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SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS Published in conjunction with THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL Vol.1 April, 1917 No. 2 Whole No. 2 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING By WILLIAM ANTON SCHMIDT THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Agents THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS, London and Edinburgh THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA, Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, Fukuoka, Sendai THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY, Shanghai PUBLICATIONS EDITED BY THE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO JOINT EDITORIAL COMMITTEE CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD, Chairmati Articles and Editorials of The School Review Articles and Editorials of The Elementary ROLLO LA VERNE LYMAN School Journal FRANKLIN WINSLOW JOHNSON FRANK NUGENT FREEMAN '^^ J HARRY ORRIN GILLETT KAROT Vi ORDWAY RUGG Supplementary Educational Monographs ROLLA MILTON TRYON AVILLIAM SCOTT GRAY THE COURSE of STUDY Of the Laboratory Schools of the School of Education of the University of Chicago jHE course of study in schools is in constant process of enlargement and improvement. Methods of instruction are changing, and the subjects taught in classes must be enlarged so as to include all the suggestions that have been tried out and found to be of genuine value for the education of children. For some years past all the members of the faculties of the High School and the Elementary School of the University of Chicago have been work- ing on the course of study. The results of their labors will appear from time to time during the next two years in the School Review, the Elementary School Journal, and in Supplementary Educational Mono- graphs, edited by the School of Education of the University of Chicago. This is not a body of theoretical material; it represents the actual practices of departments in these schools. It is not a hastily prepared statement of suggestions that are to be tried out. For a period of years each department has been revising and re-revising its course of study. The work is a democratic product in which all the teachers of these schools have participated. The course of study will be published in departmental sections. It will be subject, as the work of these schoojs goes forward, to enlargement and revision, but in its present fOrm* it is believed that it will be suggestive to other teachers and sch6T3l officers. Subscription rates have been arranged for the two journals and the supplementary monographs. If the journals are taken separately, the price of subscription is $1.50 each. If the monographs are taken by the volume, each volume to be completed in one year and to contain approximately one thousand pages, the subscription price will be $5.00 with an additional cost of 50 cents for postage, A combination of all three pubHcations is offered for $6.00 plus 50 cents for postage on the monographs. Either one of the journals with one volume of the mono- graphs is offered at $5.50 plus 50 cents postage for the monographs. HI ri SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS Published in conjunction with THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL Vol. I April, 1917 No. 2 Whole No.2 AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING By WILLIAM ANTON SCHMIDT THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Copyright igi7 Bv The University of Chicago All Rights Reserved Published April 1917 Composed and Printed By The University oi Chicago Press Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. APR 23 1917 ©CI.A4(52063 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER I. Introduction ^ II. Historical Sketch 4 A. Experimental Investigations of Eye-Movements 4 1. Evolution of Experimental Technique for the Study of Eye- Movements ■* 2. Results of Experimentation with Eye-Movements ... 9 a) Path of the Eye's Fixation Point 9 b) Interfixation Movements lo c) The Fixation Pause ^^ B. Tachistoscopic Experimentation— Studies Dealing Chiefly with the Perceptual Process ^S C. Studies Chiefly Concerned with Individual Differences in Speed and Comprehension ^9 III. Apparatus, Method, and Scope 24 A. Apparatus ^4- B. Method ^7 C. Scope 31 IV. Statement and Discussion of Results 37 A. Tables, Figures, and Charts 37 B. Fixation Pauses 4-6 1. Nature of Fixation Pauses 47 2. Number of Pauses 54 3. Duration of Pauses 57 4. Perception (or Reading) Time 61 5. Location of Pauses "^ C. Comparison of Groups ^ 1. Number of Pauses ^^ 2. Duration of Pauses "° 3. Perception (or Reading) Time ^^ 4. Refixations 7^ 5. Average Deviations 73 6. Comprehension 73 D. Comparison of Silent and Oral Reading 75 1. Number of Pauses 75 2. Duration of Pauses 7^ 3. Perception (or Reading) Time 7^ 4. Refixations 7° E. Summary and Conclusions 7° iii iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE V. The Motor Behavior of the Eye in Reading 85 A. Movement in the Horizontal Plane 85 1. Description of Records and Plates 85 2. Head- and Eye-Movement in the Horizontal Plane ... 87 3. Comparison of Records for SUent Reading at Maximal Rate with Records for Silent Reading at Normal Rate ... 93 4. Comparison of the Records of Children with Those of Adults 93 5. The Return Sweep and Interfixation Movements .... 95 6. Binocular Behavior and Adjustment 96 B. Movement in the Vertical Plane 102 1. Description of Records and Plates 102 2. Comparison of Records for the Two Planes 106 3. Head- and Eye-Movement in the Vertical Plane .... 107 C. Summary and Conclusions Regarding the Motor Behavior of the Eye 113 VI. General Summary and Conclusion 118 Index 124 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION' A recent investigation has shown that more than one-fourth of the time in the elementary schools of our cities is devoted to the teaching of reading (i)^. This proportion acquires material significance when viewed in the light of the fact that the teaching of reading has until recently been proverbially inefficient, especially in the case of the intermediate and grammar grades. The technique of teaching the mechanics of reading has of course undergone an almost complete revolution since 1870. The alphabet method in use for ages has been gradually discarded, while the phonic, phonetic, word, and sentence methods were being perfected and blended into a variety of superior combination methods (2). But even here there is still entirely too much clash of opinion and far too Httle scientific certainty. And to say the least, the most efficient method of teaching the mechanics of reading remains yet to be determined through scientific experimentation. If we turn to the later stages in the process of teaching reading —the stages following upon the period when the mechanics of reading has been mastered — we find that improvement in practice ' Most of the data bearing upon this investigation were secured in the laboratory of the School of Education of the University of Chicago during the school year 1913-14. The writer gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to Dr. F. N. Freeman for his introduction to the technique and methods of experimentation, for improvements in connection with the apparatus — particularly in so far as these bear upon the modi- fications which made possible measurement of eye-movement in the vertical plane — for much time in serving as a subject in connection with most preliminary and supple- mentary experimentation, and for much valuable advice and indispensable criticism in connection with the investigation and the manuscript. The writer is further greatly indebted to Dr. Charles H. Judd for suggesting the problem and for most valuable council and criticism. Grateful acknowledgments are also due to Principal F. W. Johnson, of the University High School, and to Principal H. O. Gillet, of the University Elementary School, for kindly co-operation in securing children, as well as to the many individuals who served as subjects in the course of the investigation. 2 Figures in parentheses refer to corresponding numbers in the bibliography given at the end of each chapter. 2 STUDY IN THE PSY GEOLOGY OF READING has been much slower. In fact, training in this most important form of human behavior has until recently been guided almost exclusively by traditional and empirical principles. In conse- quence the results have been very unsatisfactory. Emphases have not infrequently been entirely misplaced, as in the case of silent and oral reading, for instance. In spite of the fact that silent reading is of far greater importance for adult life than oral reading, our schools have stressed the latter to the almost complete exclusion of the former. Similarly, adaptation to individual differences has been rather persistently ignored. More recently, however, a marked change has been taking place. As a result, the reading process is rapidly being analyzed, and careful studies are being made of its several components, such as rate and comprehension. Individual differences are being determined, reading materials standardized, norms and standards of accomphshment established, the differences between silent and oral reading more definitely set forth, and new practices developed. This new and promising movement is due in part to the influence of the rapidly growing technical psychology of reading, the incep- tion and development of which are traced in the next chapter, and in part it is part and parcel of the present scientific movement in education^ — the movement which is ruthlessly challenging all of our practices, in so far as these rest upon traditional and empirical rather than scientific principles. Before the most advantageous and economical reconstruction of practice can be effected additional information is needed. To this end the reading process must be further analyzed and the boundaries of the psychology of reading must be materially extended. It is not sufficient, for instance, to know that reading rate is a variable. We must determine the factors which condition such variation; we must find out to what extent speed efl&ciency is dependent upon the number and to what extent upon the dura- tion of fixation pauses ; how it is related to age and accomplishment, and how to efficiency in comprehension ; to what extent it is subject to improvement under judicious practice, and within what limits it may be developed in connection with continuous reading rather than scanning. It is essential, further, that the differences between INTRODUCTION 3 silent and oral reading be carefully pointed out, and that the possi- bilities and limitations of each be more completely set forth. Accordingly, this investigation was undertaken for the purpose of securing such information. An effort has been made to discover the dominant reading characteristics of a large number of indi- viduals varying widely in age and accomplishment. Similarly, the differences between silent and oral reading — especially as these are revealed by variations in the number, duration, and location of fixation pauses and by differences in reading rate— have been singled out and described. Finally, a critical analysis of binocular behavior and adjustment affords information which is of particular interest to the technical psychology of reading. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 1. Holmes, H. W. "Time Distribution by Subjects and Grades in Represen- tative Cities," Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Stiidy of Education, Part I, pp. 21-27. 2. Huey, E. B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading, chaps, xiii, xiv. CHAPTER II HISTORICAL SKETCH The scientific study of the reading process is of comparatively recent origin. The long neglect of this important field is, as Huey remarks, "a, curious instance of the failure of scientists to make first-hand observation except along certain lines that have become habitual." Once initiated, however, the movement has made con- siderable progress — so much so, in fact, that we have today an elaborate experimental technique and a wealth of scientific data at our command. The problem has been approached from many different angles, and has as a result given rise to a variety of experi- mental activities, each making its specific contribution toward the building up of a comprehensive psychology of reading. We are here most immediately concerned with three types of experi- mental investigation, namely: (A) those approaching the problem primarily through a study of eye-movements; (B) those dealing chiefly with the perceptual process; (C) those attacking the problem from the standpoint of individual differences in speed, comprehension, and reproduction. A. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF EYE-MOVEMENTS I. EVOLUTION OF EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE FOR THE STUDY OF EYE-MOVEMENTS The present complicated technique for the study of eye- movements has a rather interesting history. Although earlier attempts to attack the problem by means of mechanical devices are not wanting, yet up to 1898, when Huey succeeded in utihzing mechanical registration, the after-image method and the mirror method of direct observation gave the most satisfactory results. Volkmann (i) and Lamansky (2) used the after-image method during the third quarter of the last century. The speed of the eye's movement "was measured by counting the number of after- images produced during a given movement of a pencil of light 4 HISTORICAL SKETCH 5 flashed into the eye at regular intervals through the perforations in a rotating disk." Professor Javal, of the University of Paris, was among the first to use the mirror method of direct observation. As early as 1879 he called attention to the fact that the passage of the eye across the page from left to right is discontinuous, con- sisting of a series of movements and pauses (3). Somewhat later (1891) M. Landolt, also of the University of Paris, made extensive observations by means of the mirror method of direct observation (4). Still later (1897-98) Erdmann and Dodge carried on elaborate investigations at the University of Halle (5). Among the methods used was the mirror method of direct observation. A telescope was also used to advantage. Meanwhile various mechanical devices were attempted. Lamare, working with Javal, succeeded in attaching a microphone to the upper eyelid which enabled him to count the sounds made by the movements of the eyes and thus to determine in a general way the number of pauses which the eye made in reading a given line (6). Somewhat later (1891) Dr. Ahrens, in studying eye- movements in connection with writing at the University of Rostock, attached an ivory cup to the cornea of the eye. By means of a pointer fastened to the cup he hoped to record on a smoked surface tracings of the movements of the eyes. The attempt, although not successful, was nevertheless suggestive (7). During the year 1897-98 Professor Delabarre, of the Harvard laboratory, resorted, at the suggestion of Dr. Lough, to the use of a plaster-of-Paris cup. This was attached to the cornea of the eye in somewhat similar fashion to that used with Dr. Ahrens' ivory cup. A light thread leading to a recording lever was fastened to the cup. To this lever was attached a thin elastic fiber in such a way that the horizontal movements of the eyes were recorded on the smoked surface of a kymograph cyHnder. However, no permanent records of eye-movements were made (8) . In the course of the same year Huey, at Clark University, devised, partly at the suggestion of Delabarre, a similar although more perfect apparatus (9). This marked a great step in advance. But, as Dodge points out, the apparatus was not entirely satisfactory. The eye necessarily worked under more or less unnatural conditions because of the CHAPTER II HISTORICAL SKETCH The scientific study of the reading process is of comparatively recent origin. The long neglect of this important field is, as Huey remarks, "a, curious instance of the failure of scientists to make first-hand observation except along certain lines that have become habitual." Once initiated, however, the movement has made con- siderable progress — so much so, in fact, that we have today an elaborate experimental technique and a wealth of scientific data at our command. The problem has been approached from many different angles, and has as a result given rise to a variety of experi- mental activities, each making its specific contribution toward the building up of a comprehensive psychology of reading. We are here most immediately concerned with three tj^es of experi- mental investigation, namely: (A) those approaching the problem primarily through a study of eye-movements; (B) those dealing chiefly with the perceptual process; (C) those attacking the problem from the standpoint of individual differences in speed, comprehension, and reproduction. A. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF EYE-MOVEMENTS I. EVOLUTION OF EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE FOR THE STUDY OF EYE-MOVEMENTS The present complicated technique for the study of eye- movements has a rather interesting history. Although earlier attempts to attack the problem by means of mechanical devices are not wanting, yet up to 1898, when Huey succeeded in utilizing mechanical registration, the after-image method and the mirror method of direct observation gave the most satisfactory results. Volkmann (i) and Lamansky (2) used the after-image method during the third quarter of the last century. The speed of the eye's movement "was measured by counting the number of after- images produced during a given movement of a pencil of light 4 HISTORICAL SKETCH 5 flashed into the eye at regular intervals through the perforations in a rotating disk." Professor Javal, of the University of Paris, was among the first to use the mirror method of direct observation. As early as 1879 he called attention to the fact that the passage of the eye across the page from left to right is discontinuous, con- sisting of a series of movements and pauses (3). Somewhat later (1891) M. Landolt, also of the University of Paris, made extensive observations by means of the mirror method of direct observation (4). Still later (1897-98) Erdmann and Dodge carried on elaborate investigations at the University of Halle (5) . Among the methods used was the mirror method of direct observation. A telescope was also used to advantage. Meanwhile various mechanical devices were attempted. Lamare, working with Javal, succeeded in attaching a microphone to the upper eyelid which enabled him to count the sounds made by the movements of the eyes and thus to determine in a general way the number of pauses which the eye made in reading a given line (6). Somewhat later (1891) Dr. Ahrens, in studying eye- movements in connection with writing at the University of Rostock, attached an ivory cup to the cornea of the eye. By means of a pointer fastened to the cup he hoped to record on a smoked surface tracings of the movements of the eyes. The attempt, although not successful, was nevertheless suggestive (7). During the year 1897-98 Professor Delabarre, of the Harvard laboratory, resorted, at the suggestion of Dr. Lough, to the use of a plaster-of-Paris cup. This was attached to the cornea of the eye in somewhat similar fashion to that used with Dr. Ahrens' ivory cup. A Hght thread leading to a recording lever was fastened to the cup. To this lever was attached a thin elastic fiber in such a way that the horizontal movements of the eyes were recorded on the smoked surface of a kymograph cylinder. However, no permanent records of eye-movements were made (8) . In the course of the same year Huey, at Clark University, devised, partly at the suggestion of Delabarre, a similar although more perfect apparatus (9). This marked a great step in advance. But, as Dodge points out, the apparatus was not entirely satisfactory. The eye necessarily worked under more or less unnatural conditions because of the 6 