Class J=jJBM^e prksi:ntei) b^' ' Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/studyofstateaidtOOkent A STUDY OF STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN MINNESOTA BY RAYMOND ASA KENT Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements. for the degree of doctor of philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University 1918 A STUDY OF STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN MINNESOTA BY RAYMOND ASA KENT Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University 1918 ^^ ^^jYlA^K^^-C<:v'i^'^ ^'-^ » I 1 S H :3 Copyright 1918 BY THE University of Minnesota \ o > CONTENTS Preface iii Chapter I — Problem and data 1-17 A. Problem 1 B. Data 4 C. Sources of error Rural schools 10 High schools 12 Graded schools 14 D. Method 16 Chapter II — Historical summary of legislation affecting state aid 18-31 Territorial provisions 18 State provisions I. General aid 18 II. State aid to high schools 19 III. Graded school aid 22 IV. Rural school aid 23 V. Industrial aid 25 VI. Rules in force 1912-13 28 Chapter III — Special aid to high schools . . .^ 32-55 Introductory 32 Size of corporate units 33 Attendance per pupil 34 Cost per pupil per day 34 Aid per pupil per day 35 Local school tax 35 Comparisons of tax levies 36 Per cent of state aid 37 Assessed valuation per pupil 38 Effect of state aid on enrollment 39 Enrollment and expense 40 Correlation tables State aid and cost per pupil 44 State aid and local tax 45 Local tax and attendance 46 Attendance and aid per day 47 Population and local tax 48 Population and expense 49 Population and state aid 50 Population and aid per day 51 Summary 52 Chapter IV — Special aid to graded schools 56-64 Attendance per pupil 56 Length of school year 56 Cost per pupil per day 57 Aid per pupil per day 57 Per cent of state aid 58 Local tax 59 CONTENTS V Assessed valuation per pupil 59 Summary 60 Correlations 60 Correlation tables Local tax and state aid 62 Summary table 63 Chapter V — Special aid to rural schools 65-91 Attendance per pupil 65 Length of school year 66 Cost per pupil per da}' 68 Aid per pupil per day 68 Per cent of state aid 69 Local tax 69 Assessed valuation per pupil 70 Monthly salary of teachers 71 Correlations 75 Four hundred sixty-one districts Local tax 77 Per cent of state aid 78 Increase in small schools 80 Changes in population 83 Changes in rural schools 85 Per cent of high school enrollment from outside . . 88 Summary 90 Chapter VI — Special aid to high, graded, and rural schools compared 92-104 Length of school year 92 Assessed valuation per pupil 93 Attendance per pupil 94 Cost per pupil 96 Aid per pupil 96 Per cent of state aid 99 Local tax 99 Summary 102 Proposed principles for governing state aid 103 Chapter VII — Special aid to industrial departments 105-125 Introductory 105 Salaries 107 Special instructors 108 Regular teachers 109 All teachers 109 Time unit cost Ill Comparisons 119 Correlations 120 Effect on student personnel 121 Summary and conclusions 125 Chapter VIII — Conclusions 126-133 Data from Swift's Common School Funds 126 Essentials of a permanent school fund 127 Public school aid a policy in Minnesota 128 Three forms of aid, three stages of development 129 Conclusions of the study 132 vi CONTENTS APPENDICES A. High school board rules 137-166 B. Three tables from the report of the education commission 167-168 C. School laws passed by the legislature of 1915 169-176 D. Extracts from the Eighteenth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction 177-181 Bibliography. 182-183 TABLES I. Chart used for tabulation of data 6-7 II. School districts 7 III. Industrial departments 8,9, 10 IV. Outline of state aid development 28, 29, 30 State appropriations for public school aid 31 V. Size of corporate units in which Minnesota high schools are located 33 VI. Attendance per pupil per year in high school districts 34 VII. Cost per day of attendance per pupil in high school districts. ... 34 VIII. Aid per daj^ of attendance 35 IX. Local school tax in mills 35 X. The per cent that state aid is of the annual maintenance income in high school districts 37 XI. Assessed valuation per enrolled pupil 38 XII. Per cent of a district's total annual enrollment that is in the high school 40 XIII. Per cent of a district's total annual cost that is devoted to the high school 41 XIV. Per cent of a district's total enrollment and annual cost to be found in the high school 42 XV. Per cent of school expenditure devoted to high school in thirty- seven cities 43 XVI. Per cent of total average daily attendance to be found in high schools in thirty-seven cities 43 XVII. Relation of per cent of aid received to cost per pupil day of attendance 44 XVIII. Relation between local tax levy and per cent of annual income derived from the state 45 XIX. Relation between local tax rate and number of days attended per pupil 46 XX. Relation between number of days attended per pupil and aid per day of attendance per pupil 47 XXI. Relation between population and local tax rate 48 XXII. Relation between population and expense per day of attendance 49 XXIII. Relation between population and per cent of annual income derived from the state 50 XXIV. Relation between population and aid in cents per day of attend- ance 51 XXV. High school summary 52 XXVI. Attendance per pupil per year by districts 56 CONTENTS vii XXVII. Cost per pupil per day of attendance by districts 57 XXVIII. Aid per pupil per day of attendance by districts 57 XXIX. Part that state aid is of total annual income by districts 58 XXX. Special school tax in mills by districts 59 XXXI. Assessed valuation per enrolled pupil 59 XXXII. Correlations in graded schools 60 XXXIII. Relation between local tax levy and per cent of annual income derived from the state 62 XXXIV. Grade school summary . . . 63 XXXV. Number of actual days attendance per pupil by district 65 XXXVI. Length of school year in months 66 XXXVII. Cost per pupil per day of attendance by districts 68 XXXVIII. State aid per pupil per day of attendance by districts 68 XXXIX. The per cent that state aid is of the total annual income for maintenance by districts 69 XL. Local tax for maintenance as per mills of real taxable valuation 69 XLI. Assessed valuation per enrolled pupil by districts 70 XLII. Monthly salary of rural teachers 71 XLIII. School districts 72,73 XLIV. Correlations in rural schools 75 XLV. Local tax rate in mills 77 XLVI. Per cent that state aid is of district's annual income 78 XLVII. Increase in the number of schools having a total annual enroll- ment of less than ten pupils each 80 XLVIII. Increase in the number of schools having a total enrollment of ten to twenty pupils each 81 XLIX. Per cent of changes in population in thirty-four counties of Minnesota between 1900 and 1910 83 L. Distribution of per cent of decrease in population in thirty-four of the counties of Minnesota between 1900 and 1910 84 LI. Changes in rural schools and in rural population in twenty- eight counties of Minnesota between 1900 and 1910 85 LII. Table LI arranged as array of percentage of rural population changes 86 LIU. Changes in schools by counties 87 LIV. Per cent of high school enrollment from outside 88 LV. Distribution of 1,185 rural schools according to annual enrollment 89 LVI. Rural school summary 91 A. Length of school year in months 92 B. Assessed valuation per enrolled pupil 93 C. Attendance per pupil in days per year 94 D. Cost per pupil per day in cents 96 E. Aid per pupil-day in cents 96 F. Per cent of state aid per year ■. 99 G. Local tax levy in mills 99 LVII. Summary 102 LVIII. Plan of original data sheet for cost of high school instruction. . . 106 LIX. Salaries of special instructors 108 LX. Salaries of regular high school teachers 109 LXI. Salaries of all groups of high school instructors 109 LXII. High school salary distributions Ill ii CONTENTS LXIII. Time-unit cost of departments in seventy-one high schools maintaining four departments of work 112 LXIV. Unit cost of academic instruction in industrial and non-indus- trial high schools 115 LXV. Unit cost of academic teaching in one hundred and sixty-four high schools 116 LXVI. Unit cost of academic instruction in Minnesota 116 LXVII. Time devoted by industrial instructors to teaching academic high school subjects 118 LXVIII. Pupil recitation cost in Newton, Massachusetts, high schools. . . 118 LXIX. Academic 118 LXX. Comparisons of unit cost of high school instruction 119 LXXI. Correlation of unit cost in high school 120 LXXII. Teacher training departments 121 LXXIII. Schools receiving $2,500 industrial aid 122 LXXIV. Schools receiving $1,800 industrial aid 122 LXXV. Per cent of outside enrollment in industrial high schools for the last eleven years 123 LXXVI. Divisions of high school enrollment for the state on the basis of per cent of total high school enrollment 123 APPENDIX B I. Relation of valuation and taxation to cost of instruction 167 II. Relation of state support to total cost of maintenance 168 III. Attendance and salaries 168 APPENDIX D I. Growth of permanent school fund since 1862 177 II. Permanent school fund July 31, 1914 177 III- A. Appropriations for public schools ' 177 III-B. Increases in state aid 178 IV. Apportionment of the current school fund from 1864-1914 178 V. Summary for last fifty-two years 179 VI. Special aid summary 179 VII-A. State aid to high schools, year ending July 31, 1913 180 VII-B. High schools, year ending July 31, 1914 180 VIII-A. Graded schools, year ending July 31, 1913 180 VIII-B. Graded schools, year ending July 31, 1914 180 IX-A. State aid to consolidated schools, year ending July 31, 1913. . . . 180 IX-B. Consolidated schools, year ending July 31, 1914 181 X-A. Semi-graded schools, year ending July 31, 1913 181 X-B. Semi-graded schools, year ending July 31, 1914 181 XI-A. Class A, year ending July 31, 1913 181 XI-B. Year ending July 31, 1914 181 CONTENTS FIGURES 1. Per cent of district's total expenditure and enrollment in the high school department 41 2. Increasing length of term, in days 67 3. Changes in the rural schools of Minnesota during a period of ten years.. 74 4. Increasing cost of education per pupil in average daily attendance 75 5. Increase in ten years in schools enrolling less than ten pupils 82 6. Distribution of 1,185 rural schools according to annual enrollment 89 7. Assessed valuation per enrolled pupil 93 8. Pupil attendance in days per year 95 9. Cost per day of attendance per pupil 97 10. Aid per day of attendance per pupil 98 11. Per cent that state aid is of total m.aintenance income 100 12. Local tax levy 101 13. Salaries of high school instructors by departments 110 14. Unit cost of high school instruction by departments 113 A STUDY OF STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN MINNESOTA CHAPTER I PROBLEM AND DATA A. Problem The biennial Legislature of Minnesota in April, 1913, created a Public Education Commission "to make careful study and investigation of conditions in this state with respect to public education, including the public school system and public educational institutions, and the relation of the educational institutions one to another and to the public school system; to recommend a general plan for the organization and adminis- tration of public education and public educational institutions. The general purpose of the Commission shall be to effect economy and efficiency with respect to the several branches of public education in this state. "^ The Governor appointed as members of this Commission: W. D. Willard, cashier, First National Bank, Mankato; W. G. Crosby, attorney, Duluth; J. A. DuBois, physician, Sauk Centre; Marie Lovsnes, county superintendent of schools, Norman County; W. F. Webster, principal of East High School, Minneapolis; J. A. Hartigan, president Farm Mortgage Bond Company, St. Paul; C. G. Schulz, state superintendent of education. The Commission organized in June by electing W. D. Willard as chairman, and the writer of this study as secretary.^ The report of the Commission^ does not include any comprehensive statement of the method or of the data on which its conclusions and recommendations were founded. After the Commission had concluded its work the data compiled were placed on file in the office of the State Superintendent of Education. As stated above, the work of the Commission was ''to effect economy and efficiency with respect to the several branches of public education in the state." A part of the problem was to determine where economy could be most reasonably looked for and how the test of efficiency could be applied. So far as these problems affect the state one would naturally think of them first as applying to the funds which the state distributes as its share of the support "to the several branches of public education." Especially does this application seem the proper one in the light of the total amount of m.oney thus involved annually. "Minnesota's per- manent school fund .... is nov/, in round figures, $25,000,000, and is expected to reach $100,000,000, or even $200,000,000, from the sale of 1 General Laws of Minnesota, 1913 ch. 571. ^Report of the Minnesota Public Education Commission, 3, 7. ' State of Minnesota, Public Education Commission, Report to the Governor. 2 RAYMOND ASA KENT school lands and timber and the royalties on iron ore.* The income is approximately $1,000,000 a year."^ "The state adds to the current school fund for distribution in the same way, the proceeds of a one-mill tax, which now yields above $1,250,000 a year."' ''State aid to schools for special purposes, now amounting to $2,000,000 a year, is distinct from the school funds and is given from the general revenue funds."^ Here, then, is a total of four and a quarter millions of dollars given by the state each year to its public schools. Plainly and simply asked, the inquiry becomes: What is the effect of state aid? Is state support securing satisfactory results commensurate with the amount of money given? These questions have never been answered. When one tries to secure evidence outside of Minnesota that might help in answering them, one finds a similar dearth of information. ?,. State aid to high schools was begun as early as 1871, in Maine. ^ Wis- consin was the second^ and Minnesota was the third state in the Union to make such provision,^" but up to the time of this investigation, as far as we know, a careful study had never been made as to how state aid was actually affecting public schools. So far as we know no aims that have been set up and no statements of accomplishments in connection with state subsidy of public education have been based on any careful, intensive study. The Commission, therefore, was face to face with finding its own answer to its inquiry. FORMS OF AID As will be explained more in detail in Chapter II, there are two general forms of state aid. The first is the current school fund, which is distributed to all schools, irrespective of their classification, number of departments, enrollment, or any factor," except the number of children between six and twenty-one years of age attending public school forty days or more during the year.^^ The second form of aid includes special aid to each of the following groups of schools : 1. High schools 2. Graded schools 3. Semi-graded schools 4. Rural schools 5. Consolidated schools * For further explanation see Chapter 2. ^ Report of Minnesota Commission, 21, 22. See also Appendix C. • Report of Minnesota Commission. 22. ' Ibid. 8 Johnston and others, The Modern High School, 51. » Ibid., 52. i» Ibid., 53. 1' Except the legal length of the school year, which is practically no condition now. See table 35. 12 References to all legal data are given in Chapter 2. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 3 Aid for special departments in high or graded schools is of three kinds :" 1. Aid for departments of teacher training 2. Aid for the three industrial departments — agriculture, shop work, and home economics 3. Aid for agriculture and either shop work or home economics The ramifications of special state aid are complex. They have become so because a school may receive more than one form of special aid.^^ But whatever the combinations of aid received, for purposes of aid distribution, all schools are classed in one of the fundamental divisions of high, graded, semi-graded, or rural. Inasmuch as special state aid to industrial departments comprises so. large a part of state support to high schools, ^^ this particular form of aid was made a special part of the investigation and a separate chapter of this report is devoted to it. Among the forms of special departmental aids we are not particularly concerned here with the one for teacher-training departments. These departments sustain relations to the high school, to the community, and to the state entirely different from the other specially aided departments. They were not established, nor are they maintained, for the benefit of the local community, for the children of the community, or for the pupils of the high schools of the state. Their primary purpose was and is to benefit the rural schools of the state.^^ High school, high school community, and pupil benefits are quite secondary to their aim. For this reason the state has from their inception consistently pursued the policy of almost if not quite complete support of such departments. They exist for the state as distinct from the community. Notwithstanding their tremendous impor- tance, the money spent for them has such different purposes to serve from those of other funds about which we are here concerned that teacher-training departments are considered only incidentally. In determining the total amount of state subsidy which a high school district received in a given year, special aid for teacher-training departments, therefore, has not been included. Our problem, then, becomes one of a study concerning state aid to 1. Certain separate groups of schools 2. Special departments of work We wish to find out: first, what these schools or departments receive in special aid from the state; second, what the effect of this aid is upon the schools or departments; third, whether the aid now given is productive of educational "efficiency" and "economy." " For changes in force in 1915, see Appendix B. '* This fact is made clear in Chapter 2. 1' Only two graded schools, one at Lewiston and one at Westbrook, had taken advantage of this support up to the time of this study. See Eighteenth Annual Report of the Inspector of State High Schools, 39; Nineteenth Report, 34, 35; and Twentieth Report, 52, S3. " See Thirteenth Annual Report of the Inspector of State High Schools, 37. 4 RAYMOND ASA KENT The problem is treated in two aspects. One chapter is devoted to a brief historical summary of the legislative enactments which relate to state support of public education since Minnesota was created a territory. By far the greatest proportion of the report, however, deals with the problem from a study of its statistical aspects. In the remaining chapters, therefore, the following divisions of subject matter are treated : a. Historical summary of legislation concerning state support. b. Special state aid to high schools. ^^ c. Special state aid to graded schools. d. Special state aid to rural schools. e. Special state aid to industrial departments. B. Data SOURCES OF DATA In trying to determine what facts should be collected from which the desired information might be obtained, it was soon discovered that certain basic information was as essential concerning one group of schools as con- cerning another. In the beginning, therefore, there was no need to divide the schools into the three main groups in seeking information. The latest school year for which data were then available was 1912-13. That year there were 216^^ high schools and 217^* graded schools in Min- nesota receiving state aid. It seemed quite feasible to attempt to collect information from each of these several schools. On the other hand, there were over 7,500"" districts maintaining schools classified as semi-graded and rural. To collect the desired information from each of these districts was impracticable and unnecessary. Some plan of selecting typical rural schools, chosen from the various parts of the state so as to be truly repre- sentative of the entire state would satisfy the purpose, require much less work, and give quite as satisfactory results as to attempt to include all of the 7,500. The plan finally adopted was that of selected counties. The state as a whole was surveyed. Certain counties distributed over the state were chosen because they were representative of the whole state — geo- graphically; educationally, so far as rural schools were concerned; eco- nomically; industrially; and socially, as to distribution of population. The number of such counties that should be included was not fully decided upon until the selection had been fairly well determined. It was then decided that fourteen counties would satisfy the conditions and needs of " Each of the school divisions will be described in detail in the next chapter. 18 Twentielh Annual Report of the Inspector of Stale High Schools, 36. 1' Eighteenth Annual Report of the Inspector of State Graded Schools, 8. 2° Eighteenth Biennial Report, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 16. Fourteen counties used in rural school computations 1. Carlton 4. Fillmore 7. Kittson 10. Pipestone 2. Dodge 5. Hubbard 8. Meeker 11. St. Louis 3. Douglas 6. Isanti 9. Norman 12. Scott 13. Wilkin 14. Watonwan 6 RAYMOND ASA KENT the problem. The location and names of the fourteen counties are shown in the accompanying outline map of Minnesota. Table I shows one of the pages used for the tabulation of the data first collected. The first space to the left gives the number of each district. In column 1 is stated the total enrollment of each school for the school year 1912-13. Column 2 gives the number of pupils enrolled for whom the current fund money was given their district for 1912-13 — that is, the number of pupils who attended school in each district forty days or more that year. Column 3 gives the nimiber of total days attendance for the pupils in each district. Column 4 gives the average number of days at- tended per pupil enrolled. Column 5 states the number of teachers em- ployed in each district that year.^^ Column 6 contains the sum of the figures for the same district as listed in columns 7 and 8. Column 8 states the amount of money raised by special school tax levied upon the assessable property of the district for the year 1912-13. Column 7 contains the sum of the figures for the same district as listed in columns 9 and 10. Column 9 states the amount paid the district by the state because of the number of pupils listed in column 2 — that is, it states the amount of the current school fund which the district received for 1912-13.