Class F C > ^ -2 Book ,U <0« "3. / Lj f '■' f STATISTICS OF THE WEST. THE WEST: ITS SOIL, SURFACE, AND PRODUCTIONS, BY JAMES HALL CINCINNATI: DERBY, BRADLEY & CO., PUBLISHERS. 1848. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847. BY JAMES HALL, in the Clerk's Office for the District Court of Ohio. ««c e«« .et -t-S-: Cir CI'JIHA.'D I. • ' . flTEIVEOrTPEI> AVTD PRrNTSU BY E. SHEPARD. Columbia Street, Cia. 0*^ PEEFACE. The greater portion of the following work was pub- lished some years ago, under the title of " Notes on the Western States ; " but as that, or a similar name, has since been adopted for several other publications, it has been thought expedient to change it to that which now appears on the title page. It is a matter of but little importance; but it is deemed proper to make the expla- nation, to avoid even the appearance of publishing, as a new work, a revised edition of one which has been lousf before the public. In preparing these pages for re-publication, it was found that much of the matter had been rendered obsolete, by the rapid growth of the country, and required to be WTit- ten over. There were other portions of the work, des- criptive of the great outlines of the country, its natural divisions and permanent features, which are as true now, as when originally wTitten, and which, as expressing the early and vivid impressions of tke author, are retained without alteration. The amount of new matter introduced, has been con- siderable, and has rendered it advisable to omit several chapters of the former work, which will be thrown into another volume, and published as an additional series of this work. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The Western Plain — its limits — its topography — the general char- acter of its formation, Page 13 CHAPTER H. The River Ohio — its etymology — scenery — timber — low water — floods — the great flood of 1832 — impediments to navigation — pro- posed improvements, 21 CHAPTER HI. The River Mississippi — general character — Grand Tower — scenery of the Upper Mississippi, 46 CHAPTER IV. General surface of the countiy — the alternation of forest and prairie — scenery in western Pennsylvania, western Virginia, Ohio, Illi- nois, Indiana, Missouri and Kentucky, compared, 54 CHAPTER V. The Prairies— their surface — vegetation, and appearance at different seasons, 69 CHAPTER VI. Theory of the Prairies — fires — different theories respecting the for- mation of prairies — plains in Pennsylvania and elsewhere,. . 79 CHAPTER VH. Soil of the Prairies — explanation in reference to the supposed want of limber, 95 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. Destitution of water on the Prairies considered, and explained— wet Prairies Page 1Q5 CHAPTER IX. Wild Animals in the Western States— birds — reptiles 110 CHAPTER X. Agricultural products— wheat— Indian corn— potatoes— grass— rye —barley—hemp—flax— silk— tobacco— oats, &c 136 CHAPTER XI. Fruits— wild fruits— cultivated fruits— the grape— wine— Horticul- tural Society at Cincinnati— the strawberry— Cincinnati straw- berries — apples — peaches — raspberries — quinces — cherries plums j^3 CHAPTER XII, Farming and Improvements— in Western Pennsylvania— Western Virginia— Northern Ohio— Central Ohio— Miami Valley— Hamil- ton— Dayton— Springfield— Columijus— Scioto Valley— Chilli- cothe— Ancient Mounds— Whitewater Valley— the lake cities- table of products jry CHAPTER XIII. Garden vegetables— Floral Calendar— wood and timber 172 CHAPTER XIV. Domestic Animals-the hog-Pork packing at Cincinnati-sheep-^ beef— horses — mules ^ ^ ^ Vgo CHAPTER XV. The Public Domain-title of the United States to the public lands exammed— objections discussed— the policy of the government in the disposal of the public lands-proposed reduction, and gradua tion of price .ny THE WESTERN PLAIN. CHAPTER I. The Western Plain — Its Limits — Its Topography — The General Character of its Formation — Its Mineral Resources. In order to understand the subject distinctly, it will be necessary to consider carefully the topography of that part of the valley of the Mississippi embraced within our remarks, with a few of its geological features. It extends from the western slope of the Allegheny moun- tains, to the great sand plains of the west, a distance of about fifteen hundred miles ; and from the northern lakes to the mouth of the Ohio, a distance of about six hun- dred miles. We confine ourselves chiefly within these limits, be- cause they circumscribe a territory naturally connected, by similarity of climate, and contiguity of territory. It is properly the West, the seat of what is called the Western population, and the most valuable tract of coun- try in the United States. It embraces the states of Ken- tucky, OhiOj Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, and Michigan, and parts of Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Ten- nessee, and a region of about five hundred miles in width lying west of those organised boundaries. There is probably not on the globe, an equal expanse of sur- face, of such uniform fertility ; and when in addition to that advantage, we take into view, its temperate climate, its salubrity, the abundance of its mineral resources, the B 13 L..' 14 THE WESTERN PLAIN. variety of its productions, the multiplicity and extent of its navigable communications, and its central position in relation to our continent, it will be conceded that there is none which better deserves to be described and studied. The term valley — the valley of the Mississippi— which is popularly applied to this region, does not ex- press its real character, as it is in fact a plain, one of the most remarkable features of which, is the great extent of level surface embraced within its area ; for although un- dulations, and even hills, sometimes swell before the eye of the traveler, the general plane is almost invariable. The dillerence in elevation over its whole surface — leaving out of view a few unimportant local inequalities — is only a few feet. There is, however, a gradual declination from the north east, towards the southwest. This will become obvious from an examination of the annexed table, com- piled by Colonel Long, and founded on actual observa- tions had in his expedition to the sources of the St. Peter river. A tabic shewing the probable altitiules, in feet, of the water level, at a variety of points therein specified, above tide water. Points Indicated. Elevation, Mouth of the Oliio River 300 Ohio River at Cincinnati - - - - -414 Do. at the mouth of Sciota River - - 464 Do. at the mouth of Muskingrum River - 541 Surface of Lake Erie; River des Plaines 20 miles above its mouth ; Mississippi at the head of the rapids Des Moines ; and the Ohio, a few miles be- low Wheeling, Va. _ . . - - 565 liakes Huron and Michigan » - - - 571 Lake vSuperior --»---- 595 Tlie Oliio at Pittsburgh ; the Mississippi at St. Peters ; and the Missouri at the mouth of the River La Platte 680 Sources of the St. Peter and Red Rivers - - - 830 Source of the T\Iaskingum ----- 902 vSource of Big Beaver - - - - - - 907 Source of the Sciota ------ 919 Source of the Miami ------ 964 Lfike of the Woods - - - - - 1040 Rainy Lake 1100 TOPOGRAPHY. 15 Points Indicated. Elevation, Sources of the streams on the route of the Expedi- tion, tributary to lakes Winnepeck and Superior; and head waters of the Mississippi - - - 1200 Dog Lake 1000 Lake Winnepeck ------ G30 Tliese elevations may be relied upon, as possessing all the accuracy desirable for the purpose of topographical description, having been derived from sources entitled to tlie higltest credit. They have reference to the water surface, and shew, that from Pittsburgh, the Ohio river has a descent of less than four hundred feet, to its mouth, — a distance, by its meanders, of eleven hundred miles ; and that from the sources of the Mississippi to the same point, the descent is only about seven hundred feet. The surface of the plain itself approaches still nearer to an actual level. Its north east corner near Pittsburgh, lies about seven hundred feet above the tides ; the plains of Kentucky and West-Tennessee are about the same height, and as we proceed westwardly up the Missouri or Arkansas, we reach similar elevations. These are tlie exterior limits of the plain which de- scends as well from the Rocky Mountains, as from the Alleghenies, towards the Mississippi. " The great and numerous rivers that cross this plain," gays an acute writer in the American Quarterly Review, "instead of forming distinct valleys, do but indent nar- row lines or grooves into its surface, barely sufficient to contain their floods. These river channels, as the cur- rent rolls on, must form a declivity, and towards the lower parts of their courses sink deep into the plain ; hence the large rivers, Ohio, Missouri and others, seem bordered -with abrupt hills of several hundred feet eleva- tion ; but the tops of these hills are the level of the great plain, and are formed by smaller streams which fall into those large rivers, where their channels are thus worn down ; and to give themselves an easy slope, these 16 TOPOGRAPHY. streams must wear down, in a corresponding manner the neighboring parts of the plain ; and presenting abrupt points between them, shew the appearance of river hills." We give the language of another, in this instance, rather than our own, that our views may be corroborated by those of other persons. When we take into view the level surface, its uniformi- ty of conformation, and the fact that it rests on a con- tinuous stratum of rock, which is found to preserve its horizontal position with remarkable regularity, it is not surprising that comparatively few water courses take their rise within the more central parts of its limits, and that the subterranean currents, which are abundant, seldom rise to the surface, but find vent upon the margins of streams, where the valley has been washed down to their level. Rich as our country is in noble rivers, almost all of those of superior magnitude take their rise in the dis- tant mountains, and receive comparatively but little trib- ute from the wide regions through which they roll; and thus the great streams, which in the spring of the year, when swelled by heavy rains, and by the melting snows of the mountains, fill their banks to overflowing, become exhausted in the summer and autumn, by undergoing in their long meandering courses, the impoverishing pro- cesses of evaporation and absorption, while they receive but little accession from their tributaries. The Ohio, Missouri, Cumberland, Tennessee, Arkansas, Red River, and all the great rivers of Tennessee and Ken- tucky, take their rise in the mountains, and the Missis- sippi flows from a region beyond the limits of our plain ; the Illinois, Wabash, Sciota, Muskingum, Miami, and others of secondary importance, originate i-n the interior of the plain, and afford but little water during the dry part of the season. The formation of this plain, as the reader will have already discovered, is secondary. It rests upon a hori- CHARACTER OF FORMATION. 17 zontal limestone pan, of such depth that its thick strata have never been pierced through, although the auger has penetrated into it in search of salt water, in many places, from four to six hundred feet. The rock lies but a few feet below the surface, and supports throughout its whole extent, strata of bituminous coal, and saline impregna- tions. To the decomposition of tliis limestone may be attributed, in part, the fertility of tlie soil, while its ab- sorbent and cavernous nature, prevents the accumulation of swamps and standing pools, and renders the whole plain dry and salubrious, in a remarkable degree. The most strikinof indications of the cavernous character of the limestone, are to be seen in Kentucky and Tennessee, where gigantic caves extend their varied and gloomy ramifications, throughout the whole of tlie sub sir at a of widely extended districts. The curious have explored some of these cavities for many miles, and spent succes- sive days, in examining their winding passages, and pro- digious chambers, without being able to discover their umiost limits. The same singular configuration of the limestone is inferred, in other places, in nearly all the western states, by the existence of curious depressions of the earth, popularly called sink holes, which are deep funnel shaped cavities, sinking abruptly from the surface of the soil, and extending down to that of the rock, and which are doubtless caused by the dropping of the earthy particles, through some fissure of the limestone. These holes are often found in large groupes, when they pre- sent a most singular appearance. They are usually dry; but instances occur, where the outlet at the bottom having become choked by some impervious substance, the rain water accumulates, and remains unexhausted throughout the year. In the year 1811, a series of earthquakes continued for a few months, to sliake the whole southern portion of this immense district. The region of Kentucky south B 3 18 CHARACTER OF FORMATION- of Green river, and soiitliern parts of Illinois and Mis- souri, formed the chief scenes of this alarming phenome- non, tlie vibrations of which were however felt in a slight degree in the liigher latitudes of the plain. The shocks were sufficiently severe to prostrate chimnies, and to cause the timbers of log and framed houses to be shaken, and even separated. At New Madrid on the Mississippi, the eartli yawned, and the inhabitants were driven from their homes ; and at one point in that vicinity, so large a quantity of water is said to have been engulphed in a chasra beneath the bed of the river, that this mighty river ceased for a moment to roll its waters towards the ocean. The latter statement, liowever, must be received with caution, as it rests solely upon the liasty observations of a few panic stricken voyagers, through an almost uninhabited region. The terror caused by this visitation was very great, and it still continues to be a prominent subject in the traditions of tluit part of the country. But there is not the sliHitest reason for believino- in tlie existence of any permanent causes, which would render this plain li- able to such occurrences. In the thirty-six years which have subsequently elapsed, the alarm has not been re- peated ; while the uniformity of the surface of this coun- try, and the remarkable absence of the appearances that indicate the disruption of the strata, shew that such events had not occurred in earlier times. The first settlers, and the earliest travelers, spoke of hurricanes of vast extent and tremendous power, as among the peculiar phenomena of this plain ; but their statements have not been confirmed by experience. Those ■who travel over uninhabited countries, or reside in tem- porary dwellings in the Avilderness, are exposed in a greater degree tlian ordinary, to the accidents of the seasons, and are apt to magnify those usual occurrences, which might have passed unobserved under other v^ircum- stances, when less personal inconvenience or danger CHARACTER OF FORMATION. 19 would have resulted from tliem. Tlie diversities of tem- per, and of physical organisation, are so numerous, that we should receive with great distrust, any observations upon climate, detailed by persons who are exposed to ils action for a season, and who neither make deliberate sci- entific experiments, nor report a series of facts, carefully recorded. The same course of reasoning may be applied to the alledffed variability, and the reputed unhealthiness, of our climate. Facts of such grave importance should not be considered as settled, by that common rumor, whose want of veracity is so notorious. The results of patient and careful investigation, by competent men of science, will hereafter decide these points, and will, in our opinion, shew that the current reports in relation to these matters, have been in direct opposition to tlie truth. When we speak of the present advantages, and future greatness, of the West, it is proper that we should dis- criminate, so as not to deceive those wlio liave not the means of judging for themselves. The climate differs but little from tliat of corresponding parallels of latitude, in the United States. So far as health is concerned, we suppose the advantage to lie on our side of the mountains, while in reference to vegetation, there is no observable difference. Neither is there any supernatural fertility in our soil, which yields its rich returns only under the operation of careful and laborious tillage. It is the great breadth and continuity of our fertile surface, which gives to the West its superior advantages. It is the accumulation within one wide and connected plain, of the most vast resources of agricultural and commercial wealth ; and the facilities af- forded by our country, for concentrating and using an un- limited amount of wealth, and bringing into combined ac- • tion the energies of millions of industrious human beings, on which are based the broad foundations of our greatness. 20 MINERAL RESOURCES. "With the breadth of an empire, we have all the facili- ties for intercourse and trade, which could be enjoyed within more limited boundaries. Our natural wealtli is not weakened by extension, nor our vigor impaired by division. 'Die riclies of soil, timber, and minerals, are so diffused as to be every where abundant ; and the com- munication between distant points is so easy as to render tlie whole available. The products of the industry of millions may be here interchanged with unparalleled ease and rapidity ; and when our broad lands shall be settled, there will be a community of interest, and an intimacy of intercourse, between myriads of men, such as were never before brought under the operation of a common system of social and civil ties. The mineral resources are abundant. The coal, which is pure and excellent, spreads throughout the M'hole re- gion, and is in most places easily accessible. Iron ore abounds generally : especially in Pennsylvania, Tennes- see and Missouri, and the best ore is said to yield seven- ty-five per cent, of fine malleable iron. At Pittsburgh and Cincinnati, but particularly at tlie former place, this metal is wrought into a great variety of manufactures. The lead districts of Illinois and Missouri, would cover two luindred miles square, and form undoubtedly the richest region of that metal Avhich has been discovered on any part of the globe. The French resorted to these mines many years ago, but it is only recently that their extent and value have been made known ; yet sometliing like twenty millions of pounds of lead have been smelted at them, in the course of one year, and there is no ques- tion of their capacity to afford a permanent supply of that useful metal to the whole civilized world. The cavernous region of Kentucky has been found to be strongly im- pregnated with salt-petre, of which vast quantities have been made and exported. Copper has long had a tradi- tionary existence, in the neighborhood of the north wes- THE RIVER OHIO. 21 tern lakes. The ore has been found in small quantities in different places, and at one spot a solid mass weighing several tons, of remarkable purity, has attracted the at- tention of the curious; but it is only within a few years past that rich and extensive mines of this mineral have been discovered. Salt is an important article of manu- facture. Saline springs are distributed throughout the whole region, some of which are copious and strongly impregnated. On an average, one hundred and twenty gallons of the water will make sixty pounds of salt, but it is much stronger in some places than at others. Of the mineral waters the chalybeate is most frequently found, impregnations of pure suiphur are common ; those of copperas, alum, and sulphate of magnesia, are occasion- ally met with. In treating the subjects under consideration more in de- tail, we shall be under the necessity of dividing the re- gion under consideration into two separate districts, and to speak occasionally of the valley of the Ohio, and that of the Mississippi ; for although the whole forms, in fact, one great, and remarkably uniform plain, there are yet some striking peculiarities which distinguish each of these rivers, as well as the lands lying upon their mar- gins. Of these peculiarities I propose to treat under the several heads into which this work will be divided. CHAPTER II. The River Ohio. It may be well to commence our rapid sketch of this river, with an attempt to explain the etymology of its name. We shall, however, do no more than present the views of messrs. Duponceau and Heckewelder, — two gendemen who have bestowed great attention upon the 22 THE RIVER OHIO. aboriginal languages of our country, — as expressed in a paper in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. From this communication, it appears evident, thai the idea, which has prevailed to some extent, that the word Ohio is derived from the Iroquois language, is not correct. It has been said, that the Iroquois Indians called the Ohio the fine or beautiful and sometimes the bloody river. Mr. Duponceau examined the vocabularies of that lan- guage, for the words corresponding with these terms, and became satisfied that the word Ohio was not derived from them. Farther examination, satisfied his mind that the position taken by Mr. Heckewelder, is correct, whicli is, that the term Ohio is derived from a word or words in the Delaware language, which mean the while or the while foaming river. Mr. Heckewelder expresses the opinion that the four letters composing the word Ohio do not comprise the whole of the Indian name. His reasons are the following : 1st, That the names given by the Indians to rivers, are invariably descriptive either of those streams or some- thing about them. 2nd, That he had never heard the Indians call this river by the name of Ohio. 3d, Because the French and English, in using Indian names, are accustomed to drop a part of them, to render the pronunciation easy. Mr. Heckewelder then gives a list of words from which he argues that this name has been derived ; some of which, with their meaning in the English language, are here quoted. O'hui — Ohi, very. O'peu, white. Opelechen, bright, shining. Opeek, white with froth. Ohiopechen, it is of a white color. THE RIVER OHIO. 23 Oliiopeek, very white, (caused by froth or white caps.) Ohiophanne, very white stream. Ohiopeekhanne, very deep and white stream, (by its being covered over with white caps.) Ohiopehhele, which signifies white frothy water. Mr. Heckewelder then adds, " The Ohio river being in many places wide and deep, and so gentle, that for many miles, in some places, no current is perceivable : the least wind, blowing up the river, covers the surface with what the people of that country call white caps ; and I have myself, for days together, witnessed that this has been the case, caused by southwardly and souili-west- wardly winds, so that we, navigating the canoes, durst not venture to proceed, as these white caps would have filled and sunk our canoe in a minute. Now in all such cases, when the river could not be navigated by canoes, nor even crossed with this kind of craft — when the whole surface of the water presented white foaming swells, the Indians would, as the case was at the time, apply one or other of the above quoted words to the state of the river ; they would say ' juh Ohiopicchen,' ' Ohiopeek ohio- peekhanne ;' and when they supposed the water very deep, they would say, ' Kitschi ohiopeekhanne,' which means, ' verily this is a deep white river.' Again recurring to the habit of abbreviating Indian words, so generally prevalent among the French and Ame- ricans, Mr. Heckewelder concludes his interesting remarks upon this subject, with the supposition that at an early day, the emigrants to the west, took the first syllable of the Indian name ' Ohiopekhanne,' because both easy to pronounce and to keep in the memory. The river Ohio, for some distance below Pittsburgh is rapid, and the navigation interrupted in low water by chains of rock extendino' across the bed of the river. The scenery is eminently beautiful, though deficient in grandeur, and exhibiting great sameness. The hills, two 24 THE RIVER OHIO, or three hundred feet in height, approach the river, and confine it closely on either side. I'heir tops have usual- ly a rounded and graceful form, and are covered with the verdure of an almost unbroken forest. Sometimes tlie forest trees are so thinly scattered as to afford glimpses of the soil, with here and there a mass, or a perpendicular precipice, of grey sandstone, or compact limestone, the prevailing rocks of this region. The hills are usually covered on all sides with a soil, which though not deep;. is rich. Approaching towards Cincinnati, the scenery become? still more monotonous. The hills recede from the river and are less elevated. The bottom lands begin to spread out from the margin of the water. Heavy forests cover the banks, and limit the prospect. But the woodland is arrayed in a splendor of beauty, which renders it the chief object of attraction. Nothing can be more beauti- ful, than the first appearance of the vegetation in the spring, Avhen the woods are seen rapidly discarding the dark and dusky habiliments of winter, and assuming tlieir vernal robes. The gum tree is clad in the richest green ; the dogwood and red-bud are laden with flowers of the purest white and deepest scarlet; the buckeye bends un- der the weiglit of its exuberant blossoms. The oak, the elm, the walnut, the sycamore, the beech, the hickory, and the maple, which here tower to a great lieight, have yielded to the sunbeams, and display their bursting buds, and expanding flowers. The tulip tree waves its long branches, and its yellow flowers high in the air. Tlie wild rose, the sweet-briar, and the vine, are shooting in- to verdure ; and clinging to their sturdy neighbors, mod- estly prefer their claims to admiration, while they aflbrd deliglitful promise of fruit and fragrance. The scenery still exhibits the same appearance, as we continue to descend the river, except tliat the hills gradu- ally become less bold and rocky. The shores of the THE RIVER OHIO. 25 Oliio do not any where present that savage grandeur, M'hich often characterises our larger streams. No tall cliffs, no bare peaks, nor sterile mountains, impress a sen- timent of dreariness on the mind. The hills are high, but gracefully curved, and every where clothed with ver- dure. There is a loneliness arising from the absence of population, a wildness in the variegated hues of the forest, and in the notes of the feathered tribes ; but the traveler feels none of that depression which results from a confe^.iousness of entire insulation from his species, none of that aAve which is inspired by those terrific out- lines that display the convulsions of nature or threaten the existence of the beholder. It is impossible to gaze on the fertile hills and rich bottoms that extend on either side, without fancying them peopled ; and even where no signs of population appear, the imagination is continually reaching forward to the period when these luxuriant spots shall maintain their millions. The absence of population alluded to, is to be consid- ered in a comparative sense. With Ohio, Indiana and Il- linois on the one hand, and Kentucky and Virginia on the otlier, there can be no dearth of inhabitants ; but their dwellings are less frequently presented to the traveler's eye than might be supposed. AVe continually pass villages, great or small, and farm houses are scattered along the shore ; but we often float for miles without discovering any indication of the residence of human beings. Many of the river bottoms are inundated annually, and lund has not yet become so scarce or valuable as to induce the owners to reclaim these spots from the dominion of the water. Such places remain covered with gigantic timber, which conceals the habitations beyond them. The commanding eminences are seldom occupied, because the settlers are farmers, who consult convenience, rather than beauty, in the location of their dwellings, and who generally pitch their tents in the vicinity of a spring, upon the low grounds^ C 26 THE RIVER OHIO. One peculiarity, which is common to this river and the Mississippi, and is perhaps owing as well to their great volume of water, as to the nature ot the secondary formation through which they roll, is tlie rounded and graceful shape of their meanders. The noble stream, clear, smooth, and unruffled, sweeps onward with regular ma- jestic force. Continually ciianging its direction, as it flows from vale to vale, it always winds with dignity, and avoiding those acute angles which are observable in less powerful streams, sweeps round in graceful bends. The word bend is very significantly applied, in the popular phraseology of this region, to express these curvatures of the river. The beautiful islands, which are numerous, should not be forgotten. These are sometimes large and fertile, but generally subject to inundation, and seldom under tillage. Sometimes they are mere sandbanks, covered with thick groves of the melancholy willow, whose branches dip into the water. The term tow-head, is significantly ap- plied to the latter, by the boatmen. Below the Falls of Ohio, we find a country, not essen- tially different from that above, but presenting a different appearance to the eye, as viewed from the river. The change has been so gradual, that the traveler only now begins to realise a diversity of surface, soil, and climate The country is flat, the soil is deep, black, and rich. Small ranges of hills are seen at intervals ; but the rock foundation is seldom exposed to the eye. The river- bottoms become more extensive, exhibit decided appear- ances of annual inundation, and are intersected by bay- oiiXf or deep inlets, which are channels for the water in time of flood, and remain empty during the rest of the year. Cane-brakes are occasionally seen along the banks. The cane is an evergreen, from twelve to twenty feet in height, which grows chiefly in rich flats. It stands so thick upon the ground, as to form an almost impenetrable THE RIVER OHIO. 27 thicket, and as it is usually, in this region, found among ponds and hayoux^ the cane-brake is always a secure re- treat for bears, which feed upon the buds, and for deer and other gregarious animals. The first settlers find them very valuable, as affording food for their cattle during the winter ; and even after the country has been many years settled, the inhabitants drive their cattle to the cane in the autumn, and suffer them to remain without any further attention until the ensuing spring. The cane, however, is generally destroyed in a few years, by the large num- ber of cattle which are thus wintered upon it. Cattle and horses eat it greedily, and will stray several miles in search of this favorite food, which is said to be very nourishing. Cotton-wood, peccans, catalpas, and gigantic syca- mores, are now seen in the rich bottoms. Extensive groves of cotton-wood sometimes clothe the shores of the river. Tlie tree is large, and extremely tall ; the foliage of a rich deep green, resembling that of the Lombardy poplar^ to wliich tree this also assimilates somewhat in shape. Nothing can exceed the beauty of these groves : at a distance, a stranger might imagine them forests of Lombardy poplar ; and as that tree is devoted to orna- mental purposes, it is scarcely possible to refrain from fancying, that some splendid mansion is concealed in the impervious shade ; while the deep gloom Avith which they envelop the soil, gives a wild, pensive, and solemn character, to the cotton tree grove. The catalpa is a small graceful tree, rerrxarkable for the beauty of its flowers. The peccan is a tall tree, resem- bling the hickory, to which it is nearly related ; it yields a rich, fine nut, of which large quantities are annually exported. It is found on the margin of the Ohio and Wabash for a short distance above and below the junction of those rivers, and within the corresponding parallel on the Mississippi, but not elsewhere in this region. Grape- 28 THE RIVER OHIO. vines are numerous and very large, the stems being some times nearly a foot in thickness, though seldom exceeding six or eight inches, and the branches extending to the tops of the tallest trees. The misletoe is seen hanging from the branches of the trees throughout the whole course of the Ohio. It be- comes more abundant after passing Cincinnati, and is seen in the greatest profusion between Louisville and the mouth of the river. This little plant never grows upon the ground, but with a very poetic taste, takes up its attic residence upon the limbs of the tallest trees. The berry which contains the seed, is so viscous as to adhere to the feet of birds, who carry it from tree to tree, and thus contribute to the propagation of this ornamental parasite. The paroquet is now seldom seen north of Cincinnati. They are abundant below Louisville, where tlocks of them are heard chattering in the woods, or beheld sport ing their bright green plumage in the sunbeams. One of the most remarkable characteristics of this, and other western rivers, is the vast and rapid accumulation in the volume of water which takes place, usually in the spring, but occasionally at other seasons, and is caused by the immense extent of the territory drained. When the waters are low, as is commonly the case, in the dry seasons of the summer and autumn, the majestic Ohio dwindles to a small stream, affording but limited facilities for navigation. Among the hills of Pennsvl- vania and Virginia, it is seen rippling over chains of rock, through which a passage is barely afforded to boats of the lightest burthen. Further down, its channel is but rarely obstructed by ledges of rock ; but instead of these, a series of sandbars, extending in some places from shore to shore, and in others projecting from the margin of the river far into its bed, and covered by but a few inches of ■water, render the navigation almost impracticable. Steam boats constructed for the purpose, and navigated by skill- THE RIVER OHIO. 29 fill pilots, ply with difficulty from port to port. Many are grounded upon the bars, from which perilous situa- tion some are relieved with great labor, while others are obliged to remain exposed to the elements, during the rest of the season, and are either lost, or seriously injured. The larger boats are wholly useless during this part of the vear ; and of the hundreds of noble vessels that are seen at other times actively plying upon these rivers, freighted with rich cargoes, the greater portion now lie inactive. As a general rule, it may be stated that the water is lowest during the months of July, August, and Septem- ber. The autumnal months are frequently dry, and the river remains low, in that case, until the winter. More usually there are slight rises of water throiigliout the fall season, which render the navigation practicable ; and as the weather becomes cold, tliere is a gradual increase in the volume of water. Throughout the winter, tlie fre- quent changes from cold to moderate weatlier, produce rains and rapid thaws, which occasion a series of freshets, and afford an ample supply of water. The change from the severe cold of the winter, to the higher temperature of spring, is usually sudden, and is attended by the precipitation of vast floods into the clian- nels of the larger rivers. The snows that lie deep upon the Allegheny mountains, are rapidly melted, and the immense mass of water which is thus produced upon the whole of the western declivity of that wide chain, from the borders of New York to those of North Carolina, are thrown into the Ohio. If the melting of the snow is accompanied by heavy and general rains, which is often the case, it will be seen that causes are brought into operation, of sufficient magnitude to produce the most astonishing results. The long and deep channels of the rivers become filled to overflowing, the islands sink be- neath the surface, the alluvial bottoms and lowlands are c2 *{0 I'llK lilVlH OHIO. «'(>V(M'«m1, iind Wf i\'.\v.v upon ;i muihs o{' wnlriH, (lie iinincii •ily i»l ^^ hull v'voutos t« (('rliuji oT mwc, :im w rll ;is oT lulcuso Ptll'ioHily. 'I'Ims .'U'rmrnil:i(ion im MllriMlnl uilli lull romp.trnlnclv (\'\v imoMN riunuTs, mimI scMicrly :mv «l:miMM", wliiU' ilN briiol'nM.i! cHlriMH mh> iiioulruliibly ^itmI. The :inMn;;o- inrnlw ol l*n>vi(l(M\«M\ inlrntlcd lov \\\v iu\\ :\\\\i\yy ol" iniin, lunvovrr ^if,';:uili(' mimI UMCoiilroUnMc, scltlom r;inY \\ illi \\\r\u uny csuinr lot Icnor. W <^ h;i\r none ol those suil- llnti juul prtMMpiiouH Ihioils. whuh m i\)«)uut!UUotiH distrirtit, MV HomrlimcN jmuikmI »1ou m upon llio v:»II<'\ s, with uiiox- pcM'Iril > lolonro. MlloMilod l>y >vnlrspv(vul dtsolnliou of lilt) ;nul piopri'ly. Dm ini'in risn \\\[\\ inpuhlv until i\\o olinnnols lu'conu' utMvU lilliMJ : l»ul ns the \\. iters swrll (t> \\w lun\k, llu' \vuith Mud r:iji:ttMly ol \\\rsv rcsrrxoirs l>o«'oni(' RO m'oal, {\\v inlrlf« .-uul hiMMidus so nninoious, iht> lowltnuN 1t» ho eovn'od no w ulr, th;it tho p(Mpondu'ul;tr OCOAHlUtlMlion ol the \ i>huuo hccontcs sh)\v ;iud >j;r:ulu;\l. \\\rY loMviu^j iho imuuHii;\lo n\i;iot» ol" th(> luouiilMms, tho d«^sr<>ul ol iho wmUm' ot)Ui\sON is po jjvadvi.'d, ms to provtM\l the lh>t»d lioui roilmji' lor>VMvd with vi(»hMUM\ while llu> «-h:uu\\ ti;»ttir(\ Mud plniutrd tip«>u th«> most »\»;»^;iul\*'ru( sralr. mvo loo luuuiMtsc^ to he v:iptdly (\llrd l*> i»V(Mth»wm}i. It\ spoidviuij of the lowhttuls whioh Iiotdi'v ou llu^ xwcv (^hio, \\ o \iMo :\ phv;\s«\ \\ huh is rouipMvnln r lu its in\- povl. WhtMi l!io walors nro low, ov cww sit tho uu dium lioi^hl wlurh ulVords s:\lo tisn ii);Uii>n lov tho hwjivsl vossrls. Ihr voynj^r'r wro?* tlm alhivinl h:u\Ks hi^h idxno !)in\ on (Mtliov h;\ud. Mxd c:\n sc\\\vr\\ iiuiij^iiu' th;U ;Mn rounu'- IvtU'O ot' orduiMvy n;ituv;\l o;\u>s(\s. o;»n pvoduoo a vv>hnno or wntov ot' »utUoirt\t n\;\ji\\it\ulo Tor thoir siduntM'sion. *V\\v intMvuso ol" wnttM" th(M"tM\>ix\ to l?u> j>t>int ;\t whirh iu- und;M\ot\ «-ouu\\(M\i'(\s. is not tlu' w vnk o( ;ui hour nor o( ',\ dnV' — it IN iu>i hlvo tlu' li.isty risuiii ol" :i hro»>k. iu>v tho rush ot" :i i\\oinit:un tonviit — hut llio \n>wovrul ^JWollinu' of THF. niVKU OHTO. ni a ftToat Blroiuu, incroiisin^ Aviih f;rii(lii:>l niul majostic projirrcNsion, nnil allonliii^ lo man and brnic, dnc n<>lii'<» of ilM approaclu In ho Uufxo a volnnn? of \valn, wliih' that, uliicli ovcrlhnvs tlio llat lands, will bo sta/^nanl, or llow jrontly l)ack\vard in oddios. Surh in fact, is tlio invaria- ble opniiln))) oj" tliorto fj^ivi\\. causeH ; and alilionj^li donios- lic annnalM wliirli linj^fM* on tln^ iiijvlirr .Hj)otH oitho nhoro until tho snrronndinj^\ lands ar(» iniinorsod, iuid tlwir roln'at is (Mit, of, nro H«)nnMinu\M drowned, ioid althon^li leiuM's nro (jollied oil", llwre is never, ^^\\ nny ol the oM-rllowed lauds, a Ntren^^tli ol current. ^;reat enough to sweep away per- nuMUMit. dwidlin^rs, or to <'ndan^er (ho lives of uumi or eatlle, M'hern ordinary prudence is used. As the waters rise, trade :iiid navigation :ne (|uickenocl into activity. The larjrest vessels now float in safety ; the steam boat of six hundred tons burthen, is as secure; from the dan/»;«M'S of tlu^ river luivij^ation as tln^ lif;htest skill'; ;md it is :i nolde mi<\IiI to behold these niiinenso vessels, darting alou)^ with the current, with all the addi- tional velocity which can be jiriven by a powe tinu< bein^' visible — Inden so heavily that lh(< whole hull is immersed, :iiid it would seem as it" the le;ist :iddiliou;d wcii'ht would HJuk tlieiii. 'f'lu' Ibil bollomed bonis sire :ilso munerons ;il this sen- pa)U. '.riieso are built along the whores of the river, but 32 THE RIVER OHIO. more frequently on its tributary streams, and often on the smaller rivers and creeks, far inland, and at points beyond the reach of all ordinary navigation. Here they lie, with their cargoes, waiting until the annual rise of water shall afford them the means of proceeding upon their voyages ; when they are floated off, with their immense freights, consisting chiefly of the heavier articles of the produce of the country. The highest rise of water M^hich has been known for many years, was the great flood of 1832, with regard to which our friend Dr. John Locke of Cincinnati, has been kind enough to furnish us with the following memoranda, of observations made by himself at that city, and which are rendered valuable, by the undoubted accuracy and skill of that gentleman in his philosophical investigations. The section of the river opposite to Walnut street, Cincinnati, at low water, would be 1006 feet wide at the surface, and 7 feet deep, at the deepest place. The area would be 4774 square feet. The rise of water which commenced early in February 1832, reached its greatest elevation on the 18th day of that month, when it was 63 feet perpendicular above the low water mark ; and the sectional area became 91,464 square, feet, without including its extension over the i)wer parts of Cincinnati and Covington. The number of cubic feet discharged per hour, was - 2,998,529,714 The number of cubic feet discharged per minute, was 48,308,828 The number of cubic feet discharged per second, was 805,147 The velocity of the stream was ascertained to be 6j miles per hour. Such a stream would fill a lake, presenting an area of one square mile, 107 feet deep, in one hour. Having ascertained the quantity of water discharged, the next inquiry was in relation to the sources of i^^ THE RIVER OHIO. 33 flood. The first point to be examined was m reference to the area of the valley of the Ohio, and its waters, above Cincinnati, or in other words, the extent of the surface drained by the tributaries which are discharged into the Ohio, above our city. Square Miles This valley includes about | of Ohio, - - 27,000 I of Virginia, 27,000 I of Kentucky, 7,000 3 of Pennsylvania, 14,500 of New York, ],000 of Maryland, 500 of N. Carolina, 500 Total, 77,000 By calculation it appears that a depth of four inches only, over this immense space of seventy seven thousayid square miles, was sufficient to maintain the river at the above uncommon height and velocity for fourteen days. The winter of 1831-2 had been unusually severe, and the ground was frozen to a great depth, when there sud- denly fell, according to the register of Dr. Hildreth of Marietta, eight inches of rain. Ordinarily, most of the water which falls to the earth, is absorbed by it ; but in this instance the surface being completely sealed, the whole of the water which fell, was suddenly thrown into the channels of the rivers. This appears to be a probable and sufficient cause, for tlie inundation which destroyed so much property, and caused so much distress and alarm. If it be the true theory, it follows that no such flood can happen in the temperate months, nor at any season, except upon a conjunction of circumstances, so rarely occurring in combination, as to render its recur- rence probable only at remote periods — perhaps not more frequently than once in a century. A general law in relation to freshets in rivers, is, that the water attains its greatest elevation at a point nearly 34 THE RIVER OHIO. midway in the length of the stream. The rule applies usually to each stream proper — each having its separate valley ; and would be operative upon the Ohio, within the limits embraced by its name, beginning at Pittsburgh, and ending at its confluence with the Mississippi. The application of such a law, cannot however be very exact, as it will be modified by a variety of circumstances. It can only be assumed as a fact of usual occurrence, grow- ing out of very obvious reasons, that, the causes which produce a freshet, act with powerful and rapidly aug menting force, to a point somewhere nearly midway of the course of the stream, from which point the counter acting causes begin to operate, and the volume becomes diminished in depth by the greater width of the channel, by absorption upon the overflowed grounds, by evapora^ tion, and by other means. Assuming Cincinnati to be sufficiently near a central position, as regards the length of the Ohio, to satisfy this rule, we may suppose that the greatest periodical accumulation of water is at this point, and adopting the data afforded by the great rise in the spring of 1832, the height of sixty three feet may be safely given, as the maximum perpendicular increase above low water mark. The mass of water occasioned by these causes, comes loaded with floating logs and drift Avood, — not however in such quantities as to impede the navigation — and with alluvial soil, and silicious particles, swept from the shores ; and as the waters wliich spread over the bottom lands, soon become nearly stationary, the earthy matter held in suspension settles down, and adds a rich coat to the soil, while the floating wood is left in the same position by the subsiding of the flood. Hence the annual accumulation of (he alluvion lands ; and the regular formation, in con- sequence of whicli the surface is always found to be most elevated, near the margin of tlie strcam, where the fi;r&t THE RIVER OHIO. 35 and most abundant deposite is made, as the water flows outward over the banks. In lower water the navigation of this river is impeded, in its upper portions by ledges of rock, and lower down, by snags and sandbars. These obstructions might un- doubtedly be removed ; and as there is scarcely any sub- ject of so much importance, it seems to us that there has been a singular apathy in the public mind in relation to it. The Ohio and Mississippi rivers stretch from one end to the other, of this great valley, and extend their larger tributaries throughout its whole breadth. The Atlantic itself does not, within our empire, wash so extensive a line of coast, or bear the freights of commerce to so many ports. Thirteen states and territories, embracing half the members of the union, and a still larger proportion of its surface, lie in contact with these waters, and are directly interested in their navigation. It is therefore as much a matter of national concern, and as important to the Amer- ican people, to improve the natural avenues of intercom- munication afforded by those rivers, as the protection of our commerce on the ocean by a naval force, or the con- struction of harbors and light-houses for its convenience. The one is a national commerce, not because it embraces an intercourse with foreign countries, but on account of its general utility, and of the numbers who enjoy its benefits ; and the other is equally national for the same reasons. Like the ocean too, this great thoroughfare is common to all. It is difficult to say which state is most interested in its trade and navigation, or where the line of demarkation would be drawn, which should separate the direct interest of one from anotlier, or shew where one ended and the other commenced. But these are precisely the kind of public improvements which have been, least of all, pressed upon the considera- tion of the general government. The western states, very •nroperly, consider themselves entitled to a liberal share 36 THE RIVER OHIO. of SO much of tlie public treasure as may be set apart for such purposes ; for all of them, in which the land is owned by the government, have made concessions which far exceed the donations received by them. The appropriations of the general government, in aid of inter- nal improvements, have usually received their direction from calls made upon congress by the state legislatures; and the latter, influenced by sellishness, by personal con- siderations, and by that very natural species of patriotism which looks first at home, and only at home, have been in the habit of confining their recommendations, chiefly, to objects of public utility within their own boundaries. All of them have claimed assistance for their colleges, their common schools, their roads, or their canals : praise- worthy objects, upon which we care not how liberal, or now lavish, may be the expenditure of the federal trea- ure. But there has been an absence of that enlarged policy, which should have looked to results of wider and more permanent advantage to the whole west ; and which should have brought the combined interest of the whole to act for the general good. Appropriations of money for purposes of limited or doubtful utility have been passed with difficulty through the legislative branches of Ihe government, and have sometimes been arrested by the executive ; for they must struggle against selfishness, opposing interests, constitutional scruples, and even po- litical intrigue. But works like those under consideration, would be obnoxious to no objection, nor alarm any honest scruple ; and a weight of influence might be arrayed in their favor, which would look down every shadow of opposition. If the whole west should unite in demanding from the national treasury an appropriation sufficient to complete all the labors requisite to the im- provement of these rivers, no state, nor combination of states, could arrest the passage of a law which should pro- vide for so noble an object — Pennsylvania and Virginia THE RIVER OHIO. 37 being parties concerned, and New York having a direct interest and connexion with the west, which would con- ciUate her favor. Among ourselves, there could be but one opinion. There is not a farmer, a merchant, nor an owner of real estate, in the west — not a man who has interests in common with those of his country, who would not be directly benefitted, by such improvements as ehould make the Ohio and Mississippi rivers navigable throughout the year. That such improvements are feasible, that they are within the scope of the means at the command of the nation, and strictly within the constitutional exercise of its power, are points, which we think will not now be disputed, by any reflecting mind. The rapids in the upper parts of these rivers, are composed of ledges of rock, or masses of loose stone, through which permanent channels may be made with facility. The snags, once go formidable, have been greatly diminished in number, and may be entirely removed. The reader is probably aware, that snags are formed by the trunks of large trees, which are precipitated into the river by the crumbling of the banks. The base of the stem, with its mass of lateral roots, would by its own weight be sunk to the bottom, but it is rendered still heavier by the mass of clay which adheres to it. This part therefore, sinks — the top of the tree floats, and is thrown into the direction of the current — the roots bury themselves in the mud, and the subsequent deposites of sand or earth, fix the obstruction firmly in the channel. The smaller branches of the tree soon drop off*, and the large limbs remain, pointing down the stream. When these sunken trees, are concealed beneath the surface, they are very dangerous to boats ascending the stream, which rushing upon them with the momentum given by a powerful steam engine, seldom fail, when they strike them, to have the hull of the vessel completely perforated. 