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING attachment. Moreover, the exactions of the technique were too severe, and the penalties of carelessness too great, to bring the apparatus into general use. Meanwhile Dodge was at work at Wesleyan University devis- ing a new apparatus. A satisfactory apparatus for recording eye-movements, he held, must necessarily meet the following requirements: It must be capable of operating under normal conditions of binocular vision. It must be capable of registering both eyes simultaneously. The vmit of measurement must be i cr or less. The registering medium may have neither momentum nor inertia, whUe the eye must perform no extra work during registration and be subjected to no unusual conditions. The apparatus should be such as can be used to record the movements of a large number of eyes without serious inconvenience either during or after the experiments (lo). It appeared to him that photography must ultimately offer the most satisfactory mode of approach. He felt convinced, too, that a pencil of Hght which had ''neither momentum nor inertia, which was absolutely safe and universally available," must constitute the final registering medium. But the development of a technique which would make this possible was no small task. The immediate outcome was an apparatus which enabled Dodge to photograph directly the horizontal movements of the eyes. This method was, however, open to serious objections. "The illumination tended to interfere with the normal eye-movement, the lines of demarka- tion between pigmented and unpigmented portions of the eye were not sharply defined, and the records could not be satisfac- torily enlarged" (ii). After considerable additional experimentation Dodge finally "hit upon the plan of utilizing the eccentric surface of the cornea as a reflector. Instead of photographing the eye directly," he now "photographed the movement of a bright vertical line as it was reflected from the surface of the cornea." The source of the corneal illumination was an arc lamp. The Hght was first passed through several thicknesses of pot-blue glass, which rendered it highly actinic and of low physiological intensity. Head-movement was eUminated as much as possible by fastening the head securely in a headrest, the latter consisting of an upper-jaw rest, a wooden HISTORICAL SKETCH 7 nose-bridge, and a mastoid-rest. The pencil of light reflected from the surface of the cornea was focused upon a photograpJiic plate by means of a lens and camera. The plate, which was movable in the vertical plane, was secured within a carefully devised box so that its fall was absolutely constant and all lateral motion was excluded. The time of the eye's movement was recorded upon the falHng plate by means of a spring pendulum which vibrated directly behind and at the edge of a horizontal slit in the camera, alternately admitting and excluding the hght, and leaving a definite time record on the photographic plate (12). Naturally the question of the reliability of the records of movements secured on the basis of corneal reflection presented itself. This question Dodge discusses at length, showing that limitations appear only in cases where reflection involves the use of the extreme and peripheral portions of the cornea. Records of reflection from the middle third of the cornea, to which clear vision is limited, are shown to correspond accurately to actual eye- movements (13). Dearborn, who worked with this apparatus at Columbia University during the year 1904-5, introduced numerous minor modifications, especially by way of perfecting various parts of the technique. He was the first to use the apparatus extensively in experimenting with reading (14). Later on he set up the apparatus at the University of Wisconsin, and still later in the laboratory of the School of Education of the University of Chicago. While connected with the above-named institutions. Dearborn introduced further modifications. By the use of double lenses he was able to secure records of binocular reading. He also experimented success- fully with the use of films, the latter being partly suggested by the kinetoscopic studies at Yale. After Dearborn left the University of Chicago, Dr. F. N. Freeman became interested in the apparatus. He accordingly introduced various minor modifications, perfecting especially the use of the film device. It was at his suggestion, too, that in the course of the present investigation the film device v/as modified so as to make possible the registration of movements in the vertical plane. 8 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING While the Dodge photographic method was being used and perfected, another and in some respects superior method for the study of eye-movements was devised at Yale by Dr. Charles H. Judd, namely, the kinetoscopic photographic method. The Dodge apparatus had certain Hmitations; eye-movement, for instance, could be measured in only one plane, the horizontal. Dr. Judd overcame this difficulty by using a kinetoscopic camera. This made possible a rapid succession of discrete photographs — eight per second — the records showing the move- ments of the eye in all planes. Usually a double camera was used so as to get complementary records. The camera was driven by a mechanical device which assured absolutely uniform motion. In order to get a fixed and identifiable spot on the eyeball — a spot which could be used as a point of reference in the successive photographs — a small particle of Chinese white was placed on the cornea. The photographs, when completed, were projected upon a screen by means of a lantern. By noting the successive positions of the white spot it was possible to measure and chart the varied movements of the eye. Head-movement was eliminated as much as possible by securing the head in a firm headrest. Iron spectacles with highly polished steel beads fastened to the lower rim were worn by the subject; this made possible a comparison of eye- and head-movement. In order to eliminate error which might result from compensatory eye-movement, the points of reference or fixation were attached to the head, so that they invariably moved with the head. The possi- bihties of error were thus reduced to a minimum (15). Since the Yale apparatus made possible the estimation and measurement of movement in the various planes, it was particularly well adapted for a minute study of fixations. McAllister's investi- gations accordingly dealt in a very thoroughgoing manner with this problem (16). The studies of illusions which were undertaken by Judd, Cameron, Steele, and Courten dealt indirectly with the same problem (17). Judd's final study dealing with convergence and divergence makes important contributions to various phases of the eye-movement problem (18). HISTORICAL SKETCH 9 2. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTATION WITH EYE-MOVEMENTS As previously indicated, up to the time that Huey succeeded in utilizing mechanical registration of eye-movements, the after- image method and the mirror method of direct observation gave the most satisfactory results. These results were, however, quite meager, since the methods were severely limited in several respects. As Dodge says: The after-image method was limited to the span of memory, while any after-image sufficiently distinct to be serviceable would be a constant menace to clear vision, and the demands on the attention would more or less disturb the processes it was serving to investigate Similarly, the invaluable method of direct observation is limited by the memory span of the observer, and is irregularly interrupted by the pursuit movements of the observing eye (19). Volkmann and Lamansky were particularly concerned with the estimation of the speed of eye-movement. Their estimates, however, were too low (20). Javal's discovery that eye-movement in reading is discontinuous, consisting of a series of alternate movements and pauses, was of course thoroughly significant. In fact, the chief interest of subsequent experimenters has centered about the nature, function, and relation of these movements and pauses. a) Path of the eye's fixation point. — Erdmann and Dodge were the first to note that the path of the eye's fixation point was not coextensive with the line. The first and last fixations were found to be located within the line— the last more so than the first (21). Huey and Dearborn later confirmed this. The former found that the distance traversed by the eye's fix:ation point varied from 78 to 82 per cent of the length of the fine (22). The latter observed that these indentations varied more or less with individuals and with the nature of end-words (23). Javal, upon observing on the basis of after-images the promi- nent part played by the upper part of letters, concluded that the fiLxation point moved across the fine evenly between the middle and the top of the small letters. Huey, with a more perfect technique, noticed that the path of the fixation point was more uneven than Javal had supposed, but concluded that the fixation lo STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING point did not wander far above or below the line that was being read (24). Dearborn, detecting on his photographic records indications of considerable movement in the vertical plane, con- cluded that the path designated by Javal was a "physical impos- sibility" (25). However, both admit the limitations of their technique. Neither apparatus was capable of registering accurately eye-movements in the vertical plane. The results of the present investigation, the technique of which made such measurement possible, will be referred to later. b) Interfixation movements (26). — Interfixation movements, i.e., the movements of the eye from fixation to fixation, have been studied chiefly from the standpoint of extent and velocity. Javal concluded on the basis of his observations that the extent of these movements was rather uniform. Recent findings, however, have disproved this. Huey and Dodge found that the extent of these forward movements often varied in the ratio of i : 4 (2 7) . Dearborn found the same variation in extent, even though the formation of short-lived motor habits tended to render the number of pauses relatively uniform line after line (28). The interest of investigators has, however, been centered largely upon the problem of determining the velocity of these movements. The chief question at issue was whether the velocity was such as to condition clear vision. Volkmann and Lamansky, as noted above, were interested in determining the angle velocity of eye-movement, but underestimated it (29). Javal, knowing that the passage of the eye from left to right is discontinuous, attempted by means of after-images to determine the velocity of interfixation movements. Although hampered by the inadequacy of his technique, he concluded that the movement was too rapid to condition clear vision (30). Erdmann and Dodge inferred on the basis of certain calculations that from 12/13 to 23/24 of the time of the eye's passage from left to right was spent in fixations. This velocity was considered too high to admit of significant stimulation (31). Further experimentation on the part of Dodge and Baxt showed that fusion of stimuli was ine\dtable during interfixation movements (32). Actual measurement of the velocity of these movements by Huey, Dodge and Cline, and Dearborn HISTORICAL SKETCH ii gave results which were in general agreement with previous findings izz)' There remained, however, one apparent difficulty. In spite of the fact that the conditions were such as to imply fusion, no gray bands were in evidence. This raised the question whether the conditions of fusion might not be different when the eyes, rather than the stimuli, were in motion. If so, perception and orientation might be quite possible during interfixation movements. Experimental evidence in support of this was not entirely lacking (34). However, Dodge presently secured experimental evidence which demonstrated clearly that fusion takes place during these movements (35). Holt likewise concluded on the strength of two experimental proofs that "voluntary movements of the eyes condition a momentary visual central anaesthesia" (36). About the same time Dearborn repeated the calculations of Erdmann and Dodge. He found them substantially correct, and he con- cluded, therefore, that "the duration of stimulation is well below the threshold necessary for producing a distinct visual impres- sion" (37). c) The fixation pause. — Significant stimulation is, as we have seen, hmited to the fixation pause. This naturally makes the pause the center of experimental interest. It has been studied thus far chiefly from the standpoint of number per line, duration, location, and nature. Javal inferred that there was uniformly one pause to every ten letters (about 5 pauses to a 90 mm. line), Landolt held that on an average 1.55 words were read per pause (about 6.5 pauses to a 90 mm. line). Dodge averaged 5 pauses for an 83 mm. line, and Erdmann 8 for a line of 122 mm. Two of Huey's subjects averaged 4.5 and 4.8 pauses, respectively, for lines 83 mm. in length. With 52 mm. newspaper lines two readers averaged, respectively, 3.4 and 3.8 pauses per fine. Dearborn's readers averaged from 3 to 7 . i pauses for somewhat longer news- paper fines, an average of from 1.9 to i . o words per pause. For lines not quite double this length from 7 . 5 to 9 . 4 pauses were made, averaging from 1.5 to i . 09 words per fixation. Dearborn is the first to stress strongly the fact that great individual variation exists. The duration of pauses is quite as important a factor as their number. However, since the measurement of the former is a 12 STUDY IN TEE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING more delicate task than the estimation of the latter, it is naturally more dependent upon an improved technique. As a result, the data regarding the duration of pauses are very recent. The average for several of Huey's ^readers appeared to be in the neigh- borhood of 185 (T per pause. However, his technique was not very well adapted for the measurement of duration. Dearborn was the first to measure duration extensively. His apparatus was such as to insure much greater accuracy. He found in reading the same newspaper passage that five subjects ranged from 160. 8 cr (average deviation 36.8) to 401.9 a (average deviation 163.7). Dearborn found, further, that these differences in duration time were very closely correlated with differences in the rapidity of reading. Dodge has also devoted considerable attention to the investi- gation of the duration of pauses, especially as related to reaction time and to the total reading process (38). Although his reaction- time averages fall considerably below the averages for pauses, he feels, nevertheless, that some explanation is needed in the case of the large number of pauses the duration of which either approxi- mates reaction time closely or falls below it. It would be absurd, he states, to attempt to crowd into such brief intervals "the complex apperceptive processes which condition the apprehension of the words as such, their contribution to the sum-total meaning consciousness, and the more or less definite mental and physical reactions to that meaning." ''We are forced," he continues, "to postulate a concurrent complication of the psychical processes of perception, extending through several fixations." He suspected, and later demonstrated experimentally, that the long initial pause, which Dearborn had found to be rather common, made possible a general initial survey of the line, and thus modified the duration of succeeding pauses. This, together with constant data from peripheral vision, he concludes, "tends to make the normal reading pause represent a comparatively late moment in the total process of perception." The fixation pause has also been studied intensively from the standpoint of its location. The chief problem has been to deter- mine with accuracy the location of pauses with respect to syllables, HISTORICAL SKETCH 13 words, phrases, etc., and to arrive, if possible, at a law governing such location. Erdmann and Dodge's earlier experimentation led them to believe that fixations were centered upon words; in fact, usually upon the middle of words. Later and more accurate measurements by both Dodge and Huey seemed to indicate that the fixation point may be in any part of the word, or even between words. Dearborn, who made the most elaborate study of the loca- tion of fixation pauses, comes to similar conclusions. ''The exact point that is fixated," he states, "may be in any part of the words, nor does it occur more frequently in the first part of the sentence than in the last, and apparently pays little attention to many of the laws of apperception or the rules of the rhetorician." "The exact object of fixation," he continues, "is significant only as representing the point about which are grouped the 'block' of letters that are simultaneously perceived as one word or phrase complex. It more often falls in the first third than at the center of a given perception area." There were, however, in evidence certain factors which tended to determine the extent of the suc- cessive areas, and consequently, in a general way at least, the location of pauses. The perception area was found to be "large in the case of nouns and adjectives and verbs, and usually small in the case of the connective parts of speech, the conjunctions and prepositional phrases, the relative pronouns, the auxiliary verbs" (39). Certain other factors which will be mentioned later on were found to be influential at times in determining the more immediate location of the pauses. The nature of the fiLxation pause has further been studied from the standpoint of its steadiness. A careful photographic examina- tion of fixation has shown that the eye is not necessarily at rest during reading pauses. Dearborn found considerable individual variation in this respect. The fixations of some were "precise and relatively steady," while in the case of others fixations and movements were at times indistinguishable. On the whole, how- ever, his records would seem to indicate a rather large amount of shifting during fixation. Dodge likewise found unsteadiness com- mon; so much so, in fact, that he substituted the term "fixation- field" for "fijcation-point." However, most of his experimentation 14 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING was not concerned with continuous reading. McAllister's study at Yale, "the purpose of which was to determine how the eye behaves when an observer is consciously fixating a point, and how the eye moves from one point of fixation to another," was of course also immediately concerned with this problem. He found that the "eye does not stand still during any period of fixation; that the area of fixation during the successive periods for any point differs in extent and in the relation of the different positions to each other; also that the manner of approach to any point of fixation is not exactly the same for any two periods of fixation" (40). Accordingly, his conclusion is that "the image of a point fixated does not fall upon any particular point of the retina, but may fall upon any point of a considerable area of the retina, round about the fovea centralis"; in other words, "the same elements of the retina are not stimulated during any successive periods of fixation of a point except merely by chance (41). It must be remembered, however, that this experimentation, like that of Dodge, was not concerned with normal reading. In fact, it was limited to the alternate fixation of two points. As will be pointed out later, there are indications that the amount of unsteadiness which characterizes fixations during normal reading has been overestimated. The experimenters in question are agreed, it should be noted further, that the shifting during fixations is too slow to interfere with perception. They are also generally agreed that the shifting does not imply fluctuation of the attention during perception — in other words, that the shifting does not confirm