SD How to Cruise Timber A COMPLETE FIELD MANUAL By JOHN W. SHAW ^MJ^ Class — v-^-jj^y^y^ Book ■ o < Copyright}!^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. Ho\^ to Cruise Timber Adapted for experienced cruisers lo^^ers, foresters, claimants or for any one desiring to learn to estimate timber A complete field mauual, -with diagrams and explanations of the Standard Methods of estimating timber Explaining ho^v to pace, how to run the compass, ho'w to arrive at an estimate, how^ to make out a report, etc. with A synopsis of the requirements for the general plan of surveying and the establishment of corners in public land surveys of the United States PRICE $1 .00 By JOHN W. SHAW POST OFFICE BOX 268 PORTLAND. OREGON sh THE TREE-COUNT SYSTEM. By the tree-count system we mean an actual count of every merchantable tree on each forty-acre tract. In ordinary yel- low pine or not too dense fir, the timber can be counted by running each forty four times, counting all timber on each 2^4- acre tract (G2i^ paces on each side of you) at one run. How- ever, should the timber have a very heavy and dense growth of underbrush, or stand more than 50 M. per acre, the forty 20 should be run eight times, making an actual count Sl^^ paces on each side of you. The first thing to do before beginning to cruise by this method, is to run out and plainly blaze the section lines; also to run a line across the center of the section connecting two quarter-section corners which stand on parallel section lines — as you should always run your cruising lines parallel, to pa- rallel section lines if possible. As the section lines are run and blazed, stake off on two sides of the section, the points where your cruising lines should begin and end. This is done so you can be absolutely sure you are running your cruising lines parallel to one another and not be recounting the timber. This work should always be done with a sight compass. The true variation of the magnetic needle should be very care- fully determined from the field notes, or be obtained when running the parallel section lines. In making the necessary calculations for the average size tree on each 2i^-acre tract, cruisers use different methods; some getting the average size tree by having the compassman measure every tenth or twentieth tree counted, and others obtaining their average by getting the actual size of every tree on sample acres throughout the forty. By the first method, the compassman — using the Jacob staff as a rule — measures the number of trees near the cruising line, desig- nated by the cruiser as being equivalent to one for every ten or twenty trees counted. In using the tree-count system of cruising the cruiser should take up his timber every half tally (621/^ paces), and when finished, will have an actual count of every merchantable tree on each forty, showing the average size and length of same. ACREAGE. By examining your blue-print of a township, you will notice that the excess or deficiency in acreage (explained in Part II) 21 is generally along the north and west boundaries of the town- ship. These are known as lots, and contain more or less than forty acres as the case may be. On the north tier the lots are exactly 20 chains (80 rods) wide from east to west, but are more or less than 20 chains from north to south. The lots on the west boundary of the township, are exactly 20 chains wide from north to south but are more or less than 20 chains from east to west. Now, if a lot is 80 rods in width, every strip 2 rods wide across that width will contain an acre, or 160 square rods. Reducing rods to paces, every strip 12.5 paces wide and 4 tallys (80 rods) long will contain an acre. To determine the number of paces long a lot would be, when it is 80 rods wide, multiply the number of acres in the lot by 12.5. Example: How many paces long is a lot 80 rods wide and containing 46.80 acres: 46.80 12.5 23400 9360 4680 585.000 paces. The area of an acre, is 43,560 square feet or 6,250 square paces. A square acre, is 79.057 paces square. A circle-acre, is all embraced in a radius of 117.77 feet or 44.6 paces from a given center. One-third of an acre contains 14,520 square feet or 2,083 square paces. One-third of an acre in a circle, is all embraced in a radius of 68 feet or 25.78 paces from a given center. 22 Acres in a rectangle may be: 100x62i^ paces or 125x50 paces. For the convenience of the cruiser, the following rule? are given: To find the circumference of a circle whose diameter is known. Rule: Multpily the diameter by 3.1416. To find the diameter the circumference being known. Rule: Divide the circumference by 3.1416. To find the area of a circle, the diameter being known. Rule: Multpily the square of half the diameter by 3.1416. To find the area of a circle, the circumference being known. Rule: Divide the square of half the circumference by 3.1416. To find the area of a circle, the circumference and diameter both being known. Rule: Multiply the circumference by one- fourth of the diameter. To find the diameter or circumference of a circle, the area being known. Rule: Divide the area by 3.1416, the square root of the quotient will be equal to half the diameter; and the diameter multiplied by 3.1416 will equal the circumference. CALCULATING THE CONTENT. To culculate the content of differently shaped pieces of land the following rules are given: 1. Rectangle. The content of a rectangle is found by multiplying its length by its breadth. 2. Triangle. In computing the area of a triangle, either side may be assumed as the base and the altitude will be the perpendicular let fall from the vertex of the angle opposite upon the base. To be more clear, the perpendicular is the shortest distance from the base to the opposite angle. To find the content of a triangle, multiply the base by one- half the altitude and the product will be the area. 23 3. Parallelogram. A parallelogram is a four-sided figure whose opposite sides are parallel. The content of a parallelo- gram equals the product of one of its sides by the perdendicu- lar distance between it and the side parallel to it. 4. Trapezoid. A Trapezoid is a four-sided figure, of which two opposite sides only, are parallel. The content of a Trapezoid equals half the product of the sum of the parallel sides by the perpendicular distance between them. 5. Trapezium. A four-sided figure, none of whose sides are parallel. Divide the Trapezium into two triangles by running a line across it from corner to corner, and then find the content of each triangle, as in 2. MAKING A REPORT. A cruiser's report is a record of the cruiser's work. It should contain everything necessary to convey a clear idea as to the exact conditions of the land and timber. In former years owners of timber were satisfied to receive a report showing only the amount of timber on each forty-acre tract, regardless of the size of timber found, and were satisfied if the land was only double run; but at the present time — values being much higher — the most complete returns are none too good. Have your compassman keep a complete record of such things as: streams and their courses, hills and their slopes, aneroid readings, clearings and burned areas, and the general condition of the land. The following diagram subdividing the different sections of a report blank, will be helpful in making a complete report: ("Species. Average size and length of trees. Amount of surface clear. Age of timber. What per cent of defect? 