Bnnlt.r In 5" INTRODUCTION (/ ? ^ / Sr4 Z? ^**>► v ■ - *• \ Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1840, by GOULD, NEWMAN, AND SA.XT ON, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 0m4 1/ 1 i PREFACE. The study of the French language is now so common among the youth of this country, in pursuing what is called a liberal course of education, that a want of acquaintance with it on the part of one not considerably advanced in years is remarked as denoting scanty op- portunities of instruction. To meet the demand thus occasioned, ele- mentary books have been greatly multiplied within a few years. Jhere yet appear, however, " ample room and verge enough" for improvement in their plan and execution. The present volume is designed to afford, in itself, sufficient resources for the attainment of a very considerable acquaintance with the language. It combines a Grammar, a Reader, and a Dictionary, and it is hoped will be found an adequate equipment for serious action, thus obviating the usual necessity of purchasing three several books at the outset. Should the first, endeavors of the student be found successful and encourag- ing, this book may be the stepping-stone to the perusal of any produc- tions of French literature towards which attention may be directed. The Grammar is not intended as a mere abridgment. Complete- ness has been one of my aims in its preparation. Its materials have been derived mainly from the best French Grammars to which I had access, and, to some little extent, from my own direct observation. 1 have endeavored to reproduce here every important principle of French grammar which has in any wa*y met my knowledge. The general scheme which 1 have pursued is, I believe, new, save that it is the same as that of my German Grammar, published rather less than two years ago. The declension, agreement, and government of words are not treated of in different and distant parts of the book, but all that relates to one part of speech is presented under one sep- arate head, yet, I trust, without confusion. Accuracy and conveni- ence of method, both in the main and in detail, constitute one of the most essential requisites in a Grammar of any language. The con- tents should be so arranged that an inquirer may .always know just where to look for the explanation of any grammatical fact, instead of being obliged, as he too often is, to search hither and thither without chart or compass. It is common to introduce into French Grammars Exercises for practice in writing French. This custom, which tends to augment the size of Grammars so much, 1 have not followed, for two reasons : first, because a Grammar does not seem to me a strictly suitable re- IV PREFACE. pository for such Exercises; and, secondly, because I am persuaded there is a much better way of learning to write French. Let the learner begin by translating some very easy French into English, and when he has forgotten the words of the original text (perhaps a day or two afterwards,) let him attempt to retranslate the English into French. Comparison of the result with the original will show him his faults and lead to amendment. It will be seen that I have given a rather minute account of French pronunciation. It is probable that some of my statements will not find universal assent on the part of good French scholars. The truth is, there is a want of exact uniformity among the best speakers of the language. An ear not very nice will readily detect differences of considerable importance. By way of analogy, observe what a dis- crepancy exists among the best authorities on the subject of English pronunciation ! I have struggled to do the best I could. I shall doubt- less be thought wrong by one man, where another, in general equally competent to judge, will think me right. The perplexities of the case will, I trust, induce lenient criticism. The Selections in this volume have been made from the productions of the chief elegant writers of France, especially from those which afforded convenient opportunity of presenting entire pieces, or at least extracts not unintelligible and useless when withdrawn from their connection. 1 trust they will not be found to involve too much dif- ficulty for beginners. The. requisition of considerable effort, with proper aid, best promotes progress. The Explanatory Notes consist mostly of references to principles in the Grammar which illustrate the text. As most of this volume was printed while I was living twenty or thirty miles from the press which issues it, 1 have labored under un- usual disadvantage in correcting the sheets. Some typographical er- rors owe their existence to this circumstance. A few mistakes of considerable importance which have met my eye since the sheets were struck off are noticed at the foot of page x. I have observed some others which are of little consequence, and can easily be cor- rected without mention. 1 am aware that the book exhibits many imperfections, and fear that many of which I am not at all aware will be detected by abler scrutiny. It is easier, however, to discover faults when a work is completed, than to avoid them in its preparation. Trusting that my book will not encounter an alertness to censure, 1 here leave it to speak for itself. DAVID FOSDICK, JR. Andover, Mass. ) Sept. 1, 1840. i CONTENTS. Preface, Page. 3 GRAMMAR. PART I. ELEMENTS OF WORDS. 13 l^liAriJiK 1. XXLirilAUUil, f • • Chapter II. Pronunciation, . , , , 14 I. Simple Vowels, . • 14 II. Compound Vowels, . . 17 III. Diphthongs, . . 18 IV. Simple Consonants, . . 21 V. Combined Consonants, . . 29 VI. Peculiar sound of Consonants with Vowels, . 33 VII. Peculiar sound of Vowels with Consonants, . , , 37 VIII. Silence of Vowels, . . . 39 IX. Silence of Consonants, . . 41 X. Syllables and Words, . . . 45 XI. Emphasis, • • 47 Chapter III. Orthography, . 48 I. Syllables, , , 48 II. Letters, . , 49 III. Accents, . . 50 IV. Other marks, . , 50 1* VI CONTENTS. PART II. FORMS OF WORDS. Chapter I. Article, .... I. Variation, . II. Determination of Form, III. Position, . IV. Additional Peculiarities, Chapter II. Substantive, I. Variation, General Statement, . Gender of Substantives, Number of Substantives, II. Determination of Form, III. Position, . IV. Additional Peculiarities, Chapter III. Adjective, I. Variation, . General Statement, . Gender, . Number, II. Determination of Form, III. Position, . IV. Additional Peculiarities, Chapter IV. Pronoun, .... I. Variation, . General Statement, . Personal Pronouns, . Possessive " Relative " Absolute " Demonstrative Pronouns, Miscellaneous " . II. Determination of Form, Chapter V. Verb, CONTENTS. vn Personal Pronouns, . 88 Possessive Pronouns, 92 Relative and Absolute Pronouns s, 94 Demonstrative Pronouns, . 97 Miscellaneous Pronouns, . 100 III. Position, .... 100 IV. Additional Peculiarities, . 103 ERB ,..••• 112 I. Variation, 112 General Statement, 112 Auxiliary Verbs, 115 Regular Verbs, 121 1st Conjugation, . 122 2d . . 125 3d . 129 4th " 132 Verb with Stre, 137 Irregular Verbs, 140 Defective Verbs, 141 Impersonal Verbs, . 141 Pronominal Verbs, . 143 II. Determination of Form, 149 I. Voice, ... 149 II. Mode, 149 A. Infinitive, 149 B. Participles, . 150 C. Indicative, . 153 D. Conditional, 154 E. Subjunctive, 155 F. Imperative, . 158 III. Tense, . 158 IV. Number and Person, 162 III. Position, . 165 IV. Additional Peculiarities, 166 Vlll CONTENTS. Chapter VI. Particles, 174 I. General Statement, . . . 174 II. Position, .... 176 III. Additional Peculiarities, . . 178 APPENDIX, 183 A. Words in which u preceded by g or q is pronoun- ced as pari of a diphthong, . . . 183 B. Words in which u preceded by g or q is silent, 184 C. Words which begin with silent h, . . 187 D. Words ending with er in which final r is sounded, 192 E. Words in which final s is sounded, . . 193 F. Words in which final t is sounded, . . 195 G. Proper Names of countries and districts larger than cities which do not take the Definite Ar- ticle, 196 H. Expressions in which common Substantives are used without the Definite Article, . . 197 I. Substantives of two genders with a different signi- fication in each, ..... 202 J. French Numerals, 204 K. Adjectives of different signification before and af- ter a Substantive, 208 L. Verbs conjugated with Stre instead of avoir, . 209 M. Irregular Verbs, 210 N. Adverbial expressions which require the Subjunc- tive or Indicative Mode, .... 277 O. Interrogation and Negation in French, . . 278 P. Use of the Prepositions a and de before Infini- tives and Substantives, .... 284 CONTENTS. IX SELECTIONS. PART I. PROSE. Amour de la Patrie, 291 Obscurite du Style, 291 Avarice, . . 291 Sincerite, . . 292 Fermete d'Esprit, . 292 Amour Filial, . . 292 Modestie de Platon, . 293 Exageration, . . 293 Boileau et un Jesuite, 294 La Cupidite doublement Punie, . . 295 L'Homme, • . 295 Le Riche et le Pauvre, 297 Respect a la Vieillesse, 298 Jerusalem, . . 299 Constantinople, . 300 Venise, . . 301 Alexandrie, . . 302 Chilion, ... 304 BufTon, ... 306 Marius, ... 306 Sylla, ... 307 Cesar, ... 308 Fenelon Ecrivain, . 309 Montesquieu, . . 310 La Bruyere, . . 310 Mahomet, . . 311 Les Grecs et les Italiens, 312 Les peuples de la Betique, 313 Un Combat de Taureaux, 314 De la Nature, . 315 De la Piete et de PHy- pocrisie, . . 316 L'Art d'Ecrire, . 317 De la Grace, . ' . 318 L'Eloquence, . . 320 La Religion des Romains, 321 Vanite, . . . 322 Extreme variete de la Nature, . . 323 La Paresse, . . 324 Mepris de la Mort, . 324 LaMort, . . 326 Fragilite Humaine, . 328 Rapidite de la Vie, . 329 Immortalite de l'Ame, 329 L'Evangile, . . 330 PART II. POETRY. 2a £ete et (a Queue in ©erpeut, ♦ ♦ 333 ?e (Sfyaufce^ourte et fe£ beur 33eletteg, • 334 ?'3ttrogue et Set gemme, 335 2e £tgre et fe Dteuarb, 336 Segleutte, i • 337 2e3 £eur aSo^ageur^ 337 9Rantere *>e Stre leg aSer^, 338 CONTENTS. ?a9?o3e, ♦ ♦ 340 Sa SStofettc, • . 340 ?e gout in $eu, ♦ 342 (£xi$tence be 2)teu, 343 ?a SKau&aige £onte, 344 ?a9ttort, . • 346 VOCABULARY, 2a SKoberatton, • 348 2e3 £ironbetfeg, . 349 SKortbe Jeanne £)'2lrc,350 SSonaparte, ♦ . 352 g'autre Sftonbe, . 354 Srtrait be Canute cm Sfyrtet, . . 355 357 INDEX OF AUTHORS. Amable Tastu (Mme.), 346 Fontanes, 317 Anonymous, . 291-3, 337, 3: Harpe (La), . 306 Arnault, 337 Lamartine, . 352 3 354, 355 Barante (De) . 310 Massillon, . 329 Barthelemy, 298 Maury, . 309 Beranger (J.-P ■ Dr.), 349 MONNIER (Le), 336 Berquin, . 295 Montesquieu, 321,322 BOILEAU, 344 Neufchateau (F. De), 333 Bossuet, . 328 Pascal, 323 Bruyere (La), . 297 Pierre (St.), 326 BuFFON, 315 ,316 ROCHEFOUCAULT, 324 Chateaubriand ; • 299 ,300 Rousseau (J.-B.), 343 Chenedolle, . 340 Rousseau (J. -J.), 330 Condorcet, . 311 Seyigne (Mme. D ■). 293, 294 Delavigne, . , 350 Sismondi, 312 Delille, . 342 Stael (Mme. De) 301 Dubos, . 340 Vertot, 306, 307, 308 Dumas, . . 304 ViLLEMAIN, 320 Fenelon, . 313 VOLNEY, . 302 Florian, . 314 Voltaire, 318, 348 Fontaine, 333, 334 335 ERRATA. 19, line 4,5. Instead of " as a in the English word father," read as a in § 5. 86, § 379. Instead of"Autres" read Autrui. 110, § 509. Instead of " preposition en," read Pronoun en. 286, under No. IV. the verb Poutoir is omitted. GRAMMAR THE FRENCH LANGUAGE; APPENDIX BY DAVID FOSDICK, JR. ANDOVER: PUBLISHED BY GOULD, NEWMAN, AND SAXTON, NEW YORK : CORNER OF FULTON AND NASSAU STS. 1840. FRENCH GRAMMAR. PART I. ELEMENTS OF WORDS CHAP. I. i 1. ALPHABET. Letters. Names. Eng. representation A, a Ah Ah B, b . Bay . B C, c . Say or Kay . SorK D, d Day . " . D E, e A , Ay F, f . . Eff or Fay . F G,g . . Zhay or Ghay Zh or G H, h Ahsh . H I, i . . Ee E 1, J Zhee . Zh K, k Kah . K L, 1 . . Ell or Lay . L M, m Emm or May M N, n Enn or Nay N 0, o O P, P • Pay . P Q, q • — Q R, r Air or Ray . R S, ■ . Ess or Say . s 14 §§ 1 5. ALPHABET. T,t Tay . T U, u — — V, v Vay V X, x Eeks or Ksay X Y, y . E Grec E or Y Z, z Zed or Zay . Z Observations. § 2. Observ. I. When a letter is represented in the fore- going table as having two names, the first is the old mode of designating it, and the second is one recently introduced, which has not yet universally supplanted the old. § 3. Obs. II. When the names assigned to letters in the foregoing table end in ay, this termination is to be pronounced in a short, quick manner, more like ai in said than like ay in say. § 4. Obs. III. The names of the letters Q and U are not stated, because these names cannot be adequately represented by any English combination of letters. The sounds of these letters will be described hereafter. The name and the sound of the letter U are identical. The name of the letter Q is formed by prefixing the sound of the English Q or K to that of the French vowel U. CHAP. II. PRONUNCIATION. SOUNDS OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS. § 5. a. The sound of this vowel is not, as is commonly stated, exactly that of a in the English word father, but inter- mediate between that and the sound of a in the English word call; e. g. age, age, rare, rare. (See Obs. I. § 15.) §§ 6 — 16. SIMPLE VOWELS. 15 § 6. e. This vowel without an accent is either mute or sounded much like e in the English word water ; e. g. robe, robe,je, I, devenir, to become. (See Obs. II. § 16.) § 7. e. The vowel e with the acute accent is sounded as a in the English word ale ; e. g. the, tea, ete, summer. § 8. e. The vowel e with the grave accent is sounded much as the first e in the English word there, but rather short- er ; e. g. regie, rule, modele, model. § 9. e. The letter e with the circumflex accent is sounded much the same as the last e, but the mouth must be opened wider in uttering it and the voice must dwell upon it longer ; e. g. tempete, tempest, bete, foolish. § 10. i. Sounded as e in the English word me; e. g. il, he, id, here. § 11. o. This vowel without an accent is pronounced like o in the English word ore ; e. g. parole, wood, ecole, school. § 12. o. The vowel o with the circumflex accent is pro- nounced very long, as o in the English word note ; e. g. cote, coast, apotre, apostle. § 13. u. There is no sound in English which corresponds with that of this vowel. (See Obs. III. § 17.) § 14. y. This letter has the same sound as the French i, i. e. the sound of e in the English word me; e. g. lyre, lyre, dynastie, dynasty. (See Obs. IV. § 18.) Observations. § 15. Obs. I. Well-educated Frenchmen could in nearly all cases readily detect the foreign origin of an American or Englishman by his manner of sounding the French letter a, even supposing there were no other indication within their notice. The Grammars of the French language commonly mislead the learner on this point. § 16. Obs. II. It must be remarked, that the statement given concerning the sounds of the different vowels does not apply universally ; for where another vowel or a consonant 16 §§ 16 — 19. SIMPLE VOWELS. follows, belonging to the same syllable, the sound of the vowels is often peculiar. The varieties of sound which they assume in different connections will be specified hereafter. (See §§ 20 seq. 30 seq. and 107 seq.) The sound which I have ascribed to unaccented e does not belong to it except when this vowel terminates a syllable. For further illustra- tion of this letter, see § 174 seq., besides the places just re- ferred to. § 17. Obs. III. To produce the letter a, place the lips in the very position which they would occupy in whistling, and then form a vowel-sound, emitting the breath exactly as in whistling. Teachers of French commonly direct the learner to place his lips in the position I have designated, and then merely to try to pronounce the English u. This direction is defective and generally useless ; for the pure English u may be sounded nearly as well with the lips in that position as while they are in any other. There is this difference between the English « and the French, viz. that the former requires a motion of the tongue after it is commenced, but the latter none, it being a mere vocal emission of the breath, while the lips. and tongue are in one continued position. — A second mode of obtaining the pronunciation of this letter is as follows. Utter the sound of oo in the English word moon. In the midst of the pro- longed utterance of this sound, suddenly thrust the tongue forward against the lower teeth, and the desired sound of the French u is the result. § 18. Obs. IV. At the beginning of a syllable and be- tween two vowels in the same word, the French letter y has the same sound as in the English word yard ; e. g. yeuse, holm-oak, royaume, kingdom, moyen, means. This is some- times called, I think improperly, a consonant sound. It is the same as that of the vowel i in many English words, in filial, for example. § 19. Obs. V. All the vowels are sometimes short and sometimes long; by which variation, however, I do not in- §§ 19 — 26. COMPOUND VOWELS. 17 tend, as might be supposed by the learner on account of the application of the terms in English grammar, any difference in the quality of the sound. All that is meant is, that the same sound is more or less protracted. No invariable rules can be given concerning the length of syllables in French any more than in English. The proper pronunciation of words in this respect must be acquired chiefly through the ear. It may be remarked, however, that an accented sylla- ble* is naturally longer than one unaccented, and that a vowel marked with a circumflex accent is always very long. SOUNDS OF THE COMPOUND VOWELS. t § 20. ai. Sounded commonly as ay in the English word day ; e. g. aimahle, lovely, vaine, vain. (See Obs. I. § 26.) § 21. au. Sounded as o in the English word vote; e. g. auieur, author, cause, cause. § 22. ei. Sounded as ai above ; e. g. veine, vein, baleine, whale. § 23. eu. Sounded as u in the English word turn; e. g. peuple, people, jeune, young. (See Obs. II. § 27.) § 24. oi. Sounded as ai above ; e. g. Anglois, English, avail, had. (See Obs. III. § 28.) § 25. ou. Sounded as ou in the English word soup ; e. g. foule, crowd, route, road. Observations. § 26. Obs. I. When there is a circumflex accent over the i of the compound vowel ai, the sound becomes like that of the simple vowel e with the circumflex accent, i. e. like that * By accented syllable in this remark I do not mean a syllable marked with a stroke culled an accent, but one on which peculiar stress is laid in pronunciation. (See § 181 seq.) t By a compound voiccl is here intended a combination of two or more vowels representing a single sound different from that of either of the simple vowels. 2* 18 §§ 26—33. DIPHTHONGS. of the first e in there (see § 9) ; e. g. paitre, to feed, maltre, master. § 27. Obs. II. The compound vowel eu is sounded dif- ferently sometimes, and always when there is a circumflex accent over the u. (See § 126.) § 28. Obs. III. This is the only sound which oi has as a compound vowel, and, from the influence of Voltaire's exam- ple, now sanctioned by the French Academy, although at first discountenanced by it, the compound vowel ai is by most good writers substituted for oi with this sound. There are other sounds of oi which are specified hereafter in §§ 34 seq. 38, 39, and 121. § 29. Obs. IV. When y is combined with the vowel a it is sounded as i would be in the same connection, and, if ano- ther vowel follows, the y has likewise the sound mentioned in § 18. Obs. IV; e. g. crayon, pencil, frayeur, fright. The compound vowel oy is sounded in French as in the English word royal; e. g. royaume, kingdom, joyeux, joyous. SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. § 30. A diphthong is a combination of vowels which re- quires more than one separate sound. These separate sounds, however, are commonly uttered as nearly as possible in one syllable, though in poetry they often stand for two, ~ § 31. Diphthongs may be composed (1) of two simple vow- els, (2) of a simple vowel and a compound one (in the order in which I have mentioned them, or the reverse), or (3) of two compound vowels ; e. g. (1) ia, (2) iai, oua, (3) ouie. § 32. Those combinations of vowels which are not other- wise designated in this chapter are to be considered as diphthongs, and to be sounded rapidly in the manner stated above in § 30. Only three of the diphthongs are pronounced differently from the ordinary utterance of their component parts. The sounds of these three I proceed to describe. § 33. oe. In a few words these two vowels sometimes oc- §§ 33—36. DIPHTHONGS. 19 cur (N. B. the e with a circumflex accent,) as a diph- thong, although it is now considered most correct to write oi instead. When this diphthong occurs, the o is sounded long, as o in the English word note, and the e is sounded as a in the English word father ; e. g. poele, stove, now usually spelt po'ile. § 34. oi. These two vowels, when they form a diphthong, are sounded exactly as the preceding diphthong, oe. It has been remarked in § 28, that in cases where oi would not be a diphthong, but would have the sound of the compound vowel ai, it is now commonly changed to ai. But, as some books still retain the old method of spelling, it may be well to state rules by which the different sounds of oi in this old method may be accurately determined. § 35. Rule I. The letters oi are sounded as ai (1) in the terminations of the imperfect and conditional tenses of all verbs ; e. g.favois, I had, faurois, I should have, je recevois, I received : (2) in the following names of certain nations and provinces ; Anglois, English, Bearnois, Bearnese, Bourbon- nois, Bourbon nese, Ecossois, Scotch, Ferrarois, Ferrarese, Hollandois, Dutch, Irlandois, Irish, Lyonnois, Lyonnese, Milanois, Milanese, Nivernois, Nivernese, Olearnois, Olear- nese, Piedmontois, ©edmontese, Polonois, Pole, Portugois, Portuguese, Sessonnois, Sessonnese : and (3) in the first syl- lable offoiblir, to grow weak, and the second of connoitre, to know, and of paroitre, to appear. N. B. In all the derivatives of these three verbs the oi has the same pronunciation ; e. g. foiblesse, weakness, affoiblir, to weaken, affoiblissement, weak- ening, connoissance, knowledge, connoisseur, connoisseur, miconnoitre, to forget, reconnoitre, to recognise, apparoitre, to appear (as a ghost), co?nparoitre i to appear (as a witness), disparoitre, to disappear, reparoitre, to reappear. § 36. Rule II. In all other cases (see Obs. I. § 38.) oi is a diphthong, and is sounded as directed in § 34 ; e. g. Bava- rois, Bavarian, Carthaginois, Carthaginian, Chinois, Chinese, 20 §§ 36 39. DIPHTHONGS. Danois, Dane, Generals, Genevese, Ginois, Genoese, Hes- sois, Hessian, Hibernois, Irish, Hongrois, Hungarian, Lie- geois, Liegese, Siamois, Siamese, Saedois, Swede, que je sois, that I may be, recevoir, to receive, pouvoir, to be able, croitre, to increase, croire, to believe. (See Obs. II. § 39.) § 37. ua. These two letters are commonly either sounded separately like an ordinary diphthong (§ 30.) or like a alone, the u being silent (§ 131.) ; but, in some instances (not in all) when they are preceded by the consonant g or q, they form a peculiar diphthong, the u having a sound which it often has in English, viz. that of ou in soup, and the a having its ordi- nary French sound ; e. g. Ungual, lingual, equaleur, equator.* Observations. § 38. Obs. I. Except when oi occurs with a diaeresis (see § 204.) over the i (oi), in which case the two letters are not either a compound vowel or a diphthong, but are sounded separately in entire independence of each other ; e. g. Ae'- ro'ine, (ha-ro-een) heroine. The diaeresis has the same ef- fect upon the sound of all other combinations of vowels; c. g. hair, to hate, a'ieul, grandfather, Said, Saul, poete, poet. § 39. Obs. II. There has been vcr}^ much dissension among the best French grammarians in regard to the true pronunciation of the diphthong oi ; nearly all, indeed, giving the same sound to the o, (though by a few this is represented as having the sound of oo in the English word moon,) — but some sounding the i nearly as a in the English word hang, * For a pretty extensive list of the words in which ua is pro- nounced thus, see App. A. It will be noticed that the sound ofgu or qu in these words is the same as the sound of the same letters in the corresponding English words, whenever there are such corres- ponding words in English. The only difference is in the sound of the vowel a which follows gu or qu, — Some pronounce the u in dufrgne, duenna, also, like ou in the English word soup, on account of its Spanish origin. §§ 39 — 42. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 21 others as e in the English word water, a third party as the first e in the English word there, a fourth as a in the English word father, a fifth nearly as a in the English word wall, (that sound which I have given to it,) a sixth as e in the Eng- lish word water when oi is followed by any consonant except s or x, and nearly as a in the English word wall when followed by s, x or e mute, and a seventh giving it, according to its dif- ferent connections, each of the five different sounds which I have described. Good usage, I believe, may be said now to be concentering upon the uniform pronunciation of this diph- thong as I have represented above. SOUNDS OF THE SIMPLE CONSONANTS,. § 40. h. This letter is sounded precisely as in English ; e. g. barbe, beard, Babel, Babel. § 41. c. This letter has two different sounds in French : (a) Whenever it occurs, without a cedilla (§ 198.), before either of the vowels a, o,u, it is sounded hard, like c in the English word cat ; and so also before any consonant, except- ing, in some cases, the letter h (§ 78.) ; e. g. cable, cable, col, neck, culte, worship, clair, clear, creme, cream, contact, contact. (See Obs. I. § 59.) (b) Whenever it occurs before either of the vowels e, i, y, or, with a cedilla (§ 198.) beneath it, before a, o, or u, it is sounded like the English 5 in sense; e. g. ceci, this, cycle, cy- cle, for cat, galley-slave, lepoii, lesson, recu, received. (See Obs. II. III. §§60, 61.) § 42. .:/. This letter is sounded as in English, except when it is at the end of a word and is followed by a word beginning with a vowel or an h mute (§ 139 seq.), in which case, it is sounded as t in the English word cat, or (to exhibit an anal- og3 r between the English and the French in regard to this letter,) as d at the end of the English words cracked, stuffed ; e. g. date, date, grand homme, great man, pied-a-terre, foot on the ground. 22 §§ 43 — 48. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. § 43. f. This letter is sounded as in English, except when it is at the end of a word and is followed by a word beginning with a vowel or an h mute, in which case it it sounded like v in the English word five ; e. g.frais, fresh, Jille, girl, ce bceuf est vif etfort, this ox is lively and strong, neuf enfans, nine children, neufhommes, nine men. (See Obs. IV. § 62.) § 44. g. This letter has three different sounds in French. (a) Whenever it occurs before either of the vowels a, o,u, or before any consonant, unless it helps to form a peculiar sound in combination with that consonant (§ 79 and 80.), it is sounded hard, as in the English word go; e. g. garde, guard, goulte, drop, figure, figure, glace, ice, gnome, gnome, grile, hail. (b) Whenever it occurs before either of the vowels e, i, y, it is sounded as % in the English.word azure; e. g. age, aged, gibier, game, gypse, gypsum. (See Obs. V. § 63.) (c) In the words long, long, rang, rank, and sang, blood, if the next word begin with a vowel, and also in the word bourg, market-town, in all cases, (see Obs. VI. § 64.) its sound is that of the English k ; e. g. suer sang et eau, to toil hard, rang eleve, elevated rank, long entretien, long conversation, bourg ferme, closed market-town. (See Obs. Vll. § 65.) § 45. h. When this letter is not silent (§ 139 seq.) it is sounded as h in the English word hard, commonly with more force than is given to it in English ; e. g. heros, hero, hideux, hideous. § 46. j. This letter is always sounded like z in the Eng- lish word azure, i. e. just as the soft g in French (§ 44. b.) ; e. g.jeu, gamc,joujou, plaything. § 47. k. This letter is always sounded as in English ; e. g. Kan, Khan, kali, name of a sea-weed. (See Obs. VIII. § 66.) § 48. 1. This letter has two different sounds in French : (a) It has a liquid sound, like that of lli in the English word brilliant, in all words ending in ail, eil* euil, and ouil, and * This terminHtion includes, it must be noticed, such words as ml', eye, rccucil , collection, accueil , reception, etc. §§ 48—55. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 23 also in a few words ending in il with a consonant immediately preceding ; e. g. serail, seraglio, conseil, counsel, ecureuil, squirrel, fenouil, fennel, Avril, April.* (See Obs. IX. § 67.) (b) In other cases, when it is sounded at all (§ 144.) it is sounded as I in the English word lily ; e. g. lis, lily, legisla- teur, legislator. § 49. m. This letter, except in certain connections (§ 92 seq.), is sounded as in English ; e. g. mats, but, ami, friend. § 50. n. This letter, likewise, except in certain connec- tions (§ 92 seq.), is sounded precisely as in English ; e. g. nonne, nun, nenni, no. § 51. p. The sound of this letter is the same in French as in English ; e. g. pape, pope, pepin, kernel. § 52. q. The sound of this letter is the same in French as in English, viz. that of k in king ; e. g. coq, cock, equateur, equator. (See Obs. X. § 68.) § 53. r. The sound of this letter is that of the English r rolled or trilled ; e. g. rural, rural, rare, rare. § 54. s. This letter has two different sounds in French : (a) Whenever it occurs between two vowels in the same word, or at the end of a word before another beginning with a vowel or h mute, it is commonly sounded (if at all, § 151 seq.) soft, like 5 in the English word rose; e. g. plaisir, pleasure, rose, rose, les amis, the friends, ces hommes, these men. (See Obs. XL § 69.) (b) Elsewhere it is commonly sounded hard, as 5 in the Eng- lish word so; e.g.s-tfge, wise, espace, space. (See Obs. XII. §70.) § 55. t. This letter has two different sounds in French : (a) It is commonly sounded as t in the English word tone ; e. g. texte, text, totalitt, total. (b) It is frequently sounded as c in the English word cedar, especially before ie and ion ; e. g. patience, patience, action, action. (See Obs. XIII. § 71.) * The letter I is liquid too in the proper names MUhavt and Par- dalhac. 24 §§ 56 — 59. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. § 56. v. This letter has the same sound in French as in English ; e. g. veuve, widow, vivant, living. § 57. x. This letter has four different sounds in French : (a) Its most usual sound is that of the hard English x in box ; e. g. sexe, sex, oxygkne, oxygen, exceder, to exceed, ex- ruder, to exude, extreme, extreme. (See Obs. XIV. § 72.) (b) It is sounded like the soft English x in example, in all words beginning with x, ex or hex followed by a vowel or si- lent h; e. g. Xavier, Xavier, Ximenes, Ximenes, examiner, to examine, exercise, exercise, exister, to exist, exorde, exordium, exuberance, exuberance, exhiber, to exhibit.* (c) In the following words it is sounded like ss in the Eng- lish word assail: dix, ten, six, six, soixante, sixty, Aix, Aix, Auxerre, Auxerre, Auxonne, Auxonne, Bruxelles, Brussels, Cadix, Cadiz, Luxeuil, Luxeuil, and Xaintonge, Saintonge. (See Obs. XV. § 73.) (d) In the following words it is sounded like % in the Eng- lish word gaze : deiixieme, second, deuxUmement, secondly, dixUme, tenth, dixiemement, tenthly, dix-huit, eighteen, dix- neuf, nineteen, sixain, stanza of six verses, sixieme, sixth, six- ilmement, sixthly ; and so also at the end of a word when the next word begins with a vowel or an h mute (when the next word begins with a consonant the x is silent, § 155.) ; e. g. lieux enchanies, enchanted places, deux hommes, two men. (See Obs. XVI. and XVII. §§ 74, 75.) § 58. z. This letter is sounded as z in the English word tone ; e. g. douze, twelve, zizanie. tare. (See Obs. XVIII. § 76.) Observations. § 59. Obs. I. In a few words which fall under the de- scription here given the c is softened by common usage nearly or quite to the sound of g in the English word go ; viz. in second, second, (and its derivatives), becasse, woodcock, bicas- * So, of course, in the derivatives of such words ; e. g. in prtt f z- ister, to preexist, prt&cistence, preexistence. §§ 59 65. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 25 sine., snipe, czar, czar, Claude, Claude, Reine- Claude, green gage (plum), and secret, secret. It is universally pronounced thus in the first of these words, second (and its derivatives) ; but in regard to the rest there is not entire agreement, some pronouncing them as we have represented, and others re- taining the hard sound of c. § 60. Obs. II. In two words, derived from the Italian lan- guage, vermicelle, vermicelli, and violoncelle, violoncello, c before e is pronounced as ch in the English word chaise. § 61. Obs. III. The French words in which double c is followed by e or i are pronounced in exact conformity with the two rules here given. Thus, e. g., in the words accent, accent, accelere, accelerated, accident, accident, the double c is sounded just as in the corresponding English words, the first being hard, like c in cat, from its position before the con- sonant c, and the second being soft because it stands before the vowel e or i. § 62. Obs. IV. Neuf, however, in the expressions, neuf en tout, nine in all, and neuf a diner, nine to dine, is pro- nounced with the usual hard sound of f. § 63. Obs. V. The French words in which double g is fjllowed by e or i are pronounced conformably to the two rules which have been stated. Thus, e. g., in suggerer, to suggest, and suggestion, suggestion, the first g, standing be- fore a consonant, is sounded hard, as g in the English word go, and the second, standing before the vowel e, is sounded like z in the English word azure. § 64. Obs. VI. This statement does not apply to com- pounds of which this word forms a part. In these the g is generally silent (§ 138.), and in bourgmestre, burgomaster, the g is pronounced as in the English word go. § 65. Obs. VII. The first g in the word gangrene, gan- grene, and its derivatives, gangrener, to gangrene, gangrd- neux } gangrenous, is almost universally sounded in the same 3 26 §§ 65 — 70. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. manner, precisely as if the words began with c. This pro- nunciation is authorised by the French Academy. § 66. Obs. VIII. The letter K has little or no claim to be considered as belonging to the alphabet of the French, since they no longer use it except in a few words of infrequent oc- currence borrowed from foreign languages. Formerly some words were spelt with this letter which are now spelt with c; e. g. Kalendes, Calends, Kalendrier, calendar, now Calendes and Calendrier. Even these words, however, were all of foreign origin. § 67. Obs. IX. The following are all the words ending in il with a consonant immediately preceding in which the I has the liquid sound : Avril, April, babil, prattle, Bresil, Brazil or Brazil-wood, cil, eyelashes, fenil, hay-loft, gentil, heathen, gresil, small hail, mil, millet, peril, peril. In the word gril, gridiron, it is liquid when it is not wholly suppressed, as it commonly is when this word is used in familiar discourse ($ 144.) § 68. Obs. X. I know of no French words but cinq, five, and coq, cock, in which this letter is not immediately fol- lowed by the vowel u, as it is invariably in English. For a very peculiar pronunciation of q see § 75. § 69. Obs. XI. In the following words it is sounded hard between two vowels : contresigner , to countersign, desuetude, desuetude, entresol, one-story lodgings, gisant, lying, havre- sac, knapsack, monosyllabe, monosyllable, parasol, parasol, polysyllabe, polysyllable, preseance, precedence, presupposer (first s), to presuppose, resaisir (first s), to reseize, resaluer, to resalute, tournesol, sun-flower, vraisemblablc, probable, rraisemblance, likelihood, and all other compounds formed of one word ending with a vowel and another beginning with s. § 70. Obs. XII. In the following words it is sounded soft, although it does not stand between two vowels : Alsace, Al- sace, Arsace, Arsace, Asdrubal, Asdrubal, asbeste, asbestos, §§ 70, 71. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. 27 Augsbourg, Augsburg, balsamine, balsam, balsamique, bal- samic, bisbille, quarrel, Breisgau, Breisgau, Israel, Israel (and its derivatives), Esdras, Esdras, intransitif, intransitive, Isboseth, Ishbosheth, Lesbos, Lesbos, Louisbourg, Louisburg, Pkilipsbourg, Philipsburg, presbytere, presbytery (and its de- rivatives), Presbourg, Presburg, Rysicick, Ryswick, sbire, constable, second, second,* Sdili, Delos, Sedan, Sedan, Sgan- arelle, Sganarelle, svelte, slender, Thisbe, Thisbe, transac- tion, transaction, transalpin, transalpine, transeat, pass out, transiger, to transact, transitif, transitive, transition, transi- tion, transitoire, transitory. § 71. Obs. XIII. It is so sounded (1) in all substantives ending in tion, unless this termination be immediately pre- ceded by an 5 or an x, e. g. action, action, nation, nation (but hard in question, question, mixtion, mixture) ; (2) in all ad- jectives and nouns ending in tial, tiel, tient, or tieux, and in their feminines and other derivatives, e. g., martial, martial, partial, partial, quotient, quotient, captieux, captious ; (3) in the following, words terminating in tie : argutie, cavil, aris- tocratic, aristocracy, Beotie, Boeotia, burocratie i burocracy, calvitie, baldness, Croaiie, Croatia, Dalmatie, Dalmatia, de- mocratic, democracy, diplomatic, diplomacy, epizootie, con- tagious disorder among cattle, eutropetie, good nature, fad- tie, facetiousness, Galatie, Galatia, imperitie, ignorance, inep- tie, foolery, inertie, inertia, minutie, trifle, peripttie, sudden turn of foriune, primatie, primacy, prophetie, prophecy, su- prematie, supremacy, theocratie, theocracy, and in their de- rivatives ; (4) in the following words terminating in tien : Capetien, Capetian, Diocletien, Dioclesian, Domitien, Domi- tian, Egyptien, Egyptian, Gratien, Gratian, Helvttien, Hel- vetian, Titien, Titian, Venitien, Venitian, and in their deriva- * Thus, e. g., il est !e second da sa classc, he is the second in hie class. It is true, the s is here between two vowels, but not " be- tween two vowels in the same word," and therefore its soft sound is a deviation from the general rule. (See § 54. a, cf, id, b.) 28 §§ 71 75. SIMPLE CONSONANTS. tives ; and (5) in the verbs balbutier, to stammer, initier, to initiate, and in all their inflexions and derivatives. § 72. Obs. XIV. It has been usual, in treating of French pronunciation, to represent the letter x as having^/we different sounds, distinguishing between the x in extreme, for example, and that in exce'der or exsuder. In the former word it is said to have the sound of ks, and in the latter only that of k. The distinction seems to me groundless. It is not made in our own language between the x in extreme and that in exceed or exscind. Both languages, I believe, give the same sound to x in all these words beginning with ex followed by a conso- nant. In case the consonant sound following is that of s, the s sound in the x naturally coalesces with it in both languages; but this is no reason for supposing the x to have a peculiar sound in such words. § 73. Obs. XV. In the words dix, ten, and six, six, the letter x is sounded like ss only in case these words are not con- nected with a substantive immediately following ; as, e. g., in the following expression : de seize otez dix, reste six, from six- teen take ten, and six remains. When either of these numerals is immediately followed by a substantive which it qualifies, the x is generally not pronounced at all if the substantive begins with a consonant (§ 155.), and it is sounded like z if the sub- stantive begins with a vowel or h mute, according to the rule in § 57. d. § 74. Obs. XVI. In the following words the letter x is sounded hard, like the English x in box, under all circum- stances : borax, borax, climax, climax, index, index, larynx, larynx, lynx, lynx, onyx, onyx, perplex, perplexed (com- monly, however, spelt perplexe), phenix, phenix, pnfix, ap- pointed, sphinx, sphinx, syrinx, shepherd's pipe, storax, sto- rax, thorax, thorax, in all proper names ending with this let- ter, and generally in all words coming from the Latin, Greek, or any foreign language. § 75. Obs. XVII. The letter x in Don Quixote is sounded ^ 75 79. COMBINED CONSONANTS. 29 by the French like sh in the English word shore. By a fur- ther anomaly, the q in the word is most commonly pronounced like g in the English word go, § 76. Obs. XYIII. In the following words the letter z is pronounced hard like s in the English word so : Alvarez, Alvarez, Fez, Fez, gat, gas, Metz,Meiz, Rhodez, Rhodes, Rodriguez, Rodriguez, Sanchez, Sanchez, Senez, Senez, Sua- rez, Suarez, Vasquez, Vasquez. SOUNDS OF COMBINED CONSONANTS. § 77. I shall, of coarse, notice only such combinations of consonants in a single syllable as exhibit deviations from the rules which have been laid down respecting the sounds of single consonants. When in any syllable two consonants oc- cur together which are not here specified as possessing a pe- culiar sound on account of their combination, each is to be sounded separately, according to the rules before given, un- less one or both of them be silent (§§ 133 — 174). The com- binations of consonants in French are much the same as in English. (See Obs. I. and II. §§ 84, 85.) § 78. ch. These two consonants occurring together have two different sounds in French : (a) In all words properly French in their origin, or which are derived from the Latin only, ch is sounded as sh in the English word share ; e. g. chercher, to seek, vache, cow. (b) In all words coming from the Greek, Hebrew, or Arabic, ch is commonly pronounced like cA^in the English word chorus ; e. g. orchestre, orchestra, archange, archangel. (See Obs. III. and IV. §§ 86, 87.) § 79. gl. These consonants occurring together have al- most invariably the same sound in French as in the English word glad ; e. g. glace, ice, regler, to regulate. In two words, however, borrowed from the Italian language, they have the liquid sound before attributed to Z in some instances, (§ 48. a.) that of Hi in the English word brilliant : viz. im- 3* 30 §§ 79 84. COMBINED CONSONANTS. broglie (now more commonly spelt imbroille), confusion, and De Broglie (proper name of a family). § 80. gn. These consonants occurring together have two different sounds in French : (a) They have almost always the liquid sound which they possess in the English word bagnio, or the sound of ni in the English word onion ; e. g. regner, to reign, vigne, vine. (See Obs. V. § 88.) (b) In all words beginning with these consonants they are sounded as gn in the English word ignorant; e. g. gnome, gnome, Gnostique, Gnostic. So also even in the midst of a few words. (See Obs. VI. § 89.) § 81. 11. These consonants occurring together have two different sounds in French : (a) They have often the liquid sound of Hi in the English word brilliant. They always have this sound when they are preceded by ai, ei, eui, or oui ; e. g. bailler, to deliver, con- seiller, to counsel, aiillade, leer, cueillir, to gather, feuille, leaf, bouillon, broth. (b) When they have not this liquid sound they are sounded as in the English word village. This latter sound they al- ways have in words beginning with ill ; e. g. illegal, illegal, illusion, illusion. (For other cases in which 11 is not liquid, see Obs. VII. and VIII. §§ 90, 91.) § 82. ph. These consonants occurring together in French are sounded like/, as in the English word philosopher ; e. g. phrase, phrase, plwsphore, phosphorus. § 83. sh. These consonants occurring together in French are sounded as in the English word shake; e. g. sherif, sheriff Observations. § 84. Obs. I. The French combinations of consonants in a single syllable which have not been mentioned arc the following : bl (c. g. table, table), br (e. g. bras, arm), cl (e. g. clair, clear), chm (§ 87.), chr (e. g. Christ, Christ), cr (e. g. §§ 84 86. COMBINED CONSONANTS. 31 icrire, to write), dr (e. g. cadran, dial), fl (e. g. ronfier, to snore), fr (e. g. defrayer, to defray), gr (e. g. agreable, agree- able), phr (e. g. paraphrase, paraphrase),* pi (e. g. plaisir, pleasure), p* (e. g. pourpre, purple), sc (e. g. scandale, scan- dal, ascetique, ascetict), sg (e. g. Sganarelle, Sganarelle), si (e. g. sloupe, sloop), sm (e. g. miasme, miasma), sn (e. g. Basnage, Basnage), sp (e. g. espoir, hope), st (e. g. reste, re- mainder), sv (e. g. svelte, slender), tl (e. g. Tlaspi, Tlaspi), tr (e. g. albdire, alabaster), vr (e. g. oeuvre, work.) In Hi the ^ is always silent (§ 143.) § 85. Obs. II. When a consonant is doubled, the only ef- fect which is produced by the repetition is increased force of utterance ; e. g. erreur, error, moisson, harvest. f § 86. Obs. III. The following is a very considerable list of the French words in which ch is pronounced thus : Achab, Ahab, Achate, Achaia, Achelous, Achelous, Anacharsis, Ana- charsis, anachorete, anchorite, anchilops, tumor in the eye, Antiochus, Antiochus, ar change, archangel, Archangel, Arch- angel, archaisme, archaism, archetype, archetype, archiepis- copal, archiepiscopal, archie pis cop at, archbishopric, archonte^ archon, Bacchus, Bacchus (and all its derivatives), brachial^ * In yhr } as well as chr and chm preceding, the ph has the sound specified in § 82, and the ch that specified in § 78. b, and then the sound of the following consonant is subjoined. The first two in- stances are the same as in English. In English the ch of drachm is silent. t In this latter case, as in similar cases in English, the s may be considered as belonging to one syllable and the c to the following, the c being soft before e, i, or y (§ 41 . b). In such words as science, science, sceptre, sceptre, the c has the soft sound before the vowel, and the s coalesces with it, just as in English. + This accounts for the frequent insertion of an additional s in a compound word of which one of the component parts ends with a vowel and the other begins with s ; e. g. dessus, above, desservir, to injure one, ressortlr, to go out again. It is designed to avoid the soft sound of s between two vowels (§ 54. a). 32 §§ 86 — 88. COMBINED CONSONANTS. « brachial, Calchas, Calchas, catechumene, catechumen, chalci- doine, chalcedony, chalcographie, chalcography, Chalddique, Chaldaic, Chaldken, Chaldean, chalibe, chalybeate, Cham, Ham, Chanaan, Canaan, chaos, chaos, Charon, Charon, che- lidoine, chelidony, Cher once, Cheronea, Chersonese, Cherso- nesus, Chieti, Chieti, chilior';i:e, captain of a thousand, Chio, Scio, cldragre, chiragra, f&irdgropMe, hand-writing, chiroman- cie, chiromancy, chiromancien, chiromancer, chceur, choir, chondrille (name of a plant), chorkbe, chorebus, chorege, cho- ragus, chorisie, chorister, chorus, chorus, Chosrocs, Chosroes, Civita Vecchia (name of an Italian city), Dyrrachium, Dyrra- chium, echo, echo, eucharistie, eucharist, ichnographie, ich- nography, ichoreux, ichorous, ichthyologie, ichthyology., La- chesis, Lachesis, lichen, lichen, loch, lake, Machabtes, Mac- cabees, Machiavel, Machiavel, Melchisedec, Melchisedec, JUS- chel Angelo, Michael Angelo, Nabnchodonosor, Nabuchodo- nosor, orchestique, art of dancing, orchestre, orchestra, patri- archate patriarchate, Pidcherie, Pulcheria, scholie, scholium, tachygraphie, short-hand (and derivatives), technique, techni- cal (and derivatives), Tycho Brahe (name of a philosopher), Zacharie, Zechariah, Zurich, Zurich. § 87. Obs. IV. To this rule (b) there are the following exceptions: (1) of proper names, Acheron, Acheron, Achil- la, Achilles, Chypre, Cyprus, Joachim, Joachim, Zachee, Zaccheus ; (2) of other words, anarchie, anarchy, archeveque, archbishop, archiduc, archduke, architecte, architect, archi- trave, architrave,* cherubin, cherubim, chirurgie, surgery, chirurgicn, surgeon, chymie, chemistry, monarchic, monarchy, schisme, schism, schismatique, schismatic, schiste, schist ; in all of which the ch has the soft sound, that of sh in the English word share. The ch in drachme, drachm, is pronounced like g hard. §88. Obs. V. This liquid sound ofgn may be reduced to the sound of the letters ny in English, referred to different syllables, * And so all F'vnoh words beginning with archi. except, two men- tioned in the preceding section. §§ 88 92. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF CONSONANTS. 33 Thus, bagnio is pronounced ban-yo. In all cases where liquid gn occurs in the midst of a French word, if the sound of English n be annexed to the previous syllable, and the sound of?/ be prefixed to the next syllable, the gn will be pronoun- ced correctly. § 89. Obs. VI. Gn is hard in the midst of the following words : agnat, agnate (and its derivatives), Agnus Castus, chaste tree (not in agnus when alone), cognat, cognate (and its derivatives), diagnostique, diagnostic, Gnostique, Gnostic, ig- nee, igneous (and its cognates, such as ignition, ignition, igni~ vore, ignivorous, etc.), inexpugnable, inexpugnable, ma gnat 9 magnate, magnesie, magnesia, pignoratif, pignorative, Progne, Progne, regnicole, denizen, stagnant, stagnant (and its cog- nates). § 90. Obs. VII. LI is never liquid when immediately pre- ceded by any other vowel than i, except in the proper name Sully ; e. g. allegorie, allegory, elle, she, collusion, collusion, ebullition, ebullition, Sylla, Sylla. § 91. Obs. VIII. Ill not at the beginning of a word has invariably the liquid sound, except in the following words, with their inflexions and other derivatives, if they have any : Achille, Achilles, armillaire, armillary, calville (sort of ap- ple), campanille, steeple, codicille, codicil, distiller, to distil, fibrille, slender fibre, fritillaire, fritillary, Gille, Gill, imbi- cille, imbecile, instiller, to instil, Lille, Lille, maxillaire, max- illary, mille, thousand or mile, osciller, to oscillate, pupille, pu- pil, scintiller, to scintillate, sille (satirical poem among the Greeks), sibylle, sibyl, titiller, to tickle, tranquille, tranquil, vaciller, to vacillate, vaudeville, vaudeville, ville, city, village, village. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF CONSONANTS FROM CONNECTION WITH VOWELS. § 92. The consonants m and n are the only ones the sound of which is changed by their connection with a vowel ; and these are thus affected only in certain circumstances. 