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Territorial Acquisitions 
 
 of 
 The United States 
 
 Sy E. E. DALE 
 
TERRITORIAL ACQUISITIONS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 BY 
 
 E. E. DALE 
 
 •i 
 
 e rfifc a 
 
 Copyright, 1912 
 By E. E. DALE 
 
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 ^ CI. A 31429.8 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 The story of the territorial acquisitions of the United States 
 is a very wonderful story. The patriotic citizen of today points 
 with pride to the men and events that helped to give indepen- 
 dence to our nation. His heart thrills at the mention of Con- 
 cord and Yorktown. He feels profoundly grateful to the heroes 
 of the time of the American Revolution, regardless of whether 
 they be soldiers or statesmen, and justly so for we owe to 
 them a debt of gratitude that can never be repaid. 
 
 But while it is true that we should hold in sacred memory 
 the names of the brave men who helped to transform the 
 thirteen English colonies into thirteen "free and independent 
 states," it is equally true that we should not torget these other 
 brave men who continued the work so nobly begun. The heroes 
 of the Revolution made us a nation, but it was the work of men 
 no less heroes to extend the boundaries of that nation until 
 from a narrow strip of land along the Atlantic seaboard, it had 
 come to reach from sea to sea and to include lands and islands 
 which the patriots of 75 did not even know to exist. 
 
 To tell something of this great movement, to sketch briefly 
 the inside history of the various land cessions is the purpose 
 of this little volume. 
 
 The original basis of this work was a series of papers pre- 
 pared by the author in a co.urse in Territorial Expansion of the 
 United States, taken at Oklahoma University in 1911 under 
 Professor J. S. Buchanan, Head of the Department of History 
 and Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. Later in the 
 same year when it was decided to publish these papers in book 
 form, several weeks were spent in the University Library, go- 
 ing- over the ground very carefully, verifying dates and figures 
 and adding much new material. 
 
 The volume is not research work in any sense of the word. 
 It is merely a collection from many sources and a compila- 
 tion of the salient facts and most interesting episodes in the 
 various territorial acquisitions of our country. It was written 
 primarily for the use of students and teachers who are inter- 
 ested in the wonderful history of the development of our nation 
 and it is earnestly honed that they may find here something 
 that will prove both helpful and interesting. It is further hop- 
 ed that the reading of this little volume may give a clearer 
 insight into many things connected with American History and 
 instil in some one's mind the desire to read and study for him- 
 self the remarkable story of our territorial growth. If such 
 should prove the case even in a very few instances the, book 
 will have fulfilled its mission and the time and labor spent in 
 its preparation will not be regretted. 
 
 E. E. DALE. 
 Blair, Okla., May 1, 1912. 
 
CHAPTER ONE 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 The French were not slow to enter the "New World" dis- 
 covered by Columbus. Led neither by the desire of conquest 
 and dreams of untold wealth in gold and silver like the Spani- 
 ards, nor driven by religious persecution like so many of the 
 English, they nevertheless came to America in large numbers. 
 Attracted to our shores at first by the fisheries of the Banks of 
 Newfoundland, and by the profits of the fur trade with the 
 Indians, there were doubtless among them, some far seeing 
 men who soon began to dream of a vast French empire in 
 America. 
 
 The earliest French explorations were along the St. Law- 
 rence and the Great Lakes. In 1535 Cartier reached the present 
 site of Montreal, while Champlain, "The Father of New France," 
 laid the foundations of Quebec in 1608. In 1666 Marquette, a 
 Jesuit missionary, came to New France, he worked among 
 the western Indians for some years and in 1673, accompanied 
 by a soldier named Joliet, he started on an expedition to ex- 
 plore the Mississippi River. They floated down the river in 
 birch-bark canoes until they reached a point below the mouth 
 of the Arkansas, when fearing capture by the Indians, they re- 
 turned. 
 
 In the same year that Marquette came to New France came 
 also Robert La Salle. He, in company with his friends De 
 Tonty, "The Iron-handed," and Father Hennepin, explored the 
 western lake country and the upper waters of the Mississippi. 
 But La Salle was eager to explore the great river still further, 
 and in 1682 he organized an expedition and floated down it to 
 its mouth. On April 6th 1682 he reached the delta, and April 
 9th he stood on the bank of the most western channel, where 
 it empties into the gulf and with the assistance of De Tonty 
 and others he erected a cross, claiming the country in the name 
 of Louis XIV of France. La Salle called the country Louisi- 
 ana in honor of his soverign while the great river he named 
 "The Colbert" in honor of his friend and patron the Colonial 
 Minister of France. 
 
 In 1699 Iberville, another French explorer sailed along the 
 coast near the mouth of the Mississippi, exploring it still fur- 
 ther. He sailed through the river that bears his name and dis- 
 covered a great shallow lake which he called "Pontchartrain" 
 in honor of the French Minister of Marine. In the same year 
 he founded a settlement at Biloxi Bay. Late in 1717 Bienville, 
 a younger brother of Iberville founded the city of New Orleans. 
 
 By virtue of these explorations and settlements France laid 
 claim to a vast territory. Under the law of nations, which was 
 recognized even then, the discovery of the mouth of a river 
 entitles the nation that discovers it, to all territory drained by 
 such river. Thus France claimed all that great central region 
 from the Alleghanies to the Rockies. 
 
 These claims overlapped those of England on the east as 
 well as those of Spain on the west. In the unsettled west the 
 
indefinite boundary did not so much matter, but on the east, 
 where the English were pushing their settlements rapidly west- 
 ward, it was a matter of extreme importance and was one of 
 the great causes of the "French and Indian War." 
 
 At the close of this war France, by a treaty of peace common- 
 ly known as "The Family Compact," signed November 3rd 1762, 
 ceded to Spain "The Island of Orleans" and all her territory 
 west of the Mississippi, and by the Treaty of Paris, about three 
 months later, or February 10th 1763, ceded all her lands east of 
 the Mississippi, except the Island of Orleans, to England. By 
 this same Treaty of Paris, which was between Great Britain 
 and Portugal on one part and France and Spain on the other, 
 Spain ceded to England "The Floridas" and all that Spain own- 
 ed on the North American continent "east and south-east of 
 the river Mississippi." In exchange for this cession England 
 re-ceded to Spain the city of Havana, which the English had 
 captured in the late war, and the Island of Cuba. 
 
 Thus in 1763 all east of the Mississippi except the Island of 
 Orleans belonged to Great Britain, and all west of the river and 
 the Island of Orleans to Spain, while to France there remained 
 not a single foot of her former splendid possessions on the 
 North American continent. 
 
 The war clouds of the Revolution were now gathering thick 
 and fast, but even before the storm burst upon the colonies in 
 all its fury, enterprising settlers were pushing beyond the con- 
 fines of the Alleghanies into the new country. During the 
 French and Indian war Pittsburg. "The Gateway to the West" 
 was founded upon the old site of Fort Duquesne. In 1769 Daniel 
 Boone crossed the mountains and first saw the rich plains and 
 fertile valleys of Kentucky. Six years later, in 1775, he led a 
 band of settlers into that beautiful region and founded Boones- 
 borough. 
 
 The war checked this immigration somewhat and indeed 
 checked all commerce and peaceful pursuits. The few inhabi- 
 tants of the regions beyond the mountains found that they must 
 devote their entire energies to repelling Indian attacks, too 
 often led by British renegades, and to laying the foundation of 
 their new homes in the wilderness. But when the war closed 
 settlers poured into the western country in great numbers, set- 
 tlements grew up as if by magic, and soon these hardy pioneers 
 in the valleys of the Ohio, the Cumberland and the Tennessee 
 and other western rivers, began to seek an outlet to market 
 for their surplus corn, hemp, tobacco and other products. To 
 carry their crops back across the mountains was impossible, 
 and while the Mississippi offered an easy outlet to market, the 
 Spaniards refused us the navigation of that river. Hence we 
 find about this time a great disaffection growing up in the 
 minds of the people of this section. England had re-ceded "The 
 Floridas" to Spain in the treaty of September 3rd 1783, and the 
 settlers in the west now began to talk of seizing New Orleans 
 and West Florida, or enough of it to insure the opening of the 
 Mississippi. 
 
 They petitioned Congress for some relief for years but in 
 vain, and just about the time that their patience had become ex- 
 hausted, there reached even these remote settlements, rumors 
 of a Constitutional Convention that was soon to meet to try to 
 form a new and better government. So now their leaders urg- 
 «d patience until the new government could be formed and re- 
 
lief asked from it. Their wise counsel prevailed, and the west- 
 erners waited, with as much patience as possible under such 
 trying circumstances, until 1789 when the new government, 
 under the Constitution, went into operation. 
 
 Again did they begin to petition the government for relief, 
 urging that some steps be taken to compel Spain to give us the 
 navigation of the Mississippi. This second period of disaffec- 
 tion lasted for more than five years. Again and again did the 
 people of the west urge Congress to open the Mississippi by 
 force if necessary, insisting that a war with Spain was prefer- 
 able to present conditions. Their demands seemed to be un- 
 heeded, but just about the time their patience was, for the 
 second time strained to the breaking point, the glad news reach- 
 ed them that a treaty had been concluded with Spain, October 
 27th 1895, giving us the "right of deposit" at New Orleans for a 
 period of three years, and providing that at the expiration of 
 that time the period should be extended if it had not been found 
 injurious to the interests of Spain, in which case Spain agreed 
 that some other point on the banks of the Mississippi should 
 be designated as a place of deposit for American goods. 
 
 The terms of this treaty had been negotiated by Don Manuel 
 Godoy, a Spanish diplomat best known as "The Prince of 
 Peace," and the American ambassador at Madrid. The "right 
 of deposit" meant that Americans should have the right to ship 
 their goods to New Orleans, unload them there and re-ship to 
 any part of the world. In addition to some other rather unim- 
 portant matters, the treaty also carefully defined the boundaries 
 between the United State and Florida. 
 
 The news of this treaty was received with great rejoicing 
 throughout the entire west and southwest, and for the next few 
 years development in these regions was very rapid. The set- 
 tlers raised great crops of corn, wheat, hemp and tobacco which 
 they floated down the river to New Orleans, unloaded there 
 and re-shipped to the various ports of Europe and America. 
 Crowds of immigrants flocked into the country and business 
 there became most flourishing. 
 
 The three year period had passed and more than two years 
 more with no attempt on the part of Spain to discontinue the 
 arrangement, when vague rumors began to reach the United 
 States that Spain had retroceded Louisana to France. 
 
 Jefferson became President March 4th 1801. The rumors of 
 retrocession had already begun to create a feeling of uneasiness 
 among many people as to what the policy of France might be 
 toward our navigation of the Mississippi. Jefferson at once ap- 
 pointed Robert Livingston as ambassador to France and gave 
 him instructions to attempt to buy the Island of Orleans and 
 West Florida. Should he find this impossible he was to make 
 a treaty giving us the right of navigation of the Mississippi. 
 
 Livingston reached Paris November 10th 1801. Talleyrand 
 at first denied that Louisana had been retroceded to France but 
 just about this time Rufus King, our ambassador to Great 
 Britain, sent to Jefferson a copy of Lucien Bonaparte's treaty 
 of retrocession signed at San Ildefonso, and dated more than 
 eight months before. 
 
 In justice to Talleyrand however it must be stated that the 
 treaty had not yet been signed by the king of Spain. As a 
 matter of fact there were two treaties of retrocession, both 
 signed at San Ildefonso, a little city among the mountains of 
 
8 
 
 Spain. The first treaty was negotiated by Berthier, and signed 
 October 1st 1800. The second, negotiated by Lucien Bonaparte, 
 merely emphasized and deepened the first, and was signed 
 March 21st 1801. By these treaties Napoleon, who was then 
 First Consul of France, agreed to place the Duke of Parma, 
 son-in-law of the king and queen of Spain, upon the throne of 
 Tuscany or "Kingdom of Etruria." In exchange for this 
 Louisana was to be retroceded to France. However the King 
 of Spain positively refused to sign the first treaty, and when 
 the second was drawn in such a way as it was hoped would 
 overcome his objections, he still with held his signature and re- 
 fused to sign until October 15th 1802. He then affixed his 
 signature only upon the pledge being made that France should 
 never alienate the province, and the condition that if the Duke 
 of Parma should ever lose his throne, then Louisana should re- 
 vert to Spain. All these conditions were agreed to by France, 
 Talleyrand giving a written pledge in the name of the First 
 Consul. 
 
 The treaty was kept secret however and of course Livings- 
 ton was entirely ignorant of its terms or conditions. However 
 Talleyrand at last admitted the retrocession, and Livingston 
 urged that West Florida and the Island of Orleans be sold to 
 the United States. But Napoleon was obdurate. He had dreams 
 of building up a French empire in the New World and was al- 
 ready planning an expedition to go and take possession of the 
 country. And so Livingston's efforts seemed vain. 
 
 Yet he did not despair but held to his task, undismayed by 
 the scant courtesy he sometimes received from the French 
 government. He prepared a series of papers setting forth the 
 benefits that both countries would derive by France's selling 
 New Orleans and West Florida to the United States. These 
 papers were delivered to Joseph Bonaparte who assured Liv- 
 ingston that they were carefully read by the First Consul yet 
 they apparently had no effect. Livingston's letters to his gov- 
 ernment show plainly the disgust and disappointment that he 
 felt. "Do not absolutely despair" was the most encouraging 
 message that Jefferson could receive from him. 
 
 In the meantime conditions at home had become worse than 
 before. Late in 1802 Morales, the Spanish Intendant at New 
 Orleans, abrogated our right of deposit at that city, and again 
 did the west and southwest find itself cut off from market. 
 This region was now much less sparsely populated than it had 
 been seven years before, and the excitement of the people soon 
 rose to fever heat. 
 
 We know now that the act of Morales had no connection 
 with the cession of Louisiana to France by Spain, and that it 
 was even without the sanction of his own government. But to 
 the people of the west who had but lately heard of the transfer 
 of territory the act of Morales was regarded as indicative of 
 what we might expect with France in possession of Louisiana. 
 Open threats of war were made and the excitement soon ex- 
 tended to Congress. Yrujo was at this time the Spanish min- 
 ister at Washington. He had married an American girl and 
 was very friendly to the United States. He now promptly de- 
 clared the act of Morales to be unauthorized and at once wrote 
 to his government in regard to the matter, at the same time 
 dispatching a letter to the Intendant rebuking him for his 
 action. 
 
These friendly measures of Yrujo however failed to quell 
 the excitement. Senator Ross of Pennsylvania, one of the mi- 
 nority leaders of the Senate, offered a resolution looking to the 
 immediate seizure of New Orleans. This resolution proposed 
 to place five million dollars in the hands of the President with 
 which to prosecute a war, and to raise fifty thousand troops be- 
 fore France had time to take possession of her newly acquired 
 territory. This resolution was debated first in secret, and later 
 in open session, and while lost yet it served to intensify the 
 feeling. 
 
 Even the pacific Jefferson was aroused and while still main- 
 taining that "Peace is our passion," he nevertheless wrote to 
 Livingston: "The day that France takes possession of Louisi- 
 ana we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation." 
 Determined however to make one more effort to secure by- 
 peaceful means the navigation of the Mississippi, Jefferson now 
 appointed James Monroe as special Envoy to France to aid 
 Livingston in the effort to purchase West Florida and New 
 Orleans. 
 
 Jefferson had several motives for making this appointment. 
 Livingston had proved himself able and persistent in his efforts 
 but he was old, hard of hearing and had apparently become 
 somewhat discouraged, while Monroe was young, brilliant and 
 energetic, and intensely popular with the French people. It 
 cannot be denied however that one of Jefferson's chief motives 
 was to allay the excitement among the people of the west Dy 
 holding out to them the hope that everything would soon be 
 settled Peacefully and satisfactorily. 
 
 Monroe's instructions were simple but explicit. Livingston 
 had been authorized to expend two millions of dollars. Monroe 
 was authorized to expend up to ten millions of dollars if neces- 
 sary and to grant certain commercial privileges. He was to 
 buy New Orleans and West Florida. Failing in this he was to 
 buy New Orleans and a strip of land along the east bank of the 
 river. Should he find it impossible to do either, he was to ne- 
 gotiate a treaty giving us the right of the navigation of the 
 Mississippi, or secure for us the right of deposit at New Or- 
 leans. His appointment as special Envoy was confirmed by the 
 Senate January 13th 1803. He sailed for France March 8th, and 
 reached Paris April 12th. 
 
