HISTORY OF ENGLAND. &i n^ \A ■ ^ •r,;' :%■ A CLASS-BOOK HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS AND HISTORICAL MAPS. COMPIllfeD FOU PUriLS PREPAniKG FOR THE OXFORD AXD CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMLNATIOXS, THE LOXDOX UXIVERSTTT MATRICULATION AND FOR THE HIGHER CLASSES OF ELEIIENTARY SCHOOLS. By THE \ KEV. DAVID MORRIS,^-^ *^ '^^^-"-'^ Claasiciil Master in Liverpool College: Author of 'J. Class- Book of Inorganic Chemistry.' FIFTEENTH THOUSAND. u^^yr NEW YOEK: D. APPLETOK AND COMPANY, 549 AND 551 BROADWAY. 18Y9. COPYKIGHT BY D. APPLETON & COMPAJ^T, 1579. s^^ ^2. PREFACE In thof' compilation of tliis Book the author has consulted the best and most recent historical works, and he is particularly indebted to the writings of Freeman, Dean Hook, Hume, Froude, and Macaulay. The events -of each reign, grouped according to their order and importance, are placed at the beginning of each chapter. The outline thus given is filled up in detail in separate narratives. Minor facts, requiring no detailed account, are briefly mentioned at the close of the reign. A chapter upon the Social Condition of the People is given at the end of each period. Attention is drawn to important persons and events by the use of types of various kinds, and the leading dates stand out distinctly in the margin. \. vi PKEFACE. The numerous woodcuts which illustrate the book are for the most part taken from ^ Lectures on English History' and * Life of Edward III.,' by W. Longman, Esq., who kindly placed the illustrations of those valuable works at the author's disposal. The utility of the work is further enhanced by four Historical Maps, drawn by E. Weller, Esq., F.R.G.S. The author gratefully acknowleges the valuable assistance of the Rev. H. S. Maye, B. A., of Liver- pool College, in revising the proof sheets. October 1871. CONTENTS. PAGE "ferTHODUCTlON ...«.«•••• * Eoman Period b « « . 3 GrOVEBNMENT, RfXIQION, &C . 7 Leading Dates • • • 8 Sason Period. Thb Saxon Hkptaecut . . . . . t . 9 Early Saxon Kings . . . . . . . .15 Danish Kings • .25 Saxon Link restored ........ 28 Religious, Political, and Social Institutions, &c. . . 35 Leading Dates 43 Genealogical Tables, connecting the Saxon and Norman Lines ^'^ The Norman Kings. V/lLLLS-M I. . 45 William II. . . . ... = .. 55 Henry L . . . ' 59 Stephen . 65 Social Condition of the People 70 Leading Dates . 75 Viii CONTENTS. Plantagenets Proper. PAGE Henry II. ... 77 ElCHAKD I • .88 John 94 Hknry III. . 101 Edward I. . . . - HI Edward II. 117 Edward III. . . . . . . . • • 122 ElCHARD II. . 132 SociAii Condition of the Peopub 138 Leading Authors 145 Leading Dates .• • 146 GrENEALOQICAX TaBLE OF THE HOXJSES OF YoRK AND LANCASTER 1 48 House of Lancaster. Henry IV H9 Henry V 154 Henry VI 159 House of York. Edward IV. .167 Edward V. 173 Richard III . 175 Social Condition of the People in the Lancastrian and Yorkist Period 179 Leading Authors and Dates . . . • . . .185 Gbneaxogical Table connecting the Plantagenets with the tudors 187 Tudor Period. Henry VII 188 Henry VIII. . . 199 Edward VI. 220 Mary 1 229 Elizabeth 237 Social Condition of the People . . . . . 254 Leading Authors ........ 264 Leading Dates ......... 266 Genealogical Table connecting the Tudors and Stuarts 268 CONTENTS. IX Stuart Period. PAQB Jambs 1 269 Charles 1 279 The Commonwealth ......... 308 Chaeles II. . .324 James II . 347 William III. and Mary II 363 Annb 378 Social Condition of the People ..... 387 Leading Authors . ' 40S Leading Dates 403 GrENEALOGICAL TaBLE CONNECTING THE SfUAKTS WITH THE House of Brunswick 406 Hanoverian Period. George 1 407 George II .417 Leading Authors under George I. and George TI. , 435 George III 437 Leading Authors . . . . . . . . 471 George IV 473 Leading Authors . . 480 William IV 481 Leading Authors 487 Victoria .......... 488 Leading Authors . . « 509 Social Condition of the People 512 The British Constitution ....... 520 British Possessions 524 Leading Dates of the Period 526 Table of English Sovereigns . . . . _ . .530 Genealogical Table of the House of Hanover . . . 533 Great Seal of Edward the Confessoi: MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. »<>• .■■■-■ PAGE Map of Eoman Britain To face 8 * „ Saxon England „ 44 n/ „ Fbance, showing English Possessions TIME OF Plantagenkts . . . „ 148 ^ „ France, showing English Possessions time of the lancastrians . . . „ 187 ~ G-reat Seal of Edwarb the Confessor . . . x v^ Stonehenge ......... ^ii '^. Coronation of Harold IL . . . . . . 34 ' Earl's Barton Church, Northamptonshire . . [33] -^ Witanagemot [34] -^ William I. grajn'ting lands in Kichmondshire to Alan, Count of Britanny . . . ... . [51] " Norman Ship [52] " Castle [71] v Tournament [72] Knights and Shipping of the 13th Century . . [99] Crossbowman and Military Architecture of the 14th , Century ........ [100] ^ Knights Fighting 106 ^ EoYAL Carriage of the 13th Century . . . 110^ Litter, illustrative of the Travelling of the 14th Century ......... 121 Archer, with Sheaf of Arrows ..... 126 >- . Crossbowman, with Shield 127 - Royal Feast in the Plantagenet Period . . . . 139 ~ Dais with High Table and Tapestry . . . 140 Xll MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. ILnigiit in Armour, and Lady's Costume, time of Henry V. Soldier and Hand-gun, time of Edward IV. Costume of the Nobility, time of Hknry VII. Costume, time of Henry VIII, . Edward VI. and Lady Jane Grey English War-ship and Spanish Galleon, time of Elizabeth Lady's Costume, time of Elizabeth Costume, time of James I. . Cavalier, time of Charles I. Olitee Cromwell Charles II. and his Queen Costume, time of James TI. and Weli.iam HL . PAGt!; lo8 V 172 197 219 - 227 V-' 243 / 253 V . 278 ^ 307 '■ 323 V 345 / 362 . HISTORY OF ENGLAND. IXTEODUCTIO]^. Very little is known of the history of the British Isles before the arrival of the Eomans under Julius C^sar (55 B.C.). A Greek author, said to be Aristotle, who lived in the fourth century before Christ, first mentions these islands by name. He calls England and Scotland Albion (meaning White Island), and Ireland lerne (meaning West). The two former countries were known also by the name of Britannia, a word said to be derived from the name of the chief, Brutus, who first settled here. The inhabitants of these islands in the time of Julius Csesar were of Celtic origin, and were divided into two branches, the Gael and the Cymry. The descendants of the Gael now inhabit Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland ; those of the Cymry are found in Wales. The people were divided into several tribes, each under an independent chief. Those inhabiting the southern parts of the island were more civilised than the rest. They cul- tivated the land, and made cloth for clothes. The inland tribes lived chiefly on milk and flesh, clothed themselves with the skins of beasts killed in the chase, tattooed their bodies, and stained them with a blue dye obtained from a plant called woad. Their towns were simply clusters of huts in the midst of the forests, surrounded by a ditch and a rampart of felled trees. They were brave and hardy in war ; their weapons were a dart or javelin, a sword, and a small shield. They fought in war-chariots, having scythes attached to the axles, A great portion of the country was 2 INTRODUCTION. covered with forests, in which roamed the bear, wolf, and boar. Many other parts, now cultivated, were once marshes or moors. Commerce was not unknown to the southern Britons. Long before the birth of Christ, Phoenician sailors from the colonies in Spain and Africa came to the Scilly Isles for tin, which were called, in consequence, Cassiterides, or Tin Islands. Trade was also carried on with the Gauls. The chief exports were tin, iron, gold, copper, dogs, skins, and slaves ; and the imports were salt, brass, and earthen- ware. The religion of the Britons was a system of idolatry called Druidism, from a Greek word drus, an oak, because their religious services were performed chiefly in groves of oak. Their priests were called Druids, who were also bards, teachers of youth, law-givers, and judges. Their influence over the people was immense. They believed that the soul was immortal, and passed after death into another body ; they taught piety to the gods and kindness to man, and oifered human sacrifices upon their altars, or in large cages of wicker-work. The persons thus sacrificed were those guilty of crime, or prisoners of war. The Druids had great veneration for the oak and the mistletoe. When the mistletoe was found growing upon the oak, the chief Druid, or Arch-Druid, assembled the whole tribe on New Year's Day, which was then in the month of March, and with much ceremony cut down the plant with a golden sickle. Two white bulls were then offered in sacrifice, and prayers made to the gods that the mistletoe thus cut should prove a sure remedy against disease and poison. The custom of decorating houses at Christmas with the mistletoe and other evergreens has, no doubt, come down to us from these early times. The immense ruins found in various parts of England, such as those of Stonehenge and Abury, in Wiltshire, are supposed to be the remains of Druidical temples. THE ROMAN PERIOD. THE ROMAN PERIOD. 55 B.C. to 426 A.D.— 481 years. CHAPTER I. Julius Caesar, the commander of the Eoman forces in Gaul (France), resolved to attempt the conquest of Britain, because the inhabitants had given help to some of the Gallic tribes in their wars against him. He sailed across the Straits of Dover with two legions, or 12,000 men, and landed near Deal. The Britons, collected on fL the beach, bravely resisted his forces, but after a severe struggle they were forced to give way to Roman valour and discipline. After a few. days C^sar re- turned to Gaul, having received promises of submission and a few hostages. In the following year he returned with 800 ships, con- taining five legions, or 30,000 foot, and 2,000 p,. horse. The Britons, under the leadership of Cassivelaunus, chief of the tribe of the Trino- ^'^' bantes, were driven across the Thames, and the fortress of Verulamium, where St. Albans now stands, was destroyed. After this event, and the failure of an attack upon the Roman naval camp on the coast, the Britons sued for peace. Csesar fixed the amount of tribute, received hostages, and went back to Gaul with all his forces. Britain was fi:ee from Roman interference for the next ninety-seven years. During this time, several emperors thought of conquering the island. One, called Caligula, collected an army on the coast of Gaul, but instead of crossing the Channel, he gave there the signal of battle, and told the soldiers to gather shells in remembrance of their victory over the ocean. 4 HISTOEY OF EN&LAND. At length the Emperor Claudius sent a general, Aulus -^ Plautius, with an army to invade Britain. He drove the Britons across the Thames, and was then joined by the emperor himself with a new army. Claudius penetrated into Essex, and took Camalo- dunum (Colchester or Maldon). He then returned to Rome, leaving the government of the conquered part of the island to Plautius and Vespasian. A chief, called Caractacus, headed the Britons for some years. Forced at last to retire into "Wales, he united his forces with the people of the district, who were named Silures, and took up a strong position on a hill in Shropshire, called Caer- Caradoc. Ostorius Scapula, the successor of Plautius, marched against him, defeated his forces, and captured his stronghold. Caractacus fled for refuge to his step-mother, Cartismandua, Queen of the Brigantes, who treacherously gave him up to the Romans. He was taken in chains to Rome, along with his family ; but the Emperor Claudius was so pleased with his spirit and bravery that he set him at liberty. Another famous leader of the Britons was Soadicea, Queen of the Iceni, a tribe inhabiting Norfolk and Suffolk. On account of insults received from the Roman ofhcers, she called her people to arms, and while the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, was destroying the Druids of Mona (Anglesey), she overthrew Camalodunum, burnt Londi- ^^ nium (London), and killed about 70,000 Romans. Suetonius soon after attacked her, and slew in a great battle about 80,000 of her forces. She herself escaped captivity by taking poison. Julius Agricola, appointed governor 78 a.d., was the most successful Roman general ever sent to Britain. In the first two years of his government he conquered the whole country as far as the Tweed. In 81 a.d. he ex- tended his conquests to tj^e Friths of Forth and Clyde, and there built a chain of fortresses. He afterwards penetrated to the foot of the G-rampians, where he defeated a Caledo- g . nian chief named Galgacus, in a battle supposed to have been fought at Ardoch, Perthshire, About the same time the Roman ships, sailing round Britain, discovered it to be an island. THE KOMAN PEEIOD. 5 Agricola attempted to win tlie good-will of the Britons by establishing good laws and ruling them with justice. He taught them to build temples and houses, and en- couraged the study of all peaceful arts ; and thus very many were persuaded to learn the Eoman language, and adopt the manners, customs, and dress of their conquerors. After the recall of Suetonius, nothing of interest hap- pened until the time of the Emperor Hadrian, who visited the island 120 a.d. He drove back the Caledonians, and built a strong rampart between the Kiver Tyne and the Solway Frith, called the Wall of Hadrian, the ruins of which are known as the Picts' Wall. LoUius TJrbicus, the governor under the Emperor Antoninus ^^q Pius, drove the Caledonians beyond the Friths of Clyde and Forth, and repaired the forts built by Agricola, to which he gave the name of the Wall of Antoninus, now known as Graham's Dyke. In the year 208 a.d. the aged Emperor Severus came to the island. In order to punish the Caledonians for their attacks upon the Eoman province, he penetrated through the thick forests to the northern districts, and defeated the mountaineers in many a battle, but with a loss to -^ _ himself of 50,000 men. On his return, he caused • . AD the Wall of Hadrian to be repaired and strength- ened with new forts; and soon after he died at Ebor- acum (York). For some years after this Britain was free from the attacks of the Caledonians. But now a new enemy ap- peared, in the shape of Saxon pirates, who, coming from the German coast, committed many ravages on the eastern part of the island. An officer was specially appointed by the Eomans to ward oiF their attacks, and for this reason he was called the Count of the Saxon Shore. The first one appointed to this duty, named Carausius, ^.^^ was accused of receiving bribes from the pirates ; and, fearing punishment, he made himself Emperor of Britain, and ruled the country well, until he was slain by his minister AUectus, 293 a.d. Allectus was killed in battle by the Emperor Constantius, who restored Britain 6 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. to the Eoman sway, 296 a.d. This emperor married Q-.^ a British lady, named Helena ; he died at York, and was succeeded in the empire by his son Con- stantine, afterwards called the Great. After the death of Constantius, the northern part of Britain was again troubled by the people of Caledonia, who were now called Picts and Scots. The Picts were the descendants of the Caledonians, and the Scots were people who passed over from the north of Ireland. These savage tribes penetrated once as far as London, but they were ultimately driven back to their own boundaries, A Roman general named Maximus, who had fought bravely against the Picts and Scots, made himself Emperor of Britain, and invaded Gaul with a large army of Britons, in the hope of becoming master of the western half of the rtQQ Roman Empire. He was defeated and put to death. Many of the Britons who had followed A.D. . his standard settled in a, part of Gaul called Armorica (Brittany). The Picts and Scots, taking ad- vantage of the absence of the troops under Maximus, renewed their attacks ; but Stilicho, a AD . Roman general sent by the Emperor Honorius, repelled them, and gave peace to the island. About this time the Goths and barbarians from the central parts of Europe were making great inroads upon the Roman Empire, so that it became necessary to with- draw the legions from Britain in order to defend Italy. On this account Honorius released the Britons from their .^^ allegiance, and recalled his soldiers to fight against Alaric, Kino; of the Goths. The Britons, thus left AT) defenceless, were attacked again by their old enemies the Picts and Scots, and were, consequently, com- pelled to petition Rome for assistance. A legion returned in 418 A.D., drove back the enemy, repaired the northern 426 walls, drilled the people in the use of arms, and A.D. then took their final departure. THE KOMAN PEEJOD. CHAPTEI^ II. GOVEENMENT, KELIGION, ETC. GOVERNMENT. The Eomans divided Britain into six provinces, viz. : 1. BRITANNIA PRIMA, the country south of the. Thames and the Bristol Channel. 2. BRITANNIA SECUNDA, Wales and the border couDties west of the Severn and Dee. 3. FLA VIA C^SARIENSIS, the country from the Thames to the Humber and Mersey. 4. MAXIMA CiESARIENSIS, from the Humber to the Wall of Hadrian, on the Tyne. 6. VALENTIA, from the Tyne to Antonine's Wall. 6. VESPASIANA, north of Antonine's Wall. The last-named province was never conquered by the Romans. Each province had its own governor ; over all was an officer, called a Vicarius, or vicar, who was respon- sible to the Prefect of Gaul. There were usually kept in the island about 20,000 soldiers, who were under the com- mand of three chief officers, called respectively the Count of Britain, the Duke of Britain, and the Count of the Saxon Shore. The towns built by the Eomans were originally fortified stations for the soldiers, to which the name castra, or camp was given. Traces of this word remain in the names of towns ending in Chester, cester, or caster, as Manchester, Leicester, Doncaster. Many of these towns were adorned with temples, theatres, baths, circuses, monuments, and large mansions. Their inhabitants were chiefly Eoman, though we must understand by this term people collected from all parts of the empire. The trade of the coimtry was considerable ; there were native manufactures of pottery and glass, and corn was grown and exported to a large extent. Excellent roads 8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. were made and paved with stone, to which the name strata was given — the origin of our street. The following were the four chief roads : 1. Watling Street, extending from the coast of Kent, through London and Chester, to Car- narvon. 2, Ryknield Street, from the mouth of the Tyne to St. David's. 3. Irmin or Hermin Street, from St. David's to Southampton. 4. Foss "Way, between Corn- wall and Lincoln. Christianity is said to have been introduced into the island early in the second century. Though we know not how or by whom it was first preached here, yet we are certain its progress was rapid and extensive.* British bishops attended the Coimcil of Aries, in France, 314 a.d. ; and some are supposed to have been present at the Council of Nice, 326 a.d. The profession of Christianity was attended with the same dangers in Britain as elsewhere. In 303 A.D., during the persecution under the Emperor Diocletian, St. Alban, the first British martyr, suffered death at Yerulamium, since called in his honour St. Albans. LEADING DATES OF THE PERIOD. First Landing of Julius Csesar Second ditto Roman Invasion under Claudius Caractacus taken prisoner . Boadicea Julius Agricola sent to Britain Agricola's Wall, from Tyne to Solway Frith Battle with Galgacus . Hadrian's Wall built Antonine's Wall Severus dies at York Usurpation of Carausius St. Alban' s Martyrdom . Constantius dies at York Honorius frees Britain from its Allegiance A Roman Legion returns to assist the Britons Romans finally leave Britain 55 B.C. 54 „ 43 A.D. 51 „ . 61 . 78 . 81 . 84 . 120 . 139 . 211 . 286 . 303 . 306 . 410 . 418 . 426 ■^ Some think that converted Eoman soldiers were the first preachers of Christianity in this island; while others say that this honour belongs to St. Paul or St. Peter. THE SAXON PEKIOD. THE SAXON PERIOD. 426 A.D. to 1066 A.D. CHAPTER I. THE SAXON HEPTAECHY. 426 A.D. to 827 A.D. On the final departure of tlie Romans, the chief towns in Britain became the centres of petty kingdoms under the rule of military chiefs. Instead of uniting together against their old enemies — the people of Caledonia — they made war against each other, and thus offered themselves an easy prey to those rude and warlike invaders. On one occasion they had the good sense to put aside their animosities and unite together in defence of their homes. Under the leadership of Germanus, a Gallic bishop, who happened tc be in the island at that time, the Britons attacked a plundering band of Picts, and, commencing the onslaught with the shout of * Hallelujah ! ' routed them with great slaughter. This war-cry gave to the battle the name of the Hallelujah Victory. The peace that followed this victory was only of short duration. Rivalry sprang up again, disunion crept in, quarrels arose; and so the weakness that consequently followed invited fresh attacks from the wily northern foe. About this time, the southern Britons were divided into two factions. One of these, representing the Roman interest and headed by Am- brosius, consisted of the Roman citizens left in the island ; the other, headed by Vortigern, was called the British party, and was composed chiefly of Britons. The common danger of the dreaded Pict compelled both fac- tions to send to Gaul for help. A letter, entitled ' The 10 HISTOEY or ENaLAND. Groans of the Britons,' was sent to ^tius, Prefect of Gaul, in which it was said : — -^ The barbarians chase us into the sea ; the sea throws us back upon the barbarians ; and we have only the hard choice left us of A.D, perishing by the sword or by the waves.' This last appeal for Roman help was made in vain, and the Britons had to look elsewhere for assistance. Just then, three long keels, filled with Saxon freebooters, wore cruising off the southern coasts, under the command of two brothers, called Hengist and Horsa. These pirates were men of large size, with blue eyes and long yellow hair, and armed with long swords, spears, battle-axes, and hammers. Their religious belief made them fearless and terrible in war, for they thought that death on the battle- field admitted them to Valhalla, or the Hall of Woden, the god of war, where they should drink wine out of the skulls of their enemies. Their homes lay on the German coast, between Denmark and the river Rhine. Such were the people to whom Vortigern turned for help against the ravages of the Picts and Scots, and the opposition of the faction under Ambrosius. They landed at Ebbsfleet, on .-Q the coast of Kent, successfully repelled the enemies of Yortio-ern, and for this service re- A.D. ceived as a reward the Isle of Thanet. The story of tlie first Saxon settlement in this island rests on un- certain tradition. It is said that Yortigern fell in love M^th Howena, the daughter of Hengist, and promised to give Qp Kent on condition of receiving her in marriage. An- other story says that Hengist and Horsa, attracted by the beauty of the country, turned their arms against the Britons, and seized upon Kent. For a century after this, fresh bands from the German coast poured into the country, and established settlements on the eastern and southern coasts and river basins. These settlers were of three tribes, Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, but in the course of time they received the common name of Anglo-Saxons. During the century and a half following the first arrival of tlie Saxons, the following seven kingdoms, commonly called the Saxon Heptarchy, stand out in marked prominence from among the mass of smaller states : — THE SAXON PERIOD, 11 KINGDOM EXTENT FOUNDER DATE 1. KENT Modern Kent .... Hengist 457 a.d. 2. SUSSEX (S. Saxony) . Sussex and Surrey . . . EUa . . 490 „ 8. WESSEX (W. Saxony) Counties west of Sussex and south of the Thames, excepting Cornwall . . Cerdic . 519 „ 4. ESSEX (East Saxony) Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts .... Ercenwin 527 „ 5. NORTHUMBRIA . North of the Humber to the Forth Ida . . 547 „ 6. EAST ANGLIA. .' Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge ■ . ... TJffa . . 575 „ ' 7. MERCIA .... Central Counties . . . Cridda . 582 „ The Britons fought hard for their hearths and homes; those who refused to yield to the Saxon invaders were driven to the west of the island ; and in modern Wales — the kingdom of Strathclyde, stretching from Dumbarton to Chester — and in Cornwall, Devon, and part of Somerset, they found a refuge, and maintained their independence. It was in the struggle against Cerdic that the British King Arthur acquired his fame. At Camelot, in Somerset- shire, his capital, he gathered round him the bravest of his followers, who were known as the Knights of the Round Table; and for twenty-four years he fought ^.^ bravely for his kingdom, and conquered the Saxons in twelve battles. He is said to have been mortally wounded in a war with his rebellious nephew, Modred, and buried at Glastonbury. We have seen that at the close of the sixth century there were seven prominent Saxon kingdoms established in Britain, These, however, did not long maintain their independence. Wars arose between them ; the kingdoms were gradually re- duced in number, till, in the beginning of the ninth century, they were united under one head. During these struggles for supremacy, the king who acquired dominion over the others was called by the title of Bretwalda, a word mean- ing ' supreme ruler.' There were, in all, eight of these rulers. Of these, the first was Ella of Kent ; the second, Ceawlin of Wessex ; the third, Ethelbert of Kent. East 12 HISTORY 0"F ENG-LAND. Anglia supplied the fourtli ; Northumbria, the next three ; and Wessex, the eighth and last. During the rule of the third Bretwalda, Ethelbert of Kent, Christianity was introduced into his kingdom. The Saxon tribes, hating the Christian faith of the conquered Britons, continued their idolatrous worship long after their settlement in the island. In the year 597 A.D., Augustine, with forty monks, was sent by Pope Gregory of Rome to convert the English. They first came to the kingdom of Kent, and there received a favourable reception, chiefly through the influence of Ethelbert's wife, Bertha, daughter of the King of Paris, who was a Christian. Kent thus became the first Christian kingdom, and Canterbury, its capital, the first Christian city, which has since remained the spiritual metropolis of England. Sebert, King of Essex, was the next royal con- vert. He destroyed the temple of Apollo at Westminster, and dedicated in its place a church to St. Peter, where Westminster Abbey now stands. A temple of Diana Avas also destroyed, and a church built in honour of St. Paul, on the site of St. Paul's Cathedral. Christianity spread to the north in the time of the Bretwalda Edwin of North- umbria, who built a city on the south of the Forth, and called it after his own name, Edwin's burgh. York, his capital, still remains the ecclesiastical metropolis of the north of England. Before the arrival of Augustine in the south, Christian missionaries from Ireland, headed by Columba, had con- verted many of the Picts and Scots, and several disagree- ments on religious matters arose between these and the missionaries from Eome. These differences had refer- ence to the time of celebrating Easter and to the mode of administering baptism ; but there was unity in the doc- trines of the Christian bishops and those taught by Au- gustine. In spite of these differences, however, Chris- tianity gradually and steadily made way, and an united Church was at length formed. Before the end of the seventh century, the last heathen Saxon kingdom, Sussex, THE SAXON PEEIOD. 13 was admitted into tlie fold of Christ, and the spiritual con- quest of the English was thus complete. At the close of the eighth century, Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex, were the only three remaining kingdoms. Between the first two there were long and bloody wars, but at last Mercia obtained the supremacy. During these contests the most renowned Mercian king was Offa the Terrible. Excepting Wessex, all the kingdoms were under his sway ; and to resist the inroads of the Welsh he built a deep ditch from the Dee to the mouth of the Wye, long known by the name of Offa's Dyke, traces of which still remain. He caused the King of East Anglia to be murdered, and annexed the kingdom to his dominions. Offa in after years thought to atone for this crime by liberal donations to the Church. He gave a tenth of his goods to the clergy, and made grants of money, called Peter's pence, for the maintenance of an English college at Eome. Ina, one of the early kings of Wessex, is said to have founded a school at Eome, and to have taxed his people for its support at the rate of one penny per house. After the death of Offa, 796 a.d., the greatness of Mercia continued for a short time under the reign of his son Cenwulf ; but it was soon eclipsed by the greater glory of the only remaining Saxon kingdom of Wessex. Egbert, a prince who had spent many years in France at the Court of Charlemagne, and had learnt from that great hero the arts of war and government, was called to the thi-one of the West Saxons. Under his rule Wessex became the un- g-- disputed head of the English nation. The smaller kingdoms gladly sought his. protection against Mercia, and submitted to his supremacy. North- umbria yielded to his arms without a struggle. Mercia fought hard to retain its power and greatness, but in 827 a.d. it was forced to submit to the West Saxons, and though it retained for another half- century its own line of kings, they were only vassals to the King of Wessex. Thus, all the Saxon kingdoms in England were united under ^^^ the eighth Bretwalda, Egbert, and the period of the Heptarchy came to an end. Just before the ' ' 14 HISTORY OF ENQLAND. submission of Mercia, the long struggle with the Cornish Britons was brought to a close, and the supremacy of Wessex extended to the Land's End. The country now took the name of Angle-land, or England, from the Angles, the most numerous of the Saxon tribes; but Egbert contented himself with the title of King of the West Saxons. The prouder title of ' King of the English ' was first taken by Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great. Of the three tribes that settled in England, the Angles gave their name to the country, the Saxons gave a royal dynasty, and the Jutes, the least numerous, supplied the spiritual capital of the English Church. EARLY SAXON KINGS. 15 CHAPTER II. EAELY SAXON KINGS. Prom 827 A.D. to 1017 A.D>— 190 Years. 15 Kings. NINTH CENTURY. EGBERT . ETHELWTTLF ETHELBALD ETHELBEET ETHELRED L ALFRED . A.D, 827 836 858 860 866 871 TENTH CENTURY. EDWARD the Elder ATHELSTAN EDMUND I. EDRED . . EDWY . . EDGAR ■. . EDWARD the Martyr ETHELRED II. the Un ready ELEVENTH CENTURY. EDMUND IL (Ironside). 1016 A.D. A.n, 901 925 940 946 955 958 975 979 Egbert, after tlie conquest of Mercia, compelled the in- habitants of Wales to acknowledge his supremacy, and thus all the Celtic people south of the Dee, as well as all the Saxon population, became his vassals. His supremacy, however, was soon interrupted by the invasion of the Banes, or the Norsemen. These invaders were of the same race as the Saxons, and resembled them in character, habits, and appearance. Their leaders were called viking's, or sea-kings; their vessels were painted to represent dragons ; their banners bore the figure of a raven ; and their arms chiefly consisted of battle-axe, bow, and war-hammer. As worshippers of Woden and Thor, they felt great hatred towards the Saxons for becoming Christians, so that wherever they landed the people were murdered, the 36 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. houses burnt, the lands laid waste, and the churches „Q^ destroyed. They first made their, appearance in the island in the time of OiFa. At first, Devon and Cornwall were their favourite landing-places, because the Britons there welcomed them a2:ainst the com- Qrtc mon enemy, the Saxons. Egbert at length defeated them with great slaughter at Hengsdown-Hiil, Cornwall. He died the following year. Ethelwulf succeeded his father Egbert as King of the Qnn West Saxons. By his first wife, Osberga, he had four sons, all of whom came in turn to the throne. He is said to have been educated for a monastic life. In his later days he made a pilgrimage to Eome in company with his youngest son Alfred, and on his return through France he married Judith, the daughter of King Charles the Bald, a princess about twelve years old. About the same time he made a grant of a tenth of the land for religious purposes. His reign was so dis- turbed by repeated attacks of the Danes that every Wednesday was set apart for invoking Divine help against them. The Danes at first only came with a view to plunder, but about 850 a.d. they spent the winter in the Isle of Sheppey, and thus gave warning of their intention to form permanent settlements on English ground. Ethel- wulf died 858 a.d., and was buried at Steyning, in Sussex. Etheibald, son of the last king, ascended the throne of Qto Wessex, allowing his brother Ethelbert to rule the rest of his dominions. He married his step- mother, Judith, but he was eventually persuaded to put her away. By another marriage with Baldwin of Flanders, she became the ancestress of the Conqueror's wife. Etheibald, after a reign devoid of interest, died 860 A.D., and was buried at Sherborne, Dorset. Ethelbert succeeded his brother. His reign of six years is noted for struggles with the Danes, who descended upon ort/> the Isle of Thanet, wasted Kent with fire and sword, and stormed and burnt his capital, Win- chester, He died 866 a.d., and was buried at Sherborne. EAKLY SAXON KINGS. 17 Ethelred I. ascended his brother's throne. In this reign the Danes began to aim at the conquest ^^^ of the country in earnest. They overran North- umbria, Mercia, and East Anglia, and made themselves masters of these territories in a period of five years. Edmund, the under-king of East Anglia, was taken a prisoner by them, and, because he would not renounce Christianity, he Avas fastened naked to a tree, and slain with arrows. The place of his burial was afterwards called Bury St. Edmunds, and a monastery was erected there in honour of his memory. The Danes then burst upon Wessex. Ethelred and his brother Alfred met them in battle after battle g„- v/ith varied success, but at Merton, in Surrey, Ethelred was mortallj'' wounded, and was buried at Wimborne. Alfred became King of Wessex on his brother's death, in the thick of the strife with the Danes. In _„- this year nine pitched battles, besides smaller engagements, were fought on West-Saxon ground against these hardy Norsemen. Peace was made in 872 A.D., and the Danes retired north of the Thames. Wessex was for a time delivered, but the remaining part of the country was entirely under Danish supremacy. In 878 A.D. they renewed their attacks upon Wessex under Guthrum their chief, and captured Chippenham, the resi- dence of Alfred. The king himself, dispirited by his many losses, retired for refuge to the marshes of Somersetshire, where, in the Isle of Athelney, between the rivers Parret and Tone, he found a secure hiding j)lace for some months in the house of a swineherd. One day the peasant's wife, ignorant of the rank of her guest, put him to mind some cakes which were baking on the hearth. But he, wrapt in thought, forgot all about the cakes, and allowed them to burn. For this neglect the poor Avoman soundly rated him, calling him an idle fellow, too lazy to mind what he was ready enough to eat. The hospitable swineherd became in time Bishop of Winchester. Here the king's bravest and most faithful followers gf^thered round him, and it was soon 18 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. resolved to strike another blow for the independence of their country. Alfred, disguising himself as a minstrel, wandered into the Danish camp, learnt everything he desired to know, and then returned to summon his oiyn men for a sudden attack upon the enemy. At Ethandune, in Wilts, the fight took place ; the ■ * Danes fled to their camp, where they were closely besieged for fourteen days and forced to surrender. By the treaty of peace that followed, the Danes were to leave Wessex and that part of Mercia south-west of Watling Street; their chiefs were to embrace Christianity, and receive the whole land beyond Watling Street as vassals of the West- Saxon King. The district thus given up to the Danes was called the Banelagh. The extent of their occupation is seen in the present day in the names of places ending in by. In the years of peace that followed, Alfred strengthened his kingdom by establishing a system of militia, and by forming a naval force to meet the sea-kings on their own element. After this, the Danes had little chance of suc- cess against him. Once again, towards the close of his reign, 893 a.d., another chief, Hastings, with 330 ships, attempted to gain a footing in the island, and for three years committed many ravages in the south ; but Alfred successfully repulsed him, and finally drove him out of the country. The rest of the reign was peaceful. Alfred's many virtues deservedly gave to his name the title of ' Great.' His whole life was devoted to the good of his subjects, and there is scarcely a name in history that can compare with his. As a warrior, his wars were con- ducted in self-defence, and his victories were never stained by cruelty. His religion was free from superstition, and his learning void of vain show. His peaceful days were divided into three parts ; one was given to business of State, a second was devoted to study and religious exer- cises, and a third was set apart for sleep and necessary recreation. To measure the time, he made candles to burn one inch in twenty minutes, and constructed lanterns to pro- tect them from the draughts in his ill-built palace. His love EAELY SAXON KINGS. 19 of learning and literary work were points of beauty in his character. He founded schools, invited scholars to his court, encouraged learning in every possible way, with a single eye to the good of his people. He himself translated into the Saxon tongue, ' Bede's History of the Saxon Church,' '^sop's Fables,' ' The Psalms,' and other works. Many things have been attributed to Alfred which have no authority for their truth. He is said to have founded the University of Oxford, but of this there is no proof The division of the country into shires, hundreds, and tithings ; trial by jury, and other germs of English law, ' are attributed to him, but traces of all these are found be- fore his time. It is true, however, that he improved the happiness of his subjects by establishing a code of laws gathered together from the best laws of his predecessors, especially those of Ina, King of Wessex, OiFa of Mercia, and Ethelbert, the first Christian King of Kent ; and these he administered with such justice that crime became rare. Alfred died at Farringdon, Berks, and was 901 buried at Winchester, A.D. 20 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. CHAPTER III. EARLY SAXON KINGS— Continued. Edward ths Elder, son of Alfred, ascended the throne. jj-.- He equalled his father as a warrior and a ruler, and was only inferior to him in literary work. His right to the throne was disputed by his cousin, Ethelwald, the son of Ethelred I., who allied himself with the Danes of Northumbria and East. Anglia. In the war that followed, Ethelwald was slain, and Mercia, East Anglia, and Essex were recovered from the Danish yoke. Edward, welcomed as a deliverer, became the immediate sovereign of all England south of the Huraber, and was the first Saxon King to take the title of King of England. The Princes of Wales, Northumbria, Strath- clyde, and Scotland acknowledged his supremacy, and chose him ' as their father and lord.' This submission of Scot- land is worthy of notice ; for, from the time of Edward to the fourteenth century, Scotland was always regarded as a vassal kingdom,- and its homage was one of the rights of the English crown. Edward died at Farringdon, leaving many sons and daughters. (925 a.d.) Athelstan, the natural son of Edward, was then chosen Qrt^ king. He completed his father's work by making Northumbria part of his kingdom. The Danes, Welsh, and Scots combined together to throw off his supremacy, but they were completely overthrown in the battle of Bninanburgh (Bamborough ?), 987 a.d. This king was zealous in the cause of religion, and eager for the extension of commerce. A royal order was issued that the Bible should be translated into the Anglo-Saxon tongue, and a copy placed in every church ; and the title of Thane was granted to every merchant who made three voyages in bis own ship. Athelstan died at Gloucester. (940 a.d.) EAELY SAXON KINGS. 21 Edmund I., the Magnificent, son of Edward the Elder, succeeded Athelstan. The Danes, under Anlaf. «^^ 940 again becoming troublesome, were expelled from the Five Burghs — Derby, Leicester, Notting- ^'^' ham, Stamford, and Lincoln. The kingdom of Strathclyde was abolished, and the greater part of it — Cumberland, Galloway, and other districts — was granted to the King of Scotland. Edmund was murdered while at supper, at Pucklechurch, near Gloucester, by Leolf, a man whom he. had banished for robbery. (946 a.d.) Edred, son of Edward the Elder, was chosen king by the Witan, because Edmund's sons were too „,^ • 846 young to rule. The Northumbrian Danes again attempted to revolt, but the rebellion was im- mediately crushed, and garrisons were stationed in all their chief towns. The king's chief adviser was Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury. This ecclesiastic desired to introduce changes into the Church, which caused much opposition. The clergy then were divided into two parties — regular and secular. The regular were those who lived in monastic establishments, and were so called from the Latin word ' REGULA,' a rule. The secular were those who dealt with, or lived in, the ' s^culum,' or world, and who were the parish priCvSts. He attempted to enforce celibacy among the clergy, and .endeavoured to turn out the seculars from the cathedrals and chief churches. His influence was checked for a time by the death of Edred at Win- chester. (955 A.D.) Edwy, the Fair, son of Edmund I., became king. He was opposed to the policy of Dunstan in church matters. His betrothal to Elgiva (his cousin, it is said), the daughter of Ethelgina, a woman of high lineage, led to a quarrel with Dunstan. On the coronation day, Edwy left, for a while, the banquet-hall, for the apart- ments of Ethelgina and of his intended wife. Thither he was followed by Dunstan and Odo, Archbishop of Canter- bury ; the former forced the young king back to the ban- quet. The indignant Edwy, soon after, ordered Dunstan to give him an account of the royal treasure in his keeping; 22 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. being unable to comply, Dunstan fled to Flanders, Then Edwy married Elgiva, but the next year Odo, by a "^' solemn sentence, separated the king from his queen, declaring the marriage incestuous. The supporters of Odo and Dunstan caused the Mercians and Northumbrians to revolt from Edwy, and choose his brother Edgar as their king. They recalled Dunstan from banishment, and forced Edwy to content himself with the country south of the Thames. The death of this king soon followed, and the whole country was reunited under Edgar. (958 a.d.) Edgar, the Pacific, then ascended the throne. His whole QKQ reign was one of undisturbed peace. He made . Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury, on the death of Odo, and vigorously supported his policy against the seculars. In this reign the Saxon power in England reached its greatest height. His supremacy was acknow- ledged by the Welsh and the Scotch ; and the Danes of Northumbria, being allowed the privilege of making their own laws, never attempted the least opposition to his rule. He annually went through the country to ensure the right administration of justice ; and once, when visiting Chester, his barge was rowed on the Dee by eight vassal princes. To rid the country of wolves, he exacted yearly 300 wolves, heads from the "Welsh instead of their usual tribute ; and pardoned certain criminals on condition of destroying a spe.cified number of these animals. By his orders a standard of weights and measures was fixed. He increased the pros- perity of England by cultivating friendly intercourse and trade with foreign lands. Edgar died, 975 a.d., and was buried at Glastonbury, leaving two sons: Edward, by his first wife Ethelfleda, and Ethelred, by his second wife Elfrida. Edward, called the Martyr, v/as raised to the throne Q„t chiefly through the influence of Dunstan, although there was a strong party in favour of Elfrida's son. This king's reign was short. When hunt- ing near Corfe Castle, Dorsetshire, he paid a visit to his step-mother ; and while drinking a cup of wine as he was on the point of leaving, he was stabbed in the back by her EAEL^X SAXON KINGS. 23 orders. He galloped off, but, fainting from loss of blood, he fell from his horse and was dragged along the ground with his foot fast in the stirrup until he was dead. His sad death, 979 a.d., obtained for him from the monks, whom he so highly favoured, the narqie of ' martyr.' Ethelred II., the Unready, was ten years old when he became king. His long reign of thirty-seven ^^q years was one of misgovernment, misfortune, and disgrace. Two years after his accession, the Danish pirates, whose invasions had ceased since the time of Athelstan, renewed their attacks under Sweyn of Denmark and Olaf of Norway. The multiplication of monasteries in the previous reigns weakened the resources of the country both in money and men, and Ethelred's government was too weak and spiritless to cope with the invaders. The treachery, too, of some of the nobles weakened the English cause, so that in the year 991 a.d. the king thought it best to buy off the Northmen. The money for this purpose was obtained from the Dane-gelt, which was a tax of twelvepence on every hide of land, first levied to guard the coast against the Danes. This tax con- tinued to be levied till the reign of Henry II., when it was finally abolished. Payments of money only attracted fresh invaders. At last, Ethelred attempted to rid the country of these troublesome foes by a general massacre, ,^ Nov 1 3 which took place on the festival of St. Brice. ia'ao * Among the slain was Gunhilda, the sister of . A.D. Sweyn, King of Denmark, and, to avenge her death and that of his countrymen, Sweyn invaded the country in force and committed great ravages. From time to time his onset was stayed by grants of money; but .,^, « Sweyn, accompanied by his son Canute, crossed the sea with a fleet carrying the whole force of Denmark, for the purpose of conquering the island. He sailed up the Humber, and with the help of the Danish population of the north he made himself master at once of the district. He then passed to the south, and was acknowledged king of the whole country. Ethelred and his family were forced to take refuge in Normandy, which 24 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. was the native land of his wife, Emma, the sister of Eichard, 1014 the reigning Duke. Sweyn died early in the year A.D. after his conquest, at Gainsborough. Canute, his son, a youth of nineteen, was immediately proclaimed king by the Danish fleet, but the Witan decided to recall Ethelred and restore him to the throne on condition of ruling better. Canute was thus compelled to leave the country, but in revenge he cut oif the hands, noses, and ears of his Saxon hostages. In 1015 a.d. he returned with an immense fleet and ravaged the south of the island. In spite of much opposition, he soon obtained possession of the whole country, with the exception of London. As he was pushing on to attack this city, Ethelred died, and was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. (1016 A.D.) Edmund Ironside, son of Ethelred, was immediately inift acknowledged king by the citizens of London, but, as Canute was master of the remaining part of the country, the Witan offered him the crown at Southampton. Edmund, however, determined to fight to the death for the throne of his forefathers. In the course of seven months he fought six pitched battles with Canute. At the last battle, Assandun, the Dane was victorious, chiefly through the treachery of Edric, the brother-in-law of Edmund, and the chief of the Saxon nobility died sword in hand. Edmund, by no means discouraged, hastened to gather another army round his banner. Canute followed him into Gloucestershire ; but here, on an island in the Severn, called Ohiey, the two kings held a conference, and agreed to divide the kingdom between them. Edmund obtained all England south of the Thames, together with East Anglia, Essex, and London ; and Canute took the remainder. Edmund died the same year in London, whether naturally or by violence is not certainly known, and the whole realm fell to Canute. He left two infant sons, Edward and Edmund. DANISH KINGS. 26 CHAPTER IV. DANISH KINGS. 1017 A.D. to 1042 A.D.— 25 Years. 3 Kings. CANUTE (son of Sweyn) . . . .1017 a.j>. HAROLD HAREFOOT (son) .... 1035 HARDICANUTE (half-brother) . . ,1040 ", Canute assembled the Witan at London immediately after the death of Edmund Ironside, claimed as his right the throne of England, and was duly elected king. His next step was to rid himself of i^-f^^ all rivals. The three brothers of Edmund, viz., AD Edwy, Edward, and Alfred, were too dangerous to remain unmolested. Edwj, the most popular, was treacherously killed by Canute's orders, and the two others were compelled to take refuge in Normandy. In the first year of his reign, he married Emma, the widow of Ethel- red the Unready. It was then thought desirable to remove Edmund and Edward, the infant sons of Edmund Ironside, out of the way. They were sent to Sweden, where Canute's half-brother was reigning ; but, being a Christian man, he refused to do them harm, and sent them for safety to Stephen, the pious King of Hungary, where Edward married, and be- came the father of Edgar Atheling, Christina, and Margaret. Canute divided England into four divisions, keeping Wessex for himself, and appointing earls over the others. Amongst these earls we find the name of Godwin, the famous Earl of Kent. Some say that Godwin was the son of a Saxon churl, who won the favour of a powerful Danish chief during the wars of Edmund Ironside. He became a great favourite with Canute, and eventually the leading man in England. When Canute had made himself secure on the throne. 26 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. by putting to death or banishing those likely to become dangerous, he dismissed his Danish soldiers, excepting a body-guard of 3,000. He ruled the country according to Saxon law, and tried to create a good feeling between Dane and Saxon. By the help of his English subjects, he conquered Norway and Sweden, and exacted homage from Malcolm, King of Scotland. His later life was marked by zeal for religion. He went upon a pilgrimage to Rome, and there renewed the grant of Peter's pence to the Pope. He endowed monasteries, built churches, and devoted much money for other religious purposes. He is also said to have introduced Christianity into Denmark. On one occasion his courtiers said in flattery that his greatness was such that the sea would obey him. To rebuke their foolishness, he seated himself on the beach near Southampton, and ordered the waves to retire. Waiting until the tide had surrounded his chair, he then reminded his flatterers that his power was nothing compared with His who alone could say to the waves, ' Thus far shalt thou go, and no further.' Canute- died at Shaftesbury, and was buried at Win- chester. (1035 A.D.) By his first wife he had two sons, Sweyn and Harold ; and by his second wife, Emma, he had a son, Hardicanute, and a daughter, Gunhilda. When he died, Sweyn was ruling in Norway ; Hardicanute held possession of Denmark ; and Harold was in England. Harold Harefoot claimed the throne of England on his inQ*; ^^ther's death, and was strongly supported by the Danish party. Emma, Earl Godwin, and the chief men of Wessex claimed the throne for Hardicanute, in accordance with Canute's agreement with Emma on her marriage, though that prince had not a drop of English blood in his veins. To prevent a civil war, the Witan divided the country between the two claimants ; Harold was to reign north of the Thames, and Hardicanute in the south. The latter prince, however, wasted his time in Denmark, while his mother Emma and Earl Godwin looked afler his interests in England. Edward and Alfred, the sons of Ethelred the Unready and Emma, taking advantage of the divisions of the king- DANISH KINGS. 27 dom, made an attempt to recover their father s throne, but were forced to retire to Normandy. Alfred, the younger of the two, was soor afterwards enticed b^cfc, and, falling into the hands of Harold, was cruelly put to death at Ely. Earl Godwin was suspected of having a hand in this crime. As Hardicanute delayed to come to England, the Witan of Wessex deposed him,and elected Harold, 1037 a.d. Harold immediately banished Emma, who retired to the - ^.^ court of Baldwin of Flanders. He died at Oxford, having no children. Hardicanute was in Flanders with his mother, making great preparations for the invasion of England, when news of Harold's death reached him. The Witan offered him the throne, and he immediately sailed to Sandwich, in Kent, and was acknowledged king. He laid heavy taxes upon his subjects, and was altogether a rapacious, cruel, and bloodthirsty tyrant. He ordered Harold's body to be dug up, beheaded, and thrown into the Thames. It was afterwards recovered and secretly buried by the Danish population of London in their own burial-place outside the walls, where the church of St. Clement-le-Danes now •stands, in the Strand. Earl Godwin was accused of a share m Alfred's murder, tried, and acquitted. But to appease the king, he presented him with a splendid ship, having a beak of gold, and manned with eighty chosen warriors, all armed with the choicest weapons, and decorated with gold and silver. Hardicanute's excessive taxation excited a rebellious spirit in many parts of the country. In the city of "Worcester the collectors were set upon and killed. The king in revenge burnt the city and ravaged the country. He died suddenly in a drunken fit, at Lambeth, at ioaq a marriage festival, just as he was proposing the bride's health. He was buried at Winchester by the side of his father, and with him the direct line of Canute came to an end. Some time before his death, as he had no children, he sent for his half-brother Edward from Normandy, with a view to his succession to the crown. 2B HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. CHAPTER V. SAXON LINE RESTORED. 1043 A.D. to 1066 A.D.— 24 Years. 2 Kings. EDWARD III. (the Confessor) . . . 1042 a.d. HAROLD II. (son of Earl Godwin) . .1066 „ Edward III., son of Ethelred the Unready and Emma, was immediately chosen king on the death of Hardicanute. --.^ The Danish line, on account of the misconduct of the sons of Canute, had become hateful, and the A.D. . . ■ . . feeling of the nation demanded "a king of English blood. Edward, the second son of Ethelred, was the only English prince at hand. Since the accession of his half- brother Hardicanute, the English court had been his home. The son of Edmund Ironside, who had the best claim to the crown by right of descent, was an exile in a foreign land, and no one thought of him ; he had passed out of mind. There was a slight opposition to Edward in favour of Sweyn of Denmark, but the popular voice and the influence of Earl Godwin succeeded in placing upon tne throne a descendant of the royal house of Cerdic. Edward, on his accession, was about forty years of age. He was a man of moderate height, his face full and rosy, and his hair and long beard as white as snow. His manners were gentle and affable, and his character thoroughly religious. Though the son of an English king, his mother was a Norman, and twenty-seven years of his life had been spent in Normandy. His habits, feelings, and language were, therefore, Norman ; and under him the Norman Conquest of England, accomplished by Duke William, may be said to have begun. His Norman companions and friends came over in great numbers. These he enriched SAXON LINE RESTOEED. 29 with English estates, and raised to the highest honours in the kingdom. Norman priests were made bishops, Nor- man barons ruled as earls, Norman soldiers guarded the king's person, and French language and fashions became the rule of the English court. Thus- the soil of England was prepared for the foot of Norman William. Edward married Edith the Fair, the daughter of Earl Godwin, and thus further increased the power of this nobleman. This formidable earl ruled Wessex, Sussex, and Kent ; his son Sweyn, Gloucester and neighbouring counties ; and his son Harold ruled East Anglia. The northern part of Mercia and the northern counties were ruled by Earls Leofric and Siward respectively. These powerful earls were very jealous of the king's favour towards the Normans. There was a strong Saxon party opposed to Edward's Norman favouritism, and an occasion only was wanting to show how much the people disliked it. An opportunity was given for this in 1051 A.D., when Eustace, Count of Boulogne, the king's brother-in-law, was returning home from a visit which he had made to Edward at Gloucester. On coming to Dover, Eustace and his followers demanded food and shelter, as if in an enemy's country. The townspeople rose up in arms, and, after many had fallen on both sides, the Norman count left the town and returned to the king's court, where he told his tale in his own fashion. As Dover was under the rule of Godwin, the Earl was commanded to punish the burghers forthwith for this outrage upon the king's friend and relative. The earl refused, and demanded that Eustace and his followers should be surrendered for trial for their conduct to the people of Dover. Godwin backed up his demand by a display of military force, and threatened to make war upon the king. He w^as dissuaded from carrying out this threat by the interference of Siward and Leofric, and on their advice the dispute was referred to the next Witanagemot. In the meantime Godwin's friends withdrew their support, and the great earl and his sons were eventually outlawed, and left the country. The Earl's daughter, Edith, too, was sent away from court, and 30 HISTOEY OJF ENGLAND. confined in a nunnery at Wherwell. This overthrow of the Saxon leader was a triumph to the Norman party, and honours and offices were freely divided amongst them. About this time, Duke "William of Normandy paid a visit to Edward at London. On all sides, he saw evidences of Norman influence sufiicient to excite in his breast the hope of one day calling the kingdom his own. The spread of Norman power caused the people to long for the return of their outlawed patriotic earl, and mes- sage after message was sent to him in Flanders urging him to come back. Godwin joetitioned the king for a reconciliation, but in ^p.f'fy vain. However, in the summer of 1052 a.d., he landed on the south coast, and was heartily wel- comed by the great body of the nation. Edward, to avoid a civil war, became reconciled, and the earl and his sons were restored to their honours and possessions, and the Lady Edith returned from Wherwell to the court of her husband. The leaders of the Norman party, who had done so much mischief, -were outlawed, and only those foreigners were allowed to remain in the country ' whom the king liked, and who were true to him and all his folk.' In the following year, Godwin died, and was succeeded in his estates and honours by his son Harold. On the death of Siward, in 1055 a.d., Harold's brother, Tostig, Avas made Earl of Northumbria. The latter part of this reign was much disturbed by the incursions of the Welsh under King Griffith. Harold marched into Wales, and thoroughly subdued the people. Trouble next came from the north, where the people, disliking the rule of Tostig, had revolted from his authority. Uniting with the Mercians, they threatened war against Edward, if he persisted in forcing Tostig upon them. Harold advised the king to yield to their demands, and confirm their choice of Morcar, the grandson of Leofric of Mercia, for their earl. For this, Tostig vowed vengeance against his brother, and withdrew to Flanders. As Edward had no children, men's thoughts were busy about the succession to the crown. It was determined to send to Hungary for Edward, the son of SAXON LINE RESTOKED. SI Edmund Ironside, who, in 1017 A.D., had left England through fear of Canute. He returned, accompanied by his wife and three children, Edgar, Margaret, and Christina, but died soon after his arrival, 1057 a.d. Edward the Confessor died during the Christmas Wita- nagemot, and was buried in the West Minster, which was only consecrated a few days before ^^A/»' his death. About a century afterwards he was canonised, and was for a long time considered * ' the patron saint of England. There were many amiable and excellent points in the character of Edward. He was a lover of peace, an enemy to violence, force, and oppression, and he endeavoured to make his rule as light as possible. On the other hand, he was very superstitious and monkish, and scarcely equal to the government of the English nation. During this reign a body of laws was compiled from the codes of Ethelbert, Ina, and Alfred, which was afterwards known as the ' Laws of Edward the Confessor.' These are now lost. HAEOLD II. 1066 A.D. As soon as the body of Edward was placed in the tomb, Harold, the son of Earl Godwin, was proclaimed king in a vast assembly of the chiefs and nobles and of the citizens of London. The court v/as immediately cleared of foreign favourites, but they were allowed to remain in the country, and enjoy their possessions. There were two other claimants for the throne — Edgar the Atheling, grandson of Edmund Ironsides, and William, Duke of Normandy. Edgar, a boy of about ten years old, was at once passed over ; but William was not so easily got rid of. He said that Edward Lad appointed him his successor, and that Harold himself had promised on oath to support his right to the English crown. If this be true, Edward gave away what Avas not his own, for the disposal of the crown lay not Avith the king, but with the great coimcil of the nation ; and Htu'oid's oath was made through fear when he was ia 32 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. the power of William. "William determined to fight for what he considered his rights. All Normandy resounded with the din of preparation ; adventurers came to him from all parts — from the north and the south, from the banks of the Rhine, and even from beyond the Alps. Promises of fair lands and Saxon heiresses were freely held out to these soldiers of fortune ; domains, castles, and towns were offered to one and another; and thus 60,000 men were soon gathered together for the conquest of England, and a fleet of nearly 800 ships was provided for their transport. The alleged perjury of Harold obtained from Pope Alexander 11. the Papal sanction for the expedition ; and a decree, called a bull, from its round leaden seal, a consecrated banner, and a ring were sent to the Norman duke. One of the first to attend the Norman court at Rouen was Harold's brother, Tostig. William and Tostig had each married daughters of Baldwin, Count of Flanders. Tostig offered his services, and was supplied with a few ships, with which he ravaged the south-eastern coasts, and attempted a landing in North- umbria. Repulsed in this attempt, he sought the aid of Hardrada, King of Norway. With a fleet of 300 ships, Tostig and the Norwegian king sailed up the Humber, defeated the earls Edwin and I\Iorcar, and captured York. Harold was in the south, preparing for the invasion of William, when he heard of the trouble in the north. He immediately marched northwards, and surprised the invaders at Stamford Bridge, on the Derwent. A short parley took place before the battle. Harold offered his brother the earldom of Northumbria, if he would give up the war. ' But what,' said Tostig, ' shall my ally, the noble Hardrada, receive ? ' ' Seven feet of English ground for a grave, or a little more, as he is taller than common men ! ' was the reply. ' Ride back, ride back,' cried Tostig to the messenger, '■ and tell King Harold to prepare for the fight.' The armies then joined battle ; Hardrada, Tostig, and the flower of the Norwegian army were slain, and only twenty-three ships, the miserable remains of 300, returned to Norway. The battle of Stamford Bridge took place September 25. SAXON LINE KESTOEED. 33 Three days afterwards, the Normans landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, and immediately marched to Hastings. Harold was sitting at a feast in York when neAvs of the invasion reached him. He at once hurried south by forced marches with an army much diminished by the late battle and by stragglers. He further weakened his forces on reaching London by sending round a fleet of 700 ships in' the hope of cutting off the retreat of the Normans. Harold reached the hill of Senlac, nine miles from Hastings, October 13, and there he determined to await the attack of the enemy. A great part of the day was spent in negotiation, but Harold refused to resign the crown or settle the dispute in any way except by the sword. The night was spent by the Normans in religious exercises, and by the English in feasting and revelry. The morning of October 14 saw the two hosts on opposite hills, with a slight valley between ; the English, however, having the higher slope. The latter, without archers or cavalry, depended upon their favourite weapon, the battle-axe ; and, protected by ditches and palisades, they showed an impenetrable front to the foe. The strength of the Nor- man army lay in its armoured horsemen and its archers. At nine o'clock in the morning, the Normans rushed to the fight with the war-cry ' God help us,' and were received with the shouts of ' Holy Eood ' and ' Mighty God ' from the English ranks. For six hours the Norman horse tried in vain to pierce the Saxon host; again and again they were hurled headlong down. the hill. At one time a panic ran through the invading army ; a rumour spread that Duke William was killed and all was lost. The Duke himself unbarred his vizor, stopped the flying horsemen, and once more restored the battle. The Norman archers were now directed to shoot upwards, so that the arrows might fall perpendicularly, and the cavalry were instructed to feign retreat, in order to draw the English from their position. These plans succeeded ; the Saxons rushed down the slope, and were cut to pieces by the Norman horse. About this period of the battle Harold fell, pierced in the left eye by an arrow, and shortly afterwards his two 34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. brothers were slain around the standard. The English troops, broken and dispirited by the loss of their leaders, retreated to the woods in their rear, making a stand wherever they could to beat back their pursuers. The Normans paid dearly for their victory. Duke William had three horses killed under him ; and on the following morning, when the muster-roll was called over, 15,000 men were missing. The force of England still remained unconquered, but there was no leader to combat the invader. The death of Harold and the chief nobles of the south decided the fate of the kingdom, and thus the Battle of Senlac, Oct. 14, better known as the Battle of Hastings, gave to 1066 William the English sceptre. Harold's body was A.D. buried at Waltham Abbey, which he had founded and enriched. William afterwards founded Battle Abbey, near Hastings, and enjoined the monks to pray for the souls of the slain. Coronation of Harold. (From the Bayeux Tapestry. "I SAXON LINE RESTORED. [33] Anglo-Saxon Architecture. Earl's Barton Ghiarch, isrortliamptonshire. [34] HISTORY OF ENGLAND, a a Tower of London built . 1080 » Domesday Book compiled . . 1080-6 >j First Crusade proposed 1095 . Wm. II. Normandy conquered by Henry I. . 1106 Hen. I. Order of Knights Templars founded . . 1118 jj Prince "William drowned . . 1120 !> Matilda lands . . . . 1139 . Stephkk Prince Henry invades England 1153 » 76 HISTOKY OP ENGLAND. BATTLES, ETC. A.D. Battle of Hastings .... 1066. Siege of Gerberoi . . 1079. Battle of Tenchebrai .... 1106 ,, Brenville .... 1119 ,, the Standard il38 ,, Lincoln .... . lUl ,, Winchester .... . 1141 Siege of Oxford , 1142. HENKY IT. 77 PLANTAGENET LINE. 1154 A.D. to 1485 A.D.— 331 Years. 14 Kings. PLANTAGENET KINGS PROPER. A.D. HENRY II. . . .1154 RICHARD I. . . .1189 JOHN 1199 HENRY III. . . .1216 A.D. EDWARD I. . . . 1272 EDWARD 11. . . . 1307 EDWARD III. . . .1327 RICHARD II. . . . 1377 HENRY II. (Curtmantle). Born 1133 A.D. Began to Reign 1154 A.D. Died 1189 A.D. Henry's Accession and Power. Thomas a Becket. Eebellion of Henry's Sons. Death and Character. Conquest of Ireland. Miscellaneous Facts. Henry's Accession and Power. Henry II., the son of Matilda and Geoffrey of Anjou, was the first of the Plantagenet line of kings. The family name of Plantagenet was given to the first Earl of Anjou, Henry's great-grandfather, because he was accustomed to wear in his cap a sprig of broom, which, in the French language, was called plante-de-genet, from the Latin planta genista. At twenty-one years of age he ascended the throne of England, already in possession of great power, and with prospects most favourable. From his mother he inherited Normandy ; through his father he obtained Anjou, Touraine, and Maine ; and by his marriage with Eleanor of Aqui- taine, the divorced wife of Louis of France, he added to his other dominions all the provinces of France extending from the river Loire to the Pyrenees. In later years, the marriage of his son Geoffrey with the Duke of Bretagne's 78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. only daughter put that province also into his power, and then nearly one-half of France was under his rule. Henry began his reign by ridding the country of all the foreign mercenaries, who had been brought in during the late civil war, and by curbing the power of the nobility. The numerous castles built in the time of Stephen were destroyed ; order was restored in the kingdom by the ap- pointment of royal commissioners to administer justice ; and the goodwill of the people was gained by the grant of charters to many of the cities and chief towns. Thomas a Becket. Henry's chief adviser during the first six years of his reign was Thomas a Becket. Becket's father, Gilbert, was a London merchant, of Norman descent, and at one time held the office of Port-reeve, or Mayor, of London. Thomas, the eldest son, was born in 1118, and was educated, first at Merton Abbey, in Surrey, and then at Paris. He entered the service of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, and his industry and talent won for him the post of Archdeacon of Canterbury. When Henry came to the throne, the aged Theobald introduced him to the king's notice, who appointed him chancellor and tutor to his son. The chancellor's office was one of great dignity. He was the keeper of the king's seal, without which all charters and treaties were invalid ; he had the chief management of foreign affairs ; he distributed the royal alms, managed vacant Church livings, and was the king's most secret and trusty coun- sellor. Becket rose high in Henry's favour. A tall, handsome man, eloquent and witty, fond of all games of skill and sport, he seemed born for a court. His style of living was magnificent and luxurious ; the younger nobility flocked to his palace, and his table was always crowded with guests. Ever since the time of Dunstan, the Church had been steadily increasing in power and independence. Under the Norman kings, its influence and authority grew rapidly, so much so that the clergy considered themselves entirely independent of the State, and responsible only to their own HENRY II. 79 laws and the Pope. The chief officers of the Government and the great lords were always opposed to these claims, and quarrels in consequence were very frequent. When Theobald died, in 1162, Henry resolved to make Becket archbishop of Canterbury, thinking that he would help him in checking the power of the clergy. As chan- cellor, Becket sided with his royal master on this question, since his duty called him to uphold the king's cause. But from the day of his consecration as archbishop (June 3, 11G2 A.D.), Becket became a changed man. His former magnificence was laid aside ; his palace was no longer the abode of the young and the gay ; and luxury gave way to simplicity and self-denial. He wore sackcloth next his skin, lived on the commonest food, submitted himself to strict discipline, and thus obtained from the common people the name and respect of a saint. Alive to the important duties of his sacred office, he resigned his chancellorship, and devoted himself to the cause of the Church. Henry was bitterly disappointed at this conduct. Coolness sprang up between the two friends, and very soon the greatest dislike took the place of the warmest friendship. A dispute arose between the king and the archbishop concerning the trial of clergymen guilty of crime. The latter claimed to be tried in the Church courts, no matter what the nature of the offence might be, while, on the other hand, the king demanded that they should be tried for criminal offences before the lay courts of the land. About this time, there were many serious crimes committed by different clergymen for which the heaviest punishment of the Church tribunals was far too light. Henry, in con- sequence, summoned a council at Westminster, in 1163, and demanded of the bishops present that they should observe the customs of the realm, and surrender guilty clergy to the law courts. They consented to do so, * saving the rights of their own order.' This answer so dis- satisfied the king that a more formal council was ■t-icd. summoned the following year at Clarendon, in Wilts, and there the respective rights of the Church and the State were stated in sixteen articles or laws, kn^wn 5 80 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. as the Constitutions of Clarendon. These laws were in the king's favour. Becket at first refused to agree to them ; but on the threat of violence from some of the barons, he yielded. The Pope, however, refused to acknowledge the ' Consti- tutions,' and freed Becket from his promise of obedience. The quarrel with the king broke out again with greater force. Henry called a council at Northampton, with the view of crushing the archbishop, and the latter, believing his life to be in danger, fled to France, and put himself under the protection of the Pope. For six years Becket remained an exile. His character increased in sternness ; his haughty spirit remained unbroken ; his claims were put forth as boldly as ever. At length a reconciliation was made between him and Henry, through the mediation of Louis VII, of France. The cause of quarrel was left unsettled. Becket was al- lowed to return to England without any mention of the Constitutions of Clarendon. His journey to Canterbury was one long triumphal procession ; the people shouted, ' Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord ! ' His exile, however, had taught him nothing. Before he set foot on English ground, he issued an excommunication against the bishops of York, London, and Salisbury, because they had dared, at the king's request, to crown Prince Henry during his exile. When the king heard of this insolence, he cried out in a fit of passion, ' Is there no one in my kingdom who will rid me of this turbulent, base-born priest ? ' Four knights immediately left Nor- Dec. 29, mandy for England, went straight to Canter- 1170 bury, and murdered the archbishop on the steps A.D. of the altar of the cathedral. The murder of Becket was the worst thing that could have happened for Henry's cause. In order to obtain absolution for the rash words which led to the crime, the king promised to abolish all customs hostile to the Church, and to maintain 200 knights in the Holy Land for a year. Two years later, when attacked by his sons and the King of Scotland, he did penance at Becket's tomb, and sub- mitted to be scourged by the clergy of the cathedral. HENRY II. 81 The four knights who committed the murder were allowed to atone for the deed by a pilgrimage to Palestine, where they all died. Becket was canonised as a saint and martyr by the Pope in 1173 a.d., and for centuries afterwards his tomb was regarded as sacred, and thousands of pilgrims visited it every year. Conquest of Ireland. The conquest of Ireland is one of the most important events of this reign. The island was known to the Eomans by the name of Hibernia, but they never attempted to add it to their empire. About the middle of the fifth century, St. Patrick began to preach Christianity there, and suc- ceeded in destroying Druidism, which had found in the island its last stronghold, r- During the Saxon period, Ireland was noted for its schools of learning, and was then known as the * Island of Saints.' The Danes, or Ostmen, as they were called, ravaged the country, but their in- vasion left it unchanged. A few cities, however, as Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick, were colonised by these Ostmen, and in the time of Henry II. they had grown into some importance. The natives, though Christianised, con- tinued very rude and barbarous. The men wore long yellow hair in tangled masses over their shoulders, and a jacket of sheepskin adorned with patches of various colours. They usually went about with an axe, which was used, like the modern shillelagh, on the slightest provocation. Their houses were huts of wood and wickerwork. The chief, who could not sleep in a bed when he came to the English court, was a fair sample of his countrymen. Like the Welsh, they were very fond of music, and excelled in the use of the harp. William the Conqueror intended to carry his arms into Ireland, had he lived long enough. The Irish pirates had often ravaged the English coasts, and carried off many prisoners, whom they sold as slaves. William Rufus once said, as he stood on the coast of Wales, that he would bridge St. George's Channel with a bridge of ships. In the 82 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. year 1154 a.d., application was made to Pope Adrian IV. — the only Englishman ever Bishop of Rome — for a grant of the island to the English crown. The grant was made on the understanding that the king should make the natives pay yearly to the Eoman see a penny from every house, and put down all vice. It was no easy thing, however, to take possession of the country, and years passed away before the project was put into execution. Quarrels amongst the native princes gave to the English king the opportunity he wished for. Ireland at that time had settled down into five kingdoms — Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, Munster, and Meath — each of which was governed by a native prince, of whom one was styled Ardriagh, or war-king, a term corresponding to the Saxon Bretwalda. Dermot, King of Leinster, had run away with the wife of O'Ruarc, Prince of Leitrim, and was driven from his possessions by the King of Connaught. Coming to Henry, he offered to hold Leinster as an English fief, if the king would assist him to regain it. Henry gave per- mission to any of his -subjects who liked to join Dermot. Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke, offered his services on the promise of receiving Dermot's daughter Eva in marriage, and the succession of Leinster as a dowry. Three other adventurers — Eobert Fitz-Stephen, Maurice Fitz-Gerald, and Maurice de Prendergast — joined the expedition. In May 1169 a.d., Fitz-Stephen landed near Wexford with a force of 4G0 men, and was at- once joined by 500 men under Dermot. The town immediately surrendered, and Dermot soon recovered his kingdom. In the following year Strongbow landed with 1,200 men, and captured Water- ford and Dublin. A confederate Irish army under the King of Connaught, assisted by a Norwegian fleet from th^ Isle of Man, made a gallant effort to drive the invaders out of Dublin, but the natives, unprotected with armour, had little chance against the mail-clad Norman soldiers. Six hundred of the latter were sufficient to put to flight 30,000 Irish. Strongbow had become King of Leinster without Henry's permission ; bnt, feeling himself unable to main- tain himself in opposition to the natives, he hurried to HENEY II. 83 England and promised to surrender Dublin and all the fortified post? of Leinster to the king, and hold the province as a fief of the English crown. Henry and the earl set sail for Ireland from Milford Haven, with a fleet of 400 ships, and a force of 500 knights and many archers, and landed near Waterford. All the --J- princes and chiefs, excepting those of Ulster, sent in their submission, and did homage to Henry in Dublin for their lands. The laws of Ireland remained un- changed, except amongst the English settlers, who lived in the district called the English Pale, which consisted of Dublin, Meath, Leinster, and the country from "Waterford to Dungarvan, This territory was strongly protected by a line of fortresses and palisaded redoubts — hence its Norman name of Pal, or the Pale. Beyond the Pale, the English authority Vv^as simply nominal. Henry spent the winter in the island, and returned to England, April 1172, with the new title of ' Lord of Ireland.' Bebellion of Henry's Sons. As a great part of France belonged to the King of England, it was the policy of the French monarch to stir up strife in Henry's family, in order to weaken his power. He therefore encouraged the sons of the English king — Henry, Richard, and Geoffrey — to claim portions of their father's possessions, and make war upon him in case of refusal. Henry's wife Eleanor and the King of Scotland joined in the intrigue, and several of the nobility in England and Normandy were ready to take up arms against their sove- reign. In the war that followed, the cause of Henry triumphed both in England and France. After forcing King Louis to retreat, Henry, sad at heart on account of his sons' conduct, did penance at Becket's tomb, in the sum- mer of 1174 A.D,, by walking barefoot to the shrine of the ' Martyr,' and allowing the monks of the abbey to scourge him there with knotted cords. The same day, the Scotch king, William the Lion, was surprised at Alnwick and cap- tured. The defeat of the Scots brought the war to an 34 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. end, and peace was made, September 1174 a.d. William the Lion did homage for his kingdom, and Henry's sons were allowed certain castles in France ; but Eleanor the Queen paid for her disloyalty by a long imprisonment of twelve years. In 1183 A.D. war again broke out between the king and his sons. In the midst of it, Prince Henry was stricken down with fever, and, feeling the approach of death, ho implored his father to visit him and grant him forgiveness. The king sent him a ring in token of pardon, but feai of treachery kept him away from his son's death-bed. Geoffrey then made peace with his father ; and three years afterwards he died. Eichard, the third son, again joined the King of France in a war against his father, and forced him to make a humiliating peace, 1189 a.d. Death and Character. At Henry's own request, a list of the barons who had joined Eichard against him was given into his hands. The first name that met his eye was that of the only son whom he still loved and trusted — John. That one name was enough : grief brought on a fever, of which he died at the castle of Chinon, in Normandy, exclaiming, * Cursed be the day on which I was born, and cursed of ^JqJ Grod the children I leave behind me ! ' His body was buried in the Abbey of Fontevraud ; and as it lay there in state, Eichard came to look upon the dead face of the father whom he had so wronged in life. Henry's features were those of his mother's family. He was a man of middle size, and, on the whole, very much like William the Conqueror in person. He was ambitious and crafty ; able and energetic ; but very passionate and unhappy in domestic life. To win success was his chief object in life, no matter by what means. England flourished under his rule, and the administration of justice was, greatly improved. Of his five sons — William, Henry, Eichard, GeofFr ey, and John — only Eichard and John survived him. He had HENRY II. 85 three daughters, of whom Maud married the Duke of Saxony, whose son William was the first Duke of Bruns- wick, and hence the ancestor of the present royal family of England ; and Joan married the King of Sicily. Penance of Henry II. before Becket's Shrine. (From an Ancient Painting on G-lass.) Miscellaneous Facts. Several changes were made for the better administration of justice in this reign. The highest judicial court under the Norman kings was called the King's Court, or Curia Regis, and was composed of the bishops, barons, and chief officers of State. On ordinary occasions the judges in this 86 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. coui-t were the chief justiciary, tlie chancellor, the treasurer, and other great officers. The lesser courts were the same as in Saxon times, only they were subject to the Curia Kegis. In course of time it was found necessary to divide the King's Court : so the Court of Exchequer was formed in the reign of Henry I., the Court of King's Bench in the reign of Henry II., and that of Common PleaS in the reign of Eichard I. The Court of Exchequer decided all causes relating to the royal revenue ; it was so called from the chequered cloth, resembling a chess-board, whicli covered the table there, and on which, when certain of the king's accounts were made up, the sums were marked and scored by counters. The Court of King's Bench heard principally criminal causes, and such as related to the controlling of inferior courts : it received its name because the king used to sit there in person. The Court of Common Pleas, or common complaints, was for trials of disputes between subject and subject. In 1176 A.D. the kingdom was divided into six circuits, and three justices appointed to each, in order to save suitors the trouble and expense of attending the King's Court. These officers were called the Justices in Eyre, or itinerant justices. The Grand Assize was another institution of this reign. Since the Conquest, disputes about the ownership of land had been usually settled by the duel ; but Henry II. introduced the Grand Assize, by which disputants might decide their case, if they chose to do so, instead of by wager of battle. According to this institution, the sheriff summoned four knights of the county or neighbourhood, who were to elect twelve others from the district, and these sixteen were to declare upon oath with whom the right of the disputed property lay. The present ' grand jury ' sprang from this custom. Scutage, or escuage, was a money payment to the king instead of personal service. It originated in 1159 a.d., when Henry, on account of the extent of his dominions, freed his vassals from personal service in distant parts, on condition of receiving money payments. HENEY II. 87 Commerce increased in this reign. The Crusades brought the produce of the East to the West, and spices, gems, rich cloths, and gold, were consequently sent to London. England exported flesh, herrings, oysters, lead, tin, skins, and cloths. In 1177 a.d., glass was used for windows in private houses. London became the capital, instead of Winchester, which had been nearly destroyed in the civil war of the previous reign. The Constitutions of Clarendon provided: — 1. That the clergy should no longer be protected by the ecclesiastical courts. 2. That clergy of rank should not leave the realm without the king's permission. 3. That laymen should not be proceeded against in bishops' courts. 4. That the king's tenants should not be excomm-ymicated, nor their lands placed under an interdict, without the king's consent. 5. That appeals from the spiritual courts might be made to the king. 6. That the higher clergy holding lands of the king should perform all the rights and customs of their fief. 7. That chattels forfeited to the king should not be pro- tected in churchyards. 8. That church dignitaries should be elected in the king's chapel, with the king's consent, and do homage and fealty before consecration. 9. That villeins should not be ordained without the consent of their lord. H1S.T0EY OF ENGLAND. BICHAED I. (Coeur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted). Born 1167 A.D. Began to Reign 1189 A.D. Died 1199 A.D Accession. Massacre of the Jews. The Third Crusade. [ment. Richard's Eeturn and Imprison- Wars in France. Death and Character. Miscellaneous Facts. Eichard's Accession. Treatment of the Jews. KiCHARD, eldest surviving son of Henry II., and already Duke of Aquitaine, was crowned at West- 'iiqq' iiiinster. The sight of his father's corpse, on the way to the Abbey of Fontevraud, had made him penitent for his rebellious conduct, and he showed his sorrow by keeping the old servants of the crown at their posts, or promoting them. The Jews suffered terribly in the beginning of this reign. Although they were not on a footing of equality with the rest of the people, and were treated! as aliens, yet they had multiplied and grown so rich as to become the money-lenders of the nation. High and low regarded them with fear and hatred; stories of their cruelties to Christian children passed from one to another ; and the crusading spirit, which led men abroad against the infidel, roused men's hatred against unbelievers at home. On the king's coronation, some Jews, bearing rich presents, went to the abbey, in order to obtain his favour. They were driven back with blows, set upon by the mob, and several of them murdered on the spot. The Jewish quarter of the city was imme- diately attacked, plundered, and set on fire, and neither age nor sex was spared in the cruel onset. A day passed before the rioters could be stopped, but no one was punished for the crime. Thus encouraged or allowed, the murderous spirit spread through the country, and Lynn^ RICHAED I. 89 Dunstaple, Stamford, Norwich, Lincoln, and York, became the scenes of rapine aad butchery. At York a frightful tragedy took place. Five hundred unfortunate Jews took refuge in the castle, and were besieged by the townspeople. They offered money for their lives, but the crowd outside clamoured for blood. Seeing no hope of escape, each mar- ried man slew his wife and children, and then plunged the weapon into his own breast ; the survivors shut themselves up with their treasures, and set fire to the building. A fine was levied by the king for the disorders that followed, but the murderers escaped punishment. The Third Crusade. Eichard's chief ambition was to win glory in the Holy Land. As soon as the coronation had taken place, mea- sures were at once set on foot to get money for a crusading expedition. The crown lands, honours, and offices of State were put up for sale ; sheriffs and their officers were re-- moved, that their places might be sold ; the right of supe- riority over the crown of Scotland was given up for 10,000 marks; and the chancellorship of the kingdom was sold to William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, for 3,000 marks. The king felt no shame in this ; he even said he would sell London itself, if he could find a buyer. Having by these means raised a large army, he set sail from Dover, leaving the kingdom under the regency of Longchamp, and joined Philip Augustus of France at Yezelai, on the borders of Burgundy, where the united forces amounted to - - q^v 100,000 men. Leaving Marseilles, the kings went to Sicily, and there passed the winter. Here a quarrel arose between Philip and Eichard, because the English pillaged the town of Messina, in revenge for King Tancred's refusal to restore the dowry of Eichard's sister Joan, the widow of the late king. After leaving Sicily, another delay took place at Cyprus. Isaac, the king of the island, had thrown some shipwrecked crusaders into prison, and Eichard stayed to conquer the district and punish its ruler. Here, too, Eichard married Berengaria, the daughter 30 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. of the King of Navarre, who had accompanied him from Sicily. Twelve months after first setting out, the Enghsh king arrived at Acre. For two years the crusaders 1191 had been trying to take that city, and already A.D. 200,000 men had fallen before its walls. Saladin, the Mahomedan King of Syria and Egypt, was watching the besiegers from the neighbouring hills, whence, at every opportunity, he bore down on the Christian lines, and spread destruction far and wide. Richard's arrival gave new spirit to the crusaders. His perseverance, courage, and bravery overcame all obstacles, and in three months the city was captured. Saladin made a truce with the conquerors, and withdrew his forces. After the fall of Acre, Philip returned to France, on the plea of ill-health. He swore friendship and peace with Richard, and left a division of his army under his com- mand. The English king was adored by the common soldiers for his bravery and liberality, but he was hated by the princes for his overbearing manner. Leopold Duke of Austria never forgave him for having torn down his flag from the gate of Acre. Philip's departure broke up the Christian army ; but Richard marched down the coast for Jerusalem at the head of 30,000 men. Saladin, unmindful of the truce, hung about him and harassed his line of march. At Ascalon and Jaffa the Christian army was only saved from destruction by Richard's skill and bravery. In spite of all opposition, he arrived within sight of Jerusalem ; but disease, desertion, and bloody victories ' had so reduced his army that an attack upon the Holy City was hope- less. He withdrew his forces to the sea-shore, and, after repulsing one last effort of the Turks to destroy him, he made a truce of three years with Saladin. It was agreed that pilgrims should be allowed to visit Jerusalem without being subject to insult and annoyance ; but Richard, receiv- ing bad news from England, was obliged to hurry "'^ home ; and so his foot never trod the Holy City. ■ ' Long after his departure his name lived amongst the Saracens. Mothers quieted their children by crying, RICHAED I. 91 ^Hush! hush! King Eichard is coming for you!' If a horse started at any object by the wayside, its rider would say, ' What dost thou fear, fool ? Dost thou think King Richard is behind it ? ' Richard's Return and Imprisonment. During Eichard's absence, the government of England fell into great disorder, through the oppressive rule of Longchamp and the treacherous conduct of Earl John. This state of things was made known to the king in Palestine, and he prepared to return home with his queen and attendants. A storm separated ^ ^ qo him from the rest of his fleet, and drove his ship up the Adriatic, where he was wrecked off the coast of Istria. Knowing the bad feeling against him in Germany, on account of his quarrel with Leopold of Austria, he and his companions disguised themselves as pilgrims, and attempted in this way to pass through the country. Under the name of Hugh the Merchant, he reached the neighbourhood of Vienna, where fatigue compelled him to rest^awhile. Eumours of his landing had spread through- out the duchy, and when his page was seen in the market of Vienna buying provisions with foreign money, and carrying in his girdle the king's gloves, suspicion was aroused, the boy was seized, and Eichard's hiding-place discovered. The Duke of Austria took him prisoner, and afterwards, for 60,000Z., handed him over to the Emperor of Germany, Henry VI., who confined him for fourteen months in a castle in Tyrol. By degrees Eichard's cap- tivity became known, and though his brother John and Philip of France plotted to keep him in prison, the ■. =• qyi emperor released him on payment of a ransom of 100,000 marks, which was raised by the taxa- tion of the English people.^ Eichard's return to England ' The story of the discovery of Eichard's place of imprisonment by Blondel, the minstrel, singing near the castle a song known to the king, and which the latter answered from within, rests upon no authority, and may he considered as a pretty romance. 92 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. upset the plans of his brother, who had done h^s best to usurp the throne, and who was at that very time in- triguing with Philip of France. John, however, was no match for Richard ; the Council deprived him of all his possessions for his unnatural conduct, but the king, at the earnest entreaty of his mother Eleanor, at last forgave him. Wars in France. Death and Character. The remainder of this reign was spent in profitless wars in France. Philip had taken possession of some castles in Normandy during Richard's absence, and the latter, as soon as affairs were settled in England, crossed the Channel, and forced the King of France to withdraw Q from those places. The war between the two kings was carried on very slowly, from lack of funds, and after the defeat of the French at Gisors, a truce was concluded. During these quarrels, the people of England were heavily taxed. So great was the discontent in London on this ac- count, that 50,000 men, under the leadership of William Fitz-Osbert, or Longbeard, threatened a revolt. Long- beard, however, and nine of his companions, were seized and executed at Tyburn. Three months after the truce with Philip, Richard met with his death in a petty quarrel with one of his vassals, Vidomar, Viscount of Limoges, who had found a treasure upon his estate. Richard demanded the whole of it to be given up to him, and, on being refused, besieged Vidomar in the castle of Chaluz. One day, as the king was riding round the walls, an arrow from the ramparts struck him on the shoulder. The wound was not serious, but the unskilful way in which the arrow-head was taken out F^QQ ' brought on mortification, and death ensued in a few days. The archer, Gourdon , who sent the fatal missile, was brought to the dying king's bedside. ' Wretch,' said the king, * what have I ever done to thee that thou shouldst seek my life ?' ' With your hand,' replied the archer, * you killed my father and my two brothers j I RICHAED I. 93 am willing to suffer the greatest torment you can inflict, so that you die who have caused so many evils to mankind.' Richard, admiring the boldness of the man, and recalling his own violent life, said, * I forgive thee ! ' ' Loose his chains, and give him a hundred shillings ! ' The order, however, was not obeyed ; Gourdon was flayed alive, and then hanged. Richard was buried at the feet of his father at Fonte- vraud. Though he had reigned ten years, scarcely six months of that time was spent in England. He had no children by his wife Berengaria. In moral character, he was no better than William Rufus. His bravery, strength of body, and skill as a troubadour, made him a favourite hero of romance. He obtained the name of Coeur de Lion from his courage and muscular strength ; but though his warlike spirit checked for a time the Turkish power, and made him the prince and flower of knightsrerrant, it greatly impoverished his own country. Miscellaneous Facts. The famous outlaw Robin Hood lived in this reign. In Sherwood Forest he took up his abode; and there he hunted the king's deer, and robbed all who came in his way. Coats of Al'ms now came into use. During the Crusades, armour-clad knights wore devices upon their shields, in order to be known in battle. Richard adopted for his device the three lions which are now seen in the royal arms of England. The motto ' Dieu et mon droit ' is said by some to have originated from these words having been Used by him as his watchword at the battle of Azotus, in Palestine. Others assign its adoption to Edward III., in reference to his claim to the French crown. The Mayor and aldermen of London are said to date from this reign. The first Mayor was Fitz-Alwyn. The title Lord Mayor was first given by Edward III. in 1354. 94 HISTORY OIT ENGLAND. JOHN (Sansterre or lackland). Born 1166 A.D. Began to Reign 1199 A.D. Died 1216 A.D Accession. Prince Arthur. Loss of French Provinces. Quarrel with the Pope. War with Prance. Magna Charta. War with the Barons. Death and Character. Miscellaneous Facts. Accession. Prince Arthur. Loss of French Provinces. John, Duke of Mortaigne, was the youngest son of Henry II. He was sumamed Sansterre or Lackland, because he held no fiefs of the crown, like his elder brothers. He was in Normandy when his brother died, but, hurrying over to England, he told the Council that Eichard had named him his successor, and, after a speech in his favour by the Archbishop of Canterbury, he was crowned at 1 1 qq' Westminster. The rightful heir to the throne was Arthur, Duke of Bretas;ne, the son of John's A.D. ° elder brother Geoffrey, then twelve years old. As soon as Eichard died, the barons of Anjou, Maine, and Touraine appointed Arthur as their lord ; and Philip of France took up his cause and claimed for him all the Con- tinental possessions of the English crown. Philip, how- ever, was bribed to abandon Arthur's cause, and the latter became friendly with his uncle for a little while. In the meantime John, having divorced his first wife Joan, granddaughter of the famous Eobert of Gloucester, married Isabella of Angouleme, the affianced wife of the Earl of Marche, and thus raised up for himself another powerful enemy in France. Philip, glad of an opportunity of quarrelling with John, was easily persuaded by the Eail of Marche to renew hostilities. Arthur at once joined Philip. In an attempt to take the castle of Mirabeau, near JOHN. 9d Poitiers, where John's mother was staying, the young prince was taken prisoner. He was strictly con- ^ fined for a time in the castle of Eouen, but what eventually became of him, no one ever knew. It was popularly believed that John rowed up the Seine to the castle one dark night, accompanied by a couple of hired assassins, and having taken Arthur into the boat, they stabbed him, and threw his body, loaded with stones, into the river. Whether this is true or not, we cannot say ; but no mortal eye ever beheld the poor boy afterwards. John's guilt, however, was fully believed at the French court. Philip summoned him to answer before his peers of France the charge of murdering a vassal of the French crown, and a near relation of the king. To this summons he paid no attention. He was adjudged, therefore, guilty of the crime, and pronounced to have forfeited all his fiefs in France. Almost immediately every one of the English possessions in France, excepting Guienne and a part of Poitou, fell into the hands of the French king. Quarrel with the Pope. War with France. On the death 'of Herbert, Archbishop of Canterbury, the monks of the cathedral secretly elected their Superior to be his successor, and sent him off to Rome to obtain the Pope's confirmation. John ordered the monks to elect his friend John de Gray, Bishop of Norwich, to the vacant see, and he forthwith was sent to Rome. But the bishops of the province of Canterbury petitioned the Pope against both elections, on the ground that they had not been con- sulted. The Pope at that time was Innocent III., a man of great ability, jealous of his authority, and ambitious of power. He set aside the two elections, and recommended to the monks of Canterbury a learned Englishman, named Stephen Langton, who was then at Rome. The monks agreed to accept the Pope's choice, and a letter was sent by Innocent to the king, announcing Langton as the new arch- bishop. *rhe news lashed John into fury, and he swore that 9S HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. Langton should never enter his dominions. He imme- diately sent armed men to Canterbury, who entered the monastery with drawn swords and forced the monks to depart forthwith. Innocent, on the other hand, threatened to place the country under an interdict, unless the king at once submitted. The threat was of no avail, and 1208 the interdict was published, by which for six A.D. years the country was deprived of the privileges and comfort of religion. The churches were closed ; the bells were silent in the steeple ; churchyards were closed for burial, and the dead were thrown into un- consecrated ground without a prayer or any sacred rite. Only to infants and dying persons were the Sacraments allowed to be administered. John cared nothing about the interdict ; he plundered the clergy who obeyed it, and ordered the sheriffs to drive them out of the kingdom. It is remarkable that while the country was under an interdict John had his greatest successes in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. In 1209 a.d. he made William King of Scotland do homage, and pay him a fine of 15,000 marks. In 1210 a.d., he landed in Ireland, and received the homage of its chiefs. He divided the English province into counties, and established the Jaws of -England among those who had settled there. The following year he invaded Wales, and received the submission of Llewellyn and twenty-eight noble youths as hostages. As John continued indifferent to the interdict, the Pope pronounced sentence of excommunication against him, by which his subjects were absolved from their 1212 allegiance, and the throne declared vacant. The A.D. Pontiff then empowered Philip of France to take the crown of England, and called upon all Christian princes to assist the enterprise. Though John had an army of 60,000 men under his command, he felt little confidence in their fidelity, and he became greatly alarmed at the preparations of the French king. The fleet of the Cinque Ports, indeed, was not idle. Dieppe and a few other places on the northern coast of France were burnt ; but this could not prevent an invasion. Thoroughly alarmed, JOHN. 97 John sent a messenger to Rome, with offers of submission, and immediately Pandulf was sent as papal legate to England, to arrange matters with the king. Near Dover, the latter took off his crown, laid it at Pandulf s feet, and signed a document by which he granted to the Pope the kingdom of England and Ireland, and, in token of ^ qi o vassalage, promised to pay an annual sum of 1,000 marks to the Holy See. On these conditions the excommunication and interdict were withdrawn, and Philip was ordered to give up the idea of invading England. This king, however, having spent much money in preparing to carry out the Pope's wishes, expressed his determination to go on with the enterprise, but on the refusal of his chief ally, the Earl of Flanders, to give any further assistance, he turned his arms against his territory, and ravaged it as far as the walls of Ghent. John sent out a fleet to assist the earl, which gained an important victory over the -in-io French at Damme, and thus preserved the in- dependence of Flanders. Encouraged by this success, the English king invaded France on the western side, while part of his forces joined his allies, the Earl of Flanders and Otho Emperor of Germany, on the north. Their defeat at Bouvines, between Lisle and -in-tA Tournay, compelled John to make a truce of five years, and he returned to England much dis- appointed. Magna Charta. John's rule had from the first been most oppressive. He broke the laws whenever it pleased him ; he trespassed upon the rights of the nobility and disgraced many of their homes. The common people were also treated with the greatest harshness, and the Jews especially suffered from his exactions. One of the latter people, living in Bristol, having refused to pay a demand of 10,000 marks, John threw him into prison, and ordered one of his teeth to be 98 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. drawn daily until he should give up the money. The Jew lost seven teeth before he yielded. Discontent with the king's bad conduct and government became so general that the barons determined to check his tyranny. At a great meeting of bishops and barons, Stephen Langton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, made known the charter of liberties of Henry I. The assembly at once resolved to make it the basis of a demand for the redress of grievances, and at subsequent meetings at Bury St. Edmund's, London, and Stamford, they drew up a charter which they were determined the king should sign. John at first hesitated, for the purpose of gaining time, and at length refused to agree to the demands, exclaiming; ' They may as well ask for my crown ! ' But the barons were determined, and having made Robert FitzWalter their leader, with the title of ' Marshal of the Army of God and of Holy Church,' they took possession of London, and made war against the king, in spite of the Pope's commands to the contrary. The loss of London brought John to his senses, and, seeing the hopelessness of opposition, he met the barons at Runnymede, between Windsor and -jT,-^' Staines, and there fixed his seal to the Magna Charta, a document ever memorable and famous A.D. as the charter of English liberties. Magna Charta was written in Latin, and is still pre- served in the British Museum. It has been ratifi-ed thirty-nine times by different monarchs of England ; the last one who did so was Henry VI. Its principal clauses relate:—!. To the Church. 2. To the barons. 3. To traders. 4. To freemen generally. The Church was to possess all her privileges ; the barons were protected from all unjust taxation ; London and other towns retained their privileges of trade ; and for fre'emen it was provided ' that no freeman should be imprisoned, or lose his freehold, or free customs, or be outlawed, or otherwise punished, but by the judgment of his peers or by the law of the land ; that justice should not be sold, or denied, or delayed ; that all men might travel out of the kingdom and return when they pleased.' JOHN. 99 War with the Barons. Death and Character. After the meeting at Runnymede, John withdrew to the Isle of Wight, vowing revenge against his rebellious barons. Messengers were at once sent abroad to gather an army of mercenaries, and ambassadors were despatched to the Pope to solicit his condemnation of the Charter. The Pope pronounced the document to be null and void, inas- much as the realm belonged to him. Bands of needy adventurers flocked over from the Continent, and enabled John to take the field against his own subjects. The lands of the barons were ravaged far and wide ; castles, towns, and villages were given to the flames, and everywhere the revenge of the cruel king was most complete- The barons, in despair, offered the crown to Louis, the eldest son of the King of France, and John's nephew by marriage. This prince set sail from Calais with 680 ships, landed in the Isle of Thanet, and soon took possession of all the southern and eastern counties. Jealousy, however, at the favours bestowed upon the new-comers, was fast weakening the army of Louis, and many English barons withdrew their support. In the meantime «John was marching from the north to meet his rival, but as he was crossing the Wash the tide came up and carried away all his baggage, stores, and treasures. Disappointment and grief brought on a fever, of which he died at Newark Castle. ic)\a' Some writers say that a surfeit of peaches and new ale was the cause of his sickness; others, that he died of poison. John's death was a happy release for his country. His character was a mixture of everything bad. Nothing good can be said of him. He was mean, treacherous, debauched, tyrannical, cruel, and cowardly. Some of his actions can only be accounted for on the supposition that he was for the time mad. By his last wife Isabella he had two sons and three daughters' — Henry, who became king ; Richard; Joan, who married Alexander II. of Scotland; Eleanor, who married, 100 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. first, William Earl of Pembroke, and afterwards Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester ; and Isabel, who married Frederick II., Emperor of Germany. Miscellaneous Facts. Chimneys came into occasional use in this reign. The first. stone bridge at London was completed, 1209 a.d. JOHN. [99] m m II P3 I s ;=( J3 [100] HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Orossbowman and Military Architecture of the 14ih Century. HENKY III. 101 HENRY III. (Winchester). Sorn 1207 A.D. Began to Reign 1216 A.D. Died 1272 A.D. Regency of Pembroke. Hubert de Burgh. Disputes witli France, Scotland, and Wales. War with the Barons. First House of Commons. Battle of Evesham, Death and Character of the King. Miscellaneous Facts. Regency of Pembroke and Hubert de Burgh. The royal family was at Gloucester when John died. His eldest son, Henry, a boy nine years old, was immediately crowned in that city, and the Earl of Pembroke was made Protector of the kingdom. The first step of the regent was undertaken to win over to the young king's side the English barons who supported Louis. For this purpose he assembled a great council at Bristol, and confirmed the Great Charter. Louis held possession of London and the southern counties, and was by no means willing to give up his chance of the crown, but his partiality to his own country- men, the death of John, and the wise conduct of the Earl of Pembroke, caused many of his English supporters to rally round young Henry. Pembroke attacked the forces of the French prince at Lincoln, and completely routed them. This battle is known as the Fair 1217 of Lincoln, on account of the great spoil that a.d. fell to the victors. Louis retreated to London, and was there shut in by the English forces, while the 6 102 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ships of tlie Cinque Ports, under Hubert, de Burgh, defeated a Fren oil fleet, off Dover, carrying reinforcements to the capital. The victory was due to a trick of De Burgh, who, having the wind in his favour; threw quicklime into the air, which, wafted into the eyes of the French, made them entirely helpless. Louis, after this defeat, came to terms with the regent, and returned to France. (Sept. 1217 A.D.) In the third year of his regency. Earl Pembroke died. The custody of the young king was then given into the hands of Peter de Eoches, the Poitevin Bishop of Winchester, and Hubert de Burgh was appointed Protector of the kingdom. Between these two men quarrels were frequent, and, in consequence, many difficulties arose in the government of the country. When the king reached the age of seventeen years, the guardianship of De Eoches ceased, and De Burgh became Henry's friend and chief adviser. The bishop, vexed at his loss of influence and power, went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. De Burgh held the office of protector for eight years, during which time he conducted the government with vigour and decision. Henry was declared of age in 1227 a.d., and then Hubert devoted himself to his office of justiciary. Three years afterwards, the king .made an unsuccessful expedition against France, and threw the blame upon his friend De Burgh. Just then Peter de Eoches returned to England, and was received with open arms by Henry. Ruin stared the justiciary in the face. Unpopular for his vigorous protectorate, blamed for the failure of the expe- dition to France, and hated by De Eoches, he saw that disgrace awaited him. He was required to give an ac- count of the moneys received during his time of office ; and was accused of serious offences against his sovereign. Believing that his death was intended, he sought refuge, first in the sanctuary of Merton, and afterwards in the parish church of Brentwood, whence he was forcibly taken by the king's order. Transferred from prison to prison, he at length escaped to Wales; but in 1234 a.d. he received HENEY III. 103 Henry's pardon, and spent the remainder of his life in retirement. Disputes with France, Wales, and Scotland. When Louis made peace with Earl Pembroke in London, he promised to use his influence with his father for the restoration of the French provinces which John had lost. No restoration, however, took place. But when Louis became king of France, in 1223, he republished the sen- tence which his father had pronounced against John, and took possession of a part of the provinces of Poitou and Guienne, which still belonged to the English crown. In consequence of this conduct, Henry received a grant of money from a great council of the barons, on condition of again confirming Magna Charta, and 1225 an expedition was sent out to Guienne. The a.d. attempt to recover the whole province failed. In ^ 1230, Henry took an army to St. Malo, but instead of vigorously carrying on the war, he spent the time in use- less display, and was at last glad to make a truce. This was the war for which Hubert de Burgh was blamed. Twelve years afterwards, the war with France was renewed, through the persuasion of Henry's mother, who had married her old lover, the Count de la Marche. The latter, having quarrelled with the French king, promised to help Henry to recover Poitou. At the head of an English force, the king landed near the mouth of the Garonne, but Louis met him with greater numbers at TaiUe- bourg', and put him to flight. Another defeat soon 1242 afler at Saintonge forced Henry to agree to a a.d. truce. Peace was at last made in 1259, by which England gave up all claim to Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Poitou, and received, in return, Limousin, Perigord, and Querci. With Wales there were quarrels throughout the reign. The Welsh indulged in their usual attacks upon the border 104 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. counties, and the English in retaliation sent forces to ravage the principality. The mountain fastnesses defied all idea of conquest, but the march country was one wild scene of desolation. With Scotland there were several disputes about the three northern English counties and the homage of the Scottish king, but throughout this long reign no war arose between the two countries. Their ties of friendship were strengthened by a double marriage. Alexander II. married Joan, Henry's sister, and Alexander III. married Margaret, Henry's daughter. War with the Barons. First House of Commons. Henry, though he had several times confirmed Magna Charta, regarded that document as an encroachment upon the rights of a king. He broke its provisions on several occasiens, and looked upon the English barons with sus- picion, as men desirous of lessening the kingly power. Under the influence of this feeling, he bestowed his favours upon the numerous foreigners who flocked to England from Poitou on the return of Peter de Eoches to power. His marriage with Eleanor of Provence, in 1236, brought an- other shoal of foreigners into the country from his wife's native land, and these, like the Poitevins, were treated with marked favour. They became his confidants and advisers ; they enjoyed the highest honours at the court ; they married the. richest heiresses in the kingdom, and ladies were even brought from Provence to marry the rich wards of the king. Under their advice, the Great Charter was often broken. It is reported that they used to say, when the law was appealed to in opposition to their wrongdoing, ' What do the English laws signify to us ? We mind them not.' Henry further increased the discontent of the nation by accepting the crown of Sicily for his second son, Edmund, as he thereby incurred a very heavy debt, which he expected p^ pq HENEY III. 107 the barons to pay, 1254. The English nobles, remembering the example of their fathers in the reign of John, were determined to put an end to the king's bad government and foreign favouritism, and, under the leadership of Simon de Montfort, who had married Henry's sister Eleanor, they attended a council at Westminster in full armour, and de- manded the redress of national grievances. In another council, held soon after at Oxford, which was called the Mad Parliament, on account of the confasion that followed, twenty-four barons were appointed 1258 to enquire into the grievances of the nation, and a.d. suggest changes necessary for the good of the country. On the recommendation of this committee, the following regulations, known as The Provisions of Oxford were approved : — 1. That four knights should be chosen by the freeholders of each county to lay before Parliament all their grievances. 2. That sheriffs of counties should be chosen annually by the freeholders. 3. That Parliament should meet three times a year. 4. That all public ac- counts should be given annually. 5. That no heirs should be committed to the wardship of foreigners, and that no castles should be entrusted to their custody. The barons, however, not content with these important changes, selected twelve of their number to act as a stand- ing Council, in order to ensure good government ; but these, instead of consulting the interests of the country, usurped the royal power, and gave their chief care to the ag- grandisement of their own families. Quarrels in conse- quence arose between them and the king, and civil war again threatened to arise. Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis, was asked to decide the causes of difference. As his award was in favour of Henry, the barons refused to abide by it, and both sides then prepared for war. A pitched battle was fought at Lewes, in Sussex, in which the barons were victorious, and the king - Z, - ' and his brother Richard were taken prisoners. •m AD A truce, called the Mise of Lewes, from an old French word of that meaning, was then made, by which it 108 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. was agreed that the matters in dispute should be settled by arbitration ; that all prisoners should be set at liberty ; and that Prince Edward, the king's eldest son, and his cousin, should be hostages for the king's peaceable conduct. Contrary to the terms of the Mise, Henry was kept a prisoner, and Simon de Montfort, as leader of the barons, assumed the royal power, and was, in all but name, a king. On the 20th of January in the following year, De Mont- fort summoned a Parliament at London, in the king's name, which will be ever famous in our history as the beginning of the House of Commons. In addition to the great barons and prelates, he summoned two knights from each shire, and two deputies from each city and borough. They all sat in the same Chamber, and continued to do so until the reign of Edward III., when the representatives of the people assembled separately, and thus took the name of the House of Commons, while the barons formed the House of Lords. Though De Montfort won favour from the common people by summoning their representatives to Parliament, many of the barons were offended at the change. His ambi- tion and arrogance, besides, drove many from his side, and jealousy arose amongst those that remained. In the mean- while, the king's party continually increased in numbers ; and when Prince Edward escaped from his guards, he found a strong force of royalists ready to maintain his cause. Placing himself at their head, he met the army of the -g^" ' Earl of Leicester at Evesham, in Worcestershire. The bar.ons placed the king in the front ranks, in order that he might be slain by his own friends, but as the latter were rushing on to the attack, the king cried out, * I am Henry of Winchester, your king ! ' and thus saved his life. The rebel barons were put to flight ; De Montfort and his eldest son were slain, and the civil war was brought to an end. HENEY III. 109 Death and Character of the King. After the battle of Evesham, the crown sa,t firmly on Henry's head. Prince Edward, taking advantage of the peaceable state of the kingdom, set out on a crusade to the Holy Land, in company with his wife Eleanor. There he was stabbed with a poisoned dagger, and owed his life to the affection of his wife, who sucked the poison from the wound. During his absence, his father died at Bury St. Edmund's, in the fifty-seventh year of - J„^ ' a reign which, excepting that of George III., is the longest in our history. Henry was a man of middle size. One of his eyebrows foil over the eyelid so as to conceal part of the eye. In character he was gentle and religious, but his want of energy and talent unfitted him to rule in those turbulent times. His children were : — Edward, who became king ; Edmund Earl of Lancaster; Margaret, married Alex- ander III. of Scotland ; and Beatrice, married John Duke of Brittany. Miscellaneous Facts. Many improvements in domestic life were made in this reign. License was given to the people of Newcastle to dig coal, which is the first mention of this mineral in Eng- land. The linen manufacture was introduced by the Flem- ings ; candles were used instead of wooden torches ; tiles took the place of thatch in roofing houses ; and leaden water- pipes came into use. The first gold coin was struck in this reign. Roger Bacon, a monk, made many useful discoveries in science. Magnify ing-glasses, magic-lanterns, the air- pump, and gunpowder were invented by him. Another important mark of improvement was the aboHtion of trial by ordeal. The Mendicants, or Begging Friars, found their way to England in 1221, and settled first at Oxford. They professed poverty and maintained themselves by 110 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. begging from door to door — hence their name. They were preachers independent of episcopal controL There were many orders of these mendicants : the Bominicans, who came first, called also Blachfriars, from the colour of their dress ; the Franciscans, called Greyfriars, from the colour of their habit ; the Carmelites, or Whitefriars ; and the Augustines. Hpyal Oaxriage ; illustiatiTeof the trayellSng of the period- EDWARD I. Ill EDWAED I. (Longshanks), Born 1239 A.D. Began to Eeign 1272 A.L. Died 1307 A.D. Accession. Conquest of Wales. Affairs of Scotland. War with France. Death and Character of the Kin^. Miscellaneous Facts. Accession. Conquest of Wales. Edward I., the eldest son of Henry III., was in the Holy Land at the time of his father's death, but the Council at once announced his accession to the throne, and the chief nobility swore allegiance to him in his absence. In Sicily, on his way back, he received the news from home, but affairs in France prevented his landing in England till 1274, in which year he was crowned, with his queen, at Westminster, in the presence of Alexander III. of Scotland and the Parliament. Edward first gave his attention to the conquest of Yv^ales. The Welsh, protected by their mountains and forests, had hitherto defied every attempt of the kings of England to effect their conquest. The history of the country from the tenth century is one long roll of strife and bloodshed. When not engaged in war with the Anglo-Normans, quarrels were frequent among themselves, and the work of blood went on at home. At this time Clewellyn reigned in Wales. His refusal to do homage, on the summons of Edward, brought an English army against him. Edward crossed the Dee, took the castles of Flint and Rhuddlan, and shut up Llewellyn among the Snowdon mountains. The latter then sent in his submission, and acknowledged himself as a vassal of the English king. (1277 a.d.) But the Welsh, after so long maintaining their independence, would not willingly submit to English rule. In 1282 they flew to arms, made a sudden attack upon the. fortresses of Flint 112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. and Rhuddlan, and ravaged the marches far and wide. Edward called together all his vassals, and advanced into Wales with a large army, Avhile his fleet was sent round fo Anglesea. Llewellyn, in the meantime, while engaged in disputing the passage of an English force across the "Wye in Eadnorshire, was suddenly attacked and slain, 1282 and 2,000 of his men put to the sword. His A.D. head was cut off and sent to the king, who ordered it to be crowned with willow and placed on the Tower of London. Llewellyn's brother David con- tinued the struggle for some months, but, pursued from mountain to mountain, he at last fell into the hands of his enemies. Edward sent him in chains to Shrewsbury, v/here he was tried for high treason and sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. The conquest of Wales was now complete. English laws, sheriffs, and courts of justice were established in the principality ; the district was divided into counties; and strong castles were built to ensure the submission of the people. To please the Welsh, Edward's infant son, who had been born at Caernarvon, w^as made' Prince of Wales — a title which has ever since been given to the eldest son of the English sovereigns. Affairs of Scotland. Alexander HI., King of Scotland, who had married Edward's sister, died in 1286 a.d., without leaving any issue, except Margaret, the wife of Eric King of Norway. Through Alexander's care, the States of Scotland agreed to receive as their queen, Margaret, the daughter of Eric, then a child of three years old. This princess, known in history as The Maid of Norway, died at the Orkneys on her pas- sao;e to Scotland, and thus left the succession to the throne a matter of dispute and confusion. Out of thirteen candi- dates for the crown, John Baliol and Robert Bruce were considered to have the best claim. They were both descended from David Earl of Huntingdon, the brother of William the Lion. Baliol was the grandson of Margaret, the eldest daughter of David, and Bruce was the son of EDWARD I. 113 Isabel, the second daughter. The Parliament of Scotland, in fear of civil war, referred the dispute to Edward. The English king marched to the north Avith a large army, and summoned the Scottish Parliament and the several claimants for the throne to appear before him at the castle of Norham. Having thus got the heads of the Scottish nation in his power, he demanded of them the acknowledgment of his right to settle the dispute as supreme lord of Scotland, and not as a chosen arbitrator. He based this claim on the fact that William the Lion had sworn vassalage to Henry H., and that Richard I. had no right to sell it. The Scots, thus taken by surprise, were unable to make any resistance. Edward decided in favour of Baliol, 1292 who, on doing homage, was placed in possession a.d. of the throne. Baliol soon felt the itksomeness of his condition as a vassal of the English king. His subjects, when they thought themselves aggrieved, carried their complaints to Edward, and he was summoned repeatedly to appear before the bar of the English Parliament. These indignities were evidently intended to rouse Baliol to rebellion, in order that Edward might have an opportunity of taking possession of Scotland. The quarrel between England and France led Baliol, in 1296 a.d., to throw off his yoke of vassalage. Edward at once marched northwards, took Berwick by storm, defeated the Scots near Dun- 1296 bar, and advanced to Elgin without further oppo- a.d. sition. Baliol was dethroned, and, after two years' confinement in the Tower of London, was allowed to retire to Normandy. The government of Scotland was left in the hands of the Earl of Surrey. The regalia and the great stone at Scone Castle, upon which the Scottish kings had been crowned from the earliest times, were brought to London. This stone was regarded Avith great veneration by the Scots, and popular legend said it was the one upon which Jacob laid his head at Bethel. It is noAV to be seen in the chair in which the kings of England are still crowned in Westminster Abbey. The Scots, however, were not disposed to submit to 114 HISTOKY OF ENaLAND. English rule. From 1297 a.d. to 1304 a.d., a struggle, known as the ' Scottish War of Independence,' was car- ried on Tinder Sir William Wallace. Earl Surrey 1297 was defeated with great slaughter near Stirling', A.D. and, after strengthening the English garrisons, he was forced to retire across the borders. Edward, who was then in Flanders, hurried home, and, collecting all his forces, overthrew the Scots at Falkirk, and inflicted upon them a loss of 30,000 men. Wallace withdrew to the woods, and, by sudden attacks, continued to harass the English forces. Treachery at last placed him in the power of Edward, who ordered him to be taken in chains to London, and there executed as a traitor. (1305 a.d.) After the capture of Wallace the conquest of Scotland was thought complete, but in 1306 a.d. the Scottish nobility called upon Eobert Bruce, the grandson of Baliol's rival, to head them in another attempt at inde- pendence. The news of the crowning of this young nobleman roused the spirit of Edward, and he marched to the north, burning with revenge, and bent upon punishing July 7, the whole nation. Illness, however, stopped his 1307 march, and his death at Burgh-on-Sands, near a.d. Carlisle, put an end to his vows of vengeance. War witli France. In the year following the appointment of Baliol to the throne of Scotland, a quarrel between some English and Norman sailors near Bayonne, in Normandy, led to a war with France. In this quarrel a Norman sailor was acci- dentally killed. His countrymen, in revenge, seized some of the crew of an English ship, and hung them at the mast-head with several dogs. The sailors of the Cinque Ports fitted out a fleet of eighty ships, and sent a challenge . to the French to fight out their quarrel in the open sea. Two hundred sail answered the challenge, but not one returned to tell the tale of their defeat. (1293 a.d.) This loss so angered Philip of France that he summoned Edward, as Duke of Aquitaine, to appear before him. EDWARD I. 115 Edmund, tlie king's brother, was sent over to settle the matter, and he foolishly surrendered to Philip the duchy of Guienne, the only English possession in France, on the understanding that it would, be restored at the end of forty days. But when the time was expired, Philip refused to restore the duchy and declared it forfeited, because the Duke of Aquitaine had not appeared in answer to his summons. Edward immediately prepared for war. To obtain funds for this purpose, he demanded from the clergy and laity more money than he had a right to claim, and he levied heavy duties upon wool without the consent of Parliament. An English army was sent into Guienne, and Edward himself was preparing to follow, when he heard that Baliol had made a secret treaty with the King of France, and had renounced his allegiance. After the settlement of Scottish affairs, Edward embarked with an army for Flanders, while another force was sent into Guienne. (1297 a.d.) On this occasion some of the leading English barons refused to accompany him, because ne had exacted money contrary to the law,- and they com- pelled him to confirm the Great Charter, and add to it a new clause to secure the nation for the future from taxation without the consent of Parliament. Force of arms failed to recover Guienne, and the news of the success of "Wallace in Scotland made Edward glad to bring the war to an end. Through the mediation of Pope Boniface, peace was concluded with France in 1298 A.D. The peace was strengthened by a double marriage. Edward, then a widower, married Margaret, Philip's sister, and it was arranged that the Prince of Wales should marry Isabella, the daughter of that king. Guienne was restored to the English in 1303 a.d. Death and Character of the King, Edward, as we have seen, died at Burgh-on-Sands, in the sixty-ninth year of his age and the thirty-fifth July 7, of his reign, charging his eldest son to carry his 1307 body before the army into Scotland, and not to a.d. bury it until the colnquest of that country was complete- 116 HISTOEr OF ENGLAND. In appearance, Edward was tall and commanding, and from the great length of his legs he had the name of Long Shanks. His character was open, manly, and royal. Prudence, foresight, vigilance, energy, and industry, made him a wise statesman and a successful soldier; but his severity sometimes reached the point of cruelty. His reign is distinguished for the improvement of our laws, and, on this account, he has been called the English Justinian. His general character has also won for him the title of the Greatest of the Plantagenets. He was twice married : (1) to Eleanor of Castile, and (2) to Margaret of France. He left three sons and five daughters. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1279 A.D., an important law, called the Statute of Mortmain, was passed, by which lands were forbidden to be made over to religious bodies without the king's per- mission. The statute was so called because land given to a corporation yielded no fines or profits to the king, and was considered to be in a dead holding {in mortua manu). In this reign the Convocation, or clerical parliament, consisting of an Upper and Lower House, took its rise. The Jews, under Edward, suffered great cruelty and oppression. In 1290 a.d., they were banished from the kingdom ; and did not return till the time of the Common- wealth. Their place as money-lenders was supplied by some Italian merchants, called Lombards, who settled in that part of London now named Lombard Street, and whose arms were the three balls now seen over pawn- brokers' shops. Windmills, spectacles, and looking-glasses, were intro- duced, and paper brought from the East. Striking clocks were invented by an English abbot, but there were only two of them in the kingdom during this reign; — one at West- minster, and the other at Canterbury. A trade in coal arose between London and Newcastle, but the use of the mineral was forbidden in the following year, on account of the smoke nuisance. EDWAKD II. 117 EDWARD II. (Caernarvon). Born 1284 A.D. Began to Eeign 1307 A.D. Died 1327 A.D. Influence of G-aveston. First Eevolt of the Barons. War witli Scotland. The Spencers. Second Eevolt of the Barons. Deposition, Murder, and Cha- racter of Edward. Miscellaneous Pacts. Influence of Gaveston. Eevolt of the Barons. Edward II., named Caernarvon, from the place of his birth, was twenty- three years old at his father's death. The Scottish war was abandoned, and the old king's body buried at Westminster, contrary to his dying wishes. The young king soon showed his unfitness to occupy the throne. Unworthy favourites influenced his conduct, and eventually worked his ruin. The first of these was Piers Gaveston, a Gascon knight, who had been his companion in boy- hood. The late king had banished him, on account of the worthlessness of his character, but the first thing young Edward did, after his accession, was to send for his old friend. The highest honours were at once con- ferred Tipon him. He was made Earl of Cornwall, and married the king's niece. When Edward went to France to marry Isabella, his favourite was appointed regent of the kingdom. The barons, already angered by the favours and honours given to this young Frenchman, were insulted by receiving nicknames. Eoused by his insolence and haughtiness, they insisted upon his banishment, and he was sent to Ireland as lord-lieutenant. After a while the weak king recalled him, but, untaught by the past, his conduct became more provoking than ever. The Parliament, in order to check the favourite's power and ensure better government, appointed a council of twenty-one peers to rule the royal household, and these were called Ordainers. 118 HISTOEY OF ENGLAl^D. Their first step was to banish Gaveston, with the warning that if he returned he should be treated as a public enemy. After a few months the king again recalled him ; but the barons immediately took up arms, and, under the leadership of Thomas Earl of Lancaster, seized Gaveston at Scar- borough Castle, took him to "Warwick, and beheaded him on Blacklow Hill. (1312 a.d.) Edward was very angry at his favourite's death, but he was powerless to punish his nobles. War with Scotland. When Edward I. died, Bruce was at the head of the Scottish nation ; and while the new king was wasting his time with worthless favourites, and quarrelling with his barons, Bruce made himself master of Linlithgow, Rox- burgh, Edinburgh, and Perth ; and Stirling was the only fortress in possession of the English. To save this place, already closely besieged, Edward marched with an army of 100,000 men into Scotland. Bruce, with a picked army of 30,000 men, had taken up a strong position at Baimock- blirn, about a mile from Stirling, which he further 1^14.' strengthened by digging pits, and covering them with sods. As the English approached, the Scotch all knelt down, in reverence to a crucifix carried through their ranks. * See,' cried Edward, * they are kneeling ! they ask mercy.' ' They do, my liege,' answered OHe of his knights, * but it is from God, and not from us. Trust me, yon men will win the day, or die upon the field.' ' ' Be it so, then,' replied the king, and ordered the charge to be sounded. The English, rushing furiously to the attack, were thrown into confusion by the pits and the steady valour of the Scotch. Bruce, well protected by the nature of the ground, bided his time ; and when he saw signs of wavering in the English ranks, he. ordered his army to advance in one line. Just at that critical time some Highlanders made their appearance on a neighbouring hill, and the English, thinking them a fresh army, fled in confusion, with a loss of 30,000 men. This battle, so disastrous to the English, placed the northern counties for EDWAED II. 119 a time at tlie mercy of the conquerors, and secured the indepeimence of Scotland. The success of the Scots • encouraged the Irish to strike d blow for independence. Edward, brother of the Scotch king, crossed over to Ireland, and was crowned king of Ulster at Carrickfergus. (1315 a.d.) For two years, as- sisted by his brother Kobert, he ruled in Ulster, ■« q-i q but his death, in the battle of Fagher, near . _ Dundalk, restored English supremacy. The Spencers. Second Eevolt of the Barons. After the battle of Bannockbum, the party of the Earl of Lancaster held the chief power in England, while Edward devoted himself to another favouHte in the person of Hugh de Spencer, a young man of English birth, high rank, and noble family. This favourite became as hateful to the barons as Gaveston, and he and his father were accused in Parliament of usurping the royal authority, and were banished. Edward, roused at this insult, took up arms to resist the encroachments of the Lancastrian party, recalled the Spencers after three months' exile, defeated the confederate barons at Boroughbridge, captured the Earl of Lancaster, and beheaded him in Ponteiract Castle. (1322 A.D.) This success made Edward supreme in the government, and the power of the Spencers became greater than ever. But danger threatened the king from an unforeseen quarter. Charles the Fair of France complained about the government of Guienne, and Isabella was sent to Paris to arrange matters with her brother. She persuaded her husband to resign the duchy of Guienne to their eldest son, then a boy of thirteen years old, and to send him over to France to do homage. But this was only part of a plot for lier husband's overthrow. On the arrival of the queen at Paris, she found there several barons of the Lancastrian party, and, amongst the number, Roger Mortimer, a young noble, powerful in the Welsh marches. Common hatred of the Spencers drew the queen and these exiled nobles together, 120 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. and Mortimer succeeded in gaining such a place in the queen's affections that she willingly joined a conspRacy for her husband's ruin. Collecting a force of 2,000 men, she landed on the coast of Suffolk, and was immediately joined by the dis- 1326 contented nobility. Edward, finding himself A.D. deserted, withdrew to "Wales, but the elder Spencer was captured in Bristol, and, though ninety years old, was hanged, and his body thrown to the dogs. His son, too, was captured, and after a mock trial at Hereford he was executed upon a gallows fifty feet high. Deposition, Murder, Character of the King. Edward now seemed utterly forsaken. Failing to rouse the Welsh in his favour, he set sail for Ireland, but contrary winds drove him back to Wales. There he was soon dis- covered by his enemies, and sent as a prisoner to Kenil- worth Castle. The queen then summoned a Parliament in her husband's name, which voted the deposition of the king, as one unfit to govern. (January 7, 1327 a.d.) A deputation, sent to Kenilworth, forced from him a deed of resignation in favour of his son. The unhappy monarch was taken from castle to castle — to Corfe, Bristol, and Berkeley, and subjected to the greatest indignities. As bad treatment failed to put him out of the way, the queen and Mortimer determined upon his murder. One night the inmates of Berkeley Castle were roused from sleep by fearful shrieks in the king's apartment, and in the morning his dead body was shown without any marks of violence upon it. Eeport said that red-hot iron had been iQO'y ' P^^^^^ ^^*^ ^^^ body through a horn. No one enquired into the matter, and the body was buried at Gloucester. Thus, nine months after his depo- sition, miserably perished Edward II., in the forty-fourth year of his age, and twenty-first of his reign. Edward resembled his father in person. In character, he was weak and passionate, and much of his time was EDWAED II. 121 spent in idle amusements, while the government of the country was left in the hands of favourites. His children were : Edward, who became king ; John ; and two daughters. Miscellaneous Facts. The Knights Templars, or order of soldier-monks, founded in the early Crusades, were suppressed (1312 a.d.), and their property was eventually placed in the hands of the Order of St. John, or Knights Hospitallers. The great house of the Templars in London was given to the law students in the following reign. Bills of exchange came into use ; the first commercial treaty was made between England and Venice ; paper was manufactured from rags, an innovation which the Chinese claim to have made, B.C. 170. Earthenware was introduced, and carrots and cabbages began to be used at table. Dublin ITniversity was founded in this reign. Litter ;. iUnstrative of tlie traYelliug of tho period. (From V^qjs.1 MS. Brit. Mug,) 122 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. EDWAED III. (Windsor) Born 1312 A.D. Began to Eeign 1327 A.D. Died 1377 A.D. The King's Minority. Fall of Mortimer. War with Scotland. War with France. Battle of Crecy. Battle of Neville's Cross. Siege of Calais. Battle of Poitiers. Death of the Black Prince. Loss of the French Possessions. Death and Character of Edward. Miscellaneous Facts. The King's Minority. Fall of Mortimer. Edwahd III., as the eldest son of Edward IL, was declared king on his father's deposition, but, since he was only fourteen years old, Parliament appointed a Council of Regency, and nominated the Earl of Lancaster guardian and protector of the young king's person. The real power, however, rested in the hands of Isabella and Mortimer. The Scots, taking advantage of the disturbed state of Eno-land, invaded the northern counties. Edward accom- panied an army to repress them, and narrowly escaped capture by a daring troop of Scotch horse. The Scots withdrew across the border in safety, and afterwards made their own terms of peace. They demanded the release of all their prisoners, the withdrawal of all claim of superiority on the part of England, and the restoration of the regalia. This disgraceful peace was made by the advice of Morti- mer, and, in consequence, much ill-will was excited against him. Many of the nobility hated him for his arrogance and pride, and the king's uncle, the Earl of Kent, was executed for conspiring his overthrow. (1330 a.d*) The Earl of Lancaster, too, was thrown into prison on suspicion of abetting the plot, and many others were prosecuted. This success made Mortimer more powerful than ever ; he took the title of Earl of March, and lived in royal style. EDWARD III. 123 When Edward readied his eighteenth year he determined to shake off the authority of Mortimer, and take the government into his own hands. He told his plans to several nobles, and Nottingham Castle was fixed upon as the place to seize Mortimer's person. As the gates were always strongly guarded, an entrance into the castle was obtained through an underground passage. The obnoxious nobleman was seized and accused of usurping the royal authority, and forthwith hanged at Tyburn. (1330 a.d.) Isabella spent the rest of her life at her manor of Eisings, in Norfolk, where the king paid her a formal visit once or twice a year. "War with Scotland. Edward, having thus obtained the government of affairs, first gave his attention to Scotland. The great Bruce was dead, and his son David II., a boy in his seventh year, then filled the throne. In the treaty that was made with Scotlaqd just before the death of Bruce, it was agreed that the English nobles should be restored to their estates in that country. This remained unfulfilled, and the dis- contented English encouraged Edward Baliol, son of John Baliol, to make an attempt upon the Scottish crown. With a force of 3,000 men, Edward Baliol won his way to the throne in less than a month, but, foolishly dismissing his English supporters too soon, he found himself in another month driven across the border. Having promised to acknowledge the feudal superiority of the English king, he readily obtained Edward's help. While the latter was attacking Berwick — the key of Scotland — the Scots received a severe defeat at Halidon Hill, 1333 where their regent was slain. Baliol was then a.d. ackuowledged king, and all the south-eastern counties of Scotland were added to England. This cession of territory increased the dislike of the Scots to Baliol, and, in spite of English help, he was again driven out of the country to make way for David II. (1341 a.d.) Fortunately for the Scots, the attention of the English king was drawn to France, and thus their country was delivered from further interference. 124 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. War with France. Crecy. Neville's Cross. Calais. Poitiers. In 1328 A.D., Charles IV. of France died, without leaving any male issue. Edward claimed the throne of that country in right of his mother Isabella, the sister of the deceased king. But, according to Ihe Salic law, which was in force in France, females were shut out from the throne, and there- fore Isabella had no claim. Edward, however, said that his mother could transmit the right to him ; but if this argument had any force, Charles of Navarre had a better claim, as may be seen from the genealogical table at the foot of the page. The peers of France refused to acknowledge Edward's claim, and received Philip of Valois as their king. Edward submitted, and did homage to Philip for Guienne, which belonged to the English crown. But as Philip aided the cause of David II. of Scotland, Edward renewed 1337 his claim to the French crown, took the title of A.D. King of France, made alliances on the Continent, and prepared for war. Hostilities were commenced from the side of Flanders in 1339 A.D., but with little success. In the fol- 1340 lowing year, the English attacked a large A.D. French fleet oiF Sluys. The French lost 230 ships out of 400, and 30,000 men, while the loss of the victors amounted to only 4,000. Edward then Philip III. I i Philip IV. Charles of Valois. PHILIP VI. LoTJis X. Philip V. Charles IV. Isabella. Ill I Jane. 4 daughters. 2 daughters. EDWARD III. Charles King of Navarre. EDWARD III. 125 commenced another campaign on land with a large army of mercenaries, but it proved fruitless, and ended in a truce for two years. In the autumn of the year 1342 a.d., Edward renewed the war on the side of Brittany, which duchy was then in opposition to the King of France. The war, like the one before, was carried on without any advantage till 1346 a.d., when the English gained the first of the two great vic- tories which has shed a lustre on this reign. In that year, Edward sailed from Southampton with an army of 30,000 men, and landed at Cape La Hogue, in Normandy. Meet- ing with no opposition, he advanced almost to the gates of Paris, laid waste Normandy, and then directed his march to- wards Flanders, pursued by the French. Crossing the river Somme, near Abbeville, in the face of a body of French cavalry, he took up a position near the village of Crecy, and there awaited the enemy. He divided his army of 30,000 men into three lines : the first he gave to the Prince of Wales, then only sixteen years old, and the third he commanded himself. The French came up with a large army of 120,000 men, and, though tired with a hurried march, pushed on to the attack about four o'clock in the afternoon. In their van were 15,000 Genoese crossbowmen, specially brought from Italy to contend with the English archers. Just before the battle a tremendous storm broke in thunder, and rain, and hail, on the field, and flocks of crows and ravens hovered with hoarse cries over the French ranks. When at last the sky had cleared, and the Genoese pre- pared their crossbows to shoot, the strings had been so wet by the rain that they could not draw them. The English archers, on the other hand, had kept their bows in cases during the storm, and so had their strings dry. As soon as the Genoese came within range, the archers let fly their arrows so thick and fast ' that it seemed as if it snowed.' Unable to stand such a storm, they turned and fled in the wildest confusion. The French king, enraged by the flight of his bowmen, shouted to his men-at-arms, * Kill me those scoundrels ! ' His orders were obeyed, and the wretched Italians were cut down by their own friends. The 7 126 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. young Prince of Wales, leading on his men to the charge, was sorely pressed by the enemy, and sent to his father for Archer, with Sheaf of Arrows. help. The king, who was watching the battle from a neighbouring windmill, answered, ' Not so : let the boy win his spurs, and let the day be his.' This answer gave fresh courage to the English troops. They rushed again to the attack, drove the French in headlong flight, and chased them without mercy, till darkness put an end to the pursuit. Edward received his son with open arms on his return to camp, exclaiming, * My brave son I persevere in your honourable course ; you are my son ; for valiantly have you acquitted yourself to-day, and worthy are you of a crown.' From this time the young prince became a terror to the French, by whom he was called the Black EDWAED III. 127 Prince, from the colour of the armour he wore on that day. Crossbowman, with Shield. The battle of Crecy was most destructive to the French, who lost 11' princes, 1,200 knights, and more than 30,000 common soldiers. Among the slain ^QAa ' was John, the blind King of Bohemia, who in- sisted upon entering the battle, and caused the reins of his bridle to be tied to the horses of two of his knights. The crest of this king, which consisted of three ostrich feathers, with its motto, Ich Dien (I serve), was assumed by the Prince of Wales. Edward, after the battle, marched to Calais, which he besieged by land and sea. But in the meanwhile, David Bruce, taking advantage of Edward's absence, invaded England as an ally of France. He was met by Philippa, the queen, at Neville's Cross, near ?n]ii^' Durham, where his army was utterly defeated, and himself taken prisoner. He was liberated in 1357 for a ransom of 100,000 marks. 128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. The Siege of Calais continued for eleven months. Tliongh the townsmen defended their city with the greatest bravery, famine at last compelled them to open the gates. (1347 A.D.) Edward, very angry with the citizens for their stubborn resistance, ordered six of their chief men to bring him the keys of the town with feet bare and ropes round their necks. One of the richest men of the town, Eustace de St. Pierre, volunteered to undergo this humiliation, and live others quickly followed his example. Kneeling before the English king, they gave him the keys of Calais, beg- ging for mercy. But Edward ground his teeth in passion, and called for the headsman to do his work. His queen then fell on her knees and begged for their lives. Her entreaties succeeded, and they were set at liberty. The native population was expelled, and a colony of English subjects took possession of the town, which became an important mart for the sale of Flemish and English goods. It continued under English rule for more than two cen- turies. After the capture of Calais, a truce was made between France and England, which was further prolonged by a plague, called the Black Beath. This dreadful pestilence first appeared in the north of Asia, and, spreading over the whole of Europe, destroyed about one-third of the popu- lation in every state through which it passed. In London 50,000 people are said to have perished. In 1355 A.D., the truce ceased, and the French war was renewed as fiercely as ever. The state of France at that time was favourable to the success of the English arms. Philip of Valois was dead, and John, his son, now occu- pied the throne ; but Charles of Navarre excited factions in the country, which almost made it powerless to resist invasion. Edward advanced from Calais, while the Black Prince ravaged the south of France, and both returned to their respective quarters laden with much spoil. In the following year, the Black Prince, encouraged by his former success, entered into the heart of France with a small force of 12,000 men, of whom scarcely one-third were English. On his return to Guienne, he was overtaken, near Poitiers, EDWARD III. 129 by King John with an army of 60,000 men. Though greatly outnumbered, the hero of Crecy refused to surrender, and with great skill took up a position where he could only be approached through a narrow lane. A body of English archers lined the hedges, and when the French advanced up the narrow way, they were so hotly plied with aiTows that their dead soon choked up the road, and the rest were driven back upon their own men. „ The victory of the English was complete ; John -i o'co ' was taken a prisoner, and brought to London. The Battle of Poitiers thus stands one of the most memorable on record. King John was lodged in the palace of the Savoy, Lon- don, and was treated with the greatest attention and respect. He signed terms of peace with Edward, by which he promised to give back all the possessions in France which were held by Henry H., without exacting any homage for the same ; but the French nobility refused to agree to such a disgraceful peace. Edward, in consequence, again in- vaded France, and ravaged the country up to the walls of Paris. This led to fresh negotiations, and, at length, a treaty of peace was made at Bretigni, hence called the Treaty of Bretigni, or the Great Peace, in which Edward renounced all claim to the French crown and the provinces of Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou, and received in return, without the claim of homage, the provinces of Poitou, Guienne, with districts in that quarter, and the town of Calais, and the promise -^ „ of three million gold crowns (equal to 1,500,000Z. iqca' of our money), as a ransom for the king. Three years afterwards. King John, failing to raise the ransom, returned to England, and was again placed in the palace of the Savoy, where he soon sickened and died. Death of the Black Prince. Loss of the French Provinces. Death of Edward, etc. The English provinces in France were placed under the rule of the Black Prince. In an evil hour, he marched 130 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. with an army into Castile to restore Pedro the Cruel. (1367 A.D.) Success as usual crowned his arms; but Pedro refused to pay the expenses of the expedition, and he was therefore compelled to tax his French subjects. The Gascons appealed to Charles of France against such taxa- tion, who, contrary to the treaty of Bretigni, summoned the prince to Paris. He answered that he would come, but it would be at the head of 60,000 men. War was thus re- newed with France. Failing health, however, compelled the prince to give up the command, and then the English cause grew weak. After his departure for England, the French went on from conquest to conquest, till, out of all the possessions in France, only Bordeaux, Bayonne, 1376 and Calais remained to the English king. The A.D. Black Prince died, after a lingering illness, in the forty- sixth year of his age, universally regretted by the whole nation on account of his many virtues. Edward did not long survive his favourite son ; he died the following year, at Shene, on the Thames, near 1377 ' -^^^^^0^^? ^ft^^ ^ reign of fifty years, and was . -. buried at "Westminster. He was a brave, wise, and popular king. His ambition and warlike spirit led him into unjust wars ; but under his rule England enjoyed greater tranquillity than for a long time before or after. The wars with France employed all restless spirits, and tended to unite the various races which com- posed the people of this country. The Norman, the Saxon, and the Welshman fought side by side at Crecy and Poitiers, and there learned to forget their old hatred. Edward always consulted his Parliament on all important questions ; and it grew, in consequence, in importance and power. By his queen, Philippa of Hainault, he had six sons and five daughters. The most distinguished of his sons were the Black Prince ; Lionel Duke of Clarence ; John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (born at Ghent) ; Edmund Duke of York ; and Thomas Duke of Gloucester. EDWARD III. 131 Miscellaneous Facts. To put an end to the Pope's practice of appointing foreign clergymen and others to clerical posts in Eng- land, or, as it was called, making ' provisions ' to English livings, a law was passed, called the Statute of Provisors (1344), forbidding any such appointments ; and in the following year this law was further improved by for- bidding appeals from the king's courts to those of the Pope. Another important law made in this reign was the Statute of Treasons (1352), which limited the crime to three chief acts — (1) conspiring the king's death; (2) levying war against him ; (3) aiding the king's foreign enemies. Commerce greatly increased in this reign. Flemish weavers settled at Worsted, in Norfolk ; and one Thomas Blanket, of Bristol, established the manufacture since known by his name. Wool was the chief article of export. The use of the French language in the English law courts was abolished, 1362. Windsor Castle was rebuilt by Edward III., the architect being William of Wykeham, the founder of Winchester School. The men employed in this work were levied, like an army, in every county. The Order of the Garter was instituted, 1349. It is said that the order and its motto originated in an incident which took place at a ball. The Countess of Salisbury having dropped her garter, the king picked it up and gave it to her, but at the same time, observing some of the courtiers smiling, he said, ' Honi soit qui mal y pense ' — ' Evil be to him who evil thinks.' The title of ' Duke ' was introduced by Edward. Rude cannon are said to have been used in the battle of Crecy. The members of the parliament called the Commons began to assemble in a separate Chamber, and adopted the practice of electiDg a Speaker. Geoffirey Chaucer, 'the father of English poetry,' and John Wickliffe, the *■ Morning Star of the Eeformation,' flourished at this time. 132 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. BICHABD II. (Bordeaux). Born 1367 A.D. Began to Reign 1377 A.D. Dethroned 1399 A.D. Eichard's Accession. Wat Tyler's Eebellion. Invasion of Scotland. Richard's Misgovernment. His Deposition and Character. Miscellaneous Facts. Richard's Accession. Wat Tyler's Rebellion. Richard II., the only son of Edward the Black Prince, ascended the throne in his eleventh year. He was sur- named Bordeaux, from the place of his birth. His coro- nation took place with greater magnificence than usual, and the streets of London were gay with arches and banners. The government was vested in a Council of Regency, from which his uncles were excluded, but nevertheless their influence in public affairs was very great. The war with France still went on. To meet its expenses, a poll-tax of three groats was imposed upon every male and female in the country above the age of fifteen. This was evidently very unfair to the poor, for no difference was made between them and the rich, and the discontent in consequence was very widespread. The harsh way in which the tax was gathered turned the discontent of the people into rebellion. No doubt the condition of the poor at this time was very bad, and their grievances many, so that it needed but an opportunity to fan their smouldering discon- tent into violence. The first outbreak took place in Kent. A tax-gatherer visited the house of Walter, a tiler, com- monly called Wat Tyler, in Dartford, and offered a gross insult to his daughter. The father struck the fellow dead on the spot. The bystanders praised the deed, and flew to arms to take vengeance upon their oppressors and to fight for liberty. The flame of insurrection spread instantly EICHAED II. 133 througli Kent and all the eastern counties as far as the Humber. Before the government had the least warning of the danger, the insurgents were on the way to London, under the leadership of Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and others with feigned names. On Blackheath they assembled to the number of 100,000, and there their passions were further aroused by the address of one John Ball, a worth- less priest, who took for his text the lines — When Adam delved, and Eve span, Who was then the gentleman ? The rising was one of the poor against the rich ; the old cry of ' Down with the Norman ! ' gave place to ' Down with the rich ! ' and it was woe to the rich man who fell into the hands of the excited mob. They entered London, burned down the palace of the Savoy, broke open the prisons, cut off the heads of all the gentry on i qqi whom they could lay hands, and pillaged the houses of the rich. Eichard met a party of them at Mile End, and promised to grant their demands. These were : — 1. The abolition of slavery. 