^^ Colum^n 10 states the amount of special aid which the districts received for the same year. Column 11 gives the assessed valuation of the districts, and column 12 is the rate of special local school tax in mills. The figures in the first five columns were obtained directly or indirectly from the original reports of the county superintendents, which were on file in the office of the State Superintendent of Public Education. The figures in column 2 are those which were actually used by the State Department of Education for dis- tribution of the state apportionment fund. The figures in columns 11 and 12 were furnished directly to the Commission at its request by the county auditor of every county of the state on the blank shown in Table II. The amount in column 8 was in every case secured by multiplying the assessed valuation by the rate of special school tax. The amoiuits in columns 9 and 10 were taken directly from the original lists on file in the office of the State Superintendent. Column 13 states the per cent which the amount in column 7 is of the total amoimt in column 6, that is, the proportion (per cent) that all money received from the state is of a district's total school revenue for support in 1912-13.^* The information covered by the 21 Number of annual teaching positions. If one instructor worked four months and another five, in the same district, this counts as only one for the year. 22 In discussing any class of schools the current fund is treated as part of the total state aid. For the year which this study covers it amounted to about $5.30 per annum per child attending forty days. This is a large enough part of the total per capita cost to be considered of material value to the local community in supporting its schools. The fact that the method of distribution of the current fund is different from that employed in the case of any other aid given is no reason for studying this fund separately from special state aid. 2' None of these figures includes the amount raised for bonded indebtedness. The county auditors did not include in the special local school tax the amount of mills levied because of bonded indebtedness. Enrollment Total 17 37 17 18 26 15 17 17 19 43 16 24 31 24 20 19 11 16 12 18 19 24 11 25 16 3 10 29 25 11 20 17 14 14 11 30 25 20 18 9 23 21 29 For appor tionment 15 31 16 18 22 9 16 IS 17 39 10 24 30 19 10 19 9 14 11 16 16 22 7- 21 13 3 9 29 23 10 12 12 14 11 8 30 21 17 18 9 16 18 19 7 ted md Mower Mower [t. Mower * No school. :'ABLE I District Basic Data Present Sources OF Revenue State aid at present Per cent of state aid to Remarks ■ 1 Enrollment Days att indance Teachers tate and local State aid Local revenue total at Special present Rural Total For appor- Total Average Number Total State Local Apportion- Assessment Rate tionment per pupil ment (Mills) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 U 12 85 17 15 1,270 US S 551 S109 S382 S 79 $ 90 S 34.767 11.0 S169 30.6% Class B 86 87 37 31 2.816 1 70 564 299 265 164 135 53,052 5.0 299 35.2 Class A 17 16 1.538 90 488 175 313 85 90 39,118 8.0 175 35.8 Class B 88 18 18 1.543 85 467 163 304 95 68 60,827 5.0 163 34.9 Class C 26 22 ' 9 16 2.301 644 1.899 88 43 112 432 1 17 315 117 62,972 101,127 53,662 5.0 117 27.0 89 453 48 405 48 4.0 48 10.5 90 91 15 17 451 220 231 85 135 4.3 220 48.7 Class A 92 17 15 2,014 118 432 169 263 79 90 62,691 4.2 169 39.1 Class B 93 94 19 17 2,131 111 625 225 400 90 135 55,519 7.2 225 36.0 Class A 43 39 5.102 119 788 392 396 207 135 65,972 6.0 392 49.0 Class A 16 10 1,328 83 313 53 260 53 59,125 4.4 53 16. 8 95 96 97 98 24 24 2.802 116 451 217 234 127 90 58,571 4.0 217 48.1 Class B 31 30 3,455 111 637 249 388 159 90 88,222 4.4 249 39.0 Class B 24 19 2.052 96 886 236 650 101 135 86,720 7.5 236 26.6 Class A 20 10 1,010 en 285 53 232 53 55,593 4.2 53 18.5 99 50 100 19 19 2,532 133 025 236 389 101 135 51,899 7.5 236 37.7 Class A 11 9 1,167 106 179 48 131 48 29,781 4.4 48 26.8 101 16 14 1,338 83 266 74 192 74 63,976 3.0 74 27.8 102 103 105 12 11 1,293 117 403 148 255 58 90 44,814 5.7 148 36.7 Class B 18 16 1,968 109 429 153 276 85 68 49,201 5.6 153 35.6 Class C 106 107 19 16 2,118 111 505 175 330 85 90 78,472 4.2 175 34.6 Class B 24 22 2,578 107 1,084 257 827 117 140 55,145 44,413 53.032 15.0 5.5 6.7 257 37 243 23.0 13. 1 Class B 109 110 11 25 21 609 2,385 61 95 281 601 37 246 244 355 37 111 135 40.0 Class A 111 16 13 1,809 106 473 159 314 69 90 52.380 6.0 8.0 159 16 33.6 5 16 Class B 113 114 1 1 5 3 3 232 77 310 16 294 16 36.723 10 29 9 29 1,166 3.327 116 115 395 599 138 294 257 305 48 154 90 140 59,720 32.748 4.3 9.3 138 294 34.9 49.0 Class B Class B 116 25 11 20 17 14 14 11 30 23 10 12 12 14 11 8 30 3,063 1,054 1,390 1,520 1,653 1.466 1,07 7 3,148 123 95 70 89 118 104 98 105 674 484 423 55 560 579 486 407 859 307 103 64 199 164 193 104 249 367 381 359 55 361 415 293 363 610 122 53 64 64 74 58 14 159 185 50 135 90 135 90 90 55,605 65,719 55,285 55,177 51,636 69,102 42,387 51,919 63,578 6.6 5.8 6.5 . 1.0 7.0 0.0 7.0 7.0 9.6 5.0 5.4 11.0 11. 9.4 8.5 5.5 9.4 307 103 64 199 164 193 104 249 246 180 45.0 21.0 15.1 35 . 5 28.3 39.7 22.2 28.9 43.7 Class A 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 Jt. Olmsted Class A and Mower Class B Class A Class B Class B Class A 125 25 21 1,941 78 562 246 316 111 135 63,174 33,145 50. 1 Class B Jt. Mower 126 20 17 1,805 90 359 180 179 90 90 230 45.0 Class A Jt. Mower 127 128 18 9 18 9 2,143 1,279 119 142 511 516 230 138 281 378 95 48 135 90 25,561 34,373 138 175 26.7 22. 1 Class B Class B 129 130 23 21 16 18 2,081 1,740 90 83 789 547 175 93 614 452 85 95 90 05,272 53,158 95 191 17.3 41.7 Class B 131 132 29 8 19 7 2,134 1,02S 73 128 457 541 191 92 266 449 101 42 90 50 48.306 47,716 92 19.0 STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 7 above outline was secured for as many as possible of the rural schools in the fourteen counties. The number of rural districts which it was finally possible to include from each county chosen is as follows : I.Carlton 23 2. Dodge 74 3. Douglas 88 4. Fillmore 166 5. Hubbard 61 6. Isanti 62 7. Kanabec 61 8. Meeker 86 9. Norman 91 1 0. Pipestone 66 11. St. Louis 51 12. Scott 63 13. Watonwan 54 14. Wilkin 65 1,011 TABLE II County I certify that the following is a correct statement of the school tax rate and assessed valuation for the school districts of County for the school year ending July 31, 1913. Signed County Auditor. SCHOOL DISTRICTS Include in the special school tax the local 1-mill but not the state 1-mill. NAME OR NUMBER ASSESSED VALUATION SPECIAL SCHOOL TAX NAME OR NUMBER ASSESSED VALUATION SPECIAL SCHOOL TAX Information similar to the above was obtained also for as many|as possible of the graded school districts and the districts maintaining high schools. In these two latter groups, out of all the districts maintaining 8 RAYMOND ASA KENT graded sctiools, 206 were finally included; and out of all the high school districts, 197 were included. Most of the basic data concerning special departments in the high schools were secured from the original reports sent by the schools to the State Inspector of High Schools.^^ A copy of one of these report-blanks is shown in Table III. The distribution of the time of the instructors in departments receiving special aid was checked by correspondence with the superintendents of the several schools involved. Other data are to be found in this study. The sources of such data are stated at the appropriate places. TABLE III Special Instruction Statistics. Return not later than June 15. INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENTS OF THE High or Graded School For the school year 1913-1914 Instructors: Institution Name Position Where Educated Salary Superintendent $ Agriculture Home Economics Shopwork Total $ Enrollment: Agriculture: Home Economics: Shopwork: High School High School High School . Short Course Short Course Short Course. Grades Grades Grades Expenditure: A gricultiire : Salaries (Not including Superintendent) Real Estate Agriculture Home Economics Shopwork Not Classified Total Attach a typewritten statement of expenditure showing the outlay in each of the three departments. This statement should be itemized to show in a general way how the money has been spent. It must be certified by the secretary of the board. 2< The use of these reports covering the year 1912-13 was kindly allowed the Commission by Mr. George B. Alton, at the time State Inspector of High Schools. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 9 TABLE III (Continued) Association: No. of associated districts Total area of associated districts Area of central district No. of pupils from associated districts in central school Amount of tax contributed by associated districts $ Amount of tuition charged to home districts of non-residents $ On page two state service rendered to associated districts. Let each special instructor add a signed statement (preferably typewritten and on paper of this size) of the methods and the activities of his department, including class work, field work, extension work, meals served, articles of farm utility, school gardens, etc. Instruction (fill these forms) 1. Agriculture: SUBJECT NUMBER WEEKS CLASS ENROLLMENT LENGTH OF RECITATION Home Economics: SUBJECT NUMBER WEEKS CLASS ENROLLMENT LENGTH OF RECITATION 10 Shopwork: RA YMOND ASA KENT TABLE III {Continued) SUBJECT NUMBER WEEKS CLASS ENROLL*MENT LENGTH OF RECITATION Extension Work: Farmers' Short Course Length in days of short course Attendance . Farmers' Institute Dates when held Total attendance . Rural Meetings No. held Total attendance . Other Meetings, Contests, and Fairs held Signed . Superintendent C. Sources of Error I. RURAL SCHOOLS 1. Some may object to the method by which the districts were selected. A selection by counties, it may be asserted, is less representative of the state than a random selection of the same, or even of a less, number of districts from the entire state with every county represented. The pre- sumption of representativeness in several items is the reason why each of these counties was originally chosen. This presumption is verified by the distributions as they appear later in the statistical tables. They approach normal distribution.^^ 2. The regular meetings of the Legislature are biennial. All forms of special aid received by any of the schools come solely from legislative 25 See also Woods, The Influence of Monarchs, 27. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 11 appropriation. It sometimes occurs during the year of legislative recess that the number of schools accepted for a particiilar form of aid is larger than was contemplated. The aid is then prorated among all those schools that year. The Legislature at its next meeting almost without fail makes up in part or in whole the amount of the previous deficiency, and this deficiency appropriation is distributed during the school year following the legislative session.^^ Was 1912-13 a year when such a deficiency might have been distributed as additional state aid? If so, was there such aid actually distributed that year? The regular sessions of the Legislature are held beginning in January of each odd-numbered year. The Legislature convened in January, 1911. There was no reimbursement in special aid. There was a deficit to every class of rural school except the semi-graded.^^ State apportionment, which is included in this study as a part of the state's contribution to the local district, though it is not special state aid, is in no way affected by legislative appropriation. The result of the first condition is to make the effects of state aid less noticeable than they would be if the aid had been paid in full. Both positive and negative figures of correlation are smaller than they would be if there had been no deficit for the year which the study covers. 3. The correlation figures are not corrected for attenuation; they are gross. The nature and sources of the data made such correction out of the question. All scientific work presupposes that the measurements of facts are as nearly accurate as possible. There will, however, in such measurements as these commonly be considerable error in each individual fact of those to be related. One district might have levied a much larger tax one year than ordinarily. For sound reasons another district might have found itself with a greater surplus than usual and so for the year in which we happened to study it, it might have levied a school tax much less than its usual levy. To correct this kind of an error (called attenuation) arising from chance, it is necessary to have at least two independent measures of the items to be related, or to have data from a larger area. In this case we ought to have data covering two years instead of one year, in all these items. The result of this lack of attenuation is to make the correlation figures in all probability less than they wotdd have been if corrected for attenu- ation.2* 2S See deficiency appropriation amounts, table at end of Chapter 2. '''' Eighteenth Report, Superintendent of Public Instruction, table V, p. 10. =8 Adapted from Thorndike's Mental and Social Measurements, 127-129. 12 RAYMOND ASA KENT II. HIGH SCHOOLS 1. There is no source of error from selection. Over ninety per cent of the total number of cases were included.^^ 2. There is no source of error from reimbursement because there were no shortages in aid to be made up to high schools or to any of their depart- ments.^*' 3. All that has been said with regard to non-attenuation of rural school figures of correlation applies with equal force here. 4. In computing the costs of instruction in high schools there has not always been as accurate a distribution of every instructor's time as could be desired. In figuring the cost of academic instruction there is an equiva- lent of individual distribution by including all the time of all the instructors. In the cases of special instruction the total time of each instructor was ac- counted for as far as it could be done. The special reports from the in- dustrial departments to the State Inspector of High Schools included such information in only a negligible number of cases. Definite data for each school were secured through personal correspondence with the school's superintendent. There is probably some error from this source, but it is very small. 5. Statements of expenses in these special departments (see Table III) are not so accurate as one wishes they might be. This is particularly true in the departments of agriculture. Under this division were presumed to be placed expenses for maintenance. By the actual statements of the reports, however, equipment expenses were sometimes included. Where they were so listed they were subtracted. That equipment was included in instances where it was not so itemized, is but to be supposed. The Commission felt the desirability of securing accurate data here. It realized, however, the impossibility of such an undertaking in the time allotted. In not a few cases, the reports had attached to them some statements of expense from the local boards of education. From exami- nation of these reports and from over ten years of personal acquaintance with school boards of districts from graded to city systems, some of which time has been spent attempting to ferret out separate items of maintenance, support, etc., from the reports of a salaried clerk, the writer believes that under the conditions of school accounting now prevalent in the state these reports are as accurate as are any available for a representative group of high schools in Minnesota. This belief is supported by those with wider and longer experience in the state in these matters than the writer has had. The crudeness, from the scientific point of view, of such data and the unreliability of results computed from them are fully realized. There are *9 See accompanying list. "> Eighteenth Report, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 10. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 13 some things to be said in favor of including the data, however. In the' first place, the presentation of the data so gathered with an understanding of their unreliability, and the reason for the same, may hasten better ac- counting and the possibility of authentic information for futiire computa- tions. In the second place, the item of greatest proportion and importance in even such expensive departments as shop work and agriculture is that of salary, and the data on this are reliable. In the third place, these reports are the bases for the distribution of the special state aid to these depart- ments, and therefore, though inaccurate, bear a relation to the amount of aid distributed that is both logical and of significant importance. In the fourth place, some concepts of the respective costs of these depart- ments, inacciurate though they may be, can not but help to clear the situa- tion. We know that the state has been distributing large sums of money for these special departments. Our idea of just how and where this money has been used and how justifiable its local consumption, has been entirely lacking, vague, or based merely on personal opinion. The state has sorely needed standardization in determining these matters. The first step in this direction, short and faltering though it may be, more than justifies itself. In the fifth place, some of these specific items can be and have been compared with and checked by investigations elsewhere. In this way an idea of the nature and of the amount of error can be more definitely and accurately judged. High School Districts Included in This Study Ada Adrian Aitkin Akeley Albert Lea Alden Alexandria Amboy Annandale Anoka Appleton Argyle Ariington Atwater Aurora Bagley Barnesville Belle Plaine Bemidji Benson Bird Island Biwabik Blackduck Blooming Prairie Brainerd Breckenridge Browns Valley Buffalo Buhl Caledonia Cambridge Canby Cannon Falls Cass Lake Chaska Chatfield Chisholm Clarkfield Cloquet Cokato Coleraine Cottonwood Crooks ton Dassel Dawson Delano Deer River Detroit Dodge Center Eagle Bend East Grand Forks Elbow Lake Elk River Ely Eveleth Excelsior Fairfax Fairmont Faribault Farmington Fergus Falls Fertile Fosston Frazee Fulda Gaylord 14 RAYMOND ASA KENT Gilbert Glencoe Glenwood Graceville Grand Rapids Granite Falls Hallock Halstad Harmony Hastings Hawley Hector Henderson Herman Heron Lake Hinckley Hibbing Hopkins Houston Howard Lake Hutchinson International Falls Jackson Janesville Jordan Kasota Kasson Kenyon Kerkhoven Lake Benton Lake City Lake Crystal Lake Park Lakefield Lamberton Lanesboro LeSueur Le Sueur Center Litchfield Little Falls Long Prairie Luverne Mcintosh Mabel Madelia Madison Mankato Mantorville Maple Lake Mapleton Marshall Milaca Minneota Montevideo Monticello Montgomery Moorhead Mora Morris Morton Mountain Lake New Prague New Richland New Ulm Northfield North St. Paul Norwood Olivia Ortonville Osakis Owatonna Park Rapids Paynesville Pelican Rapids Perham Pine City Pine Island Pipestone Plainview Preston Princeton Red Lake Falls Red Wing Redwood Falls Renville Rochester Royalton Rush City Rushford St. Charles St. Cloud St. James St. Louis Park St.' Peter Sandstone Sauk Center Sauk Rapids Shakopee Sherburn Slayton Sleepy Eye South St. Paul Springfield Spring Grove Spring Valley Staples Stillwater Stephen Stewartville Thief River Falls Tracy Two Harbors Tyler Virginia Wabasha Wadena Walker Waseca Warren Waterville Wayzata Welcome West Concord Wheaton White Bear Willmar Windom Winona Winthrop Worthington Zumbrota III. GRADED SCHOOLS 1. There is no source of error from selection. Nearly ninety -five per cent of all possible cases were included. ^^ 2. There was no reimbursement, because there had been no shortage.^^ " See accompanying list. ^^ Eighleenth Report, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 10. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS IS 3. The same principle regarding attenuation holds here as with rural and high school computations. 4. There were no instructional costs computed for graded school districts. Ashby Avoca Audubon Badger Balaton Barnum Barrett Battlefield Battle Lake Baudette Beardsley Beaver Creek Becker Belgrade Bellingham Bel view Bertha Big Falls Big Lake Bingham Lake Boyd Braham Brandon Brewster Brook Park Brooten Browerville Brownton Bruno Buffalo Lake Burtrum Byron Campbell Canton Carlton Carman Carver Ceylon Champlin Chokio Clara City Claremont Clarissa Clear Lake Clearwater Clinton Graded School Districts Included Columbia Heights Comfrey Comstock Crosby Cyrus Dayton Deephaven Deer Creek Deerwood Delhi Donaldson Donnelly Doran Dover Dundas Dunnell Echo Eden Valley Edina Edgerton Elgin EJlendale Ellsworth Elysian Erskine Evansville Eyota Fisher Floodwood Foley Forest Lake Fountain Foxholme Franklin Gary Geneva Gibbon Glenville Glyndon Goodhue Good Thunder Granada Grand Marais Greenbush Green Isle Grey Eagle IN This Study Grove City Hancock Hanley Falls Hartland Hayfield Hendricks Hendrum Henning Hill City Hills Hofman Hokah Ivanhoe Jasper Jeffers Kellog Kimball Lakeville Lake Wilson Lester Prairie Lewiston Lindstrom Lowry Lynd Madison Lake Mahnomen Marietta Maynard Mazeppa Meadowlands Medford Melrose Milan Montrose Moose Lake Morgan Morristown Motley Mount Iron Murdock Nashwauk Nemadji New Auburn New London New York Mills Nicollet 16 RAYMOND ASA KENT North Branch North Mankato Nymore Oak Park Odessa Ogilvie Onamia Osseo Parker's Prairie Perley Peterson Pierz Proctor Raymond Reading Richmond Robbinsdale Rockford Roseau Rosemount Rothsay Round Lake Rushmore Ruthton St. Clair St. Francis St. Hilaire St. Joseph St. Paul Park St. Vincent Sacred Heart Sanborn Saum Scanlon Sebeka Silver Lake South Haven South Stillwater Spooner Starbuck Stewart Swanville ^ Taylors Falls Tenstrike Tintah Tower Triumph Truman Twin Valley Ulen Verndale Vernon Center Villard Wabasso Waconia Walnut Grove Wanda Warroad Watertown Watson Waverly Westbrook Willow River Wood Lake Woodstock Wolverton Wrenshall Wykoff D. Method The method of the study, as indicated before, is largely statistical. The historical summary of legislation affecting state aid, which precedes the statistical, is merely a groundwork for the latter. The former, however, describes to us the formal steps by which we have arrived where we are. The latter attempts to clarify the present situation. The steps taken in the statistical procedtire are briefly : First. The tabulation and summarization of the basic data collected concerning a. High schools b. Graded schools c. Rural schools This was done in order that clearly defined working concepts might be formed concerning each of these groups of schools and the relation of state aid thereto. In the chapters dealing with these respective groups of schools, tables of distribution and central tendencies have been com- puted in each of the following items : a. Number of days attended per pupil per year. b. Cost per pupil day of attendance. c. State aid per pupil day of attendance. d. The proportion that state aid is of the annual maintenance in- come for schools. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 17 e. Local school tax. f. Assessed valuation per enrolled pupil. g. Length of the school year in months. In addition to these items certain other miscellaneous items have been computed in these chapters. Second. An attempt has been made to discover whether there are any important relations between the factors for the separate groups. This is done by the use of distribution tables and correlation coefficients. Third. The three groups of schools are compared with respect to the above eight common factors. Comparisons are made in terms of distri- butions and of central tendencies. Fourth. The method employed in the treatment of special departmients is comparable to the one just described. By distributions of salaries and other items of cost, certain facts are established concerning the expenditure for each of these departments. Comparisons are then made between similar items in different departments. CHAPTER II HISTORICAL SUMMARY OF LEGISLATION AFFECTING STATE AID The aim in this chapter is to present a brief historical statement of the facts concerning state aid to pubHc schools in Minnesota. Territorial laws, the state constitution, statutory provisions of the state, and High School Board rulings, are considered as they affect each of the three groups of schools to which state aid is given. Territorial Provisions The Organic Act which created the Territory of Minnesota was passed in 1849.