Dublin, he entered the capital amidst the joyous acclamations of all classes of the inhabitants. As soon as time would permit, he convoked a parliament to meet at Dublin. One of the first acts of this assembly was a decree granting full liberty of conscience to the professors of every religious creed. 2. On the part of King William, nothing was more anxiously desired than to bring his rival to a decisive en- gagement, for every day that protracted the war in Ireland added to the dangers of his situation. He therefore resolved to conduct the campaign in person, and arrived in Ireland on the 14th of June. James, on hearing of William's land- ing, hastened to join his army, which had retired from Dundalk to Drogheda, and took up his position on the southern bank of the river Boyne. The French and Irish officers labored to dissuade James from coming to an engage- ment on that occasion. They represented to him that his numbers were inferior to those of the enemy ; that the greater part of his forces were new levies ; that the promised succors from France might speedily be expected ; they showed how easily he could maintain a defensive warfare beyond the Shannon, until France should strengthen his force, and delay w^eaken that of his rival. 3. Courage had never formed any very striking feature in the character of James, but on this occasion he insisted, with so much animation, on fighting, that his officers and soldiers Chapter IV. — 1. What is said of the history of Ireland? On the 12th of March, 1688, what took place ? What did he convoke ? What was one of the first acts ? — 2. On the part of William, what is said ? What did he resolve ? Where did James take up his position? What did the French officers do? — 3. What were his officers and soldiers persuaded ? IRELAND. 838 were persuaded that he intended to take a desperate part in the engagement, but at the same time, with ominous pre- caution, he despatched Sir Patrick Trant to Waterford, in order to secure a vessel for his escape in case of misfortune. On the last day of June, 1690, William's army advanced towards the river, and the English King proceeded to take a survey of the enemy's lines from a hill which commanded an extensive prospect. Anxious, however, to gain a nearer view of the eneiny, he advanced with some of his officers towards the ford opposite the village of Old Bridge, and, having spent some time in reconnoitring, sat down to refresh himself on some rising ground. While in this position several field- pieces were discharged at the spot, and as the King arose to mount his horse, a shot from one of the guns killed one of his attendants and two horses, and a second ball grazed his right shoulder, tearing the coat and inflicting a slight wound. 4. On the memorable morning of the 1st of July, 1690, William's army advanced in three columns to the banks of the Boyne. After some delay in crossing the river, the en- gagement became general. The conflict was sustained for some time on both sides with determined bravery. William ani- mated his soldiers by his presence, and frequently mingled in the thickest of the contest, while James remained a pas- sive spectator at a ruined church on the top of the hill of Donore ; and he is said to have exclaimed when he witnessed the destructive charge of Hamilton's dragoons, " Spare, oh, spare my English subjects ! " * 5. Before the fate of the battle was decided, James, de- serting his brave and faithful soldiers, fled with precipitation to Dublin, and there falsely ascribed his defeat to the cow- ardice of the Irish, who, throughout the whole action, had displayed the greatest courage, and only wanted a worthy leader to have gained a triumphant victory. On their part, they justly ascribed the ill success of the day to the coward- ice and incapacity of James. " Change Kings," was their common cry, ** and we will fight the battle over again." * William's forces numbered forty-five thousand picked men and sixty pieces of heavy artillery ; James's army numbered only twenty- three thousand raw troops and twelve field-pieces. On the last day of June, what did William do ? After this, what is related of him ? — 4. On the first day of July what took place ? How was the conflict sustained ? What is said of William ? Of James, and what did he exclaim? — 5. Before the fate of the battle was decided, what did James do ? What was the common cry ? 834 IRELAND. Making but a short stay at Dublin, James continued bis flight to Waterford, and embarked for France. In the battle of the Boyne, William lost several of his most distinguished and able officers. The Irish lost no person of distinction except the brave and courageous Hamilton, who was taken prisoner. When brought into the presence of William, he was asked by the King if he thought the Irish would fight again : to which the intrepid General replied : " Upon my honor, I believe they will." 6. After the departure of James, the Irish leaders, thus left to themselves, for some time ably sustained the cause of their country. The operations of the Irish army were chiefly directed by the brave and patriotic Sarsfield.