2. The reduction of the rent of land to fourpence an acre. 3. Liberty to buy and sell in fairs and market-towns. 4. A general pardon for past offences. The insurgents then withdrew to their homes. But Wat Tyler, at the head of 20,000 men, met the king next day at Smithfield, and behaved himself so insolently that Walworth, the Lord Mayor, struck him down with his sword, and the royal attendants despatched him. The rioters immediately prepared to avenge their leader's death, when the young king, with great presence of mind, rode up to them, exclaiming, ' What is the mean- ing of this disorder, my good people ? Are ye angry that ye have lost your leader ? I am your king : I will be your leader ! * This boldness succeeded, and the rioters departed to their homes with the same promises as those made at Mile End. But in less than three weeks all the charters and promises were revoked, and more than 1,500 of the rioters were put to death. 134 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Invasion of Scotland. Misgovernment of England. Kichard's boldness at Smitlifield, when only sixteen years of age, had led to expectations of a successful and prosperous reign; but as he advanced to manhood his want of ability to rule became evident, and disappointed the hopes of his friends. The Scots, in alliance with France, having invaded England, Eichard led an 1385 expedition into Scotland, and burnt Edinburgh A.D. and other cities. Though he had an army of 60,000 men under his command, he attempted nothing more, but returned home in haste to his vain pleasures and the guidance of favourites. Border warfare, however, continued for some years. On one occasion the friends and retainers of Douglas the Scot and Percy of Northumberland met at Otterboume, and there fought a fierce battle, which has been made famous in the old ballad of Chevy Chase. (1388 a.d.) Young Percy, sur- named Hotspur, from his impetuous valour, was taken prisoner, and Douglas slain; and the victory remained undecided. Kichard's indolent disposition, and his love of favourites, caused great dissatisfaction. His uncle, Thomas Duke of Gloucester, took advantage of this to make himself head of the government, and, under his influence, the Parliament called ' Wonderful and Merciless ' put two of the king's favourites to death, 1388. The following year, Eichard took the government into his own hands, and removed from the Coimcil all who had opposed him. For some years affairs went on quietly, although there was much dissatisfaction with the king's love of vain show and pleasure. Eichard attempted to silence the murmurs of the nobility by harsh measures. His uncle, the Duke of Glou- cester, was suddenly arrested and sent to Calais, where he was mysteriously murdered ; other leading men were fined, imprisoned or executed; and Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury, was banished. Only two of his chief oppo- EICHARD II. 135 nents remained unpunished — his cousin Hereford, son of the Duke of Lancaster, and the Duke of Norfolk. One day, these two having discussed their chances of sharing the same fate as the others, Norfolk was publicly accused by Hereford of slandering the king. Norfolk denied the charge, and appealed to the wager of battle. When both were about to enter the list^ the king forbade the duel, and banished Hereford for ten years and Norfolk for life. Richard, having thus got rid of his dangerous opponents, ruled like an absolute king. His will was law, and his government unjust ; but no one ventured to say a word against any of his acts, though discontent was general and deeply-rooted. Richard's Fall and Character. When the Duke of Hereford was banished, the- king said that he should succeed to his father's possessions; but on the death of the Duke of Lancaster, in 1399, Richard broke his promise and seized the estates. Here- ford, now Duke of Lancaster, smarting under this injustice, landed at Ravenspur, in Yorkshire, with 60 persons, saying that he had come only to claim his rights. He was imme- diately joined by the Earls of Northumberland and West- moreland, and as he marched southward ncAv forces gathered round him daily, till on reaching London his folio Avers numbered 60,000. Richard was absent in Ireland, and entirely ignorant of what was going on. When the news reached him, he hurried across, to Milford Haven with a part of his army, but finding himself de- serted, he went in disguise to Conway Castle. There he was persuaded to surrender himself to the Earl of North- umberland, who conducted him with mock respect to London. A Parliament forthwith assembled, and de- posed him, on the ground of tyranny and bad government. The Duke of Lancaster then arose, and, crossing himself, said, * In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I, Henry of Lancaster, claim this realm of England, as descended by right line of blood from the good lord King 136 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. Henry HI.' The claim was immediately admitted, and the two Houses of Parliament hailed him as ^Tqqq^' Henry IV. of England. The law of succes- sion was thus broken, for the right to the throne by descent belonged to the descendants of Lionel Duke of Clarence, the third son of. Edward III. This usurpation afterwards bore bitter fruits in the long wars of the Roses. The deposed king was placed for safety in Pontefract Castle, but what became of him is not certainly known. Some say that he was there assassinated, or starved to death, early in the year 1400 ; while others say that he escaped to Scotland, where he lived in obscurity for many years. Eichard's character rendered him unfit to rule. To weakness of judgment was joined violence of temper, which in the last years of his government made him very tyrannical. He resembled Edward II. in disposition, general conduct, and unhappy fate. Though twice married — first, to Anne of Bohemia ; secondly, to Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France — he left no children. Miscellaneous Facts. A very important law was made in this reign to curb still further the papal power in England. It was passed in the year 1393, and is called the Statute of PrgBmunire. This Act outlawed any one, with loss of all property, who should introduce a foreign power into the land, or give obedience to any papal process which by right belonged to the king. In the latter part of the reign of Edward III., Jolm Wickliffe, a priest educated at Oxford, began to preach against the abuses of the Church. He translated the Bible into English, and referred to that book as the standard of religious truth. His numerous followers were called Wickliffites and Lollards, fi*om the word lollen or lulleiiy * to sing,' on account of their hymn-singing. He died of RICHARD II. 137 palsy, in the year 1385, at Lutterworth Eectory, Leicester- shire. Geoffrey Chaucer, who flourished at this time, was a follower of Wickliffe. Westminster Hall was rebuilt by Richard. Anne of Bohemia is said to have introduced horned headdresses, the modern pin, and side-saddles. The great London companies of the Fishmongers, Leathersellers, and Mercers, were founded in this reign. Peers were first created by letters patent; and for the first time at the king's corona- tion, a knight threw down his glove as a challenge to any one to dispute the monarch's claim. 138 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. Social Condition of the People in the Time of THE PLANTAGENETS PEOPER. Food. Dress. Dwellings. Amusements. National Industry. Literature, etc. Food. — During this period, a sumptuous and extravagant style of living was introduced amongst the nobility. In addition to the two meals that were taken in the Norman period, the practice of having luncheon and a supper of cakes and wine came into use. This increase of luxury in living seems due to the chief nobility's custom of gathering round their tables large numbers of retainers, and endeavouring to outshine each other in hospitality and sumptuousness. At the marriage banquet of Eichard Earl of Cornwall, the son of King John, 30,000 dishes were served up ; and in the following century an abbot of St. Augustine prepared 3,000 dishes for his guests. Eichard 11. is said to have daily maintained 10,000 re- tainers at his table. Housekeeping became so extravagant that Edward II. and Edward III. attempted to check it by special laws, but little regard was paid to them. The lower classes of the people were content with the fruo-al fare of their forefathers, and were satisfied with quantity rather than quality. Press. — The style of dress of the upper classes continued much as it was before, till the reign of Edward II. The gentleman's loose tunic then gave way to a close-fitting garment, reaching down to the middle of the thigh, buttoned down the front, and fastened round the waist by a girdle. The material was of the finest stufif, sometimes of various colours, and richly embroidered. It had two sleeves, an inner one reaching to the wrist, and an outer SOCIAL LIFE UNDER PLANTAG-ENETS PHOPER. 139 one ending above the elbow, from which hung streamers of white cloth, called tippets. The headdress consisted of a hood, attached to a cape, which was fastened round the Eoyal Feast ; illnstrative of the period. (From Eoyal MS. Brit. Mus.) neck. Long hose, and short laced boots tapering to a point, completed the costunle. The dress was remarkable for its variety of colours. One-half the tunic and hose and each shoe were usually of different colours, a variety which gave to the wearer a most fantastic appearance. Down to the times of Edward II., ladies wore dresses with long trailing skirts, but during that reign the fashion changed to the opposite extreme. The trains were cut off, and the skirts became so scant that, with this and a head- dress like that of the men, a lady at a distance could scarcely be distinguished from a gentleman. The hair, instead of hanging in tails as formerly, was coiled up be- hind, and enclosed in a netw^ork of gold, silver, or silk thread. Aprons, under the name of lapcloths, came into use ; and mourning habits of a black colour began to be worn in the reign of Edward III. Foppery increased very 140 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. much in the time of Eichard II. Men wore their hair long and carefully curled, and the long beard again came into fashion. Dais, with high Tabic and Tapestry ; illustrative of the period. .Dwellings. — Henry II. gave a check to the building of baronial castles, by enacting that no residence should be fortified without the king's license. As the country became more settled, there arose a desire for greater splendour and comfort, and an attempt was made to give to the baronial residence the character of palace as well as fortress. Manor houses were still embattled and surrounded by a moat. The banquet hall, with its arched windows and lofty roof, was the most remarkable feature of the dwellings of the nobility, but the smoke still continued to find its way out through the roof or the latticed windows. Chimneys and glass windows were as yet very rare. Town houses were characterised by high gables and small latticed windows. The castles of Alnwick, Conway, Warwick, Kenilworth, and Windsor, are specimens of the baronial residences of this period. Furniture continued as scanty as before ; tables still stood on trestles, and chairs were only used on State occasions. The houses of the poor remained unchanged — timber being the chief material in their structure. SOCIAL LIFE UNDER PLANTAG-ENETS PEOPER. 141 During this period, Gothic Architecture took the place of the Norman style in ecclesiastical buildings. Pointed arches and profuse decorations are its distinguishing fea- tures. Its prevalence over Europe at this time is said to be due to the Society of Freemasons. Some of our finest cathedrals were buUt in this period. Up to the time of Edward I., the style of architecture was called the Lancet, or Early English Gothic, distinguished by the lancet- shape of its arched doorways and windows. It is also characterised by great simplicity in its composition. The finest examples of this style are the cathedrals of Salisbury, York, Westminster partly, Glasgow, and Aber- deen, and the ruined abbeys of Elgin and Holyrood. The reign of Edward II. brought in with it the Decorated English style, distinguished from the former by greater decoration and the tracery of its windows. Of this kind, the best specimens are Exeter Cathedral and the ruins of Croyland and Tintern. The great east and west windows were introduced into churches during this period, and such buildings were handsomely adorned with painted glass and decorated spires. Amusements. — The tournament still continued to hold the chief place amongst out-door amusements. The dis- play, however, both of expense and of taste, was much greater than in the preceding period. Ordeal combats or duels were closely connected with the tournament. In cases where a charge could not be readily proved, resort was had to the duel on the faith that Heaven would defend the right. These combats became very frequent in the reign of Eichard II. Hunting and hawking were other favourite sports of the nobility and gentry, in which ladies took a very prominent share. The clergy, too, were very fond of these sports, so much so that in the reign of Richard II. every clergyman who had not a benefice of the annual value of 1 01. was forbidden to keep a dog for hunt- ing. It was a gentleman's pride to possess fleet steeds, high-soaring hawks, good hounds, and bright armour ; and he seldom stirred abroad in times of peace without having a greyhound at his heels, or a falcon on his wrist. 142 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. The indoor games of tlie upper classes continued the same as in the former period ; these were chess, draughts, tricks of jugglers, jesters, mummings, minstrel singing, and dancing. The jester was now found in every noble house- hold. It was his duty to keep up the spirit of his jaded lord, and amuse the guests in the banquet-hall by jests and grotesque figures. The common people had their mummings, quoits, foot and hand ball, and at Christmas the Feast of Fools, in which merriment ran wild and decency was forgotten ; but the popular sport of the time was archery. This was regulated and encouraged by law. Every per- son possessing an annual income of more than one hundred pence was obliged to furnish himself with a serviceable bow and arrows ; and all persons were required to practise archery, to the exclusion of all other games, on holidays during the hours not occupied by divine service. National Industry. — Commerce greatly increased diu-ing this period. Wool formed the great staple of the kingdom, and this article was chiefly exported to Flanders for purposes of manufacture. Edward III. invited weavers, dyers, and fullers from Flanders to settle in England, and to his wise policy we owe the establishment of the woollen manufacture in this country. The trade in wool was con- sidered so honourable a pursuit that even kings engaged in it. The conqueror at Crecy was called in derision by his French rival, the ' Eoyal wool-merchant.' Flemish mer- chants were found in all the chief towns of the kingdom, and in the south-eastern ports of Ireland. They formed guilds for the protection of trade ; and in London their hall or factory was called the Gildhall, now known as the GuildhaU. The discovery of the mariner's compass gave an impulse to navigation and commerce, but the ships of the period were small in size. One manned by thirty seamen was considered very large. The royal navy, in times of war, was chiefly composed of vessels belonging to private merchants. The average rent of land was Ad. per acre ; the price of SOCIAi; LIFE UNDER PLANTAGENETS PEOPER. 143 wheat, 'is. Gd. per quarter; a fat ox cost 16s.] a sheep, Is. 2d.-^ a hog, 35. 4c?. ; ale, Id. per gallon ; a pair of shoes, 4rd. ; and broad cloth, Is. id. per yard. In the reign of Edward III. a hay-maker received Id. per day ; a reaper of corn, 3d. ; a mason or carpenter, 4c?.; but to find the present value of these sums, we must mul- tiply them by twenty or twenty-four. A large portion of the trade of the country vf as transacted in fairs and markets. The shops of London tradesmen in the Cheap resembled sheds, and some of them were simply stalls in the street. The mercers dealt in toys and small wares, and their stock was as miscellaneous as that of a village shop in the present day. A grocer was called a pepperer, and dealt in drugs and spices, of which pepper formed the most costly article. Drapers were originally makers of cloth — ' to drape ' signified to make cloth. Tailors made women's garments, and dealers in articles of dress brought firom Milan were called milliners. The population at this time numbered about 2,000,000. The number of free labourers increased very much. Many slaves obtained their freedom by taking refuge in a walled town, and re- siding there for a year and a day. Language, Learning, and Literature. — The language at the beginning of this period has been termed Semi- Saxon ; and from Henry III. to Edward III. Old English, In the reign of the latter monarch, the reaction against the Norman-French tongue became evident, and the statute passed in 1362 a.d., directing all pleas in courts of justice to be carried on in English, gave new life to the language of the people. The writers of Edward's reign inaugurated the period of Middle English, which lasted till the death of Queen Mary (1558 a.d.). The changes indicated by the terms Semi-Saxon, &c., did not take place at any one defi- nite time, but gradually. The chief changes were — (1) the omission of many terminations or inflexions of nouns and verbs, and using in their place prepositions and auxi- liaries ; (2) the introduction of French and other foreign words. The clergy still continued to be the only learned men of 144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. the time, but their knowledge was very limited. The arts of war and the chase were all the nobles cared to know ; few of them could read, and fewer still could write. Even many of those occupying high stations in the State were unable to write their names, and considered it no shame to sign documents with the mark of a cross. Hence it hap- pened that the learned professions and most of the high offices in the State were filled by clergymen. The chief cause of the ignorance of the laity was the scarcity of books. Before the invention of printing, all works were written by hand on parchment, hence called manuscripts, and this kind of labour was long and laborious. Parchment was the only material then used for writing upon, and the expense of this added consider- ably to the difficulty of multiplying copies. Libraries were only found in monasteries, where there was a room set apart for copying, called a scriptorium, or writing- room. The monks engaged in this work were skilful pen- men and painters of letters. The headings and margins of their manuscripts were usually ornamented with tasteful designs, painted with various coloured inks and richly em- bellished with gold and silver ; such embellishments were called illuminations. Books, thus illuminated, were very costly ; 4:01., equal to 800Z. of present money, are said to have been given for a copy of the Bible. Throughout the greater part of this period, Latin was the language of all legal documents, but towards the close, French was frequently employed. All books of theology, philosophy, and science were written in Latin. With the exception of a few metrical chronicles and romances, for the most part translations from the French, no composition appeared in English, as distinct from the Anglo-Saxon, till the end of the reign of Edward I. It was not till the four- teenth century that our literature fairly started into exist- ence, when Chaucer appeared as the father of English poetry. In the two preceding centuries, the popular lite- rary characters were the minstrels, or troubadours, who, roving from castle to castle, sang to the harp in spirit- stirring lays the glories of war and the chase, and the SOCIAL LIFE UNDER PLANTAGENETS PROPER. 145 praises of love and beauty. The chief writers of this period in Semi-Saxon, Old English, and Middle English, respectively, were the following : — SEMI-SAXON (1066-1216). LAYAMON, a Worcestershire priest: wrote a rhyming chro- nicle of Britain, said to be a translation of one of the Latin chronicles of Greofirey of Monmouth. OLD ENGLISH (1216-1327). BOBEET OF GLOUCESTER (1230-1285): wrote a rhyming history of England, from the landing of Brutus to Edward I. ROBERT MANNYNG or DE BRUNNE, the author of a chronicle like that of Robert of Grloucester. MIDDLE ENGLISH (1327-1558). JOHN GOWER (1320-1402): wrote moral poetry; called by Chaucer the ' Moral Gower.' GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1328-1400): the father of English literature ; the first great English poet. Chief work : ' The Canterbury Tales.' JOHN MANDEVILLE (1300-1372) : wrote an account of his travels, said * to be the oldest book in English prose.' JOHN WICKLIFFE (1324-1384), called ♦ The Morning Star of the English Reformation,' Professor of Divinity at Oxford, Rector of Lutterworth : translated the Bible into English. WILLIAM LANGLAND, a priest : wrote • The Vision of Piers Plowman,' a satire upon the corruption of the age (1362). JOHN BARBOUR (1320-1395), Archdeacon of Aberdeen : wrote a poem about Robert Bruce. JOHN FROISSART (1337-1401), a native of Valenciennes: was a distinguished French writer of this period. The four books of his ' Chronicle ' relate chiefly to English affairs. 148 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. LEADING DATES OF THE PEEIOD (1154-1399). GENERAL EVENTS. Scutage introduced .... 1159 A..D. Henet II. Becket murdered 1170 5J >> Massacre of the Jews .... 1189 >) ElCHARD I. Interdict 1208-14 J5 John. The first Bridge in London finished . 1209 )) j> Begging Friars first appear in England 1221 >) Henry III. Jews banished from England 1290 >} Edtv^abd I. Baliol, King of Scotland 1292 it >) Robert Bruce crowned .... 1306 JJ j> Flemish "Weavers settle at Norwich . 1331 >J Edward II. The Order of the Garter instituted 1349 >J Edward IH The English Language adopted in Courts of Law .... 1362 >J » Death of the Black Prince . 1376 J> )f The Bible translated by Wickliffe 1380 »> ElCHARD II. CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES. Council of Clarendon Magna Charta Mad Parliament held at Oxford House of Commons founded . Statute of Mortmain passed . Ordainers .... Statute of Provisors passed The Statute of Treasons passed The Wonderful Parliament . Statute of Praemunire passed 1164 A. D. Henry II. 1215 5» John. 1258 5) Henry TTT. 1265 » JJ 1279 J> Edward I. 1310 >> Edward II. 1344 »> Edward III. 1362 JJ JJ 1388 JJ Eichard II. 1393 JJ » SOCIAL LIEE UNDER PLANT AGENETS PROPER. 147 WARS, BATTLES, TREATIES. The Third Crusade 1190-92 A.D. Richard I. Battle of Bouvines 1214 John. „ Lincoln , . 1217 „ Henry III. „ Lewes . 1264 „ JJ „ Evesham 1265 „ )) „ Falkirk . 1297 „ Edward I. „ Bannockhurn 1314 „ Edward II. Halidon Hill 1333 „ Edward III French War begins 1338 „ Battle of Sluys . 1340 „ Crecy . 1346 „ „ Neville's Cross >> jj „ Poitiers 1356 „ Treaty of Bretigni, or the Great Peace 1360 „ Wat Tyler's Rebellion . . . 1381 „ Richard II. Battle of Otterbourne, or C hevy Chas e 1388 „ ]> CHANGES OF DOMINION. Conquest of Ireland „ Wales Calais taken . . Poitou and Guienne acquired Loss of the French Provinces 1172 A.D. Henry n. 1282 „ Edward I. 1347 „ Edward III. 1360 „ 1375 „ P4 CO n o o OS P4 OS o 1^ M H Pc« O JH o ^>H -B-^— S O 1^ s ^f ft h8 •H-3 _°So g<1 ^■^ O o ws *« Si, . T^ Era O en oi 03 XI O tw b,. S >: -ri — — P3 a ~ ft . >» g ,Q 5" m l>4 < M > O .» ■4J .^H §) '«! H § i2]^ m a u a K . J p -1 So f1 f-f W c3 < CI w 13 - Eg PS ,3 h1 ft H Q o Ho e P4 e3 (o SO Q o 149 A.D. 13 A.D. ;heKing. if Lan- . The idmund )uke of ohn of be re- 3 of the n years opt by- throne, lobility ;t, and ;le won 3s were )irators refused arched < < p o O CO la O » H O o >^ Pa HE.NEY IV. 149 HOUSE OF LAN0A8TEB. HENRY IV. (Son of John of Ghent) HENRY V. (Son) .... HENRY VI. (Son). . 1399 A.D. . 1413 „ 1422-61 „ HENRY IV. (Bolingbroke). Born 1367 A.D, Began to Eeign 1399 A.D. Died 1413 A.D. His Accession. War with Scotland. Owen Glendower's Insurrection. The Percies' Eebellion. War with France. Prince of Wales. Death and Character of the King. Miscellaneous Facts. Accession. War with Scotland. Heney IV., the son of John of Ghent, Duke of Lan- caster, was born at Bolingbroke, in Lincolnshire. The right to the crown by descent belonged to Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, a descendant of Lionel Duke of Clarence, the third son of Edward III., while John of Ghent was only the fourth son. This fact must be re- membered, as it afterwards led to the long civil wars of the Roses. The Earl of March being a child of seven years old, his claims were passed over, and he was kept by Henry in honourable custody in Windsor Castle. Though Henry had succeeded in mounting the throne, his seat at first was not very secure. Many of the nobility were dissatisfied with the change of government, and several foreign kings refused to acknowledge a title won by usurpation. The plots of the discontented nobles were treacherously revealed to the king, and the conspirators perished upon the scaffold. As Robert of Scotland refused to recognise Henry's right to the throne, the Litter marched 8 150 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. with an army to Leith, but, provisions falling short, he was compelled to retire. This invasion revived the old hostility of the border lords, and in 1402 Earl Douglas led 10,000 Scots across the border. Henry Percy (Hot- spur), the son of the Earl of Northumberland, met them at Homildon Hill, slew 800 of their * * number, and captured Douglas and several of the Scottish nobility. The English king ordered the Percies not to ransom their prisoners — an order which gave great offence to that family, as it interfered with their rights according to the laws of war in that age. Owen Glendower's Insurrection. The Percies' Rebellion. Henry's usurpation of the government encouraged the Welsh to make an insurrection. Owen Glendower, the great-grandson of Llewellyn, the last prince of Wales, had been in the service of Eichard II., and i)n the deposition of his master, he withdrew to Wales, and Avas soon in open quarrel with Lord Grey of Euthyn, who had seized his estates. Henry sent Sir Edmund Mortimer, uncle of the Earl of March, to the assistance of Lord Grey, but the Welsh rallied round Glendower, took Mortimer and Grey prisoners, and defied once more the English power, (1402 A.D.) The Welsh leader received encouragement in his resist- ance from the family of the Percies, whose anger concerning the ransom of the Scots had been further increased by Henry's refusal to obtain the release of their kinsman Mor- timer. A confederacy was formed against the king by the Earl of Northumberland, his son Hotspur, his brother the Earl of Worcester, and Douglas. Their plan was to join Glendower^ and then to march against their com- ^A(\*i ' ■'^^^ enemy. A sudden illness prevented the elder Percy from accompanying the army, but Hotspur, marching with 12,000 men, was attacked by the king at Shrewsbury, before Glendower's troops could cross the Severn. The battle was long and bloody ; HENEY IV. 151 both sides fought with the greatest bravery ; but Hotspur's death in the thick of the light decided the fortunes of the day, and the hard-won victory fell to the royalists. The loss on both sides was great ; one-third of the rebel army fell on the field ; Worcester and Douglas were taken pri- soners ; the former was beheaded at Shrewsbury, but the latter was treated with marked respect. In this battle Henry, the young Prince of Wales, distinguished himself, and gave evidence of the valour and skill which made him renowned in after years. The Earl of Northumberland was brought to trial for his share in the confederacy, and received pardon. The Welsh held out, though several armies were sent against them, till the following reign. The pardon of Northumberland did not reconcile him to the king. Two years afterwards, he entered into another conspiracy with the Earl of Nottingham, and Scrope, Archbishop of York ; but failing again, he escaped to Scot- land, while the two other leaders were taken and executed. This is the first instance in English history in which an archbishop perished by the hands of the executioner. (1405.) In the same y«ar, Henry obtained an advantage over the Scots by the capture of Prince James, the son of Eobert III., while on his Avay to France. The prince was detained in England for nineteen years. Northumberland, after living for some time as an exile in Scotland, invaded the northern counties for the recovery of his estates, but at Bramham Moor, in Yorkshire, he was defeated by the sheriff of the county and slain. (1408.) War with. France. The Prince of "Wales. Death, etc. of the King. The King of France was very angry at the deposition of his brother-in-law Richard II., and considered his truce with England at an end. He demanded the dowry and jewels of the widowed Isabella ; but Henry kept them as part of the ransom of King John, captured at Poitiers. Though no open declaration of war was made between the two countries, hostile squadrons scoured the seas, and the 152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. coasts of each were often ravaged. The unhappy state of the government of France gave Henry an advantage. Charles VI. became imbecile, and the country was torn by the rival factions of the houses of Orleans and Bur- gundy. By assisting each of these in turn, as advantage promised best, Henry regained the sovereignty of Aqui- taine, Poitou, and Angouleme. The conduct of young Henry, Prince of Wales, was a source of great grief to his father. Though showing, now and then, gleams of a better nature, he was led astray by low and worthless companions. When one of these was brought to trial for riotous conduct, the young prince made his appearance in court, for the purpose of overawing the judge. Sir WiUiam Gascoigne. The trial ended in the prisoner's condemnation ; and when sentence of imprison- ment was pronounced, the prince, in a rage, drew his sword upon the judge. For this unlawful act, Gascoigne sent the royal offender to prison. The prince submitted with a D-ood grace, and afterwards treated the judge with marked respect for his courage and faithful vindication of the laws. Henry did not long survive this occurrence. Fits of epilepsy wore out his strength ; and the last seized him while praying in the chapel of Edward the Confessor, at West- minster. He died in the forty-sixth year of his age and the thirteenth of his reign. (March 20, 1413.) Henry was remarkable for forethought, vigilance, and courage. The successful way in which he crushed all opposition and maintained himself firmly on the throne is an evidence of the vigour and daring of his character. He was a man of middle size ; and sometime before his death his face was disfigured by an eruption, which the super- stition of the time said was a judgment for the execution of Archbishop Scrope. He was twice married ; but his children were all by his first wife, Mary de Bohun, daughter of the Earl of Hereford, and these were : Henry, who became king ; Thomas Duke of Clarence ; John Duke of Bedford ; Humphrey Duke of Gloucester ; Blanche, and Philippa. HENEY IV. 163 Miscellaneous Facts. This reign is noted for the rapid growth of the power of the House of Commons. The members claimed the ex- clusive right of originating money bills ; they maintained the liberty of discussing all public questions without the king's interference ; they secured for themselves freedom from arrest during their attendance at the Parliament ; and they claimed protection from undue returns of elections being made by the sheriffs in the interest of the court. This reign, too, is distinguished for the first execution for religious opinions. Henry, in order to secure the support of the clergy, passed a law, in 1401, by which persons accused of heretical opinions might be tried by the bishop and burned by the sheriff. The Lollards, in consequence, were persecuted, and many of them suffered death. John Sawtre, a London clergyman, was burned at Smithfield (1401), being the first in England who died for his religious opinions. LoUardism, however, increased more than ever. At the coronation of Henry, the Order of the Bath was instituted. It was so called because those who were to become members had first to bathe themselves, as a token of the loyalty and purity of their minds. The celebrated Richard Whittington, a rich London merchant, lived in this reign. He devoted a great portion of his wealth, which was chiefly realised by his ship, ^ The Cat,' to religious and charitable purposes. A plague visited London, and carried off 30,000 people (1407.) 154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. HENRY V. (Monmoutli). Born 1388 A.B. Began to Reign 1413 A.D. Died 1422 A.D, Henry's Accession and Reform. Persecution of the Lollards. War with France. Agincourt. Treaty of Troyes. Death and Character of the King. Miscellaneous Facts. Henry's Accession and Reform. Persecution of the LoUards. Henry V., the eldest son of the last king, was born in Monmouth. His father's death worked a great change in his character. Dismissing his riotous companions, he gathered round him the wisest of his father's counsellors, among whom was Judge Gascoigne. He liberated the Earl of March, and restored the Percy family to their estates. The Lollards, on account of their rapid increase, were becoming a powerful body in the kingdom ; and as their opinions were thought to be dangerous to the Church and king, the fire of persecution was directed against them. The leader of this party. Sir John Oldcastle, commonly called Lord Cobham, was condemned to the flames and sent to the Tower ; but he managed to escape before the day of execution. He is said to have formed a conspiracy to seize the king's person ; and a large party of Lollards having been found in St. Giles's Fields at midnight, gave a colour to this accusation. The meeting was dispersed by Henry's vigilance ; about thirty who had attended it suffered death ; Cobham fled to Wales, and was not apprehended till four years afterwards. He was then put to death by being roasted in chains over a slow fire. (1418 a.d.) HENRY V. 166 War with France. Agincourt. The distracted state of France, caused by the illness of Charles YI., and the rivalry of the Orleanists and Burgun- dians, presented a great temptation to a young, ardent, and ambitious prince to make an attempt to recover the lost English possessions in that country. Henry, seizing his opportunity, demanded the restoration of all the posses- sions held in France by King John, the hand of Charles's daughter in marriage, and vp-ith her a dowry of 2,000,000 crowns. Having received an unsatisfactory answer to this demand, the young king revived the claim of Edward HI. to the French crown, and immediately prepared to maintain it by force of arms. He was just on the point of starting for France, when a conspiracy to put the Earl of IMarch on the throne was discovered and nipped in the bud. The leaders — his cousin the Earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope, and Sir Thomas Grey — suffered death, but the Earl of March re- ceived a general pardon. (1415 a.d.) After crushing this conspiracy, Henry set sail from Southampton with 30,000 men, and landed at Harfleur, which he took after a siege of five weeks. During the operations, one-half his army perished from sickness and wounds, and, as the transports had been sent home, he deter- mined to march with the remainder of his troops to Calais. The French, however, had by this time massed a strong force in Normandy, and had taken every precaution against the invader. Henry found all the country laid waste, and all the bridges across the Somme broken down. He fortu- nately found an unguarded ford, and succeeded in carrying his army across. Marching straight for Calais, he was surprised to find a French force of 60,000 men blocking up his way on the plains of Agincourt. There was nothing left but to cut a way through, and though the odds were fear- ful, at least four to one, Henry, remembering the glorious victories of Crecy and Poitiers, determined to fight to the last. The archers, protected by sharp stakes fixed in the ground, were placed in the front, and a wood 156 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. on eacli side covered the flanks. The French horse and men-at-arms advanced to the attack, but were quickly thrown into confusion by the English bowmen. It was Poitiers over again : three hours' fighting found the field of battle covered with the slaughtered French. The dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, with 14,000 men, were taken prisoners ; and the Constable of France and the Oct. 25, flower of the French nobility, together with 1415 10,000 men, fell on the fatal field of Agincourt. A.D. The English loss amounted only to 1,600 men. Henry, not being in a position to follow up his. victory, proceeded to Calais, and thence to Dover, where he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. Tlie people of London welcomed his return with delight ; and the Par- liament voted him large sums of money for the further prosecution of the war. Treaty of Troyes. Death and Character of Henry. In 1417 A.D., Henry again set sail for France, with a larger army than before. The smaller towns submitted to him at once ; Eouen fell after a siege of six months, and then all Normandy was at his feet. The factions which were ruining France were about to sink their differences in the face of a foreign invasion, when the murder of the Duke of Burgundy threw all the power of his party on the side of the English king. Thirsting for revenge, that faction agreed to grant all the demands of Henry. A 1420 treaty was signed at Troyes, in which it was A.D. stipulated: (1) that Henry should marry the Princess Catherine ; (2) that Charles VI. should retain the title and dignity of King of France during his lifetime ; (3) that Henry should be regent for the present, and should succeed to the throne on the death of Charles. A few days afterwards, Henry married Catherine, and went to Paris, where the Treaty of Troyes was ratified by the Estates of the realm. The Dauphin of France, eldest son of Charles, however, was still in. arms, but quite imable HENEY V. 157 to withstand the prowess of Henry. When the latter visited England with his young bride, the dauphin, assisted by a large number of Scots, defeated the English troops at Beauj6. and slew the Duke of Clarence. Henry imme- diately returned to France, where his presence soon turned the tide of victory against the dauphin. He chased his enemies across the Loire to the south, where again they were pursued by the united forces of the English and Bur- gundians, almost to the point of destruction. Just at this time Henry's queen was delivered of a son, whose birth caused great rejoicings both in Paris and London. In the midst of all this prosj)erity and glory, the hand of death fell on the young king, and put an end to all his mighty projects. Seized with a fistula, which baffled the skill of his physicians, he died at Yincennes, if 09 ' near Paris, in the thirty-fifth year of his age and tenth of his reign. His body was brought to England, and buried in Westminster Abbey. He left the regency of France to his elder brother, the Duke of Bed- ford ; that of England to his younger, the Duke of Gloucester ; and the care of his son's person to the Earl of Warwick. Henry V. was a warrior and a statesman. The greatest fault in his character was ambition. He had the power of attaching friends warmly to his side, and winning favour from his enemies. In person, he was rather tall, and handsome ; his limbs were slender, but full of vigour, and he excelled in all manly and warlike exercises. Miscellaneous Facts. Henry's widow married soon after his death a Welsh gentleman, Sir Owen Tudor ; she bore him two sons, of whom the eldest was Edmund, Earl of Eichmond, who became the father of Henry VII. The annual revenue of the crown at this time amounted to about 86,000Z., but the expenditure often exceeded this amount. Calais alone is said to have cost nearly 20,000/. a year. But the Parliament, dazzled by Henry's victories, 158 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. willingly granted him large sums of money ; taxes were even granted to him for life. During this reign, the English navy, as distinct from the merchant service, was established. Henry caused some ships of war to be built at Southampton. In 1415, London was for the first time lighted with lanterns ; and a year afterwards, herrings, cured in the Dutch fashion, were first sold in the same city. JSixight in Armour, and Lady's Costume of the period. HENEY VI. 169 HENRY VI. (Windsor). Born 1421 A.D. Began to Eeign 1422 A.D. Dethroned 1461 A.D. The Regency. English Affairs in France. Joan of Arc. Loss of French Provinces.. Fall of the Dukes of Grloucester and Suffolk. Jack Cade's Rebellion. Richard Duke of York. Wars of the Roses. Character of Henry. Miscellaneous Facts. The Regency. English Affairs in France. Joan of Arc. Loss of French Provinces. Henry VI., the only child of Henry V., was born at Windsor, and was only nine months old at his father's death. The Parliament appointed a comicil of twenty to manage the affairs of the kingdom ; the regency of France was given to the Duke of Bedford ; Humphrey Duke of Gloucester was made Protector of England, and the young king's person and education were entrusted to Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, the son of John of Gaunt, in con- junction with the Earl of Warwick. A few weeks after the death of Henry V., Charles VI. of France died, and, according to the treaty of Troyes, the infant Kenry was proclaimed King of France. But the late dauphin, as- suming the title of Charles VII. of France on his father's death, asserted his rightful claim to the throne. At Cre- vant, in 1423, and Verneuil, in 1424, he met with crushing defeats, and was compelled to retire across the Loire in a hopeless state. In 1428, Bedford formed the resolution of crossing that river, and marching into those provinces in the south of France which adhered to the cause of Charles, The first step necessary for this purpose was the capture of Orleans, and it was therefore determined to besiege that town. This work was entrusted to the Ear] of Salisbury, 160 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, one of the most famous commanders of the age, but he was killed during the siege, and was succeeded by the Earl of Suffolk. While the English lay before Orleans, a battle took place at Eouvrai, in the neighbourhood, which is known as the Battle of Herrings. As Lent was drawing near, a convoy of herrings was sent from Paris to the English camp, and on the way it was attacked unsuccessfully by a superior French force. (1429.) The failure of this attack and the successful progress of the siege greatly discouraged the French. Charles was about to give up the contest and leave France, when the tide of victory was turned in his favour through the agency of a peasant girl. In the village of Domremi, near Vaucouleurs, in Lor- raine, there lived a country girl of nineteen years of age, named Joan of Arc, who was a servant in the village inn. As she heard, day after day, the story of the wrongs of her king and people, her enthusiastic nature was stirred to its depths, and she proclaimed herself inspired by Heaven to deliver her country. At first her statements were received with ridicule, but at length, by her earnestness and perse- verance, she succeeded in gaining admission to the presence of Charles. She told him that Heaven had sent her to drive the English from Orleans, and take him to Rheims for his coronation. Pretending to believe her story, he paid her every honour ; and to inspirit the soldiers, wonderful stories were circulated in proof of her divine mission. Mounted on a grey steed, and clad in armour, her first exploit was to conduct a convoy of provisions through the besieging lines into Orleans. The English, believing her to be a sorceress, lost their wonted courage, and let her pass without striking a blow. The townspeople were as much elated as the besiegers were dispirited. Every sally 1 AQQ frc>m the town under the peasant girl's leadership succeeded, and the English were compelled at last to raise the siege. This great success obtained for the heroic girl the name of the ' Maid of Orleans.' Her first promise was now fulfilled ; and the coronation of Charles was the next thing to be done. Two months after HENKY VI. 161 the raising of the siege of OrleanSj the king was actually crowned at liheims. Then Joan said her mission was at an end, and begged leave to return to her home, but Charles, knowing her worth to his cause, persuaded her to remain. In a sortie from Compiegne, in 1430 a.d., she was taken prisoner by the Burgundians, and handed over to the English regent. After an imprisonment of twelve months, she was brought to trial on the charge of sorcery, and was condemned by an ecclesiastical court to ^ . ' be burnt. This cruel sentence was carried out in A.D. the market-place of Rouen. The coronation of Charles at Eheims led the English to proceed at once with the coronation of their young king. Henry was first crowned at Westminster, and then taken to Paris, where a similar ceremony took place. But the English cause in France grew worse and worse. The powerful Duke of Burgundy quarrelled with the Duke of Bedford, and he determined, in consequence, to reconcile himself with the court of France. At Arras, in 1435 a.d., he formed a treaty of friendship with Charles. This event was almost immediately followed by the death of the Duke of Bedford at Eouen. Before the new regent could arrive, Paris fell into the hands of the French king. Disputes in England between the Duke of Gloucester and the Bishop of Winchester prevented proper assistance being sent to France, and in 1444, the English were glad to make a truce of two years. During this period, Henry married Margaret, daughter of Rene, Duke of Anjou and Maine. The Earl of Suffolk, who had negotiated this marriage, engaged fey a secret article to give up the provinces of Maine and Anjou, which were called the ' Keys of Normandy,' to Margaret's father ; and as he was a dependent of Charles VH., the gift of these places proved most injurious to the English cause. As soon as ever the truce expired, French troops poured into Normandy through Maine and Anjou, and soon effected an easy conquest. Turning to the south, the cities of Guienne quickly fell into their hands, till, in 1451, only Calais re- mained in possession of the English. 162 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. Fall of tKe Dukes of Gloucester and Suffolk. Jack Cade's Rebellion. During the long minority of the king, and the wars in France, affairs in England were in a very Tinsatisfactorj state. As Henry grew up to manhood, he showed signs of weakness of intellect and unfitness for government ; and therefore the control of public affairs continued in the hands of the Duke of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort. The marriage of Henry with Margaret of Anjou, who was a princess of strong intellect and great energy, soon worked a change in the government. She lent all her influence to the party of Beaufort, and Gloucester, two years after the marriage, was accused of treason, thrown into prison, and murdered. Scarcely had six weeks passed before Beaufort followed his nephew Gloucester to the grave. The Duke of Suffolk, who had brought about the marriage with Margaret, now became the king's chief adviser; but he was most un- popular, on account of his share in the loss of the French provinces. He was also suspected of having the chief hand in the death of Gloucester. Parliament impeached him for high treason in 1450 ; but the king, to save his life, banished him for five years. His enemies, however, were too active and determined to allow him to escape. The ship which was taking him to Calais was boarded near Dover by some sailors sent on purpose, who took him on board their own craft. There he was saluted with the words, ' Welcome, traitor ! ' and after a mock trial he was placed in a boat, his head struck off with a rusty sword, and his body thrown into the sea. A crime like that just mentioned shows how unsettled the country was, and how ripe for the schemes of designing men. A rumour was set afloat in Kent that the king was preparing to punish the people of that county because they had furnished the ships which had seized the Duke of Suffolk. An insurrection immediately broke out, headed by Jack Cade, an Irishman, who took the favourite name of Mortimer. Twenty thousand men marched under his HENRY VI. 163 banner to Blackheath, and, after defeating tlie royal forces at Seven Oaks, he entered London in triumph. At first, he maintained good order and discipline among his fol- lowers, but on the third day the pillage of some rich houses roused the Londoners, who drove the rebels out of the city, and repulsed them with great slaughter. The Kentish men were so dispirited that, on a promise of pardon, they withdrew to Rochester, and dispersed to their homes. The pardon, however, was withdrawn, and Cade, in -t >ie/> his attempt to escape, was killed in a garden near Lewes, Sussex, by a gentleman named Iden. His head was struck off and placed on London Bridge. Richard Duke of York. Wars of the Roses. Character of Henry. After the su23pression of Cade's rebellion, the Duke of Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, was placed at the head of the government. He had formerly been governor of Normandy, but the loss of that province made him very unpopular with the English. Besides, as Henry had as yet no heir, and as his government was not in favour with a great portion of the people, attention was turned to Richard Duke of York, the son of Anne, heiress of the house of Lionel Duke of Clarence. At that time, Richard held the post of Lieutenant of L^eland ; but hearing of Somerset's promotion, he marched to London at the head of 10,000 men, and demanded that minister's removal from power and authority. This attempt failed, and York, after a short imprisonment, was allowed to retire to his castle of Wigmore, on the borders of Wales. (1452). In the follow- ing year, the queen gave birth to a son, who received the name of Edward. Soon after, the king became insane, and the York party was strong enough to upset the govern- ment. Somerset was sent to the Tower, and Richard of York was appointed by the Parliament Protector -i^t-A of the kingdom. Henry's recovery in the follow- ing year again brought a change in the govern- ment. York was removed from his protectorate ; Somerset 164 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. was released, and re-a]Dpointed to his former post. The Duke of York then levied an army for the purpose of re- moving Somerset ; but as yet he made no claim to the throne. Now began the Wars of the Roses, which con- tinued for thirty years, during which time twelve pitched battles were fought, and eighty princes of the blood wore slain, and almost all the ancient nobility destroyed. The party of York took for its badge a white rose ; the party of the house of Lancaster a red one ; hence the name of the quarrel. The first battle took place at St. Albans, in which -_ Somerset was killed and the king taken prisoner. - . -- ' '^^® death of Somerset removed the cause of the strife : and when Henry again fell ill, the Duke of York was appointed Protector. In 1456, the king recovered his authority, and for the next two or three years the contending parties were to all appearances friendly to each other. The chief supporters of Eichard of York were the Earl of Salisbury and his son the Earl of Warwick. A quarrel between one of the king's retinue and one of the Earl of Warwick's led to a fierce party combat, and Warwick, thinking that his life was in danger, fled to Calais, of which he was governor. The Yorkists and Lancastrians again took up arms against each other, and the civil war began in earnest. At Bloreheath, in Staffordshire, the Lancastrians were again defeated, with the loss of their leader. Lord Audley. A month later the Lancastrians gained an easy -f/t-Q ' victory at Ludlow, through the defection of the Marshal of the Yorkist camp ; and Richard, in con- sequence, withdrew to Ireland. The following year, the Yorkists were again in arms under the command of the Earl of Warwick, and defeated the royal forces at Northampton, where the king was taken pri- ^Infx '. soner ; while the queen and her son sought refuge in Scotland. Now, for the first time, Eichard A.D. . . openly claimed the crown by right of descent. The Parliament acknowledged his claims, and agreed that he should succeed to the throne on the death of Henry,, HENRY VI. 165 But Margaret's spirit was roused when she heard that her boy was to be shut out from the succession, and, collecting an army, she marched southwards, and defeated the Yorkists at Wakefield. Here, Eichard was i/ort' killed ; and his head, adorned with a paper crown, was fixed upon the Avails of York. His second son, the Duke of Eutland, a youth of seventeen, was mur- dered by Lord Clifford in revenge for his father's death, who had perished in the battle of St. Albans. The Earl of Salisbury, too, the father of the ' King-Maker,' Avas taken prisoner, and beheaded at Pontefract. This defeat and bloodshed made the Yorkists furious. The cause of the fallen Duke was taken up by his eldest son, Edward Earl of March, Avho defeated the -p -^ c, Lancastrians at Mortimer's Cross, in Hereford- i4gi' shire. In this battle, Owen Tudor, who had . ^ -r 1 A.D. married the widow of Henry v., was taken prisoner, and beheaded in retaliation for the cruelties committed at Wakefield. Margaret made up for this defeat by a victory over the Earl of Warwick at -p, , , _ St. Albans, where the king fell into the hands of lioi ' his own party. The citizens of London refused to receive her, and as the young Duke of York was marching from the west with a large force, she was compelled to retreat northwards. The duke, however, was received in London with shouts of joy ; and having made his claim to the throne in the presence of the -j^^i peers, prelates, and citizens, he was proclaimed king, under the title of Edward TV. Thus the dynasty of the House of Lancaster was brought to an end, after lasting sixty-two years. Henry YI. lived ten years longer. He Avas totally unfit, both in body and mind, to hold the reins of government. In private life he Avas meek, gentle, and forgiving. To him we are indebted for the school of Eton, and for King's College, Cambridge. By his Avife, Margaret of Anjou, he had one son, Edward, who afterwards married Anne, daughter of the Earl of WarAvick. 136 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. Miscellaneous Facts. Under the Lancastrian kings, the power of the Parlia- ment made good progress. The Peers continued to hold the chief power, but the right of granting supplies of money lay with the Commons, and this constituted their strength. In this reign the practice of introducing ' Bills ' into Parliament commenced. The right of voting for the election of members of parliament was limited to those who owned lands of the annual value of forty shillings. The members were allowed four shillings per day for travelling expenses, and every protection was afforded them ; but sometimes there was considerable difficulty in getting candidates for parliamentary honours. In the wars of this reign gunpowder came into general use. Eton College, and King's College, Cambridge, were founded by Henry VI. ; Queen's College, Cambridge, by his queen Margaret. Glasgow University and the colleges of All Souls and Magdalene, Oxford, were established. The title of Viscount first came into use in this reign ; and the first Lord Mayor's Show took place in London. Science and art made steady progress. Halley's Comet was first observed in 1456 ; and the manufacture of glass in England began in 1457. On the Continent, the im- portant art of printing was invented and improved. John Geinsfleish, of Haarlaam, first invented the art, 1430 ; Faust printed the Psalms from wooden blocks, 1442 ; Guttenburg cut types from metals, 1444 ; the roller printing press was invented, 1450 ; and types cast in hollow moulds by Schoeffer came into use, 1452. En- graving on copper was invented by a goldsmith of Florence, 1458. The knowledge of geography increased. The Senegal Eiver and the Azores were discovered by the Portuguese, and the Cape Verde Islands by the Genoese. EDWAED IV. 107 HOUSE OF YOEE. EDWARD IV. (Son of Richard of York) EDWARD V. (Son) .... RICHARD III. (Uncle) , 1461 A.B. . 1483 „ 1483-5 „ EDWARD IV. Born 1443 A.D. Began to Reign 1461 A.D. Died 1483 A.D. Wars of the Eoses Continued. Deposition of Edward. Henry Kestored. Battles of Barnet and Tewkes- bury. War with France. Treaty of Pecquigni. Duke of Clarence. Death and Character of Edward. Miscellaneous Facts. Wars of the Roses Continued. Edward IV. was nineteen years old when lie was pro- claimed king by his own party. He had still much to do before gaining full possession of the crown, as the North continued faithful to Henry. The Earl of Warwick, at the head of 49,000 men, was sent against Margaret, who had a force of 60,000 in Yorkshire, and at Towton the armies met, where a most desperate battle took place, which ended in the complete defeat of the Lancastrians. No quarter was given, and nearly 38,000 men perished on that fatal field. Mar- garet and Henry fled to Scotland, while Edward returned to London to summon a Parliament for the settlement of the government. This Assembly acknow- ledged Edward's right to the throne, and passed an Act of condemnation of Henry VL, Queen Margaret, and Prince Edward. The spirited queen Avent to France for help, and returned with a body of troops. Around these, tJie shattered ranks of the Lancastrians again rallied ; but at Hedgeley Moor (April 25) and at Hexham (May 15) .they were defeated by the Mar. 29, 1461 A.D. 1464 A.D. 168 HISTORY OE ENGLAND. 1 orkists. Margaret and her son escaped into the woods, and through the kindness of a robber they reached the sea- coast, whence they escaped to Flanders, Henry was not so fortunate ; for a twelvemonth he lay concealed in Lanca- shire, but he was at last discovered and thrown into the Tower. Deposition of Edward. Eestoration of Henry. " Much of the success of Edward was due to the powerful influence of the Earl of Warwick, but in 1464 the king took a step which greatly offended the earl, and ultimately led to his own downfall, Edward privately married Lady Elizabeth Grey, the widow of a knight who fell on the Lancastrian side in the second battle of St. Albans. The king came accidentally to the house of her father, Sir Richard Woodville, after a hunting party, and was so struck with the beauty of the young widow, that he oifered to share his throne Avith her. The marriage took place at the time when the Earl of Warwick had gone to France, at Edward's request to solicit for him a princess of Savoy, and it was not made known for several months. Warwick's anger on his return was great ; but when he saw his place at court filled by the family and friends of the queen, and the highest honours bestowed upon them, his haughty temper carried him away into open rebellion against the king. Many of the nobility, jealous of the nev*^ influence at coiu-t, supported Warwick, and the king's second brother, the Duke of Clarence, Avho had married Isabel, the earl's eldest daughter, also joined him. An insurrection was fomented in Yorkshire and Lincoln. The royal troops 1 AftQ '^^^^^ defeated at Edgecote, near Banbury, when the queen's father, who had been created Earl Eivers, and her brother, were taken prisoners and beheaded. In the following year, Warwick and Clarence were denounced as traitors, and, escaping to France, they met Margaret of Anjou at the court of Louis XL They at once made common cause with her, and the union was further cemented by a marriage between Prince Edward and Warwick's second daughter Anne. EDWAKD IV. 169 Assisted by Louis, Warwick landed at Dartmoutli with a small body of troops, after an absence of five months. So great was his popularity, that in a few days his army amounted to 60,000 men. Edward took ship at Lynn, in Norfolk, and sailed for Flanders. Thus the Earl of Warwick, in eleven days after landing, found hynself master of the kingdom. Henry VL was 2%!' taken from the Tower, and proclaimed king by •*-^*" the earl, who was noAv popularly called the ' King-Maker.' A Parliament was called early in the fol- lowing year, which entrusted the regency of the kingdom to Warwick and Clarence till Prince Edward should come of age ; and in default of that prince's issue, Clarence was declared successor to the crown. Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. War with France. Henry was not long left in enjoyment of the crown. In less than six months, Edward IV. landed at Bavenspur, in York- shire, with a force of nearly 2,000 men, which his brother- in-law, the Duke of Bupgundy, had given him. The friends of the White Eose soon gathered round him ; and marching sonth,he entered London without opposition, and sentHenry VI. again to the Tower. Warwick took up a position at Barnet, in Middlesex, and there awaited Edward's attack. But during the night before the battle, Clarence deserted his father-in-law, and took with him to his brother's camp a force of 12,000 men. In the Battle of Barnet, the Lancastrians were hopelessly beaten ; Warwick ^^ wi ' fell in the thickest of the fight, and scarcely a leading noble of his party escaped with life. On the same day, Margaret landed with a small force at Weymouth ; but on receiving the news of the defeat at Barnet, she hurried to the borders of Wales, where the Earl of Pembroke had collected an army in her behalf. She was, however, overtaken at Tewkesbury by May 4, Edward, and her army defeated. Margaret and 1471 her son were taken prisoners, and brought to a.d. 170 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. Edward's tent, where the chief of the Yorkist party were assembled. The king insultingly asked the young prince how he dared to invade his dominions. The high-spirited youth replied that he came to claim his just inheritance. On this, Edward cowardly struck him in the face with his iron-gloved hand, and he was despatched then and there by the daggers of Gloucester and Clarence. The king returned in triumph to London, while Margaret was thrown into the Tower, where she remained for four years, till ransomed by the King of France. A few days after the battle of Tewkesbury, Henry VI. died in the Tower. The cause of his death is unknown, but it was generally believed that the Duke of Gloucester, the king's brother, killed him with his own hands. There was nothing now to fear from the Lancastrian party. Every legitimate prince of that house was dead. Edward, then desirous of reconquering the English pos- sessions in France, made an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy for the invasion of that country. Parliament willingly voted him supplies, but as these were considered scarcely sufficient for the undertaking, he invented a novel plan of raising money. Calling rich subjects before him, he demanded presents of money, to which he gave the name of Benevolences, or free gifts. When all was ready, the king embarked for France, but finding the Duke- of Burgundy unable or unwilling to assist him, he gladly welcomed a messenger from the French king offering terms of peace. At Pecq[lligni, on the Somme, 1%y>i ' ^^^ *^^*^ monarchs met, and signed a treaty which was not honourable to either party. It was agreed — 1. That Louis should pay Edward 75,000 crowns at once, and an annuity of 50,000 crowns. 2. That the dauphin should marry Edw^ard's daughter Elizabeth. 3. That 50,000 crowns should be paid for the ransom of Margaret of Anjou. The last clause was the most honour- able part of the treaty. By it Margaret gained her free- dom ; and having now no child to scheme and fight for, she spent the remaining five years of her life in peace and privacy. EDWARD IV. 171 Duke of Clarence. Death and Character of Edward. The treaty of Pecquigni caused great dissatisfaction in England, but Edward removed the ill-feeUng by making the expenses of the government press lightly upon the pockets of the people. The latter years of his reign were stained by the judicial murder of his brother Clarence. Edward could not easily forget the treacherous part which Clarence had played in conjunction with the ' King- Maker.' The queen, too, disliked him; and his brother, the Duke of Gloucester, had a quarrel against him. With so many powerful foes, he had little chance of escaping the plots laid against his Hfe. Unable to curb his temper, on account of the execution of several of his friends on the most frivolous charges, he complained bitterly of the king's persecuting spirit, and drew upon his own head the royal vengeance. Edward sent him to the Tower ; the House of Peers condemned him to death ; and common rumour said he was drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine. (1478.) Louis of France, contrary to the treaty of Pecquigni, married the dauphin to the grand-daughter of the Duke of Burgundy. Edward immediately prepared for war ; but in the midst of the preparations his debauchery and wicked excesses brought on an illness of which he died, in the forty-second year of his age, and was buried at Windsor. (1483). Edward was a brave, active, and energetic prince, but he was also cruel, vain, and given to vicious pleasures. His handsome person and open manners made him very popular. In later years, however, his wicked indulgences disfigured his person, and brought him to an early grave. The children by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Woodville, were — Edward, who became king ; Richard Duke of York ; Elizabeth, who became the wife of Henry VII. ; and four other daughters. Miscellaneous Facts. This reign is remarkable for the introduction of Printing into England. William Caxton, an English merchant 172 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. residing in Holland, having learnt the art there, set up a printing press at Westminster. The first book printed in England was * The Game and Playe of Chesse,' 1474 ; but the first one printed in the English language was called * The Recuyell of the Histories of Troye.' This work issued from the press at Ghent, imder Caxton's supervision.- More than sixty works, nearly all in English, were printed at Westminster during the remainder of Caxton's life. This important art was introduced into Scotland in 1508, and into Ireland in 1551. Posts were established in this reign between London and Scotland. Horsemen were placed twenty miles apart, and in this way despatches were conveyed at the rate of 100 miles a day. This plan was introduced by the Duke of Gloucester, while conducting a Scottish war, in 1481. England was ravaged by a plague in 1479. St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and St. Catherine's Hall, Cambridge, date from this reign. Watches were invented by a Ger- man, and violins by an Italian. Soldier and Hand- gun of the period. EDWARD V. 173 EDWARD V. Born 1470 A.D. Eegan to "Reign April 9, 1483 A.D. Dethroned June 25, 1483 A.D. Edward V,, the eldest son of the late king, was only in his twelfth year at the time of his father's death. He was then living at Ludlow Castle, under the care of his uncle, Earl Kivers, the patron of Caxton. Elvers set out for London with his young charge, but at Stoney Stratford he was met 1^ Eichard Duke of Gloucester, who had been appointed by his brother regent of the kingdom. Sup- ported by the enemies of the Woodville party, Eichard im- mediately took possession of the young king's person, and sent Elvers and his friends as prisoners to Pontefract Castle. The queen-mother, on receiving news of this violence, took refuge in the sanctuary at Westminster, along with all her daughters, and her other son, the Duke of York. Gloucester entered London, paying mock honours to young Edward, and then sent him to the Tower, where he was soon joined by his younger brother. The Council, blinded by the Duke's cunning and hypocrisy, appointed him Protector of the realm. So far successful, his designs upon the crown soon became appa- rent. The first step was to get rid of all those who might oppose his schemes, and the prisoners in Pontefract there- fore were at once put out of the way. Then he began to sound the leaders of the Council. The Duke of Buckingham promised to help him ; but as Lord Hastings was friendly to the young princes, Eichard determined to take his life. At a Council meeting in the Tower, the Protector suddenly charged that nobleman with conspiring against his life. At a given signal, armed men rushed in, hurried Hastings into 9 174 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. the courtyard, and there beheaded him on a log of wood. Other Councillors, whose fidelity was suspected, were placed in confinement. The Duke of Gloucester now threw off all disguise. He directed one Dr. Shaw, a popular preacher of the day, to tell the people of London, in a sermon at St. Paul's Cross, that Edward IV. was a married man when he met with the Lady Elizabeth Grey, and therefore all her children were illegitimate. Two days afterwards, the Duke of Buckingham addressed the people at the Guildhall upon the same subject. The citizens kept silence, while a bribed few in the crowd cried out, ' Long live King Eichard ! ' Next day, Buckingham, attended by the Lord Mayor and a hireling rabble, waited upon the Protector, and offered him the crown, in the name of the nation, which, after a little acting and feigned hesitation, he accepted. (June 26, 1483.) Thus ended Edward's short reign of eleven weeks. He was never crowned. EICHAED III. 175 RICHARD III. (Crookback). Bom 1450 A.D. Began to Reign 1483 A.D. Died 1485 A.D. Murder of the Young Princes. Plots against Richard. Battle of Bosworth, Death and Character of the King. Miscellaneous Facts. Murder of the Young" Princes. Richard, uncle of Edward V., was crowTied, along with his wife Anne, daughter of the Earl of Warwick, at West- minster, about a fortnight after his acceptance of the crown. His first care was to strengthen his position by lavishing favours and honours upon all those who had assisted his usurpation. He then made a royal tour through the country, and on reaching York he was again crowned. During his travels, a tragedy took place in the Tower which will for ever stamp this king as one of the vilest of mankind. Wishing to make his throne doubly sure, Eichard sent Sir James Tyrrell, his master of the horse, fi:om Warwick to London, with a letter for Brackenbury, the governor of the Tower, charging him to give up the keys of the fortress for one night. The order was obeyed. In the dead of night, Tyrrell, with three other assassins, entered the sleeping-chamber of the innocent princes, smothered them with the bed-clothes, and buried their bodies at the foot of the stairs, deep down under a heap of stones. In the year 1674, during some repairs, the bones of two youtlis were discovered under a staircase in the White Tower, and were buried in Westminster Abbey by order of Charles II. as those of Edward V. and his brother the Duke of York. 176 HISTOEY OE ENGLAND. Plots against Richard. Battle of Bosworth. A throne obtained by violence and bloodshed is sure to fall sooner or later. Eichard's crimes sent many a Yorkist into the Lancastrian ranks. Even his friend Buckingham drew back from his side, and plotted with others to work his ruin. Yorkists and Lancastrians secretly banded to- gether to overthrow the cruel usurper, and they proposed to put an end to their factions by a marriage between the rival houses. The only likely person of the Lancaster party was Henry, Earl of Eichmond, a descendant on hia mother's side of John of Gaunt, by Catherine Swynford; on his father's side, he was grandson of Sir Owen Tudor, and Catherine, the widow of Henry V. The conspirators proposed that he should marry Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edward IV., and thus unite the rival factions. The plot was secretly communicated to the chief persons of both houses, and everywhere it was received with the greatest joy. The young Earl of Eichmond, who was living in exile at the court of Brittany at this time, was supplied with funds to raise an army of invasion, while Buckingham, depending upon the earl's speedy arrival, raised the standard of rebellion in Wales. Heavy rains, however, flooded the Severn, swept away the bridges, and made the river impassable. Buckingham's followers, superstitiously considering the flood as a bad omen, fell away from him, and he himself was obliged to take refuge in the house of an old servant of the family, who basely betrayed him. He was taken to the king at Salisbury, and was instantly executed, November 23, 1483. In the meantime, the Earl of Eichmond had set sail from St. Malo with 5,000 men, but having been beaten back by a storm, he arrived on the English coast too late, and found himself forced to return to Brittany. The failure of this plot strengthened Eichard's position. He summoned a Parliament, which acknowledged his authority and his right to the throne ; but in order to please the people, he passed some popular laws, especially one EI CHARD III. 177 against ' benevolences.' He proposed to marry his own son to the Princess Elizabeth, but the sudden death of that prince upset his plans. He then thought of marrying her himself, and was suspected of getting rid of his wife Anne by poison in order to carry out his intention. He was dissuaded, however, from this unnatural union, . and was advised to await the natural course of events. Eichard's proposal of marriage with his niece quickened the movements of the Earl of Eichmond. Setting sail from Harfleur with a small army of 3,000 men, he landed at Milford Haven without opposition. (August 7, 1485 a.d.) As he marched through "Wales towards Shrewsbury, his force increased to about 6,000. Eichard, not knowing the quarter where his enemy might land, had taken up his post at Nottingham. His fears were great ; suspicion of the fidelity of his friends disturbed his peace ; and his nights were sleepless and restless. At Bosworth, in Leicestershire, the two armies met to decide the fate of the kingdom. Only 6,000 men followed Eichmond's banner, while Eichard had twice the number. But scarcely had the action begun, when Lord Stanley, with 7,000 men, deserted to the side of Eichmond, and thus turned the tide of victory in his favour. Eichard, seeing at a glance his desperate position, and descrying his rival in the battle, rushed forward to slay him. Cutting down in his fury all who opposed him, he had just reached the earl, when, overpowered by superior numbers, he fell sword in hand. His crown was found in a hawthorn bush, and placed on the head of the victor by Sir William Stanley, amidst the shouts of * Long live King Henry ! ' Eichard's body was carelessly thrown, like a pack, upon a horse, taken to Leicester, and buried in the church of the Grey Friars. The battle of Bosworth was the last of the wars Aug. 2, of the Eoses, and on that field perished the last of 1485 the Plantagenet line of kings. a.d. The character of Eichard HI. has been variously given. He possessed, without doubt, energy, courage, and ability ; but his ambition was unbounded, and his craft and cruelty beyond description. Some say that he was very much 178 HISTOEY OF ENaLAOT). disfigured in person, small in stature, harsh featured, and hunchbacked ; others say that his only defect was in having one shoulder a little higher than the other. He left no children. Miscellaneous Facts. In this reign the statutes of Parliament were first drawn up in English, and embodied in a printed form. British Consuls abroad were appointed for the first time. The sweating sickness first made its appearance in England. (1484 A.D.) In the wars of the Eoses, which lasted thirty years, 100,000 Englishmen are said to have been killed, and many villages and churches destroyed. LANCASTKIAN AND YOKKIST PEEIOD. 179 Social Condition of the People in the LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST PERIOD. Results of the Wars of the Roses. Food. Dress. Dwellings. Aimisements. National Industry. Literature. Results of the Wars of the Roses. — This quarrel, extending over a period of thirty years, was most destructive to the nobility. A great number of the aristocracy died on the field of battle; many others perished by assassination or the executioner, and some were banished. The extent of this destruction is shown from the following fact. ' In tlie year 1451, Henry VI. summoned fifty- three temporal lords to Parliament. The temporal lords summoned by Henry YII. to the Parliament of 1485 were only twenty- nine, and of these twenty-nine several had recently been raised to the peerage.' The consequence of this loss was the great increase of the royal power. In the times of the Plantagenets the power of the king was kept in check by a powerful nobility. There was always at command a noble like Robert Fitz Walter, Simon de Montfort, or the Earl of Warwick, to head a confederacy against a monarch who overstepped the bounds of his authority. But this state of things ended with the civil war of the rival houses. The victor of Bosworth, in consequence, was the head of a line of sovereigns far more despotic than any before them. Nevertheless, the wars which destroyed the old English nobility were favourable to the growth of the freedom and power of the common people. Feudalism received a shock from which it never recovered ; and the system of villeinage or slavery, which had been decaying ever since the reign of Henry II., was entirely overthrown. The Church had always used her influence under the Plantagenets in favour 180 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. of the peasantry. The clergy, drawn from the ranks of the people, had the greatest sympathy for them ; and when they attended the death-bed of a slaveholder, they did not forget to urge him to set free his oppressed fellow- creatures. Thus the good work of freedom went on till villeinage perished in the civil wars. A new order of things began with the close of this period. Modern history, Avith its triumphs of civilisation, dates from the battle of Bosworth,and the period of the Middle Ages comes to an end. The new dynasty began its reign indeed with authority hitherto unequalled, but at the same time the spirit of freedom infused new life into the people, and gave birth to a power which eventually proved a stronger check upon the royal authority than that of the ancient nobility. In a century and a half from this time, the Commons were more than a match for the king. Food. — The upper classes increased their number of meals from two to four : breakfast at seven, dinner at ten, supper at four, and livery (a repast taken in bed) between eight and nine. The chief meal was dinner, which generally lasted three hours. Then the table in the great hall groaned under the weight of dishes of flesh, fish, and fowl. The lord sat at the head of the table, on a dais, and below him were his friends and retainers, all placed accord- ing to their rank. The salt-cellar was the boundary line between servants and guests. Food was eaten with the fingers, in primitive fashion, and numerous servants handed round in vessels of wood, pewter, or horn, plenty of wine, beer, and ale. The long hours of dinner were enlivened with the music of some strolling minstrel, and the tricks of jugglers and buiFoons. Hospitality was as splendid as in the former period. The custom of keeping armed retainers rendered an open table necessary. The ' King-Maker,' for instance, maintained in his various castles 30,000 men, and therefore we need not be surprised when we read of the magnitude of the feasts of those days. When the same nobleman's brother was made Archbishop of York, his feast consisted of 104 oxen, 6 wild bulls, 1,000 sheep, 304 calves, 2,000 pigs, LANCASTRIAN AND YOEKIST PERIOD. l8l 500 stags, 204 kids, and 22,512 fowls and birds. Besides • these, there was abundance of fish, pastry, &c. ; and of drinks, there were used 300 tuns of ale, and 100 tuns of wine. In the house of the Earl of "Warwick, in London, six oxen were consumed by his retainers every morning for breakfast. The labouring classes breakfasted at eight, dined at noon, and supped at six. They were well fed, and never drank water, except as a penance. During the civil war, the peasantry in some parts suffered much from scarcity of food. Dress. — The extravagant style of dress introduced in the reign of Kichard II. kept its ground during the short reigns of Henry IV. and Henry Y. Fashion made great changes under Henry VI. Males cropped their hair short, and closely shaved their face. They wore hoods with long tippets, reaching to the ground ; high caps, with single feathers behind ; a jacket or doublet, with high-padded shoulders, and large sleeves shaped like a bagpipe; and shoes w;ith long pointed toes, as before. In the time of Edward IV., the practice of slitting the doublet at the elbow, so as to show the shirt, came into fashion, and became very general in the following century. The hair was now worn in thick masses, even reaching to the eyes, and the long-pointed shoe gave place to broad toes, some- times more than six inches wide; but this style of shoe did not long continue in use. The most remarkable change in the dress of ladies was the style of headdress. At the beginning of the period, we find it in the shape of a turban, or a heart, or two horns, but these fashions were succeeded by a tall steeple cap, as high as a chimney pot, from which hung a piece of fine lawn reaching to the ground. The peasantry of Normandy still wear a headdress resembling this.