in any way the theories of Wundt and Zeitler. The unsteadiness is accounted for chiefly on the basis of muscular tension. Dr. Judd's study (42) of simple movements of convergence and divergence between two fixed points has brought to light other very important aspects of eye behavior. Convergence was fre- quently accompanied by a downward movement of the eyes. Similarly, upward movements were more or less characteristic of divergence. There was also in evidence a certain amount of rotation of the eyeball, in a clockwise direction, in the case of convergence especially. Generally speaking, divergence was found to be a much simpler form of adjustment than convergence. It HISTORICAL SKETCH 15 was very evident that the two eyes in executing these movements did not as a rule follow paths of the same form, nor did they proceed with the same degree of rapidity. Fixation, however, was not com- plete until the slower eye had caught up with the other. Dr. Judd attributes these irregularities to "external muscular causes" rather than to "internal nervous adjustments." It was further found that the time of convergent and divergent adjustments is relatively long. The movements themselves appeared complex and difficult, frequent pauses being made by the one eye or the other in passing from one fixation to another. This latter phenom- enon, Dr. Judd holds, cannot be explained by "reference to the external muscular structure of the eyes." It would seem to signify rather "that the complete execution of a movement of con- vergence or divergence is in the nature of a slow and careful adjust- ment to a stimulus which is in some form or other recognized as not completely met by the main movements." There was in evidence, further, a tendency for the two eyes, before beginning the careful adjustment of convergence, to execute a lateral movement in which both sympathized by moving in the same direction rather than in opposite directions. This lateral movement appeared to be much easier and simpler than those of convergence and diver- gence. This tendency furnishes undoubtedly strong evidence for the "fundamental and natural character of the sympathetic movement of the two eyes." Similar indications in evidence in the results of the present investigation will be referred to later. B. TACHISTOSCOPIC EXPERIMENTATION — STUDIES DEALING CHIEFLY WITH THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS Valentius was among the first to be interested in perceptual studies in reading. As early as 1844 he found that it was possible to perceive from three to four letters simultaneously in time intervals varying from 100 to 270 cr. He beHeved, however, that every letter was separately perceived even in the case of the shortest time intervals (43). Exner was interested in the same problem as early as 1868 (44). Baxt followed with an article in 187 1 (45). Helmholtz' invention of the tachistoscope greatly facilitated experimentation along this line, since it made possible careful i6 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING regulation of exposure time. The results of his own studies were published in 187 1 (46). The results of Cattell's extensive experi- mentation began to appear in 1886. He found that consciousness can on an average grasp "four numbers, three to four letters, two words, or a sentence composed of four words." His conclusions were of course the opposite of those of Valentius. His results indicated that we tend to perceive by word-, phrase-, and sentence- wholes, rather than by successive letters (47). Goldscheider and Mueller's investigation at Berlin followed presently. The exposure time in this case was limited to one one-hundredth of a second. The materials exposed varied all the way from a group of unrelated strokes to whole sentences. The experimenters found that certain letters and letter groups figured much more prominently in the perception of a word than others. The former letters and letter groups were designated as "determining" and the latter as "indifferent." Consonants and vowels were included in each class. The sight of the "determining " letters and letter complexes, the experimenters concluded, called up the auditory image of the word or group of words, the "indif- ferent" elements being thus supplied incidentally. The final and significant conclusion of Goldscheider and Mueller was that the perceptual process in reading does not go on either purely by letters or purely by word-wholes, but rather that it varies with conditions, being now by word-wholes and now by letters, according as the material read was more or less familiar (48). Erdmann and Dodge's experimentation at the University of Halle at a somewhat later date (1896-98) was concerned with the same problem. The method, too, was similar, though the exposure time was longer, namely, one- tenth of a second. The tachisto- scopic study was, moreover, supplemented by several other types of investigation. The results led the experimenters to the con- clusion that it is the total word-form rather than characteristic letters or letter groups that are fundamental in the perceptual process in reading (49). Zeitler, at the University of Leipzig, was the next to engage in an elaborate tachistoscopic study. He made more than 6,000 exposures. The exposure time was extremely short, though it HISTORICAL SKETCH 17 varied slightly with individuals. He agrees with Goldscheider and Mueller in concluding that the perception of words, phrases, etc., is mediated by characteristic letters, and letter and syllable complexes, rather than by total form. He differs with the latter, however, in holding that visual, rather than auditory, imagery aids in completing the perceptual process. Generally speaking, per- ception in reading involves for Zeitler a very quick succession of conscious processes, the attention moving progressively forward rather than backward and forward (50). Becker, who a little later engaged in a similar type of experi- mentation, was chiefly interested in throwing further light upon the problem of the fluctuation of attention during the perceptual process in reading. His findings led him to agree with the con- clusions of Erdmann and Dodge, namely, that perception pro- ceeds by word- wholes and phrases, etc., and that fluctuation is absent (51). Messmer carried on a similar line of investigation at the Uni- versity of Zurich during the year 1903. He worked, however, with a larger number of subjects than the previous investigators, namely, four adults and six children, the latter ranging in age from six to eleven years. His materials consisted chiefly of words, the exposure time being very short. Generally speaking, his results are in close agreement with those of Goldscheider and Mueller, and Zeitler, i.e., he elaborates the theory of successive perception as mediated by a fluctuation of the attention, and also that of dominating letters and letter complexes. He classifies his readers, however, into two general types, the objective and the subjective. In the case of the former the attention and the fixation point are supposed to coincide closely, the attention fluc- tuating but little, if at all, its scope being, of course, very narrow. In consequence this type is supposed to perceive successively by combining. The latter type, on the other hand, is supposed to represent a relatively elastic attention, so much so, in fact, that the scope is wide enough to render perception by wholes dominant in the perceptual process in reading. Children, Messmer holds, belong to the latter type almost without exception. They repre- sent a wide fluctuation of attention, and so tend to perceive i8 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING prevailingly by wholes. The analysis of determining letters and letter groups is finally greatly elaborated as compared with previous experimenters. Each letter is regarded as having four character- istics: quantitatively there are the factors of height and breadth, and qualitatively those of geometrical form and color. When letters are combined into words, these different characteristics are united into one word-form, the elements in some cases fusing more readily than in others. Breadth in letters is of less significance than height; the latter supplies the characteristic outline, while the former tends to disappear in the total form. Accordingly, Messmer concludes that the tendency toward perception by wholes increases in proportion as the word-forms are characterisic and unitary. The objective type, however, is but little influenced by this consideration (52). Dearborn's investigations at Columbia University were also incidentally concerned with this problem. His conclusions, how- ever, agree with those of Cattell and of Erdmann and Dodge rather than with those of the other experimenters. His data appear to give "no confirmation to a theory of successive perception of the letters and elements of the word." They point rather to a pre- vailing tendency toward perception by word-wholes and larger complexes. In this process certain dominating letters and other peculiarities may serve as clues. Beyond this the chief factor is a difference in the span of attention among different individuals. This accounts for the fact that some individuals appear to perceive in larger wholes and complexes than others (53). Freeman, who more recently engaged in a closely related study at the University of Leipzig, likewise differs with the conclusions of such investigators as Zeitler and Messmer. The primary purpose of Freeman's study was to determine the nature of the span of attention in the case of children. The investigation affords, how- ever, also valuable information regarding the same problem in the case of adults. He found no evidence among either class of subjects to warrant the classifications of Zeitler and Messmer. In fact, the results pointed toward an unusual individual variation, as well as a strong variation under varying conditions. These results are especially significant, since the study involved a much larger HISTORICAL SKETCH 19 number of subjects than any of the foregoing investigations. There are strong reasons for believing that the conflicting results of the various investigators are due to the persistent tendency to generalize on the strength of too small a number of subjects (54). C. STUDIES CHIEFLY CONCERNED WITH INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SPEED AND COMPREHENSION One of the earliest significant studies in this field was under- taken by Miss Abell at Wellesley College. Forty-one girls were asked to read a certain selection at home, and to time this reading. At the next class period they were asked to reproduce the story as nearly verbatim as possible. The results showed great individual variation both in speed and in comprehension. The swiftest read more than six times as fast as the slowest. The correlation between speed and comprehension did not appear to be marked, although two of the fastest readers also ranked highest in comprehension. Slow readers, however, appeared to be dominantly of the auditory- motor type (55). A much more elaborate investigation was undertaken some years later by Dr. Quantz at the University of Wisconsin. Fifty Juniors and Seniors were examined. The chief problem was the rate of reading and its conditioning factors. Accordingly, visual perception was first studied with color, forms, and words. An effort was then made to determine the correlations between visual- and motor-mindedness on the one hand and rate of reading on the other. Quantz found that "forms, colors, isolated words, and words in construction were in ascending order in the rapidity with which they were perceived," the differentiation being most marked in the case of the rapid readers. The greatest variation in the rapidity of perception between the rapid and the slow was in evidence in the case of sentence reading, showing that the rapid reader excels especially in the grasp of connected materials. There was of course also in evidence a high degree of correlation between quickness in perception and rapidity in reading. It was found, further, that the visual type was superior in rapidity to the audi- tory, while motor-mindedness, as evidenced, for instance, by lip-movement, was a serious hindrance. Finally, the rapid readers 20 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING were distinctly superior to the slow in efficiency of comprehension and retention (56). At a somewhat later date Huey experimented with a number of graduate students at Clark University. He was especially inter- ested in determining maximal and minimal rates in silent and oral reading. He found that in silent reading at the ordinary rate the slow readers averaged 2.5 and the fast 9.8 words per second; at the maximal rate the results were 3 . 5 and 13 . 5 words, respectively. In oral reading at the ordinary rate the slow aver- aged 2 . 2 and the fast 4 . 7 words per second ; at the maximal speed the averages were respectively 2.9 and 6.4 words per second (57). Dearborn selected the fastest and the slowest readers from a group of thirty people. He found that the former read silently three times as fast as the latter (58) . More recently a number of rather extensive investigations have been made with the rate and comprehension of the reading of children. Waldo, who examined a large number of children at Sycamore, Illinois, found that there was but little increase in rate beyond the fifth grade, especially in careful reading. Efficiency in comprehension, however, increased progressively from the lowest to the highest grades. The correlation between speed and com- prehension was not marked; it was evident, however, that increase in speed does not decrease efficiency in comprehension (59). Ober- holtzer recently tested approximately 1,800 children at Tulsa, Oklahoma. His results show a rather progressive increase in speed from grade to grade, the averages being respectively: third grade, 2 . 3 words per second; fourth grade, 2 . 6 words; fifth grade, 3.1 words; sixth grade, 3.9 words; seventh grade, 4.7 words, and eighth grade, 4.8 words. There appeared to be a rather close correlation between rate of reading and comprehension, the rapid readers being distinctly superior in their grasp of the content (60). Starch gave reading tests recently to several thousand children. On the basis of the results obtained he computed standard scores of speed efficiency for the various grades. In terms of the number of words read per second these scores are: first grade, 1.5 words; second grade, 1.8 words; third grade, 2.1 words; fourth grade, 2 . 4 words; fifth grade, 2 . 8 words; sixth grade, 3 . 2 words; seventh HISTORICAL SKETCH 2i grade, 3 . 6 words; eighth grade, 4.0 words. His results stress in a striking manner individual differences in both speed and compre- hension (61), Courtis, who has likewise made extensive investi- gations in this field, distinguishes in his discussions of results between "normal" and "careful" reading. In the case of the former Courtis found constant improvement in speed efficiency from the lowest to the highest grades, including the high-school period; but in the case of the latter there was no perceptible increase beyond the sixth grade (62). The distinction between normal and careful reading is undoubtedly a most fundamental one. The somewhat contradictory results of some of the investi- gations which have been reviewed above are most likely, in part at least, due to the fact that most of the experimenters over- looked this distinction. Perhaps the most significant fact stressed by all these studies is that of the existence of an enormous range of individual variation in the efficiency of speed and comprehen- sion in reading. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 1. Valentius, G. Lehrbuch der Physiologie. 2. Lamansky, S. Pfluger's Archiv, 1869, pp. 418 ff. 3. Javal, Emile. "Sur la Physiologie de la lecture," Annates d'oculistique, 1878 and 1879. 4. Landolt. "Nouvelles Recherches sur la physiologie des movements des yeux," Archives d^ophtalmologie, II (1891), 385-95. 5. Erdmann, B., and Dodge, R. Psychologische Untersuchungen iiber das Lesen auf experinienteller Grimdlage. Halle, 1898. 6. Lamare. "Des Movements des yeux pendant la lecture," Comptes rendus de la Societe franqaise d^ophtalmologie, 1893, pp. 354 ff. 7. Ahrens. Die Bewegung der Augen beim Schreiben. Rostock, 1891. 8. Delabarre, E. B. "A Method of Recording Eye Movements," American Journal of Psychology, IX (July, 1898), 572-74. 9. Huey, E. B. " Preliminary Experiments in the Physiology and Psychology of Reading," American Journal of Psychology, IX (July, 1898). . "Psychology and Physiology of Reading," American Journal of Psychology, XI and XII. 10. Dodge, R., and Cline, T. S. "The Angle Velocity of Eye Movements," Psychological Review, VIII, 145 ff. 11. Ibid., pp. 147 ft". 12. Ibid., p. 152. 22 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING 13. Dodge, R. "An Experimental Study of Visual Fixation," Psychological Review, Monograph Supplement, Vol. VIII, 81. 14. Dearborn, W. F. "The Psychology of Reading," Columbia University Contributions to Philosophy and Psychology, XIV, No. i. 15. Judd, C. H., McAllister, C. N., and Steele, W. M. "Introduction to a Series of Studies of Eye Movements by Means of Kinetoscopic Photo- graphs," Yale Psychological Studies, N.S., I, No. i, pp. 1-16; Psychological Review, Monograph Supplement, Vol. VII, No. i (March, 1905). Judd, C. H. "Photographic Records of Convergence and Divergence," Yale Psychological Studies, N.S., I, No. 2; Psychological Review, Mono- graph Supplement, Vol. VIII, No. 3 (June 1907), pp. 370 ff. 16. McAllister, C. N. "The Fixation of Points in the Visual Field," Yale Psychological Studies, N.S., I, No. i, pp. 17-53. 17. Ibid., N.S., I, No. I. 18. Ibid., I, No. 2. 19. Dodge, R. "Recent Studies in the Correlation of Eye Movement and Visual Perception," Psychological Bulletin, III (1906). 20. See reference 5 above. 21. Ibid. 22. Huey, E. B. Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading, p. 30. 23. See reference 14 above, p. 82. 24. American Journal of Psychology, XI, 288. 25. Dearborn, W. F. Psychology of Reading, p. 2)i- 26. Dodge, R. "Five Types of Eye Movement in the Horizontal Median Plane of the Field of Regard," y4werica« Journal of Physiology, VIII, 307-29. (A most thoroughgoing discussion of different types of eye movement.) 27. See reference 22 above, p. 31. 28. Dearborn, W. F. Psychology of Reading, p. 30. 29. See reference 5 above. 30. See reference 3 above. 31. See reference 5 above. 32. See reference 22 above. 33. Huey, E. B. American Journal of Psychology, XI. Dodge and Cline. " The Angle Velocity of Eye Movement," Psychological Review, VIII, 145 ff. 34. Cattell, J. M. Psychological Review, 1900. 35. Dodge, R. "Visual Perception during Eye Movement," ibid., VII, 454-65- 36. Holt, E. B. Ibid., Monograph Supplement, Vol. IV. 37. Dearborn, W. F. Psychology of Reading, p. 47. 38. See reference 13 above. 39. Dearborn, W. F. Psychology of Reading, pp. 83-87. 40. McAllister, C. N. "The Fixation of Points in the Visual Field," Yale Studies, I, No. i, pp. 17-53. HISTORICAL SKETCH 23 41. Ihid., pp. 44 ff. 42. Judd, C. H. "Photographic Records of Convergence and Divergence," Yale Psychological Studies, N.S., I, No. 2. 43. See reference i above. 44. Exner. " Versuche iiber die zu einer Gesichtswahmehmung nothige Zeit," Sitzungsbericht der Academic der Wissenschaft in Wien, Bd. LVIII, Abth, II (1868). 45. Baxt, N. "Ueber die Zeit welche notig ist damit ein Gesichtseindruck zum Bewusstsein kommt," PflUger's Archiv fUr Physiologic, IV (187 1). 46. Helmholtz. Ueber die Zeit welche notig ist damit ein Gesichtsausdruck zum Bewusstsein kommt, 1872 47. Cattell, J. M. Mind, 1886. 48. Goldscheider, A., and Mueller, R. F. "Zur Physiologic und Pathologic des Lesens," Zeitschrift fUr klinische Medizin, Bd. XXIII, p. 131. 49. See reference 5 above. 50. Zeitler, J. "Tachistoscopische Versuche iiber das Lesen," Wundt's Philosophische Studien, Bd. XVT, Heft 3, pp. 380-463. 