* During the following year, 1691, James obtained some fresh forces and military stores from Louis of France, who was still anxious to protract the war in Ireland. But the exiled monarch could not resist the opportunity of insulting his Irish subjects, even in this crisis of their fate. Although under a thousand obli- gations to the gallant Sarsfield, the favorite of the people, still he would not intrust him with the command of the army, but conferred it on St. Ruth, a French general of some reputation, whose subsequent conduct by no means tended to soothe the irritated feelings of the Irish general and army. 7. The first operation of the French general was the de- fence of the town of Athlone, which was taken by the Eng- lish after a siege of several months. After the loss of Ath- lone, ;S^^. Ruth retired with his army into the county of Bos- common, and having taken up a favorable position near the ruins of the castle of Aughrim, prepared to decide the fate of Ireland by a single battle. The engagement w^as com- menced on both sides with equal resolution. At first the fortune of the day seemed to incline in favor of the Irish. The English were repulsed with slaughter in every onset ; a few moments more must have sealed their destruction. At this critical juncture, however, St. Ruth fell by a cannon-ball shot from the enemy's battery. This unfortunate circum- * Who was killed in the service of France, in 1701. What became of James? Whom did the Irish lose? What did he reply when asked if the Irish would fight again ? — 6. By whom was the Irish army chiefly directed? In 1691, what did James obtain? On whom was the chief command conferred ? — 7. After the loss of Athlone, where did St. Ruth retire? What did he prepare? What is said of the engagement? What was the fate of St. Ruth? IRELAND. 885 stance changed the scale of victory. As the fallen General had not communicated his plan of action to any of the Irish leaders, no one was found at the moment capable of assum- ing the chief command. The Irish soldiers, unacquainted with the fall of their General, waited for new orders until it was too late to oppose the success of the enemy. As each troop and battalion now acted independently, their evolutions soon interfered with each other; the cavalry became mingled with the infantry, and before the close of the evening their retreat became general. 8. Before the fall of St. Ruth, the Irish had scarcely lost a man ; but after that event they suffered severely. The number of the British killed and wounded was over two thousand men ; that of the Irish is said to have exceeded seven thou- sand. General Ginckle, who commanded the British forces, was but little elated by his victory at Aughrim. He felt that it was nothing better than a fortunate escape ; and from the spirit displayed by the enemy, he feared that the termi- nation of the war was still far distant. 9. After the battle of Aughrim, the Irish forces retired to the city of Limerick, under the command of Sarsfield, who was again placed at the head of the army, although much controlled by the other leaders. As soon as time would permit, Ginckle laid siege to Limerick ; but as the task of re- ducing the place seemed hopeless, and as both parties were weary of hostilities, it was determined to conclude the pro- tracted war by a treaty. Accordingly, on the 23d of Septem- ber, a reluctant assent to this measure was wrung from Sarsfield by the other leaders, and on the evening of the same day a cessation of arms was granted, to afford an op- portunity for settling the terms of capitulation ; and by the 8d of October, the articles of the Treaty of Limerick were concluded and solemnly signed by the different authorities on both sides. 10. This celebrated treaty provided that all the Catholics should enjoy the free exercise of their religion, as in the reign of Charles II., and promised that their majesties would endeavor to procure them further security in this particular, when the Parliament should be convened. It was agreed that all the inhabitants of Limerick, all those in arms for What was the consequence of this misfortune? — 8, What was the loss on both sides ? What is said of General Ginckle ? — 9. Where did the Irish forces retire? What was finally determined? By the 3d of Octo- ber, what were concluded? — 10. By this treaty, wliat was provided? What was agreed ? S36 IRELAND. James, should enjoy their estates and pursue their profes- sions freely, as in the reign of Charles II., and that the Catholic gentry should be allowed to have arms, and should be required to take no oath but that of allegiance. 11. Two days after the treaty was signed, a French fleet arrived off the coast, bearing reinforcements and a large supply of military stores. Never was there a more trying moment for the Irish leaders. Supplies sufficient to insure them a triumphant victory were at hand ; but the honor of their nation was pledged. The treaty of Limerick was signed ; that treaty they deemed inviolable ; the French fleet was dismissed, taking with it several regiments of the Irish soldiery, who preferred to pass the remainder of their days in a foreign land, rather than live in bondage at home. 12. Unfortunately for the period of which we are speak- ing, religious fanaticism, or insane zeal, seemed to charac- terize almost every proceeding. The treaty of Limerick was loudly denounced by many of the reformed clergy, and Dr. Dopping, Protestanl Bishop of Meath, after condemning the articles of that treaty, declared that Protestants were not bound to keep faith with ''Papistsy^ In 1695, the Irish Parliament was assembled, and the first measure of that body wasjto inquire into the articles of the treaty of Limerick. A committee was appointed to consider