OP .'flCIENTANDMODEftf HISTORY, Wi\i\\ ^tettons, adapted to the Use of ^rftoo ALSO, AN APPENDIX, containi ng The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution of tes United St a j graphical Sketch of Eminent Personages, with a Curonologic Table of Remarkable Events, Discoveries, Improvements, etc. From the Creation to the Year 1 By M. J. KEENEY, A.M. Author of "First Clasi, Book of History," "Columbian Arithmetic," &c S9/A Revised and Enlarged Edition. BALTIMORE: PuBLiSn^u by Jo^N Murphy & C Marble Building, 1S2 Baltimore street. Sole by Booksellers G e n e r a l l y. ^t *r Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by John Murphy, in the Clerk's Office, of the District Court of Maryland. sr PUBLISHERS' PREFACE To the Thirtieth Kevised and Enlarged Edition. The constantly increasing demand for Kerney's Compendium of His- tory has induced the publishers to issue a new edition, enlarged by the introduction of new chapters embracing all the important events, wars, revolutions and changes, which have taken place in the various countries of the world since the opening of the Crimean war, in 1854. JS^C These additions have been carefully prepared, and written in con- formity with the spirit of impartiality which has made Mr. Kerney's book so popular. The important events that have convulsed our own country during the past six years, have received particular attention; they are narrated with a faithful regard for truth, and without bias. The typographical execution of the whole bopk has been carefully re- vised, and no effort spared to make the Compendium worthy of the high reputation and liberal patronage it has heretofore enjoyed. Baltimore, July, 1867. Author's Preface. Is presenting this Compendium to the public, the author would beg leave tf make a few brief remarks. The great utility to be derived from a work of thif nature, will be evident, on the least reflection. To the man whose time i: limited, it will afford an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the most im portant events, the manners, customs, and institutions of various nations, with out the labor of reading more extensive works. On the other hand, it will prove highly useful to those who have passed through a course of historical study serving as an expeditious means of refreshing the memory, by recalling event i which time had- partially obliterated. In some respects, the Compendium po.' sesses an advantage over the more copious history. In the latter, the memor is frequently overcharged with a multiplicity of circumstances which oftC' obscure the most important facts; while, in the former, the most importai I events are only presented, and easily retained. A number of works of this nature have already appeared, and many of thei highly approved. Yet, in point of arrangement, and in the general matter of contents it would seem that some improvement might still be made. The divi 3 4 PREFACE. sion of history into periods, a system which has been followed by many respect- able historians, would appear, upon the whole, rather to obscure than aid the memory. The author, therefore, has thought proper to pursue the history of the various nations and institutions, by preserving an unbroken series of events in regular succession, from their earliest authentic records to their decline, or to the present time. In treating his subjects, it has been the studied design of the author to avoid all sarcastic remarks, and all useless invectives, making, in general, no further use of original comments than merely necessary to give a clear view of the facts •elated. By thus curtailing observations, which frequently make up a material portion of works of this nature, he has been enabled to insert a much greater irftount of historical matter than is usually met with in the same number of ,)ages. In speaking of religion, the most respectful languago has been cm- ployed, and no expression has been used that could, in the remotest degree, wound the feelings of the professors of any creed. In order to render this Compendium more valuable to the private reader, and it the same time more useful to the student of history, the author has thought proper to add an Appendix, containing the Declaration of Independence and the institution of the United States, thus placing these documents, so interesting in themselves, and so important in their nature, particularly the Constitution, to 'very American citizen, within the reach of every individual. Few indeed, in ihe community, have ever seen or read a copy of the Constitution, owing to the carcity of books which contain it. It would seem, moreover, a desirable object . ■) render the youth of our country early acquainted with the principles of the institution. This, it is hoped, will be accomplished by placing it in a work esigned for the use of schools and academies./ Biographical notices are at all imes interesting and instructive. But as the introduction of these notices in 'lie body of the work would too much interrupt that close connection of events, .so important in a Compendium of History, the author has added a short Bio- ;raphical Sketch of Distinguished Personages. By this means, he has been nabled to notice the lives and actions of manv eminent characters, who could not otherwise have been conveniently introduced. The Chronological Table, R hich fixes the date of all important events, discoveries, n? How old is the world, and how many days were employed in producing it : rom what did God firm the body of man? ANTEDILUVIANS. 1 1 seeing that al^ his work was good, rested on the seventh day wnich he sanctified as a day to be devoted to religious solem- nities. 2. The firat woman was formed from a rib, taken from the side of the man while in a deep sleep, and given to him as a compa- nion j in this manner was the sacred institution of marriage ordained by the Creator himself. Adam and Eve, the names ol the first of the human family, were placed by the Deity, imme- diately after their creation, in a terrestrial paradise, called the garden of Eden. They were permitted to use all the fruits of the garden, with exception of the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil ; this restriction was laid upon them as a trial of their obedience, and the penalty of death was threatened if they should transgress the command of their Creator. 3. Various opinions have been entertained with respect to the situation of the garden of Eden; but following the account given of it in the Old Testament, and judging from the well known names of the Tigris and Euphrates, we may determine with some probability, that it was situated in or near Mesopotamia. It is evident that it was east of Canaan, or of the wilderness where Moses wrote his sacred history, though the precise spot cannot now be ascertained. 4. The innocence and felicity of our first parents were of short duration. Scarcely had they began to enjoy the delights of para- dise, when the woman, deceived by the subtlety of Satan, in the form of a serpent, plucked and eat of the forbidden fruit, and at the same time presented it to her husband, who likewise followed her example. The effect was decisive : the whole face of creation was changed. Death was introduced, and from that moment our first parents, with all their posterity, became liable to dissolution, and subjected to all the moral and physical evils which have af- flicted the human family to the present time. God called them to au account, and his awful voice filled their souls with dread. 5. Adam being severely reprimanded for his disobedience, be- ^an to exculpate himself upon the weak pretence that the woman had first offered him the fruit. The woman, hearing herself thus accused, sought to remove the blame from herself upon the ser- pent, that had deceived her. But in a formal violation of his precepts, God admits of no excuse ; he cursed the serpent as the first author of the sin, condemning it to creep upon the earth and eat the dust thereof; but for fear that man should despair under the weight of his afflictions, he promised him a future deliverer, declaring that the seed of the woman would eventually crush the serpent's head ; a declaration which referred, in its full extent, to the person of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of mankind. Adam and Eve were then banished from paradise, and a cherubim with a What did he do on the seventh day ?— 2. From what was the first woman formed ? What were the names of the first of the human family ? and where were they placed f What were they permitted to use? Why was this restriction laid upon them ?— 3. Where is the supposed situation of the garden of Eden ?— 4. What is said of the innocence of our first parents ? How was the woman deceived ? and what was the effect of iheir disobedience? — 5. What sentence was pronounced on the serpent? and what promise was made tri man ? What then became of Adam and Eve t 12 THE DELUGE. flaming sword, placed at the east of the garden, to prevent all access to that once happy abode. 6. In the first year of the world, 4004 years B. C, Cain was bom, and the following year is assigned for the birth of Mel. The two brothers not only followed different occupations, bul possessed very different characters. On a certain occasion, as they were both presenting their offerings to God, the offering oi Abelw&s accepted, while that of Cain was rejected. This cir- cumstance excited the indignation of Cain, who, availing himself of the opportunity as they were alone in the field, rose up againsi his brother and slew him. On account of this unnatural crime, Cain was immediately punished: God called him to a solemn reckoning, and after hearing with bitter anguish his doom pro- nounced, that he should be a fugitive and a vagabond on earth, we are told that he went out from the presence of the Lord, and dwelt in the land of Nod, east of Eden. 7. After a brief account of Cain and his family, the sacred his- torian presents us with a short but interesting account of Enoch, who is said to have walked with God for the space of three hun- dred years, and at the expiration of that time, to have been taken up to heaven without passing through the scene of death. The sacred genealogy is carried down to the time of Noah and his sons, and the date of the life of each of the patriarchs is minutely given. The descendants of Seth at first continued pure and un- corrupt; at length, by intermarriage, with the descendants of Cain, they became like the rest of mankind, exceedingly degenerate. 8. The Deity, justly provoked by the enormous degeneracy of his creatures, determined to destroy, by a universal deluge, the race of man, together with the whole animal creation, except a small remnant destined again to repeople the earth. From this tremendous sentence which God had pronounced, Noah and his family, eight in number, were the only persons who were exempted. Connected with this intimation which Noah had received con- cerning the approaching deluge, were several particular instruc- tions relative to his deliverance. He was ordered to build a large vessel, called the ark, according to the divine directions. 9. The ark was built of gopher wood, which is supposed to be the same as the cypress. Its form was that of an oblong 1 square, with a flat bottom and a sloping roof, elevated one cubit in the middle ; it consisted of three stories, and was divided into sepa- rate apartments. # When completed, Noah entered the aik to- gether with his wife, his three sons and their wives, taking with him every species of beasts, birds, and reptiles, by pairs and by sevens, according to the divine command. Immediately after this, the fountains of the deep were broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened; during forty days and forty nights, with- out intermission, the waters were poured upon the surface of the globe. In the mean time, the ark rose with the rising flood, and 6. When was Cain born? When was Abel born? and what is related of ihe two brothers? — 7. What is said Df Enoch ? and the descendants of Cain? — 8. What did the Deity determine to do? Who was exempted from the sentence? — 9. Describe the aik? When completed, what cid Noah do? How long did the waters contir.u? lo fall? TOWER OF BABEL. 13 rode triumphant over the raging water, which soon buiied be- neath its swelling waves all living creatures, without distinction. 10. When the waters began to subside, the ark rested on the top of Mount Ararat, in Armenia, and after it had remained there for four months, Noah being anxious to know whether they had disappeared from the earth, opened the window of the ark, and sent forth a crow, which did not return; after this he sent forth a dove, which, not finding a place on which to rest its feet, again returned to the ark. At the end of seven days, the dove was sent out a second time, and in the evening returned bearing in its beak a green olive branch, which Noah joyfully" received, not only as a proof that the flood had abated, but likewise as a sign that God was reconciled with the world. 11. By the command of God, Noah then went out of the ark with his family, taking with him all the living creatures, after they had been shut up for the space of a year, and immediately afterwards he built an altar, and offered sacrifice to the Lord. God blessed Noah and his sons, and made a covenant with him, engaging no more to destroy the earth with a flood, in confirma- tion of which, he set his bow in the heavens. Shortly after this period, Noah engaged in pursuits of husbandry, and having been intoxicated with the juice of the grape, was discovered in this situation by his youngest son Ham, who with indecent levity, in formed his brothers of the circumstance; they, however, treated their father with the highest degree of filial respect. Noah, as soon as he awoke, being informed of all that had passed, condemned the action of Ham, pronounced a curse upon his posterity, declaring that they should be the slaves to the slaves of his brethren, while at the same time he highly commended the piety of Shem and Japhet. 12. The descendants of Noah soon became very numerous in the vicinity of Mount Ararat, where they first settled after the deluge, and finding the place, too small, they began to think of extending their territories, and of making new settlements, in different parts of the globe. Before their separation, they pro- posed leaving some monument behind them that might make their memory famous in after ages. With this view they undertook to build a city, and in it to erect a tower, the top of which might reach to heaven. Their intention was not merely to signalize tneir name, but also to provide themselves with a place of security Against any future deluge that might happen. At this time, all mankind spoke the same language, and therebv more effectually encouraged each other in their impious undertaking. God being offended at their presumption, resolved to stop the progress of their labor. ^ By a stroke of his divine power, they all in a mo- ment lost their uniformity of accent, and were surpiised to hear nothing but a confused and discordant sound of words which no one could understand. The tumult and disorder that ensued 10. Where did the nric rest? Whnt is said of tne crow and the dove?— 11. What •die' Noah now do? Whal promise did God make? In whnt did Noah engage? What huppened to him? What sentence did he pronounce on Ham?— 13. What is said ol the descendants of Noah ? What did they undertake? Wliat did God do ? Whal ensued * Where did the descendants of llie sons of Noah settle. 14 ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. caused them to desist from their design, and the tower which they nad begun was. on that account, called the Tower of Babel, or Confusion. After this event, mankind separated and dispersed into differ- ent nations. The descendants of Shem are said to have settled in the south of Asia; those of Ham in Syria, Arabia and Africa, while the posterity of Japhet peopled the west of Asia, and also Europe. ASSYEIA AND BABYLON. 1. Assyria, the first of the four great empires of anticjuity, de- rived its name from Jlshur, the son of Shem, who is said to have been the founder of Nineveh, its capital. The foundation ot Babylon is ascribed to Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, who is believed by many to be the same as Belus of profane history. These two cities are supposed to have been founded about the same time, shortly after the dispersion of mankind; but their history for many ages is involved in obscurity. It is commonly supposed that Assyria and Babylon were originally two distinct kingdoms, and continued separate until Babylon was conquered by Minus and annexed to the Assyrian empire. 2. Ninus is represented as a great and powerful sovereign : he is said to have built, or at least to have enlarged and embellished the city of Nineveh, which stood upon the eastern bank of the Tigris. His design was to immortalize his name by the building of a city, which, in point of extent and magnificence, could not be ( surpassed by any other in after times. Nor was he much de- ceived in his view. The city of Nineveh was built in the form of an oblong square, measuring eighteen miles and three quarters in length, eleven and one quarter in breadth, and sixty miles in circumference. The walls were one hundred feet high, and of such thickness that three chariots might stand abreast upon them with ease. They were fortified and adorned with fifteen hundred towers, two hundred feet high. 3. Ninus having made extensive conquests, married Scmira- mis, who succeeded him in the throne. She is described not only as surpassing all her sex in wit and beauty, but also possessing unbounded ambition and extraordinary talents^ for government and war. She enlarged Babylon and rendered it the most mag- nificent city in the world. The description of Babylon, given by ancient historians, seems almost incredible. The walls are said to have been eighty-seven feet in thickness and three hunched and fifty in height. They were drawn round the city in the form of an exact square, each side of which was fifteen miles in length, all built of brick cemented together with bitumen. On every side 1. What is said ot* Assyria I Who founded Babylon ? What is supposed concern* ing Assyria and Babylon?— 2. What is said of Ninus! What was his design? De scribe Nineveh.— 3. What is said of Semiram s? Describe Babylon ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 15 of this great square, there were twenty-five gates which were all made ot solid brass. From these twenty-five gates, the same number of streets ran in parallel lines to the gates on the opposite side of the wall, thus forming fifty streets, each fifteen miles long, each street one hundred and fifty feet broad. Round these squares, on every side, stood the houses, all built three or four stories high and beautified by all manner of ornaments towards the streets. The space within the middle of each square was void ground laid out in beautiful gardens. 4. Semiramis, after a reign of great splendor for forty-two years, left the throne to her son Ninyas. From the time of Nin- >yas to the overthrow of the monarchy under Sardanapahis, a period of several centuries, little or nothing is known respecting the history of Assyria and Babylon. The name of S'ardanapahts is almost a proverbial reproach. He is said to have so degraded himself as to adopt the dress and occupation of a female, and to have passed his life in the most disgraceful effeminacy and voluptuousness. At length Jlrbaces* governor of Media, with Belesis, governor of the city of Babylon, and several others, disgusted with his inglorious and shameful life, formed a conspiracy against him. Sardanapahis having sus- tained a defeat, in order to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies, caused a pile of wood to be made in his palace, and burnt himself with all his women and treasures. 5. On the ruins of this vast empire were founded three new kingdoms ; that of Media under Jirbaces, and that of Babylon under Belesis, and a third of Assyria, whose first king was named Ninus the younger. Ninus was succeeded by Tiglath-pileser, who invaded Juctah during the reign of Ahaz, and took possession of that part of the kingdom of Israel which lies east of the Jordan. Under the reign of his successor, Shalmaneser, an end was put to the kingdom of Israel, and its inhabitants were carried into captiv- ity. The next sovereign was Senacherib, who laid siege to Jeru- salem in the reign of Hezekiah, but he was compelled to return to his own dominions in disgrace, having lost 185,000 men of his army, who were destroyed in a miraculous manner in one night. The fourth king, Esarhaddon, defeated Manasseh, king of Judah, and carried him captive into Assyria. 6. After the death of Bsarhaddon, Nabopolassar or Nebuchad- nezzar, king of Babylon, assisted by Cyaxares, king of Media, besieged Nineveh, and having taken it, killed Saracus the king, and utterly destroyed that mighty city, and put an end to the Assyrian monarchy. He was succeeded by his son Ncbuchad nezzar II., who took Jerusalem and carried the Jews captive to Babylon. The particulars of this sovereign's reign are recorded in the book of Daniel. God, to punish his pride, reduced him to a state of insanity, but after wandering in the forest and feeding 4. How Ion? did Semiramis reign? What is said of Sardanapahis? and what was hip ,.„a ?_5. What empires were now founded ? What was done in the reign of ShaJ- niane«er ? AY ho was the next sovereign, and what did he do? What did Esarhaddor Jo ? -45. What happened during the reign of Nabopolassar? What did Nebuchadnezzar lo' I low did Gol punish him? 16 ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. on grass like a wild beast for twelve months, he again recovered his mind, and being restored to his throne, by a solemn edict, published throughout his dominions the astonishing things that God had wrought in him. 7. During the reign of BehJiazzar, who succeeded to the throne a few years after the death of Nebudiadnczzar, the Persians under Cyrus, after a siege of two years, by turning the course of the Euphrates, entered the city of Babylon through the dry chan- nel, and took it while the inhabitants were engaged in feasting and riot. Belshazzar was slain, and with him ended the Baby- lonian empire, after it had continued for about two hundred and ten years. 8. Antiquities. The government both of Assyria and Baby- lon was strictly despotic and the sceptre hereditary. The whole was centered in the king; all decrees emanated from him, and he even claimed the worship which belonged only to the divinity. The laws of the empire were in general vague and uncertain, depending wholly upon the will of the sovereign ; but there was one, however, fixed and irrevocable, which obliged all, particu- larly the poor, to marry. And in this a singular custom prevailed. No man had any power over his own daughters, but as soon as they were marriageable, they were put up at auction; and the price obtained for the more beautiful was assigned as a dowery for the more homely. In consequence of this practice, all the young women were disposed of in marriage; the beautiful for theii charms, and the homely for their wealth. 9. The Babylonians, and particularly the Chaldeans, were early famed for their learning. They were the first who cultivated astronomy and discovered the exact motion of the planets ; they pretended to be able to foretell future events from the heavenly bodies, which was imbodied into a kind of science called astro- logy. They built temples to the stais as being the subordinate agents of the divine power, and by worshipping them they hoped to obtain the good will of the deity. From this they descended, by a natural process, to the worship of objects on earth as the representatives of the stars or the deity. It is evident that this was the origin of idol worship, from the fact that the names of the principal gods of the heathens in general are those of the sun. moon, and the five primary planets — Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury and Venus. The horrid custom of sacri- ficing human victims to conciliate their gods was first practiced by the Babylonians, and from them it was communicated to the surrounding nations The Babylonians applied themselves only to the more useful arts. Their immense buildings prove them to have been well skilled in architecture and geometry. They never attained to any superior excellence in painting and statuary; music and poetry were probably but little attended to. 7. What was done during the reign of Belshazzar? What was his end'— 8. Whut is said of the government and laws of Assyria and Babylon? What singular eustoig prevailed?— 9. What is said of the learning of the Babylonians and Chaldeans? To what did they build temples? What is said concerning the origin of ii'ol worship! To what did the Babylonians apply themsplves? PEESIA. 1. Persia was ths second of the four great empires of antiquity. rts history, prior to the reign of Cyrus the Great, is involved in obscurity and fable. It was originally called Elam, and the in- habitants Elamites, who were the descendants of Shem. We are informed by the Scriptures that one of the kings of Elam con- quered the king of Sodom, but was pursued and defeated by JJbrahctm. In the early ages, it was of very limited extent, but under the reign of Cyrus, who was the founder of the great Per- sian empire, it became the most powerful and extensive monarchy in the world, comprising Persia, Media, Babylonia, Syria and Asia Minor ; to these Egypt was added by Cambyses. 2. Cyrus is represented as a prince of an excellent character, and obtained the surname of Great, from his heroic actions and splendid achievements. Having subdued all the nations from the JEgean sea to the Euphrates, he together with his uncle Cyaxares, the second king of the Medes, took Babylon and conquered the Assyrian empire. After the death of Cyaxares, Cyrus united the two kingdoms and reigned over them for seven years, in the first of which he published the famous edict for the return of the Jews and rebuilding of Jerusalem. t 3. Herodotus, Xcnophon and other ancient authors, differ mate- rially in the accounts they give of the exploits and character of Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Cyrus possessed all the abilities of an illustrious and able sovereign, with all the more amiable virtues that adorn humanity ; and according to the same author, he died like a philosopher, discoursing of death with tranquillity, and giving the most admirable instruction to his children, by which to form their character and regulate their future conduct. On the contrary, we are told by Herodotus , that Cyrus, having undertaken an expedition against the Scythians, was surprised and slain by a stratagem of the enemy. The account given by Xenophon has been followed by Rqllin and other modern writers, yet it is supposed by some that it was not the design of that author to exhibit a faithful record of facts, but rather to delineate the model of a perfect prince and a well organized government. 4. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambrfces, who %as arbi- trary and cruel : his principal exploit was the conquest of Egypt; he made himself master of Pelusium by placing in front of nis army a great number of those animals considered sacred by the Egyptians, who not daring to injure them, made no opposition to the Persians. On the death of Cambyses, Smerdis usurped the crown: but after enjoying the regal dignity for sey^n months, he was assassinated, and Darius was elected to fill thewcant throne, 1. AVhat is said of Persia? Whnl did it become in the reipn of Cyrus? — 2. What it said of Cyrus? What did lie do? What edict did he publish?— 3. How do Herodotue and Xenophon differ in their accounts of Cyrus? — 4. W r ho succeeded Cyrus? Hew did he make himself muster of Pelusium? On the death of Cambysesjf who usurped the throne? / , _ 2* % V 18 PERSIA. The history of Persia, from the reign of this soAereign until the overthrow of the monarchy, is much connected with that of Greece. 5. Darius was succeeded by his son Xerxes I., who conducted the second invasion of Greece, but returned to his own dominions in shame and disgrace, alter sustaining a series of defeats, with immense loss. He was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes, who enjoyed a long and peaceful reign. The only sovereigns of dis- tinction who reigned after this period, were Artaxerxes II., and Darius Codomanus, the last of the Persian monarchs. Codo- manus was defeated by Alexander the Great, and finally assas- sinated : and with his death the ancient empire terminated, A. C. 336. 6. Antiquities. The government of Persia was an absolute monarchy; the crown was hereditary, and generally bestowed on the eldest son of the deceased king. The sovereigns received almost divine honors from their subjects. No one could approach the seat of majesty without prostrating himself upon tne ground, or remain in his presence without holding his hands within his sleeves; a violation of this ceremony was punished with death. The royal palace at Persepolis was extremely magnificent; the ceiling and walls of the apartments were covered with ivory, silver, gold or amber; the throne was also of fine gold adorned with precious stones. 7. The Persians are said to have paid more particular regard to the education of their children than any other nation. We are told that a son was never admitted into the presence of his father, until he arrived at the age of five years, lest the parent might be too heavily afflicted by the loss, if the child should die before that period. At the age of five years, the children, at least of the higher order of the state, were placed under the care of learned and virtuous masters, who bestowed on their pupils the utmost attention. 8. The mode of punishment among the Persians was generally severe: it consisted in cutting oft* the right hand, decapitation, pressing to death between two large stones, and the like. The most severe and inhuman was that of fastening the culprit in such a manner that he was unable to move hand or foot. His face, exposed to the rays of the sun, was smeared with honey, which invited innumerable swarms of flies and wasps to torment him; th^ executioners compelled him, by thrusting sharp instru- ments into his eyes, to receive nourishment, for the purpose of prolonging his agonies. We are told of one victim, who lived seventeen days under these torments. The Persians were trained to all the military exercises, but particularly to the use of the bow. They never fought in the night, nor used any stratagem inde- pendent of their valor. 9. Their religion was idolatrous, but not so gross as that of some of the surrounding nations. They professed to worship the 5. What is said of Xerxes? Who was the last of the Persian monarchs. and what was his end? — 6. AVhat is said of the government of Persia? and of those wYio approached the sovereign? Describe the palace at Persepolis? — 7. To what did they pay pecu liar regard? WVVhat custom prevailed?— 8. What is said of the mode of punishment? Describe one ttvere form? 9. What is said of their religion ? What do they adore? PHOENICIANS. EGYPT. 19 one all-wise and omnipotent God; but they held fire to be holy, and the purest symbol of the divine nature. In connection with this they adored the sun, and paid a superstitious regard to other elements, such as the earth, air and water. In ancient times they were destitute of temples, and erected altars for the preservation of the sacred fire, on the tops of the mountains. At length Zoro- aster persuaded them, for the sake of convenience, to build over each a pyreum or fire temple. The priests were called Magi, and were held in great esteem on account of their learning. PHOENICIANS. 1. The Phoenicians were among the most remarkable and early civilized nations of antiquity. They were styled Canaanites in the scripture, and seem to have been a commercial people in the time of Abraham. The two principal cities, and the most ancient we read of in history, were Tyre and Sidon, The Phoenicians are reputed inventors of glass, purple, letters, and coinage; they are regarded as the earliest navigators and merchants in the world; they carried on trade, not only over all the coasts of the Mediterranean, but even visited the shores of Britain, from which they exported tin. 2. To Hiram, king of Tyre, both David and Solomon applied, v hen proposing to build the temple at Jerusalem; he furnished them not only with precious materials, but also with a great num- ber of workmen. They sent out a number of colonies to Cyprus , Rhodes, Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain; the foundation of Carthage is attributed to Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, with a company of adventurers. The city of Tyre sus- tained two memorable sieges and was twice taken: first by Nebu- chadnezzar, and again by Alexander the Great. EGYPT. SECTION I. 1. Egypt holds a conspicuous place in history, on account of its early civilization and high attainment in the arts. It was con- sidered by the ancients as the most renowned school of wisdom and politics, and the source from which most of the arts and sciences are derived. Even the most illustrious men of Greece, such as Homer and Plato, Lycurgus and Solon, travelled into 1. "What is said of the Phoenicians? Of what were they inventors?— 2. What is eaici of Hiram? Where did they send colonies? What is said of Tyre? 1. What is aaid of Egypt? How was it considered by the ancients ! 20 EGYPT. Egypt to complete their studies and draw from thence, whatever was rare and valuable in learning. 2. The ancient history of this country is greatly involved in obscurity ; historians, however, unanimously agree that Mizraim, the son of Ham, was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy ; he is supposed to be the same as Menes, who is said to have insti- tuted the worship of the gods, and the ceremonies of the sacri- fices ; he was succeeded in the throne by his posterity, for several generations. Egypt was next governed by a race of foreign princes from Arabia, styled Shepherd Kings, who invaded the country, and retained possession of the greater portion of it for the space of two hundred and sixty years. 3. The ancient Egyptians seem never to have been a warlike nation. The only king of the country whose name stands re- corded as a great conqueror, is Sesostris, who is said to heave maintained a numerous army, and conquered a great part of Asia : but little is known of his achievements, or the extent of his con- quests. Towards the close of his life, he is said to have renounced the profession of arms, and to have devoted himself to the inter- nal improvement of his kingdom. Having become blind in his old age, he died by his own hand, after a reign of thirty-three years. 4. The next sovereign who is particularly distinguished in the history of this country, was Neekus, styled in the scripture, Pharaoh-Necho. He patronised navigation, and fitted out a fleet, which, leaving the Red Sea, sailed around the coast of Africa, and returned to Egypt through the Straits of Gibraltar ; he waged a successful war against the Medes and Babylonians, and defeated Josiah, king of Judah, in the battle Megiddo, and imposed an annual tribute upon the country. 5. Egypt was invaded by the Persians under Camhyses, about the year 525 before the Christian era; the cities of Pelusium and Memphis were taken, and the whole country reduced to a pro- vince of the Persian monarchy. Egypt was wrested from the do- minion of Persia by Alexander the Great, and after his death it fell to the share of Ptolemy ; under him and his successors, the country regained its ancient lustre, and rose to eminence in science and commerce; the dynasty of the Ptolemies continued from the death of Alexander to that of Cleopatra, embracing a period of two hundred and ninety-three years. 