34 §§ 93, 94. PECULIAR SOUNDS of consonants. § 93. The peculiar sound of these consonants which is re- ferred to is commonly called nasal, because it is uttered, as we say, through the nose. It is nearly, if not quite, impossi- ble to describe this sound so that one who has not heard it can imitate it with much precision ; and indeed it is very diffi- cult to attain it exactly, even with the aid of a vocal pattern. The nearest resemblance to it in English enunciation is the sound of ng in such words as sang, sing, song, sung. Per- haps the difference between the sound of ng in these words and that of the French nasal m or n cannot be at all appre- ciated by most persons from any attempt at description. Probably most must have recourse to oral example. Some, however, it is possible, may not find the following statement utterly useless.* § 94. From careful attention in pronouncing slowly the English words which I have mentioned {sang, etc.), dwelling long enough upon the vowel in each word to make the enun- ciation of the succeeding consonants apparent, it can be per- ceived, I think, that just before closing the sound of the con- sonants there is a pressure of the middle part of the tongue against the roof of the mouth, which nearly or quite stops the sound of the voice. Now, the peculiarity of the French nasal sound in question consists mainly, I think, in not thus shutting up the sound of the English ng by the pressure which I have mentioned. The speaker commences the ng, proceeding considerably beyond the preceding vowel, but he does not fairly go through with the English sound. Instead of shutting up the voice as in English, he retains a sound which may be prolonged at pleasure. I should say further, * A mode of obtaining this sound less elegant than that winch I am about to describe, but perhaps not less certain, is to hold the nose entirely stopped and then sound a vowel nasally, i. e. allowing the sound to enter the upper part of the nose and proceed as far as it can while the nose is stopped below. Begin in this way with the French vowel a, then try e, then others. Then try to utter the same sound without holding the nose. §§ 94 — 99. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF CONSONANTS. 35 that not only the nasal consonant sound, but the preceding vowel, is pronounced in French lower down in the throat than in English. § 95. The following rules, with the accompanying state- ment of exceptions, will, it is supposed, determine when the letters m and n have, and when they have not, this peculiar nasal sound in French. § 96. Rule I. The letters m and n when immediately preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant are pro- nounced nasally ; e. g. ambre, amber, ancre, anchor, dent, tooth, insulte, insult, onde, wave, umble, umber, junie, junto. § 97. Except. I. When m or n is doubled, their sound is not nasal, but like the English m or n; e. g. immortality im- mortality, immemorial, immemorial, ammoniac, ammoniac, solennel, solemn, innover, to innovate, comioissance, knowl- edge, innombrable, innumerable.* § 98. Exc. II. The letter m preceded by a is never nasal in the following words, nor, also, in any derivatives from them : Abraham, Abraham, Ammon, Ammon, amnistie, am- nesty, Amsterdam, Amsterdam, mammillaire, belonging to the breasts, Priam, Priam, Roboam, Rehoboam. § 99. Exc. III. The letter m preceded by e is never nasal in the following words, nor, also, in any derivatives from * In words beginning with emm, however, which are compounded of en and some other word, the en being changed to cm on account of the following m, the first m is nasal, as n would be before m. Such are the following words, with their derivatives : emmener, to carry away, remmener, to carry back, emmagasiner, to store, emmaii- l otter, to swathe, cmmanchcr, to haft, emmanteler, to cover with a cloak, emmariner, to man a ship, cmmtnagcr, to provide furniture, emmieller, to flatter, emmitovfler, to muffle up, emmortaiser, to mor- tise, cmmuseler, to muzzle. w3o, too, in the following words the first of the two ns is sounded nasal: ennui, ennui, ennuyer, to weary, cnrtuyeux, w T earisome, s'en- nuiter, to get benighted, ennoblir, to ennoble, hennir, to neigh, with any compounds or other derivatives from these words. 36 §§ 99 105. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF CONSONANTS. them : Agamemnon, Agamemnon, Bethleem, Bethlehem, Cli- temnestre, Clitemnestra, decemvir, decemvir, dilemme, dilem- ma, Emmanuel, Emmanuel, Emmons, Emmaus, gemme (an epithet for mine-salt), harem, harem, Haarlem, Haarlem, hem ! hem ! idem, idem, indcmniser, to indemnify, indem- nity, indemnity, item, item, Jerusalem, Jerusalem, lemme, lemma, Memnon, Memnon, Memphis, Memphis, novemvir, novemvir, Salem, Salem, septemvir, septemvir. § 100. Exc. IV. The letter m preceded by i is never na- sal in the following foreign words : Ephraim, Ibrahim, inti- rim, ISdim, parnassim, Selim. § 101. Exc. V. The letter m preceded by o is never na- sal in the following words, nor, also, in any derivatives from them : automnal, autumnal, calomnie, calumny, insomnie, want of rest, somnambule, somnambulist, somnifere, somnife- rous, somnolence, somnolency. ^ 102. Exc. VI. The letter m preceded by u is never na- sal in the following foreign words : album, criterium, deco- rum, dictum, factum, forum, geranium, ladanum, laudanum, mtdium, minium, opium, palladium, postscriptum, quinquen- nium. § 103. Exc. VII. The letter m preceded by y is not nasal in the word hymne, hymn. § 104. Exc. VIII. The letter n preceded by e is never nasal in the following words, nor, also, in any derivatives from them : abdomen, abdomen, amen, amen, ben (name of an Arabian oil), Eden, Eden, endecagone, endecagon, ensi- forme, ensiform, examen, examination, gramen, grass, hymen, hymen, lichen, lichen, Pensilvanie, Pennsylvania, pollen, pol- len, solen, kind of shell-work. § 105. Rule II. The letters m and n when immediately preceded and followed by a vowel arc not nasal ; e. g. ami- tU, friendship, Emilie, Emiiy, imiter, to imitate, haine, ha- tred, ontreux, onerous, univers \ universe.* * Hence the masculine of* nouns ending in n preceded by a vowel §§ 106 — 109. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF VOWELS. 37 $ 106. Exc. I. The letter n has a nasal sound in the words, enivrer, to intoxicate, enorgueillir, to puff up, as also in all derivatives from them. These words are sounded ex- actly as if there were two rc's instead of one ; n nasal belong- ing to the first syllable, and the common English n being sounded with the vowel in the second syllable. Thus, they are pronounced as ennui, etc. (See note to § 97.) PECULIAR SOUNDS OF VOWELS FROM CONNECTION WITH CONSONANTS. § 107. e. (a) This letter, when it is followed by m or n nasal (see §§ 93 seq.) is sounded always (with the exception mentioned in the next section,) precisely as the French a (•§ 5); e. g. emploi, employment, emmener, to cany away, pensee, thought, patience, patience, en, in, Rouen, Rouen. § 108. e. (b) This letter, when it is preceded by i and fol- lowed by n nasal, at the end of a word or in any inflection of verbs whose Infinitive ends in enir, is sounded nearly as a in the English word hang, or, more exactly, between this sound and that of e in the English word strength; e. g. mien, mine, rien, nothing, lien, band, Chretien, Christian, il vient, he comes, il tiendra, he will hold, ye reviens, I return.* § 109. e. (c) This letter, when followed by double m or double n, is always pronounced as in the last section ; e. g. has a nasal termination, while in the feminine, formed by the addi- tion of e, the n is sounded as in English : e. g. (rnasc.) sain, (fern.) saine, healthy; (masc.) fin, (fern.) fine, fine; (masc.) cousin, (fern.) cousine, cousin. * The case is the same in the plurals of nouns whose singular ends with en; e. g. in miens, liens, and Chretiens, plurals of three words above mentioned. The letter e is not sounded thus, however, in gens, talens, encens, etc. plurals of gent, nation, talent, talent, en- cens, incense, etc. because the singular does not terminate w T ith en. — Compounds of such words as end in n nasal preceded by ic retain the sound above assigned to e ; e. g. biensdance, decency, bientot, soon. 4 38 §§ 109 — 116. PECULIAR SOUNDS OF VOWELS. femme, woman, femmelette, little woman, ardemment, ardently (and all adverbs ending in emment), hennir, to neigh, nenni, no, solennel, solemn. So also in indemniser, to indemnify. § 110. e. (d) This letter, when followed by r in the same syllable at the end of a word, is sounded like ai in the Eng- lish word air, unless the r be silent (§ 150). Thus, in aimer a continuer en dijficulte, to love to continue in difficulty, the syllable er is pronounced in both instances like the English word air. § 111. e. (e) This letter, without an accent, when fol- lowed by a silent consonant at the end of a w r ord, is sounded like a in the English word fate ; e. g. aimer, to love, danger, danger, les, the, mes, my. § 112. i. This letter, when followed by m or n nasal (§ 92 seq.), has a sound like that of e in § 108, i. e. between the sound of a in the English word hang and that of e in the English word strength; e. g. impur, impure, impropre, im- proper, enfin, at last, benin, benigne, infame, infamous. § 113. u. (a) This letter, when followed by m or n nasal, is sounded like the compound vowel eu (§ 23), i. e. nearly as u in the English word turn ; e. g. un, a, parfum, perfume, brun, brown, commun, common. § 114. u. (b) This letter, followed by m, whether nasal or not (§ 92 seq.), is sounded as o in the English word com- ma, in the following foreign words, and also in any deriva- tives from them : album, centumvir, criterium, decorum, dic- tum, duumvir, factum, forum, geranium, maximum, medium, minimum, minium, museum, opium, palladium, pensum, posi- scriptum, triumvir, rhumb. § 115. u. (c) This letter, followed by nasal n, is sounded as o in the English word song in the words, juncaire (name of a plant), junte, junto, nuncupatif verbal, nundinal, nundi- nal, opuntia (name of an Indian fig-tree). §116. ai. (a) This compound vowel, when followed by liquid I, nasal m, or nasal n, is pronounced as c in § 108, and §§ 116 — 124. SILENT VOWELS. 39 i in § 111, i. e. between a in the English word hang and e in the English word strength; e. g.faillir, to fail, bail, lease, caillou, flint, faim, hunger, crainte, fear. § 117. ai. (b) This compound vowel, when followed by r, is sounded as ai in the English word air ; e. g.faire, to do, plaire, to please. § 118. au. This compound vowel, when followed by r, is sounded as au in the English word auricular ; e. g. Moure, Moor, aurore, dawn. § 119. eu This compound vowel, when followed by na- sal m or nasal n, is sounded as e in § 108, i in § 111, and ai in § 116, i. e. between a in the English word hang and e in the English word strength; e. g. Rheims, TLheims, plei?i, full. § 120. eei and uei. These combinations of vowels, when followed by /, are sounded like the compound vowel eu (§ 23), the I being sounded liquid (§ 48. a.) ; e. g. ml, eye, accueil, reception, ecueil, rock, enorgueillir, to make proud, orgueil, pride, recueil, collection, and all the many derivatives from these words. § 121. oi. This diphthong, when followed by n, is not sounded as usual. The o is pronounced as directed in § 34, but the i is pronounced as directed in § 112 ; e. g. coin, cor- ner, soin, care. § 122. It may be stated as a general principle of pronun- ciation, that, when a vowel sound is followed by a consonant, the vowel-sound is longer than it would otherwise be ; e. g. faimai, faimais, I loved. SILENCE OF VOWELS. § 123. a. This vowel is silent in the following words : aoriste, aorist, Aoiit, August, Saone (name of a river), saoul, tipsy, taon, gad-fly, and in all derivatives from these. So also in words from a foreign language which begin with the diphthong a; e. g. 2Esope, ^Esop, etc. §124. e. (a) This vowel is always silent when it occurs un- 40 §§ 124 — 129. SILENT VOWELS. accented at the end of a word after another vowel ; e. g. an* n£e t year, amie, friend, plaie, wound, vote, way, laitue, let- tuce, queue, tm\ f je paye, I pay.* § 125. e. (b) This vowel is always silent when it occurs unaccented before the vowel a or o ; e. g. il gagea, he betted, geai, jay, Jean, John, mangeant, eating, doucedtre, sweetish, chapeau, hat, flageolet, flageolet, geole, gaol, asseoir, to set, villager* is, villager.f §126. e. (c) This vowel occurring before wis silent: (1) always when the u has a circumflex accent ; e. g.jeune, fast : (2) in all the forms of the verb avoir, to have, in which eu oc- curs ; e. g. eu, exit, eumes, eiltes, eurent, eussions, etc. : and (3) in the three words, gageure, bet, mangeure, hole eaten in anything, vergeure (technical term with pa per- makers).;): § 127. e. (d) This vowel is silent in all substantives end- ing in ement immediately preceded by a vowel ; e. g. cruci- fiement, crucifixion, denotement, diarrhoea, denouement, catas- trophe, denuement, deprivation. § 128. e. This vowel is silent in the termination ent of the third person plural of any tense of a verb (as are also the subsequent consonants, nt, § 167) ; e. g. Us parlent, they speak, Us chantoient, they sang. § 129. It may be stated as a general principle, that, when * In the three following words, however: Andaye, Biscay e, Blaye. the e is slightly heard, as in the English word over, the ye forming a syllable distinct from the preceding a. The accent falls upon the a in these words. t In some of these cases, it is to be noticed, the e, though silent, has an important effect on the sound of the word, for where g occurs before the e the g would be hard, were it not fur the intervention of the e. The same silence of the c and a similar effect on the sound of the g are seen in the English \xw& pigeon. X In these three words the g % which would otherwise be hard, is made soft by the silent c, as in the instances mentioned in the pre- ceding section. ^ 129 135. SILENT CONSONANTS. 41 the vowel e is silent after another vowel, it lengthens the pre- vious vowel ; e. g. vie, life, vue, sight. § 130. i. This vowel is silent in the following words : bouvreuil, bulfinch, cerfeuil, chervil, chevre-feuille, honey- suckle, chevreuil, roe-buck, deuil, mourning, ecureuil, squir- rel, encoignure, corner, fauteuil, elbow-chair, fenouil, fennel, feuille, leaf, oignon, onion, reseuil, net, seuil, threshold. § 131. o. This vowel is silent in the words faon, fawn, Laon (a French town), paon, peacock, and in all words in which ce occurs, such as (Edipe, (Edipus, ozsophage, oesopha- gus, oeuvre, work, cceur, heart, soeur, sister. § 132. u. This vowel, immediately preceded by g or q and immediately followed by a vowel, is most frequently si- lent ; e. g. il conjugua, he conjugated, guerir, to heal, langue, tongue, guide, guide, quaniiU, quantity, question, question, queue, tail, quitter, to quit.* SILENCE OF CONSONANTS. § 133. I shall consider separately each consonant and each combination of consonants which is ever silent. It is to be observed, that, if a consonant is silent at the end of a word in the singular number, it is also silent in the plural of that word, though another consonant be added to form the plural. § 134. b. This letter is always silent in plomb, lead, and its derivatives, such as surplomb, aplomb. Elsewhere it is sounded. § 135. c. This letter is silent at the end of the words, accroc, rent, almanac, almanac, banc, bank, Mane, white, * For a considerable list of words in which n is silent, see App. B. For a considerable list of words in which u is pronounced as part of a diphthong, see App. A. It is to be observed that silent u standing between g and e makes the g hard, which would otherwise be soft ; e. g. above in guirir and langue. 4* 42 §§ 135—141. SILENT CONSONANTS. broc, great jug, clerc, clerk, cotignac, marmalade, eric, en- gine for lifting, done, therefore, estomac, stomach, fane, flank, franc, free, j one, rush, marc, mark, pore, pork, tronc, trunk.* § 136. d. This letter is silent at the end of all words ex- cept the following : Old, Cid, ephod, ephod, Sud, South, to- gether with any proper names ending in d; e. g. David, La- med, Sund, Talmud. However, when it is preceded by n, and the next word begins with a vowel or h mute, it is sounded like / ; e. g. grand homme, great man, vend-ill- does he sell ? So, too, in the expression pied-a-terre. (Comp. § 42.) § 137. f This letter is silent only at the end of the words, baillif, bailiff, cerf, stag, clef, key, Ueuf, tennis-ball, and in the compounds, cerf -volant, horned beetle, chef-d'oeuvre, mas- ter-piece, azvf-frais, fresh egg. §138. g. This letter is silent: (1) always at the end of the words etang, pond, hareng, herring, long, long, oing, cart- grease, poing, fist, rang, rank, sang, blood, seing, signature ; (2) in all words compounded with bourg, (except bourg-mes- ire), as Edinbourg, Edinburgh, faubourg, suburb, Luxem- bourg, Peter sbourg, Bourg-Vabbe, Bourg-la-reine,e\c. (Comp. §§ 44. c. and 64) ; and (3) in doigtier, thumbstall, and other derivatives of doigt, finger, Regnard, Regnard, RegJiault,Reg- naull, sang-froid, cold blood, sang-sue, leech, signet, tassel. § 139. h. (a) This letter is very often silent at the be- ginning of words ; e. g. habile, clever, heure, hour. (See a list of the words beginning with silent h, in Appendix C.) § 140. h. (b) This letter is always silent when it follows a vowel in the same syllable ; e. g. ah ! ah ! bah ! bah ! § 141. h. (c) This letter is always silent after g in the * But in cric-crac, crick-crack, croc-eii-jambe, trip, franc-ttovrdi, harebrain, porc-tpic, porcupine, the c is sounded. In arc-boutant, buttress, the c is silent. In sccquc, sandal, the c may be considered as silent. §§ 141 — 151. SILENT CONSONANTS. 43 same syllable ; e.g. Borghese, Berghem, Enghien (all proper names). § 142. h. (d) This letter is always silent after r in the same syllable ; e. g. rheteur, rhetorician, Rlu)ne, Rhone, rhu- barbe, rhubarb. § 143. h. (e) This letter is always silent after t in the same syllable ; e. g. Demosthene, Demosthenes, the, tea, Eli- zabeth, Elizabeth, methode, method, arithmttique, K arithmetic. § 144. Z. This letter is silent at the end of the following words : baril, barrel, chenil, dog-kennel, coutil, ticking, cul, bottom, fertile hay-loft, fraisil, cinder, fusil, firelock, gentil, heathen, gril, gridiron, nombril, navel, outil, tool, persil, parsley, soul, drunk, sourcil, eye-brow. So, too, in fits, son, distinguished from fils, plural of fil, thread, in which the I is sounded. In Us, also, the I is suppressed by many before a word beginning with a vowel, as in Us out, they have. § 145. m. This letter is silent in automne, autumn, dam- ner, to damn, solemniser, to solemnize, and in all compounds or other derivatives from these words. § 146. n. This letter is silent in the word Monsieur, Sir. § 147. p. (a) This letter is silent in bapteme, baptism, cheptel, loan of cattle, compter, to count, dompter, to subdue, exempter, to exempt, promjite, prompt, sculpter, to sculpture, sept, seven, and in all the compounds and other derivatives from these words. § 148. p. (b) This letter is always silent at the end of a word, except in Alep, Aleppo, cap, cape, cep, vine, Gap, Gap, jalap, jalap, julep, julep. § 149. q. This letter is silent at the end of the words cinq, five, and coq, cock. ^ 150. r. This letter is silent at the end of the word Monsieur, Sir, and in most words ending in er. For a list of words ending in er in which it is sounded, see Appendix D. § 151. s. (a) This letter is always silent before ch in the same syllable ; e. g. Schall (proper name), scheling, shilling, schisme, schism. 44 §§ 152 — 164. SILENT CONSONANTS. § 152. s. (b) This letter is silent in desquels, of which, lesquels, which, Desfontaines, Destonches, and other proper names compounded of des. § 153. s. (c) This letter is silent at the end of all words except those of which a list is given in Appendix E. It is therefore always silent when added as a plural termination. § 154. t. This letter is silent at the end of all words ex- cept those of which a list is given in Appendix F. § 155. x. This letter is silent at the end of all words ex- cept those enumerated in § 74. Obs. XVI. It is therefore always silent when added as a plural termination. § 156. z. This letter is silent at the end of all words ex- cept those enumerated in § 76. Obs. XVIII. § 157. ch. These letters are silent at the end of the word almanack^ almanac. § 158. cs. These letters are silent at the end of the word lacs, noose. § 159. ct. These letters are silent at the end of the words, amict, amice, aspect, aspect, circonspect, circumspect, dis- tinct, distinct, instinct, instinct, respect, respect, suspect, sus- pected.* § 160. fs. These letters are both silent at the end of the plural words, beevfs, oxen, nerfs, nerves, neufs, new, ceiifs, eggs, though thesis sounded in the singular. § 161. gs. These letters are silent at the end of the word legs, legacy. § 162. gl. These letters are silent at the end of the words doigt, finger, and vingt, twenty. § 163. Id, These letters are silent at the end of proper names ; e. g. Arnauld. § 164. Is. These letters are silent at the end of the word pouls, pulse. * When, however, the ct is followed by c, as in the feminine of any of these words, the consonants are both sounded ; e. g. in cirrim- spectc, distiactc, guspectt. §§ 165 — 174. SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 45 § 165. It. These letters are silent at the end of proper names ; e. g. Dessault, Gueroult, Rochefoucault. § 166. Ix. These letters are silent at the end of the word aulx, plural of ail, garlic. § 167. nt. These letters are silent in the termination ent of the third person plural in any tense of a verb (Comp. § 128) ; e. g. Us aiment, they love, ilsfurent, they were, quails eussent, that they might have. § 168. ph. These letters are silent at the beginning of the word phthisie, phthisic. § 169. ps. These letters are silent at the end of the words, corps, body, romps, break (first pers. sing. pres. indie, of rompre, to break), and in compounds of the latter, as cor- romps, corrupt, etc. § 170. pi. These letters are silent at the end of the words, prompt, prompt, rompt, breaks (third pers. sing. pres. indie. of rompre, to break), and in compounds of the latter, a3 in- izrrcmpi, interrupts, etc. § 171. rs. These letters are silent at the end of the word Messieurs, plural of Monsieur, Sir. § 172. st. These letters are silent at the end of the word est, is (third pers. sing. pres. indie, of eire, to be),* and at the end of Christ, Christ, when it is immediately preceded by Jesus, Jesus. When Christ is alone, these letters are sounded. § 173. th. These letters are silent in the words, aslhne, asthma, i'sthme, isthme, and any derivatives from these. SYLLABLES AND WORDS. § 174. French syllables are divided into two classes, mas- culine and feminine. A feminine syllable is one ending with an unaccented e ; all other syllables are masculine. Thus in rose, rose, (which the French regard as consisting of two syllables, not, as it is regarded in English, of only one,) the first syllable, ro, is a masculine syllable, the last, se, is femi- * In est, east, these consonants are not silent. 46 §§ 174 — 178. SYLLABLES AND WORDS. nine. In exercice, exercise, which is considered as having three syllables, the first and second, ex, er, are masculine, the third, ce, feminine. In pelu, hairy, the first syllable is feminine, the other masculine.* § 175. The e of feminine syllables is generally sounded very lightly, if at all, in French. Indeed, the word rose, for example, is commonly pronounced almost exactly as in Eng- lish, excepting the difference in sounding the o (§ 11). In verse, before a word commencing with a vowel the ^ of a feminine syllable would not be heard at all ; before a conso- nant euphony generally requires a slight enunciation. Thus, in the following line of Boileau : " Sans meniir, L 'avarice est une etrange rages" Certainly avarice is a strange madness, the e in the feminine syllables of avarice and une is entirely silent, but in the feminine syllable of etrange, euphony re- quires that it should be slightly sounded before the consonant with which the next word, rage, commences. In prose sup- press the e of the feminine syllable as much as possible ; e. g. venir, to come, soutenir, to sustain. § 176. Where two or more feminine syllables occur to- gether, the e in the first is to be sounded distinctly, and that in the other or others suppressed ; e. g. devenir, to become, revenir, to return, ne le vendez pas, do not sell it. § 177. In case three or more feminine syllables occur consecutively, the e in the first and third only is distinctly- enunciated ; e. g. je ne me vendais pas, I did not sell myself, je rt ai plus de ce que je vendais, I have no more of what I sold. § 178. When any single final consonant, which would be * The word amiable in English affords an example of syllabic usage much like that in French spoken of above. This is called a word of four syllables. The first three are masculine, the last is feminine. $$ 178—182. emphasis. 47 silent according to the rules that have been given, is followed by a word beginning with a vowel or h mute, and there is no punctuation-mark between them or other reason for separating them in utterance, the consonant is always sounded ; e. g, cinqfemmes ont ete ici, five women have been here (§§ 153, 154). The conjunction et, and, is an exception, the t never being sounded in this word even before a vowel ; e. g. je mis frere et ami, I am brother and friend. Also before the words onze, eleven, onzieme, eleventh, a consonant is never sounded ; e. g. vers les onze heures, about eleven o'clock. § 179. When two final consonants, both of which would be silent according to the rules that have been given, are followed by a word beginning with a vowel or h mute, only the last of the two consonants is sounded ; e. g. Vaspect est effroyable, the aspect is frightful (§ 159 and 172), je ne romps aucune promesse, I break no promise (§ 169), Us se lient ensemble, they connect themselves with each other (§ 167). § 180. When a word ending with a nasal m or n is fol- lowed by another beginning with a vowel or h mute, and there is no punctuation-mark between the two words, the final consonant of the first word loses its nasal sound and is united with the vowel commencing the second word ; e. g. bon ami, good friend, Men utile, very useful. N. B. The sound of the vowel preceding m or n is not changed in these cases. EMPHASIS. § 181. By emphasis is meant here the stress laid on a par- ticular syllable in a word. This is more properly, and in English more commonly, called accent; but 1 prefer not to use this word, as it is the name of certain little but important French marks, of which I shall speak in the next chapter. The following rules will show where the emphasis belongs in French words. § 182. Rule I. In dissyllables composed of a masculine and a feminine syllable, whichever precedes, the emphasis 48 §§ 182—188. ORTHOGRAPHY. belongs to the masculine ; e. g. plume, pen, livre, book (in both which the stress is on the first syllable), cheval, horse, venin, poison (in both which the stress is on the last syllable). § 183. Rule II. In dissyllables composed of two mascu- line syllables, stress is laid on the second rather more than on the first, though the difference is not by any means so striking as in cases falling under the preceding rule ; e. g. chapeau, hat, canij\ penknife. § 184. Rule HI. In words composed of two or more fem- inine syllables with one masculine, the stress belongs to the masculine syllable ; e. g. retenir, to retain, redevenir, to be- come again.* § 185. Rule IV. In words composed of several mascu- line syllables the stress is usually laid on the last ; e. g. am- bition, ambition, Uendard, standard, maitriser, to master. § 186. Rule V. The emphasis is never to be laid upon a feminine syllable. Though, according to § 176, tne fi fst feminine syllable in redevenir, to become again, is sounded more distinctly than the second or third, yet the real emphasis is on the last syllable, as stated in § 184. CHAP. III. ORTHOGRAPHY. SYLLABLES. § 187. When a single consonant, or a combination of two or more consonants that might naturally be sounded together at the beginning of a word, occurs between two vowels which belong to different syllables, the consonants arc to be spelt with the last vowel ; e. g. ci-vi-il-te, civility, vi-si-te, visit. § 188. When two or more consonants that cannot naturally * There are no words in French composed of, or ending with*, two or more feminine syllables. §§ 188—192. ORTHOGRAPHY. 49 be sounded together occur between two vowels which belong to different syllables, the first consonant is to be spelt with the first vowel, the other or others with the last ; e. g. ad-mi- ra-tion, admiration, 1 con-struc-tion, construction, des-ser-vir, to clear the table* * LETTERS. § 189. The capital letters are used in French in all cases in which they are used in English, excepting that the pronoun of the first person, je, is generally written without one, and that in some books they are not used at the beginning of ad- jectives formed from proper names ;* oui,je vous aime, yes, I love you, c'est un livrefranpais, it is a French book. § 190. For the sake of euphony the letter t is inserted be- tween a verb ending with a vowel and a pronoun following which begins with a vowel ; e. g. a-t-il, has he, dira-t-on, will they say. This insertion makes no change in the sense. Its sole object is to avoid what is called a hiatus in the occur- rence of two vowel-sounds together. § 191. For the same reason the- letter I with an apostrophe is often inserted between the words et, ou, or ow, que, qui, and si, (ending with a vowel-sound) and the pronoun on; e. g. et Von dit, and they say, il faut que Von consenie, they must consent, si Von nous entendait, if they heard us, on pent alter oil Von veul, one may go "where one wishes. § 192. For the same reason the letter s is sometimes added to quatre, four, in connection with yeux, eyes, though quatre is of itself plural ; thus, quatres yeux, four eyes. The pro- nunciation is always as if an s were inserted, even though none appear in the orthography. * This remark applies only to cases when these words do not com- mence a sentence. 50 §§ 193—198. ORTHOGRAPHY. ACCENTS. § 193. The French accents are three in number, the acute ( ' ), the grave ( ' ), and the circumflex ( A ). § 194. The acute accent is never placed over any other letter than e; and, as has been stated (§7), indicates that that vowel is to be sounded like a in the English word ale. § 195. The grave accent seldom occurs over any other letter than e, and, as has been stated (§ 8), it indicates that that vowel is to be sounded as the first e in the English word there. The grave accent is placed over a and u in a few words, to distinguish them from others spelt in the same way. Thus prisent, they or those (masc. ov fern.) who despise, celui que faime, he whom I love, celles quefai vues, those (fern.) whom I have seen. § 448. The Pronouns ceci and cela are properly applied only to thi?igs. Yet in familiar language the last, cela, is sometimes applied to persons ; e. g. cela ne fait que jouer, §§ 448—453. pronoun. 99 that child does nothing but play, cela estjier, that's a haughty fellow. § 449. The pronoun cela is not always opposed to ceci, and when it is not it may be used concerning something held in the hand or otherwise close to us ; e. g. que dites-vous de cela 7 what do you say of that ? When it is contrasted with ceci, it means something further off than what is denoted by ceci ; e. g. je ii'aime pas ceci, donnez-moi de cela, I do not love this, give me some of that. § 450. The Pronoun celui is applicable to things as well as persons ; e. g. de toutes les choses du monde, c*est celle que faime le mieux, of all things in the world, it is that that I love the best, les arbres que vous voyez, c'est ceux que fai achetes, the trees which you see, they are those which I bought. § 451. The Pronoun celui is never used adjectively, as ce very often and indeed generally is ; e. g. we may say cet homme, thqt man, but not celui homme. All the Demonstrative Pronouns except ce are properly substantive Pronouns. § 452. There is a mode of phraseology very like an ex- ception to what has been stated in the preceding section. The Demonstrative Pronouns ceci and cela are often divided, the ce being used adjectively before a substantive and the ci or la being appended to the substantive by means of a hyphen ; e. g. ce chapeau-ci, this hat (here), cette femme-la, that woman (there), ce.s gargons-ci, these boys (here).* § 453. The particles ci and la are added to celui in order to render it more precise. Without these particles celui does not always necessarily mean this, nor does it necessarily mean that. Ci or la determines its signification when the context would leave it doubtful. * The Id, in these cases always has the grave accent over the a. as in cclui'la^eic. Hence some, perhaps more correctly, consider such forms of expression as notdeducible from the Pronouns ceci and ce.'a. but as merely displaying a use of the particles ci and la with the Pronoun cc, in the same way as they are used with celui. (See § 453.) 100 §§454—460. pronouns. MISCELLANEOUS PRONOUNS. § 454. The Miscellaneous Pronouns which are used adjec- lively agree in gender and number with the substantives which they qualify, according to the variations of form ex- hibited in §§ 377 seq. § 455. The Miscellaneous Pronouns which are used sub- stantively agree in gender and number with the substantives, understood or expressed, for which they stand or to which they refer, according to the variations of form exhibited in § 377 seq. § 456. The Pronoun personne, which is masculine, is never used save of persons ; the Pronoun Hen, which is likewise masculine, is never used save of things, POSITION. § 457. A Personal Pronoun which is the subject of a verb is always, except in the case mentioned in the next section, placed before the verb, and it can never be separated from it, save by one or more other Pronouns or by the negative particle ne; e. g. je vous aime, I love you, je ne vous aime pas % I do not love you, je ne m'y fie pas y I do not trust to it. § 458. In sentences which exhibit direct interrogations , the Personal Pronoun which is the subject of the interrogation always follows the verb immediately ; e. g. dorUil ? is he sleeping ? court-elle ? is she running ? § 459. Whenever Pronouns of different persons occur to- gether, forming in fact the common subject of a verb, whether there be an apposition or not, the person speaking names himself last, and the person addressed is named first ; e. g. vous et moi, nous irons a la campagne, you and I will go into the country, vous, voire frere, et moi, nous demeurerons ici y you, your brother, and I, will stay here. § 460. A Personal Pronoun which is the object of a verb is always placed between the subject and the verb, when the sentence is not either interrogative or imperative ; e. g. il vrCaime^ he loves me,je vous vois, I see you. $§461—466. PRONora. 101 § 461. When a sentence is interrogative, a Personal Pro- noun which is the object is put before the verb, though the subject is put after it ; e. g. nfappelez-vous ? are you calling me ? vous effraye-t-il ? does he frighten you ? § 462. Whenever a Personal Pronoun occurs as the object of a verb in the imperative mood, first or second person, and the sentence is an affirmative one, the object is placed after the verb ; but if the sentence be a negative one, or the verb be of the third person, the object is placed before the verb. E.g. dites-moi, tell me (§403), abandonnons-les, let us abandon them ; but, ne me dites-pas, do not tell me (§ 401), ne me h donnez-pas, do not give it to me, quHl lui en parle, let him speak to her of it, quHls nous envoient, let them send us. § 463. When two imperatives, with each a Pronoun as object, occur together in an affirmative sentence and are joined by the conjunction et or ou, it is considered best to place the first object after the first verb and the second object before the the second verb ; e. g. voyez-le et lui dites de venir me voir, see him and tell him to come and see me, gardez-les ou les renvoyez, keep them or send them back, polissez-le sans cesse et le repolisses, polish it unceasingly and repolish it. § 464. When two Personal Pronouns occur together before the verb as objects, the indirect object must precede the direct one, unless both Pronouns are of the third person, in which case the direct object precedes the indirect one ; e. g.je vous le dirai, I will tell it to you, vous nous les donnerez, you will give them to us, je le lui dirai, 1 will tell it to him, vous les leur donnerez, you will give them to them. § 465. When two Personal Pronouns occur together after the verb as objects (i. e. in an affirmative sentence with an im- perative mood, § 462), the direct object precedes the indirect in all cases ; e. g. donnez-le-nGus, give it to us, donnez-le-lui, give it to him. § 466. If the Pronoun y or en, or both of them, occur in connection with a Personal Pronoun, the Personal Pronoun 9* 102 §§466—473. pronoun. must in all cases be placed first ; e. g. pretez rrCen, lend me some, il nous en donnera, he will give us some, vous leur y en enverrez, you will send them some there.* § 467. When the Pronouns y and en occur together, en always follows y, as in the last example in the preceding sec- tion. As another example take : je vous y en temoignerai mon mecontentement, I will there testify to you my dissatisfac- tion on that point. § 468. A Pronoun which stands as subject to a verb can never be separated from it except by other Pronouns standing as objects or by the negative particle ne ; e. g. je ne lui en veux rien dire, I will say nothing to him about it, il nous ra- conta son histoire, he related to us his history. § 469. A Pronoun which stands as object to a verb can never be separated from it by any word except tout, every- thing, rien, nothing, or jamais, never ; e. g. c*est leur tout re- fuser, it is refusing them everything, tfest ne me rien permettre, it is allowing me nothing, il a jure de ne lui jamais par don- ner, he has sworn never to pardon him. § 470. The Pronoun tout, when used as the object of a verb, is placed after the verb in simple tenses, and be- tween the auxiliary and the participle in compound tenses ; e. g. il avoue tout, he avows everything, il a tout avoiU, he has avowed everything. § 471. All the Pronouns which are used adjectively (save one, see next section,) precede the substantive to which they relate ; e. g. cet liomme, that man, aucune femme, any woman, etc. § 472. The Adjective Pronoun quelconque always occurs after the substantive to which it relates ; e. g. un homme quel- conque, any man, une ligne quelconque, any line. § 473. All the Pronouns which are used substantively fol- low the rules of substantives as to position, whenever the case is not otherwise regulated by either of the foregoing principles. * There is one exception to this rule, viz. : moi is always placed after y ; e.g. mencz-y-moi, lead me thither. But we must say, me- nez-nous-y, lead us thither. §§ 474—478. pronoun. 103 Additional Peculiarities. § 474. The plural form of the Pronoun of the second person is almost always used in French, as in English, in- stead of the singular, whether the Pronoun be subject or ob- ject ; e. g. vous avez mon chapeau, you have my hat, je vous aime, I love you,je vous dis, I tell you. § 475. The singular Pronoun of the second person is often used, by way of familiarity, in addressing children or those with whom we are very intimate or free, and sometimes in an oratorical or poetical style in addressing the Deity or in other modes of apostrophe ; e. g. que veux-tu, mon enfant ? what do you wish, my child ? m^amie, feras-tu un message pour moil sweetheart, will you do a message for me ? a toi appartient le regne, thine is the kingdom, O mort ! tu n'es pas un malheur, O death ! thou art not an evil. § 476. Whenever vous is used for tu, te, or toi, according to § 474, any word which by common rules would agree with it in number, (excepting the verb,) is notwithstanding, as in English, put in the singular number; e. g. vous etes habile, you are skilful, vous serez le maitre, you will be master. § 477. The following Pronouns of the third person, elle, elles, eux, lui, and leur, are very seldom applied to things. Whenever things are intended, the Pronoun y or en should be used, if possible, instead of these Personal Pronouns. E. g. je m'en approchai, I approached it (a table), hot je m'approchai d?elle, which would mean, I approached her. § 478. Such is the reluctance of the French to apply the Pronouns mentioned in the last section to things, that when the expression each of them occurs, which would be rendered by chacun d?eux or chacune d^elles in case persons were in- tended, the Personal Pronoun and the preposition are entirely omitted when persons are not intended ; e. g. vous avez deux chapeaux, combien avez-vous donne de chacun ? you have two hats, what did you pay for each of them ? voila trois cartes^ 104 §§ 478—481. pronoun. je mets tant sur chacune, there are three cards, I lay so much on each of them. § 479. The Pronoun le is used in a somewhat peculiar manner, to represent a preceding part of a sentence, an adjec- tive, a substantive employed adjectively, or a proper substan- tive; and it is then always placed immediately before the verb of which it is the object or subject. E. g. pourriez-vous oiler h pied de Boston a New York ? Oui,je le pourrois, could you go on foot from Boston to New York ? yes, I could (it, i. e. do so) ; vous etes industrieux, et il ne Vest pas, you are in- dustrious and he is not (it or so) ; est-elle file ? Oui, et elle le sera long-temps, is she unmarried ? Yes, and will be (so) this great while ; etes-vous roi ? Oui,je lesuis, are you a king? yes, I am (it). § 480. Whenever the Pronoun le, used as is stated in the last section, stands for an adjective or a part of a sentence, it never undergoes any change as respects gender and num- ber ; but, if it stand for a substantive or for an adjective em- ployed substantively, le is changed to la for the feminine and les for the plural. E. g. ites-vous trhs occupies ? Nous le som- mes, are you very much occupied ? We are (so) : but, etes-vous reine ? Oui,je la suis, are you a queen ? Yes, I am (it) ; etes- vous la malade ? Non, je ne la suis pas, are you the sick woman ? No, I am not ; etes-vous mes files ? Oui, nous les sommes, are you my daughters? Yes, we are. § 481. Whenever in English a verb has two or more nomi- natives of different persons, there is no difficulty in the con- struction, because the form of the verb in English is the same for all the persons of the plural number. Thus we say : you and I read ; he, she, and I, went to the play ; etc. In French, however, the construction must be different, because the several plural persons of the verb are not the same. The usual praciice is, to place the several nominatives first and then subjoin the plural of that person which ranks first, (the first person taking precedence of the second and third, and §§ 481—485. pronoun. 105 the second of the third,) together with the corresponding person of the verb ; e. g. vous et moi, nous lisons, you and I read, lui, elle, et moi, nous alldmes hier a la comedie, he, she, and I went to the play yesterday, vous et ltd, vous apprendrez le Francois, you and he will learn French, Jean et vous, vous etes industrieux, John and you are industrious. § 482. Sometimes, in such cases as those referred to in the preceding section, the Pronouns of the several persons are placed after the verb, the rest of the construction according with the rule laid down in that section ; e. g. nous irons, lui et moi, we shall go, he and I, nous alldmes hier a la comedie, lui, elle, et moi, we went to the play yesterday, he, she and I. § 483. When several nominatives of the same person occur together before a verb, it is never the case that a plural Pro- noun of any person is added, but the verb follows the nomi- natives regularly in the proper person ; e. g. mon frere et lui viendront demain, my brother and he will come to-morrow, lui, elle, eux, et ma sozur apprennent le Franpois, he, she, they, and my sister are learning French, § 484. Personal Pronouns of the first and second person, when employed as a subject, must be repeated before every verb in a sentence if the tenses are not the same, and it is always better that they should be thus repeated even though the tenses be the same ; e. g.je soutiens etje soutiendrai tou- jours, I maintain and (I) will always maintain, accable de dou- leur, je m'ecriai et je dis, overwhelmed with sorrow, I ex- claimed and (I) said, le Dieu que nous aimons et que nous adorons, the God whom we love and (whom we) adore, vous aimeret le seigneur votre Dieu et vous observerez sa hi, you shall love the Lord your God and (you shall) observe his law. § 485. When a Personal Pronoun of the third person is employed as a subject, it is seldom, if ever, repeated before every verb in a sentence, unless those verbs be in different tenses. E. g. la bonne grace ne gate rien ; elle ajoute a la bcaute, releve la modestie, et y donne du lustre, a graceful 106 §§485—489. pronoun. manner spoils nothing ; it adds to beauty, sets off modesty, and gives it lustre ; il est arrive ce matin et il reparlira ce soir, he arrived this morning and (he) will set off again this evening. § 486. A Personal Pronoun employed as an object must al- ways be repeated in French in connection with each verb, though in English it is generally employed with the last verb only ; e.g. les ecoliers vous aiment et vous craignent, the scholars love (you) and fear you, Videe de ses malheurs le poursuit, le tourmente, et Vaccable, the idea of his misfortunes pursues (him), torments (him), and overwhelms him.* § 487. Whenever vous, the plural Pronoun of the second person, is used for iu, etc. (see § 474,) the corresponding Possessive Pronouns, voire, vos, must be used instead of ton, la, tes ; and le voire, la voire, and les votres must be used in- stead of le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes : e. g. que vous ressemblez peu a vos ance.tr es ! how little you resemble your ancestors ! quand vous aurez entendu nos raisons, nous ecou* ierons les votres, when you have heard our reasons, we will listen to yours. § 488. The Definite Article is often used instead of a Pos- sessive Pronoun when it can be ivithout ambiguity ; e. g. fax tnal a la tete, I have a pain in my head, or the head-ache, il faudrait lui couper lajambe, it would be necessary to take off his leg, il s^est rompu le cou, he has broken his neck. § 489. The Pronoun en is very frequently used instead of a Possessive Pronoun, when persons are not intended and when it can be so used without ambiguity. E. g.faime Bos- ton, fen admire Vexacte police, et les mazurs rrCen paraissent fort louables, I love Boston, I admire its exact police, and its manners appear to me very commendable ; la rue est * In case, however, the repetition of the same action is expressed by a compound verb, the Pronoun need not be repeated ; e. g. je vous le dis et redis, 1 say it to you and resay it, il le fait et le rtfait sans ce?se, he does it over and over again constantly. §§ 489—495. pronoun. 107 longue, mats fen vols le fin, the street is long, but I see its ter- mination ; montrez-moi ces las, fen aime la couleur, show me those stockings, I like their color ; cette plante est commune, ei cependant je rfen connois pas les vertus, this plant is common, and yet I do not know its virtues. § 490. In English we say : this book is mine, these gloves are yours, etc. The French do not use the Possessive Pro- noun in such cases, but a Personal Pronoun with the preposi- tion a ; e. g. ce livre est a moi, this book is mine, ces gants sont a vous, these gloves are yours, etc. § 491. In English we use the expressions : for my sake, for your sake, etc. The French do not use a Possessive Pro- noun in such cases. They say, pour V amour de moi, for the love of me, pour V amour de vous, for the love of you, etc. § 492. In English we say : a friend of mine, a pupil of yours, etc. The French never use this form of expression. They say always, un de mes amis, one of my friends, un de vos eleves, one of your pupils, etc. § 493. In English we are not always required to repeat the Possessive Pronoun before each of several substantives occur- ring in succession, but in French this is always necessary ; e. g. son per e, sa mere, el ses freres sont de retour, his father, mother, and brothers have come back, je lui ai montre mes plus beaux el mes plus vilains habits, I have shown him my finest and worst dresses, il halt ses parens, ses amis, et sa fa- mille, he hates his relatives, friends, and family. § 494. In English we frequently omit the Possessive Pro- noun in addressing persons familiarly, while in French it must always be expressed ; e. g. voulez-vous du beurre, ma sceur ? will you have some butter, (my) sister? non, mon fre\re, no, (my) brother. § 495. In French the Relative Pronoun qui is frequently used as the only expressed nominative to two verbs ; e. g. qui veut trop se /aire craindre se fait rarement aimer, he who wishes too much to make himself feared seldom makes him- 108 §§ 495 — 500. pronoun. self beloved. In such cases the real nominative to the second verb is celui understood, which is, too, the antecedent of the Relative Pronoun qui. § 496. The Absolute Pronoun que is sometimes used for a quoi or de quoi; e. g. que sert la science sans le vertu ? of what use is learning without virtue ? que sert a Vavare aV avoir des tresors 1 of what use is it to the miser to possess treasures ? § 497. The Relative Pronoun which, used as an object, may often be omitted in English, but the French Pronoun que cannot be thus omitted, and it must be repeated before every verb that governs it ; e. g. les livres que vous avez achetes, the book (which) you have bought, le Dieu que nous aimons et que nous adorons, the God (whom) we love and (whom we) wor- ship, lafemme que vous aimez, the woman (whom) you love. § 498. Some of the Absolute Pronouns are often connected with the particle que in a peculiar manner, so as to change their sense somewhat. E. g. qui que, whoever ; as, qui que tu sois, whoever thou mayest be, qui que ce soil, whoever it may be : quoi que, whatever ; as, quoi que ce soil, whatever it may be : quel que, whoever or whatever ; as, quel que soil cet homme, whoever that man may be, quel que soil voire courage, whatever your courage may be : quelque que, whatever or however ; as, quelque raison que vous donnez, whatever reason you may give, quelque puissant que vous soyez, however pow- erful you may be. In all such cases the Pronouns are varied separately, as though not connected with the particle que ; e. g. quelleques soient vos raisons, whatever may be your reasons, quels que soient vos desseins, whatever may be your designs. § 499. The particle oil is sometimes employed precisely like a Relative Pronoun ; e. g. ce sont des affaires ou je suis embarrasse, these are affairs in which I am perplexed, voila une chose d'ou depend le bonheur public^ that is a thing on which the public happiness depends, tcls sont les lieux par ou il a passe, such are the places through which lie has passed. § 500. The Demonstrative Pronoun ce, followed by a Rela- §§500—505. pronoun. 