38 THE RIVER OHIO. This subject has already received some attention from Congress, and the results have been auspicious. Taking all that has been done together, little as it has been, we are not aware that any expenditure of public money has been more judicious. In the year 1819 an examination of the whole bed of the Ohio was made by a board of commissioners appoint- ed by the several states interested, whose report justified the hope that the navigation of this fine river was sus- ceptible of great improvement. / Subsequent examinations have afforded more minute details, tending to strengthen the opinion then entertained. We copy the following just remarks, from a report made in 1835, by Lieutenant G. Button, of the United States corps of Engineers. " The Ohio river derives from the Allegheny its prin- cipal and most lasting supply ; during the summer months its volume is maintained, and very frequently increased, by occasional rains during that period, which enlarge materially the supplies drawn from the copious basin of this tributary, and it is only during a season of unusual drought, that it arrives at its minimum stage ; this, from a comparison of the best authorities, is assumed at 15 inches. The least depth obtained during the examina- tion this season was 2 min. 2 sec, although the water, for the brief space of a few days only, has been as low as two feet over some of the shoals between Pittsburgh and Wheeling. The Ohio through its whole course has in general a very equable and gentle current. During high stages this is the most uniform, although its rate is then considerably increased ; at low stages tJie river be- comes resolved into a succession of ripples, with exten- sive slack water basins between them varying in depth from tAvo to three, and even five fathoms. The valley of tlie river is bounded on each side by richly timbered hills of great uniformity in their average height, enclosing THE RIVER OHIO. S9 fertile bottoms which alternate in very regular succession on either side of the river ; ledges of rock occasionally appear along its banks ; these are generally of stratified and easily wrought sandstone. " There are few points on the river deserving the name of gorges ; the nearest approach to an opening of that character is found at Brown's island, 65 miles below Pitts- burgh. The heights here approach within tlie distance of 600 yards, and ledges of rocks exhibit themselves on each side of the river. There are several other formida- ble passes on the river, which however, in comparison wdth the shoals are few in number ; of the character alluded to are Captina and Buffington's islands, and the rapids called Le Tart's falls ; these are more dangerous for the passage of keel and flat boats than for that of steamers, which under the management of careful pilots, are exposed to little risk, when there is found sufficient depth of water at those points for floatage. The obstruc- tions in the river generally arise from want of sufficient depth of water, over many of the shoals at low stages. There are points however, where owing to the existence of projecting rocks, the navgiation is not safe for as much depth as is contained in the cliannel. The bars in the river may be classed, 1st, into those formed of hard and apparently of permanent gravel ; 2nd, shifting or loose gravel ; and 3rd, shifting sandbars. The flrst abound in the upper section of the river. These are generally ex- posed to a strong current, and formed of rounded oblong pebbles and stones, varying from one to fifty pounds and upv/ards ; they become by the continued action of the water, cleared of all smaller particles, firmly imbedded, and by their conformation resist the action of the current, the bottom assuming the consistency of, or similarity with, a pavement of smooth stones. "The bars of the second class are composed of fine gravel, moveable by strong currents, and occur, as well 40 THE RIVER OHIO. as the sandbars at the lower junction of the chutes formed by the islands ; these change their position, when upon the fall of the waters, the main channel of the river pre- dominates in a new direction, and the fall and current increase by the subsidence of the lower basins. In the upper section of the river, the sandbars are always found under the lee of the islands, or at the meeting of the chan- nels. In the lower are extensive sandbars unaccompanied by islands ; the most important of these are met with be- tween Guyandot and Cincinnati. In addition to the shoals, large quantities of logs and snags are distributed in different parts of the river. On some of the shoals, they lie imbedded in the gravel, forming dangerous ob- structions to the low water navigation. Large trees with their roots, branches, and foliage, in full verdure, under- mined and thrown into the stream by the gradual abrasion of the alluvial banks at high water, are of frequent occur- rence. Many logs are disgorged from the smaller tribu- taries and creeks which empty into the Ohio. These creeks, when swelled by rains into rapid torrents, dis- charge large quantities of pebbles, and large angular stones, into the bed of the river ; in many cases forming extensive bars at their junction. *' In descending the river, from its head, a considerable improvement is experienced in the depth of water after reaching the foot of Wheeling island ; from th^s point the river, at stages admitting the passage of light draught steamers, is practicable for about six inches greater draught than the section above it. This circumstance is not due to the reception of any important tributary to its waters, but solely to the decrease in the rapidity of its descent ; this difference in the depth is less perceptible at an ex- treme low stage. From a comparison of the best data obtainable, the descent from Pittsburgh to Wheeling has been estimated approximatively, at one foot to the mile ; from Wheeling to Guyandot, eight inches ; and thence THE RIVER OHIO. 41 to Louisville, fonv inches per mile. Below Guyandot, the character of the river becomes materially changed ; it here enlarges its bed, and flows onward with a dimin- ished current ; the level reaches are longer, and the de- scent at the ripples less. This enlargement of its bed, however, renders the depth over some of the shoals in this part at the river, very slight at low water, fonning several very shoal sand and gravel bars. From Cincin- nati to Louisville, the navigation becomes comparatively much improved. There are two or three bars on this section, and some dangerous snags below the mouth of Kentucky river, which require attention. It would be desirable to give a specific description and sketch of each shoal, were it not that their great number and similarity would render such description a monotonous repetition of nearly the same circumstances. " An important feature in the Ohio river is observable in the fact, that at all the islands are also located the worst shoals and rapids, or falls. These islands are considered rather the effect, than the cause of this fall, and formed, like the alluvial bottoms, by the gradual deposite from the river, which, at those points being spread out at low wa- ter, leaves some portions of the projecting parts of its bed uncovered. In respect to Captina and Buffington's islands, the low water channel at each deflects from the main direction of the bed, and passes off laterally, through a narrow and circuitous route, around the island. The main or direct channel, in both the cases alluded to, is rendered dangerous by rocks, and too shoal at low water for navigation. " Tile rocks in the Ohio chute, at Captina island, appear, from recent examinations, to be of a detached character, and susceptible of removal. The direct channel at Buf- fington's island, is bounded by a ledge of stratified sand stone rock, projecting into the river, which is supposed to continue entirely across the channel, beneath the gravel d2 42 THE RIVER OHIO. bottom ; it is, however, situated nearly at the foot of the rapids. Some loose rocks are scattered in this channel. " With regard to the islands, and particularly those at which the low water channel deviates from the direct continuation of the main bed of the river, shifting bars are always found under the lee of the islands. This rule appears, from the result of my examination, to be of general application in regard to all similar points on the river. The water, at high stages, passes with tlie greatest volume and current through the most direct and spacious channel, which then predominating, throws into the foot or junction of the smaller passage powerful eddies, de- positing therein a bar, which again changes and deepens upon the fall of the waters. With regard to the rapids, called Letart's falls, the river here passes over a rocky bottom, with a descent and current far greater than is found at any other point above the falls ; the bottom is free from dangerous projections, and the concentration of the water at this place, by the more prominent parts of the rocky bed on each side, renders the depth over these rapids much greater than upon most of the shoals in the river. The current, which is here five and three quarters miles per hour, at a moderate stage, can, in general, be stemmed by steamboats of sufficient power ; but for keel boats, and the lighter class of steamers, permanent warp- ing fixtures are here necessary. The points most requir- ing immediate attention, in the shoaler section of the river, lying between Pittsburgh and the junction of the Muskin- gum, at Marietta, are, Logtown bar. Black's and Brown's islands, Beech Bottom bar, McMahon's creek below Wheeling, which requires the removal of many dangerous rocks and logs, Captina island. Petticoat ripple in the long reach. Carpenter's bar, and Marietta island ; at this latter point, the junction of the Ohio channel, opposite to the town of Marietta, is crossed by a large bar of loose shiftiDg sand, which makes from the foot of the island THE RIVER OHIO. 43 across to the mouth of the Muskingum. At the head of tJie islaml, three miles above, the Virginia channel is crossed by a shoal gravel bar. " By the execution of that part of the plan of improve- ment now in progress, viz : the removal or clearing the channel of all sunken logs, stumps, snags, and projecting rocks, the navigation at low stages, and particularly for light draught st:amers and keel boats, will be rendered much safer, and even practicable for a deeper draught, than it is under present circumstances considered prudent to employ. There are some sand and light gravel bars, which are among the very shoalest on the river, but which, notwithstanding, are not ranked among the most serious obstructions, from the comparative safety witli which their passage may be attempted. A system of im- provement, having for its object to secure a specific depth of water at all seasons, sufficient to meet the demands of the trade upon those streams which are rendered impassa- ble during the dry seasons, from the diminution of the supplies derived from their tributaries, can be effected with certainty only by a series of dams and locks. "As this mode is not, however, contemplated with regard to the Ohio, the concentration of the river into one chan- nel, and the appropriation of all the water passing, to that object, during low stages, will, it is believed, accomplish all the further improvement contemplated." The project of removing the snags and sunken timber from the beds of the Ohio and Mississippi, originated with Captain Henry M. Shreve, one of the earliest and most experienced navigators of steam boats on the western rivers. He contrived a steam boat, for this purpose, which operates with such speed and energy, that scores of the largest trees are raised in a day, with the assistance of a few hands. The business of removing snags is per- formed only when the water is low ; at other times the crews of the boats are employed in cutting away the 44 THE RIVER OHIO. overhanging timber from the falling in hanks, — that is from such banks as are gradually becoming undermined by the action of the current, and which supply the great- est amount of these dangerous obstacles to navigation. The boat is of tlie most simple construction, yet has such power, that the largest tree, however firmly fixed, is re- moved in a few minutes. A number of these injjenious vessels have been employed for several years, under tlie direction of Captain Shreve, in the Ohio and Mississippi, and thousands of snags have been removed by them. In the year ending in September 1833, 1980 were taken up in the latter river, and supposing many to have been left, the chances of danger to ascending vessels, were dimin- ished by at least that number. Within the same year, the crews of those boats w^ere employed, when the water rose too high to admit of working on the bed of the river, in cutting away the trees which overhung the stream, or stood on banks liable to be undermined, and actually felled 10,000 trees, which must soon have been precipi- tated into the mighty current. The same operation has now been continued for several years, at an annual ex- penditure of less money, than was previously lost by the yearly destruction of property, from this single cause — to say nothing of the loss of life. It is true that the ob- structions are continually renewed ; but the num1;)er of trees which are thrown into the stream, must be annually decreased, by the settlement of the country, and the con- sumption of timber for fuel, by steam boats. Firewood hai already become a valuable article ; and but few years will elapse before every tree, on the margin of a navigable river, will have acquired a value sufficient to induce measures for converting into fuel, the whole of that im- mense mass, which would otherwise have been carried away by the spring floods. The sandbars ©f the Ohio, present a more permanent and serious obstruction to navigation. These are numer- THE RIVER OlilO. 45 ous — many of them extending entirely across tlie bed of the river, and affording less than two feet of water in any part. To cut a channel through a bank of sand, would not be impracticable ; but the excavation thus effected would be filled by the deposites of the next flood. It is difficult to project a remedy for this evil, which shall be effectual and permanent. About ten years ago. Colonel TiOng of the topographical engineers, was instructed by the government to make an experiment, and adopted the plan of throwing out wing-dams from each side of the river, so as to confine the current witlun narrow bounds, and to give it sufficient volume to wash a channel for itself He spent a summer in constructing such a work at Henderson bar, 200 miles below Louisville. The dams were constructed of piles driven into the sand and rising but a few inches above its surface. Captain Shreve has since pursued a similar plan in the construction of dams at French Island, Three Mile Island, Scuffletown bar, and the Three Sisters, vrhich are amcng the shoalest and most difficult bars in the Ohio. The -most extensive of these works, and that which, if successful, wiJ*! mos' satisfactorily attest the correctness of the principle whicl applies to them all, is the one at Cumberland Island, neai the mouth of Cumberland river. It is proposed to change the channel of the river, so as to force its waters to pass between the island and the Kentucky shore, by means of which a channel will be washed through the bar be- low, the mouth of the Cumberland relieved of a formida- ble obstruction, and the landing at the town of Smithland greatly improved. The length of the dam is about half a mile, its width at the base thirty feet, and its height six- teen feet. It is composed of large masses of limestone rock, quarried from the shores above. It was a costly work, and not well designed or constructed. A portion of it has been washed away and the dam in its present condition is an obstruction. Whether the work should be re-constructed, or removed, is a question we are not prepared to solve. We think it probable, however, that the Government will not hereafter entrust such works tc any but scientific engineers. 46 THE RIVER MISSISSIPPI. Some diversity of opinion has been entertained, as to the advantages to be derived from these operations, in reference both to sandbars and snags ; but the doubts are not greater, nor better founded, than those which have invariably assailed every novel and bold undertaking. It is obvious too, that many of them proceed from interested persons ; the pilots decry every improvement in the navigation of the rivers, which by making it more safe and easy, has a tendency to render their own calling less important, and their services less valuable, while the owners and officers of insufficient and badly managed boats, are always ready to attribute those disasters, by which life and property have been wantonly endangered to any other cause than their own cupidity or criminal mismanagement. The main objection to any of these measures, is that they have not been attempted on a scale of magnitude becoming their importance, and urged with all the energy which could be given by the resources of a great nation. The western plain is the centre of our empire, the citadel of its strength, the magazine of its resources, the heart, whose healthful operation must throw out nourishment and vigor to the whole continent, — and here should the nation lay deep and broad the foundations of its future greatness. CHAPTER III. The River Mississippi. From the Ohio, we proceed naturally to that part of the Mississippi river, comprised within the region to which we confine our remarks. In descending from St. Louis, the traveler is at once struck with the magnitude and boisterous character of the stream which has been so appropriately called, the Father THE RIVER MISSISSIPPI. 47 of waters. The current is powerful and impetuous. The water, loaded at all seasons with particles of white clay, carries upon its discolored surface, the evidence of the violence which it is continually committing upon its shores. The torrent itself, has always an angry appear- ance — boiling up or whirling round in eddies, and foam- ing, and lashing the shore, as it rushes along. On the Missouri side, a large portion of the country is high and broken, and the river often sweeps along the rocky bases of abrupt hills — behind which are the regions of lead and iron. Between these elevations are large tracts of alluvial bottom lands, which predominate on the Illinois side, whose shore presents an almost unbroken line of forest trees, extending their luxuriant foliage to the water's edge. The low, ragged, broken banks, are subject to continual change — accumulating at one point, while at another they are undermined, precipitating masses of earth and im- mense trees, into the headlong torrent, to be whirled in its eddies, or planted in its navigable channels. Almost midway between St. Louis, and the mouth of the Ohio, masses of limestone rock are seen on either side, which, though now unconnected, have the appear- ance of having once formed a continuous ridge, crossing the general course of the river in an oblique direction. It has been suggested that a cataract, as mighty as that of Niagara, may once have existed at this spot. If such was ever the fact, the barrier has now been worn down to the general level of the channel of the river. But there is no reason to believe that such obstruction ever existed at this place, as the surface of the plain, on the Illinois side of the river, is such as to give a decisive negative to the supposition ; for the river, if obstructed here, would have flowed over the low ground on that side, instead of being dammed up at this point. The stream thus confined, is narrower here than above or be- low, and in crossing the rocks, its course suddenly 48 THE RIVER MISSISSIPPI. changes to a direction nearly at right angles with that of the ridge. Approaching from above, we first discover the ridge throwing out a bold promontory into the stream on the Illinois shore, on the extreme point of which, is a large ronndcd mass of rock, 50 or 60 feet in height, shaped like an oven, and thence termed the Devil's Bake-oven. A low neck of land connects this with a range of perpen- dicular rocks, which frown in rugged precipices over the stream, and whose summits are beautifully crowned with vegetation. As the current sweeps abruptly round this cape, another promontory is seen jutting out from the opposite shore. Against this the whole force of the cur- rent beats with fearful velocity, and by its attrition, has worn it away until a large fragment has been separated, and left standing in solitary grandeur in the midst of the waves. This is the Grand Tower. Its height may be 50 feet, and its diameter about the same. Its contour is remarkably exact and symmetrical, forming a column as nearly circular as if its proportions had been marked out Dy the hand of art. The sides are nearly perpendicular, out the ditVerent strata distinctly marked out. The Avhole has the appearance of a regular column, whose height is equal to its diameter. The top is flat, and supports a stratum of soil, which gives birth to a short, but rich growth, of trees and shrubs. In our early history, this was a noted spot. The river boats, which before the application of steam, were pro- pelled up the stream Avith difficulty, by human labor, were unable to ascend this rapid pass with oars or poles. Not only was the current too strong: for this operation, but the danger of being dashed against the rocks, was imminent. The only way to surmount these obstacles was, to drag the boat round the cape on the Illinois side, by means of ropes. To eflect this object, it was necessary for a portion of the crew to land, and an opportunity was THE RIVER MISSISSIPPI. 49 offered to tlie Indians to attack them, when the prospects of resistance or of flight, were equally hopeless. Here then they formed their ambuscades, and manv a crew was slain at this spot, to gratify the savage lust for plun- der and revenge, while many boats were wrecked by the violence of the waves. 'I'hese dangers exist now only in tradition. The Indi- ans have retired, and our own industrious citizens inhabit these shores ; while the introduction of steamboats has obviated the dangers of navigation, and rendered this spot as safe as any other. "When we behold the steam vessel slowly and majestically overcoming the mighty current, riding along in perfect safety, and then turn our eyes to the surges which are beating against the rocks and send- ing up their sheets of white foam into the air, we cannot but acknowledge the deep debt of gratitude, which our country owes to the memory of Fulton. And when we behold this grand and durable tower, so graceful and so appropriate in its form, so appositely placed in the midst of scenes, calculated to awaken respect for the genius, and gratitude for the services, of Fulton, we are induced to hope that a mojuiment, to the fame of this ilhistrious citizen will be erected upon this natural pedestal. Tlie deviVs tea table, and other appurtenances of the do;ninion of his Satanic majesty, are found in this neigh- borhood. The cornice rocks, are great curiosities. The perpendicular sides of the limestone precipices, have been worn by the water into regular shapes, and in some places, a continuous formation resembling a handsome cornice work, mry be seen, overhanging the cliffs, whose sides represent columns, and other architectural devices. The upper Mississippi is a much more beautiful river than it is generally believed to be. In richness, beauty, and variety of landscape, it far surpasses the Ohio ; and we cannot conceive why the French, who knew both, should have called the latter la belle in preference to E 50 THE RIVER MISSISSIPPI. the former, unless, indeed, they considered that it would have been a solecism in language to have made a belle out of the Father of streams. For the tirst thirty miles above St. Louis, the country, although extremely rich and valu- able, is not interesting in its appearance. Within that distance, the Missouri river comes in on the one hand, and the Illinois on the other ; and after passing the latter, the shores become attractive. 'I'he whole character of the river is clianged, after pass- ing the mouth of the Missouri. Above that, the Miss- issippi is a clear stream, with a strong, but smooth current. Instead of the low alluvial banks, which are continually accumulating at one spot, and falling in at another, as is the case upon the lower Mississippi, here are bold and beautiful shores, such as no other river that I have ever seen, can boast. On the Illinois side, we Jiow behold a range of tall bluffs, rising perpendicvilarly from the water's edge, to the height of from one to two Hundred feet, and faced with a solid bed of limestone. In looking at these bluffs, the imagination readily sug- gests the idea, that the river lias once flowed upon a level with their summits, and has cut its present channel, by ihe action of its current. Tliis is doubtless in part true, m reference to this, as to all other rivers. But the ap- pearances which cause this conjecture may be accounted for much more easily. Tha horizontal lines and projec- tions, resembling long rows of cornice, which are noticed by the voyager far above his head, have doubtless been produced by the trickling of the rain water down tlie sides of the precipice. The strata being^ horizontal, and of different degrees of hardness, the particles have been removed most rapidly from the softer parts, and with a regularity corresponding with the formation of the rock. The escarpments or steep sides of the rock, exhibit no angular shapes, but are smoothed and rounded as if by the long continued action of a powerful current of water. THE RIVER MISSISSIPPI. 5 Numerous holes appear on the face of the solid rock, sometimes shallow and irregular, but often deep and cylindrical ; they are precisely such as geologists call pot-holes, and are far above the present high water mark. Every projection is rounded, and every cavity is globular, and so regular has been this operation, as to have pro- duced in some instances, a series of columnar formations, whicli display much of tlie symmetry of art, and ex- tending from the base to the summit of the rock, seem like immense buttresses intended to strengthen and support these massive walls. The peaks seem to have been long since decomposed, and have mouldered down into grace- fully rounded hills, covered with vegetation. These summits are on a level with the plane of the country. After passing a few miles further, these vertical declivi- ties are no longer presented to the eye. We now see the crystal stream beating against a bank of gravel, from which the shores rise with a gradual slope. In a few instances the hills rise boldly from the water's edge, or push out their steep promontories, so as to change the di- rection of the river ; but more generally we see on either bank a series of graceful slopes, swelling and sinking as far as the eye can reach. The prairie, for the most part, extends to the water, and no pen can describe the singu- lar and captivating effect of such scenery. Imagine a stream of a mile in width, whose waters are as transpa- rent as those of the mountain spring, flowing over beds of rock or gravel. Fancy the prairie commencing at the water's edge — a natural meadow covered with grass and flowers, rising with a gentle slope, for miles, so that in the vast panorama, thousands of acres are exposed to the eye. The prospect is bounded by a range of low hills, which sometimes approach the river, and again recede, and whose summits, which are seen gently waving along the horizon, form the level of the adjacent country. The prairies are not flat, but composed of a succes'^ion of 52 THE RIVER MISSISSIPPI. swells, and the idea impressed upon the mmd by the whole conformation ol" the surface is, that the level plane of the country once terminated on the brink of the river, that the channel of tlie latter has been for ages increasing in deptli, and that the vales which we now see receding from it, were at first mere ravines, washed by the torrents of rain water, which have been gradually widened and rounded off by beating rains, into their present harmony of outline. The timber is scattered in groves and strips, the whole country being one vast illimitable prairie, orna- mented by small collections of trees. Sometimes the woodland extends along the river for several miles con- tinuously — sometimes it is seen stretching in a wide belt far off into the country, and marking the course of some tributary stream, and sometimes in vast groves, of several miles in extent, standing alone like islands, in this wilder- ness of grass and flo\vers. But more often we see the single tree without a companion near, or the little clump composed of a fov/ dozen oaks or elms ; and not unfre- quently, hundreds of aci*es embellished Vv^ith a kind of open woodland, and exltibiting the appearance of a splen- did park, decorated with skill and care by the hand of taste. Here we behold the beautiful lawn enriched with flowers, and studded with trees, which are so dispersed about as not to intercept the prospect — standing singly, so as not to sliade the ground, and occasionally collected in clusters, wliile now and then tlie sliade deepens into the gloom of the forest, or opens into long vistas and spacious plains, destitute of tree or shrub. We doubt whether there can be found, on the globe, a tract of country to compare with this. Commencing a little north of St. Louis, and extending tvfo hundred miles from east to west, and the same distance north, is to be found the most extensive tract of rich land in the world. Within these bounds, the country is nearly all as captivat- ing to the eye as that which we have described. Scarcely THE RIVER MISSISSIPPI. 53 any of the land is subject to inundation. On the contrary, although incalculably rich, and sutRciently level for cul- tivation, it is a high, rolling, champaign country, and the shores of the streams are mostly bold. Healtliy it must be. At the foot of the upper rapids is one of die most pic- turesque scenes that we recollect to have beheld. On the western side, a series of slopes are seen rising one above anotlier for a considerable distance, until the back ground is terminated, by a chain of beautifidly rounded hills, over the whole of which trees are thinly scattered. On the other side of the river, is a broad flat plain of rich alluvion, several miles in length, and more tlian a mile in breadth, and terminated by a range of wooded liills. On this prairie is a small village of the Sauk and Fox Indians, composed, of rude lodges, scattered carelessly about. Their chief village was a few miles in the interior ; and it was for the possession of this beautiful country, that the followers of Black Hawk contended, in the recent war which resulted in such disastrous consequences to that ill fated tribe. In the front of the landscape, and present- ing its most prominent feature, is Rock Island ; the western shore of which, is washed by the main current of the Mississippi, while the eastern side is separated from tlie main land by a narroAv channel, which is forda- ble in low water. The southern point of the island is elevated about 40 feet above the ordinary level of the river, and is supported by a perpendicular parapet of rock. Here stands Fort Armstrong, a strong and very neat work, garrisoned by two companies of United States' troops ; and here Avill be one of the most desirable sites for a town, upon the upper Mississippi. Rock river, wdiich enters into the Mississippi a few miles below the island, is a rapid stream, which may be easily rendered navigable ; and which affords abundant water power for the propulsion of any kind of machinery. The whole of this region is fruitful, healthy, and agreeable to the eye. E 3 64 SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. Here the wild honeysuckle flourishes luxuriantly ; thous- ands of acres are covered with the wild gooseberry, plum, grape, mulberry, and other indigenous fruits, and the soil teems with the richest beauties and bounties of Providence. Above this point the scenery becomes occasionally more hilly and diversified, but the same general character marks its features as far up as the falls of St. Anthony, and we shall only refer the reader to the volumes detailing the two expeditions of Colonel Long and his scientific com- panions, whose remarks, so far as we have trod over the same ground, we have found singularly accurate, and can recommend safely, to those who desire to make more minute researches, than those for which our own pages will furnish the materials. CHAPTER IV. General Surface of the Country. TJie traveler who visits our Valley for the first time, advancing from the east, to the Oliio river, and thence proceeding westward, is struck with the magnificence of the vegetation which clothes the whole surface. The vast and gloomy grandeur of the forest, tlie gigantic size and venerable antiquity of the trees, the rankness of the weeds, the luxuriance and variety of the underbrush, the long vines that climb to the tops of the tallest branches, the parasites that hang in clusters fro in the boughs, the brilliancy of the foliage, and the exuberance of the fruit, all show a land teeming with vegetable life. The forest is seen in its majesty; the pomp and pride of the wilder- ness is here. Here is nature unspoiled, and silence un- disturbed. A few years ago, this impression was more striking than at present; for now, farms, villages, and SCENERY. 55 even a few large towns are scattered over tJiis region, diversifying its landscapes, and breaking in upon the characteristic wildness of its scenery. Still there are wide tracts remaining in a state of nature, and displaying all the savage luxuriance which first attracted the pioneer; and upon a general survey, its features present at this day, to one accustomed only to thickly populated countries, the same freshness of beauty, and the same immensity, though rudeness of outline, which we have always been accustomed to associate with the idea of a western land- scape. I know of nothing more splendid than a forest of the west, standing in its original integrity, adorned with the exuberant beauties of a powerful vegetation, and crowned with the honors of a venerable age. There is a grandeur in the immense size of the great trees — a richness of coloring in the foliage, superior to any thing that is known in corresponding latitudes — a wildness and an un- broken stillness that attests the absence of man — above all, there is a vastness, a boundless extent, an uninterrupted continuity of shade, which prevents the attention from being distracted, and allows the mind to fill itself, and the imagination to realize the actual presence, and true char- acter, of that which had burst upon it like a vivid dream. This effect is the more uniform since the rivers hav^ become the great avenues of commerce, and the explora tions of the majority of those who travel, are confined to their wooded shores. Here the forest is most abundant, and the growth of the tree the most gigantic ; and as the steamboat paddles her way rapidly through the water, the spectator beholds, for mile after mile, a continuous border of unbroken woodland, alternating with the village, or the solitary farm, which is occasionally presented to his view. In no instance does the prairie,- — the natural meadow, clothed with grass — appear upon the margin of the Ohio, or of any of its tributaries ; but invariably the 56 SCENERY. rich alluvion lands that skirt those streams, and the low rounded hills, are shaded by a prolific growth of heavy- timber. But when the traveler forsakes the valley of the Ohio, and advancing westward, ascends to the level of that great plain, which constitutes the general surface of this extensive region, he finds himself in an open champaign country— in a wilderness of broad plains, covered with a rich sward of grass, and destitute of trees. Tlie transition is as sudden, as it is complete. Behind him are the most gigantic productions of the forest — before him are the lowly, the verdant, the delicate, inhabitants of the lawn ; behind him are gloom and chill, before him are sunlight and graceful beauty. He has passed the rocky cliff, and the savage mountain pass, where the den of the rattle- snake is concealed, — the marshes that send up foetid steams of desolating miasma, — and the canebrake where the bear and the panther lurk ; and has reached tlie pas- ture wliere the deer is feeding, and the prairie-flower displays its diversified hues. He has seen the wilder- ness in all its savage pomp, and gloomy grandeur, arrayed in tlie terrors of barbarian state ; but now beholds it in its festal garb, reposing in peace, and surrounded by light, gayety, and beauty. Tliis distinction is not imaginary; no observing man can pass from one part of this region to another, without remarkino; the natural antithesis to which we allude ; and that mind would be defective in its perceptions of the sublime and beautiful, which did not feel, as well as see, the eff'ects of this singular contrast. There is in the ap- pearance of one of our primitive forests, a gloomy wild- ness, that throws a cast of solemnity over the feelings , a something in the wide spread solitude which suggests to the traveler that he is far from the habitations of man — alone, in the companionship of his own thoughts, and the presence of his God. But the prairie landscape KIVER SCENERY. 57 awakens a ciiflerent train of tliought. Here light pre- dominates instead of shade, and a variety of hue instead of a wearisome exuberance and monotony of verflure ; while the extent of the open scene which is spread before the vision, allows the eye to roam abroad, over an endless diversity of agreeable objects. The same remarkable contrast is equally striking in the contour of the surface — in tlie difference between the broken, and the level districts. The former lie chiefly along the Allegheny mountains, and are composed of the lateral ridges which extend from the principal cliain into the valley ; the latter is the common formation of a grea portion of this extensive country. If the traveler looks down from the western pinnacles of the Allegheny, he beholds a region beautifully diversified M^ith hill and dale, and intersected by rapid streams, tumbling over ledges of rock, or beds of gravel. In western Pennsylvania, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, he finds every varie- ty of scenic beauty — the hill, the valley, and the plain, the rocky cliff, the secluded dell, the clear fountain, and the rivulet pitching headlong from vale to vale. The rivers have each their characteristic scenery. The Monongahela winding through a mountainous country, overhung with precipices, and shaded by heavy forests, with a current sufficiently gentle to be easily navigable by steam boats, has its peculiar features, which are in- stantly lost when the traveler has passed on to the bosom of the Ohio. The Allegheny differs from both ; more turbulent than either, it has not the majesty of the one, nor the romantic beauty of the other. The winding course, and rugged scenery of the Ohio between Pittsburgh and Wheeling, impress the beholder as strikingly wild and picturesque ; below the latter place the features of the landscape become softened, the hills recede farther from the river, are less lofty, and more rounded ; and again, after passing Louisville, these elevations are seen less 58 RIVER SCENERY. frequeiUly, and gradually melt away, until the river be- comes margined by low shores, and a continuous line of unbroken forest. But if we leave the gentle current of the Ohio, and ascend the Kentucky or the Cumberland, we again linil rapid streams, overhung with precipices, and a country abounding in the diversities of bold and roman- tic landscape. Here may be seen the rapid current foaming and eddying over beds of rock, and the tall peak towering above in solitary grandeur. Here the curious tourist may penetrate the gloom of the cavern, may clam, ber over precipices, or relVesh himself from the crystal fountain bursting from the bosom of the rock. But he will find every hill clad with timber, every valley teeming with vegetation — even the crevices of the limestone para- pets giving sustenance to trees and bushes. Green River, though lying between these is essentially different from both : though often hemmed in by hills, its current ia gentle, and its navigable facilities extended far into the country through which it flows. The Kenhawa river deserves a separate mention. From its junction with the Ohio at Point Pleasant, the field of a battle in which the characteristic valor of Virginia was most conspicuously displayed, the traveler ascends a val- jey of little width, through which meanders a small and gentle river. A narrow belt of rich bottom land, divided into highly productive farms, is seen on one or the other side of the river, and sometimes on both — beyond which is a range of high, precipitous, and rocky hills. At a distance of about sixty miles from the mouth, by the meanders of the river, commences the richest salt region in the United States. It extends about ten miles along the river ; and within that distance there are eighty oi ninety separate establishments for the manufacture of salt, thickly scattered along the shore on either side of the stream. A large portion of the salt used in the west, has been furnished from these furnaces, which have proved MOUNTAIN SCENERY. 59 extremely lucrative to the proprietors. Although they have been in operation for many years, the supply of brine remains undiminished, and the neighboring hills furnish an inexhaustible supply of bituminous coal, lying in thick horizontal strata, in sight of the furnaces, and in positions elevated a few feet above them. Pursuing the river a few miles further, we arrive at a cataract formed by a ledge of rock which crosses its chan- nel, and which forms a curious and beautiful scene. Im- mediately beyond this point, the landscape becomes grand and romantic, combining the wildest and most splendid features of scenic attraction. At the spot where the Gau- ley and New rivers unite, and merge their names, in that of the Kenhawa, we reach the foot of the mountains, down whose precipitous gorges these streams are seen rushing. The great road which pursues the valley of one of these tributaries, winding with its sinuosities, and for the most part hewed out of the sides of perpendicular parapets of rock, affords a series of the most extensive and sublime prospects. After toiling up an ascent of several miles, passing over deep ravines, and often turn- ing the angle of a projecting cliff, along whose edge the traveler passes with an involuntary shudder, as he gazes on the perilous depth below, we arrive at the celebrated and magnificent spot called the Hawk's Nest. This is the highest peak of this part of the chain of mountains. It is not seen from the road, which at this point has left the steep side of the chasm, and passes for a short dis- tance along a ridge shaded on either side by forest trees. The stage is stopped, in order that the natural curiosity of the traveler may be indulged in beholding a scene of uncommon grandeur. A small footpath leading at right angles is pointed out to him, pursuing w^hich for a few yards, he suddenly finds himself standing on the project- ing ledge of a precipice, from whose brink he may cast a stone into the New river, which foams over a bed of rock 60 SURFACE OF THE COUNTRV. one thousand feet below him. The landscape is perfect — its extent, its ^-ander.r, its variety, its romantic char- acter, and the splendid beauty of its details, are incom- parably magnificent. The sublimity of the scene, is not less than that of the Niagara cataract ; its gigantic out- lines fill the beholder with wonder, while the dizzy height at which he stands, on a narrow ledge, projected over a gulph of such awful magnitude, causes a sensation of ter- ror to mingle with the thrilling sensations of astonishment and delight that fill his bosom. The toils and perils of a journey over the mountains are amply compensated by a view of this fine scene, to which nothing of the kind can be superior. It is on the road which leads from Guyandot on the Ohio, by the Virginia springs, to Fredericksburg in Virginia. The road itself is a clay turnpike, nearly impassable in the wet season, but in the summer superior to any other by which the Allegheny ridge is crossed, and which af- fords infinitely the most agreeable route for an excursion from east to west in hot weather. The scenery presented on the western shore of the Ohio, is altogether different. The mountain is seen no more; the hill, the rock, the precipice, and the limpid torrent occur but seldom ; and although in Ohio the change is not so marked, as in the more western states, th.e traveler as he wanders successively over Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and the vast wilderness beyond, is as- tonished at the immensity of the great plain, the regularity of its surface, and the richness, the verdure, and the beauty, of its wide spread meadows. Whatever may be the purpose with which we contem- plate the region now under review, it is necessary to keep in mind this important diversity of surface and production. To the poet, it afibrds the most picturesque and striking contrasts of scenery; to the inquirer after truth, it pre- sents in an imposing manner, the extraordinary capabili- S'JRFACK OF THE COUNTRY. 61 ties of a country, which embraces such varied resources for agriculture and trade, and possesses so happy an adaptation, to the different pursuits of life, and products of industry. To all it must suggest how defective and totally worthless are the accounts of those, who having visited one part of this country, assume to describe the whole ; whose personal observations have been confined to the margins of the great rivers, while they have no knowledge of the prairies, nor can imagine in their wild- est dreams, the extent, the fertility, the peculiar confor- mation, and singular agricultural advantages, of these interesting plains, and are equally unacquainted with the geology, the resources, and interior channels of inter- course, of this broad land. There are some other distinctions which are necessarily to be considered, and to which reference should be had, whenever general remarks are made, for they will suggest the occasions where it may be necessary to make excep- tions. In western Pennsylvania, and Virginia, the toils of the pioneer have in a great measure ceased, the log hut has disappeared, and commodious farm houses of framed wood, or stone, have been reared. Agriculture has as- sumed a permanent character, and is prosecuied with steadiness and method. In Pennsylvania, particularly, the immense treasures of iron and coal, and the great manufacturing ability of Pittsburgh, has given a peculiar character to the industry, and has caused the spirit of commerce and enterprise, to be widely diffused among the farmers. Great expenditures have been made upon roads and canals, and the traveler sees many symptoms of an active and prosperous traffic. Ohio has grown more rapidly, and the new is here seen singularly mixed with the old — neat villages, exten- sive farms, and valuable improvements, alternating witli rude hamlets, solitary log houses, or masses of unbroken forest. The appearances of commercial and asfricultural F 62 SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. activity, are of the most cheering character, the actual improvement which is going forward in every department of life and business, is great, — yet the exterior develope ment, as presented to the eye of the stranger, is new, rougli, and uninviting. The beauty of nature has been destroyed, and the embellishments of art have not been supplied. Wealth and labor have been employed widi great energy and success, in reduchig the wild land into cultivated fields, in bringing the resources of the country into operation, and in providing the comforts of life ; but few expenditures have been made for ornament or luxury. To him who passes rapidly through the land, and glances only at the rude exterior, every thing appears crude and unformed, but there is notwithstanding an admirable sys- tem in the industry, as well as in the social and moral condition of the people. The skeleton of a regularly organized civil society, with all its strong muscles and ligaments is vigorously developed, and those parts only are wanting, which are necessary to give grace and full- ness to the outline. Passing westwardly through Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, tliere will be found still less appearance of im- provement. In some parts of Indiana, the people are treading rapidly in the footsteps of tliose of Oliio, sub- stantial ho\ises have been built, and farms have been Drought into a high state of culture. But generally speak- ing the settlers in these states continue to reside in their primitive dwellings ; the log house, and the rough worm- hnce, are the cliief objects of human construction that meet the eye. The fields are rudely tilled, yet yield abundant harvests. There is an abundance, even to pro- fusion, of all the necessaries of life, but none of the lux- uries, and few of what would be called comforts, by those who are unaccustomed to the habits of the country. There is however a vast deal of substantial comfort, and the people are independent, cheerful, and intelligent. SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. 