6. Ptolemy Lagvs, surnamed also Soter, is said to have been the natural son of Philip, king of Macedon, and half brother of Alexander the Great. At the time of Alexander's death, he was governor of Egypt, and afterwards became king of the country. tie was a man of great ability, equally eminent as a general and a statesman, distinguished for his learning, and a munificent patron of literature. He founded the famous library of Alexandria, established a 2. Who was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy? By whom was Egypt next governed ?— 3. What is said of the ancient Egyptians? of Sesostris ?— 4. Who was the next sovereign, and what is said of him ? — 5. Who invaded Egypt? By whom was i? wrested from Ihe Persians? How long did the dynasty of the Ptolemies con- tinue. ?— 6. What is said of Ptc.emy Lagus ? What did he establish? EGYPT. 21 museum or academy, and erected the celebrated watch-tower of Pharos, which was reckoned by some as one of the seven won- ders of the world. He built a number of new cities, encouraged commerce and agriculture, and conquered Syria. He died altera prosperous reign of thirty-nine years. 7. Ptolemy Lagus was succeeded by his son Ptolemy Philadel- phus, whose reign, like that of his father, was prosperous and useful. He patronised commerce and navigation, founded several cities, and erected magnificent buildings. His court was a seat of learning, politeness, and the arts, and was resorted to by men of genius. During his reign, the celebrated version of the Old Testament into Greek, called the Septuagint, was made for the use of the Jews who were settled at that time in Alexandria. 8. Ptolemy Evergetes, the son of the late monarch, who suc- ceeded to the throne, was a warlike prince, but also a patron of learning, and spared no pains to enrich his library. In the early part of his reign, he carried on a severe though successful war with Antiochus, king of Syria. He was succeeded by his son Ptolemy Philopator, a sanguinary tyrant, whose reign was dis- tinguished for a cruel persecution of the Jews. Having invaded Judea, and advanced as far as Jerusalem, he attempted to enter by force into the holy place of the Jewish temple, into which none but the high-priest was allowed to enter, and that only once a year. Being forcibly prevented from committing this sacrilege, he returned to Egypt, and resolved to wreak his vengeance on the Jews, who had enjoyed the favor of his predecessors. 9. He published a decree, that all the Jews within his domi- nions should abjure their religion and sacrifice to the gods of Egypt, under the severest penalties; however, only about nine hundred were found to apostatize. After this, he ordered all the: Jews in Alexandria to assemble in a place of public diversion, called Hippodrome, where he had collected five hundred elephantn for the destruction of that devoted people ; but the enraged ani- mals, rushing among the crowd, crushed to death a greater num- ber of the spectators than of the Jews; yet it is computed that about forty thousand of the latter perished on that occasion. 10. The history of the remaining Ptolemies presents little that js interesting; their reigns, for the most, were unhappy, abound- ing in crimes and calamities. Ptolemy Dionysius was the last king of Egypt; he succeeded to the throne at the early age of thirteen years; he reigned in conjunction with his sister, thecele- orated Cleopatra, who aspired to undivided authority. A war ensued, in which Ptolemy was slain, and Cleopatra assumed the sole government. Her history is connected with that of Julius C&sar and Mark Antonys she finally caused her own death by poison, in order to avoid being led captive, to Rome to grace the triumph of Octavius. After her death, Egypt became a Roman province. 7. By whomwas Ptolemy Lagus succeeded? What is said of him?— 8. What '9 (raid of Ptolemy Everpfetes ? By whom was he succeeded? What did he attempt * —9. What did he publish ? How did he attempt to destroy the Jews ? 10. Who waj the last king of Egrpt? What is said of Cleopatra? What did Egypt become? 22 EGYPT. SECTION IT. Manners and Customs of the Egyptians. 1. A striking resemblance with regard to government, reli- gion, customs and character, is said to exist between the ancient Egyptians and many of the oriental nations, particularly the Chinese. The government was an hereditary monarchy, but the power of the sovereign was restrained by the influence of the priests. At daybreak in the morning, the king arose and read the several letters he received the preceding day. He then went to the temple to attend the offering of the sacrifice, and to assist at the prayers pronounced aloud by the high-priest, who invoked the blessing of the gods upon the prince, that he might govern his people with clemency and justice. The laws prescribed not only the quality but also quantity of food for the royal table \ as for the quality, it was of the most common kind, because eating, in Egypt, was designed not to please the palate, but to satisfy the cravings of nature. 2. The laws of Egypt were generally based upon the strictest justice. Wilful murder was punished with death, whate^ er might be the condition of the murdered person, whether he v as free-born or otherwise. Perjury was also punished with dea h, because that crime insulted the majesty of the gods, by invoki: % their name to a falsehood, and broke the strongest ties of hunut* society, namely, sincerity and veracity. No man was allowed 1 > be useless to the state ; but every one was obliged to enter his name on the public register, and give an account of his profession and means ot support. Polygamy was allowed in Egypt except to the priests, who could only marry but one woman. An unusual custom prevailed among the Egyptians, which permitted the mar- riage of brother and sister ; hence we find that the queens of the Ptolemies were generally their sisters. 3. In Egypt, the greatest respect was paid to old age. The young were obliged to rise up for the old, and on every occasion to resign to them the most honorable seats. The virtue in the highest esteem among the Egyptians, was gratitude; and it has been said of them, that they were the most grateful of men. But it was particularly towards their kings that they prided them- selves on evincing their gratitude ; they honored them while living, as so many visible representations of the deity, and after their death, lamented them as the fathers of their country. 4. Never were any people more superstitious than the Egyp- tians; they had a great number of gods of different orders and degrees; among these, Osiris and Isis were the most universally adored. Besides these gods, they worshipped the ox, the wolf, the dog, the crocodile, the ibis or cat, and many other degrading 1. What is paid of the manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians? Of the go- vernment? Of the king? What did the laws prescribe?— 2. On what were the laws based ? What was the punishment of murder ? Of perjury ? What was every man obliged to do? What was allowed ? What custom prevailed ? — 3. To what was great respect paid ? What virtue was held in the highest esteem ? — 4. Besides Oairi* and Isis, what did the Egyptians worship 1 EGYPT. 23 objects It was death for any one^to kill one of these animals voluntarily. Piodorus relates the circumstance of a Roman, who fell a victim to the fury of the populace of Alexandria, for having accidentally killed a cat. The Egyptians held the doctrine or the transmigration of souls; and believed that at the death of a man, his soul entered into some other human body; and that if he had been vicious, his soul was confined in the body of some beast to expiate his former transgressions; and that after some centu- ries it would again animate another human body. 5. No people paid greater respect to the bodies of the dead than the Egyptians. As soon as any person in a family died, all the relations and friends laid aside their usual habits and put on mourning, which they continued to wear for forty days or longer, according to the quality of the person. The body was then em- balmed, by which process it was preserved from decay; after this, the corpse was put into a kind of an open chest, and placed upright against the wall of the dwelling or sepulchre; so that the children seeing the bodies of their ancestors thus preserved, recalled to mind those virtues for which the public had honored them, and were excited to imitate their example. 6. The power of the laws extended even beyond the grave ; because, before anyone could be admitted into the sacred asylum of the tomb, he was obliged to undergo a solemn trial; and this circumstance, in Egyptian funerals, is one of the most remarkable to be found in ancient history. The whole life of each person, after death, was strictly examined; and if found to be virtuous, his body was embalmed with every mark of respect, and deposited in a sepulchre; but if his life had been vicious, or if he had died in debt, he was left unburied, and was supposed to be deprived of future happiness. The kings themselves were not exempted from this trial after death; if their lives were vicious, they were deprived of funeral rights and the honor of the sepulchre. SECTION III. The Pyramids, Labyrinth, Lake o/Mseris, fyc. 1. The Pyramids of Egypt are the most celebrated of those works of grandeur for which that country has been renowned. Of these Pyramids, there were three near the city of Memphis, more famous than the rest; one of which was justly ranked among the seven wonders of the world. According to several ancient authors, each side of the base measured eight hundred feet, and as many feet in height. A hundred thousand men are said to have been employed for the space of twenty years in erecting this vast edifice. The Pyramids were designed as tombs for the AVhat does Diodorus relate ? What doctrine did they hold ? — 5. When a member of a family died, what did the relations do ? Describe the ceremony of embalming. — 6. What is said of the power of the laws ? If a man had lived vicious, or died in debt, what was done ? 1 What is said of the Pyramids? What was the length of each side of the base of the Pyramid near Memphis ? For what were they designed? 24 EGYPT kings, and there is still to be seen in the middle of the largest, an empty sepulchre, cut out of one entire stone, about three feet wide and six feet long. 2. The Labyrinth of Egypt, was an enormous structure of mar ble, built under ground; it comprised twelve palaces with a com munication leading to each other, and divided into fifteen hundred rooms or apartments. These subterraneous structures were de- signed as a burying -pi ace for kings, and also for keeping the sacred crocodiles. The Obelisks with which Egypt abounded, were quadrangular spires, terminating in a point, often wonderful on account of their beauty and height. Sesostris erected two neai the cityof Heliopolis, each one hundred and eighty feet in height. Several of these obelisks, with immense labour, were transported to Rome, where they form at the present day the chief ornaments of that city. Many of them were covered with hieroglyphics, that is, mystical characters used by the Egyptians before the invention of letters, and afterwards to conceal the mysteries of their theology. 3. The noblest and the most wonderful of all the structures of the kings of Egypt, was the lake of Maeris, which Herodotus considers as even superior to the Pyramids. This lake was in circumference about one hundred and eighty French leagues, and three hundred feet deep. Two pyramids, on each of which was placed a colossal statue, seated upon a throne, raised their heads to the height of three hundred feet, in the midst of the lake, above the surface of the water. It is generally believed that this im- mense reservoir, with its pyramids, was completed in the reign of one monarch, from whom it takes its name; and was designed to regulate the inundations of the Nile. When that river rose too high and fatal consequences seemed likely to follow, the water was let into the lake and covered the lands no longer than was necessary to enrich them. On the con- trary, when the inundation was too low and threatened a famine, a sufficient quantity of water was let out of the lake upon the land. 4. The ruins of a few of the ancient cities and palaces of Egypt still excite the wonder and admiration of the traveller. The glory of Thebes, the capital of Upper Egypt, famous for its hundred gates, was the theme of admiration of poets and historians at a period prior to the commencement of authentic history. Strabo and Diodorus describe it under the name of Diospolis, and give such magnificent descriptions of its monuments as to cause their fidelity to be called in question, until the observations of modern travellers have proved their accounts to have fallen short of the reality. The ruins of one of the palaces of this city are especially admired, and seem to have remained only to eclipse the glory of the most pompous edifices of modern times. There were four avenues of great extent which led to four porticoes of amazing 2. What was the Labyrinth? For whnt designed? What is said of the Obelisks! With what were ninny of them covered? — 3. What was the noblest work? What was its circumference? What was in the midst of the hike? For what was it designed? — 4. What is said of the ruins of cities. &c? Describe Tliebes ? Describe one-of the palaces of this city * AVliat is said of Memphis ? GREECE. 25 height ; they were bounded on each side with statues, composed of materials as rare and extraordinary as their size was remark- able Within the middle of this stately palace, there was a hall supported by one hundred and twenty pillars, thirty-six feet in circumference and of proportionable height, which the lapse of so many ages has not been able to demolish. Before the time of Herodotus, Memphis had supplanted Thebes, which seems to have been particularly noted for its stately temples, and among them, that of the god Apis was the most remarkable. GREECE. SECTION I. 1. Among the various nations of antiquity, Greece deservedly holds the most distinguished rank, both for the patriotism, genius and learning of its inhabitants, as well as the high state of perfec- tion to which they carried the arts and sciences. Greece formerly comprised various small independent states, differing from each other in the forms of their government, and in the character of the people, but still united in a confederacy for their mutual defence, by the counsel of Arnphictyons, and by their common language, religion and public games. 2. The ancient name of Greece was Hellas, and the inhabitants were called Hellenes ; but by the poets they were distinguished by different names; such as the Danai, Pelasgi, Argivi, Achivi, &c. The original inhabitants, who were generally considered as the descendants of Javan, the son of Japhet, lived in the lowest state of barbarism, dwelling in huts, feeding ou acorns and berries, and clothing themselves in the skins of wild beasts, when Cecrops with a colony from Egypt, and Cadmus with a body of Phcem- cians, landed in Greece, and planted on its shores the first rudi- ments of civilization. The early form of government of Greece was a limited mon- archy, which was finally abolished, and a republican form generally prevailed. 3. The history of Greece may be divided into- two parts ; 1st, the period of uncertain history, which extends from the earliest accounts of the country, to the first Persian war in the year 490 B. C. : 2d, the period of authentic history extending from the invasion by Persia, to the final subjugation of Greece by the Romans, A. 0. 146. The first period is generally reckoned from the foundation of Sicyon, the most ancient kingdom of Greece, and comprises a space of about sixteen hundred years. This long succession of ages, though greatly involved in obscurity and 1. What is said of Greece? What did it formerly comprise? How were they united ? — 2. What was its ancient name ? From whom were the inhabitants descended* What v/as their condition when Lecropi landed in Greece ? — 3. How is the history of Greece divided I How do these periods extend ? What is said of the first period ? 26 GllEEOE. fable, is still interspersed with several interesting particulars: it contains no records, however, that properly deserve the name of history. 4. The Grecian history derives some authenticity at this period, from the Chronicle of Faros, preserved among the Arwi- delian marbles at Oxford. The authority of this chronicle Ins been much questioned of late ; but still, by many, it is thought to be worthy of considerable credit. It fixes the dates of the most important events in the history of Greece, from the time of Ce~ crops down to the "age of Alexander the Great. 5. Sicyon, the capital of the ancient kingdom of that name, was founded by JEgialus; Argos by Inachus, the last of the Ti- tans; Athens, which afterwards bore such a distinguished part in the history of Greece, was founded by Cecrops, with a colony from Egypt. He was an eminent legislator, and instituted the court of Areopagus. Thebes was founded by Cadmus ^ who is said to have introduced letters into Greece from Phoenicia; the alphabet, however, only consisted of sixteen letters, and the mode of writing was alternately from right to left, and from left to right. 6. In the time of Cranaus, who succeeded Cecrops^ happened the deluge of Deucalion: this deluge, though much magnified by the poets, was probably only a partial inundation. The other memorable institutions that distinguish this period, were the Eleusinian mysteries, the Olympic and other games, of which we will speak hereafter: also the marvellous exploits of Hercides and Theseus. SECTION II. The Fabulous and Heroic Ages. 1. The fabulous age comprises the period from the foundation of the principal cities, to the commencement of civilization, ard the introduction of letters and arts into Greece. The first great enterprise undertaken by the Greeks, was the Argonautic expe- dition, which appears in its details to partake more of fable than of history. It was commanded by Jason, the son of the king ol Iolchos, who was accompanied by many of the most illustrious men of Greece, among whom were Hercules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus, iEsculapius the physician, and Chiron the astronomer. 2. They sailed from Iolchos, in Thessaly, to Colchis, on the eastern coast of the Euxine Sea : they received the name Argo- nauts from the ship Argo in which they sailed, said to have been the first sea vessel ever built. This famous voyage, which was 4. From what does the Grecian history derive authenticity ? Of what does this chronicle fix the :iate ? — 5. By whom was Sicyon founded ? Argos ? Alliens ? Thebes? What is said of Cadmus ? — 6. In the time of Cranaus, what happened ? What insti- tutions distinguished this period? 1. Whut do the fabulous ages comprise? What was the first great en erprise ? Who ionur.auded it? and who accompanied hin. ' -2 From where did thev sail? GREECE. 27 probably a military and mercantile adventure, is commonly re- presented to have been undertaken tor the purpose of recovering the golden iieece of a ram, which originally belonged to their country. The fleece is pretended to have been guarded by bulls that breathed lire, and by a dragon that never slept. 3. The Heroic Age was particularly distinguished by the Tro- jan war, the history of which rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of his Iliad, the noblest poem of antiquity. According to the poet, Hellen, tiie daughter of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, was reputed the most beautiful woman of her age, and her hand was solicited by the most illustrious princes of Greece. Her father bound all her suitors by a solemn oath, that they would abide by the choice that Hellen should make of one among them ; and that, should she be taken from the arms of her husband, they would assist, to the utmost of their power, to recover her. 4. Hellen gave her hand to Menelaus, and after her nuptials, Tyndarus her father resigned the crown to his son-in-law. Paris, the son of Priam, king of Troy, a powerful city founded by Bar danus, having adjudged the prize of superior beauty to Venus, in preference to Juno and Minerva, was promised by her the most beautiful woman of the age for his wife. Shortly after this event, Paris visited Sparta, where he was kindly received by Menelaus; but in return for the kind hospitality tendered to him, he per- suaded Hellen to elope with him to Troy, and carried oft* with hei a considerable amount of trea.su re. 5. This act of treachery and ingratitude produced the Trojan war. A confederacy was immediately formed by the princes of Greece, agreeable to their engagement, to avenge the outrage An army of one hundred thousand men was conveyed in a fleet of twelve hundred vessels, to the Trojan coast. Agamemnon, king of Argos,. brother of Menelaus, was selected as commander in-chief. Some of the other princes most distinguished in this war, were Achilles, the bravest of the Greeks; also Jijax, Mene- laus, Ulysses, Nestor, and Diomedes. 6. The Trojans were commanded by Hector, the son of Priam, assisted by Paris, Deiphobus, JEneas* and Sarpedon. After a siege of ten years, the city was taken by stratagem, plundered ot its wealth, and burnt to the ground. The venerable Priam, king of Troy, was slain, and all his family led into captivity. About eighty years after the destruction of Troy, the civil war of the Heraclidae began; it is usually called the return of the Heraclidae into Peloponnesus. Hercules* king of Mycenae, a city of Pelo- ponnesus, was banished from his country with all his family, while me crown was seized by Atreus, the son of Pelops. After the lapse of about a century, the descendants of Hercules returned to Peloponnesus, and having expelled the inhabitants, again took possession of the country. For what was this famous voyage undertaken ?— 3. For what is the Heroic Age distinguished? What is said of Helen? How did her father bind all her suitors? — 4. To whom did Helen give her hand? What is said of Paris?— 5. What did this treachery produce 1 Who was commander-in chief of the Grecian forces? Mention th»» other princes —6. By whom were the Trojans commanded ? What is said of the city? Of Priam? About eighty years after this, what happened? What is said of Hercules? 28 GREECE. SECTION III. Republic of Spuria. 1. Sparta, or Lacedammn, was the capital of Lacoma, in the southern part of Peloponnesus. After the return of the Hera- clidse, the government was administered by the two sons of Aiis- todemus, who reigned jointly, and this double monarchy was transmitted to the descendants of each for a period of eight hun- dred and eighty years. 2. This radical principle of disunion, and consequently of anarchy, made the want of a regular system of laws severely- felt. Lycurgus, the brother of one of the kings of Sparta, a man distinguished alike for his great abilities and stern integrity, was invested, by the united voice of the sovereigns and the people, with the important duty of framing a new constitution for his country. The arduous task being at length completed, produced not only an entire change in the form of government, but also in the manners of the people. He instituted a senate, elective, consisting of twenty-eight members, whose office was to preserve a just balance between the power of the kings and that of the people. Nothing could come before the assembly of the people which had not received the previous consent of the senate; and, on the other hand, no action of the senate was effectual without the sanction of the people. The kings were continued, but were nothing more than hereditary presidents of the senate, and gene- rals of the army. 3. Lycurgus divided the territory of the republic into thirty- nine thousand equal portions among the free citizens; and for the purpose of banishing luxury, commerce was abolished ; gold and silver coin was prohibited, and iron money was substituted as a medium of exchange ; a uniformity of dress was established, and all the citizens, not excepting the kings, were required to take their principal meals at the public tables, from which all luxury and excess were excluded, and a kind of black broth was the principal article of food. Among some of the admirable cere- monies which prevailed at these public meals, the following is interesting and instructive. When the assembly was seated, the oldest man present, pointing to the door, said, " No word spoken here, goes out there." This wise regulation produced^ mutual confidence, and rendered them unrestrained in conversation. 4. The institutions of Lycurgus, though in many respects ad mirable, had still many defects. Infants, shortly after their birth, underwent an examination, and those that were well formed were delivered to public nurses ; and at the age of seven years, they were introduced into the public schools; but all those who were deformed or sickly, were inhumanly exposed to perish. The 1. WTiat was Sparta? What is said of the government after the return of the Her?.- ehdar? — 2. What is said of Lycurgus ? W^ith what was he invested? AVhat ilid he institute ? What is said of the kings ? — 3. How did he divide the territory ? What is said of commerce ? Of gold and silver? Of iron money? O/ dress? Of ] ublic tables? What was said by the oldest man present?— 4. What 't> eaid of the institu tioriE of Lycurgus ? Of infants ? GREECE. 29 young were taught to pay the greatest respect to the aged, and cherish an ardent love for their country; the profession of arms was inculcated as the great business of life. Letters were only taught as far as they were useful ; hence the Spartans, while they were distinguished for many heroic virtues, were never eminent for learning; and no productions have been transmitted to mo- dern times written by a native of Sparta. They were accus- tomed to speak in brief sentences, so that this style of speaking, even at the present time, is called after them, laconic, Laconia being one of the names of their country. 5. The youth were early inured to hardship; they were accus- tomed to sleep on rushes, trained to the athletic exercises, and only supplied with plain and scanty food. They were even taught to steal whatever they could, provided they could accomplish the theft without being detected. Plutarch relates the fact of a boy who had stolen a fox and concealed it under his garments, and who actually suffered the animal to tear out his bowels, rather than discover the theft. The manners of the Lacedsemonian wo- men were highly indelicate; they were destitute of the milder virtues that most adorn the female character. Their education was calculated to give them a masculine energy, and to fill them with admiration of military glory. Mothers rather rejoiced than wept, when their sens fell nobly in battle. " Return with you! shield or on your shield," was the injunction of a Spartan mother to her son, when he was going to meet the enemy : intimating that he should conquer or die. 6. For five hundred years the institutions of Lycurgus conti- nued in force. During this period, the influence of Sparta was felt throughout Greece; her government acquired solidity, while the other states were torn by domestic dissensions. In the pro- cess of time, the severe manners and rigid virtues of her citizens began to relax ; changes in her laws and institutions were finallj introduced, particularly during the reign of Lysander, whose conquests filled the country with wealth. From this period luxury and avarice began to prevail, until Sparta, with the other states of Greece, sunk under the dominion ■>f Philip, king of Macedon. SECTION IV. The Bepublic of Athens. 1, Athens, the capital of Attica, was distinguished for its com- merce, wealth and magnificence, also as the seat of learning and the arts. The last king of Athens was Codrus, who sacrificed himself for the good of his country, in a war with the Ileraclidse. What were the young taught to pay? What is said of letters? How were they accustomed to fpeak? — 5. What is said of the youth? Of the manners of the women. What ia said of mothers?— G How long did the, institutions of Lycurgus continue? In the process of time, what took phce? What is said of Sparta from this period? 1. For what was Athens distinguished ? o* 30 GREECE. After his death, no one being deemed worthy to succeed him, the regal government was abolished, and the state was governed by mag- istrates, styled archons. The office was at first for life; it was after- wards reduced to a period of ten years ; and finally the archons, nine in number, were annually elected, and were possessed of equal authority. 2. As these changes produced convulsions in the state, and rendered the condition of the people miserable, the Athenians appointed Draco, a man of stern and rigid principles, to prepare a code of written laws. His laws were characterized by extreme severity; they punished every crime with death. Draco being asked why he was so severe in his punishment, replied that the smallest offence deserved death, and that he had no higher pen- alty for the greatest crime. The severity of these laws prevent ed them from being fully executed, and at length caused them to be entirely abolished after a period of one hundred and fifty years. 3. Solon, one of the seven wise men of Greece, being raised tu the archonship, was intrusted with the care of framing for his country a new system of laws. His disposition was mild and condescending; and, without attempting to change the manneis of his countrymen, he endeavoured to accommodate his system 1o their prevailing customs, to moderate their dissensions, to restrain their passions, and to open a field for the growth of virtue. Of his laws he said, " If they are not the best possible, they are the best the Athenians are capable of receiving." 4. Solon's system divided the people into four classes, accord ing to their wealth. To the three first, composed of the richei citizens, he intrusted all the offices of the commonwealth. The fourth class, wLich was more numerous than the other three, hud an equal right of suffrage in the public assembly, where all laws were framed and measures of state decreed : by this regulation, the balance of power was thrown in favour of the people. He instituted a senate composed of four hundred, and afterwards increased it to five hundred persons. He restored the court ot Areopagus, which had greatly fallen into disrepute, and commit- ted to it the supreme administration of justice. Commerce and agriculture were encouraged; industry and economy enforced; and the father who had taught his son no trade could not claim a support from him in his old age. 5. The manners of the Athenians formed a striking contrast with those of the Lacedaemonians. At Athens, the arts were nighly esteemed; at Sparta, they were despised and neglected ; at Athens, peace was the natural state of the republic, and the refined enjoyments of life, the aim of its citizens; Sparta was entirely a military establishment; her people made war the great business of life. Luxury characterized the Athenian, frugality After the tlealh of Codrus. howwss the slate governed? What is said of the office l- 2. What is said of Draco? How were his laws distinguished? What reply did he make when asked, why he was so severe? — 3. What is said of Solon? What did he ifideavonr to accomplish? Of. his laws, what did he say? — 4. What is said of Solor's system? Of the fourth class? What did he institute? What is said of commerce, fee. ?— 5 What was the striking contrast between the Athenians and Laeedeemonians ? GREECE. 31 the Spartan. They were both, nowever, equally jealous of their liberty and equally brave in war. 6. Before the death of Solon, Pisistratus, a man of great wealth and eloquence, by courting the popular favour raised himself to the sovereign, power, which he and his sons retained for fifty years. He governed with great ability; encouraged the arts and sci- ences, aud is said to have founded the first public library known in the world, and first collected the poems of Homer into one volume, which before that time were repeated in detached por- tions. Pisistratus transmitted his power to his sons Hippias, and Hip- parchus. They governed for some time with wisdom and mode- ration, but having at length abused their power, a conspiracy was funned against them, and their government was overthrown by Harmodius, and Aristogiton. Bipparclms, was slain ; Hippias, fled to Darius, king of Persia, who was then meditating the inva- sion of Greece; aud was subsequently killed in the battle of Ma- faihon, fighting against his countrymen SECTION V. From the Invasion of Greece by the Persians, to the 2 J eloponne- sian War. From P. C. 490 to 431. I.The period from the first invasion to the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, is esteemed the most glorious age of Greece. The series of victories obtained by the inhabitants over the Per- sians are the most splendid recorded in history. The immediate cause which led to the invasion of Greece, seems to have been to avenge the aid which the Athenians gave to the people of Ionia, who attempted to throw off the yoke of Persia. 2. Darius, king of Persia, having reduced the Ionians, next turned his arms against the Greeks their allies, with the design of making entire conquest of Greece. He despatched heralds to each of the Grecian states, demanding earth and water, which was an acknowledgment of his supremacy. Thebes and several of the other cities submitted to the demand; but AJiens and Sparta indignantly refused, and seizing the heralds, they cast one into a pit and another into a well, and told them to take there their earth and water. 3. Darius now commenced his hostile attack both by sea and 'and. The first Persian fleet, under the command of Marclonius, vas wrecked in doubling the promontory of Athos, with a loss of no less than three hundred vessels: a second, of six hundred sail, ravaged the Grecian islands; while an immense army, consisting 6. What is said of Pisistratus? How did he govern? What is said of Htpparehua and Hippius? 1. What is said of this period? What was the immediate cause which led to the invasion of Greece? — 2. Whit is said of Darius? How did Athens and Sparta treat the heralds ?— ,3. What is said of the first Persian fleet ? What was the number of" Urn second iiet;t ? 32 GREECE. of one hundred and ten thousand men. poured down impetuously on Attica. This formidable host was met by the Athenian army under the command of Miltiades. on the plains of Marathon, where the Persians were signally defeated and fled with precipi- tation to their ships. The loss of the Persians amounted to six thousand three hundred ; while the Athenian army, which did not exceed ten thousand men, lost only one hundred and ninety -two A soldier covered with wounds ran to Athens with the news, and having only strength sufficient to say, "Rejoice! the victory is ours/' fell down and expired. 4. Miltiades, the illustrious general by whose valor this great victory was gained, received the most inhuman treatment from his ungrateful countrymen. Being accused of treason for an un- successful attack on the isle of Paros, he was condemned to death; this punishment, however, was commuted into a fine of fifty talents, (about fifty thousand dollars.) In consequence of his being unable to pay this amount, he was cast into prison, where he died in a few days of the wounds he received in the defence of his ( ountry. 