109 live Pronoun, then by a verb, and then sometimes by other words, often forms, with these words, the subject of a suc- ceeding clause, of which the verb is some form of etre, to be ; and in these cases the Demonstrative Pronoun is sometimes repeated before the verb, etre, of the succeeding clause, and sometimes not. The following rules will determine this point : § 501. I. When the verb, etre, of the second clause is fol- lowed by another verb, the Demonstrative Pronoun must be repeated ; e. g. ce quefaime le plus, c*est d'etre seul, what I like most is to be alone. § 502. II. When the verb, Sire, of the second clause is followed by an adjective, the Demonstrative Pronoun must not be repeated ; e. g. ce dont vous venez de meparler est horrible, what you have been mentioning to me is horrible. § 503. III. W^hen the verb, etre, of the second clause is followed by a substantive in the singular, the Demonstrative Pronoun may either be repeated or not, at pleasure, though it is generally considered best that it should not be ; e. g. ce que je dis est la verite, or e'est la verite, what I say is the truth. § 504. IV. When the verb, etre, of the second clause is followed by a substantive in the plural, or by a Personal Pro- noun, the Demonstrative Pronoun must be repeated ; e. g. ce qui mHndigne, ce sont les injustices qu'on ne cesse de faire, what provokes me is the injuries which are continually com- mitted, ce qui nx'arrache au sentiment qui ni'accable, e'estvous, what alleviates the grief that oppresses me is you. § 505. The Pronoun autre is sometimes connected with Vun, In this case, if there be no conjunction, the sense is, each other ; e. g. lejeu et Veau se detruisent Vun V autre, fire and water destroy each other. If Vun and V autre be con- nected by the conjunction et, the sense is, both ; e. g. Vun et Vautre ont raison, both are right. If they be connected by the conjunction ou, the sense is, either ; e. g. Vun ou Vautre est preferable a rien, either is preferable to nothing. If they 10 110 §§ 505—510. pronoun. be connected by the conjunction ni, the sense is, neither ; e. g. je ne le dirai ni a Vun ni a V autre, I will tell it to neither. § 506. The Pronoun autre is sometimes used in the plural apparently without any real meaning, but only in very famil- iar discourse ; e. g. nous autres hommes, we men, vous autres femmes, you women. § 507. The Pronoun autrui is (as has been said, § 379,) always of plural signification, is never accompanied by an ^article or adjective, but always preceded by a preposition ; e. g. parler par la louche d' autrui, to speak by the mouth of others, chez autrui, with others.* § 508. The Pronoun en always implies the relation ex- pressed by the preposition de, and the Pronoun y the relation expressed by the preposition a ; e. g. avez-vous du vin ? oui, fen ai, have you wine ? yes, I have some, venez-vous de la cour 1 oui, fen viens, do you come from court ? yes, I come from thence, allez-vous a Veglise ? oui,fy vais, are you going lo church ? yes, I am going thither. § 509. The preposition en is used in French in a great many cases in which it is not expressed in English ; e. g. vous avez plus d? oranges que je n'en ai, you have more oranges than I, vous rt avez pas tant de livres que fen ai, you have not so many books as I have, il en est de vous comme de moi, it is with you as it is with me, fen tiens, I am caught, je n'en puis plus, I can do no more. § 510. The Pronoun on is used very frequently in French to avoid the use of the passive voice, which is so common in English, but is employed as seldom as possible in French ; e. g. on n*a pas encore repu les lettres qu'on attendait, the let- ters which were expected have not been received, on a fait de grandes rejouissances, et Von ne salt trop pourquoi, great re- * The only exception to this statement is, the chancery expression, sauf en autres choses notre droit et V autrui en toutcs, saving in other things our right and the right of others in all (Uautrui here standing for le droit d 'autrui). §§ 510—514. PRONOCJN. Ill joicings have been made, and it is not well known why, on espere quHls arriveront deraain, it is hoped that they will ar- rive tomorrow. § 511. The Pronoun on must be repeated before each of several verbs of which it is the subject ; e. g. on epie la for- tune, on travaille, on se fatigue, on cherche tous les moyens de la fixer, we watch fortune, labor, fatigue ourselves, and seek every method of fixing it. § 512. The Pronoun mtme is often appended to the Per- sonal Pronouns, moi, toi, lui, elle, soi, nous, vous, eux, and elles, in which case it is equivalent to our word self It is never appended to je, tu, il, or Us. It has been said (§§ 414 and 415) that the Pronouns se and soi always convey the idea of self, and the Pronouns me, te, nous, and vous do likewise in Reflexive verbs (see § 555 seq.) ; the question may therefore arise, how are we to determine when we shall use these Pro- nouns and when mtme is to be employed ? In answer, I ob- serve, that whenever Pronouns without mtme convey the idea of self, they are the object of a verb, never the nominative ; and that the Pronouns with mtme are generally in apposition with some other Pronoun or a substantive, or else are governed by some preposition, which can never be the case with the other Pronouns when they have the sense of self E. g. c^est le del lui-meme qui nous montre un avenir, it is heaven itself which shows us a hereafter, Us se sont perdus eux-mimes, they have ruined themselves, le monde estime Men des choses qui en elles-mtmes sont fort mtprisables, the world prizes many things which in themselves are very contemptible. § 513. The Pronoun tel exhibits a somewhat singular idiom in such expressions as, vous ne sauriez me persuader rien de tel, you cannot persuade me of any such thing. So too in this : tel fait des liberalizes, qui ne paye pas ses dettes, the same man gives liberally who does not pay his debts. § 514. The Pronoun tout exhibits a somewhat peculiar idiom in such expressions as, toute petite qu'elle est, small as she is, toute femme qu'elle est, woman as she is. 112 §§ 515—519. verb. CHAP. V. VERB. VARIATION. General Statement, § 515. The Verbs of the French language, like those of the English, are either Transitive or Intransitive, commonly called, though less correctly, Active or Neuter. Transitive Verbs are those which necessarily suppose some object on which they may operate ; Intransitive Verbs are those which require no such object. E. g. posseder, to possess, is a Transi- tive Verb, since it requires an object, something to be pos- sessed ; but dormir, to sleep, is Intransitive, for we cannot sleep any thing. § 516. The Verbs of the French language, like those of the English, are varied by means of Voice, Mode, Tense, Num» her, and Person. § 517. There are two Voices in French, as in English, viz. the Active and the Passive. The Passive Voice properly be- longs only to such Verbs as are Transitive. This results necessarily from the definition we have given of Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. The Passive Voice is formed in French, as in English, by the aid of an Auxiliary Verb. § 518. There are five Modes in French, viz. the Infinitiv e,the Indicative, the Conditional, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. There are besides two Participles, the Present and the Past, which may also perhaps be properly called Modes of the Verb. § 519. The Infinitive Mode merely expresses the action or quality of the Verb ; and it contains no indication of number or person, and only a very general one of time. The Indica- tive asserts the action or quality of the Verb, and contains like- wise a definite indication of number, person and time. The Condi- tional asserts the action or quality of the Verb with a condition ; §§ 519—523. verb. _ 113 and it contains likewise an indication of number, person and time. The Subjunctive denotes that the action or quality of the Verb is doubtful, uncertain ; and it contains an indication of number, person, and time. The Imperative denotes the idea of command, entreaty, invocation, and the like ; and it contains an indication of number, person, and of present time. The Participle may be called an adjective form of the Verb : it contains an indication of time, but not of person ; and the past participle may indicate number, while the present cannot. § 520. There is one simple Tense in the Infinitive Mode, viz. the Present; there are four simple tenses in the Indica- tive, viz. the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Fu- ture ; there is one simple tense in the Conditional, viz. the Present ; there are two simple tenses in the Subjunctive, viz. the Present and the Imperfect ; there is but one tense of any sort in the Imperative ; and there are two simple tenses of the Participle, viz. the Present and the Past. § 521. There are as many compound Tenses as simple ones in each of the modes of French Verbs, excepting the Impera- tive, which has no compound tense, and the Participle, which has but one. The compound of the Present Infinitive is often called the Past ; the compound of the Present Indicative is often called the Preterite Indefinite ; the compound of the Imperfect, the Pluperfect ; the compound of the Perfect the Perfect Anterior ; and the compound of the Future the Fu- ture Anterior. The compound of the Present Conditional is often called the Past. The compound of the Present Sub- junctive is often called the Past; and the compound of the Imperfect the Pluperfect. These compound tenses are all formed by the aid of an Auxiliary Verb. § 522. There are two Numbers in French Verbs, the sin- gular and plural. The distinction of number belongs to all the tenses of the Verb except those of the Infinitive and the Present tense of the Participle. § 523. There are three Persons to each number, cor- 10* 114 §§ 523—528. veeb. responding with the Personal Pronouns, viz. the first, second, and third Persons. The distinction of Person belongs to all the tenses of the Verb, except those of the Infinitive and Par- ticiple. This statement does not apply, however, to the Verbs called Impersonal, which are used only in the third person singular. § 524. The Infinitive Present of all French Verbs ends in one of the following terminations : er, ir, oir, or re. In Eng- lish its various terminations are much more numerous. § 525. French Verbs are classed in four conjugations, according to the different terminations of their Infinitive Pres- ent ; Verbs of the first conjugation ending in er, Verbs of the second in ir, Verbs of the third in oir, and Verbs of the fourth in re. § 526. Certain Verbs are selected as models of the varia- tions in these several conjugations, most of the Verbs in the conjugations coinciding with these models. All those Verbs w 7 hich do thus coincide are called Regular ; those whose forms deviate from the models in any very important respect are called Irregular. § 527. Some French Verbs are Defective, i. e. are not em- ployed in certain modes, tenses, or persons ; e. g. bruire, to make a noise, is used only in the Infinitive Present, in the Pres- ent Participle, bruyant, and in the third person singular and plural of the Imperfect, bruyoit and bruyoient. § 528. A peculiar class of Defective Verbs are those called Impersonal, which should perhaps more properly be called Verbs of the third person, or, as they have sometimes been called, unipersonal Verbs, inasmuch as they are employed in the third person singular and in that alone ; e. g. il pleut, it rains, etc. through other tenses. However, there is not such an impropriety in the epithet impersonal as has some- times been supposed ; for it cannot be said with truth that there is anything like a distinction of person in the forms of these Verbs, and thus they may, perhaps properly, be con- sidered as without person. $$529—532. verb. 115 § 529. There is a class of Verbs in French called Pronomi- nal, Reflexive, or Reciprocal Verbs. It is characteristic of these that their subject and object are the same person or thing. They are called Pronominal, because in all their variations they are immediately preceded by a Personal Pronoun as their object,* which indeed is considered as a part of the very name of the Verb ; e. g. se connoitre, to know one's self, je me connois, I know myself. They are sometimes called Re- flexive Verbs, because what is expressed by the verb falls lack, as it were, upon the subject ; e. g. il se Uesse, he wounds himself. They are sometimes called Reciprocal Verbs, be- cause they often express what persons or things do to each other ; e. g. Pierre et Guillaume se lattent, Peter and William are beating one another. AUXILIARY VERBS, § 530. It has been said (§§ 517 and 521,) that the whole Passive Voice and all compound tenses of French Verbs are formed by the aid of Auxiliary Verbs. The Proper Auxiliary Verbs in French are two in number, viz. avoir, to have, and etre, to be. The difference between these Verbs and others which often have the appearance of being real auxiliary Verbs, viz. pouvoir, laisser, oser, etc. is this : that the two Verbs mentioned as proper Auxiliary Verbs are necessary to the complete conjugation of other Verbs through the Voices, Modes, and Tenses which we have enumerated, while the others are not. § 531. All the Modes and Tenses of the Passive Voice are formed by the aid of the Auxiliary Verb, etre, to be. § 532. The compound tenses of the Active Voice are formed generally by the aid of the Auxiliary Verb, avoir, to have, though sometimes etre is used instead of avoir. All Transi- tive Verbs, except those called Pronominal, Reflexive, or Re- ciprocal (§§ 529 and 555 seq.), and also the greater number * Except in the first and second persons of the Imperative. (§ 555.) 116 §§ 532, 533. verb. of Intransitive Verbs, make use of avoir as the Auxiliary Verb in their compound tenses. But a considerable number of In- transitive Verbs make use of etre in these Tenses.* § 533. The Auxiliary Verb, avoir, to have, is conjugated as follows : INFINITIVE. Pres. Avoir, to" have. Comp. of Pres. Avoir eu, to have had. Pres. Ay ant, having. Past, Eu, had. PARTICIPLES. Comp. of Pres. having had. Ayant eu, INDICATIVE. Present. Singular. Tai, I have. Tu as, thou hast. 11 a, he has. Comp. of Present. Singular. Tai eu, I have had. Tu as eu, thou hast had. II a eu, he has had. Plural. Nous avons, we have. Vous avez, you have. Us out, they have. Plural. Nous avons eu, we have had. Vous avez eu, you have had. lis out eu, they have had. Imperfect. Singular. J 1 avais, I had. Tu avais, thou hadst. 11 avail, he had. Comp. of Imperfect. Singular. T avais eu, I had had. Tu avais eu, thou hadst had. 11 avail eu, he had had. Plural. Nous avions, we had. Vous aviez, you had. lis avaient, they had. Plural. Nous avions eu, we had had. Vous aviez eu, you had had. lis avaienl eu, they had had. * See Appendix L for a catalogue of these Verbs, and some fur- ther remarks. § 533. VERB. 117 Perfect. Singular. Tens, I had. Tu eus, thou hadst. 11 eut, he had. Plural. Nous eumes, we had. Vous eutes, you had. lis eure?it, they had. Future. Singular. Taurai, I shall have. Tu auras, thou wilt have. II aura, he will have. Plural. Nous aurons, we shall have. Vous aurez, you will have. lis auront, they will have. Comp. of Perfect. Singular. Feus ew, I had had. Tu eus ew, thou hadst had. 11 eut ew, he had had. Plural. Nous eumes eu, we had had. Vous eutes eu, you had had. Us eurent eu, they had had. Comp. of Future. Singular. J'aurai eu, I shall have had. Tu auras eu, thou wilt have had. II aura eu, he will have had. Plural. Nous aurons ew, we shall have had. Vous aurez eu, you will have had. lis auront ew,they will have had. CONDITIONAL. Present. Comp. of Present. Singular. Singular. Taurais, I should have. J'aurais eu, I should have had. Tu aurais, thou wouldst have. Tu aurais eu, thou would st have had. 11 aurait, he would have. 11 aurait eu, he would have had. Plural. Plural. Nous aurions, we should have. Nous aurions eu, we should have had. Vous auriez, you would have. Vous auriez eu, you would have had. lis auraient, they would have. Us auraient ew, they would have had. 118 § 533. VEKB. Present. (Que) Singular. JPaie, I may have. Tu aies, thou may est have 11 ait, he may have. SUBJUNCTIVE. Comp. of Present. (Que) Singular. Taie eu, I may have had. , Tu aies eu, thou mayest have had. U ait eu, he may have had. (Que) Plural. Nous ayons, we may have. Vous ayez, you may have. lis aient, they may have. (Que) Plural. Nous ayons eu, we may have had. Vous ayez eu, you may have had. lis aient eu, they may have had. Imperfect. (Que) Singular. Teusse, I might have. Tu eusses, thou mightest have. 11 eut, he might have. Comp. of Imperfect. (Que) Singular. J^eusse eu, I might have had. Tu eusses eu, thou mightest have had. II exit eu, he might have had. (Que) Plural. Nous eussions, we might have. Vous eussiez, you might have. lis eussent, they might have. (Que) Plural. Nous eussions eu, we might have had. Vous eussiez eu, you might have had. Us eussent eu, they might have had. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Aie, have thou. QuHl ait, let him have. Plural. Ayons, let us have. Ayez, have you. Quails aient, let them have. § 534. VERB. 119 § 534. The Auxiliary Verb, etre, to be, is conjugated as follows : Pres. Eire, to be. INFINITIVE. Comp. of Pres. Avoir iU, to have been. Pres. Etant, being. Past, Ete, been. PARTICIPLES. Comp. of Pres. Ay ant 6U, having been. INDICATIVE. Present. Singular. Je suls, I am. Tu es, thou art. Tl est, he is. Plural. Nous sommes, we are. Vous etes, you are. lis so?it, they are. Comp. of Present. Singular. Tai ete, I have been. Tu as ete, thou hast been. 11 a ete, he has been. Plural. Nous avons ete, we have been. Vous avez ete, you have been. lis out ete, they have been. Imperfect. Singular. 4 Tetais, I was. Tu etais, thou wast. II etait, he was. Comp. of Imperfect. Singular. 3^ avals ete, I had been. Tu avals ete, thou hadst been. 11 avalt ete, he had been. Plural. Nous etions, we were. Vous etlez, you were. lis italent, they were. Plural. Nous avions ete, we had been. Vous aviez He, you had been. lis avalent ete, they had been. Perfect. Singular. Je fus, I was. Tufus, thou wast. Tl jut, he was. Comp. of Perfect. Singular. Teus ete 1 , I had been. Tu eus M, thou hadst been. II eut 6U, he had been. 120 § 534. VERB. Plural. Nous fumes, we were. Vousfutes, you were, Ilsfurent, they were. Plural. Nous eumes ete, we had been. Vous elites He, you had been. Us eurent He, they had been. Future. Singular. Je serai, I shall be. Tu seras, thou wilt be. 11 sera, he will be. Plural. Nous serous, we shall be. Vous serez, you will be. lis seront, they will be. Comp. of Future. Singular. T aural eU, I shall have been. Tu auras ete, thou wilt have been. U aura ete, he will have been. Plural. Nous aurons He, we shall have been. Vous aurez He, you will have been. Us auront ete, they will have been. CONDITIONAL. Present. Singular. Je serais,! should be. Tu serais, thou wouldst be. 11 serait, he would be. Plural. Nous sermons, we should be. Nous aurions ete, we should have been. Vous seriez, you would be. Vous auriez M, you would have been. Us seraient, they would be. lis auraient M, they would have been. Comp. of Present. Singular. Taurais ete, I should have been. Tu aurais ete, thou wouldst have been. 11 aurait ete, he would have been. Plural. §§ 534, 535. verb, subjunctive. 121 Present. (Que) Singular. Je 5015, 1 may be. Tu sois, thou mayest be. II soit, he may be. (Que) Plural. Nous soyons, we may be. Vous soyez, you may be. Us soient, they may be. Comp. of Present. (Que) Singular. Taie ete, I may have been. Tu axes ete, thou mayest have been. II ait He, he may have been. (Que) Plural. Nous ayons ete, we may have been. Vous ayez ete, you may have been. lis aient He, they may have been. Imperfect. (Que) Singular. Jefusse, I might be. Tu fusses, thou mightest be. llfut, he might be. (Que) Plural. Nous fussions, we might be. Vous fussiez, you might be. llsfussent, they might be. Comp. of Imperfect. (Que) Singular. Teusse ete, I might have been. Tu eusses ete, thou mightest have been. II eut ete, he might have been. (Que) Plural. Nous eussions ete, we might have been. Vous eussiez ete f you might have been. lis eussent ete, they might have been. Sois, be thou. QuHl soit, let him be. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Soyons, let us be. Soyez, be you. Quails soient, let them be. REGULAR VERBS. § 535. Regular Verbs are conjugated by a change of ter- mination and by the aid of the Auxiliary Verbs. They are, as 122 §§ 535, 536. verb. we have said (§ 525), of the First, Second, Third, or Fourth Conjugation, according as they end in er, ir, oir, or re. § 536. The Verb Parler, to speak, which is a model of the Eegular Verbs of the First Conjugation, is conjugated as fol- lows: INFINITIVE. Pres. Parler, to speak. Comp. of Pres. Avoir parli, to have spoken. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Parlant, speaking. Past, Parle, spoken. Comp. of Pres. Ayant parli, having spoken. INDICATIVE. Present. Singular. Je parle, I speak. Tu paries, thou speakest. 11 parle, he speaks. Comp. of Present. Singular. Tai parle, I have spoken. Tu as parte, thou hast spoken. 11 a parle, he has spoken. Plural. Nous parlons, we speak. Vous parlez, you speak. Us parlent, they speak. Plural. Nous avons parle, we have spoken. Vous avez parli, you have spoken. lis ont parli, they have spoken. Imperfect. Singular. Je parlais, I was speaking. Tu parlais, thou wast speak- ing. 11 parlait, he was speaking. Comp. of Imperfect. Singular. JPavais parle, I had spoken. Tu avais parli, thou hadst spoken. 11 avait parli, he had spoken. § 536. VERB. 123 Plural. Plural. Nous parlions, we were Nous avions parle 1 , we had speaking. spoken. Vous parliez, you were Vous aviez parity you had speaking. spoken. lis parlaient, they were Us avaient parle, they had speaking. spoken. Perfect. Singular. Je parlai, I spoke. Tu parlas, thou spokest. 11 parla, he spoke. Plural. Nous parldmes, we spoke. Vous parldtes, you spoke. lis parUrent, they spoke. Comp. of Perfect. Singular. feus parli, I had spoken. Tu eus parle, thou hadst spoken. II eut parle, he had spoken. PJural. Nous eumes parli, we had spoken. Vous eutes parle, you had spoken. lis eurent parle, they had spoken. Future. Singular. Je parlerai, I shall speak. Tu parleras, thou wilt speak. It parlera, he will speak. Plural. Nousparlerons, we shall speak. Vousparlerez, you will speak. lis parleront, they will speak. Comp. of Future. Singular. Taurai parle, I shall have spoken. Tu auras parle 1 , thou wilt have spoken. II aura parle, he will have spoken. Plural. Nous aurons parle, we shall have spoken. Vous aurez parle, you will have spoken. lis auront parle, they will have spoken. 124 § 536. verb. CONDITIONAL. Present. Comp. of Present. Singular. Singular. Je parlerais, I should speak. Taurais parte, I should have spoken. Tu parlerais, thou wouldst Tu aurais parte, thou wouldst speak. have spoken. 11 parlerait, he would speak. II aurait parte, he would have spoken. Plural. Plural. Nous parlerions, we should Nous aurions parte, we should speak. have spoken. Vous parleriez, you would Vous auriez parte, you would speak. have spoken. Us parleraient, they would lis auraient parity they would speak. have spoken. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Comp. of Present. (Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. Je parte, I may speak. JTaie parte, I may have spoken. Tu paries, thou may est speak. Tu ales parte, thou mayest have spoken. llparle, he may speak. II ait parte, he may have spoken. (Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. Nousparlions, we may speak. Nous ayons parte, we may have spoken. Vous parliez, you may speak. Vous ayez parte, you may have spoken. lis parlent, they may speak. Jls aient parte, they may have spok en. §§ 536, 537. verb. 125 Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. (Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. Je parlasse, I might speak. Teusse parte, I might have spoken. Tu parlasses, thou mightest Tu eusses parte, thou mightest speak. have spoken. II parldi, he might speak. 11 eut parte j he might have spoken. (Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. Nous parlassions, we might Nous eussions par te, we might speak. have spoken. Vous parlassiez, you might Vous eussiez parte, you might speak. have spoken. Us parlassent, they might lis eussent parte, they might speak. have spoken. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Parlous, let us speak. Parle, speak thou. Parlez, speak ye. QuHl parle, let him speak. QuHls parlent, let them speak. § 537. The Verb Finir, to finish, which is a model of the Regular Verbs of the Second Conjugation, is conjugated as follows : INFINITIVE. Pres. Finir, to finish. Comp. of Pres. Avoir fini, to have finished. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Finissant, finishing. Comp. of Pres. Ayant finL Past, Fini, finished. having finished. 11* 126 § 537. VERF. INDICATIVE. Present. Singular. Je finis, I finish. Tu finis, thou finishest. 11 finit, he finishes. Plural. Nous finissons, we finish. Vousfinissez, you finish. Us finissent, they finish* Imperfect. Singular. Jefinissais, I was finishing. Comp. of Present. Singular. Tax fini, I have finished. Tu as fini, thou hast finished. II a fini, he has finished. Plural. Nous avons fini, we have finished. Vous avez fini, you have finished. lis ontfini, they have finished. Comp. of Imperfect Singular. J * avals fini, I had finished. Tufinissais, thou wast finish* Tu avals fini, thou hadst fin- ing, ished. Ilfimssail, he was finishing. U avail fini, he had finished. Plura). Plural. Nous finissions, we were fin* Nous avions fini, we had fin- ishing, ished. Vous finissiez } you were fin* Vous aviez fini, you had fin- ishing, ished. lh finissaient, they were fin- lis avaient fini, they had fin- ishing. Perfect. Singular. Je finis, I finished. Tu finis, thou finishedst. Hfinit, he finished. Plural. Nousfinimes, we finished. Vous finites, you finished. lis finirent, they finished. ished. Comp. of Perfect. Singular. Teusfini, I had finished. Tueusfini, thou hadst finished. H eulfini, he had finished. Plural. Nous eumes fini, we had fin- ished. Vous cities fini, you had fin- ished. Bs eurent fini, they had fin- ished. §537. VEEB. 127 Future. Singular. Jejinirai, I shall finish. Tujiniras, thou wilt finish. UJinira, he will finish. Plural. Nousjinirons, we shall finish. VousJinirez } you will finish. Usjiniront, they will finish. Comp. of Future. Singular. J'aurai jini, I shall have fin- ished. Tu auras Jini, thou wilt have finished. 11 aura Jini, he will have fin- ished. Plural. Nous aurons Jini, we shall have finished. Vous aurez Jini, you will have finished. Us aurontfini, they will have finished. CONDITIONAL. Present. Singular. Jejinirais, I should finish. Tu Jinirais, thou wouldst fin- ish. UJinirail, he would finish. Comp. of Present. Singular. Taurais Jini, I should have finished. Tu aurais Jini, thou wouldst have finished. II aurait Jini, he would have finished. Plural. Plural. Nousjinirions, we should fin- Nous aurions jini, we should ish. have finished. Vous Jiniriez, you would fin- Vous auriez Jini, you would ish. have finished. Us jiniraient, they would fin- Us auraient Jini, they would ish. have finished. 128 § 537. verb. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Comp. of Present. (Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. Jejinisse, I may finish. Pale jini, I may have finished. Tujinisses, thou mayest finish. Tu axes jini, thou mayest have finished. Hjinisse, he may finish. II ait jini, he may have fin- ished. (Que) Plural. (Que) Plural Nous jinissions, we may fin* Nous ayonsjini, we may have ish. finished. Vousjinissiez, you may finish. Vous ay ez jini, you may have finished. Us jinissent, they may finish. Us aient Jini, they may have finished. Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. (Que) Singular. (Q ue ) Singular. Jejinisse, I might finish. J'eusse jini, I might have fin- ished. Tujinisses, thou mightest fin- Tu eusses jini, thou mightest ish. * have finished. lljinit, he might finish. 11 eutjni, he might have fin- ished. (Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. Nous Jinissions, we might fin- Nous eussions jini, we might ish. have finished. Vous jinissiez, you might fin- Vous eussiez jini, you might ish. have finished. Hsjinissent, they might finish. Us eussent jini, they might have finished. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Finissons, let us finish. Finis, finish thou. Finissez, finish you. QuHl jinisse, let him finish. QiC Us jinissent, let them finish. § 538. verb. 129 § 538. The Verb Recevoir, to receive, which is a model of the Regular Verbs of the Third Conjugation, is conjugated as follows : INFINITIVE. Pres. Recevoir, to receive. Com p. of Pres. Avoir regu, to have received. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Recevant, receiving. Comp. of Pres. Avoir regu, Past, Regit, received. having received. INDICATIVE. Present. Comp. of Present. Singular. Singular. Je regois, I receive. Ted regu, I have received. Tu regois, thou receivest. Tu as regu, thou hast received. It regoit, he receives. 11 a regit, he has received. Plural. Plural. Nous recevons, we receive. Nous avons regu, we have re- ceived. Vous recevez, you receive. Vous avez regu, you have re- ceived. lis regoivent, they receive. Us ont regu, they have re- ceived. Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. Singular. Singular. Je recevais, I was receiving. Tavais regu, I had received, Tu recevais, thou wast receiv- Tu avals regu, thou hadst re- ing. ceived. 11 recevait, he was receiving. II avail regu, he had received. Plural. Plural. Nous recevions, we were re- Nous avions regu, we had re- ceiving, ceived. Vous receviez, you were re- Vous aviez regu, you had re- ceiving, ceived. lis recevaient, they were re- lis avaient regu, they had re- ceiving, ceived. 130 §538. verb. Perfect. Comp. of Perfect. Singular. Singular. Je regus, I received. Jeus regu, I had received. Tu regus, thou receivedst. Tu eus regu, thou hadst re- ceived. 11 regut, he received. 11 eut regit, he had received. Plural. Plural. Nous regumes, we received. Nous eumes regu, we had re- ceived. Vous regutes, you received. Vous eutes regu, you had re- ceived. lis regurent, they received. lis eurent regu, they had re- ceived. Future. Comp. of Future. Singular. Singular. Je recevrai, I shall receive. Taurai regu, 1 shall have re- ceived. Tu recevras, thou wilt receive. Tu auras regu, thou wilt have received. II recevra, he will receive. II aura regu, he will have re- ceived. Plural. Plural. Nous recevrons, we shall re- Nous aurons regu, we shall ceive. have received. Vous recevrez, you will re- Vous aurez regu, you will ceive. have received. lis recevront, they will re- lis auront regu, they will have ceive. received. CONDITIONAL. Present. Comp. of Present. Singular. Singular. Je recevrais, I should receive. Paurais regu, I should have received. Tu recevrais, thou wouldst re- Tu aurais regu, thou wouldst ceive. have received. II recevrait, he would receive. U aurait regu, he would have received. § 538. verb. 131 Plural. Plural. Nous recevrions, we should Nous aurions regu, we should receive. have received. Vous recevriez, you would Vous auriez regu, you would receive. have received. lis recevraient, they would lis auraient regu, they would receive. have received. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Comp. of Present. (Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. Je regoive, I may receive. *Paie regu 9 I may have re- ceived. Tu regoives, thou may est re- Tu axes regu, thou may est ceive. have received. 11 regoive, he may receive. II ait regit, he may have re- ceived. (Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. Nous recevions, we may re- Nous ayons regu, we may ceive. have received. Vous receviez, you may re- Vous ayez regu, you may ceive. have received. lis regoivent, they may re- lis aient regu, they may have ceive. received. Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. (Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. Je regusse, I might receive. Teusse regu, I might have re- ceived. Tu regusses, thou mightest re- Tu eusses regu, thou mightest ceive. * have received. 11 regut, he might receive. 11 eul regu, he might have received. (Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. Nous regussions, we might re- Nous eussions regu, we might ceive. have received. Vous regussiez, you might re- Vous eussiez regu, you might ceive. have received. lis regussent, they might re- lis eussent regu, they might ceive. have received. 132 §§ 538, 539. verb. IMPERATIVE. Singular. * Pluial. Repevons, let us receive. Repois, receive thou. Repevez, receive you. QuHl repoive, let him receive. Quails repoivent, let them re- ceive. § 539. The Verb Rendre, to render, which is a model of the Regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, is conjugated as follows : INFINITIVE. Pres. Rendre, to return. Comp. of Pres. Avoir rendu, to have returned. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Rendant, returning. Comp. of Pres. Ayant rendu, Past, Rendu, returned. having returned. INDICATIVE. Present. Comp. of Present. Singular. Singular. Je rends, I return. J'ai rendu, I have returned. Tu rends, thou returnest. Tu as rendu, thou hast re- turned. II rend, he returns. 11 a rendu, he has returned. Plural. Plural. Nous rendons, we return. Nous avons rendu, we have returned. Vous rendez, you return. Vous avez rendu, you have returned. lis rendent, they return. lis out rendu, they have re- turned. § 539. VERB. 133 Imperfect. Singular. Je rendais, I was returning. Tu rendais, thou wast return- ing. 11 rendait, he was returning. Plural. Nous rendions, we were re- turning. Vous rendiez, you were re- turning. lis rendaient, they were re- turning. Comp. of Imperfect. Singular. Tavais rendu, I had returned. Tu avais rendu, thou hadst returned. 11 avail rendu, he had returned. Plural. Nous avions rendu, we had returned. Vous aviez rendu, you had re- turned. lis ont rendu, they had re- turned. Perfect. Singular. Je rendis, I returned. Tu rendis, thou returnedst. 11 rendit, he returned. Plural. Nous rendimes, we returned. Vous rendites, you returned. lis rendirent, they returned. Comp. of Perfect. Singular. Jeus rendu, I had returned. Tu eus rendu, thou hadst re- turned. 11 eut rendu, he had returned. Plural. Nous eiimes rendu, we had returned. Vous eules rendu, you had returned. lis eurent rendu, they had re- turned. Future. Comp. of Future. Singular. Singular. Je rendrai, I shall return. J^aurai rendu, I shall have returned. Tu rendras, thou wilt return. Tu auras rendu, thou wilt have returned. U rendra, he will return. II aura rendu, he will have returned. 12 134 § 539. VERB. Plural. Nous rendrons, we shall re- turn. Vous rendrez, you will return. lis rendront, they will return. Plural. Nous aurons rendu, we shall have returned. Vous aurez rendu, you will have returned. lis auront rendu, they will have returned. CONDITIONAL. Present. Singular. Je rendrais, I should return. Tu rendrais, thou wouldst re- turn. 11 rendrait, he would return. Comp. of Present. Singular. Jaurais rendu, I should have returned. Tu aurais rendu, thou wouldst have returned. II aurait rendu, he would have returned. Plural. Nous rendrions, we should re- turn. Vous rendriez, you would re- turn. Us rendraient, they would re- turn. Plural. Nous aurions rendu, we should have returned. Vous auriez rendu, you would have returned. lis auraient rendu, they would have returned. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. (Que) Singular. Je rende, I may return. Tu rendes, thou mayest re- turn. 11 rende, he may return. Comp. of Present. (Que) Singular. Taie rendu, I may have re- turned. Tu ales rendu, thou mayest have returned. 11 ait rendu, he may have re- turned. §§ 539, 540. verb. 135 (Que) Plural. Nous rendions, we may re- turn. Vous rendiez, you may re- turn. Us rendent, they may re- turn. (Que) Plural. Nous ayons rendu, we may have returned. Vous ayez rendu, you may have returned. lis aient rendu, they may have returned. Imperfect. (Que) Singular. Je rendisse, I might return. Tu rendisses > thou mightest return. 11 rendu, he might return. Comp. of Imperfect. (Que) Singular. Teusse rendu, I might have returned. Tu eusses rendu, thou mightest have returned. II eut rendu, he might have returned. (Que) Plural. Nous eussions rendu, we might have returned. Vous eussiez rendu, you might have returned. lis rendissent, they might Us eussent rendu, they might return. have returned. (Que) Plural. Nous rendissions, we might return. Vous rendissiez, you might return. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Rendons, let us return. Rends, return thou. Rendez, return you. QuHl rende, let him return. Qu'ils rendent, let them re- turn.* Observations. § 540. Obs. I. Nine tenths of the Verbs in the French lan- guage are said to end in er, and thus belong to the First Con- * As has been said in § 517, the Passive Voice of French Verbs is formed by prefixing to their Past Participle the tenses of the auxiliary verb tire; e. g. je suis almc, 1 am loved, fdtais respect^, I was re- spected, je fus hue, 1 was praised, etc. etc. This formation is so simple, that it has been deemed unnecessary to present coruplr-t© tablesof the Passive Voice. 136 §§ 541—545. veeb. jugation. Of the remaining tenth (amounting to about 300) two thirds, perhaps, end in ir, and thus belong to the Second Conjugation. Only seven end in oir, and thus belong to the Third Conjugation. § 541. Obs. II. When a Verb ends with ger, the e is re- tained in those forms of the Verb in which an a or an o would follow the g : e. g. mangeant, Present Participle of manger, to eat ; songeois, Imperfect Tense of songer, to dream. The reason of this is, that if the e were dropped the g would have its hard sound before a or o. (§ 44 a.) § 542. Obs. III. When a Verb ends with cer or cevoir, the c must have a cedilla placed under it in those forms of the Verb in which it is followed by an a or an o ; e. g. nous plagons, we place, je tragais, I traced, fefagai, I effaced, je repots, I receive, degu, deceived. The reason of this is, that c would otherwise have its hard sound before a or o. (§ 41 a.) § 543. Obs. IV. The Verbs, appeler, to call, and jeter, to throw, and a very few others of the same terminations, double the I and the t in those forms of the Verb in which the Z and t are followed by an e mute : e. g. il appelle, he" calls, not il appele ; iljette, he throws, not iljete. § 544. Obs. V. In Verbs ending in oyer and iiyer, the y is changed into i before a mute e : e. g. femploie, I employ, from employer ; fajipuierai, I will support, from appuyer. By some this change is extended to Verbs ending in ayer and eyer : e. g. il paie, he pays, from payer ; elle grasseie, she lisps, from grasscyer, § 545. Obs. VI. When the first person singular of the Present Indicative, in Verbs of the First Conjugation, is used interrogatively with the pronounce following immediately, the mute e, with which the form of the Verb commonly termi- nates, is changed to e with the acute accent ; e. g. aime-je 1 do I love ? neglige-je ? do I neglect ? The same is true as to some Verbs of the Second Conjugation : e, g. offrt-je, do I offer ? cueilU-je ? do I gather ? § 546. VERB. 137 REGULAR VERBS CONJUGATED WITH Etre. § 546. The Verbs which have been presented as examples of the regular conjugations make use of the Verb avoir as their Auxiliary in the compound tenses. We will now exhibit the conjugation of the Verb entrer, to enter, one of the In- transitive Verbs which require the use of etre in their com- pound tenses. (See Appendix L.) The Verb entrer, being Intransitive, has, of course, no Passive Voice. Its Active Voice is conjugated as follows : Pres. Entrer, to enter. INFINITIVE. Comp. of Pres. Etre entre 1 , to have entered. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Entrant, entering. Past, Entre, entered. Comp. of Pres. Etant entre, having entered. INDICATIVE. Present. Singular. Tentre, I enter. Tu entres, thou enterest. 11 entre, he enters. Comp. of Present. Singular. Je suis entre, I have entered. Tu es entre, thou hast entered. 11 est entre, he has entered. Plural. Nous entrons, we enter. Vous entrez, you enter. lis entrent, they enter. Plural. Nous sommes entrts, we have entered. Vous etes entres, you have entered. Us sont entris, they have en- tered. 12* 138 § 546. vexs. Imperfect. Singular. Tentrais, I was entering. Tu entrais, thou wast enter- ing. II entrait, he was entering. Plural. Nous entrionsy we were en- tering. Vous entriez, you were en- tering. lis entraient) they were en- terms. Comp. of Imperfect. Singular. Tetais entre, I had entered. Tu ttais entre, thou hadst en- tered. 11 Halt entre, he had entered. Plural. Nous etions entris^ we had entered. Vous etiez entrts, you had entered. lis etaient entres^ they had entered. Perfect. Singular. J^enlrai, I entered. Tu entraSy thou enteredst. 11 entra, he entered. Plural. Nous entrdmesy we entered. Vous entrdtes, you entered. Us entrerent, they entered. Comp. of Perfect. Singular. Jefus entrt, I had entered. Tu fus entrey thou hadst en- tered. Ilfut entre } he had entered. Plural. Nous fumes entreSy we had entered. Vous fates enti^eSy you had entered. lis furent entre$y they had entered. Future. Singular. Tentrerai, I shall enter. Tu entreras, thou wilt enter. 11 entrera, he will enter. Comp. of Future. Singular. Je serai entre, I shall have entered. Tu seras entrt, thou wilt have entered. 11 sera entri^ he will have entered. § 546. verb. 139 Plural. Plural. Nous entrerons, we shall en- Nous sermons entres, we shall ter. have entered. Vous entrerez, you will enter. Vous serez entris, you will have entered. lis enlreront, they will enter. II seront entres, ihey will have entered. CONDITIONAL. Present. Comp. of Present. Singular. Singular. Tentrerais, I should enter. Je serais entre, I should have entered. Tu entrerais, thou wouldst en- Tu serais enire, thou wouldst ter. have entered. II entrerait, he would enter. 11 serait entre, he would have entered. Plural. Plural. Nous entrerions, we should Nous serious entres, we should enter. have entered. Vous entreriez, you would en- Vous seriez entres, you would ter. have entered, lis entreraient, they would en- lis seraient entrte, they would ter. have entered. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Comp. of Present. (Que) Singular. (Que) Singular. Jentre^ I may enter. Je sois entre, I may have en- tered. Tu entres, thou mayest enter. Tu sois entrt, thou mayest have entered. II entre, he may enter. 11 soit entrt, he may have entered. 140 §§ 546, 547. verb. (Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. Nous entrions, we may enter. Nous soyons entris, we may have entered. Vous entriez, you may enter. Vous soyez entris, you may have entered. lis entrent, they may enter. lis soient entres, they may have entered. Imperfect. Comp. of Imperfect. (Que) Singular. (Q ue ) Singular. Tentrasse, I might enter. Je fusse entre, I might have entered. Tu enirasses, thou mightest Tu fusses entre, thou mightest enter. have entered. II entrdt, he might enter. 11 fut entre, he might have entered. (Que) Plural. (Que) Plural. Nous enlrassions, we might Nous fussions entres, we enter. might have entered. Vous entrassiez, you might Vousfussiez entres, you might enter. have entered. lis entrassent, they might en- lis fussent entres, they might ter. have entered. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Entrons, let us enter. Entre, enter thou. Entrez, enter you. QuHl entre, let him enter. Quails entrent, let him enter. IRREGULAR VERBS. § 547. It has been already said, (§ 526,) that those Verbs are denominated Irregular, which deviate, in any important respects, from the models which have been presented in the several conjugations. The extent of irregularity is very vari- ous in different Verbs. We will not make any further re- marks concerning the Irregular Verbs here, but will refer to Appendix M for a complete representation of all of them. §§548—551. verb. 141 DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 548. The Defective Verbs of the French language will be found in catalogical connection with the Irregular Verbs, in Appendix M. IMPERSOX3L VERBS. § 549. It has been suggested, (§ 528,) that these should perhaps be called Verbs of the third person, or Unipersonal Verbs. Custom, however, has fixed the designation Imper- sonal so firmly that we retain it. § 550. There are two classes of Impersonal Verbs, those which are never used otherwise than impersonally, and those which are not only used in a peculiar manner as Impersonal, but have likewise the usual forms of conjugation as regular or irregular Verbs. The Verb it faut is an instance of the first class, and the verb ilpleut of the second. § 551. The Impersonal Verb il faut is conjugated as fol- lows : INDICATIVE. Pres. 11 faut, it is necessary. Comp. Pres. 11 a fallu, it has been necessary. Imp. Ilfallait, it was neces- Comp. Imp. 11 avait fallu, it sary. had been necessary. Fexf.llfallut, it was neces- Comp. Perf. 11 eut fallu, it had sary. been necessary. Fut. Ilfaudra, it will be neces- Comp. Fut. 11 aura fallu, it sary. will have been necessary, CONDITIONAL. Pres. II faudrait, it would be Comp. Pres. II aurait fallu, it necessary. would have been necessary. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. QiCiljaille, that it may Comp. Pres. Qu , ilaitfallu,\\&\ be necessary. it may have been necessary. Imperf. QuHl fallul, that it Comp. Imperf. QuHl eut fallu, might be necessary. that it might have been necessary. 142 §§ 552, 553. verb. § 552. The Impersonal Verb y avoir is conjugated as fol- lows : Pres. y avoir, there be. INFINITIVE. Comp. Pres. y avoir eu, there have been. INDICATIVE. Pres. 11 y a, there is. Imp. II y avail, there was. Perf. 11 y eut, there was. Comp. Pres. 11 y a eu, there has been. Comp. Imp. II y avait eu, there had been. Comp. Perf. II y eut eu, there had been. Fut. II y aura, there will be. Comp. Fut. 11 y aura eu, there will have been. CONDITIONAL. Pres. J7 y aurait, there would Comp. Pres. 11 y aurait eu, be. there would have been. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Qu'il y ait, that there Comp. Pres. Qu'il y ait eu, may be. that there may have been. Imp. Qu'il y eut, that there Comp. Imp. Qu'il y eut eu, might be. that there might have been. § 553. The Impersonal Verb il phut is conjugated as fol- lows : INDICATIVE. Pres. H pleut, it rains. Comp. Pres. II a plu, it has rained. Imp. 11 pleuvail, it was rain- Comp. Imp. 11 avait plu, it ing. had rained. Perf. II plut, it rained. Comp. Perf. H eut plu, it had rained. Fut. 11 pleuvra, it will rain. Comp. Fut. 11 aura plu, it will have rained. §§ 553—557. verb. 143 CONDITIONAL. Pres. llpleuvrait, it would rain. Comp. Pres. It aurait plu, it would have rained. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. QuHl pleuve, that it may Comp. Pres. QuHl aitplu, that rain. it may have rained. Imp. QuHl pint, that it might Comp. Imp. QuHl eut plu, that rain. it might have rained. § 554. Other Impersonal Verbs are conjugated by taking the third persons of all the tenses as they would be formed in complete conjugation. Thus are conjugated : il bruine, it drizzles, il eclaire, it lightens, il gele, it freezes, il grele, it hails, il neige, it snows, il tonne, it thunders ; all according to the analogy of the First Conjugation. II fait, which is some- times considered as an Impersonal (e. g. in such expressions a3 il fait chaud, it is hot), is conjugated by taking out the third persons of the Irregular Verb faire. PRONOMINAL VERBS. § 555. It has been said, (§ 529,) that these are Verbs whose subject and object are the same person or thing, and which are, throughout nearly all their variations, immediately preceded by a Personal Pronoun as their object. The only cases in which they are not thus preceded, are the second person singular and the first and second person plural of the imperative mode, where the Personal Pronoun follows instead of preceding the Verb. (See the conjugation of se repentir,\o repent, in § 559.) § 556. The compound tenses of all these Verbs are formed, as was suggested in § 532, by the aid of ttre, instead of avoir. § 557. Every Active Verb may be used as a Pronominal Verb : e. g. il se hue, he praises himself, je me connoi$ } I know myself. 144 §§ 558, 559. verb. § 558. Many Verbs are Pronominal in French, while the corresponding Verbs in English are Neuter ; e. g. il se repent, he repents,^ me meurs, I am dying, les livres se vendent Men, the books sell well. § 559. The Pronominal Verb se repentir, to repent, will serve as a model for all Pronominal Verbs. It is conjugated as follows : INFINITIVE. Pres. se repentir, to repent. c repenti \ Com p. of Pres. s'etre { or > to have repented. J { repentie, PARTICIPLES. Pres. se repentant, repenting. Past, repenti, repented. C repenti \ Comp. of Pres. s^etant < or > having repented. I repentie, ) INDICATIVE. Present. Singular. Je me repens, I repent. Tn te repens, thou repentest. 11 or elle se repent, he or she repents. Plural. Nous nous repentons, we repent. Vous vous repentez, you repent. lis or elles se repentent, they repent. Comp. of Present. Singular. Je me suis \ repenti \ 1 have repented. Tu Ces > or \ thou hast repented. 11 or elle est ) repentie, ) he or she has repented. §559. verb. 146 Plural. Nous nous sommes (repentis \ we have repented. Vous vous ites I or > you have repented. Us or dies se sont { repenties, ) they have repented. Imperfect. Singular. Je me repent ais, I repented. TV; te repentais, thou repentedst. 11 or elle serepentait, he or she repented. Plural. • Nous nous repentions, we repented. Vous vous repentiez, you repented. lis or elles se repentaienl, they repented. Comp. of Imperfect. Singular. Je nCitais ( repenti \ I had repented. Tu Vttais < or > thou hadst repented. II or elle s^etait \ repentie, ) he or she had repented. Plural. Nous nous itions C repentis \ we had repented. Vous vous ttiez < or > you had repented. lis or elles s'etaient { repenties,) they had repented. Perfect. Singular. Je me repentis, I repented. Tu te repentis, thou repentedst. II or elle se repentit, he or she repented. Plural. Nous nous repentimes, we repented. Vous vous repentites, you repented. lis or elles se repentirent } they repented. 