51. Becker. " Experimentelle und kritische Beitrage zur Psychologic des Lesens bei kurzen Expositionszeiten," Zeitschrift JUr Psychologic und Physiologic der Sinnesorgane, Bd. 36, Hefte i u. 2, pp. 19-73. 52. Messmer, O. "Zur Psychologic des Lesens bei Kinder und Erwachsenen," Archiv fUr die gesamtc Psychologic, 1903, Bd. II, Hefte 2 u. 3, pp. 190-298. 53. Dearborn, W. F. Psychology of Reading, pp. 50 fif. 54. Freeman, F. N. " Untersuchungen iiber den Aufmerksamkeitsumfang und die Zahlauffassung bei Kindern und Erwachsenen," Pddagogisch- psychologische Arbeiten, 1910, pp. 88-168. 55. Abell, Adelaide M. "Rapid Reading," Educational Review, VIII, 283 5. 56. Quantz, J. O. "Problems in the Psychology of Reading," Psychological Review, Monograph Supplements, Vol. II, No. i. 57. Sec reference 22 above. 58. Dearborn, W. F, Psychology of Reading, pp. 116 ff. 59. Waldo, K. D. "Tests in Reading in Sycamore Schools," Elementary School Journal, XV (1915), 251 ff. 60. Oberholtzer, E. E. "Testing the Efficiency in Reading in the Grades," Elementary School Journal, XV, 313 ff. 61. Starch, D. "The Measurement of Efficiency in Reading," Journal of Educational Psychology, VI, (1915), i ff. 62. Courtis, S. A. "Standard Tests in English," Elementary School Journal, XIV (1914), 374 ff. CHAPTER III APPARATUS, METHOD, AND SCOPE A. APPARATUS The present investigation was carried on largely by means of a modification of the Dodge photographic apparatus which Dearborn used at Columbia University. The chief departure consists of the substitution of a film-holder device in place of the former falling plate box. This makes possible the registration of eye-movements in both the horizontal and the vertical planes. The apparatus (Diagram I) consists essentially of: the source of light; a time-marker; reflecting mirrors; a headrest; a camera; a film-holder device; and a motor. 1. The source of light {A). — This is an ordinary arc lamp incased in an asbestos box. The rays are brought to a focus by means of a lens in the front end. The light is further stopped down by blue glass which excludes all but the actinic rays. 2. The time-marker (B). — This is an ordinary electric time- marker, the vibration rate being governed by a tuning-fork (50 vibrations per second). A light paper flag is fastened to the lever of the marker. The latter is placed in such a position that the flag when vibrating intercepts the light from the arc lamp at the focal point. 3. Reflecting mirrors (C). — These are one inch square. The reflecting surfaces are silver-plated and highly polished. They are fastened in front, one slightly to the right and the other slightly to the left of the subject's point of regard. The holders are such that the mirrors can be readily adjusted until the light is thrown directly upon the cornea of the reader's eyes, from which it is in turn reflected into the lens of the camera. 4. The headrest (Z)).— This furnishes three points of contact, namely: (a) a support for the forehead, consisting of a rounded and padded form adjustable in the vertical plane (E); (b) a set of supports for the temples, consisting of padded forms adjustable 24 APPARATUS, METHOD, AND SCOPE 25 Q^ l_i ■/f--- f\ it. flO fp-g. ,^' o < 26 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING in both the vertical and the horizontal planes {F); {c) a set of supports for the cheek bones. The latter are essentially round cushions with slightly elastic surfaces, which render them readily adaptable to a variety of features. They are adjustable in both the vertical and the horizontal planes; in addition, they articulate on practically universal joints (G) . 5. The camera (H). — This is an ordinary box camera with a long extension bellows. The lenses are adjustable in three planes. This renders them very serviceable. 6. The film-holder (/). — This holds the films and contains the mechanism by means of which they are kept in continuous motion, the one in the vertical and the other in the horizontal plane. It is essentially a wooden box with a depth of three inches, the other dimensions being the same as those of the camera to which it is fastened. It contains four spool slits, one on each side near the wall (/). A steel framework within the box supports four tension rollers, one opposite each spool slit (K). In loading the box the full fiJm-spools are inserted into the upper and the right-hand slits (L), respectively, while the empty winding-spools are placed into the slits (M), situated on the opposite sides. The duplex paper of the full films is then drawn across the tension rollers and threaded into the slits of the empty spools. The tension rollers supporting the vertical film are slightly lower than those supporting the horizontal. This allows the horizontal film to pass over the vertical without friction. The back of the box, which faces the bellows, has an opening through which the rays of light pass in reaching the films {N). The rays of light reflected from the left eye are focused upon the vertical film (O) , and those reflected from the right eye upon the horizontal film (P). This makes possible records of eye-movement in both planes, though not of the same eye. However, in more than half of the cases a simpler technique was used, i.e., only the film running in the vertical plane was inserted into the box, the reflections from both corneas being focused upon this. This gave, of course, parallel records of the horizontal movements of the two eyes and afforded a basis for valuable comparison. The finder, consisting of a piece of ground glass, is located in the cover of the box directly opposite the opening in APPARATUS, METHOD, AND SCOPE 27 the back of the box. This is as nearly as possible in the same plane as the films (<2). It is, of course, necessary to secure the proper focus of the light-rays before loading the box with the films. The shafts of the two winding-spools are connected by means of bevel gearing, so that both films are driven by the same source of power and at the same speed (R). 7. The motor (S). — The power which moves the films is fur- nished by an electric motor. This is firmly secured at the left of the camera and the film device. Rotary motion is transmitted by means of a drive-shaft built in sections, one telescoping into the other. This eliminates all lateral vibrations. The rate at which the films move can, of course, be regulated at will by means of the motor; it was, however, kept uniform throughout the main part of the experiment. The films used were regular Eastman Kodak films, 2^ by 42 inches. B, METHOD As previously indicated, the Dodge photographic method does not photograph the movements of the eye directly. A more satisfactory medium has been found, namely, a beam of light reflected from the cornea of the eye. That the movements of such corneal reflections are, under normal conditions, substantially true representations of the actual movements of the eyes has been demonstrated by Dr. Dodge (i). The theory underlying the method is ''that the virtual images from an eccentrically mounted convex spherical mirror appear to move in the direction of the latter's rotations when its axis lies behind its center of curvature" (2). Since the normal and healthy cornea is, within a very small error, such a convex spherical surface, its reflection appears to move in the direction of its rotation. Dodge discusses in a very critical and thoroughgoing manner the limitations of the method (3). Suffice it to say that the error is inconsequential with respect to the part of the cornea mainly concerned with vision in reading. Toward the periphery the limitations are more pronounced. The reading took place in a dark room. In order to eliminate head-movements as much as possible, the reader, after being 28 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING comfortably seated, had his head firmly secured in the headrest. The reading material was attached to an adjustable framework between the reader and the camera. It was artificially illuminated by means of a screened red light. The actinic rays from the arc lamp were thrown upon the cornea by the silver mirrors, and thence into the lenses of the camera. After the rays from each cornea were brought to a fine focus in the finder, the films were exposed. The reading matter was then uncovered, the films set in motion by means of the motor, and the reader given a signal to begin. The speed of the motor could be varied, but was constant for any one set of readings, and, in fact, throughout most of the experiment. The length of the reading selections varied, but it rarely exceeded twenty-four lines. All subjects read two selections at a sitting, one orally and the other silently. For the former the subject was instructed to "read so as to be understood," and for the latter to ''read rapidly for the thought." The adjustments for any one sitting required more or less time, hence the subject was enabled to accustom himself to the seemingly more or less unnatural circumstances before reading. The actinic light rarely caused discomfort to the subject. When such proved to be the case, the subject was at once dismissed. The consensus of opinion among the subjects was that the technique did not disturb them, and that the reading took place under apparently normal conditions. However, they were nevertheless laboratory conditions, and so may have deviated from the normal more or less; but they were the same for all readers, and so afforded at least a common basis for observation. The records are, of course, continuous photographs of the movements of the eyes. The film running in the vertical plane recorded the horizontal movements and the one running in the horizontal plane the vertical movements. Since the corneal reflection of the left eye was focused upon the vertical film and that from the right eye upon the horizontal film, the horizontal movements of one eye and vertical movements of the other were recorded. In the majority of cases, however, the corneal reflections from both eyes were focused upon the vertical film some distance apart. Such records represent, of course, only horizontal move- APPARATUS, METHOD, AND SCOPE 29 ments, but they afford on that basis an excellent opportunity for a comparative study of binocular reading. Since the length of the bellows represents several times the focal length of the lens, the extent of the movements of the eyes is magnified on the records correspondingly. If the light from the arc lamp were not intercepted by the vibrations of the time-marker, the records would be continuous. As it is, they consist of series of dots each representing one-fiftieth of a second. Naturally the records of the movements in the two planes differ widely. If absolutely steady fixations were maintained while the films were in motion, there would appear on each film simply a uniform and straight line of dots, or when both eyes were focused on the vertical film two such lines running parallel. But since reading involves a series of movements and pauses and a return sweep, the records are correspondingly modified. The vertical film which records the horizontal movements of the eyes represents for each pause a vertical line of dots and blanks, and for each movement to the right a slightly diagonal line. The return sweep from right to left is represented by a longer and slightly more diagonal line running in the opposite direction. Irregularities of fixation falling in the horizontal plane are indicated by deviations in the vertical lines of dots and blanks standing for the pauses; similarly, irregularities falling in the vertical plane are roughly indicated by an alternate spreading and crowding of the dots in these lines. The records on the films running in the horizontal plane are somewhat more complicated. If the behavior of the eyes both in fixation and during movement were steady, a pause would be represented by a straight horizontal line of dots, a movement from left to right by a short gap or stretching out in the line of dots, and the return sweep by a line running nearly parallel to the records of the last few pauses of any one line, the initial pauses of the succeeding line running necessarily also nearly parallel to the latter. Since there is, however, more or less unsteadiness during fixation, the lines of dots and blanks standing for the pauses are wavy rather than straight; the deviations in this case indicate irregularities of fixation falling in the vertical plane, while the 30 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING slight alternate spreading and crowding of the dots are indicative of irregularities falling in the horizontal plane. Since head-movements are probably never entirely eliminated, it was important to determine to what extent these might account for the apparent unsteadiness of fixation. This was made possible by attaching to one end of a pair of spectacle rims, by means of a copper wire, a small but highly polished metal ball. This was adjusted just outside of the left eye in the same vertical plane as the cornea. The light reflected from the polished ball was thus photographed simultaneously with that from the cornea of the right eye. By means of a careful analysis of the records thus obtained it was possible to single out head-movements rather accurately and to compare them with genuine irregularities in fixation. The interpretation of the records naturally demanded a great deal of attention. The number of pauses per line was easily determined, but the accurate estimation of their duration was a much more difficult task. Since each pause was represented on the records by a vertical line of dots and blanks, each dot and blank standing for one-fiftieth of a second, the number of the latter had to be determined for each pause. This process was facilitated somewhat by the use of a magnifying glass. After the results were reduced to a, the averages and the average deviations of the number of pauses per line and per selection and the averages and average deviations of the duration of these pauses were carefully computed for each record. The location of pauses was determined by the method formerly used by Dearborn (4). Immediately before and after the reading of a given passage each subject was required to fixate alternately two points which were even with the ends of the lines. These fixations were represented at the beginning and at the end of the records by two vertical lines connected by a horizontal line, the latter standing for the forward sweep of the eye and consequently for the length of the lines read (90 mm). These initial and final vertical lines were then connected on each side by parallel lines drawn with a fine steel point. The space between the two lines represents the width of the printed page which was read in any APPARATUS, METHOD, AND SCOPE 31 one case. This space on the films was then enlarged by means of a stereopticon lantern until it was identical with the width of the page. It was thus possible to plot on a screen schematically the location of the pauses. By superposition of these schemata upon the respective printed lines it was possible to determine the actual location of the pauses. Comprehension tests were given to each reader of the elemen- tary- and high-school groups immediately after the selections were read. The tests consisted of a series of carefully graded questions. These were answered in writing in the case of all except the second- and third-grade pupils. In the case of the latter the questions were given orally, and the answers were written by the examiner in the exact words of the subject. The answers were in each case scored with as much precision and uniformity as possible. This method of estimating comprehension, although not entirely free from objections, is nevertheless superior to any other method now in use. In fact, most methods appear to measure little beyond memory for details. Some of these methods seek to determine the index of comprehension on the basis of the "number of words written which correctly reproduce the thought"; others rely chiefly upon the number of detailed ideas reproduced (5). None of these serves the real purpose of reading. Efficient comprehension in reading implies anything but total redintegration or indiscriminate reproduction. On the contrary, it implies careful discrimination — the rejection of the trivial or irrelevant and the selection and emphasis of the significant. The question-and-answer method tends to test this capacity, to say the least. Some form of supple- mentary test would undoubtedly aid in increasing its efficiency. As it stands, the chief objections to it are: (a) that the questions are likely to be suggestive, and (6) that the scoring is likely to be subjective. Several more thoroughgoing methods which have recently been developed are unfortunately not as yet readily applicable to the reading of general selections. C. SCOPE The scope of this experiment differs materially from those pre- viously undertaken. Investigations thus far have been confined 32 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING to a relatively small number of subjects, while other conditions and factors, such as complexity of material, length of line, size of type, etc., have been varied widely. In view of the fact that most recent findings in educational psychology have stressed particularly the prevalence of wide individual variation with respect to practically all capacities and abilities, it appeared to the writer that the interests of the psychology of reading could at the present time be materially furthered by data from a larger and more varied group of subjects. Accordingly, the plans of the present experiment provided, on the one hand, for uniformity with regard to all previously varied conditions, and, on the other, for a larger number of subjects varying in age and accomplishment. The selection of reading materials presented considerable difficulty. No scientifically standardized selections were available at the time when the experiment was undertaken (autumn of 19 13). Two alternatives presented themselves in choosing the selections. One was to use the same uniform simple material or selection for all subjects irrespective of age and accompHshment. Since such materials must necessarily be sufficiently simple so as to fall within the range of the comprehension and reading power of the youngest subjects, there was some question as to the extent to which selec- tions chosen on this basis would constitute an adequate test of adult reading ability. According to the other alternative, several tjrpes of material could be chosen, each especially fitted for a specific group representing a definite level of accomplishment, the assumption being, of course, that the selections thus chosen would make nearly equal demands upon the various groups from the standpoint of the ability of each. The latter alternative was chosen. Since there were four distinct groups of subjects, namely, adults, high-school pupils, elementary pupils, and primary pupils, four corresponding types of materials were chosen. An attempt was made by means of careful analyses to choose in each case materials which would make about equal demands upon the capacities of the respective groups. The selections were taken from various sources: the adult group read light passages from James's Psychology; the high-school pupils, expository and de- scriptive passages from Irving's Sketch Book; the elementary APPARATUS, METHOD, AND SCOPE 33 pupils, narrative fable passages from the "Riverside Literature Series for Fifth Grade Reading"; and the primary pupils, i.e., the second- and third-grade pupils, very light fable passages from Fairy Stories and Fables ("Series of Eclectic Readings for Children ") . Two selections of as nearly the same grade as possible were chosen for each group, the one for silent and the other for oral reading. The materials thus selected for the various groups were further compared by means of several preliminary tests. To begin with, each selection was read silently by two dozen adults, the time being carefully noted. It was interesting to note incidentally that the reading rate of these individuals varied in the ratio of I to 3, i.e., the