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MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 
 
 TO ACCOMPANY 
 
 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 By N. a. calkins, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "PRIMARY OBJECT-LESSONS," ETC. 
 
 CHILD NATURE. 
 Desire to see, TO DO, and to tell. 
 
 TEACHER'S WORK. 
 Training how to see, TO DO, and to tell. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 L. PRANG & COMPANY. 
 
 1877. 
 

 COPYKIGnX. 
 
 By L. prang & CO. 
 
 1K77. 
 
 Stereotyped and printed by 
 
 Rand, Avery, and Company^ 
 
 J 17 Franklin Street, 
 
 Boston. 
 
O 
 
 f 
 
 4 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS, 
 
 PAGB. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION, AND DESIGN OF 
 
 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. . . 3 
 
 PLAN OF LESSONS, AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Plax of Graded Lessons 9 
 
 Methods of Instruction for each Grade . . . .12 
 
 INFORMATION RELATIVE TO TRADES AND OCCU- 
 PATIONS 31 
 
 Carpenter 33 
 
 Shoemaker 36 
 
 Tailor 39 
 
 Blacksmith 41 
 
 Lithographer 44 
 
 The Kitchen 49 
 
 Gardening 51 
 
 The Farm-Yard 53 
 
 Hay-Making 55 
 
 Baker 58 
 
 Tinsmith 61 
 
 Printer 63 
 
PEINCIPLES OF EDUCATION; 
 
 AND 
 
 DESIGN OF PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 Nature furnishes the objects and phenomena which 
 act upon the mind of the child, and which, in turn, the 
 mind acts upon through the senses of the learner, caus- 
 ing development of mind-power, acquisition of ideas, 
 and natural education, as the result. The personal ex- 
 periences of the child, in his contact with the objects and 
 phenomena that surround him, develop his powers, and 
 produce that intellectual growth which leads to real 
 knowledge. 
 
 The w^ork of educating the child is well begun by 
 Nature. It should be the aim of every teacher to con- 
 tinue the processes of education on the same lines, and 
 with equal adaptation to the learner. 
 
 In order that teachers may more clearly understand 
 the methods of true education, their attention is here 
 invited to a careful consideration of important principles 
 upon which the science and art of education are based. 
 
 The true educator selects suitable materials for the 
 
 3 
 
4 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 proper exercise of the child's powers, and then stimulates 
 the pupil's mind to work upon them. 
 
 The teacher adjusts the conditions for education be- 
 tween the matter, or subject, and the learner's mind. 
 
 The learner teaches himself b3' the exercise of the 
 several powers of his mind upon the materials and sub- 
 jects arranged for this purpose. 
 
 What the child does himself, educates him. He gains 
 his most valuable knowledge b^^ his own experiences. 
 Therefore the teacher's proper work is to guide the obser- 
 vations of the learner so that his experiences, and the 
 ideas gained thereb}', shall lead to proper association and 
 sj'stematic grouping of the results of the pupil's ex- 
 periences. 
 
 Knowledge consists in ideas and facts gained and 
 properly classified b}^ the learner, not in words memor- 
 ized and recited. Words learned without ideas do not 
 constitute knowledge. Intellectual as well as material 
 food ma}' be provided ; but each individual must himself 
 take and digest it before it will give nourishment, and pro- 
 mote growth and strength. The passive recipient cannot 
 be a real learner. 
 
 Children ma}' be trained to observe intelligently and 
 with system, by properly directing their attention to the 
 examination of familiar objects that come under their fre- 
 quent notice. Owing to the conditions under which the 
 work of teachers must be performed, the necessary prepa- 
 ration for training their pupils to form good habits of 
 observation in matters pertaining to occupations must be 
 made chiefly in the schoolroom, and without the presence 
 of the actual materials and operations which constitute 
 the subject of the instruction from which the knowledge is 
 
PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. 6 
 
 to be obtained. The teacher needs, therefore, aids for 
 properly directing the young learner how to take those 
 important elementary steps ; aids that may be easily 
 taken into the class-room, and which are especially 
 adapted to the purpose of the instruction ; aids that will 
 enable the teacher to illustrate the proper modes of pro- 
 cedure in the examinations of real objects. 
 
 Were children to be sent forth to observe the various 
 trades and occupations, without an}' preparation or direc- 
 tions as to a proper manner of doing it, much valuable 
 time would be wasted in general observations with no 
 definite purpose ; beside, undue attention would often be 
 given to unimportant matters, while the chief points and 
 most valuable characteristics would be overlooked. Hab- 
 its of noticing with care and accuracy would not be 
 formed ; and even that which was seen would not be 
 sufficiently understood to lead the observer to gain real 
 knowledge. 
 
 From the foregoing statements, teachers will under- 
 stand that Prang's Pictures of Trades and Occupations 
 are designed to be used as materials for training children 
 in habits of S3'stematic examination of real objects ; that 
 they are what their title indicates, — 
 
 ^'' Aids for Object-Teaching.'' 
 
 These representations are intended to be used as a 
 means of awakening a desire to know more about trades 
 and occupations in which people are dail}' engaged, and 
 of furnishing a read}' means of pointing out the various 
 kinds of materials, tools, and acts of labor, required in 
 carrying them on, and leading the pupils to understand 
 the relations of these operations to the common welfare 
 of all. 
 
6 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 It is believed tliat a proper use of Prang's Aids for 
 Object -Teaching will enable teachers to insure practical 
 results in training their pupils to form good habits of 
 gaining knowledge, and in imparting practical informa- 
 tion concerning the important matters of dail}' life. 
 
 For the purpose of assisting teachers in making a 
 proper use of these Aids, the following lessons have been 
 prepared. It is not intended that these lessons shall be 
 followed literally b}' teacher and pupils ; but it is earnestly 
 hoped, that, from a study of the methods therein given, 
 clearer ideas may be obtained of the purpose and utility 
 of these Aids, and that the modes by which they can be 
 employed to facilitate the work of real education shall be 
 well understood. 
 
 With the sincere hope that these chromo illustrations 
 ma}' lead to the easy attainment of the important ends 
 herein indicated, the}- are commended to the careful at- 
 tention of all true teachers, — those who believe that it is 
 more useful to teach children how to obtain facts, than 
 merely to give them facts to be remembered ; that it is 
 better to train them to study intelligently objects and 
 Nature, than to confine them to memorizing the contents 
 of books. 
 
PLAN OF LESSONS, 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHmG. 
 
PLAN OP GEADED LESSONS, 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 The aims of the lessons on the trades and occiqmtions, 
 and the order of presenting them, ma}" be seen in the fol- 
 lowing statements as to what should be accomplished by 
 the exercises given in each of the four grades of les- 
 sons. 
 
 The divisions into grades are made for the purpose of 
 presenting the different stages of the instruction in a 
 definite manner ; they do not indicate the number of les- 
 sons to be given in each grade, nor do they mean " grades 
 of classes." The exercises of a grade may include one, 
 two, three, or more lessons for each trade, as the teacher 
 may find to be desirable. Read, therefore, what is said 
 under this head, " Plan of Graded Lessons," for the 
 purpose of learning the, — 
 
 Aims of the Lesso7iSj and the order of giving them. 
 
 First Grade. — The exercises of the first grade 
 should cause the pupils to make a careful observation of 
 the picture before them, to ascertain what trade or occu- 
 
10 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 pation is represented by it; to notice what work the 
 several persons are doing, also what materials and tools 
 they are using ; A^d, as far as possible, to learn what 
 articles the}' are making, and what those articles are for. 
 The exercises should be accompanied with such conversa- 
 tion as will cause the pupils to desire to see and learn 
 more about the given occupation. 
 
 The teacher, at the close of the lesson, may point out 
 the most important objects represented in the picture, in 
 order to indicate what the pupils should try to sec when 
 the}' visit the place where the work of the trade or occu- 
 pation may be seen in its various stages of progress. 
 
 Second Grade. — Having learned, in the previous 
 grade, those things which pertain to a trade or occupation 
 that should be particularly noticed, the pupils are now 
 prepared to observe real objects intelligently ; and they 
 may be requested to try to see persons engaged at the 
 work of a given trade, and to notice, — 
 
 The tools and materials used; 
 
 What work is done ivith the tools; 
 
 What articles are made. 
 
 By such observations the pupils become prepared for 
 subsequent lessons in the schoolroom, in connection with 
 the pictures. These subsequent lessons should require 
 the pupils to describe what has been observed, as above 
 indicated ; to point out in the picture, and to name, the 
 various objects mentioned, especiall}^ those which they 
 saw in use, and the work which they saw performed. 
 
 Third Grade. — The lessons of this grade should lead 
 the pupils, by means of suitable questions, to consider, — 
 
PLAN OF GRADED LESSONS. 11 
 
 What the persons represented in the picture ivorlc upon; 
 
 What they tvork ivith; 
 
 Why they do the giuen icork; 
 
 Wliat articles are made; 
 
 What is (hue loith that ichich is made. 
 
 It will readil}' be seen that the exercises of this grade 
 will assume the character of a conversation between 
 teacher and pupils, with the matter of the conversation 
 guided b}' the teacher ; while the answers and remarks of 
 the pupils, and the questions and statements of the teach- 
 er, should be confined to that which pertains to the trade 
 under discussion. Care should be had to treat the dif- 
 ferent steps of the lesson in their proper order. 
 
 Fourth Grade. — This grade ma}' embrace a complete 
 and connected description of the ])icture, names of tools 
 used, the work done, the articles made, materials used, 
 the uses of the articles produced. This description ma}' 
 be oral onl}', in classes of 3'oung children ; but it should 
 be required in writing, on slates or on paper, of pupils 
 who have learned to write. 
 
 For more definite information relative to giving lessons 
 on trades and occupations, see the following illustrative 
 exercises under "J/e?/ioc?s of Instruction." These exer- 
 cises arc intended onh' to indicate the manner of con- 
 ducting the lessons, and not the extent or complete 
 matter of each. 
 
METHODS or INSTEUCTION 
 
 FOR EACH GRADE. 
 
 First Grade. — Place a picture representing a trade 
 or occupation before the pupils. Then request all to 
 look at it carefully ; and, after allowing a minute or two 
 for the class to observe it, let each one who can point 
 out and name something in the picture raise a hand. 
 These several pupils, in turn, ma}- tell what they see, 
 also point it out. For leading the pupils to do this 
 successfully, different grades of exercises should be fur- 
 nished, some of which ought to be adapted to the capa- 
 city of the youngest pupils to whom these lessons may 
 be given. 
 