13 146 § 559. verb. Comp. of Perfect. Singular. Je me fas ( repenti \ I had repented. Tu te fas < or > thou hadst repented. 11 or elle sefut ( repentie, ) he or she had repented. Plural. Nous nous fumes ( repentis 1 we had repented. Vous vous fates < or > you had repented. lis or elles sefurent ( repenties, ) they had repented. Future. Singular. Je me repentirai, Tshall repent. Tu te repentiras, thou wilt repent. II or elle se repentira, he or she will repent. Plural. Nous nous repentirons, we shall repent. Vous vous repentirez, you will repent. lis or elles se repentiront, they will repent. Comp. of Future. Singular. Je me serai ( repenti \ I shall have repented. Tu te seras < or > thou wilt have repented. II or elle se sera \ repentie, ) he or she will have repented. Plural. Nous nous serons C repentis \ we shall have repented. Vous vous serez < or > you will have repented. Us or elles se seront ( repenties, ) they will have repented. CONDITIONAL. Present. Singular. Je me repentirais, I should repent. Tu te repentirais, thou wouldst repent. II or elle se repentirait, he or she would repent. § 559. verb. 147 Plural. Nous nous repentirions, we should repent. Vous vous repentiriez, you would repent. lis or elles se repentiraient, they would repent. Comp. of Present. Singular. Je me serais ( repenti \ I should have repented. Tu te serais < or > thou wouldst have repented. 11 or elle se serait { repentie, ) he or she would have repented. Plural. Nous nous serious ( repentis \ we should have repented. Vous vous seriez < or > you would have repented. lis or elles se seraient \ repenties, ) they would have repented. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. (Que) Singular. Je me repente, I may repent. Tu te repentes, thou mayest repent. 11 or elle se repent, he or she may repent. (Que) Plural. Nous nous retentions, we may repent. Vous vous repentiez, you may repent. Us or elles se repentent, they may repent. Comp. of Present. (Que) Singular. Je me sois ( repenti \ I may have repented. Tu te sois < or > thou mayest have repented. // or elle se soit { repentie, ) he or she may have repented. (Que) Plural. Nous nous soyons ( repentis \ we may have repented. may have repented, they may have repented. Nous nous soyons ( repentis ) we r Vous vous soyez < or > you Ih or elles se soient \ repenties, J they 148 § 559. verb. Imperfect. (Que) Singular. Je me repenlisse, I might repent. Tu te repentisses, thou mightest repent II or elle se repentit, he or she might repent. (Que) Plural. Nous nous repentissions, we might repent. Vous vous repenlissiez, you might repent. lis or elles se repentissent, they might repent. Comp. of Imperfect. (Que) Singular. Jemefusse (repenti \ I might have repented. Tu te fusses < or > thou mightest have repented. 11 or elle sefut ( repentie, ) he or she might have repented. (Que) Plural. Nous nous fussions C repentis \ we might have repented. Vous vousfussiez < or > you might have repented. lis or elles sefussent ( repenties, ) they might have repented, IMPERATIVE. Singular* Repens-toi) repent thou. Qu'il \ ( let him \ or > se repenty < or > repent. Qifelle ) \ let her ) Plural. Repent ons~nous, let us repent. Repentez-vous, repent thou. Qu'ils \ or > se repentent, let them repent, Qu'elles ) §§ 560—564. verb. 149 determination of form. I. VOICE. § 560. There is no occasion for particular remark con- cerning the employment of the forms which distinguish the Active and Passive Voices of Verbs in French, since the usage is the same as in English, and is very simple. No one who possesses even a very moderate acquaintance with general grammar can err on this point. II. MODE. A. Infinitive. § 561. In most respects, the use of the Infinitive in French corresponds with its use in English (comp. § 519) ; e. g. voulez-vous me preter votre livre ? will you lend me your book ? il promet de venir, he promises to come. § 562. As to the use of the prepositions a, de, and pour before the Infinitive, it will be more proper to treat of it under the head of Prepositions than in this place. (See Chap. VI. Particles, and Appendix P.) § 563. Whenever in English a present participle is pre- ceded by any other preposition than in, and in cannot be substituted for that preposition, the participle must be ex- pressed in French by the Infinitive Mode ; e. g. cela ne vous donne pas le droit de nfinsulter, that does not give you the right of insulting me, je sais las de travailler, I am tired of working,^ me retiens d'ecrire, I keep myself from writing. § 564. Whenever in English a present participle is pre- ceded by the preposition in, and the preposition and participle denote occupation or use, with immediate reference to a pre- ceding Verb, the French use the Infinitive Mode preceded fcy <* i e - g- j e m'occupe a icrire, I occupy myself in writing, il se plait a dessiner, he delights in drawing. 13* 150 § 565—569. tteKft- B. Participles. § 565. The Present Participle is often used in French as an adjective, and in such cases it is varied like an adjective, to suit the gender and number of the substantive to which it relates ; e. g. c^est un homme charmant, he is a charming man, sa passion dominante, his ruling passion. § 566. The Present Participle, in its proper use, denotes action, and is almost always, if not invariably, indeclinable ; e. g. Caroline voyant une rose voulut la cueillir, Caroline seeing a rose wished to pluck it, desfemmes craignant et ai- mant Dieu, women fearing and loving God. § 56*7. We use the Participle Present after almost every preposition, but the French never use it after any preposition except en (comp. § 563) ; e. g. je crois qu*en parlant a mon pkre, etc., I think that in talking to my father, etc., en etudi- ant on apprend une langue, by studying we learn a language, en r entrant chez moi fax rencontre mafemme, on re-entering my house, I met my wife, en revenant de la campagne, in returning from the country. § 568. In English the Present Participle is often used with- out a preposition as a mere substantive ; e. g. I think that your speaking to my father would be useful to you. No such use of the participle is allowable in French. Some other turn must be given to the sentence ; e. g.je crois que si vous par- liez a mon pere, vous vous en trouveriez Men, I think that if you were to speak to my father, some advantage would ac- crue to you. § 569. In general, in French, the use of the Present Parti- ciple is avoided as much as possible. It is used in a great many cases in English where another turn is preferable in French. It can never be employed in French with an ar- ticle or a pronoun. In English we say : after his having given us that account, he burst into tears ; the French would say, perhaps : apres nous avoir fait ce dUail, il fondit en larmes. There are also other modes of turning this sentence §569—574. verb. 151 in French. We say : my heing poor and your being rich is no reason for your insulting me ; the French might say : par- ceque je suis pauvre et que vous etes riche, il ne s^ensuit pas que vous deviez nCinsulter. § 570. The Past Participle is often used in French as an adjective, and in such cases it is varied like an adjective, to suit the gender and number of the substantive to which it re- lates ; e. g. un homme proscrit, a proscribed man, une femme proscrite, a proscribed woman, des jleurs recherchees, flowers much sought after. § 571. The Past Participle conjugated with lire in Passive forms always agrees with the subject of the Verb in gender and number ; e. g. mon pere est cheri et respectt, my father is loved and respected, la nuit sera bientot passee, the night will soon be over, Us sent fort estimes, they are very much esteemed, cesfemmes sont aimtes, these women are loved. § 572. The Past Participle of a Transitive Verb conju- gated with avoir in Compound Tenses always agrees in gen- der and number with the object of the Verb when that object is direct and precedes the Participle ; e. g. la let ire que j^ai recue* the letter which I have received, les livres que vous ni'avez prttes, the books which you have lent me, les pommes que vous avez envoytes, the apples which you have sent. § 573. The Past Participle conjugated with avoir in Com- pound Tenses is never varied at all when the object of the Verb is indirect ; e. g. la lettre dont je vous ai parU, the let- ter which I have mentioned to you, les profits auxquels il a pariicipe, the profits which he has shared. § 574. The Past Participle of a Transitive Verb conjugated with avoir in Compound Tenses is never varied at all when the object of the Verb follows the Participle ; e. g. fai lu la lettre, 1 have read the letter, vous avez instruit ces personnes, ■ Here que is the direct object of the Verb, and its gender and number are of course the same as those of its antecedent, lettre. So in all like cases. 152 §574—578. verb. you have instructed these persons, ma mere a regu lespommes, my mother has received the apples. § 575. The Past Participle of an Intransitive Verb is never varied when conjugated with avoir in its Compound Tenses, inasmuch as it can have no object ; e. g. cette femme a iti malade, that woman has been sick, Us ont He gais, they have been merry, elles ont dormi, they have slept. § 576. The Past Participle is never varied in Impersonal forms ; e. g. les chaleurs quHl a fait, the heats which have occurred, les dipenses quHl y a ew, the expenses which have been incurred. § 577. The Past Participle is never varied when it is im- mediately followed by an infinitive which is governed by the Participle and which itself governs the object in the expres- sion ; e. g. la montre que faurais voulu acheter, the watch which I could have wished to purchase, les maisons que fax fait batir, the houses which I have had built, il lui est alU parler, he has gone to talk with him. This is the case even when the infinitive is understood ; e. g.je lui ai rendu tous les services que fai pu (lui rendre), I have rendered him all the services I could, elle ne s'est pas donne 1 toutes les peines qiCelle aurait du (se donner), she has not taken so much pains as she ought* § 578. The Past Participle of an Intransitive Verb con- jugated with etre instead of avoir in its Compound Tenses (§§ 532, 546, and Appendix L,) always agrees with the sub- ject of the Verb in gender and number ; e. g. ma sceur Halt * It is important to notice, that in all cases of this nature, when the Participle is not varied, the object is governed, as said above, by the infinitive and not by the Participle. If the object be governed by the Participle, the Participle is varied. Hence there is quite a nice dis- tinction in French between expressions of very different significa- tion. E. g. Je t'ai vu pcindrc means, I saw her portrait taken ; but Je Vai vue peindre means, / saio her painting. — Je Vai entcndu chanter means, I hare heard it (a song for instance) sung ; but Je Vai enttn due chanter means, / have heard her (a singer) sing. $§578—681. verb. 153 partie, my sister had set out, Us Haient deja arrives, they had already arrived, quand elles seronl descendues, when they shall have come down. § 579. The Past Participle in the Compound Tenses of Pronominal Verbs, which Tenses, it has been stated, are formed bv the aid of the Auxiliary Verb etre instead of avoir. (§§ 532, 556, and 559,) follows regularly the rules laid down in §§ 572, 573, 574, concerning the Participles of Compound Tenses formed with avoir. E. g. In the following expression : ma sozur se serait excusee, my sister would have excused her- self, the Participle is varied, because se is a direct object and precedes the Participle (§ 571). In the following expression : la faute dont on s^est repenti, the fault of which one has re- pented, the Participle is not varied, because the object is indi- rect (§ 573). In the following expression : Us se seraient at- tire la haine, they would have attracted hatred to themselves, se is an indirect object, and the direct object, haine, comes after the Participle, which therefore is not varied (§ 574). Further examples are : la haine que votre frere se serait at- iiree, the hatred which your brother would have drawn upon himself, Jes ennemis que votre sozur se serait attires, the ene« mies which your sister would have drawn upon herself, C. Indicative, § 580. The Indicative Mode is, in general, employed pre* cisely as in English (comp. § 519) ; e. g. je vous vois, I see you, il m'a dit, he told me. § 581. The most difficult question respecting this mode in French is, in what cases it is to be used after the conjunction que, and in what cases the Subjunctive is requisite. The use of the Subjunctive will be considered under its proper head. As to the Indicative, the rule is, that it must be employed after que in all cases when the preceding verb or adjective denotes certainty or strong belief, and the expression is not interroga* five or negative ; e. g, nous vimes quails nous trompaient, we 154 §§ 581—586. verb. saw that they deceived us, nous sentimes que nous avions af- faire a un habile homme, we saw that we had to do with an able man, je crois qu'il viendra, I believe he will come. § 582. It has been said (§ 569,) that the present participle is not employed so much in French as in English. The In- dicative Mode with the relative pronoun qui generally takes the place of the English participle in such expressions as, je le vois qui joue, I see him playing, il la irouva qui pleurait, he found her weeping, je les ai rencontres qui couraient la poste, I met them riding post. D. Conditional. § 583. The Conditional Mode is employed whenever a clear affirmation is expressed by the Verb under a condition ex- pressed in other words, and the idea of should or would in English belongs to the Verb ; e. g. il viendrait sHl etait assez hardi, he would come if he were bold enough, vous partiriez si je le voulais, you would set off if I wished you to, quand Vavare possederait le monde il ne strait pas content, were the miser to possess the world he would not be contented. § 584. The Conditional Mode is employed after si or quand when si or quand denotes doubt or a supposition, and there is a precedent or subsequent condition or affirmation ; e. g. demandez-lui s^il serait venu avec nous, suppose qu^il rfeut pas eu affaire, ask him whether he would have come with us, had he not been busy, quand Vavare possederait le monde il ne serait pas content, were the miser to possess the world, he would not be contented. § 585. The Conditional Mode is often used with que in an exclamation, to express a toish ; e. g. que je serais content de rhissir dans cette affaire ! how glad I should be to succeed in this affair ! § 586. The Conditional Mode is often employed in other cases, where the idea of might, could, would, or should, is ex- pressed in English ; e. g. croiriez-vous voire Jils ingrat 7 §§ 586—589. 155 could you think your son ungrateful ? Vmiriez-vous soupgonni A A cheval, on horseback. A A cozur jeun, fasting. A condition, on condition. A A contretemps, unseasonably. A A courbettes, in curvettes. A A dessein, designedly. A A eau, for water. A A demeure, for an end. A A feu, for fire. A A fleur, even with. A 17* 198 APPENDIX. H. A pied, on foot. A plaisir, at pleasure. d poil, bare. A point, opportunely. A porlee, at hand. A poudre, for powder. A raison, by reason. A reculons, backward. A regret, with regret. A tatons, in the dark, groping. A Umoin, to witness. A temps, in good time. A terre, on the ground. A litre, under color. A tort, wrongfully. A vent, for wind. A voiles et a rames, by sails and oars. Aprhs diner, after dinner. Avant diner, before dinner. Avant midi, before noon. Avant terme, before time. Avec clemence, with clemency. Avec courage, with courage. Avec douleur, with pain. Avec faciliU, with facility. Avec joie, with joy. Avec justesse, with justness. Avec maturite, with maturity. Avec patience, with patience. Avec plaisir, with pleasure. Avec peine, with difficulty. Avec precipitation, with precip- itation. Avec precision, with precision. Avec prudence, with prudence. Avec raison, with reason. Avec soin, with care. Avoir bonne mine, to look well. Avoir commandement, to com- mand. Avoir conge, to have holiday. Avoir courage, to have spirit. Avoir dispute, to have a quar- rel. Demander reparation, to ask reparation. Depuis minuit, since midnight. Bonner assignation, to give a summons. Donner assurance, to assure. Donner attention, to attend. Donner chasse, to give chase. Donner conge, to give leave. Donner croyancc, to give cre- dence. Donner (se) garde, to take care. Donner (se)joie, to feel joy. Donner matiere, to afford mat- ter. Donner place, to give place. Donner rang, to give rank. Donner seance, to give a seat. Donner voir, to give a voice. 'Ecuelle a oreillcs, porringer with ears. En ami, as a friend. En amiiii, in friendship. En avance, in advance. En bataille, in battle. APPENDIX. H. 199 En bateau, in a boat. En bonheur, in happiness. En campagne, in the field. En carrosse, in a coach. En chaleur, in heat. En colere, in choler. En conformity in conformity. En conscience, in conscience. En couche, brought to bed. En course, on a cruise. En crainte, in fear. En decadence, in a decline. En dif alliance, in a swoon. En demeure, in arrears. En deuil, in mourning. En devotion, in devotion. En eau, in water. En esperance, in hope. En etc, in summer. En exercise, in exercise, En extase, in extasy. En face, in face. Enfleur, in flower. En fond, at bottom. Enfraude, deceitfully. En j unite, in smoke. Enfureur, in fury. £/i guerre, at war. _E?i Aaioe, in hatred. En haleine, in breath. En liiver, in winter. .E>i larmes, in tears. .En main, in hand. En manteau, in a gown. En meme temps, at the same time. En oraison, at prayer. En paix } in peace. En parchemin, in parchment. En patience, in patience. En pieces, in pieces. £n place, in place. 22tt pZein jour, in open day. Un possession, in possession. .En jr>roie, as a prey. .En reg-ne, in vogue. En repos, quietly. En reste, remaining. jEn songe, in a dream. En temps, in season. En fete, in head. En veau, in calf. En virile, in truth. £In vie, in life. .En tn7/e, in the city. En vue, in sight. Faire achat, to purchase. Faire bonne chere, to live in style. Faire chemin, to advance. Faire commandement, to com- mand. Faire defense, to defend. Faire depense, to expend. Faire deplaisir, to displease. jPcnVe diacre, to do deacon's duty. Faire diete, to diet. .Faire diligence, to exert one's self. Faire divorce, to divorce one's self. 200 APPENDIX. H. Faire don, to give. Faire estime, to cause esteem. Faire faillite, to fail. Faire guet et garde, to keep watch and ward. Faire (se) jour, to make way. Faire lecture, to read. Faire loi, to be obligatory. Faire maison nette, to clear the house. Faire ceuvre, to do something. Faire off re, to offer. Faire planche, to set a heroic example. Faire prejudice, to do harm. Faire rage, to storm, rage. Faire sejour, to reside, sojourn. Faire service, to do service. Faire vendange, to derive pro- fit. Lier conversation, to enter into conversation. Lier socieU, to enter into com- pany. Par adresse, by art. Par amour, by love. Par animosite', by animosity. Par aumone, by way of alms. Par avcnlure, by chance. Par bonds , by jumps. Par bonheur, by good fortune. Par bonU, by goodness. Par chagrin, in spite. Par canhns, by cantons. Par chants, by cantos. Par chariti, by charity. Par chicane, by trickery. Par crainte, by fear. Par depit, in spite. Par droit, by right. Par eau, by water. Par force, by force. Par fraude, by fraud. Par haine, by hatred. Par hasard, by chance. Par inadvertence, by inadver- tence. Par inUret, by interest. Par ironie, by way of irony. Par Jew, by play. Par lambeaux, by shreds. Par maniere d'acquit, by way of quittance. Par megarde, by inatten- tion. Par mepris, by contempt. Par mer, by sea. Par morceaux, by bits. Par ordre, by order. Par parties, by parts. Par pieces, by pieces. Par quartiers, by quarters. Par raillerie, by way of rail- lery. Par raison, on account. Par sau/s, by leaps. Par tas, in heaps. Par terre, by land. APPENDIX. H. 201 Par voies etpar chemins, on the road. Parler affaires, to talk of busi- ness. Parler chasse, to talk of the chase. Parler chicane, to talk chican- ery. Parler gkometrie, to talk geo- metry. Pour cause, for cause. Pour Dieu, for God's sake. Pour feve, (pois pour feve) for a bean. Pour lit, for bed. Pour oreiller, for pillow. Pour raison, for a reason. Pour recompense, for recom- pense. Sans argent, without money. Sans ciremonie, without cere- mony. Sans cesse, unceasingly. Sans compliment, without com- pliment. Sans contredit, without contra- diction. Sans delai, without delay. Sans difficulle, without diffi- culty. Sans doute, undoubtedly. Sans/agon, without ceremony. Sansfaute, without fail. Sans Jin, without end. Sans honneur, without honor. Sansjugement, without judgment. Sans misericorde, without mer- cy- Sans peine, without difficulty. Sans peur et sans reproche, without fear or reproach. Sans replique, without reply. Sans reserve, without reserve. Sans souci, without care. Sans vanite, without vanity. Sou a sou, cent by cent. Soutenir noblesse, to maintain one's nobility. Sur mer, on the sea. Sur parole, on hearsay. Sur pied, a-foot. Sur terre, on the ground. Tenir academie, to keep an academy. Tenir auberge, to keep an inn. Tenir banque, to keep a bank. Tenir chambre garnie, to keep furnished lodgings. Tenir chapelle, to be present at chapel. Tenir ecole, to keep school. Tenir hotellerie, to keep tavern. Tenir jeu, to keep on playing. Tenir pension, to keep a boarding-school. Tenir registre, to keep a re- gister. Tirer parole, to get a promise. Tirer promesse, to get a pro- mise. Tirer vanite 1 , to get nothing. Trouver moyen, to find means. 202 APPENDIX. I. SUBSTANTIVES WHICH HAVE TWO GENDERS, AND A DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATION IN EACH. I. (§257.) Masculine. Feminine. Aide, assistant, assistance. Jligle, eagle (bird, and coin), eagle (standard, con- stellation, and device). Ange, angel, fish like a thorn-back. Aune, alder, ell. Barbe, barb (horse), beard. Barde, bard, slice of bacon. Berce, red-breast, cow-parsnip. Cdpre, privateer, caper (pickle). Cartouche, scroll (in painting), cartridge. Coche, coach, caravan, boat, sow, notch. Cornette, cornet (officer), mob-cap. Couple, couple (man and wife), brace, two. Coureur, euse, racer, runner, street-walker. Courtisan, e courtier, courtesan. Cravate, Croat, cravat. Crepe, crape, pancake. 'Echo, echo, echo (nymph). Enseigne, ensign (officer), sign, mark. Exemple, example, instance, writing-copy. Foret, gimlet, forest. Foudre, tun, thunderbolt. [nurse. Garde, keeper, warden, guards, watch, hilt, Givre, rime, hoar- frost, snake (in heraldry). Grtffe, rolls, register, graft. Guide, guide, tutor, rein. Heliotrope, sun -flower, jasper. Iris, rainbow, iris of the eye, sprig-crystal, name of a goddess. APPENDIX. I. 2 Masculine. Feminine. Laque, lacker, gum-lac. Livre, book, pound. Loutre, otter-hat, otter (animal). Manche, handle, sleeve, channel. Manoeuvre, laborer, manoeuvre. Masque, mask, ugly woman. Memoire, memoir, bill, memory. Merci, thanks, mercy, pity. Mode, mood, mode (of verbs), fashion, way. Mole, pier, mole (structure), moon-calf. Mort, dead man, death. Moule, mould, muscle (shell-fish). Mousse, cabin-boy, moss, froth. (Euvre, philosopher's stone, work, action. Office, duty, charge, business, prayers, , office, pantry, larder. Ombre, ombre (game), shadow. Page, page (boy), page (of a book). Paillasse, harlequin, straw-bed. Palme, hand's-breadth, palm-branch, victory, Pantomime, a buffoon, dumb-show. Pdque, Easter, passover. Paraltele, comparison, parallel line. Pendule, pendulum, clock. Perche, Perche (place), pole, perch. Ph-iode, summit, pitch, period, epoch. Personne, nobody, any body, person. Pique, spade (at cards), pike. Pivoine, gnat-snapper (bird), peony (flower). Plane, plane (tree), plane (instrument). Poile, stove, canopy, frying-pan. Ponte, punto, the punter (at laying of eggs. cards), Paste, post (military), post (for letters). 203 204 APPENDIX. J. Masculine. Feminine. Pourpre, purples (disease), pur- purple dye, purple fish pie (color), Pretexte, pretext, pretence, pretexta (gown). Quadrille, quadrille (game at party of cavaliers. cards), Reclame, recall of a hawk, catch- word (in printing)- Reldche, rest, recreation, harbor. Saiyre, satyr, satire. Serpentaire, serpentarius (constella- snake-root. tion), Somme, nap, slumber, sum, summary, load, ' name of a river. Souris, smile, mouse. Suisse, porter, Switzerland. Teneur, book-keeper, tenor, contents. Tour, circuit, turn, tour, trick, tower, rook (at chess). Triomphe, triumph, - trump. Trompette, trumpeter, trumpet. Vague, space, expanse, wave. Vase, vase, slime. Vigogne, hat of Vigonia wool, Peruvian sheep. Voile, veil, sail. J. (§§ 345, 355.) FRENCH NUMERALS. Cardinal. Ordinal. Un, une, one Premier or anicme, first. Deux, two. Second or deuxibne, second. Trois, three. Troisitme, third. Quatre, four. Quatrieme, fourth. Cinq, five. Cmqui&me, fifth. APPENDIX. J. 205 Cardinal. Six, six. Sept, seven. Huit, eight. Neuf, nine. Dix, ten. Onze, eleven. Douze, twelve. Treize, thirteen. Quatorze, fourteen. Q uinze, fifteen. Seize, sixteen. Dix-sept, seventeen. Dix-huit, eighteen. Dix-neuf, nineteen. Vingt, twenty. Vingt-et-un, twenty-one. VingUdeux, twenty -two. Vingt-trois, twenty-three. Vingt-quatre, twenty-four. Vingt- cinq , twenty-five, etc. Trente, thirty. Trente-et-un, thirty-one. Trente-deux, thirty-two, etc. Quarante, forty. Cinquante, fifty. Soixante, sixty. Soixante- dix, seventy. Soixante- onze, seventy-one. Soixante- douze, seventy-two. Soixante-treize, seventy-three, etc. Quatre-vingt, eighty. Ordinal. Sixikme, sixth. Septi&me, seventh. HuitUme, eighth. JYeuvihne, ninth. Dixihme, tenth. Onzieme, eleventh* Douzihme, twelfth. Treizieme, thirteenth. Quatorzi'eme, fourteenth. Quinzieme, fifteenth. Seizieme, sixteenth. Dix-septieme, seventeenth. Dix-huiiieme, eighteenth. Dix-neuvUme, nineteenth. Vingtieme, twentieth. Vingt-et-unieme, twenty -first. Vingt-deuxieme, twenty-sec- ond. Vingt-troisieme, twenty-third . Vingt«quatrieme,twenty -fourth. Vingt-cinquihne, twenty-fifth, Trentieme, thirtieth. [etc, Trente-et-unieme, thirty-first. Trerc£e-efeime , me,thirty-second, QuarantUme, fortieth. [etc. Cinquantihme, fiftieth. Soixantihme, sixtieth. Soixante- dixihne, seventieth. Soixante-onzi&me, seventy-first. Soixante-douzikme, seventy- second. Soixante-treizi&me, seventy - third, etc. Quatre-vingtttme, eightieth. 18 206 APPENDIX. J. Cardinal. Quatre-vingt-dix, ninety. Cent, hundred. Ccnt-un, hundred and one. Deux cents, two hundred. Trois cents, three hundred. Mille or mil, thousand. Deux mille, two thousand. Dix mille, ten thousand. Mille fois mille, million. Ordinal. Quatre-vingt-dixie" me, ninetieth. Centime, hundredth. Cent-unieme, hundred and first. Deux-centikme, two hundredth. Trois -centttme, three hun- dredth. Milli&me, thousandth. Deux-millihrne, two thousandth . Dix-millieme, ten thousandth. Millionikme, millionth.) Observations on French Numerals. § I. The numbers from twenty to thirty, from thirty to for- ty, from forty to fifty, from fifty to sixty, and from sixty to seventy, are all represented by adding the units to the tens, in the manner indicated above as to the numbers from twenty to twenty-five. The un is connected by means of the conjunc- tion et with the numeral denoting the ten, except in the case of the number eighty -one. The other units are connected with the ten without et in all instances. § II. The French method of representing the numbers seventy and ninety is just as if we should call the number seventy sixty-ten, and the number ninety eighty-ten. The intermediate numbers between seventy and eighty, and ninety and one hundred, are represented in a way equivalent to our calling the number seventy-one sixty-eleven, seventy-two six- ty-twelve, (and so on to sixty-nineteen for seventy-nine,) and ninety-one eighty-eleven, etc. The French representation of the number eighty is equivalent to our calling it four-twen- ties, or, as we sometimes do call it, four-score. § III. Of the cardinal numbers, un has, as represented, a fern. sing. une, a pi. masc. uns, a pi. fern, unes ; and quatre-vingt and cent have as plurals quatre-vingts and cents or cens, when APPENDIX. J. 207 they are immediately followed by a substantive, and not other- wise. E. g. we say, quatre-vingt volumes, eighty volumes, deux cents (or cens) hommes, two hundred men ; but we must say, quatre-vingt-huit volumes, eighty-eight volumes, deux cent cinquante hommes, two hundred and fifty men. No other cardinal number is varied at all by way of gender or number. Vingt milles means twenty miles, not twenty thousand, which is vingt mille. § IV. The only ordinal numbers which are varied at all by way of gender are premier and second, which have feminine forms, premiere and seconde. Some of the ordinal numbers occasio r Jly appear in the plural, which is formed by adding s ; e. g. tons les seconds jours du mois, every second day of the month, les secondes noces, the second nuptials. § V. The ordinal number unieme is never found except in compoui ds, where premier (as also second) is inadmissible. § VI. In dates mil is always used instead of mille ; in all other cases mille is used. E. g. mil huit cent quarante, 1840, deux mille femmes, two thousand women. § VII. In mentioning the hour, the cardinal numbers are employed instead of the ordinal ; e. g. il est trois heures, it is three o'clock. In mentioning the day of the month, either the cardinal or the ordinal numbers may be employed ; e. g. le onze du mois, or le onzieme du mois, the eleventh of the month.* In mentioning the year of an era we must use the cardinal numbers ; e. g. Van mil sept cent, the year 1700. But we say le dixieme siecle, the tenth century, dans sa onzi- eme annee, in his eleventh year. § VIII. In speaking of the order of sovereigns, the cardinal numbers must be employed, excepting for first and second. E. g. we must say, Henri Quatre, Henry Fourth, Louis Quatorze, Louis Fourteenth, George Trois, George Third ; * To this statement there is one exception : un can never be used thus. We must always say, le premier du mois, the first of the month. 208 APPENDIX. K. but, Philippe Premier, Philip First, Jean Second, John Second.* § IX. The numerals cent and mille are used in an indefi- nite manner, just as the corresponding numerals in English often occur ; e. g. il lui Jit cent caresses, he showed him a hundred marks of kindness, faites lui mille amities de ma part, present him a thousand compliments on my behalf. § X. There are many words of a numerical character in the French language besides those contained in the table which has been presented. Some of these additional numerals are called collective substantives ; e. g. trio, trio, demi-douzaine 9 half-a-dozen, huitaine, week, dizaine, half-a-score, douzaine, dozen, quinzaine, fortnight, vingtaine, score, centaine, hun- dred, etc. Others are called distributive ; e. g. la moitie, the half, le quart, the quarter, un cinquieme, a fifth, etc. Others still are called proportional; e. g. double, double, triple, triple, centuple, hundred-fold. K. (§ 350.) ADJECTIVES WHICH HAVE DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS ACCORD- ING AS THEY STAND BEFORE OR AFTER THE SUBSTANTIVE TO WHICH THEY RELATE. Before. Certain. Certaine chose, certain thing. Different. Differentes choses, several things. After. Chose certaine, thing un- doubted. Choses differentes, dissimi- lar things. Galant. Galant homme, man of Homme galant, man of probity or tact. gallantry. Gentil. Gentille femme, genteel Femme gentille, heathen woman. woman. Grand. Grand homme, great man. Homme grand, large man. * Quint is used for Cinq, five, in speaking of the emperor Charles Fifth {Charles Quint) and pope Sixtus Fifth (Sixtc Quint). Appendix. L. 209 Grosse. Grosse femme, large wo- man. Honnete. Honnete homme, honest man. Nouveau. Nouveau vin, wine just brought. Plaisant. Plaisant homme, ridicu- lous man. Propre. Monpropre habit, my own coat. Sage. Sage-femme, midwife. Seul. Seul homme, only man. Femme grosse, woman with child. Homme honnete, polite man. Tin nouveau, new wine. Homme plaisant, agree- able man. Habit propre, neat coat. Femme sage, discreet wo- man. Homme seul, man alone. L. (§§ 532, 546.) INTRANSITIVE VERBS CONJUGATED WITH Stre INSTEAD OF avoir. *Aborder, to land. *Accoucher, to bring forth *Accourir, to run to. Alter, to go. *Apparaitre ) to appear. Arriver, to arrive. Avenir, to happen. Choir, to fall. *Convenir, to suit. Decider, to die. Dechoir, to decay. *Demeurer, to stay. *Descendre, to come down Devenir, to become. 18* Disconvenir, to deny, to dis- own. *'Echapper, to escape. 'Echoir, to become due. 'Eclore, to blow. Entrer, to enter. *Expirer, to expire. Intervenir, to intervene. *Monter, to go or come up. Mourir, to die. Naitre, to be born. Partir, to depart. Parvenir, to attain. *Passer, to pass. 210 APPENDIX. M. *Perir, to perish. Provenir, to proceed. Redescendre, to redescend. *Remonter, to remount. Rentrer, to reenter. Repartir, to set out again. *Repasser, to repass. Ressouvenir, to remember. Ressortir, to go out again. Rester, to remain. Retomber, to fall again. Retourner, to return. *Resulter, to result. Revenir, to come again. Sortir, to go or come out. Survenv-, to befall. Tomber, to fall. Venir, to come. N. B. The verbs marked with an asterisk in the above cata- logue sometimes take avoir as the auxiliary in their compound tenses. Convenir, for instance, takes avoir when it means to please or suit, and etre when it means to agree ; e. g. cette maison rrCa convenu, et je suis convenu du prix, this house has pleased me, and I have agreed about the price. In most. if not all, other cases there is a slight shade of difference in signification which determines whether avoir or etre shall be employed. When avoir is used the sense is ordinarily more active than when etre is used ; e. g. the expression il a de* scendu fixes the mind on the action of descent, while il est de- scendu indicates more directly the situation after descent M. (§§ 547, 548.) TABLE OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS.* ABATTRE, to pull down. See Battre. ABSOUDRE, to absolve. See Rtsoudrc. ABSTEN1R, to abstain. See Tenir. ABSTRAIRE, to abstract. See Traire. * In this Table of Conjugation the compound lenses and all the personal pronouns are omitted, since they can easily be supplied. APPENDIX. M. ACCOURIR, to run to. See Courir. ACCROIRE, to believe. See Croire. ACCROITRE, to increase. See Croilre. ACCUEILLIR, to receive. See Cueillir. ACQUERIR, to acquire. 211 PARTICIPLES. Pres. Acquirant. Past, Acquis. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Acquiers. Acquiers. Acquiert. Acquirons, Acquerez. Acqui&rent. Acquerais. AcquerioriSo Acquerais. Acqueriez. Acquerait. Acqueraient, Perfect. Future. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Acquis. Acquis. Acquit. Acquimes. Acquites. Acquirent. Acquerrai. Acquerrons. Acquerras. Acquerrez. Acquerra. Acquerront. CONDITIONAL. Present. Singular. Plural. Acquerrais. Acquenions. Acquerrais. Acquerriez. Acquerrait. Acquerraient. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Acquiere. Acquhions. Acquisse. Acquissions. Acqui&res. Acqueriez. Acquisses. Acquissiez. Acquidre. Acquierent. Acquit. Acquissent. 212 APPENDIX. M. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Acquerons. Acquiers. Acquerez. Acqui&re. Acquierent. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Acquerir. ConquSrir, to conquer. s'Enquerir, to inquire. Reconquerir, to reconquer. Requtrir, to require. ConquSrir is used only in the infinitive, the indicative perfect, subjunctive imperfect, and the compound tenses. Requtrir is used only in law. S^eiiquerir is not used now, its place being supplied by sHnformer. Querir, to fetch, is used only in the Infinitive after some form of the verbs Aller, Envoyer, Venir. ADJOINDRE, to adjoin. See Joindre. ADMETTRE, to admit. See Mettre. ALLER, to go. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Allant. Past. AUL INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Vais. Allons. Allais. Allions. Fas. Allez. Allais. Alliez. Va. Vonl. Perfect. Allait. Allaient. Future. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Altai. All dmes. Irai. Irons. Alias. Alkites. Iras. Irez. Alia. Alltrcnt. Ira. IronL APPENDIX. M. 213 CONDITIONAL. Present. Singular. Irais. Irais. Ira it. Plural. Irion s. Iriez. Ira lent. Singular. Aille. Mies. Aille. Present. Plural. Aillions. Ailliez. Aillent. SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. Allasse. AUasses. AMI. Imperfect. Plural. Allassions. Alias si tz. Allassent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Va. Aille. Plural. Allons. Allez. Aitlent. This verb is often Reflexive, and accompanied by the pro- noun en. As the verb thus used involves considerable diffi- culty for novices in French, we will exhibit the different tenses of s>en Aller, to go off or away. INFINITIVE. Present. s'en Alter. PARTICIPLE. Present. s'en Allant. 214 APPENDIX. M. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Je xrfen vais. Nous nous en Je rrCen allais. Nous nous en allons. allions. Tu Ven vas. Vous vous en Tu Ven allais, Vous vous en allez. alliez. 11 s^en va. II s*en vont. 11 s'en allait lis s'en al~ laient. Perfect. Je nVen allai, etc. Future. Je m'en iraL etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Je nx* en irais, etc. Present. Que je m^en aille, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperfect. Queje m?en allasse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Va Ven, Qh'i7 fi'en aille. Plural. Jlllons nous en. Allez vous en. Qu'ils s'en aillent. COMPOUND TENSES. Comp. of indic. Prcs. Je m'en suis alU, etc. Comp. of " Imperf. Je m'en etais alle, etc. Comp. of " Perf. Je m'enfus alle\ etc. Comp. of " Fut. Je m'en serai altt, etc. APPENDIX. M. 215 Comp. of condit. Pres. Je rrCen serais alU, etc. Comp. of subj. Pres. Que je m?en sois alU, etc. Comp. of " Imperf. Que je rrfenfusse alU, etc. APPARAITRE, to appear (as a ghost). See Connaitre. APPAROIR, to appear. Used only in the infinitive, and in the 3d person sing, indie, pres. ApperL APPARTENIR, to appertain. See Tenir. APPRENDRE, to learn. See Prendre, ASSAILLIR, to assault. Pres. Assaillant. participles. Past, Assailli. indicative. Singular. Assaille. Assailles. Assaille. Present. Plural. Assaillons, Assaillez. Assaillent. Perfect. Assaillis, etc. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Assaillais. Assaillions. Assaillais. Assailliez. Assaillait. Assaillaient. Future. Assaillirai, etc. Present. Assaille, etc. conditional. Present. Assaillirais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperfect. Assaillisse, etc. 216 APPENDIX. M. Assaillir has no Imperative mode. Tressaillir, to start, is conjugated in the same way. So is Saillir, to project, in the forms where it is used, which are only the participles and the third persons of the different tenses. Saillir, when it means to gush out, is conjugated regularly, like Finir. ASSEOIR, TO SIT DOWN. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Asseyant. Past, Assis. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Assieds, Assieds. Assied. Asseyons. Asseyez. Asseyent. Asseyais. Asseyais. Asseyait. Asseyions. Asseyiez. Asseyaient Perfect. Future. Singular. Plural. Singular Plural As sis. Assimes. Assiirai. Assierons. Assis. Assites. Assitras. Assierez. Assit Assirent. Assiera. CONDITIONAL. Present. Assieront. Assie'rais, etc. APPENDIX. M. 217 SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. Asseie. Asseies. Asseie, Present. Plural. Asseyions. Asseyiez. Asseient. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Assisse. Assissions. Assisses. Assissiez. Assit. Assissent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Assieds. Asseie. Plural. Asseyons. Asseyez. Asseient. This verb most often appears as a Reflexive verb, s^asseoir, the tenses of which are formed by adding a second pronoun and employing etre for the auxiliary, as in all Reflexive verbs. (See se repentir, § 559.) The verb se rasseoir, to sit down again, is conjugated like s'asseoir. ASTREINDRE, to confine. See Craindre. ATTEINDRE, to reach. See Craindre. AVEINDRE, to fetch out. See Craindre. AVOIR, to have. See Gramm. § 533. BATTRE, TO beat. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Battant. Past, Battu. 19 218 Present. APPENDIX. M. INDICATIVE. Imperfect Singular. Plural. Singular Plural. Bats. Battons, Battais. Battions. Bats. Battez. Battais. Battiez. Bat Battent. Battait. BattaienL Perfect. Future. Singular. Plural. Singulai Plural. Battis. Battunes. Battrai. Battrons. Battis. Battites. Battras. Battrez. Battit. Battirent. Present. Battra. C0OTIT10NAL. Present. BattraiSi etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. BattronU Imperfect. Batte, etc. Singul Bats. Batte. Battisse, IMPERATIVE. ir. Plural. Battons. Baltez. Battent. etc. This verb, it will be seen, is conjugated regularly, save that one t i« dropped in all the persons of the sing, number in the pres. indie, and in the 2d pers. sing, imperative. APPENDIX. M. 219 VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Battre. Abattre, to pull down. Combattre, to fight. Debattre, to debate. Se Debattre, to struggle. S 9 'Ebattre, to be merry. Embattre, to lay the tire of a Rabattre, to beat down, [wheel. Rebattre, to beat again. BOIRE, TO DRINK. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Buvant. Past, Bu. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular, Plural. Bois. Buvons. Buvais. Buvions. Bois. Buvez. Buvais. Buviez. Boit. Boivent. Buvait. Buvaient. Perfect Future. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Bus, Bumes. Boirau Boirons. Bus. Bides, Boiras. Boirez, But Burent. Boira. CONDITIONAL. Present. Boirais, etc. Boiront. 220 APPENDIX. M. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Boive. Buvions. Busse. Bussions Boives. Buviez. Busses. Bussiez. Boive. Boivent. But. IMPERATIVE. Present. Bussent. Singular. Plural. Buvons. Bois. Buvez. Boive, Boivent The verb S* Eniboire, to soak in, is conjugated in the same manner. BENIR, TO BLESS. This verb exhibits no irregularity, save that it has two past participles, Beni and Benit. The latter form is used only of things consecrated by a priest's blessing. BOUILLIR, to boil. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Bouillant. Past, Bouilli. APPENDIX. M. 2 INDICATIVE. Present. Singular. Plural. Bous. Bouillons. Bous. Bouillez. Bout. Bouillent. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Bouillais. Bouillions. Bouillais, Bouilliez. Bouillait. Bouillaient Perfect. BouiUis, etc. Future. Bouillirai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Bouillirais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present Imperfect. Bouille, etc. Bouillisse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular, Plural. Bouillons. Bous, Bouillez, Bouille, Bouillent, 221 So are conjugated : 'Ebouillir, to boil away. Rebouillir, to boil again. Bouillir and Rebouillir are seldom employed except in the 3d persons singular, or in the infinitive preceded by faire. 19* 222 APPENDIX. M. 'Ebouillir is seldom employed except in the infinitive and past participle. BR AIRE, TO BRAY. This verb is seldom or never used except in the infinitive present, and the following tenses and persons : Singular. Plural. indic. Pres. II brait. lis braient. " Fut. // braira. Us brairont. condit. Pres. II brairait. lis brairaient. BRUIRE, to roar. This verb is used only in the infinitive present, in the pres- ent participle, Bruyant, and in the 3d persons singular and plural of the imperfect indicative, Bruyait, Bruyaient. The participle bruyant is often only an adjective ; e. g. voix bru- yante, sonorous voice. CEINDRE, to gird. See Craindre. CHOIR, to fall. See Dichoir. CIRCONCIRE, to circumcise. See Dire. CIRCONVENIR, to circumvent. See Tenir. CLORE, to shut up. See 'Before. COMBATTRE, to fight. See Battre. COMMETTRE, to commit. See Mettre. COMPARAITRE, to appear (as a witness). See Connaitre. COMPLAIRE, to humor. See Plaire. COMPRENDRE, to comprehend. See Prendre. COMPROMETTRE, to compromise. See Mettre. CONCLURE, to conclude. participles. Pres. Concluant. Past, Conclu. APPENDIX. M. 223 INDICATIVE. Singular. Conclus. Conclus. Conclut. Present. Plural. Concluons. Concluez. Conduent. Perfect. Conclus, etc. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Conduais. Conditions. Conduais, Conduiez. Conduait. Conduaient. Future. Condurai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. ConduraiSy etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Condue. Conduions. Condusse. Condussions. Condues. Conduiez. Condusses. Condussiez. Condue. Conduent. Conclut. Condussent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Condus. Condue. Plural. Conduons. Conduez. Conduent. So are conjugated Exclure, to exclude, and Reclure, to shut up ; except that the past part, of Exclure is either Exclu or Exclus, and the past part, of Reclure is always Rectus. CONCOURIR, to concur. See Courir. 224 APPENDIX. M. CONDUIRE, to conduct. PARTICIPLES. Pres. ConduisanL Past, Conduit. INDICATIVE. Singular. Conduis. Conduis. Conduit Present. Plural. Conduisons. Conduisez. Conduisent. Perfect. Conduisis, etc. Imperfect. Singular. Conduisais. Conduisais. Conduisait. Plural. Conduisions. Conduisiez. Conduisaient. Future. Conduirai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Conduirais, etc. Present. Conduise. etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperfect. Conduisisse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Conduis. Conduis e. Plural. Conduisons. Conduisez. Conduisent. APPENDIX. M. 225 VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Conduire. Construire, to construct. Cutre, to cook, bake. Deconstruire, to demolish. Decuire, to thin, render more DMuire, to deduct. [liquid. Detruire, to destroy. [fuse. 'Econduire, to conduct out, re- Enduire, to plaster, do over. Entreluire, to gleam, shine a lnduire, to induce. Tlittle. bistruire, to instruct Introduire, to introduce. *Luire, to shine. *Nuire, to hurt. Produire> to produce. Reconduire, to reconduct. Reconstruire, to reconstruct. Recuire, to rebake. Reduire, to reduce. Reluire, to glitter. Renduire, to plaster anew. Reproduire, to reproduce. Seduire, to seduce. Traduire, to translate. CONFIRE, to preserve (fruits, etc.). CONNAITRE, to know. See ZhVa. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Connaissant. Past, Connu. INDICATIVE. Present. Singular. Plural. Connais. Connaissons. Connais, Connaissez. Connait. Connaissent. * Perfect. Connus, etc. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Connaissais, Connaissions. Connaissais. Connaissiez. Connaissais. Connais saient. Future. Connaitrai, etc. * The past participle of Luire (with its compounds,) and JYuire drop the final t which belongs to the past part, of the other verbs ; making Lui and Aitt, not Luit, Kuit. 226 APPENDIX. M. CONDITIONAL. Present. Connaitrais, etc. Present. Connaisse, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperfect, Connusse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Connais. Connaisse. Plural. Connaissons. Connais sez. Connaissent. verbs conjugated like Connaitre. Apparaitre, to appear (as a ghost.) Comparaitre, to appear (as a witness.) Disparaitre, to disappear. Meconnaitre, to mistake. Paitre, to graze.* Paraitre, to appear. Reconnaitre, to recognize. Repaitre, to feed. Reparaitre, to reappear. CONQUERIR, to conquer. See Jicquerir. CONSENTIR, to consent. See Sentir. CONSTRUIRE, to construct. See Conduire. CONTENIR, to contain. See Tenir. CONTRAINDRE, to constrain. See Craindre. CONTREDIRE, to contradict. See Dire. CONTREFAIRE, to counterfeit. See Faire. * The verb Paxtrc is not used in the perfect indicative or the im- perfect subjunctive. Its compound, Rcpailrc, has those tenses. APPENDIX. M. 227 CONTREVENIR, to contravene. See Tenir. CONVAINCRE, to convince. See Vaincre. CONVENIR, to agree, suit. See Tenir. CORROMPRE, to corrupt. See Rompre. COUDRE, to sew. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Cousant. Past, Cousu. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Couds. Cousons. Cousais. Cousions. Couds. Cousez. Cousais. Cousiez. Coud. Cousent. Cousait. Cousaient. Perfect. Future. Cousis, etc Coudrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Coudrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. Couse. Couses. Couse. Present. Plural. Cousions. Cousiez. Cousent. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Cousisse. Cousissions. Cousisses. Cousissiez. Cousit. Cousissent. 228 APPENDIX. M. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Couds. Couse. Plural. Cousons. Cousez. Consent. So are conjugated the compounds : Decoudre, to unsew. Recoudre, to sew again. COURIR, TO RUN. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Courant. Past, Couru. Present. Cours, etc. Perfect. Courus, etc. INDICATIVE. Imperfect. Courais, etc. Future. Courrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Courrais, etc. Present. Coure, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperfect. Count sse, etc. APPENDIX. M. 229 IMPERATIVE. Singular. Cours. Coure. Plural. Courons. Courez. CourenL VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Courir. Accourir, to run to. Concourir, to concur. Discourir, to discourse. Encourir, to incur. Parcourir, to run over. Recourir, to have recourse to. Secourir, to succor. COUVRIR, to cover. See Offrir. CRA1NDRE, to fear. participles. Pres. Craignant Past, Craint. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Crains. Crains. Craint. Craignons. Craignez. Craignent. Craignais. Craignions. Craignais. Craigniez. Craignait. Craignaient. Perfect. Future. Craignis, etc. Craindrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Craindrais, etc. 20 230 APPENDIX. M. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Craigne. Craignes, Craigne, Plural. Craignions. Craigniez, Craignent. Singular. Craignisse. Craignisses. Craignit. Plural. Craignissions Craignissiez. Craignissent, IMPERATIVE. Singular. Grains. Craigne. Plural. Craignions. Craigniez. Craignent. verbs conjugated like Craindre.* Mjoindre, to adjoin. Astreindre, to constrain. Atteindre, to reach. Aveindre, to fetch out. Ceindre, to enclose. Contraindre, to compel. Dejoindre, to disjoin. Depeindre, to describe. Deteindre, to discolor. Disjoindre, to disjoin. Empreindre, to imprint. Enceindre, to enclose. Enfreindre, to infringe. Enjoindre, to enjoin. 