most rapid reader read three times as fast as the slowest. The readers averaged 5 words per second for the adult selection, 5 words per second for the high-school selection, 5.5 words per second for the elementary selection; and 6 words per second for the primary selection. The first two selections evidently made about equal demands upon adult readers; the demands of the third were slightly less, and those of the fourth correspondingly less than those of the third. The first three selections were then compared on the basis of photographic results. Records were secured for the reading of these selections from adult individuals No. 6 and No. 12. The findings are shown in Table I. The final TABLE I Showing Relative Difficulty of Selections Individual Selection Average No. of Pauses A.D. Average Duration of Pauses A.D. Average Fixation Time per Line Average No. of Refixations per Line Adult No. 6 Adult No. 6 Adult No. 6 Adult No. 12 Adult No. 1 2 Adult No. 12 Adult Elementary High-school Adult Elementary High-school 5° 51 6.0 5-7 5-3 6.5 0.64 0.41 0.7s 0.40 0.60 0.62 298 250 258 294 240 252 92 72 80 54 64 48 1,490 1,27s 1,548 1,675 1,272 1,638 I.O 0.71 0.4 0.13 0.18 0.12 time results, given in terms of a- under "average fijxation time per line," are readily comparable with the results of the foregoing test. The relative rank of the selections, it will be observed, is about the 34 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING same in both cases. The adult and high-school selections tend to make similar demands in each case, while the elementary- selection makes correspondingly lesser demands in both instances. It is not probable that the above figures afford an absolute index to the relative complexity of the selections, simply because the average reader does not read discriminatingly; he tends to read widely varying selections, provided they fall within the range of his experience and comprehension, at a rather uniform rate. Nevertheless, they afford perhaps as accurate an index as is avail- able. To say the least, they enable us to compare the reading capacities of children and adults as well as those of a variety of individuals. A further analysis of Table I brings out a very interesting and significant fact. Evidently equal time results may be due to varying factors. It will be observed, on the one hand, that the adult and elementary selections make nearly equal demands upon the number of pauses per line, while the demands of the high- school selection are slightly heavier in this respect; on the other hand, in the matter of the duration of pauses the demands of the adult selection are increased and those of the high-school selection decreased, so much so, in fact, that the two selections are placed on the same time level; in the case of the elementary selection, which makes the same demands upon the number of pauses per line as the adult selection, the duration time of the pauses is reduced sufficiently so as to rank its reading time materially below either of the above. Evidently selections may make varying demands upon the number and the duration time of pauses even though the reading time be nearly the same. In all, records were secured from more than loo individuals. Only 83 of these were, however, directly concerned with the main part of the investigation, the data from the others being utilized for a variety of accessory purposes. Of the 87, individuals, 45 were adults, mostly graduate and undergraduate students in education and psychology; 17 were high-school pupils, 4 being Freshmen, 4 Sophomores, 5 Juniors, and 4 Seniors; and 21 were grade pupils distributed as follows: 4 from the seventh grade, 6 from the sixth, 4 from the fifth, 3 from the fourth, APPARATUS, METHOD, AND SCOPE 35 2 from the third, and 2 from the second. The subjects were all males. Since the data for the two types of reading and for the different individuals are largely based on one reading, the question of the reliability of the first reading naturally presents itself. Does such a reading afford a reliable index of an individual's reading capacity ? In order to secure data which would throw light upon this question, a number of individuals were required to read several selections of about the same grade. The results of the first reading were then compared with the averages of all the read- ings. Table II gives the results for adult individuals Nos. i, 6, TABLE II Showing Reliability of First Reading Subject Kind of Reading No. of Readings Average No. of Pauses A.D. Average Duration of Pauses A.D. Average Fixation Time per Line Average No. of Refixations Adult No. 6 Silent First 55 0.50 310 74 1,705 0.50 Adult No. 6 Silent 6 =5 I 0-S5 307 88 1,565 0.78 Adult No. I Silent First 4 7 0.50 357 72 1,677 0.30 Adult No. I Silent 3 4 6 0.44 350 91 1,610 0.40 Adult No. 1 2 Silent First S 7 0.40 294 54 1,675 0.13 Adult No. 1 2 Silent 4 S 6 053 239 51 1,338 O.II Adult No. 6 Oral First 7 8 1. 10 384 160 2,995 2.60 Adult No. 6 Oral 6 7 4 0.75 398 136 2,945 2.10 and 12 in the case of silent reading, and also for oral reading in the case of individual No. 6. It is evident that there is throughout a slight gain in efficiency as the series of readings progresses, i.e., the time requirements are slightly less in the case of the average of several readings than in the case of the first reading. In some cases this difference is almost trivial, and in no case is it sufficient to invalidate the results of the first reading. Keeping in mind, then, the presence of this slight error, we may regard the results of the first reading as a fairly reliable index to an individual's average accomplishment. The scope of this investigation was further enlarged by giving comprehension tests to all subjects except those of the adult group. In addition the majority of the records are of binocular reading, i.e., they represent the behavior of both eyes. This, together with 36 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING the fact that the apparatus made possible measurement of eye- movement in the vertical plane, will afford valuable psychological data quite apart from pedagogical implications. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 1. Dodge, R. "An Experimental Study of Visual Fixation," Psychological Review, Monograph Supplement, Vol. VIII, No. 4 (1907). 2. Ibid., p. 81. 3. Ibid., especially pp. 84-91. . 4. Dearborn, W. F. Psychology of Reading, pp. 16 ff., and especially p. 18. 5. Thorndike, E. L. "The Measurement of Ability in Reading," Teachers College Record, XV (September, 1916). CHAPTER rV STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS A. TABLES, FIGURES, AND CHARTS The results of this study have been reduced as far as possible to tables, figures, and charts. Since most of the tables represent certain common features, it will be economical to discuss these in general before referring to individual tables. To begin with, the subjects comprising the several groups are ranked in the tables on the basis of the number of pauses which they made in the silent reading of their respective selections, a convenient unit in this case being the average number of pauses per line. This was secured by dividing the total number of pauses made in the reading of a selection by the number of lines in the selection. It is followed in each case by the average deviation, this being determined by dividing the sum of all the deviations by the number of lines in the selection. The individuals are of course ranked in ascending order, those requiring the least number of pauses coming first. In succeeding columns the same facts are given for oral reading. Then follow columns showing the average durations of pauses for both silent and oral reading, the unit of time being the a. The average duration of the pauses is determined by dividing the sum of the durations of all the pauses in a selection by the total number of pauses in the selection. These are followed in each case by the deviations from the average, the latter being determined by dividing the sum of all the deviations by the number of pauses in the selec- tion. In other columns are given the average fijcation times per line for both silent and oral reading. These really represent the reading time per line minus the time spent in interfijcation move- ments and the return sweep. They may be determined by mul- tiplying the average number of pauses per line by the average duration of the pauses in the selection or by dividing the sum of the durations of all the pauses in the selection by the number of lines in the selection. Since the time spent in interfixation movements 37 38 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING and the return sweep is very brief and comparatively uniform, the average fixation time per line affords a very reliable index to rate of reading, and consequently an excellent coefficient for purposes of comparison. Finally, there is a column indicating the average number of refixations per line. The term "refixation" is limited strictly to definite movements to the left, excluding the return sweep, of course. Aside from running in the opposite direction, these refixation movements appear exactly like the interfixation movements on the records. The average number per line is determined by dividing the total number of refixations in the selection by the number of lines in the selection. There are eleven tables in all. Table I (p. 33) gives the results of one of the preliminary tests, the purpose of which was to estimate the relative difficulty of the adult, high-school, and elementary selections. The comparison is made on the basis of the average number of pauses per line, the average duration of pauses, the average fixation time per line, and the average number of refixations per line. Table II (p. 35) gives the results of the test which was to determine the extent to which the results of the first reading afford a reliable index to a subject's reading capacity. The comparisons are made on the same bases as in the case of Table I. Table III gives the total results for the silent and oral reading of the adult group. The arrangement of the data is such that the two types of reading can be readily compared on the basis of the average number of pauses per line, the average duration of pauses, the average fixation time per line, and the average number of refixations per line. In fact, separate columns show the actual quantitative differences in each case. Tables IV and V present in the same manner the totals for the high-school and the elementary groups, respectively. In addition the last two tables contain the data which make possible comparison on the basis of com- prehension. Table VI presents, on the same bases as the above, the total results for the several groups and for their respective subgroups. It is intended to facilitate the comparison of the accomplishments of the different groups. Table VII makes possible a comparison of the three groups on the basis of the average number of pauses per line and the ranges for both silent and oral STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 39 1) V n r n n O n r^O r~ rtco i^O o n ^ o OoO o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo o o o o o !9g a" 2 6j < a. 00 O "^ »-' \0 -^ tH -^CO roO^OOOOPOWSOOOi^O O»00 O'OVO W COO^fOfOOw IH M O >-* t^OO V) M M O M ONdMMModoododi-ii-iMMNOiHNMMododoModdddMdModbMdoMd II II 1 b -* W) c ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 2 o 2 62 mihmC>O^Ow r^oo U-) Lo CN lo m fO »O00 »^00 O "^ '*^ m c^cO Q» co f^ fOyH) •*^0 O ■^'Jj-t^iH POO O»co l-INMM(MWOt-tOOMOOt-«(OfOi-ICsOWfOMWMOOMI-(MMO0 nOOOOOioOOOMOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO'tOOOO g i4'^ cOHivOOO -^OOOOO lO-^tOM M -^O ^0 -^W w OOO MVO '^O t^w »00 OvO Ci t^rou^vO cOt^OilONOO 0(»/^ o» c/5 >^s ooMdowdowoi-ioddiNi-idodoi-ioododMMOMdtowMi-iiHi-iddddwHWM o < a 0) O<3 ■^O O " O 'J-OO 0-0 t^M t~.w NI~.-t woo " <^0 (N u^t^iow rtCr^t^cO ir^ior^ t^oo 00 rOHilOINiriMTfOTt- lOOO 00 VO rOCO t- M OO t^ O IN •* i«vo M.O"^;Or^>/lnioO t^^J t^iOt^OoOIHt^O S H « N M m" M M m" M M w" m" m" H." m w" « m" m" m" MM MM « M m' m" W | M to J' 5i 000000000N00000000000O0O00t0O00 t^« " "lOO MCNOOviiNOOt^Onor^ -a-vo ^ < a O < a. ^-§5:?:^l;T:^'sn:??^-5:^:?;:';?;?:?S5^;s??:^a:?S5?l?Mss^ll^ :^ 1) 11 CT00O00000O0000000>O"t -^O OOOOM0>000>00 t =^f;i « In l^a ^^::^"^r^^r^^Ar^'^^-:^7:''2^i':^':-^^'h^-^"^^^^^^ o. fi 00^«t«oo«>00>00>0 •*-0 0000«000N-*-*000v000000W00 -too -o O M o t < 1 1 1 1 1 to u o Q 2 S 3 :$^ S>^ 2,=R^^§ ^^^ SS2O00O>ON0O00 1-00 NOOOOOOOOoO 0>0 •*« ^ " ^ IX 00 O O "t M CO ^^O COM loaMOOOO-O ^00 COOO rJOWOMCOMCM/l^t^cOC^Ot^Olo -tOO M (O !o M o S (4 o o 2 o < " 00 2S;3 MOoOOOOvOvOtOO-tOOvOOOO t-O N ^>0 N OWO.NOOO« -to IN M M 1^00 t^O 00fOaOlNlONa>vo COC1tCt«o«00 lOOO too 0,00^0 Q o w < OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOmmOOmmO II Mill III II 1 1 1 II II II o 2 o^ Q 00 -to MTfOt-ioOO^M rovo mOfO-t'tirjMOO'l-'* coo r~Nr~O.ONOMt^at^1-'*toO>NOaio r^ so MNM-a-COtOMMNMMNMMMNMMONMMNNMNOMOMMNNOOOOMtOMMOOOO M ^ w p Q t^ Oh o as "5 o < OOOmOOOOOOOmOOOmOOOOOOOOOmOmOOOwOOmOmOmmmOOOO o 60 C a -^J >n tHO MtOOOOlOtl^O-* lOOO MCOt>OMOMlO too MMr»t^t^r~00 r^OO>t^OoOOO Oh OiO OiOi" m ^ OtOOoo-fiOPOOtOOOONOO t^O ooioOtt^coOOOOioOOOOOONOi«OoOOO>o O o a < OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOmOOOOOOmOmmOOOOOmmmm o 5P fi S2^J «^oooooooo o « to to to to oo o « o>oo n oo to < a ■^v^inin>r,m'n>ntnir,inxn\n>ntnir> too ooooooooooooo t~r~t^t^t^t~r» t^oo oo oo oi O O o bo g u 2 PJ M M M M H " " •-1 " e< c ) " ) Tj ■ Tj ^ 1 1 r tl f -* 40 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING Si o u u n S3 « H ■- e S? tog 4) S fe « P ^ c >^^^3 ap^jQ • O* O'CO 00 CO O 0» 0« Ok w^OO O 0> O O O* O" OiOO t* »oOO»oOOOOOtOi^OOioOOO»oO< 00 O^OO NO 00 00 0> O O^O 00 O»00 ^ OOO O NO -^ « ooooooooooooooooooooo c* f^ lo O -^ O t^O OOfNOOOi^fOO O 0*M OO ^ IHtHOMMMOOO'-'0*-**-*WOWMC»00 mOmOOOOmtJ-c N ^^ O «00 O WOOOOO O <^ WOO-OOO TfNvO 'I- O Tj- 0>vO f^w ^^ » O O ^«00O00*O OOvOoOwoO OO o o Oi t-* O^-o Tf (N r^ w 6 *^ •-< f^^ ^ 'Jt'O -^ o o o ~ ■ - fov^<^00»MOoowM'0*nr-. iTioo c* o lO -^ N O-O W OO ■^ 't "^ *^ '^'^^^ Q, '^ O O O O <^0 OOO^O NO c* o O O "^-^OO OOOO -^vO o«r)0>6o CMO"^M OO lo-^-oiooo 6 -^cooo - <^ M ■'too Tl- ii-> Tfvo r^iot-tO^-MOOM O" OfO t^^O 0*0 «N <^ NvOvO «^OnO vO M fO HI OvOOO OvOO M "ffTt-OvO O Tf« O <^ OvO TfN M 0« rj- CO O «-• so O* Oi-O vO •* lO f^OO O 00 O <> 00 O 00 CI fO^rOfCW W Ci « fOfO»*^fOCI COM POr^W (VJN rJ-N\OMMC*Tl-'^000Tt-0O'OO<^»^'-t0^0 r'300 r«.W O ^t^M "^00 t^Oi^N O^tOwrOW OMOotHoddooooMooi-ioMdod i I Cm O t^^tN-Orot^r* t^*0 -<* in li^ O O w OoO m ' W^rotOf^NWOO»-tOfOMMOOO»-(MW' •^OOiTiTt-ioOvoOoO O O O -^OJ^ r^O ic O O mt^M wvO ■^OO O OiiOcoOvO tH ■'t f^vO *0 t') •-• dMMWMdwHiMdwHMMMMWNMM M fO N O v>NO 0**0 »0 *^NO m M w M rooo O O f^ O OO J^OO 00 t^ r^»vo "O t^O OOO 00 t^ r* t^ O O O O 00 O ■* t-*o NOOOOOMOinOio ^00 O wo lOiO'^'^inOO* io*o O O (^ O^ -^O PO m M o d d d d d o d d d d d d d o d d M M M H W « M t^OO O VO OOO O O M so t^ M POO M M STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 41 u 0000000>oOviOOO' 5 a ° SJ 5: bOh^ «J.3 •- 41 e t, S 00i/^0»o000000000000 CO O w O CI O O Ov^ 00 *r)\o o O r* 0> fO ooooooooooooooooo 0000 »ONco O Ovt^'tw iDfOw \n ^ ^ ^n NfiddoHHodwoooo*^®© ooooooooooooooooo M r^OiO O -^lO^owO t-« 0»0 ■**00>co poc*Omc«»mn»hmmc»mcip«wihm OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO CO O -^00 '^ ^ '^^^^ '^ '^ *^ "^ ^ '^ (OW«WWMTtrOM«fOfOfOrOfOfO*0 O -^^ 0^0 ^O c*\OtOOW 00 O O 6 0*M O inO'O-O fOrOW O fOW O 00 i-* r* -^t -^ r^co o t>.NO 00 o 00 co w o>^a^ SS'o.S ^ 00 *; -^ «\o -^vjooo Tj" ■'tNO 000 « O O ' 00 ■^ M tJ-tJ-oOoO tJ-vO w i^OO -^t O OO O fOOO »0 fOOO VJMOO "^00 W^ •-( -^tHlNO *o NO OwO'O^ O «\0*OvO^O O O 't^^O 00 r^ Tf M O <^00 0> -^OO r* t^ -ft fO O fOvO fO V)fOrOtO*0«0"*' ^- < *nO O M 0»0 woo ''tvOO Tj-cO cOOoO "*w O Tt-«tr>.0 Tftl-O t>. 0.00 "* too M - ■ — - NO O wnooO lO'tO fOrfOt^ rt^ aj gp^iO d d M d 1 M d d 1 10 0> ^ M d d d d to d d d ro 10 fO M d d d d 1 1 - t^ (^ ^ r* t^OO « «5lO « lrtt~00 rOMMIHMMMOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO MO -^t-^OMOO 00000 M M O f^ MOOMIHWI-tO e* ro ■* ^*'0 m ;>. xoo c0r*-O»f00»0.oo O* O»oo 00 CO 00 00 O»oo o* O 00 O O Tf Th rovO O t^ w O fOoO O l>.sO lOOCOOOONO too 0*000 O ^00 odddt-IoodddMModMMi-i O «0 t^ O W rt t-.00 CO 0> i/isO 00 O to 100 10 10 »o*o vOOOOOO t>>r* t^OO GO 0\ Oi ^\0 '^ ^ 10\0 00 l^^O t^*0 00 o» inoo ^ ^ pL| H-»C/2 [i4 C/2 CO Hnh- ih- 4h-jC/3 t/: C/3 (72 C/5 fe fan M N (O "^ too t^OO 0> O w w CO r|- too r^ 42 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING > O w H ^ y, « N I- « H 5 a ° s.s h E OJ.S 2ESS Sip '^J <2 > rt CLcd < Pi lOOO t^o »o I 6 O O O O w M t>. fO 'I" (^ « 00 d d M 6 6 o ) M lovo »n tJ^ 00 ' M fo o> lO 0»vO 00 O 0*00 00 ) O. TfO 00 Tj- t» t-OO I < "O fO fO "N t-» ro M CO moo O ^ o looo ' i>. ro 6 ^0 r^ O O ^ OO r>. r^ O I-" ■ rOOO ro Tt O »0 O O O ro O O ^ M Tt M M 0> W ^0 r^OO O «0 O C*5 OOO M W fO ^0 fOOO ** t>- * c oo oo o o fO O O CO ^O r* o vO ro t^ r^ i>* 'too ■tj-O ro to M o O^O too o o 00 ooO t^\o lJ^O' w^Oit^oOfOO -t o o o o o o 0< o» O r>. O OvOoO o o OOO^O'TjOO mOO Tt- O looo ro » vo JO -t >« 000 -* ■* M- MVO t "t w»0WWO0>0* \OMioMt/^c* oovooooot^Ooo 00 0*00000000 00 O vo M i/^ 100 6 6 6 >^ 6 I ^ Tt ui O t^vo <0»0 00 0000 OmS d d d d M d ro t^ loo CO N w vO lOvO vO 10 O* >o (^ -t •« •* •* 1 2 d| Miw):S ""-a^ 3 .: ^- i E c o gxij^t;^ " 2 2-25— STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 43 reading. Accordingly, the average number of pauses is given for each of the three groups and for the minimal and maximal individ- uals in each group. Tables VIII and IX present in the same TABLE VII Comparison of Groxjps on the Basis of the Average Number of Pauses pes Line in Both Silent and Oral Reading No. OF ReadersI Silent Reading Oral Reading Average No. of Pauses per Line for Group Range Average No. of Pauses per Line for Group Range Class of Readers Average for Individual Making Least No. of Pauses per Line Average for Individual Making LargestNo. of Pauses per Line Average for Individual Making Least No. of Pauses per Line Average for Individual Making LargestNo. of Pauses per Line Adults 45 17 21 6.5 7.0 6.3 4-7 50 41 10.8 9.6 9-3 8.2 8.6 8.1 6.5 7.2 6.1 II-3 10. 