^ This act provided that two sections in each township be reserved as public school land.^ A territorial act of the same year provided that the county commissioners should levy an annual tax of one-fourth per cent, or two and one-half mills, to be apportioned in proportion to the number of scholars between four and twenty-one years of age in each district.' Two years later it was voted that if this tax was insufficient the balance could be raised by levying upon the taxable property of the districts or by a fifty-cent tax on each male inhabitant between twenty-one and fifty- five years of age, as might be directed at the school meeting.* In 1854 the apportionment by the county was limited to districts in which school had been taught for at least three months during the year preceding.^ State Provisions i. general aid or current school fund In 1858 Minnesota was admitted as a state.^ The constitution pro- vided'^ that the principal of all funds arising from the sale of lands granted for educational piirposes should "forever be preserved inviolate and un- diminished,"® and that the income from the lease or sale of such lands be distributed to the different townships "in proportion to the number of scholars in each township, between the ages of five and twenty-one years."^ The general laws of 1861 provided that "the principal sum arising from all sales of school lands shall remain a perpetual school fund in the state 1 Minnesota Legislative Manual, 1911, 11. 2 Ibid., sec. 18, also ^Authorizing Act, sec. 5. ^ Laws of Minnesota, 1849 ch. 7, sec. 2. ^Ihid., 1851 ch. 29, sec. 16. > ' " 6 Ibid., 18S4 ch. 20, sec. 3. A good brief historical account of Minnesota is given in Young, Civil Government of Minnesota ch. 2. ^ Legislative Manual, 1911, 62. ' Ibid., 25 et seq. ' Ibid., 45, State Constitution art. 8, sec. 2. s Ibid. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 19 and shall not be reduced by any charges or costs of officers, by fees or by any means whatsoever."^** "All moneys received as interest on such permanent fund, or rents on leased lands, shall constitute the current school fund of the state, and shall be distributed by the state superintendent among the several counties of the state in proportion to the number of scholars therein between the ages of five and twenty-one years. "^^ In 1877 the income from the state school funds was directed to be ap- portioned amxong the several counties of the state on the first Mondays of March and October each year in proportion to the number of scholars between five and twenty-one enrolled in schools which had been in session at least three months during the previous year.^^ In 1877 the county tax was changed from a two-and-one-half-mills to a one-mill tax which was to be returned to the districts in the same proportion as it had been paid.^^ This provision made the county tax in reality a compulsory part of the local support. In 1887 a state one-mill tax was added to the income from the general school fund.^"^ The money raised by this tax was to be called the "State School Tax Fund," and this money, together with the income from the general school fund, was to be called the "current school fund."^^ The same year (1887) the Legislature defined more explicitly the mean- ing of the word "scholar" which is used in the constitution for the basis of the distribution of the apportionment. Evidently the constitution did not mean to make school population the basis for this distribution. The Legislature therefore directed that all the current fund should be distributed "in proportion to the number of scholars between the ages of five and twenty-one years who have been enrolled and have been in attendance forty days in the public schools. "^^ The same statute provided that all schools receiving such funds should be in session not less than five months the year preceding the distribution of the aid. II. STATE AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS In 1878 the "High School Board" was created. ^'^ It consisted of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the President of the University ex officio, and one member appointed by the Governor.^^ The same act 1" General Laws, 1861 ch. 14, sec. 41. " Ibid., sec. 42. 12 Ibid., 1877 sec. 1, sub-ch. 5 of ch. 74. " Ibid., sec. 10, sub-ch. 5 of ch. 74. 1* Ibid., 1887 sec. 3, sub-ch. 5 of ch. 41. (Amending sec. 84 of ch. 36, General Statutes, 1878.) 16 Ibid. ^^ Ibid., sec. 1, ch. 41. (Amending sec. 75 of ch. 36, General Statutes, 1878.) See also discussion in Kiehle, Education in Minnesota ch. 2. " Ibid., 1878 ch. 92, sec. 1. 13 Ibid. 20 RAYMOND ASA KENT provided special aid of $400 to each high schooP^ meeting the following requirements '}^ "First, that there shall be regtilar and orderly courses of study, embracing all the branches prescribed as prerequisite for admission to the collegiate department of the University of Minnesota, not lower than the third, or sub-freshman class. (Note 1.)^^ "Second, that the said school receiving pecuniary aid under this act, shall at all times permit the said board of commissioners, or any of them, to visit and examine the classes pursuing the same preparatory courses." (Note 2.) Schools receiving the aid were to admit both sexes free of tuition, but non-residents might be required to pass examination in all subjects re- quired for first grade teacher's certificate except algebra, plane geometry, and the theory and practice of teaching. ^^ (Note 3.) Each school receiving the aid was to be visited by one or more com- missioners of the Board at least once annually, or by some competent person appointed by the Board and who was to report to them.^^ The Board was given power "to establish any necessary and suitable rules and regulations relating to examinations, reports, and other proceedings, under this act."^^ (Note 4.) A total of $9,000 was appropriated to cover all the expenses incurred in the administration of the act and the subsidies granted to the high schools for the same purposes. ^^ The next year a total of $20,000 was appropriated.^^ In 188P'^ the act of 1879 was amended in such a form as to make the appropriation an annual one.^^ At a special session of the Legislature, held the same year (1881), the High School Board was reorganized.^^ The act provided that "the High School Board shall have full discretionary power to consider and act upon applications of schools for state aid, and to prescribe the conditions upon which said aid shall be granted, and it shall be its duty to accept and aid such schools only as will in its opinion, if aided, efficiently perform the service contemplated by law, but not more than three schools shall be aided in each county in any one year. Any school once accepted and continuing to comply with the law and the regulations of the Board made in pursuance thereof, shall be aided not less than three years. "^° The act i» General Laws, 1878 ch. 92, sec. 5. ^° Ibid., sec. 3. 21 Notes referred to are in Appendix A. 22 General Laws, 1878 sec. 2. 23 Ibid., sec. 4. "^^Ibid., sec. 7. 25 Ibid., sec. 5. ■^^ Ibid., 1879 ch. 27, sec. 2. 2' Since 1879 the legislature has met in regular session in only the odd years, see chapter 23 of General Laws, 1878. 28 General Laws, 1881 ch. 144, sec. 5. 29 General Laws of Special Sessions, 1881 ch. 61. '" Ibid., sec. 1. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 21 fixed the compensation of an "assistant examiner" but provided that "no compensation shall be paid to any person receiving salary from any state institution."^^ (Notes 5 and 6.) In 1883 the maximum number of schools that could be aided in one county was increased from three to five,^^ and $3,000 was added to the previous annual appropriation,^^ making a total of $23,000. (Note 7.) This act stood unchanged for four years. (Notes 8, 9, and 10.) In 1887, $2,000 was added to the appropriation,^* thereby raising the total amount available annually to $25,000. In 1893, $7,000 more was added.^^ (Notes 11, 12, 13, 14.) Eighteen ninety-seven saw $10,000 added to annual high school aid,^^ making a total of $42,000. In 1899 the Legislature made more explicit the conditions prerequisite for receiving state aid. In older to receive high school aid the school must have been maintained at least nine months diiring the year pre- ceding.^^ Students of either sex, residents of any part of the state, must be admitted free of any tuition, and non-residents were admitted only after having satisfactorily passed examinations in all the common branches pursued and completed in the eight grades of the common schools. To receive aid, high schools must have regular and orderly courses of study, embracing all branches prescribed by the State High School Board, as prerequisite for admission to the collegiate department of the State Univer- sity.^* Finally, the school must be subject to the rules and regulations prescribed by the High School Board, and be opened to visitation by any member of the Board or the High School Inspector at all times. (Note 15.) State aid was raised from $400 to $800 for each high school approved for aid.39 (Note 16.) To carry into effect the above provisions the Legislature appropriated $85,000 annual aid to high schools.*" Nine thousand five hundred dollars of the appropriation for high and graded schools was set apart to defray the expenses incurred by the board in inspection and in otherwise adminis- tering the act. The legislature of 1901 raised the aid for each high school to $1,000,*^ and appropriated $15,000 for aid and expenses, the same amount ($9,500) being similarly reserved as in 1899. 31 Ibid., sec. 2. 32 General Laws, 1883 ch. 40, sec. 1. 33 Ibid., ch. 151, sec. 1. i'^ Ibid., 1887 ch. 256, sec. 1. '"^ Ibid., 1893 ch. 101, sec. 1. 36 Ibid., 1897 ch. 155, sec. 6. 8' Ibid., 1899 ch. 352, art. 2, sec. 7. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid., sec. 9. " Ibid., 1899 ch. 352, art. 5, sec. 28. *i Ibid., 1901 ch. 189, sec. 1. 22 RAYMOND ASA KENT In 1903 individual high school aid was raised to $1,500.^^ The ap- propriation, with the $9,500 reservation as two and four years previous, was $217,000. (Notes 17 to 21.) In 1905 the High School Board was given full discretionary powers to supervise and to prescribe conditions under which aid should be given to high schools, except not more than seven schools in the same county coiild receive such aid, and aid was to be given any schools not less than two years in succession if regulations were complied with.^* In 1909 individual aid was raised to $1,750 per school.^ In 1909 and 1911 special aids to industrial work were granted. (See section V of this chapter.) Association aid came at the latter date. (Notes 22 to 31.) III. GRADED SCHOOL AID Special Aid The first aid for graded schools was authorized in 1895, to be adminis- tered under the supervision of the High School Board. *^ Each school was to receive $200 annually .^^ An appropriation of $10,000 was voted for the purposes of the act.*^ (Notes 32 to 35.) In 1899, when conditions for receiving high school aid were made more explicit by the legislatiure, the conditions to be met by graded schools to be entitled to aid were stated by the legislature to be :*^ 1. A school session of at least nine months. 2. A school well organized, with at least four departments in charge of a principal and teachers having the qualifications stipulated by the High School Board. The principal, however, was required to be a graduate of the advanced course of a state normal school, or of the academic or pedagogical department of a reputable college or state university, or have a first grade certificate or a state professional certificate. 3. Suitable buildings, library, and other apparatus necessary for doing efficient work. 4. Regular and orderly courses of study taught, and all branches required by the State High School Board. Another feature of the law of 1899 provided that no graded school connected with, or in the same district with, a high school receiving state aid, should receive any aid for graded schools.*^ In 1901 aid was raised to $400 for each school, and the annual appropri- ation was made $52,000.^" (Note 36.) *^ General Laws, 1903 ch. 184, sec. 1. ■« Ibid., 1905 ch. 320, sec. 1. **Ibid., 1909 ch. 334, sec. 1. ^ Ibid., 1895 ch. 183. sec. 1. « Ibid., sec. 2. _ *' Ibid., sec. 3. «8 Ibid., 1899 ch. 352, art. 3, sec. 12. *9 Ibid., sec. 14. " See statement regarding $9,500 expense fund. General Laws, 1901 ch. 189, sec. 2, 5. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 23 In 1903 the aid was raised to $550 per schooP^ and the appropriation was made STQ.OOO.'^^ (Notes 37 to 40.) In 1909 individual aid was made $600.^3 In the same year (1909) $500 was authorized for each graded school maintaining a course equivalent to two years of high school work. Such aid was to be paid from the appropriation for high schools and graded schools in as nearly proportionate amounts as might be. (General Laws, 1909, ch. 444.) This aid was to be given under the supervision of the High School Board. (Notes 41, 42, and 43.) Industrial aid of $2,500 per school, granted in 1909, and $1,000 per school, granted in 1911, applied also to graded schools. (See section V of this chapter.) Association aid came at the latter date. IV. RURAL SCHOOL AID (nOTES 44 AND 45.) Aid to Semi-graded Schools In 1899, twenty-one years after the first act granting special aid to high schools, and four years after graded schools had been subsidized, the first special aid was granted to country schools. These schools that might receive aid were divided into two groups. One group were called semi-graded, and were to receive $100 each from the state annually. ^^ In order to be eligible for such aid a school was obliged to meet all the following requirements :^^ 1. Have an eight months session. 2. Have two departments under teachers of whom one at least should be a graduate of an advanced course of a normal school, or must hold a first grade certifi- cate, or a professional certificate. Other teachers were required to hold a second grade certificate. 3. Have suitable buildings, a library, and necessary apparatus. 4. Have a "regular and orderly" course of study. 5. Comply with the rules of the superintendent of public instruction. 6. Application for aid was to be made by the board to the county superintendent, who was to certify all deserving schools and forward their applications to the state superintendent.^^ An annual appropriation of $11,000 was made for this aid.^'^ In 1901 the aid was raised to $200 per schooP^ and the annual appropria- tion was made $25,000.^9 " General Laws, 1903 ch. 366, sec. 1. ^^Ibid., 1913 ch. 184, sec. 2. M Ibid., 1909 ch. 334, sec. 1. " Ibid. '5 Ibid., sec. 17. " Ibid., sec. 18. " Ibid., sec. 28, art. 5. '8 Ibid., 1901 ch. 189. sec. 3. «» Ibid., sec. 5. 24 RAYMOND ASA KENT In 1903 the aid v^^as placed at $250 per school,®" and the annual appro- priation was raised to $67,000.®^ In 1909 the aid reached $300 per school. ^^ In 1911 association®^ aid came. This is discussed in connection with' industrial aid. (See section V of this chapter.) By chapter 207 of the Laws of 1911 the Legislature allowed consolida- tion aid. It established three classes of schools to be formed by con- solidation. Those of classes A and B were to have an area of at least eighteen sections. Schools of Class C were to be formed with twelve sections. There was to be possible consolidq,tion including an area of less than twelve sections, but in such case the state aid provided would not apply. Each consolidated school was to be in session for eight months and was to employ a principal who had special training and preparation for direct- ing the teaching of agriculture and other industrial lines. A school of Class A was to provide a building of four rooms or departments and was to receive state aid of $1,500. A school of Class B was to provide a building of three rooms and was to receive aid of $1,000. One of Class C was to be a two-department school and was to receive $750 aid. Additional aid for the erection of a school building for either class to the amount of twenty- five per cent of the cost and not exceeding $1,500 was also provided. The same year the Legislature provided that "the aggregate attendance in days by children in either class of rural schools shall not be made a rule for granting stich aid."®^ Aid to One-Room Schools The second class of country schools aided in 1899 were called "rural." They were to receive $75 each per year,®' and had the same conditions imposed upon them as semi-graded schools had, except that two depart- ments were not required, and the teacher did not need to hold other than a first grade or professional certificate.®® Forty thousa,nd dollars annual aid was their appropriation.®^ In 1901 the aid W8.s made $100 for each such school®^ and the appro- priation for such aid, $60,000.®^ In 1903 aid was m.ade $125 per school,^" and the appropriation, $100,000.'^* ^0 General Laws, 1903 cxi. 366, sec. 2. " Ibid.. 1903 ch. 184, sec. 2. 62 Ibid., 1909 ch. 334, sec. 1. e^ Ibid., 1911 ch. 91, sec. 1. ^■^ Ibid., ch. 60, sec. 1. ^'^ Ibid., 1S99 ch. 352, art. 5, sec. 25. 66 Ibid., sees. 23, 24. 67 Ibid., sec. 28. ^^ Ibid., 1901 ch. 189, sec. 4. 69 Ibid., sec. 5. 70 Ibid., 1903 ch. 366, sec. 3. » Ibid., 1903 ch. 184, sec. 2. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 25 In 1909 the aid was set at $150 for a rural school fulfilling the conditions above enumerated,'^- and $100 was to be given each school meeting all the requirements except that the teacher held a second grade certificate. '^^ In 1911 a reclassification of rural schools was made. They were divided as follows:'''^ Class A — Schools having sessions of eight months and having teachers with first grade certificates Class B — Schools having sessions of eight months and having teachers with second grade certificates Class C — Schools having sessions of seven months and having teachers with second grade certificates The aid to these schools was set at i*^^ Not more than $150 each for schools in Class A Not more than $100 each for schools in Class B Not more than $75 each for schools in Class C Association aid, explained later, applied to any of these three groups of schools, as did also the proviso excluding "aggregate attendance" as "a rule for granting such aid." Finally, there was, in 1911, provided a form of aid that can not be called association, consolidation, or transportation aid. Chapter 167 authorized the school board in any district to provide for the instruction of its pupils in an adjoining district by discontinuing its own schools, or for any grade or department in its own schools, and to provide free trans- portation for the pupils to another school, the school in the district so closed to receive state aid of $150, as provided for schools of Class A under Chapter 60. V. INDUSTRIAL AID To Separate Schools In 1905, the same year that special aid was first voted to graded schools, the Legislatvire provided for the establishment of country schools of agri- culture and domestic economy.'^'' The first two schools established and approved by the state superintendent and the dean of the College of Agriculttire of the State University were to receive such aid as might be prescribed by law or might be appropriated.'^^ To Separate Departments There were no country schools established under the act of 1905. In 1909 another plan was passed by the Legislature. It was to be operated " Ibid., 1909 ch. 334, sec. 1. " Ibid. '« Ibid.. 1911 ch. 60. sec. 1. '5 Ibid. '6 Ibid., 1905 ch. 314. sees. 1-9. " Ibid., sec. 10. 26 RAYMOND ASA KENT in direct connection with schools already existing.''^ High, graded, and consolidated schools were possible beneficiaries. '^^ Each school was to maintain instruction in agriculture, manual training, and home economics.^" Each school, so aided, was to maintain a demonstration tract of not less than five acres, suitably located. ^^ Instruction was to be free to all resi- dents of the state. ^2 The course of study was to be made out in full and was to cover all the details of agriculture.^^ The annual aid might equal two thirds of the cost of the department but was not to exceed $2,500 per school. ^^ Not more than ten schools were to be so aided the first year, nor more than ten added to the list every two years thereafter, ^^ and not more than one school in any county could be added in any two years. ^® Twenty-five thousand dollars was the sum appropriated for each of the next two years. ^'^ (Notes 46 and 48.) The next Legislature (1911) provided aid of $1,000 for every high or graded school that would maintain suitable courses in agriculture and in either home economics, or manual training. ^^ This aid was to be taken from the amounts appropriated for general aid to high and graded schools.^' (Notes 47 and 48.) Association aid was granted first by Chapter 82 of the Laws of 1911. Chapter 247 of the Laws of 1909, had, in connection with providing for special industrial departments and special aid for the same, made associa- tion permissive. Association is defined in terms of the law as follows:^" Sec. 6. For the purpose of extending the teaching of agriculture, home eco- nomics, and manual training to pupils in rural schools, and for the purpose of extend- ing the influence and supervision of state high or graded schools over rural schools, one or more rural schools may become associated with any state high or graded school maintaining a department of agriculture, whether or not such high or graded school has been designated by the state high school board to receive aid under the provisions of this act. Any such state high or graded school shall for the purposes of this act be known as a central school. Sec. 7. To effect this, proceedings shall be had by petition and election on the part of the rural school, or schools as now provided by law for the consolidation of school districts, and ballots to vote upon this question shall read: To associate with District No for the teaching of agriculture and manual training Yes No The district or districts cast- 's General Laws, 1909 ch. 247. " Ibid., sec. 1. 8» Ibid., sec. 2. 81 Ibid. 82 Ibid., sec. 3. 83 Ibid. 84 Ibid., sec. 4. 85 Ibid. 88 Ibid., sec. 5. 8' Ibid. ^^ Ibid., 1911 ch. 91, sec. 1. 89 Ibid. »oibid., 1909. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 27 ing a majority vote upon the approval of such association by a majority of the school board of the central school become so associated and the rural school or schools together with the central school, shall thereafter be known as the as- sociated schools of ... . for the teaching of agriculture and manual training. Sec. 8. The members of the various school boards of the associated schools shall meet on the third Monday in June of each year at the central school building to act as a board of review and to examine into the amount of money expended in each department of work herein provided for and to determine the amount of tax which shall be levied on the associated rural school district or districts for the purpose of maintaining courses of instruction as provided in section 2 of this act, and for the purpose of extending such instruction to the pupils of the associated rural schools. Provided, however, that the tax shall not be less than one mill or more than four mills in the various rural school districts in the association and such tax shall be in addition to other general and special school taxes in such rural districts. The amount of such tax shall be certified by the chairman of the meeting to the county auditor to be by him levied against the property in the respective districts and when collected by the county treasurer, such tax shall be paid to the treasurer of the central school who shall furnish the board of review full and detailed statement of all money received and expended. Sec. 9. The school board of each rural school district associated with a central school under the provisions of this act shall designate one of its members by vote to act with the school board of the central school in carrying out the provisions of this act as to the teaching of agriculture, domestic economy, and manual training in such schools and in all matters pertaining to such instruction, both in the central school and in the associated rural schools, such member shall have equal power with the member of the school board of the central school. Sec. 10. The principal or superintendent of the central school shall have and exercise the same authority and supervision over the rural schools as over the central school. He shall prepare for the associated rural schools a suitable course of study embodying training and instruction in agriculture and such subjects as are related to farm life and can be taught successfully in rural schools. Sec. 11. The relationship and obligations between the associated rural school or schools and the central school may be terminated at any annual school meeting by a majority vote of the associated districts, but not until the central school has had at least one year's notice of the intention to vote on the question. By Chapter 82 of the Laws of 1911, the above was reenacted with the new provisions that $150 was to be paid to the central school district and $50 to the rural school district for each rural district associating with a central district. Rural districts associating were also permitted to levy a tax for an industrial building in connection with the central district. The minimum tax levy to be imposed on the associated districts was raised to two mills, and the maximum limit of four mills was removed. Per- mission was granted also for a tract of land for experimental purposes to be acquired in one or more of the associated districts. In interpreting this provision the state department makes the follow- ing statement: "When a school is closed, as provided under chapter 167, and its pupils are transported to another school, the district of the closed school may receive state aid of $150, if the pupils are sent to a school that 28 RAYMOND ASA KENT earns state aid under Class A, rural schools, or to a semi-graded, graded, or high school. The condition of the closed building is not a factor in earning the aid. The district must, however, provide proper transporta- tion for all its pupils to attend another school. "^^ VI. RULES IN FORCE. 1912-13 The complete rulings of the High School Board relating to state aid which were in force during the year covered by this study are given in Appendix A in form similar to that in which they were ptiblished by the State Department of Education. ^^ TABLE IV. OUTLINE OF STATE AID DEVELOPMENT Part I. Current School Fund^^ Year Sources , Basis of Distribution 1858 Annual income from State Public School Funds Scholars 5 to 21 years of age 1877 Scholars, 5 to 21 years of age, attending in schools having at least 3 months session during the year 1887 Income from state public school funds and income from a state one- mill tax Scholars, 5 to 21 years of age, attending at least 40 days, in schools having at least 5 moiitl^^ session during the year .^j^M Part II. Special State Aid to Public Schools'^ Schools and Amounts of Annual Aid Year High Graded Rural "Semi-graded" "Rural" 1878 $ 400 800 1,000 1,500 1,750 2,000 $200 400 550 600 750 $100 200 250 300 $ 75 100 125 1895 1899 1901 1903 Class A Class B 1909 $150 $100 Class A Class B, Class C 1911 $150 $100 $75 1913 ^1 Department of Public Instruction, St. Paul, Circular no. 7. 1911. '2 State of Minnesota, Department of Education Bulletin no. 45. May, 1913. " For what this has amounted to per pupil as actually distributed, see Appendix C, table 4. S'l A resume of only regular lines of work. No aid for departmental work of any kind or for associa- tion or consolidation is included. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS Part III. Aid to High Schools 29 Annual Aid for Different Purposes Year High School Industrial Association Consolidation Remarks 1878.. . $ 400 1881. . . Limited to 3 in a county 1883.. . Limited to 5 in a county 1899. . . 800 1901.. . 1,000 1903.. . 1,500 1905... Limited to 7 in a countyss 1909... 1,750 $2,500 1911.. . 2,500 or 1,000 $150 per each associated dist. SI, 500 1913. .. 2,000 2,500 or 1,800 Aid for teacher training departments is in addition to all the above. Part IV. Aid to Graded Schools Annual Aid for Different Purposes Year Graded School Industrial Association Consolidation H. S. Dept. 1895 $200 1901 400 1903 550 1909 600 $2,500 $500 1911 ■ 2,500 or 1,000 $150 for each as- sociated district $1,000 1913 750 2,500 or 1,800 95 According to the general statutes of both 1905 and 1913 the limit as to number of high schools to receive aid in any one county is seven, although the general lavi^s of 1909 give it as nine. The place where the maximum number was changed from seven to nine can not be found. The general statutes are sup- posed to be final by court practice. 30 RAYMOND ASA KENT Part V. Rural School Aid 1. "SEMI-GRADED SCHOOLS" Year Annual Aid for Different Purposes Semi-graded Schools Consolidation Association 1899 $100 200 250 300 1901 1903 1909 $750 1911 ated district 2. "RURAL SCHOOLS" Annual Aid for Special Purposes Year Rural Schools 1899 $ 75 1901 100 1903 125 Class A Class B 1905 $125 150 $ 50 100 1909 Class A Class B Class C 1911 $150 $100 $75 o 00 o ■*" 00 ■o OS* OS OS oo" O 00 so OS 00 o o t~ 00 Os OS CO o o^ CO so uri o o 1 o < o 6 o Os_ oo" OS o r^ o so o o oT IN 1 3 P^ §5s roiooo" QthOO o c^ O-rH00_ O"5so OS '-< so-* IN OsOvo OS -.-I 'Sio'tilOOs t^ so 00 IN O O 0<*5 "5 OS 0\ c^ Os Os_ o Ov so o so OS Os ^. lO so to O OS (D O O HH t^ r^ fO CN lO O VO 5< oil O t- OS \0 o '^ 0\ t^ QoP oo_oo i^ so 00 ^O o o o OS OS —1 Os_ o 00 o o o o o -d a O m O o «-_ 6 o pi o t^ OS /-^ o ^ Qso_q VO ro OS O t- 0^ ^l;s§§§ P soPiO^UT) 00_ o o o> o- o> M M Woo t,oo oooo o o sq s o o so" o o tN o" CO 00 * ^ XO mhOO o> IN ^ *T! fO ieo> OS P OsOs^ lO t^oo o ■*«) OS CN Or--* vc -tH rC Ot~ 00 OS Oq pSpS^^S r- O 00 O* so OS Cs t^ o OS ro 00 o so o so 00 oo oo" so CO o o q oo" CO u o ^-1 o M3 O OS 1^ o OS CO o OS OS o Ov o Os Os Os CO OS 1 ■'3-s"o''3-ot3''3-ata-a-c3 ^CiSOfCJ'^-O'dJS^dS.O.^ r~-Ooo t^ t^ lO CN CMCM ID CO O 00 lO t^ CM lO \0 SO >0 SO t^ t^ (N CN CN CS CS (N IN '^~* rO -Ji -o ^ .Cj -O '^ »C) fO .^ fO rfi t^ »-( lO <* s IN CS CO -^ CO ^ CO CO CO CO CO 1^ soO'* )sosO ) (NCS I T3 T3 ^ T3 ^3 -S ^3 -^ -^ .Q ^ ^ »^ riS B ^" as o lu ■§ ^ 5 -O rS "^ -S »S -O -S rC) rO -O CHAPTER III SPECIAL AID TO HIGH SCHOOLS As was explained in Chapter II, a specified amount of state aid is given to districts maintaining high schools, for each such school maintained. The districts receiving this aid receive no special aid for that part of the schools below the high school. The money from the state is paid to the district, and in general practice, turned in with the local general school fund. There is no separate account kept of high school costs except by a very few of the larger cities or in some items by other districts. This method of bookkeeping compels us at this point to consider such general items as tax expense and support, for the whole district instead of for the high school department alone. In another chapter^ certain items are considered for the high school alone, but in this part of the discussion, unless otherwise distinctly specified, "high school district" refers to the whole district or system of schools in the district and not to that division of the systemx — the high school proper. The whole system includes the high school and the grades. In an associated district it may include, besides the central system with the two parts above named, one or more one-room schools. The number of districts of the last kind, however, is very small. We realize that this m.ethod is not so desirable as it might be. On the other hand, when one stops to consider that the aid is given to the district as the unit, that the common practice is for the district to lump this con- tribution with all other forms of support in one general source of main- tenance, it is clear that the method above indicated, unfortunate and inac- curate as it may be, is the mxcthod of procedure really applicable to study- ing the conditions as they actually exist. The three largest cities — Duluth, St. Paul, Minneapolis — are not in- cluded in this report. They do not represent conditions typical of the state as a whole. These are the only cities of the state that have more than one high school each.^ Furthermore, in enrollment, in the total number of instructors, in the proportion of the school work that is indus- trial in character, and in the size of the corporate units in which the high schools of the state are located, the high schools of these three cities are in a group quite separate from the rest of the state. In 1914-15 there were 210 high schools in Minnesota outside of Duluth, St. Paul, and Minneapolis. These were located in villages and cities whose population ranged, accord- ing to the United States Census Report of 1910, as shown in Table V. ' Chapter 7, Aid to Industrial Departments. 2 Duluth has 2; St. Paul, 4; Minneapolis, 5. See Eighteenth Annual Report of the Inspector of State High Schools, 19 el seq. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 33 TABLE V Size of Corporate Units in Which Minnesota High Schools Are Located' 5 high schools are in corporations of under 500 people 71 (( << (< between 500 an d 1,000 people 43 << << << (( 1,000 ' ' 1,500 ' 30 tt << << 1,500 ' ' 2,000 * 14 it << « 2,000 ' 2,500 ' 6 (< i< u 2,500 ' ' 3,000 ' 5 <( a << 3,000 ' 3,500 ' 4 « << 1( 3,500 ' 4,000 ' 2 " (< " 4,000 ' 4,500 ' 3 " « " 4,500 ' 5,000 ' 1 " u (< 5,000 ' 5,500 ' 2 << a ii 5,500 ' 6,000 ' 2 <( u « 6,000 ' 6,500 ' 2 << (< ii 6,500 ' 7,000 ■' 1 a ^CSCNCNCSCOfOCOCOfO"*'^'*'*-^U-)lO»r3":>lONONONONOONCNCO iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiijiiiiiiiii 77 CN'<;tlvOOOOOiOiOiOiONONONONOONCNro STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 45 w H < < 6-8I-8I i-H "0 CM 6'L\-L\ -r-H T-l • ON 6-9T-9I 6St-£I d'tl-tl 1 6ei-si 62I-ZT ^ ^^ o '^ cs 6TX-n 1-H ■r-( i-H re • l-H re 6 0T-0T 1-H «— 1 i-H ■.-H T-( »-H T-l »-l re 6-6 -6 I-H •.-1 T— 1 ■.-( 68 -8 ■rt ^(M'tH ^ T-H 00 6i-i ■^ .^ .^ ,-1 ^ CN VO ■* CN MD -.-H o \o ■ CNO ce 69 -9 •^ ■^ ro ro 'tu-- O lO ro ro C<1 ■rt -^ o • "^i re re 6-S -S '*CN'-IOOOOOOr^'^CNrH re 6^ -f (M ,-1 T-i -^ -Tfi re -^ t- O re CN ro ■>-i re 00 • re^ re 6-£ -e 1-1 ■^ CN i-H ■^ c^ T-i cs -rt* ro ■<-< 00 • re 62 -3 tH (M i-H i-H tH o \0 ■ re < fa o H w o M Totals . . . Medians. . 0\C^O^O^O^C^O^O^O^O^C^O^O^O^O^O^O^C^O^O^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f0vOO\CSiOC0i-<'*t--Of0\OO\C<|iO00i-i«*t^O 46 RAYMOND ASA KENT H ■< Pi < 681-81 ^-1 6-Ll-Ll tH 6 -91-91 6SI-ST etT-ti 6eT-£T 621-21 •* 1-1 6ii-n ^ ^ ^ CM 6-OT-OT '-H CN CN (M 6"6 -6 •rH CN -rH 6-8 -8 ^ -* CN 6-1 -L ■>* lO t^ M3 O 1-1 69 -9 CN CN O \0 or- 6S -S ■■-H OS ro CO 6't -^ rt T-< ir5 ro CN vo OO 0\ CO-* 6e -e C-1 \0 t^ ■* 1-11* 6-Z -3 ■rH 1-1 CN CS "0 w u < Q z; w H H :::;;■■: OnOnOnOsOnOnOnOs 0n0n0nC\O\0sO\^ OOOOOOOO in STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 47 < O H !zi d) O 0! 6 29-09 - 6-6?-iS »H T-HIO 6 95-^5 »-H tH 1-1 '* 6-es-is 6-0?-8f' T-H tH pv] rH -* 6'it'-Sf' CNl CO "0 6"t?'-J^ ^ ro •^ CN ^ ^ -* e'Tf-ec CO NO-* CO NO ^ •* 6'8e-9e ■.-1 ro oo ro ro 00 NO T-l 6se-ee •^ CS fO t^ ■•-H •* NO CN -^ 6'2S-0C CNl "* CS CM 6'6Z-i2 ■rH -^t^lO ^ 00 NO —1 <* 6 -92-^3 CS O CO T-H NO ir— 6£Z.-XZ tH On ro --h T-l •* 6 '02-81 T-iio (M ■.-< On NO 6-iT-ST ^m-r^ 6'tT-2T •.-H i-H CN O 6'TT-6 T-l ■.-( T-l ro lO 6"8 -9 xH r-HCM NO 1—1 6S -e ^ ^ro w o < o z w H H ■< 100-109.9 110-119.9 120-129.9 130-139.9 140-149.9 150-159.9 160-169.9 170-179.9 ■ en 48 RAYMOND ASA KENT o ?: o en z 6 -81-81 tH -- \ 6iT-iT -- 6-^T-tI 6'ei-eT 6eT-ZI c^ ri rH 6'TT-TT re o NO 6 0T-0T UO '-H ■<-H CO < < 66 -6 CO t-H 00 1-H 6"8 -8 CN>0 H < (>L -I O »-l ■^ 1-H ,-1 CS CM NO • tH u o ►J 69 -9 l^Tir 00 On" 0~ 00 ooooooooooo ooo_ooo oo ooo •rH es ro ■<*" lO NO t^ 00 On" o" 00 STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 49 X X w D Z U Sh H u. o % » H B. W in Z W Ci< >^ W 6 6fT-SCT f-< lo 6 "621-52 1 -- ID 6t6-06 ^ 6 "69-59 tH i-H •rH ID 6 "f 9-09 ^-H i-H T-H ID u 6 "65-55 - O 00 Q 6"tS-0S - o < 6" 6^-5* ^ o CM • o O >< 6"tf'-0f' ^-H >r-l t-t CN < Q Pi w til 6"6C-5e T-k 1-1 • (M 6"K-0e 1-- t^ ■^ i-H tH »H T-l o •.-1 . Ph 6"62-SZ rh O t^ '-I th 1-H T-i CM CN »o ■ lOi-i X n 6"f'3-0Z T-l fO ro irj fo CN '-H th cn cs ^-i 00 ^ • 2; ^ o H <1 >J M Pi 0nO\0s0\0n0nO\O\0n0n0n0n 0^0\0^0^C^O0^0^0^C^0^0^ O^C^O^C^C^O^O^O^O^O^O^C^ 1-h" CN ro •*" lO o" J~-r 00 oC o" 00 ooooooooooo o_ o o_ o_ o_ o_ o_ o_ o_ o_ o_ »-r C-f ro •*" lO \0 I>r oo" Os" O oo 50 RAYMOND ASA KENT a w > w Q w o u l-H i-i ■< X ^ X o m z pq O < :. w Pm Q O <3 H K s o a( (=. H > U b) W o u z § H z H O « W 6 "29-09 1 »Hir3 6-6S-iS h T-llO 6"9S-tS 6-€S-lS - Cq CN CN •— f CN '* ■ CN ■* 6-zc-oe CD CO CO ■■-H •^ CO T^ 6-62-i?; t^ lO CN CO '-I 00^ 6"93-t'2 Olio rf T-H •<-i tH t-H to o •T-H CN 6f2-Tt CO lO •■-1 ^ ■^ CN '-I rf< 00 6 03-81 ^ T-(.r-4 ^ ^ ^ On lO 6' L\-S\ ^ CN to • (,f\-Z\ ^ CN O 00 6"TI-6 T-H ,-1 •—( CO to CN 68-9 CN .^ T-H 6S -e CO .rt ,-1 to 00 O H < D O o^o^o^o^o^o^o^o^o^o^o^c^ On On Ov On On On On On On On On 0\ OvOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnOn •"-T cnT co" -^ lo NO j>r 00 oT o' 00 ooooooooooo oooooo oooo o '-I CN CO '*"iOMD t^roOoCooO STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 51 •X X w m < 6 ■02-0?; ^ ^ lO 6"6l-6I ^ ■r-H lO 6'8l-8I 6LI-11 " 69T-9I rO ro lO 6-Sl-b-T - r-H lO w u 6-tT-t'I C-) -f ro CSl ■^ (M ■^ -^ CN CN lO 6'£ -e T-H -.-( .rH CN t-i SO lO 0\ ■ ■ z o H p o Cm On On 0\ O^ On On On On On On On On On Q^ On On On On On On O^ 0\ On On ■f-T cr 00 oT O" 00 ooooooooooo ooooo_o_o_o_o_o^q_ '— iesr0'^''50i>-oo0\0oo i-H y-) ■ (/5 52 RAYMOND ASA KENT Each of the preceding eight tables shows the relationship between two factors already considered in the discussion of high schools. No correlation of amounts large enough to be significant appears in any of these tables of distribution. TABLE XXV High School Summary Item Median QUARTILES 147.4 days 25 . 7 cents 7 . 5 cents 32.2 per cent 6 . 3 mills $1,186 9 months" 142.4 days 21.5 cents 6 . 1 cents 25.3 per cent 5.0 mills $937 154.4 days 29.9 cents 9 . 8 cents 37.8 per cent 7 . 8 mills $1,610 Length of school year Summary The t^^'pical Minnesota high school system is located in a village of be- tween 1,250 and 1,275 people. Its pupils attend 147 days each year, and each pupil costs his district twenty-seven cents each day he attends. The district receives from the state seven and five-tenths cents for each pupil for each day he attends, and thirty-two per cent of all the annual income provided for maintaining the school system. The district, to raise its share, levies a tax of six mills on its real valuation. The assessed valua- tion of the property amounts to $1,186 for every child enrolled in the dis- trict. The variability among the different high school districts is such that statements of central tendencies concerning taxes and per cent of aid are somewhat misleading. There is a marked tendency for districts to put money into their high schools in direct proportion to the number en- rolled in the high schools. There is no tendency, as is sometimes asserted, for some communities to support a high school "at the expense of the grades." In the lowest twenty-one per cent of high school districts the average levy for all high school districts would bring between $3.75 and $11.25 per enrolled pupil. In the nineteen highest a similar tax would bring $37.50 to $800 per pupil. In the six districts of highest valuation the same levy would raise from $254 to $800 per pupil. And yet there is no distinction made by the state in distributing the aid because of this ex- tremely high variability. The modal length. It is the minimum and is exceeded by a negligible number of the 197 schools. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 53 What is the object of state aid to high schools? The original question in this connection seemed to be whether it is not as legitimate for the state to assist high schools by a direct bonus as to assist elementary schools, normal schools, and universities,^" or whether the state is not bound to give such assistance in order to make its policy consistent for all divisions of public education. But more specific aims have been attempted in applying such aid. In Massachusetts ''the inference is that state aid is offered as an inducement to employ more than one teacher. "^^ In Maine the result was to increase greatly the number of free high schools, to raise very materially the stand- ards of secondary scholarship, and to increase the number of courses offered by high schools.^^ The original aim "in Wisconsin was to encourage the development of township or rural high schools." The results have been more far reaching in greatly broadening the curriculum, maintaining high standards of teachers' qualifications.^^ In California the aid "has helped struggling country schools where some of the very best secondary work is being done."^* The aim in Florida seems to be to encourage beginning and successive advancement in work of high school grade.^^ Dakota's desire is "to aid rural schools to high standards. "^^ New Hampshire's aid is for supervision.^^ Pennsylvania's plan resembles Florida's.^^ The re- sults in Rhode Island have justified the expectation of bringing pupils in smaller towns into contact with high schools.^^ Summarizing, the author above quoted says that high school aid has made possible better teaching, better buildings, and better equipment. High school education is placed at the door of the child needing it.^" In brief, state aid to high schools has aimed to make secondary educa- tion common, public education, inspected and standardized by the state, and has aimed to overcome the handicap to secondary education arising from the fact that this type of education is on the whole more costly than that in the years below it. All these aims, state aid has accomplished in Minnesota to a highly commendable degree. The question of importance for the state to answer now is whether aid to high schools shall be continued after its original purposes have been fulfilled. The question may be thought of as whether high school aid 2" For general discussion see Johnston; and Bolton, Special State Aid'Ho High Schools, Educational Review 31, February, 1906. 21 Ibid., Bolton, 143. 22 Ibid., 145. 23 76iii., 145-151. 21 Ibid., 153. 25 Ibid. '^^ Ibid., 155. " Ibid. 28 Ibid., 157. 29 Ibid., 158. 3» Ibid., 163. 54 RAYMOND ASA KENT should be given with a view to accomplishing certain purposes and then discontinued, or whether the state has adopted a permanent policy of subsidy to secondary education. In the light of the historical development of secondary support, ^"^ practice points decidedly in the direction of con- tinued state subsidy in the future. If this judgment be true, two matters are of paramount importance at this time. The first is, what shall be the conditions governing the dis- tribution of this subsidy? If nothing else made this issue a vital one, the constantly and greatly increasing appropriations for the various forms of secondary aid would make it so.^^ The subsidy should be given where it is needed, if given at all. It is obvious that the district most needing it is the one which must impose the greatest tax levy in order to meet the minimum standards set by the state supervising agent. Why districts with valuations sufficient to raise from $600 to $800 per pupil by the average tax levy should receive the maximum state aid is inexplicable. Whether they should receive any special aid is extremely doubtful. If all special aid were withdrawn from them the state would still have the right of edu- cational supervision and standardization by virtue of the interpretation of scholarship prerequisites as a basis for the distribution of the apportion- ment income. The second question of great present importance is, why state aid to high schools is continued in such large amounts. If the primary aims connected with the establishment of this aid have been in large part served, what aims have grown out of this development? State aid to high schools in Minnesota has accomplished results highly commendable. It has caused high schools to increase in number very rapidly. It has made it possible for the state to be extraordinarily well provided with secondary education advantages in its small cities and villages. Requirements raised from time to time by a state board, with close inspection by an impartial, unattached, professional agent of the board, have given the state's system of high schools enviable rank. The important problems which the state now faces with respect to these schools are not merely those connected with continuing to maintain high ideals of scholarship, of educational accomplishment, of teachers' requirements, or adaptation of schools and courses of study to commonwealth and com- munity needs. One of the problems of greatest importance is a readjust- ment of the distribution of the special aid with distinct reference to the need, the effort, and the ability of the district concerned, with respect to the high school work of these districts. There shoiild be a more thorough study of the high school districts to determine whether it is wise to continue '1 C. F. Brown, The Making of Our Middle Schools ch. 13. Johnston et al., The Modern High School ch. 3. 32 See summary at the end of Chapter 2. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 55 to give no aid nominally to elementary schools and to give all to the high schools of such districts, or whether each should be subsidized separately. The bases for any form of aid selected should be chosen with reference to specific aims. The methods by which it is thought that such aims are to be realized should be clearly outlined. The state should have a policy with respect both to what it is attempting and also of determining how its attempts are working. From time to time investigations and surveys should be made to determine whether the aid is accomplishing the results sought. Some such procedure is the only way of securing the desired "economy" and "efficiency." ' CHAPTER IV SPECIAL AID TO GRADED SCHOOLS At ^ the time that this study was made there were on the Hst of state graded schools 217 districts.^ The data gathered made it possible to include in the study 206 of these. TABLE XXVI Attendance per Pupil per Year by Districts Number of Per Cent of Attendance — Districts. All Districts Days 1 .5 93 to 95 6 2.9 HI 3 1.5 114 7 3.4 117 8 3.9 120 11 5.3 123 18 8.7 126 15 7.3 129 . 16 7.8 132 22 10.7 135 25 12.1 138 20 9.7 141 12 5.8 144 15 7.3 147 11 5.3 150 8 3.9 153 6 2.9 156 1 .5 159 1 .5 162 The median time that each pupil enrolled in these 206 graded schools attends each year is 138.7 days. In the middle fifty per cent of the districts pupils attend between 128.6 and 147.2 days each. In less than one fifth of the districts the average attendance is lower than 120 days — three times the length of time a child needs to attend school in order for the district to be granted apportionment aid. In one district the attendance averages 162 days, or slightly more than eight ninths of the maximum, while in thirty-five per cent of all the districts the average is above 140 days, or seven eighths of the possible maximum. Length of the School Year Only a word here need be said about the length of the school year in these districts. There can not be less than nine months in order for any school to be on the list, to receive special state aid.^ Only a few schools have longer school years. ' Eighteenth Annual Report of the Inspector of Stale Graded Schools, 8. 2 See Chapter 2 and Appendix A, Rules of High School Board. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 57 TABLE XXVII Cost per Pupil per Day of Attendance by Districts Number of Per Cent of Cost per Day — Districts All Districts Cents 1 .5 8 to 9.9 3 1.5 10 11.9 7 3.4 12 13.9 12 5.8 14 15.9 13 6.3 16 17.9 25 12.1 18 19.9 29 14.1 20 21.9 24 11.1 22 23.9 18 8.7 24 25.9 15 7.2 26 27.9 18 8.7 28 29.9 8 3.9 30 31.9 4 1.9 32 33.9 6 2.9 34 35.9 6 2.9 36 37.9 1 .5 38 39.9 4 1.9 40 41.9 3 1.5 42 43.9 2 1.0 44 47.9 1 .5 48 49.9 2 1.0 50 63.9 4 1.9 64 64.9 TABLE XXVIII Aid per Pupil per Day of Attendance by Districts Number of Per Cent of Aid per Day — Districts All Districts Cents 3 1.5 3 to 3.9 4 1.9 4 « 4.9 13 6.3 5 « 5.9 53 25.7 6 « 6.9 63 30.6 7 « 7.9 38 18.4 8 « 8.9 8 3.9 9 (( 9.9 10 4.8 10 (( 10.9 3 1.5 11 (C 11.9 5 2.4 12 ii 12.9 1 .5 15 li 13.9 .0 14 « 14.9 1 .5 15 <( 15.9 .0 16 « 16.9 .0 17 a 17.9 2 1.0 18 i( 18.9 .0 19 « 19.9 .0 20 le 20.9 1 .5 21 i< 21.9 1 .5 24 i( 24.9 58 RAYMOND ASA KENT The median cost per pupil per day of attendance is 22 . 98 cents. In the middle half of the schools this cost lies between 19.4 cents and 28.7 cents. The modal group represents a cost of 20 to 20.9 cents. In the lowest eleven per cent of the districts the cost per unit does not reach 16 cents, while in the highest eleven per cent the unit cost is not below 36 cents. The median aid per day of attendance is 7 . 1 cents. The quartiles are 6.4 cents and 8.4. cents. Sixty-five per cent of the schools receive 7 cents or more aid per day of attendance, or practically not less than one third the. median cost per day of attendance. TABLE XXIX Part That State Aid Is of Total Annual Income BY Districts Number of Per Cent of State Aid — Districts All Districts Pe R Cent 4 1.9 to 2.9 1 .5 3 << 8.9 1 .5 9 il 11.9 1 .5 12 it 14.9 3 1.5 15 il 17.9 10 4.9 18 U 20.9 4 1.9 21 u 23.9 24 11.1 24 ii 26.9 16 7.8 27 a 29.9 38 18.4 30 it 32.9 28 13.6 33 11 35.9 29 14.1 36 11 38.9 18 8.7 39 u 41.9 - 10 4.9 42 u 44.9 4 1.9 45 a 47.9 6 2.9 48 u 53.9 5 2.4 54 u 56.9 2 1.0 63 a 65.9 1 .5 81 a 83.9 1 .5 87 (C 89.9 The median part that state aid is of the total annual income for graded schools is 33 per cent. In one half of these schools this ratio falls between 27.55 per cent and 38.44 per cent. Nine per cent of the districts receive less than 20 per cent of their annual income from the state, while fourteen per cent of the districts receive 42 per cent or more from state aid. The median special school tax levied by these districts to maintain their graded schools was 5.05 mills on the basis of the real valuation. The middle fifty per cent of the districts levied between 3 . 85 mills and 5 . 96 mills. Eighty-five per cent of the districts had tax levies between 2 and 8 mills. One district had a levy of 19 mills, but only three per cent of all levied over 10 mills. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 59 TABLE XXX Special School Tax in Mills by Districts Number of Per Cent of Special School Districts All Districts Tax— Mills 6 2.9 to 1.9 19 9.2 2 2.9 28 13.6 3 3.9 43 20.9 4 4.9 48 23.3 5 5.9 27 13.1 6 6.9 13 6.3 7 7.9 10 4.9 8 8.9 6 2.9 9 9.9 1 .5 10 10.9 3 1.5 11 11.9 1 .5 16 16.9 1 .5 19 19.9 TABLE XXXI Assessed Valuation per Enrolled Pupil Number of Per Cent of Assessed Valuation Districts All Districts per Pupil 5 2.4 $ 250 to $ 499 9 4.2 500 ' 749 31 14.6 750 ' 999 57 26.9 1,000 ' 1,149 50 23.6 1,250 ' 1,499 21 9.9 1,500 ' 1,749 10 4.7 1,750 ' 1,999 5 2.4 2,000 ' 2,249 7 3.3 2,250 ' 2,499 3 1.4 2,500 ' 2,749 3 1.4 2,750 ' 2,999 3 1.4 3,000 ' 3,249 1 .5 3,250 ' 3,499 .0 3,500 ' 3,749 .0 3,750 ' 3,999 1 .5 4,000 ' 4,249 .0 4,250 ' 4,499 .0 4,500 ' 4,749 .0 4,750 ' 4,999 1 .5 5,000 ' 5,249 1 .5 5,250 ' 5,499 .0 5,500 ' 5,749 .0 5,750 ' 5,999 .0 6,000 ' 6,249 .0 6,250 ' 6,499 .0 6,500 ' 7,749 .0 7,750 ' 7,999 .0 8,000 ' 8,499 1 .5 8,500 ' 8,749 .0 8,750 ' 8,999 .0 9,000 ' 9,499 .0 9,500 ' 10,499 .0 10,500 " 10,999 3 1.4 11,000 and up 60 RAYMOND ASA KENT The assessed valuation per enrolled pupil in 212 of these districts is $1,254. The middle fifty per cent have valuations between $1,034 and $1,582. Only four per cent have valuations over $3,250 per child, and only fourteen per cent over $2,000 per child. Over one fifth have valua- tions under $1,000 per child. Summary The typical graded school of Minnesota enrolls annually 119 pupils,^ who attend 139 days, each pupil costing the district twenty-three cents each day he attends. Of the total income of this school one third is con- tributed by the state and the remainder is raised by the district through a tax of 5.05 mills on each dollar of real valuation of taxable property. The Pearson method shows the following relationships: TABLE XXXII Correlations in Graded Schools I. Number of days annual attendance per pupil and local tax levy + .02 II. Number of days attended per pupil during a year and per cent that state aid is of total annual maintenance income + . 009 III. Cost per pupil per day of attendance and aid per pupil per day of attendance + .26 IV. Cost per pupil per day of attendance and per cent that state aid is of total annual maintenance income — .25 V. Cost per pupil per day of attendance and number of days annual attendance per pupil — .11 VI. Aid per pupil per day of attendance and local tax levy + .11 'In 2 districts, or 1 .27 percent of all. " 1 district " .64 " 5 districts " 3.18 " 17 "10.83 « 9 " " 5.73 " 14 " 8.92 " 34 "21.66 " 14 " 8.92 " 17 " "10.83 " 12 " 7.64 " 5 " 3.18 " 5 " 3.18 " 5 " 3.18 " 2 " 1.27 " 1 district " .64 " 1 " .64 " 3 districts " 1.91 " 2 " 1.27 " 2 " " 1.27 " 1 district " .64 " 2 districts " 1.27 " " .0 " " .0 " 1 district " .64 " 1 " .64 « 1 " .64 he enrollment is 50 to 59 pupils " 60 " 69 « 70 « 79 " 80 " 89 « 90 « 99 " "100 " 109 "110 " 119 "120 " 129 "130 " 139 "140 " 149 "150 " 159 "160 " 169 " . "170 " 179 "180 " 189 "190 " 199 "200 " 209 " " " "210 " 219 " " "220 " 229 " " "230 " 239 " " " ^ "240 " 249 " " ' "280 " 289 " " "310 " 319 "330 " 339 "350 " 359 " "360 " 369 « " "400 " 409 STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 61 Graded schools have only the department of grade work, with a few exceptions. By actual count nearly one hundred of the 216 have just four instructors each, including the principal. This similarity offers the opportunity to study the effect of state aid in a group of schools more nearly representing a clearly defined type of school than any other division that it has been possible to makc.^ The division "high schools" includes both secondary and elementary departments of work. Rural schools include the so-called semi-graded and ungraded or common schools. Among the "common schools" are three classes with respect to aid. Graded schools, on the other hand, exist as a logically fairly well defined group. Special aid to graded schools came in Minnesota seventeen years after high school aid. By common practice these two aids seem to have been granted in similar order of precedence in other states.^ State supervision, with all its implications of high standards and requirements with respect to buildings, equipment, teachers, length of school year, curricula, and scholarship, has been the aim sought. Graded school aid has without doubt increased the number of high schools and helped to improve the high school situation in the state. Conformity to state supervision and requirements is learned through meeting graded aid prerequisites. The state of mind and attitude of a district resiilting from familiarity with requirements for grade school aid are without doubt much more favorable to the added requirements for a district's being placed upon the high school list. The general large increase of state aid through recent years indicates, too, that a district that once receives a state subsidy has an increasing appetite for more of the same kind of sustenance. Graded school aid has without doubt lengthened the school year, raised teaching efficiency, and bettered the physical conditions under which instruction is given in these schools. On the other hand, neither the effort the district makes nor the pro- portion it receives from the state seems to make any difference in the number of days a child attends (I and 11).^ There is no marked indica- tion that cost per day of attendance and the aid per day of attendance have any relation one to another (III). Neither is there any marked indication that where this daily cost is highest the districts are receiving any particiilar proportion of their total income from state aid (IV) . The re- lation between the proportion of aid and the local tax is not enough to be a basis for very definite conclusions. Table XXXIII shows a tendency toward negative correlation, however, which fact may be of some importance. * See Chapter 2. * See Special Stale Aid to High Schools, 31:3rd div. * Roman numerals refer to items in table 32. 62 RAYMOND ASA KENT Q 6 "68-^8 6C8-I8 6 59-^9 6 '95-^5 6"09-8f' 6'Zt-S^ e'tf-zf- ■•— I ro \0 ■^ CO '— ' 6se-ee 6'ZS-OC 6"62-iZ; 6 "92-^2 '^ t^ 00 lO fO '-I I CM tr> O r^ ro rvi lO^-iOiOrO'-i'-i ■^ c-^ lO '^i ro ■^ •<-HCNOjoo-^c-ir-i 6ZI-ST 6"^I-ZI 68-9 •^ r-H C<1 r~J vH cs 00 -^ ; m ■!■!!!!!!!!!! I tn 5 • ■ • ... >J :5 : : •■ * lO VO t^ 00 0\ O '-I M3 OS »-< H S Illllllll77777 '-iC^rOrtiir5VOC-~OOOvO''-ivOOs'-i 1^ T-i •.-I th rri STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 63 Cost per pupil day, assessed valuation per pupil enrolled, and the special school levy distributions do not contain many cases of great extremes. The attendance in days per pupil and the per cent of revenue from the state have their distributions less centered. The variability from the central tendency in the last named distribution is probably accentuated by the fact that a few schools receive aid other than that merely for graded schools, as aid for consolidation, aid for industrial work, or aid for two years of high school work. In the data studied there is no proof that special state aid to graded schools has resulted in any condition that is distinctly bad. The relation- ship between cost and per cent of state aid shows a tendency that may result in districts which are not needy receiving too large a proportion from the state. The danger of this result will always be present and the result itself will tend to creep in in greater or less degree as long as the aid is distributed without any reference to local ability or local effort. Local communities and the state at large have received, it appears, two main benefits from aid to this group of schools: first, elementary schools and school work have been standardized; second, communities have qualified for high school rank much sooner than without the stimulat- ing effect of the intermediate experience of receiving graded school aid. Each of these results is highly justifiable. There is one question, how- ever, that is worth while raising in this connection. It is, whether, with the liberal amount of aid now given this type of school, more definite encouragement could not be offered for communities to do something different than the stereotyped form of work, particularly in the grammar grades. It is true that such incentive has been offered through additional aid. TABLE XXXIV Grade School Summary Item Median QUARTILES 138.7 days 23.0 cents 7 . 1 cents 33 .0 per cent 5 . 1 mills $1,254 9 months.' 129.6 days 19.4 cents 6 . 4 cents 2 7.6 per cent 3 . 9 mills $1,034 147.2 davs 28 . 7 cents 8 . 4 cents 6 . mills $1,582 ^ The modal length. It is the minimum and is exceeded by a negligible number of the 212 schools. 64 RAYMOND ASA KENT It has already proven distinctly worth while to encourage communities to do independent things even though they can not or do not aspire to establish even a partial high school. Industrial work for both boys and girls shotild be encouraged below the high school. In some schools de- partmental work could be introduced. It does not seem as though the state needs to wait on special appropriations to encourage specific experi- ments and increments of work among graded schools. It is quite probable that conscious administration of the graded aid to encourage the special and varied forms of effort would tend to bring results of similar nature to those that have been sought so far only through additional aid for special work. CHAPTER V SPECIAL AID TO RURAL SCHOOLS Of the three groups of schools which were to be discussed only one group, that of the rural schools, remains. The facts concerning the seven factors already discussed for high and graded school districts will be pre- sented first. These will be followed by a discussion of certain implications true for the rural field only. TABLE XXXV Number of Actual Days Atte NDANCE PER Pupil, BY Districts Number of Per Cent of Attendance — Districts All Districts Days 2 .2 30 to 34 3 .3 35 (I 39 4 .4 40 « 44 4 .4 45 it 49 10 1.0 50 a 54 17 1.7 55 ti 59 30 2.9 60 ti 64 41 4.0 65 ic 69 51 5.0 70 « 74 52 5.1 75 a 79 72 7.1 80 le 84 79 7.8 85 ii 89 96 9.5 90 ii 94 76 7.5 95 te 99 80 7.9 100 it 104 86 8.5 105 it 109 82 8.1 110 ti 114 68 6.7 115 it 119 42 4.2 120 a 124 37 3.7 125 it 129 27 2.7 130 it 134 15 1.5 135 a 139 19 1.9 140 it 144 7 .7 145 it 149 5 .5 150 it 154 2 .2 155 it 159 2 .2 160 it 164 1 .1 165 if 169 1 .1 170 it 174 The median length of time that a pupil in a rural district attends school during the year is 97.9 days. The quartiles of attendance are 81 days and 112 days. The distribution of this attendance is given in Table XXXV. The modal attendance time is in the group "90 to 95 days"; the median and the mode are thus in adjoining groups. Fifty-three per cent attend less than 100 days, or five months a year. Less than sixteen 66 RAYMOND ASA KENT per cent attend 120 days, or six months. On the other hand, 99 . 5 per cent attend 40 days or more, the attendance required for sharing in the current school fund. TABLE XXXVI Length of School Year in Months The number of districts having a school year of three months is " from 3 to 4 " " " 4 5 " 32 « 5 6 " 80 " 6 7 " 165 ' 7 8 " 606 ' 8 9 " 201 , 9 10 " 9 The median length of the school year in 1,095^ districts is 7.7 months. The middle one half of these districts have a school year between 6.9 months and 7 . 8 months in length. There is a very clearly marked mode at eight months. One half of all these schools have less than eight months of school annually, while only one half of one per cent have less than seven months. If the length of these school years be calculated in days then the table would read: One school has a year of between 41 and 60 days, etc., and the median length is 148 . 9 days. This is 16.4 days longer than the length of rural schools in Minnesota as fotuid by the Bureau of Education for the year 1909-10.^ The Bureau, however, includes in the group, "rural schools," all schools not in cities of 2,500 or more inhabitants.^ On the other hand, the median school year in the Minnesota rural school, as that division is here used, is 11.2 days longer than the average school year in all rural schools in the United States, as reported by the Bureau.^ In reality this means that the one- and two-room rural schools of Minnesota are really considerably^ in advance of the rest of the schools in their own class over the country as a whole. On the other hand, it is doubtftil whether the state is very far in advance of the central tendency of the other states in its own geographical division of territory. The accompanying figure shows the general tendency toward increasing length of school years. Minnesota falls in the North Central Division. One would naturally expect that the special aid of the rural schools in Minnesota would result in a lengthened school year. The length of the 1 More than 1,011 districts from the fourteen counties could be included in this item. Since this factor was not used in any correlations there is no point in making the number correspond with the number of districts used in the correlations. Hence, 1,095 instead ot 1,011. 2 Monahan, The Status of Rural Education in the United States, United Slates Bureau of Education Bulletin no. 8 p. 23. 1913. 3 Ibid., 10. * Ibid., 23. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 67 school year is one of the two essential requirements conditioning such aid.^ It may be very seriously doubted whether this aid has kept these schools in session longer each year than the average school year for other rural schools in the same part of the country.^ i? ;$ CO CO ^ ^ ^ o 00 ( 6 CK 1 ?* 50 CO rfs to U) Ov s: '^ ^ Figure 2' \ Increasing length of term, in day s Da/js O The median cost per day of actual attendance per pupil is 22.9 cents. In the middle half of the districts this cost is between 17.08 cents and 31.86 cents. The modal cost is between 15 and 20 cents. This is only the second step removed from the group of lowest cost, but the eighteenth step from the group of highest cost. In this item there is, then, a very marked tendency toward an appearance of scattered cases of districts in which the cost is much higher than the median, but for no such scattering to appear below the median cost. In over seventy per cent of the districts the cost is less than 30 cents per pupil per day, while in over thirty-eight per cent it is less than 20 cents. In only slightly more than two per cent of the districts is the cost above 75 cents. ' See Chapter 2. ' Cf. Rural Life and Education, 100. ' From Cubberley's Rural Life and Education, 101 (with the publisher's permission). 68 RAYMOND ASA KENT TABLE XXXVII Cost per Pupil per Day of Attendance by Districts Number of Per Cent of Cost PER Day — Districts All Districts Cents 6 .59 5 to 9.9 146 14.44 10 14.9 240 23.74 15 19.9 199 19.78 20 24.9 130 12.85 25 29.9 99 9.79 30 34.9 54 5.34 35 39.9 41 4.05 40 44.9 21 2.07 45 49.9 22 2.16 50 54.9 9 .89 55 59.9 6 .59 60 64.9 4 .39 65 69.9 11 1.08 70 74.9 5 .49 75 79.9 3 .20 80 84.9 7 .69 85 89.9 1 .09 90 94.9 1 .09 95 99.9 1 .09 100 104.9 5 .49 105 109.9 and up TABLE XXXVIII State Aid per Pupil per Day of Attendance BY Districts Number of Per Cent of Aid per Day — Districts All Districts Cents 1 1 0. 1 to 0.9 4 .4 1 « 1.9 1 .1 2 <( 2.9 19 1.9 3 (( 3.9 78 7.7 4 « 4.9 119 11.8 5 (( 5.9 113 11.2 6 u 6.9 143 14.1 7 << 7.9 168 16.6 8 (< 8.9 119 11.8 9 il 9.9 100 9.9 10 (I 10.9 48 4.7 11 11 11.9 32 3.1 12 it 12.9 26 2.6 13 i( 13.9 10 1.0 14 iC 14.9 7 .7 15 <( 15.9 6 .6 16 u 16.9 4 .4 17 (t 17.9 2 .2 18 « 18.9 6 .6 19 (( 19.9 .1 20 « 20.9 .1 21 (t 21.9 .1 23 u 23.9 .1 25 it 25.9 .1 27 it 27.9 2 .2 45 it 45.9 STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 69 The median aid per day of actual attendance is 8.8 cents. The mode falls in the same group as the median. The middle half of all the districts receive aid per day between 6 . 2 cents and 9 . 5 cents. In twenty-five of the districts the aid is over 10 cents per pupil daily; in ten per cent, the aid is less than 5 cents per day. TABLE XXXIX The Per Cent That State Aid Is of the Total Annual Income for Maintenance by Districts Number of Per Cent of State Aid — Districts All Districts Per Cent 10 1.0 to 4.9 20 2.0 5 9.9 57 5.6 10 14.9 72 7.1 15 19.9 68 6.7 20 24.9 110 10.9 25 29.9 113 11.2 30 34.9 125 12.4 35 39.9 132 13.0 40 44.9 99 9.8 45 49.9 96 9.5 50 54.9 51 5.0 55 59.9 30 3.0 60 64.9 16 1.6 65 69.9 4 .4 70 74.9 4 .4 75 79.9 3 .3 80 84.9 1 .1 95 99.9 TABLE XL Local Tax for Maintenance as per Mills OF Real Taxable Valuation Number of Per Cent of Local Tax — Districts All Districts Mills 201 19.88 to .9 445 44.01 1 1.9 190 18.79 2 2.9 53 5.24 3 3.9 68 .6.73 4 4.9 23 2.27 5 5.9 8 .79 6 6.9 8 .79 7 7.9 5 .49 8 8.9 7 .69 9 9.9 1 .09 10 10.9 2 .19 11 11.9 The median part that the two kinds of state aid constitute of the year's total income is 37.2 per cent. The middle half of these districts receive directly from the state between 25.7 per cent and 45 . 5 per cent of their total annual income for maintenance. This includes many districts 70 RAYMOND ASA KENT whose only receipt from the state is the apportionment money. There is a fairly clearly marked mode in the "40 per cent to 45 per cent" group. On account of the fact that 45 per cent aid marks practically the end of three fourths of the number of cases, however, the median falls quite a little above this modal per cent. Over twenty per cent of all the districts receive 50 per cent or more directly from state funds, while only twenty-two per cent receive less than 25 per cent from the state. It should be remembered that of the 1,011 districts included in this array, only 461 receive special aid for rural schools; 550 receive only the current school fund. TABLE XLI Assessed Valuation per Enrolled Pupil by Districts NXJMBER OF Per Cent of Assessed Valuation Districts All Districts PER Pupil 9 1.44 below $ 300 24 3.84 $ 300 to 499 25 4.00 500 699 38 6.08 700 899 56 8.96 900 1,099 43 6.88 1,100 1,299 39 6.24 1,300 1,499 35 5.60 1,500 1,699 41 6.56 1,700 1,899 29 4.64 1,900 2,099 27 4.32 2,100 2,299 33 5.28 2,300 2,499 36 5.76 2,500 2,699 20 3.20 2,700 2,899 19 3.04 2,900 3,099 20 3.20 3,100 3,299 13 1.98 3,300 3,499 10 1.60 3,500 3,699 14 2.24 3,700 3,899 8 1.28 3,900 4,099 5 .80 4,100 4,299 10 1.60 4,300 4,499 9 1.44 4,500 4,699 4 .64 4,700 4,899 8 1.28 4,900 5,099 2 .32 5,100 5,299 4 .64 5,300 5,499 37 5.92 5,500 and above The median special local school tax levy on the real valuation of the property is 1 . 7 mills per district. In the middle fifty per cent of the districts this tax varies from 1 . 