what penal laws were already in force against the Catholics, not for the purpose of repealing them, as had been promised in the treaty, but to add others to their number. An act was passed to deprive Catholics of the means of educating their children, at home or abroad, and to render them inca- pable of being guardians of their own, or the children of * Papkf, Popish, Popery, Romish, Romanist, and Romanism are vulgar and offensive terms which were formerly applied to Catholics by their Protestant persecutors. The same malignant and uncultured spirit that produced the penal laws gave the world this mongrel brood of ragged, boorish words. It is said that " Papist " was first used as a nickname for Catholics by Martin Luther ; the others had their disgraceful origin in England. But no educated speaker or writer of our day can use such outcasts ; they are literary eyesores, forbidden alike by courtesy, good sense, and elegance of style. ' Things and persons should be called by their right names. — M. 11. Two days after the treaty, what arrived? What was done with the French fleet? — 12. What is said of the treaty of Limerick? In 1695, what took place ? What committee was appointed ? What penal laws were added ? IRELAND. 837 others. A second act was passed to disarm all Catholics ; and lastly, an act to banish all Catholic priests and bishops from Ireland.* CHAPTER V. FROM THE REBELLION OF 1798 TILL 1880. EYEN a brief outline of this sad and interesting portion of Irish history cannot be given in this compendium. A few of the most important particulars must suffice. In 1782, Ire- land, through the voice of Henry Grattan,f demanded and obtained from England, the independence of her national legislature. But it was with the utmost reluctance, and under circumstances of imperious necessity, that these con- cessions were made by the British cabinet. The power- loving John Bull could not avoid playing superintendent in Ireland ; and in a few years the British Parliament imposed new restrictions on her trade and manufactures. This treach- erous and ungenerous proceeding excited a sudden and gen- eral indignation throughout the country. 2. Among the various modes of agency adopted during * As even many educated persons seem to be ignorant of the brutal and atrocious character of the penal laws, we here summarize a few of them: (1.) Catholic peers were deprived of their right to sit in Parlia- ment. (2.) No Catholic could be elected as a member of Parliament. (3.) No Catholic would be permitted to vote or to hold any office of trust. (4.) Catholics were fined $300 a month if they absented them- selves from Protestant places of worship. (5.) Catholics were forbidden to keep arms, or to travel five miles from their homes. (6.) No Cath- olic could employ a Catholic teacher to educate his children ; and if he sent his children to other lands for education, he was subject to a fine of $500, and none of the children educated abroad could inherit any property in Ireland or England. (7.) Catholic priests who came into the country were to be hanged. (8.) Any Protestant might take away a Catholic's horse by simply paying the owner |25 — no matter what the real value of the animal might be. (9.) Any Catholic gentleman's child who became a Protestant, could at once take possession of his father's property. This fiendish and unchristian code disgraced the statute-books of England until fifty years ago. — M. , t See Biography of Emiiient Personages. What is said of a Catholic teacher? Of the child of a Catholic? "What rewards were oflfered ? Chapter V. — 1. In 1782, what did Ireland demand and obtain? What soon took place? — 2. What were the most conspicuous associa- tions ? 29 W 338 IRELAND. this period, was the institution of political clubs, which were formed under different titles. Of these, the United Irish- men and the Orangemen were the most conspicuous. In the month of November, during the year of 1791, the so- ciety of United Irishmen was instituted in the city of Dub- lin. The leading objects of this association seem to have been a pure and disinterested love of liberty, and was formed with the immediate view of combining into one phalanx as many as possible of their countrymen, without any distinc- tion of creed, for the purpose of effecting a change in the government of Ireland, or, as they themselves declared, "for the purpose of forwarding a brotherhood of affection, a communion of rights, and a union of power among Irish- men of every religious persuasion, and thereby to obtain a complete reform in the legislature, founded on principles of civil, political, and religious liberty." Catholic emancipa- tion and parliamentary reform were the avowed objects of their pursuit. By the former was understood a total aboli- tion of all political distinctions between Catholics and Protes- tants ; by the latter, the)'' meant to exclude the borough representation from the House of Commons. 