 Tn the meantime matters had arisen which compelled Na- 
 poleon to give up his long cherished dream of French empire 
 in America. France owned at this time the island of San Do- 
 mingo. This island Napoleon rightly regarded as the key to 
 the newly acquired domain of Louisiana. But while the First 
 Consul was busy with his plans for vast colonies in the New 
 World, the blacks of San Domingo rose in revolt under the 
 leadership of a man whose name has become famous as that of 
 one of the great military leaders of history. This man was 
 Toussaint L'Ouverture. He was very successful. One French 
 army he destroyed and a second died of yellow fever. 
 
 Leclerc was now sent to San Domingo with a new army. 
 He was Napoleon's brother-in-law, having married the beauti- 
 ful Pauline Bonauarte. and wa sa very able general. He set 
 sail with his expedition late in 1801, just about the time of 
 Livingston's arrival in Paris. For a time it seemed that he 
 would restore order in the island. Toussaint was invited by 
 Leclerc to a conference but no sooner was the leader of the 
 
10 
 
 blacks within the power of the faithless Frenchman than he 
 was treacherously seized, hurried on board a French vessel and 
 carried to Europe to cough his life away in a dismal dungeon 
 of the fortress of Joux, high up in the Jura Mountains. 
 
 But even the loss of their leader did not quell the fighting 
 spirit of the Islanders. Early in January 1803, the news reach- 
 ed Paris that Leclerc himself was dead, his army swept away, 
 and the blacks hopelessly beyond control. Napoleon had ex- 
 pected to use San Domingo as a base from which to colonize 
 and control Louisiana, and the overthrow of his power there 
 was fatal to all his plans. He had also fully resolved upon go- 
 ing to war with England for he was already weary of being 
 merely a peaceful governor. For this war he needed money 
 most sorely. England was supreme upon the sea and her in- 
 sular positio nrendered her safe from attack. 
 
 Napoleon believed that if he had a powerful fleet he might 
 easily throw an army across the channel for the invasion of 
 England. To secure money for a fleet he therefore reluctantly 
 gave up his dream of French empire in America, and resolved 
 to sell Louisiana. 
 
 There were other reasons why Napoleon decided to sell the 
 province. To colonize it without San Domingo as a base he felt 
 would be impracticable. Moreover he was quite sure that he 
 should lose the territory as soon as he went to war with Eng- 
 land. Great Britain with her powerful fleet and her colonial 
 possessions in the West Indies would have a tremendous ad- 
 vantage and Napoleon felt certain that one of her first acts 
 would be to seize New Orleans and the mouth of the Mississ- 
 
 'PP'- 
 
 With characteristic reticence Napoleon kept his plans to 
 
 himself doubtless anticipating bitter opposition from his min- 
 istry and in this he was right. For when he at last made known 
 his plan to sell the province, even his brothers manifested bit- 
 ter opposition to the scheme and vainly endeavored to dissuade 
 him from his purpose. Lucien, who had negotiated the treaty 
 at San Ildefonso, reminded his brother of the solemn pledge 
 never to alienate the province and vainly strove to persuade the 
 First Consul not to violate this obligation. 
 
 Once he had decided to sell the province Napoleon made his 
 plans known to Talleyrand. A few days later he explained 
 the proposition to Barbe'-Marbois, his Minister of Finance and 
 to Decres Minister of Marine. Marbois had been Consul- 
 General to the United States before the French Revolution. He 
 had there married an American wife and was very friendly to 
 the United States. In consequence he most heartily concurred 
 with the plan but Decres bitterly opposed it. Napoleon's mind 
 was made up however and the next morning at day-break he 
 sent for Marbois and instructed him to see Livingston at once 
 and offer to sell the entire territory. It was really Talleyrand 
 however who, a few hours later, proposed to Livingston to sell 
 the whole province to the United States. This was April 11th 
 1803. 
 
 Livingston, who for a year and a half had striven in vain to 
 buy even a narrow strip of land along the east bank of the 
 river, could not, at first, believe that Talleyrand was in earnest. 
 Convinced at last that such was the case, he protested that he 
 had no authority to buy the entire country but mentioned 
 twenty million francs as a sum that he believed the United 
 
11 
 
 States would be willing to pay. Talleyrand suggested a hun- 
 dred million francs, which Livingston insisted was exorbitant. 
 As Monroe was expected to arrive within the next day or two, 
 nothing further was said at the time. Later in the day Liv- 
 ingston approached Talleyrand upon the subject but received 
 only evasive answers, and the next day April 12th, at one P. M. 
 Mr. Monroe alighted from his post-chaise in front of his Paris 
 hotel. 
 
 The two Americans spent the next day in looking over pap- 
 ers and discussing plans. While at supper that evening with a 
 small party of friends, in Livingston's apartments, they saw 
 Marbois walking in the garden. He was at once invited to 
 come in and join them at supper. He did so and while little 
 was said of their mission, yet Marbois intimated that he knew 
 something of the matter, and asked Livingston to come to his 
 house at the conclusion of the supper. Livingston went, and 
 after a long talk the bargain was largely decided at midnight 
 that night. Before he slept Livingston wrote to Jefferson the 
 progress that had been made, saying that while nothing defi- 
 nite had been done, yet he believed that they should buy. 
 
 A week was now spent in haggling over the price. Then 
 Monroe fell ill and at the expiration of a fortnight from the 
 time of his arrival negotiations had not advanced a step. Each 
 party now drew up a draft of a treaty, Marbois placing the price 
 at one hundred millions of francs and the Americans at fifty 
 million francs to be paid to France, and twenty million francs 
 due American citizens by France that was to be assumed by the 
 United States. At last they agreed on sixty million to be paid 
 to France and twenty million to be assumed. 
 
 The 30th of April Marbois consulted with Napoleon. The 
 latter had instructed his minister to take fifty million francs if 
 no more could be obtained, and was well pleased with the terms 
 as submitted by Marbois. 
 
 May 1st Monroe was presented at the palace and he and 
 Livingston dined with the First Consul. At this dinner little 
 or nothing was said about the cession, but that same evening 
 the American Envoys had another and final discussion with 
 Marbois. 
 
 May 2nd the treaty written in French was signed by Mon- 
 roe and Livingston for the United States and by Marbois for 
 France. Two or three days later the English copy was ready 
 and was then signed, both copies being antedated to April 30th. 
 
 By the terms of the treaty the United States paid sixty mil- 
 lion francs, ($11,250,000.) in U. S. six per cent bonds, maturing 
 in fifteen years, and assumed debts due by France to citizens 
 of the United States for twenty million more, or ($3,7'0,000). 
 
 France was given the right of navigation of the Mississippi 
 and her ships loaded with French goods were given the right 
 to discharge their cargoes at New Orleans or any other port in 
 Louisiana on the same terms as American ships for a period of 
 twelve years and afterward on the same terms as the ships of 
 the most favored nations. The inhabitants of the territory were 
 to be admitted as soon as possible to full citizenship, with all 
 the rights and privileges of American citizens. This last clause 
 was proposed and insisted upon by Napoleon himself. 
 
 The negotiations between Marbois and the two Americans 
 were, throughout the entire affair, carried on in a very frank 
 and friendly manner as between three friends as indeed they 
 
12 
 
 were, and yet each did his best for his government. When the 
 French copy of the treaty was signed the three diplomats arose, 
 shook hands and congratulated one another upon the successful 
 and satisfactory culmination of their labors. "We have lived 
 long," said Livingston, "but this is the noblest w rk of our 
 lives. From this day the United States takes her place among 
 Powers of the first rank, and the English lose all exclusive in- 
 terest in the affairs of America." Napoleon upon learning that 
 the treaty was signed said "I have this day raised up England 
 a maritime rival that will some day humble her pride." 
 
 Livington had had a long and varied public career. He had 
 been on the committee of five that drafted the Declaration of 
 Independence, and as Chancellor of New York had administer- 
 ed the oath of office to Washington at his inauguration. Upon 
 his leaving France in 1805 Napoleon presented him with a dia- 
 mond-studded snuff box, the lid of which contained a portrait 
 of Napoleon by Isabey, and New York has put up his statue in 
 the Hall of Fame at Washington as one of her two typical 
 great men. Monroe's brilliant public career is too well known 
 to need comment here, but of all the public acts of these two 
 illustrious statesmen none can begin to compare in importance 
 with the purchase of Louisiana. Truly Livingston was right 
 when he said, "This is the noblest work of our lives." 
 
 The papers were sent at once to Washington and reached 
 that city July 14th. Congress was convened October 17th. The 
 opposition to the treaty in Congress was very bitter and there 
 was also much opposition in the country at large. The con- 
 stitutionality of the purchase was violently assailed, while the 
 President and his new policy were attacked and ridiculed in the 
 most caustic language. 
 
 Jefferson himself doubted the constitutionality of his action 
 and prepared an amendment to the Constitution designed to 
 cover the case. This amendment he presented to the Cabinet 
 for their consideration. They disapproved of it very strongly, 
 so he prepared another. This too being coldly received by his 
 Cabinet, Jefferson destroyed it and ever afterward maintained 
 a discreet silence on the constitutionality of the Louisiana Pur- 
 chase. That he believed he had exceeded his authority under 
 the Constitution seems certain, and he apparently soothed his 
 conscience only on the ground of the extreme urgency of the 
 occasion and the great good that must result to the United 
 States from the possession of this territory. 
 
 After a long and spirited debate the treaty was at last rati- 
 fied October 20th 1803, and a bill providing for the creation of 
 a provisional government became a law October 31st. As soon 
 as the treaty had been ratified and provision made for a form of 
 government in the new territory as soon as it should become a 
 part of the United States, preparations were begun to take 
 possession of the new country. 
 
 In the meantime Spain had protested warmly against Na- 
 poleon's disregard of the obligation never to alienate the prov- 
 ince. Finding her protests disregarded however Spain appar- 
 ently decided that she might as well yield with as good grace 
 as possible and sent the Marquis of Casa Calvo to aid the gov- 
 erno, Salcedo, in turning the province over to Lausset. the 
 French Prefect. 
 
 The ceremony took place before the old Cabildo building in 
 the city of New Orleans November 30th 1803. The Spanish 
 
13 
 
 governor delivered the keys of the city to Lausset, and then the 
 Spanish flag which was floating from the great staff before 
 the building was lowered and the tri-color of France raised in 
 its place. 
 
 The French flag floated for twenty days and then, Decem- 
 ber 20th, came the cession to the United States. Claiborne was 
 the new governor sent by Jefferson to receive the province. 
 With him came a small force of troops under command of 
 General Wilkinson. 
 
 Again was the old Cabildo building the scene of an impos- 
 ing ceremony. From its steps Lausset read his commission 
 from France to deliver the Province, and Claiborne read his 
 commission from Jefferson to receive it. The French flag was 
 then slowly lowered and as it came down the Stars and Stripes 
 rose in its place. A salute was fired, and the last act of the 
 great drama was ended. Louisiana was ours. 
 
 The boundaries of the new territory were very indefinite. 
 It was retroceded by Spain to France "With the same boun- 
 daries with which Spain had received it, and the same boun- 
 daries it had when France owned it before." Talleyrand when 
 questioned as to how far Louisiana extended said: "I do not 
 know. You must take it as we received it. "Vou have made a 
 noble bargain for yourselves and I suppose you will make the 
 most of it." Napoleon when told that an obscurity existed as 
 to the boundary between Louisiana and West Florida said: "If 
 an obscurity does not exist it might be well for the United 
 States to put one there." We claimed West Florida but cer- 
 tainly without any good reason though we soon coolly took 
 possession of it. We also claimed Texas and certainly with 
 more reason. La Salle and Father Hennepin had really travers- 
 ed a part of Texas and La Salle was killed and buried upon the 
 banks of the Trinity River in that territory. Yet Spain had 
 probably explored it before, and had an equally good, if not 
 better claim, to it. At any rate by the treaty of 1819, in which 
 Florida was ceded to the United States, we gave up our claim 
 to Texas and accepted the Sabine as our western boundary in 
 the south. Our claim to Texas however was clearly much 
 better than our claim to West Florida. 
 
 There was a vague notion that perhaps Louisiana extended 
 to the Pacific on the northwest but this idea seems entirely 
 without foundation. Surely the mountains formed our north- 
 western boundary and no just claim can be made to the Oregon 
 country through the Louisiana Purchase. 
 
 But without West Florida, Texas or Oregon it was still a 
 magnificent domain. Out of the territory so carelessly signed 
 away by Napoleon many splendid states have been created. 
 Great cities have sprung up and millions of happy prosperous 
 people occupy the region which but a single century ago was 
 inhabited only by wild beasts and Indians. 
 
 With the purchase of Louisiana the United States was fully 
 embarked upon her policy of territorial expansion. France had 
 now given up all her territory in North America save the two 
 tiny islets, St. Pierre and Miquelon, mere rocky points in the 
 surf near Newfoundland. But the Spaniard was yet to be rec- 
 koned with on the North American continent. Spain still own- 
 ed a vast region in the south and west. But Louisiana lay just 
 east of this Spanish territory separating it from Spain's other 
 Province "The Floridas" and rendering the acquisition of the 
 
14 
 
 latter by the United States, sooner or later as inevitable. How- 
 ever the history of this acquisition of Florida forms another 
 story and will be described in the next chapter. 
 
; CHAPTER TWO 
 
 FLORIDA 
 
 When Columbus made his second voyage to the New World 
 in 1493 there came with him a man whose name is well known 
 to students of American History as the discoverer of Florida. 
 This man was Ponce de Leon. He was charmed with America 
 and when Spain founded some colonies in Puerto Rico he became 
 governor of that island. This was in 1508. In 1513 he started 
 with three ships to explore the regions to the north. Whether 
 or not there is any truth in the story that he was seeking the 
 fabled "Fountain of Youth," we do not know. We do know 
 however that on Easter Sunday 1513 he made a landing on the 
 main-land near the mouth of the St. John's river and named the 
 land in honor of the day, "Pascua Florida." He then sailed 
 along the coast toward the south, doubled the extreme southern 
 point of the peninsula, and then skirted the west coast as far 
 north as Pensacola Bay. 
 
 Ponce de Leon's story of the beautiful land that he had dis- 
 covered led other adventurous spirits to visit and explore the 
 country still further. In 1528 De Narvaez landed ot Pensacola 
 Bay and led his men northward on the ill-fated expedition that 
 cost him his life. In 1539 De Soto landed at Tampa Bay and 
 also marched northward leading the most famous expedition 
 that ever traversed these regions. 
 
 In 1565 Menendez founded St. Augustine. The French also 
 claimed this region and Laudonniere founded a settlement called 
 Fort Carolina upon the St. Johns river, in 1564. This settlement 
 however was destroyed by Menendez, other Spanish explorers 
 and settlers came in and the claim of Spain upon the territory 
 was firmly established. Yet that country made but feeble at- 
 tempts to colonize the country and the Spanish population was 
 never very large. However the presence of the Spanish to the 
 south was a source of much annoyance to the English colonists. 
 This was especially true after the settlement of Georgia. The 
 Spaniards were repeatedly accused of inciting the Indians to 
 attack the English and two or three expeditions were made by 
 the English colonists against St. Augustine. 
 
 We have seen that at the close of the French and Indian war, 
 Spain by the "Treaty of Paris," February 10th 1763 ceded The 
 Floridas to England receiving in exchange Havana and the 
 Islands of Cuba which England had captured from Spain in the 
 late war. 
 
 During the next few years a considerable number of English 
 colonists came into the country. This was but a transient pop- 
 ulation however, and at the close of the Revolution Sept. 3rd 
 1783, England re-ceded "The Floridas" to Spain and nearly all 
 of the English population returned to the United States. In re- 
 turn for this retrocession of Florida England received certain 
 islands in the Bahamas which had formerly belonged to Spain. 
 
 By the treaty of 1763 France had ceded Louisiana to Spain 
 and the retrocession of Florida by England now gave her pos- 
 session of both banks of the Mississippi for a considerable dis- 
 
• 16 
 
 tance from its mouth. The American settlers in the valleys of 
 the eastern tributaries of the Mississippi were seeking an outlet 
 for their products and the United States soon began negotia- 
 tions for the purchase of a part of West Florida and The Island 
 of Orleans, but Spain steadfastly refused to sell. The best that 
 we were able to do was to secure in 1795 (October 27th) the 
 "right of deposit" for American goods at New Orleans for a 
 period of three years. 
 