^ They also wore richly- embroidered gowns, trimmed with fur or velvet, with short waists and long trains. ^ The high steeple cap disappeared about the close of the reign of Edward IV. 182 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. The display in dress of the upper classes was copied by those below them to such an extent that laws were passed under Edward IV. forbidding working people to buy articles of clothing above a certain value, and limiting the fashion of their dress. Labourers' wives were forbidden to wear ' a girdle garnished with silver,' or to buy ' cloth above the price of 25. the broad yard.' Such laws show that the working classes were increasing in wealth. Similar enactments were also made to regulate the style, quality, and colour of dress of all persons below the rank of lord. Dwellings. — The buildings erected in this period were not so military-looking as before, and they had about them a greater air of comfort. The larger dwellings were castel- lated mansions built in the quadrangular form, enclosing an open space, called the court, into which the chief apart- ments looked. Smaller abodes were called manor houses, and they were also quadrangular, and surrounded, like the castellated mansion, with a moat. Farm-houses and cottages were still rude structures of wattles and clay. Cottages generally consisted of a single room. Chimneys were unknown in such dwellings till the time of Elizabeth. Town houses were built of wood ; and in order to keep the beams and posts from rotting with damp, the upper stories jutted out over the lower, and in narrow streets the top stories of opposite houses reached within a few feet of each other. This style of house may still be seen in York and Chester. Wood was the chief material used in building, but stone was partially used for high-class dwellings, and bricks, introduced from Flanders, began to be much employed. The gentry still lacked comfortable apartments. Furni- ture was poor and scanty. Beds were rare ; and a gentle- man with three or four was considered to be excellently pro-' vided; few had more than two. The walls were commonly bare, without wainscot or even plaster ; but the houses of the great were furnished with hangings or tapestry, called Arras, from the place of its manufacture. Some of the rooms were supplied with chimneys ; and the chimney-piece of the chief chamber was usually ornamented with a dis- play of shields and devices. Glazed windows in domestic LANCASTEIAK AND YOEKIST PERIOD. 183 buildings were only found in the houses of the great, and were very dear. They were considered as moveable furniture. Amusements. — The sports of the gentry continued the same as before, with one or two exceptions. The tourna- ment was rapidly declining into idle parade, and a mere display of horsemanship. The out-door amusements of the poor were little altered. Wrestling, bowling, and games of ball were particularly popular. The sports of children were much the same as at present. Edward IV. renewed the law for the encouragement of archery ; and as this practice was much neglected, the magistrates were ordered to prevent the games of dice, cards, bowls, quoits, tennis, &c. Playing-cards came into use in this period. Mummings were frequent at the court ; and persons of all ranks took part in these amusements, in which all kinds of animals were sometimes represented. The grand .pro- cessions or pageants, with which the citizens of London occasionally welcomed the king, were chiefly mummings on a large scale. Within doors, secular and religious plays were the chief amusements. The former were only stories made up for the occasion by travelling buffoons, and acted in the kitchens of inns or the corners of streets. The re- ligious plays were called Mysteries, or Miracle Plays, and, for the most part, were representations of Scripture history, arranged and acted by the clergy. They were first performed in churches, and were intended to teach the people sacred history. In 1409, a performance of this kind in London occupied eight days, and was attended by most of the nobility and gentry. The stage, at first, consisted of three platforms, of different heights. The actors took their place on the lowest, whilst the other two were occupied by representations of saints, angels, and the Supreme Being. In time these profane representations were discontinued. About the time of Henry YL, Moral Plays, or Allegories, came into use. There were persona- tions of moral qualities, as Truth, Justice, Mercy, &c., 184 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. Avhicli were acted by laymen. In the Tudor period, Moral Plays gave way to the regular English drama. National Industry. — Before the commencement of the civil war, the commerce of England was rapidly increasing. Wool was still the chief staple of trade, and was exported in the raw state to Flanders, and imported thence as cloth. Trade was also carried on with Spain, Portugal, Genoa, Florence, and Venice. Ships went to Iceland from Bristol and Scarborough for codfish. We learn something of the importance and growth of commerce from the fact that several traders rose to high rank and power. The De la Poles, to which family the Duke of Suffolk belonged, were merchants of Hull. The Cannings of Bristol and Whitting- ton of London were men of mark in their day. The vari- ous crafts were called 'mysteries;' and most of them were formed into guilds or corporations, for mutual encourage- ment and protection. Silk-weaving was carried on by women in London, but it was not very flourishing. The wars of the Koses not only injured for a time the foreign trade, but also interfered with the cultivation of the soil. Labourers became scarce, and the villeins who were set free betook themselves to handicrafts and manufactures. These facts, along with the increasing demand for wool, caused a great deal of arable land to be turned into pasture. The scarcity of labourers led the Parliament, in 14.45, to fix the rate of wages for several classes by law. A common husbandman was not to receive more per year than 155., with meat and drink, and 40c/. for clothing; most labourers were to receive 2d, a day with, or 3^d. without, diet in sum- mer, and ^d. a day less in winter. A free mason and master carpenter were not to receive more than 4c?. a day with, or 5^cZ. without, diet in summer, and Id. less in winter. Those who refused to agree to these terms were liable to be sent to prison. The population at the close of the fifteenth century was about 3,000,000. Literature, &c. — On account of the wars in France and at home, this period is very barren of any great names in LANCASTRIAN AND YOEKIST PERIOD. 185 literature. The love of knowledge, however, was very deep in many of the more select order of minds, and their desire for its advancement is shown by the establishment of several colleges, both at Oxford and Cambridge. The invention of printing and its ' introduction into England worked a complete change in the art of book-making. Manuscripts gave way to printed volumes. The type used at first in England was Old English ; and the spelling of ■words was left to the taste of the author. The language of the time was Middle English. The chief authors of the period (1399-1485) were: — THOMAS WALSINGHAM, a monk of St. Albans : wrote in Latin a history of England from 1273 to 1422. JOHN LYDGATE (1375-1461), a monk of Bury St. Edmund's: wrote about 250 poems : of which the chief were ' The Siege of Troy,' ' The Fall of Princes,' and ' The History of Thebes.' SIE JOHN FORTESCUE (1395-1485), Chief Justice: wrote a book on the laws of England, and other works in Latin. WILLIAM CAXTON (1410-1491), first English printer : wrote and printed about sixty works. JAMES I. King of Scotland ; a prisoner for nineteen years in England, became acquainted with the writings of Chaucer; author of a poem called ' The King's Quhair ' (or Book). LEADING DATES OF THE PERIOD (1399-1485). GENERAL EVENTS. Glendower's Revolt .... 1400 a.d. Henry IV. William Sawtre burnt for Heresy . 1401 „ „ Execution of Scrope, Archbishop of York 1405 „ „ London lighted for the first time with Lanterns .... Release of Prince James of Scotland . Execution of Joan of Arc . Printing in Wooden Blocks commenced by Coster Metal Types used by Guttenburg First Book Printed in England . 1415 >i Henry V, 1423 >> Henry VI. 1431 >> » 1431 « » 1444 >f » 1474 >) Edward IV. 186 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. WARS, BATTLES, AND TREATIES. A.D. Battle of Nesbit Moor . 1402 . Heney IV. ,, Homildon Hill . 1402 >» ,, Shrewsbury . . 1403 » ,, Agincourt . 1415 . Henrt V. Siege of Rouen . . 1419 3* Treaty of Troyes . . 1420 »> Battle of Crevant . 1423 . Henby VI. ,, Verneuil . 1424 » ,, Rouvrai, or Battle of Herrings 1429 Siege of Orleans raised by Joan of Arc 1429 Jack Cade's Rebellion . . . . 1450 The English Driven out of France , 1451 Treaty of Pecquigni .... 1475 Edwaed IV. WARS OF THE ROSES. 1455 A.D. TO 1485 A.D. Twelve Battles. Kings. Places. St. Albans (first) . Dates. A.D. May 22, 1455 Victors. . York. Bloreheath . Sept. 23, 1459 j» HENRY VI. ( Northampton Wakefield . July 10, 1460 Dec. 31, 1460 5J Lancaster Mortimer's Cross . Feb. 2, 1461 . York. ^St. Albans (second) Feb. 17, 1461 Lancaster ( Towton Mar. 29, 1461 . York. Hedgeley Moor , April 25, 1464 >> EDWARD IV. ( Hexham May 15, 1464 >, Barnet April 14, 1471 » Tewkesbury May 4, 1471 5J RICHARD III. Boswortli Aug. 22, 1485 . Lancaster. GENEALOaiCAL TAELE Connecting tlie Flantagenets with tlie Tndors. EDWARD III. John of Ghent, Duke of Lancaster (fourth son), had by I Catherine Swynford (his mistress) — John Beatjtobt, Earl of Somerset: died 1410 a.d. I John Duke of Somerset: died 1444:. Maegaeet Beatjfoet, m. Edmund Earl of Eichmond, son of I Catherine, widow of Henry V., and Owen Tudor. HENRY VII. 188 HISTOEY OF ENQLAND. TUDOB PERIOD, From 1485 A.D. to 1603 A.D. 118 Years. HENRY VII. . . . began to Reign 1485 A.D. HENRY VIII. (Son) . . „ „ 1509 „ EDWARD VI. (Son) . „ „ 1547 „ MARY (Half-sister) . . „ „ 1553 „ ELIZABETH (Half-sister) 1558 „ HENRY VII. Born 1456 A.D. Began to Reign 1485 A.D. Died 1509 A.D. Henry's Accession and Title. Lambert Simnel's Insurrection. War in France. Perkin Warbeck's Insurrection. Eoyal Marriages. Henry's Avarice. Death and Character. Miscellaneous Facts. Henry's Accession and Title to the Crown. Modern History begins with the accession of Henry VII. The spread of knowledge through the invention of printing caused an astonishing progress in manners, literature, and arts ; and the peace which followed the civil war gave a favourable opportunity for the first growth of those political, social, and religious ideas which have raised England to the foremost place amongst the nations of the earth. On the field of Bosworth Henry VII. was hailed as king by all his friends. He was now in his thirtieth year. He had no real title to the crown, for his descent from John of Gaunt, through his mother Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, the Duke of Somerset, was illegitimate. It is true that John of Gaunt's children by Catherine Swyn- ford were legitimatised by Act of Parliament, in the reign of Richard II., but with the provision that they should be excluded from the throne. The lawful heir to the crown by descent was Edward Earl of Warwick, son of George Duke of Clarence, then a boy of fifteen years HENEY VII. 189 of age, living at Sheriff-Hutton, in Yorkshire. Henry immediately got possession of his young rival's person, and sent him to the Tower. He intended to claim the crown by right of conquest, but friends and foes objected to that course. His third claim was based upon his pro- posed marriage with Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV., and, much as he disliked the idea, it was the only claim of real value, and one calculated to unite the two factions of York and Lancaster. In consideration of his intended marriage, Parliament agreed that the crown of England should rest and abide with him and his heirs ; but his coronation took place at Westminster some time before the marriage. (October 30, 1485.) He immediately chose for his advisers two clergymen, named John Morton and Richard Fox, who had shared his dangers. Fox was made Bishop of Exeter, and Morton became Archbishop of Can- terbury. Early in 1486 Henry married Elizabeth. The marriage was received with greater joy than the king's first entry into the City, or his coronation. Disquieted at this show of Yorkist feeling, Henry in the same year ob- tained from Pope Innocent VIII. a confirmation of his title to the crown. Lambert Simners Insurrection. Henry could not conceal his dislike to the Yorkists. The general favour with which they were regarded made him very jealous. He consequently treated them with coldness and indifierence, and thus re-kindled the feelings of ill-will and hatred between the old factions of the White and Eed Eoses. While the king was on a tour in York- shire, Lord Lovel and other Yorkist noblemen suddenly raised an insurrection in the neighbourhood of Ripon. The rising, however, failed ; and Lovel escaped to Flanders to Margaret, Dowager-duchess of Burgundy, the sister of Edward IV., where, throughout this reign, help and an asylum were found for all the friends of the House of York. The elder Stafford, who had joifTed Level's insur- rection, was taken and executed. 190 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. In the same year, a formidable attempt was made to over- throw the king's government. It has already been stated that the heir of the house of York, the young Earl of Warwick, was a prisoner in the Tower. An Oxford priest, named Simon, formed the design of getting some one to personate this nobleman, and thus present a rallying point for the enemies of the Lancastrians. In the same city a ready tool was found in Lambert Simnel, a baker's son, fifteen years of age. The priest, after well drilling the youth, took him to Dublin, and introduced him as the young Earl of Warwick just escaped from the Tower. As Eichard Duke of York and his son George Duke of Clarence had been lieutenants of Ireland, the Yorkists were very popular there, and the story of the escape of the heir of that family was received with the greatest joy. The deputy of the island, the Earl of Kildare, received Simnel with all respect, and the people in Dublin, -iJqJ with one consent, proclaimed him as Edward VI. Henry, alarmed at the movement, paraded the real Earl of Warwick through the streets of London, and, by the advice of his peers and prelates, proclaimed a general pardon for all past offences. The widow of Edward IV., however, was dispossessed of her lands, and sent for safe custody to the nunnery of Bermondsey. In England these measures took effect ; but in Ireland Simnel's imposture was daily gathering strength. John Earl of Lincoln, son of the Duke of Suffolk and Elizabeth, eldest sister of Edward IV., fled to his aunt, the Duchess of Burgundy, and persuaded her to help the plot in Ireland. She sent 2,000 mercenaries to Dublin along with him and Level ; and there it was decided to invade England. Henry was with his army at Kenil worth Castle, when news reached him that his enemies had landed at Furness, Lancashire, and were marching into the 1 dS7 ' ^^^^^ ^^ *^^ kingdom. At Stoke, near Newark, the royal forces intercepted the rebels. The battle was fought with the greatest obstinacy and valour on both sides, but^t last the victory, at one time doubtful, fell to Henry, Earl Lincoln and 4,000 of his followers HENEY VII. ♦ 191 perished on the field. Lovel escaped, but was never more heard of. Simnel and his tutor were taken prisoners. The priest was closely confined in prison ; but Simnel, being too contemptible for the royal anger, was made a scullion in the king's kitchen, and afterwards advanced to the post of falconer. This insurrection reminded Henry of the necessity of conciliating the Yorkists. The queen, though married two years, had not yet been crowned, much to the dis- appointment of the people. Her coronation now took place with great pomp and magnificence, and on all public occasions afterwards she occupied a prominent place. War with France. Henry's cautious and parsimonious character was favourable for the maintenance of peace, but events were taking place in France which demanded his interference, in spite of his dislike of war. Brittany was the only great fief of France which retained its independence. Charles VIII., the French king, being desirous of adding this duchy to the crown, took advantage of some discontent in the province, and invaded it. (1488.) The aged duke, who had sheltered Henry VII. in his exile, appealed to England for help. A smaU force of 6,000 men was sent across, but it proved of little use. Just at that time the Duke of Brittany died, leaving the duchy to his daughter Anne, a girl twelve years old. This young heiress had been betrothed to Maximilian King of the Eomans, with the approval of Henry ; but the French monarch upset the arrangement. Surrounding the town of Eennes, where the duchess resided, with a large army, Charles said that she must either be his wife or his prisoner. She chose the former fate ; and thus Brittany was finally united to the French crown. (1491 a.d.) Henry was very much annoyed at this marriage, and threatened war with Cliarles. The English people strongly advocated the invasion of France, and were loud in their outcries against the French king's conduct ; but Henry pre- ferred to fill his coff"eTs with the money voted by Parliament 192 HtSTORY 0"F ENGLAND. rather than to spend it in arms. Public opinion at last pre- vailed, and the king, after illegally levying a benevolence^ set out for France with a large army, as if bent upon the con- quest of that country. He pretended to besiege Boulogne ; but the French knew that money would satisfy his wounded pride and anger. A treaty of peace was immediately drawn 1AQ0 ^^P ^* Estaples, by which it was agreed that Henry should receive 149,000/., on condition of withdrawing his forces. The peace gave great dissatisfaction in England. The people were loud in their complaints that the king had exacted money from them merely for the sake of getting more from his enemies. Perkin Warbeck's Insurrection. While the dispute was going on with. France, another impostor appeared on the scene to disquiet Henry's reign. It had long been noised abroad that Eichard Duke of York, the brother of Edward V., had escaped from the Tower. The enemies of the king, taking advantage of this rumour, brought forward a youth named Perkin Warbeck, son of a merchant of Tournay, as the real Duke of York. He landed at Cork, where he was enthusiastically received as Richard Plantagenet. There was then open war between England and France, and Charles YIH. invited the impostor to Paris, for the purpose of frightening his adversary. After the peace of Estaples, Warbeck found an asylum with Mar- garet of Burgundy, who, professing to believe that he was her nephew, called him the White Rose of England, and treated him as a prince. A Yorkish plot was at once set on foot in England. For nearly three years an active correspondence went on between the Yorkist leaders and the court of Burgundy. The belief gained ground that the Duke of York was really alive, and Henry became seriously alarmed. Numerous spies in England and Flan- ders kept him well informed of the extent of the conspiracy, and at first he wisely tried to defeat it by gentle means. Sir Robert CliiFord, one of the conspirators, was persuaded to abandon the plot, and pardon was freely offered to those HENEY TIL 193 who would follow his example. By means of GiScrtd, ms^etsX of Warbeck's supporters in England were disoorered, and executed for high treascm. Amonggt diese was 1^ William Stanley, the lord chamberiain, who had eared the king's life at Bosworth. He had said in oonfidaice to Clifford that, if he were sore die joong man in Flanders was really the son of King Edward, he nerer would bear arms against him. The execution of Stanley and others pot soch a chedc upon Ae conspiracy, that Pezkin was obliged to do h<. ..e- thing in order to keep np his party. An attempt to L Kent fe.ile.) - Once more he visited Coik; biit filing to excite the people in his ^vour, he set sail for Scotland, where James lY. received him wiA all re^iecL The Scotti^ Vingr gave him in marriage a lady of royal blood, Catherine Gordon, dau^ter of the Earl of Huntley, and led an expedition in his bdialf into the ^ -q** northern counties of England. No Englishman, , . Viowever, welcomed the invader ; and after ravag- ing the country, the Scots withdrew. This aggre^on 2^ave Henry an excuse for demanding fitmi his subjects & supply of money. The Parliament voted a grant ; but die men of Cornwall refused to pay their dbure, as an unne- 194 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. cessary and unjust demand. They therefore took up arms, and marched towards London. Lord Audley, and others of lower rank, joined them on the way, but at Blackheath they were suddenly attacked in front and rear by the royal forces, and thoroughly discomfited. Their leaders were taken and executed. In the meantime the Scots made another inroad into the northern counties, but an English force compelled them to withdraw and sue for peace. Warbeck, again losing an asylum, went to Ireland, and thence to Cornwall. Landing at Whitsand Bay, near Penzance, he marched to Bodmin, where 3,000 men gathered round his banner, and hailed him as King Eichard IV. At the head of 6,000 men, he laid siege to Exeter ; but on the approach of the royal troops, he withdrew to Taunton. Despairing of suc- cess, he took refuge in the sanctuary of Beaulieu, Hamp- shire, whilst his followers threw themselves upon the king's mercy. A few were hanged, others fined, and the rest sent home. Warbeck surrendered on a promise of life, and was carried in mock triumph to London, where a con- fession of the imposture was published, to satisfy the people. Warbeck was kept in honourable confinement, and his wife was made an attendant upon the queen. On attempting to escape from England, he was put into the stocks, and afterwards sent to the Tower. There he came in contact with the son of the Duke of Clarence. The two prisoners soon became friends, and plotted to escape from captivity. Their plan being discovered, Warbeck was hanged at Tyburn, and the Earl of Warwick, the last heir of the Plantagenets, after suiFering an unjust °^" ' imprisonment of fifteen years, was beheaded on Tower Hill. This last act is a lastinoj blot on A.D. . . the character of Henry YII. A third imposture, set on foot just before, made him anxious to get rid of the earl. A priest in Kent had induced a shoemaker's son to call himself the Earl of Warwick. The puppet was exe- cuted, and the priest imprisoned for life. This plot no doubt had some influence in determining the fate of the unfortu- nate heir of the Plantagenets. HEKEY Vn. 195 Royal Marriages. Henry's Avarice. Death and Character. Insurrections having come to an end, Henry devoted hia attention to the marriaore of his children and amassing: o o money. Three marriages took place, -which produced im- portant consequences. The first was that of Prince Arthur, eldest son of the king, to Catherine of Arragon, Novem- ber 1501. In six months the prince died, at the age of fifteen. Henry, anxious to keep the Spanish alliance, and unwilling to lose Catherine's dowry of 200,000 ducats, betrothed the princess, by the Pope's permission, to his second son, Henry, then a boy eleven years of age. This Txnion gave rise to an important dispute in the next reign. In the following year, the king's eldest daughter, Mar- garet, married James IV. of Scotland. This - ^- _ match ultimately led to the union of the crowns . A.D. of England and Scotland. In the midst of all these arrangements, Henry's queen died, much regretted by the nation. Henry's avarice seems to have increased with peace and prosperity. The love of money grew with his age, and he neglected no opportunity of imposing heavy fines upon his subjects for breaches of the law. His advisers in this matter were two lawyers, Empson and Dudley, whom he made barons of the Exchequer. Many laws had fallen into disuse, but spies, scattered throughout the country, reported the names of all persons who neglected to observe them, and these lawyers then pitilessly exacted the fines from men of all ranks and conditions. On one occasion, the Earl of Oxford entertained the king at his castle, and assembled a large number of retainers in livery to do him honour. The king, on his departure, reminded the earl of a law recently made against keeping retainers, and the hos- pitable nobleman was fined 10,000Z. By these exactions, Henry is said to have amassed l,800,000Z.-^a fabulous sum for those days. Henry died of consumption at his favourite palace of 196 HISTOEY OF ENG-LAlltD. Shene, near Richmond, and was buried in the beauti- ful chapel which he had built in Westminster F^^xQ ' Abbey. During his illness, the memory of his deeds of wrong troubled his peace of mind, and he ordered in his will that compensation should be made to those whom he had injured. He was a man of ability and courage ; but avarice, on the whole, was his ruling passion. His reign was favourable to the growth of English interests, both at home and abroad. Many useful laws were passed; the power of the nobility was restrained; order was preserved in the State ; and the foundation of our commerce was laid. The children of Henry by his wife Elizabeth of York were : Arthur, who married Catherine of Arragon, and died 1502 a.d. ; Henry, who became king ; Margaret, married James IV. of Scotland ; and Mary, married (1) Louis XII. of France, and (2) Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Miscellaneous Facts. An important law was passed in this reign, called the Statute of Fines, which enabled the nobility to dispose of their estates without paying the usual fines. By this law many estates were bought by rich commoners ; and thus a new class of gentry took its rise. The power of the nobility was also restrained by the law for the abolition of main- tenance. By ' maintenance ' is understood the right of the nobility to keep in their pay any number of men. Before this statute was passed, some of the nobles kept thousands of armed men in their service. The Court of the Star Chamber was re-modelled by Parliament in 1486. It was originally the king's ordinary council, and received the name of * Star Chamber ' from the decorations of the room in the palace where it was held. It took cognisance of offences by maintenance, riot, unlawful assemblies, perjury, forgery, and offences which could not well be brought under the law. In this court, trials were conducted without juries, and there was no appeal from its decisions. It had not the power of life and HENRY VII. 197 death, but could fine men to their ruin. In succeeding reigns, it became an instrument of injustice and tyranny. Henry's reign is remarkable for the success of maritime discovery. Christopher Columbiis, a Genoese, discovered the Bahama Islands in 1492 ; and it was merely by accident that Henry was deprived of the opportunity of taking part in this expedition. Columbus had sent his brother Bartho- lomew to England in 1489, with maps and charts, for the purpose of obtaining the king's help for his intended voyage. He was favourably received, but on his return to invite his brother to the English court, he was taken Costume of the Nobility— time of Henry VII. by pirates. Columbus in the meantime had secured the aid of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and with a small Spanish fleet set out on a great voyage of discovery. Henry afterwards patronised Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian, settled in Bristol, who was the first to explore the main- land of North America from Newfoundland to Florida. (1497 A.D.) In the same year, a Portuguese, named Vasco de Gama, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and thus 10 198 HISTOEY OF ENQLAND. opened out a new way to the East Indies. Americus Vespuccius, a native of Florence, explored the coasts of South America, and gave his name to the New World. Henry caused a war-ship of two decks to be built, which carried 1,000 tons, cost 14,000/., and was called the Great Harry. He also instituted a body-guard of fifty men, known as Yeomen of the Guard. From their duty of attending the buffet or royal sideboard, they were called buffetters, since corrupted into beef-eaters. To this reign we owe the issue of shilling pieces, and the founding of Jesus College and Christ's College, Cambridge, and Rrasenose, Oxford. H-ENKY Vin. 199 HENRY VIII. Born 1491 A.D. Began to Reign 1509 A.D. Died 1547 A.D. Henry's Accession. First War with France and Scot- land. Cardinal "Wolsey. Field of the Cloth of Gold. Second War with France and Scotland. The Reformation. Divorce of Queen Catherine. Wolsey's Fall. Overtlirow of the Papal Power in England. Suppression of the Monasteries. Anne Boleyn. Jane Seymour. Translation of the Bible. The Bloody Statute. Anne of Cleves. Catherine Howard. Catherine Parr. Third War with France and Scotland. Execution of the Earl of Surrey. Death and Character of the King. Miscellaneous Facts. Henry's Accession. First War with France and Scotland. Henry VIII. was born at Greenwich, and was eighteen years old when he came to the throne. Uniting in his person the rival claims of the houses of York and Lan- caster, the nation hailed his accession with pleasure, and looked forward to a reign of peace and good government. The young king's handsome person, jovial manners, cheerful disposition, and many accomplishments, made him very popular ; and he had, besides, in the hoards of his father, the means wherewith to win popular favour. Soon after his accession, he married Catherine, his brother's widow. The cares of government sat lightly upon him, so that the first two years of his reign were devoted to plea- sure rather than business. Tilts, tournaments, dances, pageants, and all kinds of pleasures were indulged in, one 200 HISTOEY 0¥ ENGLAND. after the other, till little was left of the great treasures which Henry VII. had been so careful to collect. The affairs of government were left in the hands of the king's chief ministers, the Earl of Surrey, afterwards made Duke of Norfolk, and Fox, Bishop of Winchester. One of the first acts of the reign was the imprisonment of Empson and Dudley, and the numerous informers whom they had main- tained throughout the land. The people clamoured for the punishment of the two chief agents of the last Hugh's tyranny, and to gratify the popular cry, a trumped-up charge of treason was brought against them, and they were executed on Tower Hill. After two or three years' peace, Henry was persuaded by his father-in-law Ferdinand to join in a war against France. Pope Julius II., Ferdinand of Spain, and Maxi- milian of Germany, had entered into a league, in 1508, called the League of Cambray, to recover some Church lands from the Venetians. Succeeding in this, the same powers formed another league, which the Venetians joined, for the purpose of driving the French out of Italy. Henry was invited to join them, and at the same time to de- mand from Louis XII. of France the surrender of the province of Guienne. Full of youthful ai'dour, and thirst- . _- ^ ing for military glory, Henry declared war against Louis. An army under the Marquis of Dorset was sent to Spain to invade the south of France, but Ferdinand used it to conquer Navarre for himself. Dorset, finding himself duped, returned to England with his forces much reduced. In the following year, Henry, having received a liberal grant of money, set sail for Calais at the head of 25,000 men. There he was joined by Maximilian, who consented to serve under the English king as one of his captains. The small town of Terouenne, in Picardy, was besieged for two months, during which time a battle disgraceful to the French arms took place. A body of French cavalry, to the number of 10,000, marching to relieve Terouenne, was attacked by a few hundred English and German horse at Guinegate. The French were put to the rout, and, HENRY VIII. 201 because they used their spurs more than theii: swords, the action was called the Battle of Spurs. After the surrender of Terouenne, Tournay was taken, 1513 and, as winter was coming on, Henry returned a.d. with most of his army in triumph to England. Whilst these things were taking place in France, James IV. of Scotland, as an ally of the French, invaded England. On Flodden Field, at the foot of the Cheviots, an English army under Earl Surrey inflicted upon the Scots a ^eio terrible defeat. James IV. and the flower of the A.D Scotch nobility were slain. Surrey was rewarded for this brilliant victory with the title of Duke of Norfolk. In the following year, Henry, deserted by his allies, made peace with France. Louis agreed that the English should keep Tournay, that he would pay Henry 1,000,000 crowns, and that he would marry Mary, Henry's sister. Three months after the marriage, Louis died ; and his young widow afterwards became the wife of Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Cardinal Wolsey. Field of the Cloth of Gold. One of Henry's chief advisers at this time was Thomas Wolsey, Dean of Lincoln. He is said to have been a butcher's son, and was born at Ipswich, 1471 a.d. But whatever his origin was, his talents were of a very high order. He was educated at Magdalene College, Oxford, where he took his Bachelor of Arts degree at the age of fourteen, and was on this account called the Boy Bachelor. After discharging the duties of tutor to the sons of the Marquis of Dorset, he was appointed by that nobleman to the rectory of Lymington, Hampshire. He next received the chaplaincy of Calais. His talents attracted the attention of Henry VIL, who rewarded him for secret services by advancing him to the deanery of Lincoln, and the post of king's almoner. Fox, Bishop of Winchester, introduced him to the court of Henry VIII., where his efforts to please soon won the royal favour. Wolsey's preferment was now rapid. At first the com- panion of the king's pleasures, he was next made a member 202 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. of liis council, and in a short time became his sole minister. Henry, delighted with a counsellor who seemed to second all his whims and pleasures, made him Arch- bishop of York and Chancellor of England. Pope Leo X. raised him to the dignity of cardinal in 1515 ; and three years later, he was created papal legate. His magnificence and splendour knew no bounds. His train consisted of 800 servants, of whom many were knights and gentlemen. His dresses, the trappings of his horses, the liveries of his atten- dants, glittered with gold and silver ornaments. On solemn feast days he performed divine service with a pomp equal to that of the Pope ; and on these occasions he was not content to be served by bishops and abbots, but he en- gaged even the first nobility of the land to give him water and a towel. All this display was pleasing to a gay young king, and it was also gratifying to the people, fi:om wliose ranks Wolsey had risen. Literature and learning found . in him a liberal patron. No student deserving of en- couragement sought his aid in vain. Besides patronising learning, he was also impartial in the administration of justice. Such was the man who for twenty-one years occupied the most prominent place in English politics, and disposed of the affairs of Europe almost at his pleasure. Francis I. of France, the successor of Louis, wished to carry his arms into Italy, and therefore desired to maintain peace with England. He gained Wolsey's favour by flatteries and presents, and by these means a new treaty was made with Henry, in which it Avas agreed to surrender Tournay to France. On the death of Maximilian Emperor of Germany, in 1519, his grandson, Charles King of Spain, and Francis, became candidates for the imperial crown. When the election was decided in favour of Charles, Francis, fearing the power of his rival, courted the alliance of England. Charles ruled Spain, Austria, Naples, and the Netherlands. The New World, with its gold and silver treasures, was chiefly in his possession. England and France were the only nations that could contend with him, and these united were more than a match for him. Francis regarded the power of CJiarles with fear end jealousy, and HENEY VIII. 203 therefore he paid court to Wolsey, in the hope of securing the help of his royal master. He invited the English king to meet him in France, but before Henry set out, Charles visited England, and tried to detach Wolsey from Francis by holding out to him the prospect of becoming pope. The papacy was Wolsey's great ambition, and in the hope of obtaining it, he used all his influence to further the views of the emperor. On the day of Charles's departure from England, Henry- passed over to Calais, attended by his queen and the whole court. The interview between the kings of -roa England and France took place between Guisnes and Ardres. For fourteen days the nobility of the two countries vied with each other in costly enter- tainments, and it is said that many of them sold all that they had in order to outshine others in splendour. From the tournaments, banquets, and gorgeous display observed on this occasion, the place was called the Field of the Cloth of Gold. The meeting ended in nothing but fair speeches. After leaving Francis, Henry visited Charles at GravelineSj near Calais, where the emperor renewed his promises to Wolsey, and further attached him to his in- terests by handsome presents of money. On the king's return to England, the Duke of Bucking- ham, a descendant of Edward III., was executed on the charge of high treason. Some 'unguarded words of his about the succession to the throne were told to Henry, and his death was the result. Second War with France and Scotland. Two years after the ' Field of the Cloth of Gold,' war broke out between Charles and Francis. The emperor again came to England, for the purpose of securing Henry's help. During this visit, England declared war against France, and an army was sent under Earl Surrey - ___ to lavage the north of that country. In the fol- lowing year, another English army desolated the country as far as the neighbourhood of Paris, but these 204 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. invasions were, on the whole, failures. In the meantime, the Scots, as old allies of France, were making great pre- parations for a raid across the borders. The English, however, instead of waiting to be attacked, marched into Scotland and forced the regent, Albany, to make a truce with them ; and thus Henry was at liberty to carry out his designs upon the Continent. The failure of the English invasions of France was due to want of money. Parliament had not met for seven years, but Henry, in the meantime, illegally made use of * benevolences.' When the Parliament assembled, Wolsey, attended by many nobles and prelates, came down to the House of Commons, and demanded for his royal master a grant of 800,000/. Though the Speaker, Sir Thomas More, seconded the request, the House would only vote half the sum. The cardinal wished to argue the matter then and there, but he was respectfully informed that it was the rule of the House never to reason except among themselves. The independence of the Commons annoyed the king, and he allowed seven years to pass before assem- bling another Parliament. Soon after this, Wolsey's friendship for the emperor began to cool. Twice he had been disappointed in obtaining the popedom. Pope Leo X. died in 1521, and Adrian YI. in 1523 ; and on the election of Clement YIL, Wolsey saw that Charles would never keep his promise of aiding him to occupy the papal chair. He therefore resolved to wean Henry from the emperor's cause, and pave the way for an alliance with France. In 1525, Francis was defeated and captured by the imperialist army at the battle of Pavia, in Italy. Disagreements at once arose between England and Germany ; Henry broke the alliance and made a treaty with the mother of Francis for the recovery of her son. The French king was liberated in the following year, but the war with the emperor immediately commenced again. In 1527, the imperialist forces attacked Eome, captured the Pope, and sacked the city. A new treaty was then made by Henry and Francis to drive the invaders out of Italy and set free the Pontiff. HENRY VIII. 205 The Reformation. While the governments of England, France, and Ger- many were engaged in their quarrels with each other, a religious movement was taking place in the latter country, which produced changes of the utmost importance. Thoughtful men in all countries had long felt the necessity of making reforms in Church matters. Twice since the Norman Conquest men's minds had risen up against the tyrannical power of the Eomish Church. The Albigenses in the south of France revolted against the papacy in the thirteenth century, but their spirit was crushed by a savage Soldiery. In England, WicklifFe commenced a movement of a similar kind in the following century, which spread to Bohemia, and there gave rise to the second attempt in behalf of religious liberty. Both these struggles failed, because the time was not ripe for change. There was too little knowledge in Europe to ensure success. Men . felt that things were going wrong, but they did not know how or where to put them right. Books were few and costly, and the art of printing was unknown. Many of the clergy could scarcely read, and not one in 500 of the laity could spell through a psalm. All that could be done was to check the power of the Church by special laws, and wait till light should come to dispel the darkness of ignorance. A new era came with the discovery of print- ing. A love of learning spread eveiy where ; books were eagerly bought and read ; the Bible was studied, and men began to think for themselves. The abuses of the Church were now manifest ; its errors were plain ; the idle and corrupt life of many of the clergy and monastic orders caused honest men to blush ; and a bold leader only was wanted to bring about a speedy reform. Such a leader Germany supplied in the person of Martin Luther, an Augustine monk, and Professor of Philosophy in the Uni- versity of "Wittenberg. Pope Leo X. wanted money to finish the church of St. Peter at Rome, to get which he sent monks to sell indulgences or temporal pardons for sins. One of these men, Tetzel by name, visited "Wittenberg, 206 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. and was openly denounced by Luther. On tlie door of the church in Wittenberg, the latter fixed ninety-five propositions, in which he maintained, against the wicked sale of indulgences, pardon only thi^ough faith in Jesus Christ. Summoned to yield to the authority of the Church in these questions, Luther maintained in the palace-hall of Leipsic, before the great and wise of Germany, that '■the Bible was the only authority in matters of faith.'' At Wittenberg he publicly burned the papal bull of his excommuni- cation, and by this act of defiance declared his undying opposition to the claims and errors of the Church over which the Pope presided. Luther's opinions spread like fire throughout Northern Germany. His followers so increased in number that it was impossible for any power on earth to crush them. In 1529 six princes and fourteen imperial cities protested against the decrees ol the Diet of Spires, forbidding changes in religion, and on this account the Reformers were called Protestants. The news of the Keform movement in Germany was gladly w^elcomed in England, where men's minds were eager for a like change. Henry, however, was opposed to it. He even wrote a book in Latin defending the Seven Sacraments against Luther, and sent a copy to Pope Leo X. The Pontiff, pleased with his royal champion, conferred upon him the title of Defender of the Faith {Fidei Defensor)^ which may still be seen on our coins in the letters ' F. D.' In spite of the king's opposition, the desire for a Reformation grew daily stronger and stronger, and the national feeling of independence in religious matters, and desire for fireedom from foreign control, were rapidly making way. Divorce of dueen Catherine. Fall of Wolsey. After eighteen years of married life, the king applied to the Pope for a divorce from his wife Queen Catherine. Henry, for the last three or four years, had been troubled with scruples about his marriage Avith his brother's widow. He found himself growing into middle life without a son HENRY VIII. 207 to succeed to the throne. He saw all his children, with the exception of his daughter Mary, die a few days after birth. He thought this affliction to be Heaven's punish- ment for an unlawful marriage, and, in addition to a troubled conscience, the fear of a disputed succession to the throne disturbed his peace. Catherine was a woman deserving of the greatest respect. She was learned, ac- complished, and virtuous, and devotedly attached to her husband. Henry, however, had other motives for a di- vorce besides scruples of conscience and affairs of State. A beautiful young lady, Anne Boleyn, grand-daughter of the Duke of Norfolk, had lately appeared at the court as maid of honour to the queen. The king fell violently in love with her, and therefore became all the more anxious to obtain a divorce. He applied to Pope Clement ^ VII. for this purpose. The leading men in England approved of the king's intentions with regard to this matter ; but there were many difficulties in the way The Pope was then a prisoner in the hands of Charles ^ Catherine's nephew and he feared to offend his captor by granting the divorce, or the English king by refusing it. After much hesitation, he commissioned the cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio to open a court in London to try the lawfulness of the marriage. The king - JL^ ' and queen were cited to appear before this tribunal, and they both presented themselves. The king answered to his name when called upon ; but the -queen, instead of responding, flung herself at her husband's feet, and besought him in piteous language to have mercy upon her. Finding her appeal fruitless, she refused to submit to the authority of the court, and withdrew. The trial was spun out for two months. Every day the king expected a decision in his favour ; and both he and the chief men of the realm were indignant at the delay. While they were thus on the tip-toe of expectation, orders came from the Pope to transfer the cause to Rome. The king's fury knew no bounds ; and the idea of an English king appearing before a foreign tribunal excited the bitterest anger of the nation. Upon Wolsey 's head fell the indignation of king 208 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. and people. Though he had tried to settle the question according to his master's wishes, the blame of failure was laid upon his shoulders. A papal court sitting in London was most unpopular with the nation ; and when it ended in the manner it did, Wolsey Avas marked out for vengeance. He was the representative of that Pope who had insulted both sovereign and people, and ruin, therefore, was before him. The king at once dismissed him from the post of chan- cellor. He was ordered to leave York Place — a palace he had built in London, which afterwards became a royal residence, under the name of Whitehall. All his plate and furniture were seized, and he was ordered to retire to Esher, near Hampton Court. Parliament assembled and condemned him to fines and imprisonment for breaking the Statute of Prse- munire by obtaining bulls from Eome, but Henry pardoned him, and allowed him to withdraw to his see of York. The cardinal, however, had many enemies, and in the following 1 fi'in ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ suddenly arrested on the charge of high treason. On the way to London, he was seized with dysentery, and with difficulty reached Leicester Abbey, where he died. His last words were, * Had I but served my God as diligently as I have served my king, He would not have given me over in my grey hairs.' Overthrow of the Papal Power in England. Suppression of the Monasteries. Though Henry was indignant at the Pope's conduct, he did not wish to break with him altogether. The English king had no love for the Lutheran opinions, and he had no desire to favour their progress by weakening the papal authority. He still lived in hope that the Pope would come to some decision in his favour. Whilst matters were in this state of doubt, a proposal to settle the difficulty reached the king's ears, and was received with the greatest joy. Dr. Thomas Cranmer, Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge, was one evening in the company of Gardiner, Secretary of State, afterwards Bishop of Winchester, and Fox, the king's almoner. Conversation turned upon the HENKY Vin. 209 divorce, when Cranmer suggested that the question should be put to the universities of Europe : * Whether it was law- ful for a man to marry his brother's widow.' The suggestion Avas carried to the king, who exclaimed : ' Who is this Dr. Cranmer ? Where is he ? Marry, I will speak to him ; let him be sent for out of hand. This man, I trow, hath got the right sow by the ear.' The question was put to the universities, and the decision of the majority was in the king's favour. Cranmer's fortune was now made. In 1533 he became Archbishop of Canterbury, and received from the Pope a confirmation of his appointment. In the meantime several important changes had taken place in England, which troubled the court of Eome. The English clergy were threatened with the punishment of prae- munire for submitting to the authority of the legatine court over which Wolsey had presided. They, however, obtained the royal pardon by a fine of 118,840/. But to guard against forgetting the king's supreme authority for the future, the Convocation, or parliamentary assembly of the clergy, was compelled to acknowledge that the king was the protector and supreme head of the Church and clergy of ^ rqi England, as far as is permitted by the law of Christ. The Parliament of 1532 forbade the levying of first-fruits, which were a year's income given to the Pope by all bishops and archbishops upon presentation to their preferments. The payment of these was left in future to the king's discretion. The Parliament of 1533 forbade all appeals to Eome. These measures were warn- ings to the Pope of the danger that attended his conduct on the divorce question. He knew he was acting unjustly in refusing Henry's request, but he had not the courage to brave the anger of the Emperor Charles. Henry determined to wait no longer. In 1533, he privately married Anne Boleyn, and in the same year Archbishop Cranmer opened his court at Dunstable and pronounced the king's marriage with Catherine of Arragon invalid. Anne Boleyn was shortly afterwards crowned queen. Catherine spent the remaining three years of her life in retirement, and died at Kimbolton. The Pope, on hearing the news of Henry's 210 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. marriage, threatened to excommunicate him unless he put Anne away ; but the king met the threat with "defiance. The excommunication of their sovereign roused the in- dignation of the nation. The whole country was moved to a man, and the excitement was intense. The clergy were consulted in Convocation, and they declared that ' the Bishop of Eome has no greater jurisdiction given him in this realm of England than any other foreign bishop.' Thus the Church of England declared in lawful synod her in- dependence of papal authority. Then came the question *Who was to be Head of the English Church? This was 1 f\*\4. ^^^^^^^ ^y Parliament in the ' Act of Supremacy,' ^ which declared the king to be the supreme ' Head in earth of the Church of England.' Though the EngHsh Church had asserted her inde- pendence, her teaching remained unaltered. Henry was still opposed to the Reformers, and prided himself upon the correctness of his religious views. The ' Act of Supremacy,' however, offended many. Sir Thomas More, and Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, lost their lives by refusing to accept it. (1535.) The monks, especially, were loud in their opposition, because they were dependent upon the Roman Pontiff; and many of them were detected in dangerous conspiracies. A half-witted Kentish girl, named Elizabeth Barton, was subject to hysterical fits, during which she was accustomed to say strange things. Silly people thought her inspired, and called her the Holy Maid of Kent. Designing priests taught her to speak against the new opinions which were making way in the country, and against the king's marriage and government. For a time no notice v^as taken of her, but at last she and her abettors were put to death. One of the king's chief advisers at this time was Thomas Cromwell. This man had risen by his talents from the post of Wolsey's solicitor to that of Secretary of State, and Henry, after the separation of England from Rome, gave him the control of the temporal affairs of the Church, with the title of Vicar-General. He was afterwards raised to the rank of Earl of Essex. He advised HENKY VIII. 211 the king to suppress the monasteries, as the strongholds of the papacy, and to fill his coffers with their riches. A commission of enquiry having reported that many of these institutions were hot-beds of vice. Parliament voted the suppression of all those possessing a revenue _ __ ,» below 200^. a year ; and three years later the greater monasteries met with a similar fate. In all, 3,219 religious houses were suppressed, of which the annual income amounted to 161,000Z. — equal to more than 2,000,000Z. of modern money. With a portion of this sum six new bishoprics were created — Bristol, Glou- cester, Peterborough, Chester, Oxford, and Westminster. Trinity College, Cambridge, and Christ Church, Oxford, were also established, and a few chapters, hospitals, and grammar schools founded. A pension was settled on the abbots and priors, but the great bulk of the property was granted to courtiers and favourites, sold at a low price, or gambled away^ The suppression of the monasteries caused much discon- tent, especially in the north. Houseless monks wandered through towns and villages, exciting men's pity, and their fears of future changes. Church property, they said, would be taken next, and the religion of their fathers would soon be a thing of the past. A strong papal party thus grew up, which thought to stop further reforms by force of arms. A rising occurred in Lincolnshire, but was soon suppressed. A more formidable one took place in Yorkshire, under the leadership of a gentleman named Aske. At the head of 40,000 men, he took York, Hull, and Pontefract Castle. The Archbishop of York and several nobles joined - ^^m the movement, which received the name of The AD Pilgrimage of Grace. Priests in their robes marched in front, carrying crosses, and banners with sacred symbols woven upon them. The object of the insurrec- tion was to drive base-born counsellors from about the king, to restore the papal power, and to suppress heresy. The rebellion was put down, and Aske and many others suffered death. 212 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. Anne Boleyn. Jane Seymour. Translations of the Bible. The Bloody Statute. After three years of married life, Anne Boleyn perished on the scaffold. The king, disappointed at the failure of male issue, soon cooled in his affection, and Anne's enemies were ever on the watch to work her ruin. They excited Henry's jealousy by wicked stories about her, and as he was already in love with one of her maids of honour, he had no scruples in sending his wife to the Tower. She was brought to trial on the charge of unfaithfulness to her husband, and sentenced to death. No voice, save Cranmer's, was raised in her behalf, and the unhappy queen was beheaded. (May 17, 1536.) The following day the king married Jane Seymour. Parliament declared Anne Boleyn's mar- riage invalid, and her child Elizabeth illegitimate. In the following year, Jane Seymour gave birth to a son, after- wards EdAvard VI. ; but the king's joy was cut short by the death of his queen twelve days after. While these events were going on, Protestant opinions were making progress in England. Many persons were arrested and put to death for heresy. Translations of the Bible found their way into the country from abroad. William Tyndal published an English translation of the New Testament at Antwerp, in 1526 ; and four years later, he published a translation of the Old Testament. Tyndal died a martyr's death by fire, near Brussels, in 1536. In the same year, Miles Coverdale published the entire Bible in English. Tyndal's translations, on their first appearance in London, were bought up and burnt by the authorities ; but after the overthrow of the papal power. Archbishop Cranmer did his utmost for the circulation of the Scrip- tures. A royal decree was issued that a copy of Coverdale's Bible should be placed in every .parish church in England. Other editions soon followed — Matthews', in 1537 ; Cranmer's, or the Great Bible, in 1539 ; and Taverner's, in the same year. In 1537 there was also published a book for the religious guidance of the HENEY VIII. 213 people, called the Institution of a Christian Man, or the BisJiops^ Book, because it was dedicated by the bishops to the king. Six years later another publication was issued, entitled, A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian Man, or the King''s Boole. These differed very considerably from each other, thus showing how unsettled were the minds of those in authority. The circulation of the Scriptures by royal permission created a great sensation. People crowded to the churches to hear the sacred volume read, explained, and discussed; and even old men, in their eagerness, sometimes took lessons in reading, that they might find out the truth for themselves. But the privilege of an open Bible, as might be expected, was much abused. The Book was wrangled over in ale-houses and tap-rooms ; noisy crowds gathered round the church porches, argued their opinions in boisterous tones, to the annoyance of worshippers within the sacred building, and ofttimes ended their disputes in scandalous brawls. These abuses called forth a royal decree in 1543, forbidding persons in the lower ranks of life to read the Bible. Though Henry deserves credit for circulating the Scrip- tures amongst his subjects, yet he was still bitterly op- posed to the Lutheran opinions. He had made the English Church independent of Rome, but he had no intention of changing her doctrines. It was impossible, however, to pre- serve the old faith imbroken. The overthrow of the papal power removed one great obstacle to the spread of knowledge and the right of enquiry. Men claimed freedom of thought for themselves, as much as the king claimed freedom for the National Church, and consequently the nation was torn by religious parties, which hated one another to the greatest degree. There were, first, the Romanists, who longed to restore the authority of the Pope ; there were, secondly, the Anglicans, consisting of the majority of the bishops and the ancient nobility, who liked independence for their Church, but hated all other changes ; there were, thirdly, the Reformers, consisting of Cranmer and other bishops, and many of the nobility, who at this time differed from the Protestants in the single doctrine of transubstantiation ; and 214 HISTORY OE ENG-LAND. lastly, there were the Protestants Proper, who, in their zeal against error, hated much in the old faith that waa true. To put an end to the religious quarrels which these various parties raised throughout the land, a Parliament assembled on purpose, passed the Statute of The Six Articles, which, from its severity, was called the loov I giQody Statute,' and ' the whip with six strings.' It enacted — (1) the doctrine of transubstantia- tion; (2) that Communion in both kinds was unnecessary; (3) that it was unlawful for priests to marry ; (4) that vows of chastity were binding ; (5) that private Masses ought to be continued ; (6) that auricular confession should be' retained. The punishment for breaking Article 1 was death by burning ; for the remaining five, loss of property for the first offence, and death for the second. The passing of this Act was a great blow to the Reforming party in the State. In a short time 500 persons were thrown into prison, and bishops Latimer and Shaxton were also im- prisoned and compelled to resign their sees. To increase still further the king's power in those critical times, the same Parliament passed a decree giving to a royal procla- mation the force of law. This measure made Henry a despotic king. Anne of Cleves. Catherine Howard. Catherine Parr, Three years had passed since the death of Jane Seymour. Cromwell, the king's chief minister, advised his master to take another wife from Protestant Germany. There were several reasons for such a marriage. The powers of Rome were at work to crush the Reformation, and England, especially, was an object of attack. A marriage with a German Protestant princess might end in a league against papal designs, and be a set-off against the party in England which had succeeded in passing the Six Articles. A portrait of Anne, daughter of the Duke of Cleves, was presented to Henry, and it was .settled that she should come to England for marriage. When the king saw her, he Avas greatly disappointed with her appearance and manners. Her HENRY VIII. 215 portrait led him to expect a beautiful lady, but he declared that they had sent him a Flanders mare. It required mucli persuasion before he could be prevailed upon to carry out his engagements. Only the fear of driving the Lutheran princes into the arms of his enemy, the Emperor Charles, overcame his repugnance', and the marriage took place. (January 6, 1540.) Henry could never conquer his dislike for Anne, and his capricious temper vented its displeasure upon the minister who had arranged the match. Cromwell was hated on all sides. The old nobility looked upon him as a proud upstart ; the clergy hated him as the adviser of the spoliation of the monasteries ; and the Protestant party blamed him for his seeming support of the ' Six Articles.' His enemies, taking advantage of the king's disappointment and displeasure, obtained permission to arrest him on the charge of high treason. He was suddenly seized at the Council table, sent to the Tower, condemned by j -i oo bill of attainder, and beheaded. This was another ^ e^^v ' victory for the enemies of the Eeformation. Mea- sures were at once taken to break the alliance with the Protestant princes of Germany by divorcing Anne of Cleves. A judicial separation was obtained on the ground that the marriage had taken place against the king's will. Anne received a pension of 3,000^. per year, and retired to Richmond Palace. She lived in England till her death, in 1557. Henry's fifth wife was Catherine Howard, niece of the Duke of Norfolk. This marriage was favourably regarded by the Romanist party. The ' Bloody Statute ' was enforced with greater vigour, though the enemies of the royal supre- macy did not escape. The king had scarcely been married six months before rumours were afloat that his wife had been immoral previous to her marriage. Henry received the news with amazement, and his vindictive spirit re- solved on vengeance. Love gave way to hate, and Catherine Howard suffered the same fate on - -* * Tower Hill as Anne Boleyn. Her accomplice, Lady Eochford, who had been the chief instru- ment in the ruin of Anne Boleyn, perished at the same time. 216 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Henry's last wife was Catherine Parr, the widow of Lord Latimer, and a woman of virtue and good sense. (July 12, 1543.) She secretly favoured the Eeform party, and carefully instructed Prince Edward and the Princess Elizabeth in her principles. Up to this time the public worship of the Church was carried on in Latin, though the Bible was allowed in English. But in 1544, the Litany was ordered to be said in the vulgar tongue ; and in the following year a collection of English prayers for morning and evening service was directed to be used in the place of the breviary. Catherine Parr, though careful of her opinions, was once in great danger. Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, the leader of the Anglican party, dreaded her influence. On one occasion she displeased the king bv advocating too freely the views of the Eeformers, and Gardiner took advantage of this to draw up articles of im- peachment against her. A friend warned her of the danger, and, by rare tact, she disarmed the king's dis- pleasure, and defeated the designs of her enemies. War with Scotland and France. Execution of the Earl of Surrey. Ever since the rupture with Eome, the friends of the papacy were busy in plots against England. James V.. of Scotland, as a friend of the Pope, encouraged his subjects in attacks upon the English. Henry, in consequence, declared war against Scotland. While the English army lay at Ber- wick, 10,000 Scots entered Cumberland. A small body of - g-g English suddenly attacked them near the Sol way, ^ ^ and put them to flight. This affair is known as the Rout of Solway. James was so vexed at this defeat, that he shut himself up, and died of grief, shortly after the birth of an only daughter. Henry wished to marry his son Edward to this princess, afterwards the famous Mary Queen of Scots, but the papal party in Scotland refused the match, and made an alliance with the French king. Henry, in revenge, made war with France. With 30^000 men, he landed at Calais, and captured HENEY VIII. 217 Boulogne, after a siege of two months. (1544.) Tlie war continued for two years longer without any important results. Peace was concluded in 1546, by which it was agreed that Henry should restore Boulogne in eight years, and receive in return 2,000,000 crowns. Scotland was also included in the treaty. At home the struggle of the religious parties went on as bitterly as ever; but the last year of Henry's life was marked by a favourable change towards the Keformation movement. In 1546, the king offered to unite with the Lutheran princes in a league, offensive and defensive, to be called the * League Christian.' He also hinted to Cranmer his intention of abolishing the Mass. The Anglican and Roman parties viewed with jealousy the king's strong leaning to the party of progress, and plotted for the re- storation of the papal authority. The hope of the Anglicans was fixed upon the family of the Duke of Norfolk. Earl Surrey, the duke's son, intrigued to obtain for his family the chief authority in the realm after the king's death. He assumed on his shield the quarterings of the arms of the heir-apparent to the throne, and thus enabled his opf)onents to accuse him of aiming at the crown. The king ordered the arrest of father and son ; and the young' earl was condemned and executed for high treason. (January 19, 1547.) Earl Surrey was distinguished as a scholar, courtier, and soldier; and his poetical writings have given him a high place in English literature. But am- bition and party zeal excited him to play for a high stake, and he lost. The Duke of Norfolk was condemned by bill of attainder as a party to his son's schemes, but his life was saved by the king's death on the night before the day fixed for his execution. Death and Character of Henry. Henry had suffered very much in his latter years from an ulcer in the leg. His body, besides, had become corpulent and unwieldy, so that he had to be carried about from one apartment to the other. He was well enough the day 218 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. before his death to talk with some of his ministers upon the condition of the country, and he gave them good advice about the future policy of the government. But in the evening he grew rapidly worse. He expressed a wish to see Archbishop Cranmer. When the prelate reached Whitehall, the king, though conscious, was speechless. Cranmer, ' speaking comfortably to him, desired him to give him some token that he put his trust in God through Jesus Christ ; therewith the king wrung hard the arch- bishop's hand,' and expired. (January 28, 1547.) He was buried in St. George's Chapel, Windsor. He bequeathed the throne by will to Edward his son, then to Mary, then to Elizabeth ; and, in default of issue, to the heirs of his sister Mary, who had married the Duke of Suffolk. Henry was a man of vigorous mind and strong will. Once resolved upon anything, nothing could divert him from his purpose. He was open, blunt, and courageous, but possessed of a temper fierce, unbending, and un- forgiving. Many of his acts are marked by cruelty and injustice ; but his position was surrounded with the greatest difficulty, and harsh measures were sometimes necessary to save the country in the crisis through which it was then passing. Miscellaneous Facts. The House of Commons increased very much in im- portance, from the king's practice of appealing to it in support of his measures, and by the use he made of it to subdue the resistance of the House of Lords. In 1536, Wales was incorporated with England, and sent representatives to Parliament. In 1542, Ireland became a kingdom. On Henry's accession, his authority only extended over its chief seaports and eastern coun- ties. The remainder of the island was under the rule of sixty chieftains of Irish, and thirty of English descent. Henry won over the leaders, and persuaded them to ac- knowledge his supremacy, both spiritual and temporal. This king is considered the real founder of the Royal Navy HENRY VIII. 219 He establislied dockyards at Woolwich, Deptford, and Portsmouth ; appointed a Board of Admiralty, and placed the naval service on a distinct footing. Trinity House was established to encourage navigation. The College of Physicians was instituted. Muskets, invented by the Spaniards, took the place of bows and arrows. Parish re- gisters of births, deaths, and marriages, were established by Cromwell. The pound was first called a sovereign. Hops, cabbages, carrots, turnips, celery, lettuces, were brought from Holland and Flanders. Gipsies first made their ap- pearance in England about this time. Costume ; illustrative of the period. 220 HISTOEY OF .ENGLAND. EDWARD VI. Born 1537 A.D, Began to Beign 1547 A.D. Died 1553 A.B. The Kegency. War with Scotland. Lord Seymour. Progress of the Reformation. Popular Insurrections. Pall of Somerset. Northumberland's Erie. Death of the Kinff. Miscellaneous Pacts. The Regency. War with Scotland. Lord Seymour. Edward VL came to the throne in the tenth year of his age. He was the only son of Jane Seymour. The Go- vernment was invested in a council of sixteen, of which two were bishops — Cranmer and the Bishop of Durham — and the rest laymen. The Council, contrary to the late king's will, appointed one of their number, the Earl of Hertford, brother of Jane Seymour, as Protector of the kingdom. One of the first acts of the Government was to create some new peers in the place of those extinct by war, disease, and the executioner's sword. The Protector, accordingly, became Duke of Somerset. The two great religious parties in the State were fairly represented in the Council. Somerset favoured the Eeformers, while the Lord Chancellor, newly created Earl of Southampton, maintained opposite views. The Protector, however, suc- ceeded in obtaining the dismissal of the Chancellor for ex- ceeding his authority. But not satisfied with this advantage, he increased his own authority by obtaining a patent from young Edward which entirely upset the will of Henry VIII. He thus became Protector with regal power ; but it was significant that only seven of the Council signed their names to this new commission. In 1543, Henry VIII. had concluded a treaty with Scotland, in which it was agreed that Prince Edward EDWAED VI. 221 should marry the young Queen of Scots. The Protector Somerset was anxious to fulfil this article of the treaty, but the feeling in Scotland was opposed to it. He there- fore invaded that country at the head of 18,000 men, for the purpose of compelling the Scots to. fulfil their agreement. The Regent Arran met him at Sept. 10, Pinkie, near Musselburgh, with an army twice 1547 as numerous. A fierce battle ensued, in which a.d. the Scots lost from ten to fourteen thousand men, while the English loss amounted to about two hundred. Leith was then captured and burnt, the ships in the har- bour taken and destroyed, a few castles dismantled, and two small islands garrisoned in the Forth. These were all the advantages the Protector reaped from the invasion; while, on the other hand, the hatred of the Scots to Eng- land was increased, and the marriage made impossible. Queen Mary was sent to France for safety, and in the course of time became the wife of the dauphin. The Protector hurriedly returned from Scotland to put a stop to the intrigues of his brother, Lord Seymour, the Admiral of England, who had married the widow of Henry VIH. This nobleman envied his brother's power, and plotted to undermine his authority. After the death of his wife, he paid his addresses to the Princess Elizabeth, then in her sixteenth year. His plots and schemes of ambition were cut short. A bill of attainder was passed against him, and he was executed on Tower Hill. (March 29, 1549.) Progress of the Eeformation. This short reign is remarkable for the vigorous progress of the Eeformation of the English Church. The Protector was well known to be favourable to this movement. His accession to office was the signal for those who had been sternly kept down by Henry VIII. to preach boldly against the errors of the Church. In many places, the people themselves had taken the matter into their own hands, and cleared the churches of things thought objectionable, with- out waiting for instructions from those in authority. Early 11 222 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. in 1547, an order was issued by the Government for the general purification of the churches, and forthwith images were taken down, stained-glass windows removed, and the walls whitewashed to hide the painted stories of gospel history and legends of saints. A commission was appointed to visit each" diocese and parish, to report upon the state of religion, and to carry into eifect the orders of the Council. Amongst other things, it was directed that a large Bible in English should be immediately placed in every church, and also a copy of Erasmus's ' Paraphrase of the Gospels.' Certain parts of the public services of the Church were to be read in English, and twelve sermons, or Homilies, prepared by Cranmer, were issued to supply the lack of preaching power. These changes were, on the whole, well received in towns, but in country places they were not so favourably regarded. Bonner, Bishop of London, and Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, were imprisoned for re- sisting the commissioners, but were soon liberated. On the assembling of Parliament, the laws of Henry IV. and Henry V. against the Lollards were repealed, as well as the ' Six Articles ' of the late reign. A committee of bishops and divines drew up for the use of the Church a new service-book, which is knoAvn as The First Book of Common Prayer, and was first published in 1549. At the same time Parliament enforced the use of this prayer- book by passing the first Act of Uniformity. Bishops Gardiner and Bonner, still continuing their opposition to the Eeformation, were deprived of their sees. Forty-two Articles of Eeligion, containing the doctrines of the English Church, were drawn up in 1551 ; the first prayer-book was revised and published in the following year, and a second Act of Uniformity passed at the same time. These important changes, which made the Church of England such as we find it in the present day, were chiefly carried out under the superintendence of Archbishop Cranmer, and Eidley, Bishop of London. Persecution for religious opinions did not cease with the work of Eeformation. Toleration was not then understood, neither was it anywhere practised. Obedience to the EDWAED VI. 223 directions of the prayer-book was required of all persons, and those who disputed its teaching were treated as heretics, and punished accordingly. Thus Joan Bocher, of Kent, and a Dutch surgeon, named Van Paris, were burnt for heresy. Popular Insurrections. The religious reforms of this reign caused much dis- content in many parts of the country. Many men took part in the work of the Reformation for their own selfish ends. They cared more for gain than for truth, and their unscrupulous dealing, in consequence, roused many foes. But there were other causes at work to excite the dis- content of the people. Side by side with the progress of the Reformation, there was a great social change going on. The feudal system was crumbling to pieces, producing between landlord and tenant many differences of opinion as to the rights of property. The high price of wool and the cheapness of sheep-farming tempted landlords to turn their plough-lands into grass, and throw several farms into one. Labourers were thus deprived of work, and left to shift for themselves. The evil was further increased by the great number of freemen which the decay of the feudal system had sent into the laboiu- market. Wages were, in consequence, very low ; and, to make bad worse, they were paid in base coin. Increase of sheep- farming, too, lessened the production of corn, and bread became dear. Rapacious landlords, besides, enclosed many of the commons, turned forests into parks, hedged round and appropriated public pastures in which cottagers formerly fed their cattle. Laws were passed, in vain, to save the poor from beggary and starvation. Love of gain sug- gested many ways of evading the statutes enacted to check the increase of sheep-farms. The villages and highways were, in consequence, covered with outcast families reduced to beggary ; and thousands of dispossessed tenants, once the holders of comfortable homes, surrounded by starving children, clamoured in vain for redress. There was then no poor-rate to relieve the distressed. In former times, the hungry labourer and the traveller found in the 224 HISTOKY OF ET^-aLAND. monasteries relief and shelter ; but these institutions no longer existed, and as yet no plan was devised to do their charitable work. There was no other course open to the poor man than to beg from place to place. But the Government would not allow this. To put down the swarms of beggars which covered the country, severe laws were passed, by which persons begging without a license were sentenced to be whipped, branded, lose one of their ears, be made slaves for life, or hanged, — the punishment depending upon the number of convictions. A distressed population offered an excellent field to the enemies of the Eeformation. The numerous houseless monks found little trouble in persuading the people to look upon the changes in religion as the chief cause of their wretched condition, and the flames of insurrection soon broke out in several parts of the country; but they were nowhere dangerous except in Cornwall, Devonshire, and Norfolk. In the two former counties, 10,000 men appeared in arms, demanding the restoration of the old faith and the extinction of Pro- testantism by fire and sword. (1549.) Lord Eussell was sent against them, who, after some severe fighting, dispersed the rioters with great slaughter. The ringleaders were executed in London, and many of the lower orders were put to death by martial law. But the rising in Norfolk was far more serious. On Household Hill, near Norwich, one Ket, a wealthy tanner, formed a camp, around which 16,000 suffering yeomen and farm-servants soon collected. A large oak tree stood in the midst of the adjacent common, and under its branches Ket sat daily administering justice, and trying the country gentlemen for their conduct to the poor. The Norfolk rebels demanded the destruction of enclosures, and the reform of local abuses. The Earl of Warwick, at the head of 6,000 men, attacked the insurgents. Two thou- sand rebels fell in the action ; Ket was hanged at Norwich Castle, and the rising was entirely put down. (1549.) These disturbances originated the appointment of lords- lieutenants of counties, with authority to levy men, and lead them against the enemies of the king. EDWAED VI. 225 Fall of Somerset. The blame of all the disorders of the country fell upon the Protector. The government of England was a difficult task, and from the first he had many enemies to contend against. Ambition led him to obtain a patent for the purpose of increasing his authority, and then he did many things without consulting his fellow- Councillors. The old nobility regarded him as an upstart, and were disgusted with him because he sided with the poor in their grievances against the rich. The Eomish party hated him for his zeal in the work of Eeformation. Many blamed him for the execution of his brother, Lord Seymour. The palace which he was building in the Strand excited the jealousy of the nobility and the ill-will of the populace. To obtain materials and space enough for this building, he pulled down two churches, the town-houses of three bishops, and the chapels attached to them. He had also appropriated to himself the spoils of five or six religious houses, in addition to three granted to him by Henry VIH. Foreign affiiirs were also unsuccessful in his hands. The English garrisons were driven from the castles of Broughty and Haddington, in Scotland, and the French had all but retaken Boulogne. Somerset's great rival at the Council Board was Dudley, Earl of "Warwick, son of the rapacious minister of Henry VH. Created Viscount Lisle by Henry VIK., he was appointed a member of the Council of Eegency, and received the title of Earl of Warwick on the accession of Edward VI. This nobleman and others of the Council expressed dissatisfaction with the Protector's government, and began to act independently of his authority. Somerset became angry. He accused the Council of treason, and of intending to restore the papal authority ; he appealed to the people for help to defend the crown, and took the young king from Hampton Court to Windsor. His appeals to the country having failed, he was obliged to surrender himself to the will of thvi Council, and he was sent to the Tower on the charge of usurping the king's power. 