24 Size and quality of timber. Distance to driv- able stream or railroad. Flogging conditions favorable or otherwise. Damage by fire. Probabilities of fire. Kind and value of land when denuded. General remarks. How large a stream? Into what does it empty? Has it ever been driven? Is there plenty of water for fluming? Distance from railroad. What is the general slope of the ground? How steep? Is the soil rocky or swampy? Are there many ravines? Is the tract divided by high ridges? Is the timber isolated? Does any burned timber surround it? What chance for mill site and fluming? Feasibility of logging railroad. State the extent of fire damage. How many years since burned? Dampness of ground. Growth of underbrush. Condition of surrounding growth. State is much dead brush or down timber. (Quality of soil. I Bottom land if any. Suitability of land, lvalue of land. What is the timber best adapted for? State if any small timber not counted. If any wagon roads or trails. How you classed your timber. How many times you run each forty. What defects you found if any. Location of buildings, fences or clearings. 25 TOPOGRAPHY. The topography of a tract of land is a detailed description of that land shown by representation. A topographic map is one which shows with practical accuracy, all the drainage, improvement, and relief features which the scale of representation will permit. By drainage, we mean the water courses; i.e. rivers, creeks, ponds, lakes, etc. By improvements, we mean the results of human efforts; clearings, slashings, fences, roads, trails, railroads, houses, barns, mills, etc. By relief features, we mean the contour of the land; the profile or outline of the surface of the land. The topographic map is of great value to a report. If carefully drawn from your notes taken in the field, it will be an exact reproduction of the surface conditions reduced to scale; in other words it will be a picture, or birdseye view of the land. A study of the methods of representation and how to make a neat topographic map are important adjuncts to a cruiser's fund of knowledge. Be careful not to overlook any- thing in the field and by making notes in your notebook, or on your blank diagram of sections in your estimate book, you can keep an accurate record of all things necessary for mak- ing a complete map. Take your aneroid readings at the top of each ridge and at the bottom of each ravine, wherever you cross them with your cruising lines as you pass back and forth through the forty. If you are cruising an entire section, take readings at each section corner; and if only part, of a section, at the corners touching the land you are cruising. 26 PART II. SURVEY OF THE PUBLIC LANDS OF THE UNITED STATES. The regulations for the survey of the public lands of the United States, adopted by Congress, are made to conform to the meridians and parallels of the earth. In various sections of the country points were established known as initial points; and from each of these points a principal meridian, conforming to a true meridian and a base line, conforming to a parallel of latitude, were run north and south and east and west respectively, from which all surveys in that particular part of the country were made. North and south of the base line, and parallel to it, lines were established twenty-four miles apart known as standard parallels; and east and west of the principal meridian, guide meridians, with the same space intervening, were fixed. After the establishment of these principal lines, the land was divided into tracts six miles square known as townships. These townships were subdivided into thirty-six parts of one mile square each, known as sections. Beginning at the north- east corner of the township and numbering from left to right in each tier, the sections were numbered consecutively from one to thirty-six. Corners were established at each of the corners of a township, at each of the corners of the sections and at intervals of one-half mile from each section corner, so that the land could be easily found by the settler and its boundaries definitely located. To designate the location of a township, as it relates to the principal meridian and base line, it is necessary to have some system by which each township is known. When we say, township 3 south, we mean that the township in question is in the third tier of townships south of the base line. This does not definitely locate it, so we deter- 27 mine in what range tier it is, east or west of the principal meridian. Supposing the range tier to be 7 east, then we would say: Township 3 south, range 7 east. The following table shows the location of the standard parallels in Oregon and Washington: OREGON. Name West of Cascade Mts. East of Cascade Mts. 1st North.. .Bet. Tps. 4 and 5 N.. . .Bet. Tps. 4 and 5 N. 1st South. ..Bet. Tps. 5 and 6 S.. ..Bet. Tps. 5 and 6 S. 2nd South. ..Bet. Tps. 10 and 11 S.. ..Bet. Tps. 10 and 11 S. 3rd South . ..Bet. Tps. 13 and 14 S.. ..Bet. Tps. 15 and 16 S. 4th South. ..Bet. Tps. 18 and 19 S.. . . Bet. Tps. 20 and 21 S. 5th South. ..Bet. Tps. 22 and 23 S.. . . Bet. Tps. 25 and 26 S. Gth South. ..Bet. Tps. 27 and 28 S.. ..Bet. Tps. 30 and 31 S, 7th South. ..Bet. Tps. 32 and 33 S.. ..Bet. Tps. 35 and 36 S, Sth South. . . Bet. Tps. 35 and 36 S.. . . Bet. Tps. 39 and 40 S, 9th South. ..Bet. Tps. 39 and 40 S. WASHINGTON. Name (Extend entirely through State) 1st North Bet. Tps. 4 and 5 North 2nd North Bet. Tps. 8 and 9 North 3rd North Bet. Tps. 12 and 13 North 4th North Bet. Tps. 16 and 17 North 5th North Bet. Tps. 20 and 21 North 6th North Bet. Tps. 24 and 25 North 7th North Bet. Tps. 28 and 29 North Sth North Bet. Tps. 32 and 33 North 9th North Bet. Tps. 36 and 37 North If you will examine an ordinary schoolroom globe you will notice that the meridian lines of the earth drawn from pole to pole, are farthest apart at the Equator, and that they come 28 closer together as they approach the poles; i.e., their con- vergency increases as we go south or north from the Equator. This being true (we being north of the Equator), if we make our surveys to conform to true meridians, each township will be narrower at the northern than at the southern border; it will then make them, not a square, but a trapezoid. In sur- veying, this is what is known as convergency. If a township was perfectly square, it would contain 36 full sections of 640 acres each, or 23,040 acres; but owing to convergency they may be more or less as the case may be. It is required by law, that the excess or deficiency in acreage shall fall upon the north and west boundaries of a township; i.e., a surveyor in subdividing a township, finishes his lines at the north and west sides and throws the excess or deficiency of the length of his lines between the last quarter-section cor- ner, established, and a point where the line he is surveying intersects the township line thus closed upon. The surveyor is required to make the length of the lines between section corners, eighty chains, and the quarter-section corners must be established at an equidistant point between such section corners — except on lines of sections on the north and west sides of a township, as noted above. By examining Diagram 1, you will notice that townships, owing to various irregularities, do not always come together at common corners, but that they sometimes corner in such a manner that the corners which limit their boundaries relate to one, two, or four townships as the conditions may require. In the diagram, the corners (b) represent township corners common to two townships only, and corners (a) represent corners v,"hich refer to one township only. You will also find that townships are not always subdivided as a theoretically perfect township should be, but that fractional tracts are sometimes thrown on different sides or parts of a township. 