 We really enjoyed the benefits of this "right of deposit" for 
 seven years, but in 1802 the Spanish Intendant at New Orleans 
 abrogated this right and the American settlers in the west and 
 southwest were again left without an outlet to market. At 
 about the same time that the right of deposit was withdrawn, 
 news reached the United States that Spain had retroceded 
 Louisiana and the Island of Orleans to France. Whether or not 
 Florida or any part of it was included in the cession, we did not 
 know, but Jefferson at once dispatched Monroe to France as an 
 envoy to aid Livingston, our minister to that country, in his ef- 
 forts to buy West Florida and the Island of Orleans provided 
 it now belonged t6 France. Instructions were also sent to 
 Pinckney, our minister to Spain, looking to the acquisition of 
 the same territory, provided it had not been included in the ces- 
 sion to France. 
 
 We have seen how Monroe succeeded beyond his wildest 
 hopes, for he bought not only the Island of Orleans but all 
 Louisiana as well. Whether this purchase included West Flori- 
 da or not was not clear. Jefferson and many other American 
 statesmen claimed that it did, and appealed to Napoleon, asking 
 him to say what he had sold to us, but the wily Corsican refused 
 to commit himself on the proposition. France had merely ceded 
 us the province as she had received it from Spain, Spain had re- 
 ceded it to France with the same boundaries as it had when she 
 had received it from France and with this rather indefinite state- 
 ment we were forced to be content. 
 
 We claimed West Florida however as far east as the Perdido 
 River. There were quite a number of American settlers in this 
 portion of the territory at that time and these of course eagerly 
 protested that it belonged to the United States. During the next 
 six or seven years other Americans settled in West Florida, and 
 Sept. 26th 1810, the people there formally declared their inde- 
 pendence of Spanish rule and appealed to the President to up- 
 hold their action. Madison who was I 'resident at this time, was 
 in sympathy with them and October 27th of the same year he 
 issued a proclamation directing Governor Claiborne of Orleans 
 Territory to take possession of the country. Madison especial- 
 ly stated in this proclamation that the occupation by the United 
 States should not prejudice the rights of Spain in the final set- 
 tlement of the question of the ownership of the territory. 
 
 December 7th 1810 Governor Claiborne took possession of 
 the country and on April 14th 1812, despite Madison's assurance 
 as to the rights of Spain, an act was passed enlarging the limits 
 of the state of Louisiana by annexing part of this territory to 
 it. May 14th 1812 an act was passed adding the remainder to 
 Mississippi Territory and March 3rd 1817 part of this was an- 
 nexed to Alabama Territory. 
 
 But although West Florida was in our possession, East Flori- 
 da remained a province of Spain, and was for many years the 
 source of constant vexation to the people in the extreme south- 
 
17 
 
 ern and southwestern portions of the United States. Georgia 
 was by this time the home of a numerous population, while 
 Mississippi and Alabama were both being rapidly settled. Spain 
 maintained only a few feeble garrisons in Florida and made 
 little or no attempt to preserve law and order in the province. 
 As a result, desperate characters flocked there from all parts of 
 the United States, from Mexico, the West Indes and many 
 other places. It became a favorite rendezvous for pirates, smug- 
 glers and all kinds of robbers and freebooters. Moreover the 
 slaves of the southern planters would frequently escape to this 
 country where they would join bands of hostile Creek and Semi- 
 nole Indians. These Indians, Negroes and white freebooters 
 preyed upon the border settlements, stealing, robbing and mur- 
 dering all along the northern border of the Spanish province. 
 
 When the war of 1812 broke out conditions became even 
 worse for then British emissaries went among the Indians, 
 furnishing them with arms and powder and inciting them to at- 
 tack the Americans. 
 
 Colonel Nichols, an English officer, was especially active in 
 this work. He landed a force at Pensacola and secured many 
 recruits from the negroes, Indians and white outlaws. Later he 
 built a fort on the Apalachicola, on Spanish soil, about eighteen 
 miles above the mouth of the river and sixty miles below the 
 Georgia line. This fort he gave to the Indians with large quan- 
 tities of military stores. The Spanish Governor at Pensacola 
 was asked to reduce this fort but refused to do so. Spain had 
 bound herself by the treaty of October 27th 1795, to forcibly re- 
 strain all hostilities against the United States on the part of 
 Indians inhabiting her province, but while insisting that her 
 sovereignty should be respected yet she failed to fulfill her 
 word, perhaps because unable rather than unwilling to do so. 
 
 In 1814 General Jackson who was prosecuting a war against 
 the Creeks learned that the Spanish Governor at Pensacola was 
 aiding the English. He at once crossed into Florida and attack- 
 ed and captured that town. A large body of British and Indians 
 had been congregated there but most of them escaped when 
 Jackson moved upon the town. Jackson thoroughly intimidat- 
 ed the Spanish Governor and the Indians in this part of Florida 
 during this campaign, and then went to New Orleans to repel 
 the British attack upon that city. The fort which Colonel 
 Nichols had given to the Indians soon passed into the hands 
 of a crowd of negroes who used it as a safe rendezvous from 
 which to sally out and attack the American settlements. Colo- 
 nel Nichols himself had sailed for England at the close of the 
 war but he had left behind Woodbine and several other adven- 
 turers who had served under him. The fort was at last invest- 
 ed by an American force and blown up, but Woodbine and 
 others still lived among the Indians, encouraging them to prey 
 upon the American settlements. 
 
 In addition a body of pirates and freebooters under Greger 
 McGregor a Scottish Baronet and a notorious adventurer had 
 taken possession of Amelia Island, lying off the east coast 
 of Florida and just without the jurisdiction of the United States. 
 Spain was asked to break up this nest of pirates but being 
 either unable or unwilling to do so, they were at last driven 
 from the Island by a fleet from the United States. 
 
 In 1818 General Jackson received orders to raise a force and 
 go against the Seminoles who were spreading terror among the 
 
18 
 
 people along our southern border. The Indians would make 
 raids upon the American settlements and then retreat into the 
 swamps of Florida when they were pursued. 
 
 Jackson received his marching orders at his home "The Her- 
 mitage" early in January and set out as soon as he could get 
 his forces together. Under date of January 6th 1818 Jackson 
 wrote to President Monroe, his famous "Rhea letter" which has 
 been often quoted as proof that Jackson was acting with the ap- 
 proval of his government when he seized the Spanish towns in 
 Florida. In this letter Jackson, after suggesting that Florida 
 should be seized as indemnity for the debts due American citi- 
 zens by Spain, said: "Let it be signified to me through any 
 channel, (say Mr. Rhea) that the possession of the Floridas 
 would be desirable to the United States and in six months it will 
 be accomplished." 
 
 Whether or not Jackson believed that he had the tacit per- 
 mission of the President to invade Florida we cannot say. We 
 do know however that he raised a strong force and marched 
 against the Seminoles. The Indians, following their usual tac- 
 tics fled across the line into Florida and Jackson claiming that 
 the Spanish had been inciting them to make attacks and furn- 
 ishing them with arms and powder, pursued them into the 
 Spanish province and seized the town of St. Marks, April 7th 
 Here he captured two Englishmen, Ambrister a young ex- lieu- 
 tenant of Marines and a Scotch trader named Arbuthnot. They 
 were accused of furnishing the savages with arms and of inciting 
 them to attack the settlements, were tried by a court-martial, 
 and executed. Arbuthnot was hanged from the mast of his 
 schooner and Ambrister was shot. 
 
 Jackson now moved upon Pensacola which he captured. 
 May 24th 1818. He now sent orders to General Gaines who 
 was in command of the American troops near St. Augustine, to 
 seize that town provided he could secure proof of the report that 
 the Spanish Governor there had been supplying the Indians 
 with arms. This order was submitted to the War Department 
 by General Gaines and was countermanded there before it could 
 be carried out. 
 
 In the meantime, John Quincy Adams, who was then Secre- 
 tary of State, had several months before entered into negotia- 
 tions with the Spanish Minister at Washington, Senor Onis, rel- 
 ative to the purchase of Florida. Spain owed heavy claims to 
 citizens of the United States and our government had long been 
 insisting upon their payment. But Spain with her treasury drain- 
 ed by wars and her colonies in revolt, had no money with which 
 to pay these claims. It was therefore proposed by Adams that 
 the United States assume these debts in exchange for the ces- 
 sion of Florida. The province was really of little value to Spain 
 especially since the Louisiana purchase had cut it off from the 
 Spanish provinces west of the Mississippi. 
 
 Negotiations were carried on through M. Hyde de Neuville, 
 the French Ambassador to the United States, and had been 
 nearly carried to a successful termination when news was re- 
 ceived of Jackson's actions in Florida. As soon as this was 
 known at Madrid word was promptly sent by the Spanish Gov- 
 ernment to Onis to break off negotiations at once. At the same 
 time apology and disavowal of Jackson's acts were also demand- 
 ed. 
 
 Our government acted promptly. It disavowed Jackson's 
 
19 
 
 acts and ordered that Pensacola and the other posts should be 
 returned at once. At the same time we strove to justify Jackson 
 in part by the plea of the necessity of the invasion in order to 
 subdue the Indians. The United States also refused to censure 
 or punish Jackson, and made counter demands upon Spain, that 
 the latter country should either maintain order in Florida or 
 cede it to the United States. 
 
 Spain was apparently somewhat appeased and negotiations 
 for the transfer of Florida were resumed, the French Minister 
 acting as he had previously done as a friendly "third party - ' 
 through whom most of the negotiations were carried on. All 
 difficulties in the way of the purchase were soon overcome. 
 Spain was apparently more ready to sell than before, being in- 
 fluenced perhaps by the memory of Jackson's campaign which 
 showed how easily the United States might seize the province 
 should she once decide to do so. 
 
 Under these circumstances the treaty was soon made. The 
 United States agreed to pay to the claimants against Spain five 
 million dollars, and the boundary of Louisiana on the southwest 
 was placed at the Sabine river. The entire boundary between 
 the Spanish possessions and the United States being described 
 as follows: "Beginning at the mouth of the Sabine, thence up 
 that river along its western bank to thirty second degree north 
 latitude, then due north to Red River, thence up Red River 
 along southern bank to the 100th Meridian, north on that Merid- 
 ian to the Arkansas, up the Arkansas to to its source, thence 
 north (or south a sthe case might be) to the forty-second paral- 
 lel north latitude thence west on that parallel to the Pacific 
 Ocean." 
 
 The treaty was concluded February 22nd 1819, and was 
 promptly ratified by the Senate. It was at once sent to Madrid 
 for ratification by the Spanish Cortes, and it was commonly 
 thought in the United States that this body would ratify it at 
 once. But the Cortes delayed action and at last came a report 
 that it would not be ratified. 
 
 The matter was now discussed by Monoe and his Cabinet 
 and in August it was decided in a Cabinet meeting to ask Con- 
 gress, when it met that fall, to give the Executive authority to 
 take possession of Florida. However a new Minister General 
 Vives, was now sent by Spain to supersede Onis and he gave as- 
 surances that the Cortes would finally ratify the treaty. 
 
 As a matter of fact however it was not ratified until Octo- 
 ber 24th 1820. It was then returned to the United States, reach- 
 ing Washington again early in February 1821. Owing to the 
 lapse of time it was necessary that it be ratified by the United 
 States Senate again, which was promptly done (February 22nd 
 1821). 
 
 General Jackson was appointed first governor of the new 
 territory and was at once sent to take possession of it. He 
 went to Pensacola and sent another officer to St. Augustine. 
 Possession was given at the latter place by the Spaniards, July 
 10th 1821 and at Pensacola July 17th. Jackson held the office 
 of governor only a short time until he resigned on account of ill 
 health. 
 
 After the purchase by the United States there was consider- 
 able immigration to Florida yet settlement was comparatively 
 slow and it was not until 1845 that it was admitted to the Union 
 as a slave state, paired with Iowa as a free state. 
 
CHAPTER THREE 
 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN CESSION 
 
 The Spanish were eager to explore the New World dis- 
 covered by Columbus, and during the early part of the six- 
 teenth century many expeditions were sent out. In 1517 Cor- 
 doba landed on the coast of Yucatan and during the next year 
 or two intrepid explorers sailed along most of the Gulf coast. 
 In 1504 Cortes came to Cuba, and in 1519 he set out with one 
 of the most important expeditions known to history. This was 
 his famous expedition for the conquest of Mexico. He seized 
 the city of Mexico itself in 1521 and by 1523 a considerable 
 portion of the country embraced within the limits of the pres- 
 ent Republic of Mexico was under Spanish control. To the 
 north lay a vast, unknown region and, though the Spanish 
 made some attempts to explore it their efforts were not 
 very successful. Much of the country was almost a desert, and 
 the Indians who wandered over it were fierce and war-like and 
 greatly increased the difficulties of the adventurous explorers. 
 
 As we have seen in a preceding chapter, Narvaez landed an 
 expedition at Pensacola Bay Florida in 1528, and led his men 
 northward and westward on a journey of exploration and con- 
 quest. This expedition was most unfortunate. Narvaez died 
 and his lieutenant, La Vaca, in attempting to make his way 
 back with the remnant of the army at last reached the coast 
 of the Gulf of Mexico, built some rude boats and put to sea, 
 only to be shipwrecked on the coast of Texas. Most of his 
 men died or were killed, but Vaca and a few companions were 
 captured by the Indians and wandered about with them over 
 the plains of Texas for three or four years. At last they es- 
 caped and finally reached the Spanish settlements in Mexico 
 in 1536, three white men and one negro being the sole survivors 
 of the splendid expedition that had started out with such high 
 hopes eight years before. 
 
 The story of Vaca made the Spanish eager to explore the 
 country still further and in 1539 the Viceroy of Mexico sent 
 out Fray Marcos, in search of the fabled "Seven Cities of 
 Cibola." The negro Stephen, who had been with Vaca acted 
 as guide and reached the Zuni Pueblo where he was killed, he 
 being some distance ahead of the main body. Marcos, upon 
 learning the fate of his guide, did not venture near the Pueblo, 
 but saw it from the top of a neighboring hill, and returned 
 with a wonderful story of its size and importance. 
 
 In 1540 Coronado was sent with a large expedition in search 
 of these wonderful cities. He traversed a part of New Mexico, 
 Texas and probably Oklahoma. Other explorers followed and 
 in 1585 Santa Fe was founded, but during the next century 
 little was done toward colonizing the new country. 
 
 In the meantime France was laying claim to a part of the 
 same region owing to the explorations of Marquette and La- 
 Salle. The latter led an expedition to found a settlement at 
 the mouth of the Mississippi, but through an error in his reck- 
 oning sailed past it and landed on the coast of Texas at Mata- 
 
22 
 
 gorda Bay. This was early in 1685. The colony that he es- 
 tablished there was soon broken up and destroyed by the In- 
 dians and La Salle himself was murdered by his own men 
 while he was leading a party northward to try to reach the 
 French settlements on the upper Mississippi. 
 
 Thus by the opening of the eighteenth century, Spain had, 
 by exploration and a few settlements, established her claim to 
 a vast region in what is now the western and southwestern part 
 of the United States, while France claimed New France and 
 Louisiana. The overlapping claims of the two countries might 
 have led to serious contention between them but, as we have 
 seen, France at the close of the French and Indian War, in 
 1763, ceded New France and all her territory east of the Missi- 
 sippi except the Island of Orleans, to England and all west 
 of that river and the Island of Orleans to Spain. The latter 
 country now found herself in possession of practically all of 
 the present limits of the United States west of the Mississippi, 
 with the possible exception of the Oregon Country, which was 
 as yet unexplored and unclaimed by any nation. 
 
 Still Spain made but little attempt to colonize this great 
 territory, and in 1800 by the secret treaty of San Ildefonso, she 
 re-ceded Louisiana to France. 
 
 In 1803 Fance sold Louisiana to the United States. Its 
 boundaries were very indefinite. We claimed west to the Rio 
 Grande and also claimed West Florida but in 1819 we purchased 
 East and West Florida from Spain, and by the treaty of ces- 
 sion we gave up all claim to Texas and accepted the Sabine as 
 our western boundary in the south. 
 
 In the meantime the greatness of Spain was on the decline. 
 Her colonies in America began to revolt and set up indepen- 
 dent governments. In 1820 Mexico revolted and established 
 her independence. At first an empire was organized with Itur- 
 bide as Emperor, but in 1824 a republic was organized and a 
 constitution adopted. 
 
 Texas was included within the limits of this Republic of 
 Mexico and about 1825 crowds of settlers began to pour into the 
 country from the United States. Moses Austin of Connecticut 
 secured the first grant of land given to an American in Texas, 
 from Spain in 1820. Austin had been a pioneer in Missouri and 
 had grown quite wealthy but lost his fortune in the failure of 
 the Bank of St. Louis of which he was a heavy stock-holder. 
 His grant of land was along the lower Brazos and Colorado. 
 