 The first exercise maj^ consist in naming and pointing 
 by the pupils to the tools, materials, objects, &c., seen 
 in the picture. 
 
 In the second exercise the pupils ma}' be required to 
 state the principal use of each object named. 
 
 In other exercises the}' may mention the work done, the 
 materials upon which the work is performed, the tools 
 used, the articles made, the persons at work, what each 
 is doing, what can be seen in any part of the picture, 
 what the entire picture represents. 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOR EACH GRADE. 13 
 
 For illustrations of exercises in the first grade, sup- 
 pose the picture of the ''^kitchen" be placed before the 
 children. Request them to try to see something in the 
 picture which they can name. Each pupil may then be 
 allowed to name and point out a single object. 
 
 First Exercise. — " This is the picture of a range.*' 
 " This is the picture of a pail." 
 *' This is the picture of a clock." 
 " This is the picture of a table," &c. 
 
 Second Exercise. — The pupil should point to each 
 object named. " The range is for cooking." 
 
 '' The clock is to tell the time of day." 
 
 " The teakettle is for heating water to make tea and 
 coffee," &c. 
 
 Third Exercise. — "This woman is rolling out some 
 dough to make pie. The dough is on a board on the 
 table ; and she is using a rolling-pin to make it thin." 
 
 " She will peel the apples, then cut them in thin slices 
 to make the pie." 
 
 " The basket stands on the chair. It is full of eggs." 
 
 "The closet door is open, and I can see dishes and 
 boxes in it." 
 
 Should the picture of the '''shoemaker'' be placed 
 before the pupils, the following statements may indicate 
 what the pupils might sa}^ in the different exercises : — 
 
 Firsts Exercise. — " This is the picture of a shoemaker. 
 He sits on a bench. ' ' 
 
14 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 ** Here are two rolls of leather." 
 
 *' This pail stands near the shoemaker.** 
 
 ** This is a pair of new boots." 
 
 *' Here is a hammer, a pair of pincers, and something 
 else on the floor." 
 
 *' There are two brushes under the window." 
 
 *' Here is another pair of pincers." 
 
 *' On the floor are pieces of leather." 
 
 *' A pair of gaiters stand on the floor, at the end of 
 the bench." 
 
 Second Exercise. — " These knives are used to cut the 
 leather, and the straight awls to make holes in the leather 
 for the pegs and nails." 
 
 " This shelf is used to put lasts on. Boots and shoes 
 are made on lasts to give them the shape of the foot." 
 
 " The shoemaker uses his hammer to pound the leather, 
 and to make holes with the awl, and to drive in pegs and 
 nails." 
 
 *' This bench has a drawer. It is parti}' open. The 
 shoemaker keeps thread, pegs, nails, and tools in his 
 drawer." 
 
 " In the back part of this picture are drawers for 
 keeping shoes." 
 
 TJdrd Exercise. — '' This shoemaker is making a boot. 
 He pounds the awl to make holes in the sole-leather, into 
 which he drives pegs." 
 
 *' The man in this part of the picture is tr3'ing to fit a 
 lady with a pair of shoes. These persons are in the shoe- 
 store." 
 
 *' A shoemaker cuts leather w^ith a knife. He hammers 
 Bole-leather on a lapstone to make it solid." 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOR EACH GRADE. 15 
 
 *' Shoemakers sew parts of the shoe together. They 
 sew the legs of boots." 
 
 For Revieio Exercises the teacher may place before the 
 class two or three of these pictures, and then direct 
 the attention of the pupils to objects of the same class, 
 as tools, kinds of work, articles made, allowing them to 
 point out, give the name, and tell the use of, or otherwise 
 describe, that whicli is indicated. During these exercises 
 the pupils should point out onl}' objects belonging to the 
 same class, as tools, until all the representations in both 
 the pictures of objects of that class have been named ; 
 then, at the direction of the teacher, objects of another 
 class, as articles made, ma}' be pointed out in the same 
 manner, and so on. During all of these exercises, care 
 should be taken to require the pupils to do something 
 which will show that the}' know that which is taught, and 
 also to awaken in them a desire to see and describe. 
 
 In giving lessons with some of these pictures, it might 
 be well to omit the tliird series of exercises until the pu[)ils 
 have seen the tools used, the work performed, and the 
 articles made, which pertain to the trade represented. 
 This omission would be best in all cases where the chil- 
 dren had not previously seen and learned something 
 about the subject of the lesson. 
 
 Having given a sufficient number of exercises with the 
 picture of a trade, which number will vary with the differ- 
 ences in age and progi*ess of the pupils, the teacher may 
 tell the pupils tliat another lesson will be given about the 
 shoemaJxer (or other trade, as the case may be) next week ; 
 and at the same time request them to visit a shoe-store 
 or shoe-shop before the next lesson, and learn the names 
 
16 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 and uses of the tools and materials used, especially of 
 those \vliich tlic}- see used ; and also to try to learn other 
 facts, pertaining to what the shoemaker does, which they 
 may tell the class. 
 
 The observations which the different pupils would make 
 in accordance with the preceding request would prepare 
 the class for the exercises of the Second Grade; especially 
 if the teacher conducted the lesson So as to cause the 
 several facts, or items of knowledge, gathered b}- each 
 individual, to become the common stock of information 
 shared equally b}' all the members of the class. 
 
 Second Grade. — When the time for the Second Grade 
 lesson arrives, the picture representing the subject of the 
 lesson should be placed before the class, and the several 
 pupils called upon to point out those objects represented 
 in it which the}' have seen before, and at the same time 
 to name them, and tell what they are used for. The pupil 
 should also mention different kinds of work which are 
 done b}' those working at the trade, and tell what tools 
 the}' use for each kind of work thus mentioned. 
 
 These exercises should be conducted in such a manner 
 that the pupils will become eager to see, learn, and tell 
 as much as possible about the trade or occupation which 
 forms the subject of the lesson. 
 
 The general character of the lessons of the Second 
 Grade ma}- be seen in the following statements which 
 represent what the pupils might say, in the school-lesson 
 with the picture of a blacksmith before them, after they 
 had personally observed the operations of this artisan. 
 
 To commence the lesson, the teacher ma}- say, — 
 
 *' Point out, in the picture before 3'ou, some tool which 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOR EACH GRADE. 17 
 
 you have seen a blacksmith use, and tell us what he does 
 with it." 
 
 PuiJils. — "These are tongs [pointing at the several 
 pairs, on the floor, wall, &c.] ; the blacksmith holds 
 the hot iron with them." 
 
 ''This is an anvil: the hot iron is placed on it while it 
 is beaten into the desired shape." 
 
 " In the left-hand corner of the shop are the helloios: 
 with these air is forced into the fire to make it very hot. 
 The person who works the bellows is called a bloicer. 
 When he takes the sledge-hammer^ and strikes the hot iron 
 on the anvil, he is called a striker.'' 
 
 " The tub b}' the side of the anvil is filled with water: 
 the blacksmith cools the iron in it." 
 
 "The iron instrument on the side of the bench, back 
 of the anvil, is a vise. It is used to hold firmly the piece 
 of iron on which the blacksmith is working, so tliat he can 
 make it smooth with a coarse yj7e, or rasp. Here are two 
 rasps and a jxiir of pincers on this bench, leaning against 
 the wall." 
 
 " Here, at the right hand of the picture, is a man shoe- 
 ing a horse.'' 
 
 " The man at the anvil is making horse-shoes.'* 
 
 " The instrument with a wheel, fastened against the 
 post near the horse, is a drill: it is used to bore holes in 
 iron." 
 
 Should the picture shown chance to represent some 
 occupation which the pupils had never seen, as Printing 
 or Lithography, the picture might be placed before the 
 class, and the pupils requested to tell what the}' can see 
 in it. In looking at the picture representing some of the 
 
18 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 operations of printing ^vllich are not understood by them, 
 the pupils might say, — 
 
 '' I can see four men and a bo}' in this picture.** 
 
 " The man on the right stands by something that looks 
 like thin drawers." 
 
 " I can see many little boxes in front of him. He is 
 reaching up with his right hand to take something from 
 one of these little boxes." 
 
 '' He holds something, of an oblong shape, in his left 
 hand." 
 
 " The boy stands on a box or bench behind a machine. 
 There are wheels and ropes near him, also something 
 that looks like many sheets of white paper." 
 
 " The man in the centre of the picture stands bj' a 
 table, and has a mallet and a stick in his hand. He is 
 pounding the end of the stick." 
 
 " There is something on the table, that looks like a 
 frame for holding small i)ieces together. Other frames 
 stand by the side of the table." 
 
 '' There is a large wheel, with a band on it, back of 
 this man by the table." 
 
 '' The man on the left, in the front of the picture, 
 stands by a machine with wheels. He holds a piece of 
 paper in his hands. I think he is printing." 
 
 Wlien the pupils have thus observed and pointed out 
 the principal objects represented in the picture, the teacher 
 ma}' proceed to tell what each object is, and its use ; also 
 what each person is represented as doing. Inasmuch as 
 this picture represents various stages of the work of print- 
 ing, the description given by the teacher should com- 
 mence with the first operation, and proceed in the order 
 of the work, somewhat as follows : — 
 
 1 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOR EACH GRADE. 19 
 
 " The man who stands at the right -end of the picture is 
 % compositor. In front of him are several cases of tyjoe. 
 The cases are like shallow drawers, arranged with small 
 compartments or boxes for holding the type. Each box 
 jontains but one kind of letter. All the a's are placed 
 iogetlier in one box ; all the b's in another box ; all the 
 j's in another, and so on. The case with small boxes 
 lolds the capital letters; and the one with the larger boxes, 
 ihe small, or loiver-case letters. The letters that are most 
 ised are placed in the largest boxes. 
 
 " The oblong piece of iron which the compositor holds 
 n his left hand is a composing-stick. The t3'pe, or letters, 
 .hat form the words to be printed, are placed in this stick, 
 side by side. When the compositor has set his stick full, 
 18 places the t3'pe, or matter, on a galley, which he puts 
 )n a case or table near him. _ Two galleys stand at one 
 md of the cases ; and one galley stands by the iron frame, 
 n* chase, which leans against the table. 
 