5. The Athenians at this time were divided into two parties, under their respective leaders — Aristides, the advocate of aiis- tocracy, and Themistocles of democracy. Aristides, who on account of his integrity was called the just, through the intrigies of his great rival, was banished for ten years by the Ostracism It happened while the people were giving their votes for his exile., that a certain citizen who was unable to write and who did not know him personally, brought him a shell and asked him to write the name of Aristides upon it. " Why what harm has Aristides ever done your" said he. il No harm at all," replied the citizen, "but I can-not bear to hear him continually called the just." Aristides smiled, and taking the shell wrote his own name upon it and went into banishment. 6. On the death of Darius, Xerxes his son, who succeeded to the Peisian throne, resolved to prosecute the war which his father had undertaken against Greece. Having spent four years in making the necessary preparations, he collected an army, accord- ing to Herodotus, exceeding two millions of fighting men; and including the women and retinue of attendants, the whole multi- tude is said to have exceeded five millions of persons. His fleet consisted of more than twelve hundred galleys of wa*\ besides three thousand transports of various kinds. 7. Having arrived at Mount Athos, he caused a canal, naviga- ble for his largest vessels, to be cut through the isthmus which joins that mountain to the continent, and for the conveyance of his army, he ordered two bridges of boats to be extended across the Hellespont, at a point where it measures seven furlongs in breadth. The first of these bridges was destroyed by a tempest, on which account, Xerxes, in transports of rage, ordered the sea By whom was this host met? What was the loss of the Persians? Of the Athenian army? "What is said of an Athenian soldier? — 4. What is related of Milt/ades. th? llustrious general? — 0. What is said of Xerxes? What was the numher of his army? Of bis fleet?— 7. Having arrived at Mount Athos, what did he cause? GREECE. 33 to be scourged with three hundred stripes, and to be chained by casting into it a pair of tetters. The bridge being again repaired, the army commenced its march, and occupied seven days and seven nights in passing the straits, while those appointed to con- duct the march lashed the soldiers with whips, in order to quicken their speed. 8. Xerxes having taken a position on an eminence, from which lie could view the vast assemblage he had collected, the plain covered with his troops, and the sea overspread with his vessels, at first called himself the most favored of mortals. But when lie reflected that in the short space of a hundred years, not one of the many thousands then before him would be alive, he burst into tears, at the instability of all human things. 9. Most of the smaller cities of Greece submitted at the de- mand of the Persian monarch ; of those which united to oppose him, Athens and Sparta took the lead. The Persian army ad- vanced directly towards Athens, bearing down all before it until it came to the pass of Thermopylce, on the east of Thessaly. On this spot, Leonidas, one of the kings of Sparta, with only six thousand men, had taken his position in order to oppose its pro- gress. Xerxes having arrived at this place, sent a herald to Leonidas, commanding him to deliver up his arms, to whom the noble Spartan replied in laconic brevity, " Come and take them." For two days the Persians endeavoured to force their passage through the defile, but were repulsed with great slaughter ; but having at length discovered a secret path leading to an eminence which overlooked the Grecian camp, and having gained this ad- vantageous post, under the cover of the night, the defence of the pass became impossible. 10. Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction, dismissed all his allies, retaining only thiee hundred of his countrymen, and in obedience to a law of Sparta, which forbade her soldiers, under any circumstances, to flee from an enemy, resolved to devote his life for the good of his country. Animated by his example, the three hundred Spartans under his command determined to abide the issue of the conflict. Leonidas fell among the first, bravely contending against the thousands of his enemies ; of the three hundred heroes, only one escaped to bear to Sparta the news, that her patriotic sons had died in her defence; and this survivor, after his return, felt himself so disgraced at being alive, that he perished by his own hand. Aristodemus, another of the band, being absent when the battle occurred, was considered so much disgraced by this accident, that when he afterwards distinguished himself at the battle cf Platasa, he was nevertheless deemed unworthy of any share of the spoils. A monument was afterwards erected on the spot, to commemorate this memorable battle, bearing this inscription, written by Simonides : Go, stranger, and to listening Spartans tell, That here, obedient to their laws, we fell. What did he order? How long was the army in passing the straits ?— 8. What is now related of Xerxes ? — 9. What is said of the Persian army? On this spot, who opposed its progress ? What reply did he make ? How long were the Persians stopped? — 10. What did Leonidas now do ? Of the three hundred, how many escaped ? What Inscription was afterwards placed upon the monument ? 34 GREECE. 11. Xerxes having forced the pass of I'hermcpylsc, directed his march towards Athens, laying waste the country as he ad- vanced, with lire and sword. The Athenians, having conveyed their women and children, for safety, to the islands, retired to their fleet, leaving their city in the hands of the Persians, by whom it was pillaged and burnt. The only resource left to the Greeks was placed in their fleet ; therefore, they immediately commenced preparations for a naval engagement. Their fleet consisted of only three hundred and eighty sail, under the com- mand of Themistocles and Aristides, while that of the Persians amounted to twelve hundred vessels. The engagement took place in the straits of Salamis, which resulted in the total defeat of the Persian armament. Xerxes, who had seated himself upon an eminence, that, he might behold the engagement, having seen the complete discomfiture of his squadron, fled with precipitation to the shores of the Hellespont. But to his great mortification, he found that the bridge of boats which he left had been destroyed by a tempest ; terrified, however, at the valor displayed by the Greeks, his impatience would admit of no delay ; he therefore crossed the Hellespont in a fishing boat, to his own dominions. 12. The Persian monarch I eft. Mardonius with three hum] red thousand men, to complete the conquest of Greece. This army, early in the following season, was met at Plataea, by the com- bined forces of Athens and Sparta, consisting of one hundn d and ten thousand men, under the command of Aristides and Pausanias, and was defeated with tremendous slaughter, Mardo- nius himself being numbered among the slain. On the sami' day, the Greeks engaged and destroyed the remains of the Per- sian fleet, at the promontory of Mycale, near Ephesus. The Persian army was now completely destroyed, and Xerxes, having been frustrated in all his ambitious views, was soon afterwards assassinated, and was succeeded in the Persian throne by his son, Ariaxerxes Longimanus, A. C. 464. 13. At this period, the national character of the Greeks was at its highest elevation. The common danger had annihilated all partial jealousies between the stares, and had given them union as a nation. Encouraged by their late victories, they resolved to bid defiance to the Persians ; they undertook to aid the Ioniar.s who had thrown oft* the yoke of Persia. The combined forces of Sparta and Athens, under the command of Pausanias and Ci- rnon, expelled the Persians from Thrace, destroyed their fleet on the coast of Pamphylia, took the island of Cyprus, and having reduced and plundered the city of Byzantium, they returned with immense booty. 14. Pausanias, who had borne so distinguished a part in the late war, now became intoxicated with glory and power, and aspired 11 Where did Xerxes now march? What is said of the Athenians? Who com- manded their fleet ? What engagement took place ? What is said of Xerxes ? How did he cross the Hellespont ?— 12. What did the Persian monarch leave? By whom was this army met ? and what was the issue of tie battle ? On the same day, what took place? What was the end of Xerxes?— 1?. At this period, what is said of the G reeks? Wha1 did they undertake? What did they effect?— 14. What is said of Pausanias ? GREECE. 35 to the sovereign dominion of Greece. For this purpose, he wrote to Xerxes, offering to effect the subjugation of his country, and to hold it under the dominion of Persia, on the condition of receiv- ing his daughter in marriage. The treachery was detected before it could be carried into execution, and Pausanias, being con- demned by the ephori, took refuge in the temple of Minerva, where the sanctity of the place secured him from violence ; being unable to escape from this asylum, he soon perished by hunger. Themistocles, the great Athenian commander, being accused of participating in the treason of Pausanias, was banished from his country, by the ostracism. The exiled general proceeded to Asia, wrote a letter to the Persian monarch, in which he said, " I, Themistocles, come to thee, who have done thy house most ill of all the Greeks, while I was of necessity repelling the invasion of thy father, but yet more good, when I was in safety, and his re- turn was endangered." He was permitted to live in Persia in great splendor, but being required by Artaxerxes to take vp arms against the Greeks, rather than sully his former glory, by engaging in a war against his native country, although that coun- try had been ungrateful towards him, he chose to suiTer a volun- tary death. 15. Aristides, after the banishment of Themistocles, directed the affairs of Athens, and upon his death, which happened shortly afterwards, Cimon, the son of Miltiades, one of the most illus- trious statesmen and warriors of Greece, became the most pro- minent man in the republic. He gained two important victories over the Persians on the same day, the one by sea and the other by land, near the river Eurymedon, in Asia Minor. But it was the characteristic of the Athenians to treat their most distin- guished citizens with ingratitude. Cimon, through the influence of faction, was banished by the ostracism, while Pericles, ayoun^ man of exalted talents and extraordinary eloquence, succeeded in gaining the ascendency at Athens 16. Cimon, however, after a banishment of five years, was re- called, and being restored to the command of the army, gained several other important victories over the Persians, and finally died of a wound he received at the siege of Cictium, in Cyprus. Shortly after this event, the Persian war, which had lasted with some slight intermissions for about fifty years, was brought to a termination. Artaxerxes, weary of a war that only brought dis- grace upon his arms and weakened his resources, sued for peace, which was granted on condition that he should ffive freedom to ok the lead against Athens ! During the first year of the war what took place? During the second 1 — 3. After the death of Pericles, who grew into power t What was his end ? After this event what took place ? GREECE. 37 Hon. war being again declared, through the influence of Alcibiades, one of the greatest of the Athenian generals, and the most accom- plished orators of his time. 4. An expedition was next sent against the island of Sicily, under the command of Alcibiades and Nicias, but the former being accused of misconduct, was recalled, and the latter was totally defeated and slain. Alcibiades, after some time, was again placed at the head of the Athenian army, and gained several important victories, but falling a second time into disrepute, he was banished from this country, and took refuge in Asia, where he died. 5. Lysandcr, the Lacedaemonian general, having defeated the Athenian fleet, at JEgos-Potamos, on the Hellespont, reduced Athens to the last extremity, by blockading the city both by sea and land. The wretched Athenians were at length compelled to accept the most humiliating terms of peace; they agreed to de- molish their port, to limit their fleet to twelve ships, and to under- take for the future no military enterprise, but under the command of the Lacedaemonians. Thus ended the Peloponnesian war, by the submission of Athens, and the triumph of Sparta, which now became the leading power in Greece. A. (J. 403. 6. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens abolished the popular government of that state, and established in its place an oligarchy, consisting of thirty magistrates, with absolute power, who, from their atrocious acts of cruelty, were called the Thirty Tyrants. In the space of eight months we are told that fifteen hun- dred citizens fell victims to their avarice and vengeance, while many others fled from their country. At length Thrasy- bulus, aided by a band of patriots, expelled the tyrants from the seat of their power, and restored the democratic form of govern- ment. 7. An event, which happened about this time, reflected indeli- ble disgrace upon the fickle-minded Athenians, which was, the persecution and death of the illustrious philosopher, Socrates, a name, at once the glory and reproach of his country. The Sophists, whose futile logic he derided and exposed, represented him as an enemy to the religion of his country, because he attempt- ed to introduce the knowledge of a supreme Being, the Creator and Ruler of the universe, and to inculcate the belief of a future state of retribution; and being accused, moreover, of corrupting the youth, he was condemned by the assembly of Athens to die by poison. 8. lie made his defence in person, with all the manly fortitude of conscious innocence, but the majority of his judges, being his personal enemies, determined on his ruin. During the forty days of his imprisonment, he conducted himself with the greatest dig- nity; refused to escape when an opportunity offered; conversed 4. What expedition was next undertaken ? What is said of Alcibiades? — 5. What is said of Lytander ? Of the Athenians? What were the terms of peace ? How did the- war end? — 6. What did Lysander do ? In eight months, how many citizens per- ished? What did Thrasybulus do? — S. What events took place at this time'.' How did the Sophists represent him? Why? — S. How did he nuke his defence ? What is said of him uvriug his imprisonment ? iJ>i GREECE. with his friends on subjects of moral ph'losophy, particularly the immortality of the soul, and when the appointed time arrived drank the fatal cup of hemlock, and died with the utmost compo- sure. After the fatal deed was accomplished, the Athenians began to see the error into which they had fallen; his judges and accusers were either put to death or banished from the°city; a brazen statue was erected to his memory, the workmanship of the celebrated Lycippus. Thus they endeavored to repair, in some degree, the injustice they had permitted against the most virtuous of their citizens. 9. On the death of Darius, the Persian throne was left to his son, Jirtaxerxcs II., but his younger brother, Cyrus, attempted to dethrone him, and for that purpose he employed about thirteen thousand Grecian troops; but both Cyrus and the Grecian com- mander were slain in a battle, which was fought at Cunaxa, near Babylon. The remainder of the Grecian army, which amounted to about ten thousand, under the command of Xenophon, effected a most extraordinary retreat, traversing a hostile country of six- teen hundred miles in extent, from Babylon to the shores of the. Kuxine. This celebrated return, usually called the retreat of Ten Thousand, is beautifully described by Xenophon himself, .and is regarded as one of the most extraordinary exploits in military history. 10. The Grecian colonies in Asia having taken part with Cyrus, were assisted by the Spartans, under their king Jlgcsilaus. The Persian monarch, however, by means of bribes, induced Athens and other of the Grecian states, jealous of the power of the Lace- daemonians, to enter into a league against them, tfgesilaus was obliged to return in order to protect his own dominions; he defeated the confederate forces in the battle of Coronea, but the Spartan fleet was defeated by the Athenians under Conon nea; Cnidos. A treaty of peace was finally concluded, by which it was agreed that all the Grecian cities of Asia should belong to Persia, and all others should be independent, with the exception of the islands of Lemnos, Scyros and Imbros, which should remain under the dominion of Athens. 11. While Athens and Sparta were visibly tending to decline, Thebes emerged from obscurity, and rose lor a time to a degree of splendor eclipsing all the other states of Greece. The Spar- tans, jealous of its growing prosperity, took advantage of some internal dissension and seized upon Ihe citadel. Pelopidas, with a number of Thebans, fled for protection to Athens, where he planned the deliverance of his country. Disguising himself and twelve of his friends as peasants, he entered Thebes in the evening, and joining a patriotic party of citizens, they surprised the leaders of the usurpation amidst the tumult of a feast, and put them all to death; and pursuing his success in conjunction How did lie die? What is said of the Athenians?— 9. "What did Cyrus attempt 1 What did the remainder of the army effect after this event? — 10. By whom were the Grecian colonies assisted? What did the Persians effect by bribes? What is said of Agesilaus? What battles were fought? What was agreed by the treaty of peace! - 11. What state emerged from obscurity ? What did the Spartans do ? What is said Of Pelopidas f GREECE. 39 with his friend Epaminondas , who shared with him the glory of the enterprise, he finally succeeded in expelling the Lacedaemo- nian garrison from the Theban territory. 12. A war necessarily ensued between Thebes and Sparta; the Theban army, under the command of Pelopidas and Epami- nondas, gained the memorable battle of Leuctra, in which they lost only three hundred men, while the Spartan loss amounted to four thousand, together with their king Cleombrotus, who was numbered among the slain. The victorious Thebans, under Kpaminondas, joined by many of the other Grecian states, entered the territories of Lacedaemon, and overran the country with fire and sword. The Spartans, who had long boasted that their wo- men had never beheld the smoke of an enemy's camp, were mortified to see the invaders now encamped within the very sight of their capital. 13. Having humbled the power of Sparta, the Theban com- mander returned with his victorious army to his native city; but the war being again renewed, he gained another great victory over the Lacedaemonians and Athenians at the battle of Man- tinea; but he fell mortally wounded in the moment of victory. With the fall of Epaminondas, who was equally eminent as a philosopher, statesman, and general, fell the glory of his country. The battle of Mantinea was followed by a peace between all the Grecian states, by which each city established its inde- pendence. SECTION VII. Philip of Macedon. The Exploits and Death of Alexander. From 360 to 324. 1. Greece was now in the most abject situation. The spirit of patriotism appeared utterly lost, and military glory at an end, Athens, at this timr* the most prominent state, was sunk in luxury and pleasure; yet she was distinguished for her cultivation of literature and the arts. Sparta, no less changed from the sim« plicity of her ancient manners, and her power weakened by the new independence of the state of Peloponnesus, was in no capa- city to attempt a recovery of her former greatness. Such was (he situation of Greece, when Philip of Macedon formed the ambitious design of bringing the whole country under his do- minion. 2. The kingdom of Macedon had existed upwards of four hun lined years, but it had not risen to any considerable eminence; it formed no part of the Greek confederacy, and had no voice in the Amphictyonic council. The inhabitants boasted ot the same origin with the Greeks, but were considered by the latter as 12. Wnat ensued ? What battle did the Theban army gain ? What was the loss on both sides? What is said of the Spartans?— 13. What is said of the Theban com- rr.ar.dor? What followed the battle cf Mantinea? 1. What is said now of Greece? Of Athens? Of Sparta?— 2. Hnw long hod the Kingdom of Macedon existed 7 What is said of the inhabitants ? 40 GREECE. barbarians. Philip, who laid the foundation of the Macedonian empire, or as it is sometimes called, the Grecian empire, because Greece in its most extensive sense included Macedonia, was sent as a hostage to Thebes, at the age of ten years, where he enjoyed the advantage of an excellent education under Epaminondas. At the age of twenty-four years, he ascended the throne of Macedon, by the popular voice, in violation of the natural right of the nearer heirs to the crown. 3. Philip was possessed of great military and political talents, and was equally distinguished for his consummate artifice and address. In order to accomplish the subjugation of the Grecian states, he cherished dissensions among them, and employed agents in each with a view of having every public measure directed to his advantage. The attempt of the Phocians to occupy and cultivate a tract of land consecrated to the Delphian Apollo, gave rise to a contest called the Sacred War, in which most of the states of Greece were involved. The Thebans, Thessalians and other states, undertook to punish the Phocians, who were supported chiefly by Athens and Sparta. 4. Philip proposed to act as arbitrator of the matter in dispute, and procured himself to be elected a member of the Amphictyo- nic council. Shortly after this event, the Locrians having en- croached upon the consecrated ground of Delphi, and having refused to obey the order of the Amphictyonic council, Philip was invited to vindicate their authority by force of arms. Philip began his hostilities by invading Phocis, the key to the territory of Attica. JEschines, the orator, bribed to his interest, endeavored to quiet the alarms of the Athenians, by ascribing to him a design only of punishing the sacrilege and vindicating the cause of Apollo. De* mosthenesy with the true spirit of a patriot, exposed the artful de signs of the invader, and with most animated eloquence roused his countrymen to a vigorous effort for the preservation of their liber- ties. The event, however, was unsuccessful; the battle of Chero- nasa decided the fate of Greece, and subjected all the states to the dominion of the king of Macedon, A. 0. 337. 5. It was not the policy of the conqueror to treat the several states as a vanquished people; they were allowed to retain their separate independent governments, while he reserved for himself the direction and control of all national measures. Convoking a general council of the states, he laid before them his project for the invasion of Persia, and was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of all the Grecian states. On the eve of this great en- terprise, Philip was assassinated by Pausanias, the captain of his guards, while solemnizing the nuptials of his daughter, in the forty-seventh year of his age. The news of the event caused the most tumultuous joy among the Athenians, who indulged the vain Of Philip? At what age did he ascend the throne of Mscedon ?— 3. What did he possess? What did he cherish? What gave rise to the Sacred War ?— 4. What did Philip propose? After this event what tocfc place? How did he commence hostili- ties? What is said of JEschines and Demosthenes? What is said of the battle of Cheronsea ? — 5. What was the policy of the conqueror ? Having convoked a council of the states, what did he lay before them ? On the eve of this enterprise, what hap- pened to Philip ? What did the news of this event cause among the Athenians 1 GREECE. 41 hope of again recovering their liberty; but the visionary prospect was never realized ; the spirit of the nation was gone, and in all their subsequent revolutions, they only changed their masters. 6. On the death of Philip, his son Alexander, surnamed the Great, succeeded to the throne of Macedon at the age of twenty years. The young king, having reduced to subjection some of the states to the north of Macedon, turned the whole power of his arms against the revolted states of Greece. He defeated the Tiiebans with immense slaughter, caused their city to be razed to the ground, and thirty thousand of its inhabitants to be sold as slaves. These acts of severity so intimidated the other states of Greece, that they immediately submitted to his dominion. Alex- ander then ascembled the deputies of the Grecian states at Corinth, and renewed the proposal of invading Persia, and was appointed, as his father had been, the commander-in-chief of their united forces. 7. With an army of thirty thousand foot and five thousand horse, with the sum of only seventy talents and provisions for a single month, he crossed the Hellespont, and traversing Phrygia, pro- ceeded to the site of Troy and visited the tomb of Achilles, whom he pronounced the most fortunate of men in having Patrocles for his friend and Homer for his panegyrist. Darius Codomanus, resolving at once to crush the youthful hero, met him on the banks of the Granicus, with an army of one hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand horse. Here an obstinate battle was fought, in which the Persian monarch was defeated with a loss, according to Plutarch, of twenty-two thousand men, while the Macedonian loss was only thirty-four. In this battle, Alexander escaped nar- rowly with his life — being attacked by an officer, who was about to cleave his head with a battle-axe, when the blow was prevented by Clytus, who cut off the hand of the officer with his cimiter and thus saved the life of his sovereign. 8. The success of this battle was important to Alexander, as it put him in possession of Sardis with all its riches; he generously gave the citizens their liberty, and permitted them to live under their own laws. He soon after took Miietus, Halicarnassus, and other important places. The next important victory was obtained in the great battle of Issus. The Persian army, consisting of six hundred thousand men, was defeated with prodigious slaughter, no less than one hundred and ten thousand being killed, while (he Macedonians numbered only four hundred and fifty among the slain. The mother, wife and two daughters of Barius fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treatecf them with the great- est delicacy and respect. Barius, on hearing of the kindness of Alexander towards his family, offered for their ransom the sum 6. WT.o succeeded Philip? How did lie treat the Thebans? Having assembled the deputies of the Grecian states, what proposals did he renew? — 7. What was the nnm- her of his army? Where did he proceed ? By whom and where was he met? What was the issue 'of the battle, and the loss on both sides? In this battle, what is said of Alexander? — ?. What places did he next take? Where was the next victory ob- tained? What was the number of the Persian army? The number of the sla ; n on both sides? "Who fell inio the hands of the conqueror? I low were they treated? What did Darius offer for their ransom ? 4* 42 GREECE often thousand talents, (about £2,000,000 sterling,) and proposed a treaty of peace and alliance, with the further offer of his daugh- ter in marriage and all the country between the Euphrates and the iEgean sea. 9. When the offer was laid before Alexander's council, Par- menio is reported to have said, " If I were Alexander, I would accept the terms;" "And so would I," replied Alexander, " were I Parmenio." After this he overran Syria, took Damascus, and laid siege to Tyre, which surrendered after a noble defence or seven months. On this occasion, the conqueror exercised an act of barbarous cruelty by causing two thousand citizens of Tyre to be crucified, besides all those who were put to the sword or sold into slavery. He then directed his march towards Jerusa- lem, which he entered without opposition. Having taken the city of Gaza, he inhumanly sold ten thousand of its inhabitants into slavery, and dragged Betis, its illustrious defender, at the wheeL of his chariot, in imitation of Achilles, after the taking of Troy. 10. Alexander next proceeded to Egypt, which readdy submit ted to his arms; and with incredible fatigues, he led his army through the deserts of Libya to visit the temple of Jvpiter-Am- mon, and caused himself to be proclaimed the son of that deity. On his return, he commenced the building of the city of Alexan- dria, afterwards the capital of Lower Egypt, and for a time, on 1 ; of the greatest commercial cities in the world: he is said to have founded twenty other cities during the course of his conquests Returning from Egypt, he again received proposals from Darius, who offered to surrender to him the whole of his dominions to the west of the Euphrates; but he haughtily rejected the offer, saying, that " the world could no more admit of two masters than of two suns." 11. Having crossed the Euphrates, he was met at the village of Arabela by Darius, at the head of seven hundred thousand men. A tremendous battle ensued, in which the Persians were defeated with a loss of three hundred thousand men, while that of Alexander was only about five hundred. This great battle decided the fate of Persia. Darius first escaped to Media and afterwards into Bactria, where he Mas betrayed by Bessus, the satrap of that province, and murdered ; and shortly after this event the whole Persian empire submitted to the conqueror. 12. Alexander now projected the conquest of India, and having penetrated beyond the Hydaspes, he defeated Porut, the illus trious king of that country. He still continued his march to the East ; but when he arrived at the banks of the Ganges, his soldiers seeing no end to their toils, refused to proceed any further, and demanded that they might be permitted to return to their coun- try. Finding it impossible to overcome their reluctance, he re 9. "When the offer was laid before the council, what «vas said by Parmenio, and what was Alexander's reply? Alter the siege of Tyre, what act of cruelty did he exercise? Having taken the city of Gaza, what did he do? — 10. Wheie did he next proceed? On his'return, what city did he commence? What reply did he make to the proposals of Darius ? — 11. Where was he met by Darius? What ensued ? What was the loss on both sides? What was the fate of Darius?— 12. What did Alexan Oer next project ? When he arrived on the bar.*.s of the Ganges, what happened ? GREECE. 43 turned to the Indus, and pursuing his course southward by that river, he arrived at the ocean, and sending his fleet to the Persian Gulf, he led his army across the desert to Persepolis, which in a fit of frenzy he ordered to be set on fire. From Persepolis he returned to Babylon, which he chose as the seat of his Asiatic empire; here giving himself up to every excess, he was seized with a violent fever, brought on by excessive intemperance, and thus died in the thirty-third year of his age, and thirteenth of his reign, A. C. 324. 13. Perceiving that his end was approaching, he raised himself upon his elbow and presented his dying hand to his soldiers to kiss. Being asked to whom he left his empire, he answered, " To the most worthy." Alexander was the most renowned hero of antiquity. He possessed talents which might have rendered him distinguished as a statesman and a benefactor of mankind, but it was to his military exploits alone that he is entitled to the surname of Great. In the early part of his career, he was distin- guished for self-government, and exhibited many noble and gen- erous traits of character. But when 'ntoxicated with his extra- ordinary success, he gave himself up to unbounded indulgence and to deeds of cruelty and ingratitude. He caused Parmenio, his most distinguished general, who had assisted him in gaining all his victories, to be assassinated on mere suspicion. His friend Clytus, who had saved his life in the battle of the Granic.us, he struck dead upon the spot, because he contradicted him when heated with wine. He caused the philosopher Callisthencs to be put to death for refusing to pay him divine honours. (See par- ticulars of his character in the Biography.) SECTION VIII. From the Death of Alexander to the subjugation of Greece by the Romans, From A, C. 324 to 146. 1. Alexander having named no successor, his vast empire was divided into thirty-three governments, and distributed among as many of the principal officers. Hence arose a series of intrigues, fierce and sanguinary wars, which resulted in the total extinction of every member of Alexander's family, and finally terminated in a new division of the empire into four kingdoms: namely, that of Egypt under Ftole?ny; Macedonia, including Greece, under Cassander; Thrace, together with Bithynia, under Lysimachus ; ar.d Syria, under Seleucus. 2. ]4 KOU£. number of the citizens, their dwellings, and the amount of their property were ascertained. The census was closed by an expia- tory sacrifice, called a lustrum; hence the period of five years was usually called a lustrum. 11. Servius, in the early part of his reign, had married his two daughters to the two sons of Tarquin, the late king, whose names were Tarquin and Jlruns. But as their dispositions corresponded with those of his daughters, he took care to give Tullia, the younger, who was of a violent disposition, to Aruns, who was mild, and the elder to Tarquin, who was haughty and ambitious, hoping thereby, that they would correct each other's defects Tarquin and Tullia, however, murdered their consorts, and were shortly afterwards intermarried ; and as one crime is often productive of another, they caused the assassination of Servius, after which Tarquin usurped the throne. Tullia, in her eagerness to salute her husband as king, is said to have driven her chariot over the dead body of her father, which lay exposed in the street which led to the senate. Thus died Servius Tullius, after a useful and prosperous reign of forty-four years. 12. Tarquin, surnamed the proud, having placed himself upon the throne, as we have seen, soon disgusted the people by his tyranny and cruelty. He refused the late king's body a burial, under the pretence of his having been a usurper, and conscious of being hated by all virtuous persons, he ordered all those whom he suspected to have been attached to Servius to be put to death. To divert the attention of the people from his illegal method of obtaining the crown, he kept them constantly employed either in wars, or in erecting public buildings. While besieging A idea, a small town not far from Rome, Sextus, his son, left the camp to visit the house of Collatinus, under the mask of friendship. He was kindly received by the virtuous Lucretia, the wife ol Collatinus, who did not in the least suspect his criminal design. 13. At midnight he entered her chamber with a drawn sword in his hand, and threatened her with instant death if she offered to resist. Liicretia, though seeing death so near, was yet inex- orable, until being told if she did not yield, he would first kill her, and then laying his own slave dead by her side, would re- port that he found and killed them bofh in a criminal act. Thus the terror of infamy achieved what death could not obtain. In the mean time, Lucretia, resolving not to pardon her- self even for the crime of another, sent for her husband, Cotta- thius, and Spurius, her father, who brought with them Junius Brutus* the reputed idiot, whom they accidentally met in the way. They found her overwhelmed with grief, and endeavored in vain to console her. " No, never," she replied, "never shall I find any thing in this world worth living for, after having lost my honor ;" and drawing a poignard from beneath her robe, she plunged it into her own bosom, and expired without a groan. 