63 The beauty that attracts the eye in this region, is that of nature, and is found in the wide tracts of wilderness that remain untouched by the axe or the plough. Such is the greater part of the country, over which the farms are thinly scattered, and where the cattle still roam at large through the woods and prairies, as in the days of the patriarchs. A large proportion of the people of these three states, partake more of the pastoral, than of the agricultural character. They belong to a race to whom wealth is not so desirable as to cause them to seek it by liard labor, and they aim at nothing beyond a competent support. Their numerous domestic animals, that feed in the natural pastures, and the game of the forest, supply them with food in rich abundance, and their fields are careless- ly tilled, because the produce is of secondary importance. But when we cross the Ohio, and pass through Ken- tucky, we find a different state of society, and a widely different aspect in the appearance of the country. In passing from Maysville to Lexington, tlie stage rolls over one of the finest Macadamised roads in the United States. The country is hilly, but moderately fertile, and w^ell improved, until we reach the vicinity of liicking river. The agriculture is good, the houses well constructed, and comfortable. The forming stage of society is past, and much attention is paid to the refinements and courtesies of domestic life. On approaching liicking riser a wild and sterile tract presents itself, extending for a few miles on either side of that stream. The hills are abrupt, broken, and rocky, the soil thin, and the vegetation stinted. The rocks are overgrown with moss and lichens, and instead of the tall timber of other localities, we find a straggling and dwarfish growth of low bushes. Nothing can be more dreary than this sombre landscape, or more strongly contrasted with the rich and cheerful districts that lie around in every direction. It is a mineral region, abounding in saline impregnations, and to this cause an 64 SCENERY. acute writer attributes the appearances which we havo noticed. Dr. Yandell, of the Lexington Medical school, remarks : " At one time the hills, which, now bare, show as M^asted skeletons, must have had a covering of clay and vegetable mould, for the country in every direction, at the distance of a few miles, is rich, and clothed in lux- uriant vegetation. It is well known that the first adven- turers to the west, found it abounding in every species of wild game. Deer, elks, and buffaloes, were met with in numbers altogether incalculable. Tliese animals re- sorted in vast numbers to the springs, and the latter came from a distance, and lingered for weeks in the neighbor- hood. It is said that the roads which they made in journeying thither, are still visible at this distant day. And finally, the mastodon, and arctic elephant, we may infer from the osseous remains that have been exhumed, were among tlie ancient visitors at these v/atering places. The effect of such a concourse of animals sojourning for wrecks together in the neighborhood, and feeding upon the shrubs, herbaceous plants, and such limbs of trees as were in their reach, bruising and lacerating their roots in passing to and fro, must have been in time, the destruc- tion not only of the grass and more tender herbs, but of the forests themselves ; and the soil thus deprived of its necessary support, would be ultimately washed by rains into the streams and valleys. This cause, of course has long ceased to operate, and with its cessation, a new change has commenced. The soil is again in a process of renewal, and the sides and summits of the hills begin to assume an appearance of verdure and life." Having passed through this region of sterility, the road to Lexington winds through an open champaign country of the most delightful appearance. The heavy forest, which once threw its deep shade over the lurking Indian, has been cleared av/ay, and highly cultivated fields adorn the whole of the wide landscape. The surface is not SCENERY IN KENTUCKY. 65 broken by hills, nor is it level, — but of that beautifully rolling or undulating character, which is, above all others, the most pleasing to the eye, and the best adapted to the purposes of husbandry. Its similarity, in this respect, to the gracefully waving prairies in the central and nor thern parts of Illinois is very striking. The soil is of the richest kind, and the improvements not only substantial, but elegant. It is seldom that the eye of the traveler is delighted with so pleasing a combination of rural beauty and tasteful embellishment. The dwellings are commo- dious and comfortable ; most of them are very superioi to those usually inhabited by farmers, while many are the elegant mansions of the opulent and refined. These are surrounded by gardens and pleasure grounds, adorned with trees and shrubs, tastefully disposed. There is a something substantial, as well as elegant, in the resi- dence of a farmer of tliis part of Kentucky ; a combina- tion of taste, neatness, comfort, and abundance, which is singularly interesting, and which evinces a high degree of liberality in the use of wealth, as well as great industry in its production. The fields are extensive and well cul- tivated. Not a spot remains in its pristine state of wilder- ness ; but everywhere the hand of art is seen to have exerted its energies with an unusual vigor and felicity of execution. Every foot of ground lias been adorned, or rendered productive. The woodland pastures which are* peculiar to this section of country are remarkably beauti- ful, giving to its extensive farms an unusual degree of elegance, and to the whole character of the scenery an originality, which attracts the attention of the most casual observer, while it fills a genuine admirer of nature with the most pleasurable emotions. This agreeable effect is produced by a simple procedure. The woodlands are all inclosed ; the underwood, and the useless trees are removed, while the valuable timber trees are left, standing sufficiently wide apart to admit the rays of the sun, and F 2 66 SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. the free circulation of the air, between them. The ground is then sown with grass, and extensive tracts, which would otherwise have been mere wilderness, are thus converted into spacious lawns, studded with noble trees. These are so numerous, and of such extent, as to form a prominent feature in the scenery, and it is hardly possible to imagine anything more beautiful, than the alternations of woodland and meadow, with hemp and cornfields, and orchards, which the eye here meets in every direction. The dwelling houses are usually laro-e edifices of brick or frame, surrounded by numerous offices, and embowered in shade trees, among which the locust, and the lombar- dy poplar, are most frequently seen. The fences and otlier improvements are excellent, and the grounds neatly kept. The whole appearance is that of a country pos- sessing w^ealth, industry, and refinement — the residence of a hospitable people, who cherish the social virtues, and who bestow much care in surrounding themselves with the comforts and luxuries of domestic life. This beautiful region comprises several counties, and includes a circuit of more than forty miles in diameter, of which Lexington is the centre ; but there are several other counties lying round it, but little inferior in point of fertility, and marked by similar features of industry, improvement, and manners. Tlie traveler cannot but pause to contrast the appear- ance of this country, v/ith that of the wilderness which existed here forty years ago. Within the memory of living witnesses, the soil which is now so finely embellished, and which supports a numerous and highly refined popu- lation, was covered with luxuriant forests and vast cane- brakes, which aflforded shelter to the roving Indian, and the prowling beast of prey. Here were the lodge of the Indian and the camp of the solitary hunter. Here the pioneer endured in his rude log cabin, all the precarious toils and sudden vicissitudes of the border life, laboriously SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. 6T opening the rich soil to the action of the sun, felHng one by one tlie gigantic trees, and resting by niglit, like the weary soldier, with his rifle by his side. And here are still seen the ruins of those primitive fortresses, which protected the emigrants and their families, from the tom- ahawk, when the savage warriors came in suflicient force to drive the hunter from his camp, and the settler from his newly cleared fields. So rapid has been this change, and so complete the transformation, that it seems as if the pioneers who had expelled the Indian, and the beast of prey, had been in their turn supplanted by a more wealthy and refined race, who by the magic influence of gold, and the energy of a superior industry, had converted the face of the land from a desert to a paradise. But such was not the actual procedure. The wealthy farmers who now occupy the soil, the educated and accomplished individuals who com- pose the population, are, for the most part, the immedi- ate descendants of the hardy men by whose courage the country was subdued, and by whose enterprise its resour- ces were brought into operation. This beautiful region extends to the borders of the Ken- tucky river, to the south of which we find a hilly region, interspersed with fertile valleys, and crossed by several rocky, elevated, and precipitous ridges. Much of the land in this district is poor; the population is thinly scat- tered, and many of the settlers are rough and illiterate, though independent and hospitable. Thence proceeding to the south west we meet with the Barrens, an extensive tract of rolling land, some of M'liich is said to be rich, though a large portion of it is certainly not of that description. It received its name from having been, when first visited by the whites, wholly destitute of timber, and covered with bushes, and from the belief entertained by those who then explored it, that it was not sufficiently fertile to produce trees. That opinion has, 68 SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. however, been exploded by the fact, that since the settle- ment of the country timber has been rapidly produc- ed ; and many parts of it are now thickly set with flour- ishing young forests, where not a tree was to be seen forty years ago. In some places the timber has attained a size which renders it useful to the farmer for fuel and fencing, but in general, the young trees are not tall enough to shade the road, while they are sufficiently high to pre- vent the circulation of the air, and in consequence, the traveler who rides through this region in sultry weather, finds the heat insufl'erably oppressive. This tract is near- ly level, and very dry. But few springs or running streams are found upon the surface ; and its general re- semblance to the prairies, of wliich we shall treat here- after, sufficiently shews an identity of character and origin. Beyond the Barrens, and throughout what is termed the Green river country, the lands are timbered, and in gen- eral fertile. Some of the counties are populous and well improved ; but this part of the state having been settled at a comparatively recent period, exhibits for the most part, the indications peculiar to a newly settled country. As our plan does not admit of great minuteness of de- tail, we shall not pursue these descriptions through the state of Tennessee. The variety of surface and scenery is even greater here than in Kentucky. A large propor- tion of the territory is occupied by mountains ; while another part extending to the Mississippi partakes of the alluvial character which distinguishes the borders of that river. In attempting to describe the remarkable features of the topography of the western country, our intention if to dwell chiefly on those which are the most peculiarly characteristic. We have passed hastily over those parts which difl'er in appearance and in quality, from the general surface, so greatly as to form exceptions, bu' which yet partake of some of the attributes of the wdiole ; THE PRAIRIES. 69 and shall proceed to speak of that broad plain which com- prises the great body of the lands of the west, and which in the vastness of its extent, in the uniformity of its out line, in the singularity of its conformation, and in the unbounded fertility of its soil, stands without a rival. CHAPTER V. The Prairies — their Appearance. It is perhaps not easy to account for the intense curiosity and surprise, which have been universally excited by the existence of these plains ; for they have been found in various parts of the world. The steppes of Asia, the pampas of South America, and the deserts of Africa, are alike destitute of timber. But they have existed from different causes ; and while one has been found too arid and sterile to give birth to vegetation, and another snow- clad and inhospitable, others exist in temperate climates and exhibit the most amazing fertility of soil. These facts show that there are various causes inimical to the growth of trees, and that the forest is not necessarily the spon- taneous product of the earth, and its natural covering, wherever its surface is left uncultivated by the hand of man. The vegetable kingdom embraces an infinite vari- ety of plants, ' from the cedar of licbanon to the hysop that groweth on the wall ;' and the plan of nature, in which there is no miscalculation, has provided that there shall be a necessary concatenation of circumstances — a proper adaptation of soil, climate, moisture — of natural and secondary causes, to produce and to protect each : just as she has assigned the wilderness to the Indian, the rich pasture to the grazing herd, and the Alps to the mountain goat. 70 THE PRAIRIES. I apprehend that the intense astonishment, with which the American pioneers first beheld a prairie, and which we all feel in gazing over these singularly beautiful plains, is the result of association. The adventurers who pre- ceded us, from the champaign districts of France, have left no record of any such surprise ; on the contrary, they discovered in these flowery meadows something, that re- minded them of home ; and their sprightly imaginations at once suggested, that nothing was wanting but the vine- yard, the peasant's cottage, and the stately chateau, to render the resemblance complete. Bat our immediate ancestors came from lands covered with wood, and in their minds the idea of a wilderness was indissolubly con- nected with that of a forest. They had settled in the woods upon the shores of the Atlantic ; and there their ideas of a new country had been formed. As they pro- ceeded to the west, they found the shadows of the heavy foliage deepening upon their path, and the luxuriant forest becoming at every step more stately and intense, confirm- ing the impression, that as they receded from civilization, the woodland must continue to accumulate the gloom of its savage and silent grandeur around them — until suddenly the glories of the prairie burst upon their enraptured gaze, with its widely extended landscape, its verdure, its flow- ers, its picturesque groves, and all its exquisite variety of mellow shade and sunny light. Had our English ancestors, on the other hand, first set- tled upon the plains of Missouri and Illinois, and the tide of emigration was now setting towards the forests of Ohio and Kentucky, climbing the rocky barriers of the Alle- gheny ridge, and pouring itself down upon the wooded shores of the Atlantic, the question would not be asked, how the western plains became denuded of timber, but by what miracle of Providence, a vast region had been clothed, with so much regularity, with the most splendid and gigantic productions of nature, and preserved through THE PRAIRIES. 71 whole centuries from the devastations of the frost and the fire, the hurricane and the flood. We have all remarked how simple and how rapid is the process of rearing the annual flower, or the more hardy varieties of grass, and with what ease a spot of ground may be covered with a carpet of verdure ; and we know equally well how difli- cult it is to protect an orchard or a grove, and how nu- merous are the accidents which assail a tree. An expanse of natural meadow is not therefore so much an object of curiosity, as a continuous forest; the former coming rap- idly to perfection, with but few enemies to assail it, the latter advancinor slowly to maturity, surrounded hv dan- gers. Hence there is, to my mind, no scene so imposing, none which awakens sensations of such admiration and solemnity, as the forest standing in its aboriginal integrity, and bearing the indisputable marks of antiquity — where we stand upon a soil composed of the vegetable mould, which can only have been produced by the undisturbed accumulation of ages, and behold around us the healthful and gigantic trees, whose immense shafts have been in- creasing- in size for centuries, and which have stood during that whole time exposed to tlie lightning, the wind, and the frost, and to the depredations of the insect and the brute. The scenery of the prairie country excites a different feeling. The novelty is striking, and never fails to cause an exclamation of surprise. The extent of the prospect is exhilarating. The outline of the landscape is sloping, and graceful. The verdure and the flowers are beautiful : and the absence of shade, and consequent appearance of a profusion of light, produces a gaiety which animates the beholder. It is necessary to explain that these plains, although preserving a general level in respect to the whole country, are yet in themselves not /laf, but exhibit a gr^icefully waving surface, swelling and sinking with an easy slope, 73 THE PRAIRIES. and a full rounded outline, equally avoiding the unmean- ing horizontal surface, and the interruption of abrupt or angular elevations. It is that surface which, in the ex- pressive language of the country, is called rolling, and which has been said to resemble the long heavy swell of the ocean, when its waves are subsiding to rest after the agitation of a storm. , It is to be remarked also, that the prairie is almost al- ways elevated in the centre, so that in advancing into it from either side, you see before you only the plain, with its curved outline marked upon the sky, and forming the horizon, but on reaching the highest point, you look around upon the whole of the vast scene. The attraction of the prairie consists in its extent, its carpet of verdure and flowers, its undulating surface, its groves, and the fringe of timber by which it is surrounded. Of all these, the latter is the most expressive feature — it is that which gives character to the landscape, which im- parts the shape, and marks the boundary of the plain. If the prairie be small, its greatest beauty consists in the vicinity of the surrounding margin of Avoodland, which resembles the shore of a lake, indented with deep vistas like bays and inlets, and throwing out long points, like capes and headlands ; while occasionally these points approach so close on either hand, that tlie traveler passes through a narrow avenue or strait, where the shadows of the woodland fall upon his path, — and then again emerges into another prairie. Where the plain is large, the forest outline is seen in the far perspective, like the dim shore when beheld at a distance from the ocean. The eye sometimes roams over the green meadow, without dis- covering a tree, a shrub, or any object in the immense expanse, but the wilderness of grass and flowers ; while at another time, the prospect is enlivened by the groves, which are seen interspersed like islands, or the solitary tree> which stands alone in the blooming desert. 1 THE PRAIRIES. 73 If it be in the spring of the year, and the young grass has just covered the ground with a carpet of deUcate green, and especially if the sun is rising from behind a distant swell of the plain, and glittering upon the dew-drops, no scene can be more lovely to the eye. The deer is seen grazing quietly upon the plain ; the bee is on the wing ; the wolf, with his tail drooped, is sneaking away to his covert with the felon tread of one who is conscious that he has disturbed the peace of nature ; and the grouse feeding in flocks, or in pairs, like the domestic fowl, cover the whole surface — the males strutting and erecting their plumage like the peacock, and uttering a long, loud, mournful note, something like the cooing of the dove, but resembling still more the sound produced by passing a rough finger boldly over the surface of a tambourine. The number of these birds is astonishing. The plain is covered with them in every direction ; and when they have been driven from the ground by a deep snow, I have seen thousands — or more properly tens of thousands— thickly clustered in the tops of the trees surrounding the prairie. They do not retire as the country becomes set- tled, but continue to lurk in the tall grass around the newly made farms ; and I have sometimes seen them mingled with the domestic fowls, at a short distance from the farmer's door. They will eat, and even thrive when confined in a coop, and may undoubtedly be domesticated. When the eye roves off from the green plain, to the groves, or points of timber, these also are found to be at this season robed in the most attractive hues. The rich undergrowth is in full bloom. The red-bud, the dog-wood, the crab-apple, the wild plum, the cherry, the wild rose, are abundant in all the rich lands ; and the grape vine, though its blossom is unseen, fills the air with fragrance. The variety of the wild fruit, and flowering shrubs, is so great, and such the profusion of the blossoms with which G 74 THE PRAIRIES. they are bowed down, that the eye is regaled almost io satiety. The gayety of the prairie, its embellishments, and the absence of the gloom and savage wildness of the forest, all contribute to dispel the feeling of lonesomeness, which usually creeps over the mind of the solitary traveler in the wilderness. Though he may not see a house, nor a human being, and is conscious that he is far from the habitations of men, he can scarcely divest himself of the idea that he is traveling through scenes embellished by the hand of art. The flowers, so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental, seem to have been tastefully disposed to adorn the scene. The groves and clumps of trees appear to have been scattered over the lawn to beautify the land- scape, and it is not easy to avoid that illusion of the fancy, which persuades the beholder, that such sceneiy has been created to gratify the refined taste of civilized man. Eu- ropeans are often reminded of the resemblance of this scenery to that of the extensive parks of noblemen, which they have been accustomed to admire, in the old world ; the lawn, the avenue, the grove, the copse, which are there produced by art, are here prepared by nature ; a splendid specimen of massy architecture, and the distant view of villages, are alone wanting to render the simili- tude complete. In the summer, the prairie is covered with long coarse grass, which soon assumes a golden hue, and waves in the wind like a ripe harv^est. Those who have not a personal knowledge of the subject, would be deceived by the accounts which are published of the height of the grass. It is seldom so tall as travelers have represented, nor does it attain its highest grovv'th in the richest soil. In the low, wet prairies, where the substratum of clay lies near the surface, the centre or main stem of this grass, which bears the seed, acquires great thickness, and shoots up to the height of eight or nine feet, throwing out a few THE PRAIRIES. 75 long coarse leaves or blades, and the traveler often finds it higher than his head as he rides through it on horseback. The plants, although numerous and standing close to- gether, appear to grow singly and unconnected, the whole force of the vegetative power expanding itself upward. But in the rich undulating prairies, the grass is finer, with less of stalk, and a greater profusion of leaves. The roots spread and interweave so as to form a compact even sod, and the blades expand into a close thick sward, which is seldom more than eighteen inches high, and often less, until late in the season, when the seed-bearinff stem shoots up. The first coat of grass is mingled with small flowers ; the violet, the bloom of the strawberry, and others of the most minute and delicate texture. As the grass increases in size, these disappear, and others, taller and more gau- dy, display their brilliant colors upon the green surface, and still later a larger and coarser succession rises with the rising tide of verdure. A fanciful writer asserts that the prevalent color of the prairie flowers is, in the spring a bluish purple, in midsummer red, and in the autumn yellow. This is one of the notions that people get, who study nature by the fireside. The truth is, that the whole of the surface of these beautiful plains, is clad throughout the season of verdure, with every imaginable variety of color, ' from grave to gay.' It is impossible to conceive a more infinite diversity, or a richer profusion of hues, or to detect any predominating tint, except the green, which forms the beautiful ground, and relieves the exquisite brilliancy of all the others. The only changes of color observed at the different seasons, arise from tlie circum- stance, that in the spring the flowers are small and the colors delicate ; as the heat becomes more ardent a hardier race appears, the flowers attain a greater size, and the hue deepens ; and still later a succession of coarser plants rise above the tall grass, throwing out larger and gaudier 76 THE PRAIRIES. flowers. As the season advances from spring to midsum- mer, the individual flower becomes less beautiful when closely inspected, but the landscape, is far more variegat- ed, rich, and glowing. In the winter, the prairies present a gloomy and deso- late scene. The fire has passed over them, and consumed every vegetable substance, leaving the soil bare, and the surface perfectly black. That gi'acefully waving outline, which was so attractive to the eye when clad in green, is now disrobed of all its ornaments ; its fragrance, its notes of joy, and the graces of its landscape, have all vanished, and the bosom of the cold earth, scorched and discolored, is alone visible. The w4nd sighs mournfully over the black plain; but there is no object to be moved by its in- fluence — not a tree to wave its long arms in the blast, nor a reed to bend its fragile stem — not a leaf, nor even a blade of grass to tremble in the breeze. There is nothing to be seen but the cold dead earth and the bare mound, which move not — and the traveler with a singular sensa- tion, almost of awe, feels the blast rushing over him, while not an object visible to the eye, is seen to stir. Accustomed as the mind is to associate with the action of the wind its operation upon surrounding objects, and to see nature bowing and trembling, and the fragments of matter mounting upon the wind, as the storm passes, there is a novel effect produced on the mind of one who feels the current of air rolling heavily over him, while nothing moves around. By those who have never seen this region, a very toler- able idea may be formed of the manner in which the prairie and forest alternate, and the proportions of each, by drawing a colored line of irregular breadth, along the edges of all the water courses laid down in the map. The border thus shaded, which would represent the woodland, would vary in width from one to five or six miles, and would sometimes extend to twelve. As the streams ap- THE PRAIRIES. 77 proach each other, these borders would approximate, or come into contact; and all the intermediate spaces, not thus colored would be prairie. It is true therefore, as a general rule, in relation to the states in which the prairies are situated, that wherever there is a considerable tract of surface, not intersected by water courses, it is level, and destitute of timber ; but in the vicinity of springs and streams the country is clothed in forest. - Taking as an example the country lying between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, it will be seen that in the point formed by their junction, the forest covers the whole ground, and that as these rivers diverge, the prairies begin to intervene. At first there is only an occasional meadow, small, and not very distinctly defined. Proceeding north- ward the timber is found to decrease, and the prairies to expand ; yet the plains are still comparatively small, wholly unconnected with each other, and their outlines distinctly marked by the woodlands which surround and separate them. They are insulated and distinct tracts of meadow land, embosomed in the forest. Advancing fur- ther to the north, the prairie surface begins to predominate ; the prairies now become large, and communicate with each other like a chain of lakes, by means of numerous avenues or vistas ; still however, the traveler is surrounded by timber ; his eye never loses sight of the deep green outline, throwing out its capes and headlands; though he sees no more those dense forests and large trees, Avhose deep shade almost appalled him in the more southern district. Travelling onward in the same direction, the prairies continue to expand, until we find ourselves surrounded by one vast plain. In the country over which we have passed, the forest is interspersed with these interesting plains ; here the prairie is studded with groves and copses, and the streams fringed with strips of woodland. The eye sometimes roves over an immense expanse g2 78 THE PRAIRIES. clothed with grass, discovering no other object on which to rest, and finding no limit to its vision but the distant horizon ; while more frequently it wanders from grove to grove, and from one point of woodland to another, charmed and refreshed by an endless variety of scenic beauty. This description applies chiefly to Illinois, from a careful inspection of which state we have drawn the pic- ture ; but its general outlines are true of Indiana and Missouri, and are applicable, to some extent, to Ohio and Michigan. But if our path lie still farther to the west, and conduct us to the wide tracts that extend from the waters of the Arkansas to those of the Missouri and Mis- sissippi, we arrive at a region of boundless plains — bound- less to the eye of the traveler, which discovers nothing but the verdant carpet and the blue sky, without a grove, a tree, or a bush, to add variety to the landscape, and where the naked meadow often commences at the very margins of the streams. When the prairie is bare, it is easy to distinguish the rich from the poorer lands, by the small hillocks which are scattered over them, and which are most abundant where the soil is least productive. They are from a few inches, to tAVO or three feet in height, and can only, of course, exist where the clay lies near tlie surface ; as such mounds composed of the rich mould, would soon crumble away. They have a singular appearance, and are some- times so thickly scattered as to be inconvenient to the horseman, who attempts to ride through the high grass. The inhabitants call them gopher hills, under the belief that they were raised by a small quadruped of that name. I never saw a gopher — nor a man who had seen one. Col. Long, however, and his companions saw them far to the west ; so that while the existence of such an ani- mal seems to be proved, it is obvious from the fact that it is no longer seen within our settlements, that like the In- dian it cannot endure the vicinity of civilized man, and THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. 79 has long since forsaken our borders. But I am inclined to believe that very few of the hillocks attributed to these animals are of their workmanship. In the wet prairies they are thrown up by crawfish, v/ho always buiTow in the clay, and not in rich or crumbling soil, that would cave in and mar their labor ; in drier situations they have been thrown up by industrious colonies of ants, who also belong to the clay party, and make their internal improve- ments in the kind of earth best suited to their purpose CHAPTER VI. Theory of the Prairies, The prairies afford a subject of curious inquiry to every traveler who visits these regions. Their appearance is novel and imposing, and he who beholds it for the first time experiences a sensation similar to that which fills the imagination at the first sight of the ocean. The wide and unlimited prospect calls up perceptions of the sublime and beautiful ; its peculiarity awakens a train of inquisi- tive thought. Upon the mind of an American especially, accustomed to see new land clothed with timber, and to associate the idea of a tangled and silent forest, with that of a wilderness, t'^e appearance of sunny plains, and a diversified landscape, untenanted by man, and unimproved by art, is singular and striking. Perhaps if our imagina- tions were divested of the impressions created by memo- ry, the subject would present less difficulty; and if we could reason abstractly, it might be as easy to account for the origin of a prairie, as for that of a forest. It is natural to suppose that the first covering of the earth would be composed of such plants as arrive at ma- 80 THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. turity in the shortest time. Annual plants would ripen, and scatter their seeds, many times, before trees and shrubs would acquire the power of reproducing their own species. In the mean time the propagation of the latter would be liable to be retarded by a variety of accidents — the frost would nip their tender stems in the winter — hre would consume, or the blast would shatter them — and the wild grazing animals would bite them off, or tread them under foot ; while many of their seeds, particularly such as assume the form of nuts or fruit, would be de- voured by animals. The grasses, which are propagated both by the root and by seed, are exempt from the opera- tion of almost all these casualties. Providence has, with unerring wisdom, fitted every production of nature to sus tain itself against the accidents to which it is most ex posed, and has given to those plants which constitute the food of animals, a remarkable tenacity of life ; so that al- though bitten off, and trodden, and even burned, they still retain the vital principle. That trees have a similar power of self protection, if we may so express it, is evi- dent from their present existence in a state of nature. We only assume, that in the earliest s*ate of being, the grasses would have the advantage, over plants less hardy, and of slower growth ; and that when both are struggling tDgether for the possession of the soil, the former w^ould at first gain the ascendancy ; although the latter, in con- sequence of their superior size and strength, would final- ly, if they should ever get possession of any portion of the soil, entirely overshadow and destroy their humble rivals. We have no means of determining at what period the fires began to sweep over these plains, because we know not when they began to be inhabited. It is quite possible that they might have been occasionally fired by lightning previous to the introduction of that element by human agency. At all events, it is very evident that as soon as I THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. 81 fire began to be used in this country by its inhabitants, the annual burning of the prairie must have commenced. One of the peculiarities of this climate is the dryness of its summers and autumns. A drought often commences in August, which, with the exception of a few showers towards the close of that month, continues, with little in- terruption, throughout the fall season. The autumnal months are almost invariably clear, warm, and dry. The immense mass of vegetation, with which this fertile soil loads itself during the summer, is suddenly withered, and the whole earth covered with combustible materials. This is especially true of the prairies, where the grass gi'ows from two to ten feet high, and being entirely ex- posed to the action of the sun and wind, dries with great rapidity. A single spark of fire, falling any where upon these plains, at such a time, instantly kindles a blaze, that spreads on every side, and continues its destructive course as long as it finds fuel. Travelers have described these fires as sweeping with a rapidity, which renders it hazardous even to fly before them ; and our children's books and school geographies are embellished with plates, representing men, horses, and wild animals, retreating at full speed, and with every mark of terror, before the devouring element. These are exaggerations. If instances of this kind of danger have ever occurred, they have been rare. We have never witnessed, or heard of such a scene. There is not an authenticated case, on record, or in tradition, in which a man or an animal has been burned by these fires, unless he was drunk or wounded. The burning of several In- dians mentioned by Lewis and Clarke, was probably the result of some unusual accident, which thev did not think necessary to explain. The thick sward of the prairie presents a considerable mass of fuel, and offers a barrier tO the progress of the flame, not easily surmounted. The ire advances slowly, and with power. The heat is in- 82 THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. tense. The flames often extend across a wide prairie, and advance in a long line. No sight can be more sublime, than to behold at night, a stream of fire several miles in breadth, advancing across these plains, leaving behind it a black cloud of smoke, and throwing before it a vivid glare which lights up the whole landscape with the bril- liancy of noonday. .A roaring and cracking sound is heard like the rushing of a hurricane. The flame, which in general rises to the height of about twenty feet, is seen sinking, and darting upward in spires, precisely as the waves dash against each other, and as the spray flies up into the air ; and the whole appearance is often that of a boiling and flaming sea, violently agitated. The progress of the fire is so slow, and the heat so great, that every combustible material in its course is consumed. The root of the prairie-grass alone, by some peculiar adapta- tion of nature, is spared ; for of most other vegetables, not only is the stem destroyed, but the vital principle ex- tinguished. Woe to the farmer, whose ripe corn fields extend into the prairie, and who has carelessly suflered the tall grass to grow in contact with his fences ! The whole labor of the year is swept away in a few hours. But such accidents are comparatively unfrequent, as the preventive is simple, and easily applied. A narrow strip of bare ground prevents the fire from extending to the space beyond it. A beaten road, of the width of a single wagon track, arrests its progress. The treading of the domestic animals around the inclosures of the farmer af- fords often a suflicient protection, by destroying the fuel in their vicinity ; and in other cases a few furrows are drawn round the field v;ith the plough, or the wild grass is closely mowed down on the outside of the fence. It will be readily seen, that as soon as those fires com- menced, all the young timber within their range, must have been destroyed. The Avhole face of the country be- ing spread out into vast plains, unbroken by hills, and but THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. 83 little intersected by streams, or other obstacles which might obstruct the onward career of the devouring ele- ment, the fire kindled at different places, would sweep on unchecked, until it had passed over the whole region — with a few exceptions, of which we shall now speak. In the bottom lands, and along the margins of streams, the grass and herbage remains green until late in the autumn, in consequence of the moisture of the soil. Here the fire would stop, for want of fuel ; the shrubs would thus escape from year to year, and the outer bark acquire sufficient hardness to protect the inner and more vital parts. The margins of' the streams having thus become fringed with thickets, the latter, by shading the ground, would desti'oy the grass, and prevent the moisture of the soil from being rapidly evaporated ; so that even the fallen leaves would not become dried so thoroughly, or so early in the season, as the grass of the open plains, and the fire would always afterwards find here comparatively little fuel. These thickets grow up into strips of forests, which continue to extend until they reach the high table land of the prairie ; and so invariably exact is this process, that we see the timber now, not only covering all the bottom lands, and hillsides skirting the streams, but wherever a ravine or hollow extends from the low grounds up into the prairie, these are filled with young timber of more recent ofrowth. But the moment we reach the level plain of the country, we see the evidences of a continued struggle between the forest and the prairie : at one place, where the fire has, on some occasion, burned with greater fierceness than usual, it has successfully assailed the edges of the forest, and made deep inroads, and at ano- ther, the forest has pushed long capes or points into the prairie. Having thus stated briefly the theory whicli seems to us to be consisteat with reason, and adduced as many facts as appear neeessary to its support, we shall for the 84 THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. present, to avoid repetition, omit some striking proofs which will be necessarily alluded to hereafter, and proceed to exhibit some of the hypotheses advanced by others. The flood has, of course, been cited as the grand cause of the formation of the prairies — for what phenomenon in the geological or the topographical aspect of the earth, has not been referred to some one of the great concatena tion of events which attended that extraordinary exertion of omnipotence ! But we do not venture to go back so far. We are satisfied with having found a sufficient ex- planation within a more recent period. That the great plain of the west may have been formed by the deposition of earthy particles which took place upon the subsiding of the waters, after that wonderful catastrophe, is very probable ; though we doubt whether much light will ever be shed upon the subject, or whether it be practicable to ascertain any thing further in relation to that awful event, than the sacred historian has deemed it proper to disclose. It has however little to do with the growth of timber at one location, or the absence of that production at another A writer in the American Quarterly Review, for whose judgment we entertain the most perfect respect, has sug- gested an explanation somewhat different from that which we have advanced. He says, " The origin of these prairies has occasioned much theory ; it is to our minds very simple ; they are caused by the Indian custom of annually burning the leaves and grass in autumn, which prevents the growth of any young trees. Time will thus form prairies ; for some of the old trees annually perish- ing, and there being no undergrowth to supply their place, they become thinner every year ; and as they diminish they shade the grass less, Avhich therefore grows more luxuriantly, and when a strong wind carries a fire through the dried grass and leaves which cover the earth with com- bustible matter several feet deep, the volume of flame de- stroys all before it ; the very animals cannot escape. THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. 8S We have seen it enwrap a forest upon which it was pre- cipitated, and destroy whole acres of trees. After a beginning is made, the circle widens every year, until prairies open as boundless as the ocean. Young growth follows the American settlement, since the settler keeps off those annual burnings. Another proof of our theory is, that prairies are all upon rich, rolling, and compara- tively dry, soil, where much vegetable matter Avould accumulate to raise the flanae, and but little moisture to counteract it." This writer differs from us, in supposing that the forest has been destroyed by the action of fire, w^hile we ima- gine that its production has been prevented by that cause. We deny that there is any proof of fires in the woods having been so extensive, or so destructive as he sup- poses. The destruction of growing timber by fire is not a common occurrence, though we do not question that the writer has witnessed it under the circumstances which he states. The fact is undeniable, that in those countries where woodland and prairie are found adjacent, the fire ceases to display the same destructive energy in the for- mer, that it exhibits in the latter. The edges of the prairie do not exhibit appearances of encroachment by fire on the timber ; on the contrary the woodland seems to be increasing, and it is much more common to see young thickets spreading out from the woods upon the plain, than to behold the str.mps and trunks of trees which had been killed by fire. But a conclusive argu- ment is, that the destruction of the forest by fire, for which the writer contends, would have taken place on the hills, and on broken grounds, as well as on the level, while the prairie only occupies the latter. In the very interesting narrative of Long's First Expe- dition to the west, we find a statement similar to that which we have quoted, though advanced with less confi- dence. " The lands immediately in the rear of St. Louis, H 86 THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. between the Mississippi and the Missouri, below their junction, have an undulated surface, and a deep alluvial soil. Since their occupation by permanent inhabitants, the yearly ravages of the fire have been prevented, and a dense growth of oaks and elms has sprung up." " In this fact we have a satisfactory explanation of the cause of the present want of forest trees in extensive tracts on the Missouri, which appear, in every respect, adapted to the growth of timber. If these lands, called prairies, were at any former jjeriod covered ivith forests, it may easily be supposed, the yearly devastations of fires break- ing out in dry seasons, would destroy many of the trees. The forests being thus broken, the growth of grass and annual plants would be greatly facilitated by the naked- ness of the soil, and the free admission of the rays of the sun. Forests attract rain, and impede evaporation, while the reverberation from the surface of vast plains and des- erts, tends to dissipate the clouds and vapors v/hich are driven over them by the winds. In fertile districts like the alluvial lands of the Missouri and Mississippi, a heavy annual growth of herbaceous plants is produced, which, after the autumnal frosts, becomes dry and peculiarly adapt- ed to facilitate and extend the ravages of fire. In a coun- try occupied by hunters, who are kindling their camp fires in every part of the forest, and who often like the Mongalls in the grassy deserts of Asia, set fire to the plains, in order to attract herbivorous animals, by the growth of tender and nutritious herbage which springs up soon after the burning, it is easy to see these annual conflagrations could not fail to happen." "In the Autumn of 1819 the burnings, owing to the unusual drought, continued until very late in the season, so. that the weeds in the low grounds were consumed, to the manifest injury of the forests. Large bodies of tim- ber are so frequently destroyed in this way, that the ap- THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. 8'i{ pearance has become fiimiiiar to hunters and travelers, and has received the name of deadening.^'* To this statement, taken altogether, we have no objec- tion, as it does not differ materially from our own views. If \hQ plains, — as the author cautiously suggests, were at any former period covered with forest, there is no other agent than fire, by means of which they could have become denuded. And the admission, in the latter part of the quo- tation, that an unusual drought, continuing late in the season, is necessary to carry the fire into the low grounds, and render it injurious to the forests, is all that Vve could ask, to shev/ that these are exceptions, whose occasional occurrence could not produce an effect so invariable, as the non-existence of timber on the plains of the west. Major Stoddard, in his Sketches of Louisiana, holds the following language : " The prairies are covered with grass. These were probably occasioned by the ravages of fire ; because whenever copses of trees are found on them, the ground about them is low, and too moist to ad mit the fire to pass over it." An opinion differing from all these is expressed by the enterprising traveler. Pike, who in speaking of the prairies attributes their destitution of timber, to a deficiency of moisture in the soil and climate. " I therefore consider,' says he, " that this country never was timbered, as from the earliest ages, the aridity of the soil, having so few water courses running through it, and they being princi- pally dry in summer, has never afforded moisture suffi- cient to support the grov/th of timber." This argument might apply, with sufficient plausibility, to the deserts of Arabia, and to the sand plains lying east of the Rocky mountains, where there is not enough of moisture to afford nourishment to any vegetation ; but the character of our prairies is not that of barrenness. The plain of the Mis- sissippi is dry, but not so arid as to be incapable of sup- porting vegetable life. The luxuriance of tlie wild growth, 88 THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. and the admirable adaptation of the soil to the purposes of husbandry, afford conclusive evidence that although the surface be parched, there is some process by w^hich nature affords an ample supply of moisture : and this is probably by the ascension of water by capillary attraction, through the porous substrata, from the subterranean cur- rents, which are known to be abundant, and to lie near the surface. General Pike wrote before any part of the prairie region was settled by the American people, when but little of it had been explored, and when the facts to which we have alluded in support of our views, had not been ascertained. It has been suggested that the prairies were caused by hurricanes, which had blown down the timber, and left it in a condition to be consumed by fire, after it was dried by lying on the ground. A single glance at the immense region in which the prairie surface predominates, must refute this idea. Hurricanes are quite limited in their sphere of action. Although they sometimes extend for many miles in length, their track is always narrow, and often but a few hundred yards in breadth. And it is a well known fact, that wherever the timber has been thus prostrated, a dense and tangled thicket shoots up imme- diately, and protected by the fallen trees, grows with un- common vigor. Some have imagined that our prairies have been lakes ; but this hypothesis is not tenable. If the whole state of Illinois is imagined to have been one lake, it ought to be shewn that it has a general concavity of surface. But so far from this being true, the contrary is the fact : the high- est parts of the state are in its centre. If we suppose, as some assert, that each prairie was once a lake, we are met by the same objection ; as a general rule, the prairies are highest in the middle, and have a gradual declivity towards the sides ; and when we reach the timber, instead of finding bank? corresponding with the shores of a lake, THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. 