 " When the compositor has set enough matter to make 
 several imges, or a form, it is all placed on the imposing- 
 itone, which forms the top of the table ; here the foreman 
 trranges the pages, or tlie matter, into a form for print- 
 ng. To keep the type m i)lace, an iron frame called a 
 'Jiase is placed around the form. Along the sides of the 
 ype, or form, are placed straight strips of wood ; and^ 
 jetween these and the iron frame, ivedges of wood are 
 Iriven, to make the t3'pe fast in the chase. This work is 
 jailed locking up the form. The man who locks up the 
 brm uses a shooting-stick made of hard wood. He places 
 me end of this stick against a wedge, and pounds on the 
 )ther end with his mallet, to drive the wedges in firm. 
 
 '' To make the t3'pe level or even on the face of the 
 
20 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHTNG. 
 
 form, the man uses a smooth block of hard wood, which 
 he calls a planer. The smooth side of the planer is placed 
 on the face of the type, while the other side is gently 
 pounded with the mallet. 
 
 " When the form is made reads', the face of the t3'pe 
 is inked by passing over it a roller covered with printing- 
 ink. Clean paper, that has been made damp with water, 
 is placed u[)on the t3"pe, and evenlj' pressed down on it. 
 The impression thus taken is called the proof. The 
 proof is compared carefully with the copy used by the 
 compositor when the types were set up. One person 
 reads the coj)?/, while another looks carefully at the proof 
 to see if all the words are like those in the copj'. If any 
 mistakes are found in tlie proof, the}- are plainl}- marked 
 b}' the proof-reader on the margin of the page. When 
 the reading is finished, the proof is given to the composi- 
 tor, who unlocks the form, b}' loosening the wedges, and 
 then takes letters from liis case, and corrects the mistakes 
 which he made while setting up the cop}'. 
 
 " When the foi-m has been corrected b}' the compositor, 
 and revised or looked over by the foreman^ it is sent to 
 the press, where as many copies as are wanted are printed. 
 
 "The bo}' Avho stands back of the machinery is feeding 
 the press. The pile of white paper before him has been 
 wet-down., or dampened, so as to receive the ink readil}'. 
 The form has been placed on the x>ress, which is moved 
 b^' steam-power. One sheet of paper is moved down at 
 a time ; this is immediately carried b}- the machiner}' over 
 the/o7'?ri, and the types are pressed against it. Then the 
 printed sheet is carried forward ; and the t3-pe is again 
 inked b}' rollers, when another sheet is moved over the 
 form, and printed as before. 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOR EACH GRADE. 21 
 
 *' The frame of narrow bars, — Jly^ — which ma}' be seen 
 back of the large wheel, turns over the printed sheets, one 
 at a time, upon the board that ma}- be seen below it. 
 
 " The man at the back of the picture, on the left hand, 
 dips the white paper in a trough^ or box, of water, and then 
 puts it in a pile, that it may become evenly damp through- 
 out. 
 
 "The man in front, on the left, stands by a small 
 printing-press on which cards, circulars, tickets, &c., are 
 printed. 
 
 " A form of tj'pe, locked up in a chase, stands between 
 the small printing-press and the imposing-table. The man 
 behind the table is locking up a form to make it ready for 
 the press." 
 
 After the teacher has described the objects and the 
 work represented in a picture of a trade, which cannot be 
 seen personalh- by the pupils, the}^ ma}' be called upon 
 singly to point out these objects, and describe their use, 
 and the work represented, &c., as suitable exercises for 
 subsequent lessons upon the same trade. 
 
 Older pupils may be required to describe the picture, 
 the tools, the work, &c., in writing. 
 
 Third Grade. — In previous grades the pupils have 
 learned the names and uses of tools and materials, Avhat 
 articles are made, their uses, what each kind of work is 
 called. During the lessons of this grade, it is intended 
 that the pupils shall be led by questions to consider mat- 
 ters pertaining to trades and occupations, in a way that 
 will cause them to gain new ideas of the relations of the 
 work done, tools used, and articles made, to the affairs 
 of dailv life. These lessons should be so conducted as to 
 
22 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 draw from the children their own thoughts about the sub- 
 ject under consideration ; also so as to correct their mis- 
 taken notions in relation thereto, and to lead them tx) 
 understand that work is a means by which the necessaries 
 and comforts of life are supplied. These lessons will 
 increase the desire for seeking knowledge, will add to the 
 power of gaining it, and develop the pupils' ability* of 
 self-guidance in subsequent duties of life. 
 
 The following suggestions and questions will indicate 
 the mode of conducting the lessons in the Third Grade. 
 The teacher might place the picture of " The Carpenter'' 
 before the class, and write on the blackboard a statement, 
 thus : — 
 
 Carpenters hew, hore, mortise, smo, plane, join, hammer, bidld. 
 
 He ma}^ then proceed to ask the pui)ils successively 
 questions similar to the following, and follow each ques- 
 tion with such others as the answers given by the pupils 
 seem to indicate as necessary in order to obtain intelli- 
 gent answers to each of the several interrogations com- 
 mencing with. What? Why? When? 
 
 JMiat do carpenters hew f 
 
 Why do they hew ? 
 
 What tooh are used in hewing ? 
 
 What do carpenters hore ? 
 
 Why do they hore ? 
 
 What tools are used in boring? 
 
 What do carpenters mortise ? 
 
 Wlnj do they mortise ? 
 
 What tools are used in mortising? 
 
 Wliat do carpenters saw 9 
 
 Why do they saw ? 
 
 What do carpenters plane f 
 
 Wliy do they plane f 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOE EACH GRADE. 23 
 
 What tools are used in planing? 
 
 What do carpenters joiJi f 
 
 Why do tliey join ? 
 
 What tools are used in joining ? 
 
 What, wliy, and i67<e>-e.do carpenters hammer? 
 
 What do carpenters build ? 
 
 Why do they build f 
 
 When and where do they build f 
 
 Wliat do you call the men who build with loood ? those who 
 build with brick and stone f 
 
 What parts of the house does the carpenter build? 
 
 Can you name any other classes of workmen^ that aid in build- 
 ing houses ? What part of the work does each class do ? 
 
 Suppose the picture of the kitchen is placed before the 
 class for a lesson of the Third Grade : the teacher might 
 write on the blackboard the following : — 
 
 " Food is boiled, broiled, fried, roasted, stewed, baked, seasoned, 
 mixed, kneaded, chopped,''^ &c. 
 
 Or the following : — 
 
 " Work done in the kitchen is called boilinrf, broiling, stewing, 
 roasting, basting, frying, baking, steeping, kneading, rolling, mixing, 
 grating, chopping, beating, seasoning, washing, starching, sprinkling, 
 ironing, scrubbing,^' &c. 
 
 The teacher maj' then proceed to ask questions, similar 
 to these : — 
 
 What /oofi is boiled ? roasted? baked? 
 Why is it boiled ? roasted ? baked ? 
 How is it boiled ? roasted ? baked ? 
 What is mixing ? kneading ? rolling ? 
 What is mixed? kneaded? rolled? 
 How is it mixed? kneaded? rolled? 
 WJiy is it mixed? kneaded? rolled? 
 
 1 Masons, plasterers, painters, glaziers, tin-roofers, plumbers, bell-hangers, 
 
24 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 What is fry iuf/ f broiling f stewing f 
 
 IVliat is hiea? broiled? stewed? 
 
 IIow is it fried? broiled? stewed? 
 
 W/nj is it fried? broiled? stewed? 
 
 Wlien is broiling better than frying? 
 
 When is stewing better than roasting? 
 
 What is stec'inuii 9 hasting ? heating f 
 
 What is steeped ? basted ? beaten ? 
 
 IIow is it steeped ? basted ? beaten ? 
 
 Why is it steeped? basted? beaten? 
 
 fr/io does this work? 
 
 What is wat-hing f starching ? simnkling f ironing f 
 
 IIow is each done ? 
 
 W7/?/ is washing done? starching? sprinkling? ironing? fluting? 
 
 What is seasoning 1 grating ? chopping f 
 
 Why is food seasoned ? grated ? chopped ? 
 
 What is sweeping 1 scrubhing ? mopping 7 
 
 IIow is it done? 
 
 Bliy is it done? 
 
 What is dough ? yeast ? sponge ? 
 
 IIow is dongh made? yeast? sponge? 
 
 What is meant by " setting the sponge " f 
 
 What is batter ? sauce ? pudding ? 
 
 IIow is it made? 
 
 Wliy is it made ? 
 
 The teacher might write on the blackboard the names 
 of utensils used in the kitchen, and question the pupils 
 concerning them somewhat as follows : — 
 
 "Range, scuttle, kettle, saucepan, spider, dipper, pail, spoons, 
 rolling-pin, sink, boiler, table, coffee-pot, canister, dustpan, brush, 
 pitcher," &c. 
 
 When is a range used ? scuttle ? kettle, &c. ? 
 
 Wliy is a range used ? scuttle ? kettle ? pail, &c. ? 
 
 Fourth Grade. — The description of the trade or 
 occupation, which is given b}- the pupils of the fourth 
 grade, may be made more or less complete, according to 
 their age, and progress in observation and description. 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOR EACH GRADE. 25 
 
 The}' should be encouraged to make their descriptions 
 original, b}' each one telling what he or she has seen and 
 learned about the given occupation. 
 
 In no case should the teacher X)repare a description to be 
 learned and recited by the jyiqyils; nor shoidd the outline 
 statements given in this '•''Manual,'' as matters of infor- 
 mation for the teacher, be furnished the pux)ils to be mem- 
 orized. Such a course would defeat the great aim of 
 these lessons, viz., the individual training of each pupil 
 in habits of accurate observation and descripytion. Since 
 the object of using these illustrations of trades is to teach 
 children how to see and describe intelligently, and since 
 this end can be attained onl}* b}' actual exercise of their 
 own powers of seeing and telling, these lessons should be 
 so conducted tln'oughout each and all of the grades as 
 to require the pupils to make the observations, and give 
 original descriptions. 
 