'Epreindre, to squeeze out. s' 'Eprendre, to be smitten. r Eteindre, to extinguish. 'E\reindre y to bind. Feindre, to feign. Geindre, to whine, moan. Joindre, to join. Oindre, to anoint. Peindre } to paint. Plaindre, to pity. se Plaindre, to complain. Poindre, to dawn. Ratteindre, to catch again. Repeindre, to paint again. Rejoindre, to join again. Rcstreindre, to restrain. Teindre, to dye. * It must be observed, to avoid mistake, that in all these verbs the characteristic vowel preceding the termination indre is maintained throughout. Thus, the 1st pers. pi. pres. indie, of verbs ending in aindre is aignons ; that of verbs ending in cindrc is cignons ; that of verbs ending in oindre is oignons. So throughout the verbs. If this remark be borne in mind, Craindre will serve as a model for all the verbs ending in indrc. APPENDIX. M. 231 CROffiE, TO BELIEVE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Croyant. Past, Cru. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Crois. Crois. Croit. Plural. Croyons. Croyez. Croient. Singular. Croyais. Croyais. Croyait. Plural. Croyions. Croyiez. Croyaient. Perfect. Future. Singular. Cms. Cms. Cmt. Plural. Crumes. Cmtes. Crurent. Singular. Croirai. Croiras. Croira. CONDITIONAL. Present. Croirais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Plural. Croirons. Croirez. Croiront. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular Plural. Croies. Croies. Croie. Croyions. Croyiez. Croient. Crusse. Crusses. Crut. Crussions. Crussiez. Crussent. 232 APPENDIX. M. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Croyons. Crois. Croyez. Croie. Croient. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Croire. Decroire, disbelieve. Mecroire, to disbelieve. The verb Accroire is used only in the infinitive mode after faire ; e. g. vous voulez me faire accroire cela, you wish to make me believe that. Decroire is used only in opposition to croire ; e. g. je ne crois ni ne decrois l I neither believe nor disbelieve. CROITRE, to grow. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Croissant. Past, Cru. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Crois. Croissons. Croissais. Croissions. Crois. Croissez. Croissais. Croissiez. Croit. Croissent. Croissait. Croissaient Perfect Future. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Crus. Crumes. Croitrai. Croitrons. Crus. Crutes. Croitras. Croitrez. Crut. Crurent. Croitra. Croitront. APPENDIX. M. 233 CONDITIONAL. Present. Croitrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. Croisse. Croisses. Croisse. Present. Plural. Croissions* Croissiez. Croissent. Singular. Crusse. Crusses. Crut. Imperfect. Plural. Crussions. Crussitz. Crussent. IMPERATIVE. Singular Plural. Croissons. Crois. Croissez. Croisse. Croissent. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Croitre. Accroitre, to accrue. Decroitre, to decrease. Recroitre, to grow again. Sur croitre, to grow out. CUEILLIR, TO GATHER. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Cueillant. Past, Cueilli. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Cueille, etc. Cueillons, etc. Cueillais, etc. Cueillions, etc. 20* 234 appendix. IMF- Perfect. Future. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. CutUliSy etc. Cueillimes, etc. Cueilleraiy etc. Cueillerons, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Cueillerais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Cueille, etc. Cueillisst, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Cueillons. Cueille. Cueillez. Cueille. Cueillent. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Cueillir. Accueittir, to welcome. Recueillir y to collect. CUIRE, to cook. See Conduire. DEBATTRE, to debate. See Battre. DECHOIR, TO DECAY. PARTICIPLES. Pres. (None.) Past, Dechu. APPENDIX. M. 235 INDICATIVE. Singular. De'chois. Dechois. Dechoit. Present. Plural. Dichoyons. Dechoyez. Dechoient. Perfect. Dechus, etc. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Dechoyais. Dichoyions. Dechoyais. Dechoyiez. Dechoyaxl. Dechoyaient Future. Decherraiy etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Decherrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. Dechoie. De'choies. Dechoie. Present. Plural. Dechoyions. Dechoyiez. Dtchoient. Imperfect Singular. Plural. Dechusse. Dichussions. Dechusses. Dechussiez. Dechut. Dichussent. IMPERATIVE. (None.) Choir, to fall, is used only in the infinitive, and the past participle chu. 'Echoir, to fall out, happen, is conjugated like Dechoir, and has besides a pres. participle, ichianU DECLORE, to open. See 'Eclore. DECONFIRE, to discomfit. See Confire. DECONSTRUIRE, to demolish. See Conduire. 236 APPENDIX. M. DECOUDRE, to unsew. See Coudre. DECOUVRIR, to discover. See Couvrir. DECRIRE, to describe. See 'Ecrire. DECROIRE, to disbelieve. See Croire. DECROITRE, to decrease. See Croitre. DECUIRE, to thin. See Cuire. DEDIRE, to unsay. See Dire. DEDUIRE, to deduct. See Conduire. DEFAILLIR, to fail, swoon. See Faillir. DEFAIRE, to undo. See Faire. DEMENTIR, to contradict. See Sentir. DEMETTRE, to displace. See Meltre. DEMOUVOIR, to turn from. See Mouvoir. DEPARTIR, to distribute. See Partir. DEPEINDRE, to depict. See Peindre. DEPLAIRE, to displease. See Plaire. DEPOURVOIR, to deprive. See Pourvoir. DEPRENDRE, to disengage. See Prendre. DEPREVENIR, to remove prejudices. See Preventer. DESAPPRENDRE, to unlearn. See Prendre. DESSERVIR, to clear (a table). See Servir. DETEINDRE, to discolor. See Craindre. DETENIR, to detain. See Tenir. DETRUIRE, to destroy. See Conduire. DEVENIR, to become. See Tenir. DEVETIR, to undress. See Revetir. DIRE, to say. participles. Pres. Disant. Past, Dit. APPENDIX. M. 237 INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural.- Singular. Plural. Dis. Disons. Disais. Disions. Dis. Disez. Disais. Disiez. Dit. Disent. Disait. Disaient, Perfect. Future. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Dis. Dimes. Dirai. Dirons. Dis. Dites. Diras. Direz. Dit. Dirent. Dim. CONDITIONAL. Present. Dirais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Diront. Present. Il mperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Disc Disions. Disse. Dissions. Dises. Disiez. Disses. Dissiez. Disc Disent. Dit. IMPERATIVE. Dissent. S ingular. Plural. Disons. Dis. Dites. Dise. Disent, 238 APPENDIX. M. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Dire, Circoncire, to circumcise. Coiiftre, to preserve. Contredire, lo contradict. Deconfirc, to discomfit. se Didire, to unsay. lnterdire, to interdict. Maudire, to curse. Medire, to slander. Predire, to predict. Redire, to say again. Sujjire, to suffice. All these verbs, except Redire, differ from Dire in the 2d pers. pi. of the pres. indie, and the same pers. pi. of the imper., which end in sez instead of tes ; e. g. circoncisez, etc. Mau- dire doubles s whenever it occurs not final ; e. g. maudissons, maudissez, maudissent, etc. The past participle of Circoncire is circoncis ; that of Sujjire is suffi. DISCONVENIR, to disagree. See Tenir. DISCOURIR, to discourse. See Courir. DISJOINDRE, to disjoin. See Craindre. DISPARAITRE, to disappear. See Connaitre. DISSOUDRE, to dissolve. See Resoudre. DISTRAIRE, to distract. See Traire. DORMIR, to sleep. See Sentir. s'EBATTRE, to be merry. See Battre. EBOUILLIR, to boil away. See Bouillir. ECHOIR, to fall out. See Dechoir. ECLORE, to open, hatch. This verb is used only in the infinitive mode, and the fol- lowing forms : Part. Past, 'Edos. APPENDIX. M. Singular. Plural. indic Pres. 'Eclot. 'Eclosent. " Fut. 'Eclora. 'Ecloront. condit. Pres. 'Ecldrait. 'Ecloraient subj. Pres. 'Eclose. 'Eclosent. 239 VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE 'Eclore. Clore, to shut up. Declore, to open. Enclore, to enclose. For dor e, to foreclose. These verbs are seldom employed save in the infinitive or the participle past. ECONDUIRE, to conduct out, refuse. See Conduire. ECRIRE, TO WRITE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. 'Ecrivant. Past, 'Ecrit. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 'Ecris. 'Ecrivons. 'Ecrivais. 'Ecrivions. 'Ecris. 'Ecrivez. 'Ecrivais. 'Ecriviez. 'Ecrit. 'Ecrivent. 'Ecrivait. 'Ecrivaient. Perfect. Ecrivis, etc. Future. 'Ecrirai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. 'Ecrirais, etc. 240 APPENDIX. M. Present. 'Ecrive, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperfect. r Ecrivisse t etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. 'Ecris. 'Ecrive. Plural. 'Ecrivons. 'Ecrivez. 'Ecrivent. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE 'Ecrire. Circonscrire, to circumscribe. D ecrire, to describe. Inscrire, to inscribe. Prescrire, to prescribe. Proscrire, to proscribe. Recrire, to write again. Souscrire, to subscribe. Transcrire, to transcribe. ELIRE, to elect. See Lire. EMBATTRE, to lay the tire of a wheel. See Battr EMBOIRE (S ? ), to imbibe. SeelBoire. EMETTRE, to emit. See Mettre. EMOUDRE, to grind. See Moudre. EMOUVOIR, to move. See Mouvoir. EMPREINDRE, to imprint. See Craindre. ENCEINDRE, to enclose. See Ceindre. ENCLORE, to enclose. See 'Edore. ENCOURIR, to incur. See Courir. ENDORMIR, to lull asleep. See Dormir. ENDU1RE, to plaster. See Conduire. ENFREINDRE, to infringe. See Craindre. ENJOINDRE, to enjoin. See Craindre. ENQUERIR (S 1 ), to inquire See JJequirir. ENSUIVRE (S'), to follow. See Suivre. APPENDIX. M. ENTRELUIRE, to gleam. See Conduire. ENTREMETTRE (S'), to interpose. See Mettre. ENTREPRENDRE, to undertake. See Prendre. ENTRETENIR, to entertain. See Tenir. ENTREVOIR, to penetrate, see dimly. See Voir. ENTR'OUIR, to hear imperfectly. See Ouir. ENTR'OUVRIR, to open a little. See Offrir. ENVOYER, to send. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Envoy ant. Past, Envoye. 241 INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Envoye. Envoyes. Envoye. Envoy ons. Envoyais. Envoy ions. Envoyez. Envoyais. Envoyiez. Envoyent. Envoyait. Envoyaient Perfect. Future. Envoyai, etc. Enverrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Enverrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Envoye, etc. Envoyasse, etc. 21 242 APPENDIX. M. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Envoyons. Envoy e. Envoy ez. Envoy e. Envoy ent. So conjugate Renvoyer, to send back. N. B. It will be perceived that Envoyer is regular only in the fut. indie, and pres. condit., making Enverrai and Enverrais instead of En- voyerai and Envoyerais. EPREINDRE, to squeeze out. See Craindre. EPRENDRE (S'), to be smitten. See Prendre. EQUIVALOIR, to be equivalent. See Valoir. ETEINDRE, to extinguish. See Craindre. ETRE, to be. See Gramm. § 534. ETREINDRE, to bind. See Craindre. EXCLURE, to exclude. See Conclure. EXTRAIRE, to extract. See Traire. FAILLIR, to fail. This verb is used only in the infinitive and in the following forms : part. Pres. Faillant. " Past, Failli. iNDic. Perf. Faillis, etc. (regularly). FAIRE, TO DO, MAKE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Faisant. Past, Fait. APPENDIX. M. INDICATIVE. Present Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Fais. Faisons. Faisais. Faisions. Fais. Faites. Faisals, Faisiez. Fait Font. Faisait. Faisaient. 243 Fis, etc. Perfect. Future. Ferai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Ferais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. Fasse. Fasses. Fasse. Present. Plural. Fassions. Fassiez. Fassent. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Fisse. Fissions. Fisses. Fissiez. Fit. Fissent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Fais. Fasse. Plural. Faisons. Faites. Fassent. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Faire. Contrefaire, to counterfeit Dtfaire, to undo, defeat. se Defaire, to get rid of. Forfaire, to forfeit. Malfaire, to do mischief. Mefaire, to do wrong. 244 APPENDIX. M. Parfaire, to complete. Satisfaire, to satisfy. Redtfaire, to undo again. Surfaire, to exact. Refaire, to do or make again. FALLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY. This is the same as the impersonal verb il faut. See Gramm. § 551. FEINDRE, to feign. See Craindre. FERIR, to STRIKE. This verb is used only, in the phrase sans coup ferir, with- out striking a blow ; and, rarely, in the past part. /en/. FLEURIR, TO BLOSSOBl, flourish. This verb, when it is used concerning plants or flowers, is perfectly regular in its forms. When it is used figuratively, as e. g. in speaking of the prosperity of a kingdom, its pres. part, is Florissant, and the imperf. tense indie, is Florissais, etc., and otherwise it is regular. Refleurir, to blossom or flourish again, follows the analogy of its primitive in this re- spect. FRIRE, TO FRY. This verb is generally used in the infinitive with some tense offaire ; asfaitesfrire, etc. The following forms, however, sometimes occur : part. Past, Frit. indic. Pres. Fris, Fris, Frit. (No plural.) " Fut. Frirai, etc., throughout. condit. Pres. Frirais, etc., throughout. APPENDIX. M. 245 So is conjugated Refrire^ to fry again. FUIR, TO FLEE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Fuyant. Past, Fui. INDICATIVE. Singular. Fuis. Fuis. Fuit. Present. Plural. Fuyons. Fuyez. Fuient. Singular Fuyais. Fuyais. Fuyait. Imperfect. Plural. Fuyions. Fuyiez. Fuyaient. Fuis, etc. Perfect. Fuirai, i CONDITIONAL. Future. etc. Present. Fuirais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. Fuie. Fuies. Fuie. Present Plural. Fuyions. Fuyiez. Fuyent. Singular. Fuisse. Fuisses. Fuit. 21* Imperfect. Plural. Fuissions. Fuissiez. Fuissent. 246 APPENDIX. M. IMPERATIVE. Singular, Plural. Fuyons. Fuis. Fuyez. Fuie. Fuyent. So conjugate s'Enfuir, to run away. It is not uncommon to employ the verb Prendre, to take, with the substantive la fuite, instead of the forms of Fuir or s^Enfuir; e. g. je pri-s la fuite, I fled, etc. GEINDRE, to whine, moan. See Craindrt. GESIR, to lie. This verb is now employed only in the following forms : pakt. Pres. Gisant. indic. Pres. Git, Nous gisons, lis gisent. " Imperf. // gisait. It is very seldom used except in monumental inscriptions thus : ci-git, here lies. HAIR, TO HATE. There is no irregularity in the manner of spelling the dif- ferent forms of this verb. In the manner of pronunciation, however, there is some deviation from the model, Finir ; viz. in the three singular persons of the present indicative, and in the 2d pers. singular imperative, the letters ai, which are else- where referred to distinct syllables, are sounded together in one syllable, as represented in § 20 of the Grammar. It should be observed, moreover, that there is no perfect tense in the indicative of this verb, nor imperfect tense in the sub- junctive. APPENDIX. M. 247 INDUIRE, to induce. See Conduire. INSCRIRE, to inscribe. See 'Ecrire. INSTRUIRE, to instruct. See Construire. INTERDIRE, to interdict. See Dire. INTERROMPRE, to interrupt. SeeRompre. INTERVENER, to intervene. See Venir. INTRODUIRE, to introduce. See Conduire. ISSIR, to come from. The only forms of this verb which are in use are the part, pres., Issant, and the part, past, Issu. JOINDRE, to join. See Craindre. LIRE, TO READ. Pres. Lisant. Past, Lu. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Lis. Lisons. Lisais. Lisions . Lis. Lisez. Lisais. Lisiez. Lit. Lisent. Lisail. Lisaient, Lus, etc. Perfect. Future. Lirai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Lirais, etc. 248 APPENDIX. M. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present Imperfect, Lise, etc. Lusse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Lisons. Lis, Lisez. Lise, Lisent, VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Lire. 'Elire, to elect. Relire, to read again. LUIRE, to shine. See Conduire, MAINTENIR, to maintain. See Tenir, MALFAIRE, to do biischief. See Faire. MAUDIRE, to curse. See Dire. MECONNAITRE, to mistake. See Connaitre. MECROIRE, to disbelieve. See Croire. MEDIRE, to slander. See Dire, MEFAIRE, to do wrong. See Faire, MENTIR, to lie. See Sentir. MEPRENDRE, to mistake. See Prendre. MESAVENIR, to succeed ill. See Tenir. MESOFFRIR, to underbid. See Offrir, MESSEOIR, not to fit. See Seoir, METTRE, to put. participles. Pres. Mettant, Past, Mis, APPENDIX. M. 249 INDICATIVE. Singular. Mets. Mets. Met. Present. Plural. Mettons. Mettez. Mettent. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Mettais. Mettions. Mettais. Mettiez. Mettait. Mettaient. Perfect. Future. Mis, etc. Mettrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Mettrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Mette. Mettions. Misse. Missions Mettes. Mettiez. Misses. Missiez. Mette. Mettent. Mit. IMPERATIVE. MissenL Singular. Plural. Mettons. Mets. Mettez. Mette. Mettent. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Mettre. Admettre, to admit. Commettre, to commit. Compromettre, to compromise. Dtmettre, to put out. 'Emettre, to emit. Enlremettre (s 1 ), to interpose. 250 Omettre, to omit. Permettre, to permit. Promettre, to promise. APPENDIX. M. Remettre, to remit, etc. Soumettre, to submit. Transmcltre, to transmit. MOUDRE, TO GRIND. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Moulant. Past, Moulu. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Mouds. Moulons. Moulais. Moulions. Mouds. Moulez. Moulais. Mouliez. Moud. Moulent. Moulait. Moulaieni Perfect. Future. Moulus, etc. Moudrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Moudrais, etc. Moule. etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Moulusse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Present. Singular. Plural. Moulons. Mouds. Moulez. Moule. Moulent. APPENDIX. M. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Moudre. 'Emoudre y to whet. Remoudre, to grind again. 251 MOURIR, to die. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Mourant. Past, Mort. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular Plural. Singular. Plural. Meurs. Mourons. Mourais. Mourions. Meurs. Mourez. Mourais. Mouriez. MeurL Meurent. Mow ait. Mouraient Perfect. Future. Mourus, etc. Mourrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Mourrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Meure. Mourions. * Mourusse. Mourussions. Meures. Mouriez. Mourusses. Mourussiez. Meure. Meurent. Mourut. Mourussent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Meurs. Meure. Plural. Mourons. Mourez. Meurent. 252 APPENDIX. M. MOUVOIR, to move. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Mouvant. Past, Mu. Singular. Meus. Mens. Meut. Mus, etc. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Plural. Singular. Plural. Mouvons. Mouvais. Mouvions. Mouvez. Mouvais. Mouviez. Meuvent. Mouvait. Mouvaient. Perfect. Future. Mouvrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Mouvrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. Meuve. Meuves. Meuve. Present. Plural. Mouvions. Mouviez. Meuvent. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Musse. Mussions. Musses. Mussiez. Mut. Mussent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Meus. Meuve. Plural. Mouvons. Mouvez. Meuvent. APPENDIX. M. 253 VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE MoUVOir. Demouvoir, to dissuade. Promouvoir, to promote. 'Emouvoir, to stir up, move. NAITRE, TO BE BORN. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Naissant. Past, NL INDICATIVE. Singular. JYais. Nais. Wait. Present. Plural. Naissons. Naissez. Naissent. Perfect. Naquis, etc. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Naissais. Naissions. Naissais. Naissiez. Naissait. Naissaient. Future. Naitrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Naitrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect, Naisse, etc. Naquisse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Naissons. Nais. Naissez. Naisse. Naissent 22 254 APPENDIX. M. So conjugate Renaitre, to be born again. NUIRE, to hurt. See Conduire. OBTENIR, to obtain. See Tenir. OFFRIR, to offer. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Offrant. Past, Offert. INDICATIVE. Qffre, etc. Offris, etc. Present. Perfect. Imperfect. Offrais, etc. Future. Offrirai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Offrirais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Ofre, etc. Offrisse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Offrons. Offre. Offrez. Offre. Offrent. appendix. M. 255 VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Offrir. Couvrir, to cover. Ouvrir, to open. Decouvrir, to discover. Recouvrir, to cover again. Entr'ouvrir, to open a little. Rouvrir, to open again. Misoffrir, to underbid. Souffrir, to suffer. OINDRE, to anoint. See'Craindre. OMETTRE, to omit. See Mettre. OUIR, TO HEAR. This verb is used only in the infinitive and in the following forms : part. Past, Ou'i (used with Avoir). indic. Perf. J'ouis, 11 ouit. subj. Imperf. Que fou'isse, Qu'i'Z ouit. The same is true of the compound Entr^oUir, to hear im- perfectly. OUVRIR, to open. See Offrir. PAITRE, to feed. See Connaitre. PARAITRE, to appear. See Connaitre. PARCOURIR, to run over. See Courir. PARFAIRE, to complete. See Faire. PARTIR, to set out. See Sentir. PARVENIR, to attain. See Tenir. PEINDRE, to paint. See Craindre. PERMETTRE, to permit. See Mettre. PLAINDRE, to pity. See Craindre. PLA1RE, TO PLEASE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Plaisant. Past, Plu. 256 APPENDIX. M. INDICATIVE. Present. Plais. etc. Plus, etc. Perfect. Imperfect. Plaisais, etc. Future. PlairaL etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Plairais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Plaise, etc. Plusse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plais. Plaise. Plural. Plctisons* Plaisez. Plaisent. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Plaire. Complaire, to humor. DSplaire, to displease. Faire, to conceal. PLEUVOLR, to rain. This verb is seldom used save impersonally, as in § 553. The forms there given will indicate the forms of the plural number and of the 1st and 2d persons singular. appendix. M. 257 POINDRE, to dawn. See Craindre. POURSUIVRE, to pursue. See Snivre. POURVOIR, TO PROVIDE. This verb is a compound of Voir, but differs from it in the following tenses, and in these only. indic. Perf. Pourvus, etc. " Fut. Pourvoirai, etc. condit. Pres. Pourvoirais, etc. subj. Imperf. Pourvusse, etc. POUVOIR, TO BE ABLE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Pouvant. Past, Pit. INDICATIVE. Singular. Present. Plural. Singular Imperfect. Plural. Puis or Peux* Pouvons. Peux. Pouvez. Peut. Peuvent. Pouvais. Pouvais. Pouvaii. Pouvions. Pouviez. Pouvaient. Pus, etc. Perfect. Pourrai, Future, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Pourrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Puisse, etc. Present. Imperfect. Pusse, etc. * Of these two forms the first is most commonly used. It must always be used in an interrogative expression : Puis-je t not Peux-je? 22* 258 APPENDIX. M. IMPERATIVE. (Wanting.) PREDIRE, to predict. See Dire. PRENDRE, TO TAKE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Prenant. Past, Pris. INDICATIVE. Present. Singular. Plural. Prends. Prenons. Prends. Prenez. Prend. PrennenL Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Prenais. Prenions. Prenais. Preniez. Prenait. Prenaieni. Perfect. Future. Pris, etc. Prendrai, etc. CONDITIONAL, Present. Prendrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Premie. Prenions. Prisse. Prissions Prennes. Preniez. Prisses. Prissiez. Prenne. Prennent. Prit. Prissent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Prenons. Prends. Prenez. Prenne. Prennent. APPENDIX. M. 259 verbs conjugated like Prendre. Apprendre, to learn. 'Eprendre (s'), to be smitten. Comprendre, to comprehend. Meprendre, to mistake. Deprendre, to loosen. Rapprendre, to learn again. Desapprendre, to unlearn. Reprendre, to rebuke. Entr eprendre, to undertake. Surprendre, to surprise. PRESCRIRE, to prescribe. See 'Ecrire. PRESSENTIR, to foresee. See Senlir. PREVALOIR, to prevail. See Valoir. PREVENIR, to prevent. See Fenir. PREVOIR, to foresee. This verb is conjugated like Voir, except that the indicative Future is Prevoirai, etc., and the conditional Present, Pri- voirais, etc. PRODUIRE, to produce. See Conduire. PROMETTRE, to promise. See Mettre. PROMOUVOIR, to promote. See Mouvoir. PROSCRIRE, to proscribe. See 'JScrire. PROVENIR, to proceed. See ZVntf. QUERIR, to fetch. See Acquerir. RABATTRE, to beat down. See Battre. RAPPRENDRE, to learn agaln. See Prendre. RASSEOIR, to sit down again. See Asseoir. RATTEINDRE, to catch again. See AUeindre. RAVOIR, to have again. Only used in the infinitive. REBATTRE, to beat again. See Battre. REBOUILL1R, to boil again. See Bouillir. RECLURE, to shut up. See Conclure. RECONDUIRE, to reconduct. See Conduire. RECONNAITRE, to recognize. See Connaitre. 260 APPENDIX. M. RECONQUERIR, to reconquer. See Acqutrir. RECONSTRUIRE, to reconstruct. See Conduit RECOUDRE, to sew again. See Coudre. RECOURIR, to recur. See Courir. RECOUVRIR, to recover. See Offrir. RECRIRE, to rewrite. See 'Ecrirc. RECROITRE, to grow again. See Croitre. RECUEILLIR, to collect. See Cueillir. REQUIRE, to cook again. See Conduire. REDEFAIRE, to undo again. See Faire. REDEVENIR, to become again. See Tenir. REDIRE, to say again. See Dire. REDORMIR, to sleep again. See Sentir. REDUIRE, to reduce. See Conduire. REFAIRE, to remake. See Faire. REFLEQR1R, to flourish again. See Fleurir. REFRIRE, to fry again. See Frire. REJOINDRE, to rejoin. See Craindre. RELIRE, to read again. See Lire. RELUIRE, to shine again. See Conduire. REMETTRE, to put back. See Mtttre. REMOUDRE, to grind again. See Moudre. RENAITRE, to be born again. See JYaitre. RENDORMIR, to fall asleep again. See Sentir. RENDUIRE, to plaster anew. See Conduire. RENTRAIRE, to fine-draw. See Traire. REPAITRE, to feed. See Connaitre. REPARA1TRE, to reappear. See Connaitre. REPARTIR, to reply. See Sentir. REPEINDRE, to repaint. See Craindre. REPENTIR (SE). See Gramm. § 559. RE PRENDRE, to retake. See Prendre. REPRODUIRE, to reproduce. See Conduire. REQUERIR, to require. See Acquerir. RESOUDRE, to resolve. APPENDIX. M. 261 PARTICIPLES. Pres. Resolvant. Past, Resolu, Resous (fern. Resoute).* INDICATIVE. Singular. Resous. Resous. Re'sout. Present. Plural. Resolvons. Resolvez. Resolvent. Perfect. Resolus, etc. Imperfect. Singular. Resolvais. Resolvais. Resolvait. Plural. Resolvions. Resolviez. Resolvaient, Future. Resoudrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Resoudrais. etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Singular. Resolve. Resolves. Resolve. Present. Plural. Resolvions. Resolviez. Resolvent. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Re solus se. Resolussions. Resolusses. Resolussiez. Resolut. Resolussent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Resolvons. Resous. Resolvez. Resolve. Resolvent. The verbs Absoudre, to absolve, and Dissoudre, to dissolve, are conjugated like Resoudre, save that they have no perfect indicative and imperfect subjunctive, and that their past parti- * The form Re'scus is employed only in the sense of changed ; e. g. brouillard resous en pluie, a fog resolved (or changed) into a rain. 262 APPENDIX. M. ciples are always Absous and Dissous, never Absolu and Dissolu. The verb Soudre, to solve, is never used save in the infinitive. RESSENTIR, to feel, resent. See Sentir. RESSORT1R, to go out again. See Sentir. RESSOUVENIR (SE), to recollect. See Tenir. RESTREINDRE, to restrain. See Craindre. RETENIR, to retain. See Tenir. RETRAIRE, to redeem (an estate). See Traire. REVALOIR, to requite. See Valoir. REVENIR, to return. See Tenir. REVETIR, to invest. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Revetant. Past, Revetu. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Revets. Revetons. Revetais. Revetions. Revets. Revetez. Revetais. Revetiez. Revet. Revetent. Revetait. Revetaient. Perfect. Revetis, etc. Future. Revetirai, etc CONDITIONAL. Present. Rcvetirais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Revete, etc. Revetisse, etc. APPENDIX. M. 263 IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Revetons. Revets, Revetez. Revete. Revetent. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Revetir. Divetir, to undress. Vitir, to clothe. The verb Vetir is seldom, if at all, used in the present par- ticiple, the singular number of the present indicative, or of the imperative. REVIVRE, to revive. See Vivre. REVOIR, to see again. See Voir. RIRE, TO LAUGH. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Riant. Past, Ri. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Ris. Rions. Riais. Riions. Ris. Riez. Riais. Riiez. Rit. Rient. Riait. Riaient. Perfect. Future. Ris, etc. Rirai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Rirais, etc. 264 APPENDIX. M. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Rie. Riions. Risse. Rissions Ries. Riiez. Risses. Rissiez. Rie. Rient. Rit. Rissent. IMPERATIVE. Sin Tular. Plural. Rions. Ris. Riez. Rie. Rient. So conjugate the verb Sourire, to smile. ROMPRE, TO BREAK. The only irregularity in this verb and its compounds, Cor- rompre, to corrupt, and lnterrompre, to interrupt, is, that they take the letter t at the end of the 3d person present indica- tive ; e. g. Ro?npt, instead of the regular form, Romp. ROUVRIR, to open again. See Offrir. SAILLIR, to project. See Assaillir. SATISFAIRE, to satisfy. See Faire. SAVOIR, to know. participles. Pres. Sachant. Past, Su. Singular. Present. Plural. indicative. Singular. Imperfect. Plural. Sais. Sais. Sail. Savons. Savez. Savent. Savais. Savais. SavaiL Savions. Saviez. Savaient AFPENDIX. M. 265 Perfect. Sus, etc. Future. Saurai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Saurais, etc. Present. Sache, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperfect. Susse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural Sachom. Sache. Sachez. Sache. Sachent. SECOURIR, to succor. See Courir. SEDUIRE, to seduce. See Conduire. SENTIR, TO FEEL. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Sentant. Past, Senti. INDICATIVE. Present Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Sens, Senions. Sentais. Sentions. Sens. Sentez. Sentais. Sentiez. Sent. Sentent. Seniait. Sentaient. Perfect. Future. Sentis, etc. Sentirai, etc. 23 266 APPENDIX. M. CONDITIONAL. Present. Sentii'ais, etc. Singular. Sente. Sentes. Sente. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Plural. Singular. Plural. Sentions. Sentisse. Sentissions. Sentiez. Sentisses. Sentissiez. Sentent. Sentit. Sentissent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Sentons. Sens. Sentez. Sente. Sentent VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Sentir. Consentir, to agree. Dementir, to belie. Departir, to distribute. Desservir, to disserve. Dormir, to sleep. Endormir, to lull. Mentir, to lie. Partir, to set out. Pressentir, to foresee. SEOIR, TO FIT, BECOME. Redormir, to sleep again. Rendormir, to put to sleep. Repartir, to reply.* Repp.ntir, to repent. (Gramm. § 559.) Ressentir, to feel, resent. Ressortir, to go out again.t Servir, to serve. Sorlir, to go out. This verb is never used in the infinitive, and only in the following forms : * Rcparth-, to distribute, is conjugated regularly. The only dif- ference between the infinitives of the two verbs is, that one has an acute accent over the c in the first syllable, and the other has not. t Rcssortir, to belong to (a jurisdiction), is conjugated regularly. There is no difference in the form of the infinitive with these differ- ent meanings. APPENDIX. M. 267 part. Pres. Seyant.* indic. Pres. 11 sied, lis sieent. " Imperf. 11 seyait, Us seyaient. " Perf. 11 siera^ Us sieront. condit. Pres. 11 sierait, Us sieraient. So conjugate Messeoir, to be unbecoming; which, how- ever, is seldom used, Seoir, with a negative, being considered more elegant. SERVIR, to serve. See Sentir. SORTIR, to go out. See Sentir. SOUDRE, to solve. See Resoudre. SOUFFRIR, to suffer. See Offrir. SOUMETTRE, to submit. See Mettre. SOURDRE, to spring out. This verb is used only in the infinitive and in the present indicative 3d person, which is Sourd. SOURIRE, to smile. See Rire. SOUSCRIRE, to subscribe. See 'Ecrire. SOUSTRAIRE, to subtract. See Traire. SOUTENIR, to sustain. See Tenir. SOUVENIR, to remember. See Tenir. SUBVENIR, to assist. See Tenir. SUFFIRE, to suffice. See Dire. SUIVRE, to follow. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Suivant. Past, Suivi. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Suis. Suivons. Suivais. Suivions. Suis. Suivez. Suivais. Suiviez. Suit. Suivent. Suivait. Suivaient. * The forms, Stant, Sis. are participles present and past from an obsolete verb Seoir, meaning to be situated or seated. 268 APPENDIX. M. Perfect. Suivisj etc. Future. Suivrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Suivrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Suive. Suivions. Suivisse. Suivissions. Suives. Suiviez. Suivisses. Suivissiez. Suive, Suivent. Suivit. Suivissent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Suis. Suive. Plural. Suivons. Suivez. Suivent. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE SuiVre. Ensuivre (VJ, to follow from. Poursuivre, to pursue. SURCROITRE, to grow out. See Croitre. SURF AIRE, to charge too much. See Faire. SURPRENDRE, to surprise. See Prendre. SURSEOIR, to adjourn, delay. (Used only in law.) participles. Pres. Sursoyant. Past, Sursis. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Sursois, etc. Sursoyons, etc. Sursoyais,etc. Sursoyions,eic. APPENDIX. M. 269 Perfect. Sursis, etc Future. Surseoirai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Surseoirais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Surseoie, etc. Sursoyions, etc. Sursisse, etc. Sursissions, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Surseois. Surseoie. Plural. Sursoyons. Sursoyez. Surseoient. SURVENIR, to happen. See Tenir. SURVIVRE, to survive. See Vivre. TAIRE, to conceal, See Plaire. TEINDRE, to dye. See Craindre. TENIR, TO HOLD. participles. Pres. Tenant, Past, Tenu. indicative. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular Plural. Tiens, Tenons, Tenais, Tenions, Tiens, Tenez, Tenais, Teniez, Tient. Tiennent, Tenait. Tenaient. 23* 270 APPENDIX. M. Perfect Future. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Tins. Tinmes. Tiendrai. Tiendrons. Tins. Tintes. Tiendras. Tiendrez. Tint Tinrent. Tiendra. CONDITIONAL. Present. Tiendrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Tiendront. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Tienne. Tenions. Thins se. Tinnssions, Tiennes. Teniez. Tinnssts. Tinnssiez. Tienne. Tiennent Tint. IMPERATIVE. Tinnssent. Singular. Plural. Tenons. Tiens. Tenez. Tienm \ Tiennent VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Tenir. Abstenir (VJ, to abstain. Appartenir, to belong. Circonvenir, to circumvent. Contenir, to contain. Contrevenir, to infringe. Convenir, to agree. DSpr6venir, to free from preju- Detenir, to detain. [dice. Devenir, to become. Disconvenir, to disagree. Entretenir, to entertain. lntervenir, to intervene. Maintenir, to maintain. Mtsavenir, to succeed ill. Obtenir, to obtain. Parvenir, to attain. Prevenir, to prevent, prepos- Provenir, to proceed. [sess. Redevenir, to become again. Ressouvenir (se), to remember. Retenir, to retain. Revenir^ to return. Sontcnir, to sustain. Souvenir (se), to remember. Subvenir, to assist. Surve?iir, to happen. Venir, to come. APPENDIX. M. 271 TISTRE, TO WEAVE. This verb is obsolete in every form but the past part. Tissw, TRADUIRE, to translate. See Conduire. TRAIRE, to milk. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Trayant. Past, Trait. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Trais, etc. Trayons, etc. Trayais, etc. Trayions, etc. Perfect. Future (None.) Trairai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Trairais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Traie. Traies. Traie. Plural. Trayions. ( None. ) Trayiez. Traient. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Trayons. Trais. Traycz. Traie. Traient. 272 APPENDIX. M. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE TrairZ. Abstraire, to abstract. Distraire, to distract. Extraire, to extract. Rentraire, to fine-draw. Retraire, to redeem (an estate). Soustraire, to subtract. TRANSCRIRE, to transcribe. See 'Ecrire. TRANSMETTRE, to transmit. See Mettre. TRESSAILLIR, to start. See Jissaillir. VAINCRE, TO VANQUISH. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Vainquant. Past, Vaincu. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Vaincs. Vainquons. Vainquais. Vainquions. Vaincs. Vainquez, Vainquais. Vainquiez. Vainc. Vainquent. Vainquait. Vainquaient. Perfect. Vainquis, etc. Future. Vaincrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Vainer ais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Vainque, etc Vainquisse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Vainquons. Vaincs. Vainquez. Vainque. Vainquent. APPENDIX. M. 273 So conjugate Convaincre^ to convince. — The three singu- lar persons of the present indicative of Vaincre are seldom used. The same is true of the whole of the imperfect indi- cative. VALOIR, TO BE WORTH. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Valant. Past, Valu. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Vaux. Valons. Valais. Valions, Vaux. Valez. Valais. Valiez. Vaut. Talent. Valait. Valaient. Perfect. Future. Valus, etc. Vaudrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Vaudrais, etc. STJBJUNCTLVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Vaille. Valions. Valusse. Valussions Vailles. Valiez. Valusses. Valussiez. Vaille. Vaillent. Valut. Valussent. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. Valons. Vaux. Valez. Vaille. Vaillent. 274 APPENDIX. M. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Vahir. 'Equivaloir, to be equivalent. Revaloir, to requite. Prevaloir, to prevail.* VENLR, to come. See Tenir. VETIR, to clothe. See Revetir. VIVRE, to live. participles. Pres. Vivant. Past, Vecu. Singular. Fts, etc. Vecus, etc. INDICATIVE. Present. Imperfect. Plural. Singular. Plural. Vivons, etc. Vivais, etc. Virions, etc. Perfect. Future. Vivrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Vivrais, etc. Present. Vive, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imperfect. Vecusse, etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Vis. Vive. Plural. Vivons. Vivez. Vi vent. * The verb Prdvaloir, however, differs from Valoir in the present subjunctive, which is as follows ; Private, Pre" vales, Prtratc, Priva- tions. Prevalicz, Prevalent. APPENDIX. M. 275 VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Vivre. Revivre, to revive. Survivre, to survive. VOIR, TO SEE. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Voyctnt. Past, Vu. Present. INDICATIVE. Imperfect. Plural. Singular Plural. Voyons. Voyez. Voient. Voyais. Voyais. Voyait. Voyions. Voyiez. Voyaient, Perfect. Future. Verrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Verrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Plural. Singular. Plural. Voyions. Visse. Vissions. Voyiez. Visses. Vissiez. Voient. Vit. IMPERATIVE. Vissent. Singular. Plural. Voyons. Vois. Voyez. Voie. Voient. VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Voir. Entrevoir, to have a glimpse of. Revoir, to see again. 276 APPENDIX. M. VOULOIR, TO BE WILLING. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Voulant. Past, Voulu. INDICATIVE. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Veux. Voulons. Voulais. Voulions. Veux. Voulez. Voulais. Vouliez. Veut. Veulent. Voulait. Voulaient. Perfect. Future. Voulus, etc Voudrai, etc. CONDITIONAL. Present. Voudrais, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Imperfect. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Veuille. Voulions Voulus se. Voulussions Veuilles. Vouliez. Voulusses. Voulussiez. Veuille. Veuilleni \ Voulut. Voulussent. There is no imperative mood. At least there is but a sin- gle form, employed in the expression veuillez-bien, be so good as to. Y AVOIR, there be. See Gramm. § 552. APPENDIX. N. 277 N. (§ 596.) I. ADVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS WITH que, WHICH REQUIRE THE INDICATIVE MODE. A cause que, because. A ce que, according as. A la charge que, on condition that. A mesure que, in proportion as. A peine-que, hardly-when. Ainsi que, as, as well as. Aprhs que, when. Attendu que, since, while. Au lieu que, whereas. Aussi Men que, as well as. Aussi loin que, as far as. Aussi long-temps que, as long as. Aussitdt que, as soon as. Autant que^as far as. D'abord que, as soon as. D'autant que, whereas. D' autant plus que, so much the more as. De mime que, even as. Depuis que, since. Des que, as soon as. D'oii vient que? why is it that ? En tant que, as. Lorsque, when. Outre que, besides that. Parceque, because. Pendant que, while. Peut-etre que, perhaps. Puisque, since. Selon que, according as. Sinon que, except that, unless. Sitot que, as soon as. Suivant que, according as. Tandis que, while. Tant que, as long as. Tout que, for all that. Toutes les fois que, whenever. Vu que, seeing that. II. ADVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS WITH que, WHICH REQUIRE THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. A Dieu ne plaise que, God for- bid. A moins que, unless.* Afin que, in order that. Au cas que, in case. Avant que, before. Bien que, although. Bien entendu que, provided. Ce rtest pas que, not that. De crainte que* for fear that. De peur que,* for fear that. Dieuveuille que, God grant that. En cas que f in case that. Encore que, although. Jusqifa ce que, until. Loin que, far from. Malgre que, notwithstanding. Moyennant que, provided that. Non obstant que, notwithstand- ing that. * The adverbial expressions marked above with an asterisk always require the negative ne before the subjunctive following; e. g. a moins quit nc lefasse, unless he does it, de crainte qu'iis ne vicnncnt, for fear they should come. (Comp. App. O. § XVI. c. d.) 24 278 APPENDIX. O. Plaise or plut a Dieu que, Quoique, although. please God that. Sans que, without. Pos6 or posez le cas que, sup- Si ce tfestque, if it be not that. pose that. Soit que, whether. Pour peu que, however little. Suppose, supposons, or suppo- Pour que, in order that. sez que, suppose that. Pourvu que, provided that. Taut s^enfaut que, so far from. The following adverbial expressions : a condition que, on condition that, de maniere que, so that, de sorte que, so that, en sorte que, so that, tellement que, so that, and perhaps some few others, require the indicative or the subjunctive, accord- ing as certainty is or is not denoted. O. (§§652,685.) PRINCIPLES OF INTERROGATION AND NEGATION* I. Interrogation. § I. The various grammatical principles which regulate in- terrogation in French have already been pretty fully stated. Little else is demanded here, therefore, than to designate, for connected examination, the sections of the Grammar which relate to this subject. These are §§ 190, 287 (with the note), 290, 458, 461, 636, 652, 667, 668, 670. § II. The impersonal verb il y a is rendered interrogative in its form by merely putting the pronoun last (the adverb y keeping its place before the word a,) and inserting the letter t whenever it becomes requisite in conformity with the principle in § 190 of the Grammar ; e. g. y a-t-il 1 is there ? y avait- il? was there ? y aura-l-il ? will there be ? etc. II. Negation. § I. The French commonly make use of two negatives to express our one. The words ne pas are those most frequently employed. APPENDIX. O. 279 § II. When the two negatives are used with a simple tense of a verb (and thus, of course, when used with the imperative mode), the first comes before the verb and the other after it ; e. g. je nefrappe pas, I do not strike, il ne vient pas, he does not come, ne badinez pas, do not jest. The first negative al- ways precedes the verb immediately, except in the cases in- stanced in §§ 468, 469 of the Grammar. § III. When the two negatives are used with a compound tense of a verb, the first comes before the auxiliary and the other after it ; e. g. je rfai pas frappe, I have not struck, il rCa pas parle, he has not spoken. The first negative always precedes the auxiliary immediately, except in the cases men- tioned in §§ 468, 469 of the Grammar. § IV. When the two negatives are used with the infinitive mode of a verb, both negatives generally come before the verb, though sometimes one before and one after; e.g. ne pas par- ler, not to speak, pour ne voir pas, in order not to see. § V. The negative adverb "point is often used instead of pas , and is considered as a stronger negative : e. g. je n'ai pas d' 'argent, I have no money, je n^ai point d* argent, I have no money at all ; il ne lit pas, he does not read, il ne lit point, he does not read at all. § VI. The negative adverb point can never be used instead of pas when another adverb or a numeral adjective follows immediately. E. g. point could not be used in the following phrases : je ne vois pas souvent votrefrere, I do not often see your brother, vous ii'avez pas beaucoup d?arbres fruitier s, you have not many fruit-trees, Milton n'est pas moins sublime qv? Homere, Milton is not less sublime than Homer, il rty a pas dix ans, it is not ten years ago. § VII. In asking a question, point is often used if we have a real doubt in our minds, and pas if we are persuaded of the affirmative ; e. g. n^avez-vous point eU la ? is it true that you have not been there ? tfavez-vous pas ete la ? you have been there ; have you not ? 280 APPENDIX. O. § VIII. Neither pas nor point can be used when either of ihe adverbs, jamais, never, ever,* guhre or guhres, hardly, and nullement or aucunement, not at all, follows the verb ; e. g. il ne faut jamais se fier aux medians, one should never trust wicked persons, il ri 1 a jamais vu son per e, he has never seen his father, il n'a guhre de voix, he has hardly any voice, il ri*y a guhre de gens tout-a-fait disinter esses, there are hardly any people entirely disinterested,^ ne le souffrirai nullement, I will not suffer it at all, il n'est nullement instruit de cette af- faire, he is not at all acquainted with that matter, je n'en veux aucunement, I want none of it. § IX. Neither pas nor point can be used when the adverb plus follows the verb, in the sense of again or in addition ; e. g. je ne le verrai plus, I will see him no more,^ n'en veux plus, I want no more.f § X. Neither pas nor point can be used when the substan- tive goutte follows the verb voir, or when mot, without an arti- cle or numeral adjective, follows the verb dire, or when brin, without an article or numeral adjective, follows any verb; e. g. il ne voit goutte, he does not see at all, je ne disais mot, I said not a word, il rCy en a brin, there is not a sprig of it.J § XI. Neither pas nor point can be used when either of the indefinite pronouns, aucun, any or any one, nul, no or no one, personne, nobody, and rien, nothing, occurs, either after the * When the adverb jamais is used without ne it signifies ever; e. g. avez-vous jamais rien vu de si beau? have you ever seen any thing so beautiful ? si vous venez jamais me voir, if you ever come to see me. t When plus occurs after a verb as the sign of the comparative degree, a double negative is employed ; e. g. je ne veux pas de plus belle que la vdtre, I do not want any finer than yours, il ne s'y en trouve pas de plus belle, there is no finer to be seen there. X But pas must be used when an article or numeral occurs before mot or brin ; e. g. il ne dit pas un mot qui m'inte'resse, he does not say a word which interests me, il na pas un brin de bois pour sc chauffer, he has not a stick of wood to warm himself with. APPENDIX. O. 281 verb or, as its nominative, before it ; e. g.je ne connais aucun de vos juges, I know no one of your judges, il ne ni'a rendu aucuns soins, he has not rendered me any attentions, il rCa nulle exactitude, he has no exactness, nul n'en sera excepte, no one will be excepted, je ne connais personne, I know nobody, je n'ai vu personne, I saw nobody, personne ne sera assez hardi, no one will be bold enough, c'est un homme qui rtaime rien, he is a man who loves nothing, je n'ai rien dit, I said nothing, rien ne me plait davantage, nothing pleases me more.* § XII. Neither pas nor point can be used in the same clause with quelconque, qui que ce soit, quoi que ce soit, or qui employed instead of qui esUce qui ; e. g. il n'a mal quel- conque, he has no ailment, je rCy ai trouve qui que ce soit, I found nobody there, il ne peut reussir en quoi que ce soit, he cannot succeed in anything, qui {qui est-ce qui) ne voii que vous avez raison ? who does not see that you are right ? § XIII. It is commonly the case that neither pas nor point is used after the verbs cesser, oser, pouvoir, and savoir ; e. g. il ne cesse de se rendre ridicule, he does not cease to render himself ridiculous, on n'ose vous le dire, they dare not tell it to you, nous ne pouvons y pensir sans fr emir, we cannot think of it without shuddering. § XIV. Both pas and point are suppressed in the following negative expressions : gardez-qu'on ne vous voie, take care that they do not see you, ne bougez, do not stir ; and in such as : y a-t-il un homme dont elle ne medise, is there a man whom she does not slander ? avez-vous un ami qui ne soit des miens ? have you a friend who is not also mine ? § XV. Both pas and point are suppressed before the pre- position de used in describing a space of time ; e. g. je ne lux parlerai de ma vie, I will not speak to him during my life. * It will be noticed that, in the examples given in this section, au- cun and personne, when used with a verb in a compound tense, are placed after the participle, instead of before it like rien. The case is always thus with these pronouns. 24* 282 APPENDIX. O. § XVI. Both pas and point are suppressed after the con- junction que in the following cases : (a.) When que is employed to express the English why in a question ; e. g. que rfallez-vous la voir ? why do you not go to see her ? (b.) When que signifies but or only ; e. g. il tfest quepauv- re, he is only poor, its n'ont que peu de Men, they have but little property. (e.) When que, either alone or with a moins, signifies un- less, and the expression is not of a negative form in English ; e. g. je ne lui ecrirai pas quHl ne m'envoye mes livres, I will not write to him unless he sends me my books, a moins quHl ne vienne, unless he comes. (d.) When que may be translated lest, and the expression is not of a negative form in English ; e. g. de crainie qtfil ne vienne, for fear lest he come, de peur quHl rfaille, lest he should go, il craint que sa recolte ne soil gatee, he fears lest his crop should be spoiled, fapprehende que lajievre ne revi- enne, I have apprehension lest the fever should return, je tremble qiCh mon retour je nHmmole et toi et ton ami perfide, I tremble lest at my return I should sacrifice both thyself and thy treacherous friend.