226 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Before the Council, Somerset confessed on his knees the charges brought against him. Parliament deprived him of all his offices, and inflicted upon him a fine of 1 'SdQ 2,000/. a year; but through the king's kindness, he ^ jj escaped the payment of this ruinous sum, and soon regained his freedom. After a short time, he was readmitted into the Council, and became apparently recon- ciled to his rival the Earl of Warwick. He even married his daughter to this nobleman's eldest son. On the fall of the Duke of Somerset, Warwick became the leading man in the regency. Not content with this position, his ambition led him to covet the earldom of Northumberland, which he succeeded in getting, with the title of Duke. One success inspired hopes of others ; but feeling that Somerset was a bar to further ambitious pro- jects, he determined to get rid of him. The Duke of Somerset, aware of Northumberland's intentions, plotted to upset his authority. His plans were betrayed ; and he was forthwith arrested on a charge of conspiring to seize the king, and plotting against the lives of certain members of the Council. Condemned on the charge of felony, the unfortunate Protector was beheaded on Tower Hill, amidst a great concourse of people, who remembered that he had always showed himself their friend. Crowding ^'i* ' round the scaffold, they dipped their handker- chiefs in his blood ; that they might have some re- membrance of one who, with all his faults, had ever taken a lively interest in their welfare. Northumberland's Rule. Death of the King^. The chief authority in the kingdom was now in the hands of Northumberland. He won the confidence and affection of the young king by his apparent zeal for the Reformation. When Edward's health threatened to give way, the ambitious duke began to scheme to get the crown for his own family. He married his fourth son, Lord Guildford Dudley, to Lady Jane Grey, the daughter of the Marchioness of Dorset, and great-granddaughter of EDWAED VI. Henry VII. Knowing Edward's love for the Reformation, he began to work upon his fears with respect to its iate if his sister Mary, who was known to be devotedly attached to the Romish faith, should succeed to the throne. He urged him to set aside her claims, and also those of Eliza- beth, and bequeath the crown to Lady Jane Grey. The king consented to this arrangement, and ordered the judges to draw up letters patent to this effect. At first they hesi- tated to comply, but the threats of Northumberland and the king's command prevailed. The patent was signed at Greenwich by the chief of the nobility, Cranmer's name being the last added. Edward VI. and Lady Jane Grey. Immediately after this event, Edward became rapidly worse. His physicians were dismissed, and he was put under the care of a woman who professed to work a speedy 228 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. cure. But her medicines increased his illness. Eruptions came out over his skin ; his hair fell oiF, and then his nails, and afterwards the joints of his toes and fingers. Rumour said that Northumberland, having completed his arrange- ments, hastened the king's death by poison. Edward died at Greenwich, in the sixteenth year of his age and the seventh of his reign. He was a prince gentle and studious, pious and affectionate, and full of much promise. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1553 Sir Hugh Willoughby sailed from England with three ships to discover a north-east passage to India. One vessel found its way into the White Sea, and win- tered at Archangel. The others were wrecked with loss of all hands off the coast of Nova Zembla. The Book of Psalms was turned into verse. Edward founded Christ's Hospital for the education of the poor, and restored St. Thomas's for the relief of the sick. Bridewell was also given to the citizens of London for the correction of the idle. Crowns and half-crowns were first coined. The * sweating sickness ' entirely left the country in this reign. MARY I. 229 MARY I. Born 1516 A.D. Began to Eeign 1553 A.D. Died 1558 A.D. Lady Jane G-rey. Execution of Northumberland. Restoration of Romanism. Insurrection. Execution of Lady Jane Grey. The Marian Persecution. "War with France. Death and Character of the Queen. Miscellaneous Facts. Lady Jane Grey. Execution of Northumberland. Northumberland kept the death of Edward a secret for two days, in the hope of getting possession of the Princess Mary. He at once proclaimed the accession of Lady Jane Grey, but the Londoners received the heralds in silence. The Lady Jane was the eldest daughter of the Marquis of Dorset, who had lately been created Duke of Suffolk. She was about the same age as Edward YL, and was, like him, studious and accomplished far beyond her age. At fifteen she was learning Hebrew, and could write Greek; at sixteen, she could correspond with divines in Latin. She was pious and amiable, and in every way a pattern of virtue. The news of her accession caused her the greatest grief. The crown was, indeed, forced upon her by her ambitious father-in-law, and for twelve days she bore the name of queen. In the meanwhile Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Arragon, having escaped the troops sent for her capture, was receiving the homage of the nobility and gentry in Suffolk. Men of all ranks and creeds rallied round her. The Dul^e of Northumberland marched into Suffolk at the head of 6,000 men, but his forces were so thinned by desertion that he was obliged to retreat. Everywhere the accession of Mary was hailed with shouts of applause. The Council, who had signed the letters patent of Edward VI., pronounced in her 230 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. favour, and their example was at once followed by the City of London. There was now no hope for the Lady Jane. Her father rushed to her room in the Tower, and announced that she was no longer queen. Northumber- land was at Cambridge when the news of the doings of the Council reached him. Finding that success was hopeless, he threw up his cap and shouted, ' God save Queen Mary ! ' But his submission came too late. He was at once arrested and sent to the Tower, together with the Duke of Suffolk, Guilford Dudley, Lady Jane Grey, and several others. Northumberland expiated his guilt on the scaffold ; Suffolk was pardoned ; and the Lady Jane and her husband were kept in close confinement, under sentence of death. Mary entered London in triumph, accompanied by Anne of Cleves and the Princess Elizabeth. (August 3, 1553.) Restoration of Romanism. Maiy was warmly attached to her mother's religion, and she resolved to restore it in England in all its integrity. Gardiner, Bonner, and other bishops who had been re- moved in the late reign, were at once replaced in their sees, while, on the other hand, Holgate, Archbishop of York, Coverdale, Bishop of Exeter, Eidley of London, Hooper of Gloucester, and Latimer of Worcester, were sent to prison. The clergy generally were encouraged to revive the Mass and all the ceremonies of the old religion without waiting for the sanction of the law. All the foreign divines who had found a refuge and a welcome in England in the late reign were ordered to leave the country. Cranmer, though urged to fly from the danger evidently awaiting him, refused to leave his post, and, after a few weeks, he was sent to the Tower con- demned on the charge of high treason, but the punishment of death was not then inflicted. Parliament was opened with a gorgeous celebration of the Mass in Latin, in defiance of the law. That assembly then ratified the marriage of Henry VIH. and Catherine of Arragon, and annulled the divorce which had been pronounced by Cranmer. All the laws respecting religion passed in the late reign were MARY I. 231 repealed, and the form of divine worship as in the last year of Henry VIII. was re-established. The married clergy were separated from their wives or removed from their office, and persecution threatened all who refused submis- sion to the change in religion. In the following year. Cardinal Pole returned to England as papal legate, and invited the Houses of Parliament to become reconciled to the Pope. They voted an address, in which they supplicated pardon for the errors of the nation, and prayed to be admitted once more into com- munion with the Church of Eome. Gardiner presented the petition to the Cardinal. At Whitehall the Parliament, on bended knees, received from Pole the words of absolu- tion and were once more received into the bosom of the Eomish Church. The queen surrendered i te>i ' to the legate all the Church lands in the posses- sion of the crown, but the nobility, by the Pope's permission, were allowed to keep all that they had received in the two previous reigns. Insurrections. Execution of Lady Jane Grey. As soon as the Emperor Charles heard of Mary's acces- sion, he proposed his son Philip to her for a husband. Philip was a widower, eleven years younger than the queen ; but the difference in age offered no bar to the marriage. The neAvs of such an alliance with the Court of Spain caused the greatest dread amongst aU ranks of people. The Protestants were already alarmed at the re- vival of the Mass, and considered a marriage with a prince of the most bigoted Eoman Catholic country in Europe as certain destruction to themselves. Both Lords and Commons were fearful for the independence of the nation. They thought that, under a Spanish king, England would become a province of Spain. Remonstrances were in vain presented to the queen ; her mind was bent on the match, and Philip she was determined to have. Plots were then set on foot to prevent the marriage by force of arms. The French, jealous of the increase of Spanish influence, 232 HISTORY OF ENGLAI^D. encouraged the conspirators with promises of assistance. Sir Thomas Wyatt proposed to raise the men of Kent ; Sir Peter Carew, Devonshire ; and the Duke of SuiFolk, the Midland counties. Carew and Suffolk failed at the out- set ; but Wyatt's attempt was at first attended with suc- cess. At Rochester, the yeomanry and peasantry of Kent flocked round his standard. The Duke of Norfolk, at the head of the London train bands, was sent against him, but his men joined the rebel ranks. Wyatt forced his way into London, where his followers, finding that the nobility kept aloof from the movement, gradually fell away, and he was at last seized near Temple Bar, and executed. Sixty or seventy others also suffered for this rebellion. Four hundred, with ropes round their necks, were led before the queen, and, falling on their knees, received a pardon. (February, 1554.) This rising cost the lives of Lady Jane Grey and her husband. The Duke of Suffolk's guilt was considered a good excuse of ridding the land of one who was once called queen. Lady Jane and her husband were, accordingly, executed within the Tower walls. Dudley suffered first, and his bleeding body was borne past his young wife, as she was going to the scaffold. Her father soon after met with a similar fate. The queen sent to prison many of the nobility and gentry who were suspected of disaffection. The Princess Elizabeth was also in danger of her life. The Spanish ambassador and Bishop Gardiner advised the queen to put her to death. She was sent to the Tower, but nothing could be found to implicate her in the late rising, and after two months, she was removed to Wood- stock as a place of confinement. The Marian Persecution. The suppression of Wyatt's rebellion strengthened the hands of the queen, and hastened the marriage with Philip of Spain. That prince landed at Southampton on July 20, 1554, and in a»few days he was married to Mary at Winchester, It was after this event that the Parliament MAEY I. 233 became reconciled to the Pope. An Assembly which on bended knees craved absolution from a papal legate would not scruple to revive the cruel laws against heretics, and so the old statutes against the Lollards, abolished in the last reign, again came into force. Thus armed, Bishops Gardiner and Bonner bent their minds to exter- minate heresy with the terrors of the stake. In the begin- ning of the year 1555, the dreadful persecution of the Ee- formers began. The first victims were Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester; Eogers, Prebendary of St. Paul's; Saunders, Eector of AUhallows ; and Taylor, Eector of Had- ^ rrk leigh, in Suffolk. The cruel work, thus begun, continued till the close of the reign. Bonner, Bishop of London, was the chief tool employed in this crusade, and he received for his cruelty the name of * Bloody Bonner.' Eidley, Bishop of London, and Latimer, formerly Bishop of Worcester, two prelates famous for their learning and virtue, suffered together at Oxford, in front of Baliol College. When the flames began to crackle, the aged Latimer cried out to his brother martyr, ' Be of good comfort. Master Eidley ! Play the man ! we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out.' Friends had placed bags of powder about the neck of each to put an end to their sufferings. Latimer died almost immediately ; but his companion's death was very slow. Archbishop Cranmer was tried at the same time as Eidley and Latimer, but he was too great a person to be hurriedly put to death. He was considered the leading spirit of the English Eeformation, and it was thought that, if he could be persuaded to change his opinions, the Eefor- mation would receive a blow from which it would never recover. He was therefore kept for months in prison ; persons were sent to tamper with him ; and promises of life were held out if he would recant. Overcome at last by long imprisonment, by the horrors of the stake, and by love of life, he consented to retract his opinions. But this did not save him. The queen hated him for his part in her mother's divorce ; Pole was anxiously waiting to 234 HISTORY OF EKGLAND. become his successor in the see of Canterbury ; and, there- fore, die he must. On the day of execution, permission was given to the archbishop to make a public denial of his faith ; but to the surprise and dismay of his enemies, he said that his recantation was caused through fear, and that he bitterly repented his weakness. Cranmer was then hurried to the spot already consecrated by the deaths of Eidley and Latimer. When fastened to the stake, he said, * This was the hand that wrote it, therefore it shall suffer first punish- ment.' The wood was dry and well laid ; the fire rapidly spread, and the martyr was soon dead. Before - * ^ ' the flames touched his body, his right hand Avas seen extended in the fire, and he never flinched nor cried. During the three years' persecution, nearly 300 persons suffered at the stake, besides those who were punished by imprisonments, tortures, and fines. The bishops' prisons Avere crowded with poor men and women, who wxre treated like dogs. ' They Avere beaten, they were starved, they were flung into dark, fetid dens, where rotting straw was their bed, their feet were fettered in the stocks, and their clothes were their only covering in the cold winter months ; while the Avretches who died in their misery were flung out into the fields where none might bury them.' These atrocities turned the hearts of the people from a religion Avhich could encourage such inhumanity, and paved the way for the restoration of the Reformed Church. Every martyrdom was more effective than a hundred sermons against popery. The spectators withdrew to their homes, struck by a faith that could defy the horrors of the stake, and full of indignation at the cruelty of the persecutors. Some say that Cardinal Pole Avas opposed to these bar- barities, but it is a remarkable fact that, if Smithfield be excepted, the most frightful scenes in this cruel period Avere seen at Canterbury, of which diocese he Avas arch- bishop. Many of the Reformers sought refuge on the Continent, chiefly at Frankfort and Geneva. They returned home in the following reign, and founded the sect of the Puritans. MARY I. 235 War with France. Loss of Calais. Death of the Queen. Philip did not remain a year in England after his marriage. He was never at home here. He disliked the country, and the people disliked' him, and he was therefore glad to get away. Shortly after his departure, the Emperor Charles V. abdicated, and he became King of Spain, under the tide of Philip H. Two years afterwards, he returned to England for the purpose of persuading the queen to join him in the war with France. The treaty of marriage had stipulated that England should not fight with France in the cause of Spain ; but Mary, anxious to please her husband, did her best to help him. The Government opposed the undertaking, and would most probably have succeeded in its opposition had not France given some cause of offence. The French court thought that by keeping Mary in alarm at home, the less likely she would be to join in the war. Some English exiles in Paris were, therefore, encouraged to make a descent upon England. Sir Thomas StaiFord, grandson of that Duke of Buckingham who had been put to death under Henry VIII., set out from the Seine with two ships weU manned, surprised Scarborough Castle, and sent a proclamation throughout Yorkshire calling upon the people to rise in behalf of English liberty. In two days, Stafford and his companions were prisoners, and thirty-one of them were put to death. War was then declared against France, and a force of 7,000 men was sent to join the Spaniards in the Nether- lands. Two days before their arrival, the Spaniards gained a decisive victory over the French at St. Quentin, and the allied forces afterwards stormed and sacked the town. (August 1557.) In the following winter, the Duke of Guise suddenly attacked Calais, and took it after a siege of eight days. The town on the land -ickq' side was protected by marshes which, by sluices, could be put under water at high tide. It was thought so well defended that it was customary to with- draw a portion of the garrison in the winter months. The 236 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. French, aware of this, surprised the place with an army of 30,000 men, and thus took in eight days what cost Edward III. a siege of eleven months. The loss of Calais caused grief and shame in England. For 200 years and more, it had given to the English kings an easy entrance into France, and was called the 'brightest jewel in the English crown.' Mary's health was failing fast when the disgraceful news of this loss reached her. She was affected to tears, and said that when she was dead * Calais ' would be found written on her heart. Her body was afflicted with dropsy, and her mind was saddened by disappointment. Deserted by her husband, hated by her subjects, tormented by disease, her latter days were full of bitterness. She died of a lingering fever, after a short reign of five years, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. (November 1558.) No sovereign ever ascended the throne with greater popu- larity than Mary ; but her obstinate, bigoted character, her cruel measures in favour of popery, turned the love of the people into hatred, and she went down to the grave un- wept and childless, leaving in the memory of the nation the undying name of ' Bloody Mary.' Cardinal Pole, her kinsman and chief adviser, died on the same day. Miscellaneous Facts. The first commercial treaty with Eussia was made in this ^ reign. Coaches are said to have first appeared in England about the year 1555. ELIZABETH, 237 ELIZABETH. Born 1533 A.B. Began to Eeign 1558 A.D. Died 1603 A.D. Elizabeth's Accession. Completion of the Eeformation. Mary Queen of Scots. Conspiracies in favour of Mary. The Spanish Armada. Eebellion in Ireland. Execution of Essex. Death and Character ^f Eliza- beth. Miscellaneous Facts. Elizabeth's Accession. Completion of the Reformation. Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, succeeded her sister. She was living at Hatfield when iKaxy died, nominally free, but in reality a prisoner. Her accession was hailed with the greatest delight. Joy-bells answered from steeple to steeple, bonfires blazed in every open spot, and festive- boards filled the streets. Yet there were many difiicultiea in her way. The clerical party, knowing her leaning to the Eeformation movement, looked with greater favour upon the claims of Mary Queen of Scots ; the Pope refused to acknowledge her title ; and Philip of Spain expected her to act according to his will. The King of France, too, decided against her claims, and persuaded Mary of Scots to take the arms and style of Queen of England. The Archbishop of York, alarmed at her religious opinions, refused to perform the ceremony of coronation, and the duty was discharged by the Bishop of Carlisle. (January 13, 1559.) There was, besides, a war going on with France and Scotland; the Treasury was empty, and the nation in debt. Elizabeth retained in her service many of the members of the late Government, but she added others with views hke her own, and upon whom she could depend. Of these, Sir Nicholas Bacon, fathei' of 238 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND . the great Lord Bacon, and Sir William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burleigh, were the most distinguished. To Cecil's faithful service of forty years as First Minister of the Crown much of the glory of Elizabeth's reign is due. As there was enough to do at home, peace was made with France and Scotland. One of the first acts of the queen was to recall the exiles and set free those imprisoned for religion. By proclama- tion she forbade preaching without a special license, and the elevation of the host; and granted the use of the Litany, 1492 >> 1497 >> 1515 . Henry VIII 1520 9> 1521 »> 1530 » 1533 IJ 1535 1536 a 1536 » 1536 >» 1540 >> 1542 »j 1547 »> 1549 Edward VI 1552 » 1554 . Mary I. 1556 if 1572 . Elizabeth. 1572 >» 1587 >» 1599 >> 1600 jj 1601 >» CHANGES OF DOMINION. Tournay taken and restored , 1513-18 . Henry VIII Boulogne ,, ,, • 1544-50 • 5> and Edward VI. Loss of Calais , . 1558 . Mary I. Havre taken and lost . , 1562-3 . Elizabeth. Virginia first Colonised by Raleigh . 1584 »» LEADING- DATES OF THE TUDOE PEEIOD. 267 WARS, BATTLES. Battle of Stoke • . ,, Spurs ,, Flodden . The Eout of Solway Battle of Pinkie . ,, St. Quentiu Armada Defeated . Battle of Blackwater A.D. 1487 1513 1513 1542 1547 1557 1588 1598 Henry VII. Henry VIII. Edward VI. Mary I. Elizabeth. < THE REFORMATION, Luther opposes the Sale of Indul- geuces . . . { Luther burns the Pope's Bull . German Eeformers first called Pro testants ..... 1^ Divorce of Queen Catherine Papal Power overthrown . Smaller Monasteries suppressed Coverdale's Bible published Matthew's Bible .... Cranmer's Bible ordered to be placed in Churches .... Greater Monasteries suppressed. The *Six Articles' The Litany translated into English Forms of Morning and Evening Prayer in English .... First Book of Common Prayer pub lished Second Book of Common Prayer Papal Power restored. Marian Persecution The Eeformation completed The Eomanists separate from the Church of England . V 1517 . Henry VIII. 1520 1529 „ 1533 1534 1535-6 „ 1535 „ 1537 1539 „ - 1539 1539 1544 1545 1549 . Edward VT. 1552 1554 . Mary I. .555—8 . ,, 1559 . Elizabeth. 1570 OQ H « ' Boyne brought defeat to his army, with a loss . _- of 1,500 men. James himself hurried off to A.D. ' Waterford, and thence to France. The victors lost about 500 men, amongst whom were Schomberg, and Walker, the brave defender of Londonderry. After this victory William soon made himself master of the southern part of the island, but the w^est still held out. The completion of the war was left in the hands of the Dutch general Ginckle, who commenced the next cam- paign with the capture of Athlone, a strong town on the Shannon. This success was followed up by an obstinate battle with the Irish under the command of the 1 fiQl' -^^^^^^ general St. Euth, at Ag^hrin. St. Euth was struck down by a cannon-ball, whilst gal- lantly heading a charge, and his army, on the death of its leader, broke and fled. At Limerick they made their last stand. Ginckle laid siege to the town, which, after six weeks, surrendered on favourable terms. ct. 3, rj^Y^^ Treaty of Limerick brought the struggle to an end. By its provisions the Eoman Catholics were allowed the same religious privileges as in the reign of Charles II. ; their lands were guaranteed to all who would submit to William ; and those who chose might leave the island. In accordance Avith the treat}^ about 12,000 Irish troops embarked for France under their brave leader, Patrick Sarsfield. They were subsequently known as the * Irish Brigade,' and played a most important part in the French wars. The Parliament which assembled in DubHn after these WILLIAM III. AND MAKY IL 369 events passed the severest measures against Eomanists. More than a million acres of land were confiscated, in spite of the treaty of Limerick, and lavishly distributed amongst English grandees. The victorious party saw no safety for its rule except in a system of oppression worthy of the most barbarous ages. Everything was done with a view to stamp out the Eoman Catholic religion. No Papist could be a schoolmaster, a guardian of any child, or a solicitor ; intermarriages with Protestants were forbidden ; no Papist could possess land by descent or otherwise ; and no arms could be retained. In addition to these, the most stringent measures were sanctioned in reference to the Roman Catholic clergy. A policy so harsh succeeded in crushing out the spirit of re- sistance, but it left a legacy of bitter hatred to English rule. War with France. Louis XIV., King of France, had long been considered the champion prince of the Eoman Catholic religion. His great ambition, however, had caused several of the continental powers to form the League of Augsburg for mutual defence against the aggressions of France. "William, when he be- came king, had little difficulty in persuading the English Parliament to join the confederacy against Louis. The support given to James in Ireland was sufficient pretext for a quarrel, and so war was declared May 7, 1689. Home affairs prevented any active operations till the following year, when Marlborough was sent with some forces to join the Dutch. In the same year, the combined fleets of England and Holland, under Admiral Torrington, were defeated by the French off Beachy Head. (June 30, 1690.) The English retreated to the Thames, and left the victors masters of the Channel. In 1691, "William went over to Holland with an English army, but the campaign was spent in marching and countermarching. During this time some of the leading men in "William's government were corresponding with James. Even Marlborough, who held a high military command, and Eussell, the Treasurer 370 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. of the Navy, who had been appointed admiral of the com- bined fleets of England and Holland, were in secret corre- spondence with the court of St. Germains. By such traitors the plans of William and his allies were made known to the French king. James, excited by the promises of his Jacobite friends in England, persuaded Louis to assist him in an invasion of the country. The * Irish Brigade,' num- bering 20,000 men, and 10,000 French troops, were drawn up at Cotentin, near La Hogue, ready to be convoyed across the Channel by the French fleet. In the meantime, Marl- borough's treachery was disclosed, and disgrace immediately befell him and several others. Queen Mary, who had been lefl in charge of the government while her husband was on the Continent, was greatly alarmed by the rumours of Jaco- bite conspiracies. In the coffee-houses of London might be heard the voices of men denouncing admirals and captains as traitors, and distrust prevailed everywhere. The queen, not quite sure of Eussell's fidelity, sent him a letter, which he was to read to the fleet, but by this time the admiral's feelings towards James had cooled. Passing from ship to ship, he exhorted the crews to do their duty. ' If your commanders play false,' said he, 'overboard with them, and with myself the first.' The English and Dutch fleets, numbering in all 99 sail, bore down towards La Hogue to destroy the armament pre- paring for the intended invasion. The French admiral Tourville, ignorant of the union of the allied fleets, and trusting to treachery in the English ships, left Brest with 44 sail of the line. Off Barfleur the opposing squadrons came into sight, and Tourville soon found out his mistake. The battle which took place, known i^fiQo' ^^ "^^ Hogue, ended in the complete defeat of the French. A kind of runninsr fi^ht continued AD. . for three days, during which Tourville lost 25 ships. Eighteen of these ran aground near James's camp, where they were followed by the English sailors in boats, and burnt under the very eyes of the exiled king. This victory dispelled all fears of invasion, and effaced the shame of the disgraceful defeat ofFBeachy Head. * WILLIAM in. AND MARY II. 371 On land, William and his allies attacked the French at Steinkirk, but were beaten back with great loss. (Aug. 3.) Louis obtained further revenge in the following year by the defeat of William at landen (July 19, 1694), and by the dispersion with great loss of the rich Smyrna fleet off St. Vincent. As a set-off, the English bombarded the coast towns of France, and nearly destroyed Dieppe and Plavre. But an attempt to capture Brest failed, with great loss to the English, entirely through the treachery of Marl- borough. In the year 1695, St. Malo, Dunkirk, and Calais were bombarded. Louis, in retaliation, sent some troops against Brussels, who laid the greater part of the town in ruins. In the autumn, William obtained a great success in the capture of Namur, but the allies suffered great loss. The next year found the belligerents almost exhausted. With the exception of the bombardment of a few coast towns by the allied fleets, and indecisive skirmishes on land, nothing of importance was done. Both sides, heartily tired of the war, brought it to an end by the Treaty of Ryswick. Louis consented to acknow- i />q7 ' ledge William as King of Great Britain and Ire- AD land, and to cease countenancing any conspiracy against him. The peace caused the greatest dismay amongst the Jacobites, but the great majority of the people hailed it with acclamations of delight. Jacobite Plots. From the beginning of the Eevolution, there was an influ- ential body in the nation, like the Non-jurors, who regarded William^s accession as an -usurpation. Many Tories and discontented Whigs swelled this faction, which continued to keep up an active correspondence with James. William was not a popular king. His manners were cold and re- served. Although he was the grandson of Charles I., he was considered a foreigner, and the favour he showed to his Dutch countrymen increased the unpopularity of his 372 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. foreign extraction. As the excitement of the Revolution cooled down, the bad conduct of James became less heinous to many who had gladly welcomed the Prince of Orange, and conspiracies were set afoot to bring him back to the throne. We have already mentioned the names of Marl- borough and Admiral Russell, the latter a member of the Whig party. To these may be added the names of the Princess Anne, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Earl Clarendon, and Lord Godolphin, the Prime Minister ; and they are but examples of a host of others. Fortunately for the peace of England, James's foolish and bigoted conduct, even in exile, undid the work of all his friends at home. The Protestant Jacobites who presented themselves at the Court of St. Germains were treated with every mark of dis- respect. They had no chance, compared with a Papist, of obtaining James's favour. All who died in the Protestant faith were buried, like dogs, in a field in the dead of night. These insults damaged the Jacobite cause in England and Scotland, and even some of its most ardent supporters were disgusted and alarmed. Just before the battle of La Hogue, when James's hopes ran high, he issued a Declara- tion, which contained so little acknowledgment of error, so few promises of better government, that his friends were ashamed of it, and called it a forgery. By conduct so foolish James did as much harm to his cause as the defeat of La Hogue. On December 28, 1694, Queen Mary died of the small- pox, greatly lamented by the majority of the nation. Her death was the signal for renewed Jacobite plots, and she was scarcely laid in her grave when a scheme was formed, with the approval of James, for the assassination of her husband. The design of murdering the king was confined to a few select traitors, but at the same time another plan was set on foot to raise an insurrection which was to be supported by a foreign arrny. Each of these plots was under the direction of a leader sent specially from St. Germains. The care of the insurrection was intrusted to the Duke of Berwick, an illegitimate son of Charles II., and the assas- sination to Sir George Barclay, who had fought under WILLIAM III. AND MAEY II. 373 Dundee in Scotland. Barclay got together a band of about forty cut-throats, half of whom had come from France on purpose ; and it was resolved to attack the king on his return from hunting at Richmond, as was his custom every Saturday. (February 25, 1696.) At the same time troops and transports were being collected at Calais, ready for action as soon as William's death was known. The plot was disclosed by some of the conspirators, and immediately the Parliament and nation were roused to the highest pitch of excitement. The words assassination and invasion acted like a spell, and the whole country was astir. The two Houses of Parliament formed a ' Loyal Association,' by which they pledged themselves to protect the king's life, and support the order of succession as settled by the Bill of Eights. The conspirators were hunted like wild beasts ; the chief were soon captured, except Barclay, who escaped to France, and eight were executed. The search after Jacobite plotters became very active. • Sir John Fenwick was arrested as a party to the assassination plot. When in prison he oifered to give evidence against Marlborough, Godolphin, Eussell, and others. But his hesitating and wavering conduct caused his statements to be treated as calumnies. He suffered death on Tower Hill, by Bill of Attainder, being the last in England who perished on the scaffold by that method of procedure. (January 28, 1697.) These futile conspiracies and the peace of Ryswick had a very discouraging effect upon the Jacobites, and for the remainder of the reign they gave little trouble to the government. Partition Treaties with France. Second Act of Settlement. William's Death and Character. The war with France greatly impoverished the nation, and was the beginning of the National Debt, which then amounted to 17,000,000Z. The House of Commons, in its anxiety to retrench expenses, and from its antipathy to a standing army, reduced the -military force of the kingdom 374 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. to 10,000 men. This vote was very displeasing to the king, who knew that peace with France could not long continue. In 1698 a new Parliament assembled, which contained a great number of Tories, many of whom were hostile to William. This Assembly reduced the army to 7,000 -men, and passed a vote that they should all be natives of the British dominions. This measure was par- ticularly galling to the king, who was thus obliged to dismiss his faithful Dutch guards, and the French refugees in his service. Parliament was thus disarming England just at a time when the government of France was planning a scheme to add Spain to its dominions. Charles II. of Spain had no issue, and his health was much enfeebled. There were three claimants for his possessions—the Dauphin of France, the Emperor Leopold, and the Electoral Prince of Bavaria, WiUiam, fearing the aggrandisement of France, secretly formed a treaty with the French king for the partition of the Spanish empire. The First Partition Treaty was signed October 11, 1698. According to its provisions, Spain, the Netherlands, and the Indies were to be git en to the Electoral Prince ; Naples and Sicily to the Dauphin ; and Milan to the Archduke Charles, second son of the emperor. In the following year the Prince of Bavaria died, and consequently a Second Partition Treaty was made in the spring of 1700, giving to the Archduke Charles the portion assigned to the Electoral Prince, and Milan to the Dauphin, in addition to the possessions pro- mised in the former treaty. Both these treaties were to be kept secret from the King of Spain, but Louis took good care to make them known. "Within a month after- wards Charles II. died, leaving a will in favour of the Dauphin's second son, Philip of Anjou. Louis, in spite of the partition treaty, helped his grandson with all his power, and hence arose the great war of the Spanish suc- cession. England could do nothing to check the aggran- disement of France. Her army was reduced to the lowest point, and the people were already burdened with the debt of the late war. William, however, succeeded in forming WILLIAM III. AND MAEY II. 375 the Grand Alliance of England, Holland, and the Empire, to prevent France from obtaining the Spanish Netherlands and Milan. (September 7, 1701.) An event happened just then in France which caused the English people to unite heartily in the policy of their king. James was dying at St. Germains. Louis entered his bedchamber, and, in defiance of all his engagements, said to the dying exile, ' I come to tell your majesty that, whenever it shall please God to take you from us, I will be to your son what I have been to you ; and I will acknowledge him as King of England, Scotland, and Ire- land.' This declaration produced the greatest indignation in England, and the new Parliament, which met at the close of the year, voted large land and sea forces, and declared that no peace should be made till France had atoned for the insult. In the summer previous to this, a Second Act of Settle- ment had been drawn up. William was child- ^ ^- ^ less: and Anne, the next heir to the throne, . A.D. had lost all her children. A new settlement of the crown was therefore necessary. It provided that the succession to the throne should be in Sophia of Hanover, daughter of Frederick, Elector Palatine, and Elizabeth, sister of Charles I., and her heirs, being Protestants. There were, besides, many new securities for the liberties of the people incorporated in this Act. William's health had for some time been in a declining state. His many cares and anxieties wore out his strength and made him prematurely old. When riding one day in Hampton Court park, his horse trod where a mole had been working, stumbled, and threw him. The king broke his collar-bone. The shock was too much for a system already enfeebled by disease, and about a fortnight afterwards, he died at Kensington, in the fifty-second year of his age and the thirteenth of his reign. (March 8, 1702.) In appearance Wilham was a man of middle height, and very thin ; his nose was aquiline ; his eyes bright and piercing ; and forehead high. In manner he was cold and reserved ; but on the field of battle he was full of animation. 376 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. As a general and a statesman lie ranks high ; and his moral character is marked by temperance, truthfulness, and honesty. His most intimate friend was a Dutch gentleman, named Bentinck, whom he created Earl of Portland. Miscellaneous Facts. In Scotland there was a great desire to form commercial relations with the East and West Indies. For this purpose the Scotch Parliament passed a bill to further the scheme of establishing two colonies on the isthmus of Darien. This undertaking was called the Darien Scheme. In 1698, after great preparations, 1,200 men, besides women and children, set out from Leith for the isthmus. Their leader misunderstood the geography of the district, and the East India Company and Dutch merchants opposed the plan with all their might. What with opposition in Eng- land, sickness, and attacks from the Spaniards, the under- taking became a ruinous failure, and caused a bitter feeling in Scotland against this country. The Parliaments of this reign passed several important Acts. In 1694 a Triennial Bill provided for the election of a new Parliament every third year. This act continued in force till the reign of George I. In 1696 a Treason Act was passed for the better regulation of trials for treason. The Freedom of the Press was established by the ex- piration of the Licensing Act, which forbade unlicensed printing. (1695.) The Bank of England was founded by a Scotchman named Paterson, in 1695 ; in the following year an Eng- lishman, named Holland, established the Bank of Scotland ; and paper money then came into use. In this reign the first real Ministry or Cabinet was formed. Bayonets, invented at Bayonne, came into use ; the first Eddystone Lighthouse was begun ; a steam-engine for raising water was invented by Savary ; and Fort William, now Calcutta, was founded. WILLIAM III. AND MARY II. 377 Greenwich Palace was converted into a hospital for seamen ; the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was established in 1698 ; and three years later the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was formed. During this reign Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia, worked for three months as a ship-carpenter in the dock- yard of. Deptford, under the name of Peter Michaelof. 378 mSTOEY OP ENGLAND. ANNE. Born 1665 A.D. Began to Reign 1702 A.D. Died 1714 A.D. Accession of the Queen. War of the Spanish Succession. Treaty of Utrecht. Union of England and Scotland. The Strife of Political Parties. Occasional Conformity Bill. Dr. Sacheverell. Death of the Queen. Miscellaneous Pacts. The Queen's Accession. War of the Spanish Succession. Treaty of Utrecht. Anne, the second daughter of James 11. , was immediately proclaimed queen on the death of William. Her educa- tion had been intrusted to Compton, Bishop of London, who carefully brought her up in the principles of the Church of England. In 1683 she married Prince George of Denmark, and on her accession she made him general- issimo of the forces and lord high admiral ; but on account ■ of his weak, indolent character, his influence in England was very small. Anne had not lived on very good terms with the late king. She was entirely under the influence of the Countess of Marlborough, whose husband had been for some years in disgrace at court. Her feelings were in favour of the Tories, the opponents of William's govern- ment, but her advisers persuaded her to maintain the prin- ciples of the Grand Alliance, in continuation of the late king's policy. Lady Marlborough's influence was supreme at court. Between the queen and her favourite the royal dignity was laid aside. Anne took the name of Mrs. Morley, while her friend was called Mrs. Freeman. The War of the Spanish Succession was caused, as we saw in the last reign, by the ambition of Louis XIV., who ANNE. 379 successfully intrigued to get the throne of Spain for his grandson, Philip of Anjou. The Grand Alliance, con- sisting of England, Holland, the Empire, and afterwards of Portugal and Savoy, was formed to check the power of France. The war, which was declared in 1702, lasted eleven years. Its chief theatre was the Netherlands. The command of the English and Dutch armies was intrusted to Marlborough, who soon proved himself the first captain of the day. The first two years of the war were spent on land in the capture of some important towns in the Netherlands, and on sea, Admiral Rooke did some execution upon French'and Spanish ships in Vigo harbour. The third year . is memorable for the great victory of Blenheim. 1 704 Vienna being threatened by the French and ^ ^ their allies, Marlborough hastened to its relief. His forces, united to those under the imperial general, Prince Eugene of Savoy, amounted to about 52,000. The Bavarians and French, under Marshal Tallard, numbered 56,000. The battle began at mid-day, lasted till night, and ended in a famous victory for Marlborough. The slaughter was immense. The enemy lost about 40,000 men, and the victors 12,000. Tallard and his staiF were captured, and the baggage and colours of his army, with most of the artillery, became the booty of the allies. This victory saved the emperor, and made him master of Bavaria. For this success, Marlborough received the thanks of Parliament, and the gift of the royal manor of Woodstock, which was further adorned by a splendid man- sion, built at the public expense, and called Blenheim, after the famous battle. In the same summer the English navy won laurels in the Mediterranean. Admiral Rooke, with some allied troops under the Prince of Hesse -Darmstadt, captured Gibraltar. (July 23, 1704.) Soon after, the French fleet was so severely handled off Malaga that for the rest of the war it dare not show itself. In the following year, while Marlborough was reducing a few places in the Netherlands, the Earl of Peterborough 380 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. was shedding lustre on the English arms in Spain. With a small army, aided by the English navy, he captured Bar- celona, and almost succeeded in driving Philip V. out of Spain. In the midst of his victorious career, he was re- called home, and the command given to the Earl of Gal- way, who, with some Portuguese forces, encountered Philip at Almanza. The Portuguese took to flight at the first shot, and the English were compelled to surrender. In 1706, Marlborough defeated the French under Ville- roy at Ramilies, and became master of Brabant. In the same year Eugene won a victory near Turin. Louis, thoroughly dispirited, sought peace, but his offers were rejected through English influence. The next year passed without any great achievement, but in 1708, the great victory of Oudenarde gave Marl- borough possession of Lille, and forced the French to abandon all their fortified places in Flanders. In the Mediterranean, Minorca fell into English hands. The King of France, in the hope of making a diversion, sent the Pretender with a small fleet to Scotland, but Admiral Byng arrived in the Forth in time to prevent a landing. Marlborough's last victory was in 1709. As he and Eugene were preparing to besiege Mons, the French advanced in great force to save it, and at MalplaC[liet they fought one of the most obstinate battles of the war ; but victory as usual fell to the allies. The capture of Mons terminated the campaign.* The remainder of the war was spent in sieges. The quarrels of political parties at home interfered with the successful prosecution of the struggle, and gave the French some slight advantages. The Tories wished to put an end to the war, and in 1711 they entered into negotiations with France for this purpose. Peace was eventually concluded by the Treaty of Utrecht. (1713.) France agreed to acknowledge the succession of the House of Hanover ; to promise that the crowns of France and Spain should not be united ; to demolish the fortifica- tions of Dunkirk ; and to cede to England Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, and the islands of St. Christopher and New- foundland. Spain agreed to cede to England Minorca and ANNE. 381 Gibraltar, and the right of supplying Spanish America with negroes. Naples, Milan, Sardinia, and the Spanish Netherlands were to be ceded to the emperor, and Sicily to the Duke of Savoy. This war added nearly 22,000,000/. to the national debt. TJnion of England and Scotland. At the time of Anne's succession, the relations between England and Scotland were in a most critical state. Ever since the union of the two crowns under James I., a feeling of jealousy and dissatisfaction had been growing up in the minds of the Scotch people with reference to England. The absence of the sovereign and his court gave to their country an appearance of inferiority which a high-spirited nation like the Scotch could ill brook. And the attempts of the Stuart kings to establish Episcopacy tended to in- crease the spirit of hostility to everything English. But the greatest bitterness was produced by the failure of the Darien scheme. The Scots had taken up this project of colonisation with as much enthusiasm as their fathers had signed the Covenant; and when it failed, bringing sorrow and ruin into many homes, fierce words were heard in every mouth against the influence of England. So revenge- ful was the language, and so bitter the feeling from one end of Scotland to the other, that it became plain that a separation of the two countries was nigh at hand, unless something was done to allay the discontent. The Scottish Parliament, in 1704, gave signs of the danger that threatened the two nations by passing an Act of Security, which decreed that the successor to the throne of Scotland on the death of Queen Anne should not be the person chosen by the English Parliament unless the Scottish people were admitted to share with the English the full benefits of trade and navigation. And to give effect to this Act, it was fiirther resolved to drill all the men in Scotland capable of bearing arms. This threat aroused the indig- nation of the English Parliament, and the prospect of civil 382 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. war seemed inevitable. The wisest men in both countries saw that the only remedy lay in closer union, and their efforts were directed to bring about this desirable object. „_„ Commissioners were appointed on both sides to draw up a Treaty of Union, which, by promises and bribes, received the sanction of the Scottish Parliament. Its chief terms were : — 1. That the two kingdoms should form one, under the name of Great Britain. 2. That the succession to the crown of the United King- dom should be in the Electress Sophia and her heirs, being Protestants. 3. That there should be equal rights and privileges of trade and navigation. 4. That Scotland should retain her own laws, customs, and Presbyterian form of religious worship. 5. That Scotland should be represented in the Parlia- ment of Great Britain by sixteen elective peers and forty-five members of the Commons. The ' Union Jack,' bearing the red cross of St. George and the diagonal white cross of St. Andrew, was appointed by proclamation to be the national flag. The Treaty of Union was most unpopular in Scotland among all classes of people. During its consideration, Edinburgh was in the state of the greatest excitement, and soldiers were necessary to protect the members of Parliament from violence.- The unpopularity of this measure produced Jacobite rebellions in after years, and the favourite inscription on Scottish sword-blades for a long time was ' Prosperity to Scotland and no Union ! ' A half-century went by before Scotland began to reap the benefits of the Act of Union. With the decay of Jacobitism, there arose a spirit of industry and commerce which soon banished the discords of former years, and sowed the seeds of the closest friendship with their English neighbours. Then trade and manufactures made rapid progress amongst the Scots, and insignificant towns became opulent cities, and fishing villages thriving sea- ports. ANNE. 383 The Strife of Political Parties. Occasional Conformity Bill. Dr. Sacheverell. Death of the Queen. The strife between the two great political parties in the kingdom was mogt bitter throughout this reign. The queen's sympathies were with the Tories, and all her ministers were at first taken from that party. The Whigs had become very unpopular in the country by reason of the great increase of taxation, for which they were solely blamed, Anne's first Parliament, therefore, consisted chiefly of Tories, who, though willing to continue the foreign policy of the late king, treated his memory with marked dis- respect. At first the strife of the two political factions re- lated to Church questions. The Whigs were favourably inclined to religious toleration, and were called Low Chiurch- men, while their opponents, anxious to maintain the penal laws of Charles II., and distinguished by their attachment to old religious customs, were named High Churchmen. The Tories showed their power and spirit by passing in the House of Commons an Occasional Conformity Bill, which was levelled against Dissenters who swore to the Test Act in order to qualify themselves for public appointments. This Act declared that all persons holding government offices who should attend Dissenting places of worship, after taking the Sacrament and test imposed by law, should forfeit their posts, and be punished by fines, &c. It also proposed to apply the Test Act to freemen having a right to vote for members of Parliament, and to persons holding inferior offices under the crown. This violent and perse- cuting bill was happily thrown out by the Lords. Just about this time the Duke of Marlborough was highly offended by the refusal of the Commons to grant him a pension of 5,000Z., which the queen wished to bestow upon him. His wife's influence at court was supreme, and for the remainder of the reign he did his utmost to favour the interest of the Whigs. Several of that party became members of the Cabinet, among whom was Eobert Walpole, 384 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. afterwards so famous ; and eventually a "Whig was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons. The queen was most averse to Whig ascendency, and only submitted to it in obedience to the will of the Duchess of Marlborough. But at last she began to tire of the yoke of this haughty and imperious lady, and longed for the opportunity of throwing it off. Their quarrels were fanned by one of the queen's attendants, named Abigail Hill, who had ingratiated herself into the royal favour. This young lady, afterwards known as Mrs. Masham, leaned to the Tory side and intrigued with Harley, the leader of that party, to overthrow the Whig influence at court. A false step on the part of the Ministry gave success to the in- trigues of Miss Hill, and afforded the queen the opportu- nity of shaking off the yoke of the Duchess of Marlborough. Dr. Sacheverell, Rector of St. Saviour's, Southwark, in a sermon preached at St. Paul's Cathedral before the Lord Mayor and aldermen of London, maintained the duty of passive obedience to the fullest extent, denounced the Revolution in no measured terms, opposed all toleration of Dissent, and railed at the Whig Ministry, especially at Godolphin, the Lord High Treasurer. With foaming lips and frantic gestures, he shouted that the Church of England was in danger, and called upon all true patriots to rally to its defence. (November 5, 1709.) The publication of the sermon so angered the Ministry that it was re- vi-icx solved to impeach the preacher before the House of Lords. The Tory party did its utmost to stir up the populace in Sacheverell's favour, and suc- ceeded so well that during the three weeks of the trial multitudes daily escorted Sacheverell's coach to West- minster Hall. The queen herself attended almost every day, and her sedan-chair was surrounded by crowds, shouting, ' God bless the Queen and Dr. Sacheverell ! we hope your Majesty is for High Church and Sacheverell.' The mob showed its zeal for the Church by destroying many Dissenting chapels, and by numerous acts of violence. Sacheverell was found guilty, but by a very small ma- jority. He was forbidden to preach for three years, and ANNE. 385 his sermons were burnt in front of the Eoyal Exchange. But the punishment was so slight that it was considered a triumph by his friends, who testified their joy by bonfires and illuminations. The result of this trial was the downfall of the Whig government. Anne, encouraged by the popular feeling, dismissed her ministers, and formed a Tory Administra- tion, of which Harley (afterwards Earl of Oxford) and Mr. St. John (Lord Bolingbroke) were leading members. Marlborough, on account of the war still raging, was allowed to keep his post. A new Tory Parliament sup- ported these changes, and passed an Occasional Conformity Bill, and a Schism Act requiring all schoolmasters to con- form to the Established Church. Both were repealed in the following reign. The new ministry sought to bring the war with France to an end, and entered into secret negotiations for this purpose, which, after two years, terminated in the treaty of Utrecht. Meanwhile, Marlborough, having returned to England, was accused of receiving bribes from a Jew who supplied the army with bread, and was dismissed fi-om his office. The remainder of the reign was occupied with Jacobite intrigues to bring in the Pretender. Harley and Boling- broke were both in correspondence with the exiled Stuarts, but the Whigs and other supporters of the Act of Settle- ment were alive to the dangers that threatened the succes- sion, and took prompt measures to defeat the schemes of those ministers. Bolingbroke quarrelled with his colleague Harley, and succeeded in obtaining his dismissal from office ; but three days afterwards the queen was struck with a mortal illness, and the Whigs were restored to power be- fore Bolingbroke's plan of recalling the Pretender was ripe for execution. Effective measures were at once taken to ensure the succession of the House of Hanover and to pre- serve the nation from civil war. On August 1, 1714, Queen Anne died, the last lineal descendant of the Stuart race who sat on the throne of England. She was a woman of an amiable character, but weak, and somewhat indolent. Her disposition was affec- 386 HISTORY OF ENGLAKD. tionate, and her virtues obtained for her the title of ' Good Queen Anne.' Her appearance, though engaging, lacked dignity. Her husband, Prince George of Denmark, had died six years previously^ and of her nineteen children, all died in infancy, except one boy George, who reached the age of eleven years. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1703, a great storm swept away Eddystone Lighthouse, and destroyed 12 ships of war and a great number of mer- chantmen. In London much valuable property was damaged, and 1,500 persons are said to have perished. The queen, in 1704, caused a bill to be passed to enable her to set 2i-^Bxt first-fruits and tenths for the benefit of poor Church livings; this fund is known as dueen Anne's Bounty. St. Paul's Cathedral, after 37 years' labour, at a cost of about 1,000,000/., was completed by Wren in 1708. More than fifty churches in London were built by this great architect. The first daily newspaper — *The Daily Courant ' — was published. A General Post Office for all the British dominions was established. Newcomen, a locksmith of Devonshire, invented his steam-engine. This reign was the first for centuries which was undisturbed by rebellion. BOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. Population. Food. Dress. Dwellings. Amuse- ments. National Industry. Condition of the Country. Learning and Literature. The Stuart period of Englfeh history is distinguished for the conflict of the principles of liberty and despotism. The spirit of activity, enterprise, and independence, which had given new life to the nation under the Tudors, became too vigorous to be controlled by their successors. The former princes, though strong enough to make the power of the crown almost supreme, were yet sufficiently discreet to avoid provoking needless opposition ; but the Stuarts, misunder- standing the temper of the people, aimed at arbitrary rule. They, however, lacked the power of enforcing their prin- ciples, and were so indiscreet as to put their weakness to the test. The struggle ended in the triumph of the popular cause, and the destruction of the Stuart dynasty. To this period, so fraught with many vicissitudes, we owe some of our most beneficial laws. It has been charac- terised as the age of bad government and good laws ; and when we call to mind the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act, the Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement, we cannot but acknowledge the truth of the description. And to this same'^era we owe the perfection of parlia- mentary government in the formation of a ' Ministry.' Before the Revolution, the sovereign usually conducted the government through the Privy Council, which was com- posed of the chief officers of State and others whom the king thought fit to summon to it. The members of this council were entirely independent of each other ; there was no united action between them ; and their official connection with the sovereign did not depend on the will 388 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. of the Parliament. Under William III. this system underwent a change. A body of advisers was chosen by the sovereign from the leading members of both Houses of Parliament, who were thought to represent the opinions of the Commons. This select body is known as the * Ministry,' or the * Cabinet.' The ministry, therefore, is, in fact, a committee of the leading members of the two Houses of Parliament, and thus the government of the nation really rests in the hands of the people. Population. — The population of England at the close of the seventeenth century was about five millions and a half. The country gentleman formed a most important class, but they were very different in all respects from their descendants of the present day. In education and manners they were no better than small farmers of our own time. They lived on their estates, and seldom left their native county. On market days they might be seen in the neighbouring town busy selling the produce of their lands. They * examined samples of grain, handled pigs, and made bargains over a tankard with drovers and hop- merchants.' Their language diifered very little from that of a farm-labourer, and one could easily tell by their accent from what part of the country they came. But underneath all this simplicity and roughness, there lay the qualities of an English gentleman. Though uncouth in speech and manners, the country squire was proud of his descent and jealous of the honour of his house. His prin- ciples were marked by respect for hereditary monarchy, and love for the Church as established by law. The opponents of either of these received little consideration at his hands. His wife and daughters were as simple in their tastes as himself They were not above the duties of household management. They could spin and sew, cook and brew, make wine and pastry, and still be to the villagers the ladies of the hall. The clergy formed another important class of society. At this period the rural clergyman held a low place in the social scale. The Eeformation had deprived the Church of many of her worldly honours and much of her SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 389 wealth, and consequently there were fewer inducements for men of good birth to take holy orders. The progress of education, too, enabled laymen to fill those high offices of State which in previous times had been held by clergy- men. The sacred profession, therefore, oiFered few prizes to the upper classes, and gradually deteriorated in their estimation. The custom of retaining the services of a chaplain, or Levite, as he was called, in the houses of the rich, further depreciated the sacred calling. A chaplain was sometimes considered no better than an upper servant, and oftentimes was expected to fill up his spare time in the garden or on the farm. When he married, his wife was usually selected from the kitchen of his patron, and he was considered to have done well if a waiting-woman accepted him for a husband. Church livings were gene- rally so small in value that a clergyman's sons were brought up to the plough, and his daughters trained up for domestic service. But the city clergy were men of a dif- ferent stamp. The town parson upheld the honour of his calling, by his learning, eloquence, and independence. In the metropolitan pulpits especially were found men of the greatest refinement, skilled in all the learning of the day, and able to maintain a foremost place in the best society. The country clergy, humble as they were, possessed an influence quite as great in its way as their more favoured brethren of the capital. They were the oracles of the parish ; and when books were scarce, and newspapers almost unknown, the opinions of the parson had great weight in all the country round. The yeomanry of the time formed a most important part of the nation. The number of small proprietors of freehold estates was much greater under the Stuarts than at present. It is estimated that one-seventh of the whole population cijltivated lands of their own, of which the average yearly value was between sixty and seventy pounds. Men of this class were characterised by a spirit of inde- pendence and a leaning towards Puritanism. The strength of the Roundhead armies in the great rebellion consisted in its sturdy, independent yeomen. Since then very many 18 390 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. of the small freeholds have been bought up by large landed proprietors, and the number of men who now farm the lands of others is much more numerous than formerly. The yeomanry of the present day are, in consequence, much less independent in political matters than the same class of men in the seventeenth century. Of the common people, four-fifths were employed in agriculture, at wages averaging from four to six shillings per week. A mechanic, as late as the reign of Charles II., worked for a shilling a day, but oftentimes he was com- pelled to take less. Though wages were much lower than in our day, there were many privileges which labourers possessed in those times. Thousands of acres now enclosed and cultivated were common lands, which the peasant might use in many ways to add to his physical comfort. Pood. — The great majority of the nation lived chiefly on bread made of rye, barley, or oats. Wheaten bread such as is now supplied to the inmates of our workhouses was seldom seen on the tables even of the yeoman and shopkeeper. Fresh meat, then as now, was sold at prices above the pockets of the common people. The ordinary drink was beer ; but, in the latter half of the seventeenth century, tea, coiFee, and chocolate came into use. The price of these beverages, however, was so high that the wealthy only could indulge in them. As late as 1710, bohea cost from twelve to twenty-four shillings per pound. Tea and coffee were at first sold in the liquid state, and an excise duty of eightpence and fourpence per gallon re- spectively was paid upon them. The country gentleman kept to his beer, and rarely indulged in foreign wine. It was only in the houses of the nobility and on great occasions that foreign drinks were placed on the board. The time of taking meals had undergone little change. The tables of ^ the Avealthier classes were plentifully provided, but the vices of intem- perance and gluttony were very common. Fresh meat was only eaten in the summer months. On the approach of cold weather, when grass became scanty, cattle were killed and salted in great numbers, and game and river SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 391 fish furnished the chief supply of fresh animal food till summer came round again. Under James I. a law was passed inflicting a fine of five shillings upon a drunkard, who, if unable to pay, was put in the stocks. In the same reign potatoes sold for two shillings the pound, and cauli- flowers for eighteen-pence each. The table-service was of the simplest kind. The upper classes used plate ; the middle, pewter ; and the lower, wooden trenchers. The highly-finished ware now in general use was then unknown. Forks were an important addition to the table furniture of this period. The habit of smoking was extensively indulged in by all classes, and the use of highly-perfumed snufi" was a great fashion after the Restoration, especially amongst the fops of the time. Bress. — Under James I. the previous style of dress underwent little change, but in the time of Charles I. a most costly and picturesque costume came into use, which is known as the Vandyke dress, called after the famous portrait-painter of the time. It consisted of a tunic of silk or satin, with slashed sleeves ; a rich lace collar adorned the neck ; and a short cloak hung gracefully over one shoulder. Short full drawers or trousers, fringed with lace, almost reached the top of the wide boots, which came half-way up the calf of the leg. A broad-brimmed beaver, adorned with a rich band and a plume of feathers, covered the head. The hair hung in curls over the shoulders, and the beard was trimined to a point. The gay Cavalier wore love-locks tied up with pretty coloured ribbon. The Puritans affected simplicity of dress, though there were many who could vie with the Cavalier in richness of costume and ornament. As a body, they were distin- guished by short hair, high-crowned hat, plain collar, and sober- coloured clothes. Under Charles II. the Vandyke dress underwent many changes, and French fashions came into use. One of the most remarkable of these was the peruke or wig. Louis XIV., when young, had beautiful hair, which be usually wore in flowing curls. His courtiers tried, out of 392 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. compliment, to wear tlieir hair in the same style, and those who were short of the article bought wigs. The use of the peruke soon became common amongst the gentlemen of France and England. Fringed gloves ; embroidered coats, longer and looser than before ; breeches, ornamented with ribbons, and allowing the shirt to fall over the waistband ; and a cravat, instead of a collar, distinguished the courtiers of Charles II. Towards the close of the period, the breeches became tighter, wigs and waistcoats longer, and buckles, instead of rosettes, on the shoes came into use. With regard to the dress of ladies, the fardingale and stiff ruffs of the previous period gave way, under Charles I., to flowing skirts and falling collars, edged with lace. The costumes of the court of Charles II. was something of the same style, but the dress was worn indecently low. An improvement in the latter respect was made after the Revolution. Then, too, began the fashion of looping up the skirts to show the rich under- clothing, and the custom of wearing the hair combed up like a tower. Both these fashions disappeared at the close of the period, when curls and the old fardingale, under the name of a hoop-petti- coat, came again into use. The dress of the working classes underwent little change, as the style and material of the clothing of their betters were too costly for imitation. The smock-frock was the countryman's usual outer garment. Bwellings. — In the reign of James I., the ancient style of domestic architecture entirely disappeared. The country houses of the rich underwent a general improvement, but, on the whole, there was little attempt at display. In towns there was a change for the better in the style of build- ing. James I. forbade by proclamation the erection of mud-plastered and wooden" cottages within the walls of London, but the royal order was only partially observed. The fire of London was more effectual than proclamations, and after that event, houses of brick and stone took the place of the old-fashioned timber dwellings. The im- provement thus made in the buildings of the capital soon spread to the provincial towns. SOCIAL CONDITION OE THE STUART PERIOD. 393 The furniture of the dwellings of the upper classes acquired great splendour in this period. It was richly carved and ornamented, with a taste equal to that of the present day. Paper and leather hangings were invented in the early part of the seventeenth century, and the walls of the houses of the nobility were adorned with the paint- ings of Rubens, Vandyke, Tenier, and Rembrandt. After the Restoration, the interior decorations and furniture of houses increased in costliness. French fashions furnished models for the wealthier classes of England, and the beautifully carved and gilded furniture of France, and the famous Gobelin tapestry of that country, soon found their way into the houses of the English nobility. Mahogany became the favourite material for articles of furniture. Floors were still covered with rushes, or matting of various colours. Turkey carpets were advertised for sale as early as 1660, but they were chiefly used as table-cloths. Oilcloth began to be used about the same time. The homes of the working classes were still scantily supplied with articles. A rough table, a bench, a few stools, a straw bed, and some rude cooking utensils, consti- tuted the furniture of a labouring . man. Amusements. — Side by side with the general improve- ments of the country in arts, commerce, and manufactures, healthy out-door sports began to decline. James I. en- deavoured to keep alive the old English games by publish- ing the * Book of Sports.' From this work we learn that the common amusements of the peasantry were dancing, leaping, vaulting, archery, May games, Whitsun ales, and morris dances. These pastimes were strongly recommended to all persons on Sundays after divine service. The games forbidden on that day were bear and bull-baiting, inter- ludes, and bowling. The amusements of townspeople were more confined. They were cock-fighting, bowling, cards, dice, billiards, musical entertainments, dancing, masques, balls, and plays. The lower orders of citizens delighted themselves in foot-ball, wrestling, cudgel-playing, nine- pins, cricket, quoits, bear-baiting, and lying at ale- houses. 394 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. James I. was very fond of hawking, and during his reign that old sport maintained its ground. Billiards began to take the place of some of the former boisterous games, and tennis especially was a favourite pastime amongst courtiers. Horse-racing, too, increased in splendour and importance. Gaming-houses were licensed in London, and gambling was encouraged at the court of James. When the Puritans obtained the supremacy, all sports were put down with a strong hand. The pastimes of the village-green were suppressed, and the May-poles were ordered to be cut down. Theatrical amusements, horse- racing, rope-dancing, bowls, bull-baiting, were considered abominations no longer to be tolerated. On the fall of the Commonwealth, the rigour and austerity of the Puritan rule caused a reaction which not only revived many of the old games, but also produced a spirit of frivolity and licentiousness. After the Restoration, the theatres were crowded more than ever, and women appeared on the stage in characters formerly taken by boys. The vice of gambling prevailed to a ruinous extent. Boat-racing, yacht- racing, and horse- racing at Newmarket, were much practised. National Industry. — The woollen manufacture con- tinued to be the chief branch of home industry. It was usual to send cloth to be dyed in Holland, but James I., with the intention of favouring English interests, prohibited the exportation of un dyed cloth, and encouraged that branch of the trade in England. The Dutch, in revenge, shut their ports against English-dyed cloths, and the woollen trade for a time suffered much from the dispute. In the reign of Charles II., a law was passed for the encouragement of the great staple of the country, by which it was ordered that every dead person should be buried in a grave-dress made entirely of woollen material. *By the settlement of some Dutchmen in England, a great improve- ment took place in the dyeing of English cloths. The silk manufacture attracted great attention during this period. London was the centre of the trade. A com- pany of silk-throwsters was incorporated in 1629, and in 1661 it employed forty thousand men, women, and SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 395 children. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes drove to England many refugees, who greatly improved this branch of industry. A numerous body of these emigrants settled in Spitalfields, now a part of London, where their descen- dants are still to be found. The linen manufacture was chiefly a domestic employ- ment. In the latter half of the seventeenth century, every encouragement was offered for the improvement of this industry. During the same period, the manufacture of linens, introduced by the Scotch into the north of Ireland, was gradually rising into importance. The cotton trade was then in its infancy. In 1638, the people of Manchester are mentioned as buying cotton wool imported from' Cyprus and Smyrna. Calico printing first commenced in London in 1 676. The mineral wealth of the country was almost neglected, but towards the close of the period it received greater attention. The tin-mines of Cornwall continued to be worked as they had been for centuries, but the rich veins of copper in the same locality remained untouched. The salt-beds of Cheshire were discovered soon after the Resto- ration, yet they were not worked in that age. The salt obtained from brine pits was so impure that physicians attributed many diseases to its use. The iron manufacture was in a languishing state, in consequence of the use of wood in smelting the ore. The consumption of so much wood caused Parliament to prohibit the employment of timber for smelting purposes. In the time of Charles 11. , most of the iron was imported, but the use of coal for smelting had already begun. In the same reign, the prejudice against the consumption of coal for domestic purposes had so far been overcome that more than 200 vessels were continually employed in carrying the mineral from Newcastle to London. The commercial spirit excited in the previous period gathered strength under the Stuarts, in spite of the troubles of the State. The several trading companies of the time made favourable progress. The East India Company, though hampered by the rivalries of the Portuguese and Dutch, secured a firm footing in Surat and Madras before 396 HISTORY OF ENGLAKD. the first half of the century had passed away. The Levant or Turkey Company, established in 1605, opened up the Mediterranean trade. The Merchant Adventurers obtained new charters from James I., and carried on a most lucra- tive business in woollen goods with the Netherlands and Germany. The north of Europe, too, was brought into commercial relations with England by the establishment of the Russian Company, which monopolised the fisheries of the northern seas. Later in the period, a lucrative trade began with the colonies of North America, or Plantations, as they were called ; and the Hudson's Bay Company com- menced its operations in furs, &c. The establishment of colonies is an evidence of the enterprising spirit of the age, and under the Stuarts colonisation made good pro- gress. Two companies for this purpose were chartered by James L, and one of these built James Town, in Virginia. In the same reign, the Pilgrim Fathers founded the New England States. The colonising movement made steady pro- gress in the following years, and in the time of Charles II. a distinguished quaker, named William Penn, founded the State of Pennsylvania. Condition of the Country. — Agriculture employed the great majority of the population, and the produce of the soil far exceeded in value all other branches of industry, though only half the area of the kingdom was under cul- tivation. Many parts which are now flourishing corn- fields, or fruitful orchards, were then barren wastes, forest, or marsh. Deer wandered in troops through the woods ; wild bulls and wild boars roamed in the forests ; eagles frequented the coasts; huge bustards strayed over the downs ; and immense flocks of cranes covered the marshes of the eastern counties. The domestic animals, as the sheep and the ox, were of small size. Native horses were only valued at about fifty shillings each. The best breeds were imported. Spanish jennets were prized as saddle- horses, and grey Flemish mares for the carriages of the aristocracy. Four-fifths of the population were scattered in rural vil- lages and small country towns. No place in the kingdom, SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 397 excepting London, contained 30,000 souls. Bristol, then the first English seaport, and Norwich, the first manu- facturing town, scarcely numbered so many as this. The county towns were the centres of the greatest popula- tion ; but York, the capital of the North, and Exeter of the West, only contained about 10,000 people. The great seats of modern manufactures were only insignificant places. Manchester, the centre of the cotton manufacture, was a mean-looking market- town, containing a population of about 6,000. Leeds, the chief seat of the woollen trade, had about 7,000 persons. Sheffield, which now sends its cutlery to all parts of the world, possessed a population of about 4,000. Birmingham, just then rising into notice for its hardware, contained about the same number. Liver- pool, now the first seaport in the world, could only boast of 1,400 tons of shipping and about 200 sailors. Its popula- tion of 4,000 has now increased to more than half a million. Bath, Buxton, and Timbridge Wells, were the fashionable watering-places of the time ; but the accommodation was very poor, and the food-supply bad. The modern places of attraction for pleasure-seekers, as Brighton, Harrogate, Cheltenham, and Scarborough, were almost unknown. London, which now contains more than 3,000,000 people, had, when Charles II. died, a population of about 500 000. The City was the most important part of the capital. Before the great fire, it was crowded with houses of wood and plaster, built with the upper stories overhanging the shops below. After that calamity, houses of brick and stone were raised, but the streets were almost as narrow as before. The merchants and tradesmen made the City their home and many of their dwellings were as magnificent as the abodes of the nobility. The houses were not numbered. Shops were distinguished by painted sign-boards, as the Saracen's Head, the Boyal Oak, &c. ; and when messengers were sent on errands, some well-known house was men- tioned as a guide. Only one bridge spanned the Thames, and that was lined on both sides with old wooden houses. The streets of the capital were ill-paved and badly drained. In wet weather the gutters were swollen with rain, and the 398 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Qarrow ways covered with mud. Foot-passengers struggled to keep to the wall, to escape the dirt thrown right and left by passing vehicles. When night came on, few ventured to encounter the danger of the streets, which were not even lighted till the last year of Charles II., and then only during the winter. From the overhanging windows, pails were emptied without any regard for those below, and thieves were on the alert to waylay benighted citizens. Swagger- ing, dissolute young gentlemen made it their pleasure, under cover of the darkness, to parade the streets, insult- ing all who came in their way, and by no means scrupu- lous in using the rapier which dangled at their side. The watchmen of the time were powerless to keep the peace, and, anxious for their own safety and comfort, they pre- ferred tippling at the ale-house to encountering footpads or roystering youngsters. The coffee-houses of London were quite an institution of the period. At a time when the modern newspaper was unknown, men lounged in these places to hear news and discuss the scandal of the day. The first of these establish- ments was set up during the Commonwealth, by a Turkey merchant. They soon became very general, and were fre- quented by men of all classes. Every profession and every religious and political opinion had its own particular places of resort. Each coffee-house had its presiding orator, to Avhom admiring crowds lent a willing ear. In the time of Charles II. the poet Dryden was the ruling spirit in the most fashionable of these establishments, and thither men of all ranks crowded, winter and summer, to hear him talk. The means of communication between one place and another were very deficient. The roads were in a most wretched state, and canals were scarcely yet thought of. In wet weather it was almost impossible to get along the highways in any kind of carriage. The mud lay deep to the right and left, and oftentimes a coach stuck so fast in the mire that a farmer's team was needed to pull it out. The erection of toll-gates, in 1663, was the first step towards improving the means of transit. On the best highways, goods were usually carried in stage waggons, and travellers SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUAET PERIOD. 