 The following descriptive lessons of the tailor and of 
 the tinsmith will serve to illustrate exercises appropriate 
 for the Fourth Grade, or the advanced lessons : — 
 
 '' This picture represents two rooms of a merchant- 
 tailor, — the store and the ivorJcroom. In the back part 
 of the picture may be seen the store, where the tailor is 
 taking a man's measure for a new coat. On the counter, 
 back of these two men, are pieces of cloth. On the 
 shelves beyond, are boxes of buttons and other trimmings 
 for coats, vests, tind jxintaloons. 
 
 '' The front portion of the picture represents the shop, 
 or workroom. At the left side of this room may be seen 
 the cutter, with a pair of shears, a square, a stick, a tape- 
 measure, and a piece of cloth, on the table, or counter. 
 With a piece of chalk, or talc, he has marked lines on the 
 cloth, to show where to cut out the garment. 
 
26 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACniNG, 
 
 '* At the right end of the picture is a low table, or 
 tailor's board, on \Yhich two tailors sit and sew. One of 
 these men is seivuig, the other is threaduiy his needle. 
 In front of this table is a woman using a se winy 'machine. 
 A-t the left of this woman is a young man pressiiig the 
 seams of a garment with a goose. Before pi'essing, he 
 makes tlie seams damp with a sponge dipped in water. 
 Back of him, in the centre of the room, is a stove for 
 heati)uj the goose. On the right side of the stove is a 
 20ver to put on the stove over the irons, wiiile heating 
 them. On the left side of the stove stands a coal-scuttle, 
 filled with coal. Back of the tailors hang some of the 
 finished garments, — a coat, vests, and pantaloons. 
 
 '' Besides the articles already- mentioned, tailors also use 
 thimbles, scissors, needles, press-board, holder, sponge, 
 beeswax, thread, silk, twist, buttons, patterns, &c. 
 
 '* Formerly' all sewing was done by hand. Now sew- 
 ing-machines are chiefly used for this pur[)Ose. By this 
 means much time and expense are saved in making cloth- 
 ing." 
 
 " This picture represents tinsmiths at work in a shop, 
 also a stove-store, where stoves and tinware are sold. 
 
 *' Along one side of the shop is a ivork-bench with the 
 tools used in working with tin and sheet-iron. At one 
 end of the work-bench is a vise. At the corner, near the 
 vise, a j7«/r of shears, used for cutting tin and sheet-iron, 
 lean against the bench. 
 
 "On the bench stands a small, stoA'e-like furnace, for 
 heating the soldering-iron. The man holds a small tin 
 pipe in his left hand, and a hot soldering-iron in his right 
 hand. He is soldering the edges of the tin together. In 
 front of this workman are small shears, pincers, also 
 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOR EACH GRADE. 27 
 
 iroDS on which the tin is placed to bend it into the desired 
 shape. 
 
 " The other workman has made some joints of stove- 
 pipe, and now is making a square pan of sheet-iron. His 
 hammer has a curved face on each end. Tlie machine 
 at his right hand is for bending the edges of tlie pan so 
 as to make them stiff and smooth. To make the edges 
 of tin pans and tin pails stronger, a wire is put around 
 under the bent edges. 
 
 " On the floor, back of these workmen, are several 
 things which they have made of tin and sheet-iron. 
 Among them ma}' be seen a tin pan, a wash-boiler, a 
 dipper, a watering-pot, two sheet-iron pans, and stove- 
 pipe. 
 
 " In the back part of the right end of the picture, may 
 be seen the salesroom, with stoves, tinware, bird-cages, 
 lanterns, &c. A man is showing a cooking-stove to a 
 lady. Parlor-stoves may be seen back of the ladj'. 
 
 " Tin is a whitish metal, somewhat resembling silver. 
 It is harder than lead, and softer than silver. It is ob- 
 tained from tin-ore, which is found in the earth. Most 
 of the tin nsed is procured from the tin-mines in England. 
 That which is commonl}' called tin, from which tin cups, 
 pails, and pans are made, is manufactured from ver}- thin 
 sheet-iron, b}' dipping the sheets in melted tin three or 
 four times. Tinware will not rust while the iron is cov- 
 ered with a coat of tin." 
 
 Other successful modes of using these pictures for 
 giving instruction relative to trades and occupations may 
 be devised b}' skilful teachers, which will prove interest- 
 ing and practical. That which is chiefly important, in 
 
28 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 giving these lessons, is to provide exercises which shall 
 cause the pupils to see for themselves, and to learn the 
 important facts relative to those trades by their own 
 observation and experience, under a proper guidance of 
 the teacher. 
 
 Whenever the pupils are able to represent, even bj- the 
 most simple drawings, the tools and other objects which 
 they see while examining the operations of an}' trade, and 
 will make such illustrations to accompan}- their descrip- 
 tions in the exercises of the Fourth Grade, it will mate- 
 rially increase the value of these lessons. 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 PERTAINING TO THE 
 
 TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS 
 
 REPRESENTED IN 
 
 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT TEACHING. 
 
 FOE TEACHERS. 
 
INFOEIATION EELATIVE TO TRADES 
 
 AND OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 The information given in tlie following pages, relative 
 to Trades and Occupations^ is intended to save teachers 
 the time that would be spent, and the trouble that might 
 be experienced, were each one left to make personal in- 
 vestigations, to gather the facts needed at the commence- 
 ment of these lessons, in order to conduct them so as to 
 make the exercises interesting and practical. It is not 
 designed, however, to supply all the information that 
 might be useful in giving the lessons, but to furnish such 
 matter as will serve to guide the teacher at the outset, and 
 also to add other facts not easil}' obtained. 
 
 In previous pages directions have been given for con- 
 ducting lessons on Trades and Occupations ; but the 
 methods should not be limited to those there described. 
 Other profita,ble exercises could be introduced, especially 
 for the Second Grade of lessons, b}' writing on the black- 
 board the names onl}' of the tools, nnd other objects repre- 
 sented in the picture of a trade, and requiring the pupils 
 to point them out in that picture. For other exercises, 
 write on the blackboard the names of the different kinds 
 
 .31 
 
32 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 of work performed, and proceed in a manner similar to 
 tliat with the tools. 
 
 To require the pupils to spell the principal words re- 
 lating to a trade will malce a valuable exercise ; because 
 it intimately associates the form of the word with the 
 objects represented. 
 
 The success of teachers, in giving these lessons so as 
 to produce the best results in education, depends so much 
 upon tlie manner of conducting the lessons, that it seems 
 desirable to reiterate the importance of careful attention 
 to this matter, and to entreat teachers to remember that 
 the aims of these lessons cannot be attained b}' commu- 
 nicating to the pupils the information relative to the trades 
 as so many fiicts to be learned b}' them. Valuable as 
 this information might prove to be to many pupils, the 
 discipline of their powers of observation, and the impor- 
 tant habits which may be formed b\' conducting the les- 
 sons as tlicy are designed to be given, will be tenfold 
 more valuable to them. 
 
 Aim to present each lesson so as to train the pupils 
 how to see, to do, and to tell, that which ^'ou awaken in 
 them a desire to see, to do, and to tell. 
 
 Tiie statements made here of the materials and tools 
 used, of the kinds of work performed, and the articles 
 made b}- a given trade, will not be limited to the objects 
 represented in the respective pictures. It is believed, 
 however, that all the facts given herein will be found 
 useful in some of the grades of the instruction. 
 
CAHPENTER. 
 
 The principal designs of this picture are to represent 
 different kinds of labor performed, and materials and 
 tools used, by the common carpenter in building frame- 
 houses. 
 
 The materials used for building frame houses and barns 
 arc, — timber for beams, sills, posts, plates, rafters, gir- 
 ders, joists, braces, studs, scaffold, plank, boards, siding 
 or clapboards, shingles, lath, &c. 
 
 Tools used for cutting: axe, adze, saw, chisels, gouges, 
 shaving-knife, broad-axe, hatchet, spoke-shave. 
 
 Tools used for boring: augers, gimlets, bits and brace, 
 brad-awl. 
 
 Tools used for pounding and splitting: hammer, mal- 
 let, beetle, sledge-hammer, wedge, crowbar. 
 
 Tools used for measuring and marking: rule, square, 
 bevel, scratch-awl, gauge, compasses, chalk-line, level, 
 plumb-line. 
 
 33 
 
34 PliANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 Tools used for smoothing: planes, scraper, rasp, file, 
 sand-paper. 
 
 Tools used for holding : vise, pincers, pliers, wedges, 
 bolts, screws, bench-hooks, clamps. 
 
 Kinds ofiDorlc: hewing, sawing, splitting, mortising, 
 tenoning, boring, notching, pinning, planing, v/edging, 
 grooving, matching, bevelling, mitering, joining, scarfing, 
 dove - tailing, furring, bracketing, sheathing, siding, 
 shingling, framing, scribing. 
 
 Parts of a frame-building : sills, posts, beams, braces, 
 girders, studs, plates, rafters, tri-beams, brackets, joists, 
 door-frame, window-frame, scaffold, foundation, &c. 
 
 Parts of a finished building: sides, ends, walls, parti- 
 tions, roof, eaves, doors, windows, shutters, door-sill, 
 window-sill, balcony-, flooi's, steps, stairs, railing, ceiling, 
 cornice, frieze, moulding, panel, column, base, cap. 
 
 Booms of a, house: cellar, kitchen, pantry, store-room, 
 laundry, dining-room, reception-room, sitting-room, par- 
 lor, library, hall, vestibule, closets, bedroom, bath-room, 
 chamber, attic, garret, woodhouse, &c. 
 
 Parts of a barn: floor, stable, granarj-, baj-, loft, doors, 
 stalls, bins. 
 
 The work represented in the picture of the Carpenter 
 is : boring, mortising, sawing, siding, nailing, clap- 
 boarding, shingling, roofing, &c. 
 
CARPENTER. 35 
 
 The tools and materials represented are : a broad-axe^ 
 for hewing ; an auger-machine, for boring ; a chisel and 
 mallet, for mortising ; saivs, for sawing ; a bench or saw- 
 horse, for holding the boards while sawing them ; a ham- 
 mer, for driving nails ; a scaffold, to stand upon while 
 at work on the higher parts of the building ; shingles, for 
 the roof; and lumber, of various kinds and dimensions, 
 for 2)0 sts, sills, beams, plcctes, braces, joists, studs, rafters, 
 &c., all of which are parts of the frame of a house. In 
 the unfinished houses represented in the picture, there 
 ma}' also be seen the frames and casings for the doors 
 and windows, the rough boards which are nailed to the 
 studding, and the clcqoboards with which wooden houses 
 are finished on the outside. 
 