11. What is related of his two daughters ? How did Servius die ? Who succeeded to the throne? What did Tullia do. in her eagerness to salute her husband as king! —12. What did Tarquin refuse ? What did lie order ? What is reiated of Sextus ?— 13. At midnight, what did he do? What did lie threaten? How did Collatinus and Spurius find Lucretia? What reply d'd she make to them ? How did she die ? ROME. 55 14. The body of Lucveha was brought out and exposed to view in the public forum, where Brutus, who had hitherto acted as an idiot in order to elude the cruelty of Tarquin, inflamed the ardour of the citizens by displaying the* horrid transaction. He obtained a decree of the senate, that Tarquin and his family should be for ever banished from Rome ; at the same time making it capital for any one tc plead for his return. That monarch was accordingly expelled from his kingdom, in the twenty-fifth year of his reign, p.nd the regal government was abolished, after it had continued uvo hundred and forty-four years. SECTION II From (he abolition of the regal power to tne first Funic War. Jl. C. 509 to 449 1. The regal authority having been abolished, a republican form of government was established on its ruins. The supreme power was stiil reserved to the senate and people, but instead of a king, two magistrates, called consuls, were annually chosen, with all authority, privileges, and ensigns of royalty. Brutus, the deliverer of this country, and CoUatinus, the husband of Lucretia, were chosen the first consuls of Rome. 2. But scarcely had the new republic began to exist, when a conspiracy was formed for its destruction. Some young men of the principal families of the state, who had been educated about the king, and had shared in all the luxuries and pleasures of the court, formed a party in Rome in favor of Tarquin, and under- took to re-establish the monarchy. Their design was fortunately discovered before it could be carried into execution; and, sur- prising as it may appear, the two sons of Brutus were found among the number of the conspirators. Few situations could be more aft'ecting than that of Brutus; — a father and a judge; im- aelled by justice to condemn; by nature to spare the children he loved. Being brought to trial before him, they were condemned to be beheaded in his presence, while the father beheld the sad spec- tacle with unaltered countenance. He ceased to be a father, as it has been beautifully observed, that he might execute the duties of the consul, and chose to live bereft of his children, rather than to neglect the public punishment of crime. 3. The insurrection in the city being thus suppressed, Tarqum now resolved to regain his former throne by foreign assistance, and having prevailed upon the Vientes to aid him, advanced towards Rome at the head of a considerable army ; but he was defeated by the Romans, under the command of the two consuls, 14. What did Brutus do? What did he obtain? How long had the regal govern- ment continued? 1. The regal power being abolished, what was established ? What two magistrates were chosen? Who were the two first consuls?— 2. What is said of the republic? Who were found amon2. What is said o£ the Gauls? What reply did BrenmiH Cnake to the embassy sent .oy the Romans? What did one or me ambassadors do? How did Brennus resent this conduct? — 23. On entering Rome, what did the Gauls Jo? Having discovered away to the Tarpeian rock, what did the Gauls ''o? How was the garrison roused?— 24. To what did me Gauls agree? r» 62 ROMF. into the scale, replied, that it was the only portion of the van- quished to suffer. At this moment, Camitlus, who in the mean time had been restored to favor and again appointed dictator, entered the gates of the city at the head of a large army. Having been informed of the insolence of the enemy, he ordered the gold to b« carried back to the capitol, saying, that it had been the man- ner of the Romans to ransom their country by steel, and not by go d. Upon this a battle ensued, in which the Gauls were en- tirely routed, and the Roman territories delivered from those for- midable invaders. 25. After the defeat of the Gauls, through the exertions of Ca- millus, who was honored as the father of his country and the second founder of Rome, the city soon began again to rise from its ashes. Shortly after this, Manlius, whose patriotism and valor had shone so conspicuous in defending the capitol and saving the last remains of Rome, abandoned himself to ambitious views; and being accused of aspiring to the sovereign power, he was sentenced to be thrown headlong from the Tarpeian rock. Thus the place which had been the theatre of his glory, became that of his punishment and infamy. 26. The Romans next turned tl^eir arms against the Samnites, who inhabited an extensive tract of country in the south of Italy. During this contest, which lasted for about fifty years, the Romans were generally successful, with the exception of a defeat sus- tained near Caudium, when their whole army was compelled to pass under the yoke, formed by two spears placed upright and a third placed across them. But roused by this defeat rather than discouraged, the Romans, the following year, having created Papirius Cursor, dictator, gained a signal victory over the Sam- nites, and compelled them in turn to undergo the same disgrace: and pursuing their good fortune under labius Maximus and JDecius, they finally brought them under subjection. 27. A war shortly afterwards followed between the Romans and Latins; but as their clothing, arms and language were simi- lar, the most exact discipline was necessary in order to prevent confusion in the engagement. Orders were therefore issued by Manlius, the consul, that no soldier should leave his ranks under the penalty of death. When the armies were drawn out in order of battle, Melius, a Latin, challenged to single combat any one of the Roman knights. Upon this, Titus Manlius, the son of the consul, forgetful of the orders of his father, accepted the chal- lenge, and slew his adversary. Then taking the spoils of the enemy, he hastened to lay them at the feet of the consul, who, with tears in his eyes, told him that as he had violated militaiy discipline, he had reduced him to the deplorable extremity of sacrificing his son or his country, but added, that a thousand lives would be well lost in such a cause; and accordingly ordered him At this moment who appeared at the gales of the city ? What did he order ? Wlmt ensued ?— 25. After the defeat of the Gauls, what took place? What is related of Manlius? — 2G. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms? Where did they suffer a defeat? AVho was created dictator ?— 27. What war next followed? What -mlcra were issued tv Manlius? What is related of Titus, his son? ROME. 6*3 to be beheaded. In tlio mean time the battle ensued, in which the Latins were vanquished, and submitted to the Romans. 28. The Tarentines, who were the allies of the Samnites, being unable to defend themselves, applied for aid to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, the most celebrated general of his age. Having accepted the invitation, Pyrrhus immediately sailed for Tarentum, with an army of thirty thousand men and twenty ele- phants? The consul, Lavinus, hastened to oppose him; but the Romans, unaccustomed to the mode of fighting with elephants, were defeated with the loss of fifteen thousand men ; but the loss on the side of the Grecian monarch was nearly the same, and he was heard to say, that another such victory would compel him to abandon his enterprise. Struck with admiration at the heroism of the enemy, he exclaimed, " with what ease could I conquer the wcrld-, had I the Romans for soldiers, or had they me for their king." 29. The conduct of Fabricius, the Roman general, during tiiis war, claims universal admiration. On one occasion, having re- ceived a letter from the physician of Pyrrhus, importing that for a proper reward he would poison the king, the noble Roman, in- dignant at so base a proposal, gave immediate information of it to Pyrrhus, who, admiring the generosity of his enemy, exclaim- ed, i4 It is easier to turn the sun from its course, than Fabricius from the path of honor." Pyrrhus, after suffering a total defeat near Beneventum, withdrew to his own dominions, and the Ro- mans, shortly after his departure, became masters of all the south- ern part of Italy. SECTION III. From the first Punic War to the conquest of Greece, Jl. C. 264 to 133. 1. As the history of Rome now becomes connected with that of Carthage and Sicily, it may not be improper to introduce here a short account of those states. Carthage is said to have been founded by Dido, with a colony of Tyrians, about nine hundred years before the Christian era. The government was at first monarchical, but afterwards became republican: it is highly com- mended by Aristotle as one of the most perfect of antiquity, but according to the same author, it had two great defects^ the first. was the investing the same person with different public employ- ments; and the second, was that a certain income was required before a man could attain to any important office, by which means poverty might exclude a person of the most exalted merit from holding a civil employment. '2$. To whom did the Tarentines apply for aid ? Who was nent to oppose him ? "Who! was the issue of the battle? What did Pyrrhus exclaim?— 29. What is related of Fabricius? What did Pyrrhus fay of him? I What is said of Carthage 7 Of the government? What were its defects': 64 ROME. 2. The supreme power was placed in the senate; there were two magistrates annually elected, called Seffetes, whose autho- rity in Carthage answered to that of the consuls at Rome. Com- merce was the chief occupation of the Carthaginians, to which they were indebted for their wealth and power. Their religion was a degrading superstition; the cruel practice of offering human victims was exercised among them. At the time of the Punic wars, the city of Carthage had risen in wealth and commercial importance surpassing any other city in the world. It had under its dominion a number of towns in Africa, bordering on the Mediterranean, besides a great part of Spain, Sicily, and other islands. 3. From Egypt, the Carthaginians brought flax, paper, corn, &c. : from the coast of the Red Sea, spices, perfumes, gold, pearls and precious stones; from Tyre and Phoenicia, purple, scarlet and the like: in a word, they brought from various countries all things that contribute not only to the convenience, but even to the lux- ury and pleasures of life. They are represented as being greatly wanting in honor and integrity ; cunning, duplicity and breach of faith seems to have been a distinguishing feature in their cha- racter; hence the phrase — Punica Fides — Punic Faith, was used to denote treachery. 4. The Carthaginians seem never to have excelled as a literary people; there were, however, among them several distinguished scholars. The great Hannibal, who in all respects was the orna- ment of the city, was not unacquainted with polite literature iMago, another celebrated general, wrote twenty-eight volumes upon husbandry, which were afterwards much esteemed by the Romans. There is still extant a Greek version of an account written by Hanno,, relating to a voyage made by him with a con- siderable fleet round Africa, for the settling of different colonies. Clifomachus, called in the Punic tongue tfsdrubal, was a great philosopher. Carthage produced several eminent generals, among whom Hamilcar, Jlsdrubal, and Hannibal were the most distin guished. 5. Sicily is said to have been settled by a colony of Pha j nicia?is previous to the Trojan war; but the Greeks at a later period made settlements on the island. It contained many large and populous cities; of these Syracuse was the most populous and commercial This city, at an early period, was under a democratical form ol government, which in the course of time was overthrown, and a monarchy established in its stead. Gelon, one of its sovereigns, is represented as possessed of every virtue; but the tyranny and cruelty of his successors caused a revolution in the state, and the regal government was abolished. After a period of sixty years, it was asrain restored by Dionysius, a man of great abilities; but his son iDionysius, the younger, a weak and capricious tyrant, 2. In what was the power placed? What were the magistrates cal.ed? What iS said of religion? Of Carthage, at the rime of the Punic wars? — 3. What did the Car- thaginians bring from Egypt? From Tyre? How are they represented?— 3. Did they ever excel as a literary people? What is said of Hannibal? Of Mago? What ;d still extant? What did Cnrlhage produce? —5 What is said of Sicily? What did it contain? What is said of Gelon ? What was the fate of Dionysius the younger? ROME. 65 was dethroned by the aid of Timoleon, an illustrious Corinthian, and banished to Corinth, where he ended his life in poverty. 6. The Romans, being anxious to extend their conquests, soon found an opportunity of indulging in their design. The Mamer- tines, a people of Campania, obtained assistance of the Romans in a war with Hiero, king of Syracuse ; the Syracusans, in their turn, assisted the Carthaginians ; a war was thus brought on be- tween the latter and the Romans, called the first Punic War. The first object of both powers was to obtain possession of Mes- sina, a city which commanded the passage of the straits, but it finally became a contest for the dominion of the whole island. 7. But there seemed an insurmountable obstacle to the ambi- tion of Rome ; she had no fleet ; while Carthage was sovereign of the sea. The Romans, however, resolved to overcome every ob- stacle that lay in their way to conquest. A Carthaginian ves- sel which happened in a storm to be driven on the coast, served as a model ; and in the short space of two months, a fleet consist- ing of one hundred vessels was constructed and ready for sea. The consul Duilhus, was appointed to the command of the arma- ment, and though much inferior to the enemy in the management of his fleet, yet he gained the first naval victory, defeated the Carthaginians, and took fifty of their vessels. 8. At the commencement of the war, the Syracusans, who had confederated with the Carthaginians, changed their course and joined the Romans. The Carthaginians, however, after a long siege, took the city of Agrigentum. A second naval engagement soon afterwards took place, in which the Romans were again victorious; the Carthaginians, under Hanno and Hamikar, lost sixty of their vessels. The consul, .Regulus, in the mean time, was sent by the senate to carry the war into Afnca; and having landed on the coast, defeated the Carthaginians, and carried his victorious arms to the very walls of their capital. But here his good fortune seemed to forsake him; he was signally defeated by the Carthaginians under the command of Xanthippus, a Spartan general, and fell into the hands of the enemy. 9. The Carthaginians, weary of continuing the war, became desirous of treating for peace, and with this view, they sent am- bassadors to Rome, and among their number was Regulus, who had now been detained four years a prisoner, having previously exacted a promise on oath, that he would return to Carthage if the negotiation should fail. But Regulus, not deeming the terms of peace sufficiently advantageous to his country, strenuously imposed their being accepted, and returned to Carthage, where, after the most cruel tortures, he was finally put to death, by being pi iced in a barrel driven full of nails, pointing inwards, and in this painful situation he continued until he died. C.^What occasioned the first Punic War? What was the object of both powers?— 7. What was an obstacle to the ambition of Rome? How did the Romans surmount the difficulty ? Who was appointed to command the fleet? What was the issue of the engagement ?— 3. What is said of the Syracusans ? What was the result of the second naval engagement ? What is related of Regulus ?— 9. Whom did the Carthaginians send to Rome to negotiate a peace? What did Regulus do? How was he put to death ? 66 ROME. 10. The war was now renewed on both sides with more than former animosity; at length ?-<. VVIi"re did Pomp*v rerinin? WIi u f-H t" tlw lot 3i Crassus? Wliai (lit CjEsar choose i WIi it happened to (Jiassus? What was thu efJVct of Cajsar's career of victory ? What is said of Caesar? ROME. 73 4. This hasty measure determined the course ol Ctfsar. He now resolved to suppori his claim by force of arms, and finding his troops devoted to his interest, he immediately commenced his march towards Italy. Having crossed the Alps, he halted at Ravenna, and wrote again to the seriate, offering to resign all command, if Pompey would follow his example; but that body refused to listen to his demand. Proceeding on his march, ho soon arrived on the banks of the Rubicon, a small river separating Italy from Cisalpine Gaul, and forming the limits of his command The Romans had always been taught to consider this river as the sacred boundary of their domestic empire; Caesar, therefore, when arrived on the banks of this famous stream, stopped short, as if impressed with the greatness of his enterprise, and its fearful consequences; he pondered for some time in fixed melancholy, looking upon the river, and then observed to Pollio, one of his generals, " If I pass this river, what miseries shall I bring upon my country; and if I now stop short, I am undone." Thus say- ing, lie exclaimed, "The die is cast;" and putting spurs to his norse, he plunged into the stream, followed by his troops. 5. The news of Cfssar^s movement excited the utmost conster nation at Rome. Pompey, who had boasted that he could raise an army by stamping his foot upon the ground, finding himself unable to resist Cassar in Rome, where he had many partisans, led his forces to Capua, where he had a few legions, thence he proceeded to Brundusium, and finally passed over to Dyrrachium, in Macedonia. In his retreat, he was followed by the consuls and the greater part of the senators; among them was the famous C«/o, and Cicero, the orator. 6. Csesar, va the mean time, having made himself master of all Italy in the space of sixty days, marched to Rome, entered the city in triumph, amidst the acclamations of the citizens, seized the public treasury, and possessed himself of the supreme authority On every occasion, he manifested the greatest liberality and clemency ; he said that he had entered Italy, not to injure, but to restore the liberties of Rome. After a stay of only a few days, he proceeded to Spain, where he defeated Pompey^s^ lieutenant, made himself master of the whole country, and again returned victorious to Rome. The citizens received him with fresh demon- strations of joy, and created him consul and dictator, but the latter office he resigned, after he had held it eleven days. 7. While Cscsar was thus employed, Pompey was equally assi- duous in making preparation to oppose him. All the monarchs of the east had declared in his favor, and sent him large supplies : his army was numerous, and his fleet consisted of five hundred vessels. Caesar, remaining only eleven days in Rome, led his forces in pursuit of Pompey. But before coming to any general 4. "What d.d he now resolve? "When lie arrived on the banks of the Rubicon what is related of Coesar ? What did he say ? — 5. What is said of Pompey? Wherd did he proceed? By whom was be followed? — G. In the mean time what did Ca?sar do? What did he manifest? Where did he proceed ? What was lie created ?— 7 While Caesar was thus employed, what is said of Pompey ? Before conifig to avy OntfigCMnenl, what did C;rsar do ' x 7 74 ROME. engagement, he once more made an effort to bring his rival to an accommodation, offering to refer all to the senate and people of Rome ; this overture was rejected, on the ground that the people of Rome were too much in Cesar's interest. 8. The two armies came in sight of each other near Dyrra* chium, where an engagement took place, which terminated in favor of Pompey, who afterwards led his forces to the plains of Pharsalia, where he determined to await the arrival of 'Caesar, and decide the fate of the empire by a single battle. This was what Csesar had long and ardently desired; and now, learning the resolution of Pompey, hastened to meet him. Every thing con- nected with the contest about to follow was calculated to excite the deepest interest ; the armies were composed of the bravest soldiers in the world, commanded by the two greatest generals of the age, and the prize contended for was nothing less than the Roman empire. Pompey's army consisted of upwards of fifty thousand men, while the forces of Caesar were less than half that number, yet under much better discipline. 9. As the armies approached, the two generals went from ran* to rank, encouraging their men, animating their hopes, or lessen- ing their apprehensions. Pompey urged the justice of his cause, declaring that he was about to engage in the defence of liberty and his country. Caesar, on the other band, insisted on nothing so strongly to his soldiers as his frequent and unsuccessful en- deavors for peace; he spoke of the blood he was about to shed, with the deepest regret, and only pled the necessity which urged him to it. There was only so much space between the two armies as to give room for fighting. The signal for the battle was given ; Caesar's men rushed to the combat with their usual impetuosity ; the dreadful conflict had now raged with unabating fury, from early in the morning till noon, when the scales of victory turned in favor of Caesar, whose loss only amounted to two hundred men, while fifteen thousand of Pompey's troops were left dead upon the plain, and twenty-four thousand surrendered themselves pri- soners of war. 10. Caesar, on this occasion, manifested his usual characteristic disposition of clemency and humanity. He set at liberty the sena- tors and Roman knights, and incorporated with his own army the greater number of the prisoners; and committed to the flames all Pompey's letters without reading them. When viewing the field strewed with his fallen countrymen, he seemed deeply affected at the melancholy spectacle, and was heard to say : " They would have it so." 11. The situation of Pompey was deplorable in the extreme For thirty years he had been accustomed to victory, and ruled the councils of the commonwealth; a single day beheld him precipi- tated from the summit of power, a miserable fugitive. Escaping 8. Where did a slight engagement take place ? "Where did Pompey lead his forces* What is said of Caesar? "What of tlie armies? — 9. As the armies approached, what was done ? What did Pompey urge? On what did Ca>sar insist? What was the issue of the brfttle ? What was the number of the slain?— 10. What is said of Ca?sar oo this occasion? On viewing the field what was he liea*d to say? — 11 What wa* die situation of Pompey ? ROME. 75 from the field of battle, and wandering along the beautiful vale of Tempe, he finally found means of sailing to Lesbos, where he met his wife Cornelia. Their meeting was deeply affecting ; at the news of his reverse of fortune, she fainted; at length recovering, she ran through the city to the sea side. Ponipey received her without speaking a word, and for some time supported her in his arms in silent anguish. But time would not permit him long to indulge in grief. Accompanied by Cornelia, he sailed for Egypt with a few friends, to seek protection of Ptolemy, whose father he had befriended. Rut as he approached the shore, he was basely murdered while yet within sight of his wife, and his body thrown upon the sand. His freedman burnt the corpse and buried the ashes, over which was placed the following inscription : " He, whose merits deserve a temple, can now scarcely find a tomb/' 12. In the meantime, Caesar lost no time in pursuing his rival to Egypt, but on his arrival there, the first news he received was the account of Pompey's unfortunate end; and shortly afterwards he was presented with the head and ring of the fallen general, but turning his face from the sight, he gave vent to his feelings in a flood of tears ; and shortly afterwards ordered a splendid monu ment to be erected to his memory. The throne of Egypt at this time, was disputed by Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated Cleo- patra ; but Caesar, captivated by the charms of the beautiful queen, decided the contest in her favor, and at length reduced Egypt to the dominion of Rome. Caesar, after this event, abandoned him- self to pleasure In the company of Cleopatra, but was soon called to suppress the revolt of Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, who had seized upon Colchis and Armenia. Caesar defeated him in a battle at Zela, with so much ease that in writing to the senate at Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his victory and suppression of the revolt in these words: I eni, vidi, vici : u 1 came, I saw, J conquered." 13. Leaving the scene of conquest in the East, Ccesar hastened to Rome, where his presence was much required by reason of the disorders occasioned by the bad administration of Antony, who governed the city during his absence; but tranquillity was soon restored. Caesar's stay at Rome was short, being called into Africa to oppose an army raised by the partisans of Pompey, under the command of Scipio and Cato, assisted by Juba, king of Mau- ritania ; he, however, defeated their united forces in the battle of Thapsus. Upon this Cato, who was a rigid Stoic and stern repub- lican, fled to Utica, where he resolved to resist the power of C'sesar, but finding that all was lost, determined not to survive the Hhfirty of his country, and therefore killed himself in despair. 14. At the conclusion of the war in Africa, Caesar returned to Rome, and celebrated a magnificent triumph, which lasted four days ; the first was for Gaul, the second for Egypt, the third for How did lie receive his wife? Where did he sail? What was his fate ? What in- scription was placed on his tomb?— 12. In the meantime what did Cresar do? What is said of the throne of Egypt at this time? Of Ccesar? After the battle of Zela, how did Cjcsar express the rapidity of his victory ?— 13. What was Caesar's next courst ? What called him into Africa? What is related of Cato ?— 14. At the cor> c'usuin (,f tlie war Tvhat did Caesar do? 7G ROME. his victories in the East, and the fourth for his victory over Juba. lie distributed liberally rewards to his veteran soldiers and officers; the citizens also shared his bounty; after distributing a certain quantity of corn, oil and money, among them, lie entertained them at a public feast, at which twenty thousand tables were set, and treated them to a combat of gladiators. The senate and the people, intoxicated by the allurements of pleasure, seemed to vie with each other in their acts of servility and adulation towards the man who had deprived them of their liberty. lie was hailed as the father of his country, created perpetual dictator, received the appel- lation of emperor, and his person was declared sacred. 15. Having restored order in Home, he again found himself obliged to go into Spain, where Labienus and the two sons of Pompey had raised an army against him ; but he completely de- feated them in an obstinate battle, fought on the plains of Munda. Ccesar, by this victory, having triumphed over all his enemies, de- voted the remainder of his life to the benefit of the commonwealth. As clemency was his favorite virtue, he readily pardoned all who had at any time bore arms against him ; without any distinction of party, he seemed only to consider the happiness and prosperity of the people ; he adorned the city with magnificent buildings ; rebuilt Carthage and Corinth, sending colonies to both these places: he corrected many abuses in the state, reformed the calendar, under- took to drain the Pontine marsh, and intended to cut through the isthmus of Peloponnesus. 1G. But while he thus meditated projects beyond the limits of the longest life, a deep conspiracy was formed against him, em- bracing no less than sixty senators, among whom were Brutus and Cassius, whose lives had been spared by the conqueror after the battle of Pharsalia. It had been rumoured that a crown would be presented to him on the ides of March, namely, the fifteenth of that month : the conspirators therefore fixed upon that day for the exe- cution of their design. Accordingly, as soon as Ccesar had taken his seat in the senate- house, they assembled around him under the pretence of solicit- ing for the pardon of a certain individual who had been banished by Caesar's order, and assailed him with their daggers. He defended himself for some time with great vigor, until seeing Brutus, his friend, whom he tenderly loved, among the conspirators, he exclaimed, et tu Brute, " And you too, Brutus," then resigning himself to his fate and covering his face with his robe, he fell, pierced with twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pompey's statue. Thus perished Julius Ccesar, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, whose ruling passion was ambition, and whose redeeming virtue was clemency. \See particulars of his character in Biography.] How did he entertain the people ? How was he hailed ? &c.— 15. Why was he again obliged to go into Spain? Having triumphed over all his enemies, what did lie re- solve to do? Mention some of the acts he now performed. — 16. What was formed against him ? What had been rumoured ? What happened as Ccesar took his seat in the senate-house ? How did he defend himself 1 On seeing Brutus, what diu he say 1 What was his age 1 ROME. 77 17 No sooner was the death of Caesar known, than the whole city was thrown into the utmost consternation. His bleeding corpse was exposed in the forum ; his friend, Mark Antony, pro- nounced over it a funeral oration, and by his eloquent appeals to the sympathy of the people, so inflamed their resentment against his murderers, that they were obliged to escape from the city. Mark Antony, who was a man of great military talents, but of a most profligate character; Lepidus, who Mas possessed of im- mense wealth ; and Octavius Cxsar, afterwards surnamed Augus- tus, who was Cresar's grand-nephew and adopted heir, formed the design of dividing among themselves the supreme authority and thus established the second Triumvirate, which produced the most dreadful calamities in the republic. 18. They stipulated that all their enemies should be destroyed, each sacrificing his nearest friends to the vengeance of his col- leagues. Thus Antony consigned to death his uncle Lucius; Lepidus his brother Paulus ; and Octavius gave up his friend, the celebrated Cicero, to whom he was under the most binding obligation, in order to gratify the hatred of Antony. The illus- trious orator was assassinated in the sixty-fourth year of his age, by Fopillius Lanus, whose life he had saved in a capital case. Home was again deluged in the blood of her citizens; in the hor- rible proscription that followed, three hundred senators, with two thousand knights, besides many other persons of distinguished rank, were sacrificed. 19. In the mean time, Brutus and Cassius, having retired into Thrace, collected an army of one hundred thousand men, and made the last and expiring effort to restore the commonwealth. Anthony and Octavius marched against them with an army supe- rior in number. The empire of the world again depended upon the issue of a single battle. The two armies met on the plains ot Philippi, and after a dreadful conflict, which lasted for two days, the death-blow was given to Roman liberty, by the total defeat of the republican army. Brutus and Cassius resolving not to survive the liberties of their country, avoided the vengeance of their enemies by a voluntary death. 20. The power of the Triumviri being thus established upon the ruins of the commonwealth, they began to think of enjoying the honors to which they had aspired. Lepidus was shortly after deposed and banished. Antony went into Greece, and having made some stay at Athens, he passed into Asia. He pro- ceeded from kingdom to kingdom, attended by a crowd of sove- reigns, exacting contributions and giving away crowns with capricious insolence. He summoned Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, to Tarsus, to answer to the charge of having aided the conspira- tors. She accordingly came, decked in all the emblems of the queen of love; her galley was covered with gold; the sails of 17. What was done by Mark Antony? Who composed the second Triumvirate? - -13. What did they stipulate ? What was the fate of the illustrious crater? What -s said of Rome ? — 19 AVhat was done by Brutus and Cassius? By whom were they Opposed? Where diu the armies meet? What was the isssse of the battle? What was the fate of Brutus and Cassius?— £0. What was the fate of Lepidus? Where did Anto.iy go ? What is related of Cleopatra ? 7* 78 ROM 3. purple floating to the wind; the oars of silver swept to the sound of flutes and cymbals ; she reclined upon a couch spangled with stars of gold, and such ornaments as the poets usually ascribe to Venus. Antony, captivated by her charms, forgot to decide upon her cause, and giving up all the pursuits of ambition, aban (loned himself to pleasure in the company of the Egyptian queen. He lavished on her the provinces of the Roman empire ; and having on her account divorced his wife Octavia, the sister of Ins colleague, an open rupture took place between him and Octavius. 21. The great battle of Actium decided the contest in favor of Octavius, who, by this victory, was left sole master of the empire. After this defeat, Antony put an end to his life by fall- ing on his sword ; and Cleopatra, to avoid being led captive to Rome to grace the triumph of Augustus, procured her own death by the poison of an asp. SECTION VI. Rome under the Emperors. The Caesars: .Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otlw< Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. A. C. 31, to £.. D. 96. 1. By the death of Antony, Octavius, now styled Augushts, became sole master of the Roman empire. Having returned in triumph to Rome, he endeavored, by sumptuous feasts and mag nificent shows, to obliterate the impressions of his former cruelty and resolved to secure, by acts of clemency and benevolence, that throne, the foundation of which was laid in blood. Having established order in the state, Augustus found himself agitated by different inclinations, and considered for some time whether he should retain the imperial authority or restore the republic. By Jigrippa he was advised to pursue the latter course ; but fol- lowing the advice of Msecenas, he resolved to retain the sovereign authority. 2. Augustus, in his administration, affected an appearance of great moderation and respect for the public rights, and having gained the affections of the people and his soldiers, he endea- vored by every means to render permanent their attachment. As a general, he was more fortunate than eminent; though the general character of his reign was pacific, still several wars were successfully carried on by his lieutenants; he seemed to aim at gaining a character by the arts of peace alone : he embellished the city, erected public buildings and pursued the policy of maintaining order and tranquillity in every portion of his vast dominions. During his reign, the temple of Janus was closed for What did he lavish on her? "What took place between him and Octavius? — 21. What is said of the battle of Actium? What was the end of Antony and Cleo- patra ? 