* (e.) When que is preceded by a word of comparison, such as plus, moins, mieux, autre, auirement ; e. g. elle est plus riche que vous ne pensiez, she is richer than you thought, il est mieux qiCil n'ttait, he is better than he was, il est fail tout autrement que vous ne croyez, he is made up very differently from what you think. (f.) When que is preceded by the impersonal verb il y a or by void, in speaking of length of time ; e. g. il y a trois * When the expression is of a negative form in English, either in this case or in the one mentioned in the preceding paragraph (c), tico negatives must be employed in French; e.g. jc trains qiiil ne vienncpas, I fear he will not come, a moins quit ne vicnne pas, un- less he does not come, etc. APPENDIX. O. 283 jours que vous rtavez mange, it is three days since you have eaten, void cinq nuits queje tfaiferme Vazil, for five nights I have not closed my eyes. (g.) When que is preceded by the expression c'est dom- mage ; e. g. c'est dommage quHl nefit cela, it is a pity that he did not do that. § XVII. Both pas and point are suppressed when the con- junction ni occurs directly after the verb ; e.g. je ne chante ni ne danse, I neither dance 4ior sing, je ne suis ni democrate ni aristocrate, I am neither democrat nor aristocrat, je ne le dirai ni a Vun ni a V autre, I will not tell it to either. § XVIII. Both pas and point are suppressed after the con- junction si when it can be rendered unless in English ; e. g. il rtenfera rien s*il ne veut, he will do nothing about it unless he pleases, il viendra a lout de cette affaire si les puissances ne s^y opposent, he will accomplish this matter if the powers do not make opposition. § XIX. The negative non is generally used for the English adverb no, in answer to a question or otherwise, but sometimes non pas or point is used for more emphasis ; e. g. croyez-vous cela J Non (or Non pas) ! do you believe that ? No ! irez-vous ce soir au pare ? Point ! shall you go this evening to the park ? No ! Je croyais avoir affaire a un hon- nete homme ; mats point, I thought I had to do with an honest man ; but no. § XX. The negative pas is generally used alone to qualify an adjective or another, adverb ; e. g. pas un seul, not one, pas beaucoup, not much, pas lien, not well. § XXI. The English conjunctive expression not that is ren- dered in French by non que, or, more emphatically, by non pas que ; e. g. non que nous soyons ennemis, mais nos humeurs ne s^accordent pas, not that we are enemies, but our dispositions do not harmonize, non pas que je ha'isse la societi, not that I hate society. § XXII. The French negative ne is used alone in some in- 284 APPENDIX. P. stances where no negative appears in English. This is al- ways the case in the instances which come under the rule in § XVI, c, above. In regard to the cases mentioned in § XVI, d,e, the principle is as follows : When the verb preceding is affirmative, or interrogative with a negation, ne must be used, but not when the first verb is negative or interrogative without negation ; e. g. fapprehende qu?il ne vienne, I apprehend he will come, n ) appre'hendez-vous pas quHl ne vienne ? do you not apprehend that he will come ? je rtapprehende pas qiCil vienne, I do not apprehend that he will come, apprehendez- vous quHl vienne ? do you apprehend that he will come ? P. (§686.) ■ USE OF THE PREPOSITIONS d and de BEFORE INFINITIVES AND SUBSTANTIVES. I. The following verbs require the preposition a after them before an infinitive, and those which are printed in Italics re- quire it also before a substantive which they govern : s'Abandonner Aboutir s'Accoutumer Admettre s^Adonner Adherer Aider Aimer Applaudir s'Appliqiier Apprendre Appreter s'Appreter s'Arreter Assigner s'Attacher s'Altendre Autoriser Chercher Compatir Condamner Condescendre Consister Contrevenir Contribuer Convier Demeurer Ddplaire De'sobh'r Destiner Determiner Disposer Donner Dresser Eclairer Encourager s'Endurcir Engager s' Engager Enhardir Enseigner Exciter Exercer Exhorter s'Exposer se Ficr Habituer s^Habituer Inciter Incliner Ins idler Inviter Jouer (to game) se Mdtre Montrer Nuire Obeir Obvier s' Obstiner s'Occuper s' Opinidtrer 5' Opposer Parvenir Penser Perdre Per sister se Plaire Porter APPENDIX. P. 285 Pour voir Pousser Prtceder Presenter Pretendre Renoncer Resist er Ressembler Rester Satisfaire Subvenir Survivre Tendre Trctvailhr Viser. II. The following verbs require the preposition de after them before an infinitive, and those printed in Italics require it also before a substantive : Abuser Convaincre s'Empresser se Lasser s'Abstenir Convenir Enjoindre Louer s'Accommoder Craindre s'Ennuyer Mander s'Acquiiter Decharger s' Enorgueillir Manquer Affliger Decourager Enrager Medire s'Affiiger Defend re Entre prendre Med iter s y Apercevoir se Defter Epouvanter se Mefier Apprehender Degouter Essayer se Meier $' Appro cher se Demettre s'Etonner Menacer Approuver se Depecher Excuser Me r iter Arreter se Desaccoutu- Exempter se Moquer Attendrir mer Exiger Negliger Attrister Desesperer Feindre Notifier s'Attrister se Deshabituer Finir OfFrir Avertir se Desister se Flatter Omettre s'Aviser Determiner se Garder Ordonner Blamer Dire Gener Oublier Censurer Disconvenir Gronder Pardon ner Cesser Dispenser Hair Parler Chagriner Divertir se Hater Permettre se Chagriner Douter Hesiter Persuader Charger Ecrire s^lmpatienter Pester se Charger Edifier sUndigner se Piquer Choisir s'Efforcer s"* Informer Plaindre Commander EfTrayer s'lngh-er se Plaindre* Conclure s^Emanciper s'Inquieter Plaire Conjurer Embarrasser Inspirer Precipiter Conseiller s'Emparer Jouir se Pre'cipiter se Consoler Empecher Jurer Prescrire Contraindre s'Empecher Justifier Presser * Se plaindre requires the preposition de before what is complained of, and a before the individual to whom complaint is made ; e.g. se plaindre de quelque chose a quelqu'un^ to complain of something lo some one. 286 APPENDIX. P. Pr^sumer Professer Prqfiter Promettre Proposer se Rebuter Recornmander Redouter Refuser Rejouir se Rejouir Remercier se Repentir Re prendre Reprimander Reprocher Resoudre se Ressouvenir Retenir se Retenir se Retracter se Rire se Saisir Scandaliser se Scandaliser se Servir Sommer se Soncier Soupgonner se Souvenir Suffire Suggerer Supplier Surprendre Susciter Tromper Troubler User se Vanter. III. The following verbs take either a or de before an in- finitive, generally according to euphony: Commencer Couter Forcer Obliger Continuer s'Efforcer Manquer* Tacher.f Contraindre Essayer IV. The following verbs allow no preposition after them before an infinitive or substantive which they govern : Aimer mieux Desirer Fa ire Savoir Confesser Entendre s'Imaginer Souhaiter Croire Devoir Laisser Voir Declarer Envoyer Pretendre Vouloir. De poser Esperer Reconnaitre V. The following verbs allow no preposition after them be- fore an infinitive which they govern : Aller Oser Paraitre Valoir mieux Daigner Ou'ir Sembler Venir. Falloir VI. The following adjectives, when used with etre, require a after them before an infinitive : Admirable Adroit Afire ux Agile Agreable Aise Ardent Assidu * Manqucr requires de when it means to fall, and a when it means to forget. t Tacker generally requires de ; but sometimes, when it means to aim at, it requires a ; e. g. il tachc a, me nuire, he aims to injure me. APPENDIX. P. Beau Doux Hideux Premier Bon Effroyable Honnete Pret Charmant Enclin Horrible Prompt Civil Exact Incivil Propre Dernier Facile Lent Second Diligent Habile Malhonnete Sujet Dispose Hardi Porte Terrible. 287 VII. The following adjectives, when used with eire, require de after them before an infinitive : Aise Curieux Incapable Mecontent Assure Digne Incertain Ravi Avide Ennuye Indigne Satisfait Capable Fache Joyeux Sur. Certain Fatigue Las Content Honteux VIII. The following substantives, in all cases, require de before an infinitive : Action Adresse Ambition Amitie Amour Ardeur Arrogance Art Artifice Assurance Attente Attention Audace Autorite Avantage Avidite Avis Bonheur Bonte Chagrin Choix Cceur Commodite Fermete Maitre Confusion Fierte Mal-adresse Conseil Force Malheur Constance Front Malice Contrainte Fureur Maniere Courage Glorie Mortification Curiosite Grace Motif Danger Habitude Moyen Depit Hardiesse Nature Deplaisir Hasard Necessite Desespoir Honnetete Obligation Desir Honte Ordre Durete Imprudence Orgueil EfFronterie Impudence Passion Embarras Impuissance Patience Envie Incommodite Peine Esperance Inquietude Plaisir Espoir Insolence Pourvoir Esprit Intention Precaution Facilite Jugement Pr/somption Fa^on Justice Puissance Faveur Liberte Rage 288 APPENDIX. P. Risque Satisfaction Souci Vanite Ruse Scandale Temerite Volonte. Sagesse So also in general all substantives which do not imply wil- lingness or unwillingness, fitness or unfitness. IX. The following substantives, used with avoir without an article, require de before an infinitive : Affaire Dessein Occasion Soin Besoin Droit Permission Sujet Cong6 Envie Raison Tort. Coutume Lieu SELECTIONS FROM THE CLASSIC LITERATURE FRANCE; WITH EXPLANATORY NOTES, VOCABULARY BY DAVID FOSDICK, JR. ANDOVER: PUBLISHED BY GOULD, NEWMAN <& SAXTON. NEW YORK: CORNER OF FULTON AND NASSAU STS, 1840. SELECTIONS FRENCH LITERATURE, PART I. PROSE. Amourde la patrie. Un Romain, nomme Rutilius, ayant ete banni injustement, uo de ses amis, pour le 1 consoler, lui 2 dit qu'il s'eleverait bien- tot dans Rome une guerre civile, a la faveur de laquelle il pour- rait 3 etre rappele : " Que t'ai-je done fait," lui repondit 4 Rutili- us, "pour me souhaiter un retour plus triste encore que mon exil." Obscurite d u style. Le philosophe Favorin dit a un jeune orateur, qui afFectait une grande obscurite dans son style et se servait 5 de termes anciens et inusites : 6 u Si vous ne voulez pas etre entendu, qui vous empeche de vous taire." 7 Avarice. L'abbe Regnier, 8 secretaire de l'Academie Francaise, y fai- sait un jour dans son chapeau la collecte d'une pistole que chaque membre devait 9 fournir pour une depense commune. Get abbe, croyant que le president Rose, 10 homme fort avare, n'avait pas mis dans le chapeau, le lui 11 presenta une seconde fois. Le president protesta qu'il avait donne. " Je le crois," dit 1 " 2 l'abbe Regnier, u mais je ne Tai point 13 vu." "Et moi," 14 1 § § 401 , 460. — 2 § § 402, 460. — 3 App. M. — 4 § 286. — 5 recip. verb.— 6 § 348.— 7 recip. verb.— 8 § 221.— 9 § 660, and App. P. IV. — l0 § 221.— " § 464. — 12 § 286. — 13 App. O. II. $ V. — i4 § 400. 292 SELECTIONS FROM ajouta 1 M. de Fontenelle, qui etait a c6te, "je Pai vu, mais je ne le crois pas." Si n c e r i te . Le grand Alexandre dit, un jour, a Pun de ses ministres qui Pavait long-temps 2 servi : P Je ne suis point satisfait de vous ; ear je suis homme, et je sais que, comme tel, je suis sujet a Perreur et a l'oubli, et cependant vous ne m'avertissez jamais de mes defauts. Si vous ne vous apercevez 3 pa-s plus que moi de 4 mes fautes, c'est ignorance ; si vous vous en apercevez et que vous me le cachiez, 5 c'est trahison." Fermete d'esprit. Le celebre Fabert, se disposant a 6 faire le siege d'une ville, montrait les dehors de cette place avec un doigt, pour indiquer Pendroit par ou il faudrait 7 Pattaquer. Un coup de mousquet lui 8 emporta ce doigt. II parut n'y 9 pas faire 10 attention : "Messieurs," continua-t-il, sans la moindre emotion, "je vous disais done qu'il serait bon de dinger vos batteries sur ce point ; " «t il indiquait d'un autre doigt la merne partie de la place. Amour Filial. Une dame Romaine fut condamnee 11 a mort, et livree au bourreau pour etre etranglee dans la prison. Cet homme, touche 12 de ses larmes, ne put 13 se resoudre a lui arracher la vie, et l'abandonna dans le cachot, persuade qu'elle y motir- rait bientot de faim. II laissait 14 entrer librement la fille de cette infortunee, en 15 s'assurant neantnoins qu'elle n'apportait point de vivres. Cependant il 16 s'ecoulait du temps. Le bourreau, surpris que la prisonniere 17 existat encore, se mit a observer sa fille avec plus d'attention. II ne tarda point a re- connaitre, avec autant ]8 d'attendrissement que d'admiration, 1 § 286. — 2 § 679. — 3 recip. verb. — 4 App. P. II. — 5 § 597. — • App. P. 1. — 7 § 655. — 8 § § 402, 460. — 9 § 477. — 10 $ 238. — n § 571. — 12 § 570. — 13 App. O. $ XIII. — 14 App. P. IV. — A § 567. — 16 il, there. — 17 § 591. — 18 § 252. FRENCH LITERATURE. 293 que cette gen^reuse fille allaitait sa mere pour lui prolonger sa vie. Dans son enthousiasme, il alia tout raconter au magistrat. On 1 courut aussitot en 2 foule a la prison; on en 3 emporta la mere et la fille en triomphe ; et le peuple 4 Romain, juste 5 re- munerateur de la vertu, fit 6 grace a l'une, et assigna a 1'autre une pension considerable 7 sur le tresor public. 8 M o d e s t i e de P 1 a t o n . Platon, voulant 9 voir les jeux Olympiques, se rendit 10 a l'Olympie, ou il logea avec des 11 personnes qui ne le connais- saient pas. II leur 12 pint par ses man teres et par son entre- tien, sans se decouvrir 13 a eux. Apres la celebration des jeux, ils vinrent le visiter a Athenes, ou il les recut avec ces facons aimables 14 qui distinguent les vrais 15 sages. Alors ses botes lui dirent : " Faites-nous 16 voir, s'il vous plait, ce disciple de Socrate, qui porte le meme nom que vous (car il leur avait (lit qu'il se nommait Platon), et dont 17 la renommee fait partout tant de 18 bruit. Menez-nous 19 a son tcole, et presentez-nous a lui, afin que 20 nous retirions quelque fruit de sa conversation." " C'est 21 moi-meme," leur repondit Platon, avec un sourire mo- deste. Ces etrangers emporterent de lui une bien plus grande idee, que si, des le premier moment, il s'etait annonce pour ce qu'il etait, avec 22 empbase et pretention. Si vous voulez vous faire aimer, et si vous desirez que I'on vous rende 23 justice, laissez oublier aux autres que vous etes homme de 24 merite et de reputation. lis ne seront jamais plus portes a vous estimer et a vous vanter, que lorsque vous leur en 25 abandonnerez en- tierement le soiri. Exageration. Mademoiselle du Plessis nous honore souvent 26 de sa pre- sence. Elle disait hier a table qu'en Basse-Bretagne on fai- sait une cbere admirable, et qu' aux noces de sa belle-sceur on i § 386. — 2 § 237. — 3 § 477. — * § 340. — 5 § 221. — 6 § 238. _ 7 § 343 _ 8 § 344 _ 9 App F 1V _ io recip# verb .__n § 246. — 13 § 412. — 13 § 563. — 14 § 343. — 15 § 347. — 16 App. P. IV. — w § 425. — 1S § 252. — 19 § 462. — «> App. N. — 21 § 645. — « §237. _ 23 § 59K _ 24 § 253. _ 2o § 4G6 . __ 26 5 678> 25* 294 SELECTIONS FROM avait mange pour un jour douze cents pieces de roti. Nous demeurames tous 1 comme des gens de 2 pierre. Je pris cou- rage et lui dis : " Mademoiselle, pensez-y bien ; n'est-ce point douze pieces de roti que vous voulez dire ? On se trompe quel- quefois." " Non, madame, c'est douze cents pieces, ou onze cents. Je ne veux pas vous assurer si c'est onze ou douze, de peur de mentir; mais enfin je sais bien que c'est l'un ou l'autre." Elie le repeta vingt fois, et n'en voulut jamais rabattre un seul poulet. Nous trouvames qu'il fallait qu'ils fussent 3 pour le moms trois cents piqueurs pour piquer menu, et que le lieu fut 4 un grand pre, ou 5 l'on eut fait dresser des tentes, et que, s'ils n'eussent ete que cinquante, il fallait qu'ils eussent com- mence un mois auparavant. Ce propos de table etait bon ; vous en auriez ete contente. N'avez-vous point quelque ex- agereuse comme celle-la ? (Mme. de Sevigne'.) Boileau et un Jesuit e. 'A propos de Corbinelli, il m'ecrivit Pautre jour un fort joli billet. 11 me rendait compte d'une conversation et d'un diner chez M. de Lamoignon. Les acteurs etaient les maitres du logis, M. de Troyes, M. de Toulon, le pere Bourdaloue, son compagnon, Despreaux, et Corbinelli. On parla des ouvrages des anciens et des modernes. Despreaux sotuint les anciens, a la reserve d' un seul moderne, qui surpassait, a son gout, et les vieux et les nouveaux. Le compagnon du Bourdaloue, qui faisait I'entendu 6 et qui s'etait attache a Despreaux et a Cor- binelli, lui demanda quel 7 etait done ce livre si distingue dans son esprit. Despreaux ne voulut pas lui dire. Corbinelli se joint au Jesuite, et conjure Despreaux de nommer ce livre, afin de le lire toute la nuit. Despreaux lui repondit en riant : " Ah ! monsieur, vous l'avez lu plus d'une fois, j'en suis as- sure." Le Jesuite reprend avec un air dedaigneux, et presse Despreaux de nommer cet auteur si merveilleux. Despreaux lui dit : " Mon pere, ne me pressez 8 point." Le pere continue. Enfin, Despreaux le prend par le bras, et, le serrant bien fort, lui dit : "Mon pere, vous le voulez ; he bien, morbleu ! c'est Pascal." — "Pascal," dit le pere, tout rouge, tout etonne, " Pas- 1 § 325. — 2 § 253. — 3 § 593. — 4 § 593. -- 5 § 191. — 6 faisait Ventendu, pretended to be very knowing. — 7 § 432. — 8 App. O. II. FRENCH LITERATURE. 295 cal est beau autant que le faux peut 1 l , etre. — " Le faux," reprit Despreaux, "le faux! sachez qu'il est aussi vrai qu'il est inimi- table. On vient de le traduire en trois langues." Le pere re- pond : " II n'en est pas plus vrai." Despreaux s'echaufFe, et, crie comme un fou : Quoi ! mon pere, direz-vous qu'un des votres 2 n'ait pas fait imprimer dans un de ses livres qu'im Chri- tien rtest pas oblige 3 (P aimer Dieu ? Osez-vous dire que cela est faux ?" — "Monsieur," dit le pere en fureur, il faut distin- guer." — "Distinguer," dit Despreaux, " distinguer ! morbleu ! distinguer, distinguer si nous sommes obliges d'aimer Dieu ;" et, prenant Corbinelli par le bras, il s'enfuit au bout de la cham- bre. Puis, revenant et courant comme un forcene, il ne voulut jamais se rapprocher du pere, et s'en alia 4 rejoindre la com- pagnie qui etait demeuree 5 dans la salle ou Ton mange. Ici finit l'bistoire : le rideau tombe. (Id.) La cupidite double merit punie. Un riche particulier, voyant son fils pret a s'oublier au jeu, le laissa faire. Le jeune hornme perdit une somme assez con- siderable. "Je la paierai," lui dit son pere, " parceque I'hon- neur 6 m'est plus cher que 1'argent. Cependant expliquons- uous. 7 Vous airnez le jeu, mon fils, et moi 8 les pauvfes. Je leur ai moins donne depuis que je songe a vous pourvoir. Je n'y songe plus: un joueur ne doit point se marier. Jouez tant qu'il vous plaira ; mais acette condition : Je declare qu'a cbaque perte nouvelle les pauvres recevront de ma part autant d'argent que j'en aurai compte pour acquitter de semblables dettes. Commencons des aujourd'hui." La somme fut sur-le- champ portee a l'hopital ; et le jeune homme, doublement puni de sa cupidite, fut gueri, par cette seule lecon, d'un pen- chant qui allait entrainer sa mine. (Berqujn.) L'Horame. Je vois l'homme pourvu de tout ce qui peut servir a son bonheur. D'une conformation superieure a celle de tous les i § 479.— 2 § 363.— 3 App. P. Ill— 4 See Mler, App. M.— 5 § 578. — 6 § 401. — 7 cxpliquons-nous } let us understand each other. — 8 § 400. 296 SELECTIONS FROM animaux, il dompte avec son gtnie le petit nombre de ceux dont 1 les forces surpassent les siennes. S'il n'a pas recu en partage 2 la rapid ite du cerf hi du cheval, il forge les traits qui devancent Tun dans sa course, et il monte sur le dos de Pautre pour le diriger. Prive de l'aile de l'oiseau, ii 3 en donne a Par- bre immobile qui vegete dans les forets, et s'en fait porter jus- qu'aux bornes du monde. Sa vue, moins percante que celle de l'insecte, n'est pas aussi bornee a Pespace etroit 4 ou il se meut 5 ; ses regards peuvent 6 embrasser un immense horizon, et contempler les grandes merveilles de la nature. Comme Paigle, il ne fixe pas le soleil ; mais il invente des instrumens qui semblent le rapprocher de cet astre, pour mesurer sa dis- tance, et observer sa position, au milieu d'une foule innombra- ble d'etoiles obscurcies par sa splendeur. Tous ses autres sens lui procurent aussi des jouissances contiuuelles, et veillent egalement a ses plaisirs et a sa surete. Un noble sentiment de son genie lui fait 7 tenter chaque jour, avec succes, de nouvelles decouvertes. II desarme le tonnerre, ou lui marque la place qu'il doit frapper. II combat les elemens Tun par I 'autre, op- pose la douce chaleur du feu au souffle glace de Pair, et defend la terre de la fureur des eaux. Tantot il descend dans les plus tenebreuses profondeurs de son sejour, pour en rapporter de 8 riches metaux qu'il epure, et dont il forme, par un melange in- genieux, des substances nouvelles. Tantot il gravit les roches informessuspenduessur sa tete, les precipite dans les vallees, et les releve en edifices somptueux, ou en py ram ides hardies qui vont 9 cacher leurs sommets dans les nues. La societe qu'il forme avec ses semblables, pour la satisfaction reciproque de leurs besoins, le fait jouir, en recompense de son travail, des travaux de cent millions de bras empresses a lui procurer les douceurs de la vie. II trouve a chaque pas sous ses mains les productions de tout l'univers. Les sciences elevent son ame et agrandissent son esprit ; les beaux-arts adoucissent ses peines et le delassent de ses labeurs. La meinoire et la reflexion lui forment une experience de celle 10 de tous les siecles qui se sont ecoules. Avec le doux sentiment de son existence personelle, son cceur jouit 11 encore, dans les autres, par la compassion et la bienfaisance, par les liaisons du sang et de Pamitie. Sa felicite ne depend que de lui seul, au milieu de tout ce qui Pentoure, puisqu'on la trouve dans Pexercice mod ere de ses forces, et 1 § 425. — 8 en partage, as a portion. — 3 en, it. — 4 § 339. — 5 se mouvoir. — 6 App. M. — 7 App. P. IV. — 8 § 247. — 9 App. P. V.— 10 i. e. theexperience. — n neut. verb. FRENCH LITERATURE. 297 dans 1'usage constant de sa raison. S'il la trouve quelquefois en cherchant a s'elancer trop loin de lui-m6me, il n'en doit accuser que sa folie. (Id.) Le Riche et le Pauvre, Giton a le teint frais, le visage plein, et les joues pendantes, Pceil fixe et assure, les epaules larges, 1'estomac haut, la de- marche ferme et deliberee : il parle avec 1 confiance, il fait 9 repeter celui qui l'entretient, et il ne goute 3 que mediocrement tout ce qu'il lui dit : il deploie un ample mouchoir, il se mouche avec grand bruit; il crache fort loin, el il eternue fort haut ; il dort 4 le jour, il dort la nuit, et profondement ; il ron- fle en eampagnie. 11 occupe a table et a la promenade plus de place qu'un autre ; il tient le milieu en se promenant avec ses egaux ; il s'arrete, et I'on s'arrete ; il continue de marcher, et Ton marcher tous se reglent sur lui; il interrompt, il redresse ceux qui ont la parole ; on ne Finterrrompt pas, on l'tcoute aussi long-temps qu'il veut parler ; on croit les nouvelles qu'il debite. S'il s'assied, vous le voyez s'enfoncer dans un fauteuil, croiser les jambes l'une sur l'autre, froncer le sourcil, 5 abaisser son chapeau sur ses yeux pour ne voir personne, ou le relever ensuite, et decouvrir son front par fierte et par audace. II est enjoue, grand rieur, impatient, presomptueux, colere, libertin, politique, mysterieux sur les affaires du temps r il se croit des talens et de l'esprit. II est riche. Phedon a les yeux creux, le teint echauffi, le corps sec et le visage maigre : il dort peu, et d'un sommeil fort leger : il est abstrait, reveur, et il a, avec de l'esprit, l'air d'un Stupider il oublie de dire ce qu'il sait ou de parler d'evenernens qui lui sont connus ; et, s'il le fait quelquefois, il s'en tire mal ; il croit peser a ceux a qui il parle: il conte brievement, mais froide- ment ; il ne se fait pas (' couter, il ne fait point rire ; il ap- plaudit, il sourit a ce que les autres lui disent, il est de leur avis; il court, il vole, pour leur rendre petits services r il est complaisant, flatteur, empresse, il est mysterieux sur ses affaires, quelquefois menteur ; il est superstitieux, scrupuleux, timide ; il marche doucement et legerement, il semble 6 craindre de fouler la terre ; il marche les yeux baissis, et il n'ose 7 les lever i § 237. — 2 App.P.IV. — 3 App.O. § XVI.b. — 4 § 704. — *$144. — • App. P. V. — 7 App. 0. 11. $ XI11. 298 SELECTIONS FROM sur ceux qui passent. II n'est jamais du nombre de ceux qui forment un cercle pour discourir ; il se met derriere celui qui parle, recueille furtivement ce qui se dit, et se retire si on le re- garde. II n'occupe point de lieu, il ne tient point de place ; il va les epaules serrees, le chapeau abaisse sur ses yeux pour n'etre point vu ; il se replie, et se renferme dans son manteau; il n'y a point de rues ni de galeries si embarrassees et si rem- plies de monde, ou il ne trouve 1 moyen de passer sans effort, et de se cooler sans etre apercu. Si on le prie de s'asseoir, il se met a peine sur le horde d'un siege ; il parle bas dans la conversation, et il articule mal : libre neanmoins sur les affairs publiques, chagrin contre le siecle, mediocrement prevenu des ministres et du ministere, il n'ouvre 2 la bouche que pour re- pondre: il tousse, il se mouche sous son chapeau, il crache presque sur soi, et il attend qu'il soit seul pour eternuer, ou, si cela lui arrive, e'est a l'insu de la compagnie ; il n'en coute 3 k personne ni salut, ni compliment. II est pauvre. (La Bruyere.) Respect a la vieillesse. Les Egyptiens avaient pour les vieillards le respect le plus profond. La jeunesse se levait devant eux, et leur cedait partout la f)lace d'honneur. Pendant les fetes qu'on nommait Panathenees, et qui se ctlebraient a Athenes, un vieillard etait venu 4 chercher une place dans l'endroit ou se tenaient les Atheniens. Les jeunes gens se moquerent de lui, et le ren- voyerent avec 5 dedain. II se prtsenta ensuite du cote des Lacedemoniens. Des qu'il fut a leur portee, ils se leverent tous, par 6 respect pour son age. Les Atheniens applaudirent cette action avec 7 enthousiasme. "Helns?" sVeria un Lactde- monien, "ce people connait ce qui est honnete, sans s avoir le courage de le pratiquer." Pour le vieillard, attendri, il s'ecria: " Les Grecs connaissent les regies de la bienstance ; les Lace- demoniens les pratiquent."" Effectivement, la vieillesse, de- voui'-e ailleurs au meffrie, elevait un Spartiate an faite de 1'hon- neur. Les autres citoyens, et Biirtout les jeunes gens, avaient pour lui les egards qu'ils devaient, un jour, exigor pour eux- m^mes. La loi les ohligeait de lui ceder le pas 9 a cheque ren- i § 238. — 2 App. O. 11. $ XVI. b. — 3 App O. 11. * XVII. — ^ App. P. V. — 5 § 237. — 6 § 237. — 7 § 237. — 8 § 5G3. — 9 ccder le pas, to yield precedence. FRENCH LITERATURE. 299 contre, de se lever quand il paraissait, de se taire quand il par- lait. On l'ecoutait avec deference dans les assemblies de la nation et dans les salles du gymnase. Ainsi les citoyens de Lacedemone, qui avaient servi leur patrie, loin de lui devenir etrangers a la fin de leur carriere, etaient respectes, les uns com me les depositaries de 1'experience, les autres comme ces monumens dont on se fait une religion de conserver les debris. (Barthelemt.) Jerusalem. Entre la vallee du Jourdain et les plaines de I'Idumee s'etend une ehaine de 1 montagnes qui commence aux champs fertiles de la Galilee, et va se perdre dans les sables de l'Yemen. Au centre de ces montagnes se trouve un bassin aride, ferme de toutes parts par des sommets jaunes et rocailleux. Ces som- mets ne s'entr'ouvrent 2 qu'au levant, pour laisser voir le goufTre de la mer Morte et les montagnes lointaines de l'Arabie. Au milieu de ce paysage de 3 pierres, sur un terrain inegal et pen- chant, dans l'enceinte d'une tour jadis ebranlee sous les coups de 4 belier, et fortifiee par des tours qui torn bent, on apercoit de 5 vastes debris. Des cypres epars, des buissons d 'aloes et de nopals, quelques masures Arabes, pareilles a des sipulcres blanchis, recouvrent cet amas de ruines. C'est la triste Jeru- salem. Au premier aspect de cette region desolee, un grand ennui saisit le coeur; mais lorsque, passant de solitude en soli- tude, l'espace s'etend sans bornes devant yous, peu a peu l'en- nui se dissipe, le voyageur eprouve une terreur secrete qui, loin d'abaisser l'ame, donne du courage et eleve le genie. Des aspects extraordinaires decelent de toutes parts une terre tra- vaillee par des miracles. Le soleil brulant, l'aigle impttueux, l'humble hysope, le cedre superbe, le figuier sterile, toute la poe- sie et tous les tableaux de I'Ecriture sont la. Chaque nom renferme un mystere, chaque grotte declare l'avenir, chaque sommet retentit des accens d J un prophete. Dieu meme a parle sur ces bords. Les torrens dess*'clus, 6 les rochers fen- dus, les tombeaux entr'ouverts, attestent les prodiges; le desert parait encore muet de terreur, et Ton dirait qu'il n'a 7 ose rom- pre le silence depuis que l'Eternel a parle. Chateaubriand. i § 249. — 2 App.EO. II.$XVl.b. ^- 3 § 253. — 4 § 253. — 5 § 247. _ e 342. — 7 App. O. 1I.$X1H. 300 SELECTIONS FROM Constantinople. Constantinople, et surtout la cote d'Asie, etaient noyees dang le brouillard. Les cypres et les minarets que j'apercevais a travers 1 cette vapeur prtsentaieut l'aspect d'une foret depouil- lee. Comme nous approchions de la pointe du serai?, le vent du Nord se leva et balaya, en moins de 2 quelques minutes, la brume repandue sur ce tableau. Je me trouvai tout-a-coup au milieu des palais du Commandeur des Croyans. Devant moi le canal de la Mer Noire serpentait entre des collines riantes, ainsi qu'un fleuve superbe. J'avais a droit la terre d'x\sie et la ville de Scutari. La terre d'Europe etait a ma gauche. Elle forrnait, en se creusant, une large baie pleine de grands navires a l'ancre, et traversee par d'innombrables petits bateaux. Cette baie, renfermee entre deux coteaux, presentait en regard et en amphitheatre Constantinople et Galata. L'immensite de ees trois villes etagees, Galata, Constantinople, et Scutari ; les cypres, les minarets, les mats des vaisseaux qui s'tlevaient et se confondaient de toutes parts ; la verdure des arbres ; les cou- leurs des maisons blanches et rouges ; la mer qui etendait sous ces objets sa nappe bleue ; 3 et le ciel qui deroulait au dessus un autre champ d'azur : voila ce que j'admirais. On n'exagere point, quand on dit que Constantinople ofTre le plus beau point de vue de l'univers. — Nous abordames a Galata. Je remarquai sur-le-champ le mouvement des quais, et la foule des porteurs, des marchands, et des mariniers. Ceux-ci annoncaient par la couleur diverse de leurs visages, par la difference de leurs lan- gages, de leurs habits, de leurs chapeaux, de leurs bonnets, de leurs turbans, qu'ils etaient 4 venus de toutes les parties de I'Eu- rope et de l'Asie habiter cette frontiere de deux mondes. L'absence presque totale des femmes, le manque de voitures a roues, et les meutes de chiens sans maitres, furent les trois caracteres distinctifs 5 qui me frapperent d'abord dans l'interieur de cette ville extraordinaire. Comme on ne marche guere qu'en babouches, qu'on n'entend point de bruits de carrosses et de charrettes, qu'il n'y a point de cloches, ni presque point de metiers a marteau, le silence est continuel. Vous voyez autour de vous une foule muette, qui semble vouloir passer sans etre apergue, et qui a toujours Pair de se derober aux regards du maitre. Vous arrivez sans cesse d'un bazar a un cimetiere, 1 § 698. — 2 en moins de. in less tlian. — 3 § 336. — 4 App. L, — • $ 344, FRENCH LITERATURE. 301 comme si les Turcs n'etaient la que pour acheter, vendre, et mourir. Ces cimetieres sans murs et places au milieu des rues sont des bois magnifiques de cypres. Les colombes font leurs nids dans ces cypres, et partagent la paix de morts. On de- couvre ca et la quelques monumens antiques qui n'ont de rap- port, ni avec les hommes modernes, ni avec les monumens nouveaux dont ils sont environnes. On dirait qu'ils ont ete transports dans cette ville orientale par 1'efFet du talisman. Aucun signe de joie, aucune apparence de bonheur ne se mon- tre a vos yeux : ce qu'on voit n'est pas un peuple, mais un troupeau qu'un Iman conduit, et qu'un Janissaire egorge. II n'y a d'autre plaisir que la debauche, d'autre peine que la mort. Au milieu des prisons et des bagnes s'eleve un serail, capitole de la servitude ; c'est la qu'un gardien sacre conserve les germes de la peste et les lois primitives de la tyrannic De pales adorateurs rodent sans cesse autour du temple, et vien- nent apporter leurs tetes a 1'idole. Rien ne pent les soustraire au sacrifice ; ils sont entraines par un pouvoir fatal. Les yeux du despote attirent les esclaves, commes les regards du serpent fascinent les oiseaux dont il fait sa proie. (Id.) V e n i s e. On s'embarque sur la Brenta pour arriver a Venise, et des deux 1 cotes du canal on voit les palais des Venetiens, grands et un pen delabres, comme la magnificence Italienne. 2 Ils sont ornes d'une maniere bizarre et qui ne rappelle en rien le gout antique. L'architecture Venetienne se ressent 3 du commerce avec l'Orient. C'est un melange du gout Mauresque et Go- thique qui attire la curiosite sans 4 plaire l'imagination. Le peuplier, cet arbre regulier 5 comme l'architecture, borde le ca- nal presque partout. Le ciel est d'un bleu vif, 6 qui contraste avec le vert eclatant de la campagne. Ce vert est entretenu par l'abondance excessive 7 des eaux. Le ciel et la terre sont ainsi de deux couleurs si fortement tranchees, que cette nature elle-meme a 1'air d'etre arrangee avec une sorte d'appret ; et 1'on n'y trouve point le vague mysterieux qui fait aimer le midi de 8 l'Italie. L'aspect de Venise est plus etonnant qu'agreable. On croit d'abord voir une ville submergee, et la 9 reflexion est i § 345. — 2 § 340. — 3 se ressent, bears marks. — * § 237. — 5 § 339. — « § 344. — 7 § 344.— 8 § 225. — 9 § 232, 26 302 SELECTIONS FROM necessaire pour admirer le genie des mortels qui ont conquis cette demeure sur les eaux. Naples 1 est batie en amphithea- tre au bord de la mer, mais Venise etant sur un terrain tout-a- fait plat, les clochers ressemblent aux mats d'un vaisseau qui resterait immobile au milieu des ondes. Un sentiment de tris- tesse s'empare de l'imagi nation en entrant dans 2 Venise. On prend conge 3 de la vegetation : on ne voit pas me me une mouche en ce sejour; tous les animaux en sont bannis ; et 1'homme seul est la pour lutter contre la mer. Le silence est profond dans cette ville, dont les rues sont des canaux, et le bruit des rames est l'unique interruption a ce si- lence. Ce n'est pas la campagne, puisqu'on n'y voit pas un arbre ; ce n'est pas la ville, puisqu'on n'y entend pas le moin- dre mouvement ; ce n'est pas rneme un vaisseau, puisqu'on n'avance pas: c'est une demeure dont l'orage fait une prison^ car il y a 4 des momens ou l'on ne peut sortir ni de la ville ni de chez soi. 5 On trouve des hommes du peuple a Venise qui n'ont pas vu la place Saint-Marc, et pour qui la vue d'un che- val ou d'un arbre serait une veritable merveille. Ces gondoles noires, qui glissent sur les canaux, ressemblent a 6 des cercueils ou a des berceaux, a la derniere et a la premiere demeure de 1'homme. Le soir on ne voit passer que le reflet des lanternes qui eelairent les gondoles ; car de nuit leur couleur noire emperhe de les distinguer. On dirait que ce sont des ombres qui glissent sur l'eau, guidees par une petite etoile. Dans ce sejour tout est mystere, le gouvernement, les coutumes, et 1'amour. Sans doute il y a l)eaucoup de jouissances pour le cceur et la raison, quand on parvient a penetrer dans tous ces secrets; mais les etrangers doivent trouver l'impression du pre- mier moment singulierement triste. (Mme. de Stael.) Alexandrie. Parmi les lieux propres 7 a causer la surprise et 1'admiration, il en 8 est pen qui reuuissent aufant de moyens qu'Alexandrie en Egypte. Le nom de cette ville, qui rappelle le genie d'un homme si etonnant ; le nom du pays, qui tient a tant de faits et d'idees ; l'aspectdu lieu, qui presente un tableau si pittoresque ; 1 App. G. — 2 $ 225. — 3 $ 2^8. — « from y avoir, — • chez soi, home. — Q App. P.I.-- 7 App. P. VI. — 8 $ 509. FRENCH LITERATURE. 303 ces palmiers, qui s'elevent en parasol ; ces maisons a ter- rasse, qui semblent depourvues de toit ; ces fleches greles des minarets, qui portent une balustrade dans les airs; tout avertit le voyageur qu'il est dans un autre monde. Descend-il a terre, une foule d'objets 1 inconnus 1'assaile par tous ses sens; c'est une langue dont les sons barbares et 1'accent acre et guttural effraient son oreille ; ce sont des habillemens d'une forme bi- zarre, des figures d'un caractere etrange. Au lieu de nos visages nus, de nos tetes enflees de cheveux, de nos coiffures triangulares, et de nos habits courts et serres, il regarde avec surprise ces visages brules, armes de barbe et de moustaches ; cet amas d'etofFe roulee en plis sur une tete rase ; ce long vehe- ment, qui, tombant du cou aux talons, voile le corps plutot qu'il ne l'habille ; et ces pipes de six pieds; et ces longs chapelets dont toutes les mains sont garnies ; et ces hideux chameaux qui portent 1'eau dans des sacs de cuir ; et ces a.nes selles et brides, qui transported legerement leur cavalier en pantoufles ; et ce marche mal fourni de dattes et de petits pains ronds et plats ; et cette foule imrnonde de alliens errans dans les rues; et ces especes de fan tomes ambulans qui, sous une draperie d'une seule piece, ne montrent d'humain que des yeux de 2 fern me. Dans ce tumulte, tout entier a ses sens, son esprit est nul pour la reflexion ; ce n'est 3 qu'apresetre arrive au gite si desire quand on vient de la mer, que, devenu plus calme, il considere avec reflexion ces rues etroits et sans pave, ces maisons basses et dont les jours rares sont masques de treillages, ce peuple maigre et noiratre, qui marche nu-pieds, et n'a pour tout vehe- ment qu'une chemise bleue, ceinte d'un cuir ou d'un mou- choir rouge. Deja Pair general de misere qu'il voit sur les hommes, et le mystere qui enveloppe les maisons, lui font soupconner la rapacite de la tyrannie et la defiance de l'escla- vage. Maisun spectacle qui bientot attire tome son attention, ce sont 4 les vastes mines qu'il apercoit du cote de la terre. Dans nos contrees, les mines sont un objet de curiosite: a peine trouve-t-on, aux lieux ecartes, quelque vieux chateau dont le delabrement annonce plutot la desertion du maitre que la misere du lieu. Dans Alexandrie, au contraire, a peine sort- on de la ville neuve dans le continent, que 5 l'on est frappe de l'aspect d'un vaste terrain tout couvert de ruines. Pendant deux heures de marche, on suit une double ligne de 6 murs et de tours, qui formaient l'enceinte de l'ancienne Alexandrie. i § 249.— 2 § 253 — 3 App. O. II. § XVI. b.— < §027.— 5 § 191. — « 8 259. 304 SELECTIONS FROM La terre est couverte des debris de leurs sommets ; des pans entieres sont ecroules, les voutes enfoncees ; les creneaux de- grades, et les pierres rongees et defigurees par le salpetre. On parcourt un vaste interieur sillonne de fouilles, perce de puits, distribue par des murs ademi enfouis, semede quelquescolon- nes anciennes, de tombeaux modernes, de palrniers, de nopals, et ou l'on ne trouve de vivant que des chacals, des eperviers, et des hiboux. Les habitans, aceoutumes a ce spectacle, n'en re- §oivent aucune impression ; mais 1'etranger, en qui les sou- venirs qu'il rappelle s'exaltent par 1'effet de la nouveaute, eprouve une emotion qui souvent passe jusqu'aux larmes, et qui donne lieu a des reflexions dont la tristesse attache autant le cceur que leur majeste eleve l'ame. (Volney,) Chilian. Chillon, ^ncienne prison d'etat des dues de Savoie, au- jourd'hui I'arsenal du canton de Vaux, fut bati en 1250. La captivite de Bonnivard Pa tellement rempli de son souvenir, qu'on a oublie jusqu'au nom d'un prisonnier qui s'en ecbappa 2 en 1798, d'une maniere presque miracufeuse. Ce malheureux parvint a faire un trou dans le mur, a l'aide d'un clou arrache a, la semelle de ses souliers; mais, sorti de son cachot, 3 il se trouva dans un plus grand, et voila tout. II lui fallut alors, a la force du poignet, briser une barre de fer qui fermait une meurtriere de trois ou quatre pouces de large ; la trace de ses souliers restee sur le talus de cette meurtriere atteste que les efforts qu'il fut oblige de faire depassaient presque la puissance humaine. Ses pieds, a l'aide desquels il se roidissait, ont creuse la pierre a Ja profondeur d'un pouce. Cette meurtriere est la troisieme a gauche en entrant dans le grand cachot. Nous avons parle 4 de Bonnivard et de Berthelier. Le pre- mier avait dit un jour que, pour 1'affranchissement deson pays, il donnerait sa liberte; le second repondit qu'il donnerait sa vie. Ce double engagement fut entendu, et lorsque les bour- reaux vinrent en reclamer l'accomplissement, ils les trouverent prels tous deux a l'accomplir. Berthelier marcha al'echafaud. Bonnivard, transporte a Chillon, y trouva une captivite affreuse. Lie par le milieu du corps a une chaine, dont l'autre bout allait i $ 221. — 2 § 612. — 3 § 78. — 4 § 618, FRENCH LITERATURE. 305 rejoindre un anneau de fer scelle dans un pilier, il resta ainsi six ans, n'ayant de liberte que la longueur de cette chaine, ne pouvant se coucher que la ou elle lui permettait de s'etendre, tournant toujours comme une bete fauve alentour de son pilier, creusant le pave avec sa marche forcement reguliere, ronge par cette pensee, que sa captivite ne servait peut-etre en rien a l'afTranchissementde son pays, etque Geneve et lui etaient vou- £s a des fers eternels. Comment, dans cette longue nuit, que nul jour ne venait interrompre, dont le silence n'etait 1 trouble que par le bruit des flots du lac battant les murs du cachot, com- ment la pensee n'a-t-elle pas tue la matiere, ou la matiere la pensee? Comment, un matin, le geolier ne trouva-t-il 2 pas son prisonnier mort ou fou, quand une seule idee eter- nelle devait lui briser le cceur et lui dessecher le cerveau ? Et pendant ce temps, pendant six ans, pendant cette eternite, pas un cri, pas une plainte, dirent ses geoliers, excepte sans doute quand le ciel decbainait 1'orage, quand la tempete soulevait les flots, quand la pluie et le vent fouettaient les murs. Car alors sa voix se perdait dans la grande voix de la nature: car alors, vous seul, 6 mon Dieu ! vous pouviez distinguer ses cris et ses sanglots; et ses geoliers, qui n'avaient pas joui de son deses- poir, le retrouvaient le lendemain calme et resigne, car la tem- pete alors s'etait calmee dans son cceur comme dans la nature. Ob ! sa*s cela, sans cela, ne se serait-il pas brise la tete a son pilier ? ne se serait-il pas etrangle avec sa chaine ? aurait-il pas attendu le jour ou 1'on entra en tumulte dans sa prison, et ou cent voix lui dirent a la fois : — Bonnivard, tu es libre ! — Et Geneve ? — Libre aussi ! — Depuis lors, la prison du martyr est devenue un temple, et son pilier un ante]. Tout ce qui a un cceur noble et amoureux de la liberte se detourne de sa route, et vient prier la ou il a souffert. On se fait conduire droit a la colonne ou il a ete si long-temps enchaine ; on cherche, sur sa surface granitique, ou chacun veut inscrire un nom, les caracteres qu'il y a graves ; on se courbe vers la dalle creusee pour y retrouver la trace de ses pas ; on se cramponne a l'anneau auquel il etait attache, pour eprouver s'il est solidement scelle encore avec son ciment de huit siecles. Toute autre idee se perd dans cette idee : e'esi 1 App. O. II. § XVI. b. — 2 § 287, note. *26 306 SELECTIONS FROM ici qu'il est reste enchaine six ans . . . six ans . . . c'est-a-dire la neuvieme partie de la vie d un homme. Un soir, c'etait en 1816, par une de ces belles nuits qu'on croirait que Dieu a faites pour la Suisse seule, une barque s'avanca silencieusement, laissant derriere elle un sillage bril- lante par les rayons brises de la lune ; elle cinglait vers les murs blanchatres du chateau de Chillon, et toucha au rivage sans secousse, sans bruit, comme un cygne qui aborde ; il en descendit un homme, au teint pale, aux yeux percans, au front decouvert et hautain ; il etait enveloppe d'un grand manteau noir qui cachait ses pieds, et cependant on s'apercevait qu'il boitait legerement. II demanda a voir le cachot de Bonnivard ; il y resta seul et long-temps, et lorsqu'on rentra apres lui dans le sonterrain, on trouva, sur le pilier meme auquel avait ete enchaine le martyr, un nouveau nom : BYRON. (A. Dumas.) B u ffo n . L' historien de la nature est noble, fecond, majestueux com- me elle, mais pas toujours aussi varie. Comme elle, il s'eleve sans effort et sans secousse ; comme elle, il descend dans les plus petits details, sans 1 6tre moins attachant ni moins beau. Son style se plie a tous les objets, et en prend la couleur : sublime, quand il deploie a nos regards l'immensite des etres et les richesses de la creation, quand il peint les revolutions du globe, les bienfaits ou les rigueurs de la nature ; orne quand il decrit, profond quand il analyse, interessant lorsqu'il nous ra- conte Fhistoire de ces animaux devenus nos amis et nos bien- faiteurs. Juste envers ceux qui Pont precede dans le meme genre d'ecrire, il loue Pline le natural iste et Aristote, et il est plus eloquent que ces deux grands hommes. En un mot, son ouvrage est un des beaux 2 monumens de ce siecle, eleve pour les ages suivans, et auquel I'antiquite n'a rien a opposer. (La Harpe.) M a r i u s . Marius etait ne dans un village proche d'Arpinum,de parens pauvres, et qui gagnaient leur vie du travail de leurs mains. i § 563. — 9 § 322. FRENCH LITERATURE. 30? II avait ete eleve clans les travaux rustiques, et ses mceurs etai- ent aussi feroces que son visage etait afTreux. C'etait un homme d'une grande taille, d'une force de corps extraordinaire ; courageux et soldat avant que d'avoir porte les armes. II en- tra de bonne heure 1 dans les armees, il s'y distingua par des actions d'une rare valeur, et surtout par une pratique exacte de la discipline militaire. II cherchait dans toutes les occasions des perils dignesde son courage, et les plus longues marches et toutes les fatigues de la guerre ne coutaient rien a un homme eleve durement. On remarque toujours dans sa conduite un extreme eloignement des voluptes: et depuis son elevation il ne parut sensible qu'a l'ambition et a la vengeance ; passions qui couterent tant de sang a la republique. II passe par tous les degres de la milice ; et ces differens grades furent toujours la recompense d'autant d'actions ou il s'etait signale. Quand il demanda au peuple la charge de tribun dans une legion, la plupart de ses concitoyens ne connaissaient pas son visage : mais son norn n'etait ignore de personne ; et, a la faveur d'une reputation si bien etablie, il emporta cet emploi sur plusieurs patriciens qu'il avait pour competiteurs. Metellus, si bon juge de la valeur, le poussa depuis aux premieres charges de Par- mee, et il parvint par sa protection jusqu'a la dignite de tribun du peuple. Ce fut dans cette place qu'il commenca a decou- vrir son ambition et la haine violente qu'il portait au parti de la noblesse. 11 declamait incessamment contre le luxe des se- nateurs; et, quoiqu'il ne fut pas eloquent, il ne cessait de repre- senter au peuple, avec une voix forte et tonnante, combien il lui devait etre honteux de n'oser confier le commandement des armees et les principales dtgnites de l'etat qu'a des nobles; que ces hommes avares et ambitieux se les 2 etaient comme approprites ; qu'a la faveur de leur credit ils se les remettaient de main en main ; et que pendant qu'ils en etaient revetus ils y exercaient impunement toute sorte de 3 brigandages. (Vertot.) Sylla. Lucius Cornelius Sylla, 4 patricien, et d'une des plus illustres families de Rome, etait bien fait, de bonne mine, Pair noble, les manieres aisees, pleines de franchise en apparence, et qui 1 de bonne heure, early. — 2 les, i. e. the dignities. — 3 § 250. — 4 § 220. 308 SELECTIONS FROM eemblaient laisser voir a reconvert 1 le fond de son cceur; natu- rellement insinuant, persuasif, eloquent, il aimait les plaisirs, et encore plus la gloire. Son devoir marchait devant tout ; il savait se livrer et s'arracher aux voluptes avec la meme facilite. II voulait plaire a tout le nionde : modeste dans ses discours s'il etait question de parler de lui-m£me ; prodigue de louanges pour les autres, et encore plus d'argent. 11 en pretait avec plai- sir a ceux qui avaient recours a lui, et prevenait ceux qui en avait besoin et qui n'osaient lui en emprunter. II ne le rede- mandait jamais, et il semblait qu'il voulut acheter I'armee enti- ere. Familier surtout avec les simples soldats, devenant soldat lui-meme, il en prenait les manieres grossieres, buvait avec eux, les raillait, souffrait avec plaisir d'en 2 etre raille; mais hois de la table, 3 serieux, actif, diligent. C'etait un Protee a qui ces difFerens personnages ne coutaient rien, et ses vertus et ses defauts etaient egalement cou verts par une profoude dis- simulation qui le rendait impenetrable jusques dans ses plaisirs les plus secrets, aux compagnons memes de ses debauches. (Id.) Cesar Cains Julius Cesar etait ne de l'illustre famille des Jules, qui, comme toutes les grandes maisons, avait sa cbimere, en se vantant de tire son origine d'Anchise et de Venus. C'etait l'homme de son temps le mieux fait, adroit a toutes sortes d'exercices, infatigable au travail, plein de valeur, le courage eleve, vaste dans ses desseins, magnifique sans sa depense, et liberal jusqu'a, la profusion. La nature, qui semblait Tavoir fait 4 naitre pour commander au reste des hommes, lui avait donne un air d'empire et dignite dans ses manieres: mais cet air de grandeur etait tempere par la douceur et la facilite de ses moeurs. Son eloquence insinnante et invincible etait en- core plus attachee aux charmes de sa personne qu'a la force de ses raisons. Ceux qui etaient assez durs pour resister a 5 l'impression que faisaient tant d'aimables qualites, n'ecbappai- ent point a ses bienfaits, et il commenca par 6 assujettir les cceurs, comme le fondement le plus solide de la domination a laquelle il aspirait. Ne 7 simple citoyen d'une republique, il forma, dans une con- 1 a dtcouvert, uncovered. — 2 en, by them. — 3 hors dc la tabic, away from the table. — 4 App. P. IV. — 5 App. P. I. — « § 563. — 7 § 220. FRENCH LITERATURE. 