 Wliat do carpenters produce? 
 How do they procure food ? 
 How do they obtain clothing? 
 
 What is meant by hewing? mortising? scarfing? mitering? 
 matcliing? bevelling? sheathing? lathing? framing? furring? 
 dove-tailing ? scribing, &c. ? 
 
 The foregoing and similar questions may be asked to 
 induce the pupils to seek information from carpenters, or 
 elsewhere, relative to the various operations of this trade. 
 Of course teachers should use judgment in this matter, 
 and not require the pupils to give minute details in their 
 answers. 
 
 Teachers should not prepare the answers to the questions, 
 and teach them to their pt^'P Us. The chief value of these 
 lessons consists in that which it causes pupils to learn for 
 themselves. 
 
SHOEMAKER. 
 
 The design of this picture is to represent the trade of 
 the Shoemaker. It shows the interior of his shop, and 
 of the sales-room, or shoe-store. 
 
 3faterials used by the Shoemaker: various kinds of 
 leather, as sole-leather, upper-leather, calf-skin, goat- 
 skin, morocco, patent-leather, kip-skin, cow-hide, sheep- 
 skin, lining, pegs, nails, tacks, shoe-thread, hog's-bristles, 
 wax, paste, tallow, sand-paper, blacking, eyelets, whet- 
 stone, soapstone. 
 
 Tools used : Shoe-knives^ for cutting leather ; straight, 
 or perjglnfj-awls^ for punching holes for pegs and nails ; 
 curved, or sevnng aiuls^ for punching holes for the waxed 
 shoe-thread when sewing ; lasting-aivl, a sewing awl with 
 an eye near the point for carrying a thread through the 
 leather as the hole is made ; last, a foot-shaped block of 
 wood placed inside of a shoe or boot to give the desired 
 size and shape to the foot of the shoe or boot ; lasting- 
 pincers, a tool used for stretching the leather tightly 
 around the last, &c. ; tack, a kind of nail for holding the 
 leather in place while pegging or sewing it ; shoe-hammer^ 
 
 8G 
 
SHOEMAKER. 37 
 
 a kind of hammer for pounding sole-leather to make it 
 solid, also for driving in the pegging-awl, and pegs and 
 nails ; lap-stone^ a flat, smooth stone or iron on which the 
 leather is placed while hammering it; sewbuj-damp^ is 
 used to hold pieces of leather together while sewing or 
 stitching them ; strap^ used to hold the shoe or boot 
 firmly on the knee while making it ; float ^ a tool having 
 a serrated, or rasp-like face, and a long handle, used for 
 cutting off the ends of pegs inside the shoe or boot; 
 hoot-tree., used to give a pro[)er shape to the leg and 
 instep of the boot after the last is removed ; crimp, or 
 crimj)ing- machine, an instrument made of hard -wood 
 board, on which the upper leather for a boot is stretched 
 to give it shape at the ankle and instep. 
 
 Kinds oftvorlc done by the shoemaker : measuring, cut- 
 ting, crimping, soaking, sewing, pasting, welting, stitch- 
 ing, fitting, lasting, pegging, nailing, treeing, trimming, 
 polishing, blacking, scraping, footing, tapping, capping, 
 half-soling, foxing, mending. 
 
 Parts of a Shoe : uppers (vamp and quarters) , soles, 
 shank, heel, lifts of the heel, toe, ball of the sole, insole, 
 tongue, lining, shoe-string, stitching, pegging. 
 
 Parts of a Boot: leg, front or vamp, straps, counter, 
 welt, side-seam, lining, stitching, shank, instep, insole, 
 heel, toe, lifts of heel. 
 
 Kinds of leather, from what made : Calf-skin, from the 
 skin of calves not more than five or six months old ; kip- 
 leather, from the skins of 3'oung cattle older than calves ; 
 
38 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACniNG. 
 
 sole-leather^ from the thick parts of the skin of the ox and 
 the cow ; coiu-hide^ is a thick leather for coarse boots and 
 shoes, made fiom thin skins of young cows ; genuine mo- 
 rocco is made from the skins of goats ; the skins of kids, 
 killed when too young to eat grass, are tanned or dressed, 
 for /i/(Z-gloves ; sheepskin is sometimes dressed to imitate 
 morocco, but it makes a soft, spongy, and weak leather ; 
 patent-leather^ a fine leather covered with a kind of japan, 
 which gives it a permanent polish. 
 
 Kinds of shoes, boots, &c. : Heav}' boots ; patent-leather 
 boots ; Congress boots ; laced boots ; gaiters ; Oxford- 
 ties ; shoes ; slippers, &c. 
 
 Shoemakers cut, fit, sew, stitch, last, peg, welt, tap, 
 foot, mend, &c. 
 
 Wliat do shoemakers cut ? sew ? peg, &c. ? 
 Why do they stitch? peg? last? welt? 
 What tools are utied to cut? sew? peg? last? stitch? &c. 
 When do shoemakers sew, and when do they perj ? ^VJien do 
 they mend, and when do they make f 
 Where are loelts used ? Why ? 
 When, where, and lohy, are nails used? 
 Why does the shoemaker use wax ? 
 Why does he hammer the leather ? 
 What do shoemakers produce? 
 How do they procure food and clothing ? 
 Where do they get leather? 
 How is leather made? 
 
 Point out and name the parts of a shoe ; of a boot. 
 What kind of shoe, or boot, do you wear ? 
 What kinds of leather are your shoes made of? 
 Are your shoes pegged, or sewed? 
 Why are nails put in the heels ? 
 
TAILOR. 
 
 This picture of the tailor is intended to represent the 
 ** merchant tiiilor" in his store^ and the kinds of work 
 performed in his shop. 
 
 For a description of this picture sec pp. 25, 2G. 
 
 Materials used by tailors : cloth of different kinds, as 
 beaver, cassimere, doeskin, broadcloth, satinet, melton, 
 tweed, flannel, velvet, corduro}', duck, marseilles, satin, 
 silk, serge, silesia, hair-cloth, wadding, padding, canvas ; 
 thread, silk, twist, buttons, braid, cord, wax, chalk, 
 emer}', &c. 
 
 Tools 'used by tailors : tape-measure, 3'ard-stick, square, 
 shears, scissors, needles, thimble, sewing-machine, press- 
 board, goose, holder, sponge, patterns. 
 
 Kinds of luork done by tailors: measuring, marking, 
 cutting, sponging, basting, sewing, stitching, working 
 button-holes, binding, cording, pressing. 
 
 Garments made: coats, vests, waistcoats, pantaloons, 
 trousers, breeches, overcoats, sacks, jackets, cloaks, 
 frock-coats, surtouts, dress-coats, &c. 
 
40 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 Tailors measure, cut, sponge, baste, sew, stitch, bind, 
 press. 
 
 Kinds of jStitch. — When sewing on different parts of 
 garments, the tailor makes his stitches in different forms, 
 as back-stitch, side-stitch, cross-stitch, basting-stitch, 
 herring-stitch, button-hole stitch, overcasting, &c. 
 
 What do tailors measure? cut? sponge? baste? sew? stitch? 
 press ? 
 
 Why do they measure? sponge? press, &c. ? 
 How do they measure ? cut ? sponge ? 
 WJien do they baste ? bind ? 
 
 Tailors produce or make clothing: how do they obtain food? 
 Who makes the cloth which tailors use ? 
 
BLACKSMITH. 
 
 This picture is designed to represent the interior of a 
 blacksmith's shop, and to show the different stages of 
 horse-shoeins:. 
 
 ■o' 
 
 Materials used by the blacksmith : iron and steel in the 
 form of bars, rods, &c. ; charcoal, bituminous coal, 
 anthracite coal, coke, sand, borax, salt, water. 
 
 Tools used: bellows, anvil, tongs, hammers, sledge- 
 hammers, chisels, swage, punches, rasp, file, vise, pin- 
 cers, drill, roller, bench, box, knife, butteris, clincher. 
 
 Kinds of tvorJc done : blowing, striking, forging, beat- 
 ing, welding, swaging or cutting, punching, drilling, roll- 
 ing, filing, tempering, annealing, shoeing, setting tires, 
 &c. 
 
 Articles made: horse-shoes, nails, braces, bolts, nuts, 
 screws, tires, hoes, shovels, hammers, hooks, chains, and 
 other tools and utensils which are made of ii'on or steel. 
 
 A forge is the furnace and shop where the blacksmith 
 
 41 
 
42 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 works. It lias a small, open fireplace, or hearth, about 
 three feet above the floor. 
 
 The fuel used may consist of charcoal, coke, bituminous 
 coal, or anthracite coal. 
 
 The bellows is an instrument for forcing air into the fire 
 to make it ver}- hot. Tiie bellows is made of two simi- 
 lar plates of wood or wide board, tapering toward one 
 end. These are connected at the edges by sheets of 
 Icatlier so as to form a chamber for air. As these two 
 boards are made to approach each other, the leather at 
 the sides folds ; and the air is forced out through a tube or 
 pipe fixed in the small end, and leading to the fire. The 
 bellows is usuall}' worked with one hand by pulling down 
 the arm of the lever, while the smith attends to the fire 
 and tlie heated iron with the other. 
 
 Sometimes the smith dips a broom into the trough of 
 water which usually stands by the side of the hearth, and 
 sprinkles the fire, to check the combustion of the coal on 
 the surface. 
 
 The anvil is an iron block, with a smooth, hard face on 
 the top. This is usually placed on the end of a block of 
 wood, which is fastened to the floor or to the ground. 
 At one end of the anvil is a horn, or cone-shaped arm. 
 Near one edge is a square hole, in which are set chisel- 
 shaped tools for cutting the hot iron. 
 
 The smith holds the hot iron on the anvil, with a pair 
 of tongs in his left hand, while he pounds it with a ham- 
 mer held in his right hand. If the iron needs much 
 pounding, an assistant, who is usuall}- the one that works 
 the bellows, takes a sledge-hammer, and strikes the iron 
 alternately with the smith, who moves and turus it on the 
 anvil so that the blows ma}' give it the desired shape. 
 