29 R.3^ iA/( ,., 1 R2W 1 _i_ 1 R IV V i 1 T4S -M— '«. » 7 ^ * ^56-«-M 8 ^ >->^5S ► 'i ,0 ! i «^30 > /2 /8 J 17 ? /6 1 /5 s 1 14 - /J 20 « J »-j— /5 »■ 2-^ >-»->- 4 ► 30 ? 1 28 :g 27 5 26 ^ 25 >-v*-2 >. 51 I i t .1 35 - 1 36 TOWNSHIP INTERIORS. After the exterior lines of a township are run, the sur- veyor then subdivides the same into sections of one mile square each. The lines running north and south are made to comply with true meridians and those running east and west are in conformity with parallels of latitude. If correctly run, the exterior line on the east side of the township to be sub- divided is a true meridian, and the meridional lines subdivid- 32 ing the township (section lines') will be run parallel to this exterior line. It must be noted, however, that often discrep- ancies or gross errors exist in the establishment of this east boundary which cannot be corrected, in which case the sur- veyor would run the meridional section lines of the extreme eastern tier of sections as true meridians, and all other merid- ional sectional lines within the township parallel to these lines: throwing the fractional acreage upon the east side, as well as upon the north and west sides of the township. We will say, for example, that the eastern boundary of a township is correct as to requirements; then the surveyor would subdivide that township by the following method: Starting at the corner to sections 35 and 36, on the south boundary of the township, the first section line (80 chains long) of the subdivision is extended northward parallel to the eastern boundary of the township. At forty chains on the line a quarter-section corner (VjS.) is established and at eighty chains a section corner for sections 2.5, 2G. 35 and 36 (see diagram 2). Now, turning eastward, it is the surveyor's object to run a section line parallel to the south boundarv of the township and strike the objective corner already estab- lished on the east boundar3^ In order to do this, the sur- veyor runs this line as a trial or random line as he extends it eastward, placing at 40 chains a temporary quarter-section corner and noting the distance his line falls north or south of the objective corner, calculates the correct course by which to return westward by a true line. Upon running the random line no bl^izes are made upon the trees, but upon returning on a true line, the line is plainly marked to comply with the regulations and the quarter-section corner is made permanent at the proper point. Thus, the west and north boundaries of the eastern tier of sections are established, until the line to be run from the 33 corner to sections 1, 2, 11 and 12 to the north boundary of the township, is reached; then, this line between sections 1 and 2, is projected northward on a random line parallel to the east boundary of the township, the surveyor setting a post for a temporary quarter-section corner at forty chains and noting the point where his trial line intersects the township boun- dary. Returning upon a true course, the surveyor obtains by measurement the exact distance from the township line to the true point for the quarter-section corner, thus throwing the excess or deficiency of the length of the line in this space, and thereby leaving the fractional acreage of section 1 on the north boundary. It often happens that it is impossible for the surveyor to intersect the township line within the pre- scribed limits of 50 links distance of an established corner, in which case a new corner would be established, known as a closing corner. By this manner each successive tier of sections running from north to south is surveyed, until the fifth tier is reached; where, from the section corners established on the west boun- dary of this tier of sections, random lines are projected to their intersection with the west boundary of the township. Quarter-section corners are established on true lines at forty chains west of said section corners, and the measurement taken from these points to the township line, throws the frac- tional acreage west of such quarter-section corners establishea and thus upon the western boundary of the township. It happens occasionally that the township boundaries are so irregular as not to allow of the foregoing requirements for subdivision, so some of the common irregularities are here noted: We will suppose, for example, that the eastern boun- dary of the township does not run (for good reasons) on a true meridian, and that the corners established on that boun- dary are in such positions that they cannot be regularly- closed upon; then the western boundary of the first tier of 34 sections on the eastern side of the township, will be run on a true meridian and all other meridional section lines in that township will be run parallel to this line; however, fractional acreage will be thrown upon the eastern boundary of such a township, as well as upon the north and west boundaries. An- other example would be, where the east boundary of a town- ship was without section corners and the north boundary was run eastwardly as a true line, with section corners at regular intervals of 80 chains; the subdivision would proceed then, from west to east, and fractional measurements and areas would be thrown against the irregular east boundary. Where by reason of impassable objects, or other reasons, no part of the south boundary of a township can be regularly established, the subdivision proceeds from north to south and from east to west thereby throwing all fractional measurements and areas against the west boundary. BUNNING LINES. In surveying, the marking of trees and brush along lines, is required by law as positively as the erection of monuments or corners. All lines, on which are established the legal corner boundaries, are marked by the following method: Those trees which are intersected by the line (sight trees), have two chops or notches cut on the two sides facing the line, without any other marks whatever. A sufficient number of other trees standing within 50 links of the line, on either sMe of it, are blazed on two sides diagonally or quartering toward the line, the blazes being opposite each other, coincid- ing in direction with the line where the trees stand very near it, and approaching each other on the side next the line, the farther away from the line the trees stand. On a trial or random line the trees are not marked in any manner, only the true lines being blazed. It is generally very easy to pick up a line by the blazes 35 on the trees, but occasionally it is very difficult owing to the fact that at times the axman was negligent. Where he had difficulty in traveling on steep hillsides or in dense under- brush, you will find very few blazes along the line, showing he was too busy here making his way to mark the line. Trees blazed to mark the line, were generally marked about four feet from the ground, however, in the pine woods you will often find them much higher, as if scored by an axman on horseback. If you are in doubt as to whether marks or scores on trees are blazes, examine carefully the bark at the upper edge of the mark, and no matter how old, you can invariably tell if the mark was made with an axe, or if the abrasion was only the result of a falling snag or limb striking the tree. Finding a tree in the forest with blazes on both sides — the blazes being old enough for the time the line was surveyed — then set your compass and see if the blazes correspond to a north and south or an east and west line. If the tree is really a line tree you