309 dition privee, le projet 1 d , assnjettir sa patrie. La grandeur et les perils d'une pareille enterprise ne l'epouvanterent point. II ne trouva rien au-dessus de son ambition, que 1'etendue im- mense de ses vues. Les exemples recens de Marius et de Sylla lui flrent comprendre qu'il n'etait pas impossible de s'elever a la souveraine puissance ; mais, sage jusque dans ses desirs im- moderes, il distribua en differens temps l'extcution de ses des- seins. Son esprit, toujours juste, malgre son etendue, n'alla que par degres au projet de la domination ; et, quelque ecla- tantes 2 qu'aient ete depuis ses victoires, elles ne doivent passer pour de grandes actions que parcequ'elles furent toujours la suite et 1'effet de grands desseins. (Id.) Fenelon ecrivain. On croirait que Fenelon a prodtiit 3 le Telemaque d'un seul jet ; l'homme de lettres le plus exerce dans Part d'ecrire ne pourrait distinguer les momens ou Fenelon a quitte et repris la plume, tant ses transitions sont naturelles, soit qu'il entraine doucement par la pente de ses idees, soit qu'il fasse franchir avec lui l'espace que l'imagination agrandit ou resserre a son gre. Jamais on n'aper^oit aucun effort; maitre de sa pensee, il la voit sans nuages ; il ne 1'exprime pas, il la peint ; il sent, il pense, et le mot suit avec la grace, la noblesse, ou l'onction qui lui convient. Toujours coulant, toujours lie, toujours nombreux, toujours periodique, il connait l'utilite de ces liai- sons grammaticales que nous laissons perdre, qui enrichissaient 1'idiome du Grec, et sans lesquelles il n'y aura 4 jamais de style. On ne le voit pas recommencer a penser de ligne en ligne ; trainer peniblement des phrases, tantot precises, tan tot diffuses, ou l'esprit peint son embarras a chaque instant, et ne se releve 5 que pour retomber : son elocution pleine et barmonieuse, en- richie des metaphores les mieux suivies, des allegories les plus sublimes, des images les plus pittoresques, ne presente au lec- teur que clarte, facilite, elegance, et rapidite. Grand, parcequ'il est singulier, il ne se sert de la parole que pour exprimer ses idees, et n'etale jamais ce luxe d'esprit qui, dans les lettres comme dans les etats, n'annonce que 1'indigence. Modele ac- compli de la poesie descriptive, il multiplie ces comparaisons vastes qui supposent un genie observateur, et il flatte sans cesse i 5 563.— 2 § 594.— 3 § 618.— 4 from y avoir .— $ App. 0. 11. § XVI. b, 310 SELECTIONS FROM Poreille par les charmes de Pharrnonie imitative: en un mot, Fenelon donne a la prose la couleur, la melodie, Paccent, Tame de la poesie ; et son style, vrai, enebanteur, inimitable, trop abon- dant peut-etre, ressemble a sa vertu. (Maury.) Montesquieu. Montesquieu fut encore plus 1 bistorien que philosophe. Son imagination vive se plaisait surtout au spectacle des eve- nemens et des hommes. Ce ne fut point la nature bumaine, universelle et abstraite, qui fut Pobjet de sa contemplation ; il chercha les liens et les consequences des faits historiques. De-la resulta une etude des lois politiques et civiles, sous un rapport nouveau. En les comparant aux circonstances au milieu desquelles elles out pris naissance, il essaya de decouv- rir leur vrai sens. Sa politique h'a rien de dogmatique ni d'absolu ; elle est critique et narrative. II explique la legisla- tion selon les temps, les lieux, les races, les evenernens. II est loin pourtant de mettre en oubli les regies generates de la jus- tice et le sentiment moral ; rien en lui ne ressemble a Pindifle- rence de la fatalite. Plus vivement qu'aucun historien mo- derne, Montesquieu sait s'affliger sur les malbeurs ou la bonte de Phumanite,s'indigner contre Poppression et Piniquite. Toute- fois, il ne se propose jamais pour but une reforme fondamen- tale. Hardi dans son exaruen, il est resigne dans ses conclu- sions ; c'est Pesprit du jurisconsulte porte a un haut degre d'elevation et de lumiere, et cependant restant dans sa spbere. De lui date cette ecole du droit, qui se nomine bistorique, et qui, nee en France, fait depuis quelques annees Pbonneur de PAllemagne, (De Barajste.) La Bruyere. Pour La Bruyere, il me semble que je le vois : silencieux au milieu du monde ; recevant de tout des impressions vives qu'il renfermait en lui-meme ; doux a vivre, parce que rien ne PofTensait person n el lement ; regardant passer devant lui les vices et les ridicules, attentivement et avec interet, sans etre tente de les interrompre, comme on voit sur un tbtatre des 1 § 220. FRENCH LITERATURE. 311 acteurs jouer leurs roles; pen sensible a la critique, moins en- core a la louange ; place au milieu cVune societe ou il se trou- vait inferieur de rang et de fortune, et la jugeant sans un seul mouvement de jalousie, sans aigreurcomme sans complaisance, avec la conscience calme de sa superiorite ; ennerni de cette devotion qui s'applaudit d'avoir donne a ses defauts une ecorce de secheresse et d'orgueil ; pourtant, plein d'une profonde et reelle veneration pour la religion, et voyant au-dessous de lui les petites attaques de 1'incredulite frivole ou de la philosophic. Enfin, il se peut 1 qu'on ignore les evcnemens de la vie de La Bruyere ; mais on converse avec lui des qu'on ouvre son livre. Aucun ecrivain, peut-etre, n'a laisss plus la trace de son caractere dans son langage ; ne cherchant point a donner une marche suivie a son livre, il a pu ne se pas assujettir aux regies de composition qui auraient modifie ses impressions. En n'en- chainant point ses pensees, en les montrant isolees, il leur a laisse leur caractere primitif : la sensation qu'il a recue, il la trace telle qu'il en a ete frappe ; on assiste a 1'erTet que pro- duisaient sur lui les objets ; ses expressions sont vivantes; il semble qu'elles frappent les yeux plutot que l'esprit. Cette variete de couleurs, cette maniere d'orTrir toujours 1'image au lieu de la description, et Pimpression au lieu du jugement ; ces pensees qui vont jusqu'au vif, qui atteignent juste le pointe caracterisque etqui prennent pied dans l'esprit du lecteur, voila ce qui fait vivreen societeavec La Bruyere et le fait " connaitre jusque dans l'arae." (Id.) Mahomet. Aux extremites de l'Asie, et sur les confins de l'Afrique, existait une peuple qui, par sa position et son courage, avait echappe aux conquetes des Perses, d'Alexandre, et des Romains. De ses nombreuses tribus, les unes devaient leur subsistence a l'agriculture, les autres avaient conserve la vie pastorale : toutes se livraient au commerce, et quelques unes au brigandage. Reu- nie par une meme origine, par une meme langage, par quel- ques habitudes religieuses, elles formaient une grande nation, dont cependant aucun lien politique n'unissait les portions diverses. Tout-a-coup s'eleva au milieu d'elles un bomme doue d'un ardent enthousiasme et d'une politique profonde, ne 1 il se peut, it may be. 312 SELECTIONS FROM avec les talens d'un poete et ceux d'un guerrier. II concoit le hardi projet de reunir en un seul corps les tribus Arabes, et il a Je courage de l'executer. Pour donner un chef a une na- tion jusqu'alors indomptce, il commence par elever sur les debris de l'ancien culte une religion plus epuree. Legislateur, prophete, pontife, juge, general d'armee, tous les moyens de subjuguer les homrnes sont entre ses mains, et il sait les em- ployer avec habilite et avec grandeur. II debite un ramas de fables, qu'il dit avoir recues du ciel ; mais il gagne des batailles. La priere et les plaisirs de l'amour partagent ses momens. Apres avoir joui 1 vingt ans d'un pou- voir sans bornes, dont il n'existe point d'autre exemple, il de- clare que, s'il a cammis une injustice, il est pret a la rcparer. Tout se tait : une seule femme ose reclamer une petite soinme de monnaie. 11 meurt; et l'enthousiasme qu'il a communique a son peuple va changer la face des trois parties du monde. (Condorcet.) Les Grecs et les Italiens. L'ltalie, ou la litterature Grecque venait d'etre 2 transported par les soins de Boccace et de la republique Florentine, etait le pays de 1'Europe le plus propre a faire revivre Pancienne Grece. La nature elle-meme s'est plu adoter cesdeux magni- fiques contrees de dons a-peu-pres semblables. Elle a mul- tiplie, dans Tune et dans Tautre, les sites pittoresques ; elle y a entassa des rochers majestueux, oreuse des vallons rians, et menage des cascades refraichissantes; elle a orne, com me |>our un jour de fete, leurs campagnes de la plus riche vegetation ; et tandis qn'elle a enrichi a l'envie l'ltalie et la Grece par les prodiges de sa puissance, elle a aussi donne aux homrnes qui les habitent des qualites semblables, si du moius l'on pent recon- naitre le caractere primitif d'un peuple, lorsqu'il a deja ete al- tere par les gouvernemens divers. Les qualites communes aux pen pies de l'ltalie et de la Grece, les qualites permanentes, dont le germe s'est maintenu sous tous les gouvernemens, et se retrouve encore, sont une imagination* vive et brillante, une sensibrlite ra[)idement excit< e et rapidement etouffee : enfin, le gout inne de tous les arts, avec des organes propres aapprecier ce qui est beau dans tous les genres et a le reproduire. Dans les fetes du peuple des campagnes, on demelerait aujourd'hui des homrnes en tout semblables a ceux dont les applaudissemens 1 App. P. II. — 2 venait d'etre, had just been. FRENCH LITERATURE. 313 animerent le genie de Phidias, de Miehel-Ange, ou de Raphael, lis ornent leurs chapeaux de fleurs odoriferantes ; leur manteau est drape d'une maniere pittoresque, comme celui des statues antiques; leur langage est figure et plein de feu ; leurs traits expri merit toutes les passions, et en efFet ils sont susceptibles de Pamour le plus impetueux, de la colere la plus bouillante. Aucune fete ne leur parait complete si les facultes morales de 1'homme n'y ont eu quelque part, si Peglise ou ils reunissent n'est ornee avec gout et d'une maniere pittoresque, si une mu- sique harmonieuse n'eleve leur ame vers les cieux. Leurs di- vertissemens portent le meme caractere : lorsque, sur leur sa- laire, ils ont derobe a leurs besoins une penible epargne, ils ne la consacrent point a se procurer des boissons enivrantes ou des plaisirs crapuleux ; mais ils la portent, comme un tribut, aux theatres, aux poetes improvisateurs, aux conteurs d'histo- ires qui eveillent leur imagination, et qui nourrissent leur esprit. L'ltalie est aujourd'hui le sen! pays ou le bouvier et le vigneron, le laboureur et le berger, remplissent avec leurs femmes et leurs enfans les salles de spectacle; c'est le seul ou ils puissent comprendre des tragedies qui leur representent les heros des temps passes, et des fabies poetiques dont le souve- nir ne leur est point absolument etranger. (Sismondi.) Les peuples de la Bet i que. Ils ont horreur de notre politesse ; et il taut avouer que la leur est grande dans leur aimable simplicite. Ils vivent tous ensemble sans partager les terres; chaque famille est gouver- nee par son chef, qui en est le veritable roi. Le pere de fa- mille est en droit de punir chacun de ses enfans, ou petits-enfans qui fait une mauvaise action : mais avant que de le punir il prend Pavis du reste de la famille. Ces punitions n'arrivent presqiie jamais ; car l'innocence des mo3urs, la bonne foi, 1'obe- issance, et Phorreur du vice habitent dans cette heureuse terre. II sernble qu'Astree, qu'on dit retiree dans le ciel, est encore ici-bas cachee parmi ces hommes. II ne faut point de juges parrni eux ; car leur propre conscience les juge. Tous les biens sont communs : les fruits des arbres, les legumes de la terre, le lait des troupeaux, sont des richesses si abondantes, que des peuples si sobres et si moderes n'ont pas besoin de les partager. Chaque famille, errante dans ce beau pays, trans- 27 314 SELECTIONS FROM porte ses tentes d'un lieu en un autre, quand elle a consume les fruits et epuise les paturages de l'endroit ou elle s'etait mise. Ainsi ils n'ont point d'interets a soutenir les uns contre les au- tres, et ils s'aiment tous d'un amour fraternel que rien ne trou- ble. C'est le retranchementdes vaines richesses et des plaisirs trompeurs qui leur conserve cette paix, cette union, et cette liberte. Ils sont tous libres, tous egaux. On ne voit parmi eux aucutie distinction, que celle qui vient de l'experience des sages vieillards, ou de la sagesse extraordi- naire de quelques jeunes hommes qui egalent les vieillards consommes en vertu. La fraude, la violence, la parjure, les proces, les guerres, ne font jamais entendre leur voix cruelle et empestee dans ce pays cheri des dieux. Jamais le sang humain n'a rougi cette terre ; a peine y voit-on couler celui des agneaux. Quand on parle a ces peuples des batailles san- glantes, des rapides conquetes, des renversemens d'etats qu'on voit dans les autres nations, ils ne peuvent 1 assez s'etonner. Quoi ! disent-ils, les hommes' 2 ne sont-ils pas assez mortels, sans se donner encore les uns aux autres une mort precipitee ? la vie est si courte ! et il seinble qu'elle leur paraisse trop longue! sont-ils sur la terre pour se dechirer les uns les au- tres, et pour se rendre mutuellement malheureux ? (Fe'nelon.) Un Combat de Taureaux. Au milieu du champ est un vaste cirque environne de nom- breux gradins ; c'est la que 1'auguste reine, habile dans cet art si doux, de gagner les cceurs de son peuple en s'occupant de ses plaisirs, invite souvent ses guerriers au spectacle le plus cheri des Espagnols. La, les jeunes chefs, sans cuirasse, ve- tus d'un simple habit de soie, armes seulement d'une lance, viennent, sur de rapides coursiers, attaquer et vaincre des tau- reaux sauvages. Des soldats a pied, plus legers encore, les cheveux enveloppes dans des reseaux, tiennent d'une main un voile de pourpre, de l'autre des lances aigues. L'alcade pro- clame la loi de ne secourir aucun combattant; de ne leur lais- ser d'autres armes que la lance pour immoler, le voile de pour- pre pour se defend re. Les rois, entoures de leur cour, presid- ent a ces jeux sanglans ; et l'armee entiere, occupant les im- menses amphitheatres, temoigne par des cris de joie, par des 1 App. O. II. § XI11. — 2 § 287, note. FRENCH LITERATURE. 315 transports de plaisir et d'ivresse, quel est son amour effrene ])our ces antiques combats. Le signal se donne, la barriere s'ouvre, le taureau s'elance au milieu du cirque; mais, au bruit de mille fanfares, aux cris, a la vue des spectateurs, il s'arrete, inquiet et trouble; ses na- seaux fument ; ses regards bnilans errent sur les amphithea- tres ; il semble egalement en proie a la surprise, a la fureur. Tout-a-coup il se precipite sur un cavalier qui le blesse, et fuit rapidement a l'autre bout. Le taureau s'irrite, le poursuit de pres, frappe a coups redoubles la terre, et fond sur le voile eclatant que lui presente un combattant k pied. L'adroit Espagnol, dans le meme instant, evite a la fois sa rencontre, suspend a ses cornes le voile leger, et lui darde une fleche aigue, qui de nouveau fait couler son sang. Perce bientot de toutes les lances, blesse de ces traits penetrans dont le fer courbe reste dans la plaie, l'animal bondit dans 1'arene, pousse d'horribles mugissemens, s'agite en parcourant le cirque, se- coue les fleches nombreuses enfoncees dans son large coo, fait voler ensemble les cailloux broyes, les lambeaux de pour- pre sanglans, les flotsd'ecume rougie, et tombe enfin epuise d'efforts, de colere, et de douleur. Ce fut dans un de ces combats que le temeraire Cortez pensa terminer une vie destinee a de si grands exploits. Brulant de se signaler aux yeux de la belle Mendoze, qui depuis long- temps possede son cceur, Cortez, sur un Andalous, blessait et fuyait un taureau furieux. Malgre le peril dont il est menace, le jeune amant regarde toujours la beaute qui toujours l'occupe, lorsqu'il voit tomber dans 1'arene la fleur d'oranger qui parait son sein. Cortez se precipite a terre, court, se baisse, et le taureau vole; il va frapper Pimprudent Cortez. Un cri de Mendoze l'avertit. Cortez, sans quitter la fleur, dirige d'un OBil sur sa lance a Tepaule de l'animal, qu'il jette expirant sur le sable. (Florian.) D e la Nature. La nature est le systeme des lois etablies par le Createur pour l'existence des choses et pour la succession des etres. La nature n'est point 1 une chose, car cette chose serait tout : la nature n'est point un etre, car cet 6tre serait Dieu ; mais on peut la considerer comme une puissance vive, immense, qui 1 App. O. II. § V. 316 SELECTIONS FROM embrasse tout, qui anime tout, et qui, subordonnee a celle du Premier Etre, n'a commence d'agir'que par son ordre, et n'agit encore que parson concours ou son consentement. Cette puis- sance est de la puissance divine la partie qui se manifeste ; c'est en merne temps la cause et l'eflfet, le mode et la substance, le dessein et Pouvrage: bien di fie rente de Part by main dont les productions ne sont que des ouvrages morts, la nature est elle- meme une ouvrage perpetuellement vivant, un ouvrier sans cesse aetif, qui sait tout employer, qui, travaillant d'apres soi- meme, toujours sur le meme fonds, bien loin de Pepuiser, le rend inepuisable : le temps, l'espace, et la matiere sont ses moyens, l'univers son objet, le mouvement et la vie son but. Les effets de cette puissance sont les phenomenes du monde ; les ressorts qu'elle emploie sont des forces vives, que l'espace et le temps ne peuvent que mesurer et limiter sans jamais les detruire ; des forces qui se balaneent, qui se confondent, qui s'opposent sans pouvoir s'aneantir ; les unes penetrent et trans- portent les corps, les autres les echauffent et les animent; Pat- traction et Pirn pulsion sont les deux principaux instrnmens de Paction de cette puissance sur les corps bruts ; la chaleur et les molecules organiques vivantes sont les principes actifs qu'elle met en ceuvre pour la formation et le developpement des etres organises. Avec de tels moyens que ne peut la nature ? Elle pourrait tout si elle pouvait aneantir et creer ; mais Dieu s'est reserve ces deux extremes de pouvoir: aneantir et creer sont les attri- buts de la Toute-puissance ; alterer, changer, detruire, develop- per, renouveller, produire, sont les seuls droits qu'il a voulu ceder. Ministre de ses ordres irrevocables, depositaire de ces immua- bles decrets, la nature ne s'ecarte jamais des loisqui lui ont ete prescrites ; elle n'allere rien aux plans qui lui ont ete traces, et dans tous ses ouvrages elle presente le sceau de PEternel : cette empreinte divine, prototype inalterable des existences, est le modele sur lequel elle opere ; modele dont tous les traits sont exprimes en caracteres ineffacables, et prononces pour jamais ; modele toujours neuf, que le nombre des monies ou des copies, quelque infini qu'il soit, ne fait que renouveller. (Buffon.) De la Picte et de 1 ' Hy poc risie . Tendre Piete ! vertu sublime ! vous meritez tous nos re- spects, vous elevez Phomme au-dessus de son ^tre, vous Pap- FRENCH LITERATURE. 317 prochez du Createur, vous en faites stir la terre un habitant des cieux. Divine Modestie ! vous meritez tout notre amour ; vous faites seule la gloire du sage, vous faites aussi la decence du saint etat des ministres de l'autel ; vous n'etes point un senti- ment acquis par le commerce des hommes, vous etes un don du ciel, une grace qu'il accorde en secret a quelques ames pri- t\lrgie.es pour rendre la vertu plus aimable. Vous rendriez meme, s'il etait possible, le vice rnoins choquant ; mais jamais vous n'avez habite dans un cceur corrornpu ; la honte y a pris votre place ; elle prend aussi vos traits lorsqu'elle vein sortir de ces replis obscurs ou le crime l'a fait naitre ; elle couvre de votre voile sa confusion, sa bassesse ; sous ce lache deguisementelle ose done paraitre ; mais elle soutient mal la lumiere du jour, elle a l'ceil trouble et le regard louche, elle marche a pas obliques dans des routes souterraines ou le sou peon la suit ; et lorsqu'elle croit echapper a tous les yeux, un rayon de la verite luit; il perce le image; l'illusion se dissipe, le prestige s'evan- ouit, le scandale seul reste, et l'on voit a nu toutes les difformi- tes du vice grimacant la vertu. Mais dctournons les yeux, n'achevons pas le portrait hideux de la noire hypocrisie ; lie disons pas que, quand elle a perdu le masque de la honte, elle arbore le panache de Porgueil, et qu'alors elle s'appelle impudence. Ces monstres odieux sont indignes de faire ici contraste dans le tableau des vertus ; ils souilleraient nos pinceaux ; que la modestie, la piote, la modera- tion, la sagesse, soient mes seuls objets et mes seuls modeles. (Id.) L'Art d'Ecrire. Celui qui peint la pens^e a du penser long-temps pour l'ex- pritner dans toute son energie. Or, la parole est une peinture, et le style n'est que la parole icrite. Quel est le secret du style ? e'est de reproduire au-dehors, avec un art fidele, tout ce qu'on a concu dans le secret de la meditation au-dedans de soi-meme. L'ecrivain porte en son esprit un modele interieur dont il veut representer l'image. Des expressions diverses tour-a-tour se presentent; une analyse rapide en decompose les nuances fortes ou delicates, elevees ou profondes. Que de vues per^antes et varices pour comparer et pour choisir ! Ces expressions elles-memes amenent d'autres idees; car el les en sont a la fois PefFet et la cause. Si la conception est pauvre et *27 318 SELECTIONS FROM languissante, le style qui en est l'image aura necessairement le meme caractere. Alors line voix secrete semble dire a 1'ecri- vain : Medite davantage, penetre plus avant dans ta pensee ; c'est de sa substance meme, pour ainsi dire, qu'il faut tirer sa forme et sa ressemblance. L'expression et la pensee ont done une commune origine, qui se decele dans la conformite de leurs traits: des rapports intimes et mysterieux les attachent Tune a l'autre, comme Fame au corps et le principe a ses con- sequences. Pen atteste non seuiement les poetes et les orateurs, mate ces hommes qui sont l'honneur des sciences, et qui dans un langage digne d'elles nous racontent les revolutions de la terre et du ciel, et ceux qui embellissent d'une sage elegance les re- cherches de Terudition ou les theories des beaux-arts ; je les atteste tons sans crainte : ils vous diront mieux que moi com- bien ce travail est utile et fecond ; ils vous diront qu'en per- fectionnant le gout on perfectionne aussi 1'intelligence. Oui, le choix d'un seul mot qui doit donner plus de force ou de grace au discours occupe souvent l'esprit tout entier, et 1'esprit en augmente de souplesse et d'energie. Quoi ! s'ecriera 1'ig- norance, un mot vaut-il tant d'efForts ! Mais ce mot necessaire avait fui long-temps; mais quand il est saisi dans un moment favorable, il acheve, il developpe, il eclaire, il embellit la pen- see. C'est par lui qu'elle est vivante. Que dis-je ? il la per- petue pour jamais, il va la rendre universelle. Otez ce mot, changez-le seuiement de place, et ce que vous admirez n'existe plus, (FONTAxNES.) D e la Grace. Dans les personnes, dans les ouvrages, grace signifie, non seuiement ce qui plait, mais ce qui plait avec attrait. C'est pourquoi les anciens avaient imagine que la deesse de la beau- te ne devait jamais paraitre sans les Graces. La beaute ne de- plait jamais, mais elle peut etre depourvue de ce charme secret qui invite a la regarder, qui remplit l'ame d'un sentiment doux. Les graces dans la figure, dans le maintien, dans Taction, dans les discours, dependent de ce merite qui attire. Une belle per- sonne n'aura point de graces dans le visage, si la bouche est fermee sans sourire, si les yeux sont sans douceur. Le scrieux n'est jamais gracieux : il n'attire point ; il approche trop du severe, qui rebute. FRENCH LITERATURE* 319 Un homme bien fait, dont Ie maintien est mal assure ou g&- ne, la demarche precipitee ou pesante, les gestes lourds, n'a point de grace, parcequ'il n'a rien de doux, de liant, dans son exterieur. La voix d'un orateur qui manquera d'inflexion et de douceur sera sans grace. II en est de merae dans tous les arts. La proportion, la beaute, peuvent n'etre point gracieuses. On ne peut dire que les pyramides d'Egypte aient des graces. On ne pourrait le dire du colosse de Rhodes comme de la Ve- nus de Guide. Tout ce qui est uniquement dans le genre fort et vigoureux a un merite qui n'est pas celui des graces. Ce serait mal connaitre Michel Ange et le Caravage, que de leur attribuer les graces de l'Albane. Le sixieme livre de 1'Eneide est sublime: le quatrieme a plus de graces. Quelques odes galantes d'Horace respirent les graces, comme quelques unes de ses epitres enseignent la raison. II semble qu'en general le petit, le joli en tout genre, soit plus susceptible de graces que le grand. On louerait mal une oraison funebre, une tragedie, un sermon, si on ne leur donnait que Tepithete gracieux. Ce n'est pas qu'il y ait un senl genre d'ouvrage qui puisse etre bon en etant oppose aux graces; car leur oppose est la rudesse, le sauvage, la secheresse. L'Hercule Farnese ne de- vait point avoir les graces du Belvedere et de l'Antinous ; inais il n'est ni rude ni agreste. L'incendie de Troie, dans Virgile, n'est point decrit avec les graces d'une tlegie de Ti- bulle ; il plait par des beautts fortes. Un ouvrage peut done etre sans graces, sans que cet ouvrage ait le moindre desagre- ment. Le terrible, l'horrible, la description, la peinture d'un monstre, exigent qu'on s'eloigne de tout ce qui est gracieux, mais non pas qu'on affecte uniquement 1'oppose. Car si un artiste, en quelque genre que ce soit, n'exprime que des choses affreuses, s'il ne les adoucit point par des contrastes agrcables, il rebutera. La grace, en peinture, en sculpture, consiste dans la mollesse des contours, dans une expression douce; et la peinture a par-dessus la sculpture la grkce de I'union des par- ties, celle des figures qui s'animent l'une par 1'autre, et qui se pretent des agivmens par leurs attributs et par leurs regards. Les graces de la diction, soit en eloquence, soit en poesie, de- pendent du choix des mots, de 1'harmonie des phrases, et en- core plus de la delicatesse des idees et des descriptions riantes. L'abus des graces est l'anvterie, comme l'abus du sublime est l'ampoule. Toute perfection est pres d'un defaut. (Voltaire.) 320 SELECTIONS FROM L ' Eloquence. L'eloquence, qui domine quelquefois si puissament les etats, est soumise a 1'influence des gouvernemens ; et l'on pourrait, en suivant ses vicissitudes, retrouver toute l'histoire morale et politique des peuples. Sous le dcspotisme, il n'y a pas de place pour I'eloquence, non plus que pour la gloire. Les re- volutions deviennent son theatre et son ecueil : elle y brille pour mourir frappee par le glaive ; et les tetes des orateurs sont attachtes a la tribune sanglante. Elle s'afTaiblit et s'enerve dans la paix des monarchies heureuses, qui redoutent l'agita- tion, de peur du changement. Les republiques memes, que Ton croit le domaine de I'eloquence, ne sont pas toujours faites pour elle. L'eloquence ne s'elevera pas dans ces dunocraties economes et modestes, ou la liberte n'est pas un effort d'he- ro'isme, une conquete de l'enthousiasme, mais un avantage du sol, et, pour ainsi dire, un present de la pauvrete : la Suisse n'a jamais eu d'orateurs. L'tloquence ne s'elevera pas dans ces republiques factieuses ou les citoyens aiment encore plus la vengeance que la liherte, ou la force decide incessam merit, et signale ses victoires successives par 1'exil et la mort : Florence n'a jamais eu d'orateurs. L'eloquence ne montrera pas son genie dans ces republiques industrieuses et commercautes, ou la liberte meme n'est estimee que comme un instrument de richesses, ou le patriotisme n'est qu'un calcul d'interet, ou les plus grands sacrifices sont des speculations plutot que des ver- tus : on n'a jamais vante les orateurs de Carthage ; on ne con- nait pas les orateurs de la Hollande . , . LVIoquence n'osera pas naitre dans ces aristocraties ombrageuses ou l'activite du despotisme est rendue plus terrible par le nornbre de ceux qui l'exercent, ou des republicains tyranniques redoutent d'autant plus la liberte qu'ils lui doivent leur puissance et regnent en son nom : a Venise on ne parlait pas. L'eloquence a tout a la fois besoin de la violence des pas- sions et de l'autorite toute-puissunte des lois. Mais cet etat est une espece de prodige difficile et peu durable. Ainsi, dans Athenes, dans Rome, l'eloquence n'eut que de courts inter- valles de gloire, an moment meme ou la liberte allait p^rir par la guerre civile et par la conquete. Etrange fatal ite des insti- tiitions et du genie de 1'homme ! Quand IVloquence s'eleve au milieu des institutions faites pour elle, trop souvent elle assiste a leur ruine, et meurt sur leurs debris : elle meurt avec De- mosthene, Antoine, et Ciceron. Quand l'eloquence eleve une FRENCH LITERATURE. 321 t£te bardie, au milieu des institutions qui la repoussem, elle est plus forte pour detruire qu'elle ne l'avait ete pour sauver, mais elle meurt encore sur les mines qu'elle a faites. Ainsi Rienzi, qui dans la Rome pontificate pretendait troqver la Rome des Scipions; Rienzi, dont l'antiquite eut fait un grand homme, mais qui, laisse seul a lui-meme entre les debris du Colisee et le3 inscriptions effacees des tombeaux entr'ouverts, redemandait la tribune des Graccbes, et permettait de creer des Romains; Rienzi, avec son audace et son genie, ne semblait qu'un sedi- tieux, et mourait oublie. (Villemakn.) La Religion des Romains. Ce ne fut ni la crainte ni la piete qui etablit la religion chez les Romains, mais la necessite ou sont toutes les societes d'en avoir une. Les premiers rois ne furent pas moins attentifs a regler le culte et les ceremonies, qu'a donner des lois et batir des mu rail les. Je trouve cette difference entre les legislateurs Romains et ceux des autres peuples — que les premiers firent la religion pour l'etat, et les autres l'etat pour la religion. Romulus, Tatius, et Numa asservirent les dieux a la politique : le culte et les cere- monies qu'ils instituerent furent trouves si sages, que, lorsque les rois furent chasses, le joug de la religion fut le seul dont ce peuple, dans sa fureur pour la liberte, n'osa s'afFrancbir. Quand les legislateurs Romains etablirent la religion, ils ne penserent point a la reformation des mceurs, ni a donner des principes de morale ; ils ne voulurent point gener des gens qu'ils ne connaissaient pas encore. Ils n'eurent done d'abord qu'une vue generale, qui etait d'inspirer, a un peuple qui ne craignait rien, la crainte des dieux, et de se servir de cette crainte pour le conduire a leur fantaisie. Les successeurs de Numa n'oserent point faire ce que ce prince n'avait point fait : le peuple, qui avait beaucoup perdu de sa ferocite et de sa rudesse, etait devenu capable d'une plus grande discipline. II eut ete facile d'ajouter aux ceremonies de la religion des principes et des regies de morale dont elle manquait ; mais les legislateurs des Romains etaient trop clair- voyants pour ne point connaitre combien une pareille reforma- tion eut ete dangereuse. C'eut ete convenir (jue la religion etait defectueuse ; c't^tait lui donner des ages, et afFaiblir son auto- rite en voulant l'etablir. La sagesse des Romains leur fit pren- 322 SELECTIONS FROM dre un meilleur parti en etablissant de nouvelles lois. Les in- stitutions humaines peuvent bien changer, mais les divines doivent etre immuables comme les dieux. (Montesquieu.) V a n i t e . J'etais l'autre jour dans une societe ou je me divertis assez bien. II y avait 1 la des femmes de tous les ages ; une de quatre-vingts ans, 2 une de soixante, une de quarante qui avait une niece de vingt a vingt-deux. Un certain instinct me fit approcher de cette derniere, et elle me dit a l'oreille : " Que dites vous de ma tante, qui, a son age, veut avoir des amans, et fait encore la jolie ?" " Elle a tort, 3 lui dis-je ; c'est un dessein qui ne convient qu'a vous." Un moment apres, je me trouvai aupres de sa tante, qui me dit: "Que dites-vous de cette femme qui a pour le moins soixante ans, qui a passe aujourd'hui plus d'une heure a sa toilette ?" " C'est du temps perdu, lui dis-je ; et il faut avoir vos charmes pour devoir y songer." J'allai a cette malheureuse femme de soixante ans, et la plaignais dans mon ame, lorsqu'elle me dit a l'oreille : u Y a-t-il rien de si ridicule ? Voyez cette femme qui a quatre-vingts ans, et qui met des rubans couleur- de-feu : elle veut faire la jeune, et elle y reussit ; car cela ap- proche de l'enfance." Ah, bon Dieu ! dis-je en moi-meme, ne sentirons-nous jamais que le ridicule des autres ? C'est peut- etre un bonheur, disais-je ensuite, que nous trouvionsde la con- solation dans les faiblesses d'autrui. Cependant j'etais en train de me divertir, et je dis : Nous avons assez monte ; descendons a present, et commencons par la vieille qui est au sornmet. art. Enfin, c'est un des plus grands caracteres sensibles de la toute-puissance de Dieu, que notre imagination se perde dans cette pensee. 1 § 543. — 2 nous avons beau, it is of no use for us. 824 SELECTIONS FROM Mais pour presenter a l'homme un autre prodige aussi eton- nant, qu'il recherche dans ce qu'il connait les choses les plus dedicates ; qu'un ciron par exemple, lui offre dans la petitesse de son corps des parties incomparablement plus petites, des jambesavec des jointures, des veines, des humeurs dans ce sang, des vapeurs dans ces gouttes; que, divisant encore ces derni- eres choses, il epuise ses forces et ses conceptions, et que le dernier objet ou il peut arriver soit maintenant celui de notre discours ; il pensera peut-etre que c'est la l'extreme petitesse de la nature. Je veux lui peindre non seulement 1'univers visible, mais encore tout ce qu'il est capable de concevoir de l'immen- site de la nature dans Tenceinte de cet atome imperceptible.. . Qu'il se perde dans ces merveilles, aussi etonnantes par leur petitesse que les autres par leur etendue. Car qui n'admirera que notre corps, qui tantot n'etait pas perceptible dans 1'univers imperceptible lui-meme dans le sein du tout, soit maintenant un colosse, un monde, ou plutot un tout a l'egard de la derni- ere petitesse ou l'on ne peut arriver? (Pascal.) La Paresse. La paresse est de toutes nos passions celle qui nous est le 1 plus inconnue a nous-memes. Nulle autre n'est plus ardente et plus maligne, quoique les dommages qu'elle cause soient tres caches. Si nous considerons attentivement son influence, nous verrons qu'en toute occasion elle se rend maitresse de nos sentimens, de nos interets, et de nos plaisirs : c'est le rtmora qui arrete les plus grands vaisseaux, c'est une bonace plus dan- gereuse aux plus importantes affaires que lesecueilset lestem- p^tes. Le repos de la paresse est un charme secret de l'ame, qui suspend nos plus ardentes poursuites et nos plus fermes resolutions. (Rochefoucault.) M e p r i s de la M o r t . Apres avoir parle de la faus^ete de tant de vertus apparentes, il est raisonnable de dire quelque chose de la faussete du me- 1 § 211. FRENCH LITERATURE. 325 pris de la mort : j'entends parler de ce rnepris de la raort que les payens se vantent de tirer de leurs propres forces sans l'esperanee d'une meilleure vie. II y a de la difference entre souffrir la mort constamment, et la mepriser. Le premier est assez ordinaire; mais je crois que l'autre n'est jamais sincere. On a ecrit neanmoins tout ce qui peut le plus persuader que la mort n'est point un mal ; et les homines les plus faibles aussi bien que les heros, ont do line mille exemples celebres pour etablir cette opinion. Cependant je doute que personne de bon sens l'ait jamais cru ; et la peine que l'on prend pour le persuader aux autres et a soi-meme fait assez voir que cette entreprise n'est pas aisee. On peut avoir divers sujets de de- gouts dans la vie ; mais on n'a jamais raison de mepriser la mort. Ceux meme qui se la donnent volontairement ne la comptent pas pour si peu de chose, et ils s'en etonnent et la rejettent comme les autres lorsqu'elle vientaeux par une autre voie que cellequ'ilsont choisie. L'intgaliteque Ton remarque dans le courage d'un n ombre infini de vaillans homines vient de ce que la mort se decouvre differemment a leur imagination, et y parait plus presente en un temps qu'en un autre. Ainsi il arrive qu'apres avoir meprise ce qu'ils ne connaissaient pas, ils craignent enfin ce qu'ils connaissent. II faut eviterde 1'eu- visager avec toutes ses circonstances, si on ne veut pas croire qu'elle soit le plus grand de tons les maux. Les plus habiles et les plus braves sont ceux qui prennent de plus honnetes pre- textes pour s'empecher de la considerer ; mais tout homme qui la sait voir telle qu'elle est, trouve que c'est une chose epouvanta- ble. La necessite de mourir faisait toute la Constance des phi- losophes. Ils croyaient qu'il fallait aller de bonne grace ou l'on ne saurait s'empecher d'aller ; et ne pouvant eterniser leur vie, il n'y avait rien qu'ils ne fissent pour eterniser leur reputation, et sauver du naufrage ce qui en peutetre garanti. Contentons- nous, pour faire bonne mine 1 , de ne nous pas dire a nous- memes tout ce que nous en pensons, et esperons plus de notre temperament que de ces faibles raisonnemens qui nous font croire que nous pouvons approcher de la mort avec indiffe- rence. La gloire de mourir avec fermete, l'esperance d'etre regrette, le desir de laisser une belle reputation, l'assurance d'etre affranchi des miseres de la vie, et de ne dependre plus des caprices de la fortune, sont des remedes qu'on ne doit pas rejeter ; mais on ne doit pas croire aussi qu'ils soient infaillibles. 1 faire bonne mine, to appear well. 28 326 SELECTIONS FROM lis font, pour nous assurer, ce qu'une simple haie fait souvent a la guerre pour assurer ceux qui doivent approcher d'un lieu d'ou l'on tire. Quand on en est eloigne, on s'imagine qu'elle peut mettre a couvert 1 ; mais quand on en est proche on trouve que c'est un faible secours. C'est nous flatter, de croire que la mort nous paraisse de pres ce que nous en avons juge de loin, et que nos sentimens, qui ne sont que faiblesse, soient d'une trempe assez forte pour ne point souffrir d'atteinte par la plus rude de toutes les epreuves. C'est aussi mal connaitre les effets de l'amour-propre, que de penser qu'il puisse nous aider a compter pour rien ce qui le doit necessairement de- truire ; et la raison, dans laquelle on croit trouver tant de res- sources, est trop faible en cette rencontre pour nous persuader ce que nous voulons. C'est elle au contraire qui nous trahit le plus souvent, et qui, au lieu de nous inspirer le mepris de la mort, sert a nous decouvrir ce qu'elle a d'affreux et de terrible. Tout ce qu'elle peut faire pour nous est de nous conseiller d'en detourner les yeux pour les arreter sur d'autres objets. Caton et Brutus en choisirent d'illustres. Un laquais se contenta, il y a quelque temps, de danser sur l'echafaud ou il allait etre roue. Ainsi, bien que les motifs soient differents, ils pro- duisent les memes effets ; de sorte qu'il est vrai que, quelque disproportion qu'il y ait entre les grands hommes et les gens du commun, 2 on a vu mille fois les uns et les autres recevoir la mort d'un meme visage ; mais c'a 3 toujours ete avec cette diffe- rence, que, dans le mepris que les grands hommes font paraitre pour la mort, c'est l'amour de la gloire qui leur en ote la vue ; et dans les gens du commun, ce n'est qu'un effet de leur peu de lumieres, qui les empeche de connaitre la grandeur de leur mal et leur laisse la liberie de penser a autre chose. (Id.) La Mort. La mort, mon fils, est un bien pour tous les hommes; elle est la nuit de ce jour inquiet qu'on appelle la vie. C'est dans le sommeil de la mort que reposent pour jamais les maladies, les douleurs, les chagrins, les craintes, qui agitent sans cesse les malheureux vivans. Examinez les hommes qui paraissent les plus heureux : vous verrez qu'ils ont achete leur pretendu 1 a couvert j under cover. — 2 gens du commun, common people. — 3 c'a, it has. FRENCH LITERATURE. 327 bonheur bien cherement ; la consideration publique, par des maux domestiques ; la fortune, par la perte de la sante ; le plaisir si rare d'etre aiine, par des sacrifices continuels: et sou- vent, a la fin d'une vie sacrifice aux interets d'autrui, ils ne voient autour d'eux que des amis faux et des parens ingrats. Mais Virginie a ete heureuse jusqu'au dernier moment. Elle Pa ete avec nous par les biens de la nature ; loin de nous, par ceux de la vertu : et meme, dans le moment terrible ou nous 1'avons vue perir, elle etait encore heureuse ; car, soit qu'elle jetat les yeux sur une colonie entiere, a qui elle causait une desolation universelle, ou sur vous, qui couriez avec tant d'in- trepidite a son secours, elle a vu combien elle nous etait chere a tous. Elle s'est fortifiee contre l'avenir par le souvenir de l'innocence de sa vie, et elle a recu alors le prix que le ciel reserve a la vertu, tin courage superieur au danger. Elle a presente a la mort un visage serein. Mon fils, Dieu donne a la vertu tous les evenemens de la vie a supporter, pour faire voir qu'elle seule peut en faire usage, et y trouver du bonheur et de la gloire. Quand il lui reserve une reputation illustre, il l'eleve sur un grand theatre, et la met aux prises 1 avec la mort ; alors son courage sert d'ex- emple, et le souvenir de ses malheurs recoit a jamais un tribut de larmes de la posterite. Voila le monument immortel qui lui est reserve sur une terre ou tout passe, et ou la memoire meme de la plupart des rois est bientot ensevelie dans un eter- nel oubli. Mais Virginie existe encore. Mon fils, voyez que tout change sur la terre, et que rien ne s'y perd. Aucun art hu- main ne pourrait aneantir la plus petite particule de matiere ; et ce qui fut raisonnable, sensible, aimant, vertueux, religieux, aurait peri, lorsque les elemens dont il etait revetu sont inde- structibles? Ah! si Virginie a ete heureuse avec nous, elle l'est maintenant bien davantage. II y a un Dieu, mon fils: toute la nature 1'annonce ; je n'ai pas besoin de vous le prou- ver. II n'y a que la mechancete des homines qui leur fasse nier une justice qu'ils craignent. Son sentiment est dans votre cceur, ainsi que ses ouvrages sont sous vos yeux. Croyez-vous done qu'il laisse Virginie sans recompense ? Croyez-vous que cette meme puissance, qui avait revetu cette ame si noble d'une forme si belle, ou vous sentiez un art divin, n'aurait pu la tirer des flots? que celui qui a arrange le bonheur actuel des hom- 1 aux prises, in conflict. 328 SELECTIONS FROM mes par des lois que vous ne connaissez pas, ne puisse en pre- parer un autre a Virginie par des lois qui vous sont egalement inconnues ? Quand nous etionsdans le neant, si nous eussions ete capables de penser, aurions-nous pu nous former une idee de notre existence ? Et maintenant que nous sommes dans cette existence tenebreuse et fugitive, pouvons-nous prevoir ce qu-il y a au-dela de la mort, par ou nous en devons sortir ? Dieu a-t-il besoin, comme 1'homme, du petit globe de notre terre pour servir de theatre a son intelligence et a sa bonte ? et n'a-t-il pu propager la vie humaine que dans les champs de la mort? II n'y a pas dans l'ocean une settle goutte d'eau qui ne soit pleine d'etres vivans qui ressortissent a nous ; et H n'existerait rien pour nous parmi tant d'astres qui roulent sur nos tetes ! Quoi ! il n'y aurait d'intelligeuce supreme et de bont£ divine precise-men t que la ou nous sommes ; et, dans ces globes rayonnans et innombrables, dans ces champs in- finis de lumiere qui les environnent, que ni les orages ni les nuits n'obscurcissent jamais, il n'y aurait qu'un espace vain et un neant eternel ! Si nous, qui ne nous sommes rien donne, osions assigner des bornes a la puissance de laquelle nous avons tout rec^u, nous pourrions croire que nous sommes ici sur les limites de son empire, ou la vie se debat avec la mort* et l'innocence avec la tyrannic (St. Pierre.) Frag i lite humaine. Qu'est-ce que ma substance, 6 grand Dieu ? J'entre dans la vie pour en sortir bientot : je viens me montrer comme les au- tres ; apres il faudra disparaitre. Tout nous appelle a la mort. La nature, comme si elle etait presque envieuse du bien qu'elle nous a fait, nous declare souvent et nous fait signifier qu'elle ne peut pas nous laisser long-temps ce peu de matiere qu'elle nous prete. . . . Les enfans qui naissent, a mesure qu'ils crois- sent et qu'ils s'avancent, semblent nous pousser de l'epaule ; et nous dire : Retirez-vous, c'est maintenant notre tour. Ainsi, comme nous en voyons passer d'autres devant nous, d'autres nous verront passer, qui doivent a leurs successeurs le memo spectacle. O Dieu! encore une fois, qu'est-ce que de nous? 1 Si je jette la vue devant moi, quel espace infini ou je ne suis 1 qiiest-ce que dc nous ? what are we ? FRENCH LITERATURE. 329 pas! si je la retourne en arriere, quelle suite effroyable ou je ne suis plus! et que j'occupe peu de place dans cet abime im- mense du temps! Je ne suis rien ; un si petit intervalle n'est pas capable de me distinguer du neant. On ne m'a envoye que pour faire nombre ; encore n'avait-on que faire de moi, et la piece n'en aurait pas ete moins jouee, quand je serais de- meure derriere le theatre. ... II n'y a qu'un moment qui nous separe du neant. Maintenant nous en tenons un ; maintenant il perit, et avec lui nous peririons tous, si, promptement et sans perdre de temps, nous n'en saisissions un autre semblable, jusqu'a ce qu'enfin il en viendra un auquel nous ne pourrons arriver, quelque effort que nous fassions pour nous y eten- dre ; et alors nous tomberons tout-a-coup manque de son- tien. O fragile appui de notre etre ! 6 fondement ruineux de notre substance ! (Bossuet.) R a p i d i t e d e la v i e . Helas! que sont les homraes sur la terre ? . . . Une fatale revolution, une rapid ite que rien n'arrete, entraine tout dans les abimes de Feternite. Les siecles, les generations, les empires, tout va se perdre dans ce go u fire : tout y entre et rien n'en sort. Nos ancetres nous en out fraye le chemin, et nous allons le frayer dans un moment a ceux qui viennent apres nous. Ainsi les ages se renouvellent : ainsi la figure du monde change sans cesse : ainsi les morts et les vivans se succedent et se remplacent continuellement. Rien ne demeure, tout s'use, tout s'eteint. Dieu seul est toujours le meme, et ses annees ne finissent point. Le torrent des ages et des siecles coule devant ses yeux : et il voit de faibles mortels, dans le temps meme qu'ils sont entraines par le cours fatal, l'insulter en passant, proflter de ce seul moment pour deshonorer son nom, et tom- ber au sortir de la entre les mains eternelles de sa justice. (Massillon.) Immortalite de l'ame. Si tout doit rlnir avec nous, si l'homme ne doit rien attcndre apres cette vie, et que ce soit ici notre patrie, notre origine, et la seule felicite que nous pouvons nous promettre, pourquoi n'y sommes-nous pas heureux ? Si nous ne naissons que pour 28* 330 SELECTIONS FROM les plaisirs des sens, pourquoi ne peuvent-ils nous satisfaire, et laissent-ils toujours un fond d'ennui et de tristesse dans notre coeur ? Si 1'homme n'est rien au-dessus de la bete, que ne coule-t-il ses jours com me elle, sans soucis, sans inquietude,, sans degouts, sans tristesse, dans la felicite des sens et de la chair ? Si 1'homme n'a point d'autre bonheur a esperer qu'un bonheur temporel, pourquoi ne le trouve-t-il nulle part sur la terre ? D'ou vient que les richesses Pinquietent, que les hon- neurs le fatiguent, que les plaisirs le lassent, que les sciences le confondent et irritent sa curiosite, loin de la satisfaire ; que la reputation le gene et Pembarrasse ; que tout cela ensemble ne peut remplir Pimmensite de son coeur et lui laisse encore quelque chose a desirer? Tous les autres etres, contens de leur destination, paraissent heureux a leur maniere, dans la situation ou PAuteur de la nature les a places. Les astres, tran- quilles dans le firmament, ne quittent pas leur sejour pour aller eclairer une autre terre ; la terre, reglee dans ses mouvemens, ne s'elance pas en haut pour aller reprendre leur place : les snimaux rampent dans les campagnes sans envier la destinee de Phomme qui habite les villes et les palais somptueux ; les oiseaux se rejouissent dans les airs, sans penser s'il y a des creatures plus heureuses qu'eux sur la terre. Tout est heu- reux ; pour ainsi dire, tout est a sa place dans la nature : Phomme seul est inquiet et mecontent ; Phomme seul est en proie a ses desirs, se laisse dechirer par des craiutes, trouve son supplice dans ses esperances, devient triste et malheureux au milieu de ses plaisirs ; Phomme seul ne rencontre rien ici- bas ou son coeur puisse se fixer. D'ou vient cela? O hommes 1 ne serait-ce point parceque vous etes ici-bas deplaces, que vous etes faits pour le ciel ; que votre coeur est plus grand que le monde, que la terre n'est pas votre patrie, et que tout ce qui n'est pas Dieu n'est rien pour vous ? (Id.) L' E va ngile . La majeste des 'Ecritures m'etonne; la saintete de P'Evan- gile parle a mon coeur. Voyez les livres des philosophes avec toute leur pompe, qu'ils sont petits pres de celui-la ! Se peut-il 1 qu'un livre a la fois si sublime et si simple soit Pouvrage des 1 Se pcut il ? can it be ? FRENCH LITERATURE. 331 hommes ? Se peut-il que celui dont il fait Phistoire ne soit qu'un homme lui-meme ? Est-ce la le ton d'un enthousiaste ou d'un ambitieux sectaire ? Quelle douceur ! quelle purete daiv ses mceurs ! quelle grace touchante dans ses instructions ! quelle elevation dans ses maximes ! quelle profonde sagesse dans ses discours ! quelle presence d'esprit, quelle finesse et quelle justesse dans ses reponses ! quel empire sur ses passions ! Ou est Phomme, ou est le sage, qui sait agir, soufTrir, et mourir sans faibiesse et sans ostentation ? Quand Platon peint son juste imaginaire couvert de tout Popprobre du crime, et digne detous les prix de la vertu, il peint trait pour trait Jesus-Christ; la ressemblance est si frappante, que tons les peres Pont sentie, et qu'il n'est pas possible de s'y tromper. Quels prejuges, quel aveuglement ne faut-il point avoir pour oser comparer le fils de Sophronisque au fils de Marie ! Quelle distance de Pun a Pautre ! Socrate, mourant sans douleur, sans ignominie, soutint aisement jusqu'au bout son personnage, et si cette facile mort n'eut honore sa vie, on douterait si Socrate, avec tout son esprit, fut autre chose qu'un sophiste. II inventa, dit-on, la morale: d'autres avant lui Pavaient mise en pratique ; il ne fit que dire ce qu'ils avaient fait, il ne fit que mettre en lecons leurs exemples. Aristide avait ete juste avant que Socrate eut dit ce que c'etait que justice; 1 Leonidas etait mort pour son pays avant que Socrate eut fait un devoir d'aimer la patrie; Sparte etait sobre avant que Socrate eut lone la sobriete ; avant qu'il eut loue la vertu, la Grece abondait en hommes vertueux. Mais ou Jesus avait-il pris chez les siens Q cette morale elevee et pure dont lui seul a donne les lecons et Pexemple ? Du sein du plus furieux fanatisme la plus haute sagesse se fit entendre, et la simplicite des plus heroiques vertus honora le plus vil de tous les peuples. La mort de Socrate, philosophant tranquil- lement avec ses amis, est la plus douce qu'on puisse desirer ; celle de Jesus, expirant dans les tourmens, injurie, raille, mau- dit de tout un peuple, est la plus horrible qu'on puisse craindre. Socrate, prenant la coupe empoisonnee, benit celui qui la lui presente et qui pleure ; Jesus, au milieu d'un afFreux supplice, prie pour ses bourreaux acharnes. Oui, si la vie et la mort de Socrate sont d'un sage, la vie et la mort de Jesus sont d'un Dieu. (J.-J. Rousseau.) 