1. Who no;/ became sole master of the empire? What did he endeavour lo do ? By what was he agitated? Whose advice did he follow? — 2. What Mid Augustus effect What is said of him as a general ? During his reign, wlat was closed ? ROME. 79 the first time since the commencement ol the second Punic war* and third time from the reign of Numa, Augustus having accompanied Tiberius in his march into Illyria, was taken dangerously ill, and on his return, died at Nolla, near Capua, in the seventy -sixth year of his age, after an illustrious reign of forty-four years. 3. Augustus was possessed of eminent abilities, both as a war- rior and a statesman; but the cruelties and treachery exercised by him while a member of the triumvirate, have left an indelible stain upon his character, and rendered it doubtful whether the virtues which he manifested in after-life sprung rather from policy than from principle. The emperor and his chief minister, Maecenas, were both eminent patrons of learning and the arts; and the Augustan age of Roman literature has been justly ad- mired by all succeeding ages. Araon^ those who distinguished his reign were the celebrated poets Virgil, Horace, and Ovid> with Livy, the historian. But the most memorable event which took place during the reign of Augustus, was the birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, which happened, according to the best authorities, in the twenty-sixth year of his reign, and four years before the period commonly assigned for the Chris- tian era. 4. Augustus, previous to his death, had nominated Tiberius to succeed him in the empire. The new emperor, at the commence- ment of his reign, exhibited a show of moderation and clemency; but he soon threw otF the mask and appeared in his natural cha- racter, as a cruel and odious tyrant. The brilliant success of his nephew Germanicus, in Germany, excited the jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled him to Rome, and is supposed to have caused his deatli by poison. Having then taken into his confi- dence Sejanus, a Roman knight, who became the minister of his cruelty and pleasure, he retired to the island of Caprea?, and abandoned himself to the most infamous debaucheries. Sejanus, •oow possessed of almost unlimited power, committed the most fearful cruelties against the citizens of Rome ;Nero and Drums, the sons of Germanicus, were starved to death in prison; Sabinus, Gall us, and other distinguished persons were executed upon slight pretences; but his career was of short duration; being ac bused of treason, he was suddenly precipitated from his elevation and executed by order of the senate; his body was afterwards dragged ignominiously through the streets. 5. This event seemed only to increase the emperor's rage for cuielty; now weary of particular executions, he gave orders that all the accused should be put to death without further examina- tion. When one Carnulius had killed himself to avoid the tor- ture, "Ah," exclaimed Tiberius, "how has that man been able Where did he die? What wns his age, and lengtrTof his reign? — 3. What is said of the abii'ties of Augustus ? Of what was he patron ? Who were distinguished in his reign? "What was the most memorable event that took place during it?— 4. Whom did Augustus nominate? How did he commence his reign? What excited his jea- lousy? Whom did he take into his confidence ? What is said of Sejanus" What •was' his fate?— 5 What orders did the emperor give liow? What exclamation did he. make? 80 ROME. to escape rne." He died in the seventy-eighth year of his age and twenty-second of his reign; his death was hastened either by strangling or poison. In the eighteenth year of this emperor's reign, Jesus Christ suffered death upon the cross. G. Tiberius adopted for successor, Caligula, who commenced his reign under the most favorable auspices, and his first acts were even beneficent and patriotic : but his subsequent conduct was marked by every species of human depravity. He assumed divine honors, and caused temples to be built and sacrifices to be offered to himself as a divinity. He took such delight in cru- elty, that he wished that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might despatch them at a single blow. Happy for man- kind, his reign was of short duration; he was assassinated in the twenty-ninth year of his age and fourth of his reign, A. D. 41 7. After the death of Caligula, his uncle Claudius, and grand- son of Mark Antony, was raised to the throne. He was a man of weak and timid character, and a slave to the most degrading vices. The only remarkable enterprise during his reign, was his expedition into Britain. Caractacus, the illustrious king of that island, after a brave resistance, was taken prisoner and carried captive to Rome. As he passed through the streets and observed the splendor of the city, he exclaimed, " How is it possible that men possessed of such magnificence at home, should envy Carac- tacus in an humble cottage in Britain." Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in the fourteenth year of his reign and sixty-fourth of his age, in order to make room for Nero, her son by a former husband, A. D. 55. 8. Nero, now in the seventeenth year of his age, began his reign with universal approbation; he was even so much inclined to clemency and forgiveness, that when obliged to sign a warrant for the execution of a criminal, he would exclaim, *' Would to heaven that I had never learned to write." He had received an excellent education under the philosopher Seneca, and while he followed the counsels of his illustrious preceptor, he governed with general applause. But as he advanced in age, every trace of virtue vanished with his increasing years. Abandoning the advice of his virtuous counsellors, he soon gave himself up to every species of depravity, and rendered his name proverbial in all succeeding ages, as a detestable tyrant. The first alarming instance of his cruelty, was the execution of his own mothsi Jigrippina. Among others who fell victims to his cruelty, were Seneca, the philosopher, Burrhus, the prefect of the pretorian guard, and Lucan, the poet. 9. In his wild extravagance he caused the city of Rome to be set on fire, that it might exhibit the representation of the burning of Troy, and stood upon a high tower that he might enjoy the When did he die? What took place in the eighteenth year of his reign? — 6 By whom was he succeeded? What is said of him? What did he assume? Kow did he die ?— 7. Who was next raised to the throne? What was his character? Who wus led captive to Rome? What did he exclaim? What was the end of Claudius?— 6. \\ ho succeeded him ? What is said of Nero ? By whom was he educated ? What v/as the first alarming instance of his cruelty 7 Who were some of the other victims 7 ~- 8 What did he cause? R ROME. 8i scene. The conflagration continued for nine days, and a giehi art of the city was burnt to ashes. But in order to avert from mself the public odium of this action, he openly charged it upon the Christians, who had now become numerous at Rome, and published against them a violent persecution, during which the two illustrious apostles St. Peter and St. Paul suffered martyr dom; the former was crucified with his head downwards; the latter being a Roman citizen, had the honor of dying by the sword. Nero having rendered himself contemptible by his follies and crimes, was soon destined to finish his career by a tragical end. The army in Spain having declared against him, raised Galba to the throne; the unhappy tyrant, finding himself deserted by all and condemned by the senate, avoided falling into the hands of his enemies by a voluntary death, in the fourteenth year of his reign and thirty-second of his age. 10. On the death of Nero, Galba was acknowledged emperor by the senate, as he had been previously declared by the legions under his command. He was a man of much prudence and vir- tue, and had acquired a high military reputation, but he was now in the seventy-second year of his age, and soon became unpopular with the army by his severity and parsimony. At length, finding himself unable to sustain the duties of the government alone, he adopted for his successor the virtuous Piso. This measure, however, gave rise to a revolt in the army headed by Otho, which terminated in the death both of the emperor and Piso, after a reign of seven months. Tacitus says of him, that " had he never ascended the throne, he would have been deemed by all capable of reigning." 11. Otho was now declared emperor by the army; but in Vitel- lius he found a formidable rival, who now aspired to the imperial throne. Otho being defeated, slew himself, after a reign of ninety- five days. Upon this^ event, VitclHus was proclaimed emperor, but having rendered himself odious to the people by his profligacy and tyranny, he was assassinated before he had completed the first year of his reign; at the same time Vespasian, who was now at the head of the army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor by his troop. On the arrival of the newly elected emperor at Rome, he was received with universal joy He had risen from an humble origin to the highest station in the state; he was equally distin- guished for his affability, clemency, and firmness. He ornamented the city by erecting various edifices, built the amphitheatre or coliseum, cherished the arts, and was a patron of learned men, among whom were Joscphus, the Jewish historian, Quint ilian, the orator, and Pliny, the naturalist. 12. The most memorable event of the reign of Vespasian was the destruction of Jerusalem by his son Titus; after a trcmcn- How long: did the conflagration last"; How did he avert the odium from himself? During the persecution, who suffered martyrdom ? What did Ihe army in Spain do 7 What, was the. end of Nero? — 10. Who was now acknowledged by the senate? Wha< is said of Gulha? What did he adopt? What was his end ? What did Tacitus say of him ? — 11. Who was now dec Wed emperor ? What was his fate? Who succeed- ed ? What was ihe end of Vitellius? Who was next? From what had he risen.' Of what was he ths patron? — 12. What was the most memorable event of his reign? 82 HOME. dous siege of six months, the city was taken and razed to the ground, verifying the predictions of-our divine Saviour, that " not a stone should remain upon a stone." According to Josephus, the number of the Jews that perished during the siege exceeded one million, and the captives amounted to almost a hundred thousand. Vespasian having reigned ten years, beloved by his -i subjects, died at Campania, in the seventieth year of his age, A. I). 79. 13. The late emperor was succeeded by his son 7 y itt(s, who, on account of his amiable virtues, justice and humanity, obtained the appellation of the "Delight of mankind." Recollecting one evening, that he had done no act of beneficence during that day, he exclaimed, "My friends, I have lost a day." His reign is memorable for the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which over- whelmed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and caused the \\ death of Pliny, the naturalist, whose curiosity led him too near i the scene. Titus died in the third year of his reign, and in the j forty-first of his age; but strong suspicion was entertained that he was poisoned by his brother Domitian, who succeeded to the throne, A. D. 81. 14. Domitian was another Nero in his character. He caused himself to be worshipped as a god; many of the most illustrious men of Rome fell victims to his cruelty. He banished the phi! >. sophers from the city, and raised a dreadful persecution again >t the Christians. He frequently shut himself up in his chambe. , and amused himself by catching flies and piercing them with a bodkin, hence his servant being asked if any one was with the ; . emperor, replied, " No, not even a fly." His reign was signal- ized by the success of the Roman arms in Britain, under the command of Agricola, a distinguished general who had been sent to the country by Vespasian, and conquered all the southern por- tion of the island. Domitian was assassinated at the instigation of his wife, in the fifteenth year of his reign, A. D. 96. He was the last of those emperors called the Twelve Cxsars; Julius Caesar, the dictator, being considered the first; although Augus tus was the first who was generally styled emperor. SECTION VII. From Nerva to Constantine the Great. From A. D. 96 to 30G. 1. After the death of Domitian, Nerva was elected to the throne. He was a man distinguished for virtue and clemency, but did not possess sufficient energy to suppress the disorders of the empire ; and having adopted Trajan for his successor, he died after a short reign of sixteen months. What number of .Tows per; shed during the siege ? When did he die ?— 13. By whom was he succeeded? What is said of Titus? For what is Ins reign memorable? When did he die?— 14. What is said of Domitian, hi? successor? What instance is given of his cruelty ? By what was his reign signalized ? How did he die ? Of whom was he the last? . .,,.., I. Who was now elected to the throne ? What is said of him 7 j ROME. 83 2. Trajan, a native of Seville, in Spain, is esteemed one of the greatest ami most powerful of the Roman emperors ; he was equally distinguished for affability, clemency, and munificence, on presenting' the sword to the prefect of the pretorian guard, he made use of these remarkable words : " Make use of it for me, if I do my duty ; if not, use it against me." The senate con- ferred on him the title of Optimus, the Best, and that body was long accustomed to salute every newly elected emperor with this expression : " Reign fortunately as Augustus, and virtuously as Trajan." 3. Trajan was one of the greatest generals of his age; he en- larged the boundaries of the empire, subdued the Parthians, brought under subjection Assyria, Arabia Felix and Mesopo tamia; and in commemoration of his victory over the Dacians, he erected a pillar at Rome, which bear3 his name, and which still remains as one of the most remarkable monuments of that city. He was a munificent patron of literature, and in his reign Pliny, the younger, Juvenal, and Plutarch flourished . Although this prince was much celebrated for his virtues, still his character has been tarnished by a want of equity with regard to the Chris- tians who were persecuted during his reign. He died of apoplexy, in the sixty-third year of his age, and tfie twentieth of his reign, A.D. 117. 4. Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, his nephew, who, in some respects, was the most remarkable of the Roman emperors. His administration was generally equitable and beneficent; he was highly skilful in all the accomplishments of the age ; he composed with great beauty, both in prose and verse ; he pleaded at the bar, and was one of the best orators of his time. Deeming the limits of the empire too extensive, he abandoned the career of conquest, and devoted himself to the arts of peace. He spent thirteen years in visiting the provinces of the empire, and during his progress he reformed abuses, relieved his subjects from many burdens, and rebuilt various cities. While in Britain, he caused a turf wall to be erected across the island from Carlisle to New castle, in order to prevent the incursions of the Picts. 5. He rebuilt the city of Jerusalem, and changed its name to /Elia Capitolina. In consequence of an insurrection of the Jews, he sent against them a powerful army, which destroyed about one thousand of their towns, and nearly six hundred thousand of these unfortunate people ; he then banished all those who re- mained, and by a public decree, forbade them to return within view of their native soil. He passed several wise regulations, among which was a law prohibiting masters to kill their slaves, as had been before allowed, but ordained that they should be tried by the laws enacted against capital offences. Adrian having 2. What is said of Trajan ? "What words did he make use of on presenting' the pre- fect of the guard ?— 3. What was Trajan? What did he erect ? Of what was he the patron ? What has tarnished his character ? When did he die? — 4. By whom was he succeeded? In what was he skilful ? What did he abandon ? In what did he spend thirteen years of his reign ? What did he do in Britain?— 5. What city did he r^buiid * What g<^ver ! ty did lie exercise against the Jews? 84 ROME. adopted for his successor Titus Antoninus, died after a prosperous reign of twenty-two years, and in the sixty -third year of his age, A. D.138. 6. Antoninus, surnamed the Pious, was eminently distinguished for his public and private virtues, although his reign was marked by (e\v striking events. He showed himself one of the most ex- cellent princes for justice, clemency, and moderation. During ids reign, Sf. Justin, the martyr, wrote his Apology for the Chris- tians, and directed it to the emperor, the senate, and the people of Rome ; still many Christians continued to suffer for their faith. Having adopted Marcus JJurelius Antoninus for his successor, hi expired at Lorium, near Rome, in the twenty-third year of his reign, and in the seventieth of his age, A. D. 101. 7. Marcus Aurelius was esteemed as a model of pagan virtue, and was greatly attached, both by nature and education, to the Stoic philosophy, which he exemplified in his life, as well as illustrated in his book, entitled ''Meditations." While engaged in a war with the Germans, his army experienced a remarkable deliverance, through the prayers of a Christian legion then serving under his command. The emperor, in a letter to the senate, after stating the distressed situation of his army, says: "I put up my fervent prayers to the gods for our relief; bat the gods were deaf. I knew 1 there were many Christians in the army. I called them around me and commanded them to address their God in oar be- half. No sooner had they fallen upon their knees to pray, than a copious and refreshing rain fell from the heavens. But while the rain was refreshing to us, it drove furiously against our enemies, like a tempest of hail, attended with vivid flashes of lightning and dreadful claps of thunder. Wherefore, since the prayers of these people are so powerful with their God, let us grant to the Christians fall liberty of professing themselves such, lest they employ their prayers against us. My will is that their religion be no longer considered a crime in them." 8. The Christian soldiers who had saved the Roman army by Mieir prayers, were afterwards distinguished by the name ot the Thundering Legion. Notwithstanding the humane disposition of Aurelius, many Christians suffered during his reign, owing chiefly to the violence of Verus, his colleague m the empire. Among the most illustrious who received the crown of martyr- dom, were St. Justin and St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna. Aurelius died in the nineteenth year ot his reign, and the ntty- ninth of his a^e ; he was the last of those styled the Jive good impewrs, A. D. 180. ., V , . , „ i 9 Aurelius was succeeded by his degenerate son, Commoilus, whose whole feigfi was a tissue of folly, cruelty, and injustice ; but his crimes finally brought him to a tragical end; he was Whom did he adopt fir his successor? When did he die?— 6. What did Autoninus show him ,elf! \\ ho wrote an apd.igy f a the Christians! When and where dm he die ■<-!. What is said of Marcus Aurelius ? I n a war with the Germans, what chd he exp irienoe ! Can vmi relate, i.i suh fence, his letter t > the senate— S. What IS saiJ of the Civilian soldiers? Of the Christians during his reign? Who were the n>ost illustrious of the suffered ? At what age, and when did he cue ?-^9. What is saul ox Commodus l ROME. 85 assassinated in the thirteenth year of his reign, and thirty-second of his age. Pertinax, a man of humble birth, who had risen by his merit, and was styled the " tennis-ball of fortune," on account of the various conditions through which he had passed, was pro- claimed emperor by the pretorian guards. But having given offence by his severity, in correcting abuses, he was put to death by the hands of the very soldiers who had raised him to the throne only three months before. 10. The empire was now put up for sale by the soldiers, and purchased by Didius Jidiamis, for the sum of nine millions of dollars. But the new emperor only enjoyed the honours of roy- alty for the space of five months, being assassinated by the order of Septimus Serenes, who was proclaimed emperor in his stead. Severus having triumphed over his two competitors, Niger and Albinus, governed with great ability. Ke made an expedition into Britain, and built a stone wall extending from Solway Frith to the German Ocean, and nearly parallel with that of Adrian. He died at York, in the eighteenth year of his reign, and in the sixty-sixth of his affe, A. D. 211. 11. Severus left the empire to his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, but Caracalla resolving to govern alone, murdered his brother in his mother's arms. His tyranny and cruelty at length excited against him the resentment of Macrinus, the commander of his forces, who caused him to be assassinated, in the sixth year of his reign. Macrinus was immediately declared emperor in his place, bnt after a reign of fourteen months, was in his turn supplanted by Heliogabalus, by whose command he was put to death. Hello gabalus was only in the fourteenth year of his age when he suc- ceeded to the throne, yet he showed himself to be a monster of vice, extravagance and cruelty ; he was murdered by the soldiers, and his body thrown into the Tiber, after a short reign of four years, having in that short period married and divorced six wives. 12. Alexander Severus, his cousin, who was chosen to succeed him, was a mild and amiable prince, whose excellent character shines with redoubled lustre when contrasted with those who preceded and followed him. His acquirements were equal to his virtues ; he excelled in music, painting, sculpture, and poetry. During an expedition against the Germans, who had made an irruption into the empire, he was murdered by a mutiny of his soldiers, in the fourteenth year of his reign, and twenty-ninth of his age, A. 1). 235. 13. On the death of Alexander, Maximm* who had headed the mutiny against him, was elevated to the throne. Maxim in was the son of a herdsman of Thrace : he was no less remark What wus his end? By whom was he succeeded? What was th? fate of Pertmajf T -10. What was now done with the empire? By whom was it purcnased? What >ras his end? Who succeeded? Where and when did Severus die ? — 11. To whom i\i\ Ssvrfus leave the empire 1 What is related of Caracalla ? Wnat was his late? Who was declared emperor ? By whose command was he put to death, and who suc- ceeded ! What is said of Heliogabalus ? What was his end ? — 12. Who was phoseij to Bucce-d Iiiui ? What io said of Alexander Severus " How and when did he die?- 13 Who "succeeded to the tr.rone 8 8G ROME. able for the symmetiy of his person and extraordinary strength than for his gigantic stature, being eight and a half feet in height? he was also distinguished for his military talents. Previous to his elevation, he was remarkable for nis simplicity, discipline and virtue ; but after his accession to the throne, he became a monster of cruelty, and seemed to sport »viththe terrors of mankind. He was finally assassinated by his soldiers, in the third year of his reign. 14. The interval from the reign of Maximin, and that of Dio- cletian, was filled by sixteen reigns, which furnish little that is pleasing or interesting. Of all the emperors who successively occupied the throne during .that period of forty-six years, Claudius and Tacitus alone "died a natural death. The emperor Valerian, in a war with Sapor, king of Persia, was defeated and taken prisoner. The Persian monarch treated his captive with the greatest indignity and cruelty. He used him as a footstool for mounting his horse, and finally ordered him to be put to death, then caused him to be Hayed, and his skin to be paintea red, and suspended in one of the Persian temples, as a monument of dis- grace to the Romans. 15. The reign of Aardian was distinguished for brilliant military achievements. He defeated the Goths, and repelled the incur- sions of the^ Germans; but his most renowned victory was that over Zenobia, the famous queen of Palmyra, who fell into his hands; her secretary, Longinus, the celebrated critic, was put to death by the order of the conqueror. On his return to Rome, Aurelian was honored with a most splendid triumph ; Zenobia was reserved to grace the scene, bound in chains of gold, and decked with a profusion of pearls and diamonds. 16. Diocletian, who was the son of a Dalmatian slave, rose by his merit from the rank of a common soldier to that of an eminent commandery-and was finally elevated to the throne, on the death of Numerian, A. D. 284. Two years after his accession, he associated with himself, in government, his friend Maximin ; and in 292, they took two other colleagues, Galcrius and Constantius, each bearing the title of Cxsar. The empire was now divided into four pari*, under the government of two emperors and two Caesars, each nominally supreme, but in reality controlled by the superior talents of Diocletian. 17. At this time happened the tenth and last persecution of the Christians, which continued for several years with so much violence, that the tyrants boasted that they had extinguished tho Christian name. Diocletian and Maximin, in the midst of their triumphs, sur prised the world by resigning their dignities on the same day For what was Maximin remarkable ? How did he die ?— 14. How many reigns be tween that of Maximin and Diocletian? What is related of the emperor Valerian J — 15. For what was the reign of Aurelian distinguished? What was his most re' nowned victory ? What is said of Zenobia ? — 16. What is said of Diocletian % Whom did he associate with himself in the government? How was the empire now divided 1 —17. What happened at this time? How did Diocletian and Maximin surprise the world? Where did Diocletian retire? What is saia of Maximin? ROME. 87 and both retiring into private station. A. D. 304. It is generally believed that they were compelled to take this step by Galcrius, who, together with Const antius, was immediately afterwards acknowledged emperor. Diocletian seems to have been content- ed with his lot; he retired to Salona, in his native country, Dal- matia, where he lived eight years, and amused himself in culti- vating a small garden. Maximin attempted several times, but in vain, to resume the sovereign power, which he had abdicated, and even to murder his son-in-law, Const anline ; but being detected, » he slew himself in despair. SECTION VIII. From the Accession of Constantine to the Extinction of the Western Empire. A. I). 306 to 476. 1. Constantius died at York, in Britain, having previously appointed his son Constantine, surnamed the Great, his succes- sor; Constantine had several competitors for the crown; of these, Maxentius was the most formidable, who had made him- self master of Italy and Rome. As the emperor was on his march, at the head of his army, against his rival, lie saw in the heaven, after mid-day, a luminous cross, bearing this inscription in Greek, tv tovtu> vixu, Conquer by this. The circumstance is related by several historians of that period, particularly by Euse- bius, in his life of Constantine. In consequence of this vision, the emperor avowed himself the friend and supporter of Chris tianity; and caused a splendid banner, called the Labarum, to be carried before his army, bearing a representation of the cross he had seen in the heavens. He now prosecuted the war against Maxentius with redoubled energy. A final battle was fought on the banks of the Tiber, in which Constantine was victorious ; Maxentius himself perished in the river, A. D. 312. 2. On the following day Constantine made a solemn entry into Rome, where he was received with universal joy and hailed as the deliverer of the empire. As a lasting monument of this event, a magnificent triumphal arch was built at the foot of Mount Palatine, whicn remains at the present time. He pub lished an edict in favor of Christianity, which he now openly embraced, and claims the honor of being enrolled as the first Christian emperor. He put an end to the persecution of the Christians, also to the combats of gladiators, and other barbarous exhibitions. His reign foims an important era in ecclesiastical history, as the Roman government now lent all its influence to support that religion which it had repeatedly attempted to ^destroy. His reign is memorable for the celebrated council of j\ t koelry, Virgil has excelled all other poets of ancient times, with the exception of Homer. Philosophy was first taught at Home, about the cud of the third Punic war, and was introduced from Greece. The system of the Stoics was at first most generally received ; the philosophy of Aristotle was afterwards greatly cultivated; out with the introduction of luxury, the philosophy of Epicurus became fashionable. JEWISH HISTORY. SECTION I. The Early History of the Jews, until their deliverance from Egypt. 1. The Jews, commonly called the people of God, derive their origin from Abraham, the son of Zerah, the tenth in lineal de- scent from Shem, the son of Noah. The call of Abraham is a remarkable event in his history, and took place 1921 years before the Christian era. Abraham intended to settle in Haran, but in obedience to the will of God he removed to the land of Canaan, which was appointed to be the inheritance of his posterity. After his arrival there, his first care was to erect an altar for the wor ship of God, who appeared to him and confirmed the promise, which he had before made, of giving the country to his children. When he had lived some time in Canaan, a famine compelled him to remove his family into Egypt, where he resided until the famine ceased, and then again returned. 2. Shortly after this time, happened the remarkable visitation of the divine wrath on Sodom and several other cities. The crimes of these cities cried aloud to heaven for vengeance; ac cordingly three angels, in the form of young men, were sent to destroy them. Abraham having entertained the heavenly visitors in his tent, accompanied them on their way to Sodom, and ob- tained from them, that Lot and his family should be spared. Lot was therefore admonished to depart with his wife and his two daughters, and they were ordered not to look upon the city. But scarcely had he reached a place of safety, when Sodom and Go- morrah, with two other cities, were consumed by fire that fell from heaven, leaving the site on which they stood, and the coun- try in the vicinity, a lake, called at the present time, the Dead Sea, the water of which is clear and heavy, but extremely nau- seous and bitter to the. taste. When the noise of the falling fire was heard, Lot's wife, forgetful of the injunction of the angels, Mention some names that adorn the drama? What is said of Virgil? What is said of philosophy ? 1. What is said of the Jews? When was the call of Abraham': Where did ha settle ? Where did he remove ? Where did he remove with his family 1—2. After this time, what happened ? What is said of Abraham ? Who was admonished to depart I What is the site on which it stood now called ? What is related of Lot's wife ? 96 JEWISH HISTORY. looked back upon the city; but her curiosity was punished on the spot; she was changed into a pillar of salt, to serve as a warning to those who, at any time, cast back a wishful look on the sinful objects which they have once forsaken. 3. Sarah, the wife of Abraham, when far advanced in years, brought him a son, who was called Isaac. When Isaac had grown up, God, to try the faith of Abraham, commanded him to oiler his son in sacrifice on a mountain which he should point out to him. The holy patriarch obeyed without hesitation, but at the moment when his hand was raised to strike the victim, an angel was sent to stop his arm, and to assure him that God was satisfied with the readiness of his obedience. Isaac was afterwards mar- ried to Rebecca, the mother of Esau and^Iacob. Jacob, by the command of the Lord, took the name Israel, hence his posterity were called Israelites, or children of Israel. 4. Jacob had twelve sons, of whom Joseph was particularly loved by his father, and on that account hated by the rest of his I brothers. On a certain occasion, as they were tending their • flocks, at some distance from home, Joseph was sent by his father ■ to see how they conducted themselves ; they immediately seized and sold him as a slave to some Ishmaelite merchants, and told his father that he had been devoured by wild beasts. The mer- chants carried him into Egypt, and sold him to Potiphar, an officer of the court. Joseph served Potiphar with so much fidelity, that he soon committed to him the care of his household. The ! wife of Potiphar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph to the • commission of a flagitious crime, but the virtuous youth rejected her proposals with disdain ; but she, incensed at this, maliciously accused him of an attempt against her honor. On this false ■ accusation Joseph was thrown into prison, where he languished for several years. 5. At length Pharaoh, the kin" 1 of Egypt, had two dreams that ; greatly perplexed him, and could find no one in Egypt able to • interpret them. Finally he was informed of a Hebrew servant, , then in prison, who had wisely interpreted the dreams of two of his officers; this was Joseph, who, on being introduced to the i king, explained his dreams, and told him that they predicted an i abundant product of the earth for seven years, and afterwards a famine for the same space of time. Upon this he was not only released from prison, but appointed to administer the affairs ot Egypt under Pharaoh. 6. During the famine which followed, all his brothers, with the exception of Benjamin, went into Egypt for the purpose of buy ing provisions. Joseph knew them, but he was unknown to them} he therefore asked them, as if strangers to him, from whence they had come, and whether they were spies. They answered him with profound respect, that they had come into Egypt with the honest intention of buying corn; that they were twelve brothers^ 3. When Isaac had grown up, what did Ood command ? "What did the holy patriarch do? Whom did Isaac marry? — 4. How many sons had Jacob? On a certain occa- sion, what took place ? Where was Joseph carried? What is said of the wife o> Potiphar? What happened to Joseph? — 5. What is said of Pharaoh? Of what wai he informed? What did Joseph tell him ? — 0. During the famine, what took place' What did Joseph ask them ? JEWISH HISTORY. 9t that one of them no longer existed, and that the youngest, called Benjamin, was left at home with his father Jacob in Canaan. The name of Benjamin touched the inmost feeling of Joseph's breast; he therefore determined to have him brought into Egypt. For this pu» pose he seemed to give no credit to their words, and said, that to assure himself of the truth of their account, one of them should remain as a hostage, until their younger brother should be brought into Egypt. Therefore retaining Simeon, the rest were permitted to depart. 7. Upon their return home, they informed their father of all that had passed, and particularly of the engagement they were under of taking Benjamin into Egypt, where Simeon was de- tained as a pledge of their promise. Nothing could exceed the grief of the aged father on receiving this intelligence; he be- moaned his misfortunes; he spoke of his children, and became inconsolable at the thought of parting with the last and dearest of his sons, Joseph, said he, is no more, Simeon is in chains, and must Benjamin, also, be taken from me? No, I will not consent ; to part with him would wring my very soul with grief, and carry my gray hairs in anguish to the grave. 