8^ we almost invariably discover valleys, ravines, and water courses, considerably depressed below the general level of the plain. Nor does the circumstance ol" ponds being found in the middle of prairies, disprove the assertion that they are convex, and highest in the centre, as is suggest- ed by one of our writers, any more than depressions on the surface of the globe, prove that it is not round. There cannot be the least ground for a doubt, that, as a general rule, the prairie surface is slightly, but decidedly, convex. Wherever hills are found rising above the common plane of the country, they are clothed with timber ; and the same fact is true of all broken lands. This affords addi- tional evidence in support of our theory. Most of the land in such situations is poor ; the grass would be short, and if it burned at all, would occasion but little heat. In some places the progress of the fire Avould be checked by rocks and ravines ; and in no case would there be that accumulation of dry material which is found on the fer- tile plain, nor that broad unbroken surface, and free ex- posure, which are required to afford full scope to the devouring element. There are other facts, too vrell known to admit of dis- pute, which strongly corroborate these views. It is un- deniable, that from the first settlement of the western prairies, the timber has been rapidly increasing ; and from the best information that we can get on the subject," it is pretty certain, that it spreads in a proportion at least equal to the increase of population. Although thousands of acres of woodland are annually cleared, it is unques- tionably true, that the quantity of timber in the v/hole region in which prairies are embraced, is increasing with every year. Wherever a prairie, of but few miles in ex- tent, is entirely surrounded by the farms which occupy the adjoining woodland, it is found that the wild grass is quickly succeeded by a growth of weeds, and that these in turn give place to bushes. The operation is simple. H 3 90 THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. We have already shown, that the growth of timber is only prevented by the annual fires ; and it is easily seen that where a portion of the prairie is insulated, as above de- scribed, the precautions used by the farmers, to defend their own property from the devouring element, will also protect that portion of the prairie which is thus detached from the main body. The large herds of domestic cattle, also, Avhich run at large in the new settlements, contribute to this process, by keeping down the luxuriance of the natural grass, so as to leave but little fuel for the fire, even in places exposed to its approach. It is therefore a common observation, that around all the farms, the prairie has given, or is giving way, to thickets. In the oldest counties, where settlements have existed for twenty or thirty years, forests of excellent timber are now shown, of several miles in extent, the whole of which has grown up within the memory of the inhabitants. So rapid, and so certain, is this process, that we may state the fact as undeniable, that wherever the soil is protected from the action of the fire, timber will grow spontaneously, which, in from sixteen to twenty years, will be fit to be used for fuel, fencing, and many other purposes. An instance of the facility with which the soil, when protected from fire becomes covered with timber, occur- red under the notice of the writer. An individual had enclosed a single field in the prairie, in w^hich corn was cultivated for several years, when it was abandoned, and the rails which composed the fence carried away. In the mean while the corners of the fence, and a narrow strip on each side of it, having been protected from the fire on the one hand, and the plough on the other, grew up in bushes. After the field was deserted, this natural hedge remained fijr years, and still remains ; having grown up into a row of tall trees, occupying the former 'ine of the fence, while the interior of the square became THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. 91 also covered with brushwood ; and thus a grove has been formed which bids defiance to the fire. It v/ill be remembered that we have maintained thattlie earth was covered with grass, antecedently to the growth of trees. "VVe admitted that on the margins of streams, upon mountains, and on broken grounds, — wherever, in short, the progress of the autumnal fires should be inter- cepted, either by the conformation, or the moisture, of the surface, timber would rapidly cover the ground, while at the same time we contended, that in the open plains grass would long continue to hold possession. We have given ample proof of the correctness of this theory, in reference to our western prairies ; and we shall now show that it is probably true of other parts of the United States. In the " Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsyl- vania," we find an article entided " Sketches of the early history of Byberry in the county of Philadelphia, by Isaac Comly," a worthy member of the Society of Friends, and a descendant of the companions of Penn. Byberry town- ship lies in the north east end of the county of Philadel- phia, distant from the city between thirteen and sixteen miles. The account is compiled from the most authentic sources, and reaches back to the first settlement of the country. The writer says, " Byberry was settled early after the arrival of William Penn. When the white peo- ple first came here, we are informed they found but few large trees standing, though plenty of saplings and un- derbrush ; and in some places, particidarly in Mooreland, the ground was covered with coarse grass, as high as a man's head." This is a very striking passage. It seems, that there were prairies in Philadelphia county ! and that the ground ivas covered with coarse grass that grew as high as a man's head, answering precisely to the des- cription of the prairie grass of the West. Other spots were destitute of large trees, but produced " plenty of sap- lings and underbrush," — being in the state intermediate aki 02 THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. between prairie and forest, and thus affording the strong- est proof of the change which the country had then re- cently undergone. In another vohime of the transactions of the same socie- ty, we have " An account of the first settlement of the townships of Buckingham and Solesbury, in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, by Dr. Joseph Watson," — a gentleman who died some few years ago, at an advanced age, and whose own recollections, with the accounts transmitted to him by his father and grandfather, the latter of whom came out with William Penn, supplied him with the most authentic information. Speaking of the employments o^ the first settlers, he says, " they cut grass in the plains, or swamps, often at several miles from home, stacked it up on the spot, and hauled it home in the winter." The counties of Bucks and Philadelphia, lie adjoining, if we mistake not, and occupy an extensive undulating plain on the margiin of the Delaware ; and we think that the evi- dence of the two writers, who state the facts above quoted, incidentally, without any view to the support of a theory, sufficiently proves the former existence of prairies in that region ; while their non-existence within the memory of the present inhabitants, shews also the rapidity VN^th which, after settlements are made, timber will cover the interjacent plains. The first settlers of Kentucky found large tracts of the country destitute of trees, and covered with bushes. Sup- posing that the want of timber was caused by the sterility of the soil, or some other circumstance unfriendly to vege- tation, they gave to these spots, the expressive name of " the barrens," and carefully avoided them in making their selections of land. The barrens, were extensive plains, interspersed with hill and dale — not so level as the prairies, north and west of the Ohio, yet not broken by deep ravines, or abrupt ridges. It was soon discover- ed that the bashes were growing up into thrifty saplings ; THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. 93 and on farther examination the soil was found to be of good quality. The country was soon occupied, and now contains a large population ; while forests of valuable tim- ber are growing upon the soil, over which, within the memory of living witnesses, the hunter could see the deer bounding over the brush, as far as the eye could reach. Trumbull in his " History of Connecticut," a work compiled with great care and labor, from the most au- thentic sources, speaks in various places of the practice of the early settlers, of cutting hayyVom the wildmeadows : a phraseology which distinctly asserts the existence of plains, covered with grass, and destitute of timber. He also describes these natural meadows, and gives his own inferences as to their formation. He says, " When the English became first acquainted Mdth that tract, comprised within the settled part of Connecticut, it was a vast wilderness. There were no pleasant fields, nor gardens, no public roads, nor cleared plats. Except in places ivkere the timber had been destroyed^ and its growth jrr evented by frequent fires, the groves were thick and lofty. The Indians so often burned the country, to take deer and other wild game, that in many of the plain dry parts of it, there was but little small timber. Where the lands were thus burned, there grew bent grass, or, a8 some called it, thatch, tvv^o, three, and four feet high, ac- cording to the strength of the land. This, with other combustible matter which the fields and groves produced, when dry in the spring and fall, burned with violence and killed all the small trees. The large ones escaped, and generally grew to a notable height and magnitude. In this manner the natives so thinned the groves, that they were able to plant their corn and obtain a crop." This statement is undoubtedly accurate so far as the author has related the facts which came down to him ; while so much as is the result of his own attempt at ex- planation is fallacious. There were plains, which were 94 THEORY OF THE PRAIRIES. annually burned, on which grass greiv, and where the Indians raised corn. But corn never grew under the shade of large trees of "notable" growth. Whatever might have been true of other places, the spots on which the grass grew four feet high, and where corn was culti- vated, must have been entirely exposed to the action of the sun. . Captain Smith, on the contrary, found the whole of Virginia covered with timber, and is careful to record that he saw no plains, " but only where the Salvages inhabit, but all overgrown with trees and Vv'eeds, being a plaine wildernesse as God first made it." Captain Owen, of the British navy, in a late voyage to the coast of Africa, of which an interesting account has been published, describes a large tract of the interior which he explored, as " a low level country, with some knots of trees, like park land ;" and from other allusions m the same book, we suppose that he often met with ex- tensive plains of wild meadow, precisely similar to those of Illinois and Missouri. The fact may pass for what it is worth. We adduce it for the purpose of shewing that there is nothing in the character of our prairies so anoma- lous, or so contrary to the laws of nature, as is supposed by those who have been accustomed to see wild lands clothed with timber. SOIL OF THE PRAIRIES. 95 CHAPTER VII. Soil of the Prairies — Explanations in regard to the want of timber. Fanciful writers have divided the prairies into alluvial and rolling ; but no such distinction exists in point of fact, or is tenable according to any received theory, o scientific deduction. The formation of the whole is so invariable in character, as to render it certain, that if any partis alluvial, the whole is equally so, nor do thoff^ plains which are rolling, as nearly all are, differ in soil iVcin the remainder, so as to justify this sort of classification. The probability is that the whole western plain is dUuviaU with the exception only of the bottom lands on tlie mar- gins of rivers, which are alluvial, and of recent formation. The levelness of the surface, the absence of stones, the light quality of the loam, with other indications, seem to establish the fact, that this vast plain is composed of the sediment, deposited at the universal deluge. Marine shells have been found in our prairies ; at one place par- ticularly, an immense mass of oyster shells lie deposited not far below the surface. Logs have been discovered, buried thirty or forty feet deep. Boulders, or detached masses of stone, are occasionally seen on the prairies, ly- ing loosely on the ground, not only entirely separate from the limestone pan beneath, but difiering from it in kind. They are obviously not meteoric ; and it seems that they have been wrenched from their native beds, and brought to the places where they are now seen, by some great convulsion of nature. They are granite, and there is no spot at which that description of rock exists, and from which they could have been brought, nearer than the Allegheny, or the Rocky mountains, or the northern shores of the lakes. Yet they are numerously scattered throughout Illinois and Missouri. 96 SOIL OF THE PRAIRIES. The great cause of the amazing fertility of the soil of new countries, is, the accumulation of decayed vegetable matter upon the surface. The leaves and grass, and othei annual productions, which decay in the autumn, cover the ground every year with a new coat, of the most fertilizin[ quality. The boughs which are continually falling, th( bark, of which most trees throw off a portion annually, and the trees themselves, which are torn up by tempests, or die of old age, form altogether an inexhaustible store, which continually rotting and adding to the soil, is as continually receiving and preparing new supplies. The plains as well as the woodland, are thus enriched. The annual burning of the prairies, may interfere to a consider- able extent with this arrangement, but it does not defeat it ; for although the fall of the leaf occurs emphatically and poetically in the autumn, it is not confined exclusive- ly to that season. On the contrary, every vegetable is constantly throwing off a portion of its substance, and throughout the whole season of vegetation, the soil is daily gaining something, by deposit ; even the ashes left by the autumnal fires, are not without their value. However thin the coat may be, which is spread over the earth in one year, and how trifling soever it may seem to us, yet, when we reflect that this process has been going on for ages, it is easy to see that the accumulation must, in the aggregate, be important. Nor can we in any other ration- al manner, explain the reason of the diflerence between new lands, and those v»diich have been exhausted by cul- tivation. The one is continually losing by exposure to the sun and atmosphere, while its products are carried away by man ; the contrary is true of the other, and the farmer who manures his land, only resorts to a simple operation of nature. The decomposed vegetable matter, when completely rotted, forms a light black mould, which is the very rich- est and best manure in the world ; and which, if used SOIL OF THE PRAIRIES. 97 simply as such, would be prized by the European farmer, above every other substance, which is usually applied to that purpose. A soil of unrivalled fertility is thus formed, extending throughout the whole country, but differing in depth, according to circumstances. The light particles, of which it is composed, are easily washed by rains, from the higher into the lower grounds. The valleys thus re- ceive new supplies, in addition to that which their own vegetation affords, while the hills only retain the small portions which may be intercepted by the grass or fibrous roots, or by other accidental causes. On the low grounds, therefore, the stratum of mov/Id has been found to be, in some instances, twelve feet deep ; while on the hills, it is seldom more than a few inches. This process can, of course, only prevail in the hilly and timbered regions, to any extent ; and it is thus that those rich bottoms are created, which margin all the streams, and those fertile valleys, which astonish every beholder with the rankness and beauty of the vegetation that covers them. A differ- ent operation obtains upon the prairie, whose level surface is not washed by rains. Here the accumulation is con- tinual, though slow ; all that is gained is kept ; and tl\e diluvian plain is covered with a rich vegetable mould, which is always increasing in depth. It has been remarked, and there is no doubt of the fact, that the highest points of the prairie are invariably the richest ; a circumstance which cannot be readily account- ed for, unless we suppose that these lands are diluvial, and that those spots would be richest, at which the larg- est masses of diluvium were accumulated. It is easy to imagine the varieties which must occur, on these princi- ples, between the extremes which we have suggested. The exceptions are numerous and depend chiefly on the quality of the subsoil ; if too porous it absorbs the ferti- lizing juices ; if impervious to water, it retains too large I A^J^ 98 EXPLANATIONS IN REGARD TO a proportion of that element on the surface, and forma what are called wet prairies. Having thrown out these hints, it is only necessary to add, briefly, that the soil is a rich black mould, containing an admixture of fine silicious sand. It is supposed to contain a portion of decomposed limestone, and is warm, quick, and lively. Its depth is as remarkable as its won- derful productiveness. We pass now to some points of immediate practical importance to the agricultural population of our valley, which have not been understood abroad. When the eye of the experienced farmer, roves for the first time over the prairies of the west, he is struck v/ith the dreariness of tlie prospect. That which is beautiful and picturesque to another, conveys no corresponding sensations to the mind of one who views it simply in relation to its capa- city for the support of man, and the business of life. The absence of timber, seems to him an evil without remedy, and in his judgment millions of acres appear destined to bloom in eternal wilderness. So obvious is this view of the case, that we frequently hear the remark, from judicious men, that but for the want of timber, the advantages of Illinois and Missouri, as agricultural states, would stand unrivalled. An attentive examination of this question in all its bearings, will shew that this conclusion is falla- cious, and that in fact, the supply of this indispersabb article, is as abundant at this time, as its future increase in quantity is certain. Yie have explained the manner in v/hich the forest and prairie are interspersed throughout our country, and have shown that the former is found skirting the shores of all our rivers, and smaller water courses. Such are the situ- ations,' as regards locality, in which the first inhabitants always choose to settle, for the. purpose of enjoying the united advantages of wood and water ; and the vicinity of navigable stream.s holds out other strong inducements. THE WANT OF TIMBER. 99 The open prairies, or those parts of the country which are now destitute of timber, being invariably the most distant from living streams, would of course, as a general rule, be the last to be settled, even if all the surface was alike covered with wood. Such has been the actual pro- cess of settlement. The margins of the large rivers were first settled, the inhabitants tenaciously adhering to the rich bottom lands, in spite of their dampness and insalu- brity, and in defiance of the immense masses of heavy timber, which rendered the clearing of those lands a gigan- tic labor. ]More recently the prairie lands have acquired reputation, and the emigration has flowed towards the in- terior parts of the new states. But the settler, in forsak- ing the margins of the large rivers, pursues the meanders of the smaller streams, and selects his farm on the edge of a prairie, Avhcre he may enjoy the combined advantages of timber and plain. For the present population, the quantity of timber is amply sufficient ; and so small a portion of the timbered lands is yet occupied, as to justify the assertion that enough remains to supply all the inhabitants which these states may be reasonably expected to contain for the ne^ half century. There are exceptions to these state"" jser- instances in which settlements have spread o^ _.x entire prairie, and artificial means have been adopted for supply- ing the v/ant of wood ; but we shall show presently, that tliese cases go to prove the correctness of our views. We assume the positions, that at present the settlements are generally confined to the woodlands and adjoining prairies, where is found an abundant supply of timber ; and that a very small proportion, in comparison to the whole of the timbered lands, is thus occupied. The remainder stands open to new settlers, Mobile nature has made ample pro- vision for future generations. We have seen, moreover, that as the country becomes settled, the timber rapidly increases. We need not add l.ofC. 100 EXPLANATIONS IN REGARD TO to what we have said on this point. We think that we have shown conclusively that there have been numberless instances in this, and other parts of our continent, in which forests' have grown up, within the memory of man, with- out the aid of any eflbrt of human ingenuity ; and we can imagine no reason why the same process should not con- tinue to be carried forward. On the contrary, we have seen this munificent operation of nature proceeding regu- larly through a long series of years ; and as we believe it to be the result of those immutable laws of nature, which pervade all ages and countries, we have no right to sup- pose that the future will not resemble the past. A care- ful examination of the subject must convince any rational mind, that there will always, during the whole process of the settlement of this wide region, be land enough reclaim- ed from prairie, and covered with timber, within each generation of inhabitants, to supply the increase of popu- lation which may have occurred during that time, until the whole country shall be thus supplied with a due pro- portion of wood. But we are met here with another consideration, which is worthy of notice. The question arises, whether the |y\ye of iarmers, now rising up in our country, will require timber in as large quantities as their predecessors. We reply that they certainly will not. Whenever an article is abundant, it will be used with profusion ; when scarce, economy will be practiced in its consumption. American farmers have been accustomed to reside in the vicinity, or in the bosom of immense forests, and to enjoy the use of wood without stint. Not only has it been unnecessary to economise in this article ; but every where in the United States, except latterly in a few districts, the desti'uction of timber has been a desirable object, and has constituted an unavoidable and laborious part of the busi- ness of the husbandman. Wood has therefore been used with prodigality, for all the purposes to which it is neces- THE WANT OF TIMBER. 101 sarily applied ; while it has also been substituted in num- berless instances, for substances which, under other cir cumstances, would have been more suitable. Not to speak of wooden houses, bridges, and roads — of wood for fuel and fencing — we find it adopted in the west for pur- poses more anomalous, where wooden pins are substituted for nails, and wells are curbed with hollow logs, where the cabin door swinging on wooden hinges, is fastened with a wooden latch, and the smoke escapes through a wooden chimney. Engineers have proposed to substitute wood-work for masonry in the construction of railways and canal locks ; and it is said that an eminent lawyer in Missouri, had a very convenient office, made of a single section sawed from a hollow sycamore. Well may ours be called a wooden country ; not merely from the extent of its forests, but because in common use wood has been substituted for a number of the most necessary and com- mon articles — such as stone, iron, and even leather. Whenever, therefore, timber shall cease to be cheaper than the substances which might be used in its place, the demand for it will be proportionably diminished. There is still another view of this question, which is important. That which appears to the superficial obser- ver as a defect, is, in truth, one of the greatest sources of the prosperity of our country. The labor of clearing woodland, is the most arduous task to which the western farmer is subjected, and has constituted in itself, the greatest drawback to the rapid growth of the new states. Where the soil is rich, the timber is generally heavy ; and a lifetime is consumed in opening a farm. No one but a backwoodsman, accustomed to dwell in forests, to wield the axe, and to depend mainly upon his rifle for subsistence, is fitted for this herculean enterprise ; when undertaken by the husbandman from tlie eastern states, it has scarcely ever failed to produce the most disastrous consequences : bankruptcy, disease, disappointment, and i2 ML. 102 EXPLANATIONS IN REGARD TO death, have traced his footsteps, and poisoned his enjoy- ments. If the farmer is not sufficiently wealthy to hire laborers, a few acres only are annually reclaimed from the forest ; and even this is effected by the most laborious and painful drudgery. Years are consumed, and the in- dustrious settler, sees the prime of his manhood wasted, before he begins to reap the fruit of his labors. If the same operation is attempted to be performed by hired labor, the expense of clearing exceeds the value of the land when cleared ; while the stumps of the trees remain for many years, occupying a large portion of the ground, and greatly impeding the business of husbandry. In the mean while, nothing is added to the industry or trade of the country, because those who are engaged in clearing lands can make no produce for market. Nor is this all. The clearing of new lands, has always been found to be productive of diseases of the most ma- lignant character. The settler builds his cabin in the gloom of dense shadows. The vegetable deposit of ages is suddenly exposed to the glaring beams of the sun. Thousands of trees are levelled — large portions of which are left to rot on the ground. The air is filled with nox- ious exhalations ; and bilious fevers are the consequence. Far different is the case in our open country. The settler may always select, upon our prairies, land as fer- tile as the richest river bottoms ; and by settling in the edge of the timber, combine every advantage aflorded by the latter. He finds the land already cleared, and has only to enclose it. The labor of bringing it into culture is comparatively trifling. A heavy plough and a strong team is required the first year, to turn over the sod. The corn is dropped in the furrows, and covered with a hoe, and no other labor is bestowed upon it until it is fit to gather ; because during that year the crop cannot be tended in the ordinary way, as the sod, already bound together by the fibrous roots of the grass, is merely turned THE WANT OF TIMBER. 103 over, and not pulverized so as to admit of tillage. But by turning the grass down, exposing the roots to the sun, and leaving the sod undisturbed, it becomes mellowed in one season, and while undergoing the process of decom- position affords nourishment to the growing corn. The crop thus raised is not abundant, nor the grain very good ; but something like half the ordinary crop is raised, which amply pays for the labor of planting and gathering. By the ensuing spring, the roots of the wild grass, are found to be completely rotted, and the plough is put into a rich, light mould, fit for all the purposes of husbandry. The ordinary operations of farming may now be conducted in the usual way ; and the labor of cultivating a light soil, unincumbered with rocks and stumps, is so trifling as to leave time for the farmer to improve his land and build- ings. The plough runs on a level plain of rich mould, and may be managed by a half-grown boy, as well as by the strongest ploughman. In timber lands, newly cleared, ploughing requires both strength and skill ; the plough must be sharpened frequently, and is often broken ; and at last the work goes on slowly. The difference in the greater facility of working prairie lands ; the saving in the wear of all implements of husbandry; the economy of time, and of course the greater degree of certainty in the farmer's calculations ; the enjoyment of health — are so great, as in our opinion, to outweigh any inconveniencb which can possibly be experienced in this country for the want of timber, even under the most unfavorable circum- stances. A farmer had better settle in the midst of a prairie, and haul his fuel and rails ^ye miles, than under- take to clear a farm in the forest. The farmers of Illinois are beo^innino^ to be aware of this fact ; and there are now many instances in which farmers, having purchased a small piece of land for timber, in the woodland, make their farms at a distance in the prairie. It is only neces- sary to make a nice calculation of the time consumed in 104 THE WANT OF TIMBER. the transportation of wood for fuel and all other purposes and to observe how small a proportion it bears to the other labors of a farm, in order to satisfy any one who is . acquainted with the subject, that it is really a matter of no importance, when brought into competition with the ad- vantages of a prairie country. It is to be recollected, that the prodigal consumption of timber, which we now witness, will, in all probability, be diminishing annually, with the improvement of the country, and the introduction of a variety of substitutes for wood. People will not forever make worm fences, live in log cabins, and warm themselves by log-heaps built up in great wooden chimnies, which occupy nearly the whole gable end of a house. In an open champaigne country, it is not possible that the planting of hedges can be long delayed. If they can be used with advantage in any country, they certainly will succeed in ours. The climate is well adapted to the English white thorn ; and we have several indigenous thorns which are admirably suited to the purpose. The conformation of the country, and its fertility, renders it easy to plant, to cultivate, to protect, and to perpetuate the hedge ; and every circum- stance combines to recommend this mode of enclosure. In the greater part of the prairie region, building stone cinnot be had; but in such places, brick may always be substituted by those who wish to build good houses. The stratum of clay which is found under our soil, is well suited for brick-making, and in most places can be ob- tained, by removing the light covering of loam which forms the surface. As for fuel, there is no difficulty. No part of this country has been explored, in which coal does not abound ; that is to say, there is no extensive district without it ; it is found in the broken lands, and bluff banks of all our larger water courses, and though seldom met with within the area of a prairie, it abounds on the borders of all the streams which meander amonff these THE PRAIRIES WATER. 105 plains. That it has not been brought into use, at all, is a proof of what we have asserted, viz. that wood is abun- dant. Whenever the farmer shall discover that his forest trees have become sufficiently valuable to be worth pre- serving, he will have recourse to those inexhaustible stores of fuel which Nature has treasured up in the bow els of the earth ; his fields will be enclosed with hedges ,* the axe will cease its wanton devastation ; the demand for timber, and the quantity, will regulate each other ; and men will learn to believe the obvious truth, that there never need be a scarcity of that, which can be preserved by care, and produced by industry. CHAPTER VIII. The Prairies — their destitution of water explained. In a practical point of view the absence of water is also a serious objection to the prairie region. No spring bursts out upon these plains. This is a truism ; for wherever a stream, however small, trickles over the sur- face, the soil thus moistened becomes covered with timber. The prairie, therefore, is precisely that part of the whole country, which is destitute of living streams upon its sur- face. And when it is recollected that the greater part of Illinois, Missouri, and the territory lying north, west, and south of these states, is prairie, over which the eye of the traveler may rove for miles, without discovering a shrub or tree, it will be readily seen that the absence of water must be great. It is true, that there is a dearth of water upon the sur- face. In the summer especially, the traveler may ride a whole day without finding a rivulet, or even a standing 106 THE PRAIRIES WATER. pool at wliicli he may water his horse ; and those who traverse the unsettled parts of the country, complain of this as one of the greatest inconveniences of the journey. On the other hand, it is a fact equally well ascertained, that water is every where found, in great abundance, at a distance of a few feet below the surface. We have known but a very few spots at which water could not be procured by digging ; there are few countries in which the sinking of wells is performed with so much ease, or with such uniform success. There is, in general, no rock to per- forate ; after removing the rich soil, a stratum of hard clay presents itself, then gravel, and then another layer of clay, all of which are so compact as to require no curbing^ during the progress of the operation. Tlie water is found in a stratum of line clean sand. The depth of the v/ells varies from twelve to forty feet, but most usu- ally is from eighteen to twenty-five ; it very seldom varies much from twenty feet. There is therefore, in fact, no dearth of water. It is present in great abundance, but not in the position most desirable to the farmer, who, if settled at a distance from the woodland, must adopt some artificial mode of supply- ing liis stock, with this indispensable article. At present this want is not felt as an existing evil ; and we think it will not become a subject of complaint for many years, for the same reason which we suo-c^ested in relation to timber. The present inhabitants of the prairie region, are settled in situations amply supplied with water, and there is still a great abundance of choice land remaining vacant, on the margins of the rivers and smaller water courses, to accommodate several generations of new set- tlers. It is Avorthy of remark also, that the practice of suffering cattle and other stock to roam at large over the natural pastures, which now prevails universally, and must long continue to be pursued, renders this rather an imaginary want, than one of practical inconvenienci? "WET PRAIRIES. 107 The family is supplied, either by a spring or well, with a sufficient quantity of good water for household purposes, and for work-horses ; while the animals which seek their own food on the wild lands, roam off to the streams which are more or less distant. But the open prairie lands pos- sess some advantages, which will go far towards counter- balancing this deficiency. These, as we have remarked, are their great fertility, the ease with which they may be brought into cultivation, and the lightness of the soil, which renders the tillage less laborious than that of other lands. To these may be added, the facility of making good roads, in consequence of the levelness of the coun- try, and the dryness of the soil, — and the remarkable adaptation of this whole region for internal communica- tion by railroads and canals. A great mistake has been made by travelers, and adopt- ed by the compilers of books, in reference to ivet prairies, which they suppose to exist to a much greater extent than is true. Taking it for granted that the prairie region is a vast plain, they infer prima facie, that the water which falls from the clouds, is slowly drained off, and remains long on the ground, constituting extensive pools and marshes. But the truth is, that the surface is undu- lating, and that the process of draining has, in the lapse of ages, gradually worn down the edges of the plains nearest to the water-courses, so that the centre is in most cases the highest. This conformation is not invariable : there are prairies which are level, and upon others, even the most elevated, will be found depressions, from which the water is not drained. Taking into view these excep- tions to the general rule, and considering them as charac- teristic features in the topography of the country, a writer, otherwise accurate, has said that " most of our large prai- ries are so nearly level, or slightly concave in the centre, as to render many places wet, and others inundated." A country of which this remark should be true would be tttku. 108 WET PRAIRIES. scarcely habitable. As well might the writer deny the convexity of the globe, because there are valleys upon its surface, as to deny the same general shape to the prairies, because in the almost imperceptible undulations of their outline, the latter sometimes assumes for a short distance tlie appearance of an exact plane, and sometimes sinks into a hollow. The idea is contrary to the analogy of nature, for the natural drainage of a country, will leave those parts most elevated which lie at the greatest distance from the rivers or valleys into which the rains flovv ofl* from the surface. In a region of rock formation, this ef- fect will be modified by other causes ; but on plains of light soil, resting on clay and gravel easily worn by the attrition of water, its operation is obvious and uniform. In the spring of the year, or at any other season when rain has fallen copiously, the light and porous soil of the prairie becomes saturated with water, and as the process of draining cannot be carried forward rapidly, in a country so nearly level, the whole land seems almost inundated. The slope of the entire plain of the west, has been shown to be gentle ; the channels of its rivers have but little declination, and carry off their waters slowly. The smaller water courses, by the same law, have but little fall ; they are therefore soon filled to overflowing. Creeks assume the appearance of rivers — brooks are filled to their brinks — the ravines in the prairies, dry at other seasons, become the channels of immense floods, which slowly flow off" with an almost imperceptible motion. The whole land is like a saturated sponge. But whenever the waters subside, the porousness of the soil, and the rapidity of the evaporation in so open a country, produce the effect of drying the soil with remarkable celerity. The objection to the prairie region, is not excess of moisture either in the soil or climate ; the opposite, if it be an objection, is that which might be alledged with more propriety. It is a country of boundless plains, ac WET PRAIRIES. 109 cessible to tlie winds from every direction — but little sha- ded by timber — and having a small proportion of springs Oi' running streams of water. Early in the summer all the streams except the largest, are dried up ; the traveler is astonished as he passes over deep channels, perfectly dry, to see, by the marks of water above his head, that immense floods have recently filled them to overflowing, and at findino^ in tlie beds of rivers of soundinor name, in which for months together a ship of the line might float, rivulets almost exhausted, over which he could jump at a single bound. Wet prairies occur where the surface of the plain is perfectly level, or slightly concave. A very small pro- portion of the whole country is comprised within this de- scription ; and all of it may be easily drained. We have scarcely ever seen a prairie from which the standing water might not be conveyed by a ditch a few feet in depth. They are not sufliciently extensive to produce any effect upon the atmosphere ; and as the waters are rapidly evaporated, they become dry in the early part of the sum- mer, and are covered like the other lands with grass ; so that they do not generate miasma in any quantity which can perceptibly effect the salubrity of the air. The quality of the water in the interior, or prairie re- gion, is often made a subject of complaint by travelers. The reason is obvious. The first settlers in a new coun- try, and ti:ose who keep the houses of entertainment at which travelers stop, are pei-sons who care little for the luxuries of life, and who have been accustomed to the use of spring water. They know little, and care less, about the art of procuring the pure element by means of artificial wells. When obliged to resort to this method of getting water, they consider it a matter of importance to find it as near the surface as possible, or rather, if they do not find it after digging a few feet, they desist and seek it at another spot ; and choice of a place at which to reside, K 110 WILD ANIMALS. depends on the finding of water at the depth of twelve ot fifteen feet. The well is often so shallow that the water may be warmed by the action of the sun. It is curbed with green wood, from which sometimes the bark is not removed — or more frequently with a hollow log termed a gum — which is constantly decaying and imparting a bad taste to the water ; vv^hile no pains are taken to remove the leaves and woody fibre which are continually falling into it. When wells are properly dug, and walled v.'ith stone or brick, the water is generally pure and excellent ; nor can we conceive how it could be otherwise, passing, as it almost invariably does, through a stratum of fine clean sand. CHAPTER IX. Wild Animals. There are several works on natural history, which accurately describe tlie animals of this region. In orni- thology especially, the labors of Wilson, Nuttal, and Buonaparte, have left no room for additional remarks. W^e shall confine ourselves to a few desultory hints relat- ing to the settled parts of the country. The buffalo has entirely left the inhabited districts. Before the country vras settled our immense prairies af- forded pasturage to large herds of this animal ; and the traces of them are still remaining, in the " buffalo paths" which are to be seen in several parts of the new states. These are well beaten tracts, leading generally from the prairies in the interior, to the margins of the large rivers ; shewing the course of their migrations as they changed iheir pastures periodically, from the low marshy alluvion, to the dry upland plains. In the heat of summer they WILD ANIMALS. Ill would be driven from the latter by prairie flies, in the autumn they would be expelled from the former by the musquitoes ; in the spring the grass of the plains would afl'ord abundant pasturage, while the herds could enjoy the warmth of the sun, and snuff the breeze that sweeps so freely over them ; in the winter the rich cane of the river banks, which is an evergreen, would furnish food, Avhile the low grounds thickly covered with brush and forest, would afl'ord protection from the bleak winds. I know few subjects more interesting than migration of wild animals, connecting as it does the singular displays of brute instinct, with a wonderful exhibition of the various supplies which nature has provided for the support of animal life, under an endless variety of circumstances. These paths are narrow, and remarkably direct, shewing that the animals traveled in single file through the woods, and pursued the most direct course to their places of destination. Deer are more abundant in some places than at the first settlement of the country. They increase, to a certain extent, with the population. The reason of this appears to be, that they find protection in the neighborhood of man, from the beasts of prey that assail them in the Avil- derness, and from wh.ose attacks their young particularly can with difliculty escape. They suffer most from the wolves, Vv^ho hunt in packs like hounds, and wlio seldom give up the chace until a deer is taken. We have often sate on a moonlight summer night, at the door of a log cabin on one of our prairies, and heard the wolves in full chace of a deer, yelling very nearly in the same manner as a pack of hounds. Sometimes the cry w^ould be heard at a great distance over the plain ; then it would die away, and again be distinguished at a nearer point, and in another direction — nov/ the full cry would burst upon us from a neighboring thicket, and we could almost hear the sobs of the exhausted deer, and again it would be borne away ^iwitikv 112 WILD ANIMALS. and lost in distance. We have passed nearly whole nights in listening to such sounds, and once we saw a deer dash through the yard, and immediately past the door at which we sate, followed by his audacious pursuers, who were but a few yards in his rear. Immense num.bers of deer are killed every year by our hunters, who take them for the hams and skins alone, throwing away the rest of the carcass. Venison hams and hides are important articles of export. The former are purchased from the hunters at 25 cents a pair, the latter at 20 cents a pound. In the villages of Illinois and Missouri we purchase, for our tables, the saddle of venison with the hams attached, for STs cents, which would be something like one cent a pound. There are several ways of hunting deer, all of which are equally simple. Most generally the hunter proceeds to the woods on horseback, in the day time, selecting carefully certain hours, which are thought to be most favorable. It is said that during the seasons when the pastures are green, this animal rises from his lair, precise- ly at the rising of the moon, whether in the day or night ; and I suppose the fact to be so, because such is the testi- mony of experienced hunters. If it be true, it is certainly a curious display of animal instinct. This hour therefore is always kept in view by the hunter, as he rides slowly through the forest, with his rifle on his shoulder, while his keen eye penetrates the surrounding shades. On be- holding a deer the hunter slides from his horse, and while the deer is observing the latter, creeps upon him, keeping the largest trees between himself and the object of pur- suit, until he gets near enough to fire. An expert woods- man seldom fails to hit his game. It is extremely danger- ous to approach a wounded deer. Timid and harmless as this animal is at other times, he no sooner finds him- self deprived of the power of flight than he becomes furi- ous, and rushes upon his enemy making desperate lunges WILD ANIMALS. 113 with his sharp horns, and striking and tramping violently with his forelegs, which being extremely muscular and armed with sharp hoofs, are capable of inflicting very severe wounds. Aware of this circumstance, the hunter approaches him with caution, and either secures his prey by a second shot, where the first has been but partially successful, or, as is more frequently the case, causes his dog to seize the wounded animal, while he watches his own opportunity to stab him \vith his hunting knife. Sometimes, where a noble buck is the victim, and the hunter is impatient or inexperienced, terrible conflicts en sue on such occasions. Another mode, is to watch at night, in the neighbor- hood of the salt licks. These are spots where the earth is impregnated with saline particles, or where the salt water oozes through the soil. Deer and other grazing animals frequent such places, and remain for hours licking the earth. The hunter secretes himself here, either in the thick top of a tree, or most generally in a screen erected for the purpose, and artfully concealed like a masked battery, with logs or green boughs. This prac- tice is pursued only in the summer, or early in the au- tumn, in cloudless nights, when the moon shines brilliant- ly, and objects maybe readily discovered. At the rising of the moon or shortly after, the deer having risen from their beds, approach the lick. Such places are generally" denuded of timber, but surrounded by it, and as the ani- mal is about to emerge from the shade into the clear moon- light, he stops, looks cautiously around, and snuffs the air. Then he advances a few steps, and stops again, smells the ground, or raises his expanded nostrils, as if he " snuffed the approach of danger in every tainted breeze." The hunter sits motionless, and almost breath- less, waiting until the animal shall get within rifle shot, and until its position in relation to the hunter, and the light, shall be favorable, when he fires with an unerring k2 114 WILD ANIMALS. aim. A few deer only can bt.' thus taken in one night, and after a few nights these timorous animals are driven from tlie haunts which are thus disturbed. Another practice is called driving, and is only practised in those parts of the country where this kind of game is scarce, and where hunting is pursued as an amusement. A large party is made up, and the hunters ride forth with fieir dogs. The hunting ground is selected, and as it ia pretty well knov/n what tracks are usually taken by the deer when started, an individual is placed at each of those passes, to intercept the retreating animal. The scene of action being thus in some measure, surrounded, small parties advance with the dogs from different directions, and the startled deer in flying most generally pass some of the persons who are concealed, and who fire at them as they pass. The elk, has disappeared. A few have been seen in late years, and some taken ; but it is not known that any remain at this time, within the limits of any of the states. The bear is seldom seen. This animal inhabits those parts of the country that are thickly wooded, and delights particularly in canebrakes, where it feeds in the winter on the tender shoots of the young cane. The meat is tender and finely flavored, and is esteemed a great delicacy. Wolves are very numerous in every part of the western country. There are two kinds ; the common, or black wolf, and the prairie wolf. The former is a large fierce animal, and very destructive to sheep, pigs, calves, poul- try, and even young colts. They hunt in large packs, and after using every stratagem to circumvent their prey, attack it with remarkable ferocity. Like the Indian, they always endeavor to surprise their victim, and strike the mortal blow .without exposing themselves to danger. They seldom attack man, except when asleep or v/ound- ed. The largest animals, when wounded, entangled, or otherwise disabled, become their prey; but in general WILD ANIMALS. 