BLACKSMITH. 43 
 
 When the smith desires the striker to commence using the 
 sledge-hammer, or to stop striking, he taps the anvil with 
 his hammer. The striker understands the signal, and acts 
 accordingly-. 
 
 The person who blows and strikes is frequently called 
 the '' bloiuer and striker," because he does both kinds of 
 work. 
 
 Punches are used for making holes through the iron 
 when it is softened by heat. 
 
 Chisels (wedge-like in shape) are used for cutting the 
 iron ; 
 
 Tongs, for holding, turning, and carrying the hot iron ; 
 
 Vise, for holding the iron firmly while shaping or filing it. 
 
 Rasj), a coarse file for finishing articles made of iron. 
 
 Bench, the table-like shelf at one side of the shop, 
 where the blacksmith keeps his small tools, and on which 
 the iron vise is fastened. 
 
 Drill, an instrument for boring or drilling holes in hard 
 or cold iron. 
 
 Boiler, a machine used for the purpose of bending iron 
 for tires, &c. 
 
 Shoeing a horse : nailing an iron shoe on the hoof of 
 the horse, to prevent the hoof from wearing away or 
 splitting. See pp. 16, 17. 
 
 Blacksmiths heat, forge, weld, blow, strike, temper. 
 
 IVJiat do they heat? forge? weld? 
 \^lvj do they heat ? forge ? weld ?' 
 What does the blacksmith produce? 
 How does he procure food and clothing? 
 
LITHOGRAPHER. 
 
 [The information concerning lithography is inserted at 
 this phice, because the picture representing a lithographer 
 at work follows the blacksmith in the order of the num- 
 bers inadvertentl}' given to the pictures. It will be better, 
 howcA'er, to defer the lessons on lithograph}' until the 
 pupils have become familiar with the printer. The 
 teacher will then have an opportunity for comparing the 
 different kinds of printing. The comparison will help 
 the pupils to a better understanding of this subject.] 
 
 All printing which is done on printing-presses may be 
 classed under three heads, viz., — 
 
 First. Printing from lines raised above the surface. 
 
 Second. Printing from lines sunk beloiv the surface. 
 
 Third. Printing from perfectlj^/Za^ surfaces. 
 
 Any ordinar}' book, newspaper, or impression from a 
 wood-cut may be used to illustrate the first kind of print- 
 ing. Any steel-plate or copper-plate engraving (as a 
 bank-bill) furnishes an example of the second kind of 
 printing. The plates representing these " Trades and 
 Occupations " are specimens of the third kind of printing, 
 or of lithographic printing. 
 44 
 
LITHOGUAPHER. 45 
 
 It is easy to understand the method of the first kind. 
 The lines, or faces, of the tA'pes being raised above the 
 surface, they alone can receive ink as the roller passes 
 over them. When the paper is pressed down upon the 
 raised lines, or types, after they have been inked, the 
 ink adheres to the paper, and thus makes the impression 
 which is called print, as seen in books, newspapers, &c. 
 
 In copper-plate or steel-plate printing, the ink is 
 worked or pressed into the incised lines ; the smooth 
 surface is then cleaned, care being taken not to wipe, the 
 ink out of the lines. The sheet of paper, which is then 
 laid on the metal plate, is pressed into the lines where it 
 comes in contact with the ink, which adheres to the paper, 
 and thus produces an impression on the paper. 
 
 In lithography^ however, the printing is done from a 
 perfectly smooth surface. It is evident, therefore, that 
 this kind of printing cannot be a purel}- mechanical 
 process, as with the other two kinds. It is in fact, to 
 some extent, a chemical process. 
 
 Lithography literall}' means stone-ivriting. All litho- 
 graphs are made on stones of a particular kind, the main 
 constituent of which is a carbonate of lime. This stone 
 is obtained chiefly from quarries in Bavaria, Europe. In 
 our country it is sold b}' the pound ; and the price in- 
 creases rapidl}' with the size of the stone, var3ing from 
 five to twenty-five cents per pound. 
 
 The first operation to be performed is the grinding of 
 the stone, so as to give it an even surface. This is done 
 by rubbing two stones against each other, with fine sand 
 and water between them. The man at the left of the 
 picture is represented as grinding stones. He is called a 
 stone-grinder. The table or bench on which he works is 
 
46 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 called a grinding-trough. It has a receptacle for the 
 water used. The pail placed below this trough is for 
 the purpose of receiving the water when it is drawn off. 
 
 Wlicn the stone is properly ground, it is given to the 
 lithographic draughtsman, who makes a drawing, or design, 
 on it, and who is seen sitting at one of the windows in the 
 picture. The draughtsman has before him the original of 
 the design, which ho is to reproduce on tlie stone. In 
 making his cop}*, the designer must reverse the original ; 
 i.e., what is at the right in the picture must be at the 
 left on the stone, and vice versa : otherwise the printed 
 picture would be reversed. 
 
 The lithograjjhic artist executes his drawings on the 
 stone with lithographic crayons or lithographic ink. Both 
 of these materials contain fat, lampblack, luax, and soap. 
 When this crayon or ink is used, the fat is absorbed by 
 the stone. And when the drawing is finished, the stone 
 is passed through several chemical processes, for the pur- 
 pose of fixing the fat in it. The principal of these pro- 
 cesses is called etching. Toward the right of the picture 
 the stone is seen lying on the etching-trough. Near it 
 stands a pot containing a solution of nitric acid in water, 
 which is used for etching. On the pot lies the etching- 
 brush, which is used for spreading the acid over the stone. 
 
 After the stone has been properly prepared for printing, 
 parts of its flat surface differ from the other parts in their 
 nature, namely : that part of the stone which shows the 
 drawing, and contains the fat (now fixed in it by means 
 of the etching process), and that part which shows no 
 drawing, and contains no fat. These two parts act dif- 
 ferently towards water ; and in this lies the 2)ossibility of 
 printing from a fiat stone. If the prepared stone is wet 
 
LITHOGRAPHER, 47 
 
 with water, the water will stand evenly on that part of the 
 stone which contains no drawing ; while the drawing itself, 
 being fatty, will shed the water. Now, if this wet stone 
 is rolled np with ink, the ink will adhere to the drawing, 
 while the wet part of the stone will refuse to take it. 
 The stone is now ready for printing. 
 
 In this picture, two kinds of lithographic presses are 
 represented. The press in the middle-ground is a litho- 
 graphic hand-press; while that in the back-ground is a 
 lithographic povjer-press, or steam-press. The printer at 
 the hand-press is represented in the act of " rolling up " 
 his stone. Every time before he rolls up the stone, he 
 goes over it with a wet sponge before he inks it. 
 
 At the left of the printer is seen the color-slab, — a 
 piece of marble or other stone on which the printer 
 spreads the ink with which to ink the stone. The bottles, 
 cups, &c., on and under the table contain turpentine, 
 acids, water, &c., which are needed to clean and wash 
 the stone. At the left of the printer, on the press, is the 
 paper on which the impressions are to be printed. Litho- 
 graphic presses are different from ordinary printing- 
 presses. The stone moves on a bed, which runs on rollers 
 turned by a crank. The stone on the bed, after a sheet 
 of paper has been placed on it, passes under the scraj^er, 
 — a thin, sharp piece of hard wood, — which presses the 
 paper down upon the stone, and thus produces the im- 
 pression. The scraper is secured in an iron frame, which 
 can be moved up and down by means of the screw shown 
 in the picture of the press ; and thus it can be adjusted to 
 the varying thickness of the stone used. 
 
 A stone from which a sufficient number of impressions 
 has been taken can be ground off; that is to say, the 
 
48 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT TEACHING. 
 
 drawing upon it can be ground away, and the stone can 
 then be used again, like a new stone. The stone which 
 is leaning against the etching-trough in the picture is 
 placed there because it is destined to be ground off. 
 
 Lithography comprises all kinds of writing or drawing 
 on, and printing from stone. Chromo-Uthography means 
 color stone-icrlting ; and the word is therefore restricted to 
 the designation of lithographs executed in color. To do 
 this, the various colors must be printed from separate 
 stones. In the production of fine chromo-lithographs, or 
 chromos as the}' are called b}' an abbreviation, forty and 
 even more impressions are sometimes necessary for a 
 single picture. 
 
 The artist in our illustration is represented as being at 
 work upon a chromo. Before him, immediatel}- above 
 the stone on which he is making his drawing, is placed 
 the original. Above the original is hung up a copy of 
 the unfinished chromo. This unfinished impression the 
 artist must also have before him, to guide him in the 
 further prosecution of his task. 
 
 Materials and tools used. — Lithographic stone, litho- 
 graphic crayon, lithographic pen, lithographic ink, litho- 
 graphic inking-roller, paper, varnish, etching-brush, etch- 
 ing-trough, sponge, acid, wax, fat, lampblack, soap, 
 turpentine, water, color-slab, sand, grinding-trough, &c. 
 The principal parts of the lithographic hand-press are 
 the bed, the rollers, the crank, the scraper. 
 
 When is each used? Why is it used? What is the 
 person called who grinds the stones, who makes the litho- 
 graphic drawings, who works at the press? 
 
THE KITCHEN. 
 
 This picture is intended to represent a modern kitchen, 
 with utensils for cooking, &c. 
 
 Materials and Utensils used. — For fuel: wood, 
 charcoal, coke, soft or bituminous coal, hard or anthracite 
 coal. For food: beef, veal, pork, ham, lamb, mutton, 
 tongue, tripe, sausage, liver, venison, turke}', chicken, 
 fish, eggs, potatoes, peas, beans, carrots, turnips, onion, 
 squash, pumpkin, cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, toma- 
 toes, asparagus, egg-plant, corn, flour, meal, t&c. 
 
 Utensils: shovel, tongs, poker, grate, stove, griddle, 
 oven, range, boiler, pot, tea-kettle, teapot, saucepan, 
 spider, gridiron, ladle, pail, coal-scuttle, dipper, bucket, 
 pan, bowl, broiler, coffee-mill, cup, mug, plate, broom, 
 bellows, &c. 
 
 Work done. — Kindling fire, boiling, broiling, stewing, 
 ftying, roasting, toasting, steaming, baking, pickling, pre- 
 serving, canning, paring, peeling, sweeping, scrubbing, 
 scouring, mopping, &c. 
 