will if you extend a line the proper direction from it, soon discover another tree v/ith the same blazes as the first tree discovered, and so on until you reach a corner. Surveyors are required to record in their field notes the points in measurement where the line crosses streams, hill- tops, etc. Should you have access to the field notes, or if you will calculate these distances from the established corners on the line by examining your blue-print, it will be very helpful in determining the approximate location of a corner, which if still in existence, can be easily found. If in running a line the surveyor should encounter an impassable obstacle such as a swamp, pond, or marsh (not meanderable,) the line is prolonged by triangulation or right- angle offsets across such obstruction. As a guide to aline- rnent and measurement, the line is perpetuated by establishing at the margins of the obstruction a witness point (W P). Should it happen that the point for a legal corner fall in the obstruction, then if the distance to said corner in the obstruc- tion is less than 20 chains, instead of erecting a witness point, a witness corner is established (W C). MEANDEEINQ. Streams of certain character and bodies of water large enough to be of note, are meandered. By meandering, we mean that the surveyor follows by a succession of lines all the minute windings of the borders of that stream or body of water, in order that the borders can be definitely located and the amount of acreage thrown into fractions along such bor- ders. In meandering streams proceeding down stream, the bank on the left hand is termed the left bank and the bank on the right hand is termed the right bank. Only navigable streams and those more than three chains wide are mean- dered with the following exceptions: Streams which are less than three chains wide and so deep, swift and dangerous as to be impassable through the agricultural season, are mean- dered, where there are good agricultural lands along the shores. Tide water streams, whether more or less than tnree chains in width, are always meandered. To definitely locate the starting points for meandered lines, meander corners (M C) are erected at the intersection of the meandered lines with those of standard, township, or section lines regularly established. These are called regular meander corners. Those meander corners established on lines belong- ing to the system of rectangular surveying not identical with standard, township, or section lines; i.e., subdivisional lines of a section, are called special meander corners (SMC). Meander corners on a line not belonging to the system of rectangular surveying, are called auxiliary meander corners (AMC). 37 CORNERS. We have stated previously in a general way, the prin- cipal corners necessary to perpetuate rectangular surveying. We will now try to explain more fully these various corners, so they may be identified when found. The exact points for corners are perpetuated, by raising a mound over a deposit, by firmly setting a stone, by driving a stake, by marking a stone ledge, or by marking a tree which happens to come in place. The exact points to be perpetuated as corners are often not so well marked as the objects which are used to witness them. In prairie country, pits are dug and a mound raised, as accessories, while in a timbered country trees are scored (facing corner) and marked with the town- ship, range and section numbers they identify. These trees, or accessories of a corner, are called bearing trees (B. T.), and their exact position in distance and direction from the corner is recorded in the field notes. Sometimes as an acces- sory to a corner, a large stone or cliff, being close at hand, the surveyor may mark it as an accessory. It would be called a bearing object, and would be marked with the letters B. O. in addition to the township, range, and section it identifies. For emphasis, the following paragraphs are set apart to describe abbreviations as used in marking corners and acces- sories: S. C. — Standard Corner. The mark necessary, in addition to township, range, and section, on any corner erected on a base line or standard parallel. C. C. — Closing Corner. Where lines are run at right angles to, and intersect a line already established at a point to the right or left of an established corner more than the allowable limits of 50 links, a new corner is erected called a closing corner. In addition to the marks for township, range, and section on that corner, the letters C. C. are added. T. — Township. R. — Range. S. — Section. l^ S. — Quarter-section Corner. A point equidistant between two section corners. M. C. — Meander Corner. The point where any regular standard, township or section line intersects the borders of a meanderable stream or body of water. S. M. C— Special Meander Corner. A meander corner estab- lished on any line belonging to the system of rectangular sur- veying, when that line is not a standard, township, or section line, e. g., lines subdividing the interior of a section. A. M. C. — Auxiliary Meander Corners. Meander corners on a line not belonging to the system of rectangular surveying. B. T. — Bearing Tree. An accessory to a corner. B. O. — Bearing Object. An accessory to a corner. ■^V", Q — Witness Corner. A corner established on a line to witness the position of a regular corner, when that corner falls within an obstruction (not meanderable), or where that corner would be apt to be destroyed by the elements later. A witness corner thus established, must be within twenty chains of the regular corner which would fall within the ob- struction. W. P. — Witness Point. A point erected to mark the limits of an inaccessible marsh or other obstruction (not meander- able), when the margin of that obstruction is more than twenty chains from a regular corner which would fall within such obstruction. The following are the different kinds of corners necessary to perpetuate certain points established in surveying: 1. Standard Township Corner. 2. Closing Township Corner. 3. Corner common to four townships. 4. Corner common to two townships only. 5. Corner referring to one township only, 6. Standard Section Corner. 7. Closing Section Corner. 8. Corner common to four sections. 9. Section corner common to two sections only. 10. Section corner referring to one section only, n. Quarter-section Corner. 12. Standard Quarter-section Corner. 13. Quarter-section corner common to two quarters of only one section. 14. Meander Corner. 15. Special Meander Corner. 16. Auxiliary Meander Corner. 17. Witness Corner. 18. Witness Point. CORNER CONSTRUCTIONS. Upon arriving at the point for the establishment of a cor- ner, the surveyor takes into consideration the character of the country, and then the requisites at hand, and uses his own judgment as to the best construction to use. He has the choice of eight different constructions, and we herewith give the general requirements for those constructions: 1. Stone for corner, with pits and mound of earth for accessories. 2. Stone for corner, with mound of stone for an accessory. 3. Stone for corner, v/ith bearing trees for accessories. 4. Post for corner, with pits and mound of earth for ac- cessories. 5. Post for corner, with bearing trees for accessories. 6. Mound of earth raised over deposit of marked stone, glass, charred stake, or quart of charcoal for corner, with pits and stake in one pit, for accessories. 40 7. Tree in place for corner, with pits and mound of earth for accessories. 