115 they only attack such as are incapable of resistance. They have been known to lie in wait upon the bank of a stream which the bufialo were in the habit of crossing, and when one of those unwieldy animals was so unfortunate as to sink in the mire, spring suddenly upon it, and worry it to death, while thus disabled from resistance. Their most common prey is the deer, which they hunt regularly ; but all defenceless animals are alike acceptable to their raven- ous appetites. When tempted by hunger they approach the farm houses in the night, and snatch their prey from under the very eye of the farmer ; and when the latter is absent with his dogs, the wolf is sometimes seen by the females lurking about in mid-day, as if aware of the un- protected state of the family. Our heroic females have sometimes shot them under such circumstances. It is said by hunters that the smell of burning assafcetida has a remarkable effect upon this animal. If a lire be made in the v.-oods, and a portion of this drug thrown into it, so as to saturate the atmosphere witli the odor, the wolves, if any are within reach of the scent, immedi- ately assemble around, howling in the most mournful manner, and such is the remarkable fascination under which they seem to labor, that they will often suffer themselves to be shot down rather than quit the spot. Of the few instances of their attacking human beings, of which we have heard, the following may serve to give some idea of their habits. In very early times, a negro man was passing in the night, in the lower part of Ken- tucky, from one settlement to another. The distance was several miles, and the country over which he travel- ed entirely unsettled. In the morning his carcass was found entirely stripped of llesh. Near it lay his axe, covered with blood, and all around the bushes were beaten down, the ground trodden, and the number of foot tracks so great, as to shew that the unfortunate victim had fought long and manfully. On pursuing his track it appeared 1 16 WILD ANIMALS. that the wolves had pursued him for a considerable dis tance, he had often turned upon them and driven them back. Several times they had attacked him, and been repelled, as appeared by the blood and tracks. He had killed some of them, before the final onset, and in the last conflict had destroyed several. His axe was his only weapon. On another occasion, many years ago, a negro man was going through the woods, with no companion but his fiddle, when he discovered that a pack of w^olves were on his track. They pursued very cautiously, but a few of them would sometimes dash up, and growl, as if impatient for their prey, and then fall back again. As he had sev- eral miles to go, he became much alarmed. He some- times stopped, shouted, drove back his pursuers, and then proceeded. The animals became more and more auda- cious, and would probably have attacked him, had he not arrived at a deserted cabin, which stood by the way side Into this he nished for shelter, and without waiting to shut the door, climbed up and seated himself on the rafters The wolves dashed in after him, and becoming quite furr ous, howled, and leaped, and endeavored with every ex- pression of rage to get to liim. The moon was now shin* ing briglidy, and Cuff" being able to see his enemies, and satisfied of his own safety, began to act on the offensive. Findinof the cabin full of them, he crawled down to the top of the door, which he shut and fastened. Then re- moving some of the loose boards from the roof, scattered them with a tremendous clatter upon such of his foes as remained outside, who soon scampered off, while those in the house began to crouch with fear. He had now a large number of prisoners to stand guard over, until morn- ing; and drawing forth his fiddle, he very good naturedly played for them all night, very much, as he supposed, to their edification and amusement, for like all genuine lovers of music, he imagined that it had power to soften the I WILD ANIMALS. 117 heart, even of a wolf. On the ensuing day, some of the neighbors assembled and destroyed the captives, with great rejoicings. The story of Putnam and the wolf is familiar to every schoolboy ; but it is not so well known, that such adven- tures are by no means uncommon. The youthful achieve- ment of the gallant revolutionary hero, has acquired dig- nity from the brilliancy of his after life, which was adorn- ed with a long list of heroic and patriotic deeds, v/hen in fact this exploit is one of ordinary occurrence among our resolute hunters. We select the following two instances, both of which are well authenticated. Many years ago, a Frenchman, with his son, was hunt- ing in a part of Missouri, distant about forty miles from St. Louis. Having wounded a large bear, the animal took refuge in a cave, the aperture leading into which, was so small as barely to admit its passage. The hunter, leaving his son without, instantly prepared to follow, and with some difficulty drew his body through the narrow entrance. Having reached the interior of the cave, he discharged his piece with so true an aim as to inflict a mortal wound upon the bear. The latter rushed forward, and passing the man, attempted to escape from the cave, but on reaching the narrowest part of the passage, through which it had entered with some difficulty, the strength of the animal failed, and it expired. The entrance to the cave was now completely closed by the carcass of the animal. The boy on the outside, heard his father scream for assistance, and attempted to drag out the bear, but found his strength insufficient. After many unavailing efforts, he became much terrified, and mounted his father's horse with the determination of seeking assistance. There was no road through the wilderness, but the sagacious horse, taking the direction to St. Louis, carried the alarm- ed youth to that place, where a party was soon raised and despatched to the relief of the hunter. But they 118 WILD ANIMALS. searched in vain for the place of his captivity. From some cause not now recollected, the trace of the horse was obliterated, and the boy in his agitation, had so far for- gotten the landmarks as to be totally unable to lead them to the spot. They returned after a weary and unsuccess- ful search ; the hunter was heard of no more, and no doubt remained of his having perished miserably in the cive. Some years afterwards, the aperture of the cavern was discovered, in a spot so hidden and so difficult of ac- cess as to have escaped the notice of those who had pass- ed near it. Near the mouth was found the skeleton of the bear, and within the cave, that of the Frenchman, with his gun and equipments, all apparently in the same condition as when he died. That he should have perish- ed of hunger, from mere inability to effect his escape by removing the body of the bear, seems improbable, because supposing him to have been unable by main strength to effect this oljject, it would have cost him but little labor to have cut up and removed the animal by piecemeal. It is most likely either that he was suffocated, or that he had received some injury, which disabled him from exer- tion. The cave bears a name which commemorates the event. The other circumstance to v/hich we allude, occurred in Monroe county, in Illinois. There are in many parts of this country, singular depressions or basins, v/hich the inhabitants call sink-holes. They are sometimes very deep, circular at the top, with steep sides meeting in a point at the bottom, precisely in the shape of a funnel. At the bottom of one of these, a party of hunters discov ered the den of a she wolf, and ascertained that it contained a litter of whelps. For the purpose of destroying the latter, they assembled at the place. On examining the entrance to the den, it was found to be perpendicular, and so nar- row as to render it impossible or very difficult for a man to enter ; and as a notion prevails among the hunters, that WILD ANIMALS. 119 the female wolf only visits her young at night, it was proposed to send in a boy to destroy the whelps. A fine, courageous boy, armed with a knife, was accordingly tlirust into the cavern, where, to 'his surprise, he found himself in the company of the she wolf, whose glistening eye-balls, white teeth, and surly voice, sufficiently an- nounced her presence. The boy retreated towards the entrance, and called to his friends, to inform them tha the old wolf was there. The men told him that he was mistaken ; that the old wolf never staid with her young in daylight ; and advised him to go boldly up to the bed and destroy the litter. The boy thinking that the dark- ness of the cave might have deceived him, returned, advanced boldly, and laid his hand upon the sl;e wolf, who sprang upon him, and bit him very severely, before he could effect his retreat, and would probably have killed him, had he not defended himself with resolution. One or two of the men now succeeded in efTecting an entrance ; the wolf v.'as shot, and her offspring destroyed. The prairie wolf, is a smaller species, M-hich takes its name from the habit of residing entirely upon the open plains. Even v.'hen liuntcd Vvilh dogs, it will make cir- cuit after circuit, round the prairie, carefully avoiding the forest, or only dashing into it occasionally when hard pressed, and then returning to the plain. In size and ap- pearance, this animal is midway between the wolf and the fox, and in color it resembles the latter, being of a very light red. It preys upon poultry, rabbits, young pigs, calves, &c. The most friendly relations subsist between this animal and the common wolf, and tliey constantly hunt in packs together. Nothing is more common than to see tlie large black wolf in company with several of the prairie v/olves. The latter resembles the jackall of Asia, and if not the same animal, is a variety but little dis- tinguished from it. The prairie wolf is timid, and seldom approaches a farm house at which dogs are kept. They 120 WILD ANIMALS. are said to have a particular aversion to the yell of the hound, and to disappear entirely from a neighborhood where a pack is kept for hunting. Some years ago an agricultural society established at the seat of government of Illinois, offered a large premium to the person who should kill the greatest number of wolves in one year. The legislature at the same time ffered a bounty for each wolf scalp that should be taken. The consequence was that the expenditure for wolf scalps became so great, as to render it necessary to repeal the law. These animals, although still numerous, and trouble- some to the farmer, are greatly decreased in number, and are no longer dangerous to man. We know of no in- stances in late years, of a human being having been attacked by them. We have the fox, in some places in great numbers; though generally speaking I think the animal is scarce. It will undoubtedly increase with the population. The panther and wild-cat, are found in our forests. Our open country is not, however, well suited to their shy habits ; and they are not now numerous even in the wooded country. The beaver and otter, were once numerous, but are /low seldom seen except on our frontiers. The gopher, is as we suppose, a nondescript. The name does not occur in books of natural history, nor do we find any animal of a corresponding description. The only account that we have seen of it, is in " Long's 2d Expedition." In a residence of many years in the coun- try where it is said to have been most numerous, we have never seen one near enough to examine it, and to be cer- tain that it was not something else. That such an animal exists is doubtless. But they are very shy and their numbers small. They burrow in the earth, and are sup- posed to throw up those hillocks which are seen in such vast abundance over our prairies. This is to some extent a WILD ANIMALS. 121 mistake, for we know that many of these little mounds are thrown up by craw-fish, and by ants. The polecat is very destructive to our poultry. The racoon, and opossum are numerous, and extreme- ly troublesome to the farmer, as they not only at- tack his poultry, but plunder his cornfields. They are hunted by boys, and large numbers of them destroyed. The skins of the racoons pay well for the trouble of taking them, as the fur is in demand. Rabbits are abundant, and in some places extremely destructive to the young orchards, and to garden vegetables. The black and grey squirrels are very abundant. These beautiful, but destructive little animals, were very annoy- ing to the first settlers, by devouring large quantities of their corn in the fields, before it was sufficiently ripe to be gathered. One peculiarity in the history of this ani- mal is very remarkable. Sometimes, in the course of a few years, they become so numerous in one section of country, as to threaten destruction to the entire crops ; when, as if by common consent they commence an emi- gration, which is usually from west to east, in bodies so numsrous as to defy any attempt at computation, crossing the largest rivers that lie in their course. Many perish by drowning, and thousands are killed by the boys, who crowd to the shores, to intercept the weary and breath- less emigrants at their landing. At the commencement of their march they are very fat ; but towards its conclu- sion they become poor and sickly. After such an event they are scarce for several years, then multiply, emigrate, and perish as before. The cause of this phenomenon has never been explained. It cannot be want of food, for the districts they leave are often as fruitful, as those to which they direct their course, and the healthy condition in which they set out, leaves no room to suppose that the danger of starvation has driven them from home. Our hunters shoot these small animals with rifles, bringing L i 123 BIRDS. them dov/n from the tops of the tallest trees, with a single ball; and when their depredations become great, large parties are foriiied, which scoiii the woods, killing thou- sands in a day. In return for the animals which have left us, we have gained a great number by emigration, which w^ere not known to inhabit this region at its first settlement. The honey bees are not natives of this country, but they have always kept a little in advance of the white man, and while they continue numerous in the settle- ments are particularly so upon the frontier. On the verge of civilization, bee-hunting furnishes employment to many individuals during several months of the year ; and the tables of all the farmers are amply supplied with the rich treasures of the laborious insect. Honey and beeswax are among the staples of all the new states. Rats were not knowm in this country, for many years after its settlement. They were first brought, by the boats, to the villages on the shores of the navigable rivers, and gradually spread over the interior. Birds of song- but seldom enliven the o-loomv monotony of th3 forest. Few, if any, of these, are carnivorous, and it is not until the labor of the farmer has covered the soil with fields of grain, that the cheerful notes of the songster are heard. We have now a great variety of singing birds, which have rapidly followed the population from the other side of the mountains. Of birds, that which is most peculiar to this country, as well as most numerous, is the prairie fowl, or grouse. It is nearly as large as the common hen. The flesh is delicate and finely flavored. The female resembles the quail in shape and color, and the male, who erects his plumage and struts like the turkey and peacock, is chiefly distinguished by a tuft of feathers on the head, and a tail longer and more ornamented than that of his mate. Their only note is a low, strong, melancholy sound, re- BIRDS. 123 sembling the cooing of the dove, which may be heard at a considerable distance ; and the traveler in passing over the prairie at sunrise, hears this singular noise in every direction, and if unacquainted with its source, is at a loss whether to attribute it to a numerous colony of doves, of owls, or of tremendous bull frogs, for it partakes of the tone of each of these animals. The prairie fowl are seldom seen in the woods, but con- fine themselves chiefly to the long grass of the plains, scarcely ever rising on the wing, except when disturbed. In the autumn they assemble round the cornfields and wheat-stacks in search of food, and in the winter venture into the barn yards. They do not at any time evince much shyness towards man, and may often be seen mingling with the domestic fowls, when the farmer's dwelling happens to be situated on an unfrequented part of the prairie. They are easily shot sitting or on the wing ; and are taken in great numbers in traps. When the prairies are covered with snow they settle in large flocks on the trees. The writer has seen thousands of them together on such occasions. They eat freely, and fatten, when confined in coops, and could probably be domesticated with little difiiculty. Quails are numerous. These are often taken by driv- ing them into a long cylindrical net, distended by hoops, one end of which is open, and the other closed. The net is laid at its length along the ground, with the open end against a heap of brush, or in a little thicket, and the skill of the drivers, who are usually mounted on horse- back, is shewn in forcing the birds to enter it. There are pheasants in some parts of this country, but they are seldom seen. A few years ago the beautiful and majestic swan might be seen floating upon all our rivers, but they are now found only in secluded situations. Geese, ducks, cranes, and other water fowl frequent ^«. 124 REPTILES. our streams in prodigious numbers. Great quantities of them are killed for the feathers, which constitute a con- siderable article of traffic. The yellow plover frequents the prairies in the spring in immense flocks, and a nice little bird it is, graceful to shoot at, and very delicious to swallow. Wild turkeys are still abundant. They are shy and difficult to shoot, but our hunters kill great numbers of them. In the spring they are found in pairs, but during the rest of the year in flocks consisting of the old pair, and the last brood. Fine turkeys may be bought from the hunters for twelve and a half cents a piece. We have the mocking bird, the Baltimore bird, the red bird, the blue jay, the humming bird, and indeed, most of the feathered tribes which are known in the At- lantic states ; with the addition of the paroquet, a bird of benutiful plumage, but very bad character, whose thievidi propensities renders him a gi-eat nuisance to or- chards and cornfields. I have never seen any of those jAgeonroosfs, which have excited so much curiosity, and where these birds are said to alight in such quantities as to break down the limbs of the trees. Of reptiles the most formidable is the rattlesnake. This animal is most usually found in mountainous situa- tions, where the dens among the rocks afl'ord them secure harbors ; of course our plains, entirely destitute of rock and aff'ording no suitable retreats for such reptiles, do not abound in them. The fires which annually spread over the prairies, doubtless destroy great numbers of them ; the hogs which in this country are allowed to roam at large in great herds, are their inveterate enemies, and probably devour many. We have also the moccasin snake, and copperhead, both of which are very venom- ous ; but we are inclined to think that in general snakes are not numerous. ^ REPTILES. 125 Two instances occurred some years ago, in which death was occasioned by the bite of the spider, and the belief became current that a peculiarly venomous variety of that reptile existed among us. I have inquired care- fully into both these cases, without finding the slightest evidence to support that supposition. One of the per- sons bitten was a young lady. She was not attended by a physician, nor are the facts of her case correctly understood. No inference can therefore be drawn from it. The other was a man who was ploughing in his field, on a very hot day, when feeling himself bitten on the arm, he sud- denly struck the place with his open hand and crushed a large spider, which doubtless had inflicted the wound. It swelled rapidly, and the man alarmed ran home, and sent for a physician, wdio arrived in about four hours, and shortly after, the death of the patient ensued. I did not converse with the physician, but a medical friend who spoke with him on the subject, suggests the following facts : that the system of the patient was in a state that predisposed to inflammation — that the sting touched an irritable part — that the w^eather was extremely hot and the man heated by labor — and that his alarm and the vio- lent exertion of running to his house, a considerable dis- tance, added to the action of the other causes, and gave /irulence to the poison, which under more favorable cir- cumstances would only have occasioned a slight wound. The writer was once very seriously ill for several days from the sting of a bee, under similar circumstances. There have been instances in which the sting of the latter insect has occasioned death. Our inference is that the two cases above mentioned, do not furnish any evidence of the existence in this country of a variety of the spider whose bite is ordinarily attended with dangerous conse- quences. L 2 126 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. CHAPTER X. Agricultural Products. The following remarks must be understood as apply- ing to the state of Illinois, unless where other places are hidicated. The writer's personal knowledge is confined chiefly to that region. The intelligent agriculturalist will easily apply the remarks to other sections of the country, making the due allowance for difference of latitude, and keeping in mind the great similarity of soil and exposure, which prevails over the whole western plain. In speaking of the products of a new country, our estimate must necessarily be, to a great extent, prospec- tive. The first settlers are too much occupied in provid- ing the means of subsistence, to be able to make much for sale ; nor do the farmers of any country raise pro- duce to a large amount, until they are satisfied of being able to dispose of it to advantage. Trade and agricul- ture are so nearly connected, that neither can flourish separately. In order to support an active, steady, and lucrative trade, a variety of causes must co-operate to- gether ; and these causes must be sufficiently permanent to produce similar results throughout a series of years. The supply of produce must be abundant and regular, so as to enable the trader to make his arrangements in ad- vance, and to calculate with reasonable certainty ; and its quality must be such as to bring it into fair competition with a corresponding product from another country. Then there must be a market, easy of access ; and a mode of transportation which shall be cheap, rapid, and safe, or which shall possess these advantages to a certain extent. There are a variety of other circumstances which are incidental, and v^^hich may or may not operate, at any given time ; but all of which do invariably, at AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 127 some period or other, exert an influence upon trade and agriculture. Such are ciiiefly the condition of the circu- lating medium, the rate of exchange, the existence of war and peace in our own or other countries, the preva- lence of famine, disease, or other calamity in large dis- tricts, and the influence of good or evil legislation. It must be very evident, therefore, that in a new coun- try, nothing can be settled, upon these points ; and that our farmers will, for some years, be uncertain as to the proper objects upon which to expend their labor. They will be to some extent discouraged ; and will exert less industry than they would if the channels of trade were fully opened, the markets regular, and the chances of success well understood. Besides, most of the products of a new country must be carried to market in a raw state, and of course in their most bulky and most perish- able condition. It is clear that if, in any district, wheal may be made, but not Hour, the choice of market and chances of sale are greatly reduced to the farmer ; while the risk of loss, and the expenses of transportation must be greatly enhanced. In a new country, therefore, we seldom find any great variety in the agricultural products ; and scarcely any are raised but such as require but little labor, are in general use, and may be disposed of in their crude state. These are generally raised in great profu- sion, and sold low. For these reasons the products of Illinois are comparatively few in number ; but it Avill be seen that this fact is not attributable to the soil or climate, but to other circumstances. This state presents to the farmer a combination of ad- vantages, in reference to its productions, which are scarce- ly to be found in any other country. Situated in the same latitude with Pennsylvania, and Virginia, it yields all the products which arrive at maturity in those states ; while its interior position protects it from the extremes and vicissitudes of climate which are felt upon the sea- ■Oh,- 128 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. coast, where the warmth of spring is chilled by storms rushing from snow-clad mountains, and the ocean breeze sweeping at all seasons over the land, produces sudden changes, and often reverses, for a time, the order of the seasons. Although we are not exempt from the opera- tion of such casualties, we believe that there is no coun- try where the just expectations of the farmer, are so sel- dom blighted, as in ours. We may plant early, or gather late ; we carry on the business of husbandry throughout the whole year, and we find but few days at any one time, in which the laborer may not be usefully employed. We have the advantages of various climates, without suffering greatly from their inclemencies. Wheat, rye, barley, buck-wheat, oats, hemp, flax, turnips, and Irish potatoes, all of which arrive at perfec- tion in more northern latitudes, succeed equally well here. The two latter, particularly, attain a degree of size and excellence, that we have never seen exceeded, and the crops yield abundantly. The produce of the potatoe crop is from twenty to twenty-four fold. No crop pays in quantity and quality more than this, for careful cultiva- tion. The crops raised vary from one hundred and fifty to eight hundred bushels to the acre. The latter how- ever is an extraordinary crop. The turnip is raised only for the table, but produces well. With regard to wheat, there is some diversity of opinion ; not whether this grain will grow, but v/hether it is, or is not, produced in this coun- try in its greatest perfection. We are inclined to adopt the afllrmative of this proposition. It is true, that our crops vary greatly, both in the amount and quality of the produce. But we are satisfied that this disparity arises from the degree of care bestowed on the culture. Our husbandry is yet in a rude state. Wheat is often sowed in new land but partially cleared, often upon corn ground badly prepared ; often covered carelessly with the plough, without any attempt to pulverize the soil, and very gen- AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 129 erally in fields which have produced an abundant crop of grass and weeds, during the preceding autumn. Few of our farmers have barns or threshing floors ; the grain is preserved in stacks, and trodden out upon the ground, with considerable loss, and injury. With all these dis- advantages excellent crops are raised, and the grain is re- markably good. We learn from a respectable source, that the wheat of Illinois and Missouri, is superior to that of the other western states ; it is worth more to the baker, and the bread made from it is lighter, and more nutritious. This fact is attributable to the richness of the soil, and the dryness of the atmosphere ; the former cause brings the grain to its greatest state of perfection, while the latter protects it from all those injuries which are produced by moisture. In the years 1830 and 1831, wheat was raised on the prairies both of Illinois and Missouri, which weighed sixty-eight pounds to the bushel. The writer would not state this fact, if he had not himself seen a bushel of this grain carefully weighed and measured, besides having the corroborating testimony of gentlemen residing in both these states, who all agreed in making the same statement. Sixty pounds is the standard weight of a bushel of wheat in the states east of the mountains ; this weight is very rarely exceeded, and sixty-three is probably the maximum of the finest grain. In Ohio it has been known to weigh sixty-four, and we have heard of one instance of its weigh- ing sixty-five pounds. We saw a bushel of wheat weighed in Kentucky in 1831, which weighed sixty-seven ; in Il- linois and Missouri alone has it been found to reach to sixty-eight, and that weight we suppose to be not uncom- mon there. A gentleman from the east, who traveled through Il- linois in 1830, Vv'as so struck wdth the whiteness and beauty of the flour made at CoUinsville, as to be induced to carry a sample to Boston, where it was pronounced i^. 130 WHEAT. superior to the best Baltimore flour. From these facts we are justified in asserting, that the soil and climate of this country is particularly propitious to the growth of wheat; and that the prairie region especially, produces this grain in its greatest perfection. Twenty-five to thirty bushels are raised to the acre, and the price varies from fifty to seventy-five cents. Steam mills, for the manufacture of flour, have been erected in various parts of Illinois. Ohio, is the empire state of the Union for wheat; flour is one of the greatest staples. The other staples for export, are whisky, pork, lard, bacon, oil, hides, hay, beef, cattle, horses, butter, cheese, and apples. The agriculture of this state has assumed a steady character. Mills and distille- ries afford amply the means of manufacturing grain for market; while roads, canals, and other facilities for trans- portation, have become so numerous as to encourage the farmer to exert his best energies. The staples of Kentucky, for export, are tobacco, horses for the saddle, harness and plough ; mules, cattle, hogs sheep, poultry, beef, pork, lard, lard oil, corn, oats, hay, po- tatoes, apples, whisky, cotton bagging, bale rope, and hemp. The sheep are estimated at 1,000,000, mostly in small flocks ; the great portion of the wool is manufactured in the family. Nineteen-twentieths of the capital of the state, is said to be employed in agriculture. Tennessee is the empire state of the Union for Indian corn. Her staples for export are similar to the other states of the west, adding cotton, and mcluding a larger propor- tion of tobacco. Missouri also raises tobacco, and a little cotton for do- mestic use. Her other productions are similar to the other western states. The products of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa, are similar to those of Ohio. Indian corn is the great staple of the whole west. It is INDIAN CORN. 13j raised in immeTise quantities, with but little labor, and is sold at from 8 to 50 cents per bushel ; thousands of bushels being annually disposed of in the interior parts of the country at the former price. It constitutes the prominent article of food for man, and of provender for stock. There is no grain that can be cooked in so many ways ; none is more delicious, more nourishing, or more generally pala- table to the whole population among whom it is raised. The poor find in it the cheapest article of food, while at the tables of the wealthy it is a highly prized and indispen- sable luxury. If a western farmer be asked the question, how many bushels of corn are raised to the acre, the usual reply is, one hundred. This quantity maybe produced, on fine soil, with assiduous culture ; but, under ordinary circumstances, with careful attention, 60 bushels is about the average crop. This grain is particularly suited to the climate and soil of the Western States, and to the habits of our farmers. Delighting in a rich soil, it finds a congenial home in the deep loam of the south and west ; and requiring great heat and moisture, without being injured by the extremes of either, it is less affected than any other crop by the varia- bleness of our climate, but luxuriates alike under floods of rain, or in seasons of intense heat. A remarkable and curious evidence of the value of this grain, is found in the fact that it constitutes one-half of the whole bread-stuff product of the United States, in proof of which we refer to the followinsf statement which we find in Hunt's Merchants' Magazine for December, 1846: "Pro^. /or 1844. Pro^Z. /or 1845. Wheat, - - • - 95,607,000 106,548,000 Rye, - - - 26,450,000 27,175,000 Corn, - - • - 421,953,000 417,899,000 Buckwheat, - 9,071,000 10,258,000 ^ i-T- . • 3,627,000 5,160,600 m., 132 INDIAN CORN. Oals, - - - 172,247,000 163,208,000 Rico, - - - 1,862,650 1,496,150 Potatoes, - - 99,493,000 88,392,000 830,310,650 820,136,750 The average for these two years, of the gross product of the staple articles of food, in the United States, is 824,717,- 700 bushels; and the average product of corn for the same two years is 418.926,000, or a little more than one-half It is therefore truly said, in the article just alluded to, " Indian corn is pre-eminently the wheat of the Western States, and in no small degree of the Middle. It enters into the consumption of every state of the Union. The average product of 420,000,000, m round numbers, is said to be greatly enhanced by the incoming crop. Adhering, however, to our basis, we shall be not much in error by assigning 7 per cent, for seed, 29,400,000 Domestic consumption, equal to five bushels for each individual, 100,000,000 For feed of pigs, stock, &c. 200,000,000 For exportation, 90,520,000 419,920,000" The prominence which has been given to the single ar- ticle of corn, as an element in the industry and wealth of the country, by the recent advance of prices, affords an in- teresting subject of remark. For some years previous to the increased demand, in 1846-7, for exportation to Great Britain, the average value of corn per bushel had been, at New Orleans, about 40 cents, and at Baltimore, Philadel phia. New York and Boston about 50 to 56 cents. Thia price was not sufficient to stfmulate its production for ex- portation, for although it could be raised in the Western States for from 10 to 15 cents, and transported to New Or- leans from localities bordering on our navigable rivers, for INDIAN CORN. 133 from 12 to 15 cents, the liLibllity of the grain to damag-e, the commissions and other charges, but above all the heavy- risk for insurance on an article so bulky and perishable, left no margin for profit. It has been raised, therefore, though in immense quantities, chiefly for home consump- tion, for food for man and beast, and as an element in the production of beef, pork, lard, whisky, &c. But the ad- vance of prices consequent upon the late foreign demand, has created a market for this grain in the Atlantic cities, and has opened to the farmer a new and most prolific source of wealth. It is probable that the demand will con- tinue, and we can hardly imagine a richer boon that could be conferred by Providence upon our country: the grain is produced by a simple process of culture, it is admirably adapted to our soil and climate, is highly productive, and at fair prices will pay the farmer better for his labor than any other product which can be raised on a large scale. Mines of gold would be valueless in comparison with the crops of corn that will cover our rich, broad plains, if the market be fair, and the way to market open. The quantity of Indian corn raised in six of the Western States in the year 1845, is stated in the valuable report of the Commissioner of Patents, for that year, as follows : Tennessee, 70,265,000 Ohio, 57,600,000 Kentucky, 54,625,000 Indiana, 30,625,000 Illinois, 25,584,000 Missouri, 15,625,000 254,324,000 Which, at 40 cents per bushel, is worth $101,729,600. The returns from Arkansas, low^a, and Wisconsin, in the Report from which Ave extract the above, seem to be defec- tive, and we have not at hand the materials to supply the ' iSI ^^ ^ 134 INDIAN CORN. deficiency, or to make an allowance for Western Virginia and Pennsylvania. The exportation of corn has hitherto been so limited, and its price so low, that it may be considered as a new ele- ment in our commerce; the foreign demand for it has scarcely began to exercise a stimulative effect upon its pro- duction, which will now be largely and rapidly increased ; so that if we make a fair allowance for the omissions in the above statement for the natural increase of the country, and for the increased cultivation to which the improved prices will give rise, it may not be considered extravagant to estimate the quantity to be produced in the Western States and Territories, for the next five years, at 350 mil- lions of bushels per year, and its annual value at 40 cents, at 140 millions of dollars, or if it be valued at only 30 cents per bushel, 105 millions of dollars. It is true that but a part of this large product will be exported, but it if as true, that the price of that part will determine the stand ard of value for the remainder, and will regulate the earn- ings of the farmer, and the aggregate of wealth produced tolhe country through this source. The freight and insu- rance upon an article so bulky and perishable, and of such immense magnitude in quantity and value, constitute im- portant items, which are now taxed upon this product, to be paid by the consumer, or to be deducted from the gains of the producer, unless indeed, these expenses be so great in proportion to the value of the article as to confine it to a strictly home consumption, as has been the case in regard to the largest portion of it. There is no agricultural pro- duct wdiich has been more depressed by the niggardly pol- icy of our government on the subject of the improvement of our rivers; nor any class of citizens who have been so much injured by that policy, as the farmers— the men w^ho control the elections, and who might, by united and judi- cious efforts, settle this important question. It is very SWEET POTATOES, 1 35 obvious that any facilities afforded to transportation would afford a saving to the grower and the purchaser, which would be the means of increasing both the demand and the production, and of giving stability to this invaluable grain as a staple. During the great demand for corn in the spring and summer of the present year, the freight charged upon its transportation from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia by the Canal and Rail-road, was one cent per pound; a charge equal to its whole value at Pittsburgh, and which would not have been asked, nor paid, if the government had dis- charged a plain duty to the people by rendering the navi- gation of our great rivers easy and safe at all seasons. Pumpkins are planted in our cornfields, and produce very abundantly. They are used to a limited extent as food for man, and being cut into strips are dried for winter use. During the autumn and early part of the winter they are fed ad libitum by the farmers, to their horses, cattle, and hogs, and are considered very nourishing and fatten- ing, and as affording a wholesome change from grain and dry food. Beans are somewhat largely raised, both for home con- sumption and for exportation. Cotton, tobacco, and sweet potatoes, which are indigen- ous to more southern latitudes, succeed well in ail except the most northern parts of this region. Cotton has not be- come a staple for exportation, because its production re- quires more labor than can be afforded to it in a new coun- try, where there are no slaves. But the farmers in Illinois, Missouri, and the southern parts of Indiana and Kentucky, raise it for home consumption : they make all that they use, and most of their families are clad in cotton fabrics, manufactured at home. Our tobacco crops are not exceeded any where. It has not been extensively produced, except in Kentucky and part of Missouri, for the same reason that prevents the raising of 136 GRASS -RYE BARLEY. cotton ; but it has been tried in all the western states with success. It forms a staple of Kentucky, where it is pro- duced in large quantities. From a part of Illinois, lying near the Wabash, a good many hogsheads have been an- nually exported, and the result of the experiment has been altogether satisfactory. A few hogsheads sent from Kas- kaskia to New Orleans some years since, were pronounced by the inspector to be the best ever brought to that market. We could not adduce a stronger proof than this, in favor of our soil and climate. The tobacco plant, although coarse in its appearance, is one of the most delicate of the vegeta- ble kingdom. It thrives only in a rich, light, warm soil, requires to be planted early in the spring, and gathered late in the autumn. In every stage of its growth, it needs cul- ture and attention, and is at all times sensitive to cold, and easily destroyed by frost. When we say, therefore, that ours is one of the best tobacco countries in the world, we assert the strongest evidence of the fertility of the soil, and the mildness of our climate. Of the grasses it is hardly necessary to speak. The prairies, bottom lands, and forests, abound in excellent pas- turage ; and there can be little doubt of the success of a species of production, which is indigenous to the country. Artificial grasses have been extensively introduced, and have succeeded well ; but those who have seen the cattle wading in prairie grass as high as their backs, cannot doubt that pastures, equally luxuriant, and far more nutritious, may be produced by art, when these shall be destroyed. Grass is the natural and characteristic growth of the country. The blue grass grows spontaneously wherever the soil has been trodden hard ; it skirts the road-sides, and covers the commons around our towns ; the sites of Indian villages and encamping grounds, though long since deserted, are often discovered by the verdant carpet of blue grass which clothes the soil. In Kentucky it is extensively cultivated HEMP AND FLAX, 137 for pasture, and is highly esteemed. Hay is exported to the more southern states, where it finds a ready sale. The Palina Christi, or Castor Bean, has been exten- sively raised, particularly in the south-western part of Illi- nois, near St. Louis, at which city it finds a market for manufacture. The quantity of castor oil made there has been considerable, and the quality good. Rye and barley are not generally cultivated in the west- ern states, because they do not bear exportation to advan- tage, and are but little esteemed for home consumption. Indian corn is cheaper, and is greatly preferred, as a bread- stuff and wheat is within the reach of almost all. Both these grains are however produced in sufficient quantities to supply the demand of the breweries and distilleries, and to test their adaptation to our soil, in which they succeed well. The production of barley has been greatly increased fately in consequence of the increase of breweries in our cities and towns. The dem.and for beer has been created by our foreign population. Oats are raised in every part of the country, and are very productive. They are used for horse-food, but for no other purpose. Hemp and flax grow well. The latter seems to have been superceded in its primary uses by cotton, the fabrics of which are now so various and so cheap. But the plant is ' still raised for the domestic purposes of the farmer, and for the seed, which is used extensively for manufl\cture. Lin- seed oil is made at Cincinnati in such quantities as to form one of the regular staples for exportation, besides supplying our own market. Hemp has been cultivated very extensively and with success in Kentucky for many years, and the product is said to be of excellent quahty. Mr. Clay has considered it so important a product, that, as a legislator, he has been unceasing in his efforts for its protection from foreign com- 138 HEMP. petition, while he has recommended its cultivation by ex- ample, and with his pen, and has used his best efforts to as- certain an-J teach the best modes of preparing it for market, and to introduce the American article into use in oui Navy and commercial marine. The rich lands of all the western states are well adapted to the culture of this valuable plant. The quantity of net hemp produced to the acre, is from six hundred to one thousand weight, varying according to the fertility and preparation of the soil and the season. The price of the lint when prepared for the manufacturer, has varied from three to eight dollars, for the long hundred. The average price now may be quoted at from three to four dollars. It is now raised in Ohio and other states, and is a principal staple for several counties in Missouri, where it is raised in such large quantities for exportation, as to rival the production of Kentucky. There are large man- ufactories for the conversion of hemp into bagging, at Louisville, Newport, and Maysville in Kentucky, and at Cincinnati. The following remarks on western hemp, are extracted from the New Orleans Price Current, of September 1, 1847. " So late as the jenr 1841-42, the total receipts at this port from the west were only 1211 bales; as neary the whole production was— and had been for a series of years — consumed in the interior, in the manufacture of cotton bag- ging and rope. About this time, however, the attention of government was directed to our home product, and meas- ures were taken to test its applicability to naval purposes. The tests applied, under the direction of scientific men ap- pointed for the purpose, gave highly favorable results ; and the expectation of an extended market gave a stimulus to enlarged cultivation. Our first notice of the article w'as in our annual statement of 1st September, 1844 ; when we took occasion to remark that the day was '•' proba- HEMP. 139 bly not far distant when American hemp would not only supercede the use of the Russian in our own marine, but successfully compete with it in the markets of Europe." This prediction has been more speedily fulfilled than could have been anticipated ; as will be seen by the fact that the receipts from the west this season have been 60,238 bales, while the imports from Russia into Boston and New York, have been less than 500 tons. Of the quantity received here 47,411 bales were exported to the north, against 24,265 bales last year, and 4,977 bales to Europe, against 6,851 bales the year previous ; but, notwithstanding this increase in the supply, prices have averaged much higher than in any previous year ; and to this fact may be attributed the falling off in the foreign export ; the increased demand for home use having driven most of the European orders out of market. It may be proper here to remark, however, that the increase of receipts does not present the true ratio of increase in production ; for the reason explained in our last annual statement ; when we stated that high freights in the early part of the season, and subsequently lowMvaters in the rivers, had prevented a considerable portion of the Missouri crop from reaching market. The portion of the crop of 1846 thus detained in the interior is estimated to have been about 16,000 bales; and it is this addition to the crop of 1847 that has swelled our receipts this year to 60,238 bales ; which at an average of 375 lbs. per bale is equal to about 1 0,000 tons. The comparative receipts, and average prices, for a series of years, will be shown by the following table : BALES. PER TON. 1842-43, - - - 14,873 - - - $80 00 1843-44, - - - 38,062 - - - 66 00 1844-45, - - - 46,274 - - - 60 00 1845-46, - - - 30,980 - - - 60 00 I84&-47, - - - 60,238 - - - 90 00 The extreme rates for dew rotted, which description em- 140 HEMP. braces the bulk of the suppl}'-, have this year been $5S^ $125 per ton : the lowest price early in September, and the highest in the early part of April, Avhcn supplies had not yet begun to arrive freely, and the markets of the north were bare, with an unusually active demand for cordage. About the same time, too, there were some sales of hack- led at $135.2^142 50, and of water-rotted at $200 per ton ; but these prices soon gave way under the pressure of heavy receipts and high freights, and rapidly ran down to 880a$85 for dew rotted, which were the prevailing rates up to the latter part of July, when the bulk of the supply having been disposed of, and the demand continuing, the rates recovered, and close at $110 per ton. The total ex- ports since 1st September have been 52,388 bales, of which 47,411 bales have been shipped to northern ports, and 4977 to Europe, viz — to Liverpool 1896, London 709, Glasgow 184, New Ross 199, Antwerp 201, Dundee 1745, Ply- mouth 43. Our information respecting the growing crop leads us to the conclusion that the supply w-illbe much less than dur- ing the past season. It is said that in Kentucky not only have the lands usually sown with hemp been, to a consider- able extent, devoted to other products, but that the average yield is likely to be curtailed by bad seed, and damage from storms. In Missouri we understand that the crop is expected to be about the same in extent as in 1846 ; but the arrivals from that section must show a material falling off; as parts of several previous crops came forward among the receipts of last year." There is every reason to believe that our climate is very congenial to the production of silk, and that it will become a valuable staple. It has already been produced in sufficient quantities for experiment. The industrious and ingenious community, which has so long flourished in our countr}'- under the spiritual guidance of the late venerable Mr. Rapp, I SILK. 141 have raised the worm and manufactured silk with great success. We have seen handkerchiefs, ribbons, and vest- ings, made by them at their town of Economy, which were fine and beautiful. At Richmond, Indiana, or in that vicin- ity, the production of silk has also been successfully pursued, and very handsome fabrics of that manufacture sold in Cincinnati. Mr. John Russell of Illinois, who was favora- bly known some years ago by the ingenious productions of his pen, and who gave his personal attention to the rearing of silk worms, remarks, in an article written for the Illinois Magazine, in 1831 : " The culture of silk is extremely simple, so far as con- cerns the production of the balls or cocoons, unconnected with any further process. All who have reared silkworms in our country, read Avith a smile the directions found in European books, for regulating the heat of the room where they are kept, by the scale of a thermometer, and by a stove and other apparatus. No insect is more hardy than the silk worm ; and the mode of managing it is so simple, that any person of ordinary capacity, by the aid of a few general directions, and his own observations, can hardly be at a loss in any stage of the process. The expensive labora- tories and apparatus of Europe, are all dispensed with in. the United States," &c. ^ " It is the simplicity of the art that constitutes one of its strongest recommendations. Children and females, whose labor for want of employment suited to their condition, is, in a great measure, lost, are fully equal to raising silk worms ; and thus to diffuse cheerfulness and plenty around many a dwelling, where want and its attendant miseries are now found." '•' Of the simplicity of the process, and the high profits derived from it, we will give a practical example from our own state. Dr. Greene of Belleville, in his circular of the present year, states: two of my boys, the eldest 14, the 142 SILK. other 12 years of age, attended 40,000 of the common silk worms. During the two first weeks, the worms being small, scarcely half an hour a day was taken up, and dur- ing the last two weeks, not more than two hours. The produce of these worms was 80 pounds of balls or cocoons, equal to about 10 pounds of wound silk. Most of this was manufactured into sewing silk, which sold on the spot at from $6,50 to $7,50, The time taken up in attending to this, did not interfere with the actual business of the farm, and in five weeks the whole process was completed." These worms " were fed on shelves, in the dwelling and out houses, and with no regard to temperature. The worms were healthy, and the produce, at least in weight, equal to that of the most expensive laboratory." Mr. Smith of Baltimore, says, in one of his publications, "one female and a boy can attend, with ease, to 100,000 worms, if they devote all their time to them, which would yield in finished silk, 315 dollars." In some parts of Con- necticut, the girls attend to their worms in barns, and pro- duce as good silk as those who construct laboratories. America is destined to be a rich silk growing countr}?