8. Jacob, however, at length consented to the departure of Benjamin, who accompanied his brothers on their return to Egypt. They were kindly received by Joseph, who finally made himself known to them in these words: "lam Joseph; does my father yet live r" Struck silent with amazement, they were for some time unable to reply. Joseph wept and tenderly embraced them all • but with greater feeling he threw himself upon the neck of Benjamin, and pressed him to his breast. He then told them to hasten to their father and let him know that his son Joseph was still alive, and to bring him down into Egypt. Jacob accordingly removed with all his family into Egypt, and Joseph assigned them a residence in the land of Goshen, a fertile district situated between the Nile and the Red Sea. 9. Jacob lived seventeen years after his removal into Egypt. Upon being informed of his illness^ Joseph, with filial piety, hastened to pay the last duties of affection to his dying father. The venerable patriarch raised himself in his bed at his son's approach, and spoke to him of the inheritance which God had promised to his seed in the land of Canaan, where he desired his remains to be removed after his death. He called his other sons around his bed, and gave to each a special blessing : the most memorable was that which he spoke of Judah, in which he ex- pressly declared, that from his race the Messiah, the expected of ail nations, should be born, and that this great event should take place at or near the time when the sovereign power should be entirely taken away from the Jewish nation. Jacob died in the one hundred and forty-seventh year of his age. How did the name of nenjamin affect Joseph ? What method did he adopt to brin.9 fiim into Egypt? — 7. What did they inform their father? What is said of the aged father? What did lie say? — 8. To what did Jacob at length consent? In what words did Joseph make himself known? What did he tell them? — 9. How long did Jacob live? What is said of Joseph ? What did the patriarch do? What did he say of the Messiah? 98 JEWISH HISTORY. 10. Joseph, after the death of his father, continued to rule over Egypt until his death, which occurred about the year 1035 A. C. In less than forty years after this event, a total change took place in the affairs ot Egypt ; a new king occupied the throne who knew not Joseph, and forgetful of his administration, cruelly op- pressed the Hebrew people. To check their increase and pros- perity, the most rigorous measures were adopted; their lives were embittered by hard service at public works, and all their male children were ordered to be thrown into the river Nile. 11. After much suffering, God raised up a deliverer of his chosen people, who should rescue them from a state of cruel ser- vitude, and bring them out of the land of bondage. This de liverer was Moses, the most distinguished personage of ancient times. In consequence of Pharaoh's inhuman decree, Moses was exposed by his mother on the banks of the Nile, and was found by the king's daughter, who compassionately adopted him and thus saved his life. Before the obdurate heart of Pharaoh could be induced to consent to the departure of the Hebrews, a number of extraordinary and supernatural events took place, called the ten plagues of Egypt. The first of these plagues was the change of the waters of the Nile, and of all the wells of Egypt, into blood ; and by the last the whole land was covered with darkness for three days. 12. Pharaoh at length consented to allow Moses to conduct the Israelites into the wilderness tor three days, to perform their re- ligious duties. At the expiration of this time, rinding that they did not return, he "put himself at the head of his army and re- solved to pursue them. Moses retreated until he came to the shore of the Red Sea, where, seeing the hosts of Egypt pressing forward, he extended his arm over the profound abyss, as God commanded him; the waters suddenly divided and opened a passage to the opposite shore. The Israelites immediately entered the dry hollow of the deep, amazed at the watery bounds that stood suspended as walls upon their right and on their left. 13. Pharaoh, insensible of the miracle, and thinking the pas- sage as safe and as free for him as the Israelites, entered precipi- tately after them, with all his army, and advanced to the middle of the abyss before he became sensible of his danger. By this time, Moses, who, with all his followers, had reached the other shore, stretched forth his hand again over the sea, and called back the waters to their natural state. Shut up within the bosom of f the deep, the whole Egyptian host perished, with the loss of their chariots and arms. 14. The Israelites, after their deliverance from Egypt, wan dored through the desert for forty years, during which time thev received many signal proofs of the divine favor in their regard. 10. What is now said of Joseph? Of the new king? To check their increase what was adopted ? — 11. What did God raise up? Who was this deliverer? What is re- lated of Moses? What was the first and last plague of Egypt? — 12. To what did Pharaoh at length consent? At the expiration of this time, what did he do ? What did Moses do? Where did the Israelites enter? — 13. What ^s related of Pharaoh? When Moses hadieached the other shore, what did he do? What happened to the I Egyptian host?— 14. What is said of ihe Israelites? JEWISH HISTORY. 99 They were supplied with food by manna, which fell regularly every morning, except on the Sabbath. On one occasion, when (hey were greatly in want of water, Moses supplied them with that element, by striking a rock with his rod and causing a stream to issue from it. In the second year after their deliverance from Egypt, Moses numbered the children of Israel, and found them to amount to six hundred and three thousand five hundred and fifty men, besides women and children. When they arrived at Mount Sinai^ God gave them his divine law, amidst thunder and lightning. Moses was the only person allowed to ascend the inountain, and during his absence the ungrateful Israelites fell into idolatry, and worshipped a golden calf. 15. Moses, after forty days and nights spent in his secret inter- view, received two tables of stone from God, who had engraved upon them, as the Scripture expresses it, with his own hand, the ten commands. In these ten fundamental precepts are contained an admirable summary of our various duties to God and to man. We are directed to adore one only Deity, the author of all bless- ings ; we are commanded to reverence his holy name, and are reminded of the dreadful vengeance denounced against those who shall transfer to idols, or to the creature, that worship which is due only to the Creator. To prevent the neglect of those sacred obligations, we are commanded to abstain from work one day in each week, that it may be more immediately devoted to the duties of religion. Four of the precepts of the Mosaic code compre- hend the principles of universal jurisprudence. Thou shalt not kill : Thou shalt not commit adultery : Thou shalt not steal : Thou shalt not bear false witness. They have formed the basis of criminal law in all civilized nations, and are essential to the good order of society. 16. When Moses descended from the mountain, and found the people worshipping a golden calf, transported with holy indigna- tion at the sight, he threw down the tables of the law, and broke them into pieces : then seizing "the idol, he immediately broke it down and cast it into the fire; and placing himself at the en- trance of the camp, he proclaimed aloud that all those who still retained a sense of their duty to God, should come forth and join him. The faithful tribe of Levi, having arranged themselves by his side, Moses ordered them to march through the camp and put to death all who came in their way. The order was immediately executed, and above twenty thousand men were put to death, to expiate the guilt of those who remained. 17. Moses, by the express command of God, having prepared two tables of stone, like those he had broken, went again to the summit of Sinai, where he received the same words engraved on Wish what were they supplied ? On one occasion, what is related ? In the second year, what was the number found to be ? At Mount Sinai, what was given ? \Vhat is sii.l of Moses ? — 15. What did Moses receive? In these, what are contained? What are we directed. &c? To prevent, &c, what are we commanded? What do four of these precepts comprehend? "What are these four precepts? — 16. What is n hv said of Moses? What did he do with the idol? What did Moses order theral h'^ many were pr. to death?— 17. What did Moses new do? 100 JEWISH HISTORY. thorn which had boon engraved on (ne first. When he came down from the mountain and approached the camp, the Israelites perceived a bright halo of glory which encircled his countenance, and made them afraid to approach him. Being told the cause of their dread, he covered his face with a veil, which he afterwards continued to wear. Moses then caused the tabernacle to be built, which was a quadrangular tent, thirty cubits in length, and nine in breadth. The inside of the tabernacle was hung with ricbly embroidered tapestry, and was divided into two parts by four pillars, before which was suspended a veil of the most exquisite needlework, variegated with the brightest colouring of purple and scarlet. The apartment enclosed behind the veil was called the holy of holies, and the space between the veil and the en- trance was called the sanctuary. The tabernacle being finished, the ark of the covenant was made. It measured two cubits and a half in length, one and a half in breadth, and the same in height; it was made of incorruptible wood, plated within and without with the purest gold, and covered with a lid, also of solid gold, which was called the mercy-seat. On the mercy-seat were placed two chertbs face to face, with their wings extended, so as to cover the ark. The ark, when finished, was placed in the tabernacle. 18. About this time Moses sent twelve men to survey the land of Canaan ; all, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, gave an unfavorable report, which caused the people to murmur. In con- sequence of this offence, God condemned all those who were twenty years of age, when they left Egypt, to die in the wilderness, except Joshua and Caleb. . The earth opened and swallowed Korah, Dathan and Miram, tor heading a revolt against Moses; at the same time fire descended and destroyed two hundred and iifty of those who had partici- pated in their offence. Moses at length died at the age of one hundred and twenty years, on mount Ncbo, in the land of Moab, having first taken a view of the promised land, which he was not permitted to enter. After the death of Moses, Joshua w r as ac- knowledged his successor in the supreme temporal command, who, having conquered the various nations that opposed him, and having surmounted innumerable obstacles, finally conducted the Israelites into the land of promise. When he came down, what is related of him? What did he cause to be built* Describe the tabernacle? The tabernacle being finished, what was made? What 3id it measure? On the mercy-seat what was placed ?— 18. At this lime, what was lone? What was their report? In consequence of this, to wnat were they con- demr.ed? What is related of Koran? At what age did Moies die, »nd where I After the death of Moses, what did Joshua, hi" s lcceissor, do? JEWISH HISTORY. 101 SECTION II. The government of the Judges ; the regal government ; the resto m ration of the Jews from captivity, 1. The period during the government of the judges was ex- tremely turbulent, and marked by an almost uninterrupted series of hostilities with their warlike neighbours. We are not informed for a certainty as to the manner of choosing the judges, and what was the extent of their power. They appear to have been mili- tary chiefs for the command of the army, and some of them acquired a distinguished fame by their successful expeditions against the enemies of their country. The most distinguished of those who filled the office of judge were the two last, Eli and Samuel. Eli, who united in his person the duties of judge with, the functions of high-priest, appears to have beeu incapable of discharging the obligations dependent on these two important offices. The people fell into idolatry, and, in punishment of their crimes, were subjugated by an ancient nation called the Philistines. In a great battle with "the Philistines, the Hebrew army was defeated with dreadful slaughter, the two sons of Eli were slain, and the ark of the covenant fell into the hands of the enemy. At the news of this disaster, the venerable high-priest, Eli, now sightless with age, fell backward from his seat and expired on the spot. 2. The next and last judge of the Hebrews, was Samuel the prophet, A. C. 1112. He brought back the people to a sense of their duty, and soon restored the fallen glory of Israel by a sig- nal victory over the Philistines. Peace was restored, public virtue again flourished, and Samuel for twenty years governed the Hebrew nation with wisdom and prudence. When age had rendered him incapable of executing his laborious duties, he united his two sons with him in the administration of the govern- ment. But the conduct of Samuel's sons, who did not inherit I heir father's virtue, gave offence to the Israelites, and they desired to be governed by a king, like the other nations around them. Samuel at length yielded to their request, and privately anointed Said, the son of Cis, of the tribe of Benjamin, as king of Israel. Samuel then assembled the tribes, that they might elect a person to rule over them, and having cast their votes, the lot fell upon the very person of Saul. 3. This event confirmed what had already passed in private, and indisputably proves that God presides over and directs the fcffairs of man. The name of Saul was immediately echoed through the tribes; and on being presented before them, the whole multitude exclaimed, God save the king. This event took 1. What was the perod during the government of llie judges? What do they sp- pear to have been ? Who were the most distinguished ? What is said of Eli ? ' Into what did the people fall? In a great battle, what took place? At the news of this disaster, what happened ?— '2. Who was the last judge? What is said of him ? Why di'l the Israelites desire to bo governed by a king? Who was the first k^ng ? — 3 What is said ol this event? What did ihe multitude exclaim? 9* 102 JEWISH HISTORY. place aft et the government of the judges had subsided, with .some intermission, for three hundred and fifty-six years from the time of Joshua, A. C. 1091. > 4. The beginning of the reign of Saul was auspicious, and dis- {anguished by a complete victory over the Philistines, Amonites, and other nations. He was at length ordered by Almighty God- through the prophet Samuel, to destroy the Amalekites, an idola- trous and perfidious nation, the ever-declared enemies of the Hebrew people; and not to reserve the least thing that belonged to them. In obedience to this order, Saul put himself at the head of his army and marched against that devoted people ; but far from complying with the letter of his instructions, he spared the Life of their king, reserved the choicest of the flocks, and took to himself the most precious of the spoils. On account of this and other acts of disobedience, Samuel, on the part cf God, declared to Saul that the kingdom of Israel should be taken from him and transferred to another. Accordingly Samuel, by the divine direc tion, privately anointed David king, and appointed him to suc- ceed to the throne, which Saul had forfeited by his crimes. The whole reign of Saul was a continued series of foreign or domestic troubles ; being at length defeated in a war with the Philistines, lie killed himself by falling upon his own sword, after a reign of forty years, A. C. 1051. 5. David, who had been anointed king by Samuel before the death of Saul, and held his title by divine appointment, was there- fore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. He found, however, a powerful rival in lshbosheth,the son of Saul, who found- ed his claim on the right of descent, and was supported by many of the tribes. A civil war ensued, which continued for seven years, and was finally terminated by the death of Ishbosheth; after this event all the tribes submitted to David, and the crown be- came hereditary in his family. 6. The reign of David was illustrious and interesting. He enlarged the bounds of his kingdom, took Jerusalem, which he made the capital of his dominions, and enriched himself and his subjects by the spoils of his enemies. He revived among the people an attachment for religion, by the institution of ^ solemn ceremonies; and he introduced a taste for the arts by inviting into the country able artists, for the completion of the magnificent edifices which he erected. The latter part of his reign was imbit tered by severe affliction. The kingdom was ravaged by pesti- lence, famine, and disastrous wars. His mind w r as harassed by domestic misfortunes. Some of his sons were disobedient and wicked. His favorite son, Absalom, excited a rebellion against his father, with a design of dethroning him; but he was defeated and slain. David caused his son Solomon to be crowned in the year 1011, before the Christian era, and died the following year, When did this take place? — 4. "What is said of the beginning of the reign of Saul! What was he ordered? What did he do? On account of tins, what did Samuel do? Whom did lie anoint as king? How did Saul die ? — 5. What is said of David? What did he find ? What ensued ?— G. What is said of the reign of David ? What did he do? What is said of the latter part of his reign? Of his favorite son Ahsa?om? JEWISH HISTORY 103 having reigned seven years and a half over Judah, and thirty- three years over all Israel. 7. During the reign of Solo?no?i,the kingdom of Israel rose to a higher degree of prosperity, felicity, and glory, than it enjoyed at any former or subsequent period. He directed the councils of all the petty states situated between the Euphrates and Mediter- ranean, and held the balance of power between the two great monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. Commerce was in a high (tegree flourishing; the vessels of Israel, under the direction of Tyrian mariners, traded to the land of Ophir, which is supposed to be a district of Ethiopia, on the eastern coast of Africa. By these lucrative voyages they augmented the wealth of the nation, which David had already enriched by the spoils of war. But this prosperity began at length to decline. Solomon, elated by the uniform prosperity which attended his reign, set no bounds to his magnificence and luxury, and in order to support his profuse expenditure, laid heavy taxes upon the people; this finally alien- ated the affections of his subjects, and towards the close of his reign gave rise to a powerful faction, headed by a young man called Jeroboam. 8. The most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon was the building of a magnificent temple at Jerusalem, which was com- pleted in the space of seven years. The plan had been formed oy David, and materials, workmen, and money provided for its erection. It was probably the most superb and costly fabric of ancient times. The wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of Proverbs r*nd Ecclesiastes are ascribed to him, either as the author or collector; they abound with precepts and maxims applicable to every state and condition of life. But notwithstanding the supe- rior wisdom for which Solomon has been so justly celebrated, he appears to have been immersed in sensual pleasures. He married no fewer than a thousand wives, seven hundred of whom held the rank and title of queens. The influence of these women, chosen for the most part from idolatrous nations, led him into effeminacy and neglect of his important duties to God and his people; and their influence and superstitions at length drew him into idola- try. He died after an illustrious reign of forty years, leaving the world in doubt whether his memory be more worthy of praise oi censure, whether he died a friend or enemy of his Creator. A. C 971. 9. With Solomon expired the grandeur and tranquillity of the Hebrews. Upon the accession of his sdn Rehoboam to the throne, the faction of Jeroboam broke out into open rebellion, and termi- nated in the revolt of the ten tribes from their allegiance to the house of David, leaving only the two tribes of Judah and Benja- How lone: did he reign? — 7. During the reign of Solomon, v/hat is said of the king- dom of Israel? "What did he direct? "What is said of commerce ? What did Solo- mon do when elated by prosperity ? — S. What was the mosi remarkable event of his reign? What was it probably? What books are aseribea to mm? In what does i.e 'appear to have been immersed? How many wives haa he? Into what was he diawn? When did he die? — 9. On the accession of Rehoboam, -vhal broKe ouL? 104 JEWISH HISTORY. min loyal to their lawful sovereign. The revolted tribes elected Jeroboam for their king, and the monarchy was thus divided into two separate kingdoms of Israel and Judah. 10. The policy of Jeroboam produced a religious as well as a political separation. Being persuaded that should he permit his subjects to go into the kingdom of Judah, in order to perform the duties of religion in the temple at Jerusalem, they would by de- grees lose their respect for his authority, and perhaps return to the allegiance of their former sovereign; he therefore ordered two new temples to be built, the one at Bethel and the other at Dan; and in them two golden calves to be set up and divine honors to be paid to them, as to the God who had conducted the children of Israel out of the land of Egypt. Jeroboam, after a turbulent reign of twenty-two years, finished a wicked life by an unhappy end. His name is never mentioned in holy scripture but with detestation, on account of his having set up the worship of idols, which was continued by all the kings who succeeded to the throne of Israel, until an end was put to that kingdom by the Assyrians. li. After this memorable epoch, the history of the two king- doms of Israel and Judah, for a period of almost four hundred years, exhibits a series of disunion, vice, wars, massacres, servi- tude, and affliction from famine and pestilence. At length, the kingdom of the ten tribes was extinguished. The people were transported into Assyria and dispersed into different parts of the country, from which they never returned. The few left in Canaan were intermixed with strangers, and from that mixture of different nations originated a race of people, who were after- wards known by the name of Samaritans. This event took place about 720 A. C, after the kingdom had subsisted two hundred I and fifty-four years. 12. The tottering kingdom of Judah still continued to enjoy a i precarious existence; it was invaded at different times by the Babylonians; at length rendered tributary, and finally subju- gated; its metropolis, the city of Jerusalem, was destroyed, the temple was demolished by the order of the conqueror, Nebuchad- nezzar; all the principal inhabitants were stripped of every thing : valuable, and carried captives to Babylon. Thus ended the king- ■ dom of Judah, after it had subsisted four hundred and sixty-eight years from the beginning of the reign of David, and three hun- dred and eighty-eight years alter the separation of the ten tribes 13. The privation of liberty and the miseries of bondage seem to have brought the Jewish people to a sense of their past trans- gressions. Unable to resist the power of man, they now placed their sole confidence in the goodness and mercy of God, who heard their supplications and looked with compassion on their Whom did the revolted tribes elect?— 10. What did the policy of Jeroboam produce? What did he order? Why is his name mentioned with detestation in the Scripture?— 11. After this epoch, what does the history exhibit ? What at length happened? What became of the people? When did this event take place? — 12. What is said of the Kingdom of Judah? What at length happened 1o it? What became of the inhabitant! How long had it subsisted ? — 13. Unable to resist the power of jrum, what did they do ? JEWISH HIST014Y. ] 05 sufferings, Cyrus* king of Persia, having conquered Babylon, published a decree by which the Jewish people were set at liber- ty, and permitted to return to their native country, after they had languished in captivity for seventy years: the decree, moreover, allowed them to rebuild Jerusalem and their temple, of which Cyrus gave them a new plan, and ordered that the expense of erecting it should be paid out of the royal treasury. He also restored to them all the sacred vessels which had been brought to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, when the temple was destroyed. In consequence of this edict, about forty-two thousand of the Jewish people commenced their march toward their native coun- try, where they arrived about five hundred and thirty-six years oefore the Christian era. From this period the Israelites, who returned from captivity, are properly called Jews, because the tribe of Judah was by far the most powerful after their restoration to liberty. SECTION III. From the restoration of the Jeivs to their native country ; to the Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, 1. Many of the Jews remained at Babylon, while those who returned to Palestine began the work of rebuilding the temple with alacrity and vigor. When it began to raise above the foun- dation, the young manifested their delight in tears of joy, whilst the ancients wept to see how far the outlines of the new edifice fell short of the old. The progress of the work suffered a tempo- rary obstruction, through the intrigues of their enemies and the caprice of Cambyses, the successor of Cyrus. But in the begin- ning of the reign of Darius, the decree of Cyrus in favor of the Jews was ratified ; and that prince even contributed liberally towards the expense, and in the sixth year of his reign, the temple was completed and dedicated with great solemnity. 2. Darius, during the remainder of his reign, continued to manifest his favor for the Jews, and their privileges were con- firmed by his son Xerxes. Their interest was stilf greater with Artaxerxes, called Ahasuerus in the Scripture, through the influ- ence of his queen, Esther, a Jewess, and also through the services of her uncle, Mordecai, who had discovered and frustrated a conspiracy against the king's life. From Artaxerxes, Ezra ob tained liberal donations to be applied to the service of the temple, and full power to govern the Jews: and Nehemiah was after- wards commissioned to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and to What did Cyrus publish? What did the decree allow? What did he restore? In consequence of this edict, what was done ? From '.!..? period, why are they called Jews ? 1. When the temple began to rise above its foundation, what is said of the young? What did the progress of the work suffer? In the beginning of th^ reign of Darius, what was done? — 2. What did Darius continue to do? Through whose influence whp 'heir interest still greater with Artaxerxes? What did Ezra obtain from Ar'axerx«s 1 106 JEWISH HISTORV. reform many abuses among the people. Ezra and Nchcmuili seem to have been the two last governors of Jiulah, which proba- bly became subject to the governor of Syria, from whom the high- priest derived his authority. 3. From this period, most of the calamities which befel the Jewish nation must be ascribed to the men who aspired to the sacerdotal dignity, through motives of ambition and avarice more than zeal for religion. For several centuries, the office of high priest was the chief object of ambition among the leading men of the state. The candidates purchased the office from the Assyrian governors, and retained it by means of money. Hence they oppressed the people with taxes that they might meet their pecu- niary engagements, and the high-priest, Menelaus, sold some of the richest vessels belonging to the temple. 4. About the year 328, A. C, Alexander the Great having be- sieged Tyre, was greatly incensed against the Jews, because they had refused to supply his army with provisions during the siege. After the taking of Tyre, he marched to Jerusalem with the in- tention of punishing the Jews for their disobedience to his orders. Juddica, the high-priest, was ordered in a dream to meet the threatening conqueror in his pontifical robes, at the head ol all the priests in their proper habits, and attended by the people dressed in white garments. Alexander was struck with this religious pomp, .md approaching the high-priest with the deepest respect, embraced him with a kind of religious veneration* 11 j told his attendants, who expressed their surprise at this submit sive behavior, that he did not pay this profound respect to the high-priest, but to the God whose minister he was. 5. Alexander, on his departure, granted to the Jews the free dom of their country, laws and religion, and exempted them from paying tribute every seventh year; and during his whole reign they enjoyed great tranquillity: but with him the prosperous con- dition of their country expired. Judea was successively invaded and subdued by the Syrians and Egyptians, and the people re- duced to bondage. The Jews keprthe Sabbath so rigidly, that they would not, on that day, engage in battle nor defend them- selves, although attacked by an enemy. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, having invaded Judea, took advantage , of this religious impedi- ment. He entered Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day without resist- ance, and carried away to Egypt one hundred thousand captives. 6. About the year 198, A. C, Jlntiochus the Great, king of Syria, after taking the city of Jerusalem, and plundering the temple, sold forty thousand Jews to the neighboring nations, and established paganism through Judea. The sacrifices ceased, and for a season there scarcely existed the slightest external signs cf religion. During the scene of desolation which stained the land "Who seem to have been the last governors of Tudah? — 3. From this period, to what must most of the calamities be ascribed? From whom did the candidates purchase the office ? — 4. What happened about the year 328? AVhat is related of Juddica, the nigh-priest? What did Alexander tell his attendants? — 5. AVhat was granted to the Jews by Alexander? By whom was Judea now invaded? "What did Ptolemy, king nf Egypt, do ? — 6. AVhat was done by Antiochus the Great ? During the scene of deso- lation, vvha' did Mattathias undertake ? JEWISH HISTORY. 107 of Judea with the blood of its best citizens, Mattathias, a man of die sacerdotal order, undertook the deliverance of his country lie retired into the wilderness with his five sons, sur named the Maccabees, and was soon joined by a great number of the Jews, who wished to avoid idolatry and religious persecution. An army was shortly raised sufficiently strong to face the enemy in the field. Mattathias, placing himself at the head of his forces, led them against the troops ot Antiochus, and forced them to retreat before him, and to fly for safety beyond the boundaries of Judea. 7. After the death of Mattathias, Juclas Maccabees, his eldest son, was placed at the head of the army. The achievements of this distinguished man, the deliverance of his country from fo- reign oppression, his talents, bravery, and patriotism, have ranked him among the most illustrious heroes of Greece and Rome. His patriotism was only surpassed by his zeal for religion. Hav- ing vanquished the enemies of his country, his first care was to repair the devastations they had caused. The temple was in a desolate condition, the altar and sanctuary profaned, the gates burned, and court overgrown with shrubs. Having appointed priests of unblemished character for the performance of the sacri fices, he repaired the holy places, threw down the altar on which the idol of Jupiter stood, and haying erected another, dedicated it with great joy and religious festivity. The sacred veil was again hung up, and the sacred vessels, golden candlesticks, and altar of perfumes, were again replaced. Juclas Maccabees having thus, by many signal victories, delivered his country from bondage and idolatry, was at last slain in battle, 157, A. C. 8. The brothers of Judas, pursuing the advantage already gained, completely established the independence of their country, and the republican form of government afterwards changed to that of a monarchy. John Hyrcanus, the son of Simon Macca- bees, united in his person the office of high-priest and that of commander-in-chief of the army, and possessing all the abilities requisite for the military and pontifical offices, he vanquished the enemies of his country and firmly established his authority. His sons assumed the title as well as the power of kings, and the suc- cession remained in his family for about one hundred and twenty- six years. The unfortunate dissensions of this family terminated ultimately in the conquest of Judea, by Pompey the Great, who took Jerusalem and subjugated the Jewish nation to the dominion of the Romans, 59, A. C. 9. After this event the Jewish monarchy was re-established by the favor and under the protection of the Romans, who placed Herod the Great, son of Antipater, on the throne of David. This prince demolished the old temple of Jerusalem, and rebuilt in a very magnificent manner. He reigned with great splendor, but Where did he retire ?— 7. Who was now placed at the head of the army * What is said of his achievements? Of the temple? What did he thro^v down? How did Judas Maccabees die?— 8. What is said of the brothers of Judas ? Of Jol n Hyrco- nui? What did his sons assume? Wiio conquered Judea? — 3. After this, by whom whs the Jewish momrchy re-established ? In whose favour? What did this prince do? 108 JEWISH HISTORY. was cruel and despotic ; his public life exhibits a continued scene of battles,'tyranny, and violence. His reign is rendered memo- rable by tjie birth of oud divine Saviour, Jesus Christ. When this remarkable event took place, the Wise Men, as the scripture calls them, from the east came to Jerusalem to adore the new- horn king - of the Jews, anct desired to know where he was to be found. Herod, aware that Ve had no other title to the crown of Judea than that which the\Romans had given him, was much alarmed at this inquiry which\was made about another king. He therefore dismissed the Wise Men with a strict injunction to bring him back an account of the child, when they had found it, that lie might go, as he pretended, to adtoe it. The Wise Men, having paid their adoration to the infantVt the manger of Bethlehem, were admonished, in their sleep, to\return by another way to their country. Herod, finding himself thus deceived by the sages, with cruelty that would shock theNnost savage barbarian; gave orders that every male child born at ^ethlehem within the two last years should be put to death. Herod died in the first' year of the birth of Christ, or the fourth of the vulgar era. - 10. During the reign of Herod II. St. John the Baptist was beheaded, because he reproved the monarch for the crime of mar- rying his brother's wife; it was also during the same reign that our Saviour's crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension took place. In the reign of his son, Herod the "Great, the Apostle, St. James, suffered martyrdom, and St. Peter was imprisoned ; but the un- happy monarch himself died a miserable death, being devoured by worms. 15cfore his son, Agrippa, who was the last king oi Judea, St. Paul pleaded in defence of the gospel. From this period the governors of Judea were appointed by the Roman emperors; in this condition it remained until the final extinction of the Jewish nation. 