2 High-school pupils Grade pupils manner and for the same purpose the data for the average duration of pauses and for the average fixation time per line, respectively. Table X brings out on a percentage basis for the three groups TABLE VIII Comparison of Groups on the Basis of the Average Duration of Pauses in Both Silent and Oral Reading No. of Readers Silent Reading Oral Reading \ Average Durationof Pauses for Group Range Average Durationof Pauses for Group Range Class of Readers Average Durationof Pauses for Minimum Individ- uals Average Durationof Pauses for Maximum Individ- uals Average Durationof Pauses for Minimum Individ- uals Average Durationof Pauses for Maximum Individ- uals Adults 45 17 21 308.2 311. I 3140 214 244 264 470 414 438 380.8 372.9 398.0 230 306 300 520 512 524 High-school pupils Grade pupils the excess expenditure in oral reading as compared with silent, the bases of comparison being average number of pauses per line, average duration of pauses, average fixation time per line, average number of refixations per line, and average deviations. Table XI 44 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING TABLE IX Comparison of Groups on the Basis of the Average Fixation Time per Line IN Both Silent and Oral Reading No. OF Readers Silent Reading Oral Reading Class of Readers Average Time per Line for Group Average Time per Line for Minimum Individ- uals Average Time per Line for Maximum Individ- uals Average Time per Line for iGroup Average Time per Line for Minimum Individ- uals Average Time per Line for Maximum Individ- uals Adults 45 17 21 2,012.4 2,229.7 1,972.7 1,140.0 1,370.0 1,189.0 3,684.8 3,360.0 2,964.6 3,131-5 3,200.4 3,231-5 1,702.0 2,356.2 2,210.0 4,056.0 4,171.0 4,454-0 High-school pupils Grade pupils TABLE X Showing Percentage of Excess Expenditure in Oral Reading Compared with Silent Reading Class of Readers No. of Readers No. of Paiises per Line AD. Duration of Pauses A.D. Average Time per Line Reiixations Adtilts 45 17 21 Per Cent 26 23 28 Per Cent 12 34 63 Per Cent 23 20 27 Per Cent 55 44 50 Per Cent 55 44 64 Per Cent 74 55 62 High-school pupils Elementary pupils TABLE XI Correlations Silent and Oral Silent Reading Oral Reading Class of Readers SJ ca <^ go 5 Between Average No. and Aver- age Duration of Pauses Between Average No. of Pauses and Total Fix- ation Time per Line Between Aver- age Duration of Pauses and Total Fixation Time per Line Between Average No. and Aver- age Duration of Pauses Between Average No. of Pauses and Total Fix- ation Time per Line Between Aver- age Duration of Pauses and Total Fixation Time per Line Adults f = o.693=t 0.051 r = 0.634=*= 0.097 r = 0.505=^ 0.108 —0.004 r = 0.590=1= 0.103 r = 0.012 r = o.66o=t 0.057 r = 0.904=1= 0.020 r = 0.920=1= 0.031 r = 0.552=^ 0.084 r = 0.737=*= 0.073 r — 0.290=^ 0.133 r = -0.023 r = —0.0008 r = —0.0038 r = o.68i=i= 0.053 r= o.6i2=fc O.IOI r = 0.823=1= 0.047 r = 0.546=1= 0.070 r = 0.941=1= 0.018 f = o.397=t 0.115 High-school pupils Elementary pupils STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 45 III' 7 I 4 I 5 : I I 4 III III III III II IV ^n shows the correlations between: the average number of pauses in silent and in oral reading, the average number of pauses per line and the average duration of pauses for both silent and oral reading, the average number of pauses per line and the average fixation time per line for silent and oral reading, and the average duration of pauses per line and the average fixation time per line for both types of reading. The Pearson formula for determining the coefficient of correla- tion was used. Figs. 1-4 represent the distributions of the three groups for both silent and oral reading, Figs. I and 2 showing the distributions on the basis of the average number of pauses and Figs. 3 and 4 those on the basis of the average duration of pauses. Since the groups vary in size, the frequencies were all reduced to per- centages. In order to bring out possible tend- encies due to the grade rank of pupils, the posi- tions of the subjects in the high-school and elementary groups are indicated within the frequencies of their respective distributions, the former being designated by Roman numerals, I standing for Freshmen, II for Sophomores, etc., and the latter by Arabic, 2 standing for second grade, 3 for third, etc. On this basis Fig. i shows the distributions with respect to the average number of pauses per line in silent reading, the class interval being one pause. Fig. 2 gives the same distributions for oral reading. Fig. 3 shows the distributions on the basis of the i ' 5 III 2 6 IV 6 II 5 6 IV 7 II LVJ 10 11 Adult group High-school group Elementary group-' Fig. I. — Distributions on the basis of number of pauses. Silent reading. the 46 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING average duration of pauses for silent reading, the class interval being in this case 50 tr. Fig. 4 gives the same distributions for oral reading. Fig. 5 shows 1 IV III IV II II I :iii Fig. the distributions on the basis of the average perception time per line for both t3^es of reading. Charts I-III (pp. 50-52) show the location of pauses in both silent and oral reading for representative individuals of the three groups. Three individuals represent each group, one making a minimal, one an average, and one a maximal number of pauses per line. The location of the pauses within the lines is in- dicated by dots over the lines. The dots represent merely the initial point of location; shifting during pauses has been estimated, but is not recorded on the charts. It should be noted Adult groTip — further that the location of l{t.llZ^\fo^^.~~~- the dots shows merely the , , . , , horizontal position of the Fig. 2. — Distributions on the basis of the number of pauses. Oral reading. fixation pauses, nO attempt having been made to locate these with reference to the height of words or letters. 4 6 II 6 III 4 I 7 III" 6 II 6 I 2 IV 6 III 5 IV 3 2 I 1 — - ? 10 Ik 11 12 B. FIXATION PAUSES Erdmann and Dodge, as previously indicated, early came to the conclusion that from 12/13 to 23/24 of the total reading time was spent in pauses. This conclusion has since been generally substantiated, so much so, in fact, that the fixation pause is now STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 47 without exception regarded as the only period of significant stimula- tion. A certain amount of indirect vision may be present during movement, but this serves largely purposes of orientation. This being the case, the fijjation pause must necessarily con- stitute the point of depar- ture in investigations of this kind. Accordingly, our interest centers about the pause, its nature, number, duration, and location. I. Nature of fixation pauses. — As stated above, the pause is the period of significant stimulation. This does not mean, of course, that the pause itself is limited to clear vision. Both Dodge and Dearborn hold that it involves indis- tinct or peripheral vision quite as much as distinct or central vision. The former particularly holds that peripheral vision plays a very important part in the reading process. Not only does it serve purposes of general orientation, but it affords "premonitions of coming words and phrases, as well as a consciousness of the relation of the immedi- ately fixated symbols to the larger groups of phrase and sentence. Without this premonition of coming words and the outlines of larger groups the process of reading would be slow and difficult." At times this indistinct vision may even condition actual reading. 5 5 3 1 7 I 1 1 6 1 1 6 I IV 1 4 1 III IV 5 5 IV 7 7 IV II 6 6 III , ^_ ^ III 7 III ■-•--•« .1 2 4 i II III I ^-|- — II 6 3 II 1 1 2 6 1 r r I 4 1 1 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Adult group- High-school group Elementary group Fig. 3. — Distributions on the basis of the duration of pauses. Silent reading. 48 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING The moment of clear vision, on the other hand, is for Dodge "an incident somewhere in the middle of the reading process. Coming between the premonition and the after-echo, its effect is to correct, to confirm, and to intensify the premonition. Psychologically, its function is selective and definitive. It emphasizes the excitation i 6 IV 6 IV 4 III 4 5 I 6 IV 1 II 6 7 III —---I 3 IV 6 2 : III 7 6 2 : 5 I II I 7 II 7 5 III III - - T.T. q : 3 IlST^ j 1 ■ 4 5 1 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 Adult group ' High-school group Elementary group Fig 4. — Distributions on the basis of the duration of pauses. Oral reading. of suitable residua and inhibits the misfits" (i). Dearborn's views are similar, though he has not elaborated them as much. He accounts, for instance, for the somewhat longer initial pauses in the case of each line by assuming that the eye makes at this time a general survey of the whole or of a part of the line (2). As will be pointed out later, the length of the initial pauses, in so far STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 49 21 Oral Reading 11 19 19 IPOO 3,400 1.800 2^200 2^00 3,000 3,400 5800 4^00 4^00 50 20 13 11 2 Silent Reading 5 2 IpOO 1.400 IjSOO ^200 2^500 3P00 3,400 3,800 4^00 4,600 Fig. 5. — Distributions for silent and oral reading on the basis of perception (or reading) time. 50 STUDY IN TEE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING Location of Pauses in Silent and Oral .Reading silent — adult no. 3 c. average, 5 pauses The selection of a particular hole to live in, of a paxticula'r mate, of a partic- ular feeding-ground, a particula'r variety of diet, a particular anything, in short, out of a possible multitude, is a very widespread tendency among animals, e\en those* low down in the scale* The lirapet will return to Che same stifking- place in the rock, and* the lobste'r to its favorite nook* on the sea-bottom. The raSbit will deposit its dung in the same corner; the bird makes its nest on the same bou^. But each of these preferences carries with it an insensibility to othCT opportujiities and SILENT — ADULT NO. II C. AVERAGE, 7 PAUSES The*selection of a particular h'ole to live in, of a pa'rticular mate, of a partic- ular feeding-g'round, a particular variety of diet, a'particular anything, in short, oiSt of a pos^ble multitude, is a very widespread tendency ara'ong animals, ex'en th'; he must sojourn in villages and hamle'ts, he must visit ca'stles, villas, farrnhouses, cottages; he mu'st wander through parks and gardens, 'oral — HIGH-SCHOOL INDIVIDUAL NO. I. AVERAGE, 7«2 PAUSES Those who are in the habit of remark mg such matters must h'ave noticed the passive tjuiet of 'an English landscape on Sunday* The clacking of the mUl, the regularly recurring stroke'of the flail, the din of the blacksmith'^ hammer, th'e whistling of the ploughman, the rat'tling of the cart, an^ all ORAL — HIGH-SCHOOL INDIVIDUAL NO- II. AVERAGE, 8.7 PAUSES Those who are in the habit of remarking such matters must have noticed the passive quiet of an English landscape on SundayT The clacking of the tnill, uie regularly recurring stroke of the flail, the din of the iDlacksmitlTs. hammer, the whistling of the ploughman, the raiding of'the cart,'and aU ORAL — HIGH-SCHOOL INDIVIDUAL NO. 15. AVERAGE, 9 PAUSES Those who are in the habit of remarking such matters'must have noticed the passive quiet of an English landscape on Sunday^ The clacking of the ''mill, the regakriy recurring stroke of the flail, the din ot the lilacksmith's haiiimer, the whistling of the ploughman, the rat'thng o! the car't, ancl all Chart II line during such fixations. In fact, motor adjustments go hand in hand with perception in connection with all fixation pauses. It would be quite fallacious, however, to attribute the premonition of which Dodge speaks entirely to indirect vision, or to vision in 52 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING general, for much of it comes undoubtedly from the context. The reader is, as it were, immersed in the meaning of that which is being read, be it the sentence, the paragraph, or the selection. Without such cues indirect vision would be seriously handicapped. As it is, the two undoubtedly go hand in hand. SILENT — ELEMENTARY INDIVIDUAL NO. 6. AVERAGE, 5.6 PAUSES There was once a man who liad tliree sons, and nothing else in the world but the house in which he lived. Now each of tlie sons wished to liave the ho'use after his father's death; but the father loved tKem all alike, and die! not' know what to do; fie did not SILENT — ^ELEMENTARY INDIVIDUAL NO. lO. AVERAGE, 6 PAUSES There was once a* man who had three sons, and nothing else in the world but the house in wfiich lie lived. Now each of the sons wished to have the house aft'er his father's death; but tfie father lov'ed tKem all alike, and did not know what to do; he dici not SILENT — ELEMENTARY INDIVIDUAL NO. 1 6. AVERAGE, 7.3 PAUSES There \vas once a man wfio ha'd tfiree sons, and nothing else in the world l5ut the ho'use in wliich he live'd. Now ea'ch of the' sons wish'ed to have the house afte'r his father's death; but the fath'er loved th'em all alike,* and did' not kno'w wliat to do; he did not ORAL — ELEMENTARY INDU'IDUAL NO. 6. AVERAGE, 7.6 P.\USES One s'umme'r mor'ning a little Tailor'was sitting on his table by th'e window; he'was in good sj^irits, and sewed with all his might. There came a woman down th'e street crying, "Good'jams ch'eap! Good jams cheap!" ORAL — ELEMENTARY INDIVIDUAL NO. TO. AVERAGE, 8.8 PAUSES One su'mmer morning a little Tailor w*as sit'ting on his table ^y the window; h'e was in good spirits, and sewed wi'th all his might.' Th'ere came a woman do'vn th'e stre'et crying, "G'ood ja'ms ch'eap! Good jams cheap!" ORAL— ELEMENTARY INDIVIDUAL NO. 16. AVERAGE, 7.3 PAUSES One summe'r morning a little Tailor'was sitting o'n h's table by'the window; he was in good spirits, and sewed with all Kis might. There came a woman down th'e street crying, "Good jams ch'eap! Good jams cheap!" Chart III A discussion of the nature of the fixation pause necessarily involves the question of the nature of the behavior of the eye durmg fixation. How does the eye behave during fixation? Does it move freely or is it held in absolute position ? While the whole question of the behavior of the eye during the reading STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 53 process will be discussed in a later chapter, the main facts, at least as far as they concern the behavior of the eye during fixation, may be anticipated at this time. As previously noted in the his- torical resume, Dodge, McAllister, and Dearborn came to the conclusion that the eye was by no means always at rest during fixation; in fact, the first two felt that it was generally in motion. However, their conclusions were based upon a study of fixations in isolation, that is, apart from regular reading. It was accordingly significant to note that Dearborn, whose study involved fixations as found in actual reading, discovered great individual variation, some subjects maintaining remarkably steady fixations, while those of others appeared equally unsteady. Some of the unsteadi- ness, too, was in all probability due to head-movement, since it was not possible to exclude the latter entirely or to distinguish it clearly from eye-movement. And at best the number of sub- jects in the case of each of the foregoing experimenters was too small to warrant final conclusions. At any rate, the results of the present investigation show that the majority of the individuals tend to maintain remarkably steady fixations during normal reading. Many of the irregularities which seemed at first to indicate eye-movement are clearly due to head-movement, and possibly in rare cases to slight vibrations of the apparatus. By securing records simultaneously of head-movement and eye- movement, the former by means of photographic records of light reflected from a highly polished metal ball fastened to one end of a pair of spectacle rims, and the latter by the usual process of photographing light reflected from the cornea during actual reading, and, further, by securing independent records of possible vibrations of the apparatus by photographing light reflected from points of reference on the apparatus, it was possible to analyze the regular reading records and to single out the several components, such as vibrations of the apparatus, head-movement, and eye-movement. The results show that vibrations of the apparatus were practically non-existent, while head-movements were quite common. In fact, a large proportion of the irregularities and deviations on the records is clearly due to head-movement. Deviations involving a gradual change in direction in the case of the vertical lines of 54 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING dots and blanks standing for the fixation pauses represent the most common type of eye-movement, namely, the type involving convergent adjustment. It is most clearly in evidence in the case of the initial fixation pauses of each line, though it is by no means limited to these pauses. As will be pointed out in the next chapter, all rapid eye-movements, such as are involved in the interfixation movements and the return sweep, are accompanied by divergence, and all fixation is accompanied by some degree of convergence. These adjustments involve eye-movement in both planes, the horizontal and the vertical. They account for the bulk of eye- movement during fixation, the type of eye-movement which is the very essence of the motor adjustment conditioning the percep- tual process. Two minor types of eye-movement will also be discussed, the one representing a more elementary type of eye- movement than that which is involved in divergent and convergent adjustment, and the other being indicative of a slight unsteadiness of the eyes during fixation. 2. Number of pauses. — Dearborn was the first to note that the number of pauses required for the reading of a given line or a given selection is subject to great individual variation. His subjects averaged from 3.0 to 7.1 pauses per line in reading the same newspaper passage. The results of the present investigation are quite as striking in this respect. In fact, individual variation is so much in evidence that other factors, such as age and training, sink into comparative insignificance. The wide variations are evident at a glance. The individual averages range in the case of silent reading from 4.1 to 10.8 pauses, and in the case of the oral from 6.1 to 1 1 . 5 pauses per line. The first six columns of Tables III-V give all the data regarding the number of pauses for the three groups, individual averages being included. Figs, i and 2 show the distributions of the groups on the basis of the number of pauses per line. The facts in each case indicate that the wide ranges referred to above cannot be accounted for on the basis of extreme stray individuals, since the distributions aside from being skewed approximate normaHty. In the case of silent reading (Fig. i) the distributions are all skewed toward the extreme representing the large number of pauses. STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 55 The same tendency is evident in the distributions for oral reading (Fig. 2), particularly in the case of the adult and the elementary groups, the high-school group showing in this instance a narrower range and somewhat greater uniformity. Although these dis- tributions, especially those of the high-school and elementary groups, are based on too small a number of subjects to warrant final inferences, there are nevertheless in evidence certain tendencies which would in all probability not be materially affected by an increase in numbers. The fact that there is, with but one exception, only one interval or class beyond the modal class at the extreme representing the small number of pauses indicates undoubtedly that there is a rather definite limit, physiologically and psycholog- ically determined, below which the number of pauses cannot be readily reduced in reading lines of a given length and complexity. A great many individuals evidently tend to approximate this limit. The persistent tendency of the skew toward the end representing the large number of pauses, as well as the accom- panying tendency toward wide dispersion, indicates that there is room for much greater variation on this end than on the former. In other words, although individuals cannot read lines of a given length and complexity without making a certain minimal number of pauses, they may vary greatly above this, some requiring an exceptionally large number of pauses. This has reference, of course, to normal reading at either average or maximal speed, normal reading being defined as the type of reading in which the subject reads the successive words and lines without skimming. The reading in this investigation was, as will be pointed out later, average or careful normal reading. Individual variation in the number of pauses is no doubt conditioned chiefly by two factors, physiological and psychological limitations on the one hand and individual habits on the other. Tachistoscopic experimentation has shown clearly that the field of clear vision and the span of attention are subject to great individual variation. There is reason to believe that there is a close correlation between such variation and variation in the number of pauses. Similarly, a careful questioning of the adult subjects in this investigation has brought out the fact that reading habits vary widely. Many 56 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING subjects appear to have remained almost entirely unconscious of the reading process. They read naively, as it were, their reading habits having been determined by circumstantial and chance factors. Such readers rarely approach the natural limits referred to above. Some readers, on the other hand, appear to be thor- oughly conscious of the reading process. In fact, their present reading habits are the result of conscious direction. Such readers frequently approach very closely the limits set by their natural capacities. It is safe to say, however, that this latter class is distinctly in the minority. The number of pauses made in the reading of a given line naturally determines the amount read per fixation; the fewer the number of pauses the larger will be the number of words read, and vice versa. Dearborn's readers, it will be recalled, averaged for silent reading in the case of the newspaper line from 1.9 to i . o words per fixation. In the present investigation the adult sub- jects average for silent reading from 2.15 to o . 