-, and there is no part of our continent so \vell adapted to this branch of industry, as the western and south-western states, where the insect may be reared with no other pro- tection than that afforded by open sheds. The black mul- berry, on the leaves of which the worms feed and thrive, is a hardy native of our soil, but the silk produced from it is not fine ; the morus muUicaulis^ or white mulberry, grows luxuriantly without any culture, and is the proper food of this valuable insect. FRUITS 143 CHAPTER XI. Fruits. The western states are too new to afford the cultivated fruits in great abundance; but the experiments which have been tried, sufficiently attest their peculiar adaptation to\ our soil and climate; and if further evidence be desired, it is found in the quantity and excellence of our wild fruits ; for it is fairly inferable, that where the latter grow spontane- ously, the corresponding domestic fruits, and those of a similar character, may be produced by art. We have the grape, plum, crab-apple, cherry, persimmon, gooseberry, mulberr}^, strawberry, raspberry, pawpaw, and blackberry, growing wild. Of these, the grape is the most important, and perhaps the most abundant. It is found in all the western states^ and in every variety of soil ; in the prai- ries, it is interwoven with every thicket, and in the river bottom, it climbs to the tops of the tallest trees. The vine IS very prolific, and the fruit excellent. Indeed, we do not know of any part of the United States, in which the native grape flourishes so luxuriantly ; and when we consider this fact, in connection with the mildness of the climate, we may v/ell be encouraged to hope, that the vines of foreign countries will find here a congenial soil. We know of one gentleman, in Illinois, who made twenty-seven barrels of wine in a single season, from the grapes gathered, with but little labor, in his immediate neisfhborhood : and we suppose that the quantity might have been increased almost indefinitely, had the encouragement been sufficient. The French, who first settled this country, are said to have made a wine resembling claret ; which was so good, that the merchants of Bourdeaux, used exertions to prevent its exportation, and procured an edict to that eflfect. 144 THE GRAPE, The vine has succeeded well at Harmony and Vevay in Indiana, under the culture of the foreigners who settled at those places, but their wines were not such as to grow into repute. A public spirited gentleman at Cincinnati, Mr. Nicholas Longworth, has devoted much attention to this subject, and has introduced many varieties of foreign grapes. He has vSpared neither labor nor expense in the endeavor to procure and naturalize such as might be useful. A few of them only have succeeded ; and he has come to the conclusion, that, as a general rule, we must depend on the native grapes for fruit. To his persevering exam« pie and his publications, we are indebted, more than to any other cause, for the success with which the vine has been cultivated, and the extent to which it has been intro- duced, though recently some other gentlemen have devoted great attention to the subject; among the most conspicuous were the late Jacob Resor Esq., and Dr. Melchoir Flagg. Mr. Longworth has a number of vineyards occupied by tenants, chiefly Germans, who make large quantities of wine every year. Foreigners have not proved the most successful cultivators of the grape, or makers of wine. Not being educated persons, they do not easily change their modes of labor, nor recognize the difference between their own country and ours, in soil and climate, which would in- dicate the necessity of such changes. The industry and perseverance of the Germans render them useful citizens and valuable cultivators ; but they have taiight us little ; and we must depend on the ingenuity of our own people^ for the discoveries and improvements by means of which the grape shall be brought to the perfection of which we think it susceptible in this country. The Cincinnati Horticultural Society, established in 1843, has exercised a very salutary influence, in dissemi- nating a taste for rural pursuits, and creating a spirit of THE GRAPE. 1^5 emulation among cultivators of fruits and flowers. From their last report, we find that there are in the neighborhood of Cincinnati 83 vineyards, containing about 250 acres 114 acres of which are in bearing, the remainder havino- been but recently planted, and that the product of wine for the year 1845 was 23,219 gallons. This wine was worth from 50 to 75 cents per gallon, and the whole crop proba- bly yielded to the cultivators $40,000. The crop of 1846 was much larger, and the vineyards are increased. The best grape cultivated here for wine, is the Catawba, a native, which thrives and bears well, while it yields a palatable wine, from which it is thought a good sparklino- Hock or Champagne could be made. The experiment has been made by Mr. Longworth and others with the most satisfactory results, and there is but little doubt that in the course of a few years we shall produce this delightful wine in abundence. The wine now made is a dry and somewhat acid article, resembling the Rhenish, and better, we are told, than the common wines of that region. We are told in the report above alluded to, that in Cincinnati, sales of American Champagne have been made, where one hun- dred boitles sold for 8125. It now sells readily for from $1,00 to 81,50 per gallon. The common retail price for good Catawba wine is from 40 to 50 cents per bottle. One German is said to have retailed one thousand gallons, the produce of the vintage of 1845. Alluding to the crop of that year, stated to be 23,219 gallons, the Report above quoted concludes, " many of the vineyards then bore for the first time : and more than one-half of the crop was cut off by the frost and rot, which made it as great a failure as will be likely to occur in any one year. The average yield of wine per acre, for five years in succession, with proper care and attention, may be safely calculated at 450 to 500 gallons. Most of our vineyards, as may be pre- sumed by the names in the table, are cultivated by Ger 146 THE GRAPE. mans and Swiss. Several, however, of the older and larger ones, belong to our distinguished horticulturist, N, Longworth Esq , to whom is justly entitled the praise of introducing into this vicinity the cultivation of the vine, for which he may be considered a public benefactor." Among the pioneers in this culture which promises to be so useful; was the late Jacob Resor Esq., whose son has furnished the following interesting particulars in regard to his vineyard. The vineyard has a southern exposure, front- ing on the Ohio river ; it was planted with rooted plants in 1834, and contained at that time, 1775 vines, planted in rows four feet apart, and three feet distance in the row — the ground being previously trenched, and the stones taken out to the depth of two feet. In the fall of 1837 the first crop vras picked, as follows: 163 bushels of grapes, from which was made 667 gallons of wine. At this time there were 1125 Isabella and Cape vines, yielding 113 bushels, making 469 gallons, and 630 Catawba, yielding 51 bushels, making 19-8 gallons. In 1S38, the vintage produced 327 gallons. " 1839, u u 440 ii. " 1840, a u 305 u « 1841, li ii 512 u « 1842, a u 485 u " 1843, c. a 538 ii " 1844, a ii 414 li " 1845, u a 632 u We close this subject with the following interesting e\ tract, from a pamphlet by Mr. Longworth, published in 1846: " The day is not distant, when the Ohio river will rival the Rhine in the quantity and quality of its wine. I give the Catawba the preference over all other grapes, for a gen- eral crop for wine. Sugar was formerly added. The THE GRAPE. 147 Germans have taught us better. Where the fruit is well ripened, sugar will injure it, where intended for long keep- ing ; where the grapes do not ripen well, I should still add from 6 to 10 ounces of sugar to the gallon of must. It rivals the best Hock, and makes a superior Champagne. The Missouri grape makes a fine wine, resembling Ma- deira ; but is less productive than the Catawba. 1 have heretofore considered this a French Pineau grape, as it is a delicate grower with us; but I sent some of the plants to my sister, in New Jersey, where the soil is poor, stoney and stiff It there grows as luxuriantly as the wild grape of the woods, and is perfectly hardy ; and I now deem it a native. I obtained it of Messrs. Prince, of Long Island, twenty-five years since. The berry is small, the bunches of medium size, berries free from a hard pulp, and very Bweet. The Heibemont is a fine table grape, and makes a fine wine : but is subject to rot. The Lenoir much resem- bles it, if not identical, which some consider it. I do not. The Ohio is a fine table grape, bunches much larger than either of the former ; but experience does not enable me to recommend it highly for wine. It has a peculiar flavor, and resembles a foreign variety I have heard highly lauded, but does not suit my taste. The Bland is a bad bearer : does not ripen well, nor make a good wine, but is a fine table grape. I do not believe it a native grape. Gen. Harrison informed me, that it was introduced into Virginia sixty years since, by a French gentleman of the name of Maz- zei. The Elsinborough is a good table grape, and free from hard pulp." " Norton's seedling is far inferior as a table grape, to the Herbemont, Ohio, Lenoir, Elsinborough and Missouri, which it resembles in the size of its fruit. It has a pulp. 1 am trying it this season on a small scale, for wine. The grapes were very ripe, and the wine has much body, and is of a dark claret color, though pressed as soon as gathered. 148 THE GRAPE. I do not admire the flavor of the wine. Writers tell us to the contrary, but grapes may be too ripe to make good wine ; and I incline to the opinion that this was the case with my Norton's seedling. The grapes were pressed as soon as gathered, yet the wine was nearly black. A cer- tain proof that a fermentation had taken place in the fruit before gathered. It was increasing the saccharine princi- ple, at the expense of the aroma and flavor." " In the hope of inciting other Germans ' to go and do likewise,' I will state the result at one of my vineyards this season. Sixteen years since, I bought an unusually bro- ken piece of ground on Boldface creek, four miles from the city. The soil is rich, but abounds in stone. I had a ten- ant on it four years, who was bound to plant a vineyard. At the end of four years nothing was done. I tried a sec- ond, and after three years, found no grapes. I then gave a contract to a German, (Mr. Tuferber), who had a wife, daughter, and three stout boys. I gave him a hard bar- gain ; I required him to trench and wall with stone, six acres for grapes, in three years, and nine acres in five years, lie was also to plant out a peach orchard, and tend an apple orchard, I had on the place. The wine and pro- ceeds of ihe orchards were to be equally divided. I care- fully avoided climbing the stony hill for three years, ex- pecting the same result as formerly. When I visited the hill, at the end of three years, I found the six acres hand- somely trenched and walled, and set with grapes. There are now nine acres in grapes. The tenant complained this year, of the rot in his vineyard. I am in the habit of sell- ing to the tenants, my share of the vintage, at a price that enables them to sell at a profit. I this season sold at 75 (C.ents per gallon at the press for the Catawba, 62i cents for the Cape, and 50 cents for the small quantity of Isabella made. He has paid me $661 for my share of the wine, and for his share and the profit on my part, has realized the THE GRAPE. 149 sum of $1,392 50. The Catawba he sold at $1 25 per gallon." " The best crop for the extent of ground this season, was at the vineyard of Mr. Rents, about four miles from town. Two acres yielded 1300 gallons. This is as large a yield as I have known, taking two acres together. To select particular spots, I have raised at the rate of 1470 gallons to the acre. The grapes at the vineyard of Mr. Rents would have ripened better, had one-third of the bunches been cut off early in the season. Where the crop is very abundant, it requires a very favorable season to ripen the fruit well." "Six hundred and fifty gallons to the acre, is a large yield, and the season must be favorable, or they will not ripen well. A large crop is often occasioned by leaving too much bearing wood. This should always be avoided ; for even if the crop ripens thoroughly, too much of the sap is taken by the fruit, and too little left to produce good young wood for the next season's crop." " This season I have retained a part of my share of the wine, that I deemed the best, and have also bought a por- tion of the same quality from the tenants at an advanced price. A part of it is fermented, with a view of bottling it for Champagne wine. The residue will undergo a full fermentation, and I shall bottle it when two years old, pure as when it came from the press ; when it will be of the character of dry old Hock. Heretofore, all the wine made at my vineyards, has been sold to our C^erman coffee houses, and drank in our city. That which I have re- tained this season, is intended to be sent abroad, in the hope that it may lead persons in other sections of the coun- try, to turn their attention to the cultivation of the grape for wine." " I have for thirty years experimented on the foreign grape, both for the table and for wine. In the acclimation of plants, I do not believe; for the White Sweet Water n2 150 WINE. does not succeed as well with me, as it did thirty years since. I obtained a large variety of French grapes from Mr. Loubat, many years since. They were from the vicinity of Paris and Bourdeaux. From Madeira, I obtain- ed six thousand vines of their best wine grapes. Not one was found worthy of cultivation in this latitude, and were rooted from the vineyards. As a last experiment, I import- ed seven thousand vines from the mountains of Jura, in the vicinity of Salins, in France. At that point the vine re- gion suddenly ends, and many vines are there cultivated on the north side of the mountain, where the ground is covered with snow the whole winter, from three to four feet deep. Nearly all lived, and embraced about twenty varieties of the most celebrated wine grapes of France. But after a trial of five years, all have been thrown away. I also imported samples of wine made from all the grapes. One variety alone, the celebrated Arbois wine, which par- takes slightly of the Champagne character, would compete with our Catawba." "If we intend cultivating the grape for wine, we must re- ly on our native grapes, and new varieties raised from their seed. If I could get my lease of life renewed for twenty or thirty years, I would devote my attention to the subject, and I would cross our best native varieties with the best table and wine grapes of Europe. We live in a great age. Discoveries are daily made that confound us, and we know not where we shall stop. We are told of exper- iments in Mesmerism, as wonderful as the grinding over system would be ; but I fear the discovery will not be brought to perfection in time to answer my purpose, and I must leave the subject with the young generation." ''As I have before stated, from the Catawba grape, at my vineyards, this season, three of my tenants assure me, the yield was upwards of five gallons to the bushel. Where most of the grapes were separated from the stems, the yield WLNE. 151 was six and a half gallons to the bushel. They may talk of a larger yield in Germany. Mr. Hebermont boasted of making upwards of three thousand gallons to the acre, in South Carolina. I presume he judged from the product of a single vine." "I would not recommend any individual to hire hands, and cultivate the grape extensively for wine, with a view to profit. But I would recommend landlords to rent from 15 to 20 acres to Germans, for vineyards and orchards, on shares. We have more to learn in the manufacture of the wine than in the cultivation of the grape. And I would recom- mend our German vine dressing emigrants, to purchase or lease a few acres of rough, cheap land on the Ohio, or near it, with a view to the cultivation of the grape. Land will be suitable for it, that is too rough for the plough, and eight or ten acres will give employment to a whole family." *' Thus far, our wine has met with a ready sale in our own city ; but with the contemplated extension of the grape culture in this vicinity, we shall soon be compelled to look abroad for a market. We have predjudices to over- come, ' for a prophet is not honored in his own country.' We become fond of the flavor of particular wines from a continued use of them, as some of our citizens have of Big Bone water, and the bilge water taste of the Spanish Man- sinaella. Our domestic wines have a flavor of their own, and although they would generally be preferred by persons not used to the flavor of particular wines, w\\h wine-drink- ers it will require time to form a taste for them. It was so with our G'^rman population. For a time they gave a de- cided preference to German wines. They now greatly prefer the domestic, and will pay for it double the price of foreign. If we cannot otherwise suit the palates of those accustomed to the flavor of European wines, we can gratify their tastes by infusing into the must, the juice of the elder berry, dried elder blossoms, rosin, and nineteen 152 WINE. other ingredients which iheir writers tell us are used to flavor their wines." "It has been considered a settled principle that good wine cannot be manufactured in the United States. We have this predjudice to overcome, and the quality of our wine will not of itself, always enable us to do it. Two strong instances occur to my mind, that happened in our city. A gentleman in our own city, in whose judgment in wines great confidence was placed, could never be induced even to taste our domestic Hock, though a great admirer of the imported article. On two or three occasions I knew him to take a glass, and praise it highly ; but the moment that a smile from the host told him of his error, he backed out, readily discovered his error, and could not be induced to make a further trial. But on a certain occasion a friend invited him to dine with him, and drink a glass of superior Hock, recently sent him as a present. The bait took — the gentleman praised the wine highly, and pronounced it equal to any he had ever drank, and proved his sincerity by not leaving the table until he had two bottles under his belt ; and for the next month never met his host, without inquiring if all his fine wine was gone, and expressing a great desire to give it a second trial. After he w^as fairly committed he was told it was the native Catawba. From that day he knocked under, and acknowledged his predju- dices had blinded him." The earliest fruit which ripens is the wild strawberry, wdiich is found rearing its modest stem, and yielding its rich berry in every part of the United States. The climate of the western states is congenial to it, and in favorable sit- uations the fruit is delicious and the product great. Ex- tensive spots on the prairies are found covered with it. The cultivated strawberry is reared at Cincinnati in the most extraordinary quantities, and of the finest quality. It seems to be the favorite fruit of the gardeners — perhaps on THE STRAWBERRY. 153 account of the congeniality of the soil and climate to its culture, and the comparatively small degree of skill and labor required by it. Certainly the quantity produced is almost marvelous, and the size and flavor of the fruit un- rivalled. We quote the following remarks from the Report of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, for 1846: " The more efficient cause however of the extensive culti- vation of this fruit, was the discovery which Mr. Long- worth was the first to publish, of the distinction between staminate and pistillate plants — of male and female plants, or of those which bear and those which are barren. Where this distinction is not observed, the male plants occupy a large portion of the beds, while the fruit is borne by the fe- males, and the former, being the most vigorous, soon overrun the ground and extirpate the latter. But since our garden- ers have been taught to select the bearing plants, and to draw from their beds all but a few of the male plants, the product has been large and invariable. It is somewhat singular that a fact so simple, and so easily tested, should have been pertinaciously denied for years by some horticul- turalists,and that it has been with some difficulty established by the gentleman to whom we owe its announcement ; al- though the practical gardeners in our neigborhood w^re not slow to adopt it, and by means of it have been eminently successful. "The person who discovered, or who first made a practical use of the theory of male and female plants, was a Mr. Arbegust, a market gardener of Philadelphia, who excell- ed in strawberries, and who removed to Cincinnati about the year 1816. Mr. Longworth says of him, 'Mr, Arbegust for many years sold nine-tenths of the strawberries brought to our market, and raised the Hudson only. Whilst I could, from one-fourth of an acre, scarcely raise a bushel, he would raise 40 bushels. His fruit was much larirer than 154 THE STRAWBERRY. any other brought to market, and commanded from twenty- five to thirty-seven and a half cents per quart. He made a handsome competence from the sale of tliis fruit. Flis se- cret he kept to himself, and had been as much noted for the size of his fruit, and the quantity raised on a given space of ground, in Philadelphia, as he was here. A chance observation of a son of his one day, in my garden, saying, "I must raise but little fruit, as all my plants were males," first led my attention to the subject. I soon discov- ered that there were what he called male and female plants, and communicated the fact to our market gardeners. The result was, strawberries rapidly increased in our mar- ket, till as fine as had been raised by Mr. Arbegust, were sold at from three to ten cents per quart, and he ceased to cultivate them.' "Immense quantities are raised for the Cincinnati market, one individual, (Mr. Culbertson.) having sent to market, in a single day, four thousand quarts, and employing sixty hands to gather them. All the famous eastern varieties are cultivated here, and do well. Besides these, very fine seedlings have been raised by Mr. Mottier, Mr. Longworth, and others, that are as large, prolific, and high flavored, as have been described by eastern writers. The plan of ship- ping them to New Orleans, packed in ice, has just com- menced, and may eventually become an important branch of business, as they can be taken down in a week by our regular packets." — Report liort. Soc. So remarkable were the statistics of our strawberries con- sidered, that in 1846 the Horticultural society appointed a committee to ascertain the facts, a duty which they dischar- ged by attending the market daily, and inquiring at the stalls the number of quarts actually on sale. The result is embraced in the following report, which may be relied upon as strictly accurate. TIIE STRAWBERRY. 155 REPORT Of the Committee of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, on the Statistics of the Strawberry, and the quantity sold in the Cincinnati market, for the year 1846. May 19th, 10 bushels. June 1st, - 100 bushels. do 20th, - 20 do do 2d, - 300 do do 21st, - 20 do do 3J, - 300 do do 22d, - 25 do do 4tb, - 300 do do 23d, - 55 do do 5th, - 300 do do 25th. - 20 do do 6th, - 350 do do 26th,' - 250 do do 8th, ' 100 do do 27th, - 200 do do 9th, - 350 do do 28th, - 200 do do lOlh, - 300 do do 29th, - 250 do do nth, - 250 do do 30th, - 300 do do 12th, - 150 do E E Total, E D for 22 days, 4,150 b ushels. D. K. Cady, Chairman. « The wild gooseberry is very full of thorns, and produces a small fruit, of an agreeable taste. It is scattered through- out the west, but is most abundant on the upper Mississippi. There is one variety without thorns. Pawpaws are very abundant on the bottom lands and rich hills. The fruit is delicious ; and those who have overcom.e a distaste which the cloying richness, and singu- lar flavor, occasions to a palate unaccustomed to this very elegant production, become exceedingly fond of it. Scarce- ly any brute will eat the pawpaw ; even the omniverous hog will not touch it. It is said that the racoon has taste enough to be fond of it ; if so he has a rich banquet in al- most exclusive enjoyment, for we know of no other animal, but man, by whom this fruit is relished. The wild plum, is found in all the western states, and bears immense quantities of fine fruit. The varieties are numerous. Its growth is an indication of fine land. It is scattered thinly through all our alluvial soils near the rivers, and is found in dense groves on the prairies. 156 APPLES PEACHES. or domestic fruits, the peach and apple are most com- mon ; the pear is less generally cultivated, but succeeds equally well. Our apples are remarkably fine ; the trees grow rapidl}', are smooth, vigorous, and healthy; they bear abundantly and the fruit is large and finely flavored. Or- chards are numerous in Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana, and very prolific. In the more western states, the apple tree has not yet been cultivated to the same extent ; but we have never seen this tree flourish better or produce finer fruit than in Illinois. No market in the United States, is sup- plied with finer apples, or with a greater abundance than that of Cincinnati ; it is perhaps, in respect to this fruit, unequaled. In the report of the Horticultural Society, already quoted, the apple is mentioned as follows : " The soil and climate of the Ohio valley seem to be peculiarly well adapted to the culture of this fruit. Eas- tern fruits, when cultivated here, grow so much larger and fairer, as scarcely to be recognized as the same varieties. With so fine a climate, and the production of so many val- uable seedlings, it is not strange, that large quantities are raised and shipped, of a quality that cannot be rivalled in any part of the Union. The early settlers of Ohio, then without any of the facilities of communication of the pre- sent day, and unable to bring trees hundreds of miles over rough roads and through an uninhabited wilderness, provi- ded themselves with large quantities of seeds which were promiscuously sown. This accounts for the large number of excellent seedlings found at the present day. It is well known that American apples generally are so much superior to those grown in Europe, that they are now a reg- ular article of export." Of our delicious peaches, we shall speak briefly. They cannot be excelled in size or flavor. The fruit however of- ten fails. Our winters are so short and variable, that the RASPBERRY. 1 57 buds often swell prematurely, and are destroyed by frost even before the opening of spring. But when the trees bear they are loaded with immense quantities of fine fruit. Taking a number of years together, the peach will proba- bly bear about as often as it will fail. Sometimes it will bear every alternate year, and sometimes fail for several years successively. Some good seedling varieties have been produced in the west ; and these, when fine, are to be preferred to the engrafted fruit, as more hardy, and better adapted to the climate. Quinces, cherries, and plums, succeed well ; and the same remark will apply to the gooseberry, the currant, the strawberry, and the raspberry. We have seen all these fruits growing in great perfection ; and in no instance have we seen much art bestowed on their culture — scarcely any beyond the act of planting. We have several native varieties of the raspberry. The common sort, which bears a dark berry early in the spring, is very abundant and a prolific bearer. These are sold in large qantities in the markets of our cities, succeeding im- mediately after the strawberry. The Ohio monthly, or ever-bearing raspberry, is a variety of great merit, bearing fruit constantly from June to November. Several very fine foreign varieties are produced in our gardens, and supply the markets of our cities with large quantities. CHAPTER Xir. Farming and Improvements. Having described the pastoral habits, and loose mode of farming, which prevail throughout the greater portion of the new States, it is necessary to qualify those remarks, in 158 FArtAHNG AND I1VIFR0VEMENT9. reference to large districts of the more densely settled parts of the countrvj into which improved forms of cultivation have been introduced. In the neighborhood of all the cities, and larger towns, the progress of improvement is dis- tinctly visible, in the m.ore careful and economical tillage, and the substantial style of building. Along the shores of the navigable rivers, where the busy sound of steam ma- chinery is heard passing along the water, and wherever a rail-road, a canal, or a Macadamized road, penetrating the country, opens the way to market and an avenue for crowds of travelers, there the wilderness ceases to be the predomi- nating character of the landscape, the log cabin disappears, and a brick or framed farm house rises in its stead. The numerous stumps, and the tall dead trees, whose blackened stems and spectral limbs deform the clearings of the new settlements, have mouldered into dust, and orchards and meadows adorn the land. Along all the avenues of commerce and travel, the vil- lao-es have thrown ofi^ their orioinal roucrhness, and are greatly improved in appearance. The first hamlets in which human beings congregate in new countries are ex- ceedingly rude. The houses, built of rough logs, are infe- rior even to the cabins of the farmers — the latter being larsfer and havinsf all the comforts of which such edifices are susceptible, while the former, more hastily erected by new settlers, who are often unaccustomed to this form of building, are scarcely superior to the lodge of the Indian. Stuck down upon the very edge of the road, without door- yards, or shade trees, with no attention to comfort or orna- ment, they form the most desolate and undesirable resi- dences which are to be found in the whole scope of our country — and it is from these specimens, that foreigners, as well as some of the gentlemen and lady tourists of our country, describe our western people, when in fact, but few of those to whom that name properly applies, dwell in vil- IN WESTERN PENNSYLVANTA. 159 lages. But the genius of trade — an unostentatious, but a most munificent traveler, as he sweeps through the land, scatters gold broadcast, and his track is marked by the out- Vv'ard signs of opulence. Handsome churches and court houses, either in the Gothic or Grecian style, arc becoming common ; and genteel dwelling houses of brick or wood, painted white, and surrounded by trees and shrubbery, in- dicate an awakened spirit of improvement, with taste, and the desire for comfort; and give an air of rural beauty to many of these towns. We hope to see this taste still fur- ther cultivated, and to find the villages and towns cf our interior, which arc often beautifully situated, and surround- ed by attractive scenery and agricultural wealth, excelling a'so in embellishment and refinement. In Western Pennsylvania, the improvement, equally ob- servable throughout that great state, is very striking. I'lie summits and the precipitous sides of the Allegheny moun- tains, so bleak and forbidding in their aspect, contain a large population of industrious and enterprising farmers, who have occupied all the rich valleys and level spots, built good houses, and exhibit in the appearance of their farms a high state of agricultural progress. It is surprising to find so much labor bestowed upon places so unpromising, when the west abounds in the richest and most inviting lands. The difficulty of cultivating these mountain fields, and the disadvantnges, as we should esteem them, of their cold climate and secluded position, are compensated by the demand for agricultural products, created by the concourse of travelers and wagons which pass the mountain roads and bring the market to the farmer's door. As we proceed westward, from the mountains to Pitts- burgh or W^heeling, we traverse a hilJy region, which, in its natural state, seemed to bid defiance to the hand of industry and to the advance of civilization, interspersed with rich and beautiful valleys. We saw this country a few years 160 WESTERN VIRGINIA. ago, when only the choice lands were under cultivation ; the precipitous and rocky hills were clothed with forests which seemed destined to be their permanent covering-. Substantia], though unsightly, houses of stone there were, and a few of brick, occupied as taverns and dwellings ; but the most common habitation was the log cabin. The ap- pearance of the country is now entirely changed. The hills which seemed so uninviting to rural enterprise, are denuded of timber and under fine cultivation. The loof-houses have given place to substantial, and, in many instances, to orna- mental edifices of brick and frame. Good fences, mead- ows, and orchards, abound, and the whole country ex- hibits a smiling and flourishing appearance. The roads are good. In this respect the policy of Pennsylvania has been exemplary. With a topography so mountainous and rugged as to present the most discouraging obstacles, she was the first state in the Union, to construct turnpike roads and canals, and was the munificent pioneer of the great system of internal improvement. I say nothing of the more recent policy of the state in regard to her expendi- tures or her debts ; her early example and labors, in devel- oping the magnificent mineral and agricultural treasures of her own interior, and in opening a way to the "sTest, deserve the lasting gratitude of the nation. The universal appro- bation which has attached to that beneficent policy is seen in the vast extent and success of the imitations in other states. in Western Virginia the want of roads for commerce, has checked the advance of agricultural improvement. If the noble project, now in contemplation, of a rail-road from Richmond to Guyandotte, connecting the Chesapeake Bay with the Ohio river, shall be carried out, that road will be extended from the Ohio across the rich valley of the Scioto, and the fertile plains south of it, to Cincinnati, and then Western Virginia will bloom as a garden — the enterprise of the sister state will be ingrafted on her people, emula- WESTERN' RESERVE — CENTRAL OHIO. 161 tion will be kindled, and wealth will be i^oured into her lap, Virginia, famed for patriotism, talent, eloquence, and hospitality, will add industry and frugal economy to the list of her social virtues ; she will dia: wealth from her mines and her soil, and will no longer resemble the Roman Matron who was- rich in her sons, but whose sons were her only wealth. Leaving the Ohio at Beaver, thirty miles below Pitts- burgh, and traveling by canal thence to Warren, and from the latter place by stage to the beautiful city of Cleveland, w^e cross the Western Reserve, and see but little wilder- ness. The country is level, and the land fine, though not so rich as the soil in the southern and central districts of Ohio. The farmers are employed chiefly in grazing — large fields of grass are seen, and miuch cattle. The habi- tations are neat framed houses, painted white, with conve- nient out-houses, and the labor-saving contrivances which mark the residences of New England husbandmen. The villages are neat, but not populous. The ride is a pleasant one. and not laborious. As a specimen of the rich prairie lands of Ohio, the traveler might select the country lying adjacent to Urbana and Bellefontaine. Here he w^ould see a rolling or undu- lating surface, of unrivalled fertility, covered with great fields of wheat and Indian corn. In the season of harvest, when the wheat is ripe for the sickle, and the corn grow- ing towards maturity, the eye is delighted and the mind astonished, with the vast area that is covered with these val- uable products — with the fields of vast extent, joined to other fields of equal breadth, spreading out in every direc- tion, as far as the eye can reach, covered with the finest wheat, and the most magnificent corn, whose heavy and pendant ears show that a genial soil and climate have given to either grain its greatest exuberance of growth. Broad meadows and orchards are interspersed ; cattle, hogs, and 162 THE MIAMI VALLEY. horses abound ; the farm-houses are commodious ; and tne intelligent traveler, as he proceeds mile after mile through these scenes, recognizes the evidences of a surpassing amount of agricultural wealth, industry, and comfort— the indications of an uncommonly productive country, and of a people far advanced in the progressive scale of improve- ment. Taking Cincinnati as a center, the signs of progress in the arts of industry are very satisfactory. Ascending the Miami Valley for a hundred miles, and embracing a wide expanse on either hand, a region of vast extent is presented, and of unsurpassed fertility. Level, or gently undulating, it is all arable, easily tilled, and capable of bearing im- mense crops in continued succession. A canal, draining its whole length, and several Macadamized turnpikes, all leading to the Ohio at Cincinnati, offer cheap facilities for transportation, and stimulate the energy of the farmer in the raising of agricultural products. Wheat, corn, hogs, and whisky, are the great staples, and are produced in al- most incredible quantities ; in addition to which the coun- try produces almost every thing that will grow in this cli- mate, among which are : horses, cattle, hemp, flax, oats, barley, beans, apples, butter, cheese, feathers, hay, onions, potatoes, &c. The improvements in this region are striking. The farming is in the best style of modern agriculture. There is not that close economy which is necessary where the lands are poor, and the tillage difficult, nor is the same at- tention and ingenuity requisite, in manuring the soil, and in observing nicely the proper rotation of crops ; but the farm- ers are laborious, and their grounds securely inclosed and well tilled. Orchards are numerous, and much of the fruit choice. The primitive habitations have given place to very handsome, and, in many instances, to elegant dwelling houses of brick, stone, and frame, surrounded by orna- HAMILTON DAYTON. 163 mental trees, shrubbery, and fruit trees. Large barns indi- cate plenty and a liberal economy. Improved breeds of cat- tle and hogs are seen in the fields. All the indications are those of an advanced state of civilization — of a people tem- perate, energetic, and highly prosperous. The town of Hamilton is situated on the eastern bank of the Miami river, and Rossville on the western bank, twenty-one miles from Cincinnati. At Hamilton some en- terprising individuals have constructed hydraulic works, by throwing a dam across the Miami river, and bringing the water to the town by a canal about four miles in length. The canal is intended to convey 25,000 cubic feet of water per minute, and is of sufficient capacity to pass a volume of water, measuring in its cross section, 280 superficial feet, or 70 feet average width by 4 feet deep. The fall is twenty- eight feet, and there is an aggregate of water power suffi- cient to run 166 pairs of mill stones. This is a magnifi- cent water power, and cannot fail to render this place the seat of numerous manufactories. Connected with Cincin- nati by the canal, and by a turnpike road, on which lines of omnibusses afford an easy form of transit to any num- ber of passengers, and with a rail-road in prospect which will soon be constructed ; situated in a country abounding in timber, stone, and other materials for building — a coun- try in which living is cheap, life secure, and every comfort easily attainable, the spot is peculiarly favorable for manu- facturing. Cincinnati can furnish cotton, wool, iron, and most other raw materials, as cheaply as any other place. These remarks may be applied, and some of them more strongly, to Dayton, a very beautiful city, the gem of the Miami Valley, situated fifty miles from Cincinnati, in the midst of a delightful farming country of the same general description as that which we have just noticed. This city is laid out upon a liberal scale, with fine wide streets, adorn- ed with many beautiful private residences ; and has already 164 SPRINGFIELD — COLUMBUS. some fine public buildings. The court house, when fin- ished, will be a noble structure. The water power here, from the canal, and from Mad river, is abundant, and man- ufacturing- is already in full progress. The turnpike roads centering here are numerous, the surrounding country very attractive, and the farms highly improved. If we pursue the course of the canal northwardly, up the Miami Valley, to the flourishing towns of Troy and Piqua — or if we travel eastward, over a beautifully undula- ting prairie surface, to the pleasant town of Springfield, we find the same rich soil, the same high state of cultivation and improvement. And we no longer wonder at the pros- perity and rapid grow^th of Cincinnati, for although we have examined but one district of the vast area of which she is the center and emporium, we have traversed an ex- panse of country so broad, so rich, so well cultivated, as to be in itself capable of supporting a great metropolis. From Springfield to Columbus, lie wide prairies, more level than the lands we have passed, and in general not so desirable for cultivation, but still fine, and admirably adapt- ed to grass. Here are large grazing farms, and great herds of cattle. Columbus, the capital of the state, is finely situated on the bank of the Scioto, on a high rolling plain ; a beautiful town, embellished v.^ith many handsome dwellings, and some noble public institutions, and surrounded by a fine and well improved farming country. We shall allude to but one other region in Ohio. De- scending the left bank of the Scioto we pass Circleville, the site of the most curious remains of antique monuments, and reach the Pickaway plains where Dunmore was en- camped when he received the celebrated speech of Logan, and where we find vast farms, well improved, and stocked with fine cattle. Ross county is celebrated for its fine gra- zing farms, and its excellent stock. A number of gentle- SCIOTO VALLEY — CIIILLICOTHE. 165 men here, have, for many years past, devoted themselves to the raising of cattle, and to the improvement of the breeds, by importation and otherwise. Their public spirited exer- tions have been eminently successful, not only in stocking their own pasture fields with beautiful and well blooded animals, but in awakening attention to this useful subject, and creating an emulation among the farmers for a consid- erable distance around. Chillicothe, the mart of this region, is a very attractive spot. It was a Virginia settlement, and one of the earliest in the state. Among its founders were many intelligent mid refined persons. The society of Chillicothe Avas al- ways good — the best, for many years, in the state; we arc not certain that it does not maintain its superiority, for re- finement, intelligence, and hospitality. It was the first cap- ital of Ohio. It is an interesting spot, from the numerous remains of Indian antiquities, in this vicinity, which seems to have been the seat of a dense population. The rich val- ley of Paint creek, which unites here with the Scioto, abounds in mounds, some of which are laro-e, and amono- the best developed of these curious structures now existing. The secret history of these receptacles of the past — the rec- ords of their authors and their uses, have thus far been sealed, and defied ail scrutiny and conjecture. But few of the circumstances, which have been related as facts con- cerning them, have been well authenticated ; and no rational solution of the mystery of their being and purpose, support- ed by evidence, has been published. Theories we have had, more or less ingenious, but not facts resulting from careful investigation. We are happy to be able to state that this subject has been ably and thoroughly explored re- cently, by two gentlemen of Chillicothe, in whom the pub- lic may place confidence — Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier. We have no personal acquaintance with the latter, but have long known the former, as a regular physician, and an hon- 166 WHITEWATER VALLEY. orable and intelligent man. They have opened a great number of mounds, penetrated to their inmost parts, torn out their contents, and subjected them to the most patient and laborious examination. The results, which are said to be rich and curious, are to be given to the public in a forth- coming publication, which we hope will be cordially re- ceived, as we are satisfied that its contents will be as au- iientic, as they will be new, and will pour a flood of light "Upon this singular and mysterious page of history. The scenery here is very beautiful. The city stands upon a plain, in the bosom of a valley, margined by hills, whose elevated tops afford the finest views. Until within a few years past, there seems to have been but little enterprise among the inhabitants, and the city did not grow as rapidly as other places having equal advantages; but it has lately been increasing very fast in size and business. Its Vir- ginia origin is evident in more ways than one, and in no- thing more than the hospitable size of the dwellings, many of which are handsome, and surrounded by ornamental trees, yards, and gardens, which give a rural and attractive air to the place, and render it, when seen from a neighbor- ing eminence, embosomed in the valley, with the Scioto meandering round it, a very picturesque object. Our volume would be swelled to an inordinate size, if we should extend these descriptions to the various places in the West which are deserving of notice. In all the choice dis- tricts, where the land is particularly fine, or the market convenient, will be found substantial farms, and a good state of improvement. We rnight give, as an instance, the valley of the Whitewater, in Indiana, which is drained by a canal, extending from Cambridge city, on the National Toad, to Lawrenceburgh on the Ohio, with a branch to Cin- cinnati, the lenofth to either terminus beinq: somethinof over 80 miles. This valley contains an area of 400 square miles, of land of the best quality; a territory the extent of which THE LAKE CITIES. 