 Moses Austin died soon after obtaining this grant, but his 
 son Stephen Austin, took up the work and led the first colony 
 of settlers to the new country in December 1821. His land 
 grant was confirmed by Iturbide as Emperor, and later by the 
 Republic of Mexico, and soon other settlers came until quite a 
 flourishing colony was established. Others now began to ask 
 for land grants, and among those securing them were, DeWitt 
 of Missouri, Ross and Leftwich of Tennessee, Milan of Ken- 
 tucky, Burnet of Ohio, Thorn of New York, Cameron of Scot- 
 land and many others. Settlements were rapidly established 
 and by 1830 it is estimated that there were twenty thousand 
 Americans in Texas. Mexico, which had at first encouraged im- 
 migration from the United States, now became alarmed and 
 tried to check the invasion. April 6th 1830 the Mexican Con- 
 gress passed a law forbidding further colonization in the bor- 
 
23 
 
 der states of Mexico but the Americans paid very little atten- 
 tion to this law. 
 
 In the meantime the United States had made several at- 
 tempts to purchase Texas from Mexico, but the latter country 
 steadfastly refused to sell. There had been much dissatisfac- 
 tion in the United States over the treaty of 1819 for the cession 
 of Florida, because by this treaty we had agreed to accept the 
 Sabine as our western boundary. Many people bitterly con- 
 demned the administration at that time for giving up, as they 
 said, "a rich country like Texas in exchange for the sand-hills 
 and pine-barrens of Florida." Talk of the "re-annexation of 
 Texas" became popular. In 1827 the United States offered 
 Mexico one million dollars for Texas and in 1829 this offer 
 was increased to five million but in vain. 
 
 About this time Texas began to complain most bitterly of 
 the treatment she was receiving at the hands of the Mexican 
 government. Texas was joined with Coahuila to form a 
 Mexican state, but the capital was located in Coahuila, which 
 was a great distance from Texas. The State of Coahuila and 
 Texas had a constitution adopted in 1827. By this the State 
 was divided into three departments, Saltillo, Monclova and 
 Texas and later Parras was cut off from Texas and made a 
 fourth department. The legislature of the state consisted of 
 twelve members, the Texas apDOrtionment being two. These 
 were chosen by electors but the governor was chosen by popu- 
 lar vote. An act was passed by this Coahuila-Texas legisla- 
 ture against the bitter opposition of the Texas members, for- 
 bidding any more Americans settling in Texas. Also the 
 Mexican Congress passed a law, September 15th 1829, abolish- 
 ing slavery, though at last by a special exception a proclamation 
 was issued by President Guerrero, December 2d 1829, stating 
 that the Texans would be permitted to retain their slaves. 
 Moreover the Indians were hostile and Mexico refused to make 
 any effort to protect the colonists in Texas and a series of op- 
 pressive acts by the Mexican Congress engendered in the 
 Texans a feeling of bitter hostility toward the government and 
 people of Mexico. 
 
 In 1833 Santa Anna came into power in Mexico. He was 
 elected president and soon abolished the constitution and made 
 himself virtually Dictator. But just about this time there ap- 
 peared in Texas one of the most remarkable men that America 
 lias ever produced. This man was General Sam Houston. 
 
 Space cannot be given here to any sort of account of Hous- 
 ton's checkered life. Sufficient to say that of all the men 
 whose names grace the pages of American History, none have 
 had a more varied or interesting career. Born in Virginia in 
 1793 he holds the remarkable distinction of having been Gov- 
 ernor of two states as well as member of Congress from one 
 state and United States Senator from another, besides com- 
 mander-in-chief of the armies of a nation and twice President 
 of a Republic. 
 
 Houston was always a close friend of General Jackson, hav- 
 ing served under that redoubtable leader at the battle of To-ho- 
 pe-ka, or Horse-shoe Bend of the Talapoosa river, where he 
 was severely wounded. He was elected Govrnor of Tennessee 
 in 1827 and in 1829 was a candidate for re-election. But dur- 
 ing the campaign he suddenly resigned his office and left Nash- 
 ville for the Indian Territory. He had been married but a short 
 
24 
 
 time and it is said had learned that his wife loved another man 
 and had only married him because of the importunities of her 
 family. 
 
 However this may be we know that Houston suddenly aban- 
 doned his home and all his brilliant prospects and sought a 
 home among the Indians of the West. He returned to Wash- 
 ington once or twice, and in December 1832 he started from 
 the Indian Territory to Texas, on a mission for Jackson, os- 
 tensibly to try to induce certain bands of Indians, that had left 
 Indian Territory and settled in Texas, to return. He bore a 
 passport from the War Department of the United States and 
 it has been often said that Jackson wished to annex Texas 
 and Houston, like the Israelites of old, was sent merely "to 
 spy out the land." The statement rests upon very unsubstan- 
 tial foundation, yet everyone who has studied the life of Jack- 
 son knows that he had an intense hatred for the Dons and all 
 things Spanish and that on certain former occasions he had 
 shown himself perfectly willing to invade the territory of a 
 peaceful nation and coolly take possession of it. Hence it 
 seems quite probable that there may have been some kind of 
 understanding between Houston and Jackson relative to the 
 acquisition of Texas by the United States. Such an under- 
 standing is hinted at in Houston's letter to Jackson, bearing 
 the date of February 13th 1833. 
 
 Houston took up his residence in Texas at about the time 
 when the disaffection of the colonists there was very great. 
 Soon after his arrival a convention of the people of Texas was 
 called to discuss matters. This convention decided to send a 
 petition to the Mexican Congress at Mexico City, asking that 
 Texas be separated from Coahuila and made a separate state. 
 A committee of which Houston was made chairman, wa; ap- 
 pointed to draft a constitution, and it was decided to send 
 Austin to Mexico City with these documents to ask their ap- 
 proval by the Mexican Congress. 
 
 Austin set out at once upon his long journey, but upon his 
 arrival in Mexico City he could get no hearing upon his peti- 
 tion. It was in vain that he urged the Mexican Congress to 
 give him a hearing. He was always put off with the plea that 
 more important business must first be attended to, and tired 
 out and discouraged, he at last wrote to his friends in Texas 
 that it might be well to form a state government separate from 
 Coahuila without waiting for the sanction of the Government 
 of Mexico. A copy of this letter fell into the hands of the 
 Mexican officials and on Austin's return journey he was ar- 
 rested by a party of Mexican soldiers and thrown into prison. 
 Austin remained in prison nearly two years and during this 
 time the dissatisfaction in Texas steadily increased. 
 
 When he was at last released and returned to his home he 
 reiterated the statement that a government should be organiz- 
 ed without waiting longer for the approval of the Mexican 
 government, and a convention was accordingly called for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Just about this time the Texas colonists were ordered to 
 surrender all arms that had been sent into the country by the 
 Mexican government, for protection against the Indians. As 
 the Indians were still hostile the order was resisted and, at 
 Gonzales, October 2d 1835 came the first real conflict, when a 
 party of Mexican soldiers attempted to take a small brass can- 
 
25 
 
 non, that had been given the colonists. The Texans resisted 
 and the Mexicans were driven away and several of their men 
 killed. The first blood of the Mexico-Texas war had been 
 spilled and the conflict was on in earnest. 
 
 A convention to form a provisional government had been 
 called in accordance with the wishes of Austm, and the dele- 
 gates met at San Felipe October 16th, but a quorum not being 
 present, they adjourned until November 1st. On November 3d 
 1835, they met again. Fifty-five delegates were present this 
 time and Branch T. Archer was elected president of the body. 
 November 7th a "Provisional Declaration of Independence was 
 adopted, in which it was declared that Texas was separated 
 from Coahuila, that they were not bound to obey any of the 
 recent acts of Mexico, but that they favored, and would still 
 abide by, the Constitution of 1824. 
 
 The convention provided for a Governor and Lieutenant 
 Governor to be elected and for an advisory council composed 
 of one member from each municipality. Henry Smith was 
 elected Governor, James W. Robinson Lieutenant Governor, 
 and three Commissioners were apoointed to the United States. 
 These three men were Branch T. Archer, Wm. H. Wharton and 
 Stephen F. Austin. An army was also provided for and Hous- 
 ton was chosen commander-in-chief. Many members of the 
 convention favored an absolute declaration of independence, but 
 Houston and some others at last persuaded them not to take a 
 step so radical at this time. The convention now adjourned to 
 meet again March 1st, 1836 unless called together sooner by the 
 Governor and Council. 
 
 The Texas war for independence was comparatively short 
 Houston called for volunteers and the Texans responded readi- 
 ly, while many Americans came over to help their friends. 
 Some historians divide the war into two parts, calling the first 
 part, or up until March 1836, the struggle for the Constitution 
 of 1824, and the part after that, the struggle for independence. 
 
 We cannot here follow the details of this war. Enough to 
 say that Ben Milam captured San Antonio early in December 
 1835, that it was re-taken by Santa Anna in February, and 
 Travis and his gallant band in the Alamo were butchered 
 March 6th 1835. That Fannin and his men were shot down at 
 Goliad March 27th and that the final battle of San Jacinto was 
 fought April 21st 1836 and resulted in a complete victory for 
 Houston and his men. and the capture of Santa Anna, the 
 boasted "Napoleon of the West." 
 
 In the meantime the affairs of the Texas government had 
 been running anything but smoothly. The Governor and the 
 Council quarrelled with one another and both quarrelled with 
 the commander-in-chief. There was much dissatisfaction with 
 the manner in which the provisional government was managed, 
 and many peoole were eagerly demanding a declaration of com- 
 plete independence. 
 
 Things were in this unsettled and unsatisfactory condition 
 when the general convention met at New Washington on the 
 Brazos, March 1st 1836 to take into consideration the matter 
 of independence and a new government. 
 
 Richard Ellis was elected oresident of the. body, and March 
 2d a formal declaration of independence was adopted. Houston 
 who was with the army in the field sent a letter to the con- 
 vention, advising them to declare Texas a part of the United 
 
26 
 
 States under the treaty of 1803 for the purchase of Louisiana. 
 The advice was not taken. Texas was declared to be a free and 
 independent State and a new provisional government was form- 
 ed and a constitution drafted. David G. Burnet was made Pres- 
 ident, and Lorenzo de Zavala Vice President. A Cabinet was 
 appointed and a loan of one million dollars authorized. March 
 the 16th the Constitution of the Republic of Texas was adopted 
 by the convention, and that body adjourned the following day. 
 
 The constitution provided for three departments of govern- 
 ment, Executive, Legislative and Judicial, governed by the 
 common law of England. It provided that slavery should 
 exist, that no one should free his slaves without the consent 
 of Congress, and that free negroes should not be permitted to 
 live in the Republic. 
 
 Houston had been re-appointed commander-in-chief by the 
 convention and after the Battle of San Jacinto, he still kept 
 command of the army for some months. This was a stormy 
 time in the history of Texas. There was much jealousy be- 
 tween the various officials of the government, while the army 
 was turbulent and hard to control. Mexico remained hostile 
 and while beaten in the field, she yet refused to make a treaty 
 of peace and, of course, would not recognize the independence 
 of the Texans. A commission was sent to the United States 
 to ask for the recognition of independence but the United 
 States refused until Texas should have proved herself able to 
 maintain her independence for a reasonable length of time. 
 Santa Anna who was still in captivity offered to make a treaty 
 recognizing Texan independence but the Congress of Mexico 
 repudiated his acts and passed a bill expressly declaring that 
 no act of his made while a prisoner should be considered as 
 binding upon the Mexican Republic. 
 
 In September 1836, an election was held to ratify the con- 
 stitution and to elect officers for the Republic of Texas. At 
 this election two questions were put to the people to be voted 
 upon. One was: Should Congress have power to amend the 
 constitution. The second was the question of annexation to the 
 United States. There were but 223. votes in favor of the first 
 proposition and but 91 against the last. Houston was elected 
 President and Lamar Vice-President. Soon after Houston's 
 accession to the presidency Albert Sydney Johnson was made 
 commander-in-chief of the army. 
 
 Since the people had declared themselves almost unanimous- 
 ly in favor of annexation, a commission was at once sent to 
 Washington to present £he matter to the American government. 
 But the question of slavery was now looming up, a dark and 
 threatening cloud upon the horizon and the anti-slavery partv 
 was bitterly opposed to the addition of so much new slave ter- 
 ritoy to the United States, so the petition of Texas was re- 
 fused. The United States however in March 1837 recognized 
 the independence of Texas and the other nations of the world 
 followed her example soon after. France in 1839, Holland and 
 Belgium in 1840, and Great Brittain in 1842. 
 
 Houston always desired annexation and during his term 
 as president was constantly working toward that end. He was 
 succeeded by Lamar who seemed to take the refusal of the 
 United States as final and bent all his energies toward building 
 up the government of Texas as a Republic. However the peo- 
 
27 
 
 pie desired annexation, and Houston was elected the second 
 time upon the issue of annexation or no-annexation. 
 
 Reilly, the Texas Minister to Washington, again brought 
 up the question of annexation early in 1843, but it seemed hope- 
 less then. Reilly was succeeded by Van Zandt, and the latter 
 renewed the proposition in 1843, but Congress would not con- 
 sider it, and in consequence the President declined the new 
 proposal of annexation. Late in 1843, however the United 
 States took the initiative. Secretary of State Upshur, who had 
 succeeded Webster proposed annexation to Van Zandt at the 
 instance of President Tyler. This was done secretly and 
 Texas at once sent Mr. Henderson to assist Van Zandt in ar- 
 ranging a treaty. He reached Washington March 28th 1844, and 
 a secret treaty was signed early in April. This treaty was made 
 public April 22d 1844 and caused great excitement. But Tyler 
 was then engaged in his greatest quarrels with Congress and, 
 June 8th 1844, the Senate rejected the treaty, largely owing to 
 the personal unpopularity of Tyler. 
 
 The Polk-Clay campaign of this year was fought out mainly 
 upon the issue of the annexation of Texas. Polk of Tennessee 
 had been nominated as a "dark horse" but he was known to 
 favor annexation and pursued a consistent course throughout. 
 Clay on the other hand attempted to make friends with both 
 parties with the result that he made friends with neither. Any- 
 one who accepts at par Clay's declaration that he "would rather 
 be right than President," must indeed feel that this desire to be 
 right was an overmastering one, for he certainly wished to be 
 President very much. In his eagerness to win votes he wrote 
 letters to friends in the south expressing himself as favoring 
 annexation, and also letters to friends in the North declaring 
 that he favored their views. Some of these letters fell into the 
 hands of Clay's opponents who had them printed in parallel 
 columns and circulated all over the country as evidence of his 
 double-dealing. The result was most disastrous to Clay's 
 hopes and so embarrassing did the situation become to his 
 political friends that some of them laughingly declared that in 
 the future they should demand as the first requisite of a Pres- 
 idential candidate that he be unable to write. 
 
 After Polk's election and before his inauguration the friends 
 of annexation again brought up the question in their earnest 
 desire to achieve their object as soon as possible. They had a 
 majority in the lower House and realizing that it would be im- 
 possible to get the treaty past the Senate they now tried a 
 joint resolution. The opposition was very bitter many urging 
 that the joint resolution was un-constitutional' as usurping the 
 powers of the Senate yet it at last passed and was approved by 
 the President March 1st 1845. 
 
 The Abolitionists were very much opposed to annexation, 
 as indeed were all the opponents of slavery and they strove 
 desperately to defeat the resolution, but in vain. One objec- 
 tion urged against annexation was that Mexico had not yet 
 given up her claim to Texas and the boundary was also in dis- 
 pute, Texas claiming the Rio Grande as her south-west bound- 
 ary and Mexico claiming it to be the Neuces. Hence annexa- 
 tion meant war with Mexico. However the friends of annexa- 
 tion were undaunted by the prospect of war and pushed their 
 resolution through and on the last day of his term, March 3d 
 1845, Tyler despatched his nephew to Texas with the official 
 
28 
 
 documents which tendered to the Lone Star Republic the pro- 
 posal of the United States for immediate union. 
 