 Other objects seen in kitchen : clock, hot-water-boiler, 
 
 49 
 
50 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 faucet, range-lids, lid-lifter, dustpan, brush, knife, fork- 
 tray, table, chair, bench, basket, apples, rolling-pin, cup, 
 board, towel, &c. 
 
 Require the pupils to tell as much as possible about the 
 work done in the kitchen, the materials and utensils used. 
 
 See pp. 13, 23, 24. 
 
GARDENING. 
 
 This picture is intended to represent a flower and fruit 
 garden. 
 
 Objects represented: wheelbarrow, spade, rake, water- 
 ing-pot, a line ; a man cutting the edge of the grass-plat ; 
 one man is planting flowers ; another is cutting the grass 
 with a lawn-mower ; one is hoeing among the flowers ; the 
 man on the ladder is picking fruit ; in the tub stands an 
 orange-tree ; in the back part of the picture on the right 
 is a greenhouse. 
 
 Tools used in gardening: spade, shovel, hoe, rake, 
 trowel, weeder, wheelbarrow, ladder, roller, sickle, lawn- 
 mower, shears, knife, sieve, watering-pot, sj-ringe, pin- 
 cers, roller. 
 
 Farts of a garden: walks, grass-plat, beds, borders, 
 hedges, trellis, arbor, greenhouse, fountain. 
 
 Wbi'k performed in a garden : spading, ploughing, gi-ad- 
 ing, raking, planting, sowing, weeding, watering, rolling, 
 training vines, &c. 
 
 61 
 
62 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 Vegetable gardens contain: beets, carrots, radishes, 
 turnips, cabbage, cauliflower, beans, peas, cucumbers, 
 melons, squashes, tomatoes, potatoes, parsnip, corn, 
 asparagus, lettuce, onions, &c. 
 
 Fruit gardens and orchards contain : apples, peaches, 
 pears, plums, quinces, apricots, strawberries, raspberries, 
 blackberries, gooseberries, currants, grape-vines, &c. 
 
 Nursery : the place where young trees are raised. 
 
 Orchard: the place where fruit-trees grow. 
 
 Vineyard : the place where grapes are raised. 
 
 Hot-house or greenhouse : the place w^here plants, flow- 
 ers, &c., are kept in winter, or are started in the spring, 
 before the season for making the garden. 
 
THE FAHM-YARD. 
 
 This picture is intended to represent a farm-3'ard, with 
 a barn for stabling liorses and cows. In tlie front of the 
 barn the farmer is feeding his poultr}^, which consists of 
 turke3's, hens, chickens, ducks, and doves. B3' the side 
 of the barn, on the riglit, is a pen for hogs. At tlie other 
 side of the barn, on the left, is a field, or pasture, for the 
 cows. 
 
 A horse and two cows may be seen in the barn. A load 
 of ha}' has been drav/n into the barn, and a man is pitch- 
 ing it into the ha3'loft. The farmer's watch-dog lies in the 
 door of the barn, and will not allow the hens, ducks, or 
 turkey's to go into the barn. In the distance, on the left, 
 ma}' be seen a church. The vane above the cupola on 
 the barn is so made that it will keep the head of the horse 
 toward the wind, and thus show which way the wind 
 blows. 
 
 Wliat is the shape of this vane? 
 
 You may count the ducks, and tell me how many there are. 
 How many hens are there in this yard ? 
 How many turkeys? 
 How many doves can you see? 
 
 Can you tell how many cows are represented in this picture, 
 and point them out? 
 
54 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 How many hogs are there in the pen? 
 
 How many persons can you see in this picture? 
 
 You may tell what each person is doing. 
 
 Where are cows kept in summer? 
 
 Wliere are cows and horses kept in winter ? 
 
 What do cows eat in summer? 
 
 Wliat do cows and horses eat in winter? 
 
 Why is hay put in the barn in summer ? 
 
HAYMAKING. 
 
 You may tell what you have seen in a farm-yard, also 
 what you have seen in a barn. 
 
 This picture is intended to represent the tools used and 
 the work of haymaking. 
 
 Near the right-hafiid side of the picture is a mower ^ — 
 a machine for cutting grass, which is drawn by horses. 
 One of the men in the foreground has a scythe^ with which 
 grass is mown by hand. Grass can be cut much faster 
 with a mowing-machine than by the scythe. As the grass 
 is cut, it falls in rows called siuaths. In order that the 
 grass ma}' dry readily, so as to make good hay, the swaths 
 are spread over the ground. 
 
 When the grass is dry, the hay is raked into long heaps 
 or rows called windrows (win'rows). The windrows are 
 rolled up and made into piles of a conical shape, called 
 haycoclts^ and allowed to stand a day or two in order that 
 the hay may become thoroughly cicred, so that it will not 
 mould or become musty after it is put into the barn. 
 
 At the left-hand side of the picture is a liorse hay-rake. 
 This is drawn by one horse, and is used for raking hay 
 into windrows. One of the men in the front of the picture 
 has a hand hay-rake and a pitchfork on his shoulder. 
 
 55 
 
66 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 In the back part of the picture, on the left, may be 
 seen the operation of gathering a load of ha}', to be drawn 
 into the barn. One man pitches the ha}', from the ha}'- 
 cocks, upon the wagon. The man on the wagon places 
 each forkful of ha}' in a good position for building up the 
 load, and also drives the horses when the wagon is to be 
 moved near other bunches of ha}- ; and, when the load is 
 finished, he drives to the barn where the ha}' is to be un- 
 loaded. 
 
 When the windrows are piled up into haycocks, also 
 when the hay is loaded to be drawn into the barn, a man 
 or a boy rakes up all the loose hay which is scattered. 
 Two of the men, at work beyond the grass which has not 
 been mown, are using rakes, and one has a pitchfork. 
 On three of the haycocks may be seen blankets, made of 
 cotton cloth, to protect the hay from becoming soaked and 
 spoiled by rain before it is sufficiently cured to be drawn 
 into the barn. 
 
 What other objects may be seen in this picture ? 
 
 What is the place called where grass is cut and made into hay? 
 
 Wliat is a pasture ? 
 
 What is meant by grazing f 
 
 Implements used in haymaking : mower, scythe, pitch- 
 fork, rake, horse hay-rake, wagon, hay-rack, hay-fork, 
 hay-loader, hay-spreader, hay-press, horse hay -fork. 
 
 Kinds ofioork done in making hay : mowing, spreading, 
 turning, raking, pitching, windrowing, cocking, loading, 
 drawing, stacking, mowing, or stowing away, unloading, 
 &c. 
 
HAYMAKING. 57 
 
 Men mow, spread, rake, pitch, draw, stack, &c. 
 
 What do tliey mow ? spread ? rake ? pitch, &c. ? 
 
 Why do tbey mow ? spread ? rake, &c. ? 
 
 When do they mow ? spread ? rake, &c. ? 
 
 What do men mow with f whatpi^c/i with f 
 
 What do they use when loading and drawing hay ? 
 
 Why do they stack hay ? 
 
 Wliat do we call men who work in the hay-field ? 
 
 When is hay made ? 
 
 Why is hay made ? 
 
 What do haymakers produce ? 
 
 How do they obtain clothing ? food ? 
 
BAKER. 
 
 This picture is intended to represent a bakery^ with 
 some of the operations of making bread and rolls; also the 
 sliop^ or place for selling the different articles which are 
 made by the baker. 
 
 The man in the right-hand corner of the picture is sift- 
 ing flour into the kneading-trough, to mix dough for bread, 
 rolls, &c. A barrel of flour stands by the side of the 
 kneading-trough. The man near the left end of the pic- 
 ture is putting rolls into the oven to bake them. He 
 places them on the broad blade of a wooden shovel which 
 has a long handle, and then pushes them into the oven. 
 
 In the upper tray, on the barrel near the oven, are more 
 rolls ready for baking. Behind the baker at the oven is 
 a table on which are several loaves of bread, some of which 
 are in the baking-pans. Under this table are cans, jugs, 
 tubs, baking-plates, tins, &c. Over the table, on the wall, 
 are rolling-pins, knives, spoons, a measure, and a sieve. 
 Near the right-hand corner, on the wall, is a wooden spoon, 
 also an egg-beater and a grater. Suspended from the 
 ceiling are oven-shovels. 
 
 What have these bakers on their heads ? 
 58 ■ 
 
BAKER. 59 
 
 At the rear of this picture, near the left hand, is the 
 shop, or place for selling bread, rolls, cake, crackers, pie, 
 &c., after the}' have been baked. 
 
 Utensils used by bakers: barrels, kneading-trough, 
 kneading-machine, kneading-board, sieve, tra}-, meas- 
 ures, scales, tables, counter, cans, jugs, pails, pans, cups, 
 plates, baking-dishes, knives, spoons, egg-beater, grater, 
 rolling-pins, shovels, baskets, oven. 
 
 Materials used: wheat flour, Graham flour, rye, flour, 
 Indian meal, rice, corn-starch, sago, tapioca, yeast, water, 
 milk, cream, butter, lard, eggs, suet, salt, cloves, spice, 
 cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, sugar, lemon, soda, saleratus, 
 cream-of-tartar, apples, plums, cranberries, &c. 
 
 Articles made: wheat bread, rj'e bread, Graham bread, 
 brown bread, Indian bread, bread rolls, milk rolls, tea- 
 biscuit, sponge-cake, fruit-cake, pound-cake, jellj'-cake, 
 cream-cake, crullers, crackers. 
 
 Pies are made of apples, peaches, plums, cherries, black- 
 berries, raspberries, huckleberries, gooseberries, cranber- 
 ries, lemons, custard, rice, crackers. 
 
 Names of puddings : rice, sago, tapioca, corn-starch, 
 suet, Indian, farina, plum, bread, &c. 
 
 Kinds oficork c7o?2e; sifting, mixing, kneading, setting 
 the sponge, moulding, baking, rolling, cutting, beating, 
 grating, icing, selling, &c. 
 
 From what is bread made ? 
 How is flour made ? 
 
60 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 Who produced the wheat ? 
 
 How does the baker obtain the flour? 
 
 \V7iat do bakers bake ? 
 
 How do they bake ? 
 
 Why do they bake ? 
 
 What is cake ? what is pie ? 
 
 When is bread called twist ? 
 
 When is it called a loaf? 
 
 When is it called rolls ? 
 
 When is it called biscuit? 
 