167 is said to be greater by one-fourth than the Miami Valley, and ^vhich is well cultivated and yields a large amount of produce. The country lying adjacent to the beautiful city of Indi- anapolis ; the fine bottom lands of the Wabash near Vin- cennes, Terre Haute, Lafayette, &-c. ; the American Bot- tom in Illinois, and the rich counties of St. Clair, Madison/ Greene, Morgan, Sangamon, and the greater portion of the! Military Tract, in the same state — are all covered with sub- stantial farms, and valuable improvements. We intend to make no invidious distinction, in thus pointing out a few of the most attractive districts of the West, as affording examples of an advanced state of agri- cultural industry. There are many other tracts that are equally deserving of notice ; we have confined ourselves to such only as have attracted our personal attention. We have been in Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan, but have never visited the interior of either; nor have we seen that lovely region of lakes and rivers in the far north-west, which so captivated the French topographer, Nicholet, and which he thought should be called the country of Undine. Those who had the gratification of attending the great Convention recently held at Chicago, were delighted, and, for the most part, surprised, at the evidences of commercial and agricultural wealth, exhibited by the beautiful cities of the Lake region. That interesting occasion drew together a vast concourse, from the neighboring states, and from the distant shores of the Atlantic. Eighteen states were rep- resented, and never was a more intelligent body assembled. Men of the most elevated position and distinguished talents — legislators, lawyers, and editors, of practiced ability in de- bate and with the pen, sat there in council with the mer- chant and the farmer; and while from the former, especi- ally the presiding officer in his inimitable valedictory, — we heard such eloquence as seldom falls from the lips of man, k 1G8 MASS MEETINGS. in the latter we discovered an intelligent appreciation of that oratory which showed a high degree not only of com- mon sense, but of cultivated mind. While the western farmers appeared so advantageously in their personal de- portmentj the flourishing cities of Buffalo, Cleveland, De- troit, Mihvaukie, and Chicago, displayed unquestionable indications of large resources and active business, which showed that the agricultural regions which sustain them must be vast and most abundantly productive. The Mass meetings which were held in this country in the Presidential election canvass of 1840, may be quoted as affording further evidence of the respectibility of our farm- ing population. They were literally what the name given them purports — assemblages of the whole mass of the peo- ple. That which was held at Dayton, for instance, which was one of the largest, presented a most novel and pic- turesque spectacle. The number of people gathered there was variously estimated at from one hundred thousand to three hundred thousand souls. It was a vast and count- less concourse, the number of which cannot be ascertained, or even approximated ; though we are somewhat incredu- lous as to the figures which have been set down. For two or three days all the roads leading to the place were crowded with carriages, and horsemen, and pedestrian trav- elers. The city, which has very wide streets, and is spread over a large area, was crammed full of visitors; the sur- rounding plain, and the neighboring hills, were clad with a living and m.oving mass. Almost every house was thrown open to the rites of hospitality ; tables profusely spread were accessible to all, decked in every variety of taste, from the most elegant repast, down to the plainest and most substantial fare ; and every roof sheltered as many lodgers as could be crowded under it. The fat of the land was provided for the cherished guests ; all was free — with- out money and without price. The excitement, always at- FARMERS AND LABORERS. 169 tendant upon the assemblage of great multitudes, and espe- cially by crowds brought together for party purposes, was intense. But it was evmced by the most joyous hilar- ity. There was no anger, no uproar, no violence. Good humor and order prevailed. It was a most curious sight — one which disarmed party spirit, and filled the bosom of the spectator with pleasura- ble sensations. The American who contemplated that mass of people, so respectable, so orderly, so intelligent, so substantial, forgot that they belonged to a party, and hailed them with pride as his countrymen. They bore distinctly but without ostentation, the marks of a people who were strangers to poverty and to oppression— a free, contented, manly people. No country of Europe, exhibiting the whole population of a district, could present such a spectacle. The farmers, the laborers, the mechanics, were all there, with their wives and children, their men-servants and maid- servants, and the strangers that sojourned with them — there they were, neat and well clad, with their honest faces lighted up with smiles. They came in wagons and car- riages drawn by sleek horses whose glossy coats showed their keeping. The large number of fine saddle horses, pleasure carriages, and well dressed people, among a con- course of which the great majority were actually farmers, was surprising. The whole spectacle was that of a peo- ple in easy circumstances, who lived well, and possessed the means and appliances of social enjoyment. They were no longer the pioneers of a new country, the hunters, and pas- toral farmers of the wilderness; but the owners and culti- vators of rich farms, and flocks and herds of well bred ani- mals—men who lived within the influence of the church and the school house, the bible and the newspaper. We shall close this chapter, with a list showing the im- ports into New Orleans, by way of the river Mississippi, during one year, including articles chiefly agricultural, and 170 PRODUCE or THE WEST. which will show the great variety, as well as the amount of our products. The reader will bear in mind that the whole of these articles are of the growth and production of the western states. VALUE OF PRODUCE OF THE INTERIOR. A Table showing the receipts of the principal articles from the interior, during the year ending 31 sf August, 1847, with their estimated average prices and total value. ARTICLES. Apples, barre Bacon, ass'd, hhds. and casks Bacon, assorted, boxes Bacon Hams, hhds, and trcs Bacon, in bulk .pounds Bagging, pieces Bale Rope, coils Beans, barrel Butter, , kegs and firkins Butter, barrels Beeswax, barrels Beef, barrel Beef, tierces Beef, dried, pounds Buffalo Robes, packs Cotton bales Corn Meal barrels Corn, in ear, barrels Corn, shelled, sacks Cheese, boxes Candles, boxes Cider, barrels Coal, Western, barrels Dried Apples and Peaches, barrels Feathers, bags Flaxseed, tierces Flour, barrels Furs, hhds. bundles and boxes, Hemp, bundles Hides, Hay, bundles Iron, pig, tons Lard, hhds. Lard, barrels and tierces Lard kegs Leather, bundles Lime, Western, barrels Lead, pjgg Amount. Aver- VALUE. age. Dollars. 39612 83 00 118836 28607 60 00 1716420 8325 30 00 249750 14518 65 00 943670 425163 6 25509 60982 10 50 640311 56201 6 00 337206 24336 4 00 98144 51384 5 00 256920 872 20 Of) 17440 1109 40 00 44360 32738 10 00 327.380 21230 16 00 339680 49000 7 3430 55 60 00 3300 740669 44 00 32589436 88159 3 50 308505 619576 1 li) 681533 2386510 2 00 4773020 57429 3 50 201001 8496 3 50 29736 477 3 OJ 1431 35650n 75 267375 8S70 2 50 21925 3498 25 0(1 87450 962 9 00 8658 1617675 5 50 8897213 328 600000 60238 15 00 903570 9834-2 1 23 122927 95231 3 00 285693 1151 30 00 345.30 143 SO 00 11440 117077 23 00 2692771 275076 4 00 1100304 3716 •20 00 74320 5994 1 00 5994 650129 2 75) 1787854 PRODUCE or THE WEST. 171 TABLE — Continued. ARTICLES. Lead, bar, kegs and boxes Molasses, (estimated crop) gallons Oats, barrels and sacks Onions, , barrels Oil, Linseed, barrels Oil, Castor, barrels Oil, Lard, barrels Peach Brandy barrels Potatoes, barrels Pork, barrels Pork, hhds. Pork, in bulk, pounds Porter and Ale, barrels Packing Yarn, reels Skins, Deer, packs Skins, Bear, packs Shot, kegs Soap, boxes Staves, M Sugar, (estimated crop,) hhds. Spanish Moss, bales Tallow, .barrels Tobacco, Leaf, hhds. Tobacco, Strips, hhds. Tobacco, Chewing, kegs and boxes, Tobacco, bales Twine bundles and boxes Vinegar, barrels Whisky, barrels Window Glass, boxes Wheat barrels and sacks Other various articles — estimated at. . * TOTAL VALUE— Dollars Total in 1845-46— Total in 1 844-45— Total in 1843-44— Amount. 1291 6000000 5b8337 7185 3637 1439 2573 72 142888 302170 9452 8450700 1363 2193 1784 71 3992 4361 2000 140000 5990 6658 44588 11000 39.S9 1001 1334 1059 126553 3805 833649 Aver- age. 15 00 24 90 2 00 2-) 00 ■20 00 22 00 16 00 2 00 12 00 40 00 6 7 50 5 00 20 00 15 00 18 00 60 00 70 00 4 00 20 00 55 00 $100 12 50 00 00 00 10 00 00 30 VALUE. Dollars. 19365 1440000 529503 14370 72740 28780 56936 1152 285776 3626040 378080 507042 10222 10965 35680 1065 71856 11338 50000 9800000 2.3960 133160 2452340 1100000 49125 3003 9338 4236 1265530 15220 1917392 5500000 90033256 77193464 57199122 60094716 172 GARDEN VEGETABLES, CHAPTER XIII. Garden Vegetables — Wood and Timber. With respect to garden vegetables, we speak from ex- perience. The writer of this article, spent most of his leisure hours, for several years, in the cultivation of a large garden : and the remarks now submitted, are the result of careful observation. A very voluminous western writer has said, that " under this powerful sun, all the roots and vegetables are more tasteless than those of the north. It is instanily perceived that the onion is more mild, the blood beet less deeply colored; and this thing holds good, as far as my experience goes, in the whole vegetable creation. Take every thing into consideration, this is not so good a country for gardens." "Cabbages and peas, owing to the burning heat of the sun, and the dryness of the seasons, are inferior in quality and abundance." It is to be remarked, that horticulture is an art which is seldom carried to any degree of perfection, except in populous and wealthy neighborhoods. The finest gar- dens are always found in the vicinity of large cities. Farmers have no time to expend in furnishing their tables with mere luxuries. Nothing requires more unremitting care, or more severe labor, than a garden ; they are, therefore, usually found in the possession of wealthy GARDEN VEGETABLES. I73 men, who keep them, at great expense, for amusement, or under the care of gardeners, who cultivate them for the purpose of supplying the markets. There are other persons, who combine economy with enjoyment, in de- voting some time to horticulture ; but all these classes of individuals exist, chiefly, in countries where luxury and taste prevail, to a considerable extent, or where provi- sions are so costly, as to make their production a matter of importance. In these cases, gardening is pursued as an elegant and useful art ; and is advanced, step by step, to its greatest degree of perfection. Soil and climate, it is true, are the most important agents in the rearing of fine vegetables ; but these luxuries are, after all, mainly produced by the wealth, the labor, and the ingenuity of man. In new countries, therefore, they are not to be ex- pected. Few persons here, we might almost say none, have money or leisure to expend in matters of taste and luxury. Farmers, especially, are apt to commit this de- partment to the females of their household, whose other cares allow them to devote to it but little care. We plead guilty then, as a general fact, of having bad gardens. But we by no means admit, that our vegetables are defi- cient, either in abundance or quality, when proper care is paid to their culture. We know that the contrary is true. The simple fact is, that our country teems with the boun- ties of nature in such rich profusion, that the people, not be- ing obliged to labor to supply their tables, are apt to grow careless. They put their seed in the ground, and trust to providence to give the increase. Their garden grounds are not only badly prepared, and as badly attended, but the seeds are selected without any care. The reason, therefore, why, as a general fact, the art of horticulture has been brought to but little perfection at the west, 1^ evident. But when it is said, that the vegetables of this country ate inferior in quality, we come to another question, to p2 174 GARDEN VEGETABLES. decide which, it is proper to refer to the cases in which they have been subjected to a sufficient degree of culture. Almost every farmer here, raises cabbages, and we are sure that we have never seen larger or better^ A hun- dred heads are sold in Illinois for a dollar and fifty cents. The parsnips and carrots of this country are remarkable for their size, sweetness, and flavor ; the former, especial- ly, have a richness, which we have never noticed else- where. Our beets are as delicate and sweet as is possible ; and we only forbear stating a fact, with regard to their size, which has come to our knowledge, from the fear of startling the credulity of our readers. Peas are excellent, and very prolific. We have seen radishes three inches in thick- ness, and perfectly solid, mild, and crisp. Our lettuce, if well dressed, (there is a great deal in that) is capital. The tomato, is common all through this country. It is only necessary to plant it once, after which, it comes up every year spontaneously; and bears abundantly, from the middle of the summer, until nipped by the frost. Thousands of bushels of onions have been raised with no other labor, than sov^ing the seed broadcast, in new ground ; and as to their quality, it would do the heart of a Wethersfield lady good to look at them. That goodly town of Connecticut would be depopulated, if its worthy inhabitants could see the onion-fields of Morgan county, and the military tract, in Illinois. We might enumerate other articles, but it is enough to say that, in general, the vegetables suited to our climate, are produced in their greatest perfection. It would, indeed, be an anomaly in the economy of nature, if garden plants did not flourish vigorously, in a soil of unrivaled depth, fertility, and freshness. The vegetable market at Cincinnati is one of the finest in the world. At Pittsburgh, Louisville, St. Louis, and other large towns where the encouragement is sufficient to induce the raising of vegetables for market, they are M 3 FLORAL CALENDAR. ^J^ equal in size and flavor, to those of the eastern cities, though the variety of kinds is not so great. At the ta- bles of gentlemen in every part of Kentucky, the profu- sion and excellence of the vegetables, is such as to afford a subject of remark to the observant traveler. We are well satisfied that a careful examination of this subject v^^ould shov/, that the horticultural productions- of the west, are in general superior in size, delicacy, and flavor, to those of any other part of the United States. We subjoin a table of average dates, extracted from Dr. Drake's admirable Picture of Cincinnati, which will enable practical men to form a tolerably accurate idea of the progress and decay of vegetation, within our season. FLORAL CALENDAR. March 5. Commons becoming green. " 6. Buds of water maple beginning to open. " 6. Buds of lilac beginning to open. " 7. Buds of weeping willow beginning to open, " 8. Buds of gooseberry beginning to open. " 12. Buds of honey-suckle beginning to open. *' 26. Buds of peach tree beginning to open. " 26. Radishes, peas, and tongue grass planted in the open air. April 8. Peach tree in full flower. " 8. Buds of the privet beginning to open. *' 15. Buds of the cherry tree beginning to open. " 15. Red currants beginning to flower. " 18. Buds of the flowering locust beginning to open, « 18. Lilac in full flower. *' 20. Apple tree in full flower. " 24. Dogwood in full flower. May 9. Flowering locust in full bloom. " 12. Indian corn planted. " 12. Honey-suckles beginning to flower. June 4. Cherries beginning to ripen. " 4. Raspberries beginning to ripen. " 6. Strawberries beginning to ripen. " 6. Red currants beginning to ripen. " 24. Hay Harvest. July 4. Rye harvest begun. " 10. Wheat harvest begun. " 12. Blackberries ripe. 176 WOOD jSiD TIMBER. July 15. Unripe corn in market. " 18. Indian corn generally in flower. " 21. Oat harvest. dug. 5. Peaches in market. Sept. 20. Forest becoming- variegated. Oct. 25. Indian corn gathered. " 30. Woods leafless. For the purpose of comparison, we add a few memo- randa made by the writer at Vandalia, Illinois, in the spring of 1830. dpril 1. Peach trees in bloom. 2. Asparagus fit for the table. 3. Peas, beans, and onions planted. 6. Heart's ease and violets in bloom. 7. Beets, carrots, parsnips, and other roots planted. 10. Spring had completely opened ; and the prairies were green. Gooseberry and currant bushes in bloom, 15. Cabbage plants transplanted. 18. Lilac in bloom — strawberry vines in bloom. 19. A great variety of wild flowers in full bloom. 20. Nearly all our garden seeds had been planted. 25. Raspberries in bloom. 27. Lettuce, radishes, pepper-grass, &c. fit for use, 30. Roses and honey-suckles in full bloom. I make no apology for adding, more at large, the fol- lowing valuable remarks, in reference to the spring season of 1836, furnished in a letter to me, from my friend Dr. Clap of New Albany, Indiana. "Vegetation has been later, especially in the fore part of the month (April) than has ever been known by the oldest inhabitants. From the 22nd to the end of the month, the weather was very open and pleasant ; the thermometer ranging, in the hottest part of the day, from 75 to 85. *' The latitude of New Albany, according to the land surveys is 38 deg. 12 min. north, though stated different- ly in some publications. The elevation of the second bank, at the court house, by the actual survey of engineers employed by the state, is 426 feet above the tide water of Hudson river. It is on this bank the greater part of FLORAL CALENDAR. 177 the plants mentioned are found. On the west of the town rises a range of hills called the knobs running nearly due north, elevated about 500 feet, and beyond which the country is generally elevated up wards of 300 feet above the Ohio bottoms, and the vegetation some days later than on the river shore. I have been thus particular, deeming it essential to an accurate understanding of the progress of vegetation. Many floral calendars are of little value for comparison, in consequence of the want of detail in re- ference to elevation and local causes, as well from gener- al carelessness. " Professor Bigelow, who is remarkable for his general accuracy, in his observations on the peach tree in differ- ent places, concludes that vernal flowering varies four days for each degree of latitude. The peach in this vi- cinity however, varies more in its time of flowering in diflerent years than any of our native forest trees, or even our indigenous herbaceous plants. The diflerence be- tween the present year and 1834- — no record having been kept by me of 1835 — was 27 days for the peach, while other trees and herbaceous plants varied from 15 to 21 days. "The foliation of the beech is probably one of the best standards of comparison between diflferent places. It is more diffused, and adds more to the verdure of the forest, than any other tree, and the structure of its buds is such, that they continue to swell and elongate without the least appearance of verdure, until the moment they expand, when the largest leaves are nearly an inch in length, and frequently grow more than an inch per day, for some time. " From a hasty examination of calendars of vegetation, at Deerfield and Plainfield, Mass., the German Flats, N. York, and Philadelphia, it appears probable that Profes- sor Bigelow's estimation of four days for each degree of latitude, is not high enough, especially between the west- ern and eastern states. Although the mean temperature 178 FLORAL CALENDAR. is said to be the same for the corresponding parallels of latitude on both sides of the Alleghenies, the season is probably earlier in the western states, the soil and eleva- tion being the same. The subject, however, requires some years of careful observation to obtain the proper data for comparison. " The earliest appearance of the flowers is the time noted in the following table unless otherwise stated. The plants enumerated are not all that were observed but those only that had just bloomed at the time of observation. April 1836. 2d 4th 5th 9th (( 10th 12th 13th a 14th 16th 17th 19th 20th 21st 22d (( Elm, Red Maple, Rice Anemone, Spring Beauty, Spice bush, Shepherds purse, ■] Ulmus Americana. Acer Riihriim. Erigenia Bulhosa, Jinemo ne Thalictro ides, Claytonia Virginica. Laiirus Benzoin. Thlaspi Bursa pastoris. Ranunculus abortivus. Luzula Campesiris. Salix Grisea. Grey Willow, White flowered Ad der's tongue. Blue violet. Yellow do. Ground Ivy, Mouse ear cress, Wild Sweet William, Calico Weed, Chick weed, Yellow flowered Ad- der's tongue, American water cress, Greek Valerian, Peach trees, (begin- ning to blossom) Red Currants, Dandelion, Morello cherry, var. of Flowering Almond, Peach trees in full bloom. Sassafras, _ Laurus Sassafras. Red bud, Cercis Canadensis. Ragwort, Senecio Mirea. Eryihro7iium Alhidum, Viola Cucullata. " puhcscens. GlecJioma hederacea, Arabis ThaUana. Phlox divaricata. Diclytra cucularia. Stellaria media. ErytJironium Americanum, Cardamine Virginica. Polemonium reptans. Amy gdalus Persica. Rihes Rubrum. Leontodon Taraxacum. Prunus cerasus. Amygdalus nana. WOOD AND TIMBER. 179 22d Plaintain endweed, Gnaphalium pinntaginum, *' Stellaria puhera. 23d Lungwort, Fulmonaria Virginica. 24th Apple tree, (beginninjT ") , to flower) 3 ** Thyrne leaved speedwell, Feromca serpyllifolia. " Morello cherry in full bloom. 25th The forest becoming green, caused mostly by the leafing of the beech. ** Crane's bill, Geranium Tnaculatum. *' Dogwood, Cornus Florida. Note. The white involucrum expanded, the inner and proper petals were not unfolded until 8 days later. 26th Violet wood sorrel, Oxalis Violacia. Ranunculus runcuvatus. Viola Striata. Crataegus coccinea. Syringa vulgaris. Esculus pallida, Phalangium escuhntum. Iris cristata. Vaccinium resinosum, Thalidrum dioicum. Hydrophyllum Virginicum* Leojitin Thalidroides. Podophyllum pcltatum, Cerastium vulgatum. In so vast a region, comprising a vast amount of timber, there is of course, a great variety in the species and qua- lity of that production. The most common kinds are oak, hickory, ash, poplar, cotton wood, walnut, sugar maple, beech, sycamore, buckeye, gum, cypress, cherry, locust, peccan. Cedar and pine are abundant in the northern regions of some of the tributaries of the Ohio and Mississippi, but are not found in quantities sufficient to be rendered useful, within what may be properly termed the western country. Large quantities of lumber, suitable for build- ing, are prepared on the Allegheny river, and on some of the higher tributaries of the Mississippi, from the cedar and pine of those higher latitudes, and floated in rafts to the more southern districts ; by which means all tlie (( Striped Violet, 27th Thornbush, Red Haw, (( Lilac, (( Foetid buckeye, Quamansh, 29th Black Whortleberry, (( Meadow rice. (( Barr flower, (( Blue wort, SOth May Apple, (i Mouse ear chick weed. IgO WOOD AND TIMBER. shores of llie Ohio and Mississippi are well supplied with the best description of scantling, plank, and shingles. The several varieties of the oak are found in almost every pari of our country. The heavy timbers for house and ship building, are made of this wood ; it is converted into flooring, and other descriptions of heavy plank ; and is used in many manufactures of which wood is the ma- terial. It is also a very general and excellent material for fuel ; and is used by the farmer in fencing, for rails, posts, and plank. There are few localities in which it is not found, nor is there any timber so extensively useful. The ash is also an excellent wood both for fuel and for plank ; it is very abundantly distributed over the whole country, and is much used for a variety of purposes. Many varieties of tlifi hickory are spread through the whole region. This is considered our best wood for fuel for domestic purposes, but has little other value. The farmers use it for fence rails, but it is neither so easily split, nor so durable as oak or ash. The black M-alnut and cherry are hard fine grained woods, used chiefly by cabinet makers, and are sufficient- ly abundant for the purposes to which they are applied. Poplar is abundant in some districts, but is not preva- lent in the southern parts of the region under description. The black locust, on account of its durability, is ex- tremely valuable for posts, or for any purpose w^iere the capacity of resisting the action of moisture is required. The sugar maple is found on our richest soils, both in the upland and bottoms, and is a valuable timber inde- pendently of the rich product which it yields to the sugar maker. The season for making the sugar is in February — when the cold frosty nights begin to be succeeded by clear warm days. The Cottonwood resembles the poplar in appearance and texture, and is found chiefly in low alluvion lands, and on the margins of rivers, where it grows to an im^ i WOOD AN© TIMBER. {g[ mense size. The young groves shoot up with uncommon rapidity, and are highly ornamental to the banks which they cover; but the wood is of little value. The sycamore is seen towering to a great height on the margins of our rivers ; but is fortunately not abundant in other localities, as it is entirely useless ; as are also the gum, and the buckeye. The cypress, which is found only in the immense swamps of the southern part of this region, is a white soft wood, which is used for making shingles, and for various kinds of wooden vessels which are made by the cooper or turner. The peccan is found only at a few points on the Ohio and Wabash near the junction of those rivers, and on the Mississippi near its confluence with the Kaskaskia. It yields a rich delicious nut, which is highly prized, and of which a few hundred bushels have been annually gathered and shipped to New-Orleans. The tree resem- bles the hickory in appearance, and is of that family. The oak, the hickory, the beech, and the walnut, afford a prodigious quantity of nuts and acorns, which form the chief part of the mast, upon which the immense droves of hogs are subsisted and reared in our forests. The large quantity of wood used by the steam boats, has made this an article of active and extensive sale, and will very shortly render all the lands bordering on the navigable rivers extremely valuable. The consumption of wood is already so great, that the supply is barely sufficient to meet it, and at some points it is wholly in- adequate. The boats are every year increasing rapidly in number, and we knoM- of no branch of business in which the farmer could engage more profitably, than in supply- ing them with fuel. There is scarcely an acre of un- cleared land bounded by the river which will not yield 100 cords of wood — many will yield 150 cords — but ex- perienced men consider the average product 100 cords to 182 WOOD AND TIMBER. The acre, including only such wood as is suitable for steam boats. The price varies from $2 to $3 per cordj accor- ding to the locality, season, scarcity, &c,, so that taking $2,50 per cord as the average, the product of an acre of woodland would be as follows : 100 cords of wood at $2.50 • - $250 Deduct for cutting 50 cents per cord, $50 hauling 25 " " " 25 other labor 25 " '« " 25=100 Clear gain, $150 The price at which such land may be purchased, cannot be stated with any precision, as it would vary according to circumstances. But little of the most valuable land on the large rivers remains in the hands of the government ; and the private owners have become sensible of its value. Such however is the great variety of soil, situation, and other particulars, that a purchaser may suit himself at any price, from $1,25 per acre, to $100 per acre. The best kinds of wood for steam boats are oak, beech, and ash. Cottonwood affords a lively fire, but burns away too fast. Hickory, which is the best fuel for culinary pur- poses, is useless for steam boats, on account of the quantity of coals with which it fills the furnaces. The wood for steam boats is required to be split fine, and kept until per- fectly dry. CHAPTER XIV. Domestic Animals. The west is the paradise of domestic animals. The climate is suitable to. the horse, the cow, the hog, and the sheep ; their food is plentifully spread over the whole wide expanse of country ; the cheapness of land, and the thin- DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 183 ness of the population, allow the cultivators to occupy laro^e farms; while extensive tracts of land remain unin- closed, affording an abundance of wild, pasturage. There is room therefore for the animal to roam and feed. In those parts of the country which lie distant from navigable waters, and are not intersected by railroads or canals, agricultural products are of but little value. Heavy articles, such as corn and hay, will not bear distant trans- portation by wagon, and the farmer would get nothing for his labor but an independent and plentiful livelihood, if it were not that his flocks and herds may be driven to market. In this shape his grass and grain may be consumed and converted into money. In those vast districts, constituting the greater portion of all the new states, which lie distant from the cities and larger towns, very small portions, comparatively, of the whole surface are occupied by farms — immense tracts of wilderness form the remainder. The population of these portions of the country, are rather pastoral than agricultural. Without a market at hand, they have no inducement to raise grain beyond the demand for home consumption ; and they have no stimulant to industry or ingenuity, in regard to a multitude or a variety of products. Their own tables, thoiJgh abundantly spread, are simple and easily furnished. Beef, pork, poultry, game, wheat, corn, pota- toes, milk and wild honey, form the staples for food. Lit- tle else is raised. The cattle, hogs, and horses, roam at large in the woods, and upon the prairies, where for eight months in the year they find an abundant supply of food. Here are no epicures to devour the tender veal and the delicate pig — the young are all reared. These are the great nurseries, the vast sources of supply, for the more thickly settled parts of the country. The drovers go thither annually to purchase cattle, which they drive into the older settlements, where they are fatted for market. 184 THE HOG. Thus the cattle of Illinois, and Missouri, are driven into Ohio, where they are turned into rich pasture fields, and fed with grain until they become fat, when they find a market at Cincinnati, or are driven across the mountains. Of all domestic animals, the hog is decidedly the most numerous and useful. The meat constitutes a chief article of food, and is chiefly used fresh, or in the form of bacon. The immense droves of hogs which are raised would seem incredible to those who are not familiar with the facts. They are reared most extensively in those districts which are thinly settled, and where they can roam at large over wide tracts of forest. During the spring and summer, the owner pays them no further attention than to look after them occasionally, to ascertain the range they frequent, and to identify his property by marking the recent litters by cutting the ears. Every farmer has a separate mark, which is recorded in a book kept by the county clerk, and the laws denounce severe penalties upon those who cut off the ears, or alter the marks of the cattle or the hogs of others. In the frontier countries, where all the stock run at large in the woods and over the great prairies, where the wealth of the farmer consists chiefly in his numerous herds, and the value of domestic animals is very small, the practice of stealing them is not uncommon. There are in such localities many loose individuals, who live chiefly by hunting, and it seems to be the instinct of hunters in all countries, to consider that whatever runs wild in the woods, is equally fair game. The code of morals of those who dwell in the forest, and live by the gun, is very elastic. The light hold of the owner upon property thus roaming at large, and which he sees only at distant intervals, the im- punity with which a trespass upon it may be committed, and the insignificance of the loss if discovered, render the temptition to commit such offenses very strong, and the HOGS. 1 85 risk small. But although the loss is trifling, it is a source of extreme irritation to the farmer, and a large proportion of the feuds, the actions for trespass, and the indictments in the courts of new counties, grow out of such practices. It sometimes happens that the number of such depreda- tors, in a neighborhood, is considerable ; and while the pioneer farmers, the owners of stock, themselves a frugal and honest race, are indisposed to notice such trespasses so long as they occur but occasionally, the rogues become bold from their numbers and from impunity. An open rupture is the consequence ; indictment and civil suits pour in upon the courts; slanders, and assaults and batteries, swell the list; and if, at last, the arm of justice is found too weak to enforce the desired reformation, a regulating party is formed, and the stealers of hogs driven by force from their haunts. An amusinof incident, gfrowino: out of this state of thing-s, occurred once to the writer, while acting in an official ca- pacity, in court, in a retired part of Illinois. In delivering the charge to the grand juiy, it was thought expedient to dwell on a long list of statutary offenses concerning hogs, such as stealing them, cutting off their ears, altering the marks, &c. In the midst of this grave harangue, we were interrupted by the foreman of the grand jury, a justice of the peace and member of the legislature, who having come into the box fresh from the body of the people, and having probably spent the morning in treating and being treated quite freely, felt himself uncommonly patriotic and communicative. Rising, and bowing to the court very respectfully, he said, " May it please your honor, the sub- ject of hugs, in this country, is a very delicate subject — the less said about it the better. It's no use to hurt feelings." In the autumn, when the mast falls, the hogs fatten rapidly, and grow very large. But although they become prodigiously fat upon the wild nuts, they are not then in a Q 2 186 HOGS. condition to be killed for market, as the meat, and especi- ally the fat of mast fed hogs, is soft, oily, and iinsuited for curing, though not deficient in sweetness or flavor for present use. They are, therefore, taken home in the autumn, and fed on corn for five or six weeks, in which time the flesh becomes solid, and the lard white and firm. They are then driven to some of the towns on the rivers, where they are slaughtered and prepared for market. The following remarks are extracted from an excellent article in the Cincinnati Gazette, published in March, 1843. "The district of country in the West devoted to the raising of pork as an article of commerce, includes Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, and a part of Tennessee; but the bulk of the business is done within a circle of three hundred miles in diameter, with Cincinnati as its center, including the contiguous parts of Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana. Hogs are, however, frequently driven to this market from a distance of two hundred miles, as, notwithstanding large numbers are killed at vari- ous places in the Wabash and Miami Valleys, at Madison, la., Portsmouth, Chillicothe, &c., this business will con- centrate in the largest cities, where labor, salt, barrels, and other facilities are naturally most abundant. In a popu- lous city, also, the steaks, spare-ribs, &c., not used in pack- ing, can always be disposed of for cash, without loss ; and in this city, also, if any where in the West, active cash capital is always found." "In the above district, the number of hogs prepared for market this season will not fall short of 500,000, (and this is not a larger number than usual) besides the vast amount retained for domestic consumption. Of this number, 250,000 are probably packed in Cincinnati — 150,000 more will probably come here for a market, or re-shipment — and 100,000 more maybe set down as the estimate for those that will be shioped from various other towns on the river, PORK PACKING. 187 without being landed here. Of the above number, 75,000 are raised in the Wabash Valley alone." "Our hogs are fed on corn exclusively. They are never '^ fed on mutton^^ as an English nobleman lately stated at an Aofricultural Fair. The stock is well crossed with im- ported animals from Europe, of the various Chinese, Irish, English, and Russian breeds, and is probably exceeded by none in the United States. Hogs have been raised here wei2:hin2f over 1200 lbs., but the average wei2:ht runs from 200 to 250 pounds — the latter size being the most desi- rable." " In Kentucky, the drovers frequently buy the hogs alive of the farmers by gross weight, as is sometimes the case in Ohio and Indiana. But generally the farmers club together (each one having his hogs marked) and drive them to mar- ket themselves in droves of 500 to 1000, and seldom less than 500, except in the immediate vicinity of the city. Du- ring the first day or two, the hogs cannot well travel more than 4 to 6 miles ; but after that they travel 8, and some- times 10 miles per day, depending upon the condition of the roads. The Berkshires are said to be the best trav- elers." As Cincinnati is the great market for pork, as well as all other articles of provisions, we shall extract from the same article the following interesting particulars : "We now propose to follow the hog into the city, and describe the manner in which he is cut, packed, and finally shipped to a market. This naturally involves the descrip- tion of a Cincinnati Pork House ; and for this purpose we have selected that at the corner of Sycamore street and the Canal, for many years occupied by Mr. Duffield, where he cured his justly celebrated Westphalia Hams." " The Pork House in question is one of the largest and most perfectly arranged in the world. It is 159 feet long and 92 wide, 3 stories high above the cellar, with two Lard 188 PORK PACKING Rooms, each having 4 lard kettles of 100 gallons each, one Lard Press, and 3 Coolers, holding from 300 to 500 gal- lons each. It contains also two Smoke Houses, 30 by 40 feet, three and a half stories high, with cellars 12 feet deep, each one capable of containing 400,000 lbs. meat to smoke at one time ; and during one season, each can be filled five times, thus smoking within four months 4,000,000 lbs. of meat." " The building stands immediately on the Miami Canal ; two sides of the house bound on the Canal, which here makes an elbow, thus enabling boats to unload on both sides into the house ; the other two sides of the building are upon the street, and, from its favor- able grade, the floors of both the first and second stories are so arranged as to be commanded by drays, which are driven in to load and unload, thus saving a vast deal of labor." " In this house, every thing is done under cover, in all kinds of weather. From its vast extent, there is no neces- sity of rolling barrels out of doors for pickling, or any other purpose. It is capable of disposing or stowing 25,000 hogs in one season of four months, and not go out of doors for any thing." I "At the risk of being considered tedious, we have sub- joined many particulars in regard to this leading business of our city. Although the facts are familiar to every one here, they may interest distant readers." " The history of the Pork business in this city is interest- ing, when one contemplates its present magnitude. Twen- ty years since, we are told, it was so insignificant, that no one house was engaged in it exclusively, and the whole number of hogs then cut in one season, did not exceed 10,000. At that period, the hogs were killed (as isolated farmers now kill them in the country) out of doors, and then hung upon a pole. The butchers charged the farm- AT CINCINNATI. 189 I er 121 to 20 cents per head for killing them, retaining the offal as at present. From this insignificant beginning, the business has increased so that the number of hogs killed this year will probably reach a quarter of a million, and the butchers now frequently pay 10 to 25 cents premium per head for the privilege of killing them. And instead of a few houses incidentally engaged in the business a part of the year, there are now 26 Pork Houses exclusively en- gaged in it, and ^vhich use a capital of nearly Two Mil- lions of Dollars, which, by the way, has been mostly for- eign this season, owing to the disasters of the last three years." "Having reached some of the extensive Slaughtering Es- tablishments in the neighborhood of the city, a bargain is made with the butchers to kill and dress them, which is done for their offal, and the hogs, after being dressed, are also carted into town at the expense of the butcher. But as we have described all the minuti^ of this part of the business in the Gazette of the 3d inst , we here omit it." "The hog is bought by the Pork Packer, completely dress- ed by the Butcher, and delivered at the Pork House. The first thing is to weigh him. He is then passed to a block 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 2 feet high from the floor, at which two Cutters stand, one on each side of the block, and each armed with an exceedingly sharp cleaver, about 2 feet long, and 6 inches wide. Two other men pass up the hog on to the block, placing him upon his side. One Cutter cuts off the head, the other the hams, each at a single stroke. The hams are passed to the Ham Trimmer at an adjacent table, who trims them ready for salting. The head is sometimes sold to the Soap Boiler, in which case it is thrown into a heap near the door, to be handy for him — at other times it is used in making Prime Pork, and is then passed to a hand to split, clean, and wash, ready for the Packer. The sides and shoulders, still left on the block. 190 rORK PACKING. are split in two lengthwise of the hog through the center of the back-bone. The leaf lard is then trimmed out — the shoulder cut from the side, and passed into the cellar, to be cured in bulk in dry salt. The side, if from a heavy, fat hog, is split, each side, into four parts lengthwise with the rib ; the pieces or strips thus cut being about 6 inches wide and 22 long. The thickest strips of the sides have the hut-end of the rib and back-bone taken out, and made into Clear Pork — the lighter, thinner sides, are sometimes cut up for Prime Pork or thin Mess, but are most com- monly cured with the shoulders, and made into Bacon. The usual day's work for a set of 50 hands is to cut up in the above manner 500 hogs on one block — but 800 have been cut up on one block at Duffield's Pork House, equal, of course, to 1600 on two blocks, which can be cut in one day of 12 working hours ; and in fact 3 hogs have been cut up in one minute." " Such is the system and expedition observed in the more extensive Pork Houses, that 500 hogs received into the Pork House one day, are all ready for shipping the next da}' (within 24 hours), including the weighing, cutting, packing, rendering the lard, and branding, and all in as neat, clean, handsome style, as is done any where in the world. This has been done in Cincinnati." " The different grades of Barrelled or Pickled Pork known to the trade, and to the Inspection Laws, are, in order and quality, Clear Pork, Mess, Prime, Chine, (or Rump, it being only one end of the Chine) and Joles. As to the minutiae of these different sorts of Pork, we are not familiar enough with the business to give them ; besides, it might be prying too much into the secrets of the trade to inquire. We can, in general terms, however, say, that the Barrel Pork, packed by our Cincinnati Packers, will compare with the best packed in the United States, as to vjuayty,' weight, sufficiency of salt and cooperage, and fql k6ep- PORK PACKING. 191 ing almost any length of time — not excepting the Irish Pork." " The mode of rendering Lard is very simple, the leaf and trimmings being merely cut up with cleavers into pieces 2 inches square, and thrown into large iron kettles of 100 gallons each. After it has cooked about 3 hours, it is strained, and pumped up into Coolers of 300 to 500 gallons, cooled to about 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and then drawn' into kegs or barrels as wanted. " Most of our large Pork Houses are capable of disposing of 1000 hogs per day (ahhough they seldom desire so many), employing for that purpose about 75 hai.ds at an average of about $1,00 per day. Some houses have cut and packed this season over 20,000 hogs." From a valuable table, published m the New Orleans Price Current, •• shewing the receipts of the principal arti- cles from the interior, during the year ending 31st of Au- gust, 1847." with their value, we have compiled the follow- ing statement, showing the imports into that city, from the interior, or from the Western States, of articles manufac- tureil from the hog; J\rionber Paclages. Val, in Dols. Bacon, assorted, hhds. and casks, 28,607 1,716,420 '• '' boxes, 8,325 249,750 Bacon Hams, hhds. and trcs. 14,518 943,670 Bacon, in bulk, pounds, 425,163 25,500 hhds. 143 11,440 bbls. and tierces, 117,077 2,692,771 kegs, 275,076 1,100.304 bbls. 2,573 56,936 bbls. 302,160 3,626,040 hhds. 9,452 378,080 lbs. 8,450,700 507,052 $11,309,972 Lard, i'. u Lard oil, Pork, ii a in bi ilk, 192 HOGS. If we suppose that one-fifth of the whole amount of the pork, lardj &c., of the west find their way to the Atlantic cities through the Northern Lakes, the Pennsylvania ca- nal, &c., we should ascertain the aggregate value of the exports of this product, for the year, to be : By way of New Orleans, $11,309,972 " " " the Northern cities, 2,829,943 ^14,139,465 Making more than fourteen millions of dollars, for the exports from the West, of this one article, for the last year. We add in reference to the hogs of 1847, the current year, the following scrap from a newspaper : '• Our Tax Laws require the the Assessors of the several counties, to return the number of Hogs in each county — six months old and upwards — on the 1st of June in each year. The returns have not all been made ; but the Ohio Cultivator has pro- cured and published those of sixty-one counties, by which a very safe comparison may be made. In 61 counties 1846, .... 1,097,864 " " " 1847, .... 1^372,113 Increase in these counties, - - - 274,247 Increase twenty-five per cent ! The total number of Hogs in this State, will reach near. ly one to each inhabitant, exclusive of pigs under six months old. Some counties, however, have a vastly greater proportion. For example: Ross county, . - - - . 70,351 Butler, 60,604 Pickaway, .--.-. 50,925 Franklin, - - 46,914 Highland, 44,794 Preble - - 41,092 Warren - 40,228 Clinton, - - 39,592 SHEEr. 193 Hamilton, 38,275 Montgomery, 37,581 These counties are the great corn counties of the State, in which hogs are concentrated for the purpose of feeding." Beef is also raised extensively, and of fine quality. The beeves which are fattened on the prairies, without any other care than that of marking them, and giving them salt as often as they require it, become very fot, though not large. They seldom weigh over six or seven hundred; but the meat is remarkably sweet, juicy, and. tender. In some parts of Ohio and Kentucky, the farmers have turned their attention very successfully to the improve- ment of their breeds of cattle. Imported animals have been introduced at a great expense, and in sufficient num- bers to have already affected a sensible improvement in the stock of large districts. In several counties of each of these states the cattle are decidedly fine, and unques- tionably equal to those of any part of the United States. Horses are raised throughout the west. In Kentucky and Tennessee, great attention is paid to the rearing of blooded horses for the turf, and the saddle, and those states abound in fine and beautiful animals of those des- criptions. There are many good blooded horses also in Ohio, but more attention is bestowed here to the rearing of horses for drauo^ht. Lara^e numbers of mules are raised in Kentucky and Missouri. Sheep raising has been very successfully conducted, wherever it has been attempted with proper care. The sheep do not thrive on the natural pastures, nor without suitable houses to protect them from the weather. The foUowino: extract from a letter to the author, writ- ten by Mi. George Flower, an English gentleman, whose intelligence, experience, and probity entitle his state- ments to entire confidence, are conclusive, upon this sub- 194 SHEEP. "When Ferdinand the Seventh was detained by Napo- leon a prisoner in France, Sir Charles Stewart, then envoy from England, purchased six thousand of the finest meri- nos from the royal flocks of Spain. The haste with which these sheep were driven to the Spanish coast, their crowd- ed state on board ship, and the change of climate and pas- ture, engendered so much disease and death, that in one year after their purchase in Spain, not more than two thou- sand remained alive in England. These two thousand were purchased by my father, and for four years were tended with great care and attention by me. " During this period, I made several purchases of indi- vidual sheep from celebrated flocks belonging to the con- vents of Spain ; and particularly from the flock of the monks of Paula. " In 1817. 1 emiofrated to Illinois, and settled in Edwards county, ten miles from the Wabash, in a pleasant and gently undulating prairie country. I brought with me six rams and six ewes, selected for the fineness of their wool. From these I have bred and increased, ever since. I have also bred from three hundred country ewes, by my merino and Saxony rams. The continued use of fine rams, for seventeen years, has brought the descendants from the country ewes as fine wooUed as the original merinos. The flock, from their first introduction up to the present time, have been remarkably healthy. The only disease I have observed amongst them, is the foot rot : about six falling with it in the course of the j'^ear, and about the same num- ber with the rot, from pasturing in wet places on the prai- rie, in the spring of the year. " My flock now consists of four hundred sheep. Two hundred and sixty of w^hich are ewes ; two hundred of them fine wooiled, and sixty common and half-blood. '• I have for sixteen years bred my sheep alone, and with- out any comparison with the eastern flocks, oi newly im- SHEEP. 