 The joint resolution provided that Texas should cede to the 
 United States all public buildings, forts, navies, docks, maga- 
 zines and other property belonging to the public defense. That 
 Texas should retain all public funds, debts, taxes, dues etc. 
 either on hand, due, or owing to the Republic as well as all 
 vacant and unappropriated lands, to be used in paying the debts, 
 liabilities, etc. of Texas, but in no case were these debts or 
 liabilities to become a charge upon the United States. The 
 resolution also provided that new states not exceeding four in 
 number besides Texas itself, might be formed out of the state 
 of Texas, by and with the consent of said state. 
 
 The question of annexation was now before Texas for ap- 
 proval or rejection. Santa Anna had been driven from power 
 in Mexico and the new Mexican govenment now offered to 
 make a treaty of peace with Texas acknowledging the inde- 
 pendence of the latter provided she would solemnly promise 
 to forever forego annexation. A treaty embodying these terms 
 was drawn up by Mexico and sent to Texas to be passed upon. 
 
 Anson Jones was at this time President of Texas. He at 
 once announced a cessation of hostilities between the two 
 countries and, on May 5th 1845, issued a proclamation calling 
 a special session of Congress to pass upon the question of an- 
 nexation, and the Mexican treaty. He also called a convention 
 to pass upon the question of annexation and to make a state 
 constitution provided that annexation should be decided upon. 
 
 The special session of the Texas Congress met June 16th 
 and the Senate at once unanimously rejected the Mexican treaty 
 (June 21st) while on June 23d both houses voted in favor of 
 annexation. 
 
 July 4th, the convention called for that purpose met and 
 passed an ordinance of annexation and also proceeded to form 
 a state constitution. This ordinance and constitution were sub- 
 mitted to the people and almost unanimously ratified October 
 13th 1845. The additional formalities were soon complied with 
 and Texas became a state in December 1845. 
 
 The remainder of the story of the Mexican cession is not 
 especially creditable to the United States. It was generally 
 conceded in our own country that the annexation of Texas 
 would mean war with Mexico, yet the latter country showed 
 a disposition to compromise the matter and John Slidell of 
 Louisiana was sent as special envoy from the United States. 
 But the latter country insisted upon the Rio Grande as the 
 boundary and moreover, when Slidell arrived in Vera Cruz he 
 found the inhabitants of that city excited and angry because of 
 the presence of some American warships tying off the harbor. 
 When he reached the City of Mexico the government refused 
 to receive him, consequently negotiations were broken off, and 
 General Taylor was ordered to the strip of country in dispute 
 between the Neuces and the Rio Grande. 
 
 While there a party of his men were attacked by the Mexi- 
 cans and several men were killed. President Polk at once sent 
 a message to Congress (May 11th 1846) stating that "Mexico 
 has crossed our borders and shed the blood of our citizens up- 
 on our own soil. War now exists and exists by the act of 
 Mexico herself." Volunteers were called for and the conflict 
 commenced. 
 
29 
 
 It was very unequal. Taylor crossed into Mexico and cap- 
 tured Monterey, and then remained with a small force to hold 
 the country so far gained, while General Scott was sent to in- 
 vade the country. 
 
 The latter landed at Vera Cruz and having captured that 
 city, pushed on toward the capital. Santa Anna had been ban- 
 ished from Mexico and gone to Havana de Cuba, but the United 
 States hoping that he would use his influence for its benefit, 
 allowed him to pass the blockade and return to Mexico. On 
 the same day that war was declared, May 13th 1846, orders were 
 issued to the commander of the American blockading squadron 
 in the Gulf of Mexico, not to obstruct Santa Anna's passage. 
 Once in his native country however, the wily Mexican forgot 
 any promises he may have made to the United States, and at 
 once placed himself at the head of the Mexican army. 
 
 Yet neither his skill as a general, nor the superior numbers 
 of the Mexicans were of any avail. The Americans were suc- 
 cessful in every battle and, after a hard fought campaign of 
 several months, captured the City of Mexico itself. 
 
 Meanwhile General Kearney had been sent against Santa Fe. 
 He easily seized the city, August 18th, 1846, since it was incap- 
 able of much resistance, and leaving a garrison there he him- 
 self pushed on with a small force to California. 
 
 In the meantime stirring events were taking place in the 
 latter country. California had, at this time, but few inhabi- 
 tants. It had been visited and the coast explored by Cabrillo 
 and Drake in the sixteenth century. Cabrillo had explored the 
 coast as far north as San Diego Bay where he died, January 3d 
 1543. His successor Ferralo, however, sailed on as far north 
 as forty-two degrees north latitude. Drake's visit was in 1579, 
 and he reached a point north of San Francisco Bay. In 1602- 
 1603 Sebastian Vizcaino conducted an exploring expedition 
 along the coast of California. 
 
 In 1770 the Mission of San Carlos was founded at Monterey 
 and in 1776 the mission at San Francisco, while others soon 
 followed. Nearly all these missions were founded by the Fran- 
 ciscans, and soon after the first ones were established, the 
 Spanish government began to found towns and forts or "pueb- 
 los." San Jose was the first of these, in 1777 and Los Angeles 
 in 1781. 
 
 From this time on Spanish settlements had slowly extend- 
 ed northward. The pueblos were not very successful but the 
 missions prospered exceedingly and the country grew slowly 
 but steadily in wealth and population. News of the revolt of 
 Mexico reached California in 1822, and the Mexican flag quietly 
 replaced that of Spain. By 1826 a little commerce was begun 
 and gradually a few Americans and other foreigners came into 
 the country. In 1840 a Swiss named Sutter, established a fort 
 and settlement in the Sacramento valley. He was a Catholic 
 and had received a large grant of land from the Mexican gov- 
 ernment. Many Americans moved into the country and Sutter 
 ruled almost like a real potentate. He mounted cannon at his 
 fort, traded with the Indians, and was the man of the most 
 power and influence in all that region. 
 
 In 1842, John C. Fremont, the famous "Pathfinder," made 
 his first trip into the west, on an exploring expedition. His 
 route lay toward the Oregon Country. He went past Fort 
 Laramie, up the Platte River to the South Pass, and returned 
 
30 
 
 with glowing accounts of his discoveries. His second expedi- 
 tion was in 1843. It is related that Fremont's second expedi- 
 tion had military objects in view but that after he had receiv- 
 ed his orders to go, the government decided to countermand 
 them. However Fremont's wife learned of this and hurried 
 him off by a strategem before the countermand could reach 
 him. 
 
 Whether this be true or not, we know that Fremont made 
 the trip and traveled over, and explored a vast region. He 
 reached Sutter's fort in January 1843 and on his return to the 
 states published a narrative of his journey which was eagerly 
 read by thousands of people all over the United States. 
 
 For this reason when he started again in 1845 there was 
 much interest in the expedition, on the part of many people. 
 Fremont started on this expedition with about sixty men be- 
 sides surveyors, guides, etc. The party was well armed and 
 had about two hundred horses. Reaching Sutter's fort, he 
 went from there to Monterey bearing a passport from Sutter, 
 to ask permission of the Mexican Commandante, General Jose 
 Castro, to winter in California. This permission was readily 
 granted and also permission to travel over and explore the 
 country to the south as far as the Rio Colorado. 
 
 In accordance with this permission, late in February, Fre- 
 mont started southward, but on account of some petty occur- 
 rences for which his men were partly to blame, he received 
 notice from General Castro, commander of the Mexican forces 
 in California, to depart at once, accompanied with threats of 
 violence should he refuse. Fremont at once took a strong 
 position on Gavilan Peak. Here he entrenched himself, raised 
 the American flag and bade Castro defiance. After a few days 
 Fremont retired, aiming for the San Joaquin Valley, and from 
 there he retreated slowly northward, to the Oregon border. 
 This was in March 1846. 
 
 On the shores of Lake Klamath near the Oregon border, he 
 was overtaken by a messenger from Washington, Lieutenant 
 Archibald Gillespie. This messenger brought him a packet of 
 family letters from Fremont's father-in-law, Senator Benton, a 
 letter of introduction from the Secretary of State, and some 
 verbal information of an official nature. Gillespie had left 
 Washington with secret instructions from the President, and 
 secret dispatches, early in November 1845. He had first gone 
 to Monterey and delivered his messages to Mr .Larkin the 
 American Consul there, and had then sought out Captain Fre- 
 mont and found him May 9th 1846. Gillespie came to Cali- 
 fornia through Mexico, via Vera Cruz, but his dispatches he 
 had committed to memory and destroyed before he landed in 
 that city. 
 
 Exactly what was contained in those secret dispatches will 
 perhaps never be known. It is said that he received orders to 
 co-operate with other secret agents of the United States who 
 were planning to detach California from Mexico as soon as a_ 
 favorable opportunity arose. Buchanan was now Secretary of 
 State. It is claimed that he issued orders to Larkin and other 
 secret agents of our government, urging them to impress upon 
 the people of California the desirability of living under the 
 Stars and Stripes, and to warn them against European inter- 
 vention or influence. 
 
 Be this as it may, Castro apparently became somewhat 
 
31 
 
 alarmed at the presence of so many Americans in California 
 and it is said, began to talk of expelling all foreigners from the 
 province. At this a few turbulent and adventurous spirits 
 among the settlers, rose in revolt and seized some horses that 
 belonged to the California government. The revolutionists now 
 raised a flag upon which they had painted in checkerberry 
 juice, something that they called a grizzly-bear. With the rais- 
 ing of this flag they proclaimed the "Bear State Republic" and 
 called upon Fremont for aid. 
 
 Perhaps Fremont had been waiting for just such an oppor- 
 tunity. At any rate he put himself at the head of the move- 
 ment and soon drove out the Mexican governor and made him- 
 self master of the country. Meanwhile Commodore Sloat, who 
 commanded the American squadron on the Pacific coast, had 
 been ordered to seize California as soon as war had been de- 
 clared. But Sloat was inclined to avoid responsibility, and even 
 after the news of Taylor in Mexico had reached him, he still 
 hesitated, and it was not until July 7th that he at last moved 
 upon Monterey. It surrendered without a struggle. The 
 American flag was hoisted and a proclamation issued concilia- 
 tory to the people of California. San Francisco and other points 
 were now seized so that almost the entire country was in the 
 hands of the Americans. 
 
 About this time Sloat sailed for home and Commodore 
 Stockton assumed command. The latter had no hesitation 
 about assuming responsibility, and quickly completed the seiz- 
 ure of all points on the coast. There was an English squadron 
 off the coast and great uneasiness was felt by the Americans 
 lest England should gain possession of the country. 
 
 Before the conquest was complete General Kearney arrived 
 from Santa Fe with a small body of dragoons and at once as- 
 sumed command. A bitter controversy arose between him and 
 Fremont, and the latter was tried by a court-martial and con- 
 victed of disobedience of orders, but was pardoned by the 
 President. 
 
 Defeated on every hand, Mexico was compelled to sue for 
 peace, and the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, was signed Febru- 
 ary 2d and made public July 4th 1848. By this treaty we paid 
 Mexico the sum of fifteen million dollars and took the huge 
 territory known as the "Mexican Cession." The boundaries 
 between the two countries were designated as follows: Begin- 
 ning at a point three leagues from the shore and directly oppo- 
 site the mouth of the Rio Grande, thence up that river following 
 the line of the main channel to the southern boundary of New 
 Mexico, thence west along that boundary to the southwest cor- 
 ner, thence north to the Gila, thence along the Gila until it 
 empties into the Colorado, thence across the Colorado and fol- 
 lowing the division line between upper and lower California to 
 the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The country lying south of the Gila and known as the 
 "Gadsden Purchase" was bought later, in 18S4, for ten million 
 dollars. It is a comparatively worthless tract of land and the 
 high price paid has led some historians to say that the ten mil- 
 lions was largely "conscience money" paid by the United States. 
 Still it is urged that the tract is valuable because it furnishes a 
 better route for a trans-continental railway than any other 
 in the south. 
 
 Our treatment of Mexico has been very harshly criticised 
 
32 
 
 of late years but certainly without sufficient reason. The ac- 
 quisition of this territory by the United States was inevitable 
 sooner or later and, while some steps taken by our govern- 
 ment in securing it are open to censure, yet the end surely jus- 
 tified the means. 
 
 From first to last it is again but the story of the triumph of 
 the Teuton over the Latin, of the strong and hardy race over 
 the weak and indolent one. Anyone who will but look at the 
 splendid states that have been formed from this territory and 
 compare their great cities and happy, prosperous people with 
 those of Mexico, torn by civic strife and whose people are poor, 
 ignorant and degraded, must quickly realize what an unmixed 
 blessing the sovereignty of the United States has been to this 
 great region. 
 
CHAPTETR FOUR 
 THE OREGON COUNTRY 
 
 The northwestern part of the United States and part of 
 British Coumbia has the remarkable distinction of having been 
 claimed by four, and perhaps five, nations. This region was 
 early called "The Oregon Country" the word "Oregon" being 
 the name given by the Indians to a kind of wild sage that 
 abounds in that country. 
 
 The coast was visited in the sixteenth century by daring 
 Spanish navigators, Ferralo in 1539, and later by Ulloa and 
 others. In 1579 the great English sailor Sir Francis Drake 
 visited this coast, and ten years later Cavendish was on the 
 Pacific coast of North America, though it is probable that he 
 did not get any further north than California. 
 
 Neither Spain nor England followed up these early explora- 
 tions by any attempt to further explore or to settle the country 
 for more than a century and a half, and in the meantime a new 
 power had appeared in the North Pacific. The newcomer was 
 Russia. 
 
 In 1728 Bering, a Danish navigator in the employ of the 
 Russian government, was sent to explore the north eastern 
 coast of Asia. His success in discovering the extreme north- 
 eastern limit of that great continent, prompted Catherine to 
 send him on another expedition from Kamchatka to North 
 America. This was in 1741. 
 
 Bering had two vessels, and they became separated and both 
 reached the coast of North America about the same time, but 
 at widely different points. Bering's own vessel reached the 
 coast of Alaska near Mt. St. Elias and the other far to the 
 south of that point. They explored much of the coast of 
 Alaska as well as the Aleutian Islands. Bering died soon after 
 and was buried on the little island that bears his name. 
 
 By virtue of his explorations Russia laid claim to a large 
 territory, and soon followed up this claim by establishing set- 
 tlements and trading posts. Within a few years Russian trad- 
 ing stations had been made on Bering Island and some of the 
 Aleutians, as well as several on the main land. Russia had 
 found a great source of wealth in the fur of the sea otter, that 
 then abounded in this region as far south as San Francisco 
 Bay, and Russian fur-trading vesels came to this coast in 
 great numbers. 
 
 About 1769 Spain apparently awoke to the possibilities of 
 the north-west coast. In that year she advanced her settle- 
 ments in California as far north as San Francisco, and soon es- 
 tablished missions and "presidos" even north of that point. From 
 1774 to 1794 Spain sent to this region many expeditions of ex- 
 ploration and discovery. The coast was carefully explored as 
 far north as fifty-nine degrees and twenty-nine minutes north 
 latitude, though no settlements were made by the Spanish north 
 of California. 
 
 In the meantime other nations of Europe had not been idle. 
 In 1778 the famous English navigator Captain Cook, landed at 
 
. : 4 
 
 Nootka Sound on the coast of Vancouver Island, and in 1786 
 the French explorer La Perouse, sailed along the Oregon coast. 
 
 The claims of France to Oregon were rather hazy. Mar- 
 quette and La Salle, as we have seen, had explored the Missis- 
 sippi thus giving France title to the great region known as 
 Louisiana. She also held New France but just how far these 
 possessions reached to the westward no one yet exactly knew. 
 Still France would doubtless have claimed that Oregon belong- 
 ed to her had she not, at the close of the French and Indian 
 War, ceded all her lands west of the Mississippi to Spain. 
 France was thus temporarily removed from the race for the 
 Oregon Country, but in 1800 Spain re-ceded Louisiana to 
 France, "With the same boundaries that it had when France 
 originally owned it," and thus the French claim was again reviv- 
 ed. However we know that France at once sold Louisiana to the 
 United States, thus forever removing herself from the list of 
 the claimants of Oregon and bringing into the contest the new 
 republic of the United States. » 
 
 As a matter of fact however the United States was already 
 a claimant of Oregon by right of discovery and exploration. In 
 1792 a Boston trader named Captain Gray, entered the mouth 
 of the Columbia. He explored the river for a short distance 
 and named it for his vessel. Upon leaving the river Gray fell 
 in with the English explorer Vancouver, to whom he gave his 
 maps and charts. Vancouver entered the Columbia and ex- 
 plored it for a considerable distance. Thus the United States 
 claimed Oregon through the discovery and exploration of 
 Gray, yet the purchase of Louisiana aided our claim by giving 
 us, in addition to our own, any rights that France may have 
 possessed. 
 