1 ce que c'Uait que justice, what justice was. — 2 les siens, his coun- trymen. SELECTIONS FRENCH LITERATURE PART II. POETRY. ?a £ete et (a Duette bit Serpent Le Serpent a deux parties, Du genre humain ennemies, Tete et queue ; et toutes deux Ont acquis un nom fameux Aupres des Parques cruelles, Si bien qu'autrefois, entr'elles, II survint 1 des grands debats Pour le pas. La tete avait toujours marche devant la queue. La queue au Ciel se plaignit, Et lui dit : " Je fais mainte et mainte lieue, Com me il plait a celle-ci ; Croit-elle que toujours j'en veuille user ainsi ? Je suis son humble servante. On m'a faite, Dieu merci, 2 Sa sceur, et non sa suivante. Toutes deux de meme sang, Traitez-nous de merne sorte. Aussi bien qu'elle je porte Un poison prompt et puissant. Enfin, voila ma requete : C'est a vous de commander Qu'on me laisse preceder, A mon tour, ma sceur la tete. // survint, there arose. — 2 Dieu merci, thanks to God. 334 SELECTIONS FROM Je la conduirai si bien Qu'on ne se plaindra de rien." Le Ciel eut pour ses vceux une bonte cruelle. Souvent sa complaisance a de mechans efFets. II devrait etre sourd aux aveugles souhaits. II ne le fut pas lors ; et la guide nouvelle, Qui ne voyait au grand jour Pas plus clair que dans un four, Donnait tantot contre un marbre, Contre un passant, contre un arbre : Droit aux ombres du Styx elle mena sa sceur. Malbeureux les 'Etats tombes dans son erreur. (La Fontaine/ ?e @f)am>e^ourt3 et ie# beur SSefette^ Une Chauve-souris donna, tete baissee, 1 Dans un nid de Belette, et shot qu'elle y fut, L'autre, envers les Souris de longtemps courroucee, Pour la devorer accourur. "Quoi, vous osez," dit-elle, "a mes yeux vous produire. Apres que votre race a tache de me nuire? N'etes-vous pas Souris ? Parlez sans fiction. Oui, vous l'etes, ou bien je ne suis pas Belette." " Pardonnez-moi," dit la pauvrette, Incertain, e. a. uncertain, doubt- Incessamment, adv.incessantly. In c liner, v. to incline, bend, bow down. Incomparablement, adv. admi- rably. Inconnu, e. a. s. unknown. Incrtdulite, s.f. incredulity, un- belief. Indestructible, a. indestructible. Indifference, s.f. indifference. Indigence, s.f. indigence, want. Indigent, e. a. indigent, poor. Indigne, a. unworthy. s'Indigner, v. r. to be filled with indignation, fret. lndiquer, v. a. to indicate. Indompte, e. not tamed, unruly. Industricux, se. a. industrious. InefTa^able, a. indelible. Illegal, e. a. unequal , uneven. In^galite, s.f inequality. Inepuisable, a. inexhaustible. Infaillible, a. infallible. Infame, a. infamous. Infamie, s.f. infamy. 380 VOCABULARY. Infntigable, a. indefatigable, Inferieur, e. a. inferior, lower. Infernal, e. a, infernal, hellish, Infini, e. a, infinite. Infirm ite, s.f. infirmity, sick- ness. Inflexion, s.f, inflexion. Influence, s.f, influence. I u forme, a. shapeless. Infortune, e, a. unlucky , unfor- tunate, Ingenieux, se. a. ingenious. Ingrat, e. a. ungrateful. Inimitable, a. inimitable. Iniquite, s.f. iniquity, injustice. Injurier, v. a, to abuse, revile. Injustement, adv. unjustly. Injustice, s.f. injustice, Inne, e. a, innate. Innocence, s.f. innocence. lnnombrable, a. innumerable. lnquiet, e. a. uneasy, restless. In quieter, v. a. to disturb, vex. Inquietude, s.f. disquiet, un- easiness. Inscription, ,9./. inscription. Inscrire, v. a. to inscribe. Insecte, s. m. an insect. Insigne, a. notable, signal. Insinuant,e. a. engaging, pleas- ing. Inspirer, v. a. to inspire, sug- gest. Instant, s. m. instant. Instinct, s. m. instinct. Instituer, v. a. to institute. Institution, s.f. institution. Instruction, s.f. instruction. Instruire, v. a. to instruct, in- form, [tool. Instrument, s. m. instrument, Insti, a l'insu, without the know- ledge. Insulter, v. a. to insult. Intelligence, 5. /. intelligence, understanding. Interessant, e. a. affecting. Lite ret, s. m. interest, profit. Interieur, e. a. s. interior,' in- ward. Interprete, s. interpreter. Interrompre, v. a. to interrupt. Interruption, s.f. interruption. Intervalle, s. m. interval, space. Intime, a. intimate. Intrepide, a. intrepid. Intrepid ite, s.f. intrepidity. In venter, v. a.to invent, contrive. Invincible, a. invincible. Inviter, v. a. to invite. Inusite, e. a. unusual, not used. Inutile, a. useless. Irrevocable, a. irrevocable. Irriter, v. a. to irritate, incense. s'lrriter, v. r. to grow fierce. Isole, e. insulated, lonely. Italie, Italy. Italien, ne. a. s. Italian. Ivresse, s. f. drunkenness. I v rogue, a. s. a drunkard. Jadis, adv. of old, in old times. Jalousie, s.f. jealousy. Jaloux, se. a. jealous. Jamais, adv. never, ever. Jam be, s.f. leg. Janissaire, s. m. a janissary. Japon, Japan. Jardin, s. m. garden. Jaune, a. s. m. yellow. Jaunir, v. a. to make yellow. Je, pr. I. Jeanne d'Arc, Joan of Arc. VOCABULARY. 381 Jerusalem, Jerusalem. Jesuite, s. m. a Jesuit. Jesus Christ, Jesus Christ. Jet, 5. m. cast, throw. Jeter, v. a. to throw, cast, utter. Jeu, s. m. game, sport, play. Jeune, a. young. Jeunesse, s.f youth, frolic. Joie, s.f.joy, delight. Jo i nd re, v. n. to join. Jointure, s.f. joints. Joli, e. a. pretty, genteel. Jouer, v. a. to play, act. Jouet, s. m. plaything, sport. Joueur, se. s. gamester, player. Joug, s. m. yoke, slavery. Jouir, v. n. to enjoy, possess. Jouissauce, s.f. enjoyment. Jour, s. m. day, light, day-light. Jourdain, Jordan. Joyeux, se. a. joyful, merry. Juge, s. m. a judge. [tence. Jugement, s. m. judgment, sen- Juger, v. a. to judge, try. Jules, family of the Julii. Jupiter, s. m. Jupiter. Jurer, v. to swear. Jurisconsulte, s. m. a lawyer. Jus, s. m. juice. Jusque, Jusques, prep, to, as far as, until. Jusqu'a, Juqu'au, even to. Jusqu'ici, hitherto. Juste, a. s.m. just, just man. Juste, adv. right, exactly. Justesse, s.f justness. Justice, s.f. justice. La, art. the. La, pr. her, it. La, adv. there. La-dessus, adv. upon that, up there. Labeur, s. m. labor, work. La bo u re ur, s. m. ploughman. Lac, s. m. a lake. Lacedemone, Lacedemon. Lacedemonien, Lacedemonian. Lache, a. loose,faint, cowardly. Lache, 5. m. a poltroon. Laisser, v. a. to leave, let. Lait, 5. m. milk. Latnbeau, s. m. a rag, a shred. Lamoignon, Lamoignon. Lance, s.f a lance, spear. Lampe, s.f. lamp. Langage, s.f. language,tongue. Langue, s.f. tongue, language. Languir, v. n. to languish. Languissant, e. a. languishing, weak, faint. Lanterne, s.f. lantern. Laquai^, s. m. a lackey , footman. Laquelie, pr.f which. Large, a. large, broad. Large, s. m. breadth. Larme, s.f. a tear. Lasser, v. a. to lire, weary. Laurier, s. m. laurel, bay. Le, art. m. the. Le, pr. him, it, so. Lecher, v. a. to tick. Lecon, s.f lecture, lesson. Lecteur, s. m.a reader. Lecture, s.f. reading. Leger, e. a. light, nimble, tri- fling, [bly. Legerement, adv. lightly, mm* Lt'gion, s.f legion. [giver. Legislator, s.m. legislator, law- Lr»islation, 5./. legislation. Legumes, pi. greens, roots. Lend e i nam, s. m. the next day, morrow. 382 VOCABULARY. Lent, e. slow, dull. Lenteur, s.f. slowness, dullness. Leon id as, Leonidas. Lequel, pr. m. which, who, that. Les, art. pi. fy pr. the, them. Lettre, s. f letter, epistle. Lettves, pi. literature. Levant, s. m. the east, the Le- vant. Lever, v. to lift up. (se) Lever, v. r. to rise, arise. Leur, pr, their, them. Liaison, s.f, connexion, Liant, e. a, affable, mild. Liberal, e. a, liberal, Liberte, s.f, liberty, freedom, Libert in, e. a, licentious, lewd. Libertin, e. s, a lewd person, lib- ertine. Libre, a. free, easy, open. Libre men t, adv. freely. Lie, part, connected. Lien, s. m. tie, band. Lier, v. a. to bind, tie, unite. Lierre, s. m. ivy. Lieu, s. m. place, room. Lieue, s.f. a league, three miles* Ligne, s.f. line, race. Li las, s. m. lilac. Limiter, v. a. to limit. Li mites, s.f. pi. limits, bounds. Limon, s. m. mud. Lire, v. a. to read. Lit, s. m. a bed. Literature, s.f literature. Livre, s. m. a book. Livrer, v. a. to deliver up. Loger, v. to lodge. Logis, s. m. dwelling. Loi, s. f. law. Loin, adv. far, far off. Loin de, far from. Lointain, e. a. remote, far. Loisir, s. m. leisure. Long, Longue, a. long, great. Long-temps, adv. a long while. Longueur, 5./. length. Lors, adv. then. Lorsque, c. when. Louange, s.f praise. Louche, a. squint-eyed, ambig- uous. Louer, v. n. to praise. Lours, s. m. Lewis, louis. Lourd, e. a. heavy, dull. Lubin, Lubin. Lucifer, s. m. Lucifer. Lucius Cornelius, Lucius Cor- nelius. Lugubre, a. doleful, sad. Lui, pr. him, her, to him, to her. Lui-meme, himself. Luire, v.n. to glitter, shine. Lumiere, s.f. light. Luminaire,5.wi. luminary, light. Lutter, v. n. to wrestle, strug- gle. Luxe, s. m. luxury. Lyre, s.f. a lyre, harp. M. Ma, pr.f. my, mine. Madame, s.f. madam. Mademoiselle, s.f miss. Magie, s.f. magic, black-art, Magister, s, m. country school- master, pedant, Magistrat, s. m. a magistrate. Magnificence, s.f. sumptuous- ness, slate. Magnifique, a. magnificent. Majeste, s.f majesty. Majestueux, se. a. majestic. Maigre, a. lean, thin. VOCABULARY. 383 Main, s.f. hand. Maim, e. a. many. Maintenant, adv. now. Maintenir, v. to maintain. Maintien, s. m. deportment. Mais, c. but. Maison, s. f. house, family. Maitre, s. m. a master. Maitresse, s.f. mistress. Mai, 5. m. evil, ill, harm, hurt. Mai, adv. badly, ill. Malade, a. s. sick, patient. Maladie, s.f sickness, disease. Male, a. manly. Malgre, prep, in spite of, not- withstanding. Malheur, s. m. misfortune. Malheureux, se. a. unhappy. Malheureux, s.m. an unfortu- nate. Malin, igne, a. mischievous. Manger, v. a. to eat. Manie, s.f. madness. Maniere, s. f manner, way, style. (se) Man i fester, v. r. to show one's self. Manque, s. m. want, lack. — Manque de, for want of. Manquer, v. a. to fail, want. Manteau, s. m. a cloak. Marbre, s. m. marble. Marchand, s. m. a merchant. Marc he, s.f. march, step. Marche, s. m. market. Marcher, v. n. to walk, march, go. Marie, Mary. Marier, v. a. to marry. Marin ier, s.m. mariner, seaman. Marius, Marius. Marquer, v. a. to mark, show. Marteau, s. m. hammer. Martyr, e. s. a martyr. Masque, s. m. a mask. Masque, e. a. masked, counter- feit, dissembling. Masure, s.f. the ruins of a house, a paltry house. Mat, s. m. a mast. Matiere, s.f. matter. Matin, s. m. adv. — morning. Maud ire, v. a. to curse. Maud it, e. a. cursed. Maure, Moor. Mauresque, Moorish. Mauvais, e. a. bad, evil, ill. Manx, evils, pi. q/*Mal. Maxime, s.f. maxim. Me, pr. me, to me. Mechancete, s.f. wickedness. Mechant, e. a. wicked, bad. Mecontent, e. a. dissatisfied. Mediocrement, adv. indifferent- ly, so so, moderately. Meditation, s.f meditation. Med iter, v. a. to meditate, think. Mt-duse, Medusa. Meilleur, e. a. better. Melange, s. m. mixture. Melodie, s.f. melody. Melodieux, se. a. melodious. Membre, s. m. member. Me me, a. same, self, itself. Me me, adv. even. Memoire, s.f. memory. Memnon, Memnon. Memphis, Memphis. Menacer, v. a. to threaten. Menager, v. a. to conduct. Mendoze, Mendoza. Mener, v. a. to lead, carry. Mensonge, s. m. lie. Menteur, se. a. s. lying, liar. Mentir, v. n. to lie. Menton, v. n. the chin. 384 VOCABULARY. Mepris, s. m. contempt, scorn. Mepriser, v. a. to despise. Mer, s.f. the sea. Merci, s. f. mercy, pity, thanks. Mere, s.f. mother. Merite, s. m. merit, desert, worth. Mer iter, v. a. to deserve. Merveiiie, s.f. wonder, marvel. Merveilleux, se. a. wonderful. Mes, pi. my. Mesure, s.f. measure. — a Me- sure, adv. in proportion. Mesurer, v. a. to measure. Metal, s. m. metal. Metaphore, s.f. metaphor. Mete II us, Metellus. Metier, s. m. trade. Mettre, v. a. to put, set. Meurtrier, e. a. murderous. Meurtriere, s.f a loop-hole. Meute, s.f. pack (of hounds.) Mezence, Mezentius. Michel- Ange, Michael Angelo. Midi, s. m. noon, south. Mieux, adv. better, best. Mi lice, s.f. militia, soldiery. Milieu, s. m. middle, midst. Militaire, a. s. military. Mille, or Mil, s. m. thousand. Millie r, s. m. a thousand. Million, s. m. a million. Mine, s.f a mien, show, looks. Ministere, s. m. ministry. M nistre, s. m. minister. Minute, s.f. minute. Miracle, s. m. miracle, ivonder. Muaculeux, se. a. miraculous. Miserable, a. miserable. Misere, s.f. misery, calamity. Mocha, Mocha. Mode, s.f. mode. Modele, s. m. model. Moderation, s.f. moderation. Mod ere, e. a. moderate, abated. Moderer, v. a. to moderate. Moderne, a. modern. Modernes, s. m. pi. — the mod- erns. Modeste, a. modest. Modestie, s.f. modesty. Modifier, v. a. to modify. Moeurs, s.f. pi. manners, ways. Moi, pr. me, I. — Moi-m6me, myself. Moi n d re, a. less, least. Moins, adv. less. Moins, s. m. the least. Mois, s. m. a month. Moissonner, v. a. to reap. Moitie, s.f half, moiety. Molecule, s. f. particle. Mollesse, s.f. softness. Moment, s. m. moment, minute. Mon, pr. my. Monarchic, s.f. a monarchy. Monarque, s. m. monarch. Monde, s. in. the ivorld, com- pany. Monnaie, s.f. money. Monotone, a. monotonous. Monsieur, s. m. Sir, master. Monstre, s. m. a monster. Montagne, s.f. mountain, hill. Monter, v. n. to go or come up, gel up. Montesquieu, Montesquieu. Montrer, v. a. to show. Monument, s. m. a monument. (se) Moquer de, v. r. to laugh at, jeer. Moral, e. a. moral. Morale, s.f morality. Morhleu, i. zounds ! Murine, s.f haughty surly look. Mort, s.f. death, decease. Mort, e. a. dead, deceased. VOCABULARY. 385 Mort, e. s. a dead body. Mortel, le. a. s. mortal. Mot, s. m. word. Motif, s. m. a motive, aim. Mouche, s.f. a fly. Moucher, v. a. to blow one's nose. Moucheron, s. m. gnat. Mouchoir, s. m. handkerchief. Moule, 5. m. a mould. Mourant, e. a. dying. Mourir, v. n. to die. Mousquet, s. m. musket. Moustache, s. f. whiskers. Mouvement, s. m. motion, move- ment. Mouvoir, v. a. to move. Moyen, s. m. means. Muet, te. a. s. dumb, mute. Mugissement, 5. m. lowing, roaring. Multiplier, v. a. to multiply. Multitude, s.f. multitude. Mur, s. m. a wall. Muraille, s.f a wall. Murmure, 5. m. murmur. Murmurer, v. n. to murmur. Museau,- s. m. muzzle, snout, nose. Musique, s.f. music. Mutuel, le. a. mutual. Mutuellement, adv. mutually. Mystere, 5. m. a mystery. Mysterieux, se. a. mysterious. N. Naissance, s. f birth, nativity. Naissant, e. a. nascent, rising. Naitre, v. n. to be born, arise, spring, grow. Naples, jVaples. 33 Nappe, s.f. table-cloth. Narratif, ve. a. narrative. Naseau, s. m. nostril. Nation, 5./. nation. Naturaliste, s. m. a naturalist. Nature, s.f. nature. Naturel, le. a. natural, native. Naturellement, adv. naturally. Naufrage, 5. m. shipwreck. Navire, s. m. a ship, vessel, sail. Nautonier, s. m. a mariner, a sailor. Ne, adv. not, no. Ne, e. a. born. Neanmoins, c. nevertheless. Neant, 5. m. nothingness. Necessaire, a. necessary. Necessairement, adv. necessa- rily* Necessite, s.f necessity. Nectar, s. m. nectar. Neige, s.f snow. Neveu, s. m. a nephew. Neveux, pi. posterity, Neuf, ve. a. new. Neuvieme, a. s. ninth. Ni, c. neither, nor. Nid, s. m. a nest. Niece, s.f a niece. Nier, v. a. to deny. Nil, Mle. Noble, a. s. tioble. Noblesse, s.f nobility. Noce, Noces, s. f marriage, nuptials. Noir, e. a. blacky base, dismal. Noiratre, a. blackish. Norn, 5. 771. name. fame. Notnbre, s. m. number. Nombreux, se. a. numerous. Nommer, v. a. to name. Noo, adv. no, not. Nopal, s. nopal (Indian fig). 366 VOCABULARY. Nord, s. m. North. Nos, pr. pi. our. Notre, pr. our. Nourrir, v. a. to nourish, feed. Nous, pr. we, us, to us. Nous-mernes, pr. ourselves. Nouveau, Nouvel, le. a. new. Nouveau te, s.f. novelty. Nouvelle, s.f. news. Noyer, v. a. to drown. Nu, Nue, a. naked, plain. — A 1 nu, adv. nakedly, clearly. Nuage, s. m. a cloud, mist. Nuance, s.f. shadowing, shade. Nue, s.f a cloud, sky. Nuire, v. n. to hurt, annoy. Nuit, s.f. night. Nu I, le. a. void, none, not one, no. Numa, Numa. Nu-pieds, a. hare-footed. Nuptial, e. a. nuptial, bridal. O. O ! i. ah ! Obeissance, s.f obedience. Objet, s. m. object. Obliger, v. a. to oblige, bind. Oblique, a. oblique, indirect. Obscur, e. a. dark. Obscurcir, v. a. to darken, dim. Obscurite, s.f obscurity. Observateur, a. observing. Observateur, rice, s. observer. Observer, v. a. to observe, watch. Obstine, a. s. stubborn, obsti- nate. Obtenir, v. a. to obtain, get. Occasion, s.f. occasion, oppor- tunity. Occuper, v. a. to occupy, em- ploy, possess, hold. s'Occuper, v. r. to busy one's self Ocean, s. m. the ocean. Ode, s.f an ode. Odieux, se. a. odious, heinous. Odorat, s: m. smell. Odoriferant, e. a. odoriferous, sweet. Oeil, s. m. eye. Oeuvre, s.f. work. OfTenser, v. a. to offend, injure. Offrir, v. a. to offer. Ob ! i. oh ! Oiseau, s. m. a bird. Olympie, Olympus. Olym pique, a. Olympic. Ombrageux, se. a. suspicious, jealous. Ombre, s. f shade, shadow, ghost. On, pr. they, one, somebody, people, we. Onction, s.f. unction. Onde, s.f a wave, water. Ondoyant, e. a. undulating. Onze, a. s. m. eleven. Operer, v. a. to operate, work. Opinion, s.f opinion, belief Oppose, s. m. opposite. Op poser, v. a. to oppose. Oppression, s. f oppression. Opprobre, s. m. disgrace, re- proach. Orage, s. m. a storm. Oraison, s.f. speech, oration. Oranger, s. m. an orange-tree. Orateur, s.m. an orator. Ordinaire, a. ordinary. Ordfre, s. in. order. Oreille, s.f. the ear. Orjjann, s.f. organ. Organiqne, a. organic. Organiser, v. a. to organize. VOCABULARY. 387 Orgueil, s. m. pride, loftiness. Orient, 5. m. east. Oriental, e. a. eastern, oriental. Origine, s.f. origin. Ornement, s. m. ornament. Orner, v. a. to adorn, embellish. Oser, v. n. to dare. Ostentation, s.f. ostentation. Oter, v. a. to take away, remove. Ou, c. or, either, else. Ou, adv. where, whither, in which, to which. Oubli, s. m. forgetfulness, oh- livion. Oublier, v. or. to forget. s'Oublier, v. r. to forget one's self. Oui, adv. yes. Outrage, s. m. outrage, injury. Outrager, v. a. to affront. Outre, adv. farther. Ouvrage, s. m. work, workman- ship. Ouvrier, s. m. artificer. Quvrir, v. to open, begin. P. Pactole, Pactolus. Page, s.f. page. Pain, s. m. bread, loaf Paix, s.f peace. Palais, s. m. palace. Pale, a. pale, wan. Palir, v. a. to grow pale. Palmier, s. m. palm-tree, date- tree. Palpiter, v. n. to palpitate, pant. Pan, s. m. pane, front, sheet, layer. Panache, s. m. tuft of feathers. Panathenees, Panathenma. Panthere, 5. f. a panther. Pantoufle, s.f. a slipper. Y&v,prep. by, on, through. Paraitre, v. a. to appear. Parasol, s. m. an umbrella. Para vent, s. m. folding screen. Parceque, c. because. Parcourir, v. a. to travel over, run over. Pardessus, adv. over and above. — , prep, over, higher, beyond. Pardonner, v. a. to pardon, for- give. Pareil, le. a. s. like, such. Parent, s. m. relation, kinsman. Parens, s. m. pi. parents, pa- rentage. Parer, v. a. to deck. Paresse, s.f. sloth, laziness. Parfum, s. m. perfume. Parfumer, v. a. to perfume. Pari, s. m. a wager, bet. Parjure, s. m. perjury. Parler, v. n. to speak, talk. (se) Parler. v. r. to converse* Parole, s.f. word. Parmi, prep, among, amidst, Parque, s.f. destiny, fate, Fate. Part, s. f. part, share. Nulle part, no where. Partage, s. m. a share. Part a ger, v. a. to share, divide. Parti, s. m. party, way. Particule, s.f. particle. Particulier, s. m. private man. Partie, s.f. part. [spring. Partir, v. n. to proceed, start, Partout, adv. every where. Parvenir, v. a. to arrive, come to, attain, succeed. Pas, s. m. step, pace, precedence. — , adv. no, not. Pascal, e. a. paschal. 388 VOCABULARY. Pascal, Pascal. Passant, s.m. a passenger, trav- eller. Passe, a. past, faded. — , 5. m. time past, things past. Passer, v. to pass. Passion, s.f. passion. Pastoral, e. a. pastoral, rural. Patricien, ne. a. s. patrician. Patrie, s.f. native country. Patriotisme, s. m. patriotism. Paturage, s. m. pasturage. Pature, s.f provender, food. Pave, s. m. pavement. Pauvre, a. poor, beggar. Pauvret, te. a. poor. Pauvrete, s.f. poverty. Payen, ne. a. s. pagan. Payer, v. a. to pay. Pays, s. m. country. Paysage, s. m. landscape. Pec he, s.f. a sin. Pedant, e. s. a pedant. Peindre, v. a. to paint f describe. Peiae, s. f. pain, penalty, pains, trouble. (a) Peine, adv. hardly. Peinture, s,f. painting, picture. Penchant, s. m. declivity \ incli- nation. — , e. a. declining. Pendant, pr. during. — que, adv. whilst. Penetrant, e. a. penetrating. Pemtrer, v. a. to penetrate. Pen i hie, a. laborious. Peniblement, adv. painfully. Pens/e, s.f thought, sketch. Penser, v. to think, come near. — , s. m. thought. Pensif, ve. a. pensive. Pension, s.f. pension. Pente, s.f declivity. Percant, e, a. piercing, acute. Perceptible, a. perceptible. Perce r, v. a. to pierce, break through. Perdre, v. a. to lose, ruin. (se) Perdre, v. r. to lose one's self. Perdu, e. a. lost. Pere, s. m. father. Perfection, s. f. perfection. Perfectionner, v. a. to perfect. Peril, s. m. danger, peril. Periodique, a. periodical. Perir, v. n. to perish. Permanent, e. a. lasting. Permettre, v. a. to permit, let, allow. Perpetuellement, adv. perpetu- ally. Perpetuer, v. a. to perpetuate. Persan, ne. a. Persian. Perse, Persian. Personnage, s. m. person, part. Person ne, s.f. a person. — , pr. nobody, any one. Personnel, lfi- a nfir.QnnrJ Mn. FersonneWemeiU, adv. personal- Persuader, v. a. to persuade, satisfy, advise. Persuasif, ve. a. persuasive. Perte, s.f. loss. Pesant, e. a. heavy, dull. Peser, v. n. to weigh. — , v. a. to to bore, tire. Peste, s.f. the plague. Petillant, e. a. sparkling. Petiller, v. n. to crackle, sparkle. Petit, e, a. little, small, petty. Petit-en fan t, s. m. grandson. Petitesse, s.f. littleness. Peu, adv. little, few. (un) Peu, s. m. a little, some. Peiua-peu, adv. by degrees. Peu pie, s. m. people, nation* VOCABULARY. 389 Peuplier, s. m. popular. Pen r, s. f fear, dread, fright Peut-etre, adv. perhaps. Phalange, s.f phalanx. Phebus, s. m. the sun, Phozbus. Phedon, Phazdo. Phenomene, s. m. phenomenon. Phidias, Phidias. Philosophe, s. m. philosopher. Philosopher, v. n. to philoso- phize. Philosophie, s.f. philosophy. Phrase, s.f phrase , expression. Pied, Pie, s. m.foot. — a pied, on foot. Piece, s.f. apiece. Pierre, s.f a stone. Piete, s. f piety, godliness. Pieux, se, a. pious, godly. - Pilier, s. m. a pillar, post. Pinceau, s. m. pencil, brush. Pincettes, pi. tongs. Pipe, s.f. a pipe. Piquant, e. a. keen, sharp. Pistole, s.f. a pistole. Pitie, s.f. pity, compassion. Pittoresque, a. picturesque. Place, s.f. place, room. Placer, v. a. to place. Plaie, s.f. a wound. Plaindre, v. a. to pity. (se) Plaindre, v. r. to complain. Plaine, s.f. a plain. Plainte, s. complaint, lamenta' Hon. Plain tif, ve. a. plaintive, doleful. Plaire, v.n. to please. (se) Plaire, v. r. to love, delight. Plaisant, e. a. pleasing, pleas- ant. Plaisir, 5. m. pleasure, joy. Plan, s. m. plan, scheme. Plant, s. m. a plant. 33* Plat, e. a. fat. P la ton, Plato. Plein, e. a. full. PJeurer, v. to weep, cry. Pleurs, s. m. pi. tears. Pli, s. m. a plait, fold. (se) Plier, v. r. to bend, conform. Pline, Pliny. Plonger, v. a. to immerse. Pluie, s.f. rain. Plumage, s. m. feathers, plum- age. Plume, s.f pen. Plus, adv. more, most, no mere. Plus, adv. s. m. more. (le) Plus, s. the most. (la) PI u part, s. the most, the greatest part. Plusieurs, a. pi. many. Pi ii tot, adv. sooner, rather. Poesie, s.f. poetry, poesy. Poete, s. a poet, poetess. Poetique, a. poetical. Poids, s.m. load, scales, weights. Poignard, s. m. dagger, pon- iard. Poignet, s. m. wrist. Point, adv. no, not, none. Point, s. m. point. Pointe, s. f point. Poison, s. m. poison. Politesse, s.f. politeness. Politique, a. political, artful. — , s. f politics, policy. Poltronnerie, s.f. cowardice. Ponipe, s.f. pomp. Pontife, s. m. a pontiff. Pontifical, e. a. pontifecd. Porte, s.f. a door, a gate. Portee, s.f. reach. Porter, v. a. to carry, bcar y ivear+ induce. Porte ur, s. m. a porter. 390 VOCABULARY, Portion, s.f. part, portion. Portrait, 5. m. portrait, picture. Position, s.f. position, situa- tion. Posseder, v. a. to possess. Possible, a. s. m. possible. Posterite, s. f posterity, off- spring. Police, s.m. inch. Poudre, s.f. dust. Poulet, s. m. a chick. Pouls, s. m. pulse. Pour, prep. for, in order, to. Pour pre, s. m. purple. Pourquoi, adv. c. why? Poursuite, s.f pursuit. Poursuivre, v. a. to pursue. Pourtant, c. however, notwith- standing. Pourvoir, v. to provide. [ten Pousser, v. to push, thrust, ut- Poussiere, s.f. dust. Pouvoir, v. to be able, may, can. Pouvoir, s. m. power, interest. Pratique, s. f practice. Pratiquer, v. n. to practise. Pre, s. m. a meadow. [first. Preceder, v. r. to precede, go Precher, v. to preach. Precipite, e. a. precipitate. Precipiter, v. a. to precipitate. Precis, e. a. precise. Preeisement r adv. precisely. Prejuge, s. m. prepossession, prejudice. Premier, e. a. first. Prendre, v. a. to take, find. (se) Prendre, v.r. to begin,setto. Preparer, v. a. to prepare. Pres, adv. near, hard by, by, be- side. Prescrire, v. n. to prescribe. Presence, s.f. presence. Present, e. a. present, ready. Present, s. m. a gift, present. Presenter, v. a. to present, of- fer. President, s. m. president, speaker. Presider, v. a. to preside. Presomptueux, se. a. presump- tuous. Presque, adv. almost. Presser, v. a. to press, urge, hasten. Prestige, s. m. prestige, illusion. Pret, e. a. ready, at hand. Pretendre, v. to pretend, expect, aspire at, design. Pretend u, e. a. supposed. Pretention, s.f pretention. Preter, v. r. to lend. Pretexte, s.f. pretext, pretence. Prevenir, v. a. to prevent, an- ticipate. Prevention, s.f prepossession. Prevenu, adj. prepossessed. Prevoir, v. a. to foresee. Frier, v. a. to pray, beg. Priere, s. m. pray er, desire. Primitif, ve. a. primitive. Prince, s. m. a prince. Principal, e. a. principal, chief. Principe, s. m. principle. Printemps, s. m. the spring. Prise^s./. scuffle. Prison, s.f a prison, a gaol. Prison nier, e. a. s. prisoner. Prive, e. a. private. Priver, v. a. to deprive. Privilegie, e. a. privileged. Prix, s. m. price, rate, compari- son, value, reward. Proces, s. m. law-suit. Procliain, e. a. next. Froche, prep, near, close to. VOCABULARY. 391 Proclamer, v. a. to proclaim. Procurer, v. a. to procure, get Prodige, s. m. a prodigy. Prodigue, a. profuse, prodigal. Production, s. f. production, product. Prod u ire, v. a. to produce, yield, cause, show. (se) Prod u ire, v. r. to put one's self forward. [ing* Profession, s.f profession, call- Profiter, v. n. to improve, profit, take advantage. Profond, e. a. deep, profound. Pro fon de men t, adv. deep, deeply. Profondeur, s.f. depth. Profusion, s.f profusion. Proie, s.f. prey, booty. Projet, s. m. project, design. Prolonger, v. a. to prolong. Promenade, s.f walk, walking. Prom en er, v. a. to walk. (se) Promener, v. r. to walk. Promettre, v. a. to promise. Prompt, e. a. quick, sudden, active. Promptement, adv. quickly. Prononcer, v. a. to pronounce, deliver. Propager, v. n. to propagate. Prophete, s. m. a prophet. Propice, a. propitious. Proportion, s.f proportion. Propos, s. m. discourse, propo- sal, design, subject. A pro- pos, adv. suitably, now 1 think of it. [intend. (se) Proposer, v. r. to propose, Propre, a. proper, own, fit. Prose, s. f prose. Protection, s. f protection. Prc*ee, Proteus. Pro rer, v. a. to protect, defend. Protester, v. a. to protest, affirm. Prototype, s. m. prototype, first model. Prouver, v. a. to prove. Psalmodie, s.f. psalmody. Public, que. a. public, common. Public, s. m. the public. Pudeur, s.f modesty. Puis, adv. then, afterwards. Puisque, c. since. Puissamment, adv. mightily. Puissance, s.f. power, might. Puissant, e. a. powerful. Puits, s. m. a well. Punir, v.a.to punish. Punition, s.f punishment. Pur, e. a. pure, clear. Purete, s.f. purity. Purpurin, e. a. purplish. Pyramide, s.f. pyramid. Q. Quai, s. m. quay. Qualite, s.f. quality, title. Quand, c. though, if — , adv. when. Quarante, a. forty. Quatre, a. four. Quatre- vingts, a. fourscore. Quatrieme, a. fourth. Que, pr. that, which, whom,what. Que, adv. but, that. Quel? Quelle? pr. what") Quel que, adv. however. Quelque, pr. some. — pi. a few. Quelquefois, adv. sometimes. Quelques-uns, a. some. Quelqu'un, pr. somebody, one. Question, s. f question, mat- ter. Queue, s.f tail. 392 VOCABULARY. Qui, pr. that, who, whom, which, whoever ' r what Quitter, v. n. to quit, leave, Quoi, pr. which, ivhat, that. Quoi ! i. what ! how now I R. Rabattre, v. a. to abate, hate. Race, s.f race, breed, kind. Raconter, v. a. to relate r tell. Radieux, se. a. radiant. Raffermir, v. a. to strengthen. Railler, v. a. to rally. Raillerie, 5./. bantering, jest. Raison, s.f. reason, sense, proof. Raison nahle, a. reasonable, ra- tional, right. Raison nement, 5. m. reasoning. Rallier, v. a. to rally. Ram as, s. m. collection. Rame, s. f. an oar. Rameau, s. m. a bough, branch. Ramener, v. a. to bring back. Ram per, v. n. to crawl, creep. Rang, s. m. rank. Ranimer, v. a. to animate, re- vive. Rapacile, s.f. rapacity, greedi- ness. Raphael, Raphael. Rapid e, a. rapid, swift. Rapidement, adv. swiftly. Rapidite, s.f. rapidity, swift- ness. Rappeller r v. a. to call back, re- call. Rapport, s. m. report, affinity, relation. Rapporter, v. a. to bring back, relate. Rapprocher, v. a. to draw near again. Rare, a. rare, uncommon, scarce. Ras, e. a. shaved close, smooth. Raser, v. a. to shave. Rassembler, v. a. to gather, col- lect. (se) Rassurer, v. r. to cheer up again y settle. Rat, 5. m. a rat. Ravir, v. n. to ravish, seize. Rayon, s. m. a ray. Rayon nan t, e. a. radiant. Rayon ner, v.n. to emit rays. Realite, s.f reality. Reaumur, Reaumur. Rebuter, v. a. to thrust away, repel. Recent, e. a. recent, fresh, new. Recevoir, v. a. to receive. Recherche, s.f inquiry. Rechercher, v. a. to seek again, make inquiry. Reciproque, a. reciprocal. Reclamer, v. a. to claim. Recommencer, v. a. to begin again. Recompense, s. f a reward. (en) Recompense, adv. in re- turn. Reconnaissance, s. f grati- tude. Reconnaitre, v. a. to acknow- ledge, observe, recognize. Reconstruire, v. a. to recon- struct. Recou rs, s. in, recourse. Recouvrir, v. a. to cover again. Recueilli, part, collected. Recueillir, v. a. to gather, sum up. Reculer, v. a. to fall back, recoil, Redemander, v. a. to ask again, require. Redempteur, a. redeeming. VOCABULARY. 393 Redoubler, v. a. to redouble. Redouter, v. a. to fear, dread. Redresser, v. a. to rectify. Reel, le. a. real, true. Reflet, s. m. reflection. Refleurir, v. n. to blossom, or flourish again. Reflexion, s.f. reflection, medi- tation. Reformation, s. f. reformation, reform. Reforme, s.f. reformation. Refouler, v. a. to ebb, go against tide. Refraichissant, e. a. refreshing. Regard, s. m. a look, view. Regard er, v. a. to look at or on, behold, consider. Region, s. f. a region. Regie, s.f a rule. Regie, e. a. regular. Regie r, v. a. to regulate. Regnant, e. a. reigning. Regner, v. a. to reign, rule. T> :„ a^^uici, jLctgnier. Regret, s. m. regret. — Re- grets, s. m. pi. complaints, lamentations. Regretter, v. a. to regret. Regulier, e. a. regular. Rejetter, v. a. to throw back, re- ject. Reine, s.f. a queen. Rejoindre, a. v. to meet again, rejoin. Rejouir, v. a. to rejoice. Relever, v. a. to raise again. (se) Relever, v. r. to get up again. Religieux,se.a. religious, pious. Religion, s.f. religion, piety. Remarquer, v. a. to observe. Remede, s. m. remedy. Remedier,v. n. to remedy. Remettre, v. a. to restore, com- mit, remit, send. Remonter, v. a. to go up again, remount. Remora, s. m. remora [fish), ob- stacle. Remords, s. m. remorse. Rem placer, v. a. to replace. Remplir, v. a. to fill up. Remunerateur, s. m. rtwarder. Renard, s.m. a fox. Rencontre, s.f. rencounter, oc- casion. Rencontrer, v. a. to meet. Rend re, v. a. to render. (se) Rend re, v. r. to repair, re- sort. Renfermer, v. a. to shut up again, enclose, include. Renommee, s.f fame, report. Renouveller, v. a. to renew, re- vive. Rentrer, v. n. to come, go 7 or gel in again. Ren verse men t, s. in. overturn, Renverser, 5. in. throw down> overthrow. Renvoyer, v. a. to send again, send back, dismiss. Re pan d re, v. to scatter, spread. Reparer, v. a. to repair, make amends. Repartie, s.f. repartee, reply. Repartir, v. n. to reply. Repeter, r. to repeat. [cess. Repli, s. m. a fold, ivinding, re* Replier, v. a. to fold again. Rt pond re, v. to answer, reply. Rrponse, s.f answer, reply. Reporter, v. a. to cary back. Repos, s. m. rest, quiet. Reposer, v.n. to rest, slumber* 394 VOCABULARY. (se) Reposer, v. r. to take rest, settle. Repousser, v.a. to repel, repulse. Reprendre, v. a. to retake, re- sume, reply. Representer, v. a. to represent. Reprocher, v. a. to reproach. Reproduire, v. a. to reproduce. Republicain, e. s. a. republican. Republique, s.f. republic. Reputation, s.f. reputation, re- pule ,fame. Requete, s.f. request, petition. Reseau, s. m. bag-net, net-work. Reserve, s.f. reserve, proviso. (a la) Reserve, adv. except. Reserver, v. a. to reserve, keep. Resider, v. a. to reside, abide. Resign er, v. a. to resign. Resist er, v. n. to resist, oppose. Resolution, s.f. resolution, re- solve. Resoudre, v. a. to resolve. (se) Resoudre, v. r. to be re- . solved. Respect, s. m. respect, regard. Respecter, v. a. to respect. Respectueux, se. a. respectful. Respirer, v. to breathe. Resplendissant, e. a. resplen- dent, glittering. [likeness. Ressernblance, s.f resemblance, Ressembler, v. n. to resemble. Ressentir, v. a. to feel, resent. (se) Ressentir, v. r. to savor, smack. Resserrer, v. a. to bind up, con- tract, bind. Ressort, s. m. spring, cause. Ressortir, v. n. to be under the jurisdiction of. Ressource, s.f resource. Itessusciter, v. to raise, revive, Reste, s. m. remainder, residue. Rester, v. n. to remain, stay. Resulter, v. to result. Retentir, v. n. to resound, ring. Retire, e. a. retired. (se) Retirer, v. r. to retire. Retomber, v. n. to fall again. Retour, s. m. return, vicissitude. Retourner, v. to return, turn. Retranchernent, s. m. retrench- ment. Retrouver, v. a. to find again. Reve, s. m. a dream. Reveil, s. m. awaking, alarm. Reveler, v. a. to reveal. Revenir, v. n. to return. Rever, v. n. to dream, rave, be light-headed, muse, think. Reverer, v. a. to revere, reve- rence. Revetir, v. a. to clothe, invest. Reveur, se. a. thoughtful. Revivre, v. a. to come to life again, renew. Reunir, v. a., to reunite* Re voir, v. a. to see again. Revolution, s.f. revolution. Reussir, v.a. to succeed, prosper. Rhodes, Rhodes. [smiling. Riant, e. a. cheerful, pleasant, Riche, a. rich, wealthy. — , s. w. a rich man. Rich esses, s.f. pi. riches* Rideau, s. m. a curtain. Ridicule, s. m. ridicule, ridicu- lous thing. — , a. ridiculous. Rien,/?r. nothing, anything. Rienzi, Rienzi. Rieur, se. 5. a laugher. Rigide, a. rigid, stiff, stern. Rigoureux, se. a. rigorous. Rigueur, s. f rigor, severity, sharpness.. VOCABULARY. 395 Rime, s. m. rhyme. Hire, v. n. to laugh, joke. Rivage, 5. m. a shore, hank. Rival, e. a. rival, competitor* Rive, s.f. hank. Roc, 5. m. a rock. Rocailleux, a. pebbly. Roche, s.f a rock. Roc her, s. m. a rock. Roder, v. a to rove, ramble. Roi, s. m. a king. Roidir, v. a. to stiffen, stretch out. Role, s. m. part. Romain, e. a. s. Roman. Rome, Rome. Rom pre, v. to break. Romulus, Romulus. Ronce, s.f. briar. Ronrl, e. a. round, circular. Ronfler, v. n. to snore. Ronger, v. a. to eat, fret. Rose, Rose. — , s. f a rose. Roti, s. m. roasted meat. Roue, s.f. a wheel. Rouer,u.a. to break on the wheel. Rouge, a. red. Rougir, v. to redden. Rouler, v. a. to roll, run, re- volve. Route, s.f. road, way, route. Royal, e. a. royal. Royaume, 3. m. kingdom, realm. Royaute, s.f. royalty. Ruban, s. m. ribbon. Rude, a. harsh, rough. Rudesse, s.f. harshness, rude- ness, severity. Rue, s.f. a street, lane. Ruiue, s.f. ruin. Ruineux, se. a. ruinous. Ruisseau, 5. m. brook, rivulet. Rustique, a. rural, clownish. Rut, s. m. rutting. Rutilius, Rutilius. S, Sa, pr.f. his, her, its. Sable, s. m. sand. Sac, s. m. sack. Sacre, e. a. sacred, holy. Sacrifice, s. m. a sacrifice. Sacrifier, v. a. to sacrifice. Sage, a. wise. Sage, s. m. sage, wise man. Sagernent, adv. wisely. Sagesse, s.f. wisdom. Saint, e. a. holy. Saint Marc, St. Mark. Saintete, s.f holiness. Saisir, v. a. to seize. Saison, s.f. season. Salaire, s. m. salary, wages. Salle, s.f. hall, room. Salpetre, s. m. saltpetre, nitre. Saiuer, v. a. to salute. Salut, s. m. salutation. Salut ! i. hail! Salutaire, a. salutary. Sang, 5. m. blood, race. Sanglant, e. a. bloody. Sanglot, s. m. sob, sigh, groan. Sans, prep, without. Same, s.f. health. Satan, Satan, the devil. Satisfaction, s.f. satisfaction. Satisfaire, v. to satisfy. Satisfait, e. a. contented. Savant, e. a. s. learned. Savoie, Savoy. Savoir, v. a. to know. Sauvage, a. savage, wild. Sauver, v. a. to save. Scandale, s. m. scandal, of- fence. 396 VOCABULARY. Sceau, s. m. a seal. Sceller, v. a. to seal, cramp. Sceptre, s. m. a sceptre. Science, s.f. science. Scipion, Scipio. Scrupuleux, se. a. scrupulous. Sculpture, s.f. sculpture. Scutari, Scutari. Se, pr. one's self, himself, her- self themselves, itself Sec, Sec he, a. dry. Secheresse, 5./. dryness. Second, e. a. s. second. Secouer, v. a. to shake. Secourir, v. a. to succor, help. Secours, s. m. succor, help. Secousse, s. f. shake, jolt, spring. Secret, te. a. secret. Secret, s. m. secret, mystery. Secretaire, s. m. secretary. Sectaire, s. m. a sectary. Seditieux, se. s. rebel. Seduire, v. a. to seduce. Sein, s. m. bosom. Sejour, s. m. abode, mansion. Seller, v. a. to saddle. Selon, prep, according to, after. Semblable, a. like, similar, alike, such. Semblable, s.m. fellow creature. Sembler, v. a. to seem, look. Semelle, s.f sole. Semer, v. a. to sow, spread. Senateur, s. m. senator. Sens, s. m. sense. Sensation, s.f sensation. Sensibilite, s.f sensibility. Sensible, a. sensible, tender. Sensitive, s.f. sensitive plant. Sentiment, s. m. sentiment, sense f feeling, sensation. Sentinelle, s.f sentinel, sentry. Sentir, v. a. to feel, be sensible of, savor of, perceive. (se) Sentir, v. r. to feel. Separer, v. a. to separate, part. Sepulcre, s.m. sepulchre, grave. Serai 1, s. m. seraglio. Serein, e. a. serene, quiet. Serieux, se. a. serious, grave. Sermon, s. m. a sermon, dis- course. Serpent, s. m. serpent, snake. Serpen ter, v. n. to wind. Serre, s. f a talon. Serre, e, a. close. Serre, part, drawn up. Serrer, v. a. to squeeze. Servante, s. f servant-maid. Service, s. m. service. Servir, v. to serve, help, be of use. [of (se) Servir de, v. r. to make use Servitude, s.f servitude, sla- very. Ses, pr. pi. his, her, its. Severe, a. stern. Seul,e. a. alone, sole,'only. (un) Seul, (tine) Seule, a. one. Settlement, adv. only. Si, c. if so. Si bien que, c. so that. Siecle, s. m. a century, an age. Siege, s. m. seat, siege. Sien, ne, pr. his, hers. Siffler, v. to whistle, hiss. Signal, s. m. signal. Signaler, v. a. to signalize. Signe, s. m. sign, token. Signifier, v. a. to signify, mean. Silence, s. m. silence. Silencieux, se. a. silent, of few words. Silencieusement, adv. silently. Sillage, s. m. track. VOCABULARY. 397 Sillon, s. m. a furrow. Sillonner, v. a. to furrow. Simple, a. simple, plain. Simplement, adv. merely, plain- ly, only. Simplicite, s.f. simplicity. Sincere, a. sincere, honest. Sincerite, s. f. sincerity, can- dor. Singulier, e. a. s. m. singular. &'mgu\\evement,adv. singularly. Sinistre, a. sinister. Sire, 5. m. sire, lord, Sir. Site, s. m. site. Sitot que, c. as soon as. Situation, s.f. situation. Six, a. six. Sixieme, a. s. m. sixth. Sobre, a. sober, discreet. Sobriete, s.f. sobriety, temper- ance. Social, e. a. social. Societe, s.f. society. Socque, s. f. sandal, wooden clog. Socrates, Socrates. Sceur, s.f. a sister. Soi, pr. one's self, itself, one. Soi-meme, pr. one's self, him- self herself, itself. Soie, s.f. silk. Soin, s. m. care, anxiety. Soir, s. m. evening, night. Soixante, a. sixty. Sol, s. m. soil. Soldat, s. m. a soldier. Soleil, s. m. sun. Solide, a. s. m. solid, strong. Solidement,ae/v. solidly, strong- ly. Solitaire, a. solitary. Solitude, s.f. solitude. Sombre, a. dull, gloomy. 34 Somme, s.f. a sum. Sommeil, s. m. sleep. Sommet, s. m. top, summit. Somptueux, se. a. sumptuous, splendid. Son, s. m. sound, rhyme. Son, pr. m. his, her, its. Songer, v. to think, mind. Sonore, a. sonorous. Sophiste, s. m. sophist. Sophronisque, Sophroniscus. Sort, s. m.fale, lot. Sorte, s.f. sort, kind, manner. Sortir, v. n. to go or come out, issue. Sot, Sotte, a. s. silly, a fool. Sottement, adv. foolishly. Souci, 5. m. anxiety. Soudain, e. a. sudden. Soudain, adv. forthwith. Souffle, s. vi. puff, breath. Souffler, v. to blow, breathe. whisper. Souffrance, s. f. suffering. Souffrir, v. to suffer, endure. Souhait, s. m. a wish, desire. Souhaiter, v. a. to wish, desire. Souiller, v. a. to defile, stain. Soulever, v. a. to lift, stir up. (se) Soulever, v. r. to rise. Soulier, s. m. a shoe. Soumettre, v. to subdue, submit, subject. Soupcon, s. m. suspicion. Sou pi r, s. m. sigh. So u pi re r, v.n. to sigh. Souplesse, s.f. suppleness. Source, s.f. source, spring. Sourcil, s. m. eye-brow. Sourd, e. a. s. deaf. Sourire, v. n. to smile. Sourire, Souris, s. m. a smile. Souris, s.f. a mouse. 398 VOCABULARY. Sous, prep, under. Sou ten ir, v* a. to support, sus- tain, maintain. Souterrain, 5. m. vault. Souterrain, a. subterraneous. Soutien, s. m. a support. (se) Souvenir, v. r. to remember. Souvenir, s. m. remembrance. Sou vent, adv. often, frequently. Souverain, e, a. s. sovereign. Sparta, Sparta. Spartiate, Spartan. Spectacle, s. m. spectacle, show. Spectateur, rice. s. spectator. Spectre, s. m. spectre, ghost. Speculation, s.f. speculation. Sphere, s.f. sphere. Splendeur, s.f splendor, pomp. Statue, s.f. statue, fgure. Sterile, a. sterile, barren. Structure, s.f. structure. Stupide, a. stupid, dull. Stupide, s. blockhead, dunce. Style, s. m. style. Styx, Styx. Subir, v. n. to undergo, suffer. Subjuguer, v. a. to subdue. Sublime, a. sublime, grand. Submerger, v. a. to drown, sub- merge, sink. [nate. Subordonner, v. a. to subordi- Subsistance, s.f. subsistence. Substance, sf. substance, being. Subtil, e. a. subtle, fine. Succeder, v. n. to succeed. Succes, s. m. success. Successeur, a. s. m. successor. Successif, ve. a. successive. Succession, s.f. succession. Suffire, v. n. to suffer, satisfy. Suffrage, s. m. suffrage, vote, approbation. Sujet, te, a. subject. Sujet, s. m. subject, cause, rea- son. Suisse, Switzerland. Suite, s.f. train, series, succes- sion, consequence. Suivant, e. a. following, next. Suivant, s. m. a follower. Suivante, s.f. waiting- gentle- woman, companion. Suivre, v. a. to follow, attend, pursue. Superbe, a. haughty, sumptu- ous, superb. SupBrieur, e. a. s. superior. Superiorite, s.f superiority. Superstitieux, se. a. supersti- tious. Supplice, s.m. punishment, pain. Supporter, v. a. to support, bear. Supposer, v. a. to suppose. Suppot, 5. m. agent, member. Supreme, a. supreme. Sur, prep, on, upon, over, about, in, by, near, from. Sur, e, a. sure, certain. Surete, s.f safely, security. Surface, s.f. surface. [ly. Sur-le- champ, adv. immediate- Surpasser, v. a. to excel. Surprendre, v. a. to surprise, astonish. Surprise, s.f. surprise. Surtout, adv. above all, espec- ially. Survenir, v. n. to happen. Susceptible, a. susceptible. Susciter, v. a. to raise. Suspend re, v. a. to hang up, suspend. (en) Suspens, adv. in suspense Sylia, Si/lla. Sylva, Sylva. Systeme, s. m. system. VOCABULARY. 399 T. Ta,p\/. thy. Table, s.f. table. Tableau, s. m. a picture. Tacher, v. n. to endeavor, strive. Taille, s. f size. Taillis, 5. m. copse, underwood. (se) Taire, v. r. to be silent. Talent, s. m. talent, parts. Talisman, s. m. a talisman. Talon, 5. m. the heel. Talus, .?. m. slopeness. Tan d is que, c. whilst, as long as. Tant, adv. so many, as much. Tante, 5./. aunt. Tantor, adv. a little while ago, sometimes. Tard, adv. late, too slow. Tarder, v. n. to delay. Tard if, ve. tardy, slow. Tatius, Tatius. Taureau, s. m. a bull. Te, pr. thee thyself. Teint, s. m. complexion. Tel, Telle, a. such, like. Tel, Telle, s. such a one, many a one. Telemaque, Telemachus. Tel I e men t, adv. so much, so. Tern era ire, a. s. rash. Temoigner, v. to testify. Temoin, s. m. witness. Temperament, s. m. constitu- tion, tamper. [per. Temp'pT, v. a. to qualify, tem- Tempero, s.f. tempest, storm. Temple, 5. m. temple, church. Tempore!, le. a. temporal. Temps, s. m. time. Tend re, a. tenter, soft, nice. Tenebreux, se. a. gloomy. Tenir, v. to hold, keep, stick, he connected. (se) Tenir, v. r. to have. Tente, s.f. a tent. Tenter, v. a. to tempt, tempter. Terme, s. m. term, bound. Terminer, v. a. to terminate, end. Terrain, s. m. ground, soil. Terrnsse, s.f. terrace, platform, Tevre, s.f. earth, land. Terreu r, s.f terror. Terrible, a. terrible. Tes, pr. pi. thy. Tere, 5./. head. The, s. m. tea. Theatre, s. m. theatre, stage. Theorie, s.f. theory. Thomas, Thomas. Tibulle, Tibullus. Tigre, s. m. a tiger. Timide, a. timid, bashful. Tirer, v. to draw, pull, fire, lake out or off, derive, go. (se) Tirer, v. r. to get out or off. Tison, s. m. brand, firebrand. Tissu, e. a. woven, interwoven. Titre, s. m. title. Toi, pr. thou, thee, thyself. Toilette, s.f a toilet. Toison, s.f fleece. To it, s. m. the roof. Tombe, s.f. tomb, grave. Tom beau, s. m. tomb. [drop. Tomber, v. n. to fall, tumble, Ton, s. m. tone, strain, style. Ton, pr. thy, thine. Tonnant, e. a. thundering. Tonnerre, s. m. thunder. To re he, s.f torch. Torrent, s. m. a torrent. Tort, s. m. wrong, injury. Tor, adv. soon, quickly. Tola), e. a. total, whole, utter. 400 VOCABULARY. Touchant, e. a. moving, affect- %Ug. Toucher, v. to touch, strike. To uj ours, adv. always, ever. Tour, s.f. tower. Tour, s. m. turn, circumference. Tour-a-tour, adv. by turns. Tourbillon, s. m. whirlwind. Tourment, s. m. torment, tor- ture. Tousser, v. n. to cough, hem. Tout, e. a. all, whole, every. Tout, s. m. whole, all. Tout, adv. wholly, entirely, quite. Tout- a- co up, adv. suddenly. Tout- a- fait, adv. quite, wholly. Toutefois, c. nevertheless, yet. Toute-puissance, s.f. omnipo- tence. Tout-puissant, e. a. almighty. Trace, s.f footstep, track, trace. Tracer, v. a. to delineate, chalk out, describe, trace. Trad u ire, v. a. to translate. Tragedie, s.f a tragedy. Trahir, v. a. to betray. [son. Trahison, s. f treachery, trea- Train, s. m. track, way. Trainer, v. a. to draw 1 drag, trail. Trait, s. m. arrow, dart, trace, trait, feature, stroke. Traiter, v. a. to treat, use. Trancher, v. a. to cutoff, decide, distinguish. Tranquil le, a. quiet, calm. Tranquillement, adv. quietly. (se) Transformer, v. r. to be transformed. Transition, s.f. transition. Transport, s. m. transport, rap- ture. [convey. Transporter, v. a. to transport, Travail, s. m. work, labor. Travailler, v. to work, trouble. Travaux, 5. m.pl. works, labors. Travers, 5. m. misfortune. A* travers, Au travers, through. Traverser, v. a. to cross. Treillage, s. m. arbor-work. Treilie, s.f. a vine-arbor. Tremblant, e. a. shaking. Trembler, v. to tremble, shake, quaver. Trempe, s.f temper. Tremper, v. to soak, steep. Tresor, s. m. treasure. Triangulaire, a, triangular. Tribu, s.f a tribe. Tribun, s. m. a tribune. Tribune, s.frostrwn, tribune. Tribut, s. m. tribute, tax. Triomphant, e. a. triumphant. Triomphe, s. m. triumph. Triste, a. sad, dull. Tristesse, s.f. grief, sadness. Troie, Troy. Trois, a. s. m. three, third. Troisieme, a. s. m. third. Tromper, v. a. to deceive, cheat. (se) Tromper, v. r. to be mistak- en. Trompeur, se. a. deceitful. Trone, 5. m. throne. Trop, adv. too. Trou, s. m. a hole, gap. Trouble, a. cloudy, dim, dull. Trou bier, v. a. to trouble. Troupe, s.f. a troop, band. Troupeau, s. m.Jlock. Trouver, v. a. to find. Tumulte, s. m. a tumidly riot. Turban, s. m. a turban. Turbulent, e. a. turbulent. Ture, Turque, s. Turk. Tyran, s. m. tyrant. VOCABULARY. 401 Tyrannie, s.f. tyranny. Tyrannique, a. tyrannical. U. Un, Une, art. one, a, an. Union, s.f. union, concord. Unique, a. only, sole. Uniquernent, adv. only, entire- ly. Unir, v. a. to unite. Univers, s. m. the universe. Universel, le. a. universal. Urne, s.f. urn. Usage, s. m. usage, use, Usbek, Usbek. User, v. to use, waste, wear out. En user, to practise. Utile, a. useful. Utilite, s.f. utility, prof t, use. Vagabond, e. a. s. vagabond. Vague, s. m. void. Vague, s.f. a wave, surge. Vague, a. vague. Vaillant, e. a. valiant. Vain, e. a. vain. Vaincre, v. n. to vanquish, sub- due. Vainqueur, a. conquering. Vainqueur, s. m. a conqueror. Vaisseau, s. m. a vessel, ship. Valeur, s.f. worth, valor. Vallee, s.f. valley, vale. Vallon, s. m. dale, little valley. Valoir, v. a. to be worth. Vanite, s.f vanity, pride. Vanter, v. a. to extol. (se) Vanter, v. r. to boast of. Vapeur, 5./. vapor. Varier, v. a. to vary. Variete, s.f. variety. Vaste, a. vast. Vaucouleurs, Vaucouleurs. Vaux, Vaux. Vegetation, s. f vegetation. Vegetaux, s. m. pi. vegetables. Vegeter, v. n. to vegetate. Veiller, v. to ivatch. Veine, s.f. a vein. Vendre, v. a. to sell. Veneration, s.f. veneration. Venetien, Venetian. Vengeance, s.f. vengeance, re- venge. Venger, v. a. to revenge, avenge. Venimeux, se. a. venomous. Venir, v. n. to come, have just. Venise, Venice. Vent, s. m. wind. Venus, Venus. Ver, s. m. worm. Verbe, 5. m. the Word. Verdure, s.f. verdure. Veritable, a. true, genuine. Verite, s.f. truth. Vermeil, le. a. vermillion, lively red. Vers, s. m. verse. Vers, prep, towards, about, to. Verser, v. a. to pour, shed. Vert, e. a. green. Vertu, s.f. virtue, power. Vertueux, se. a. s. virtuous. Vetement, s. m. raiment, gar- ment. Vetu, e. a. clad. Veuf, s. m. widower. Veuve, s.f a widow. Vice, s. m. vice. Vicissitude, s.f vicissitude. Victime, s.f. a victim. 402 VOCABULARY. Victoire, s.f. victory. Vide, a. void, empty. Vie, s.f. life. Vieil, Vieux, a. old, ancient. Vieille, s.f old woman. Vieillard, s. m. old man. Vieillesse, s.f. old age. Vieillir, v. n. to grow old. Vierge, s.f. a virgin. Vif, ve. a. alive, sprightly, bright. Vif, s. m. the quick. Vigne, s.f vine. Vigneron, s. m. a vine-dresser. Vigoureux, se.a. vigorous, brisk. Vil, Vile, a. vile, mean. Village, s. m. village. Ville, s.f city, town. Vin, 5. m. wine. Vingt, a. twenty. Violence, s.f. violence. Violent, e. a. violent. Violette, s.f. a violet. Virgile, Virgile. Vi rg i n ie, Virginia. Visage, s.m.face, look, counte- nance. Visible, a. visible. Visiter, v. a. to visit. Vite, adv. quickly, fast. Vivant, e. a. s. living, alive, quick. Vivement, adv. sensibly, to the quick. Vivre, v. a. to live, behave. Vivre, 5. m.food. Veen, s. m. a vow, a vote. Vceux, pi. wishes, vows. Voie, s. f. way. Voila, adv. that is, those are, there is, there are, behold. Voile, s. m. veil. Voiler, v. a. to veil. Voir, v. n. to see, behold. Voisin, e. a. neighboring. Voiture, s.f. carriage. Voix, s.f. voice. Volage, a. s. fickle. Voler, v. n. to fly. Voleur, se. s. robber, thief. Volontairement, adv. volunta- rily. Volupte, s. f voluptuousness, pleasure. Votre, Vos,-pr. your. Vouer, v. a. to devote. Vouloir, v. a. to will, be willing. vAsh. Vous, pro. you, ye. Voute, s.f. vault, arch. Voyage, s. m. voyage. Voyageur, se. s. traveller. Vrai, e. a. true, right. Vraiment, adv. truly, indeed. Vue, s.f. sight, view. X. Y, adv. and pr. there, thither, of it. Yemen, Yemen. Yeux, s. pi. the eyes. Vid. Oeil. Z. Zele, s. m. zeal, affection. Zephyr, s. m. zephyr. END. LBJ Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: Sept. 2006 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION/ 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724)779-2111