399 who were too poor to go by coach crowded into these con- veyances. On less frequented roads, pack-horses were used to convey goods. The rich travelled in their own coaches, but six horses at least were required to overcome the badness of the roads. For the convenience of the public, towards the close of the reign of Charles II., coaches began to run thrice a week from London to the chief pro- vincial towns, but no conveyance went further north than York, or further west than Exeter. A ' Flying- Coach ' took a day to complete the journey from London to Oxford, and this was considered a wonderful feat. The ordinary speed of such diligences was in summer fifty miles per day, and in winter thirty. The charge was at the rate of 2^d. per mile. One set-ofF to the inconvenience of travelling was the great comfort of the roadside inns. Every village had its hostelry, where the traveller might find rest and refresh- ment, and England from early times has been famous for its inns. Bad roads and conveyances were not the only drawbacks to travelling in this period. Mounted highwaymen infested all the most frequented ways, and it was not safe even for a public coach in broad day to pass certain places unless the passengers were well armed. The neighbourhood of London was the favourite haunt of these thieves, and Hounslow Heath and Finchley Common were long cele- brated for the exploits of highwaymen. The landlords of some inns were no doubt in league with the robbers, and thus enabled them to infest many roads with impunity. Learning and Literature. — The troubles of the seven- teenth century were unfavourable to the progress of educa- tion. The literary spirit which distinguished the latter half of Elizabeth's reign continued to exert its influence till political strife and the stern realities of civil war engrossed men's attention. The period of the Eestoration was not favourable to the revival of learning. The upper classes, whose education had been neglected in the discords of previous years, no longer able to appreciate the beautiful literary models which had delighted their fathers, were 400 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. content to imitate the court in its patronage of the frivolous and immoral literature of the time. Female education especially was at a very low standard. A young lady with a mere smattering of learning was considered a prodigy, but a lady of rank could scarcely be found who could write a letter equal in style of composition and spelling to that of a fairly taught national-school girl of our day. The licentiousness of the age following the Commonwealth degraded woman's mind, and ignorance and frivolity were almost regarded as desirable accomplishments. The appliances of education in this period were very meagre. There was nothing equal to our modern news- paper. During the civil war numerous little papers were published weekly, and sometimes bi-weekly, but the Licensing Act, passed soon after the Eestoration, forbade the publishing of political news. Some years later, the * London Gazette,' under the sanction of the crown, came out twice a week. The paper contained little of import- ance, and made up about two pages of moderate size. People who lived at a distance from the capital were kept informed of what was going on by means of news- letters, which were sent once a week. As there were no provincial newspapers, the country families depended for information upon paid London correspondents. Except in the capital, and in Oxford and Cambridge, there was. scarcely a printer in the kingdom. York was the only place north of the Trent which could boast of a press. Books were very scarce in the country, in consequence of the difficulty and expense of sending packets from one place to another. A few volumes of theology on a clergy- man's shelf, or a few books on a squire's table, were con- sidered quite a library. In London, students and others made up for the deficiencies of their book-shelves by crowding booksellers' shops, and poring over their stores for a day"together. Science made little progress during the first half of this period. Napier, however, invented his system of loga- rithms, and Dr. Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood. But the establishment of the Eoyal Society, in SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUART PERIOD. 401 1660, gave sucli an impulse to scientific pursuits that it became quite necessary to the character of a fine gentleman to talk about the wonders of nature, and telescopes and magnets. Chemistry became a fashionable study under Charles II. The king himself had a laboratory fitted up in Whitehall, where he spent many an hour in chemical experiments. Amongst the numerous students of science, the name of Isaac Newton stands out as the most illustrious. To this distinguished philosopher we owe those discoveries which made England at that time foremost in the study of natural science. In art, the English people were far behind their neigh- bours. Charles I. was a great patron of the fine arts, and his galleries were adorned with several beautiful pictures by Titian, EafFaelle, and others. Under his patronage, Eubens and Vandyke resided in England. Many of the beautiful paintings which he had collected were ordered to be sold by the Parliamentary leaders, but Cromwell bought the cartoons of Raffaelle, and thus preserved them to the nation. In architecture, Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren are the only two Englishmen whose names are dis- tinguished in connection with art during this period. All the painters and sculptors of note found in England were foreigners. Lely and Godfrey KneUer came from West- phalia ; Cibber, the sculptor, was a Dane ; and Gibbons, the carver, a Dutchman. English literature continued to flourish in all its splen- dour during the first quarter of the seventeenth century. The drama was perfected by the immortal genius of Shakspeare, and by his contemporaries Beaumont and Flet- cher. Bacon made known to the world his new system of philosophy, by which the truth of nature and history might be thoroughly investigated. The period of civil war was not favourable to literary progress, but still there were many writers of undying fame even in those days of strife. In verse Milton produced unrivalled epics ; Jeremy Taylor and Baxter shone in prose ; and Bunyan, the * Dreamer of Bedford,' gave to the world his celebrated fictions. 402 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. The period following the Eestoration produced many dramatic writers, of whom Drjden is the most eminent. The theatre was the only field in which a man of wit and genius could employ his literary talents, and therefore every man who had to earn his bread by the pen wrote plays. But the literature of the time was very impure. Puritan hatred to the drama produced a mischievous re- action, and it became fashionable to laud to the skies what- ever the Eoundheads had condemned. Hence the favourite plays were those in which virtue was ridiculed, scruples derided, religion mocked, and, in fine, all vicious indul- gences applauded. The close of the period is distinguished for its numerous brilliant writers, both in prose and verse. The reign of Anne has been called the Augustan age of English litera- ture. Literary tastes prevailed amongst the upper classes, and ensured for every author of any note encouraging patronage. LEADING AUTHORS OF THE STUART PERIOD. I. POETS. FRANCIS BEAUMONT (1586-1615),) joint authors of numerous JOHN FLETCHER . (1576-1625) J plays. BEN JONSON (1574-1637): in early life a soldier ; then an actor ; poet -laureate under James I. ; author of fifteen plays extant, chiefly comedies, and numerous masques ; earliest comedy, ' Every Man in His Humour.' Buried in Westminster Abbey. PHILIP MASSINGER (1584-1640) : author of numerous dramatic pieces, of which seventeen are preserved : chief play, * A New Way to Pay Old Debts.' JOHN MILTON (1608-1674), the greatest epic poet of modern times: author of ' Paradise Lost' and ' Paradise Regained,' which were written in poverty and blindness ; numerous masques and sonnets came from his pen ; wrote also in prose. His genius remained unnoticed i\nder the Stuarts. SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUAET PERIOD. 403 SAMUEL BUTLER (1612-1680), son of a Worcestershire farmer : author of a mock-heroic poem, called ' Hudibras,' which was a famous satire upon the Puritans. JOHN DRYDEN (1631-1700), a great poet: made poet-laureate by Charles II. ; author of numerous plays, and satires in verse. Chief works : ' Absalom and Achitophel,' the most perfect and powerful satire in our language; 'The Hind and Panther;* * Alexander's Eeast ;' a translation of Virgil's JEneid into English verse. II. PROSE WRITERS. JEREMY TAYLOR (1613-1667), Bishop of Down after the Resto- ration : wrote on theology : author of ' Liberty of Prophesying,* ' Holy Living,' * Holy Dying,' and many other works. EDWARD HYDE (1608-1674), a Royalist: exiled during the Commonwealth ; created Earl of Clarendon by Charles II. ; author of the * History of the Great RebeUion.' JOHN BUNYAN (1628-1688), a tinker of Bedford: became a Baptist preacher ; imprisoned twelve years for preaching ; wrote in prison the celebrated ' Pilgrim's Progress.' RICHARD BAXTER (1615-1691), a famous Presbyterian mi- nister: one of the ejected Nonconformists in 1662; a most voluminous writer of theology ; chief work, ' The Saints' Ever- lasting Rest.' JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704), a philosophical writer : lived in exile during the latter years of Charles II. and James II. ; author of an ' Essay on the Human Understanding,' a work still famous. GILBERT BURNET (1643-1715), a Scotchman: exiled by James II.; a friend of William III., and appointed by him Bishop of Salis- bury ; a copious writer ; chief work, ' History of his own Time.' LEADING DATES OF THE STUART PERIOD. GENERAL EVENTS. A.D. Hampton Court Conference . . 1604 James I. Gunpowder Plot . . . .1605 „ Authorised Translation of the Bible 1611 404 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. A.D. Raleigh, beheaded . 1618 James I, Trial of Hampden 1637 Charles I. The < Covenant ' made in Scotland 1638 » Execution of Archbishop Laud 1645 »> Colonel Pride's Purge 1648 i» Execution of Charles I. . 1649 >» Death of Cromwell . . . . 1658 The Savoy Conference 1661 Charles II. The Great Plague . 1665 » Fire of London .... . 1666 >» The Dutch in the Medway . 1667 it Rye House Plot . 1683 j> Trial of the Seven Bishops 1688 James II. Landing of the Prince of Orange • >f j» Massacre at Glencoe. . 1692 Wm. ni. & Trial of Sacheverell . . 1710 Anne. &MARy. CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES. Union of the English and Scottish Crowns Petition of Right . . . . The Long Parliament begins . Star Chamber and High Commission Court abolished .... Expulsion of the Long Parliament by Cromwell .... Richard Cromwell resigns the Pro- tectorate Restoration of the Monarchy . Act of Uniformity passed The Conventicle Act .... The Five-Mile Act .... The Test Act The Habeas Corpus Act . The Second Declaration of Indulgence The Revolution The Bill of Rights .... The Act of Settlement Union of the English a^d Scottish Parliaments A.D. 1603 1628 1640 1641 James I. Charles I. 1653 Common WKALTH. 1659 )> 1660 Charles II. 1662 j> 1664 ,. 1665 » 1673 » 1679 )) 1688 James II. »» >t 1689 Wm. III. & Mary 1701 William III. 1707 Anne. SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE STUAET PERIOD. 405 CHANGES OF DOMINION, ETC. James Town, Virginia, founded Capture of Jamaica . Dunkirk acquired Gibraltar taken ... A.D. 1607 1655 1658 1704 James I. Commonwealth. Anne. WARS, BATTLES, TREATIES. The Great Rebellion. Battle. Victor. Late. Edgehill Indecisive . * • • « 1642 Brentford Royalists • , >> Reading Roundheads . , , , 1643 Stratton Royalists . . . . >> Chalgrove Field . Royalists (Hampden morta] ly woundec ) » Atlierton Moor >» • • . . >> Lansdown Favourable to Royalists . . >» Roundway Down . Royalists . . . 11 Bristol (Siege of) . >» • • . . » Newbury Indecisive . . . »» Nantwich Parliamentarians . 1644 Cropredy Bridge . Royalists . . i» Marston Moor Parliamentarians . If Newbury Indecisive . • • tt Naseby Parliamentarians » . . 1645 Rowton Moor )9 , , , >» Preston »l > . . 1648 Dunbar Cromwell . > • • 1650 Worcester . n • • • . . 1651 Secret Treaty of Dover Battle of Sedgemoor . „ Eilliecrankie „ Boyne . „ La Hogue Treaty of Ryswick Battle of Blenheim „ Ramilies „ Oudenarde „ Malplaquet Treaty of Utrecht A.D. 1670 Charles II. 1685 James II. 1689 Wm. III. & Mart. 1690 1692 1697 1704 Anne. 1706 1708 1709 1713 W o n ^ CO 525 1=) p^ m PR w M ^ t3 i-:| m w < H Hi EH < o l-H o Hi 02 <1 H pq f^ 1 O H 02 f^ W ei cb a H « ^ }z^ » 09 09 w bO ^ - s •^ ^ 09 Ha 09 W O I ^ CO -u v.-'i— I ^ O Q ;h QO 's S this expectation, they determined to up^et his peaceful policy by forcing England into war. At this time there was much ill-feeling in the country against Spain, on account of the insults Vhich English traders had received from the Spaniards. The Spanish Government had permitted, by the Assiento, a shipload of English merchandise to be sent annually to her colonies in South America. But the profit of this trade was so great that all sorts of excuses were made for sending English ships to the Spanish main, and an extensive smuggling trade was carried on. To pre- vent this traffic, the Spaniards placed guard-ships along the coasts. Intruding vessels were, consequently, searched, and their crews sometimes insulted and outraged. A 420 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. " certain Captain Jenkins returned home with one of his ears wrapped up in cotton, which he said had been torn off by the commander of a Spanish guard-ship who had boarded his sloop on the high seas. Stories of this kind caused such a ferment in England that the Opposition in Parlia- ment made a handle of them to overthrow Walpole's Government. The Prime Minister, though conscious that Spain had a just cause of grievance, was compelled by the popular outcry to demand reparation from the Spanish court. The King of Spain offered to pay 140,000Z. for the injuries said to have been received by English merchants, and agreed to enter into negotiations for the better regula- tion of trade between the two countries. Spain, however, refused to give up the right of search — a right which every strong maritime Power has always claimed and exercised ; and Walpole, rather than resign his post, gave way to the clamour of his opponents, and entered upon a war which he knew to be unjust and impolitic. In London joy-bells from every steeple greeted the proclamation of the war, but Walpole Avas heard to mutter, ' They may ring their bells now; they will before long be ivringing their hands.' In the same year, Admiral Yernon was sent to Spanish America with a small fleet. Porto Bello, on the Isthmus of Darien, was taken, plundered, aiid destroyed, with trifling loss to the victors. His success was magnified into a great triumph, and it was resolved to despatch an imposing force to South America. In 1740, Yernon and General Went- worth, with 115 ships and 12,000 soldiers, set out to attack Carthagena, the strongest place on the coast. Want of harmony between the commanders brought ruin upon the expedition. The storming- party were repulsed with the loss of half their number ; the troops were decimated by an epidemic, and the enterprise was abandoned in utter disgrace. While these events were taking place on the eastern coast of America, another expedition under Anson was sent to Peru. While doubling Cape Horn, his squadron was dispersed, and only three ships reached the Southern GEOEGE II. 421 Seas. With this small force he ravaged the western coast, took the town of Paita with treasure amounting to 30,000/., and then, having destroyed two of his ships, he crossed the Pacific with the remaining one, in search of new adventures. He captured, after a severe fight, a large Spanish galleon, having on board a million and a half of dollars, and then returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope, after an absence of three years and nine months, being the first Englishman since Drake who had sailed round the world. The disasters of the Spanish war overthrew Walpole's administration. He was compelled in 1742 to retire from office, but the king rewarded his long services with the title of Earl of Orford. He died three years afterwards. The war with Spain merged into the continental war, which troubled the peace of Europe at this time. War of the Austrian Succession. The continental war, known as the War of the Austrian Succession, in which England was embroiled, arose in the following manner. In 1740, Charles VI. of Austria died, leaving the succession, by a will called the Pragmatic Sanction, to his daughter Maria Theresa. Though most of the continental Powers had agreed to this arrangement, the death of Charles was immediately followed by a general scramble for his dominions. The King of Prussia, Frederick the Great, seized upon Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria claimed Hungary and Bohemia, and, supported by France, entered Vienna. Encouraged by the success of these claimants, the kings of Spain, Poland, and Sardinia de- manded a share of the spoil. The high-spirited Maria Theresa withdrew to Hungary, and threw herself upon the loyalty of her nobles. Assembled in their Diet, they answered her appeals with flashing swords, and cries of * We Avill die for our king, Maria Theresa.' England re- mained true to the Pragmatic Sanction, and was the only aUy upon which Austria could depend. In 1743, some British troops under Lord Stair advanced into Germany. •422 HISTOEY OE ENGLAND. Mustering, with their Austrian allies, about 40,000 men, they were confronted at the village of Dettingen, on the Maine, by a much larger French force, under Marshal Noailles. Stair suffered himself to be outmanoeuvred, and was so closely beset that retreat seemed impossible. At this crisis, George II. joined the army. A false move on tlie part of the French saved the allied forces, and in the -„-„ battle that followed, Noailles was driven across the Maine with great loss. The battle of Dettingen is memorable as being the last in which a British sovereign was present. The French were driven out of Germany, and the English troops withdrew to Flanders. In the following year, France formally declared war against England, and proceeded to assist the cause of the Pretender. A French fleet, having a strong force under Marshal Saxe, appeared off the coast of Kent, but a storm prevented a landing, and the sight of an English squadron caused the enemy to retire. The year 1745 is memorable for the defeat of the English at Fontenoy. Marshal Saxe had suddenly in- vested the important town of Tournay with a large army. A much inferior force of allies, under the command of the Duke of Cumberland, son of George II., marched to its relief. The British troops, in spite of the difficulties of the ground, and the superior forces of the enemy, broke through the French centre, and were advancing towards the village where Louis XV. and the dauphin had taken up their quarters, when they found themselves deserted by their allies, and in danger of being cut off. The retreat which followed, in the face of batteries on every side, called forth the admiration of the French, who said, as they saw the unbroken j-anks retire step by step, that such a retreat was a victory. The battle of Fontenoy gave France possession of Flanders. A month later, a British force captured Louisberg, the capital of Cape Breton. The Young Pretender, in the same year, made a daring attempt to regain the throne of his fathers ; but an account of this will be given separately. GEOKGE II. 423 The remaining years of the war passed away without any very great events. In 1747, Admiral Anson defeated a French fleet oiF Cape Finisterre ; and a few months later, Admiral Plawke gained a similar victory oiF Belleisle. The following year restored peace to Europe, for a short time, by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. France - ^.^ and England agreed to restore their conquests, and Spain agreed to the peace without any re- ference to the right of search. Austria had made peace with Prussia in 1745, and the latter country was allowed to retain Silesia. In the same year, Maria Theresa's husband, Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was elected emperor, and the brave lady, one of the most illustrious of Austrian sovereigns, held her throne till her death in 1780. Rebellion in aid of the Young Pretender. The exiled Stuarts, taking advantage of the war which has just been described, resolved to make another attempt to recover their lost inheritance. Charles Edward, son of the ' Pretender,' called in Jacobite songs ' Bonnie Prince Charlie,' set out from France with two ships and seven attendants to conquer an empire. A British man-of-war encountered the expedition, and drove one of the vessels back to Brest, while the other, containing the prince, made all sail for the Hebrides. The Young Pre- tender effected a landing at Moidart on the coast ^ J, ^ ' • 174-T of Inverness, and unfurled his banner at Glen- finnan, where he was soon joined by many Highland chieftains. He was then in his twenty-fifth year, full of ardour and hope, and well calculated, by his manners, courage, and address, to win attachment and devotion. In person he was tall, well-formed, and active ; his face was handsome, his eyes blue, and his hair fell in ringlets upon his shoulders. When Charles marched from Glenfinnan with 1,600 men, the Government was quite unprepared. There were Bcarcely 3,000 soldiers in the whole of Scotland. With 424 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. some of these, the royalist commander, Sir John Cope, marched northward from Stirling to crush the rebellion in the bud, but incautiously advancing to Inverness, he left the southern counties defenceless. Prince Charles, taking advantage of the mistake, quitted the mountains and entered Perth, where he was joined by new adherents, amongst whom was Lord George Murray. Having pro- claimed his father king, as James VIIL, he pushed on to Edinburgh, and without any opposition took up his abode in the palace of Holyrood. In the meantime. Cope, having embarked his force at Aberdeen, landed at Dunbar, where he was joined by two regiments of dragoons under Qolonel Gardiner, which had retired from Edinburgh in the utmost fright. With an army of about 3,000 men, he advanced to the Scottish capital. Young Charles, with an equal force, marched out to meet him, and at Preston-Pans the two armies came in contact. By a sudden onslaught of the Highlanders at early dawn, the royalist forces were scattered like chaff before ^ ' ' the wind, and scarcely two hundred escaped. The artillery, colours, baggage, and military chest fell into the hands of the victors. This success gave the Young Pretender possession of Scotland, and drew to his side many wavering partisans. The news of the battle of Preston-Pans caused the utmost consternation in England ; but fortunately for the House of Brunswick, the victor returned to Edinburgh to reduce the castle, which had hitherto held out, and raise reinforcements. After loitering in the Scottish capital for nearly six weeks, the Chevalier, at the head of 5,000 men, resolved to try his fortune in England. Entering by the western border, he advanced through Carlisle, Lancaster, Manchester, and proceeded southwards as far as Derby. Though cheered and welcomed in many places along the route, the people refused to take arms in his cause, and Manchester was the only town which furnished him with any recruits, and there Colonel Townley joined his banner with two hundred men. The Highland chiefs, disap- pointed at the indifference of the English JacobiteS; and aEORGE n. 425 aware of the danger that threatened them from the British troops fast gathering on all sides, resolved to beat a retreat. General Wade, they said, with an army of 10,000 men, was only a few marches in their rear ; the Duke of Cum- berland, with an equal force, was close in their front ; and if it were possible to give these the slip, another army on Finchley Common remained to bar their march to London. Charles remonstrated in vain, and, thoroughly dejected, he consented to return to Scotland. On December 6, the Highland army commenced its northward march. The retreat was as skilfully conducted as the advance. Penrith was reached before the royal armies came in sight, and there the pursuit of ^he Duke of Cumberland was gallantly checked. The River Esk was crossed on De- cember 20 ; Glasgow was safely entered in a few days ; and the Highlanders proceeded at once to invest Stirling. General Hawley, advancing to the relief of the town, met with a disgraceful defeat. But the cause of the Pretender, in spite of this success, was virtually lost. Many of the Highland clans lost heart and withdrew to their homes, and the appearance of the Duke of Cumberland with a strong army forced the remainder to retreat from Stirling to the mountains. After three months of inaction among the Grampians, the duke came upon the rebel army, numbering about 5,000 men, on Culloden Moor, near Inverness. In less than an hour, the rebel ^mao ' forces were in full flight, hotly pursued by the victors. No mercy was shown to the vanquished, and the duke's victory was tarnished by the slaughter of many innocent people and the destruction of Highland villages. Long afterwards, the victorious commander was known as the ' Butcher.' The unfortunate Chevalier fled to the mormtains. A reward of 30,000Z. was set upon his head; but though during five months of wandering and hiding he had to trust to the fidelity of many persons of all ranks, no one was found base enough to betray him. After many hair- breadth escapes and romantic adventures, he embarked on board a French privateer, and, though chased by two 426 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Englisli cruisers, safely landed near Morlaix, in Brittany. ^ Meantime, the courts of law were busy in trying 1 tTAft ' ^^^ adherents of his cause. Many of the chief- tains escaped, but the lords Kilmarnock, Balme- rino, and Lovat were beheaded on Tower Hill. They were the last persons who suffered in this manner in England, and the axe and block used on that occasion are still to be seen in the Tower of London. About eighty persons in all suffered death for their share in the ' Forty- Five,' and some of them underwent all the hideous penalties of high treason. The clansmen were forbidden to wear the Highland costiune ; tenure of land by military service was declared unlawful ; the chieftains were deprived of most of their power ; and the office of sheriff, long considered hereditary, was vested in the crown. The * Forty-Five ' was the last serious effort of the exiled Stuarts- to regain the throne, though Jacobite intrigues continued a few years longer. James, the ' Old Pretender,' died in 1765. His son, Charles Edward, expelled from France by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, found refuge in the territories of the pope, and for a long time kept up a correspondence with his friends in England. About the year 1750 he secretly visited London. Dis- appointment at last broke down his fortitude, and, as- suming the title of Count D' Albany, he became a confirmed drunkard, and died of apoplexy at Rome, January 30, 1788. His only brother, Henry Benedict, took the empty title of Henry IX., but he lived quietly at Eome to a good old age as Cardinal of York. During the latter part of his life, he and his brother's widow lived upon the bounty of George III. of England. He, the last male heir of the Stuart line, died in 1807, bequeathing to the English king the crown jewels which James H. had taken with him on his retreat to the Continent in 1688; and many valuable documents. The Seven Years' War. Conquest of Canada. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, many causes of dif- ference arose between England and France, especially with GEOEGE II. 427 reference to tlie interests of the two countries in India and America. In the latter country, England had established colonies on the eastern coast, while France had colonised Canada and Louisiana. The French proposed to connect these distant settlements by erecting a chain of forts from Niagara to the mouth of the Mississippi, and thus shut out the English colonists from the lucrative fur trade with the Indians. As the French persisted in their design, in spite of the remonstrances of the British Government, orders were given to the colonists to prevent them by force. In 1754, Major Washington, afterwards so famous in the American War of Independence, headed an expedition against Fort Duquesne, now called Pittsburgh, on the Ohio. In the following year, troops were sent from England under General Brad dock ; but this officer, unused to warfare in the forests of America, fell into an ambuscade, and was killed with 700 of his men, while operating against the same fort. The relations with France were thus in a criti- cal state, when a war broke out on the Continent, known from its duration as the Seven Years' War, in which England took part. The cause of the quarrel is to be attributed to the ambi- tion of Frederick the Great of Prussia. Austria formed a secret treaty with France, and another with Russia, Poland, Saxony, and Sweden, for the partition of Prussia. The plot was revealed to Frederick, who immediately seized Dresden, the capital of Saxony, and so began the - „_^ Seven Years' War. England, already in a state of war with France, sided with Prussia. India and America were the chief theatres of the strife as far as our own country was concerned, but the opening campaigns were not favourable to our arms. Just before the declaration of war, the French sent a fleet and army to capture the island of Minorca, then be- longing to England. An English squadron under Admiral Byng was sent to its relief. In an action with the enemy, Byng allowed the French fleet to escape, and, instead of remaining to relieve the fort closely invested by the land forces, sailed away to Gibraltar to refit. This want of •128 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. judgment caused the loss of the island, and produced, in England the greatest indignation. Byng was brought to trial on the charge of cowardice, and shot on the quarter- deck of the ' Monarch,' in Portsmouth harbour. The year 1757 was also unfavourable to the English arms. The command of the army in Hanover had been intrusted to the Duke of Cumberland, but the disastrous defeat of Prussia at Kolin enabled the French to so hem in the duke as to force him to agree to the Convention of Closter- Seven, by which his 30,000 men were disbanded. The fortunes of England seemed now ^t their lowest ebb, when a reconstruction of the ministry at home changed the tide of affairs. The moving spirit of the new ministry was William Pitt, 'the Great Commoner.' Born in 1708 and educated at Oxford, he commenced life by serving as a cornet in the Life Guards Blue. In 1735, he entered Parliament as member for Old Sarum, and became so troublesome to Walpole's ministry, that he was dismissed from the army. Henceforth he devoted himself to politics, and his talents as a statesman and an orator soon obtained for him a leading place in the government of the country. Directing all his genius to retrieve the disasters of the Englisli arms, the vigour of his policy was felt far and wide, and the fortunes of England were everywhere at- tended with success. In 1758, Prussia, having won the great victories of Eossbach and Leuthen, was encouraged to persevere by a subsidy of 670,000Z. from England, while Pitt was planning vast campaigns against France in all parts of the world. The ratification of the Convention of Closter-Seven was refused ; the Hanoverian army was reorganised, and the Electorate recovered. In Africa, Senegal and Goree were taken from the French. In America, Louisburg and Fort Duq[liesiie met with a similar fate. The successes in India will be related by themselves. Nearer home, an expedition was successful in destroying St. Malo and its shipping, and a like success attended an attack upon the works of Cherbourg. The following year was still more propitious to our arms. On sea the English fleets were everywhere victorious. GEOKGE 11. 429 Admiral Boscawen defeated the French off the bay of Lagos in Spain ; but the greatest victory was won in QiUiberon Bay, where Admiral Hawke, undeterred by a pitiless tempest and the dangers of an unknown coast, almost annihilated a superior French force. These suc- cesses entirely crippled the naval power of France, and prevented her from undertaking any operations of im- portance during the remainder of the war. Meantime on land, Prussia, assisted by some British troops, gained the decisive battle of Minden, where the French were only saved from destruction by Lord George Sackville, who com- manded the English cavalry, and thrice refused to charge. In America, Pitt's plans were crowned with success. Proposing the conquest of Canada, this eminent statesman organised four different expeditions, all of which were to meet under the walls of Quebec. The expedition from England, consisting of 8,000 men and a fleet of forty-two ships, was placed under the command of General Wolfe, a young officer of great promise. Arriving at his destina- tion before the other three corps, "Wolfe resolved to attack the city, though it was protected by a superior French force under Montcalm, the governor. Landing his men by night at the foot of the Heights of Abraham, which commanded the town, he directed them to scale the steep cliffs as quietly as possible, and in the morning the French, to their dismay, saw the English troops drawn up on the top of the table land. In the battle that followed, both commanders received mortal wounds. As "Wolfe was leading his men to the final ^-cn charge, two shots brought him down, and he was carried to the rear mortally wounded. As he lay dying, an officer shouted ' See how they run ! ' * "Who run ? ' said "Wolfe. ' The enemy,' replied he. ' Then God be praised I ' answered "Wolfe ; * I shall die happy ; ' and with these words he expired, at the early age of thirty-three. Quebec surrendered a few days afterwards, and in the following year the whole of Canada was reduced. The English were also successful in the "Wast Indies, where the French lost Guadaloupe. The remainder of the war belongs to the next reign. 430 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. Affairs in India. Clive and the Conquest of Bengal. While the English arms were reaping laurels in America and nearer home, important affairs were taking place in India. When the East India Company began its opera- tions in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the dynasty of the Monguls, or Moguls, held the supreme authority in India. The founder of the Mogul Empire was Timour, or Tamer- lane, who, descending from the mountains of Hindu Coosh, stormed the imperial city of Delhi in 1398. His de- scendants, among the most celebrated of whom was Baber and Akbar, extended their rule till nearly the whole peninsula was united under the sceptre of Aurungzebe (1666-1707). After his death, many of the native princes threw off the Mogul yoke, and asserted their independence. The collapse of the empire was the signal for needy ad- venturers to try their hands in founding kingdoms, and thus Bengal became the domain of one, Mysore the realm of another, and in the Carnatic rajahs and nabobs innu- merable assumed the reins of government. The Great Mogul still nominally ruled at Delhi, but his real authority was only of a limited extent. The disorders which accom panied the decline of a great empire laid India open to European conquest. The Portuguese and the Dutch were the first European nations who formed commercial relations with the natives. In 1599, some London merchants started the East India Company, and a few years afterwards set up small trading factories, first at Surat, and then at Madras (Fort St. George), and Tegnapatam (Fort St. David), on the Coro- mandel coast. To these places Bombay was added in the reign of Charles II., and towards the close of the same century, a grant of land on the Hooghly was obtained. On the latter site a fort was erected, called Fort William, around which the great town of Calcutta has since grown. The French, following the example of their neighbours, took possession of«the Mauritius, Bourbon, and other islands, and established a great settlement at Pondicherry, GEOEGE II. 431 and another at Chinsura in Bengal. Neither the English nor the French had at first any idea of making territorial conquests. Trade was the object of both peoples, but commercial rivalry led to quarrels and intrigues, which finally ended in a British Indian empire. During the war of the Austrian succession, the French governor of the Mauritius captured Madras (1746), and kept possession of it till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. About this time Dupleix, the governor of Pondicherry, taking advantage of the quarrels of the native princes, formed the design of establishing a French empire in India. The Carnatic was just then the scene of a struggle between rival competitors for the dominion. Dupleix interfered in behalf of one of the claimants, and succeeded in the under- taking. As a reward, he was made Viceroy of the Carnatic, and seemed in a fair way of realising the dream of his ambition. The English, regarding with dismay the suc- cesses of their rivals, were compelled in self-defence to take part in the quarrels of the native chiefs, and very naturally took opposite sides to the French. Fortunately for English interests, there was a young man in the employ of the East India Company whose genius enabled him to cope successfully with the ambitious Dupleix. Robert Clive, a clerk at Madras, who went to India at the age of eighteen, was the man destined to lay the foundations of our empire in that country. The French, everywhere successful, were besieging the only ally of the English in Trinchinopoly, when Clive, abandoning the pen for the sword, put himself at the head of a small force, and suddenly captured Arcot (1751). This success saved Trinchinopoly, and so turned the tide of victory against the French that Dupleix, foiled in his hope of conquest, was eventually compelled to return to Europe, leaving his rival master of the situation. In the year 1756, the sovereignty of Bengal fell to a young man named Surajah-Dowlah, who hated the English exceedingly. Picking a quarrel with the settlers at Cal- cutta, he marched against the place, induced the small garrison of 200 men to surrender, and then threw into a 432 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. dungeon all the Europeans, consisting of 145 men and one woman. This cell, or Black Hole, was 18 feet long by 14 feet wide, and had only two small windows, closely barred, and on a level with the ceiling. The suiFerings of the unfortunate prisoners were horrible. It was the hottest season of the year ; scarcely a breath of air could enter the cell, and many of the entombed victims were severely wounded. In their agony they fought, and shrieked, and tore each other down in vain attempts to reach certain water-skins which their brutal guards pushed in mockery against the bars of the windows. The night of horror passed away, and when the door was opened in the morning only twenty-three were found alive, and of these several died in a day or two. Calcutta was sacked, and the English forbidden to settle any more in the province. Clive, now raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, was acting as governor of Fort St. David, when news of the outrage reached him. Collecting a force of 2,400, of whom only 900 were Europeans, he recaptured Calcutta, and compelled Surajah-Dowlah to restore all the factories and the privileges which the English had previously possessed. He then turned his arms against the French settlement ofChandanagore, and took it. This attack roused the anger of the Nabob, who collected all his forces to crush the daring Englishman. With an army of 50,000 men and an enormous train of artillery, the Nabob marched to Plassey. Clive, who could only muster 3,000 men and ten pieces of artillery, of which force two-thirds were Sepoys, resolved at all hazards to attack the host of the enemy. Complete success attended this deed of daring, and the victorious battle of Plassey made the English masters of Bengal. In the Carnatic, war with the French was continued with varying success till the be- cyinning of 1761, when the English took Pondicherry, razed its walls to the ground, and put an end for ever to the schemes of French ambition in India. Clive then returned home loaded with wealth, received an Irish peerage, and entered the House of Commons. aEOEGE II. 433 Death and Character of the King. Whilst success was crowning the arms of England in all parts of the world, George II. suddenly died at Kensington, of heart disease, within a few days of completing his seventy- seventh year. (October 25, 1760.) In person, George was a man of small stature, good figure, and fair complexion. In character, he closely re- sembled his father, both morally and intellectually. His partiality for the Whigs, and fondness for Hanover, for which he spent no end of treasure, were very marked. He had, in all, eight children : Frederick Prince of Wales ; Anne, married the Prince of Orange ; William Duke of Cumberland; Mary, ' married the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel ; Louisa, married the King of Denmark ; and three other daughters. The Prince of Wales was killed by the blow of a cricket- ball in 1751. Of his nine children, the eldest was George III., who succeeded his grandfather on the throne. Miscellaneous Facts. This reign is memorable for the rise of the sect of the Wesleyans or Methodists. The author of this religious body was John Wesley, who, when a student at Oxford, used to hold meetings for prayer and religious discussion in his college rooms. Having laboured in Georgia for some time with his brother Charles as missionaries, they returned to England, and, dissatisfied with the apathy of the Church, commenced open-air preaching. The same good work was carried on by a distinguished preacher named George Whitfield, who founded the sect known as Calvinistic Methodists. These clergymen met with great opposition from the dignitaries of the Church ; but religion owes much to their zeal and self-sacrifice. The movement of the Wesleys roused the English Church from its indif- ference, and imparted to it an impulse which is felt even to the present day. 434 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. A reform of the Calendar, or New Style of reckoning time, took place in this reign. Hitherto the year had been calculated according to the standard adopted by Julius CjEsar, which gave to the year 365 days 6 hours. This was afterwards found to be too much by eleven minutes. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII. reformed the Julian Year, and reduced it to its exact length. The New Style, as it was called, was adopted by all European countries except England, Eussia, and Sweden. As the error in reckoning had now amounted to eleven days, England, by Act of Parliament, accepted the New Style in 1752. It was re- solved to omit eleven days in the month of September by calling the 3rd of the month the 14th ; and by the same Bill the year was to commence, on the 1st of January, instead of March 25. This change of time caused much dissatisfaction among the masses, who called it a popish measure, and thought that they had been robbed of eleven days. Sweden followed the example of England in 1753 ; but Russia still reckons her year according to the Old Style. The Law of Marriage was regulated by Parliament in 1753. Previously, marriage could be performed at any place or time without parental consent or any conditions whatever. To prevent scandals and abuses for the future, a law was passed by which marriages could only be allowed after banns or licence. Georgia was colonised by General Oglethorpe in 1732 ; and Halifax, in Nova Scotia, called after the Earl of Halifax, was founded in 1750. Among the improvements of the reign, the most noteworthy are, the establishment of the British Museum in 1753 ; the invention of Fahren- heit's Thermometer in 1730, and Hadley's Quadrant in 1731 ; the construction of Time-pieces in 1735 ; the in- vention of the Lightning Conductor by Franklin in 1735 ; the commencement of the Bridgewater Canal by Brindley in 1758 ; and the first improvement of the stocking-loom, known as the * Derby ribs,' by Jedediah Strutt in 1759. GEOEGE n. 435 LEADING AUTHORS UNDER GEORGE I. AND GEORGE II. POETS. JOSEPH ADDISON (1672-1719), distinguished more in prose : chief poems, ' The Campaign,' and ' Cato,' a tragedy ; author of many beautiful essays in the ' Spectator ' and the ' Tatler.* ALEXANDER POPE (1688-1744), the greatest poet of his time, and also a distinguished prose writer : chief works, ' The Eape of the Lock,' an * Essay upon Man,' * Moral Essays,' a transla- tion of Homer's Iliad. JAMES THOMPSON (1700-1748), a poet of Eoxburghshire : chief works, * The Seasons,* in blank verse, and the ' The Castle of Indolence.' EDWARD YOUNG (1681-1765), author of ' Night Thoughts.' ALLAN RAMSAY (1686-1758), a native of Lancashire: author of many short poems: chief work, a pastoral drama called ♦ The Gentle Shepherd.' PROSE WRITERS. SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727): Professor in Cambridge University : discovered the Law of Gravitation ; chief works, the ' Principia,' a treatise on Natural Philosophy. SIR RICHARD STEELE (1676-1729), a famous essayist: started the ' Tatler' in 1709, and the ' Spectator' in 1711 ; wrote also some comedies. DANIEL DEFOE (1661-1731), in early life a Whig newspaper writer ; at the age of fifty-eight commenced prose fiction ; chief work, ' Eobinson Crusoe,' published in 1719. JONATHAN SWIFT (1667-1745), Dean of St. Patrick's Dublin, an eminent satirical writer : chief works, ' Gulliver's Travels, ' The Tale of a Tub,' and the ' Battle of the Books.' Died mad. HENRY ST. JOHN (Viscount Bolingbroke) (1678-1751), a brilliant orator and distinguished political writer: author of ' Letters on the Study and Use of History.' JOSEPH BUTLER (1692-1752), Bishop of Durham: chief work, * The Analogy of Eeligion to Nature.' 436 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. LEADING ARTISTS. SIR JAMES THORNHILL (1676-1734), a famous painter: painted the Dome of St. Paul's Cathedral, the Halls of Green- wich Hospital, and Blenheim Palace, and the Cartoons of EafFaelle. SIR JOHN VANBRTJGH (1666-1726), a great architect: chief works, Castle Howard, Yorkshire, and Blenheim Palace. GEOKGE IIL 437 GEORGE III. Born 1738 A.D. Began to Keign 1760 A.D. Died 1820 A.D. The King's Accession. End of the Seven Years' "War. Peace of Paris. John "Wilkes. The War of American Indepen- dence. "War of the French Eevolution. Treaty of Amiens. The Irish Eebellion. Union of England and Ireland. Second "War with France. Battle of Trafalgar. The Peninsular War. "War with the United States of America. Napoleon's Escape from Elha. Battle of "Waterloo. Affairs in India. "Warren Hastings. Eegency of the Prince of Wales. Death and Character of the King. Miscellaneous Facts. The King's Accession. End of the Seven Years' War. Peace of Paris. John Wilkes. George III., eldest son of Frederick Prince of Wales, suc- ceeded his grandfather in the twenty-third year of his age. He was the first monarch of his house who could be re- garded as English in feeling. His first speech to the Parliament contained words which showed that England had obtained at last a native king. * Born and educated in this country,' said George, ' I glory in the name of Briton.' The coronation of the young king was witnessed by Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender, who had come over in disguise, and mixed with the crowd in West- minster Abbey. The accession of George III. wrought many changes. During the last two reigns the Whigs had held the reins of 20 438 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. power, but the education of the young king had been chiefly directed by Lord Bute, a Scotch nobleman of opposite political views ; and his inclination, in conse- quence, led him towards the Tory party. This" soon became evident in the changes which were made in the ministry ; and the Tories, so long excluded from office, rejoiced in the appointment of Lord Bute as Secretary of State, and took courage. The purity of George's domestic life produced a most beneficial change in the manners of the higher classes. His wife, the Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburgh-Strelitz, shared her husband's piety and simple tastes; and, for the first time since the reign of Charles I., the English court gave the example of a pure and happy home. Meanwhile, the Seven Years' War was being carried on with vigour under the direction of Pitt, Secretary for Foreign AiFairs. In 1761, English fleets had captured Dominica in the West Indies, and BeUeisle on the coast of Brittany. Just about that time, France secretly formed with Spain and Naples a Family Compact, by which they guaranteed the integrity of each other's dominions. Pitt, then in negotiation with France for peace, construed the treaty as a threat to England, broke oiF further corre- spondence, and urged immediate war against Spain. The peace party in the Cabinet, headed by Bute, rejected the proposal, and the ' Great Commoner ' resigned his post of minister. He refused all offers of royal favours, except a pension of 3,000Z. a year, and the title of Baroness Chatham for his wife. The new ministry, of which Lord Bute was the chief, was compelled soon after to declare war against Spain (1762). In the West Indies, the English carried every- thing before them. The French lost all their possessions in that quarter ; but the most brilliant exploit was the capture of Havanna from the Spaniards, who lost at the same time fourteen sail of the line, and treasure amounting to three millions sterling. Spain was equally unfortunate in the East and on the seas. Manilla, the capital of the Philippine Islands, was taken by an expedition from Madras, and two GEOEGE III. 439 galleons laden wkh silver from America fell a prey to English cruisers. Our allies in Germany were also suc- cessful. The war was brought to a close by the Treaty of Paris. France ceded to England Canada, Nova Scotia, -r, ■. ,^ Cape Breton, Tobago, Dominica, St. Vincent, -iwcq' Granada, and Senegal, but she was to have the right of fishing on the banks of Newfoundland, and two islets as fishing stations. Minorca was to be restored in exchange for Belleisle. Spain ceded Florida, and the right of cutting log-wood in Honduras, in exchange for Havanna. In the same year, Prussia and Austria made peace by the treaty of Hubertsburg, by which the pos- session of Silesia was confirmed to the former country. The peace of Paris was opposed by Pitt as being inade- quate to the money spent in the war. The national debt had risen to 122,600,000^., and that statesman thought this expense demanded better terms for England. The people generally were of the same opinion. Bute became most "Unpopular, and in many places he was burnt in the effigy of a boot-jack (John, Lord Bute). Frightened by the popular clamour, he resigned, and was succeeded by George Grenville. The king, in his speech to Parliament, de- clared that the peace was honourable to the country. John Wilkes, member for Aylesbury, and editor of a paper called the * North Briton,' made a scurrilous attack upon the speech in No. 45 of his paper, and charged the king with having uttered a lie. The new minister had Wilkes arrested by a general warrant (that is, one in which no person is named) and sent to the Tower, but the Lord Chief Justice ordered his release as a member of Parlia- ment. The House of Commons voted by a large majority that the ' North Briton,' No. 45, was a false, scandalous, and seditious libel, and that the said paper should be burnt by the hands of the common hangman. Meanwhile, "Wilkes brought an action against the Secretary of State for his illegal arrest, and obtained 1,000Z. damages and a condemnation of general warrants. He himself had then to answer the charge of libel, for which he was found 440 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. " guilty and outlawed. Returning from France in 1768, he was elected member of Parliament for Middlesex, but the House refused to receive him. The popular favour, which had encouraged him in his previous contest with Govern- ment, returned with ten-fold force. He was regarded as the champion of liberty ; pictures and busts of him were sold everywhere ; ' Wilkes and liberty ' resounded through- out the kingdom ; and riots in his favour occurred in many places. Four times the men of Middlesex returned him to Parliament, in spite of the refusal of the Commons to allow him to take his seat. In 1769, he proceeded against Lord Halifax for the seizure of his papers, and obtained 4,000Z. damages. He eventually became Lord Mayor of London, and was allowed at last to take his place in the House of Commons. The War of American Independence. During the Seven Years' War that had been carried on by England against the French settlements in North America — all of which were captured — she involved herself in a heavy debt. The English settlements then consisted of thirteen colonies, having a population of two millions of whites and half a million of coloured people. Grenville, the English Prime Minister, proposed to increase the revenue by impos- ^ ^- „ ing the Stamp Act upon the American colonists, by which he expected to receive 10,000Z. annually. This measure created the greatest opposition in America. The colonists adopted the principle of no taxation icithout representation^ and, as they were not represented properly in their own assemblies, over whose acts the Crown had a veto, they denied the right of England to tax them. A change of ministry brought about a repeal of the obnoxious Stamp "Act in the following year. This ad- ministration soon gave way to one under the leadership of Pitt, who was raised to the peerage, with the title of Earl of Chatham. The new ministry, in 1767, passed a Bill for levying in America import duties upon glass, paper, painters' colours, and tea. The colonists opposed these GEORGE III. 441 with the same determination as before, and resolved not to pay. In 1770, Lord North became Prime Minister, and repealed all the offensive duties except that on tea ; but these concessions did not allay the spirit of opposition in America. Eather than pay the tax of threepence per pound upon tea, the colonists abstained altogether from the use of the beverage, except when they could get a supply from the numerous smugglers, who drove a good trade on the coast during this wordy strife. In 1773, three ships, laden w^th tea, having entered the port of Boston, were boarded by twenty daring men, dis- guised as Mohawk Indians. They knocked out the heads of 343 chests of tea, and flung into the sea theii contents, valued at 18,000Z. The Home Government, enraged at this outrage, pro- ceeded to punish the people of Boston by passing a Bill to remove the Custom-house of the port to the more loyal town of Salem (1774). This measure was followed by the IMassachusetts Government Bill, dissolving the House of Assembly in that State, and enacting that its members should henceforth be appointed by the crcwn. These acts of vengeance were strongly opposed by the Earl of Chatham and Charles James Fox. At the same time, Benjamin Franklin, residing in London as the agent of the Massachusetts House of Assembly, did his best to effect a reconciliation, and avert the dreadful contest which seemed imminent. While troops were pouring into Boston to enforce the laws, all the States, except Georgia, met in a General Congress at Philadelphia, from which they issued the celebrated ' Declaration of Eight,' claiming their privi- leges as British subjects, and resolved not to hold any commercial intercourse with the mother-country until their grievances were redressed. An ■*■'** address, forwarded to the king from the Congress, and supported by the eloquence of Chatham, Burke, and Fox, received no consideration. Neither the Government nor the colonies were disposed to give way, and nothing remained but an appeal to arms. The first outbreak of hostilities was occasioned by an 442 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. attack of the Britisli troops, under General Gage, upon the town of Concord, where the defiant colonists were holding a House of Assembly, and concentrating military stores, and raising militia. After a night's march from Boston, the troops forced their way into Concord, and destroyed the stores and munitions. But the work of destruction w^as followed by a sudden attack of the infuriated multi- tude, and the soldiers were pursued out of the town, leaving many of their comrades dead in the streets. The road to Boston ran through great forests, in which lurked hunters armed with the deadly rifle, and the British ranks were .much thinned before they reached Lexing'toil. At this village the retreating troops received re- iiyr^ ' ii^fo^cements, and, turning upon their pursuers, dispersed them with loss. This expedition cost Gage 250 men in killed and wounded, and greatly encouraged the colonists. A month afterwards a second Congress assembled at Philadelphia, and appointed as their commander-in-chief George WasMngton, a Virginian gentleman, then about forty-three years of age. Meanwhile, Gage had allowed himself to be shut up in Boston by 20,000 raw colonial troops, who entrenched themselves on Breed's Hill, an eminence commanding the town. General Howe, arriving from England with re- inforcements, took the chief command, and proceeded to assault the Americans behind their entrenchments. The battle, called Bunker's Hill, from a neighbouring height, ended in the defeat of the colonists ; but the victory cost the British 1,000 men, and taught them to 1 ^*Jf\ ' ^^sp^c* ^^ valour of their opponents. About the same time the Americans, tinder Montgomery and Arnold, invaded Canada, in the hope of per- suading its people to join them. Montreal fell into their hands, but an attack upon Quebec failed ; Montgomery was slain in the assault, and the invaders, after continuing the siege through the winter, were driven out of the province. Meanwhile, in the summer of 1775, Congress made one last effort to conciliate the Home Government by sending a petition known as ' the Olive Branch.' To this appeal GEOEGE III. 443 the only answer given was a large increase of land and sea forces, and a declaration in Parliament to take resolute measures against the conspirators and insurgents in America. Early in the following year, the British troops, com- pelled to evacuate Boston, sailed' to Halifax, and thus enabled Washington to take New York. Then the Congress at Philadelphia, consisting of delegates from all the thirteen States, issued their famous Declaration of Inde- pendence. In August, Howe left Halifax, and i 77^' effected a landing on Long Island, where he was joined by the fleet of his brother. Admiral Lord Howe. The united forces defeated Washington at Brooklyn with great loss, and recaptured New York. Matters were going on badly with the Americans, when their leader revived their sinking courage by a sudden attack upon the garrison of Trenton, and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessian troops. This affair closed the campaign. The year 1777 opened with another surprise of the Ame- ricans upon the garrison of Princeton ; but Washington's success was cut short by a defeat at Brandywine, which enabled the British to occupy Philadelphia. This victory raised hopes in England that the subjection of the colonies was not far distant, but a serious disaster befell the English arms, and changed hopes to fears. General Burgoyne, marching from Canada with 10,000 men to co-operate with a force from New York, was so beset in the woods by the Americans, that he could not even reach Albany. Disap- pointed in not meeting with the expedition from New York, and harassed by the enemy, he retreated to Sara- ^ Oct 17 toga, where he was soon surrounded. For five ^ '„ ' days the gallant general resisted the pangs of hunger ' and the overwhelming masses of his foes, in the hope that relief would come. At length he was compelled to sur- render, with all his brass cannon, muskets, and stores. His force, numbering then about 6,000 men, were retained as prisoners till the close of the war, as Congress denied the right of General Gates sending them home on condition they would not again serve against the colonists. 444 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. The surrender of Burgoyne led France to join the Americans. From the beginning of the conflict, the French sent men, money, and munitions of war, to the insurgent States ; and among the vokmteers the name of the young and brave Marquis de la Fayette was the most distinguished. The entrance of France into the quarrel filled the British ministry with anxiety. Lord North saw that Chatham was the only man able to guide the country through the perils which threatened it, and he strongly urged the king to place the veteran statesman at the head of the Government; but George disliked the earl for his independence, and turned a deaf ear to the advice of his minister. In Parliament many members, alarmed at the serious turn of affairs, im- plored the Government to acknowledge the independence of the colonies rather than engage in a war with France. To oppose a motion in favour of such a peace, the venerable Chatham left a sick-bed to appear in Parliament. Though old, frail, and sick, he spoke with all his wonted fire and eloquence against the dismemberment of the empire ; and when he rose again to renew his attack upon the proposal, he fell in a fit upon the floor of the House of Lords. A month later, the veteran statesman and foremost English- man of the day expired, in his seventieth year. Mean- . while. Lord North had repealed the duty on tea, and had sent commissioners to America to treat with the colonists, but the concession came too late — independence only would satisfy them now. The campaign this year was not distinguished by any great operations. Howe was succeeded in the chief command by Sir Henry Clinton, who evacuated Phila- delphia to fall back upon New York. In the latter part of the year, troops sent to Georgia quickly reduced that pro- vince. Nearer home, an engagement took place between the English and French fleets off Ushant, but, from some misunderstanding between the English commanders, the battle was indecisive, and caused a great outcry in the country. Our diflficulties were increased in the next year by the entrance of Spain into the quarrel. Her part in the war GEORGE III. 445 chiefly consisted of an unsuccessful attempt to recover Gibraltar, which, under the able defence of General Elliot, endured a siege of three years (1779-1782). In America, there were marches, skirmishes, sieges, and burnings; but no event of importance occurred. The sixth campaign was marked in America by the capture of Charleston by Clinton, and the desertion of the American general Arnold, who offered to the British the fortress of West Point on the river Hudson. Major Andre, an English oflScer who arranged the affair, was captured, tried by court-martial and hanged as a spy. In Europe many troubles threatened England. At home, the Gordon riots distracted the Government, and abroad the northern powers took up a menacing attitude. Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Holland endeavoured to make a profitable trade between the belligerents, and it^of^ formed an armed neutrality, to maintain by force of arms, if necessary, the principle that ' free ships make free goods.' Towards the close of the year Holland became so hostile that England declared war against her. The following year witnessed a disaster to our arms in America, which virtually terminated the w^ar. Lord Corn- wallis, who had almost reduced the Carolinas, was com- pelled to withdraw his forces to Yorktown, in Virginia. While waiting there for reinforcements from New York, a French fleet entered the Chesapeake, and Cornwallis, finding himself surrounded and in danger of starvation. Oct. 19 and De Grasse. This misfortune to the British surrendered his force of 7,000 men to Washington ^ 1781 A.D. arms decided the war ; and, though the Govern- ment continued the struggle for another year, scarcely any military operations took place in America. On sea, indeed, the English fleets maintained their supremacy. Admiral Parker engaged a Dutch fleet near the Doggerbank (1789), and Eodney severely defeated the French in the West Indies, oil' Guadaloupe (1782). The island of Minorca, however, capitulated to a combined French and Spanish force, but all their efforts to retake Gibraltar failed. Its 446 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. gallant defender was rewarded for his services with the title of Lord Heathfield. Towards the close of the year, negotiations for peace were entered upon with the Americans, and in the follow- ing January the Treaty of Versailles was concluded by the contending countries, excepting PloUand, which made its own terms a few months later. By this treaty •ityQo England acknowledged the independence of the United States, with the right of fishing on the coast of Newfoundland. To France we restored St. Lucia and Tobago, in the West Indies, and Chandana- gore and Pondicherry in the East, and received in return Dominica, Grenada, and four other islands ; at the same time, we were to give up our claim for the dismantling of Dunkirk. To Spain, we ceded Minorca and the Floridas, and in return, our right to cut logwood in Honduras was guaranteed. To Holland we returned all our conquests excepting Negapatam. The expense of this war added 100,000,000/. to the National Debt. War of the French Revolution. Treaty of Amiens. The ten years' peace which followed the struggle with the American colonies was broken by the terrible outbreak of the French Eevolution. Among the various causes of this great event, three stand very conspicuous: (1) the oppression of the lower orders by a proud and insolent nobility ; (2) the infidel writings of such men as Voltaire and Eousseau ; (3) the reckless extravagance of the French court necessitating increased taxation. The general dis- content of the French people was greatly augmented by the spread of republican principles, which- followed the return of the soldiers who had taken part in the war of American independence. The storm, which had long been gathering, at length burst in 1789. The States General, consisting of the general assembly of the three estates of nobles, clergy, and commons, had scarcely met at Versailles, when the last estate took the title of National Assembly, and compelled the other two GEOEaE III. 447 orders to sit with it in one chamber. This change in the constitution was soon followed by revolutionary violence. A month later the Bastile, or state prison in Paris, was stormed and destroyed by the people ; the citizens of the capital were formed into the National Guard ; the tricolour flag — the symbol of unity, fraternity, and equality — was adopted as the national standard ; and the lower orders became masters of France. In one night, the National Assembly abolished all the rights and privileges of the aristocracy. The clergy were disposed of in the same manner, and the lands of the Church seized as national property. These changes were accompanied with violent excesses throughout France, and very many of the nobility, seeing greater dangers in store, left the country. The king, Louis XVI., remained quietly at his post till June 1791, when, terrified by the excesses of the ultra-revolu- tionists, or Jacobins, he attempted to escape out of France, but was captured and replaced at the head of the Govern- ment. Leopold, Emperor of Germany, brother of Marie Antoinette, the beautifiil queen of Louis, formed a treaty with Prussia to interfere in the affairs of France, and early in 1792, their combined armies, attended by many of the emigrant nobles, crossed the frontier, and put to flight the French forces. This invasion aroused the Parisians to fury. Kings, they said, were conspiring against their liberties, and no king should rule at Paris. Twice the mob stormed the Tuileries ; and when Louis sought refuge in the Assem- bly from the fury of the rabble, he was deposed and sent with his family to the prison of the Temple. A republic was then declared, and the reins of government fell into the hands of such men as Danton, Marat, Desmoulins, and Eobespierre. No mercy was shown to any suspected of dis- affection to the revolution ; 5,000 persons were slaughtered in the prisons of Paris during the month of September, and the horrid guillotine, lately invented, was used to dispatch more easily and quickly the unhappy victims of a merciless republic. AJl Europe stood aghast at the frenzy of France ; and when the National Convention issued its decrees, pro- mising help to all nations who desired to enjoy the liberty 448 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. of Paris, self-defence compelled tlie chief Powers to take np arms against a people who, intoxicated with blood, aimed to turn the world upside down. The execution of Louis XVI. and his beautiful wife, Marie Antoinette, caused the dismissal of the French ambassador from London, and England, Holland, and Spain united with Austria and Prussia to stem the tide of anarchy and bloodshed which, issuing from France, threatened 17QQ *^ overwhelm the whole of Europe. The alli- ance of the European Powers seemed only to increase the fury of the French. The Christian religion was abolished ; the churches closed ; a goddess of Reason set up in Notre Dame ; and a reign of terror esta- blished, under which the knife of the guillotine was inces- santly at w^ork. Retribution, however, overtook the agents of impiety and murder, and all the revolutionary leaders perished in turn on the scaffold or by other violence. It is estimated that during the first two years of the revolu- tion nearly a million human victims were sacrificed in France. In 1793, an English army under the Duke of York was sent to co-operate with the Austrians in Belgium, but it met with little success. In the south of France, Toulon proclaimed for the royalists, and surrendered to a British fleet under Lord Hood. The town was attacked by 40,000 republicans, among whom was a young artillery officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, a native of Corsica, whose military genius first displayed itself on that occasion. Hood was compelled to leave Toulon, taking with him 15,000 refugees. The year 1794 saw England unsuccessful on land, but triumphant at sea. The allies were driven out of Flanders, and forced to make a disastrous retreat into Hanover, leaving the French masters of Holland. The English army returned home in the following spring. On the other hand. Lord Hood took Corsica, where Horatio Nelson distinguished himself; and Admiral Howe defeated the Brest fleet off Ushant, capturing twelve ships of the line. In 1795, Prussia and Spain withdrew from the alliance GEOEGE III. 449 against France, and Holland threw in her fortunes with the French republic. England declared war against the latter country, and captured the Dutch colony of the Cape of Good Hope, and other possessions in the East and West Indies. A new government, called the Directory^ was set up in France, but the change so displeased the mob of Paris, that the Directory was only saved by Bonaparte, who vscattered the insurgent rabble in front of the Tuileries by a volley of grape-shot. The foUoAving year was distinguished by Napoleon's victorious campaign in Northern Italy, where the power of Austria and her allies was completely broken. Spain, too, joined France and declared war against England. An effort on the part of the English Government to make peace failed through the high demands of the Directory. Schemes were then set on foot for the invasion of Britain. It was proposed to unite the fleets of Holland, France, and Spain, and sweep the English off the seas. The French, in their impetuosity, made a fruitless attempt to invade Ireland and Wales ; but a storm scattered the fleet destined for Ireland, and some old women, dressed up in red cloaks, frightened the French, who had landed in Pembrokeshire, into a surrender. The year 1797 opened in England with gloomy fore- bodings, which the brilliant victory of Admiral Jervis and Commodore Nelson over the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent only partially dispelled. (Feb. 14.) The French were everywhere successful, and not a single European Power remained to withstand their ambition except England, which unfortunately was unable to present a strong and united front against the foe. Taxation was heavy and grievous, and the fear of invasion caused such a run upon the Bank of England, that cash payments were stopped. Republicanism, too, found many sympathisers amongst an over-taxed and hungry people, and Ireland especially was a source of great disquietude to the Govern- ment. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended, a strict watch was kept upon aU suspected persons, and the laws enforced with vigour and rigour. Disaffection spread to 450 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. the navy, upon which the safety of the country depended. The joy of the victory of St. Vincent had scarcely passed away, when a serious mutiny broke out in the Channel fleet at Spithead, and afterwards in the North fleet at the Nore. The mutineers complained of their low pay, un- equal share of prize-money, and severity of discipline. They moored the ships across the Thames to prevent traffic with the capital until their grievances were redressed, and at one time they talked of taking the fleet over to France. The mutiny w^as fortunately quelled, but the ringleaders, among whom was an intelligent sailor named Parker, suffered death. The disgrace of the mutiny was soon wiped out by Admiral Duncan's victory over the Dutch fleet off Camperdown. (Oct. 11.) In 1798, Napoleon sailed from Toulon with a great fleet and army, on his celebrated expedition to Egypt, with a view, as he afterwards said, ' to conquer the East, and take Europe in the rear.' Taking Malta on the way, he disem- barked at Alexandria, and defeated the famous Mameluke cavalry at the battle of the Pyramids. Admiral Nelson, who was sent with a fleet in pursuit, at length found the French moored in Aboukir Bay. The Battle of the Nile continued through the night, and ended in the 1 "^ft' ^l^os* total destruction of the French fleet. Out of seventeen ships, only four escaped, and more than 5,000 men perished, including the French admiral, whose flag-ship, the ' Orient,' blew up in the midst of the fight. The English loss was under 1,000. For this brilliant victory. Nelson received a peerage and a handsome pension. The consequencies to the French army were serious, since they were now prisoners aniid the sands of Egypt. Several of the Powers of Europe, too, encouraged by the battle of the Nile, formed a second coalition against France. In this year, a formidable rebellion occurred in Ireland, which will be related by itself. Early in 1799, Napoleon led his troops into Syria, took Gaza and Jaffa, but was foiled^ in his attempt upon Acre, ' chiefly by the bravery of Sir Sidney Smith and some British seamen. Keturning to Egypt, alarming news from GEOEGE III. 451 France caused him to leave his army and hurry home The Russians had defeated the French in Italy, and the Directory, in consequence, had fallen into contempt. Napoleon's return changed the aspect of affairs. Through his influence the Directory was abolished, and three consuls established instead, of which he was first. A military expedition to Holland under the Duke of York failed, but Nelson helped to take Naples. The next year was a successful one for France. Napoleon, having crossed the Alps, reconquered 'Italy by the great victory of Marengo. (June 14, 1800.) Later on, the victory of Hohenlinden, in Bavaria, by another French general, led Austria to make peace. The only English success was the acquisition of Malta. But a new danger threatened England by the revival of the armed neutrality of Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. The year 1801, however, was favourable to English arms. A British army under General Abercromby landed in Egypt, and defeated the French at Alexandria, but the victors lost their brave commander. About the same time, Admiral Nelson sailed to the Baltic, destroyed the Danish fleet, bombarded Copenhagen, and forced the Danes to submit to an armistice. The northern league, thus crippled by Nelson's victory, was soon broken up by the assassination of the Czar Paul, whose successor adopted a different policy towards Britain. Towards the close of the year, negotiations for peace were carried on, which ended in the Treaty of ^.r Amiens. England agreed to restore all her - j.^^ ' colonial conquests, except Ceylon and Trinidad ; to give up Malta to the Knights of St. John, and Egypt to Turkey. France, however, retained Belgium, the left bank of the Rhine, Savoy, Geneva, and Nice, and agreed to withdraw from the Roman and Neapolitan terri- tories, «,nd to guarantee the integrity of Portugal. The peace of Amiens was evidently nothing but a hollow truce to enable Napoleon to mature his plans. 