 Soon after France sold her claims, Spain also withdrew from 
 the race. The real issue between Spain and England as to 
 sovereignty on the north-west coast was made at Nootka 
 Sound in 1789. Both nations attempted to form a settlement 
 there at the same time. The Spanish captured the English 
 vessels and this threw the case into diplomacy between the two 
 nations. The younger Pitt was then at the head of the govern- 
 ment in England. He prepared to back the claims of England 
 by force, but at last the famous Nootka Treaty was made in 
 1790. It provided that the question of ownership should be 
 left open this virtually amounting to a joint occupancy between 
 Spain and Great Britain. England therefore gained her full 
 commercial demands as to the right of free and uninterrupted 
 navigation, fishing, commerce, and the right to establish posts 
 or stations should she so desire. 
 
 In 1795 Spain, without "quit claiming" her rights, quietly 
 withdrew from Nootka Sound and a few years later she with- 
 drew to the southern boundary of the present state of Oregon. 
 By the treaty of Febuary 22d 1819, for the purchase of Florida 
 by the United States, Spain fixed as the northern limit of her 
 claims, the present northern boundary of California. Spain was 
 now out of the race and the five nations had dwindled to three, 
 England, Russia and the United States. 
 
 Russia was the first to give up the contest, yet she did not 
 withdrew without a struggle. In 1766 the first individual Rus- 
 sian enteprises had been organized for the fur trade and in 179S 
 the Russian-American Fur Company was organized. This com- 
 pany soon occupied the Pacific coast for a thousand miles, be- 
 
35 
 
 sides the Aleutian Islands and other islands along the coast. 
 American fur traders were also at work in this region and there 
 was more or less friction between the citizens of the two 
 nations. 
 
 In 1812 the Russians obtained permission from the Spanish 
 to found a trading post at Bodega Bay just north of San Fran- 
 cisco. Their object, so they said, was to buy beer to supply their 
 stations further north. In two or three years they had built up 
 so strong a post that the Spanish governor of California be- 
 came alarmed and ordered them to leave. They refused and 
 in 1820 established another post about forty miles to the north. 
 
 In 1821, Russia claimed by a public decree all the coast of 
 the Pacific as far south as fifty-one degrees north latitude. 
 England and the United States both protested and in 1824 a 
 treaty was negotiated between the United States and Russia 
 whereby the former nation agreed to make no claim north of 
 fifty-four degrees and forty minutes north latitude and the 
 latter none south of that line. 
 
 In 1825 the Russian government made a similar agreement 
 with Great Britain. However the Russians still held the 
 two posts in California and Great Britain formally protested 
 against this as a violation of the treaty. Mexico was asked to 
 expel them but was unable to do so and asked the kindly of- 
 fices of the United States. At the request of the latter nation 
 Russia withdrew from California and formally relinquished all 
 claim to any territory south of 54° 40'. 
 
 But two nations were now left in the contest for Oregon: 
 England and the United States. Both were eager to secure the 
 country and for a long time it seemed doubtful which would 
 win. From the standpoint of discovery and exploration, the 
 claim of England was perhaps the better. About 1769 England 
 had sent Samuel Hearne to explore the Northwest. He dis- 
 covered Great Slave Lake and explored the Coppermine River 
 to its mouth. His discoveries were regarded very highly by 
 the British -overnment. It kept them secret, and in 1776 com- 
 missioned Captain Cook to explore the northwest coast. The 
 intention was that his explorations by sea should meet and close 
 in with those of Hearne by land. He was especially to look 
 carefully for any passage in the west coast that might extend 
 through to Hudson Bay. Cook explored the west coast for 
 a considerable distance but was at last killed by the natives of 
 the Sandwich Islands, upon which his expedition returned to 
 England. 
 
 In 1789 Sir Alexander MacKinzie had made an exploring ex- 
 pedition fro mLake Athabasca to the Arctic Ocean, following in 
 his journey, the river that bears his name. Three years later, 
 in the autumn of 1792. he started from Lake Athabasca to ex- 
 plore a route to the Pacific. He went up Peace River to its 
 source in the Rockies, wintered there, and in May pushed on. 
 In June they came to a divide where the rivers flowed, some 
 west toward the Pacific and others east toward the Atlantic. 
 In July 1793 they reached the sea, this being the first expedition 
 of white men across the continent to the Pacific. Mackenzie 
 reached the Pacific in what is now British Columbia, in the 
 latitude fifty-three degrees and twenty-one mintes and his expe- 
 dition was the first real, though undesigned, step toward the 
 occupation of Oregon by the British. 
 
 Most of the explorations by the United States had been later. 
 
36 
 
 Immediately after the purchase of Louisiana Jefferson sent 
 Lewis and Clarke to explore the northwest part of our new 
 possession. After a long and arduous trip they at last crossed 
 the Rocky Mountains and, in November 1805, reached the 
 mouth of the Columbia. 
 
 In 1811 John Jacob Astor, organizer of the American and The 
 Pacific Fur Companies, founded a settlement at the mouth of 
 the Columbia which he called Astoria. The next year war 
 broke out between England and the United States and in 1813 
 Astoria was captured by the British, and its name changed to 
 St. George. At the close of the war when the other posts in 
 the hands of the British were returned to the United States, 
 Astoria was not returned and an effort was made by Great 
 Britain to keep it permanently. Our government protested 
 vigorouslv however, and at last, in 1818, Astoria was restored 
 to the United States. 
 
 At the same time a treaty was made between England and 
 the United States providing that Oregon should be open to 
 trade and colonization for both countries for a period of ten 
 years. This treaty of "joint occupation'' was very advantageous 
 to England since it gave her great fur company, "The Hudson 
 Bay Company," a practical monopoly of the fur trade in that 
 region, because they were already the leaders and firmly es- 
 tablished. 
 
 This great company now became the most formidable ob- 
 stacle to the final confirmation of our right to Oregon. The" 
 Hudson Bay Company had been chartered for the first time by 
 Charles II. May 16th 1670. the original incorporators being 
 eighteen in number headed by Prince Rupert, hence the name, 
 formerly applied to part of British America, of "Rupert's Land." 
 The chief objects of the Hudson Bay Company as set forth in 
 the charter were "The discovery of a new passage to the South 
 Seas, and trade in furs, minerals etc." It was at first given sole 
 and exclusive right of trade and commerce in all that great 
 region of Canada from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Moun- 
 tains and later their jurisdiction was extended westward to the 
 Pacific. In all this region the Company was supreme. It 
 could make laws and govern it bound only by the tenor and 
 spirit of the law of England. It could make war and peace 
 within its jurisdiction and forbid others to live or hunt there. 
 For these privileges the Company paid each year two elks and 
 two black beavers, merely as a confession of allegiance to the 
 Crown. 
 
 Thus the government of British America became practically 
 the government of the Hudson Bay Company. Its power was 
 enormous. It ruled over a region larger than all Europe and 
 its forts and stations dotted all the northern country. Its trap- 
 pers, red and white, ranged from Montreal to the Yukon, a dis- 
 tance of three thousand miles. This was the power that the 
 United States must meet in its struggle for Oregon. 
 
 In 1827, when the period of joint occupation was about to 
 expire, the agreement was renewed for an indefinite period of 
 time provision being made that either party could abrogate the 
 agreement by giving the other one year's notice. 
 
 For several years little was done in regard to Oregon, but 
 at last considerable emigration set out to that country from the 
 United States. The Oregon Trail was established and several 
 settlements of Americans were formed in the new country. 
 
37 
 
 England had been keeping up the fur trade through the Hud- 
 son Bay Company and its trappers roamed about over the 
 country. It also had many forts and stations there, but of real 
 settlers England sent few if any at all. 
 
 In 1836 a party of American missionaries consisting of Dr. 
 Whitman, his wife, and Mr. and Mrs. Spalding went to Oregon. 
 Dr. Whitman founded a mission on the Walla Walla River and 
 there they labored incessantly among the Indians for years, 
 watching all the time with anxious eyes the greedy encroach- 
 ments of the Hudon Bay Company. In the autumn of 1842 a 
 new company of American immigrants came into the country 
 from the east. The newcomers numbered one hundred and 
 twenty men, women and children. Among them was General 
 Amos L. Lovejoy who told Whitman that a treaty was then 
 pending for the settlement of the northeastern and northwestern 
 boundaries of the country and would probably be concluded be- 
 fore Congress adjourned in 1843. The treaty referred to was 
 the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, signed August 9th 1842 and 
 confirmed by the Senate November 10th of the same year. 
 Already a considerable number of English settlers had come 
 into Oregon and about this time word was received that a new 
 company of one hundred and forty were on their way from 
 Canada. Whitman resolved to start at once for Washington 
 in order to explain the situation to the President and to try 
 to save Oregon to the United States. 
 
 The English in Oregon were rejoicing over the coming of 
 so many of their countrymen and already regarded Oregon as 
 the same as theirs. Whitman therefore resoved not to lose a 
 moment. The journey from Oregon to Washington was at 
 any time fraught with many hardships and perils, while in the 
 winter it was regarded as an almost impossible undertaking. 
 Yet Whitman dared not wait until spring. Already he feared 
 that he might be too late and would reach the American capital 
 only to find that the land, which he lived in, and loved, had been 
 ceded to G.reat Britain. 
 
 He started October 3d 1842, in company with General Love- 
 joy, and after undergoing terrible hardships at last reached 
 Washington early in the spring of 1843. Upon reaching the 
 East Whitman learned to his intense delight that the Ashbur- 
 ton Treaty had only settled the "North-eastern Boundary 
 Question" and provided that the parallel forty-nine should be 
 the boundary between the United States and British America 
 from The Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains, but 
 west of this nothing was said about the boundary. 
 
 At Washington he was very kindy received by President 
 Tyler and Secretary of State Daniel Webster. To them he 
 spoke in glowing terms of the resources of Oregon and asked 
 if it were true as Mr. Webster had said to the American Minis- 
 ter to England that "The ownerhip of Oregon is likely to fol- 
 low the greater settlement and population?" Being assured 
 that such was the case he then begged that Oregon might not 
 be bartered away until he could have an opportunity to lead 
 a band of immigrants to that country. 
 
 To this the President and Secretary readily agreed and 
 Whitman at once began to preach a crusade to Oregon. In 
 this he was ably seconded by General Lovejoy and in the sum- 
 mer of 1843 they started on their return journey leading an im- 
 
28 
 
 mense crowd of setters and leaving hundreds of others who had 
 promised to come the next year. 
 
 All over the East people were now talking of Oregon, and 
 the settlement of the boundary question became a very live 
 issue. By 1844 there was grave danger of war with Great 
 Britain over the question. In the Presidential campaign of that 
 year the cry of many of the Democrats was "Fifty four forty 
 or fight." On this issue, and the question of the annexation 
 of Texas, Polk was elected President. In the meantime in 
 June 1844, Pakenham, the British Minister offered to run the 
 line of forty-nine on past the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia, 
 and thence down that river to the ocean, as the northern bound- 
 ary of the United States. The President remembered his 
 promise to Whitman however and this offer was refused. 
 
 The people were loudly demanding that the joint occupation 
 of Oregon should cease and, May 21st 1846, the United States 
 gave notice through Minister McLane, of the abrogation of the 
 agreement. In June 1846 Lord Aberdeen proposed a treaty 
 fixing the boundary, from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, 
 at fortynine degrees. But the administration, that had been 
 elected on a "fifty-four forty or fight" platform, now found 
 themselves facing a most embarrassing situation. They realized 
 that a war with England would be a very great calamity and yet 
 how to recede gracefully from their former position was the 
 problem that now confronted them. 
 
 At last Buchanan, who was then Secretary of State, con- 
 ceived the plan of presenting the draft of the treaty to the 
 Senate confidentially, and asking their approval, instead of mak- 
 ing the treaty first and then presenting it for ratification. The 
 excitement of the campaign had subsided and the Senate 
 promptly expressed its approval of the treaty and it was signed, 
 June 15th 1846. 
 
 By the terms of the treaty forty-nine degrees north latitude 
 was accepted as the northern boundary of the United States and 
 the Hudson Bay Company was given the free navigation of the 
 Columbia. The island of Vancouver was given wholly to Eng- 
 land and the boundary line was drawn through the straits of 
 Juan de Fuca. July 17th 1846, ratifications were exchanged at 
 London and the race was over. The United States was the 
 winner nor was the prize unworthy of the effort for Oregon 
 and Washington have become two of our richest and most 
 prosperous states. 
 
CHAPTER FIVE 
 THE ALASKA PURCHASE 
 
 The story of Alaska and its purchase is closely connected 
 with the story of the Oregon Country. In 1728, we have seen 
 that Catherine of Russia sent Bering, a Danish navigator in 
 the employ of the Russian government, to explore the north- 
 eastern coast of Asia. Bering discovered the extreme north- 
 eastern limit of that great continent and several islands not far 
 from the coast of Alaska, but did not reach the mainland of 
 that country. However he passed twice through the strait that 
 bears his name, utterly unconscious of the proximity of the 
 continent of North America, and without the least idea that he 
 was anywhere except upon the broad waters of the Pacific. 
 
 His voyage was considered by Russia as very successful and 
 in 1741 Catherine sent him on a second expedition. He had two 
 vessels and set sail from Kamchatka. As related in the story 
 of Oregon, Bering's vessels became separated and July 18th 
 1741 his own vessel reached the coast of Alaska near Mt. St. 
 Elias. About the same time his other vessel reached the main- 
 land far to the south. Both sailed along the coast and explored 
 it for a great distance. They also discovered and explored the 
 Aleutians and many other islands along the coast, but Bering 
 soon afterward died and was buried on that little rocky islet 
 that has ever since been known as "Bering Island." 
 
 Through his explorations Russia laid claim to a large terri- 
 tory and soon followed up this claim by establishing trading 
 posts. Some of these trading stations were established on the 
 Aleutian Islands, on Bering Island, and several on the main- 
 land. The sea otter abounded in this region as far south as 
 San Francisco Bay, and the Russians found a great source of 
 wealth in the fur of these animals. Fur trading vessels were 
 sent out in great numbers and in this way the coast was still 
 further explored. 
 
 In 1766 the first individual companies were organized in 
 Russia for the American fur trade, and in 1798 the great Rus- 
 sian-American Fur Company was organized. It was the out- 
 growth of numerous trading associations which had begun to 
 be organized soon after 1741. Its charter gave it powers simi- 
 lar to those of the Hudson Bay Company by England. Its chief 
 place of business was originally Irkutsk but was soon trans- 
 ferred to St. Petersburg. None of its shareholders could be 
 foreigners and for nearly seventy years it carried on active 
 work in North America, administering government and carrying 
 on trade. Thus the struggle of England and Russia for supre- 
 macy in the north west was really a struggle of the two great 
 rival fur companies. 
 
 Soon after its organization this company was given a twenty 
 year monopoly of the fur business in this region, by the Rus- 
 sian government, and this monopoly was renewed in 1820 and 
 again in 1844. Alexander Baranov was early made manager of 
 the company. He founded Sitka and other settlements on the 
 
40 
 
 coast but the first permanent settlement in Alaska was prob- 
 ably Three Saints on Kadiak Island in 1784. 
 
 In the meantime other nations were eagerly striving for 
 a foothold on the Pacific Coast. Spain claimed California and 
 had established settlements as far north as San Francisco. Later 
 in 1789 she attempted to establish a settlement on Nootka 
 Sound Vancouver Island. Here she became involved in a con- 
 troversy with England that was claiming the same region and 
 a few years fater withdrew from Nootka Sound, still later with- 
 drawing all her settlements above the northern limit of Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 Spain was thus out of the contest for Oregon and Alaska but 
 England was more stubborn. The great English freebooter, Sir 
 Francis Drake had visited the Pacific coast of North America 
 in 1579. England had not followed up these explorations. How- 
 ever in 1778 the famous English navigator Captain James Cook 
 explored much of this coast. He visited Nootka Sound, Cook's 
 Inlet, Prince William Sound, and later reached a point as high 
 up as seventy degrees north latitude. Cook had made two pre- 
 vious voyages to this region but made little or no exploration 
 of the coast until the last. 
 