7 mills to 1.58 mills. The modal tax is very clearly "1 to 1.9 mills," in the same group as the median. In over eighty-four per cent of the districts the tax is less than 3 mills. In ninety- seven per cent of the districts it is less than 6 mills. This striking central STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 71 tendency is paralleled only by the fact that forty-four per cent of all the cases are in the modal (median) group. This remarkable similarity among rural districts with respect to their tax levies is not to be interpreted to mean equal similarity with respect to actual school support — the amount actually raised for schools in these districts. This fact is clearly shown by a consideration of the assessed valuation per enrolled pupil. The latter item was computed for a random selection of 618 districts out of the 1,011 districts. The median assessed valuation per enrolled pupil in 618 rural school districts is $2,195. In one half of these districts the valuation per pupil is between $1,321 and $3,273. Ten per cent of the districts with the highest valuation would yield from $450 to over $550 per pupil with a tax levy of 10 mills on the assessed valuation. The ten per cent of lowest valuation would yield between $30 and $70 approximately from a similar levy. So far as unequal abilities among individual districts are concerned, there is plenty of justification for some plan of state aid that shall tend to equalize the burden of support. The lists of districts with their respective valuation, in Table XLIII, show the inequality among districts in one county of southwestern Minnesota. TABLE XLII Monthly Salary of Rural Teachers Number of Per Cent of Monthly Salary of Districts All Districts Rural Teachers 10 1.0 $30 to $34 54 5.3 35 " 39 176 17.4 40 " 44 231 22.9 45 " 49 305 30.2 50 " 54 137 13.5 55 " 59 69 6.6 60 " 64 23 2.3 65 " 69 6 .6 70 " 74 2 .2 75 " 79 The median monthly salary of teachers in 1,011 districts is $51.14. The middle fifty per cent of districts have salaries ranging from $45 . 63 to $56.30 per month. There is a clearly marked mode in the "$50 to $55" group, where the median falls. About twenty-four per cent of the districts pay less than $45 per month, while only nine and seven-tenths per cent pay $60 or more. 72 RAYMOND ASA KENT TABLE XLIII Blue Earth County I certify that the following is a correct statement of the school tax rate and assessed valuation for the school districts of Blue Earth County for the school year ending July 31, 1913. Signed — C. L. Kennedy, County Auditor School Districts (Include in the special school tax the local 1-mill but not the state 1-mill tax.) Name or Assessed Special Name or Assessed Special Number Valuation School Tax Number Valuation School Tax 1 $4,187,699 10.0 85 $ 79,174 3.3 2 69,242 1.5 86 113,177 1.3 3 64,033 1.6 87 236,727 8.5 4 41,712 4.8 88 65,391 2.3 5 62,255 3.2 89 115,160 2.3 6 50,950 3.0 90 72,681 2.8 7 110,087 8.4 91 71,143 4.2 8 83,462 4.2 92 68,752 2.9 10 65,481 4.2 94 92,023 1.1 11 136,924 0.6 95 104,164 2.0 12 74,744 4.0 96 47,540 0.0 13 44,254 3.4 97 108,704 1.9 14 61,135 2.9 98 57,720 7.0 15 81,753 2.8 99 114,065 2.7 16 117,889 10.2 100 110,190 14.2 17 62,634 4.8 103 62,688 8.0 19 350,042 18.6 104 66,221 3.0 20 110,813 1.4 105 324,670 17.0 21 93,740 3.7 106 78,346 4.3 22 46,622 5.4 107 38,054 6.6 23 76,057 3.3 108 47,822 3.7 24 157,974 7.6 109 158,782 1.0 25 73,421 2.1 110 43,089 4.7 26 50,030 6.0 111 56,312 3.6 27 105,862 3.8 112 251,848 20.0 29 69,499 2.9 113 65,399 4.6 30 82,512 2.4 114 56,121 3.6 31 89,683 1.1 115 128,828 2.0 32 108,630 3.2 116 122,958 0.8 33 110,199 1.8 117 66,818 2.3 34 80,201 2.8 118 56,007 6.3 35 49,919 4.0 119 76,109 2.6 36 75,654 4.0 120 57,521 4.4 38 64,730 0.0 121 67,927 3.7 39 81,094 2.2 122 89,657 1.7 40 77,695 3.2 123 34,811 11.2 41 83,697 3.6 124 51,226 4.0 42 81,478 4.9 125 75,611 2.7 43 93,909 16.0 126 60,858 1.7 44' 91,499 1.9 127 47,882 4.2 45 85,023 12.6 128 57,632 2.6 46 49,676 9.1 129 40,441 3.7 47 76,369 2.7 130 118,732 1.7 48 56,098 3.6 131 80,216 1.3 49 79,871 2.8 133 61,894 4.1 50 45,391 5.5 135 52,805 2.9 51 53,828 3.7 136 59,240 6.8 52 35,982 9.7 137 92,922 1.6 STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 73 TABLE XLIII— Continued Name or Assessed Special Name or Assessed Special Number Valuation School Tax Number Valuation School Tax 53 74,384 2.0 138 61,134 5.6 55 90,728 2.2 139 49,607 5.0 56 69,348 5.6 140 38,650 6.5 57 65,953 3.8 141 68,758 4.4 58 48,633 4.2 142 52,544 4.8 59 47,428 5.0 143 41,122 7.3 61 55,181 7.5 144 85,580 1.3 63 75,891 5.3 145 32,076 9.4 66 107,888 1.9 146 176,380 11.3 67 85,645 3.5 147 75.716 2.7 69 62,299 2.6 148 38,648 5.2 71 64,796 4.1 149 59,828 9.2 72 74,148 6.1 150 51,383 4.9 74 112,600 1.8 151 39,377 7.7 75 82,542 3.0 152 46,844 6.4 76 51,578 2.4 153 33,136 4.5 77 69,095 3.6 154 36,596 6.1 78 79,430 3.8 155 63,004 3.6 79 66,387 5.0 156 45,636 6.4 80 55,775 4.5 157 60,235 0.9 83 146,265 5.1 Statistics taken from the biennial state reports covering the respective years indicate that salaries are rising fast in these schools in Minnesota while total enrollment slowly declines. The figures for total enrollment and for total salaries are platted to show the per cent of change in each since 1903. Figure 3 indicates clearly that while enrollment has been slightly declining, almost steadily, during these eleven years, the cost of rural education has risen greatly. The rise in the amount spent for salaries and the close paralleling of the lines for total cost and for salaries would seem to indicate that the factor most responsible for rise in total cost is rise in salaries. The rise in total cost for rural education is not peculiar to Minnesota. The accompanying figtire shows the increase of cost on the basis of average daily attendance for the United States, by geographical divisions, from 1870-71 to 1910-11. 7oyi> bOVi^ 50"/^ 307i_ •5 b '7 '8 Years Iq eluded •10 11 '12- E^r)To\ \ merit i — ' nci>Titcnai7ce S<\laT »«3 Figure 3^ Changes in the rural schools of Minnesota during a period of ten years • In 1909 the State Department of Education changed the basis for classifying the rural schools. Hence arises the necessity of the break in figure 3 between 1908 and 1909. beginning on the base line again for the latter year. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS Figure 4^ Increasing cost of education per pupil in average daily attendance Having collected certain data we now have working concepts. By the use of these concepts we are able to determine the nature and extent of relations between certain important factors in the rural schools. The method of comparison is that of the Pearson coefficient. The figures used as the basis of the computations are distributions in the preceding tables. TABLE XLIV Correlations in Rural Schools I. Number of days annual attendance per pupil and per cent that state aid is of total annual main- tenance income + .n II. Local tax levy and monthly salary of teacher + .18 III. Monthly salary of teacher and per cent that state aid is of total annual maintenance income + .24 IV. Local tax levy and per cent that state aid is of total annual maintenance income — .32 V. Monthly salary of teacher and number of days annual attendance per pupil + .38 Note: None of these coefficients is corrected for attenuation. » From Rural Life and Education, 99 (with the publisher's permission). 76 RAYMOND ASA KENT. There are only two correlations that are of significance. The first is the one between the districts' special school tax levy and the amount that districts receive from the state for the support of their schools (IV). The relation here is negative and although unattenuated, large enough to indi- cate a decided tendency. There have been a good many statements made to the effect that state aid to rural schools has been an incentive to the schools to do greater things. It is probably true that the conditions requisite for aid have been complied with by the schools that have received this aid. Further than the specific changes brought by such compliance, however, the assertions of resulting benefit have not been demonstrated. They have never been more than opinions on the part of individuals who have more or less intim.ate knowledge of the facts and who represent great variability with respect to unbiased judgment on the issue. Here is a correlation figure which shows that there is a marked tendency for rural school districts to raise, and hence to expend, less of their own money on schools, the more they are given in subsidy by the state. The influence of state aid is negative. Lower local school taxes accompany increase in state aid. So far as the special tax for school maintenance is a measure of local effort, state aid to rural schools has not been an incen- tive to such effort. The effects of such financial assistance have been rather to cause the benefited districts to make less exertion to maintain their schools than if the aid had not been given. Some may still insist, of course, that in order for a school to receive any special state aid certain minimum requirements, enumerated above,^** must be met. To meet these requirements an extra expenditure is neces- sary. This fact may be qmte true. We have no doubt that the incentive of obtaining state aid has served to increase the length of the school year in many districts. Just how far this has been true we have no basis for judging. It is highly significant, though, that after all the necessary standards have been met, the districts that receive the aid are able to make a financial profit to their tax payers because of this aid. Again, it may be claimed that the districts which previously had the higher school taxes, receive the special aid, and hence it is only just that this aid should lessen the local burden. If this assertion were true it ought to follow that after special state aid had been given to a considerable num- ber of districts over a period of time, rural school taxes would tend to approach a level. There is no indication anywhere that such a level exists or tends to exist by reason of such assistance. Our discussion so far has included both those districts that receive special state aid and those that do not, the latter receiving only the appor- tionment. Let us look for a moment at the former, those districts receiv- ing each kind of aid. i» Chapter 2. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 77 Of the 1,011 districts included in the study, 461 receive one of the three amounts of special state aid given to semi-graded and rural schools in 1912. The taxes in these 461 districts ranged as follows. ^^ TABLE XLV Local Tax Rate in Mills Number of Per Cent of Local T \x Rate Districts All Districts IN Mills 18 3.9 .3 to .5 55 11.9 .6 ' .8 87 18.9 .9 ' ' 1.1 78 16.9 1.2 ' ' 1.4 65 14.1 1.5 ' ' 1.7 37 8.0 1.8 ' ' 2.0 30 6.5 2.1 ' ' 2.3 28 6.1 2.4 ' ' 2.6 10 2.2 2.7 ' ' 2.9 11 2.4 3.0 ' ' 3.2 8 1.7 3.3 ' ' 3.5 5 1.1 3.6 ' ' 3.8 6 1.3 3.9 ' ' 4.1 3 .7 4.2 ' ' 4.4 6 1.3 4.5 ' ' 4.7 6 1.3 4.8 ' ' 5.0 1 .2 5.1 ' ' 5.3 2 .4 5.4 ' ' 5.6 1 .2 6.6 ' ' 6.8 1 .2 7.3 ' ' 7.5 1 .2 7.9 ' ' 8.1 1 .2 11.2 ' ' 11.4 The median tax levy in these 461 districts is 1.4 mills on the dollar. In the middle fifty per cent of all the districts the levy is between . 9 mills and 2 mills. In the 1,011 districts it is 1.9 mills on the dollar. There is a decrease of one fifth in the median amount of local effort expended in this group as compared with the group of all the rural districts. We should naturally expect that the money which the state contrib- uted toward the up-keep of the schools in these districts would be a larger proportion of the total annual maintenance receipts than for the 1,011 districts. Table XLVI shows that this is true. The median portion of maintenance income which these 461 districts receive from the state is 46 per cent. The median for the 1,011 districts was 37.2 per cent. Thirty-four per cent of these districts receive one half or more of their annual income from the state. Only three per cent receive less than one fifth from the state, and only fourteen per cent re- ceive less than one third from the state. Between seventy-five and eighty per cent of the rural schools that receive special state aid are reimbursed more then one third of their total " Based on true valuation as in table on p. 37. 78 RAYMOND ASA KENT maintenance fund; nearly one third receive from the state over 50 per cent of such fund ; and it is possible for a district to receive nearly the whole amount from the state funds.^^ TABLE XLVI Per Cent That State Aid Is of Districts' Annual Income Number of Per Cent of State Aid — Districts All Districts Per Cent 1 .2 5 to 7.9 2 .4 8 10.9 2 .4 11 13.9 4 .9 14 16.9 3 .7 17 19.9 2 .4 20 22.9 14 3.0 23 25.9 15 3.3 26 28.9 21 4.6 29 31.9 32 6.9 32 34.9 31 6.7 35 37.9 41 8.9 38 40.9 42 9.1 41 43.9 54 11.7 44 46.9 40 8.7 47 49.9 42 9.1 50 52.9 39 8.5 53 55.9 24 5.2 56 58.9 18 3.9 59 61.9 13 2.8 62 64.9 5 1.1 65 67.9 7 1.5 68 70.9 1 .2 71 73.9 4 .9 74 76.9 1 .2 77 79.9 2 .4 80 82.9 1 .2 83 99.9 The coefficient of correlation between the two items of local tax and per cent received from the state for these 461 districts is +0.34. Here again is a significant increase. In the first place, it is substantial evidence of the assertions already made concerning the relations of the item of local tax and state aid in rural districts. In the second place, it shows that ^^ Preston Times, Thursday, May 11, 1916. "The people of the Model School north of town met Friday evening and deliberately threw away good money, — that is a majority of them did, the minority, who knew better, were voted out and helpless. The proposition was to associate with the Agricultural Department of the Preston High School and they spurned it, cast it out as something unclean. The fact that the district now receives $150, special state aid; $90 from the Preston District for Model School pur- poses; $70 apportionment, and could receive $50 by associating, while it pays into the state treasury only $62.90, did not affect the result; a net balance of $298.90 was no argument at all, — to those who would be convinced. The ultimate result of this incomprehensible bull-headedness is the loss of the $50 which it could have received by associating; a probable loss of its first-grade standing and the certain loss of the $90, by reason of its selection as a Model School. Incidentally the Preston District is deprived of $200 for Agricultural instruction and perhaps the abandoning of the Department altogether as we can not for long afford to bear alone an expense by which we are only indirectly benefited. The Model School district was given an opportunity to get something worth while absolutely without additional cost and refused it. Those responsible can now repent at leisure." STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 79 special state aid is the important factor in this increase of the figure of correlation. It must be, since no other condition has been changed from the conditions of all the 1,011 districts. In the third place, it shows that the current fund is equivalent to state aid in its general effect upon rural districts. If it were not, the correlation figure for the 1,011 districts would not be so large. For the state to pay a district $5.30 for each and every child attending a total of forty days diiring the year is the same as for it to pay that sum for over ninety-nine per cent of all those who enroll.^' The low limiting condition of forty days attendance tends to approach no condition at all. In this particular then, the current fund receipts tend to act in a manner similar to that of the special aid to rural schools. These results show conclusively that local endeavor among the con- stituency of the rural schools has a marked tendency to decrease as the state assists by special financial aid. This is a fact of tremendous signif- icance. If the fifteen months' work of the Education Commission and this whole study brought forth nothing else, the whole cost involved would be many times made up to the state should this one fact be made the basis of action in distributing aid. One difficulty in attaining the desired goal is that appropriations for these funds have not been settled according to educational needs or expected results. Intelligent laymen recognize this fact. The Dawson, Minnesota, Sentinel darkly intimates that dire things are to happen to those members of the legislature who succeeded in preventing the divi- sion of a million dollars among the rural schools of the state. The Sentinel also resents the tendency of the press to speak of this plan as a "Pork Barrel" proposition. It denounces as inconsistent the appropriation of mil- lions for the University and Normal schools, and denial of an extra million to the rural schools, "which educate half a million children every year, and furnish ninety- nine per cent of the people all the training for citizenship they ever receive." The fact that the University and Normal schools are purely state institutions, while the common schools are local institutions, does not seem to have occurred to the Sentinel as important. Its reasoning poi(iits to a theory that the state should raise taxes enough to pay for all the schools, though state control of the local schools would doubtless be resented. Such arguments as these miss completely the purpose of state aid to local schools. This aid is given as a stimulus to better work. It is conditioned on local perform- ances of certain things, — quality of teaching, length of terms taught, number of pupils, and so on. When state aid becomes merely a means of maintenance and of lifting from the various school districts their financial burdens, it misses its purpose. The distri- bution of an extra million among the rural schools, it seems to us, was properly characterized as a "Pork Barrel" proposal. It was not intended for the good of the schools, but for the relief of local tax payers. Its killing was one of the few good things the legislature did." « See table 35. 1* Editorial in the Minneapolis Journal, May 3, 1915. 80 RAYMOND ASA KENT The second of the two correlations worthy of note is the one between teachers' monthly salaries and the number of days attended annually per pupil. The correlation figure is significantly large; and it is positive. Pupils go to school more days in a year in those districts where the teachers are paid the highest wages. This figure does not tell why the fact is true. It merely tells the fact, and is in itself proof that there is a strong tendency for the two facts to accompany each other. The significance of the presence of the two above relations is equalled in importance only by the lack of those relations one would naturally expect but does not find. There is no indication that state aid, even in causing ftdfillment of the minimum requirements for its bestowal, has made any difference in the number of days a pupil attends school in a year. We do know, on the other hand, that the well paid teacher and long at- tendance tend to go together. Does state aid raise teachers' salaries? Not so far as we can discover. Neither directly, then, nor indirectly, has this aid any apparent result in causing country children actually to spend more days in the schools. One naturally asks where it does count. The facts discovered answer "to no small degree, in lessening the local tax." We may be quite as much surprised to discover that high taxes and high salaries are not coexistent. Such is the truth, however, in spite of the fact that increased salaries seem to account in a large part for great increase in the total annual cost of these schools. TABLE XLVII Increase in the Number of Schools Having a Total Annual Enrollment of Less than Ten Pupils Each Number of Per Cent Increase Year Schools OVER 1903-04 1903-1904 189 1904-1905 228 20.6 1905-1906 237 25.4 1906-1907 252 33.3 1907-1908 258 36.5 1908-1909 278 47.1 1909-1910 335 77.2 1910-1911 346 83.0 1911-1912 360 85.2 1912-1913 373 97.3 The Small Rural School In the course of this part of the study it was accidentally discovered that there are in this state a large number of schools with remarkably small annual enrollments, each school enrolling less than ten pupils indeed, during the whole year's session. A review of the last few years shows a great increase in the number of these small schools. The biennial reports STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 81 of the state superintendent of education show that the number of schools enrolling less than ten pupils increased over ninety-seven per cent between 1903 and 1912. This is brought out more clearly in Table XLVII and Figure 5. This table reads: In the school year 1903-04 Minnesota had 189 rural schools, each enrolling a total of less than ten pupils. In 1904-05 the number of such schools in the entire state was 228, an increase of 20.6 per cent over the number in 1903-04; in 1904-05 the number was 237, an increase of 25.4 per cent over 1903-04; etc. The increase in the number of these schools between 1903 and 1912 is almost twice the proportional increase in the next larger enrollment-school reported. Schools enrolling between ten and twenty pupils have increased only a little over fifty-seven per cent in the same period of time. TABLE XLVIII Increase in the Number of Schools Having a Total Enrollment of Ten to Twenty Pupils Each Number of Schools Per Cent Increase in Year Enrolling 10 to 20 Pupils Number since 1903 1903-1904 1,204 1904-1905 1,294 7.4 1905-1906 1,369 13.7 1906-1907 1,467 21.8 1907-1908 1,621 34.6 1908-1909 1,703 41.5 1909-1910 1,834 52.3 1910-1911 1,911 58.7 1911-1912 1,802 49.6 1912-1913 1,896 57.4 The smallest school seems to persist more in the very old, or in the new, sparsely developed states. Virginia, Maine, Ohio, Iowa, and North Dakota illustrate these two types. ^^ But Minnesota can not be called old, neither as a state is it undeveloped or scantily populated. Special state aid has been given to rural schools in the state since 1899, when 457 one-room schools were aided. In 1912 over 4,400 received such aid.^^ In Indiana, the township trustees may "discontinue and temporarily abandon all schools at which the average daily attendance during the last preceding year has been fifteen pupils or fewer"; they "shall^"^ discontinue and tempo- rarily abandon" schools whose daily average attendance has been twelve or less, though a majority of the patrons of the district may by petition reopen either.^^ ^^ Gillette, Constructive Rural Sociology, 236, 237. Also United States Bureau of Education Bulletin no. 8 p 26. 1913. '8 Eighteenth Biennial Report, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 13. See also Appendix. " Italics are the author's. 18 Revised Statutes of Indiana, 1914 sec. 6422. 100 7-_ Figure 5 Increase in ten years in schools enrolling less than ten pupils 70 "A_ I I •4 5 6 7 '8 -9 10 •]! 