 Where do bakers live ? 
 
 Who does the baker's work in the country? 
 
 What do bakers produce ? 
 
 How do they obtain meat and clothing ? 
 
TINSMITH. 
 
 This picture is intended to represent the workshop of a 
 tinsmith J and the room or store where tin-ware, stoves ^ 
 &c., are sold. 
 
 The business of the tinsmith is to make utensils, and 
 various articles of tin, sheet-iron, copper, &c. One of 
 the worlimen in this picture is making a tin pipe ; the 
 other is makins: a sheet-iron pan. 
 
 Materials used by the tinsmith: tin, sheet-iron, wire, 
 solder, rosin, charcoal, copper, brass. 
 
 Tools used: shears, pincers, pliers, nippers, vise, ham- 
 mers, soldering-furnace, soldering-iron. 
 
 Articles made by tinsmiths: tin-pails, tin-pans, tin- 
 cups, tin-dippers, tin-measures, boilers, kettles, tea-ket- 
 tles, tea-pots, coffee-pots, dish-pans, slop-pails, cans, 
 canisters, sauce-pans, dripping-pans, baking-pans, coal- 
 scuttle, parts of stoves, &c. 
 
 Tin is a metal obtained from tin-ore. This metal 
 
 61 
 
62 PRANG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 resembles silver in color ; it is softer than silver, but 
 harder than lead. 
 
 Common tin-ivare is made from thin sheets of iron which 
 have been covered with tin metal b}' dipping the sheets of 
 iron into melted tin three or four times. While the tin 
 metal remains on the iron, the tin- ware will not rust. 
 
 See pp. 26, 27. 
 
 How do tinsmiths procure food, clothing, houses, &c. ? 
 
PRINTER. 
 
 This picture represents different kinds of apparatus, 
 tools, and operations of printing. 
 
 See pp. 17-21 for a description of this picture. 
 
 Materials, Implements, and Tools used by the 
 Printer. — Type (letters, figures, &c.), made of type- 
 metal, which is composed of lead and antimon}'. 
 
 Type-cases : shallow drawers with numerous small com- 
 partments or boxes, for holding the different letters. . 
 
 Composing - stick : a narrow, oblong frame, with one 
 side "open, and one end movable, which ma}- be fastened 
 with a screw so as to suit the width of anj- column of 
 printing. It is made of metal, usually of iron or steel. 
 The compositor holds this instrument in his left hand, 
 and sets type in it to form words and lines. 
 
 Galley : an oblong, shallow tray, usually with a brass 
 bottom and wooden sides, on which the compositor places 
 the type when his " stick " is full. 
 
 Imposing - stone : a smooth stone slab, on which the 
 iy^Q is placed from the galley, to be made up into forms 
 ready for printing. 
 
 Chase : an iron frame, which is placed around the type 
 
 63 
 
64 FILiXG'S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 on the imposing-stone, and into which the tj'pe or matter 
 is firnil\' wedged with furniture (narrow strips of wood), 
 and quoins, or wedges. 
 
 JShooti)ig-stick : the piece of wood or iron used in driv- 
 ing the quoins, or wedges, when locking tip the form. One 
 end is placed against the wedge, and the other is struck 
 with the mallet. 
 
 Leads: thin strips of tj'pe-metal to place between the 
 lines of type so that the printing ma}' be more easily read 
 than if the matter were solid. 
 
 The essential parts of a common hand-press are named 
 as follows : — 
 
 Bed: the part of the printing-press on which the type 
 rests. 
 
 Platen: the part of the printing-press which presses 
 the paper against the type. 
 
 Tympan : part of the printing-press ; a wooden frame, 
 covered with two folds of cloth between which is stretched 
 a woollen blanket. The t3'mpan carries the sheet of paper 
 to be printed, and forms a soft surface over the paper to 
 equalize the pressure upon the type. 
 
 Frisket : a slender fiame to hold the sheet of paper in 
 its proper place on the tj'mpan w^hile it is moved to be 
 printed. The frame of the frisket extends around the 
 form of type, and does not cover any portion of the print- 
 ing surface. 
 
 Kinds of Work done. — Composing, or setting tj'pe ; 
 distributing, or placing the letters in their proper boxes, 
 after the}- have been used ; justification, — making the 
 spaces between the words of a line uniform ; making up, 
 — placing the matter which has been set up by the com- 
 
PRINTER. 65 
 
 positor, on the imposing-stone, and making it fast in a 
 chase ; locking tq:>, — wedging the type firmly in the chase ; 
 taking proof, inking the type, and pressing upon it a 
 sheet of damp paper ; reading proof , — having the copy or 
 manuscript, which the compositor set his type b}', read so 
 as to compare the words in the proof-sheet witli tlie manu- 
 script to be printed; correcting proof, — unlocking tlie 
 matter, and changing all the words which were not cor- 
 rectly' set up. This work is done b}* the compositor. Re- 
 vising the form, — comparing the t3'pe in the form with 
 the proof after the compositor has corrected his errors in 
 setting, to see that all the corrections have been made. 
 This is done by the foreman^ the man who supervises the 
 other Avorkmen. 
 
 Terms used by Printers. — Solid matter: type set up 
 without leads between the lines. Leaded matter: type 
 that has leads placed between the lines. Live matter: 
 type that has been set, but not yet used for printing that 
 for which it was set. Dead matter : type that has been 
 used in printing, and is read}' to be distributed in the 
 cases again. Ems: this is a term used b}' printers in 
 calculating the amount of matter set up. Compositors 
 are paid for setting type at a fixed sum for each thousand 
 ems. As the letter m was originalh' a square type, it 
 was used as a unit in measuring and computing the 
 amount of matter set up. At the present da}' the letter 
 m has lost its square shape ; and the square of the height 
 of any letter in the alphabet is now used as a unit, all 
 the t3'pes of an}' given size being of the same height ; 
 but the term eins has been retained. Proof-sheet, — 
 
66 PRASG-S AIDS FOR OBJECT-TEACEiyG. 
 
 the impression taken from the t}*pe after it is locked 
 up. 
 
 What is writing? 
 
 What is printing ? 
 
 Why do people write? 
 
 Why do they print ? 
 
 When is writing used instead of printing? 
 
 Why is printing used instead of writing ? 
 
 NAMES OF SIZES AND KINDS OF TTFE. 
 
 This is Great Primer type. 
 
 This line is English type. 
 
 This line is Pica type. 
 
 This liue is Small Pica type. 
 
 This liue is Long Piimer type. 
 
 This liue is Bourgeois type. 
 
 Tliis line is Brevier type. 
 
 This line is Miuioii type. 
 
 This line fc> XoiH»areil type. 
 
 Tbis line is Agate type. 
 
 This line is Ptorl tj-pe. 
 
 ns Uae it DamMU «rf«. 
 
 T&ix Sa. is CiiZaat «77»i 
 
 C^fjis is €^IU iPnglisIj tvipt. 
 
 What trades furnish materials or work for building houses? 
 
 What trades supply the tools for building houses, and for othei 
 occupations ? 
 
 Wliat trades and occupations furni<h materials or work for 
 supplying us with food ? 
 
 Wliat trades and occupations furnish materials or work for 
 Bupplying us with clothing? 
 
 Why do men work ? 
 
 Why do tliey strive to become skilful in their work? 
 
 Why do they save their earnings ? 
 
MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 
 
 TO ACOOMPAtfY 
 
 PRANG^S ADS FOU OBJECT-TEACHING. 
 
 TRADES AND OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 By N. a. calkins, 
 
 AUTHOE OF " PEIMAEY OBJECT-LESSONS," ETC. 
 
 CHILD NATURE. TEACHERS WORK. 
 
 Dttirt to «M, TO DO, and t« ttlL Traming how to ate, TO DO, and to ttU. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 L. PRANG & COMPANY. 
 
 1877. 
 
L. PRANG & COMPANY 
 
 ALSO publish: 
 
 PRANG'S NATURAL HISTORY SERIES 
 
 FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 
 
 ANIMALS AND PLANTS represented in their Natural Colors, and 
 arranged for Instruction with Object Lessons. 
 
 By N, A. Calkiks, Superintendent Primary SchoolSj New York City, and 
 Professor of Methods and Principles of Teaching in Saturday Normal 
 School; Author of " Primary Object Lessons," Second Edition, Jievised and 
 Improved. 
 
 THIS SERIES comprises: 
 
 14 large plates. Size of each plate, 11 X 14 . . @ 25 c. §3.50 
 18 sets of small pictures in envelopes. Each set containing 
 
 12 cards. Size of each card, 2\x^ . . . @ 40 c. 7.20 
 18 sets of holders for the small cards . . . @ 5 c. .90 
 
 A TEACHER'S MANUAL, containing full instructions for use of 
 Cards, 50 cts. Parties ordering the complete " Series " are supplied with 
 the '' Manual " gratis. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT 
 
 TO 
 
 PRANG'S NATURAL HISTORY SERIES, 
 
 Consisting of 36 large plates, 11x14 each, @ 25 cts., $9.00. 
 These plates will be of great assistance to teachers who desire to continue 
 instruction in Natural History beyond the limit of the regular " series." Al- 
 though auxiliary to, they are not necessarily a part of, the regular *' Series." 
 
 From among the many commendations the Series has received, we select 
 
 only the following : — 
 
 From the late PROF. AGASSIZ. 
 
 Museum of Comparattvk Zooi-ogy, CAMBRrooE, Mass., 
 Nov. 29. 1873. 
 
 Dear Sir, — I have carefully examined the revised edition of your Zoologi- 
 cal Illustrations in cliromos, and the new letterpress which accompanies them. 
 There is not only a material improvement in the whole, but I feel now that the 
 corrected text niay bejmade the basis for substantial instruction, in connection 
 with the plates. 'Of coui'se such means never can take the place of natural 
 specimens; but, where books must be used, I have uo hesitation In reoom- 
 meudiug yours. L. AGASSIZ. 
 
 L. Prang, Esq. 
 
 !J^=-FULL DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUES will be mailed free to any address. 
 The attention of teachers is also invited to our 
 
 American Text-BooKs or Art-Eflucation, and Examples for Advanced Art-Study. 
 
 Catalogues of these publications may likewise be had gratis. 
 
 L. PRANG- 8c COMPANY, 
 
 Art and Educational Publishers, 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
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