11. The rapacity and cruelty of Floras, the last governor of Judea, caused a rebellion of the Jews, in which one hundred and fifty thousand persons are said to have perished, A. D. 66. The unhappy Jerusalem was now hastening to its downfall; while the sanguinary and violent factions among the. Jews themselves, con- tributed towards this event. In the reign of Yespasian, Titus, the Roman general, was sent into Judea to suppress the revolt of the Jews. He commenced the siege of the city about the festival of Easter, at which time an immense multitude of people was shut up within the walls. With so much ardor did Titus con- duct the operations of the siege, that the city was taken within the space of five months, and so completely demolished, that not a stone was left upon a stone, except a part of the western wall, and three towers preserved for the Roman garrison left in Judea. 12. The last siege of Jerusalem was attended with scenes of For what is his re gn memorable? When this event took place, what is related? Finding himself deceived, what orders did he srive? — 10. Why was St. John beheaded 1 What took place in the reiirn of Herod the Great? From this period, how were the governor':- appointed? — 1!. What did the rapacity of Floras cause ? In the reign of Vea. pasian, what took place ? How long did the siepe last? What is said of the destruc- tion of the city ? — 12 What is said of the siege of Jerusalem '' K JEWISH HISTORY. 109 carnage, famine, disease and desperation, far more horrible than any to b£ met with in the annals of human misery. During the calamitous progress of the siege, Titus displayed many instances f humanity towards the besieged, and made every effort for the preservation of the city and temple, but in vain; and viewing the disasters that befel the nation, he confessed that he was only the instrumen\of divine vengeance. The magnificent temple of the Jews perished with the general wreck of the nation, thus lite- rally fulfilling the predictions of our Lord concerning the utter destruction of Jerusalem. This event took place about the year 72, A. D. . . ■ 13. According to the most accurate calculation, about eleven hundred thousand Jews perished during the siege of their capital, and ninety-seven thousand, who were made prisoners, were sold as slaves to different nations. Since that time the descendants of those who survived the dissolution of the Jewish nation have been wandering from nation to nation, objects of contempt rather than of commiseration. In but few countries have they enjoyed the same privileges as those among whom they were permitted to reside. 14. Antiquities. The country of the ancient Hebrews was distinguished by several names, such as the land of Canaan, the Iloly Land, Palestine, Judea, &c; and the people themselves were variously called, as the people of God, Israelites and Jews. After the entrance of the Israelites into the land of Canaan, it was divided into twelve different portions, which were assigned to the twelve several tribes into which they were separated. 15. Remains or Ancient Works. Among the ancient works of Palestine, Jacob's well, the pools of Solomon, Gihon, and Bethesa, and sepulchral monuments, are the most remarkable. Jacob's well is highly venerated on account of its great antiquity It is hewn out of the solid rock, about one hundred feet in depth, and nine in diameter, and is at present covered with a stone vault. The pools of Solomon, supposed to have been constructed by the order of that monarch, appear to have been a work ol im- mense cost and labor. They are three in a row, so situated that the water of the uppermost may fall into the second, and from second to the third. They are of equal breadth, being about ninety paces each; though they vary in length, the longest being two hundred and twenty paces. The pools of Gihon and Bethesa are similar works, and may be ranked among the most stately ruins. The sepulchral monuments are to be found in various parts of the country. The most magnificent remains of this kind are the royal sepulchres witirin the walls of Jerusalem; they are all hewn out of the solid marble rock, and contain several spa- cious apartments. Of Titus ? Of the temple? When did this eveni take place ?— 13. How many Jews perished during the siege? He jv many were sold as slaves? Since that time what is said of the inhabitants ?— 14. What is said of the country ? How was it divided ? —15. What are some of the ancient works of Palestine? What is said of Jacob's well? Of Solomon's pools? What are the pools Gihon and Eethesa? Which are the incst magnificent of the seuulchral m moments? 10 110 JEWISH HISTORY. 10. Cities. Of these, Jerusalem, the metropolis of the country and the centre of the Jewish worship, was the most celebrated, and no place in the world recalls so many hallowed associations The city was built on several hills, the largest of which was Mount Zion. It was enlarged and embellished by David, Solo- mon, and other kings. On the east or lower city was Mount Moriah, on which stood the magnificent temple of Solomon. After the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, a new city was built in the reign of Adrian, the Roman emperor, and called JElla Capilolhm, but there was a considerable alteration in the site. Mount Zion, the principal quarter of the ancient city, was not comprised within the limits of the newone. It subsists at the present time in a deplorable condition, inhabited by Turks, Jews, and Christians. Gaza and Ascalon were the other two most noted cities. 17. Manners and Customs. The rite of circumcision has dis- tinguished the Jewish people from the earliest period of their history. It was always accompanied with great feasting and other demonstrations of joy. At this time, the child was named in the presence of the company assembled, among whom bread and wine were distributed. Their diet, except on festivals, seems to have been very plain . bread, water, and vinegar were in common use. Honey was es- teemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk of goats was considered excellent for food. Their amusements seem to have consisted chiefly in social re- pasts, music, and dancing, which partook of a religious character. Their mourning for the death of friends was expressed by rending their garments, tearing their hair, heaping ashes upon their heads wearing sackcloth, and lying on the ground. From the paim they took to provide a place of burial for themselves and their descendants, it is evident that they considered it a heavy calamity to be denied a burial, and a favor to be interred among their ancestors. Their sepulchres were on their own land, and were often cut out of a rock. 18. The language of the Jews was the Hebrew, the genius of which is pure, primitive, and natural; and it is highly probable that they had the art of writing very early. The materials on which they first wrote were plates of stone; they afterwards used what was called rolls, which is supposed to be a kind of parch- ment. The arts in which they most excelled were those of war, husbandry, poetry, and music. Their situation made them a war- like people, being surrounded by enemies. Their arms of defence were the shield, helmet, coat of mail, and breast-plate; their offensive weapons were the two-edged sword, javelin, sling, and the bow and arrow. In poetry they peculiarly excelled ; their inspired productions, as to native energy and beauty, are unrivalled. 16. Which was the most celebrated city? On what was it built? ^Vhen was a new city built? What are the other most nottd cities ? — 1 7. What rile has distinguished the Jewish people ? What is said of their diet? Of what did their amusements con- sist? l!o\v was their mourning for the dead expressed ?— 18. What is said of the .r language ? On what did they write? What did the situation make them? What were their arms? In poe'.ry, what is said of them? MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS 1 . All the nations of antiquity, except the Jews, were heathens and idolaters. Their system of religion was called Polytheism, as it acknowledged a plurality of gods, and they worshipped their divinities by various representations, called idols. The first objects of adoration among the pagan nations, after they had lost the correct knowledge of the true God, were the heavenly bodies. Hence we find that the names of the principal »-ods correspond with the names of the chief planets, such as Saturn, Jupiter, l r enus, &c. Osiris and his, .the principal deities among the Egyptians, are supposed to have been the sun and moon. In the process of time, they built temples to the heavenly bodies, as being subordinate agents of the divine power, and by worshipping them they supposed they would obtain the favor of the Deity. From this they descended to the worship of objects on the earth, as they were thought to represent the stars or the Deity; thus idolatry arose shortly after the deluge. 2. In the course of time, adoration was bestowed on those ob- jects which were thought to confer peculiar benefits on man. Thus the Egyptians regarded the Nile as sacred, because by its inundations it fertilized the earth. Again, great heroes and per- sons, who, during their lives, had been benefactors to the human race, were deified after their death. From these they descended to the worship of the most degrading objects, and paid divine honors to beasts, birds, insects, and even to vegetables, such as leeks and onions ; moreover, temples were dedicated to evil de- mons and the most debasing passions. 3. The Babylonians adored the heavenly bodies, and among them Jupiter was worshipped, under the name of Belus,to whom magnificent temples were erected at Babylon. The Canaanites and Syrians worshipped Baal, Tammuz, Magog, and Astarte. Moloch was the Saturn of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, to tvhom human victims, particularly children, were immolated. Baal-pcor was the idol of the Moabites ; his rites were degrading and cruel. . Dagon was the chief god of the Philistines; his figure was a compound of a man and a fish. Among the Celts, the sacred rites were performed in groves dedicated to their gods, to whom human victims were frequently offered ; colossal images of wicker-work were filled with human criminals and consumed by fire. 4. According to the pagan theology, there were twelve chief, deities engaged in the creation and government of the universe. Agreeable to this theory, Jupiter, Neptune, and Vulcan fabricated the world ; Ceres, Juno and Diana animated it ; Mercury, Venus and Apollo harmonized it ; and lastly, Vesta, Minerva and Mars 1. What were all the nations of antiquity? What was their system called ? What were the first objects of adoration ? What do we find ? In the process of time, what did they do? — 2. AVhat did the Egyptians regard? Why ? To what was divine ho- nours paid ?— 3. What is said of the Babylonians ? What was Moloch? Baal-peor' Dagon? Among the Celts, where were the snered rites performed ? — 4. Agreeable 10 this theory, what is said of the world? What were these twelve called? ill 1 12 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. presided over it with a guardian power, and these twelve were called the celestial deities. Jupiter, who was represented as supreme, and styled the father of the gods and men, was the son of Saturn and Cybele, and was born on Mount Ida, in Crete. He deposed his father, and divided the world between himself and his two brothers, Neptune and Pluto. Neptune had the jurisdiction over the sea, and Pluto that of the infernal regions; but the sovereignty of heaven and earth he reserved to himself. One of his chief exploits was the conquest of the Titans or giants, who are said to have placed several mountains on each other, in order to scale the heavens. He is generally represented as a majestic personage, seated upon a throne, with a sceptre in one hand and thunderbolts in ths other. The heavens tremble at his nod, and he governed all things except the Fates. 5. Apollo was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and was born on the island of Delos. He presided over music, medicine, poetry, the fine arts, and archery. For his offence in killing the Cyclops, he was banished from heaven, and obliged to hire himself as a shepherd to Admetus, king of Thessaly, in which employment he remained for nine years. His exploits are represented as extra- ordinary; among others he caused Midas to receive a pair of asses' ears, for preferring Parts music to his; he turned into a violet the beautiful boy Hyacinth, whom he accidentally killed; and changed Daphne into a laurel. 6. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was the god of war, and the patron of all that is cruel and furious ; the horse, the wolf, the magpie and vulture, were offered to him. During the Trojan war, Mars was wounded by TJiomedes, and retreating to heaven, he complained to Jupiter that Minerva had directed the weapon of his antagonist. He is represented as an old man, armed and standing in a chariot drawn by two horses, called Fright and Terror; his sister Bellona was his charioteer ; Dis- cord went before him in a tattered garment with a torch, Angei and Clamor followed. 7. Mercury, the son of Jupiter and Mala, was the messenger of the gods, and the patron of travellers, shepherds, orators, merchants, thieves and dishonest persons. He was doubtless some enlightened person, in a remote age, who, on account of his actions and services, was worshipped after his death. He seems to have been the first who taught the arts of civilization. Vulcan, the son of Jupiter and Juno, was the god of fire, ami the patron of those who wrought in the metallic arts. He was kicked out of heaven by Jupiter, for attempting to deliver his mother from a chain by which she was suspended. He continued to descend for nine successive days and nights, and at length fell upon the isle of Lcmnos, but was crippled by the fall. He was What is Jupiter styled? What did lie do? What is one of his chief exploits ? How ig he represented? — 5. ^'ho wus Apollo? Over what did he preside? From where was he banished? What were his exploits?— 6. Who was Mars? Of what was h« the pod? During the Troj \n war. what is said of him? How is he represented ?— 7. What was Mcreury? What did he teach ? AVho was Vulcan? What is raid cf him? What did he forge? MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 113 the artificer of heaven, and forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter, also the arms of the gods. 8. Juno, styled the queen of heaven, was both the sister and wife of Jupiter. In her character, she was haughty, jealous, and inexorable. In her figure she was lofty, graceful and majestic ; Iris, displaying the rich colors of the rainbow, was her usual attendant. Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, was the most accomplished of all the goddesses, and the only divinity that seems equal to Jupiter. She is said to have instructed man in the arts of ship- building, navigation, spinning, and weaving. Her worship was universally established, but at Athens it claimed particular atten- tion. The owl was sacred to her. Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter ot Jupiter and Dione, or, as some say, she sprung from the foam of the sea. Her worship was licentious in a high degree, and attended with most disgraceful ceremonies. Diana was the queen of the woods, and the goddess of hunting. She devoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and was attended by eighty nymphs. The poppy was sacred to her. 9. Ceres, the daughter of Saturn and Cybele, was the goddess of corn and harvest, and the first who taught the cultivation of the earth. TheEleusinian Mysteries were celebrated in her honor. Vesta was the goddess of fire, and the guardian of houses. She was represented in along flowing robe, a veil on her head, a lamp in one hand, and a javelin in the other. 10. Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was the second in rank among the gods, and reigned over the sea. He is represented seated on a chariot drawn by dolphins and sea horses ; in his hand he holds a trident or sceptre, with three prongs. Oceanus, a sea god, was called the father of rivers. Triton, also a marine deity, was the son of Neptune and Amphrttite; he was his father's com- panion and trumpeter. Nereus, a sea god, the son of Oceanus, was the father of fifty daugnters, who were called Nereides. Pro- teus, the son of Oceanus, could foretell future events, and change himself into any shape. 11. The infernal deities were, Pluto and his consort Proser- pine, Plufus, Charon, the Furies, Fates, and the three judges, Minos, JEaeus, and Rh adamant hits. Pluto, who exercised do minion over the infernal regions, was the brother of Jupiter. The goddesses all refusing to marry him, on account of his deformity and gloomy disposition, he seized upon Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, in Sicily, opened a passage through the earth, and car- ried her to his residence ; and having married her, made her queen of hell. There were no temples raised to his honor. Plu- tus, an infernal deity, was the god of riches; he was lame, blind, injudicious, and timorous. 8. What was Juno ? W T hat was she in her character ? In her figure? What was Minerva] What is said of her J What was sacred to her ? Who was. Venus '■ What is said of her worship ? Who was Diana?— 9. Who was Ceres? What were cele- brated in her honour? What was Vesta ? How was she represented ?— 10. What was Neptune? How is she represented ? Who was Oceanus? Triton ? Nereus? Proteus? — 11. Name the infernal deities ? What is said of Pluto ? Who was Plutus ? What was he? I 14 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 12. Charon was the ferryman, who conducted the ghosts across the river Lethe, on their way to Pluto's regions. He is represented as an old man, with white hair, a lon^ beard, and garments de- formed with filth, and remarkable for the harshness of his speech,, and ill temper. None could enter Charon's boat if they had not received a regular burial ; without this, they were supposed to wander a hundred years amidst the mud and slime of the shore. Each ghost paid a small brass coin for his fare. 13. The Furies were three in number, namely: Alecto, Tisi- phone and Megxra. They had the faces of women, but their looks were full of terror, they held lighted torches in their hands, and snakes lashed their necks and shoulders. Their office was to punish the crimes of wicked men, and to torment the consciences of secret offenders. The Fates were three daughters of Jupiter and Themis. Their names were, Clotho, Lachesis, and Alropos. They decided on the fortunes of mankind ; Clotho drew the thread of life; Lache- sis turned the wheel, and Atropos cut it with her scissors. The duty of the three judges was to assign the various punishments of the wicked, adapted to their crimes ; and to place the good in the delightful realms of Elysium. 14. There were many other divinities of various characters, such as Bacchus, Cupid, the Muses, the Graces, &c. Bacchus, iheson of Jupiter and Semele, was the god of wine. Mis festivals were celebrated by persons of both sexes, who dressed themselves in skins, and ran shouting through the hills and country places; these solemnities were attended with the most disgusting scenes of intoxication and debauchery. The fir, the fig tree, ivy and vine were sacred to him. Cupid, representing the passion of love, was a beautiful winged boy; often with a bandage over his eyes, also with a bow and ar- row in his hand, with which to wound the hearts of mortals. The Muses were nine in number, namely : Calliope, who pre- sided over eloquence, and heroic and epic poetry ; Clio presided over history ; Erato was. the Muse of elegiac and lyric poe- try; Euterpe presided over music ; Melpomene was the inven- tress and muse of tragedy; Polyhymnia was the muse of singing and rhetoric ; Terpsichore^ presided over dancing ; Thalia, the muse of pastoral and comic poetry; and Urania, who presided over hymns and sacred subjects ; and also the muse of astronomy I 15. The Graces were the three daughters of Bacchus and Venus ; they were supposed to give to beauty all its charms of attraction, besides these, there were several rural deities ; such as Pan, the god of shepherds and hunters ; Sylvanus< who presided over the woods ; Priapus, the god of the gardens ; Terminus, who was considered as watching over the boundaries of land; and others 12. Who was Charon ? How is he represented ? What is said of those who did not receive a regular burial?— 13. Name the Furies? What had they ? What was their office ? Name the Fates ? What did each one do ? What was the duty of the judges ? — 14. Name some of the other divinities ? What was Bacchus? What is said of his festivals? What is said of Cupid? AVhat was the number of the muses, and ovor what did they preside ?-- 15. Who were the Graces? What was Pan? Svlvanua? Pi la- pus ? Terminus ? MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 115 The Sirens were three fabulous persons, who are said to have had the faces of women, and the lower parts of their bodies like a fish. They had such melodious voices that mariners were often allured and destroyed by them. The Gorgons were three sisters, who are said to have had the power of transforming those into stones who looked upon them. The Harpies were winged mon- sters, which had the face of a woman, the body and wings of a vulture, claws on the hands and feet, and the ears of a bear. 16. The objects of worship among the ancient nations, pat fi- cularly among the Greeks and Romans, are said to have amounted to thirty thousand. To these, temples were erected, festivals in- stituted, games celebrated, and sacrifices offered, with a greater or less degree of pomp, according to the degree of estimation in which the deity was held. The most celebrated temples of anti Baity, were those of Diana &t Ephesus, of Apollo, in the city of Miletus, of Cerus and Proserpine, at Eleusis, and that of Jupiter Olympus, and the Parthenon of Minerva, at Athens. The famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the world, was completed two hundred and twenty years after its foundation. It was four hundred and twenty-five feet in length, and two hundred in breadth : the roof was supported by one hun- dred and twenty-seven columns, sixty feet high, placed there by so many kings. This temple was burnt on the night that Alex ander the Great was born, by Erostratus, who alleged that he perpetrated the deed merely for the purpose of immortalizing his name in destroying so magnificent a building. 17. Oracles were consulted, particularly by the Greeks and Romans, on all important occasions, and their determinations were held sacred and inviolable. The most celebrated oracles were those of Apollo, at Be/phi and Delos ; the oracles of Jupiter, at Dodona, ami that of Trophonius ; where future events were made known to those who sought to know the will of the gods. The responses were generally delivered by a priestess, who was sup- posed to be divinely inspired; but usually in verse, and contained in very ambiguous language, so that one answer would agree with various and sometimes opposite events. It must, however, ]>c confessed, that sometimes the answers of the oracles were sub- stantially correct, a fact which is proved by many passages in ancient history ; but it is a question among the learned, whether the answers of the oracles should be ascribed to the operations of dc inons, or only to the imposture of men. The best established opinion is, that demons were the real agents in the oracles, although we find many instances in Grecian history, where the Delphic priestess suffered herself to be corrupted by presents, and gave an answer to suit the will or to gratify the passions 01 inclination of those who came to consult her. 18. There is one fact, however, deserving of notice namely, What were the Sirens ? The Gordons? The Karpies ?— 1(5. What was the nnmbei of objects of worship ? Name the most celebra^d temples? What is said of the temple of Diana at Ephesus ? By whom was it burnt W-\7. What is said of Oracles ? Which were the most celebrated ? How were the responses given? What is a question among the learned ? What is the best established opinion ? 116 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. that the responses of the oracles ceased when Christianity began to be preached ; not on a sudden, but in proportion as it.3 salutaiy doctrines became known to mankind. Teriullian, in .one of his apologies, challenges the pagans to make the experiment, and consents that a Christian should be put to death, if lie did not ob- lige the oracles to confess themselves devils. Lactanihu informs us that every Christian could silence the oracles only by making the sign of the cross. When Julian, the apostate, went to Daphne, near Antioch, to consult Apollo, the god, notwithstanding all the sacrifices offered to him, continued mute, and only recovered his speech to answer those who inquired the cause of his silence, and ascribed it to the interment of certain Christian bodies in the neighborhood. 19. The ancients generally inculcated the belief in a future state of existence, believing that the virtuous would be happy in Elysium or Paradise, and that the wicked would be miserable in Tartarus, or Hell. Of hell, they drew the most gloomy and horrific picture, where men, who had been remarkable for theii crimes, while on earth, were punished with a variety of tortures, On the contrary, the prospect of Elysium was described as beau- tiful and inviting in the highest degree. In that delightful region, there was no inclement weather, but mild winds constantly blew from the ocean, to refresh the inhabitants, who lived without care or anxiety ; the sky was perpetually serene, and the fertile earth produced, twice a year, delicious fruit in abundance. 18. What fact deserves notice ? Of what does Lactantius inform us T What is re- lated of Julian?— 19. Of what did the ancients inculcate the belief? Of hell, whatpio- tare did thcv draw ? How was Elysium described ? MODERN HISTORY. Various periods have been adopted by different historians for the commencement of Modern History. Some have adopted the establishment of the Western Empire, under Charlemagne, A. D. 800 ; others again, have taken the downfall of the Western Empire of the Romans, A. D. 476, while the majority assume (he commencement of the Christian era. That portion of Modern History, styled the Middle Ages, will claim our first attention. THE MIDDLE AGES. 1. The period intervening between the subversion of tlie Western Empire of the Romans, to the downfall of the Eastern Empire, has been usually denominated the Middle Ages,* and by some writers, the Dark Ages. The great majority of writers represent Europe, during those ages, as sunk in ignorance and barbarism. How far they are correct in their estimate, we leave for the reader to judge, after giving a summary view of these ages separately. 2. The Sixth Age. During the early part of the preceding century, the Roman Empire of the West had been rapidly on the decline, until its final overthrow in the year 476. The inundation of the northern hordes of Goths, Vandals, and Huns, undei Alaric, Attila, and other leaders, had swept from the face of Italy almost every trace of civilization, and planted on its once fertile plains a wild and savage race of barbarians. Under the oppres- sive reign of Anastasius in the East, insurrections prevailed in the provinces, and sedition at Constantinople itself. The empire was assailed from without by the Persians, Bulgarians, Arabians, and the barbarous tribes from the north. Under his successors, Justin and Justinian, an uninterrupted series of war continued to rage in different parts of the empire. Italy and the West had been severed from it towards the close of the preceding century, After a long and sanguinary contest, during which Rome was re- peatedly taken and retaken by the contending powers, Italy was again reconquered by Belisarius and Narses, the generals of Justinian. 1 "What period has been denominated the Middle Ages? — 2. What is said of tho •sarly part of the preceding century? What had the inundation, &c, swept from the ace of Italy ? What prevailed in the East? Under Justin and Justinian, what con- tinued ? What is said of Italy ? ♦Some historians regard only the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries as the Middle Ages. 118 THE MIDDLE AGES. 3. In Gaul, the Burgundians, Franks, and Visigoths were al- most incessantly at war. In Africa and in Spain, the Goths and Vandals were constantly engaged in civil broils with each other, or at war with the Romans ; and England, during the whole of this century, struggled for its liberty with the Saxons, Jutes and Angles, who eventually established their empire in the island; called the Heptarchy. In this violent and general confusion that prevailed throughout Christendom, we may easily infer what must have been the decay of learning and science. The rude bar- barians who had subjugated nations more polished than them- selves, were indebted only to their courage for success, and valued no other arts than those of managing, with effect, the buckler ami the sword; literature and polite arts they esteemed below the notice of warriors who had subdued the kingdoms of the West. Whatever of learning survived the wreck of barbarian devasta- tion, found an asylum in the monastic institutions, and in those towns where a bishop held his residence, at which a school ol literature and theology was usually established. 4. If amidst the ignorance which almost universally prevailed, owing to the causes above mentioned, we find certain practices of a superstitious nature, it is not a matter of surprise. Some were persuaded that providence would not suffer perjury, false- hood, or any crime against justice, to go unpunished, and that he would never permit the innocent to perish, in whatever circum- stances they might be placed. This belief gave rise to all those various kinds of ordeals, by water, by tire, single combat, and the like. Among the writers of the sixth century, the following names are eminently distinguished : St. Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome; St Cresarius, archbishop of Aries ; Evagrius the Syrian, an ecclesiastical historian; St.Fulgentius, an African bishop; St. Gregory of Tours, who, in ten books wrote the his- tory of the Franks ; and also St. John Climacus. 5. The Seventh Age. At the commencement of this century, Phocas occupied the throne at Constantinople, a tyrant possessed of almost every vice that can inflict disgrace on humanity, with- out a redeeming virtue. While he amused himself with the op- pression of his subjects, the barbarians overrun the provinces of the empire, and filled them with carnage and desolation. Undci the reign of Heraclius, his successor, the state was delivered from external foes ; he wrested the provinces from the hands of the Persians, and spread the terror of his arms over the East. But his vast dominions had been depopulated by the continual wars which the empire had to sustain against the ravages of the barba rians, and by the absolute and arbitrary power of cruel and avaricious governors, while that portion of his subjects which stifl remained groaned under the weight of oppression. 6. Such was the state of things, when Mahometanism rose, and 3. What prevailed in Gaul ? In Africa and Spain? In England? In this violent confusion, what may we infer? What is said of the rude barbarians? Where did learning find an asylum? — 4. What is no matter of surprise? What were some per- suaded ? To what did this behef give rise? Who were distinguished as writers in this century ? — 5. Who now occupied the throne of Constantinople ? Under the reign of Heraclius, what was doue?— 6. Tn this state of things, what arose? THE MIDDLE AGES. 119 swept like, an impetuous torrent over the countries oi* the East, bearing down before it every trace of civilization, and every mo- nument of art. As the conquerors of the West had formerly esteemed no other arts than those of arms, so the new race of warriors in the East, equally estranged to the advantages which Science bestow, in the first transports of success destroyed every trace of literature, and every vestige of art. Such was the rapidity of their conquests, that before the end of this century they had established their dominion over Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, and Egypt. After the taking of Alexandria, the celebrated library of that city, containing from five to seven hundred thou- sand volumes, was consigned to the flames. 7. The flame of war still continued to rage on the plains of Italy, where the restless Lombards resisted every effort of the Eastern emperors to re-establish their authority. France was portioned out into provinces, nominally governed bv kings, who abandoned themselves to the pursuit of pleasure, and indulged in effeminacy and sloth, and left the administration of the govern- ment to a minister, styled the Mayor of the palace. Spain was in a state of anarchy and civil broils; no less than fourteen kings reigned in this country during this century, and of this number, one half were dethroned, or fell by the hand of some unprincipled usurper. The general state of liteiuture and polite arts continued to de- cline during this century. While religious fanaticism in the East had absorbed all the faculties of the human mind, in the Wept, continual and sanguinary wars had left but little leisure for tne cultivation of science. 8. The Eighth Age. The empire of the caliphs continued to spread, and by the beginning of this century it extended from Canton, in China, to the southern extremity of Spain. The em perors of Constantinople, during this period, without attending to the disorders of the state, labored industriously, either to en- force some erroneous doctrine regarding faith, or more laudably U> restore tranquillity to the church. Philippicus was scarcely seated on the throne, when he turned his whole attention toward the establishment of Monotheism. Leo, the Isaurian, and Con stantine, his successor, were equally industrious in prohibiting the veneration paid to sacred images in the churches, while the impress Irene zealously labored to re-establish it. The edicts of Leo against sacred images, caused not only commotion in the East, but. also produced insurrections in Italy, which the Lorn bards converted to their own advantage. 9. Under their king, Astolphus, they possessed themselves of jvhc exarchate of Ravena, which, until this period, had remained under the dominion of the Eastern emperors, and subsequently undertook the conquest of Rome. When the imperial city was reduced to the last extremity, Pope Zachry applied for aid to Pe- Whnt did the new race of warriors do ? After tne taking of Alexandria, what wbs done?— 7- yVhere did the flame of war still continue ? What is said of France ? Oi Spain? AVh.it is said of the state of literature ? — S. What is said of the empire of the caliphu? Of the emperors of Constantinople? Of Philippicus? Of Leo?- -9 To whom did Pope Zachry apply for aid '' 120 THE MIDDLE AGES. pin, the son of Charles Martel. That enterprising prince readily responded to the call, hastened to Italy, delivered Rome and its territories from the power of the Lombards, and with a noble generosity bestowed the territory thus acquired by his arms, on the sovereign pontiff, and raised the head of the Christian church to the title of temporal prince. 