12 STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 83 This condition presents a very serious situation. There ought to be many less ten-pupil schools in the entire state of Minnesota, even though the state is not yet fully developed. That this type of school has practically doubled in numbers in ten years and is near the four hundred mark is a condition that should demand immediate attention. There are four possible reasons for this increase. These reasons are: I. Development of previously unsettled portions of the state into sparsely settled regions. II. Shrinkage of riiral poptilation in previously developed portions of the state. TABLE XLIX Per Cent of Changes in Population in Thirty-four Counties of Minnesota between 1900 and 1910i» County Total Decrease Rural Decrease Blue Earth Per cent 9.1 .5 9.3 1.6 9.5 9.1 * * 7.2 2.0 8.0 4.6 .02 4.1 * 1.3 4.4 .02 2.7 * * 2.4 .6 1.7 7.8 2.3 4.9 4.1 2.0 8.8 1.0 6.4 3.7 Per cent 12.4 Carver .5 Dodge 9 3 Douglas 4.0 Faribault 9.5 Fillmore 9.1 Freeborn 7 2 Goodhue 4.3 Houston 7.2 Jackson 2.0 Kandiyohi 1.2 Le Sueur. . 8.0 McLeod 4.6 Mahnomen .02 Meeker 4.1 Mower 7.0 Murray 1.3 Nicollet 5.0 Norman .02 Olmsted 10.0 Otter Tail .4 Polk 7.4 Renville 2.4 Rice 9.0 Scott 1.7 Sibley 7.8 Steele 4.3 Stevens 4.9 Swift 4.1 Wabasha 6.3 Waseca 10.7 Watonwan 1.0 Winona 7.2 Wright 3.7 * Increase of less than 5 per cent. «» Thirteenth Report of the United Slates Census 2:962. / 84 RAYMOND ASA KENT III. Migration of rural school poptilation to village or urban school enrollment. IV. Special state aid to rural schools. I. Let us consider the first possible influence, that of populating pre- viously undeveloped parts of the state. Very fortunately for this study the decade included in the last report of the Federal Census overlaps seven of the years above included. The census covers the years between 1900 and 1910, and this study, the school years 1903-04 to 1912-13 inclusive. Comparisons of items covering these two periods can thus be made and conclusions can be drawn concerning items or factors present throughout the two periods. According to the census report, thirty-four, or 43 percent, of the counties in Minnesota decreased in rural population in the decade between 1900 and 1910. Nineteen of these thirty-fotu-, or 24 per cent of all the counties, decreased in total population. Of the remaining forty-five counties, six showed, in spite of rural shrinkage, slight increases in their respective totals. Above is an alphabetical list of the thirty-four counties and the percentages of changes both in total and in rural population for each county. TABLE L Distribution of Per Cent of Decrease in Population in Thirty-four of the Counties of Minnesota between 1900 and 1910 Per Cent of Decrease Number of Counties Less than 1 per cent 4 1 to 1 99 4 2 " 2.99 2 3 " 3.99 1 4 " 4.99 7 5 " 5.99 1 6 " 6.99 1 7 " 7.99 6 8 " 8 99 1 9 " 9.99 10 " 10.99 11 " 11.99 4 2 12 " 12.99 1 Twenty-seven counties in the state show more or less noticeable in- crease in the number of less-than-ten-pupil schools between 1903-4 and 1912-13. Below is an alphabetical list of these coimties showing: First, increase in number of smallest division of rural schools. Second, per cent of decrease or increase of rural population in the counties. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 85 TABLE LI Changes in Rural Schools and in Rural Population in Twenty-eight Counties of Minnesota between 1900 and 1910 Number of 10-pupil Schools Changes in Rural Population County 1903-04 1912-13 FROM 1900 TO 1910 Blue Earth 6 1 3 10 2 11 4 2 2 2 3 2 7 2 1 1 2 2 6 10 5 11 4 10 16 12 5 12 10 4 8 14 4 7 5 12 12 9 4 3 13 3 5 5 8 8 15 8 Per cent minus 12.4 Clearwater plus 50. 5. 15. to 25 5. minus 9 . 3 Cottonwood Crow Wing Dakota Dodge Fillmore 9.1 Goodhue Grant 4.3 plus 5 . minus 7 . 2 Houston Hubbard plus 25. to 50 minus . 2 Jackson Le Sueur 8. Marshall .02 Morrison plus 5. to 15 minus 7 . Mower Norman .02 Otter Tail .4 Pine plus 5 . minus 7.4 Polk Red Lake plus 15. to 25 5. Rock Sherburne Todd 5. to 15 5. Waseca minus 10.7 Wabasha Winona 6.3 7.2 This distribution shows the relation between change in percentage of rural poptilation and increase of less-than-ten-pupil schools. It is true that Hubbard and Crow Wing counties, with marked poptilation increase, experienced a large growth in the number of such schools. But Morrison, Cottonwood, Rock, and Todd, each with small population growth, gained markedly in the same size schools; while Dakota, with little gain, but a well settled county, has almost as many such schools as either of the first two. We must conclude, then, that if opening new land and settling the frontier part of the state has had any influence in the increase of the prac- tical doubling in the nmnber of less-than-ten-pupil schools in the last decade, that influence has been meager and localized. II. What influence upon the number of these schools has shrinlcage of rural population had? Table LI I shows that this factor has had an even less marked influence than population increase. No cormty had lost in 1912 as much as thirteen per cent of the rural population it had ten years before, while five had gained more than this in the same period. 86 RAYMOND ASA KENT All but four of the decreases occurred south of a horizontal line drawn on the map through Minneapolis. Of those four, one was seven per cent, but no one of the rest was as much as one per cent. The population shrinkage has then been small, and has occurred almost altogether in the thickly populated counties. These facts force us to conclude that the factor of shrinkage in rtiral population does not materially assist in explaining the great increase in small schools. TABLE LII Table LI Arranged as Array of Percentage of Rural Population Changes Population Changes County Increase Decrease School Changes 1. Clearwater 2. Hubbard Per cent 50 25 to 50 15 " 25 IS " 25 5 " 15 5 " 15 5 5 5 5 5 5 Per cent .02 .02 .2 .4 4.3 6.3 7.0 7.2 7.2 7.4 8.0 9.1 9.3 10.7 12.4 to 4 2 " 14 3. Crow Wing 3 " 16 4. Red Lake 2 " 3 5. Morrison 2 " 12 6. Sherburne " 5 7. Cottonwood 1 " 10 8. Dakota 10 " 12 9. Grant. " 4 10. Pine 1 " 3 11. Rock " 5 12. Todd " 8 13. Marshall " 5 14. Norman 2 " 9 15. Jackson 2 " 4 16. Otter Tail 1 " 4 17. Goodhue 4 " 10 18. Wabasha 10 " 15 19. Mower 7 " 12 20. Houston 2 " 8 2 1 . Winona 5 " 8 22. Polk 2 " 13 23. Le Sueur 3 " 7 24. Fillmore 11 " 12 25. Dodge 2 " 5 26. Waseca 6 " 8 27. Blue Earth 6 " 11 III. The third possible reason mentioned was migration of rural school population to urban school enrollment. Above is shown the number of grade schools and the number of high schools in each of the twenty-seven counties in discussion in 1903, and the number of new schools added in each county by 1912.^° *" A school transferred from the list of graded to high schools within this time is not counted as new if it was on the graded list in 1903. Only schools named in 1912 that were not named in either list in 1903 are counted in the list of those added, — that is, as new schools. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 87 TABLE LIII Changes in Schools by Counties Graded Schools High Schools Schools Added Changes in Counties NOT Later than 1912 Rural Schools 1903-1912 1903 Crow Wing 1 3 to 16 Clearwater " 4 Dodge 3 4 2 " 5 Houston 3 1 2 " 8 Hubbard 1 2 " 14 Jackson 2 2 " 4 Le Sueur 2 2 3 " 7 Marshall 1 1 " 5 Pine 1 " 3 Red Lake 1 3 2 " 3 Waseca 6 " 8 Goodhue 4 1 4 " 10 Mower 3 3 1 7 " 12 Winona 2 1 5 " 8 Cottonwood 2 1 2 1 " 10 Dakota 1 2 2 10 " 12 Polk 2 4 2 2 " 13 Rock 1 2 " 5 Wabasha 1 3 2 10 " 15 Blue Earth 2 2 3 5 3 3 6 " 11 Fillmore 11 " 12 Grant 2 3 " 4 Morrison 1 3 2 " 12 Norman 2 1 3 2 " 9 Otter Tail 2 3 1 3 1 " 4 Sherburne " 5 Todd 3 1 3 " 8 But what of the graded and high schools already existing? Did they receive any increase in the number of children from rural districts? We are able to give only a partial answer. Sixteen schools were transferred from the graded to the high school list in these years and a total of thirty-four near schools were added. In no county was there any addition where there had been neither a graded nor high school before. Three counties added 1 school Five " " 2 schools Seven " « 3 « The distribution of these additions does not indicate any clearly marked relation between the above additions and the increase in small rural schools. The annual reports of the state inspector of high schools divide the high school enrollment between those residing in the district and those enrolling from outside. The following figures show what per cent have come from outside districts for nine of the years under discussion. RAYMOND ASA KENT TABLE LIV Per Cent of High School Enrollment from Outsidrsi Per Cent of Outside Enrollment Years (Median) 1904-05 14.2 1905-06 14.3 1906-07 14.3 1907-08 14.6 1908-09 15.2 1909-10 16.0 1910-11 16.4 1911-12 16.2 Similar figures are not available for graded schools. From the above data one is not justified in drawing the conclusion that the presence and increase in the number of high schools may not have been a factor in the number of small rural schools. On the other hand, one would be far from justified in concluding that the small rural school situation for the state has been materially affected by this factor. IV. The fourth possible factor named as influencing this situation is state aid. There are two reasons why this appears as even a possibility. In the first place, we have already foinid out that state aid to the single- room school tends to reimburse the tax payers of the district for running their school. They accept the gift, pay no perceptibly higher salary to their teacher, have no more days attendance to the credit of their register, and have a smaller school tax to pay. The implication is strong that the school is about the same kind of a school as before the state helped, only the patron pays a little less for its up-keep. But secondly, the small school is an expensive one, per capita. To offset this expense there must be some counteracting incentive toward its continued maintenance. A part of such incentive is present in the very conservatism of the patron. ^^ He wants things to go on as they have gone in the past. Add to this conservatism the knowledge by the conservatist that the state for a slight consideration stands ready to pay him to keep up old conditions, and the incentive is not only fostered, but the rural patron feels that his commonwealth sanctions his stand and gives him, so far as he is concerned, as high an endorsement as he can receive. The influence of the state aid upon the small school as compared with the typical rural school of the state is shown more clearly by a compari- son of items in the following table, based on 1,185 schools from the four- teen counties included in this study. 21 This is for all high schools receiving state aid. Data are computed from annual reports of state high school inspector. 22 See Rural Life and Education, 167, et seq. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 89 TABLE LV Schools Having an Enrollment of I Number of schools 11 Enrollment III Attendance per pupil per year IV Cost per pupil per day V Special school tax 46 282 478 281 98 7 15 24 32 43 Days 96.5 95.6 101.7 104.0 100.1 SO. 7c 30.4c 22.3c 17.8c 13.4c Mills 7.6 From 10 to 20 pupils. . . . 8 1 From 20 to 30 pupils 5 8 From 30 to 40 pupils 6.3 4 9 The figures in Column I are absolute. The figures in Columns II, III, IV, and V are medians. The meaning of the table becomes clear when we read, — The schools enrolling less than 10 pupils are 46 in number; they have a median enrollment of 7 pupils each; their pupils attend 96.5 days each during the year; each pupil costs his district 50.7 cents each day he attends and each district levies a special school tax of 7.6 mills on its assessed valuation to maintain its schools. ^28 SchooJs 23^ Schools ^6 Schools 2SJ Schools (p^ 6choo/s Enrollment lo- louzo zou-5o jou^o ^o^ Figure 6 Distribution of 1,185 rural schools according to annual enrollment 90 ILiYMOXD ASA KEXT The table discloses several interesting feattires. Column I sho'^s qmte a normal distribution of schools among the groups according to enroUment. This fact is shown even more clearly by Figure 6. The ''20 to 30" school is clearly the typical school. The less-than-ten-pupil school costs about two-and-one-half times per pupil what the typical school costs. In the first group of schools, seven pupils cost their district $2.50 each, everA* week school is open; in the second group of schools twenty-four pupils cost their district $1.00 each per week. The changes that have come into rural society and institutions in the past fifty years have been inimical to the rural institutions acclimated to former conditions. "Studies of the niral church problems have been made in the New England states, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Georgia, and other states. Everjrwhere the results are about the same. At the ]Michigan Rural Life Conference in 1911, it was stated that there were 10,000 dead rural churches in Illinois; 10,000 more about to die; and 500 ahready abandoned."^ It is well asserted that rural schools would be suffering the same sort of hardship were it not for the resusci- tating effect of state aid.^"^ This is true of the nu"al situation as a whole. It is true to an intensified degree with the schools that are nearest the border of extinction through the operation of new social, industrial, and economic factors .^^ After the consideration of the evidence offered, we may reasonably conclude that development of new parts of the state has doubtless been responsible for a few small rural schools; that shrinkage in rural popula- tion may have been responsible for a few, but if so, for a very few; that migration of school children from cotmtry homes to village schools has doubtless depleted coimtr}^ districts and assisted in some meastire in making the small rural school; but as great a single factor as any has been the financial assistance which the state renders on conditions that tend positively toward the continuance of such schools. SUMilARY The typical rural school of Minnesota is open 7.7 months each year, enrolls between 20 and 30 pupils, who attend 97.7 days each. Each pupil costs his district about 23 cents each day he attends school, 8.8 cents of which is paid by the state, while the district levies a tax of 1 . 7 mills on its true valuation to meet its share of the expense. The teacher in this school receives a wage of a Httle more than $51 per month. 23 Rural Life and Rducation ch. 3. ^ Ibid., ch. 4. ^ Ibid. See also Constructive Rural Sociology. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 91 Effects of State Aid State aid to rural schools has probably increased the length of the school year to some extent, but not so much as one is led to suppose by a cursory stirvey; it has not resulted in any increase in the number of days that children attend these schools; it has not increased enrollment; it has not been a factor in increasing teachers' salaries in these schools. Special state aid and current fund together have definitely resulted in the state's paying over two fifths of the cost- of up-keep of the districts receiving such aid and by such reimbiirsement have resiilted in the districts' being con- tent to maintain educational standards little or none above the ones pre- viously maintained; they have made the districts willing to accept state aid as a pecuniary endorsement of these educational standards and as a financial reimbursement to their own district treasuries. By encouraging the maintenance of the dwarf rural school, by having attached to its be- stowal no conditions regarding enrollment, local taxation, local assessed valuation, and with extremely imperfect possibilities of checking whether the conditions presiimed to be met have been met, state aid as it is at present distributed to the nrral schools of Minnesota acts positively as a barrier to the advancement of the best interests of these schools and their patrons.^^ It is educationally pauperizing the rural schools of the state. TABLE LVI Rural School Summary Item J.IEDIAN- QU.^RTILES 97.9 days 81 days 112 days 22.9 cents 1 7 . 08 cents 8 . 8 cents 6.2 cents 9 . 5 cents Per cent state aid is of total annual income 37.2 per cent^'' 46 per centos 25.7 per cent 45 . 5 per cent Local tax levy 1 . 7 mills" 1 . 4 mills" 1 . 1 mills2" .9 mills^s 1.58 mills" 2 . 00 mills=s $2,195 $1,321 $3,273 7 . 7 months 6.9 months 7 . 8 months $51.14 $45.63 $56.30 -^ Cf. Betts, New Ideals in Rural Schools ch. 1. -' Item for 1,011 districts. 28 Item for 461 districts. CHAPTER VI SPECIAL AID TO HIGH, GRADED, AND RURAL SCHOOLS COMPARED In Chapters III, IV, and V, the facts for high, graded, and rural dis- tricts, respectively, have been set forth. All the factors discussed have not been identical for all the three groups. Seven, though, have been studied for each group of schools. They have to do with: (1) length of the school year; (2) attendance; (3) unit cost; (4) unit aid; (5) gross proportion of aid; (6) local school tax levy; and (7) assessed valuation. The purpose of this chapter is to make direct comparisons among the three classes of schools. This will be done first for each of the above named items: (1) by reproducing from the three preceding chapters the medians and quartiles of the distributions for each item, and (2) by show- ing graphically on the same base the complete (100 per cent) distribution of each item for each of the three groups of schools. LENGTH OP TABLE A SCHOOL YEAR IN MONTHS School Median Quartiles High 9 9 7.7 * * 6.9 * Graded * Rural 7.8 * Negligible in amount. No attempt is made to determine variations from the central tendency among either high or graded school systems in the length of the school year. The law requires schools receiving special aid in either of these groups to be in session at least nine months.^ Very few have longer ses- sions. All rural schools classed as semi-graded, and Classes A and B of the common schools must have eight nionths of school.^ Those in Class C may have seven months.^ The general conditions among riiral schools as compared with high and graded seems to be that they have from one to two months less of school per year than either high or graded districts. About 75 per cent of the rural schools have at least eight months of school but only a little more than 19 per cent have as much as nine months, or what is required of the high and graded schools. The amount of assessable property which a district possesses for every child within its schools represents the district's dynamic resources for 1 See Chapter 2. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 93 educating that child. The only place where such a statement should be modified for the sake of comparative justice would be in large cities. Since none of them are included in these calculations this is a true statement for the groups of districts involved. TABLE B ASSESSED VALUATION PER ENROLLED PUPIL The total taxable resources of one district may be considerably higher than those of another. The only fair method of comparing the two is to measure each in terms of the potential draw upon the resources. The num- ber of children actually presenting themselves for the public schools to educate is one measure of such draw. 30 %_ 2Qy._ 10-A„ Figure 7 Assessed valuation per enrolled pupil 94 RAYMOND ASA KENT When the three groups of schools are compared on this basis most striking facts appear. The financial resources of these three groups are in reverse order to the ranking type of schools they represent. The valua- tion in rural districts puts at their disposal almost twice the median tax- able property for every child in their schools that high school districts possess. The lowest quartile of rural valuation is higher than the median for either high or graded districts. The assessed valuation per pupil in graded school districts is less than $100 more than such valuation in high school districts; it is, however, $900 less than such valuation in rural dis- tricts. The variability in this item is considerably greater among high and graded than among rural schools. The median valuation for rtiral districts might be less if a larger number of districts had been taken. It does not seem, though, as if that change would materially affect the figure. The selection made was a random selection among the 1,011 districts in the order of the numbers assigned them in their respective counties upon their organization. Here is basis for a complete reversal of the judgment that rural districts are economically not so able to support good schools as municipal and village corporations. The truth is that they are on the whole twice as able in Minnesota to spend any given amount, for every child attending their schools, as are the two other groups here represented. Compared with the other groups of schools, rural schools are by far the wealthiest in financial resources for educative purposes. Yet, as we have already seen, the annual length of possible school attendance which they offer their children is the shortest. TABLE c ATTENDANCE PER PUPIL IN DAYS PER YEAR School Median QUARTILES High 147.4 138.7 98.0 142.4 128.6 81.0 154.4 Graded 147.2 Rural 112.4 Inasmuch as the rural school year is shorter than the year in either of the other classes of schools we would expect the children of the rural schools to attend fewer days each per year. The above comparison shows such expectation to be correct. But though high and graded districts have practically the same length of school year, their children do not give the same response of attendance. The median attendance of children in high school districts is 62 per cent of the total possible attendance, 180 days; in graded, it is 77 per cent; and in rural, it is 64 per cent of the median length of the school year. These per cents represent a measiire of re- STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 95 spouse to educational privilege offered. Since the privileges are different 64 per cent can not be compared absolutely with 77 per cent or with 82 per cent. If the corresponding quality of educational privilege now given to the groups responding 82 per cent were given to the groups responding 64 per cent the latter rnight rise above 82 per cent. There is no basis therefore for an absolute comparison of the measure of response to the same thing or to equivalent things. 2oy^_ JO°A_ 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 HO 150 160 170 nura) ' — ' — ■ — ^— ' — I UTacled jn Figure 8 Pupil attendance in days per year On the other hand this is a definite measure of school attendance, 53 per cent of the rural schools have an average attendance of less than 100 days per pupil. This is a shorter attendance than any single high school district reports and less than all except one half of one per cent (one district) among the graded schools, report. That is to say, the child attending in a high or graded school district has double the chance of being at school 96 RAYMOND ASA KENT 100 days a year that the child attending the rural school has. The cor- responding chances for attending 120 days are not far from as great. Less than 16 per cent of the rural districts have such attendance, while 93 per cent of the graded and 99 per cent of the high have it. It is quite as interesting to note that the highest extreme of rural school attendance exceeds any graded district and practically equals the best high school district. TABLE D COST PER PUPIL PER DAY IN CENTS School Median QUARTILES High 25.7 23.0 22.9 21.5 19.4 17.1 29.9 Graded 28.7 Rural 21.9 The actual time-unit cost rank is in the order corresponding to the types of schools. At the same time there are small differences in this item among the schools. There is practically no difference between the median cost for graded and for rural schools. The range of variability is even more striking. Costs in rural schools reach the highest extreme both in the quartile and in actual cases. There are several possible reasons for this condition. It is but consistent with what has already been shown to suppose that small enrollment plays its subtle part in high unit cost in rural schools. The cost is less than 30 cents a day in 70 per cent of the rural districts, in 75 per cent of the high, and in 80 per cent of the graded. It is less than 20 cents in 38 per cent of the rural, in 14 per cent of the high, and 21 per cent of the graded. Though rural schools have the greatest variability they also have the most strongly marked central tendency. AID PER TABLE E PUPIL-DAY IN CENTS School Median QUARTILES High . 