 Vancouver who had been with Cook on his last two voyages 
 was now sent to explore the coast more carefully. He did his 
 work most thoroughly. Every bay and cove was visited by 
 his boats, and charts of the coast were carefully prepared. 
 This was in 1791-92. During this voyage, in 1792, Vancouver 
 met a Boston trader in command of a vessel called "The Co- 
 lumbia." His name was Captain Gray and he told Vancouver 
 of a great river that he had just visited. Vancouver explored 
 the river still further and then continued his way northward. 
 He examined every channel, strait, nook or inlet that penetrated 
 the coast from the head of Puget Sound, in tne latitude forty- 
 nine degrees and three minutes, to the head of Lynn Canal be- 
 yond the fifty-ninth parallel. Upon his return to England his 
 report was published in 1798 by the English government in three 
 large volumes, and accompanied by an atlas of charts and 
 views. These charts were drawn to a large scale and were 
 marvels of accuracy. 
 
 While these explorations were going on along the coast the 
 Hudson Bay Company was hard at work in all parts of the 
 northwest. It established many forts and trading posts and its 
 trappers invaded many regions hitherto unexplored. 
 
 In the meantime the United States was laying claim to this 
 country in the northwest by virtue of the explorations of Gray 
 and others. After the purchase of Louisiana our claims were 
 still further strengthened by the explorations of Lewis and 
 Clarke. 
 
 Thus we see that in the early part of the nineteenth century 
 three nations made claims to territory in the northwestern part 
 of North America, England, Russia and the United States. Rus- 
 sia's claim to the northern part of this country, or in fact to a 
 large part of Alaska was undisputed, but there was much dif- 
 ference of opinion as to how far south her territory might ex- 
 tend. Both England and the United States now established set- 
 tlements in the Oregon Country, and in 1818, entered into the 
 agreement explained in the chapter on Oregon, for the "joint 
 occupation" of the country, for a period of ten years. 
 
 But Russia was jealous of her rights both as to settlement 
 
41 
 
 and trade, and in 1799 issued a "ukase" extending her absolute 
 authority over this country as far south as fifty-five degrees 
 north latitude. This decree met with no protests but Russia 
 owned islands on both the American and Asiatic side of the 
 Pacific, and therefore decided to declare the North Pacific a 
 '"close sea." Accordingly in 1821 Russia issued the famous 
 "Ukase of 1821" in which she declared that Russian authority 
 extended as far south as fifty-one and that no other nation 
 should land ships on this coast or invade the waters for the 
 purpose of whaling, fishing, or taking seals, or for commercial 
 purposes, or should even approach within one hundred miles 
 of the coast. 
 
 Both the United States and Great Britain had many traders 
 in this region and from these a wail of protest at once arose. 
 So bitter was the opposition on the part of these two nations 
 that at last, on Anril 17th 1824, a convention was concluded be- 
 tween the United States and Russia, in which the latter country 
 agreed not to form any settlements or make any claims south 
 of fifty-four forty, and the former none north of that atitude. 
 This convention was made through Henry Middleton, Envoy 
 of the United States, and Count Nesselrode acting for Russia, 
 and was proclaimed January 12th 1825. 
 
 In February 182S a convention was also made between Great 
 Britain and Russia. By this convention the boundaries between 
 the two countries were defined as follows "Beginning at the 
 southermost point of Prince of Wales Island, in the latitude 
 fifty-four, forty, the line shall ascend the channel running north, 
 known as the Portland Channel, to the fifty-sixth degree north 
 latitude, and from this point the line shall follow the summit 
 of the mountains, situated parallel to the coast, as far as the 
 point of their intersection with the one hundred and forty-first 
 degree west longitude, and thence up this line to the Frozen 
 Ocean. Provided however that Prince of Wales Island shall 
 belong to Russia and that whenever the line of mountains be- 
 fore mentioned shall prove to be more than ten marine leagues 
 from the ocean, then the line of demarcation shall be formed 
 by a line parallel to the windings of the coast and which shall 
 never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom." 
 This boundary was afterward to be the cause of much dispute 
 between England and the United States. 
 
 With her boundaries settled Russia now continued her work 
 of establishing trading stations along the Alaskan coast and the 
 fur business continued to be very profitable. Still little attempt 
 was made to found permanent settlements and the country was 
 usually regarded as worth but little. 
 
 During the Civil War Russia showed herself most friendly 
 to the United States and soon after the close of this war the 
 question of the purchase of Alaska by the United States arose. 
 A proposition for the purchase of Alaska had been discussed as 
 eariy as 1859 but it came to nothing. However the extremely 
 friendly relations of Russia with the United States during the 
 late war had its effect, and when the purchase question again 
 arose it found our country ready to accept it. In fact it was 
 commonly urged by the opponents of the treaty that Alaska 
 was a worthless country and the purchase price was merely a 
 gift to Russia in order to show our appreciation of her friendli- 
 ness during the war. 
 
 However this may have been, the treaty was concluded 
 
42 
 
 March 30th 1867, between Secretary of State Seward for the 
 United States and Edouard Stoeckel for Russia. The treaty was 
 signed at Washington and the ratifications were exchanged and 
 the treaty proclaimed June 20th of the same vear. 
 
 By the terms of the treaty the boundaries of Alaska were de- 
 fined exactly as in the convention between Russia and England, 
 in 1825. The price paid by the United States was seven million 
 two hundred thousand dollars in gold, to be paid within ten. 
 months after the exchange of the ratifications of the treaty. 
 
 However the purchase may have been regarded at the time 
 it was made, it has since proved a splendid bargain for the 
 United States. There had been considerable gold mined in 
 the countrv for years but in 1895 the famous Klondike dis- 
 coveries placed Alaska in the ranks of the greatest gold produc- 
 ing countries of the world. Millions of dollars worth of the 
 precious metal was taken out and this amount was still further 
 increased by the Cape Nome discoveries in 1899. 
 
 But gold is not Alaska's only source of wealth. The salmon 
 fisheries and the sealing industry yield vast sums every year and 
 it is now conceded that lumbering will prove a great source of 
 wealth. Whether or not parts of it may prove a farming 
 country is yet an open question, but it seems quite probable, 
 and at any rate we have already got back many times the pur- 
 chase price, of the country. 
 
 After the Klondike gold discoveries which drew the attention 
 of all the world to Alaska, the United States and England be- 
 came involved in a bitter controversy over the boundary of the 
 "lisiere" or thirty mile strip. It was discovered that the moun- 
 tains which Vancouver and others had thought to consist of 
 continuous ranges running parallel with the coast, were in real- 
 ity broken up into many detached groups which at a distance 
 had the appearance of one continuous range. Moreover the 
 coast here is very much broken by bays, sounds and inlets. 
 Several streams also flowed into the sea here, spreading out into 
 bays at their mouths and this increased the difficulties of run- 
 ning the boundary line. Canada was very eager to have an out- 
 let to the ocean here, and the dspute over fur sealing and other 
 matters served to increase the bad feeling between the two 
 nations. At last it was agreed in 1898 to leave all these matters 
 to a Joint High Commission composed of six Americans and 
 five British four of the latter being high officials of the Cana- 
 dian and Newfoundland government. The Commission was or- 
 ganized for business at Quebec Canada August 23d 1898 but was 
 unable to agree upon the Alaskan question although the dis- 
 cussion lasted for several months. Seeing at last that they 
 could not agree the Commission adjourned after seven months 
 and referred the matter again to the two governments. 
 
 At Washington D. C. on January 24th 1903 a preliminary 
 convention was signed by Secretary of State John Hay for the 
 United States and the British Ambassador Sir Michael Herbert 
 for England, by which it was agreed to leave the boundary to a 
 new commission composed of six jurists, three from each country. 
 
 On February 11th of the same year this proposition was 
 ratified by the Senate and the Commission met in London in 
 September, two of England's representatives being Canadians. 
 On October 20th 1903 they gave their decision which, was in the 
 main satisfactory to the United States though there has been 
 some complaint among the American residents of that region. 
 
CHAPTER SIX 
 HAWAII 
 
 The Hawaiian Islands lie in the Pacific Ocean between 18 
 degrees and 54 minutes and 22 degrees and 15 minutes north 
 latitude, and 154 degrees 50 minutes and 160 degrees 30 minutes 
 west longitude. The archipelago is composed of eight large 
 islands and several smaller ones. They are about 2100 miles 
 southwest of San Francsco and about 4400 miles from Sydney 
 Australia, and in almost a direct line between them. 
 
 The Islands are volcanic in origin and contain many extinct 
 volcanoes and several active ones. The climate is said to be 
 one of the most delightful in the world, and the chief products 
 are sugar and rice, besides pine-apples and other tropical fruits. 
 The population is a very mixed one, consistingof the nature in 
 inhabitants, Chinese, Japanese, and Americans, besides many 
 Portuguese and other Europeans. 
 
 Tradition tells us that these islands were discovered by a 
 Spaniards named Jeau de Gatan, some time in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, and that they were subsequently visited by other white 
 people in the latter part of the sixteenth and during the seven- 
 teenth centuries. The real history of the islands, however dates 
 from their re-discovery by Captain Cook in 1778. 
 
 Captain Cook was an English navigator. He left Plymouth 
 England in July 1776, with two ships "The Resolution" and "The 
 Discoverer," his object being the exploration of the northwest 
 coast of North America and, if possible, the discovery of a 
 north-west passage to Asia. He sighted the island of "Oahu" 
 upon which the city of Honolulu is built, January 18th 1778, and 
 later discovered several others of the group. 
 
 He made a landing and was kindly received by the natives, 
 but staid only a short time and then sailed on to the northeast 
 where he explored a part of the coast of Alaska. Late in August 
 he set out towad the south in order that he might spend the win- 
 ter in a milder climate. He soon reached the Hawaiian Islands 
 again, and on this voyage discovered the island of Hawaii, the 
 largest of the group. He made a landing and staid some time 
 fitting out his ships. At last he set sail only to be beaten back 
 by a tempest. While engaged in repairing his ships, which had 
 been shattered by the storm, he became involved in a contro- 
 versy with the natives and was killed, February 14th 1879. 
 
 Cook had called the islands "The Sandwich Islands" in honor 
 of his friend and patron the Earl of Sandwich. At the time of 
 his visit the government was in the hands of a great many petty 
 kings or chiefs. These had built up a feudal system of sub- 
 chiefs and nobles and each petty tyrant ruled his dominions with 
 an iron hand. There was of course much quarrelling among 
 these rulers and war was going on almost constantly. 
 
 However about twenty years after Captain Cook's visit a 
 native king called "Kamehameha," who originally ruled over 
 a small kingdom on the island of Hawaii, gradually conquered 
 the entire island, and then extended his sovereignty over the re- 
 
44 
 
 mainder of the group, thus becoming the first real king of the 
 Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 The descendants of this king continued to rule over the land 
 for nearly a hundred years and during this time many white 
 people came into the country. Under Kamehameha III, in 1833. 
 a Bill of Rights was adopted which transformed the feudal 
 despotism into a constitutional monarchy. In 1845-47 the rights 
 of the people were still further extended, and in 1852 a written 
 constitution was formally adopted, which served as a basis for 
 others that followed. The Constitution made very liberal pro- 
 visions for foreigners and Americans soon began largely to 
 dominate the country. 
 
 The first real treaty between the United States and Hawaii 
 was made December 23d 1826, though one had been made in 
 1823 by Commodore Jones of the United States navy, but was 
 never ratified by the Senate. The United States practically 
 recognized the independence of the islands in 1842, and a diplo- 
 matic officer called a Commissioner was appointed. In 1863 
 thin officer was raised to the rank of minister resident. 
 
 In 1854 Mr. Marcy, Secretary of State at that time, gave in- 
 structions to Mr. Gregg, the American Commissioner to Hawaii, 
 that, while the United States did not expect to accelerate any 
 change, vet, if unavoidable, this government should much pre- 
 fer to acquire the sovereignty of these islands rather than to 
 see them tranferred to another Power. Mr. Marcy further 
 wrote: "But if you succeed in making a treaty transferring the 
 islands to the United States it is advisable tnat it receive the 
 ratification of the government there before being sent here for 
 ratification by the Senate." 
 
 Mr. Gregg replied that he had succeeded in negotiating a 
 treaty of annexation which met the approval of the Crown 
 Prince and Cabinet, but owing to the illness of the king it had 
 not yet been presented to him. This treaty provided that 
 Hawaii should be received as a state. It was never signed owing 
 to the death of the king but was disapproved by the President, 
 when a draft of it was sent to him, and probably would have 
 never been presented by him to the Senate. Since it provided 
 for Hawaii as a state it most certainly would never have been 
 ratified by that body. 
 
 For several years nothing further was said of annexation. 
 Indeed, as lone- as the Kamehameha kings reigned there was ap- 
 parently little danger of American interests being endangered 
 by foreign intrigues, but in 1874 the last of this dynasty died 
 and after a stormy election David Kalakaua was chosen to fill 
 the vacant throne. There was much opposition to him on the 
 part of the American residents, and his opponents contested 
 the election most bitterly but without success. 
 
 Kalakaua was a thoroughly bad and incompetent king. His 
 government was so despotic that in June 1887 the people rose 
 in revolt and compelled the king to make certain specific prom- 
 ises as to a better government in the future founded upon a 
 new and liberal constitution. He signed the new constitution, 
 but at once began to make plans to get back his old power. 
 However all these plans came to nothing. The king's health 
 was failing very rapidly and January 20th 1891 he died in San 
 Francisco, where he had gone in the hope of recruiting his fail- 
 ing strength. His sister I.iliuokalani, who was acting as regent 
 during his absence was at once proclaimed queen. 
 
45 
 
 She was even more anxious to regain absolute power than 
 her brother had been. The Cabinet of the late king realizing 
 their danger at once met and induced her to sign an oath to 
 support the existing constitution. The queen seemed to have 
 but scant regard for this oath however and soon began to plot 
 to get complete power into her own hands. Early in 1892 she 
 formed a plot to get absolute power by means of a secret so- 
 ciety headed by one of her friends named Wilcox. The plot 
 failed but she at once began to intrigue again. In her nlans she 
 was often aided by certain European residents especially the 
 English. The English Minister was frequently seen on the 
 floor of the legislative halls working for the passage of some 
 bill detrimental to American interests and favorable to the 
 English. 
 
 January 14th 1893 the queen attempted to put her carefully 
 laid plans into operation. On that date the Hawaiian legisla- 
 ture was prorogued not to meet again until May 1894 At the 
 same time the queen attempted to abolish the old constitution 
 and establish a new one which would give her almost absolute 
 control of the government. 
 
 Her plans met with intense opposition. A committee of 
 Safety was appointed to oppose any action of the queen, rela- 
 tive to a change in the government. The situation became most 
 ■-trained and there was imminent danger of bloodshed. At this 
 Juncture Captain Wiltse, commanding the American cruiser 
 Boston which lay in the' harbor yielded to the earnest solicita- 
 tions of the American Minister, Mr. Stevens, and landed a body 
 of marines to protect the lives and property of American citi- 
 zens. The American troops in no way favored either party to 
 the controversy, though it was generally known that their sym- 
 pathies lay with the revolutionists. Howeve they merely went 
 into camp in one of the public parks and held themselves in 
 readiness to defend the property and lives of the American resi- 
 dents should they find it necessary. 
 
 In the meantime the Committee of Safety gathered a body 
 of armed men and proclaimed a Provisional Government, stat- 
 ing that the queen had forfeited her position by her attempt to 
 abolish the existing constitution. A committee of four was ap- 
 pointed to take charge of affairs and Judge Dole, an American 
 and a member of the Supreme Court of the country, was ap- 
 pointed head of the new government. A proclamation was at 
 once issued abrogating the monarchy and proclaiming the new 
 government. This was January 17th 1893. 
 
 It was decided that annexation to the United States should 
 be asked for, and a commission to that country was at once 
 hurried off to Washington. They left Honolulu January 19th 
 and reached Washington and presented their credentials to the 
 Department of State February -4th 1893. 
 
 On January 18th the queen had been notified to pull down 
 the royal standard from the palace and to vacate that building. 
 This she did at once and returned to her home residence where 
 she was shown every consideration, even her salary as queen 
 being continued. She quickly gathered a group of her friends 
 about her and began to plot to overthrow the new government. 
 She also sent her diplomatic agent, Mr. Paul Neuman, to Wash- 
 ington to present her claims to the United States government. 
 He was instructed to obtain restoration for her if possible. Fail- 
 ing in this he was to obtain a large indemnity as the price of 
 
46 
 
 final abdication and was to endeavor to save her crown lands. 
 He bore full power of attorney from the queen and sailed a few 
 days after the Commission, sent by the new government. 
 
 In the meantime things had not been going very smoothly 
 with the new nation. A Japanese war vessel lay in the harbor 
 and an English man-of-war and another Japanese cruiser were 
 daily expected. Moreover both the Japanese and English resi- 
 dents of the islands were dissatisfied and eager that their re- 
 spective governments should interfere. 
 