452 HISTORY OF ENaLANB. The Irish Kebellion. Union of England and Ireland. On the accession of George III., the Irish Roman Catholics began to give signs of a movement which had for its object the Reform of their Parliament and the removal of oppressive laAvs. An organisation of ' Whiteboys,' so called from their dress, soon gave proof, by deeds of violence, that the Romanists would not tamely submit to be kept down any longer as an inferior race. During the war with the American colonies, they became bolder in their demands, and embodied themselves as volunteers to ensure the success of their hopes. While this movement was gathering strength in Ireland, the French Revolution broke out, and filled the Irish with the wildest enthusiasm. The Protestants of the north, and the Romanists of the west and south, forgot their religious differences, and banded themselves together in a society called the ' United Irish- men,' to separate Ireland from Great Britain, and establish an Irish republic. (1791.) The Government, alarmed at such a union, granted certain privileges to the Roman Catholics, and forbade the meetings of the new society. But there was already an active correspondence with the French republic ; secret societies spread throughout the island, and everything was prepared for a rising as soon as the French should cross the sea. In 1796, a formidable expedition under Hoche set out from Brest, but it was scattered by a storm. A second attempt in the following year on the part of the Dutch was foiled by Duncan's victory at Camperdown. The Irish, disappointed at not receiving foreign aid, resolved to trust to themselves, and fixed a day in the 1 tyoe i^'^<^i^tb of May to raise the flag of revolt. But the Government, receiving information of the A.D. plot, seized the leaders, amon^ whom were Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the brother of the Duke of Ltinster, iind Robert Emmett. Fitzgerald was mortally wounded in the scuffle that attended his arrest. A rising then took place in several parts of the country, but it was only serious in the county of Wexford, where for two months it GEOEGE III. 453 raged cruelly and fiercely. The rebels entrenched them- selves on Vinegar Hill, near Enniscorthy. There they were attacked by General Lake at the head of a large force, and, after maintaining their ground for an hour and a half, broke and fled in all directions. During the rebellion, great atrocities were committed on both sides. The rebels shut up about 200 prisoners, chiefly Protestants, during an attack upon New Ross, and set fire to the house and destroyed them all. In the camp on Vinegar Hill, Protestant prisoners from time to time underwent mock trial, and were butchered till the roll numbered about 400 victims. On the day before the battle of Vinegar Hill, ninety-seven prisoners were piked and thrown into the River Slaney. On the other hand, the ferocity of the rebels was equalled by the cruelty of the soldiers. Little mercy was shown to an insurgent. Floggings, half-hangings, and other tortures, more than avenged the atrocities of the rebel camp. Two months after the rebellion was over, a French force of 900 men, under Humbert, landed in Killala Bay, in Mayo. Pushing into the interior, he defeated General Lake at Castlebar, but in a few days he was surrounded near Longford and compelled to surrender. The Irish rebellion showed the necessity of a closer connection between England and Ireland, and it wag re- solved to unite the Parliaments of the two countries, as had been done in the case of Scotland in Anne's reign. The TTnion was unpopular in Ireland, but, after much debate, bribery, and pressure, a Bill to that effect was passed. Henceforth, Ireland was to be re- lom' presented in the Imperial Parliament by four lords spiritual, twenty-eight lords temporal, and one hundred commoners ; the Churches of the two countries were to be united in one Protestant Episcopal Church ; the two peoples were to enjoy the same trading privileges; and the laws remain as they were, unless changed by the Im- perial Parliament. The cross of St. Patrick was then combined with those of St. George and St. Andrew, and the ' Union Jack ' henceforth became the national flag of 454 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. At the same time, the English sovereign dropped the title and arms of ' King of France.' William Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, had been at the head of the ministry for some time. Believing that the Union would prove a greater blessing to Ireland if the penal statutes against Eomanists were abolished, he strongly advised the king to consent to such a measure. The king, however, would not agree to this, and Pitt consequently resigned his office. Ireland was still discontented and rebellious, in spite of the Union. In 1803, an insurrection broke out in the streets of Dublin, but it was suppressed in a single night. Eobert Eramett, for his share in this attempt, suffered death. Throughout the remainder of the reign, the Irish people continued quiet, and began to reap, by increased trade and general prosperity, the benefits of the Act of Union. Second War with France. Battle of Trafalgar. Two months after the Treaty of Amiens, Napoleon was elected consul for life. His ambitious schemes becoming manifest, the British Government hesitated to restore Malta. Napoleon complained of the delay, and of the countenance given by England to French emigrants, and backed his remonstrances with great naval preparations. When his plans were ready, he declared war, and meanly seized about 10,000 English, who were then travelling in France, and kept most of them prisoners till the peace. (May 1803.) His troops immediately occupied Hanover, Bremen, and Hamburg, whilst the English fleets scoured the seas and recajDtured the colonial possessions of the enemy. But Napoleon's grand scheme was the invasion of England, and for this purpose he formed an immense camp at Boulogne, and collected a large flotilla of boats for the transport of his armies. He spent the year 1804, • duringwhich he was proclaimed Emperor of the French, in preparations for the daring undertaking. His plan was aEORGE III. 455 to allure the English fleet from the Channel, and then, with the united navies of France and Spain, bear down all opposition. In England, every precaution was taken to defeat the invasion. Pitt resumed the post of Prime Minister ; 300,000 volunteers were enrolled, and Nelson was despatched with a formidable fleet to watch and harass the enemy. By Pitt's skilful diplomacy, Russia, Austria, and Sweden allied themselves against France. The beginning of 1805 found Napoleon's plans ripe for execution. The Toulon fleet, under Yilleneuve, escaped the vigilance of Nelson, effected a junction with the Spanish navy off Cadiz, and sailed for the "West Indies, to allure the English from Europe. Off to the West went Nelson in hot pursuit, but no enemy could be seen. Villeneuve had returned to Europe, having succeeded in drawing his great adversary far out of the way, and the invasion seemed sure of suc- cess. To the west of Cape Finisterre, however, the French Admiral fell in with Sir Eobert Calder, who had been sent to watch for him. (July 22, 1805.) Calder immediately dashed at the combined fleets with his insignificant force, took two Spanish ships, and so crippled the enemy, that Villeneuve, instead of proceeding np the Channel to secure the safe passage of the troops to Britain, withdrew to Ferrol for repairs, and thence to Cadiz. This gave Nelson time to return, and defeated Napoleon's scheme. In October, Nelson, with twenty- seven sail of the line, encountered the combined fleets of France and /-, , oi Spain, numbering thirty-three ships, off Cape lonK* Trafalgar. Hoisting the thrilling signal, ^England expects every man will do his duty^ the English admiral bore down upon the enemy in two lines, having his ov/n flag-ship, the ' Victory,' in the van. In the terrible struggle that followed, his vessel became entangled in the rigging of the French ship ' Eedoubtable.' Marksmen placed aloft in the latter ship raked the ' Victory's ' deck with musket-shot, and a bullet struck Nelson on the left shoulder and lodged in his spine. Before he died, the shouts of victory fell on the brave seaman's ears, and he 456 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. faltered out in triumph, * Now I a,m satisfied ; thank God, I have done my duty.' The victory indeed was most glorious and complete. The enemy lost nineteen ships and 20,000 prisoners. The French navy was destroyed, and British supremacy at sea remained without a rival. Nelson was buried in St. Paul's Cathedral with princely honours, amid the tears of the whoje nation. In the meanwhile, Napoleon marched his ' Grand Army' of invasion against Austria, forced the surrender of 30,000 Austrians under Mack at Ulm (October 20), entered Vienna, and defeated the Austrians and Russians at Austerlitz, in Moravia, (December 2, 1805.) The successes of the French on land thoroughly broke the spirit of Pitt. Disappointed and worn out by care and toil, the great statesman died in January 1806, at the early age of forty-six. A few months after, he was followed to the grave by his great rival Fox. During this year. Napoleon's tide of success continued to flow. He made his brother Joseph King of Naples; another brother, Louis, King of Holland ; united the lesser States of Germany into a Confederation of the Rhine, under his protectorship ; and forced Francis of Austria to renounce the title of Emperor of Germany. Prussia, daring to take offence, was humbled in one day by the battle of Jena. England and Russia were the only two countries of Europe that retained their independence. Unable to reach with his armies the people whom he contemptuously called ' a nation of shopkeepers,' Napoleon attempted to destroy English commerce by issuing the famous Berlin Decrees, declaring the British Islands to be in a state of blockade, and commanding the ports of Europe to be closed against British vessels. England retaliated, forbidding any neutral Power to trade with France or her allies. In 1807, the French emperor marched against Russia. The indecisive battle of Eylau was followed by the decisive victory of Friedlanrl, and the Russian emperor, Alexander I., glad to make terms with the conqueror, concluded the Treaty of Tilsit, (July 7.) Half of the Prussian dominions were then formed into the kingdom of Westphalia, and given to GEOEGE III. 457 Jerome, another brother of Napoleon. The British Go- vernment, seeing the whole of Europe at the feet of its enemy, and fearing a union of the northern navies, sent a powerful armament to demand the surrender of the Danish fleet until the close of the war. Denmark, being a neutral State, refused, but the English admiral forced compliance by bombarding Copenhagen. The ambitious Frenchman then turned his mind to the conquest of the Spanish peninsula. He first made a treaty with Spain to divide Portugal, and an army under Junot entered Lisbon ; but in the following year he displaced the Spanish king, and transferred his brother Joseph from Naples to Madrid. This act of aggression gave rise to the Peninsular war. The Peninsular War. The Spaniards rose in arms, and in a fortnight drove Joseph out of Madrid. In answer to their appeal for help, Sir Arthur Wellesley with 10,000 British troops landed at Mondego Bay, in Portugal, in August, and defeated the French atIloIica,and four days after gained another ^ ^^^ victory over Junot at Vimiera. As Sir Arthur was about to follow up his advantage, he was superseded by Sir Henry Burrard, who almost immediately gave way to Sir Henry Dalrymple. The latter made a shameful treaty with the enemy, called the Convention of Cintra, by which they were allowed to leave Portugal with all their arnas and stores. Dalrymple's foolish leniency cost him his command, which was then given to Sir John Moore. The new general, deceived by Spanish promises of support, marched into Spain as far as Sala- manca, but finding Madrid in the hands of the French, and learning that a large army under Soult was threateniDg his rear, he returned towards the ioaq' coast of Galicia, hotly pursued by the enemy. At Corunna he turned at bay, and beat back the legions of France ; but he lost his life in the battle. The 458 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. troops then embarked in some transports, and left the French in possession of the town. The command of the British army again devolved upon Sir Arthur Wellesley. With 25,000 men he marched into Spain, and encountered king Joseph and Marshals IRHq' "V^icto^ ^^^ Jourdan at Talavera, where the ' French lost nearly 10,000 men. For this victory he was made Viscount Wellington. The French, however, were too strong in his front, and he was compelled to retire to the frontiers of Portugal. Austria in the mean- time had risen against France, but at Wagram her power was again shattered, and Napoleon dictated his own terms of peace. While the French were advancing against Austria, a British expedition, consisting of 40,000 men, was sent under the Earl of Chatham, elder brother of Pitt, to seize Antwerp, and thus create a diversion in favour of our ally. Chatham, a man unequal to the occa- sion, wasted his time before Flushing, while the enemy made Antwerp impregnable. He then withdrew to the marshy island of Walcheren, at the mouth of the Scheldt, where pestilence made sad havoo among the troops, and, ere the recall of the expedition in December, one-half of the force v/as swept off by disease. The beginning of the year 1810 saw Napoleon the master of the continent of Europe. To perpetuate his dynasty, he divorced his wife Josephine and married Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis II. of Austria. His supremacy on the Continent enabled him to fill Spain with troops. Massena with 80,000 veterans advanced into 1810 pQj,j^^^gai^ and forced Wellington to withdraw behind the ' lines ' of Torres Vedras, near Lisbon ; but, before entering these entrenchments, he inflicted a crushing defeat upon the French on the heights of Susaco. In the spring of 1811, the British army issued from Torres Vedras, and won victory after victory in splendid succession. General Graham defeated a superior French force under Victor at Barossa, near Cadiz, in March. Two monthslater, Wellington routed Massena at Fuentes d'Onoro, GEORGE. III. 459 and a few days after, General Beresford, while besieging tlie fortress of Badajoz, defeated Soult at Albuera. - ..- - This last battle was the most bloody in the whole war. Though the struggle lasted only four hours, nearly 16,000 men were slain ; the loss on both sides being about equal. Beresford, however, was obliged to relinquish the siege. In the East, Batavia, the capital of the Dutch colonies in Java, surrendered to a British force. The fifth campaign opened with the capture of the two border fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, but these important places cost thousands of lives. At Badajoz alone the British army lost 5,000 men in killed and wounded. Holding these fortresses as a base, Wellington marched forward into Spain, and utterly routed Marmont j i oo at Salamanca. The victorious army entered iqiq' Madrid in the following month, amid the re- ^^ joicings of the people, but the advance of the French in overwhelming numbers compelled the victor to fall back upon Ciudad Rodrigo. Meanwhile, Napoleon, uniting the forces of his empire with those of Austria and Germany, till his armament numbered about half a million of men, had set out to chastise Eussia for its opposition to his Berlin Decrees. Defeating the Russians at Smolensk and at Borodino, he reached Moscow. (September 15, 1812.) But Alexander refused to treat, and in a few days the flames of the city, fired by the Russians, drove the invader back. Pursued by the Cossacks, and exposed to hunger and the intense cold of a Russian winter, only a few of the invading army lived to reach the Niemen. This disastrous retreat, which cost Napoleon about 400,000 men, shook the French empire, and led to the Confederation which, in the next year, effected his overthrow. England's difficulties were increased this year by a war with the United States of America, which wiU be related separately. In 1813, while Germany, aided by Russia, Prussia, and Sweden, was rising to shake off the French yoke, Welling- ton for the last time advanced into Spain. At Vittoria 460 HISTOEY .OF ENGLAND. he thoroughly scattered the French under King Jose23h and Marshal Jourdan, and captured all their June 21, 1 rrn • i^ Ifil*? artillery, stores, and army chest. The victor pushed on, defeated Soult in the Pyrenees, and, entering France, defeated him again at the Nivelle. In the meantime, the strong fortresses of St. Sebastian and Pampeluna had fallen into the hands of the English. Early next year Soult endeavoured to stop the English advance, but he was overthrown at Orthes. (February 27.) Two months later he made another stand at ^Q--' Toulouse, but only to receive a most disastrous defeat. Ten days earlier. Napoleon, who had been routed at Leipsic in October of the previous year, was followed to Paris by an immense host of Eussians, Prussians, Swedes, and Germans, and compelled to abdi- cate the throne of France. The Bourbon dynasty was restored to the French throne ; the first treaty of Paris was signed in May ; Napoleon was sent to the island of Elba ; and a General Congress was appointed to meet at Vienna to settle the affairs of Europe. Wellington, for his victorious career in the Peninsula, was made a duke, received the thanks of Parliament, and a grant of 500,000/. War with the XTnited States of America (1812-14). The immediate cause of the quarrel with the United States was the claim of England to search American vessels for English seamen. But the Americans had for some time been very discontented with the rigorous manner in which the British Government had carried on the blockade of the ports of France and her allies in retaliation for the Berlin Decrees. The British right of search, therefore, was strongly resisted, and ended in a declaration of war by America. (June 18, 1812.) An attempt to invade Canada the same year failed through the loyalty of the colonists. At sea, however, the Americans, by the employment of heavily-armed cruisers, were at first successful, but England maintained her naval GEORGE III. 461 supremacy, in the following summer, by the famous ' ocean duel' between the 'Shannon' and the American 'Chesa- peake.' In an engagement off Boston Harbour, the British flag waved over the 'Chesapeake,' after a combat of only •fifteen minutes. At this time the Americans had captured three British frigates and a number of brigs and sloops of war, while they had also seized hundreds of British mer- chantmen. In 1813, the Americans again invaded Canada and captured York, now Toronto. They also captured the entire British fleets on the Lakes Erie and Champlain. The battle of Chippewa was bravely fought and resulted in a drawn battle. A British fleet, having some of Wellington's veterans on board, came into Chesapeake Bay, and, the troops landing, marched on Washington City, which was abandoned by the inhabitants. The invaders burned the Capitol, the Congressional Library, the President's house, the Navy-yard, and many public buildings (August 15, 1814). An attack- on Fort McHenry, the defence of Baltimore, was repulsed, while the land force sent to cooperate fell back to their fleet after losing their commander, Gen. Eoss. An invasion of Louisi- ana resulted in the defeat of the British army, at New Or- leans, with a loss of 2,600 men (January 8, 1815). The Treaty of Ghent (December, 1814) closed the war without deciding the 'right of search' question, which, in truth, was not mentioned, but the ' right ' has not been exercised since. Napoleon's Escape from Elba. Battle of Waterloo. While the Congress of Vienna was busy settling the affairs of the Continent, news came that Napoleon had escaped from Elba, and was in Paris at the head of his veterans. The little Corsican landed on the coast of Provence, March 1, and was received everywhere with the wildest enthusiasm. Soldiers, officers, and marshals rallied round him, and in twenty days he was again emperor at the Tuileries. The Powers of Europe im- mediately combined to crush th^ disturber of the peace of the world. The British Parliament voted immense sums of money, and sent Wellington with an army 2V 462 HISTORY OF ENGLANR to Belgium, while the Prussians under Blucher were hastening to the Rhine, and the other Powers marshalling their legions. Napoleon's safety lay in immediate action, and his plan was clear. He hurried to the northern frontier to prevent the union of Wellington and Blucher, and thus crush them in detail. Sending Marshal Ney to attack the advanced British position at Quatre Bras, he himself with his main force fell upon the Prussians at Ligny, defeated them, and sent Grouchy in pursuit with 35,000 men, while he himself turned to meet Wellington. Ney's attack at Quatre Bras, on the same day as the battle of Ligny, was gallantly repulsed ; but the defeat of the Prussians necessitated a retreat of the British forces to the village of Waterloo. Napoleon, however, had succeeded so far in his plans ; he had separated his two opponents, overthrown one, and now advanced to Waterloo to chastise the other. On June 17, Wellington took up his position on the ridge of Mont St. Jean^ in front of Waterloo. His army numbered about 72,000 men, of whom only 24,000 were British, and of these only about 15,000 were Peninsular veterans. The rest were Hanoverians, Dutch, and Belgians, many of whom were arrant cowards. Napoleon, Avith about 80,000 men, and artillery double that of his adver- sary, took up a position on the opposite ridge of La Belle Alliance. In a hollow between the two ridges lay the farmhouses of Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte, round which the battle raged most fiercely. On Sunday morn- ina:, June 18, the soldiers rose from their bivouacs in the midst of a drizzling rain, which had fallen continuously throughout the night ; and soon after ten o'clock the conflict began by a furious attack of the French ^Qyfi' on Hougoumont. Napoleon's tactics were to break the ranks of the allied forces by a storm of A.D. . shot and shell, and then to hurl against them his splendid cavalry. Wellington's object was to maintain his ground until the Prussians should arrive ; and his iron will baffled all the efforts of his adversary to dislodge him. Again and again, grape, canister, anil cannon-balls tore GEORGE III. 463 through the allied lines, and before the smoke had time to clear away, steel-clad cuirassiers, lancers, and hussars rushed down upon them. But the British infantry, drawn up in solid squares, received their onset at the point of the bayonet, and hurled them back, with many an empty saddle. Thus the struggle continued throughout the day, with terrible loss on both sides. Shortly after four in the afternoon, the sound of cannon boomed in the east, and Napoleon soon discovered that Blucher had outmarched Grouchy, and was hurrying to the battle-field. Knowing that there was not a moment to lose, he ordered Ney to lead the reserves, consisting of the Old Guard of France, the veterans of Austerlitz, Jena, and Wagram, and to make a final charge. The British Guards received the attack with a withering fire of musketry, and with a cheer rushed down the slope upon the wavering foe. A short hand-to-hand fight followed, and the French guards reeled back, broke, and fled, and Waterloo was won. Napoleon, seeing the flower of his army a disordered mass, exclaimed, ' Sauve qui pent ! ' and rode off the field. The Prussians, who had entered the battle just as the French Guards were reeling before the British infantry, took up the pursuit, and throughout that night many a soldier of France experienced the unspariag vengeance of the vanquished at Jena and Ligny. The French loss in the battle and pursuit amounted to about 40,000 men, while the allies lost about 15,000. Napoleon, having narrowly escaped capture in the pursuit, reached Paris, abdicated in favour of his son, and fled to Eochefort, intending to embark for America. But Louis XYIII. re- entered Paris on July 8, and a week later the fallen emperor surrendered himself on the quarter-deck of the * Bellerophon,' in the roads of Aix, to the mercy of Britain. The allies resolved to send him where he could no longer disturb the peace of Europe. He was, therefore, conveyed to the island of St. Helena, where he died on May 5, 1821. In 1840, his remains were removed to France, and buried in the chapel of the Invalid es, Paris. By the second Treaty of Paris, which followed the 464 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. battle of Waterloo, it was agreed to reduce France to her limits of 1790 ; to make her pay a war indemnity of 28,000,000/., and to maintain a large allied army in her frontier fortresses for five years. In the same year, the Congress of Vienna completed the task of regulating the affairs of Europe. These long wars with France left England burdened with an additional debt of 630,000,000/., making the total amount of the National Debt 868,000,000/. But a great deal of this money was spent in helping the various nationalities of Europe to fight their own battles. There was scarcely a single continental Power unaided by British gold. Many times during the war the English people experienced much distress, but the period immediately following the peace was far more trying. Trade was stagnant, wages were low, and bread dear — wheat rising to 1005. a quarter. Discontent accompanied poverty and misery, and furnished a splendid field for popular agitators. A cry for reform became general ; political clubs started into existence ; riotous assemblies were frequent in all the large towns ; and treasonable publications were widely cir- culated. The Government repressed all seditious movements with a high hand ; and at Manchester, in 1819, a political meeting was dispersed by the military. In this affair, long remembered as the 'Peterloo massacre,' several agitators lost their lives, and hundreds were wounded. Affairs in India. Warren Hastings. After the destruction of the French power in the Carnatic by the capture of Pondicherry, the affairs of the East India Company continued to prosper, in spite of many serious disputes with the native princes. Meer Cossim, the Nabob of Bengal, having quarrelled with the Company's officials, massacred all the English at Patna, and then marched with a large army to drive the British out of the province. Major Munro, at the head of a small force, met him at Buxar, and won a splendid victory. (1764.) But these GEOKaE III. 465 quarrels considerably interfered with trade, and were, con- sequently, displeasing to the directors of the Company in England. They therefore requested Lord Clive to return to Bengal to put matters on a peaceful footing. Soon after his arrival, he concluded a treaty at Allahabad with the Mogul, by which the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa were to be entirely -under the rule of the Company, on condition of granting the Nabob a handsome pension. (1765.) Clive remained in India for eighteen months, working vigorously to establish English interests on a durable basis. He returned home a wealthy man, but he was exposed to much persecution from those whom his firm government had offended, and he died at last by his own hand. (1774.) Though peace had been established in Bengal, the state of Madras was not so fortunate. A quarrel with Hyder Ali, the Eajah of Mysore, led to a war of two years' dura- tion, which quite exhausted the Company's revenue. ^ (1769). The proprietors in England raised such an out- cry at the loss of their dividends, that the king's govern- ment passed an Act in 1773 for the better regulation of Indian affairs. It was resolved to establish at Calcutta a governor-general, with a Coimcil, to be supreme over all the British possessions in India. Warren Hastings, who had entered the Company's service as a clerk in 1750, was the first to hold this important post. (1773.) The members of the Council of four, established to aid the governor-general, were appointed by the crown, and, unfortunately for British id terests, three persons having personal and political prejudices against Hastings were placed on the Council. The supreme government was thus divided against itself, much to the injury of the Com- pany's service. Hastings entered upon office at a time when the treasury of the Company was almost empty. His first measures were directed to fill the exchequer, in accordance with orders from home, and in doing this his zeal overran his discretion, and exposed him to the attacks of his personal enemies. He assisted the Nabob of Oude to subjugate the 466 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. Rohillas, on condition of receiving a large grant of money and other advantages ; but thongh the treasury was thu3 replenished, the method employed raised up many enemies to British rule. The warlike Mahrattas of Central India took offence at the attack upon the Eohillas, and united with Hyder Ali of Mysore to expel the English from Madras, just at a time when a war with France enabled a hostile French fleet to appear in the Indian seas. (1780.) The British empire in Southern India was saved from ruin only by the vigour of Hastings, who sent a force under Sir Eyre Coote from Bengal to the south, and at the same time used all his skill successfully to break up the native alliance. Hyder, worsted in every encounter with Coote, suddenly died, and was succeeded by his son, Tippoo Saib, under whom the war continued till 1784, when a peace was con- cluded advantageous to the English. During these wars, Hastings committed those acts of spoliation to fill his ex- hausted treasury which excited so much indignation against his government. He wrung a heavy tribute irom the Eajah of Benares, who was under British protection ; and meeting with some opposition on a renewal of the extor- tion, he deposed the rajah, and seized his treasury. He also connived at the plunder of the Begums or princesses of Oude. The excuse for these acts was, that money was wanted to carry on the war in the south, else India would have been lost. Hastings returned to England, after holding the office of governor-general for thirteen .years. He was impeached before the House of Lords on charges of cruelty and op- pression to the natives of India. The trial commenced in 1788, and went on at intervals till 1795. Hastings was acquitted, but the trial left him almost penniless. He spent the rest of his life in retirement, on a pension of 4,000/. granted by the East India Company. Lord Cornwallis was next sent out from England as governor-general, with strict injunctions to avoid war. (1786.) Three years afterwards, hostilities commenced with Tippoo Saib, who gladly made peace in 1792, and ceded to the English nearly half his dominions. During GEORGE III. 467 the war of the French Eevolution, France did her best to work mischief in India. Tippoo Saib, lending himself to French intrigues, again took up arms during the govern- ment of the Marquis of Wellesley. The war ended in the capture of Seringapatam, the death of Tippoo, and the addition of 20,000 square miles to the British empire. (1799). Colonel Wellesley (Duke of Welhngton) took part in the war with Tippoo. Three years afterwards, the Mahrattas combined to make themselves masters of India. General Lake defeated one chief under the walls of Delhi, and liberated the Mogul ; while General Wellesley routed another in the great battle of Assaye. (1803.) The Mahrattas submitted in 1805 ; and from this time the Mogul became a pensioner of the East India Company, while Delhi, Agra, and other provinces, both in the north and south, were added to our Indian empire. Peace re- mained undisturbed till 1814, when the Ghoorkas of Nepaul began to harass the northern borders. Their depredations, however, cost them a loss of territory 12,000 square miles in extent. In 1817, the Mahrattas and Pindarees, again becoming insolent and troublesome, were deprived of 60,000 square miles of territory. Eegency of the Prince of Wales. Death and Character of the King. In the year 1810, the king's mind, long prone to insanity, gave way ; and this terrible affliction was further aggravated by total blindness and partial deafness. The appointment of a regent was therefore necessary. This office naturally devolved upon the Prince of Wales, who, with the full prerogative of majesty, entered upon the regency February 5, 1811. The old king spent the re- mainder of his life in Windsor Castle, where he passed his time chiefly in roving from room to room, occasionally stopping to play a few bars of music on the pianos and harpsichords placed in his apartments. In all his affliction, his piety never forsook him j and it was most afEScting to 468 HISTOEY OF ENGLA:N^D. hear him pray and talk of holy things under the impression that he was holding converse with angels. The latter years of the reign brought many sorrows upon the royal family, in addition to the king's illness. The death of the Princess Charlotte, only child of the prince regent, threw the whole nation into mourning. (November 6, 1817.) In the previous year, she had married Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards King of the Belgians, and her early death in childbirth was everywhere lamented. A twelvemonth later, the good Queen Charlotte died. It is said that she had been in the habit of spending 5,000Z. annually in works of benevolence, and especially in encouraging such female authors as Mrs. Trimmer and Hannah More. The mourning for the queen had scarcely been removed, when her son, the Duke of Kent, father of our present sovereign, died. In less than a week, his father, George III., expired at the age of eighty- two, having occupied the throne for sixty years. (Jan. 29, 1820). His reign was the longest in English history. He had fifteen children, of whom six were daughters. The four eldest sons were the Prince Eegent, Frederick Duke of York, William Duke of Clarence, and Edward Duke of Kent. George III. was by far the best of the Georges. He was a man of ordinary understanding, but endowed with more than an average share of tact and skill in managing men and things. He was actuated by a high sense of duty, and was firm, even to obstinacy, in the maintenance of Avhat seemed right. His example as a sincere and humble Christian was a blessing to the country. His prayer-book and bible bear marks of his simple, earnest piety. In later years, he loved to retire from the turmoil of town-life to the quiet haunts of "Windsor, where his affable manners and homely habits obtained for him the name of * Farmer George.' GEORGE III. 469 Miscellaneous Facts. In 1780, London was disturbed for many days by the Gordon Kiots. Two years previously, certain penal laws against Eoman Catholics had been repealed. This measure caused much excitement in the country, and in London a huge multitude, numbering 60,000 persons, marched to Palace Yard, under the guidance of Lord George Gordon, to petition Parliament to repeal its late act of leniency to Romanists. The rejection of the petition was the signal for the mob to break out into open violence. For five days a reign of terror kept the capital in uproar and con- fusion. Eoman Catholic chapels were destroyed ; Newgate and other prisons were stormed and set on fii-e ; and pillage and destruction threatened the whole city. The mob even dared to withstand the military sent out to suppress the riots, and only withdrew after leaving more than 400 of their number dead or wounded in the streets. Twenty- one of the ringleaders were hanged ; but Gordon received an acquittal, chiefly through the able defence of his counsel, Erskine. In August 1816, a British fleet under Lord Exmouth was sent to Algiers to demand the surrender of all Chris- tians whom the Algerines had seized and treated as slaves. The Dey having refused, and also insulted the British consul, the fleet bombarded the town for six hours. The bombardment forced the Dey to liberate nearly 1,100 Christian slaves, and laid the pirate-nest in ruins. The right of publishing the debates in the Houses of Parliament was obtained in the early part of the reign. Woodfall, the printer of the ' Public Advertiser,' took a leading part in demanding this right. His paper is famous for the publication of a series of political letters, known as the Letters of Junius, written by some unknown hand ; but the author is now generally believed to have been Sir Philip Francis. In the spring of 1812, Mr. Perceval, the Prime Minister, 470 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. was shot in the lobby of the House of Commons by a merchant whose business had been ruined by the war. An agitation against the African slave trade com- menced in this reign. Mr. Wilberforce, a member of the House of Commons, took a leading part in the struggle, and succeeded in obtaining an Act to suppress the traffic, but his efforts to obtain the freedom of slaves in the colonies failed. In 1781, Robert Raikes, a printer of Gloucester, opened the first Sunday-school. About the same time the philan- thropist John Howard made a tour through Europe to amend the condition of prisons and prisoners. His work of mercy was brought to a sudden close at Cherson, in Russia, where he died of fever. (1790.) Popular educa- tion received a great impetus from the establishment of the National School Society and the British and Foreign School Society in 1811. The Religious Tract Society, Church Missionary Society, and Bible Society, all founded in this reign, furthered the cause of religious education. In 1785, the London ' Times,' then called the * Daily Universal Register,' was established. Among the in- ventions, discoveries, and improvements of the reign may be mentioned : the first improvement in the steam-engine, by Watt (1765); the spinning-jenny invented by Har- greaves, and the spinning-frame by Arkwright (1767); Botany' Bay discovered by Captain Cook (1770); the mnle-jenny invented by Crompton (1775); the Sandwich Islands discovered by Cook (1778) ; mail-coaches began to run (1784) ; the power-loom invented by Cartwright, and steam first applied to cotton-spinning (1785) ; coal-gas first used for lighting (1792) ; vaccina- tion introduced by Dr. Jenner (1796) ; a steam-boat tried upon the Clyde (1802) ; a locomotive steam-engine first used on the railroad at Merthyr Tydvil (1804) ; London streets first lighted with gas (1807); a steam-boat began to ply on the Clyde (1812) ; the first steam-boat appeared on the Thames (1815) ; the Atlantic first crossed by a steamer (1816). GEORGE III. • 471 LEADING AUTHORS UNDER GEORGE III. I. POETS. OLIVER GOLDSMITH (1728-1774), born in Ireland : author of the ' Traveller,' * The Deserted Village,' and several prose' works. WILLIAM COWPER (1731-1800), sometimes mentally deranged : author of the 'Task,' 'John Gilpin,' and a 'Translation of Homer.' ROBERT BURNS (1759-1796), an Ayrshire farmer, the national poet of Scotland : famed for his lyric poems ; his genius marred by intemperate habits. HENRY KIRKE WHITE (1785-1806), born at Nottingham: died at an early age. PERCY B. SHELLEY (1792-1822): author of 'Queen Mab,' * Eevolt of Islam,' &c. II. PEOSE WRITERS. DAVID HUME (1711-1776), a Scotchman: author of ' History of England,' * A Treatise on Human Nature,' and ' Essays.' SIR WILLIAM BLACKSTONE (1723-1780), an eminent lawyer and judge : author of ' Commentaries on the Laws of Eng- land.' SAMUEL JOHNSON (1709-1784), a native of Lichfield: chief works, ' The Lives of the Poets,' ' Easselas,' and an * English Dictionary.' ADAM SMITH (1723-1790), a Scotchman: Professor of Logic in Glasgow University ; chief work, ' The Wealth of Nations,' a standard text-book of political economy. WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1721-1793), a Scotch divine: chief works, ' History of Scotland,' ' History of Charles V.' and ' History of America.* EDWARD GIBBON (1737-1794), born in Surrey: chief work, * The Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire.' EDMUND BURKE (1728-1797), a native of Dublin; an orator and statesman : author of an * Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful ' and ' Eeflections on the French Eevolution.' 472 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. HUGH BLAIR (1718-1800), a Scotch d-ivine: author of • Ser- mons ' and ' Lectures on Belles-Lettres,' WILLIAM PALEY (1743-1805), Archdeacon of Carlisle : author of the ' Evidences of Christianity,' • Natural Theology,' &c. LEADING ARTISTS. THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH (1727-1788), born in Suffolk: a famous landscape and portrait painter. SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS (1723-1792), born in Devon: Presi- dent of the Eoyal Academy ; a famous portrait painter, BENJAMIN WEST (1738-1820), bom in America: President of the Eoyal Academy ; a distinguished historical painter. DAVID GARRICK (1716-1779), the most celebiated actor of his day. LEADING INVENTORS. JAMES BRINDLEY (1716-1772), a native of Derbyshire: en- gineer employed by the Duke of Bridgewater to make a canal from Worsley to Manchester. SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT (1732-1792), born at Preston: originally a hair-dresser ; invented the spinning-frame for use in cotton mills ; reputed the founder of the cotton manufac- ture. JOSIAH WEDGEWOOD (1730-1795): improved the porcelain manufacture ; invented the ' Queen's ware.' JAMES WATT (1736-1819), a Scotchman: invented the double- acting condensing steam-engine. JOHN RENNIE (1761-1821), a famous engineer: constructed the Aberdeen canal ; designed the East and West India Docks, London, and built Waterloo Bridge over the Thames. GEOEGE IV. 473 GEORGE IV. Born 1762 A.D. Eegan to Beign 1820 A.D. Died 1830 A.D. The Cato Street Conspiracy. Queen Caroline. Foreign Affairs. The Holy Alliance. Battle of Navarino. Agitation in Ireland. Eoman Catholic Eelief Bill. Death of the King. Miscellaneous Facts. The Cato Street Conspiracy. Queen Caroline. George IV., eldest son of the late king, ascended the throne at the age of fifty-eight, after having discharged for nine years, as prince regent, all the duties of sovereignty. The latter years of the regency was a period of great dis- tress and much discontent in the nation. The long wars had impoverished the country, and made taxation a very heavy burden. The peace of 1815 was followed by stag- nation of trade and unfavourable harvests, and distress, in consequence, became very general. The Avorking-classes gave vent to their discontent by loud demands for a change in the government of the country, and in many places they broke out into serious riots. Disaffection continued to spread, in spite of the vigorous action of the government • and at length, about the close of the reign of George III., a seditious profligate, named Thistlewood, organised a gang of associates to murder the cabinet ministers while at dinner with Lord HarroAvby, burst open the prisons, set fire to London, and achieve a revolution. The plot was ripe for execution a few days after the accession of the prince regent. On the very evening of the day fixed for the crime, the conspirators were suddenly surprised by the police in a hay-loft in Cato Street, near the Edgware Road, where they were in the habit of assembling. Thistle- 474 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. wood and four of his accomplices in the Cato Street CoH" spiracy, as the plot was called, suffered the extreme penalty of the law, and the rest of the band were trans- ported. (May 1, 1820.) The excitement caused by the discovery of Thistle wood's conspiracy was soon forgotten in the deep interest taken by the public in the king's conduct towards his wife, Queen Caroline. George lY. had married the daughter of the Duke of Brunswick in 1795, but, from the first, the union proved a most unhappy one, and, after the birth of the Princess Charlotte, a separation took place. For several years the Princess of Wales lived a secluded life at Black- heath, but in 1815 she retired to Italy, where she conducted herself so imprudently as to give rise to many grave charges against her character. On her husband's accession, she resolved to return to England to claim her rights as queen. The king did his best to persuade her to remain abroad ; 50,000Z. a year should be paid to her if she would not return. The bribe was indignantly rejected, and the queen landed at Dover amidst the rejoicings of multitudes assembled to welcome her. (June 5, 1820.) The popu- lace had little respect for a king whose whole life had been spent in profligate pleasures, and, though his wife had many faults, they were glad to make her return a fitting opportunity of showing their dislike to him. To the popu- lar mind she was a woman deeply injured by a selfish husband, and her progress to London was one continued ovation. Her return and hearty reception so increased lier husband's anger that he instructed his ministers to take proceedings against her with a view of obtaining a divorce. On July 6, 1820, Lord Liverpool, the premier, introduced into the House of Lords a ' Bill of Pains and Penalties,' charging her with unfaithfulness to the king during her residence in Italy. She was ably defended by Brougham, Denman, Williams, and Lushington, and, though the bill was carried in the Lords by a majority of nine, the ministry, feeling the hopelessness of passing it in the Commons, and intimidated by the excitement of the people, abandoned the measure. GEOEGE IV. 475 Next year, Caroline demanded to "be crowned with her husband, and on the coronation day she attempted to force her way into Westminster Abbey, but was repulsed by the guards. (July 19, 1821.) This last indignity thoroughly broke her spirit, and nineteen days later she was a corpse. By her will, she ordered that her body should be taken to Brunswick for burial, and that her coffin should bear the inscription, ' Here lies Caroline of Brunswick, the injured Queen of England.' The ministry intended that the funeral procession, on its way to Harwich, should avoid the princi- pal streets of London ; but the people resolved that it should march through the City, and receive all the honour that it was in their power to bestow. At Kensington they blocked up the way, forced the cortege to go through Hyde Park, and, after a serious conflict with the soldiers, compelled it to take the route of some of the chief thoroughfares. Whilst London was thus the scene of confusion and riot, George was seeking the popularity denied him at home in Ireland, where, as the first British king who had visited the island in peace, he was received with acclama- tion. After spending a pleasant month in Ireland, he went to Hanover, and was again crowned amidst public re- joicings and festivity. In the following summer, he spent a fortnight in Scotland, being the first king since Charles 11. who had paid a visit to that country. While enjoying the hearty welcome of his Scotch subjects, he received the news that one of his chief ministers, the Marquis of Londonderry (Lord Castlereagh) had committed suicide. This statesman was succeeded in the ministry by Mr. George Canning, as Foreign Secretary. Foreign Affairs. The Holy Alliance. Battle of Navarino. Though peace had been restored on the Continent, the principles of the French Revolution continued to spread amongst the various peoples, and caused much uneasiness to the ruling powers. After the battle of Waterloo, Austria, Eussia, and Prussia entered into a Holy Alliance, by which 476 HISTORY OE ENGLAND. they solemnly declared tlieir intention to carry on the affairs of State, both foreign and domestic, on the principles of Christianity. France also joined the alliance ; but England, suspecting that its object was the maintenance of despotic government, kept aloof. Mr. Canning bent all the powers of his great mind to counteract the projects of the Holy Alliance, and to maintain a policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of foreign States. In the East, the aggressions of the Burmese upon the frontiers of Bengal provoked the British Government to declare war against them. Hostilities commenced early in 1824, and were so successfully conducted by our country- men that in less than two years the Burmese gladly sued for peace, and, by treaty, surrendered to Britain portions of the provinces of Aracan, Tenasserim, &c., containing an area of 80,000 square miles, and renounced all claims upon Assam and its dependencies. (February 1826.) In 1821 the Greeks rose in revolt against the Turks, who had held the south-eastern part of Europe in tyrannous subjection for more than three centuries. The struggle of the Greeks for independence excited the greatest sympathy in England, and men and money were gladly raised to help the brave and hardy descendants of an admired ancient race. One of the most distinguished volunteers was Lord Byron, who placed his purse and pen at the disposal of Greece, and eventually died in her cause. For six years the struggle continued with the greatest barbarity on both sides. At length, in 1827, England, France, and Russia, signed a treaty in London to compel the Sultan to acknow- ledge the independence of Greece, and the combined fleets of the three countries, under Sir Edward Codrington, were sent to the Mediterranean to intimidate the Turks. The Sultan continued obstinate, and ordered up the Egyptian fleet of 90 sail, under Ibrahim Pasha, to reinforce his squadrons on the coast of the Morea. Ibrahim was inter- cepted by Codrington, but was allowed to join the Turkish fleet in Navarino Bay, on condition of remaining quiet till decisive orders came from Constantinople. The aUied fleets also entered the bay, to ensure a performance of aEOEaE IV. 477 Ibrahim's promise, and with orders not to commence hos- tilities unless the Turks should attack first. As might have been expected, a collision soon occurred. The Turks, under some misapprehension, fired into an English boat, and killed some of the crew. The nearest ships of the allied squadron retaliated, and, in a very short time, every vessel was hotly engaged in a battle without plan or design. In about four hours, the Turkish and Egyptian fleets had disappeared ; the larger vessels were at ^^^' ^^» the bottom of the bay — the smaller ones had ^^^* taken refuge in the inner harbour. The destruction of the Turkish navy was regarded in England as an ' untoward event,' and ultimately led to the overthrow^ of the ministry. The battle of Navarino, how- ever, put an end to the war. Greece became an inde- pendent kingdom, and its crown was accepted by Prince Otho of Bavaria. Agitation in Ireland. Roman Catholic Helief Bill. Death of the King. The most important political events of this reign were the removal of those disabilities under which Dissenters, both Protestant and Eoman Catholic, had long laboured. In Ireland, the penal laws passed at the Revolution pressed so heavily upon the Roman Catholics that the demand for their repeal could no longer be safely disregarded by the government. Early in the reign, Daniel O'Connell, an Irish barrister of great eloquence, organised the Catholic Association for the express purpose of agitating the ques- tion of emancipation. The subject was frequently debated in the House of Commons, and motions in its favour were carried, but the House of Lords would not sanction the repeal of the penal laws. The agitation in Ireland increased to such an extent that civil war seemed imminent. In 1828, Lord John Russell successfully carried a motion repealing the Test and Corporation Acts, passed under Charles II., and it was thought that this concession would allay the prevailing discontent. But the Romanists con- 478 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. sidered the repeal of these laws more as a measure of justice to Protestant Dissenters than to themselves, and their clamours for the removal of their own disabilities became louder and more violent. In defiance of the law forbidding Eoman Catholics to sit in Parliament, Daniel O'Connell was elected member for the county of Clare, and it became evident that a crisis was at hand. A Tory government was then in power, of which the Duke of Wel- lington was Prime Minister, and Mr. Peel Home Secretary. As long as it was safe, the ministry stoutly withstood the demands of O'Connell and his party, and, though they were encouraged in their resistance by Protestant clubs in all parts of the country, they saw that further conces- sions must be made to save the empire from the havoc of rebellion and civil war. Accordingly, it was announced at the opening of the parliamentary session of 1829 that the government intended to bring forward a Roman Catho- lic Relief Bill. The announcement caused great excite- ment in the country ; Protestant meetings were held every- where to protest against the measure ; and the names of Wellington and Peel were denounced as traitors to their Church and king. Peel lost his seat for the University of Oxford, and the hero of Waterloo was forced by circum- stances to fight a duel with the Earl of Winchelsea, once one of his warmest supporters. Many of the Tories refused to follow their leaders, but by the help of the Whigs the Belief Bill passed the two Houses, and became April 13, ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^j^^ j^^^^ -g ^j^.^ j^ Roman j.o«&vr Catholics were emancipated from penal laws and ' * placed on the same political footing as their fel- low Protestant subjects; but they Avere still disqualified from the offices of regent. Viceroy of Ireland, and Lord Chancellor, and from posts connected with the English Church and Universities. Lord Surrey, son of the Duke of Norfolk, elected for Horsham, was the first Roman Catholic to enter the House of Commons in accordance with the provisions of the Relief Bill. The king spent the latter years of his reign in the greatest seclusion at Windsor. His favourite drives were GEORGE IV. 479 screened from the public gaze, and when he took exercise, outriders were sent in advance to see that the roads were clear of people. This love of retirement was due in a great degree to disease of the heart. He died at Windsor on June 26, 1830, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and left the crown to his next surviving brother. George IV. is said to have possessed a mind of more than average ability. His well-shaped person was set off to the best advantage by a tasteful magnificence of dress, and his polished manners and courtly appearance obtained from his flatterers the title of the ' first gentleman in Europe.' But in morals he was as low as his father was high. Miscellaneous Facts. During this reign Captains Parry and Ross explored the Arctic Seas in search of a north-west passage. In 1822, Mechanics' Institutes were foimded by Dr. Birkbeck; and the first steamboat was seen on the Thames. In 1824, the National Gallery was established. In 1825, the first steam voyage was made to India, and the first stone of the Thames Tunnel laid. In 1828, London University was opened. In 1829, a new Police Act was introduced by Sir Eobert Peel. In 1830, Omnibuses were introduced from France, and a part of York Minster burnt down. 480 HISTORY OF ENGLAlilD. LEADING AUTHORS UNDER GEORGE IV. LORD BYRON (1788-1824), a great poet: lived a profligate life ; author of ' Childe Harold's Pilgrimage,' and many other poems. Died at Missolonghi, in Grreeee. DUGALD STEWART (1753-1828), Professor of Moral Philo- sophy in Edinburgh: chief works, 'Elements of the Philo- sophy of the Human Mind,' * Outlines of Moral Philosophy, * Philosophical Essays.' LEADING ARTISTS. JOHN ELAXMAN (1755-1826), a native of York : great sculp- tor ; chief works illustrative of ancient Greek and Latin authors. SIR THOMAS LAWRENCE (1769-1830), born in Bristol : a famous portrait painter; called the English Titian: became President of the Royal Academy. JOHN PHILIP KEMBLE (1757-1823), a distinguished trage- dian. LEADING INVENTORS, &c. SAMUEL CROMPTON (1753-1827), inventor of the spinning- frame called the ' Mule.' SIR WILLIAM CONGREVE (1772-1828), inventor of rockets and lucifer matches. SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL (1738-1822), a native of Hanover : at first a musician ; an improver of the telescope ; a great astro- nomer ; discovered the planet ' Uranus,' &e. SIR HUMPHREY DAVY (1778-1829), a native of Cornwall: apprenticed to a surgeon : invented the * Safety-lamp ; ' made many discoveries in chemistry and electricity; Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution of London ; author of ' Chemical and Philosophical Researches.' WILLIAM IV. 481 WILLIAM IV. Born 1765 A.D. Began to Eeign 1830 A.D. Died 1837 A.D. Parliamentary Keform. Acts of the Keformed Parlia- ment. Abolition of Slavery. Foreign Affairs. Death and Character of the King. Miscellaneous Facts. Parliamentary Eeform. The Duke of Clarence, fourth son of George III., ascended the throne, with the title of William IV. He had entered the royal navy at the age of thirteen, and had seen some service under Admirals Eodney and Nelson, but the greater part of his life, subsequent to the French Revolu- tion, vras spent in privacy at Bushey Park. His frank sailor-like manners "won for him popularity, esteem, and the title of the * Sailor-king.' His wife, Adelaide of Saxe- Meiningen, was distinguished for her many virtues, and will be long remembered for her works of charity. At the time of William's accession, the question of a reform of the House of Commons occupied the public mind. For many years there had been a growing demand for a change in parliamentary representation. The distress which followed the long wars of George HI. was attributed by many persons to a bad system of government, and it was said that reform of the House of Commons was the only means of restoring prosperity to the country. A change was certainly needed; for many towns, such as Liverpool, Manchester, and Leeds, which contained a teeming population, were without representation at all, while many small and insignificant places returned to Parliament one or more members. One of these small boroughs, Old Sarum, had not a single house and yet it 432 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. retained the right of sending two members to the House of Commons. The large centres of population, unrepresented in Parhament, could no longer suffer this state of things to continue, and, encouraged by the successful clamours of the Koman Catholics in the previous reign, they be- came loud in their demands for parliamentary reform. The disturbed state of the Continent greatly influ- enced this important question. William had scarcely ascended the throne, when a second revolution broke out in France ; and after three days' fighting in the streets of Paris, Charles X. fled for his life, and Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, was made 'King of the French.' The people of Belgium followed the example of their neighbours, and revolted from the rule of Holland. These revolutions, while they encouraged the English people upon the ques- tion of reform, strengthened the resolve of the Tory ministry to withstand all changes. But the new Parlia- ment which assembled soon after the king's accession was so opposed to the Tory policy, that the Duke of Welling- ton was compelled to make way for a Whig ministry under Earl Grey. On March 1, 1831, Lord John Kussell, then Paymaster of the Forces, introduced his Reform Bill. The two parties in the House of Commons were so evenly balanced, that another appeal was made to the country, and a new House was returned, containing a majority of mem- bers pledged to carry ' the Bill.' In the Commons, after desperate struggles, the measure was carried by a large majority, but it was thrown out in the Lords. The rejec- tion of the bill by the Upper House caused great excitement throughout the country. Serious riots broke out in many places. In London the houses of many of the nobility were the objects of popular vengeance, and the residence of the Duke of Wellington, especially, was often besieged by a furious mob. Nottingham, Derby, and Bristol, were the scenes of serious outrages. Nottingham Castle was burnt to the ground, and the riots in Bristol were only suppressed after much of the city had been destroyed, and more than a hundred persons had been cut down by the military. On the assembling of Parliament, the Reform Bill was WILLIAM IV. 483 again introduced, and passed the Lower House ; but as the king refused to increase the number of Whig peers in the Lords, Earl Grey resigned office. An attempt to form a Tory ministry under the Duke of Wellington failed, and the Whigs again returned to power, amid the acclamations of the people. The members of the Upper House had then no alternative but to let the bill pass, and, by t » the absence of many of the Opposition peers, the .. «qp ' Government obtained a majority, and the Eeform Bill became law. The changes produced by this important measure were twofold: (1) the seats in Parliament were more justly distributed ; and (2) the franchise, or right of voting, was reduced. The ' pocket ' boroughs, such as Gratton and Old Saruni, amounting in all to fifty-six, were disfranchised, and thirty small towns, which returned two representatives each, were allowed to elect only one. The members thus gained were given to the counties and the manufacturing towns. The right of voting for boroughs was given to the tenants of houses worth lOZ. a year or upwards. In the counties all were entitled to vote who had freeholds of the value of forty shillings, or land worth lOZ. a yeai*, or who paid an annual rental of 50Z. Similar bills for Scotland and Ireland passed in the same year. Parliamentary re- presentation was, henceforth, conducted according to the provisions of the Reform Act, until the year 1868, when a more popular measure became law. Acts of the Reformed Parliament. Abolition of Slavery. The new Parliament assembled early in 1883, and pro- ceeded to pass very important measures. Of these, the most memorable was one abolishing negro slavery in all the British colonies and possessions. The merit of this work of Christian charity is mainly due to Mr. William Wilberforce, a merchant of Hull, and member for the county of York, who for years had devoted himself to the question of the eman- cipation of the slaves. The proposal was warmly debated 484 niSTOKy OF ENGLAND. in Parliament, and stoutly opposed by persons interested in the traffic; but the determined efforts of Wilberforce, Brougham, Buxton, Clarkson, and a hosjb of others, suc- ^ Qrtrt ceeded in putting an end to the trade in human :desh wherever the flag of England waved. The slaves, however, did not obtain their freedom all at once. It was enacted that children under six years of age should be declared free in the summer of 1834, but that others should serve an apprenticeship to their present owners for seven years, if field slaves, and for five, if domestics. For the 800,000 slaves who thus received their freedom, a compensation of 20,000,000/. was paid to their masters. Wilberforce, having converted the dream of his life into a reality, died in the same year. In the following year, the attention of the Government was drawn to Ireland, where O'Connell was agitating for the disestablishment of the Irish Church, and the repeal of the Union. The disorders that arose in consequence were met by a Coercion Bill, but the Act caused a split among the ministerial supporters. An attempt was also made on the part of the Government to remove some of the Irish grievances by abolishing ten bishoprics and re-arranging the revenues of the Church. The Cabinet could not agree upon the difficult question of appeasing Ireland, and Earl Grey was forced to resign office. His place as premier was filled by Lord Melbourne, who in the same year passed a very important measure improving the Poor Laws. The system of relief hitherto practised encouraged pauperism to such an extent that the poor-rate amounted to 7,000,000Z. The new Act forbade the relief of all able-bodied paupers in their own homes, and required all who wanted support to enter the workhouse and do a certain amount of work ■ for every meal. The Local Boards, too, were placed under the supervision of government. In the year 1835, the Municipal Act was passed, Avhich gave to the ratepayers of cities and boroughs the right of electing town- councillors, who were privileged to appoint from their number their own chief magistrate. Several important measures marked the year 1836. WILLIAM IV. 485 The Tithe Commutation Act substituted for tithes a rent- charge, which was regulated by the average price of corn in the seven preceding years. Some of the English dioceses were re-arranged, and the bishoprics of Kipon and Manchester established. By other bills, marriages were allowed to be solemnised in Dissenting chapels, or con- tracted before a registrar appointed by the guardians of the poor; and a system of registration of births, marriages, and deaths was adopted. Foreign Affairs. Death and Character of the King. The foreign policy of England throughout this reign was a peaceful one. The revolt of Belgium from Holland was the only cause of interruption of friendly feelings with any foreign Power on the part of the British Government, The King of Holland, naturally loth to lose such a fine province, did his best to recover his authority, but the English and French, interfering on behalf of the Belgians, blockaded the Dutch ports, and forced the king to submit to the loss. Belgium became an independent kingdom, and its crown was given to Prince Leopold, the husband of the Princess Charlotte. (1832.) In 1835, English volunteers were allowed to take part in the civil war raging in Spain between Queen Isabella and her uncle, Don Carlos. General Evans took charge of a British legion in support of the queen, and for nearly two years experienced much hard fighting and privation, "William IV. died on June 20, 1837, in the seventy- second year of his age. He was a man of ordinary talent, business-like habits, and good common sense. His genial manners, warm heart, and simplicity of soul, recommended him to the goodwill of his subjects. By his wife, Queen Adelaide, he had two daughters, who died in infancy ; but by a previous marriage, considered illegal, he left a numerous family of illegitimate children, to whom he gave the name of Fitz- Clarence. 22 486 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1830, the first of those railways which now cover the face of the whole country was opened betAveen Liverpool and Manchester. The Duke of Wellington, then Prime Minister, graced the ceremony with his presence, but the rejoicings of the day were marred by a fatal accident to Mr. Huskisson, who was struck down by a passing engine, and so crushed that death ensued in a few hours. Towards the close of the year 1831, a dreadful pestilence, called the Cholera, which had first appeared in India in 1817, and had been slowly travelling westwards, broke out in Sunderland. Its ravages were checked by the winter, but on the return of spring it committed sad havoc throughout the country, and swept away some 60,000 persons. It disappeared from England about the close of the autumn of 1832. This dreaded scourge has visited our shores on several occasions since, but the progress of sanitary reform has considerably lessened its evils. In 1833, the first Quaker, Mr. Pease, was admitted to the House of Commons as member for South Durham. Durham University was also founded. In 1834, the Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire ; and in the same year. South Australia was colonised. The British Association for the Advancement of Science held its first meeting at York in 1831. WILLIAM IV. 487 LEADING AUTHORS UNDER WILLIAM IV. POETS. SIR WALTER SCOTT (1771-1832), a Scotch barrister: wrote ' Marmion,' ' The Lay of the Last Minstrel,' ' The Lady of the Lake,' &c. ; author of the Waverley Noyels, and other prose writings. SAMUEL T. COLERIDGE (1772-1834), native of Devonshire : a poet of great originality and genius : author of ' The Ancient Mariner ;' ' Lady Christabel,' and several prose works. FELICIA HEMANS (1794-1835), a writer of lyric poems : chief works, * Songs of the Aflfections,' and ' Keeords of Woman.' PROSE WRITERS. ADAM CLARKE (1762-1832), a Wesleyan minister: author of a ' Commentary on the Bible.' JEREMY BENTHAM (1747-1832), a famous writer on legisla- tion and moral philosophy : author of * Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation,' &c. CHARLES LAMB (1775-1834), a wit and essayist : wrote ' Essays ofElia.'&c. WILLIAM COBBETT (1762-1835), son of a yeoman: self- taught ; once a common soldier ; a political writer of some note; author of an * English Grrammar,' 'Advice to Young Men,' and many other works. MRS. SIDDONS (1755-1831) and EDMUND KEAN (1787- 1833) were famous for their histrionic art. 488 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND, VICTOEIA. Born May 24, 1819 A.B. Began to Seign June 20, 1837 A.D. Eebellion in Canada. The Chartists. Troubles in Ireland. War in Syria. Wars with China. Indian Affairs. Afghan War. Ameers of Scinde. The Sikh Wars. War with Burmah. The Sepoy Mutiny. War with Eussia. Abyssinian War. Ministerial Changes and Mea- sures. Repeal of the Corn Laws. Second Reform Bill. Irish Church Bill. National Education. Miscellaneous Facts. Rebellion in Canada. The Chartists. Ireland. Troubles in Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of Edward Duke of Kent, was immediately proclaimed queen on the death of her uncle, and on June 28 in the following year she was crowned at Westminster. As the Salic law, which forbade a female to occupy the throne, was in force in Hanover, the queen's accession severed that country from the British empire ; and Ernest Duke of Cumberland, brother of William IV., became its king. On February 10, 1840, Her Majesty was married to her cousin. Prince Albert, second sen of the Duke of Saxe- Coburg-Gotha. Parliament voted him an annuity of 30,000/.; and the queen, some years later, conferred upon him the title of Prince Consort. Tlie beginning of the reign was marked by a rebellion in Canada. For several years there had been in that portion of our empire much dissatisfaction with English rule, which was greatly encouraged by numerous American sympathisers. As soon as the winter of 1837 had set in, VICTORIA. 489 the Canadians rose in revolt, and made an unsuccessful attacic upon Toronto. Men and stores from the United States came to their assistance ; but in consequence of the president's proclamation forbidding American subjects to commit acts of war against Great Britain, the rebels lost much of the support upon which they had relied. The troops in the colony and the loyal subjects of the Upper Province were quite strong enough to meet the crisis, and the insurrection, deprived of foreign aid, was speedily sup- pressed. In the winter of the following year, a second rising took place in Lower Canada, but it v/as quickly put down. By judicious measures of reform, the Canadians became reconciled to the empire ; but to ensure the peace and security of the colony, the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada were united into one. (February 10, 1841.) About the same time, England was much disturbed by the Chartist movement. The Reform Bill of the previous reign did not satisfy those who had clamoured for radical and sweeping changes in the Constitution. Disappointed in their expectations, they took advantage of the discontent which followed the bad harvests of the first two years of the reign to agitate for a more radical reform. The sup- porters of the movement were called Chartists, because they embodied their demands in what they called a ' People's Charter.' This document contained six points : 1. Universal suffrage. 2. Vote hy Ballot. 3. Annual par- liaments. 4. Electoral districts. 5. The abolition of the property qualification for Members. 6. The payment of par- liamentary representatives. In 1838, the Chartists became so threatening and violent that the Government was compelled to put a stop to their torch -light meetings, and to take active measures against the most seditious leaders. In the following year a rising was attempted in Monmouthshire, and a fruitless attack was made upon Newport. The leaders of the riots — Frost, Williams, and Jones — were arrested and condemned to death ; but they were afterwards reprieved and transported for life. The energy of the Government thoroughly cowed the * physical-force Chartists,' and for 490 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. several years they remained tolerably quiet. The move- ment, however, received an impetus from the French Eevolution of 1848, and, under the leadership of Feargus O'Connor, threatened again to cause the Government some trouble. On Kennington Common, 20,000 misguided men assembled for the purpose of walking in procession to Westminster to present a monster petition in favour of their claims. The Government appealed to the loyalty of the capital, and 200,000 citizens enrolled tliemselves as special constables for the preservation of order. The pro- cession, overawed by this display of loyalty, passed off without any disturbance ; and from that day Chartism never again showed its head. Meanwhile, the condition of Ireland Avas in a most un- satisfactory state. Every concession of the English Govern- ment failed to give peace to that unfortunate country. O'Connell's agitation for a repeal of the Union had re- ceived such support from the Eoman Catholic priesthood that the collections, or ' Eepeal Rent,' at the chapel doors, in the year 1843, amounted to 48,000Z. Monster meetings were held at Tara, the site of Ireland's ancient capital, and other places, where much sedition was spouted. The proposal to hold a gathering at Clontarf, a place famous in old Irish history for a victory over the Danes, led to the issue of a proclamation forbidding such assemblies, and on the day intended for the meeting, the lord-lieutenant sent soldiers to occupy the ground. On October 14, 1843, O'Connell and several other leaders were arrested on the charges of conspiracy and sedition. They were tried, convicted, and condemned to fines and imprisonment ; but an appeal being made to the House of Lords, the sentence was annulled on account of some informality. O'Connell, warned by his narrow escape, afterwards remained quiet. He died at Genoa, May 15, 1847, while on his way to Eome to ask the Pope's blessing. The more violent members of the Eepeal movement, scorning the inactivity of the great agitator, had formed themselves into the ' Young Ireland Party,' for the express purpose of severing the Union by force of arms. The failure VICTOEIA. 491 of the potato crop in 1845, and the consequent famine, during which starvation and emigration reduced the popu- lation of the island to the extent of two millions, had in- -creased the imaginary grievances of the Irish people, and swelled the ranks of the disaffected, in spite of the generous sympathy and aid which England gave to Ireland in her distress. Treasonable newspapers, of which the most violent ■ was * The United Irishman,' edited by John Mitchell, excited the people to rebellion. At length, during the exciting year 1848, a feeble attempt at insur- rection was made in Tipperary, under Smith O'Brien, the member for Limerick. A few policemen sufficed to crush the attempted rising, and its valiant leader was arrested while skulking in a cabbage -garden. O'Brien and three others were condemned to death, but the sentence was changed to transportation for life. After a few years' exile, they were all pardoned or allowed to escape. Ireland then settled down in quietness for some years, and began to reap the blessings of peace in a rapid increase of prosperity. The hopes of the best friends of the country were, however, shattered in 1865 by the discovery of a conspiracy for the establishment of an Irish Republic. The movement had its origin in America among the Yankee- Irish, who, having become inured to bloodshed and dis- order in the civil war between the Northern and Southern States, and having lost their occupation on the return of peace, thought Ireland a fair field v/herein to put their military ruffianism to the test. The society thus organ- ised received the name of the Fenian Brotherhood, from a name borne in old times by some mysterious organisation of Irishmen. The vigorous action of the Government checked the designs of this mischievous society, and by suspending the Habeas Corpus Act, freed Ireland from the numerous fillibustering adventurers who were making a rich harvest in their game of rascality. Foiled across the Irish Channel, some English towns became the hot -beds of Fenian sedition, and the scenes of some of its violence. At Manchester, a prison-van, containing two or three Fenian leaders, was attacked in broad daylight by an armed body 492 HISTOEY OF ENaLAND. of conspirators, and a policeman was shot. In London, a portion of the wall of Clerkenwell prison was blown down, by which many persons were killed or maimed for life. The British Government, wishing to give permanent- peace to Ireland, passed an Act, in 1869, for the dis- establishment of the Irish Church ; and, in the following year, endeavoured to make a better understanding between landlord and tenant by a Land Bill. Nothing, however, seems able to pacify that distracted country ; and, in spite of all the concessions of Government, the agitation for * Home Rule,' or repeal of the Union, is once more the order of the day. War in Syria. Wars with China. In 1840, England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, united to protect the Sultan of Turkey against his rebellious vassal Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt, whose army, under his son Ibrahim, had overrun Syria, and threatened the destruction of the Turkish empire. A British fleet, under Admiral Stopford and Commodore Napier, bombarded Beyrout, Sidon, and Acre, and compelled Ibrahim to with- draw from Syria. The Pacha, disappointed in not re- ceiving help from France, made peace with the Sultan, on condition that the right of ruling Egypt should be heredi- tary in his family. Meanwhile, a dispute had arisen with China about the trade in opium, an article which the Chinese authorities had prohibited to be imported, on account of its injurious effects. But British merchants continued to smuggle the drug into the country, in defiance of the prohibition, and provoked a quarrel which ended in war. In 1839, the Chinese Government ordered the destruction of more than 20,000 chests of opium, imprisoned the British Commis- sioner, and threatened the expulsion of all English mer- chants. For these vigorous measures, the English Govern- ment demanded satisfaction, and, on its refusal, declared war. (1840.) A large military force from India, under VICTOEIA. 493 Generals Pottinger and Goiigh, soon effected the reduction of the chief places near the coast ; and on the appearance of our army before the walls of Nankin, the Chinese signed a treaty of peace. (August, 1842.) They agreed to pay 4,375,000/. for the expenses of the war, in addition to 1,250,000/. paid for the confiscated opium ; to cede Hong Kong to the British ; and to open the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo, Ningpo, and Shanghae, to our mer- chants. In 1856, another war arose with China. Some Chinese soldiers boarded a ship called the ' Arrow,' sailing under British colours, seized a portion of the crew, and pulled down the English flag. Commissioner Yeh, of Canton, having refused to apologise for this outrage, hostilities commenced, and an united force of English and French captured the town. (1857.) In the following spring, an allied British and French fleet, having on board Lord Elgin, Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary, sailed up the Peiho, en route to Pekin, but at Tien-Tsin the expe- dition was met by some Chinese commissioners, who con- cluded a treaty of peace favourable to our interests. (June 26, 1858.) By this it was agreed to open additional ports for commerce ; to tolerate Christianity throughout the empire ; to send a Chinese ambassador to London, and to receive a British minister at Pekin. Next summer, as the English envoy with a squadron was ascending the Peiho to ratify the treaty of peace at Pekin, the Chinese suddenly opened fire upon the ships, and drove them back with heavy loss. (1859.) This treacherous outrage was avenged in the following year by an Anglo-French expe- dition, which gallantly stormed the Taku forts at the mouth of the Peiho, and, after twice defeating the Tartar troops, scaled the walls of Pekin, and dictated terms of peace in the emperor's palace. (October 13, 1860.) An ample apology was made for the treacherous attack of the previous year, and the treaty of Tien-Tsin ratified. 494 HISTOEY OE ENGLAND. Indian Affairs. Wars with the Afghans ; Ameers of Scinde ; the Sikhs ; B'iirmese. Sepoy Mutiny. In 1839, the English interfered in the affairs of Afghan- istan, and experienced one of the greatest disasters that ever befell their arms. The British Government, suspicious of the designs of Russia upon our Indian empire, was anxious to have on the throne of Afghanistan a ruler friendly to English interests. Dost Mahommed, who had usurped the Afghan throne, had lately shown himself so hostile that it was thought advisable to send a force to Cabul to depose him, and replace Shah-Soojah. The expe- dition having proved successful, a part of the army was withdrawn, while the rest remained to support the autho- rity of the English nominee. Everything seemed so quiet that the soldiers sent for their wives and children ; but in November, 1841, the Afghans, disliking the rule of foreign bayonets, rose up in arms, and completely hemmed in the British forces. Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mahommed, had already seized the Khyber Pass, through which lay the only road to Hindostan, and the English army was entirely at the mercy of its enemies. General Elphinstone, the British commander, agreed with Akbar to evacuate the country ; but the Afghans soon showed how little they cared for treaties by the murder of Sir William Mac- naughten and several officers whom they had invited to a conference. Elphinstone commenced the retreat on January 6, 1842. About 4,500 soldiers, and 12,000 camp-followers, besides women and children, set out from Cabul to cross a rugged and mountainous country in the depth of an inclement winter, and in the face of a fierce and relentless foe. Jelalabad, the nearest place of refuge, lay ninety miles distant. On the first day's march the re- treating army could only advance five miles through the snow; and, beset on all sides by yelling Afghans, it had to bivouac for the night without shelter and almost with- out food. Before morning, many were found frozen to VICTORIA. 