7.5 7.1 8.9 6.1 6.4 6.2 9.8 Graded 8.4 Rural 9.5 A very interesting item in this connection is how state aid, computed on the time or attendance unit base, compares with the actual cost on the same basis. We are at once struck with the lack of conformity in this respect. Rural districts receive a median amount of the most per unit, more even than high school districts and the quartiles reinforce the story 30 20 1.0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9*0 100 ]l'o VO iJO "Rural Giadecl - H.gb Figure 9 Cost per day of attendance per pupil 30% 207* 20 25 30 35 40 45 Figure 10 Aid per day of attendance per pupil STAl^E AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 99 which the medians tell. Graded and high schools are close together with the high in the lead both in median aid received and in the vai"iability of aid. In 25 per cent of the rural districts the aid is 10 cents or more. Twenty- four per cent of the high school districts and 11 per cent of the graded districts receive similar aid. These findings should be compared with those of what proportion state aid is of the total annual income of the district. TABLE F PER CENT OF STATE AID PER YEAR School Median QUARTILES High 32.2 33.0 37.2 46.0 25.3 27.6 25.7 38.4 37.8 Graded 38.4 Rural (1,011) (461) 45.5 52.9 In the per cent of total maintenance income which is received from state aid, high and graded school districts are very similar both in central tendencies and in quartiles. Again they are outdone by rural districts. Among the 1,011 districts this proportion is between one sixth and one seventh more than for either of the other groups. But in this item com- parison should be made rather with the 461 districts. They receive more than one and two fifths what high school districts do, and almost that many times what the graded districts receive. Of the 1,011 rural districts one fifth receive from the state 50 per cent or more of their annual income, and more than one third of the 461 districts receive a similar share. Only between 4 per cent and 5 per cent of the graded and less than this proportion of the high school districts are given as much. Twenty-tAA^o per cent of the 1,011 districts receive less than 25 per cent from the state. Nearly 27 per cent of the graded and nearly 30 per cent of the high school districts receive less than 25 per cent. Between 75 per cent and 80 per cent of the 461 districts receive more than one half the amount they themselves contribute. Only 49 per cent of the graded schools and 55 per cent of the high schools receive as much. TABLE G LOCAL TAX LEVY IN MILLS School Median Quartiles High 6.3 5.1 1.7 1.4 5.0 3.9 1.1 .9 7.8 Graded 6.0 Rural (1,011) (461) 1.6 2.0 100 20% RAYMOND ASA KENT I 0% 5 lb 15 io 30 40 Sb 60 70 80 90 100 Ruieil. — i . — , ' (for 1011 districts) Greidecl Higf> Figure 1 1 Per cent that state aid is of total maintenance income With cost per attendance-day less, with the days of attendance less, with the aid for every such day more, and with taxable resources almost twice that of the other districts, rural districts ought not to have high tax levies. The above table shows clearly that they do not. .Both this table and Figure 11 loudly acclaim the extremely low rural school tax. The rural schools' year is less than eight ninths of the year of all the other districts ; their resotirces are twice as great ; but their taxes are one third and less than one fourth, respectively, of what graded and high school districts' taxes are. Their lowest quartile is less than one half the lowest quartile of the grade school levies and less than one third the lowest quar- tile of high school levies. 40:^ 2'5 30 Figure 12 Local tax levy 102 RAYMOND ASA KENT Among all the rural districts considered, 84 per cent have a tax amount- ing to less than 3 mills, while among the 461 districts 89 per cent have taxes corresponding. Only six high school districts (3 per cent of all) and 12 per cent of the graded school districts have taxes as low. Ninety-seven per cent of the 1,011 districts and 99.2 per cent of the 461 districts levy less than 6 mills ; 30 per cent of the graded school districts and 47 per cent of the high school districts have taxes above such a levy. Finally, 44 per cent of the 1,011 districts levy a two-mill tax, while 7J.7 per cent of the 461 districts levy less. This is less than the tax of any single high school district. Nearly three fourths of the rural districts that receive special state aid levy a tax less than the lowest tax levied by any of 197 high school districts : TABLE LVII SUMMARY Comparison of Identical Items among High, Graded, and Rural Schools IN Terms of the Medians A B C D E F G Length Assessed Yearly Cost per Aid per Per cent School of school valuation attendance pupil-day of pupil-day of income from Tax year per pupil per pupil attendance attendance state aid levy Months Days Cents Cents Mills High 9 $1,186 147.4 25.7 7.5 32.2 6.3 Graded 9 1,254 138.7 23.0 7.1 33.0 5.1 Rural 7.7 2.195 98.0 22.9 8.9 37.2* 46.02t 1.7* 1.4t * For the 1,011 districts, t For the 461 districts. In this list of seven common factors the pecuniary advantage is in favor of the rural districts as against the other schools in each of all the five items possible, that is in: (B) assessed valuation per pupil; (D) cost per pupil per day of attendance; (E) aid per day of attendance; (F) total per cent of income derived from state aid; and (G) tax levy in mills. The school year is the shortest and the number of days attended per pupil is the least among rural districts. On the basis of need and effort the rural districts are getting the lion's share of state aid. Rural districts have more to do with, and still do less for, their children than either of the other two groups of districts. The children of the rural schools, in spite of the financial ability of their dis- tricts, are offered less school opportunities per year, and take a smaller proportion of what is offered, than the children of the other districts. The actual schooling which rural children take costs a little less per time unit and is paid for in greater part by the state than the schooling taken by children in the other schools. Rural districts exert themselves much less to maintain their schools, yet in spite of this fact they are reimbtirsed STATE AID TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 103 far more by the state than other school districts. Very plainly state aid bears no relation to local need, local effort, or local ability in rural dis- tricts, at least. From a consideration of these facts three fundamental propositions are evident : 1. The rural districts, as a group, are nearly twice as able financially to provide educational opportunities for their children, as any other group of districts. 2. In every feature of educational opportunity and advantage on which there is definite evidence, rural districts provide educational oppor- tunities greatly inferior to those offered by other districts. 3. The rural districts receive in special aid from the state a very much larger per cent of their total income than does either of the other groups of schools. Proposed Scheme for Distribution of State Aid The investigation so far has led to certain definite conclusions. On the basis of these conclusions the writer submits certain principles as a practical basis to govern the distribution of state aid. In stating these principles the writer recognizes that their application would be most efficacious under the administration and supervision of a State Board of Education possessing large executive powers and whose administrative functions should be exercised through an expert executive agent. I. General Principles 1. All state aid should be given only upon definite recommendation of duly authorized state officials who are the executive agents of the state board. 2. No aid should be granted to any district for any purpose before the state has duly inspected the work for which state aid is requested and has ascertained that work meriting state aid has been carried on for at least one year previous to the time that aid is granted. 3. The state board should maintain a bureau to ascertain and to measure the results of the policy of state aid to public education. This bureau should seek con- stantly to discover undesirable or questionable results arising from the distribution of state aid and should suggest and devise improved methods for the distribution of such aid. 4. The state board should have power: a. To set standards and stipulate conditions prerequisite to state aid, in all its forms. b. To appoint the necessary number of executive agents to insure the prop- er administration of the powers and duties of the board, and to direct the work of such officials. c. To direct the work of the Bureau of Investigation. d. To make individual grants of aid in all forms to districts, and for just cause to withhold the grant of any such aid. 104 RAYMOND ASA KENT II. Principles to Govern State Aid to Elementary and Secondary Schools 1. There should be a flat sum granted to every high and graded school, meeting the stipulated requirements of the state board. The basis of such aid should be the number of teachers actually employed, except that the aid for schools employing only one teacher should be upon the basis of the number of schools maintained. 2. Every district maintaining high or graded schools should receive no additional state aid of any sort until it expends in a given year an amount per attendance unit in both its high and graded departments, equal to the median cost of such units among all schools of the same classification in the state; provided, that if, in order to raise such amount, a district should be obliged to levy a tax larger than the median tax among all schools of the same classification in the state, the state should refund to such district an amount equal to one half the income from the tax levy exceeding the median tax levy; and provided further, that should the tax levy necessary to raise the median attendance support be greater than that levied by three fourths of the districts in the same classification in all the state, then the state should refund to such district the whole of the amount raised by the second excess levy. 3. The state should give aid on the basis of every properly qualified teacher having in charge not over fifteen children who are physically defective or who are retarded three or more years. It would be necessary for the state to define what constitutes a physically defective or a retarded pupil. 4. Additional aid for consolidation should be granted on the basis of the unit cost of transportation of pvipils actually conveyed. A consolidated school should be able to benefit also by any of the other aids provided by fulfilUng the conditions prerequisite to the same. 5. There should be no aid granted to any one-room school whose total annual attendance falls below two thousand days — except in the case of districts that can prove to the satisfaction of the State High School Board that in addition to having met all other prerequisites for state aid, consolidation is impossible, and the school population of the district makes it impossible for such districts' annual attendance to total two thousand days when the school is operated at least eight months. 6. The State Constitution should be so amicnded as to allov/ the distribution of the permanent school fund income on the basis of attendance. If such amendment can not be readily secured, during the time previous to its passage the number of days of attendance requisite for participation in this aid should be raised to one hundred. CHAPTER VII SPECIAL AID TO INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENTS Some of the most puzzling questions connected with state aid to public schools arise in connection with the maintenance of special industrial departments.^ When the Commission came to consider this problem they were confronted by a condition similar to that which they had found with respect to general aid to the three groups of schools. That is to say, although for some years generous aid had been granted to these several industrial departments,^ it had not been granted on the basis of any specif- ically known or accurately determined amount of need. The two laws, as passed, were adapted to the solution of a real problem, but the limits of legitimate local demands were not known. No one knew the actual costs of the departments for which the laws were attempting to provide. This was no reflection upon anyone. Facts necessary for computing such costs were not at hand. The plan contemplated generous state aid for the work as it was planned, and by careful supervision attempted to check up the expenditures and thus obviate reckless and wasteful distribution. The few years' operation of these laws and maintenance of the special departments thus aided ought to help in finding out what expenditures shoiild legitimately be. To find out how the money expended was used, to ascertain as closely as possible the actual and relative costs of the several departments, should help in determining whether the aid provided had been giving expected or adequate returns. The nature of the two acts providing special aid for industrial edu- cation should be recalled. To state them briefly, one allowed $2,500 annually to high or graded schools maintaining, according to prescribed conditions, the three departments of agriculture, shop work, and home economics. The other granted $1,800 annually to high or graded schools maintaining, according to prescribed conditions, a department of agricul- ture and a department of shop work or of home economics.^ Important questions arising in this connection are: 1. Are $2,500 for three departments and $1,800 for two, fair distri- butions? 2. How much does a department of agriculture really cost? 3. How much does a department of shop work or one of home eco- nomics cost? 1 Teacher Training Departments in high schools are not included in this discussion, except where specifically mentioned. The reason is that these departments are for the benefit of the state and not of the communities merely. The state recognizes this in attempting to pay all the special maintenance expenses of these departments. 2 See Chapter 2. 3 See Chapter 2. 106 RAYMOND ASA KENT 4. How do salaries of instructors compare, both in the same depart- ment and between departments? To be able to compare costs a common unit of measuring that cost must be used. The unit here chosen was that of the pupil-recitation of instruction, the number of pupils being determined according to the total enrollment in the class. The cost itself is for maintenance and includes: first, salaries of instructors; and second, the expense of current supplies. As has already been stated, the data covering these items were obtained, through the kindness of Mr. George B. Alton, directly from the reports of the schools in which these departments were maintained the preceding year and which received special aid in conformity with the two legislative acts previously described.^ The data in these reports constituted the basis for the distributions of the state aid to these departments by the State High School Board. For the purposes of this study, therefore, these data are as authentic as any that could be used. TABLE LVIII Plan of Original Data Sheet for Cost of High School Instruction Classes Expenses Departments and Courses O 1 ^ a o u > 1 "o 3 P. w 'u (3 o u Ibid., 27. 180 APPENDIX TABLE VII-A8 State Aid to High Schools Year Ending July 31, 1913 216 High schools, $1,750 each $378,000.00 80 Training departments, $750 each 60,000.00 28 Agricultural departments, $1,817 to $2,500 each 67,646.00 66 Industrial departments, $1,000 each 66,000.00 Association (to central schools) $150 each 14,250.00 Association (to district schools) $50 each 4,650.00 $590,546.00 TABLE VII-B" High Schools, Year Ending July 31, 1914 215 High schools, $1,930 to $2,200 each $471,951.00 105 Training departments, $795 to $1,000 each 102,842.00 37 Agricultural departments, $1,712 to $2,500 each 90,253.00 81 Industrial departments, $1,800 each 145,800.00 Association (to central schools) $ 150 each 34,800.00 Association (to district schools) $50 each 8,050.00 Total $853,696.00 TABLE VIII-Aio Graded'^ Schools, Year Ending July 31, 1913 217 Graded schools, $600 each $130,200.00 59 High school departments, $500 each 29,500.00 9 Industrial departments, $1,000 each 9,000.00 2 Agricultural schools 4,676.68 1 Associated district, $50 50.00 Total $173,426.68 TABLE VIII-B" Graded Schools, Year Ending July 31, 1914 222 Graded schools, $581.22 to $750 each $165,394.27 69 High school departments, $500 each 34,500.00 16 Industrial departments, $1,365.08 to $1,800 each 28,356.29 2 Agricultural departments, $2,100.00 to $2,500 each 4,431.35 2 Associated districts, $50 each 100.00 Total $232,781.91 TABLE IX-A12 State Aid to Consolidated Schools, Year Ending July 31, 1913 36 Class A schools, $1,050 to $1,350 each $48,300.00 2 Class B schools, $900 each 1,800.00 20 Class C schools, $675 each 13,500.00 Building aid 36,751.00 Total $100,351.00 8 Eighteenth Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 27 9 Ibid., 34. 10 Ibid., 30. ^Ibid.,Z7. " Ibid., 40. APPENDIX 181 TABLE IX-B" Consolidated Schools, Year Ending July 31, 1914 52 Class A schools, $1,425 each $74,100.00 3 Class B schools, $950 each 2,850.00 25 Class C schools, $712 each 17,800.00 Building aid 26,138.00 Total '■'.'■■■.'.T .$120,888.00 TABLE X-A" Semi-graded Schools, Year Ending July 31, 1913 451 Schools, $270 each $121.700.00 TABLE X-B16 Semi-graded Schools, Year Ending July 31, 1914 463 Schools, $285 each $131,955.00 TABLE XI-Ai« Class A, Year Ending July 31, 1913 2.913 Schools, $135 each $393,255.00 TABLE XI-B" Year Ending July 31, 1914 3,208 Schools, $142 each $455,536.00 i» Ihid., 50. " Ihid., 41. 16/Wd.. 51. 16 Ibid., 43. " Ibid., 52. BIBLIOGRAPHY Annual Reports of the Inspector of State High Schools, State of Minnesota. 1906, 1908, 1911-13, 1915. Betts, George Herbert. New Ideal in Rural Schools. Boston. 1913. BoBBiTT, J. F. High School Costs. The School Review 23. 1915. Bolton, F. E. Special State Aid to High Schools. Educational Review Z\'A\\-t6. Brown, C. F. The Making of Our Middle Schools. New York. 1903. Cubberley, Ellwood p. The Improvement in Rural Schools. Boston. 1912. Rural Life and Education. Boston. 1914. School Funds and Their Apportionment. New York. 1906. Department of Education. Circulars nos. 1, 3, 7, 13, and 15. Bulletins nos. 40 and 45. St. Paul. Eighteenth Annual Report of the Inspector of State Graded Schools. State of Minnesota. St. Paul. 1913. Eighteenth Biennial Report, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Department of Education, Minnesota, for the School Years 1913 and 1914. St. Paul. 1915. Elliott, Edward C., Judd, Charles H., Strayer, George D. Expert Survey of Public School System, Boise, Idaho. 1912. Foght, Harold W. The Educational System of Rural Denmark. United States Bureati of Education Bulletin, 1913, no. 58. Washington. 1914. General Laws and Statutes of Minnesota for the different years, as cited. 1849-1915. Gillette, John M. Constructive Rural Sociology. New York. 1915. Johnston, Charles Hughes, and others. The Modern High School. New York. 1915. Kiehle, David L. Education in Minnesota. Minneapolis. 1903. Knorr, George W. A Study of Fifteen Consolidated Rural Schools; Their Organ- ization, Cost Efficiency, and Afifiliated Interests. Southern Education Board, Publication no. 6. Washington. 1911. Miller, James Collin. Rural Schools in Canada; Their Organization, Adminis- tration, and Supervision. New York. 1913. Minneapolis Journal. Minneapolis. May 3, 1915. Minnesota Legislative Manual. St. Paul. 1911. Minutes of the State High School Board. St. Paul. 1878-1912. Monahan, a. C. County Unit Organization for the Administration of Rural Schools. United States Bureau of Education Bulletin 1914, no. 44. Washing- ton. 1914. The Status of Rural Education in the United States. United States Bureau of Education Bulletin 1913, no. 8. Washington. 1913. Monroe, Walter S. Cost of Instruction in Kansas High Schools. Emporia. 1915. Preston Times. Preston, Minnesota. May 11, 1916. Report of Minnesota Public Education Commission. St. Paul. 1914. Report of the Minnesota Tax Commission. St. Paul. 1912. Revised Statutes of Indiana. 1914. Spaulding, F. E. Annual Reports. In Annual Reports of the School Committee, Newton, Mass. 1911, 1912, 1913. Strayer, George D. City School Expenditures. New York. 1905. Swift, Fletcher Harper. A History of Public Permanent Common School Funds in the United States, 1795-1905. New York. 1911. BIBLIOGRAPHY 183 Thorndike, E. L. Mental and Social Measurements. New York. 1904. Thirteenth Census of the United States, taken in 1910. Washington. 1913. Updegraff, H., and Hood, William R. A Comparison of Urban and Rural Com- mon School Statistics. United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1912, no. 21. Washington. 1912. Woods, Frederick Adams. The Influence of Monarchs. New York. 1913. Young, J. S. Civil Government of Minnesota. New York. 1907. VITA Raymond Asa Kent was born at Plymouth, Iowa, on July 21, 1883. He graduated from the public schools of Fayette, Iowa, in 1899; received the degree of A.B. from Cornell College, Mt. Vernon, Iowa, in 1903; attend- ed Drew Seminary, Madison, New Jersey, during the years 1903-4 and 1907-8; received the degree of M.A. from Columbia University in 1910. He was principal of the graded public school at Fountain, Minnesota, during 1904-5; Superintendent of Schools at Mabel, Minnesota, 1905-7; at Lanesboro, Minnesota, 1908-9; instructor in mathematics. State Normal School, Winona, Minnesota, 1909-11; Superintendent of City Schools, Winona, Minnesota, 1911-13; Secretary of Minnesota Public Education Commission, 1913-14; Principal of University High School and Assistant Professor of Education, University of Minnesota, 1914-16; Superintendent of City Schools, Lawrence, Kansas, and Professor of Education, University of Kansas, 1916 to date. He has published the following: Professional Training of Public School Teachers in Minnesota, School Edtication, March, 1909; The State High School Field, School Education, March and April, 1916; Practice Teaching at the University of Minnesota, School and Society, 4:140; The Kansas School Day, The Kansas Teacher, June, 1917; Current Literature in the Homes of High School Pupils, Kansas Teacher, March, 1918. ^ C