8. Tree in place for corner, with bearing trees for acces- sories. It would require too much space to elaborately describe each and every one of the constructions for all of the various kinds of corners, so the author refers you to the "Manual of Surveying Instructions for the Survey of the Public Lands of the United States" for that information, and only gives in detail the construction likely to be found in a timbered or partly timbered country. In the older surveys, the requirements were not so strictly carried out as in later years, and evidences to identify the original corners are sometimes lacking. The surveyor often mentioned in the field notes certain bearing trees, which were not marked as required, but only slightly blazed. Some- times, also, when there were numerous trees at hand suitable for bearing trees, only a stone was set for a corner. So many corners were established in old timber land surveys by the use of the stake for a corner, without the accessories as re- quired, the stake having decayed, it is almost impossible to arrive at the true position for that corner without actually taking the measurements from the nearest known corner. The following requirements are necessary for the estab- lishment of corners and their accessories; "No stones measuring less than 504 cubic inches, or less than 12 inches in length or 3 inches in thickness will be used for corners. Stones 18 inches long or less will be set with two-thirds of their length in the ground and those more than 18 inches long will have three-fourths of their length in the ground. "When a corner falls on rock in place, or on a boulder, a cross (X) will be made at the exact corner point and wit- 41 nessed by the proper number of bearing trees (if they are available), and in absence of suitable trees, a mound of stones will be raised. Owing to the difficulty of identifying the cor- ner coming upon a flat rock in place, when only a cross is cut thereon, it is imperative that some adequate witness be used and marked. "Mounds of stone, or of stone covered with earth, must never be built around the corner stone, but separate. When stones are necessary to hold the corner stone upright and firm, they should be in addition to the witness mound, and not a part of it. "Corners referring to one, two, or four townships or sec- tions, not identical with standard or closing corners, will be set with their faces directed NE. and SW., and NW. and SE., while all other corners will be set with their sides facing the cardinal points; except corners on boundaries of reservations and private land claims, which will be set squarely in line." Bearing trees must not be less than 4 inches in diameter, and must not stand over 300 links from the corner they wit- ness; except, where such trees are few but accessible. Bear- ing trees should be marked with plain letters and Arabic figures, as also should posts for corners. The tool used for this purpose is a scribing-tool or gouge and letters or figures made with any other kind of an instrument are not to be con- founded with work done by deputy U. S. surveyors. SPECIFIC CONSTRUCTIONS FOR TIMBERED COUNTRY. The following are the specific constructions for Nos. 3, 5 and 8 of the eight constructions possible. In corners common to four sections, all eight specific constructions are given, in order to give the reader a clear idea of all the constructions: 42 STANDARD TOWNSHIP CORNERS. "3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for standard cor. of Tps. 13 N., Rs. 21 and 22 E., marked S. C. on N.; with 6 grooves on N. B. and W. faces; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 22 B., S. 31 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 36 B. T. "5. Post, with Bearing Trees. Set a post. 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for standard cor. of Tps. 13 N., Rs. 22 and 23 E., marked S. C. T. 13 N. on North, R. 23 E., S. 31 on East, and R. 22 E„ S. 36 on west face; with 6 grooves on north, east, and west faces, from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 23 E., S. 31 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 22 E., S. 36 B. T. "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. A , ins. diam., for standard cor. of Tps. 13 N., Rs. 22 and 23 B. I mark S. C. T. 13 N. on north, R. 23 E., S. 31 on east, and R. 22 E„ S. 36 on west side; with 6 notches on north, east and west sides; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 23 E., S. 31 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 22 E., S. 36 B. T. 43 CLOSING TOWNSHIP CORNERS. "3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in ground, for closing cor. of Tps. 4 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., marked C. C. on south; with 6 grooves on south, east, and west faces; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. "5. Post, with Bearing Trees. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for closing cor. of Tps. 4 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., marked C. C. T. 4 N. on south, R. 2 W., S. 6 on east, and R. 3 W., S. 1 on west face; with 6 grooves on south, east, and west faces; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. A , ins. diam., for closing cor. of Tps. 4 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., I mark C. C. T 4 N. on south, R. 2 W., S. 6 on east, and R. 3 W., S. 1 on west side, with 6 notches on south, east, and west sides; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. 44 CORNERS COMMON TO FOUR TOWNSHIPS. "3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., marked with 6 notches on each edge, from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., lk:s. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 2 W., S. 31 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 3 W., S. 36 B. T. "5. Post, with Bearing Trees. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., marked. T. 3 N., S. 31 on NE., R. 2 W., S. 6 on SE., T. 2 N., S. 1 on SW., and R. 3 W., S. 38 on NW. face, with 6 notches on each edge; from which (Bearing trees same as No. 3.) "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. A , ins. diam., for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., Rs. 2 and 3 W., I mark T. 3 N., S. 31 on NB., R. 2 W., S. 6 on SE., T. 2 N., S. 1 on SW., and R. 3 W., S. 3G on NW. side, with 6 notches facing each cardinal point; from which (Bearing trees same as No. 3.) 45 CORNERS COMMON TO TWO TOWNSHIPS ONLY. "3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for cor. of Tp. 2 N., R. 5 W., and Tp. 3 N., R. 6 W., on N. boundary Tp. 2 N., R. 6 W., marked with, 6 notches on north and west edges; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist, marked T. 2 N., R. 5 W., S. 6 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 6 W., S. 36 B. T. "5. Post, with Bearing Trees. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., R. 7 W., on west boundary Tp. 3 N., R. 6 W., marked. T. 2 N., R. 7 W., S. 1 on SW., and T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 36 on NW. face, with 6 notches on north and west edges; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 7 W., S. 1 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 36 B. T. "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. A , ins. diam., for cor. of Tps. 2 and 3 N., R. 7 W., on west boundary Tp. 3 N., R. 6 W., I mark T. 2 N., R. 7 W., S. 1 on SW., and T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 36 on NW. side, with 6 notches facing north and west; from which (Bearing trees same as No. 5. ) CORNERS REFERRING TO ONE TOWNSHIP ONLY. "3. stone, with Bearing Tree. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in ground for NE. cor. of Tp. 2 N., R. 6 W., marked with 6 notches on south and west edges; from which 46 A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 6 W., S. 1 B. T. "5. Post, with Bearing Tree. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for SW. cor. of Tp. 3 N., R. 6 W., marked T. 3 N., R. 6 W., S. 31 on NE., S. 1 on SE., T. 2 N., R. 7 W., S. 1 on SW., and S. 1 on NW. face, with 6 notches on north and east edges; from which A , ins, diam., bears N. ° E., llvs. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 6 W., S 31 B. T. "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. A , ins. diam., for SE. cor. of Tp. 4 N., R. 6 W., I mark S. 6 on NE., T. 3 N., R. 5 W., S. 6 on SE., S. 6 on SW., and T. 4 N., R. 6 W., S. 36 on NW. side, with 6 notches facing north and west; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 6 W., S. 36 B. T. STANDARD SECTION CORNER. "3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for standard cor, of Sees. 33 and 34, marked S. C. on north; with 3 grooves on east and west faces; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 34 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 33 B. T. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for standard cor. of Sees. 34 and 35, marked 47 S. C. T. 13 N., R. 21 on north, "5. Post, with Bearing Trees. S. 35 on east, and S. 34 on west face, with 2 grooves on east, and 4 grooves on west face, from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 35 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks, dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 21 E., S. 34 B. T. "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. A , ins. diam., for standard cor. of Sees. 35 and 3G, I mark S. C. T. 13 N., R. 22 E. on north, S. 36 on east, and S. 35 on west side, with 1 notch on east, and 5 notches on west side, from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 22 E., S. 36 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 13 N., R. 22 E., S. 35 B. T. CLOSING SECTION CORNERS. "3. Stone, ivith Bearing Trees. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for closing cor. of Sees. 1 and 2, marked C. C. on south; with 1 groove on east and 5 grooves on west face, from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 2 B. T. "5. Post, with Bearing Trees. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for closing cor. of Sees. 1 and 2, marked 48 C. C. T. 4 N., R. 3 W. on south, S. 1 on east, and S. 2 on west face, with 1 groove on east, and 5 grooves on west face; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 1 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marlved T. 4 N., R. 3 W., S. 2 B. T. "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. A , ins. diam., for closing cor. Sees. 1 and 2, I mark C. C. T. 4 N., R. 3 W. on south, S. 1 on east, and S. 2 on west side, with 1 notch on east and 5 notches on west side; from which (Bearing trees same as No. 5.) CORNERS COMMON TO FOUR SECTIONS. "1. Stone, ivith Pits and Mound of Earth. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for cor. of Sees. 14, 15, 22 and 23, marked with 3 notches on south and 2 notches on east edge; dig pits, 18x18x12 ins., in each sec, 5i/^ ft. dist.; and raise a mound of earth, 4 ft. base, 2 ft. high, west of corner. "2. Stone, with Mound of Stone. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for cor. of Sees. 14, 15, 22 and 23, marked with 3 notches on south and 2 notches on east edge; and raise a mound of stone, 2 ft. base, li/^ ft. high, west of corner. Pits impracticable. "3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. Set a stone, x x ins. ,^— ins. in the ground, for cor. of Sees. 9, 10, 15 and 16, marked with 4 notches on south, and 3 notches on east edge; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 10 B. T. 49 — , ins, diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 15 B. T. — , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 16 B. T. — , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W.. S. 9 B. T. "4. Post, with Pit and Mound of Earth. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., with marked stone (charred stake or quart of charcoal), 24 ins. in the ground, for cor. of Sees. 15, 16, 21 and 22, marked T. 2 N., S. 15 on NE., R. 2 W., S. 22 on SE., S. 21 on SW., and S. 16 on NW. face, with 3 notches on south and east edges; dig pits, 18x18x12 ins., in each sec, 5i^ ft. dist.; and raise a mound of earth, 4 ft. base, 2 ft. high, west of cor. "5. Post, with Bearing Trees. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for cor. of Sees. 25, 26, 35 and 36, marked T. 2 N., S. 25 on NE., R. 2 W., S. 36 on SE., S. 35 on SW., and S. 26 on NW. face, with 1 notch on south and east edges; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 25 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 36 B. T. , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 35 B. T. , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 26 B. T. "6. Mound, with Deposit, and Stake in Pit. 50 Deposit a marked stone (charred stake or quart of char- coal) 12 ins. in the ground, for cor. of Sees. 25, 26, 35 and 36; dig pits, 18x18x12 ins., in each sec. 4 ft. dist.; and raise a mound of earth, 4 ft. base, 2 ft. high, over deposit. In SE. pit drive a stake, 2 ft. long, 2 ins. sq., 12 ins. in the ground, marked T. 2 N., S. 25 on NE., R. 2 W., S. 36 on SE., S. 35 on SW., and S. 26 on NW. faces, with 1 notch on south and east edges. "7. Tree Corner, with Pits and Mound of Earth. A , ins. diam., for cor. Sees. 29, 30, 31 and 32, I mark T. 2 N., S. 29 on NE., R. 2 W., S. 32 on SE., S. 31 on SW., and S. 30 on NW. side, with 1 notch on south and 5 notches on east side; dig pits, 18x18x12 ins., in each sec, 5 ft. dist.; and raise a mound of earth around tree. "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. A , ins. diam., for cor. of Sees. 5, 6, 7 and 8, I mark T. 2 N., S. 5 on NE., R. 2 W., S. 8 on SE., S. 7 on SW., and S. 6 on NW. side, with 5 notches on south and east sides; from which A , ins. diam., bears. N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 5 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 8 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 7 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 2 W., S. 6 B. T. 51 SECTION CORNERS COMMON TO TWO SECTIONS ONLY. "3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. (Tp. 3 N., R. 7 W.) Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for cor. of Sees. 28 and 29, marked with 4 notches on east edge; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° B., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 28 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° V/., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 29 B. T. "5. Post, with Beariyig Trees. (Tp. 3 N., R. 5 W.) Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for cor. of Sees. 24 and 25, marked T. 3 N., S. 25 on SW., and R. 5 W., S. 24 on NW. face, with 4 notches on north, and 2 notches on south edge; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 5 W., S. 25 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 5 W., S. 24 B. T. "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Trees. (Tp. 3 N., R. 7 W.) A , ins. diam., for cor. of Sees. 22 and 27, I mark T. 3 N., S. 27 on SW., and R. 7 W., S. 22 on NW. side, with 4 notches on north, and 2 notches on south side; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 27 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 7 W., S. 22 B. T. SECTION CORNER REFERRING TO ONE SECTION ONLY. "3. Stone, with Bearing Tree. Set a stone, x x ins.,— ins. in the ground, for SW. cor. of Sec. 12, marked with 1 notch on east edge; from which 52 A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 2 N., R. 5 W., S. 12 B. T. "5. Post, with Bearing Tree. (Tp. 2 N., R. 5 W.) Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for SW. cor. of Sec. 12; marked. T. 2 N., S. 12 on NE., R. 5 W., S. 13 on SE., S. 13 on SW., and S. 13 on NW. face, with 1 notch on east edge; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., markeu T. 2 N., R. 5 W., S. 12 B. T. "8. Tree Corner, with Bearing Tree. (Tp. 3 N., R. 5 W.) A , ins. diam., for NW. cor. of Sec. 10, I mark T. 3 N., S. 9 on NB., R. 5 W., S. 10 on SE., S. 9 on SW., and S. 9 on NW. side, v/ith 5 notches on south, and 3 notches on east side; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 3 N., R. 5 W., S. 10 B. T. QUARTER-SECTION CORNERS. "3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for 1/4 sec. cor. marked % on west face; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 1^ S. 16 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears N. °W., Iks. dist., marlved 14 S. 17 B. T. "5. Post, with Bearing Trees. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 3 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for l^ sec. cor. marked % S. 21 on west face and 22 on east face; from which 53 A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked 14 S. 22 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist, marked l^ S. 21 B. T. "8. Tree Corner, with Beari7ig Trees. A , ins. diam., for % sec. cor. I mark % S. 20 on north side and 29 on south side; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 14 S. 20 B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° W., Iks. dist., marked 1/4 S. 29 B. T. Note. — Up until the year 1897 the section number was not added to the quarter-section corner, nor to its accessories, so in surveys made before that date, you will find on corners and accessories only the marks 14 or i/4 S. B. T. STANDARD QUARTER SECTION CORNER. "All standard quarter-section corners, on base lines or standard parallels, will have the letters S. C. (for standard corner), precede the marking 14 or i^ S., as the case may be; such corners will be established in all other respects like other quarter-section corners. "When bearing trees are described for standard quarter- section corners, each tree will be marked S. C. i/4 S. B. T." QUARTER-SECTION CORNERS COMMON TO TWO QUARTERS OF ONLY ONE SECTION. These corners will be similar in all respects to those that are common to four quarters of two sections. MEANDER CORNERS. "3. Stone, with Bearing Trees. Set a stone, x x ins., ins. in the ground, for meander cor. of fractional Sees. 26 and 35, with 1 groove on south face, marked 54 M. C. on west face; from which A , ins. diam., bears N. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 26 M. C. B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 35 M. C. B. T. "5. Post, loith Bearing Trees. Set a post, 3 ft. long, 4 ins. sq., 24 ins. in the ground, for meander cor. of fracl. Sees. 25 and 26, marked M. C. on north, T. 15 N. on south, R. 20 E., S. 25 on east, and S. 26 on west face; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 25 M. C. B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 26 M. C. B. T. "8. Tree Corner, tvith Bearing Trees. (Special meander corner.) A , ins. diam., for a special meander cor, of fracl. east and west halves of Sec. 33, I mark S. M. C. on north, T. 15 N. on south, R. 20 E., S. 33 on east, and S. 33 on west side; from which A , ins. diam., bears S. ° E., Iks. dist., marked T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 33 S. M. C. B. T. A , ins. diam., bears S. °W., Iks. dist., marked T. 15 N., R. 20 E., S. 33 S. M. C. B. T. You will observe, if you will carefully study the foregoing examples, that they are given for as many different section corners as space would permit; also that the notching of stones, posts, and trees for corners is done in such a manner that by counting the notches, the location of the corner can 55 be easily determined; e. g., if we have a stone for corner, with 3 notches on east and 4 on south face, it means that the cor- ner is three miles from the township line on the east, and four miles from the south boundary; this would make the corner in question the corner to Sections 9, 10, 15 and 16. All section corners on township lines are notched on both sides facing the line; the notches corresponding to the num- ber of miles such corners stand, from the two township cor- ners which limit such lines. All interior section corners are notched on south and east sides, to indicate the number of miles such corners are from the south and east boundaries of the township. By carefully examining every section-corner stone, you will be able to verify by the notches the location of the corner, without taking into consideration any of the accessories of that corner. In case the accessory is a bearing tree, and the marks are deeply set in the tree by overgrowth, with the cor- ner stone still firmly imbedded showing no indications of hav- ing been disturbed for many years, the notches can be entirely relied upon to determine the exact position of the corner. THE DECLINATION OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. It has previously been explained, that true north is the direction from a given point, which if continued, would event- ually pass through the North Pole; i. e., it would be a true meridian. If we use an ordinary magnetic compass with which to determine the exact position of the North Pole, we find we must know how much declination the magnetic needle should require before we can determine the Pole's true posi- tion; 1. e., we must know how many degrees east or west the needle must point, in order that the line marked N. on the compass should point true north. From time to time, the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey issues an isogonic chart, showing the difference in declination 56 at all points in the United States. Running southeast, from near the eastern borders of Lake Superior to a point just east of Charleston, South Carolina, is an imaginary irregularly curved line, which is designated on the chart and is known as "the line of no variation." If a magnetic compass is set any- where on this line, the needle would point directly north; if set anywhere east of the line, it would point west of true north (variation west); and if set west of the line, it would point east of true north (variation east). For example, if the compass is set at New York City, the variation would be about 9° west, while if set at Portland, Oregon, it would be about 22 ° 30' east. For some unknov/n reason the magnetic declination has been constantly changing. The change noted, on the Pacific Coast, since the first surveys were made, is to the effect that the needle points approximately one degree farther east for the lapse of twenty years of time; for example, if a survey was made in the year 1870 and the lines run on 20° east, it would now, in 1910, require a variation for the same line of about 22° 30' east. OBTAINING THE VARIATION. For a cruiser to obtain the true variation for a line, run several years ago, it is necessary for him to know just what j-eai and variation the old line was run on; then to calculate by the lapse of time, what the variation for the present time should be. This will give you only the approximate varia- tion, but it is a great help in making the trial run. After making the trial run, and finding what the departure is from the corner run to; that is, the distance your line falls to the right or left of the established