 Under these circumstances the provisional government de- 
 cided to ask Mr. Stevens, the American Minister, and Captain 
 Wiltse, to declare an American Protectorate over the islands 
 pending the result of the efforts of the commission that had 
 been sent to Washington. This was done and February 1st 1893 
 the United States flag was raised over the government build- 
 ings and a proclamation was read announcing an American pro- 
 tectorate over the islands pending the result of the negotiations 
 at the American capital. 
 
 These negotiations were being pushed through with the ut- 
 most rapidity. The Hawaiian Commission met with a very cor- 
 dial reception at Washington and a treaty of annexation was 
 promptly drawn up and approved by both President Harrison 
 and the Secretary of State. It was then sent to the Senate for 
 ratification, but that body delayed action upon it until after 
 March 4th at which time Mr. Harrison's term expired and Mr. 
 Cleveland became President. The latter was not in sympathy 
 with the views of his predecessor, and at once withdrew the 
 treaty rom the Senate and sent Mr. Blount of Georgia as 
 special Commissioner to Hawaii to investigate conditions there, 
 and to make a report of the result of his investigations to the 
 American government. 
 
 Mr. Blount reached Honolulu March 29th 1893, and on April 
 l^t by his orders the American protectorate was withdrawn. 
 The American flag was pulled down from the capitol at eleven 
 o'clock in the morning of that day, and the last of the Ameri- 
 can troops were sent on board their vessel. 
 
 The provisional government continued in force, and Blount 
 continued his work of investigation. When, after a long and 
 tedious investigation, he at last returned to the United States 
 and submitted his report, it became current talk that it was the 
 purpose of the American government to restore the queen. It 
 seem possible however and after great excitement in the islands 
 it could have been consistently done. Such a course did not 
 seem possible however and after great exictment in the islands 
 as to the intentions of the United States it became understood 
 that the latter country would not interfere and preparations 
 were made to proclaim a republic. This was done July 4th 1894. 
 
 The new Republic never became an especially bright star in 
 the constellation of nations. Leading Hawaiians were still 
 eager for annexation, and when Mr. McKinley became President 
 of the United States another attempt was made. A new treaty 
 was drawn up and presented to the President. It met with his 
 approval and was sent to the Hawaiian legislature where it was 
 promptly ratified. It was now presented to the Senate of the 
 United States for ratification, but opposition was so strong 
 that those favoring it hesitated to report it from the committee. 
 At last after much discussion it was decided to try a joint 
 
47 
 
 resolution. This passed after bitter opposition and was ap- 
 proved by the President, July 7th 1898. 
 
 At noon, August 12th 1898, the same flag that Blount had 
 hauled down five years before, was raised over the government 
 building and with imposing ceremonies Hawaii was declared to 
 be a part of the United States. It has since been organized as 
 a territory and has proved a very valuable possession. Large 
 quantities of sugar, rice, pine-apples and other tropical fruits 
 are raised each year and the islands are much frequented by 
 tourists because of their beautiful scenery and delightful cli- 
 mate. With its picturesque mountains, its fine forests, its great 
 fields of sugar-cane and pine-apples and above all its wonder- 
 ful volcanoes, Hawaii is perhaps the most interesting of all our 
 island possessions. 
 
CHAPTER SEVEN. 
 THE SPANISH CESSION. 
 
 The last acquisition of territory by the United States was the 
 Spanish Cession of 1898. It is not the purpose of this chapter 
 to enter into any detailed account of the causes, events and re- 
 sults of the Spanish-American War. It is sufficient to say that 
 the United States had long viewed with disfavor the brutal pol- 
 icy of Spain in conducting the war in Cuba. Weyler "The 
 Butcher" and his "reconcentrado" policy had not only been most 
 offensive to the American people so far as their ideas of right 
 and justice were concerned, but this policy had also endangered 
 the lives of many of our citizens and destroyed much American 
 property upon the island. 
 
 Excitement was at high pitch in the United States on ac- 
 count of these things and when the United States battle-ship 
 Maine, was blown up in Havana harbor, February 15th 1898, the 
 popular cry for war became too strong to be resisted. 
 
 War actually began April 21st 1898 and lasted until August 
 12th of the same year, when the Peace Protocol was signed. 
 The treaty of peace itself was signed at Paris December 10th 
 1898. By this treeaty the United States received from Spain 
 title to Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. We shall take 
 up the story of these three territories separately. 
 
 Puerto Rico is one of the four largest islands of the West 
 Indies and next to Cuba was Spain's most important possession 
 in this hemisphere at that time. The island has an extreme 
 length of 108 miles and an extreme breadth of 43 miles, giving it 
 an area of about 3,600 square miles. It was discovered by Co- 
 lumbus on his second voyage in 1493 and its conquest was begun 
 by its first governor, Ponce de Leon. The Indians were nearly 
 exterminated, and the present inhabitants are largely of mixed 
 Spanish, Indian and Negro blood. The island is very fertile and 
 is said to have the best climate of any of the Greater Antilles. 
 
 After its conquest by Spain it was ruled by governors, sent 
 out from the latter country, who in many cases were very harsh 
 and unjust. Moreover the Catholic faith was implanted in the 
 island and an unprincipled and rapacious priesthood was no 
 small factor in rendering the condition of the inhabitants even 
 more wretched and miserable. 
 
 When the Spanish-American War broke out the population 
 of the island was a little less than one million. A blockade of 
 the coast was at once established but little attempt was made 
 to attack the country until after the close of the Santiago cam- 
 paign in Cuba. 
 
 Soon after the fall of the city of Santiago General Miles led 
 an American force for the conquest of Puerto Rico. He landed 
 at Guanica on the south-west coast July 25th, and his army took 
 up its march in four divisions all of which were to meet before 
 San Juan, seventy miles to the north-east. Miles met with but 
 little resistance. Town after town fell into his possession and 
 the entire country would soon have been in the hands of the 
 
50 
 
 Americans had they not been stopped, August 13th, by news 
 of the Peace Protocol of August 12th. 
 
 This Peace Protocol provided: That Spain should relinquish 
 all sovereignty over Cuba: That Spain should cede to the 
 United States, Puerto Rico and certain other islands in the West 
 Indies, and also an island in the Ladrones to be chosen by the 
 United States: That the United States should hold and occupy 
 the city, bay and harbor of Manila pending the conclusion of a 
 treaty of peace which should determine the control, government 
 and disposition of the Philippines. 
 
 This Protocol was brought about through the good officers 
 of Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador at Washington. On 
 July 26th that gentleman had called at the White House and pre- 
 sented an informal but definite inquiry as to the terms upon 
 which the United States would be willing to end the war. July 
 30th he received his answer in a long interview with the Presi- 
 dent in which the latter stated the terms almost exactly as laid 
 down in the Protocol. 
 
 The Spanish Cabinet met Monday, August 1st to consider 
 these terms. However it took several days for Spanish pride 
 to submit, but on August 7th the Spanish Minister of State re- 
 plied that he accepted the first two provisions, but to the third, 
 relating to the Philippines, he gave an acceptance in somewhat 
 ambiguous terms. 
 
 In order to remove all doubt Secretary of State Day drew up 
 a Peace Protocol stating, in simple language and without the 
 least modification, the terms already offered to Spain. It was 
 immediately referred to Madrid, promptly accepted and M. Cam- 
 bon was authorized to sign for Spain, with Secretary Day for 
 the United States. This was done on the afternoon of August 
 12th and the news was immediately cabled to the American 
 troops in the field. 
 
 August 26th the President named the American Peace Com- 
 missioners. They were Secretary of State Wm. R. Day, Sena- 
 tor Davis of Minnesota, Senator Frye of Maine, Whitelaw Reid, 
 and Justice White of the Supreme Court. The last named re- 
 fused to serve however and Senator Gray of Delaware was ap- 
 pointed in his place. This Commission met five Commissioners 
 from Spain in Paris, October 1st, and at once took up the work 
 of negotiating a treaty of peace. Their conference lasted ten 
 weeks the treaty being signed December 10th 1898. 
 
 Since Spain had agreed by the terms of the protocol to cede 
 Puerto Rico to the United States there was little work for the 
 Peace Commission to do in regard to that province except to 
 arrange the details of the cession. With the independence of 
 Cuba acknowledged, Spain had no particular desire to retain her 
 only remaining colony in the West Indies, and appaently yield- 
 ed Puerto Rico with little regret. With Puerto Rico, Spain also 
 ceded three small islands near its coast. These are Mona, Cul- 
 ebra, and La Vilque. 
 
 Puerto Rico remained under military control of the United 
 States until 1900 when a civil government, not unlike our terri- 
 torial governments, was established. After the establishment 
 of the civil government many Americans went to the island and 
 much American capital is invested there. A systematic course 
 of "cleaning up" has been entered upon and as a result the 
 health in the towns and cities seems to be almost as good as in 
 the southern part of the United States. 
 
51 
 
 Guam, the second mentioned acquisition from Spain and the 
 least important, is an island of the Ladrone group. It lies in a 
 direct line from Honolulu to Manila, is much the largest of the 
 group and contains the only good harbor. It is 3,800 miles from 
 Honolulu and 1,600 from Manila. 
 
 The Lardones were discovered by Magellan in 1521. Owing 
 to the thievery of the inhabitants Magellan called the islands 
 "The Ladrones" (The Thieves) Guam is about 21 miles long 
 and from three to nine miles wide. The inhabitants are of the 
 Malay race and there are very few foreigners in the island. It 
 is chiefly valuable to the United States as a coaling station, 
 since it lies in a direct line between our western ports and Ma- 
 nila. 
 
 By far the most important part of the Spanish Cession are 
 the Philippines. This group of islands lies in the tropics, about 
 8,000 miles southwest of San Francisco and about 800 miles 
 south of Hong Kong. They were discovered by Magellan in 
 1521 on his famous expedition that was the fist to circumnavigate 
 the globe. Magellan joined in the inter-tribal wars of the natives 
 and was killed. Spain soon followed up his discoveries by send- 
 ing other expeditions and settlements and forts were establish- 
 ed. 
 
 The Philippines consist of about eight hundred islands, some 
 of them quite large others mere points of rock. The population 
 is now estimated at about eight millions and it was probably 
 nearly as great in the time of Magellan. Spain did not succeed 
 in conquering the islands as completely as she did Cuba and 
 Puerto Rico. In fact she conquered but very little of the inter- 
 ior of the islands, but built up Manila and other towns on the 
 coast. The natives were frequently in rebellion and Spain 
 found it necessary to keep a strong military force there at all 
 times. 
 
 As in Cuba, a policy of exploitation was entered upon by the 
 Spanish government and the islands were governed for the good 
 of Spain without any regard to their own progress or prosper- 
 ity. Moreover the islands were priest-ridden to a much greater 
 extent than even Cuba and Puerto Rico. Insurrections against the 
 Spanish government were of frequent occurrence. The one in 
 1896 was apparently crushed in 1897 but burst forth with renew- 
 ed fury in 1898, and was in progress at the time of the out-break 
 of the Spanish-American War. 
 
 When war was declared Dewey was at Hong Kong with the 
 American fleet of the Pacific. Orders were at once cabled him 
 by the War Department to "capture or destroy the Spanish 
 fleet" which then lay in Manila Bay. 
 
 Dewey at once sailed for Manila and reached that port the 
 morning of May 1st before daylight. He steamed into the bay 
 under the cover of darkness and early the next morning engag- 
 ed and completely destroyed the Spanish fleet. 
 
 Dewey had not sufficient men to hold the city of Manila how- 
 ever, though he cabled the War Department that he could easily 
 take it at any time. He therefore awaitd the arrival of the trans- 
 ports of soldiers that had been sent out from the United States. 
 In the meantime he stopped the action of the shore batteries 
 that had begun to fire upon his fleet by the threat of shelling 
 the city. The soldiers at last arrived and Manila surrendered 
 August 15th 1898. The other Spanish towns were either seized 
 
S2 
 
 by the Americans or the Filipino insurgents and Spanish domin- 
 ion in the Philippines was at an end. 
 
 When the Peace Commissioners met at Paris the Philippines 
 became at once a very perplexing question. Four possible 
 courses were open to the United States: To return the islands 
 to Spain, t,o grant them independence, to let some other nation 
 have them, or to keep them herself. After much discussion and 
 careful consideration of all phases of the question, it was decid- 
 ed to do the latter. Accordingly, by the terms of the treaty, we 
 retained the Philippines and agreed to pay Spain twenty million 
 dollars within a period of three months. 
 
 When the treaty came before the Senate for ratification it 
 met with bitter opposition. The Democrats were, of course, the 
 leaders in this opposition, though many leading Republicans also 
 joined with them. However after a hard struggle the treaty was 
 at last ratified and the Philippine Islands became the property 
 of the United States. 
 
 But there was another troublesome factor to be reckoned 
 with. The insurgent government under Aguinaldo loudly de- 
 manded recognition, and protested that the islands should be 
 given complete independence. War broke out between these 
 people and the United States and lasted for nearly three years, 
 although the Filipino government was to all practical purposes, 
 suppressed in 1899. 
 
 Order was finally restored and for several years there has 
 been but little trouble in the islands. However the United States 
 still keeps a strong military force there since there has been 
 from time to time some guerilla warfare carried on by the tur- 
 bulent spirits among the natives. 
 
 As in Puerto Rico and Cuba a system of organized "cleaning 
 up" has been inaugurated and Manila is now said to be one of 
 the cleanest cities in the tropics, while many diseases formerly 
 prevalent there, have been almost completely obliterated. 
 
 The government of the Philippines is administered by a Gov- 
 ernor appointed by the President, but as much local self-govern- 
 ment as is possible is granted. Many teachers have been sent 
 there by the United States and every effort is being made to ed- 
 ucate the Filipinos sufficiently that they will be capable of self- 
 government. 
 
 Just what the future policy of our country may be toward 
 
 these islands is an open question. Many people favor granting 
 
 them complete independence as soon as they prove themselves 
 
 capable of using that independence for their own best interests. 
 
 Yet there are many others in the United States who hope that 
 
 these islands may be retained and the people educated until they 
 
 become worthy American citizens. 
 
 * * ' * * * * * * 
 
 The Spanish Cession completes the story of the territorial 
 acquisitions of the United States. Or perhaps it would be more 
 nearly correct to say that this chapter completes it for the pres- 
 ent. For this wonderful story may be considered as an unfinish- 
 ed story. Judging the future by the past, it is yet in the writ- 
 ing and who can say what the next chapter may be? 
 
 It is quite certain that the desire to own more of the earth's 
 surface may become as strong in a nation as in an individual and 
 surely such an ambition may be considered a worthy one unless 
 prompted bv purely selfish motives. 
 
 Doubtless the next quarter of a century will see other acqui- 
 
S3 
 
 sitions of territory by the United States though what these 
 may be no one can say. But regardless of what they may be, 
 the patriotic Amerian citizen, horn and reared under the pro- 
 tection of the Stars and Stripes will be ready to say in all sincer- 
 ity, that in the light of past experience, the sovereignty and pro- 
 tection of the United States cannot fail to prove an unmixed 
 blessing to any people that may come under its jurisdiction. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
 
 Hosmer "The Louisiana Purchase." 
 
 Schouler "History of the United States" 
 
 Herman "The Louisiana Purchase" 
 
 Caldwell "American Territorial Development" 
 
 McMastcr "History of The United States" 
 
 Sparks "The Expansion of the American People" 
 
 Henry Adams "History of the United States" 
 
 Williams "Sam Houston and War of Ind. in Texas" 
 
 Garrison "Texas" 
 
 Bicknell "Territorial Acquisitions of the United States" 
 
 Austin "Steps in the Expansion of Our Territory" 
 
 Royce "California" 
 
 Blaine "Twenty Years in Congress" 
 
 Barrow "Oregon" 
 
 Davidson "The Alaskan Boundary" 
 
 Young "The Real Hawaii" 
 
 Brain "The Transfer of Hawaii" 
 
 Blackman "The Making of Hawaii" 
 
 Fiske "The West Indes" 
 
 Foreman "The Philippine Islands" 
 
 Latane "Hart Series American History" 
 
 Parton "Life of Jackson" 
 
 King "New Orleans, The City and the People" 
 
 Benton "Thirty Years View" 
 
 International Encyclopedia 
 
 "Spain in America" Hart Series 
 
 Many Magazine Articles. 
 
MAY 18 1912 
 

 
 
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