495 death. Ere three days had passed, 3,000 perished of starvation or by the hands of their enemies. The married men and their wives surrendered to Akbar Khan ; the rest of the survivors pushed on in spite of all opposition, but each day their ranks decreased in number. On January 13, the garrison of Jelalabad saw a single man approaching their walls, mounted on a wretched little pony, and hanging exhausted upon its neck. He proved to be Dr. Brydon, the only one of the force which left Cabul a week before who had escaped to tell the tale. General Sale, the commander at Jelalabad, waited for the advance of General Pollock, who bravely fought his way through the Khyber Pass to avenge his slaughtered countrymen ; and combining their forces with those of General Nott, they advanced upon Cabul, and planted once more the British flag on the ramparts of the citv. Having rescued the prisoners, destroyed the fortifications, and thus restored English prestige, the army evacuated Afghanistan. (October 12, 1842.) Shah-Soojah fell by the hands of an assassin, and Dost Mahommed remounted the throne. A few years later, he made a friendly alliance with Britain. In the year lollowing the Afghan war, a dispute arose with the Ameers of Scinde, whose territory lay around the river Indus. Sir Charles Napier was sent with a small army of 2,500 men to overawe the Ameers, who had at- tacked the British residency at Hyderabad. At Meanee, he encountered a hostile force of 30,000 men, and inflicted upon them a severe defeat. Their capital, Hyderabad, then fell into his hands, and, after another victory near the walls of the city, Scinde was conquered and annexed to the British dominions. (1843.) On the north-east of Scinde lies the district of the Punjab, or country of the five rivers, inhabited by a war- like race of men called Sikhs. In December, 1845, they commenced an unprovoked war with the English, and, crossing the Sutlej, advanced to give battle to the British forces under Sir Hugh Gough and Sir Henry Hardinge, stationed at Moodkee. (December 18.) In this engage- 498 HISTORY OE ENGLAND. ment, the Sikhs were severely beaten, and three days later they were again defeated by the same generals at Feroze- shah. Eetreating across the Sutlej, they were pursued by Sir Harry Smith, and worsted in a terrible conflict at Aliwal. (January 28, 1846.) The decisive victory of Sobraon, in the following month, opened up the way to Lahore, the capital of the Punjab, where the victors dic- tated terms of peace. In 1848, an outbreak at Mooltan, where two British officers were slain, renewed the war. Lord Gough, after an indecisive engagement at Ramnuggur, attacked a great Sikh host, strongly entrenched, at ChiUianwalla; but the battle was so indecisive that the victory was claimed by both sides. (January 13, 1849.) So terrible v/as the British loss on this occasion, that General Napier was hastily sent out from England to take the command. Before his arrival, Gough gained a decisive victory at Goojerat, where, for the first time, Sikh and Afghan were banded together against the British power. (February 21, 1849.) This battle put an end to the war. The Punjab was then annexed to the British empire, and its ruler, Maharajah Dhuleep Sing Bahadoor, a boy eleven years old, became a pensioner of the East India Company. At the same time, the valuable diamond called the ' Koh-i-noor' was surrendered to the Queen of England. The ' Maha- rajah ' afterwards embraced Christianity, and took up his residence in England, where he now possesses several estates. The Sikh war was no sooner ended than the attention of the Indian Government was called to Burmah. The Governor of. Eangoon having ill-treated several merchants and commanders of vessels. Commodore Lambert was sent from Calcutta with a small squadron to demand reparation. The King of Ava refused to grant any redress, and, conse- quently, a British 'force, early in 1852, invaded his terri- tories. Martaban, Rangoon, Bassein, and Pegu, soon fell into our hands ; and, as the king showed no signs of sub- mission, the province of Pegu was annexed to the British dominions, and all communications with the capital strictly VICTOEIA. 497 cut off. (December 20, 1852.) Tlie blockade of the Irrawaddy brought the king to his senses, and in the spring of 1853 he sought peace, and ceded by treaty the province which had been annexed. This territory, con- taining 40,000 square miles, and a population of 3,000,000, was added to our empire. The peace which followed these wars in the East was broken in 1857 by a Mutiny of the Sepoys, or native troops. The army of the East India Company was chiefly composed of natives, of whom a large proportion were high -caste Brahmins. These men had been so pampered and petted that the idea became very prevalent among them that the empire could not continue without their services, and on several occasions in late years they had showed a mutinous spirit. The religious diiFerences of the Brahmin and Mahometan troops strengthened the hands of Government in dealing with the native army, but, unfortunately, the authorities, by some strange fatality, issued cartridges greased with animal fat, which offended the religious scruples of both Hindoos and Mahometans, and enabled them to enter into a mutual league for the overthrow of our Indian empire. Every concession of the Government failed to remove the suspicion, which evil designing men had cunningly suggested, that the Christian religion only was to be tolerated in India. The spirit of disaffection at length burst forth into revolt at Meerut, in the spring of 1857. The mutineers, having murdered their European officers with their wives and children, and set fire to the cantonments, hastened to Delhi, where they were received with acclamation. The King of Delhi assumed the title and authority of Mogul, and basely con- nived at the massacre of all the Europeans who had sought refuge in the royal palace. The flame of revolt quickly spread to all the chief stations in Bengal, and at most of them fearful horrors were perpetrated. Cawnpore, espe- cially, was the scene of revolting cruelty. There Nana Sahib, a Mahratta chief, who had always pretended great friendship for the English, and who, a year or two before, had been welcomed in the drawing-rooms of London, in- 498 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. veigled some hundreds of men, women, and children into iiis power, and then allowed his frenzied soldiery to butcher them in cold blood. Throughout this terrible crisis in India, the English who escaped massacre behaved with the greatest heroism. At Lucknow, they endured all the horrors of a terrible siege until relieved by Sir Colin Campbell (Lord Clyde). Delhi was recaptured with the greatest daring after a siege of three months ; and before the close of the year, the whole of Bengal lay once more at the feet of England. Amongst the valiant men who shed lustre upon the English name and helped to restore British supremacy in the East, may be mentioned the names of Outram, Havelock, Lawrence, Nicholson, and Hodson. A terrible vengeance overtook the leaders and abettors of the mutiny, while the chiefs who remained faithful were amply rewarded. The miscreant Nana Sahib, however, made good his escape. The mutiny caused many changes in Hindostan. The government of the country was transferred from the East India Company to the Queen of England, and a Secretary of State for India, with a Council of fifteen persons, was appointed to manage the affairs of our Eastern empire. War with Russia. After the battle of Waterloo, Europe remained free from any great war for forty years. In 1853, Eussia, acting under the belief that the time had come for the dismemberment of the Turkish empire, picked a quarrel with the Sultan about the ' Holy Places ' at Jerusalem, and sent an army across the Pruth to occupy the princi- palities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Czar Nicholas had previously attempted to gain the co-operation of England by proposing to give to her Egypt, and perhaps Candia, as her share of the ' sick man's' spoils. A similar offer was also made to France. Turkey, relying upon the aid of the Western Powers, declared war against Eussia. (October 4, 1853.) Omar Pasha, the Turkish commander- in-chief, crossed the Danube, and repulsed the Eussians at Olteniza ; but this first success was soon after counter- VICTOKIA. 499 balanced by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope, France and Britain, after vainly striving to preserve peace, entered into an alliance for the protection of the Sultan's do- minions, and declared war against Russia (March 28,1854.) The French and English armies, under Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord Raglan respectively, assembled at Varna to cover Constantinople ; but the Turks so gallantly defended the banks of the Danube that the allies found themselves at liberty to transfer their arms to the Crimea, for the capture of Sebastopol. The allied fleets, after bombarding Odessa, convoyed the troops across the Black Sea, and on September 14, 56,000 men, including 6,000 Turks, landed without opposition at Eupatoria. The Russian commander. Prince MenschikoiF, had taken up what he considered an impregnable position on the river Alma; and so confident was he of victory, that he had invited a party of ladies from Sebastopol to witness the destruction of the invaders. But he soon found out his mistake. In three hours his army of 50,000 men was driven from the heights of Alma, leaving 8,000 dead or wounded on the field. The allied loss amounted to 3,479 men, of which nearly 2,000 were British. 1 0K4. ' The Russians then retreated to Sebastopol, while the allies boldly marched across the country and took up a position on the south side of that great strong- hold. The British made the little port of Balaklava tlieir head-quarters. On October 17, the city was attacked by land and sea ; but the famous Russian engineer, Todleben, had made such good use of the interval of time since the Alma, that the place was almost impregnable. Eight days after this unsuccessful bombardment, the Russians attacked the British position at Balaklava, but were repulsed. This battle will ever be memorable for the gallant charge of our Light Cavalry Brigade upon the enemy's batteries. By some mistake in the delivery of orders, six -.qitj, ' hundred horsemen charged an army in position, literally rushing ' into the jaws of death ' ! In the following month, the enemy, taking advantage of a thick mist, attempted to surprise the English position on 500 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. the slopes of Inkermann. Forty thousand Russians issued from the city in the early morning, and had advanced cloiie to the English pickets before their presence was discovered, and against this host only 8,000 British soldiers could be mustered. But every man fought like a hero, ■tciKA,' ^^^i i^ spite of overwhelming odds, kept the . _ enemy in check for several hours, till the arrival A.D. *' . ' of a French force completed their discomfiture. While these things were going on in the Black Sea, Admiral Napier, with the British fleet, accompanied by a French squadron, entered the Baltic. Cronstadt, the great fortress which guards the approach to St. Petersburg!!, was too strong to be attacked, and, as the Eussian fleet feared to leave port, little remained to be done in that quarter. Bomarsund, in the Aland Isles, was captured, and, after this exploit, the allies withdrew from the Baltic. Some English ships visited the White Sea, blockaded Archangel, and destroyed a part of Kola. During the winter months the troops in the Crimea suffered dreadful hardships. The British soldiers, espe- cially, died by hundreds, of cold, sickness, and want, though abundance of stores of all kinds was lying at Balaklava, a few miles off from the camp. This mis- management excited such indignation in England as to occasion the fall of the Aberdeen Ministry. The British public did its best by lavish generosity to atone for the failure of the Government. There were few English homes where hands were not busy in making some comfort or other for our starving soldiers in the trenches before Sebastopol. In January, 1855, Sardinia joined the Western. Powers, and sent an army of 15,000 men to the Crimea. A railway was also made from Balaklava to the British camp, and an electric telegraph was laid down to connect the Crimea with the Western capitals. A Russian attack upon Eupa- toi-ia, in February, proved a failure. The death of the Emperor Nicholas, on March 2, seemed to offer a prospect of peace, but the allies were bent on the destruction of Sebastopol, and so the war continued. While the siege went slowly on, a naval expedition, in the month of May^ VICTOKIA. 501 entered the Sea of Azov, captured Kertsch and several other places, and destroyed vast quantities of stores. During the summer, the chief command in both armies changed hands more than once. Lord Raglan succumbed to cholera, and was succeeded by General Simpson, who soon resigned the command to Sir "William Codrington. In the French army. General Canrobert, who had suc- ceeded St. Arnaud, was superseded by Pelissier. In? August, the Russians attacked the Franco- Sardinian posi- tion on the Tchernaya, but were repulsed with loss. The perseverance of the allies was at length crowned with suc- cess. On September 8, the MalakofF Tower, the key of the Riissian position, was taken with a rush by the French, while the English made a diversion by assaulting the Redan, which, however, from its exposed nature, they were unable to hold. The fate of Sebastopol was now sealed. During the night Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian commander, after sinking all the ships, withdrew to the north side of the harbour, and the allies became masters of the city against which their cannon had thundered for about a year. All the dockyards and batteries of the town were then blown up, and the great stronghold became a heap of ruins. In the summer of 1855, Admiral Dundas, the successor of Napier, entered the Baltic and bombarded Sveaborg; but the Russian fleet, as before, remained safely behind the Cronstadt forts. In Circassia, the Turks, under the command of the cele- brated Schamyl, fought bravely against the enemy. There the English General Williams distinguished himself by the able defence of Kars, which famine at length compelled him to surrender (November 7, 1855). The fall of Sebastopol virtually put an end to the war. Peace negotiations terminated in the Treaty of Paris, by which Russia agreed to recede from the demands that led to the war ; to give up the protectorate of the Danubian Principalities ; to dismantle the fortifications of Mar.30, Sebastopol; and to keep only a limited number 1856 of war-ships in the Black Sea. This treaty has a.d. lately undergone some modifications favourable to Russia. ^.02 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. The Abyssinian War. The quarrel with Abyssinia arose from the conduct of its half- civilised king, Theodore, towards some British subjects. Theodore, having taken offence because a letter of his to our Queen had not been answered, seized the British Consul, and other Europeans on whom he managed to lay hands, and kept them in prison, threatening even to take their lives. All remonstrances on the part of our Government failed to move the tyrannical king, and it was therefore resolved to send an expedition to release the captives. In 1868, a well-equipped army of about 10,000 men, under Sir Robert Napier, a distinguished Indian officer, was despatched to the eastern coast of Africa. Magdala, Theodore's capital, lay far inland, and to this place there was no direct road from the sea ; but, nothing daunted, our troops cut a way for themselves, and suc- ceeded in reaching the tyrant's stronghold almost without jSring a shot. The garrison of the place had little chance against the Snider rifles and Armstrong guns of the English army, and Theodore, when he saw that all was lost, com- mitted suicide. The European captives were liberated, Magdala destroyed, and the young son of its late king was brought to England to be educated. Sir Robert Napier was rewarded for his success with the title of Lord Napier of Magdala. Ministerial Changes and Measures. Repeal of the Corn Laws. Second Reform Bill. Irish Church Bill. National Education. During the reign of Victoria, many important political events have engaged the attention of Parliament and the country. Of these, the first in order of time, if not in importance, was the establishment of the Anti-Corn Law League in Manchester, in 1838. This society had for its object the abolition of the duties which had been put upon the importation of foreign corn in order to * protect ' the VICTOEIA. 603 Tiome-gi'ower by keeping up the price of wheat. Of the many men who supported the principles of the League, two names stand very conspicuous, John Bright and Eichard Cobden. Most of those engaged in the cultivation of the soil, the landowners and farmers, stoutly opposed the Anti-Corn-Law agitation, believing that the free im- portation of foreign grain would prove their ruin. But the principle of free-trade found such acceptance in the country, that when Sir Eobert Peel succeeded Lord Melbourne as Prime Minister in 1841, he was compelled to grapple with the question. Some changes were made in the corn laws, but not sufficient to satisfy the sup- porters of the League. The subject continued to be agi- tated, imtil the potato blight of 1845, and the consequent famine in Ireland, convinced the premier that ' protective ' duties on corn could no longer be maintained. He, con- sequently, introduced a Bill into Parliament repealing the corn-laws, retaining only a duty of one shilling per quarter, which passed both Houses by large - q^^ ' majorities. At the same time, the duty on numerous articles underwent a reduction. The loss thus occasioned to the revenue was made up by the imposition of an Income-tax. This novel impost was limited to three years, in the hope that at the end of the time it might be dispensed with ; but the upper and middle classes of society still continue to be saddled with this tax. Two days after the repeal of the corn laws. Sir Robert Peel, deserted by his Conservative friends, and opposed by the Whigs, resigned office, and was succeeded in the premiership by Lord John Eussell. Under his adminis- tration, the principles of free trade were further extended, in 1849, by the repeal of the Navigation Laws, which for two centuries had kept the carrying trade of the country in English bottoms. Early in 1852, Lord Russell's Government was suc- ceeded by a Conservative Ministry under the Earl of Derby, with Mr. Benjamin Disraeli as Chancellor of the Exchequer; but before the close of the year, the new 504 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. premier, failing to obtain the support of tlie House of Commons, was obliged to resign. A Coalition Ministry, consisting of Peelites, Whigs, and Eadicals, was then formed, under the leadership of the Earl of Aberdeen, with Mr. Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer. The terrible sufferings of our troops in the Crimea during the winter brought the Aberdeen Cabinet into such bad repute that it was compelled, early in 1855, to make way for a more vigorous Administration under Lord Palmer- ston. This able statesman retained office till 1858, when, in consequence of an attempt to assassinate the Emperor of the French in Paris, he introduced a Bill in Parliament for amending the law relating to conspiracy against the lives of foreign sovereigns. Defeated on this measure, he resigned, and Lord Derby returned to power. About the same time, in answer to certain menaces of French officers against England, the volunteer movement was set on foot. For several years past, the question of Parliamentary Reform had occupied the public attention, and the Whigs, having held out sundry promises of Reform, the new Government was compelled to do something in the matter. Lord Derby's attempt, however, to grapple with the question, was opposed in the Commons, and, consequently, he vacated office. (June 11, 1859.) During the short Conservative Administration, two important measures became kw : one for the better government of Hindostan, by the nbolition of the power of the East India Company, the other for the admission of Jews into Parliament. In accordance with the latter Bill, Baron Rothschild took his seat in the House of Commons as member for the City of London. The Derby Ministry was succeeded by one under Lord Palmerston, who retained the seals of office until his death, in 1865. His place was then filled by Earl Russell, who had been raised to the peerage a few years before, while Mr. Gladstone undertook to lead the House of Commons. The new Government at once attempted to pass a mode- rate Reform Bill, but, meeting with defeat, it resigned, and Lord Derby became premier for the third time. VICTORIA. 505 The Conservative Ministry, much to the surprise of their friends and the country, introduced a radical measure of Eeform, in the hope of settling once for all this long- disputed question. The second Reform Bill, which the premier styled ' A leap in the dark,' gave the franchise in towns to all householders, conditional upon the payment of rates. Votes were also given to lodgers. Some of the large boroughs were allowed to return three members, in order that the opposing political parties in the large centres of population might each have a chance of being represented. The franchise in counties was re- duced to a rental of 12Z. On the assembling of the new Parliament in 1868, Lord Derby retired, through ill-health, from the premiership, and was succeeded by Mr. Disraeli. The proposal to disestablish and disendow the Irish Church, on the plea that it was the Church of the minority of the Irish people, was strenuously resisted by the new premier, who appealed to the voice of the country on this important matter. The elections returned to the House of Commons a majority pledged to overthrow Pro- testant ascendency in Ireland ; and Mr. Disraeli, in con- sequence, made way for a Liberal Administration under Mr. Gladstone. (1868.) The parliamentary session of 1869 was chiefly taken up in debating the disestablishment and disendowment of the Irish Church. The proposal Avas warmly contested in both Houses ; and, in the Lords especially, the debates on the Opposition side were marked by rare force and eloquence. The desire to conciliate the Irish people, however, over- came the objections of the peers, and the Irish Church Bill became law. According to its provisions, the Church Esta- blishment in Ireland ceased to exist on January 1, 1871. In 1870, another effort was made to make Ireland con- tented by the passing of a Land Bill, with a view to put landlord and tenant on a better footing with each other. During the same year, the question of National Educa- tion was ably handled by the ministry ; and, through the exertions of Mr. Forster, the Vice-President of the Com- mittee of Council on Education, Parliament gave its 606 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. sanction to an educational measiire, which will, no doubt, prove a great blessing to our country. The reign of Queen Victoria is one of the brightest periods in English history. Abroad, our arms have been victorious over every foe ; and, at home, by wise legisla- tion, immense progress has been made in everything that tends to make a country great. Manufactures have multi- plied, commerce has greatly increased, the arts and sciences have received the highest patronage and encouragement, literature has become widely diffused, and education has been improved and extended throughout all ranks of society. The Queen herself has been throughout her whole reign a bright example of every Christian virtue; and as sovereign, wife, and mother, she has shed lustre on the English name. Her Majesty, however, has not been with- out her troubles and trials. At the beginning of 1861, she followed her good and affectionate mother to the grave; and before the close of the year, a far greater bereavement awaited her in the death of her royal husband. Prince Albert died of typhoid fever, at Windsor, December 14, 1861. His loss was deeply felt by the whole nation, which had learnt to respect and admire him for his many virtues. He left an unbroken family of four sons and five daughters : (1) Victoria, married to Frederick William of Prussia, now the Imperial Prince of Germany ; (2) Albert Edward Prince of Wales, married Princess Alexandra of Denmark ; (3) Alice Maud Mary, married Prince Frederick Louis of Hesse Darmstadt ; (4) Alfred, created Earl of Kent and Duke of Edinburgh ; (5) Helena, married Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg ; (6) Louisa, married the Marquis of Lome; (7) Arthur; (8) Leopold; and (9) Beatrice. Nine years before the Prince Consort's death, England's great soldier, the ' hero of a hundred fights,' went to his last resting-place. On September 14, 1852, Wellington died at Walmer Castle, at the age of eighty-three, and in the following November his coffin was laid in the crypt of St. Paul's Cathedral, near the tomb of Nelson. VICTOKIA. 607 Miscellaneous Facts, In 1843, Wales was much disturbed by the Rebekah riots. The object of the rioters was the destruction of toll-gates, and they called themselves ' Eebekah's daughters,' from the passage in Genesis xxiv. 60, where is found a prayer that Eebekah's seed should possess the gates of their enemies. The men engaged in the riots dressed themselves in women's clothes. The same year is memorable in Scotland for the dis- ruption of the Established Church. A dispute about the right of presentation to livings caused a numerous and influential body to secede from the Establishment and found a Free Church. In 1850, the Pope caused great excitement in England by the appointment of a Eoman Catholic hierarchy, with territorial titles. The aggression was met by an Eccle- siastical Titles Bill, which made the assumption of sucb titles punishable by law. The Bill, however, became a dead letter, and has since been repealed. The year 1851 will ever be remembered for the Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations. The credit of the idea is due to the Prince Consort, who devoted much of his time to ensure the success of the enterprise. A building constructed of iron and glass was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, and erected in Hyde Park. The number of persons who visited the Exhibition is estimated at 7,000,000. The brilliant success of the undertaking led to similar exhibitions in other cities and countries. A second Exhibition was opened in London in 1862. The materials of the first have been used to construct the Crystal Palace now standing at Sydenham. From the year 1861 to 1865, the cotton manufacture of England was paralysed by the civil war in America be- tween the Northern and Southern States. Lancashire was the scene of great distress, consequent upon the stoppage of the mills. Throughout the whole country noble efforts were made to assist the distressed operatives, who bore 508 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. their suiFerings with the greatest endurance. England- narrowly escaped being drawn into the American quarrel, in consequence of the seizure by the Northerners of two Southern gentlemen on board the British steamer * Trent' in the West Indies, but the surrender of the captives saved the country from war. The exploits of the Confederate ship ' Alabama,' which had been built on the Mersey, and had left the river by stratagem, created a bad feeling against England in the Northern States, and more than once threatened to cause a serious quarrel between the two countries. Early in 1871, a treaty was concluded at Washington by the English and American Governments to settle amicably all claims and disputes which arose during the civil war. The war between France and Prussia, in 1870, excited much sympathy in Britain for the sick and wounded. Contributions, amounting to 300,000/., were quickly raised to mitigate the horrors of war, and numerous volunteer nurses devoted themselves to succour the unhappy victims of a most terrible conflict. Prussia, at the head of united Germany, overran the northern half of France, captured Paris, and dictated most humiliating terms of peace. The defeat of the French armies cost Napoleon his throne, and France once more adopted a Eepublican Government. Germany, on the other hand, revived the empire over- thrown by the first Napoleon, and conferred upon the victorious King of Prussia the title of Emperor of Germany. Among the principal inventions and discoveries, &c. of the reign, may be mentioned : the first electric telegraph, invented by Wheatstone in 1837 ; the first steamboat, the * Siiius,' crossed the Atlantic from Cork to New York, in 1838; the penny post came into operation, chiefly through the exertions of Mr. Rowland Hill, in 1840 ; Thames Tunnel opened in 1843 ; submarine telegraph laid down between Dover and Calais, and Britannia Tubular Bridge stretched across the Menai Strait, in 1850 ; sub- marine telegraph from England to Ireland in 1852 ; dis- covery of the North- West Passage by Captain McClure in VICTOEIA. 509 1853 ; launch of the ' Great Eastern ' on the Thames in 1858 ; the Ionian Islands ceded to Greece in 1863 ; the Rinderpest, or Cattle Plague, raged in England in 1865 5 the Atlantic Cable successfully laid in 1866. LEADING AUTHORS UNDER VICTORIA. POETS. ROBERT SOUTHEY (177-4-1843), a native of Bristol: one of the Lake School of poets: Poet-laureate in 1813; author of the poems ' Joan of Arc ' and ' Thalaba ;' wrote in prose ' The Life of Nelson/ &c. THOMAS CAMPBELL (1774-1844), born in Glasgow: author of ' The Pleasures of Hope ;' wrote also the inspiriting ballads ' The Battle of the Baltic ' and * Ye Mariners of England.' WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (1770-1850), born at Cockermouth : one of England's great poets : founded the Lake School of poetry ; Poet-laureate after Southey ; chief works, * The " Excursion' and * The White Doe of Eylstone.' THOMAS MOORE (1779-1852), regarded as the national poet of Ireland ; lived chiefly in London : author of * Lalla Eookh,' * The Irish Melodies,' and many lyric poems. SAMUEL ROGERS (1762-1855), a London banker: chief poem, * The Pleasures of Memory.' SHERIDAN KNOWLES (1784-1862), a famous dramatist : wrote * William Tell,' ' The Hunchback,' &c. ALFRED TENNYSON (1810), the present Poet-laureate, born at Somerby, Lincolnshire : author of * The Princess,' * In Memo- riam/ * Idylls of the King,' &c. PROSE WRITERS. JOHN LINGARD (1771-1851), a Eoman Cathohc priest: author of a ' History of England' up to 1688; pensioned by the Queen for his literary labours. JOHN M. KEMBLE (1807-1857), a historian : author of * The Saxons in England.' 23 610 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. LOED MACAULAY (1800-1859), a famous liistorian : wrote a ' History of England,' chiefly comprising the seventeenth century ; * The Lays of Ancient Kome,' and several essays. WILLIAM M. THACKERAY (1811-1863), born in India: a dis- tinguished novelist ; author of ' Vanity Fair,' ' Pendennis,' &c. CHARLES BICKENS (1812-1870), a celebrated novelist : author of ' The Pickwick Papers, ' David Copperfield,' &c. SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON (1792-1867), a Scotch lawyer: wrote ' History of Europe,' and * History of the French Eevolution.' LORD LYTTON (1805-1873) : statesman, novelist, and dramatist ; author of the play ' Lady of Lyons,' and numerous novels. THOMAS CARLYLE (1795), born in Dumfriesshire: an eccentric but clever writer ; author of ' History of the French Eevolution,' * Frederick the Great,' &c. BENJAMIN DISRAELI (1806), a distinguished statesman and novelist : author of ' Vivian Grey,' ' Lothair,' &c. LEADING ARTISTS. SIR DAVID WILKIE (1785-1841), a Scotch painter: chief works, • Blind Fiddler,' and ' Knox Preaching before Queen Mary.' SIR ERANCIS CHANTREY (1782-1848), a native of Derbyshire : a famous sculptor; chief work, monument of Two Sisters in Lichfield Cathedral.' JOSEPH W. TURNER (1775-1851), a distinguished landscape painter : died in humble lodgings in London. SIR CHARLES L. EASTLAKE (1793-1865), a great painter: be- came President of the Eoyal Academy ; chief work, * Christ weep- ing over Jerusalem.' LEADING INVENTORS, &c. GEORGE STEPHENSON (1781-1848), born at Wylaw, Northum- berland : a cowherd in boyhood ; became a great railway engineer ; invented the locomotive engine. Father of ROBERT STEPHEN- SON (1803-1859), also a distinguished engineer: constructed the tubular bridge over the Menai Strait, and the Victoria Bridge over the Eiver St, Lawrence. VICTOEIA. 611 SIR MARK ISAMBARD BRUNEL (1769-1849), a great engineer : constructed the Thames Tunnel. Father of Mr. BRTJNEL, who made the Great "Western Eailway, and the ' Great Western' and ' Great Eastern ' steamers. SIR JOSEPH PAXTON (1803-1865), originally a landscape gar- dener: designed the building for the Great Exhibition of 1851, and the gardens, &c. of the Crystal Palace, at Sydenham. MICHAEL FARADAY (1791-1867), a native of Newington, Surrey: apprenticed to a bookseller ; became an eminent Chemist and Natural Philosopher ; author of several scientific works. SIR DAVID BREWSTER (1781-1868), born at Jedburgh: edu- cated for the Scottish Church ; distinguished in literature and science ; famous for discoveries in optics ; invented the kaleido- scope. SIR JOHN HERSCHEL (1792-1871), born at Slough: only sou of the great astronomer ; distinguished in science ; author of many scientific works. 512 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVEEIAN PERIOD. Population. National Industry. Modes of Convey- ance. Food. Dress. Dwellings. Amusements. Learning and Literature. Population. — The census taken in 1801 gives the popu- lation of England and Wales as 8,892,536, thus showing that, during the eighteenth century, there had been an in- crease of about 3,000,000 souls. The census of 1871 gives a return of 22,704,108 people, or an increase since 1801 of 13,811,572. The total number of the population of the United Kingdom at the present time is 31,817,108. The rapid increase during the latter half of this period has occurred chiefly in the manufacturing districts and the metropolis. A flow of emigrants to the United States and British possessions has been continually going* on through- out the whole period, and especially since the war of American Independence, and therefore this drain must be considered in estimating the prosperity of the country. The number of emigrants, from the year 1815 to 1869, is estimated at 6,756,697. National Industry. — In all branches of industry our country has made gigantic progress during this period. The use of machinery has produced such a change in the employments of the people, and increased the productive- ness of labour, that the men of the early part of the last century would not now recognise the England of their day, if they could rise from their graves. Agriculture, which then employed four-fifths of the working population, now engages the labour of only about one-tenth. The large manufacturing towns and sea-ports have absorbed the rural labourers, and provided them with very different work. During the first half of the last century, attention was SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOYEEIAN PEEIOD. 513 drawn to the large extent of waste and uncultivated land in the country, and measures were taken by Parliament to re- claim it, and, by the end of the year 1854, nearly 7,000,000 acres were brought under cultivation. Up to about the year 1763, sufficient corn was grown at home to supply the wants of the people, but after that date the increase of the popula- tion, in consequence of the growth of manufactures and commerce, necessitated the importation of corn. In 1869, we were supplied from abroad with corn to the value of 37,347,358/. The science of agriculture has kept pace with all other improvements, and Britain, at present, is famous for its farming. The woollen manufacture, which hitherto had been the staple industry of the country, has now given place to that of cotton. At the beginning of the period, the woollen trade was protected and encouraged by Act of Parliament, and, thus fostered, it made some progress. In 1700, the value of woollen goods exported amounted to 3,000,000Z, ; at the end of a hundred years, the value was doubled ; and in the year 1869, it had reached the sum of 22,625, 190Z. The improvement of the manufacture has called many towns into existence, especially in the "West Eiding of Yorkshire, and it is estimated that about 200,000 hands are employed in the trade. The cotton manufacture has been wonderfully developed during this period. In the year 1720, the imports of raw cotton amounted to nearly 2,000,000 pounds weight; in 1800, it was about 56,000,000 ; and in 1869, it had reached the enormous figure of 1,220,809,856 lbs. The rapid growth of this manufacture is mainly due to the inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright, Crompton, and Cartwright, and the continued improvement of machinery. The seat of the trade is in Lancashire, where about 300,000 people find employment in the numerous cotton-mills of the county. The value of cotton goods exported is three times that of woollen. The silk manufacture, which in the seventeenth centuiy promised to take an important place in national industry, has made very little progress. Up to the year 1824, the 514 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. importation of foreign silkwas forbidden, for the purpose of encouraging, as it was thought, our home trade ; but such protection was most injurious to the silk manufacture. In the time of Charles II., forty thousand persons were said to be employed as silk-throwsters, but in 1835 the estimated number of hands at work in 231 silk factories was about thirty thousand. Since the removal of the restrictions upon foreign silk, the manufacture has made considerable pro- gress, and now employs, in its various branches, more than 100,000 persons. The linen trade, until the last fifty years, has been in a languishing state. Ireland was the only place where it made any progress, and there it was encouraged by royal bounties up to the year 1830. Mills for flax-spinning were first erected in England at Darlington, about the close of the last century. At present, the chief seat of the manu- facture is at Leeds and its immediate neighbourhood. Linen was long reckoned the staple branch of industry carried on in Scotland, but until the present century, its progress was very slow. We now export from the United Kingdom linen fabrics of the amount of nearly 10,000,000Z. In hardware manufacture, and in that of brass, copper, and plated wares, there has been an immense growth. Some idea of this fact may be given by comparing the present population of Birmingham, the centre of the trade, with what it was at the close of the Stuart period. Then it could only boast of about 4,000 souls ; now it numbers nearly 350,000. The value of metal goods exported in 1860 reached the enormous value of 19,519,201^. Another branch of industry which has risen to great importance in this period is that of earthenware. Before the year 1760, the ' Potteries ' could produce nothing to vie with the stoneware products of France ; but from that time the improvements introduced by Mr. Josiah Wedg- wood gave such an impetus to the trade that it now occupies a foremost place among the industries of Great Britain. The numerous towns which are scattered over North Staffordshire, with their teeming population, bear witness to the progress of the stoneware manufacture. SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVEEIAN PERIOD. 515 Mining operations have developed the mineral wealth of the country to an enormous extent. The quantity of iron raised in 1740 was about 17,000 tons; in 1869, the amount was 5,445,757 tons. The progress of the iron manufacture in South Wales and Monmouthshire has been something extraordinary. Merthyr Tydvil, in the middle of the last century, was an insignificant village ; it now contains a population of nearly 100,000 souls, all more or less dependent upon the iron trade. But the increase in the produce of our coal-mines is something fabulous. In 1780, the quantity of coal raised for general use was about 2,500 tons. In 1869, there were 2,900 collieries at work, and from their depths were raised, in that year, 107,427,557 tons. Besides the immense quantity of coal used for domestic consumption and home manufactures, the value of that ex- ported is more than 5,000,000/. Of the remaining minerals, the greatest improvement has been in the production of salt. The beds of rock-salt found in Cheshire at the close of the seventeentli century have furnished annually thousands of tons of this important mineral, which we now export in large quantities. It is unnecessary to speak of the numerous other branches of industry which have grown into importance since the Stuart times ; but to show how flourishing and immense our commerce is, it is sufficient to state that the present annual value of our imports and exports is 532,475,266/. Modes of Conveyance. — At the beginning of the period, the public roads still continued in a wretched condition. Even as late as 1770, the highways in some districts were scarcely passable. There were ruts four feet deep, and floating with mud, on some roads, even in siunmer ; we can imagine, then, what their plight was in winter. The carriage of goods was still done chiefly ' by pack-horses ; but a better state of things arose with the development of our manufactures. The improvement of the public roads towards the close of the last century brought out improved carriages, and a mail-coach could run in eight hours a distance which formerly took nineteen. The necessity of having better means of communication 516 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. between the manufacturing towns led to the formation of canals, which may be said to date their origin from an Act passed in 1755 to make a canal eleven miles long at Sankey- brook, Lancashire. Four years later, the Duke of Bridge- water obtained the consent of Parliament to construct those great works which has made his name and that of his great engineer, Brindley, illustrious. The numerous canals since constructed, together with the improvement of navigable rivers, have given us an inland navigation of more than 4,000 miles in extent. The rapid growth of trade and manufactures in the present century brought our railways into existence. Long before, in some of the Newcastle colliery districts, rails made of timber had been in use, and in 1767 the first experi- ment was made of substituting iron for wood. In 1801, the first Act of Parliament was passed for making a public railway between Wandsworth and Croydon, but the rail- way of that day was nothing like the great works which now extend through the country. The first modern rail- way was opened between Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. The projectors scarcely gave a thought to the con- veyance of passengers ; their chief obj ect was the carriage of goods between those rapidly-rising towns. The work, thus begun, was speedily taken up in other parts, and by the year 1867 a network of railways, 14,247 miles in ex- tent, had been made in Great Britain. And side by side with the long line of rails have been raised telegraph wires, 80,466 miles in length, by which instant communi- cation can be held between the most distant towns. Means of communication with foreign countries have progressed in a wonderful manner. Since the first steam- boat plied on the Clyde in 1811, the progress of steam navigation has been most rapid. In 1836, the number of steam-vessels under the English flag was 600; at the present time there are almost three times as many. The number of vessels of all kinds engaged in home and foreign trade amounted in 1869 to 21,881, manned by 195,490 men, and having a tonnage of 5,557,303 tons. Food. — The character of the food used by the working classes has changed very much since the accession of SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVEEIAN PERIOD. 517 George I. Wages increased as the country prospered, and many things which in former times were regarded as great luxuries are now, and have been for years, within the reach of the labouring classes. Rye bread, once the working man's fare, gradually disappeared from his table ; and by the time George III. ascended the throne, five-eighths of the people enjoyed the luxury of good wheaten bread. Vegetables, too, as beans and peas, became common, and the potato espe- cially became a favourite article of diet. Animal food was cheap ; as late as 1760, beef and mutton could be bought for 2^d. or Sd. per lb. The working classes, therefore, in the last century were better off wdth regard to animal food than those of the present day. Tea and coffee gradually came into general use, as substitutes for beer, at breakfast and tea. Dress. — Until the time of the French Eevolution, male costume underwent little change. Gentlemen wore a square-cut coat of silk or velvet, with stiffened shirts ; a waistcoat, with large flaps reaching nearly to the knee ; lace rufl9.es, knee-breeches, three-cornered cocked hats, and shoes with high red heels and buckles of silver, or precious stones. At his side dangled a sword, which was often drawn to settle a quarrel, and his pocket usually contained a silver box full of scented snuff. About the close of the last century the whole costume, even to the curled wig, underwent a change. RuflSes made way for shirt-collars ; the breeches gave place to pantaloons and Hessian boots ; the three-cornered hat was superseded by one round in shape. These in their turn were followed by loose trousers, short boot, and military frock with brass buttons. The sword was gradually laid aside in favour of a walking- cane, much to the safety of the general public. The fashion of ladies' costume was continually changing. The hoop, however, kept in use for a long time. In the matter of headdress there was always something new. At first, small frilled caps with gipsy hats were the rage ; then followed the old fashion of combing the hair up to the height of a foot or eighteen inches, and decking it with ribbons and feathers, as in our own day. In the reign of George lY., the old hoOp was laid aside in favour of short 518 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. skirts, and high-lieeled shoes. The bonnet passed from gipsy shape to that of a coal-scuttle, which was the favourite fashion when Her Majesty the Queen ascended the throne. In the first half of the period, both ladies and gentlemen powdered their hair, and the former sex were in the habit of spotting their faces over with patches of black plaster. The sedan-chair was tlie fashionable mode of conveyance in the last century, and at night its occupant was lighted home by link-boys. Bwellings, — The houses of rich and poor have under- gone great improvement. Under the first Georges, the residences of the upper classes shoAved little taste. The building was generally of an oblong shape, with numerous plain-sashed windows, and scarcely any ornament except a portico over the front entrance. The stables and kennels remained unpleasantly near the house, and flower-gardens were rare. In later times, elegant mansions, fitted up with every luxury and refinement, testify to the improved taste of the wealthier classes. The dwellings of the lower orders, too, have been so improved in every way that, with the exception of the crowded alleys of our manufacturing and sea-port towns, a working man is as well housed now as a well-to-do yeoman in the Stuart times, and, with regard to furnitiu-e, much better off than a gentleman of Elizabeth's day. Amusements. — The rough sport of baiting bulls, bears, and badgers soon died out ; but pugilism and cock-fighting kept their ground till within comparatively recent times. It became fashionable to resort for amusement to Assembly Eooms. Kanelagh in Chelsea and Vauxhall were famous places of resort in the metropolis, and were the scenes of much vice and dissipation. In the early part of the period the system of Clubs took its origin. Gambling was frightfully common. Gentlemen spent their leisure at the gaming table in their clubs, and ladies whiled away their evenings at whist parties where the stakes were oftentimes ruinously high. Drunkenness prevailed amongst all classes to a shocking extent. Gentlemen sat so long over their wine after dinner, that they were seldom fit to join the ladieSj and their language was not fashionable unless SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. 519 well interlarded witli obscene oatlis. During the last fifty years, an entire change has fortunately taken place in the habits of good society, and a geotleman of the old school would not now be tolerated in decent company. Gin-shops were the bane of the working classes in the last century. The lower orders copied their betters so well, that the latter, ashamed and alarmed at the prevailing vice, agitated the matter in Parliament as early as 1736, and called for remedial measures. When publicans enticed customers with words like these painted outside their houses — ' You may here get drunk for a penny, dead drunk for twopence, and have clean straw for nothing,' the interference of the legislature was certainly needed. Parliamentary restric- tions, however, failed to do any good so long as the upper classes continued to set a bad example. The theatres, which retained all the profligacy of the days of Charles II., were much patronised by all ranks of society. Singing was greatly encouraged, and became a fashionable amuse- ment at evening parties, though the words of the song were oftentimes unfit for ears polite. The Italian Opera was introduced at the beginning of the period, and shortly after an English opera was established. The great musician, Handel, a native of Saxony, took up his abode in England, but some years passed away before his sublime compositions were properly appreciated. Learning and Literature. — While England has been making gigantic strides in manufactures and commerce, she has not been unmindful of learning and literature. Educa- tion, it is true, until the present century, made but little pro- gress, yet the history of our country, under the Brunswick dynasty, is distinguished by a host of names of men famous in literature and science. Commercial activity seems to have quickened intellectual pursuits, and every field of thought and inquiry is explored with earnestness, diligence, and determination. A remarkable feature of the period is the growth of the influence of the Press, which has been called the Fourth Estate of the Eealm. In no country in the world is the Press so ably conducted as in the United Kingdom. Much of the literary talent of the day is em- ployed in contributing to the innumerable newspapers and 520 HISTOHY OF ENGLAND. periodicals, whicli circulate far and wide, and find diligent readers even in the lowest walks of life. In Science, too, our country now occupies a foremost place, and in Art also it holds no mean position. The Universities have been thrown open to men of all creeds; greater facilities are offered to persons of humble means to take advantage of our ancient seats of learning ; and Christian men and women are working with might and main to bring the blessings of education within the reach of the poorest in the land. The British Constitution. The British Constitution is a Limited Monarchy, con- sisting of the Sovereign and what are called ' the Three Estates of the Kealm,' the Lords Spiritual, the Lords Tem- poral, and the Commons. It is thus a combination of a pure monarchy, oligarchy, and a republic ; and each of these is so well balanced as to make the British Constitution the envy of the world. The suipreme legislative power is vested in the Parlia- ment ; while the executive power rests with the Sovereign, who, however, is guided by the Ministry. Thus we possess the stability of a monarchy with all the advantages of a republic. The ofBce of Sovereign is hereditary, and may fall to a male or female. The monarch must be a Protestant ; even marriage with a Eoman Catholic would be followed by forfeiture of the throne. The royal person is regarded as sacred, and any attempt to compass the destruction of the Sovereign or his heirs, is called high treason, and is punish- able with death. The royal prerogatives are (1) to convoke, prorogue, or dissolve Parliament ; (2) to make war or peace, and con- clude treaties with foreign States ; (3) to extend mercy or pardon to criminals ; (4) to create all ranks of nobility, and appoint to all posts in the army and navy ; (5) to coin money. The Sovereign, though said to be above the law, is bound as much as his subjects to keep the laws. The royal household is maintained by an allowance called the Civil List, which now amounts to 385,000?. per SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVJiKIAN PERIOD. 521 annum. On the accession of Queen Victoria, the crown lands were given up to the nation for the Civil List ; and the sum then fixed, in lieu of the royal domains, was much less than that voted for previous sovereigns. George I., for example, received 1,000,000/. Next to the Crown comes the House of Lords, which holds a position between Sovereign and People. The mem- bers of the Upper House are also called PeerSy of which there are two kinds. Spiritual and Temporal. The Lords Spiritual consist of twenty- six prelates of the Church of England. Previous to the disestablishment of the Irish Church, four Irish bishops sat in the House of Lords. The number of lords temporal is unlimited, and may be in- creased at the sovereign's pleasure. There are five ranks of peers — dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons. Sixteen Scottish lords are elected for each Parliament, and twenty-eight Irish peers are elected for life. The mem- bers of the Upper House, during the session of 1870, numbered 471. The House of Lords may be considered a hereditary body. It is presided over by the Lord Chancellor, whose chair of oflice is called the Woolsack. It is the highest Law Court in the kingdom, and appeals may be made to it irom all inferior Courts. The members may vote by proxy, and three are sufiicient to form a * House ' for the transaction of business. A peer cannot be arrested for debt ; and if accused of treason or felony, can only be tried by his peers. The House of Commons contains 652 members, who are returned by the counties, cities, boroughs, and the Univer- sities. England and Wales are represented by 489, Scotland by 60, and Ireland by 103. The last-mentioned country, in proportion to its taxation, has by far a greater representa- tion than either of the former. The Lower House has the power of granting or withholding supplies, and thus it can effectually control the government. It cannot sit longer than seven years ; and a new one must be summoned within six months after the accession of a new Sovereign. The chairman of the House is called the Speaker, who receives a salary of 6,000/. per annum, and is usually made a peer 522 niSTORY OF ENGLAND. when he retires from office. Forty members of the Com- mons form a quonim. To make a law, the three estates of the realm must agree. Proposing a law is called bringing in a Bill, and this may be done in either House. Bills, however, which relate to taxation of the people must originate in the House of Com- mons. Before any proposed measure can become the law of the land, it has to pass through the following stages in both Houses : (1) A motion is made to introduce the Bill; and it is read a first time; (2) It is read a second time; (3) it is then committed or referred to a committee of the whole House, to be considered clause by clause ; (4) it is read a third time. When a Bill has been successfully carried through these stages, it only requires the assent of the Sovereign, whose signature may be given in 2:>erson or by proxy, and an Act of Parliament then becomes law. The Crown is assisted in the executive government by the Privy Council and the Cabinet. The former is a very ancient institution, and consists of persons of eminence and ability appointed by the Sovereign. The members are dignified with the title of ' Eight Honourable.' They are only summoned at important crises in public affairs ; the greater part of their work is done by the Cabinet, which may be considered as a Committee of the Privy Council. Other committees of this ancient body are charged with the supervision of National Education, the Poor Laws, Public Health, &c. The Cabinet consists of the heads of the various departments of government, selected by the Sovereign's chief adviser, who is called the Prime Minister, or First Lord of the Treasury. This important council is called the Cabinet, because it was originally made up of such members of the Privy Council who were privileged to confer with the King in his cabinet or private room. The government of the country practically rests with this body, which only exists as long as it can command a majority in the House of Commons. The Cabinet usually consists of the following persons : — The First Lord of the Treasury, or the Premier. The Lord Chancellor. Lord President of the Coaacil. SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE HANOVEKIAN PEEIOD. 523 Lord Privy Seal. Chancellor of the Exchequer. First Lord of the Admiralty. The Secretarj for Foreign Affairs. „ „ Home Affairs. „ „ War Department. „ „ India. „ ,. Ireland. „ „ Colonies. President of the Board of Trade. „ ,, Poor Law Board. Postmaster-General. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. For the administration of justice, there are seventeen judges, who sit during term time at Westminster, in the Courts of Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, Exchequer, and Chancery. The judges also make circuits twice a year throughout the kingdom, to hear and decide important civil and criminal causes at Assizes. In Scotland, the chief tribunals are the Court of Session and the High Court of Justiciary. The Revenue and Expenditure for the year ending March 31, 1870, are as follows: — Revenue. Customs . . £23,569,892 Excise . . . 22,605,285 Stamps . . . 9,545,751 Taxes : Land and Assessed) , . -^ . „„„ Property & Income J ' ' Post Office . Crown Lands Telegraph Service Miscellaneous 4,687,260 447,723 107,479 3,205,252 Gross Eevenue, £78,960,005 Ezpenditnre. Interest on National Debt . . . £27,077,529 Civil List Annuities, Pensions, Salaries, Courts of 405,941 Justice, &e. . Army . Navy . Abyssinian Expedi- tion Civil Service ; 1,324,190 13,565,400 9,757,290 1,300,000 Eevenue Depart- ments, Telegraph, Post Office, Packet Service 15,458,367 Total . Fortifications 68,864,718 200,000 Gross Expenditure, £69,064,748 624 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. BRITISH POSSESSIONS. How acquired. • Date. Europe : A.D. Gibraltar Captured from Spain 1704 Heligoland ,, „ Denmark 1807 Malta and Gozo „ „ France 1800 Channel Islands . Norman Conquest 1066 Isle of Man . Purchase, from the Duke of Athol 1825 Asia: Hindostan ^ Settlement and conquest . 1648-1856 Ceylon . Captured from Holland 1796 Burmese Colonies . Conquest . 1826-53 Malacca Exchange 1824 Penang . Purchase 1785-1802 Singapore j> • • 1819 Aden Conquest 1838 Labuan Cession . , , 1847 Hong Kong . j> • • • 1842 Cyprus . >» • • • 1878 Africa : Gambia . Settlement 1631 Gold Coast . )> • • 1661 St. Helena . Captured from the Dutch 1651 Sierra Leone . Settlement 1787 Cape of Good Hope Captured from the Dutch 1806 Mauritius „ „ French 1810 Ascension Settlement 1815 Natal . j> • 1838 Lagos Cession .... 1861 Transvaal . Annexation 1877 America : Newfoundland . Settlement Hudson' s Bay Territory , , Bermuda New Brunswick 1 Nova Scotia J Ceded by France . 1497 1609 1713 BEITISH POSSESSIONS. 625 How acquired. America {continued] : Cape Breton Prince Edward's Captured from France Island . ^ Canada • >> jj British Columbia Settlement Honduras . Cession British Guiana Captured from Holland Falkland Islands Cession West Indies : Barbadoes . Settlement St. Kitts • jj • • Nevis . • >> • • Bahamas • )> • • Turk's Island • j> • • Antigua '\ MontserratJ • >> • • Jamaica Captured from Spain . Grenada St. Vincent ■ „ France Tobago Dominica • »» >> Trinidad „ Spain St. Lucia . „ France Australasia : New South Wales 5 . ' Settlement Australia, West » • • „ South • >» • • „ North • }> • • Victoria • >> • • Queensland . • » • • Tasmania • >» • • New Zealand • >» • • Polynesia : Fiji Islands . Cession . . • Bate. A.D. 1758 1769 1793 1763 1803 1837 1605 1623 1628 1629 1629 1632 1655 1762 1783 1797 1803 1788 1829 1834 1838 1837 1869 1803 1839 1874 526 HISTOEY OF ENaLAND. EEADING DATES OF THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. GENERAL EVENTS. A.D. The South Sea Bubble . . .1720 Eesignation of Walpole . . . 1742 New Style of Reckoning Time . . 1752 Execution of Admiral Byng . . 1757 Bridgewater Canal commenced . . 1758 Arrest of John Wilkes . . .1763 Declaration of American Independence 1776 The Gordon Riots in London . . 1780 Trial of Warren Hastings . . 1788 The French Revolution began . , 1789 Irish Rebellion 1798 Death of Nelson . . . .1805 Prince of Wales made Regent . . 1811 Princess Charlotte died . . . 1817 Trial of Queen Caroline . . . 1820 First English Railway opened . . 1830 Slavery abolished in British Colonies 1833 Rebellion in Canada .... 1837 The 0 Victoria. CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES. The Riot Act The Septennial Act . The American Stamp Act . 1715 1716 1765 George I. George III. LEADINa DATES OF THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD. 627 Tax laid upon Tea, Glass, &c. in America Union of Great Britain and Ireland Test Corporation Act repealed . Eoman Catholic Emancipation Bill . First Eeform Bill . . . . Municipal Reform Bill The Corn Laws repealed , Navigation Laws repealed East India Company abolislied Jews admitted to Parliament . The Second Seform Bill passed The Irish Church Bill passed . National Education Bill . The Irish Land Bill . A.D. 1767 Geosgb III. 1801 1828 Geoege JT. 1829 1832 William IV. 1836 1846 Victoria. 1849 1858 1867 1869 1870 1870 CHANGES OF DOMINION, ETC. Hanover united with England . 1714 Geoege I. Bengal conquered .... 1757 George II. Canada ,, .... 1760 »» American Independence acknowledged 1783 George III, Malta captured 1800 >» Cape of Good Hope .... 1806 >> Hanover separated from England . 1837 Victoria. Hong Kong acquired 1843 » Ionian Islands surrendered to Greece 1863 ij WARS, BATTLES, TREATIES. James the Pretender in Scotland . 1715 War with Spain . . . .1718 Spaniards defeated off Cape Passaro „ Battle of Dettingen . . . .1743 ,, Fontenoy .... 1745 Charles Edward lands in Scotland . 1745 Battle of Culloden . . . .1746 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 1748 The Seven Years' War began . . 1756 George I. George II. 628 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. A.D. 1757 GrEORGB II. Battle of Flassey .... St. Malo and Cherbourg destroyed by an English Fleet .... 1758 „ Hawke's Victory in Quiberon Bay . 1759 „ Battle of the Heights of Abraham . „ „ First Peace of Paris . . . 1763 Georgk III. 1775 1776 1777 American War of Independence : Attack upon Concord Skirmish at Lexington . Battle of Bunker's Hill ,, Brooklyn ,, Brandy wine . Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga „ CornwaUis surrenders at York Town 1781 Treaty of Versailles . . .1783 Siege of Gibraltar . . . 1779-1783 War of the French Ee volution began 1793 French Fleet defeated off TJshant . 1794 Battle off Cape St. Vincent . . 1797 „ of the Nile .... 1798 Bombardment of Copenhagen . . 1801 Treaty of Amiens .... 1802 Battle of Trafalgar . . , . 1805 The Peninsular War : Battle of Eolipa . Convention of Cintra . Battle of Corunna . Talavera Busaco . Barossa Fuentes d'Onoro ,, Albuera . Capture of Ciudad Rodrigo Badajoz Battle of Salamanca „ Vittoria . „ Orthes "i „ Toulouse/ and 1808 1809 1810 >> 1811 i> 1812 1813 1814 LEADING DATES O'F THE HAN07EEIAN PEEIOD. 529 War with tlie United States Treaty of Glieiit Battle of Waterloo . Second Peace of Paris Algiers bombarded . Battle of Navarino . ,, Aliwal ,, Sobraon „ CMUianwalla ,, Goojerat . The Crimean War begins The Battle of Alma . „ Balaklava ,, Inkermann Capture of Sebastopol Peace made at Paris War with China Abyssinian War . A.D. 1812-14 1814 1815 George III. 1816 „ 1827 Geoege IV. 1846 Victoria. ji >i 1849 1854 ,, 1855 1856 1860 1868 532 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. HANOVERIAN LINE. 1714 A.D.— A.D, George I. (great-grandson of James I.) 1714 Reigned 13 George II. (son) . 1727 33 George III. (grandson) 1760 60 George IV. (son) 1820 10 William IV. (brother) 1830 7 Victoria (niece) .... 1837 years > o o KG o O o )-^ pq a o O c3 o <» o 1 fX4 pi rid a -p i [14 24 «^" c3 HH rn gPH H 0) l-l ^ p^ t> H 'S WORKS ON ENGLISH HISTORY. A History of England In the Eighteenth Century. By William Edward Hartpole Lecky, author of " History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe," " History of European Morals, from Augustus to Charlemagne," etc. 2 vols., 12mo. Cloth, $5.00. " No more important book has appeared of late years than this history, unit- ing as it does so engrossing a subject with so vital an object. . . . We say, again, that Mr. Lecky has made his mark upon our time by his careful and fascinating book."— iVew York Times. " On every ground which should render a history of eighteenth-century Eng- land precious to thinking men, Mr. Lecky's work may be commended. The materials accumulated in these volumes attest an industry more strenuous and comprehensive than that exhibited by Froude or by Macaiilay. But it is his supreme merit that he leaves on the reader's mind a conviction that he not only possesses the acuteness which can discern the truth, but the unflinching purpose of truth-telling."— iVew York Sun. History of England, From the Accession of James II. By Lord Macaulay. New and standard edition. With Steel Portrait. 5 vols., 12mo. Cloth, extra, per set, $5.00. The English Reformation: How it came about, and why we should uphold it. By Cunning- ham Geikie, D. D., author of " The Life and Words of Christ." With a Preface by the author for the American edition. 1 vol., 12mo. Cloth. Price, $2.00. " Dr. Geikie's work sustains the reputation which his ' Life and Words ' had given him as a clear historical writer. It is impossible to comprehend the con- flicts for spiritual liberty of the present without tracing them back to their origin in the past; and there is no single volume which will better enable us to do this than Dr. Geikie's 'History of the English Keformation." — N". Y. Christian Union. " His grouping of facts is often masterly, his style is bold and incisive, and his sketches of eventful periods or eminent personages are vivid and graphic." — Harper'' s Netv Monthly Magazine. Child's History of England. By Charles Dickens. Forming one of Chapman & Hall's House- hold Edition of Charles Dickens's Works. With Illustrations. Paper cover, 75 cents; cloth, $1.25. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 «fc 551 Broadway, New York. PRIMERS IN SCIENCE, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. 18mo. . . . Flexible cloth, 45 cents each. I.— Edited by Professors HUXLEY, KOSCOE, and BALFOUR STEWART. SCIENCE PRIMERS- Chemistry H. E. RoscoE. Physics Balfous Stewakt. Physical Geogr«iphy..A. Geikie. Geology A. Geikie, Physiology . . .M. Foster. Astronomy J. N. Locktes Botany J. D. Hooker. Logic W. S. Jevons. Inventional Geoinetpy W. G. Spencer. Pianoforte Franklin Tatlor. Political Economy, W. S. Jevons. II. — ^Edited by J. R. GREEN", M. A., Examiner in the School of Modern History at Oxford. HISTORY Greece C. A.Fyfpe. Rome M. Creighton. Europe E. A. Freeman. PRIMERS. Old Greek Life J. P. Mahafpt. Roman Antiquities ...A. S. WlLKINS. Geography George Grove. III.— Edited by J. R. GREEN, M. A. LITERATURE PRIMERS. English Grammar R. Morris. English Literature. ... .Stopfokd Brooke. Philology J. Peilb. Classical Geography M. F. TOZER. Shakespeare E. Dowden. Studies in Bryant J. Alden. Greek Literature R. C. Jebb. English Grammar Exercises, R. Morris. Homer W. E. Gladstone. English Composition J- Nichol. (Others in preparatioji.) The object of these primers is to convey information in such a manner as to make it both intelligible and interesting to very young pupils, and so to dis- cipline their minds as to incline them to more systematic after-studies. In the Science Series some simple experiments have been devised, leading up to the chief truths of each science. By this means the pupil's interest is excited, and the memory ia isapressed so as to retain without difficulty the facts brought under observation. The woodcuts which illustrate these primers serve the same purpose, embellishing and explaining the text at the same time. D. APPLETON &= CO., 549 & 551 B roadzvay , Neiu York. Appletois' School Eeadees, CONSISTING OF FIVE BOOKS. BT . T. HARSIS, LL. D., A. J. RICKOFF, A. M., MARK BAILEY, A. M., Sitperintendent of Schools, Superintendeni of Instruction, Instructor in Elocution., St. Louis, Mo. Cleveland, O, Yale Colltge. RETAIL PRICES. APPLETONS' FIRST READER , $0 25 APPLETONS' SECOND READER 40 APPLETONS' THIRD READER 52 APPLETONS' FOURTH READER TO APPLETONS' FIFTH READER..., 1 25 CHIEF MERITS. These Readers, while avoiding estremes and one-sided tendencies, combine into one harmonious whole the several results desirable to be attained in a series of school reading-books. These include good pictorial illustrations, a combi- nation of the word and phonic methods, careful grading, drill on the peculiar com- binations of letters that represent vowel-sounds, correct spelling, exercises well arranged for the pupil's preparation by himself (so that he shall learn the great lessons of self-help, self-dependence, the habit of application), exercises that develop a practical command of correct forms of expression, good literary taste, close critical power of thought, and ability to interpret the entire meaning of the language of others. THE AUTHORS. The high rank which the authors have attained in the educational field and their long and successful experience in practical school-work especially fit them for the preparation of text-books that will embody all the best elements of mod- erp educative ideas. In the schools of St. Louis and Cleveland, over which two of them have long presided, the subject of reading has received more than usual attention, and with results that have established for them a wide reputation for superior elocutionary discipline and accomplishments. Feeling the need of a series of reading-books harmonizing in all respects with the modes of instruc- tion growing out of their long tentative work, they have carefully prepared these volumes in the belief that the special features enumerated will commend them to practical teachers everywhere. Of Professor Bailey, Instructor of Elocution in Tale College, it is needless to speak, for he is known throughout the Union as being without a peer in his pro- fession. His methods make natural, not mechanical readers. D. APPLETON ds' CO., 549 & 551 Broadway, New York. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD. By Brother AZARIAS, Professor of English. Literature in Eock Hill College, Maryland. 1 vol., 12rao. Cloth. Triec, $1.25. "In some respects the anthor has written a test-book superior to any we know now in use. There are few writers so well prepared in what might be termed tlie technique of Old English history and literature. His cliapter on the Kelt and Teuton is admii-able."— iVIpw York Times. " The work will commend itself to notice for its concise and agreeable style, its logical method, and the philosophic and poetic, as well as historical, treatment of theme. The author is master of his subject."— Proe;ec?ewce Journal. " The author has exhibited great skill in presenting to the reader a clear and correct view of the literature and condition of things in England at that remote age, and the work is one of special interest." — Boston Post. " A valuable text-book."— 5o5iow Globe. "A work of remarkable interest."— ^osco?^ Evening Transcript. "A book of genuine literary interest and value."— Cfet'eZancZ Herald. "Within its covers there is a wealth of erudition, research, and scholarly labor, which places the book beside those of Wright, Spalding, and Craik. The English of the writer is a model for clearness and point." — Utica Daily Observer. " One of the most thorough and best-arranged books on the subject that we have seen."— T'roj/ Press. "The literature of England was born and growing ages before William of Normandy set foot in England. The work before us proves this. It shows the origin and sources of Old English Literature, the elements that entered into it, its ruling ideas and character, its gradual gi'owth and development up to the Nor- man Conquest. It is a work of original and laborious research, containing not crude materials, but the mature results of careful, discriminating analysis and profound study and reflection." — The Catholic Standard. Sent by mail, post-paid, to any address in the United States, on receipt of price. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 519 & 551 Broadway, New York. Edited by JOHN RICHARD GREEN. 16niOm Flexible cloth. _ - - Price, 60 cents. Under the above title, Messrs. D. Appleton & Co. are issuing a series of small volumes upon some of the principal classical and English writers, whose works form subjects of study in our colleges, or v.hich are read by the general public concerned in classical and English literature for its own sake. As the object of the series is educational, care is taken to impart information in a systematic and thorough way, while an intelligent interest in the writers and their works is sought to be aroused by a clear and attractive style of treatment. Classical authors especially have too long been regarded as mere instruments for teaching pupils the principles of grammar and language, while the personality of the men themselves and the circumstances under which they wrote have been kept in the background. Against such an irrational and one-sided method of educa- tion the present series is a protest. It is a principle of the series that, by careful selection of authors, the best scholars in each department shall have the opportunity of speaking directly to students and readers, each on the subject which he has made his own. The following volumes are in preparation : MIT^TON Rev. Stopford Brooke. [Heady. BACON Hev. Dr. Abbott. SPF.NSSK Professor J. W. Hales. CKAUCER F. J. Furnivall. HERODOTUS Professor Bryce. SOPHOCLES Professor Lewis Campbell. DEMOSTHENES S. H. Butcher, M. A. EURIPIDES Professor Mahaffy. [Ready. VIRGIL Professor Nettleship. HORACE T. H. Ward, M. A. CICERO Professor A. S. Wilkins. LIVY W. W. Capes, M. A. OtTier volumes to follow. D. APPLETON & CO., New Yokk. EARLY CHRISTIAN IITEEATUEE PEIIEES. EDITED BT Professor GEORGE PARK FISHER, D.D. The " Early Christian Literature Primers " will embody, in a few small and inexpensive volumes, the substance of the characteristic works of the great Fathers of the Church. The plan recognizes four groups of works : 1. The Apostolic Fathers^ and the Apologists^ a. d. 95-180. 2. Tlie Fathers of the Ihird Century, a. t>. 180-325. 3. The Post-Nicene Greek Fathers, a. d. 325-750. 4. T'he Post-Nicene Latin Fathers, a. d. 325-590. These groups are to be embraced in four books. In the first book are given exact translations of the principal works of the Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists, preceded by introductions upon the writings of the period, and by sketches of the several authors. Nearly every known author of the period is mentioned, and his place pointed out. Only gen- uine works, as translated from the latest critical texts, have been ad- mitted, and of these a very large part have been brought in. By Ebv. GEORGE A. JACKSON. THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS, HD THE APOLOGISTS. A. D. 95-180. Contents: Introduction— The Earlier Patristic Writings— The Apostolic Fathers— Clement of Rome— Sketch, Epistle to Corinthians, and Clementine Literature; Ignatius — Sketch, and Epistle to Romans, Ephesians, and Polycarp; Polycarp— Sketch, and Epistle to Philippians; Barnahas — Sketch, and Epistle. Associated Authors. Hermas — Sketch, and the Shepherd; Papias— Sketch, and Fragments. The Apologists.— Introductory Sketch— Notice, and Epistle to Diognetus; Justin— Sketch, First Apology, and Synopsis of Dialogue with Trypho; Author of Muratorian Fragment, and the Fragment; Melito— Sketch, and Fragment; Athenagoras — Sketch, Chapters from Mission about Christians, and Final Argu- ment on the Resurrection. In 16mo. Cloth. Price, 60 cents. [Now Seadt.] D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broad wat, New York. EARLY CHRISTIAN LITEEATUEE PEIIEES. EDITED BT Professor GEORGE PARK FI§BES, D. D. IN PREPARATION. THE FATHERS OF THE THIRD CENTURY. Contents : Introduction (a. d. 180-325), on the Influence of Origeu in the East and of Cyprian in the West— Ircnseus — ^Hippolytus— Clement of Alexandria — Origen— Methodius— Tertullian— Cyprian. THE POST-NICENE GREEK FATHERS. Contents: Introduction (a. d. 325-750), on the Schools of Alexai;dria and Antioch— Ensebius of Caesarea—Athanasias— Basil— Gregory of Nyesa— Gregory Nazianzen — Epiphanius — John Chrysostom — Theodore of Mopsueslia — The- odoret— Cyril of Alexandria— The Historians of the Fifth and Sixth Centuries. THE POST-NICENE LATIN FATHERS. Contents : Introduction (a. d. 325-590), on the Influence of the Koman Juris- prudence upon the Latin Church Writers — Lactantius ; Hilary; Amhroe; ; Jerome; Augustine; JohnCassian; Leo the Great; Gregory the Great; the His- torians RufinuB, Sulpicius, Sevenis, and Cassiodorus. D. APPLETON & CO., Publiskeep, 549 & 551 Broadway, New Yokk. Words, And how to put them together. By Harlan H. Ballard, Prin- cipal of Lenox High-School, Lenox, Mass. 18mo. Cloth, 40 cts. General History, From B. c. 800 to a. d. 18^Q. Outlined in Diagrams and Tables; with Index and Genealogies. For General Reference, and for Schools and Colleges, By Samuel Willard, A. M., M. D., Pro- fessor of History in Chicago High-School. Svo. Cloth, $2.00. Principles and Practice of Teaching. By James Johonnot. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. Harkness's Preparatory Course in Latin Prose Authors. Comprising four books of Caesar's Gallic War, Sallust's Catiline, and eight Orations of Cicero. With Notes, Illustrations, a Map of Gaul, and a Special Dictionary. 12rao. Cloth, $1.75. Harkness's Sallust's Catiline. With Notes and a Special Vocabulary. 12mo. Cloth, $1.15. The Latin Speaker. Easy Dialogues, and other Selections for Memorizing an^ Declaim- ing in the Latin Language. By Frank Sewall, A. M. 12mo. Cloth, $1.00. Applet ons' School Readers. By William T. Harris, A. M., LL. D., Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. ; Andrew J. RiCKorr, A. M., Superintendent of In- struction, Cleveland, Ohio ; and Mark Bailey, Instructor in Elo- cution, Yale College. Appletons' First Reader Price, 25 Cents. Appletons' Seeond Reader " 40 " Appletons' Third Reader " S2 " Appletons' Fourth. Reader " 70 " Appletons' Fifth Reader $1.2S " D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 549 & 551 Broadway, New York. RECENT EDUCATIONAL WOBKS.-{ConUmed.) Education as a Science. By Alexander Bain, LL. D., Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen. (Forming Vol. XXV. of " The International Scien- tific Series.") 12mo. Cloth, $1.'75. A Hand-book of Requirements for Admission to the Colleges of the United States. With Miscellaneous Addenda, for the Use of High-Schools, Acade- mies, and other College Preparatory Institutions. Compiled and arranged by A. P. Nightingale, A. M. Large 8vo. Cloth, Price, $1.00. Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grain- mar. Containing Accidence and Word Formation. By the Rev. Richard Morris, LL. D., President of the Philological Society, London. 18mo. Cloth, 254 pages. Price, $1.00. Primer of the Natural Resources of the United States. By J. Harris Patton, author of the " Concise History of the United States." 16mo. Cloth. Uniform with " Science Primers." Price, 45 cents. The Fairy-Land of Science. By Arabella B. Buckley, author of *' A Short History of Natural Science," etc. With numerous Illustrations. 1 vol., 12mo, 244 pages. Cloth, price, $1.50. The Study of Rocks. An Elementary Text-Book in Petrology. With Illustrations. By Frank Rutly, of the English Geological Survey. Forming a new volume in "Text-Books of Science Series." 16mo. Cloth. 319 pages. Price, $'1.'75. For Bale by all booksellersi. Any volume mailed, post-paid, to any address In the United States, on receipt of price. D. APPLETON & CO., Publisheks, 549 & 551 Broadway, New York. Recent Aierican History and Biography. -,— .^^ Destructioix and Reconstruction : Personal Experiences of the Late War. By Richard Taylor, Lieutenant General in the Confederate Army. 1 vol., 8vo. Cloth. Price, $2.00. Four Years witli General Lee ; Being a Summary of the more Important Events touching the Career of General Robert E. Lee, in the War between the States j together with an Authoritative Statement of the Strength of the Armv which he commanded in the Field. By William H. Taylor, of his StiiiT, and late Adjutant- General of the Army of Northern Virginia. 8vo. Cloth, $2.00. Military Operations of Josepl\ E. Johnston., Narrative of Military Operations directed during the Late "War between the States. By Joseph E. Johnston, General C. S. A. Elustrated by Steel Plates and Maps. 1 vol., 8vo. Cloth, $5.00; sheep, $6.00; half morocco, $7.50. The Life of General Albert Sidney Johnston, By his Son, Colonel William Preston Johnston. One large octavo vol- ume, 774 pages. With Maps, a fine Portrait on Steel, pttd 8 mil-page Illus- trations. Cloth, $5.00 ; sheep, $6.00 ; half turkey, $7.0Q. The Autobiography of Willian\ H, Seward (1801 -1834). With a later Memoir by his Son, Frederick W. Seward, late Assistant Secretary of State. Per volume, over 800 pages, cloth, $4.25 ; sheep, $5.25 ; half turkey, $6.25; full turkey, $8.25. Military History of General U, S, Grant, From April, 1861, to April, 1865. By Adam Badeau, Colonel and Aide-de- Camp to the General-in-Chief, Brevet Brigadier-General U. S. A. With Portrait, and numerous Maps. Vol. I. 8vo. Cloth, $4.00; half calf, extra, $6.50. Memoirs of 'W, T, Sherman. By Himself. (With a Military Map showing the Marches of the United States Forces under General Sherman's command.) Two handsome vols., 8vo, Blue cloth, $5.50; sheep, $7.00; half morocco, $8.50; full morocco, $12.00. CHEAP EDITION. 1 vol. Cloth, $3.50. p. APPLETON & CO.. Publishers. 549 & 551 Broadway. New York. QZ"7