93 words per fixation, the high-school students from 2.04 to 1.04 words, and the ele- mentary pupils from 2 . 44 to i . 04 words. For oral reading the averages for the same groups vary respectively from 1.52 to 0.87 word, from 1.39 to 0.98 word, and from 1.62 to 0.86 word. It is evident that there is in this respect a close agreement between the results of the two studies. Column I of Table XI shows that there is a rather high correla- tion between the number of pauses in silent and in oral reading. In other words, an individual is likely to occupy a somewhat similar rank in the number of pauses which he requires for silent and oral reading. This might imply on the one hand the domina- tion of a common capacity, and on the other the domination of a common habit. It is difficult to tell which figures more prom- inently. If habit is the chief factor, conscious improvement in the rate of reading ought to change the correlations. That this may actually happen at times is shown by the fact that the more rapid and conscious readers show a lesser degree of correlation. Such readers make, of course, a greater distinction between the number of pauses for silent and for oral reading than do the slower. In the case of oral reading the possibilities for improvement are limited; hence the change in correlation. STATEMENT AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 57 Table XI indicates, further, that there is a very high correla- tion between the average number of pauses per line and the total perception time per line. In the case of silent reading the correlations for the adult, high-school, and elementary groups are, respectively, 0.660=^=0.057, o. 904=1=0.020, o.920='=o.03i. For oral reading the corresponding figures are, respectively, 0.681=^0.053, o.6i2='=o. loi, 0.823='= 0.047. Pause rank is evi- dently a very strong factor in determining speed efficiency in both silent and oral reading. 3. Duration of pauses. — The average duration of pauses is subject to about as much individual variation as is their number. Dearborn found that the averages for four of his readers in the case of the newspaper column ranged from 160.8 to 401.9 a. The complete individual averages as well as the averages for the groups in the case of the present study are given in columns 7-12 inclusive of Tables III-V. In addition, Table VIII shows the averages and ranges for the three groups. The averages for the groups, it will be noticed, approximate each other closely. This is true for both silent and oral reading. The wide ranges between the averages of the minimal and maximal individuals in each group are evident at a glance. In silent reading the adults vary from 214 to 470 a, the high-school students from 244 to 414 a, and the elementary pupils from 264 to 438 a. In oral reading the ranges are even wider, the averages for the adults ranging from 230 to 520 0-, those for the high-school students from 306 to 512 a, and those for the elementary group from 300 to 524 cr. It should be noticed, however, that these ranges are somewhat more influ- enced by a few exceptional individuals at the extremes than in the case of silent reading. This is shown by the individual data in Tables III-V, and also by the distributions of the groups as repre- sented by Figs. 3 and 4, Fig. 3 giving the distributions for silent and Fig. 4 those for oral reading, the class interval being 50 5 .V 1 ^ 1 ■ ^ J \ 7 J ;' > s t I f 1 3 ' A i i i > 1 ^ ! -^ 1 ' ij 1 ^ i B' i I- , i : % 1 1 ^ i A- to- • b;_ = 1 b 1 3 s" ' ■ ( i ■ a I J ■5 s' h A- 1' ' 1- U ' I r : li • ! S' A-' r i A ! - ■ 9^ 1 3 ■ 1 3 'i THE MOTOR BEHAVIOR OF THE EYE IN READING 107 in the case of the records for silent reading, which represent a minimal amount of head-movement. It is therefore at times quite difficult to compare this part of the records for movement in the vertical plane with the corresponding part of the records for move- ment in the horizontal plane. An interesting exception is notice- able in the case of record 6, return sweep D' , at the end of line III. There was a decided upward movement here during the return sweep, and in consequence a marked downward movement during the subsequent fixation. Note the spreading of the dots in the upper portion of D, the corresponding horizontal record of the same pause. Oral records 3 and 4 afford even better instances for comparison. In the case of record 4, return sweep B' , the three components are very much in evidence. There was a downv/ard movement during the last pause of line I and a marked downward movement during the latter part of the fixation pause which followed upon the return sweep. A careful examination of the corresponding portions of the records for movement in the hori- zontal plane shows very clearly the expected spreading of the dots. Note, further, return sweep C of the same record and return sweeps B' and C of record 8. A particularly interesting comparison of movement in the two planes is made possible in connection with records i and 2 just after line IV. At the close of pause 6 of this line the reader made an upward sweep with the eyes of approximately two inches, this being followed after a brief fixation period by a downward return sweep. The fact that there were during these upward and down- ward sweeps also slight movements toward the right heightens the effect on the record for movement in the horizontal plane, the upward sweep being represented by a line running downward and slightly to the right and the downward sweep by a line running upward and slightly to the right. 3. Head- and eye-movement in the vertical plane. — -As stated above, the records for head-movement and those for head- and eye-movement combined parallel each other in the case of Plate VI. The first and the last are, however, exceptions. The former is a record of light reflected from a polished bead fastened to the apparatus, being intended to detect possible vibrations of the lo8 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING apparatus in the vertical plane. The latter is a record of head- and eye-movement combined; it illustrates in a striking manner the effects of bihocular adjustment in so far as these appear on the records for the vertical plane. An examination of record i shows that vibrations of the apparatus are practically non-existent. A comparison of the remaining records indicates, however, that head-movement is to be reckoned with in this plane even more than in the horizontal plane, particularly in the case of oral reading. Records 2 and 3 represent the silent and records 4 and 5 the oral reading of adult individual No. 6 — ^the second representing rather a maximal amount of head-movement and the third rather a minimal amount of eye-movement in connection with silent reading, the fourth being, on the other hand, fairly typical of a maximal amount of head-movement and the fifth of a minimal amount of eye-movement in the case of oral reading. Records 6 and 7 represent the silent and records 8 and 9 the oral reading of adult individual No. 6 A — ^the sixth being typical of a minimal amount of head-movement and ,the seventh of a maximal amount of eye-movement in connection with silent reading, while the eighth represents distinctly a minimal amount of head-movement and the ninth an average amount of eye-movement in the case of oral reading. Several types of head-movement are in evidence as in the case of the horizontal plane. The first and most obvious of these appears on the records in the form of rather marked irregular deviations. These are particularly in evidence in connection with oral reading. Note record 4 of Plate VI, also record 8 of Plate V. This form of head-movement appears to involve a rather continuous irregular oscillation of the head in the vertical plane, this being in all probability due largely to disturbances set up by articulation. It differs from head-movement of the first type for the horizontal plane in that it is much more irregular and in that it has a greater amplitude; it differs from the fourth type of the horizontal plane in being more continuous and more marked. Its form and size may be accounted for, in part at least, by the fact that the head moves less easily and less smoothly in the vertical than in the horizontal plane. The significant fact is that this t}^e of head- THE MOTOR BEHAVIOR OF THE EYE IN READING 109 movement appears in common with the foregoing types on the records both for head-movement and for head- and eye-movement combined, the chief exceptions occurring at the points where the eyes move rapidly, as in the case of the connective movements. Compare records 4 and 5 for this purpose at points designated by a, b, c, etc. A second type of head-movement appears on the records in the form of a rather gradual change in direction, implying a slow change in the position of the head. The degree of such shifting varies materially, being in some instances, especially in the case of silent reading, very slight, as in the case of record 2 of Plate VI; in other instances, particularly in connection with oral reading, it is quite marked, as in the case of record 8 of Plate VI. A com- parison of records 2 and 3 and of records 8 and 9 of Plate VI shows that such movements are generally recorded on the records for both head-movement and head- and eye-movement combined. There are, however, some exceptions, particularly in the case of silent reading. The correspondence in the case of records 2 and 3, for instance, is not absolute; in part this is of course due to the fre- quency of the connective movements. This type of movement resembles somewhat the head-movement of the third type for the horizontal plane. A third type of head-movement appears on the records in the form of a slight unsteadiness, implying a very slight disturbance of the head, and possibly at times of the film. It resembles head- movement of the fourth t>'pe for the horizontal plane in a general way, but differs from it in that enlargement does not show as definite wave-form, and in that the disturbance is less marked. At times such movement appears alone, as in the case of record 6 of Plate VI; at other times it may occur in connection with other types, as in the case of records 2 and 4 of Plate VI. It appears on the records both for head-movement and for head- and eye-movement combined. An examination of the records for the purpose of determining the nature of eye-movement in the vertical plane reveals a variety of irregularities. Some of these are clearly indicative of diver- gent and convergent adjustment. It will be remembered that no STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING divergence involves in the case of the horizontal plane an outward movement of both eyes and convergence an inward movement. Careful investigation has shown that these two types of adjustment also involve movement in the vertical plane, the eyes moving upward as well as outward in the case of divergence and downward as well as inward in the case of convergence (4) . Since divergence is characteristic of the connective movements and convergence of fixation, the records for the return sweep and for the interfixation movements ought to show an upward trend and those for the fixation pauses ought to show a downward trend. An examination of a large number of records can leave no doubt as to the presence of these phenomena. Although it is ordinarily rather difficult to isolate the record for the return sweep, it is quite evident that it terminates frequently above the normal level of the records for the fixation pauses, and this in spite of the fact that the eyes actually pass downward in sweeping from the end of one line to the beginning of the next. Observe as very striking examples return sweep D of record 6 of Plate V, return sweep B of record 5 of Plate VI, and return sweeps A,C, and F of record 10 of Plate VI. To a certain extent this same tendency is in evidence in connection with practically all return sweeps. Unfortunately these portions of the records are often blurred in printing so that they do not stand out as clearly on the plates as they do on the films. The records for the interfixation movements, on the other hand, stand out so definitely that their character may be closely observed. Note, accordingly, the persistent upward tendency of these minute portions of the records. Observe particularly in the case of records 3) 5, 7) 9) and 10 of Plate VI the instances at points designated by i', 2', 3', etc. The convergent adjustment in connection with subsequent fixation pauses is also clearly in evidence, especially in connection with fixation pauses which follow upon the return sweeps. Note the downward trend of the records of such pauses at points designated by i, 2, 3, etc. In the case of the fixation pauses which follow upon interfixation movements the effect of convergent adjustment is not as evident, largely because the adjustment is in such cases extremely minute. It is, however, in all probabiHty, rarely, if ever, entirely absent. We shall speak THE MOTOR BEHAVIOR OF THE EYE IN READING iii of this convergent adjustment in the vertical plane, as indicated by a downward trend of the records of fixation pauses, as ''eye- movement of the first type." A second type of eye-movement resembles eye-movement of the third type for the horizontal plane. It appears on the records in the form of rather isolated deviations, being accompanied in some cases by a slighter and more general disturbance. Record 7 of Plate VI is particularly typical in this respect; note the deviations at points designated by i", 2", 3", etc.; observe also the more general irregularities at other points along the record. This type of eye-movement appears particularly in connection with silent reading; in the case of oral reading it is in all probability largely obscured by the effects of head-movement. As in the case of the horizontal plane, this type of irregularity is in all probabiUty largely due to lack of balance on the part of the muscles of the eyes. It is not probable that the two types of eye-movement which have been described are all-inclusive. As in the case of the hori- zontal plane, there are certain indications of compensatory eye- movement; these are, however, so slight that it has not seemed wise to attempt their definite characterization with the present technique and extent of investigation. Certain characteristics of the records of Plate VI remain to be pointed out. Records 2 and 3 represent the silent reading of adult individual No. 6. Observe in the case of record 3 the down- ward sweep from a' to h' . The reader fixated at this stage a point approximately two inches below the first line. An examination of the corresponding section of record 2, the record for head- movement, shows that these downward and upward movements of the eyes were executed without any appreciable amount of head-movement. Note incidentally the marked convergent adjust- ment which follows upon these movements, as indicated by the downward trend of the records for the subsequent fixation pauses, particularly the one which follows the upward sweep from c' to d'. Similar adjustments are strongly in evidence during subsequent initial fixation pauses, particularly in the case of those designated by 2, 3, 4, and 5. Note also the prevalence of head-movement of the third type in the case of record 2, particularly from a to b. 112 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING Records 4 and 5 represent the oral reading of the same individual, the former showing a rather marked amount of head-movement, most of which appears also on record 5. These records show very clearly, as do numerous others, that the eyes are carried with the head in the case of practically all head-movement occurring in connection with reading. This, however, does not prevent the eye from engaging in certain elaborate simultaneous adjustments, such as convergence; nor does it exclude the presence of sHght compensatory adjustments on the part of the eyes; the connective movements appear to take place quite independently of head- movement, in part, no doubt, because of their extremely short duration. Note the correspondence in the records for head- movement and for head- and eye-movement combined at points designated by a, b, c, etc. Note also the exceptions at points where the records for the connective movements appear. Records 6 and 7 represent the silent reading of adult individual No. 6A. An examination of these records shows that head-move- ment may in the case of some individuals be almost completely absent, while eye-movement may be quite marked. Record 6 gives practically no evidence of head-movement; record 7, on the other hand, gives indications of very marked eye-movement. Records 8 and 9 represent the oral reading of the same individual. The records are unique in that they represent a minimal amount of head-movement in connection with oral reading. Note, however, the correspondence between head- and eye-movement, partic- ularly at points indicated by a, b, c, etc. The marked deviation at the beginning of record 9 represents, as in the case of record 3, purposive movement, the reader fixating a point approximately two inches below the first line. In general, the adjustment resembles that discussed in connection with record 3. There is in evidence, however, a rather unusual amount of independent eye- movement. Compare the records particularly at points between b' and c', d' and e' , and e' and b. The downward movement at e' is not easily accounted for. It is possible that the reader was about to repeat the original downward sweep, but that he corrected himself before reaching the fixation point. It is possible, too, that he may have become aware indirectly of a considerable portion THE MOTOR BEHAVIOR OF THE EYE IN READING 113 of the first part of the line, and so may not have been in need of accurate fixation while these words were being pronounced. Another interesting feature appears near the end of this record. Instead of the usual return sweep of the eye, there was at this stage a movement of the head downward and toward the left. Just why the movement should have been so pronounced, or why it should have occurred at all, is difficult to tell. To all appearances it did not interfere with the reading, for the subject continued uninterruptedly and with but little subsequent adjustment. It should be noticed incidentally that there was in connection with this shift of the head a certain amount of independent eye- movement; note particularly the deviation at 3". It is quite evi- dent from this and other instances that there may be rather marked eye- and head-movement without serious visual disturbance. It is not probable, however, that the image is carried far beyond the fovea centralis in connection with such eye- and head- movement. C. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE MOTOR BEHAVIOR OF THE EYE An adequate characterization of eye-movement is, as we have seen, quite impossible unless the effects of head-movement can be eliminated. Even the most carefully devised headrest does not appear to exclude the latter entirely. Accordingly, it has been our task to analyze the complexes and to distinguish between head- and eye-movement. Several types of head-movement have been discovered for each plane. In the case of the horizontal plane four distinct types have been observed. The first involves a series of rather uniform oscillations of the head, or possibly vibrations of the apparatus; the second represents a tendency on the part of the head to move rapidly in a direction opposite to that in which the eyes move during interfixation movements, the movement occurring at about the same time as the interfixation movements, and particularly in connection with oral reading; the third type involves a more gradual change in the position of the head, occurring also especially in connection with oral reading; the fourth type implies a general unsteadiness of the head, this 114 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING being also particularly characteristic of oral reading In the case of the vertical plane three somewhat similar types have Deen pointed out. The first involves a rather continuous irregular oscillation of the head; the second implies a gradual change in the position of the head ; the third represents a very slight unsteadi- ness of the head; each of these three types is most marked in connection with oral reading. The several different types of head-movement for the two planes, with the possible and at least partial exception of the second type for the horizontal plane, appear on the records for head- and eye-movement combined, showing that the eyes are for the most part held in position and carried along with the head during head-movement occurring in connection with reading. This, however, does not exclude the possibility of a slight simulta- neous compensatory movement of the eyes, nor does it of course prevent independent eye-movement at times when the head is practically at rest. Several different types of eye-movement have also been dis- tinguished for each plane. In the case of the horizontal plane we have, of course, first of all the connecting movements, namely, interfixation movements, including refixations, and the return sweep, the duration of the former ranging from o.oi to 0.03 second and that of the latter from o . 03 to o . 05 second. The most striking characteristic of these movements appears in the fact that the two eyes do not cover equal distances in executing them, the leading eye (in space) passing invariably over a greater extent than the eye which follows. Such movement implies divergent adjustment. In connection with the fijtation pauses three distinct types of eye-movement were pointed out for the horizontal plane. The first involves a gradual convergent movement of the eyes, this being most strongly in evidence in the case of the initial fixation pause of each line; the second type represents a rapid movement of both eyes at the beginning of certain fixation pauses in a direc- tion opposite to that of the preceding connective movement; the third type involves isolated irregular excursions of the eyes in either direction, rarely more than one occurring in connection with any one fixation, such movement being due in all probability THE MOTOR BEHAVIOR OF THE EYE IN READING 115 to lack of muscular balance. There are also indications of com- pensatory eye-movement, but it has not been possible to char- acterize this definitely. Somewhat similar types of eye-movement are in evidence in connection with the vertical plane. There is, to begin with, a gradual upward movement of the eyes in connection with the interfixation movements and the return sweep, this being indicative of divergent adjustment. Two types have been pointed out as especially characteristic of fi.xation pauses. The first represents a downward movement of the eyes during fixation, this being indicative of convergent adjustment; the second type resembles eye-movement of the third type for the horizontal plane, being indicative of isolated irregular excursions of the eyes and also possibly of a slighter and somewhat more general disturbance, the irregularities in either case being due to lack of muscular balance. As in the case of the horizontal plane, there are slight indications of compensatory eye-movement, the definite characterization of which has not been attempted. Assuming that the last types of eye-movement, the third in the case of the horizontal plane and the second in the case of the vertical plane, are due largely to lack of muscular balance, we have endeavored to account for the remaining types on the basis of a common principle of explanation. Such movements are obviously closely related to divergent and convergent binocular adjustment. In fact, they represent for the most part various phases of such adjustment. The connecting movements of the eyes are clearly accompanied by divergence, the degree of such adjustment varying rather directly with the speed and extent of the movement in question. Divergence, it will be remembered, involves an upward and an outward movement of the eyes. This being the case, we have at once an explanation of the difference in the distances covered by the two eyes in connection with the connecting move- ments as well as for the upward trend of such movements. If no such adjustment occurred in connection with such movements, the two eyes would cover equal distances. Divergence introduces a disturbing factor by virtue of the fact that it involves a change in the relative position of the two eyes. In view of the fact that ii6 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING both eyes move outward (and upward) in connection with such adjustment, the leading eye (in space) passes during connective movements beyond the point it would have reached had there been no divergent adjustment; the eye which follows, on the other hand, fails to reach the point it would have reached had there been no divergence because it moves in a direction opposite to that of the connecting movements in question. As a result the leading eye actually passes over a greater extent than the eye which follows in connection with such movements. But divergence involves an upward as well as an outward movement of the eyes. This fact accounts, of course, for the upward trend which is in evidence in connection with the connection movements in the case of the horizontal plane. This upward trend is, as a matter of fact, also in evidence on the records for the horizontal plane; not as definitely, however, since it is somewhat complicated with other factors, such as the movement of the films. In connection with fixation, convergent adjustment is strongly in evidence. Convergence as opposed to divergence involves an in- ward movement of the eyes. This fact accounts for eye-movement of the first type in the case of both the horizontal and the ver- tical plane. Reading at close range, as in the case of the printed page, necessitates, of course, near accommodation. Since the con- necting movements involve divergence, convergent adjustment must necessarily be effected during fixation or clear vision would not be possible. The convergent adjustment in question involves accordingly, on the one hand, an inward movement of the eyes which has been designated as eye-movement of the first type for the horizontal plane, and, on the other hand, a downward movement of the eyes which has been characterized as eye-movement of the first type for the vertical plane. Eye-movement of the second type for the horizontal plane represents a more elementary form of eye-movement than binocular adjustment, namely, a tendency for both eyes to move sympathetically in the same lateral direction. As Dr. Judd points out in his most thoroughgoing study of con- vergence and divergence (5), such movements represent an early and crude stage of ocular behavior — a stage in which ''recognition of position in depth is undeveloped." The infant represents such THE MOTOR BEHAVIOR OF THE EYE IN READING 117 a stage for a time. In consequence he experiences presently a vague consciousness of confusion in the presence of objects situated at varying depths. This increasing confusion tends to excite new forms of motor adjustment until convergence is accidentally hit upon. However, even then the tendencies toward the more elementary forms of movement do not necessarily disappear; they are rather controlled by the superior motives of perception which demand the higher forms of binocular motor co-ordination. This is brought out in an interesting manner by the fact that stimula- tions of the occipital visual area result only in sympathetic lateral movements of the eyes, while an excitation of the higher association centers of the cerebrum leads to convergent movements of the eyes. Every visual percept is thus in its inception essentially a confused mass of experience, clearness appearing only in proportion as the more elementary forms of sympathetic ocular behavior are overcome by the higher forms of binocular adjustment. The reading pause represents essentially such a process, the recognition of words and meanings appearing gradually as the motor adjustment progresses. It must be remembered, of course, that the perceptual process is rarely limited to specific pauses, prefixational vision making significant contributions; so much so, in fact, that the reading pause may in many cases represent a comparatively late stage in the total process. But even then it represents clearly a progressive form of motor adjustment paralleled by increasing clearness in recognition. Early and partial recog- nition simply tends to facilitate the process. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES 1. Judd, Charles H. "Photographic Records of Convergence and Diver- gence," Yale Psychological Studies, N.S., I, No. 2, especially pp. 374 flf. 2. Ibid., especially pp. 411-12. 3. Ibid , especially pp. 374 fif. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid., p. 412. CHAPTER VI GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION' This investigation was undertaken primarily for the purpose of making a careful analysis of the reading process, both silent and oral, as represented by a large group of individuals varying widely in age and accomplishment. The problem was approached chiefly by way of a critical study of eye-movements, the latter involving in the case of reading a succession of fixation pauses and connective movements. Since the perceptual process is essentially limited to the fixation pause, the latter has been the chief object of this investigation, being studied intensively from the standpoint of the average number per line (90 mm.), the average duration, the location within the line, and the accompanying motor behavior of the eyes. The connective movements have also been critically studied in view of their intimate relationship with the fixation pause. The average number of pauses was found to vary from 4 . i to 10 . 8 per line for silent reading and from 6.1 to 1 1 . 5 for oral reading. In terms of the average number of words perceived per pause the figures vary in the case of silent reading from 2. 15 to 0.93 and in the case of the oral from 1.62 to 0.86. These figures are in close agreement with the results of other studies. The average duration of pauses varies from 214 to 470 a for silent reading and from 230 to 520 o- for oral reading. These durations (silent reading) are somewhat higher than those found by previous investigators, partly because a larger and more varied group has been examined in this case and partly, if not largely, because the reading was in this connection of the careful rather than the rapid type. A study of the location of fixation pauses has shown that there is a slight tendency toward fixating the apperceptive unit centrally with reference to the width of the unit of course, no method having ' Consult also the summaries at the end of chapters iv and v. 118 GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 119 yet been devised which makes possible the precise location of the path of the fixation point with reference to the height of the printed word or line. This tendency toward central location is facilitated, on the one hand, by the fact that we are in the habit of regarding most objects in the visual field as units and by contributions received through peripheral vision and context; it is interfered with, on the other hand, by such factors as defective motor control, tendencies toward short-lived motor habits, and objective pecu- liarities demanding analysis. And, finally, there can be no doubt that the demands of perception are frequently met quite as well by end fixations as by central fixation. While the words within which the pauses fall do not appear to belong to one class rather than to another, it is quite evident that short words which combine readily with others to form apperceptive units escape fixation most frequently. The total perception time per line is the product of the average number and the average duration of pauses. It represents the reading time with the exception of the brief interval consumed by the connective movements. It constitutes, therefore, a rather reliable index to the rate of reading. In the case of the present study the average perception time per line varies from 1,140 to 3,684.8 a for silent reading and from 1,702 to 4,454 pe of eye-movement involves certain irregularities in connection with fixation, these being in all probability largely due to lack of muscular balance and to possible functional disturbances. GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 123 Finally, the facts in the case point unmistakably toward some degree of recognition during the earliest stages of the ordinary fixation pause. The nature of convergent adjustment itself implies a progressive and consciously directed process of recognition. There is, in other words, a consciousness of confusion, or of lack of clearness, which continues to incite motor adjustment until the cleared-up percept appears, this being in turn accompanied and followed by elaborate associational processes — processes involving assimilation and organization. INDEX Abell, Adelaide M., 19. Adjustment: binocular, 96; divergent and convergent, 109 f., 115 f. Ahrens, A., 5. Apparatus, Yale, 8. Behavior, binocular, 96. Baxt, 10, n. Becker, 17. Camera, 26; kinetoscopic, 8. Cameron, 8. Cattell, J. M., 16. Clark University, 5, 20. Cleveland schools, 71, 74, 77, 82. Cline, 10 f. Columbia University, 7, 18. Comprehension, 73 f. Convergence, 97 f. Correlation, 57, 60, 74. Courten, 8. Courtis, S. A., 21, 70. Dearborn, W. F., 7, 9, 10, 13, 18, 20, 30, 48, 59, 62, 64, 73. Delabarre, E. B., 5. Deviation, average, 73. Divergence, 97 f. Dodge, R., 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 16, 27, 48. Erdmann, B., and Dodge, R., 5, 10, 11, 16. Exner, 15. Experimentation, tachistoscopic, 55. Eye-movement : apparatus for recording, 6 ; compensatory, 91,111; experimental investigation of, 4; in horizontal plane, 90; in vertical plane, no f.; types of, 114 f. Eyes, motor behavior of, 121 f. Film-holder, 26. Fixation point, path of eye's, 9. Freeman, F. N., i, 7, 18. Gillet, H. O., I. Goldscheider, A., and Mueller, R. F., 16. Gray, W. S, 71, 74- Groups, comparison of, 66, 81, 120. HaUe, University of, 5. Harvard laboratory, 5. Head-movement: horizontal plane, 87 f.; types, 89, 113 f., 122; vertical plane, 108 f. Headrest, 24. Helmholtz, 15 f. Hohnes, H. W., i. Huey, E. B., i, 5, 9, 10, 20, 59, 61. Individuals, comparison of, 81. Interfixation movements, duration of, 95. Javal, Emile, 5, 9, 10. Johnson, F. W., i. Judd, Charles H., i, 8, 9, 14, 15, 116. Lamansky, 4, 9, 10. Lamare, 5. Landolt, 5. Leipzig, 17, 18. Light, source of, 24. Lough, 5. McAUister, C. N., 8, 14. Messmer, O., 17, 18. Method: after-image, 4; mirror, 4; photographic, 27. Motor, electric, 27. Mueller, R. F., 16. Norman, Okla., schools, 59, 70. Oberholtzer, E. E., 20, 59, 70, 82. Paris, University of, 5. Pause, nature of, 78, 79. Pauses: average duration of, 57, 67, 76, 79, 118; location of, 62, 80, 118 f.; number of, 54 f., 66, 75, 79, ii8. 125 126 STUDY IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING Quantz, J. O., 19, 59. Reaction-time, visual, 58 f. Reader: most rapid oral, 119; most rapid silent, 119. Reading: advantages of silent, 77 f.; careful, 21; differences between silent and oral, 121; normal, 21. Records: comparison of, for adults and children, 93; comparison of, for silent and oral reading, 93; comparison of, for two planes, 106. Refixations, 73, 78. Reflecting mirrors, 24. Return-sweep, duration of, 95. Rostock, University of, 5. Scanning, 120. Starch, D., 20, 59, 69. Steele, W. M., 8. Sycamore 111., schools, 20, 70. Thomdike, E. L., 36. Time-marker, 24. Transition stage, critical, 120, Tulsa, Okla., schools, 20. University of Chicago Elementary School, I, 70. University of Chicago, 7. Valentius, 15. Variation, individual, 77, 121. Volkmann, 4, 9, 10. Waldo, K. D., 20, 70. Wellesley College, 19. Wesleyan University, 6, Wisconsin, University of, 7, 9. Yale: apparatus, 8; Psychological Studies, 22; University, 8. Zeitler, J., 17. SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS Edited in conjunction with The School Review and The Elementary School Journal Published by THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS VOL. I Monograph No. 1 Studies of Elementary-School Reading through Standardized Tests. By William Scott Gray, Ph.D., Instructor in Educa- tion and Dean of the College of Education, University of Chicago, Pp. viii-{-ij8. Price $i.oo. Monograph No. 2 An Experimental Study in the Psychology of Reading. By William A. Schmidt, Ph.D., Professor of Education, University of Oklahoma. Pp. iv-{-ij2. Price $0.75. Monograph No. 3 (In Press) The Administration of Secondary - School Units. By Leonard V. Koos, Ph.D., Professor of Education, University of Washington. This monograph, which will be about 180 pages in length, is based on an elaborate study of the practices of the high schools on the approved Hst of the North Central Association. The material was collected, by Mr. Koos while he was acting as the secretary of a committee of the Association. Each subject of in- struction is described in terms of reports made from the schools on this approved Hst as to their practices in organization and classroom instruction in these subjects. Secondary-school teachers and administrators will find in this monograph sugges- tions for the organization of courses in all departments. Monograph No. 4 (In Press) Experimental Studies in Arithmetic. By George S. Counts, Ph.D., Professor of Education, University of Delaware. This monograph, which will be about 125 pages in length, is based on material collected from Cleveland, Grand Rapids, and a number of individual schools through the use of the Cleveland Survey Arithmetic Tests. Mr. Counts has worked out in some detail the types of errors which children make in these arithmetic tests, has calculated the correlations between the different t3rpes of tests, and has shown the relation between age and success in arithmetic. The work will be of immediate use to supervisors and administrative officers and will suggest to teachers methods of handling students who have difficulty with their arithmetic combinations. Monograph No. 5 (In Press) T>^es of Reading Ability as Exhibited through Tests and Laboratory Experiments. By Clarence Truman Gray, Ph.D., Instructor in Education, University of Texas. Mr. Gray carried on a series of studies of reading for one year with the aid of a subsidy suppHed by the General Education Board. He photographed the eyes of a number of children who had been selected through carefully conducted tests in the Elemen- tary School and in the High School of the University of Chicago. By means of the tests he was able to distinguish different types of ability to read; by means of the laboratory experiments he arrived at an explanation of a number of these types. The work undertaken by Mr. Gray was carried further by a number of teachers who worked on these special cases and improved the abihty of the pupils through special training. Reports on these special cases are included in the monograph. Subscription rates have been arranged for all of the publications. If the journals are taken separately, the price of subscription is $1.50 each. If the monographs are taken by the volume, each volume to contain approximately one thousand pages, the subscription price will be $5.00 with an additional cost of 50 cents for postage. A combination of all three publications is offered for $6.00 plus 50 cents for postage on the monographs. 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