corner, you can then calculate by the following table just what variation the old line runs on at the present time: 57 80 chains (1 mile) 60 chains (H mile) 40 chains VA mile) 20 chains (^ mile) Min. Depar- of ture angle in ins. Min. of angle Depar- ture in ins. Min. Depar- of ture angle in ins. ! Min. Depar- of ture angle in ins. 1 18.48 1 13.86 1 9.24 1 4.62 15 277.2 15 207.9 15 138.6 15 69.3 30 554.4 30 415.8 30 277.2 30 138.6 45 831.6 45 623.7 45 415.8 45 207.9 60 1108.8 60 831.6 60 554.4 60 277.2 Supposing, for example, that in running a half mile of old line on a variation of twenty degrees east, you fell to the left of the objective corner 277.2 inches (23 ft. 1.1 in.). By refer- ring to the table for departure under the V2 mile column, you find that 277.2 inches in departure represents 30 minutes of angle (i^ degree); then it is evident that the needle of the compass was pointing too far east, which threw you to the left of the objective corner; instead of running on twenty degrees east your variation should have been 19°30 east. If you should fall to the right of the objective corner, the method of finding the true variation by measuring the depar- ture, would be just reversed. 58 INDEX PART I. Page, No. Acreage 21-24 Acre, Area of g 22 Aneroid barometer 4 Aneroid readings 26 Area of an acre g 22 Average tree, The 12 Bark, Thickness of I3 Barometer, Aneroid 4 Box compass 4 Breakage of timber in falling I3 Circle-acre, Radius of I7 22 Circle-acre, Method of cruising I7 Clear logs 12 Compass, How to set 5 Contents of logs g Contents of trees H Contents of rectangle, triangle, parallelogram, trapezoid, trapezium 23 24 Cordwood, How to figure standing timber into 13 Cruiser's handy table .' g Cruising, Different systems of I5 Cruising by the strip-acre method 15^ 16 Cruising by the circle-acre method I7 Cruising by the square-acre method Ig Cruising by double-running I9 20 Cruising by the tree-count system 20 21 Cruiser's log table 9 10 Cruiser's work, The I4 Cruiser's outfit 4 Different systems of cruising 15 59 INDEX— Continued Page. No. Double-running 19, 20 Elevations by aneroid readings 26 Getting located on land 5 Grading timber 11, 12 How to pace 7 How to set the compass 5, 6 How to find the contents of trees 11 How to figure standing timber into cordwood 13 Length of a pace 7^ 8 Lines, How to run 6, 7 Log table 9, 10 Logs, Contents of 8, 9 Long measure 8 Lots, How to figure how many paces long 21, 22 Making camp 5 Making a report 24, 25 One-third of an acre in a circle, Radius of 22 One-third of an acre, Size of 22 Outfit, Cruiser's 4 Pace, Length of 7, 8 Pacing 7 Parallelogram, Rule for calculating contents of 24 Preliminary cruising 19 Railroad ties, Dimension of 13 Rectangle, Rule for calculating contents of 23 Report, Making a 24, 25 Rule for finding the contents of logs 13 Rules for finding circumference, diameter or area of a circle 23 Rules for calculating the contents of rectangle, triangle, parallelogram, trapezoid or trapezium 23, 24 Running lines 6, 7 Setting the compass 5 60 INDEX— Continued Page. No. Sight compass 4 Single run 19 Square acre,. Dimensions of 19, 22 Square measure, Table of 8 Strip-acre, Method of cruising 15, 16 Square-acre, Method of cruising 18 Soundness of dead timber 13 Surface clear 12 Surveyor's tables 7 Table giving contents of ties 13 Tables, Surveyor's 7 Table Cruiser's handy 8 Table of long measure 8 Table of square measure 8 Table, Log 9, 10 Taper of trees 11, 13 Things you should know 12, 13 Thickness of bark 13 Ties, Dimension of 13 Timber, Grading of 11, 12 Timber, Soundness of dead 13 Timber, breakage of 13 Topography ; 26 Trapezoid, Rule for calculating contents of 24 Trapezium, Rule for calculating contents of 24 Trees, Contents of 11 Trees, Taper of 11, 13 Tree, The average 12 Tree-count system of cruising 20, 21 Triangle, Rule for calculating the contents of 23 61 INDEX— Continued PART II. Page, No. Abbreviations used in marking corners 38 Accessories of corners 38 Auxiliary meander corners, Description of 37 Auxiliary meander corner, Abbreviation for 39 Base line, Location of 27 Bearing trees, limits of distance from corners 42 Bearing trees, Regulations for size of 42 Bearing tree, Abbreviation for 39 Bearing tree, Explanation of 38 Bearing object. Explanation of 38 Bearing object, Abbreviation for 39 Blazes along lines 35, 36 Blazes, How determined 36 Closing corner. Description of 38 Closing corner. Limits for establishment of 84, 38 Closing corner, Abbreviation for 39 Closing township corner 39, 44 Closing section corner 40, 48, 49 Convergency, Explanation of 28, 29 Corner accessories 38 Corner constructions 40, 41 Corners common to four sections 40, 49-51 Corners common to four townships 39, 45 Corners common to two tov/nships only 40, 46 Corner on fiat boulder. Necessary markings for 41, 42 Corner referring to one township only 40, 46, 47 Declination of the magnetic needle 56, 57 Departure table. Use of in obtaining variation 58 Different kinds of corners established in surveying 39 Explanation of convergency 28, 29 Fractional acreage, where found in townships 29, 33, 34 62 INDEX— Continued General plan of surveying ^_ 27 Guide meridians 27 How corners are perpetuated 38 How to determine blazes from abrasions 36 Initial points 27 Irregularities of townships 29, 30 33-35 Lapse of time, Effect on old surveys '../... 57 Limits for closing township lines 31 Limits for closing section lines 34 Line trees 05 Lines, length of between section rorners 29 Location of quarter-section corners 29 32 Magnetic needle. Declination of 56 57 Marking of trees along lines '35 Meander corner, Description of 37 Meander corner. Abbreviation for 39 Meander corner. Construction for 54^ 55 Meandering, Requirements for 37 Mound of stone, Regulation for 42 Negligence of surveyors 4I Notches on stones, posts and trees for corners 42, 55 Notches on corners, Explanation of 55 56 Numbering of sections '27 Numbering of townships 27 28 Obtaining the variation 57 53 Perpetuation of corners 33 Position of corners with reference to lines 42 Principal meridians 27 Quarter-section corner. Location of 29 32 Quarter-section corner, Abbreviation for 39 Quarter-section corner. Regulation for construction of.. 53, 64 Range, Abbreviation for 39 63 INDEX— Continued Page No. Sections, Abbreviation for 39 Sections, Numbering of 27 Scribing-tool, Use of 42 Section corner common to two sections only 40, 52 Section corner referring to one section only 40, 52, 53 Sight trees 35 Special meander corner, Abbreviation for 39 Special meander corner, Description of 37 Special meander corner. Construction for 55 Specific construction for timbered country 42, 55 Standard township corner, Description of 39, 43 Standard corners, Description of 38 Standard section corner. Description of 40, 47, 48 Standard corner, Abbreviation for 38 Standard quarter-section corner, Description of 40, 54 Standard parallels, Explanation of 27 Standard parallels for Oregon and Washington (table).... 28 Stone for corner. Regulations for size of 41 Table of departure 58 Table of standard parallels in Oregon and Washington 28 Township, Abbreviation for 39 Townships, Numbering of . 27, 28 Township, Irregularities of 29, 30, 33-35 Township exteriors. How surveyed 30 Township interiors, How surveyed 32 Trees, How marked along lines 35 Use of departure table in obtaining variation 58 Variation explained 56, 57 Variation, How to obtain 57, 58 Witness corner. When established 87 Witness corner. Abbreviation for 39 Witness point, When established 36 Witness point, Abbreviation for 39 64 ^ocv 1^ 19^0 One copy del. to Cat. Div. r-.-k