195 ported sheep from Saxony. It will be a curious fact, if it should so turn out, that the interior of America contains as fine wool as can be found in Spain or Saxony. "Having given this brief history of the origin, and present number of my flock, I will mention a few facts relative to the cultivation of fine wool, and the new varie- ties of sheep now possessed by me. Some few years ago, the merino was considered the finest woolled sheep in the world. The Spanish king allowed the elector of Saxony to select a given number of sheep from his flock. The agents of the elector, selected the finest woolled animals, regardless of their form or size. From these, a race of sheep has been reared, producing extremely fine wool, but tender, small, and generally ill shaped. These have been bred so long together, that the Saxony sheep have now very different characteristics from the merino. The wool of the Saxony is twenty or twenty-five cents per pound higher than the merino. When in possession of the two thousand Spanish sheep, I examined with great care, every individual in the flock, and selected from them seventy of extreme and uniform fineness. These were kept in a little flock by themselves, and the manufacturer who purchased the merino fleeces, at a dollar per pound, in the grease, gave for the wool of the selected flock, two dollars per pound. Are there any manufacturers of shawls, or extra fine cloths, in the United States, that will give an extra price for extra fine wool ? I have now five breeds of fine woolled sheep, in my flock, suitable for different soils, and whose wool is adapted for difl^erent manufactures. The merino and Saxony, both too well known to need descrip- tion. The Illinois grazier, is a most useful race of sheep, perhaps more generally useful as a substitute for the com- mon sheep of the country than any other. It is a short- legged, stout sheep, with a long-stapled soft wool, alike acceptable to the manufacturer and the housewife. It will 196 SHEEP. live and thrive on the richest as well as the poorest land. It fattens easily : its mutton is excellent. The second variety I call the prairie down, bearing a strong similarity to the celebrated breed of ' south downs,' in England, but clothed with the finest fleece. This breed is entirely without horns, and divested of the loose skin about the throat and chest, that has so much disfigured the merinos. The whole appearance of this sheep is neat, with a form sufficiently broad for easy fattening. This breed should be kept exclusively upon high groimd and fine herbage." In the neighborhood of Steubenville and Wheeling, and at several other points, sheep have been raised in large numbers, and with great success ; and there remains no doubt of the adaptation of our climate to this animal. prBLIC DOMAIX. 197 CHAPTER XV. The public Domain. The public domain, as it is called, consists of the lands belonging to the general government, as distinguish- ed from the unimproved lands, belonging to the individu- al states, or private owners. They have long occupied much of the attention of Congress, and there is reason to believe that the legislation of that body in respect to them, is likely to assume hereafter a higher importance, and a more delicate character, than it even now presents. It is only necessary to notice the fact, that in all the western states, which lie beyond the Ohio, the Union is the proprietary of the vacant lands, in order to suggest th(^ intricate relations which are likely to grow up betv/eeu the general and state governments. To those Avho view these questions in their probable effect upon state rights, the subject assumes a fearful interest; but Ave do not pro- fess to be among those", nor to entertain any doubt, that the well-balanced powers of the general government, on the one hand, and of the respective states, on the other, will be maintained in their original integrity, as long as the confederacy shall endure. Nor is it our intention, in the remarks Avhich we shall make, to advocate any local interest, or to advance the dogmas of any political sect ; our object being simply to state the subject, in its various bearings, by presenting some of its most prominent de- tails, with such information relative to the actual condi- tion of the country, as may be properly connected with it. In the western states, this subject has for many years presented a topic of animated public discussion^ It is here a matter of vital interest, and is every year grooving in influence, and expanding in magnitude ; and the time is fast approaching, when political aspirants, whatever b2 L 198 PUBLIC DOMAIN. may be their principles in other respects, will be required to be orthodox upon this all absorbing question. Yet the politicians of the west are by no means unanimous ; and although the popular voice has given currency to a few leading propositions, the minds of intelligent men are much divided as to the course of policy to be pursued by the government, in the disposition of the public domain. It should be recollected, that a very large majority of the western population, and of the emigrants to the new states, are farmers, and that very few of these are willing to be the tenants of other men. They nearly all are, or desire to become, freeholders : and as there are few other lands in market than those of government, the price and conditions of sale of the public domain, are to them topics of immediate importance. By a calculation lately submitted to Congress by one of its committees, and founded on evidence which seems conclusive, it appears probable, that in 1860 the popula- tion of the United States will be tkirty-Uvo millions, of which fourteen millions will be contained in the At- lantic states, and eighteen millions in the western states. Thus the inhabitants of the Atlantic states, having now the majority in Congress, are legislating upon the in- terests of those, who, in less than thirty years will have acquired the right, and the power, to exercise a control- ing influence in the national legislature, and who, from a dependent condition, will have arisen to complete sov ereignty. Where the population of a country is thus rapidly increasing — where that increase tends inevitably to a transfer of power from one section of the Union to another — and where the anticipated change is so near at hand, that individuals of tlie present generation may live to witness its accomplishment, every measure which bears upon the subject becomes deeply interesting. Of such measures, those which relate to the sale and owner- ship of the public lands, seem to have the most direct PUBLIC DOMAIN. 199 operation upon the growth of the new states and territo- ries, a very large majority of the emigrants to such coun- tries, being agriculturalists, who would not settle upon the soil in any other condition than as its proprietors. It will be readily seen that this is precisely the kind of subject which is calculated to awaken sectional feel- ings, and upon which, therefore, a great diversity of opinion may prevail. That discordant ideas concerning it are prevalent, is becoming every day more and more obvious ; and the public domain is now viewed in differ- ent lights by different politicians. Some consider it as a source of revenue, to be disposed of to the best ad- vantage for the national treasury ; others contend that it should be put to sale in the manner best calculated to pro- mote emigration to that quarter ; a third class, and the most numerous, are willing to make a liberal compromise between the two former opinions ; while a fourth, few in number, deny the right of the United States to the fee simple of any lands lying within the limits of a sover- eign state. The subject, therefore, naturally divides itself into two branches of inquiry ; — 1. As to the title of the United States to the public lands ; and 2. As to the policy pur- sued in its disposal. 1 . The title of the United Statei to the public lands. At the formation of the Federal Government, all the lands not owned by individuals, belonged to the states respectively, within whose limits they were situated ; for as that government consisted of a confederacy of states, each of Avhich retained its proprietary rights, and proper sovereignty, the United States acquired by the Union no property in the soil. The uninhabited wilds lying to the west, and as yet not clearly defined by established boun- daries, were claimed by the adjacent states, and portions of them by foreign nations under conflicting claims, but a]^ subject to the paramount Indian title. The title there- 200 PUBLIC DOMAIN. fore, of the United States to that country is derived : 1. From treaties with foreign nations ; 2. From treaties with the Indian tribes ; and — 3. From cessions by indi- vidual states, members of the Union. The treaties with foreign nations, by which territory has been acquired, are those of 1783 and 1794 with Great Britain, of 1795 and 1820 with Spain, and of 1803 with France. It is sufficient to say of these treaties, that by them we acquired Louisiana and the Floridas, and extinguished all the claims of foreign nations to the immense regions lying west of the several states, and extending to the Pacific ocean. The lands east of the Mississippi, and contained with- in the boundaries designated by the treaty with Great Britain of 1783, were claimed by individual states, and the title of the United States to that territory is derived from cessions made by those states. These cessions embrace three distinct tracts of country. 1. The whole territory north of the river Ohio, and west of Pennsylvania and Virginia, extending northward- ly to the northern boundary of the United States, and wcstwardly to the Mississippi, was claimed by Virginia, and that state was in possession of the French settlements of Vincennes and Kaskaskia, v.diich she had occupied aid defended during the revolutionary war. The states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York, set up, to portions of the same territory, claims, which though scarcely plausible, were urgently pressed upon the con- sideration of Congress. The United States, by cessions from those four states, acquired an indisputable title to the whole. This tract now comprises Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, and Michio-an. 2. North Carolina ceded to the United States all her vacant lands lying west of the Allegheny mountains with- in the breadtli of her charter. This territory is com- prised within the state of Tennessee. PUBLIC DOMAIN. 201 3. South Carolina and Georgia ceded their titles to that tract of country which now composes the states of Alabama and Mississippi. The United States having thus become the sole pro- prietary, of what have since been called the public lands, the nation was rescued from evils of the most threatening and embarrassing aspect. The claims of foreign nations, adverse to our own, to the broadly expanded regions ly- ing west of the several states, and extending to the Paci- fic, v/ere extinguished — depriving those nations of all ex- cuse for tampering with the Indians upon our border, and rescuing our frontier from the dangerous vicinity of for- eign military posts. The boundaries of the then fron- tier states were defined, and they were prevented from growing to an inordinate size, and acquiring an undue preponderance in the government — the interfering claims of several states to the same territorj^ were silenced — but above all, the general government, in acquiring the sole jurisdiction over the vacant lands, was enabled to estab- lish an uniform system for their settlement, and the erec- tion of new states. To the latter, admission into the Union upon terms of perfect equality with the older members of the confederacy, was secured ; while the land was offered to the settler at a fair price, and under an unexceptionable title. The disinterested policy of the states which made these liberal cessions cannot be too highly applauded. Virginia, in particular, displayed a magnanimity which entitles her to the lasting gratitude of the American people ; her territory was by far the largest, and her sacrifice to the general good the noblest. It was disinterested, because she reser . ed no remuneration to her- self. The cession by Virginia is th::* most important, not only on account of the magnitude of the country ceded, but in regard to the conditions imposed on the United Slates respecting its future disposition. It is provided in that 202 PUBLIC DOMAIN. compact, *' that all the lands within the territory so ceded to the United States, and not reserved for special purposes, shall be considered as a common fund, for the special use and benefit of such of the United States as have become, or shall become, members of the confederation or federal alliance of said states, Virginia inclusive, according to their usual respective proportions in the general charge and expenditure, and shall be faithfully, and bona fide disposed of for that purpose, and for no other use or pur- pose Avhatsoever." It is also provided, that, " the said territory shall be divided into distinct republican states, not more than^i;e, nor less than three, as the situation of that country and future circumstances may require ; which states shall hereafter become members of the Fed- eral union, and have the same rights of sovereignty, free- dom and independence, as the original states." The reservations made by Virginia, were, " That the French and Canadian inhabitants, and other settlers of Kaskaskies, St. Vincents, and the neighboring villages, who have professed themselves citizens of Virginia, shall have their possessions and titles confirmed to them, and be protected in the enjoyment of their rights and liberties," and a quantity of land, which Virginia had promised to General George Roofers Clarke, and to the officers and soldiers who served under him in the reduction of the French posts, was reserved within the ceded territory, for the purpose of fulfilling the stipulations of that agree- ment. This cession was made in 1784. As we shall comment upon the Ordinance passed by congress in 1787, for the government of the northwestern territory, in another place, we shall only notice here, that part of it which relates to the public lands. It is com- prised in the two following clauses : " The legislatures of those districts, or new states, shall never interfere with the primary disposal of the soil by the United States, in congress assembled, nor with any PUBLIC DOMAIN. 203 regulations congress may find necessary, for securing the title in such soil to the bonajide purchasers." " No tax shall be imposed on lands the property of the United States ; and in no case shall non-resident proprie- tors be taxed hig^her than residents." In the constitution of the United States, it was further declared, that, " The congress shall have power to dis- pose of, and make all needful rules and regulations res- pecting the territory or other property of the United States ;" and thus the sanction of the whole people was given to the acts of the confederated government, and their compacts with states, and the title of the general government to the public lands, recognised. The treaties with the Indian tribes, for the extinguish- ment of their titles to different tracts of country, have been numerous. Those tribes are recognised, in some respects as independent nations. They are governed by their own laws, and are acknowledged to have the right to sell their lands, or to occupy them at their option. The general government claims the right of pre-emption, and forbids the sale of Indian lands to other nations, or to in- dividuals. But in no instance have those lands been surveyed, or offered for sale, antecedently to their pur- chase from the Indians, nor has any compulsion ever been used, to extort from the latter, any portion of their terri- tory. In several instances, the same land has been pur- chased from several different tribes, in others, it has been bought more than once from the same tribe, so liberal has this government been in its policy, and so careful to avoid even the appearance of injustice. No portion of the Indian lands has ever been claimed by our government, under the usages of war. The treaty of Greenville, made by General Wayne in 1795, at the head of a victorious army, with the chiefs of the tribes who had just before been vanquished by him in battle, is one of the first in date, in reference to the public domain, 201 PUBLIC DOMAIN. and affords sufficient evidence of the early adoption of a pacific and just policy by our government. Nothing is claimed in that treaty by right of conquest. The parties agree to establish perpetual peace — the Indians acknowl- edge themselves to be under the protection of the United States, and not of any foreign power — they promise to sell their land to the United States only — the latter agrees to protect them, and a few regulations are adopted to go- vern the intercourse which shall ensue. A boundary line is established by which the Indians confirm to us large tracts of land, nearly all of which had been ceded to us by former treaties ; and the United States agrees to pay them in goods to the value of $20,000, and to make them a further payment of $9,500 annually. Most of the trea- ties subsequently made, have been framed on this model. In the year 1803, President Jefferson in a letter to the Governor of Indiana, makes use of the following language : " Our system is to live in perpetual peace with the Indi- ans, to cultivate an affectionate attachment from them, by every thing just and liberal we can do for them, within the bounds of reason, and by giving them effectual pro- tection against wrongs from our own people." The sys- tem thus early adopted, has been invariably pursued ; however the views of the government may have been misunderstood, or the faith of treaties violated, by indi- viduals, the action of congress and of the cabinet, in the extinguishment of Indian titles, has been benevolent and uniform. The legislation of some of the states, has been less equitable, and should not be confounded with that of the general government. As a considerable part of the country which is now held by the United States, as public lands, had been subject to several foreign powers successively, portions of it were claimed by inhabitants and others, either by right of oc- cupancy, or by titles said to be derived from those several governments, or from tlie local authorities acting uniler PUBLIC DOMAIN. 205 them. To investigate such claims, boards of commis- sioners have been appointed by various acts of congress, to act within the several territories, whose powers and duties have been modified according to the nature of the claims to be examined before them ; some having final jurisdiction, while others were only authorized to inves- tigate and report the facts, with their opinion. But the intention of the government, seems uniformly to have been to guard against imposition — to confirm all bona fide claims derived from a legitimate authority, even when the title had not been completed — to allow claims founded on equitable principles — and to secure in their possessions all actual settlers, who were found on the land when the United States became the proprietary of the country in which it was situated, although they had only a right by occupancy. So far then as a title by purchase could be gained, that title has been acquired by the Federal Republic. She has extinguished every title which could be possibly set up, as adverse to her own ; namely, those of foreign nations, those of the Indian tribes, and those of such states as possessed or alledged them ; and she has confirmed to in- dividuals, every acre to which the plausible shadow of a right could be shewn, either in law or equity. The validity of those purchases, or of the rights ac- quired under them, has never been disputed; but since the acquisition of that territory, portions of it have been erected into separate states, which have been admitted in- to the Union, and it has been contended in Congress, and elsewhere, that by the act of admitting a state into the Union, the government forfeits her claim to the unsold lands within the boundaries of such state. It is argued that under the laws of nations, " the sovereignty of a state includes the right to exercise supreme and exclu- sive control over all the lands within it" — that, "the freedom of a state, is the right to do whatever may be 206 PUBLIC DOMAIN. done by any nation, and particularly includes the right to dispose of all public lands within its limits, according to its own will and pleasure" — and that sovereignty and freedom are inseparable from the condition of an inde- pendent state. It is urged, that the original states pos- sess supreme and exclusive control over the lands within their limits, and that the new states being by compact in- vested with " the same rights of freedom, sovereignty, and independence, with the oiher states," the right to dispose of the soil is among the attributes of sovereignty thus guarantied to them. It is contended that the Federal Gov- ernment cannot hold lands within the limits of a state, be- cause that power has not been expressly given by the Constitution, except in the case of "places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts," &c. ; and that the power of disposing of the soil, not being given, is re- served to the states respectively. That section of the Constitution which declares that " Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules respecting the territory, or other property belonging to the United States," is said to be "clearly adapted to the territorial rights of the United States, beyond the limits or bounda- ries of any of the states, and to their chattel interests," and therefore not applicable to this question. The objections thus raised were ingenious, and the im- mense magnitude of the rights and value of the property involved, gave them for the moment a serious and impos- ing aspect. But it w^as easily discovered on examina- tion, that they were unsound and merely specious. The claim thus set up for the new states found few advocates. On the floor of Congress its existence was brief, its death sudden, its fate unlamented. In the public prints it was scarcely noticed, except to be briefly disapproved. Not- withstanding its ad captandum character, it failed to be- come popular, even in the country where it originated. PUBLIC DOMAIN. 207 An objection which seems not to have occurred to its authors, was too obvious to escape the common sense of a people, alive to their own interests, and intelUgent in all that concerns their rights. The government has the same title, and neither more nor less, to the unsold lands in the several states, which she had at the moment after the admission of those states into the Union. If her title is defective now, it was equally so at that time ; and e very- sale made in any new state since its admission, is illegal. The great mass of land titles in the new states, would, by the admission of this doctrine, become unsettled. Of the million of inhabitants of Ohio, a vast proportion of thi freeholders would become intruders on public land. The people are too intelligent to submit to such an out- rage, the states too just to open a door for the ingress of such a flood of misery, confusion, and fraud, as would sweep over the land in the event of a consummation so de- voudy to be deprecated. It is a singular coincidence, and one perfectly conclusive, of the little faith reposed by any in this claim, that the legislatures of those states, which have wholly or partially sanctioned this doctrine, hav^e invariably, at the same sessions, distinctly denied it in their acts of ordinary legislation, by the passao-e of laws recognising " the lands of the United States " co nomine, by the adoption of memorials to Congress, ask- ing for grants, and by various other substantive recogni- tions, both direct and incidental. It is obvious too, that if this question can be said to have now any definite existence, its importance must be hourly decreasing. Every acre of land that is sold, diminishes the amount in controversy, and every creation of a free- holder adds to the number of its interested opponents. It may not however be uninteresting to state a few of the points which are very properly urged against this singu- lar claim. The cessions by Virginia and the other states, were 20S PUBLIC DOMAIN. made antecedently to the adoption of the Federal Consti- tution ; and having been ratihed in the manner prescribed by the articles of confederation, the title vested in the United States was valid, for the purposes expressed in the several deeds of cession. The Federal Constitution hav- ing been subsequently adopted, the clause giving to Con- gress the " power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other pro- perty belonging to the United States," must have had re- ference to the territory and other j)rojjerty then held, and of course, vested in Congress the power to dispose of the lands in question, and to make all needful rules and regu- lations respecting them. When, therefore, the people in- habiting those territories applied for admission into the Union, it was competent to Congress, having power to legislate on the subject matter, to make conditions re- serving her own proprietary rights. Such conditions were made with all the new states, as will be seen by in- specting their several constitutions. Those constitutions were submitted to Congress for its ratification, and of course have the binding effect of compacts, as between the parlies. In all of them, the proprietary character of the United States, is distinctly recognised, large quantities of land are transferred by the United States, to the states respectively, for specific purposes, and accepted by the latter, and equivalents reserved to be paid to the United States in return. Subsequently to their admission into the Union, all of those states have been applicants to Con- gress for donations of land lying within their respective limits, and all of them have received large grants of such land. It maybe remarked also, that the laws of nations have no binding effect as between the members of a confeder- acy, or as between a confederated nation and one of its members, when those laws come into con' act with the in- ternal policy, statutes, or compacts of such nation. Every PUBLIC DOMAIN. 209 nation has aright to regulate its own affairs, and to govern, or to make compacts with, its own members, without re spect to the laws of nations, which could in such cases, only be appealed to, where foreign states, not parties to the laws or compacts so made, should be affected by them. Whatever, then, might have been the situation of those lands under the laws of nations, if no legislation had taken place respecting them, a widely different case is presented, Avhen, by solemn acts, by express laws, and long acquiescence, the proprietary rights of the parties have been clearly settled, and distinctly recognised. It is understood, that the United States can assume no sovereignty over any of the new states, or over her lands within such state, other than such as is strictly proprie- tary. Her title gives her no civil jurisdiction. She can claim no taxes, exact no obedience, otlier than she may demand from the citizens of all other states. She simply holds her property, with the right to sell and convey thi! same at her own pleasure, and with power to make need- ful rules and regulations for its disposition. The free- dom, sovereignty, and independence, of the New States, are therefore not infringed ; and if it be admitted that the nghi to dispose of the soil within its limits be incident to the sovereignty of a state, it is replied, that such right applies only to waste, unoccupied or vacant land, ana that our states cannot exercise such a power over lands," which before their admission into the union, were held in fee simple, by the United States, or by individuals. It is not denied that the title of the United States, as originally acquired, was a good one ; that those who have purchased from her, lands within the limits of a state, previously to the erection of that state, hold titles equally valid ; and that those titles cannot now be modified, nar- rowed, or abrogated, by any legislation. Suppose, then, that previous to the admission of any one of the new states into the union, the United States had sold to an s2 210 PUBLIC DOMAIN. individual, all her land remaining undisposed of within the limits of a state so about to be admitted, would not that sale have been valid ? would not the title of the pur- chaser of a thousand of tracts, have been as indefeasible as that of the buyer of a single tract? would the admis- sion of the state into the union, have affected the property of any such purchaser ? If these propositions be answer- ed in the manner in which we suppose they must be, it is difficult to perceive how or why the United States, having the privilege to sell or retain her own undisputed property, should by electing to hold it, be thereby placed in a worse situation than her grantee would have occu- pied had her election been different. It is further urged, that the territory alluded to, was purchased with the treasure of the United States, that it has been protected, surveyed, and brought into market at the expense of the nation, and that by the express stipu- lations of the cessions from the several states, that terri- tory was set apart " as a common fund for the use and benefit of" all the states, " according to their usual respec- tive proportions in the general charge and expenditure." There was therefore a consideration given for the lands, and an use specifically reserved ; the states subsequently admitted became parties to this i s v/ell as to all other public treaties, compacts, and laws, of the union ; and they accepted the territory allotted to them respectively for the exercise of their state sovereignty, subject to its encumbrances. Other arguments have been used, in reference to this subject which we think it needless to repeat. Some of them are founded on considerations of expediency rather than of right ; and many of them appeal to sectional pre- judices and local interests, which we have studiously abstained from bringing into view ; preferring to narrow down our abstract into a naked statement of such promin- ent facts and suggestions as may place before the reader PUBLIC DOMAIN. 211 the leading features of this inquiry. We proceed there- fore to consider : 2. The policy adopted by the government in the dis- posed of the public domain. In 1787 the Ohio company purchased a large tract from congress ; which body having adopted no system for the sale of lands, or the settlement of the western country, seemed disposed to favour the mode of parceling out her wide domains in extensive grants. The purchase of the Ohio company comprehended one million and a half of acres. Joel Barlow was sent by them to Europe to sell these lands ; and to facilitate his operations a subordinate company was formed, called the Sciota company, to whom the lands v/ere conveyed. Mr. Barlow made considera- ble sales to individuals and companies in France, and many emigrants came to this country, who would have been ruined by the bad faith of the company, had not the government generously interfered in their behalf. In 1789, Mr. John Cloves Symmes contracted with congress, for the purchase of a million of acres of land, between the great and little Miami ; but in. consequence of a failure on his part, to make the stipulated payments, did not become the proprietor of so large a tract, the pa- tent which finally issued to him and his associates, includ- ed only 311,682 acres, of which only 248,540 became private property ; the remainder consisting of reservations for a variety of public purposes, chiefly for the use of schools and the support of religion. The remark that occurs to us most forcibly, in revert ing to this portion of history, is the improvidence of con gress, in making so large a grant of lands to individuals Happily for the country, the instances of such extensive grants were few ; and it is perhaps equally matter of con- gratulation, that they did not, in any instance, yield to the individuals concerned in them, advantages sufiiciently great, to render the applications for such moiippolies nu- 212 PUBLIC DOMAIN. merous or influential. It is, perhaps, chiefly in conse- quence of this fact, that the evil was avoided ; for it does not appear, that congress was at first aware of the calami- tous results which must have followed the parceling out of this noble region to a few wealthy proprietors, whose interests would often have been hostile to those of the people. This principle, however, was not at first under- stood. We can easily see why the foreign sovereignties, under whose sway we were originally placed, should have made, as they frequently did, extensive grants of land to individuals or companies ; but it is a little singular, that our own government should have fallen into the same misguided policy. The earliest law passed by congress, for the sale of the lands of the United States, provided for its disposal to purchasers in tracts of four thousand acres each ; and did not allow the selling of a smaller quantity, except in case of the fractions created by the angles and sinuosities of the rivers. The law was highly unfavora- ble to actual settlers, as it prevented persons of moderate properly from acquiring freeholds ; and would have ena- bled persons of wealth to become proprietors, and to sell the land to the cultivator at exorbitant prices, or else have forced the latter to be tenants under the former. With the notions that many of our statesmen had derived from Great Britain, and which notwithstanding the recent rupture of our connection with that country, still remain- ed impressed upon us, with all the force of education and association, it is perhaps not surprising, that they should have deemed it advantageous to create a landed aristocra- cy ; but it is more probable, that the error arose from accident and carelessness. It is curious, however, to look back at these first awkward attempts at republican legislation, and to see how gradually we shook off the habits of thought in which we had been trained, and how slowly the shackles of prejudice fell from around us. PUBLIC DOMAIN. 213 In a report of Mr. Hamilton, Secretary of Treasury, dated July 20, 1790, he advises, the following system: — That no land shall be sold except such in respect to which the titles of the Indian tribes shall have been pre- viously extinguished. That a sufficient tract shall be reserved and set apart for satisfying the subscribers to the proposed loan, in the public debt, but that no location shall be for less than 500 acres. That convenient tracts shall from time to time be set apart for the purpose of locations by actual settlers, in quantities not exceeding, to one person, 100 acres. That other tracts shall from time to time, be set apart for sales in townships of ten miles square, except where they shall adjoin upon a boundary of some prior grant, or of a tract so set apart, in which cases there shall be no greater departure from such form of location than may be absolutely necessary. That any quantities may nevertheless be sold by special contract, comprehended either within natural boundaries, or lines, or both. That the price shall be 30 cents per acre to be paid either in gold or silver, or in public securities, computing those which shall bear an immediate interest of 6 per cent, as at par with gold and silver ; and those which bear a future or less interest, if any, shall be at a propor- tional value. That certificates issued for land upon the proposed loan shall operate as warrants within the tract or tracts which shall be specially set apart for satisfying the subscribers thereto, and shall also be receivable in all payments whatever for lands by way of discount acre for acre. That no credit shall be given for any quantity less than a township of ten miles square, nor more than two years credit for any less quantity. That in every instance of credit, at least one quarter 214 PUBLIC DOMAIX. part of the consideration shall be paid down, and security other than the land itself, shall be required for the residue. And that no title shall be given for an}^ tract or part of a purchase, beyond the quantity for which the considera- tion shall be actually paid. That all surveys of land shall be at the expense of the purchasers or grantees.—- The first step towards a change in that objectionable sys- tem, which contemplated sales in large tracts, and on credit was the passage of the act of the 10th of May 1800, which provided for the sale of land in sections and half sections. Previous to that time no more than 121,540 acres had been sold, in addition to the sale to Symmes : namely, 72,974 acres, at public sale in New York in 1787, for $87,325, in evidences of public debt; 43,446 acres, at public sale at Pittsburgh in 1796 for $100,427 ; and 5,120 acres at Philadelphia in the same year, at tv/o dollars per acre. The plan of selling land in sections and half sections, the former of 640 acres, and the latter of 320 acres, was first proposed in congress, by General William H. Har- rison, when a delegate from the northwestern territory, in 1799, and produced a sensation which shewed how little mature thought had been bestowed on the subject in that body. The law was certainly one of the most bene- ficial tendency ; and its passage constitutes an epoch in the history of this country, of perhaps greater magnitude and interest than any other in our annals ; for no act of the government has ever borne so immediately upon the settling, the rapid improvement, and the permanent pros- perity of the western states. The ordinance of 1787, is justly regarded as an instrument of vast importance, and singularly propitious consequences ; but in its practical operation and salutary results, it sinks in comparison with the system of selling the public domain, which has placed the acquisition of real estate within the reach of the labor- PUBLIC DOMAIN. 215 ing classes, and rendered the titles to land perfectly se- cure. It is understood, that this act was not the exclusive production of General Harrison ; the discriminating genius of Mr. Gallatin, then a member of congress, was also employed in its production ; and although the earnest request of that distinguished citizen, and the circumstan- ces of the moment, forced Mr. Harrison to submit to the credit of being its sole author, the natural ingenuousness of the latter, induced him, subsequently, when he could do so with propriety, to explain his own part in the pro- ceeding, and to give Mr. Gallatin the honor due him. The bill was wariely attacked by some of the ablest men in the lower house. Mr. Harrison defended it alone ; he exposed the folly and iniquity of the old system ; demon- strated that it could only result to the benetit of the wealthy monopolist, while the hardy and useful popula- tion, which has since poured into the fertile plains of Ohio, and made it, in thirty years, the third state in the Union, must have been excluded from her borders, or have taken the land on terms dictated by the wealthy pur- chasers from the government. In 1802 a convention was held at Vincinnes, of which General Harrison v>as president, at which a petition was adopted, praying of congress, that a provision of one 30th part of tlie public lands within the territory of Indiana, be made for the support of schools within the same ; and on tlie 2nd of March succeeding, Mr. Randolph, the chairman of a committee to whom this subject was re- ferred, made a favorable report. This was the commence- ment of our beneficent system for the support of public schools. As early as 1803, petitions were presented to congress praying for various improvements or changes in the mode of selling lands, among which the most prominent sug- gestions were, To sell the land in smaller tracts — to charge no interest on sales — to sell for cash — to reduce 216 PUBLIC DOMAIN. the price — and to make grants of small tracts to actual settlers. On the 23d January 1804, a report was made in the House of Representatives, recommending the reduction of the size of the tracts, and the sale of quarter sections in the townships which had before been offered in half sections, and the sale of half sections in those which had been offered in whole sections. The present admirable system of selling the public lands, may be dated as having commenced with the act of May 10, 1800, though several important improvements have been made since that time. It is not necessary to notice all these changes. All the lands within each dis- trict, are surveyed before any part is offered for sale ; being actually divided into townships of six miles square, and each of these subdivided into thirty six sections of one mile square, containing six hundred and forty acres each. All the dividing lines run according to the cardinal points, and cross each other at right angles, except where fractional sections are formed by large streams, or by an Indian boundary line. These sections are again divided into quarter, half quarter, and quarter quarter sections, containing 160, 80, and 40 acres respectively, of which the lines are not actually surveyed, but the corners, boundaries, and contents, are ascertained by fixed rules prescribed by law. This branch of business is conduct- ed under two principal surveyors, who appoint their own deputies. The sections in each township are numbered from 1 to 36, the tOAvnships are placed in ranges, and also numbered. The surveys are founded upon a series of true meridians ; the Jirst principal 7neridian is in Ohio, the second in Indiana, the third in Illinois, &;c., each forming the base of a series of surveys, of which the lines are made to correspond, so that the whole country is at last divided into squares of one mile each, and townships PUBLIC DOMAIN. 217 of six miles each, and these subdivisions arranged with mathematical accuracy into parallel ranges. This system is as simple, as it is on several accounts peculiarly happy. Disputes in relation to boundaries can seldom occur where the dividing lines can be at all times corrected by the cardinal points ; where the same line be- ing extended throughout a whole region, is not dependent on visible marks or corners, but can readily be ascertained at any moment, by calculation and measurement ; and where one point, being ascertained, furnishes the basis for an indefinite number of surveys around it. Such lines loo, are easily preserved, and not readily forgotten. A vast deal of accurate and useful information is fur- nished to the public through the medium of this system. The whole surface of the country is actually surveyed and measured. The courses of the rivers and smaller streams are accurately ascertained and measured, through all their meanders. Our maps are therefore exact, and the facilities for measuring distances remarkably conveni- ent. Many of the peculiarities of the country are dis- covered, and its resources pointed out, in the course of this minute exploration ; and a mass of well authenti- cated facts are registered in the proper department, such as the topographer can find in relation to no other country. After the land has been surveyed, districts are laid off, in each of which a land office is established, and on a day appointed by the President, the whole of the land is offered at public sale, to the highest bidder ; but not al- lowed to be sold below a certain minimum price. Such tracts as are not sold at that time, may at any time after- w^ards, be purchased at the minimum price, at private sale. From all the sales, one thirty-sixth part of the land, being one entire section in each township, is reserved, and given in perpetuity for the support of schools in the township ; section No. 16, which is nearly central in T 218 PUBLIC DOMAIN. each township, is designated by law, for that purpose In each of the new states and territories one entire town- ship, containing 23,040 acres, (and in some instances two townships) has been reserved, and given in perpetuity to the state, when foraied, for the support of seminaries of learning of the highest class. Five per cent, on the amount of the sales of land within each state, is reserved tliree-fifths of which is to be expended by Congress in making roads leading to the state, and two-fifths to be ex- pended by such state in the encouragement of learning. All salt springs, and lead mines, are reserved, and leased by the government, but many of these have since been given up to the states. The lands reserved for schools and seminaries of learn- ing, have never been considered as gratuitous grants to the states receiving them ; each of these states having made ample remuneration to the general government. Il- linois, for example, agreed that all lands sold by the Unit- ed States, within that state, should remain exempt from taxation for five years after such sale, and that lands granted for military services, should remain exempt from taxation for three years, if held so long by the patentees. The taxes thus relinquished by that state, will have amounted, when all the lands in its limits shall be sold, to near a million of dollars. The business of the land office, in each district, is transacted by a Register, and a Receiver, by the first of whom the land is sold to individual purchasers, while the other receives the money. These officers are entirely independent of each other, their duties distinct, and their responsibilities separate. They are required to keep similar books of account, and to make respectively, pe- riodical reports to the General land office at Washington — the one of his sales, the other of his receipts ; so that the offices operate as checks on each other ; and as neither has any pecuniary interest in the fidelity of the other, PUBLIC DOMAIN. 219 there is no temptation to collusion. They each keep plots of all the land in their district, sold or unsold, on which each tract is distinctly marked and numbered, so that the purchaser in making his selection may examine for himself. No discretion is vested in the land officers, in reference to the sale : the purchaser having selected his tract, or as many tracts as he may desire, they have simply to discharge the ministerial duty of receiving the money, and granting the evidence of title. Previous to the year 1820, the price demanded by government for its land, was two dollars per acre, one fourth of which was paid at the time of purchase, and the remainder in three equal annual instalments; a' discount of eight per cent, being allowed to the purchaser, if the whole was paid in advance. This arrangement, however liberally intended, was found to be productive of great mischief. The relation of debtor and creditor, can never be safely created, between a government and its citizens. If the citizen is creditor, his demands are as exorbitant, as his power to enforce payment is inefficient, and the claim which should be made to the justice, becomes an appeal to the generosity, of the debtor. If the govern- ment is creditor, the moral obligation to pay, is lightly felt, and the legal obligation leniently enforced. The debtor expects indulgence, and makes his contract under that expectation. He enters into an engagement with less circumspection than he would use if dealing with an in- dividual, under the belief that he will not find in the gov- ernment a rigid creditor ; and under the same conviction neglects to make any strenuous exertion to comply with his contract. The selling of the public lands, therefore, on a credit, was shewn by experience to be unwise. The country was new, the soil fine, and the spirit of emigra^ tion active. Large purchases were made by individuals, who had not the means of payment. Persons who had only money enough to pay the first inPtalmcnt on one or 220 PTTBLIC DOMAIITr more tracrty, disbursed their whole capital in making the prompt payment requireil at the tune of entry, depending on future contingencies for the power to dsseharge the other three-fourths of their liabilities. This was done, in most eases, without the least intention to defraud ; the risk of loss beiiig entirely on the side of the purchaser, and the allurement to make the venture, such as few merk have the resolution to withstand. A rapid increase in the value of lands was generally anticipated, and many expected to meet their engagements by selling a portion of the land at an enhanced price, and thus securing the- portion retained ; some were enticed by a desire to secure choice tracts, and others deluded by the belief that they could raise the sums required, withm the appointed time, by the sale of produce made on the soil. A few, by in- dustry, or by good fortune, realised these anticipations, but a o;reat majority of the purchasers, at the expiration of the term limited for the payment of the last instal- ment, found their lands subj.ect to forfeiture for nonpay- ment. Instead of riisiirBg, the price of land had fallen, in consequence of tliiC vast quantities thrown into the mar- ket ; and the increase in the amount of produce raised, so far exceeded the increase of demand for consumption, that the farmer was unable to realise any considerable pro- fit from that source, while the expenses of clearing and improving his farm required both labor and money.. Money was scarce, the country was new, w^ithout capi talists, moneyed institutions, or manufactures, and with little commerce ; and while the sale of lands, and the im- portation of foreign goods, required to supply the wants of the people, constituted an immense and an eternal drain of the eirGulating medium, across the mountains, the in- dustry of the people was not yet brought into action, nor the resources of the country developed, to a sufficient ex- tent to afford the means of bringing the money back.- Ours was a population of buyers. The demand for PUBLIC DOMAIN, 221 money induced the establishment of local banks, whose notes were at first eagerly taken, but 5oon depreciated, having the usual effect of driving better money out of cir- culation, without substituting any valuable medium in its place. Bank debts were added to land debts. This state of things existed chieiy from LSI 4 until 1820. Previous to the former period, the war had created an unnatural excitement, unusual expenditures were made, and activity was given to some branches