3. To oppose the objects of the United Irishmen, the Protestant aristocracy of Ireland proceeded to array an asso- ciation of their own, under the name of the Orange party, which was formed for the purpose of perpetuating the penal laws and supporting the measures of the government, by disavowing every innovation. The leading features of Orangeism may be traced to a period much anterior to this. Sir Jonah Barrington considers that the idea of the Orange society arose from the association of the aldermen of Skin- ner's alley, which owed its origin to the restoration of the old corporation body to their former power and privileges, after the departure of James II. Their grand festival was held on the 12th of July, the anniversary of the battle of the Boyne. The charter-toast, the antiquity of which was of so ancient a date as the year 1689, was drunk by all the members present on their bare knees, the Grand Master pro- nounced it aloud in the following words : " To the glorious, pious, and immortal memory of the great and good King When was the society of the I 'nited Irishmen instituted ? What were tlie leading objects of this association ? What were their avowed objects cf pursuit? What was understood by these? — 3. To oppose the objects of the United Irishmen, to what did the aristocracy proceed? What does Sir Jonah Barrington consider? When is their grand festival lield ? tjow is the charter-toast drank? What are the words? IRELAND. 839 William, not forgetting Oliver Cromwell, who assisted in redeeming us from popery, slavery, arbitrary power, etc." The concluding part of the toast was a tissue of vulgar and impious curses on Catholic priests, bishops, etc. This toast was afterwards adopted by the Orange Association. 4. In the year 1184, a new association grew into exist- ence, under the name of the Peep-of-the-day Boys, who com- mitted the most fearful depredations in the county of Ar- magh. In a few years, however, they dropped this title, and assumed that of Orangemen. The first Orange lodge was formed on the 21st of Sep- tember, 1*795, at the house of a man named Sloan, in the village of Loughall. The members pledged themselves, by the most solemn oath, to support and defend, to the utmost of their power, the King and his heirs, so long as he or they shall support the Protestant ascendency. 5. In 1*796, hopeless of parliamentary relief, the United Irishmen overcame their repugnance to foreign aid, and re- solved to solicit the assistance of France. Theobald Wolf Tone was commissioned for that purpose, and in the course of the summer, Lo7'd Edward Fitzgerald and Arthur 0^ Connor were sent over to negotiate a treaty between the French republic and Ireland. An armament carrying fifteen thou- sand men, with a considerable amount of arms and military stores, sailed for Ireland ; but the fleet being dispersed by a violent storm, only a few vessels arrived in Bantry Bay, and these returned home without being able to effect a landing. 6. In the mean time, it became the determined policy of the government to goad the Irish people by torture into a premature insurrection, before the organization of their plans eould be completed. Martial law was proclaimed in several counties. A savage soldiery were encouraged to emulate each other in acts of cruelty. The eloquent and patriotic Grattan truly styled them "a banditti of murderers, com- mitting massacre in the name of God, and exercising des- potic power in the name of liberty." The tortures of whip- ping, half-hanging, and the pitch-cap were put into active operation.* The humble dwellings of the peasantry were * These military savages of England frequently cut off the ears and What was the concluding part ? — 4. In 1784, what took place ? When and where was the first Orange lodge formed ? How do the members pledge themselves? — 5. In 1796, what did the United Irishmen resolve? Who were sent to negotiate a treaty ? What armament sailed ? What happened to the fleet? — 6. What became the policy of the government ? What was proclaimed ? 840 IRELAND. burned, their sons tortured or murdered, and their daughters subjected to all the outrages of brutal passion. It was a dark period of cruelty and horrors unspeakable. The most liberal rewards were held out to informers. In consequence of this, the government soon became acquainted with all the proceedings of the United Irishmen, and most of the active leaders w^ere arrested at Oliver Bond's house, Dublin, on the 12th of March, 1798. Lord Edward Fitzgerald, who hap- pened to be absent, eluded pursuit until the 19th of May, when, after a desperate resistance, in which he was mortally wounded, he was made prisoner. The Shearses and others, who had been chosen to fill the places of those arrested at Bond's, were betrayed to the government by a militia cap- tain, named Armstrong. 7. On the 23d of May, the insurrection broke out in the counties of Kildare and Carlow. The peasants had no arms but clumsy pikes and a few guns in bad repair, and, of course, they were easily defeated. The insurgents were next routed at Carlow, with a loss of four hundred slain ; and two hun- dred more, who fell into the hands of the victors, were exe- cuted by martial law. At Oulart Hill they w^ere more suc- cessful ; they defeated the North Cork militia, took the town of Enniscorthy and the city of Wexford. Here, elated by success and exasperated by the cruelties they had received, they committed a fearful retaliation on a number of the royalists who fell into their hands. They were again de- feated at Boss and repulsed at Arklow ; and the loss of the battle of Ballynahinch terminated the rebellion in Ulster. 8. After these defeats, the insurgents of Wexford were noses of innocent Irish persons, who fell into their hands. Some- times they even ran burning pitch into the eyes of their unhappy vic- tims. A poor, harmless man, named Driscoll, was three times strangled and four times flogged, 6eca7