10. Literature, at the early part of this century, was still in the utmost depression ; but the 'flame which had been almost ex- tinguished, began once more to revive in the East. At the birth of Mahometanism, the Mussulmen declared war indiscriminately against all who refused to embrace their superstitions, and death was the usual portion of the vanquished. But after the first trans- ports of their enthusiasm had subsided, they mitigated the cruelty of this impolitic measure, and for fear of changing their conquered territories into one vast wilderness of desolation, they granted a kind of toleration of all religions, with the exception of gross idolatry. This indulgence caused many who had not lost all taste for the arts and sciences, to settle in the dominion of the l caliphs. During the reign of Ommiades, and his immediate sue- j cessor Almanzor, every encouragement was given to letters and learned men. Thus while the emperors of Constantinople were wholly em ployed in compelling their subjects to adopt their own respective ij innovations in religion, the Saracen caliphs were endeavoring to diffuse a taste for science throughout their dominions. 11. In France, the arts and sciences, which had taken refuge in the monasteries, were, during the early part of this century, banished from these sacred asylums. The continued hostilities in i which the country was involved, filled every place with tumult aiid devastation. Ecclesiastical property was distributed among j favourite chieftains, who, instead of providing for the subsistence of a competent number of clergy to serve the churches, filled the monasteries with their soldiery; while the monks and clerical i men, thus compelled to live with the military, gradually imbibed" their spirit. Ignorance and vice, as a natural consequence, be- came almost general, not only in France, but also throughout the continent of Europe, towards the middle of this century; Ireland and England were almost exclusively the seats of learning dur- ing this period. 12. Fortunately for the cause of literature, Charlemagne at this time was called to fill the throne of France. This illustrious prince formed the noble design of removing the barriers which prevented the diffusion of kuowledsre, and of furnishing his subjects with the means of instruction. He established schools in all the principal cities and towns, throughout his vast dominions, for the gratuitous education of children and the ignorant; he exhorted the bishops and abbots again to establish schools and universities in What did Pepin do?— 10. What is said of literature at the early part of this cen- tury ? What did the Mussulmen declare? After the first transports, what did they mitigate ? What did this indulgence cause ? — 11. In France, what is said of the arts, ar.c. ? What is said of the monks and clerical men ? Of ignorance and vice? Of Ire and, &c?— 12. Who was called to the throne of France ? "What is said of this prince? What did he establish' THE MIDDLE AGES. 121 their respective cathedrals and abbeys, for the laudable purpose of teaching the liberal arts and sciences; and invited into France ' the most celebrated scholars of the age ; such as Alcuin, of \ ork, < Clement, and others, who were employed with considerable suc- cess, in the literary regeneration of Europe. 13. The Ninth Age. The Saracen caliphs continued to pa* 1 tronise learning, particularly the science of astronomy. This pro- duced a great number of proficients in that beautiful and emi- 1 nently useful branch of knowledge. Many also applied them- . selves to the study of judicial astrology, while others distinguished > themselves in various other departments of literature. On the ; contrary, under the Greek emperors, the liberal arts were much '. neglected and despised. Leo, the Isaurian, had destroyed every thing favorable to literature, and learned men were consigned to oblivion and contempt. 14. However, towards the middle of this century we find a taste for literature manifest itself again among the Greeks. It 1 was owing to the efforts of Amon, the Saracen caliph to attract Leo, the philosopher, to his court, that the emperor Theophilus discovered the treasure he possessed in that great man. He en- couraged his talents, and intrusted him with the charge of the public instruction. Bardes, who governed under the emperor ' Michael, undertook, with the aid of Photius, to revive learning in 1 the Eastern Empire, by establishing professors of the various sci- ences and polite arts, and attaching to their functions honorary privileges and pecuniary compensations. 15. In the West, sacred and profane learning continued to flourish in the numerous schools established by Charlemagne, ( until the dreadful disorders of succeeding reigns partially ban- >: ished the light of science from the kingdom. After the death of that illustrious monarch, his vast dominions were inherited by Louis the Mild, who divided them between his three sons, who 1 seem to have inherited none of the noble qualities of their father. ' They were continually engaged in hostilities with each other, while their kingdoms were rent with civil discords, and their provinces were inundated on every side, by the irruption of the Danes, Normans and Saracens. 16. Amidst the evils that ensued, we are not surprised that ig- I norance again prevailed, particularly among the nobles, who, fol- lowing exclusively the profession of arms, had but little time to attend to literary pursuits, and even boasted of their want of knowledge, Hence we find that many of the deeds and legal documents of this period terminated in the following words: " And the aforesaid lord has declared that he did not know how to sign his name, owing to his being a nobleman." But while literature was neglected on the part of the nobility, the mcst strenuous efforts were made to keep alive the sacred name of sci- What is said of Alcnin. &c. ?— 13. What is said of the caliphs ? Of the liberal art? ander the Creek: emperors 7 — 14. Towards the middle of this century, what do we likd? What did Bardes undertake ?— 15. In the West, what is said of learning? In «vhat were they continually engaged ? — IG. Amidst the evils that ensued, what is said! Ho>» were many of the documents of this period written ? By whom were the mas' strenuoua efforts made? II 9 122 THE MIDDLE AGES. enee, and to diffuse instruction among the people, by the clergy and prelates of the church. By a reference to the decrees of the councils, during this period, it will be seen that the ecclesiastics were unremitting in their zeal for the extension of knowledge. In the council of Toul, held in 859, princes and bishops are earnestly recommended to establish public schools, for the pur- pose of teaching sacred science and polite literature. In all the monasteries and episcopal houses, schools were established, in which n, relish for study and literary acquirements was carefully preserved. Besides the study of the Sacred Scriptures, the students in these institutions were taught what was termed the seven liberal arts ; namely, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. 17. In England, the incursions of the Danes, and the ravage9 of civil war, had erased almost every monument of art, and ban- ished from the land every trace of learning ; the monasteries were burned, the monks murdered or dispersed, the libraries and schools destroyed ; ignorance and vice necessarily ensued. Hap- py for the island, at this moment of its greatest depression, Alfred the Great was called to the throne. Having delivered his country from the dominion of the Danes, and driven the bar- barous invaders from his shores, he turned his whole attention to- wards repairing the evils which their ravages had caused. 18. To effect this object, he established throughout his domi- nions scJiools,in which were taught all the useful branches: repaired the University of Oxford, invited from foreign countries, men eminent for their learning, encouraged architecture, and laid the foundation of the British navy, which for so many centuries after maintained the empire of the sea. To this illustrious prince, Eng- land is indebted for many of the valuable laws which, at present, form the fairest feature in her constitution. Although this age was not productive of many eminent scholars, still it has left behind it a few names that would do honor to literature even at this day. Lupus, Abbot of Ferrieres, a writer of this century, is admitted by all impartial critics to have been a man of profound erudition; and few ages can boast of a more distinguished scholar than Alfred the Great, of England. 19. The Tenth Age. The Greek empire, during this age, was distracted by a series of revolts and unnatural conspiracies. The emperor, Romanus, was dethroned by his son Constantine ; Con- stantine, in his turn, was deprived of his crown and life, by his own ungrateful son, who, at the instigation of his wife, adminis- tered a cup of poison to his royal father. The parricide did not long enjoy the fruits of his impiety. The army declared their general, Nicephorus, emperor, who, after a short reign, was car- ried off by the hand of conspiracy, in order to make room for Zi- misces. This last emperor fell a victim to the treachery of his In the council of Toul, what was recommended ? In ihe monasteries, what were eotablished ? What were the Ftr.dents taught ?- 17. in Englai d. what had the incur- sions of the Dan ps erased ? Who was call'e'.' to 'he throne? To what did he turn hia attention 7 — 13. To effect this- o\ ject, \v!i it did he do ? Who was a wr.'ter of this a&e ? —19. What is said of the Crock empire rlu.-ing tins ng-e 7 Of Romanics? •THE MIDDLE AoES. 123 thief minister, Basil, who, dreading the punishment which his crimes had merited, contrived the death of his sovereign. 20. During these revolutions of th. state, literature was not entirely neglected ; some of the emperors gave considerable en- couragement to science, and invited from other countries men of talents to teach at Constantinople. We do not, however, find that the Greek empire, during the tenth century, produced any dis- tinguished writers. Learning was still patronised by the Saracen caliphs, and by the sultans, who had usurped a great part of then authority. Many of their learned men were employed in trans- lating into the Arabic tongue the writings of the ancient philoso- phers ; while others applied themselves with much diligence to the study of the translations, already set forth in the preceding age. 21. Italy, during this century, was greatly distracted by civil dissensions, and finally re-united to the Germanic empire by Otho I. France was exposed to the incursions of the Normans, in whose favor Charles the Simple ceded a part of Neustria,which from them was called Normandy. Tumult and disorder continued to convulse the state, until Hugh Capet was raised to the throne. The feudal system, during this period, had risen to its greatest power. During the preceding century, the vassals of the crown had been gradually increasing in power, so that at the present period, we find them possessed of almost unlimited authority. Each nobleman had his fortress and his castle, situated on some commanding eminence, which overlooked the surrounding country. Here, secure from violence, he oppressed the people, laid all tra- vellers and merchants under contributions, and imposed upon them arbitrary tolls by way of tribute, and not unfrequently set at defi- ance the authority of his sovereign. 22. In Germany, the same state of things prevailed ; the great, continually in arms against each other, or at war with the sove- reign. Nor was England more favored than the nations on the continent; it was either harassed by new incursions of the Danes, or implicated in domestic feuds. The monastries during these evil times were almost the only asylums of learning. Here in the silence of the cloister, aloof from the turmoil of the camp, the peaceful monks continued to cultivate a taste for science and classical lite- rature. This century produced several men eminent for their talents ; among these St. Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, and St. Dunstan, in England, were particularly distinguished. 23. The Eleventh Age. In the Eastern empire, during the greater part of this century, treachery, poisou, and parricide, were the usual meaus employed in the advancement or deposition of an emperor. Hence we may easily form an idea of the disor- ders of the government, and the deplorable condition of the people, who were, moreover, daily exposed to the incursions of 28. During these revolutions, what was the state of literature? By whom was learning still patronised? In what were their learned men employed? — 21. What is eaidofltily? Ot'France? Of the feudal system ? What had each nobleman ? What did he do?— 22. In Germany what prevailed? What is said of England '? Of the mon- asteries during these times? What did this century produce? — 23. What is said of the Eastern empire during this centurj ? 124 THE MIDDLE AGES, the Bulgarians, Saracens, and Turks. The arts an«>l sciences were totally neglected until towards the middle of the century when the study of letters began again to revive. Grammar and philosophy were cultivated with much care, although the philoso- phy consisted chiefly in forming syllogisms and deducing sophis- tical conclusions; an exercise calculated rather to contract than improve the mental faculties. 24. Literature continued to meet with patronage among the Saracens, who, after subjecting Persia, Syria and Palestine, granted protection to learned men, and founded several acade- mies. The extraordinary power exercised by the sovereign pontiff, even over temporal princes, during this and several succeeding centuries, is no doubt a matter of surprise to the reader at the present day; of this subject I will speak; more at large under the head of Italy ; suffice it to say at present, that this power, invested in the pope, although it may appear derogatory^ to the rights of princes, had, nevertheless, a salutary influence in correcting the abuses of the times, and of _ restraining the lawless passions of sovereigns. Fewer acts of violence were committed, the churches and monasteries were more respected, order and discipline better observed ; the sciences were cultivated in peace ; public acade« mies were opened for all who wished to improve ; the schools were crowded with students, full of noble emulation which dif- fused itself through all ranks and conditions of life. 25. During the eleventh century, the method of Alcuin was adopted in the schools under the name of Triyium and Quad' rivium. The Trivium included grammar, logic and dialectics, while arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music, constituted the Quadriviurn. But as the number of scholars multiplied, the works of Aristotle and Avicennes, with the categories attributed to St. Augustin, were very generally studied in the West. The most remarkable event towards the close of this century was the commencement of the Crusades or sacred wars undertaken for the recovery of Palestine from the dominion of the Turks, A. D. 1096. This century, with the latter part of the preceding, was distinguished for several important and useful inventions. (See chronological table.) 26. The Twelfth Age. At the commencement of this cen- tury, anarchy and confusion reigned in the East. The new states which the Christians had established in Palestine were subjects of continual war; the sultans were constantly in the field, to arrest the progress of the Crusaders. The emperors of Constantinople, unable to repel the invasion of the Saracens, and jealous of the success of the Crusaders, tampered with both, without being able to take advantage either of their victories or defeats. What is said of the arts, &c. ? Of grammar? — 24. Where did literature still meet with patronage ? What will no douht be a subject of surprise? What is observed rw this power ? what is said of the sciences? Of public academies? — 25. During (he eleventh century, what merhod was adopted in the scnools? What did the Triv'MTfk include? What constituted ihe Quadrivivm? As the number of scholars multiplied, what was studied in the West? What was the most rcmakable event of this cen- tury ?— _G. At the commencement < f this century, what reigned in the East? What is said of the sultans? Of the emperors of Constantinople? THE MIDDLE AGES. 125 The state of literature, notwithstanding the unfavorable aspect of things, was gradually improving. In the midst of the confn- j sion ot war, the caliphs and sultans, being generally men of . learning, paid much attention to the advancement of science. . The schools and academies established throughout the Mussul- i man empire were highly flourishing. 27. The Greeks were somewhat improved from their frequent intercourse with the Saracens. The emulation which had been excited in the AV es ^ during the preceding century, the patronage of princes, combined with the propagation of the religious orders of Citeaux, Cluni, and the Carthusians, greatly multiplied the number of schools and academies ; every abbey and almost every monastery was an institution for the diffusion of literary know- ledge. The art of writing was cultivated with greater applica- tion and success during this than at any former period ; and the manuscripts which have descended to the present time are stand - ing monuments of the perfection to which that art was carried during the twelfth and following centuries. The University of Padua, and that of Paris, was founded about the year 1180. The writers of this age most deserving of notice are St. Bernard, Peter, abbot of Cluni, Peter of Blois, and Pope Innocent HI. 28. The Thirteenth Age. The East, at the beginning ot this century, was occupied by the Moguls, Saracens, and Turks, among whom an almost uninterrupted series of wars continued to rage. Gengis-khan and his successors reduced a consider- able portion of the Saracen and Turkish empires; while the princes of the West took Constantinople and established there a Latin emperor, whose successors swayed the Greek sceptre, until the middle of this age. The Greek emperors, after their restora- tion, were continually harassed by the Turks, who finally reduced a considerable portion of the Grecian provinces. 29. In the West, Germany was convulsed by the factions of competitors for the empire. Otho was at length acknowledged by the people, and crowned by Pope Innocent III., after a solemn promise to protect the patrimony of the pontiff'. The emperor, however, on account of some disagreement with the Romans, proceeded to avenge himself by invading and ravaging the terri tories of the church. Upon this he was deposed by a council assembled by the pope, while the princes of Germany elected Frederick II. in his place. Otho was not disposed to yield with- out a contest, and thus involved the empire in all the horrors of civil war. Frederick was finally successful ; the death of his rival left him in quiet possession of the throne. 30. France was either involved in hostilities with England, or engaged in a calamitous warfare with the Albigenses, who had desolated her southern provinces. _ Consequently the West was Still the theatre of discord and civil dissension. Science was Of the state of literature? Of schools, &c.?— 27. What is said of the Greeks? What did the emulation. &c., do? What is said of the art of writing? What univer- sities were founded ? W lio were writers of this ape ? — ' b. What is said of the Ea6t? What did the princes of the West do ?— 29. In the West, what was Germany ? What did the emperor do ? What was clone by the council? AVhat was the result of the civil war? — 30. What is said o: France ? IV 126 THE MIDDLE AGES. still patiomsecl by the. Moguls, and iearn'mg continued to flourish throughout their vast empire ; while on the other hand the co«« quests of the Turks had greatly tended to retard it within the limits of their jurisdiction. Some few men of learning flourished among the Greeks, but most of their efforts were made in vain attempts to justify their schism, and to refute the writings of the Latin theologians. In the West, science, which had been hitherto chiefly confined to the abbeys and monasteries, now burst forth from its confinement, and enlightened by its* rays the whole face of Europe. The great Universities of Naples, Vienna, Sala- manca, Cambridge, and Lisbon, institutions of which Europe is proud at the present day, were founded during this century. Among the scholars of this age, the following were the most dis tinguished : Roger Bacon, an eminent English philosopher; Mat- thew, of Paris, an accurate English historian, also distinguished as an orator and a poet; the names of Albertus Magnus, St. Bonaventure, and St. Thomas, of Aquin, stand pre-eminent as ecclesiastical writers. 31. The Fourteenth Age. The fourteenth century beheld the rise and progress of the savage and warlike nation of Otto- mans, who were destined, at a future period, to destroy the las! vestige of Roman power. < Hitherto the conquest of the Turks had been confined to Asia, but under their celebrated chief, Orcari, they crossed the straits of Constantinople, and carried their victorious arms into the plains of Europe; they took several important towns, and finally made the city of Adrianople the seat of their empire. The Greek emperors, alarmed at the pro- gress of the Turks, and feeling sensibly the want of support from the West, used the most strenuous efforts to effect the re-union of the Greek with the Latin church; but th^. long-settled preju- dice of their subjects placed an insuperable barrier to all their endeavors. 32. Notwithstanding the distracted state of Christendom during the greater part of this century, occasioned by wars between England and France, Germany and Italy, and the great schism of the West, science continued to advance and to gain a liberal support in every part of Europe. Such is a concise view of the condition of society, and the state of literature during that period denominated the Middle Ages. 33. A few of the most remarkable institutions which charac- terize the history of Europe and the state of society during the Middle Ages, were those of the Feudal System and Chivalry, the Crusades and Monastic Establishments. With respect to the three first, we will speak under their proper heads. The last, however may deserve a passing notice. Whatever may be our individual opinion with regard to the Monastic Institutions at the present day, all impartial historians admit that they were peculiarly beneficial to society during the Middle Ages. What is said of science in the West? What universities were founded? Who ■were the most distinguished scholars of this age ? — 31. What did this century behold 'I What is said of the conquests of the Turks ? Of the Greek emperors ?— 32 What is said of literature during this century ? — 33. What are some of the most remarkable institutions, &c. ? Which deserve a passing notice ? What arc they admitted ? . SAK.ACE3 EMPIRE. 127 'Si. In these institutions, particularly the larger monasteries and abbeys, schools of instruction were established, in which a taste for the classics and the more useful branches of study were care- fully preserved. In all, the monks had their various duties assigned them. While numbers were employed in transcribing ; books for the use of the church and schools, others were engaged in teaching in the academies attached to these institutions, while i others again were occupied in manual labor, in attending to the ■ duties of the farm, the garden, and the like, having at the same . time certain hours set apart for devotional exercises. 35. Previous to the discovery of the art of printing, books were , extremely scarce, and only procured at an immense price; this circumstance tended materially to retard the progress of science. The labor of transcribing a work was great, and the process i tedious, hence the multiplication of Dooks was extremely slow. The monasteries, however, supplied in some measure this defi- ciency, always employing a number of their inmates in the laud- able work of transcribing books. They not only transcribed such books as were immediately used in the church and schools, but also carefully transcribed and preserved the writings of ancient authors; hence whatever we have of ancient literature, has been chielly transmitted to us through the medium of the monasteries. 36. They served, therefore, during the Middle JZges, a twofold purpose, as literary institutions, where the sons of the great and the children of the poor shared alike the benefits of education ; and as a source from which books of instruction were furnished, supplying, in a limited manner, the place of printing establish- ments of more modern times. Like other institutions, they may have had their faults, butthey were rather the faults of individuals, or the age, than of the in- stitutions themselves. While some, under the garb of religion, may have entered them as a place for the enjoyment of ease and repose, they afforded an asylum for the poor and afflicted of every class. SARACEN EMPIRE. The Rise of Mahomet anism, Saracen Conquests, fyc. 1. The Saracens were a people who inhabited the north-westem part of Arabia ; like the other tribes of the country, they traced their descent from Ishmael, and professed a mixed religion, made up of Judaism and idolatry. They had but little intercourse with the neighboring nations, except when they occasionally sold 34. In these institutions, what were established? What were the duties of the monks? — .35. Previous to the discovery of printing what were source? What did the monasteries supply? What books did they transcribe ?— 36. W.'.at did they serve! Like other institutions, what had they? I What were the Saracens ? What had they ? 128 SARACEN EMPIltK, their services, as mercenaries, to those who paid them the most liberal reward, and were usually noted for their courage and bravery. Many of the Christian sects, in order to avoid perse- cution, had taken refuge in Arabia, and towards the end of the sixth century, Christianity prevailed in some parts of the country, 2. Such was the state of Arabia when Mahomet or Mohammed, the famous impostor, appeared. He was a native of Mecca, and was born about the year 570. At the age of forty, he assumed the quality of a prophet, and pretended that he had received a divine commission to restore the Jewish and Christian religions, which he maintained had greatly fallen from their primitive purity. Upon this foundation he established his system of reli- gion, which consisted of a compound of Judaism, Christianity, and of his own fanciful notions. Being subject to fits of epilepsy, he attributed them to the visits of the Archangel Gabriel, by whom he pretended he was taught, but whose presence he was unable to bear without trances and convulsions. 3. As Mahomet was a man of no education, even unable to i read or write, the Koran, or Alcoran, the book which contains the principles of his doctrine, was compiled with the assistance i of a Jewish Rabbin, and a Nestorlan monk. The Koran consists i chiefly of some beautiful sentences taken from Holy Writ, with i a strange medley of the most absurd ideas, without connection or ■ design, though expressed in a lofty and animated style. The two » leading principles of his religion were, that " There is but one i God, and Mahomet is his prophet." He taught that others, at I various times, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, had I been divinely commissioned to teach mankind, but that he him- - self was the last and the greatest of the prophets. 4. He propagated his religion by the sword, and stimulated the i courage of his followers by the promise of a martyr's crown in a i paradise of delights, to every one who should fall in battle. It I was inculcated as a fundamental doctrine, that " to fight for the : faith was an act of obedience to God." Hence the Mahometans i styled their fierce and bloody ravages Sacred Wars. They termed I their religion Islam or Islamism, and called themselves Mussul- • mans or Moslems, that is, true believers. Mahomet, at the commencement of his efforts, had but little e success in making proselytes. His first converts were his wife Kadija, his slave Zeid, his father-in-law Abubeker, and his cousin, the famous Ali. These, with ten others, were all whom he hail i persuaded to acknowledge the truth of his mission, at the expira- tion of three years. 5. A popular tumult being raised against him at Mecca, he was obliged to retire in order to save his life ; he fled, in disguise, to Medina. This event, called the Hegira, or the Flight, forms the What is said of the Christian sects? — 2. When and where was Mahomet born ! What did ho pretend? Bei'njr subject to fits, to what did he attribute them' — 3. Ifow was the Koran compiled ? Of what does the Koran chiefly consist ? What were the two leading principles of his religion? What did he teach? — 4. How did he propa- gate his religion? What was inculcated as a fundamental principle ? What were ais ravages called 7 What did they term themselves ? Who were his'first converts! 5. What obliged him to retire ? 'What is this event called ? SARACEN EMPIRE. 129 i Mahometan era, corresponding to A. D. G22. He was received at Medina in triumph, and there .assumed the sacerdotal and . regal office. Shortly after this, he placed himself at the head of an army of his followers, and commenced to propagate his reli- gion, according to his maxim, by the sword. He first attacked . the caravans which passed through Arabia, for the purpose of j trade, and thus enriched his soldiers with the booty. Encouraged by this success, he took the city of Mecca, which he entered in i triumph, about the year 629. From this period until his death, , he was constantly in the held ; he fought in person nine battles, I subdued all Arabia, extended his conquest to Syria, and after a career of victory, died at Medina, at the age of sixty-three, ten years after his flight from Mecca to that city. 6. One of the principal causes of the success which attended the arms of Mahomet, was the inflexible severity he exercised to- wards the vanquished. It was his usual practice to propose to those whom he threatened with war, three conditions, namely, the adoption of his religious system^ the payment of a tribute, or an appeal to the sword. If they chose the latter, no quarter was granted to them; only the women, the children, and aged persons were spared, and reduced to slavery. Another cause of his suc- cess was the absolute assurance of future bliss which he held out to his followers, whereby they were rendered equally happy, either to conquer or to die in the field of battle, for the propaga- tion of their religion. 7. Mahomet was succeeded by his father-in-law, Abubeker, a man of great repute among the Arabs; he is styled the first caliph, a title which signifies in Arabic, successor or vicar. He, pursuing a career of conquest similar to that of his predecessor, invaded Syria, and took the cities of Bostra, Palmyra, and Da mascus; the latter city was taken after a siege of six months, and most of its inhabitants inhumanly put to the sword by order of Kaled, who was at that time the commander of the Saracen forces. Abubeker died in the third year of his reign, and the sixty-third of his age, having previously named Omar his suc- cessor. 8. Omar, aided by the celebrated general, Obediah, in the course of one campaign subdued Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, and Chaldea; and in a second, reduced the whole of Persia. His army, under Amrou, took the city of Alexandria and sub- dued Egypt. Amrou being requested to spare the Alexandrian library, which at that time contained upwards of five hundred thousand volumes, wrote to the caliph for directions respecting he books. Omar answered, that if they agreed with the Koran they were useless, and if they differed from it they were danger- ous ; in either case, they were to be destroyed. The books were How was he received at Medina? Shortly after this, what did lie do? How m»^/ battles did he fijht? Where and when did he die ? — 6. What is one of the causes of his success? What were the three conditions he proposed to those whom he threat- ened with war? What was another cause of his success? — 7. By whom was Ma hornet succeeded ? What did he invade? — S. Whai did Omar subdue' W T hat city was taken? What number of volumes was in the Alexandrian library? What cvaa Omar's answers respecting it? What was done with the books ? 130 SARACEN EMPIRE. accordingly distributed throughout the city, and served, it is said, to warm the public baths For six months. 9. Omar, during a reign of ten years, reduced upwards of thirty thousand cities and villages to his dominion, and is said to have demolished four thousand Christian churches, and to have erected fourteen hundred mosques for the Mahometan worship lie was finally assassinated at Medina, in 644, by a Persian slave, whose complaints against his master he had refused to hear. Othman was immediately chosen his successor, who added Bac- triana and a part of Tartarv to the dominion of the caliphs. On his death, Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was chosen to sue ceed him. Ali is regarded as one of the bravest and most virtuou of the caliphs; his reign was illustrious, although it lasted onl five years. In the space of less than half a century, the Sarace dominions were more extensive than what remained of the Ro- man empire ; and in one hundred years from the flight of Maho met from Mecca to Medina, the empire of his successors extended from India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, north of Africa, and Spain. 10. During the reign of Ali, a schism took place among the followers of Mahomet, which continues to divide them to the pre- sent time. Abubeker, Omar, and Othman are regarded ;.3 usurpers by the partisans of Ali, and are branded by the name of Shyites, or schismatics. On the other hand, these three caliphs are held in the greatest veneration by the opponents of Ali, who style themselves Sonnites, because they follow the traditions of their Mahometan ancestors, while the Shyites acknowledge the Koran only. The Persians are of the sect of Ali ; the Turks are the Sonnites and Ottomans, or the disciples of Othman. Between the two parties, a mutual hatred and animosity still exists. 11. Ali removed the seat of the Mussulman empire from Mecca to Cufa, on the Euphrates, and during the year 768 it was re- moved by Almanzor to Bagdad, which became the most illus trious caliphate in the history of the Saracens. Next to Bagdad, the other most distinguished caliphate was that of Cordova, in Spain. Almanzor, who built the city of Bagdad, and transferred to it the seat of the Saracen empire, was a liberal patron of learn ing and science, and the first caliph who introduced the cultiva- tion of them among the Saracens. The reign of Haroun al Raschid, the twenty-fifth caliph, who was contemporary with Charlemagne, was the most illustrious in the whole dynasty, and is regarded as the Augustan age of Arabic literature. This prince distinguished himself by his valor and generosity, also by ha equitable government and his patronage of learned men. Schooi3 at tliis period were established in the principal towns. The sciences chiefly cultivated were medicine, geometry, and astro* nomy ; also poetry and works of fiction commanded some attention. 9. During his reign, how many cities did he reduce? How many churches did he demolish ? What was his end? Who succeeded him? In less than half a cen- tury, what is said of the Saracen dominions?— 10. During the reign of Ali, what took place ? Who are regarded as usurpers ? Of what sect are the Persians ? The Turks ?— 11. AVhat did Ali do ? What is said of Almanzor ? Of the reign of Raschid 1 Of schools at this period ? v FEUDAL SYSTEM. 131 12. From the time of the removal of the seat of government to Bagdad, the importance of Arabia began to decline. Many chiefs of the interior provinces asserted their independence, and only regarded the caliph as the head of their religion. As the con- quests of the Saracens extended, their states became disunited. Spain, Egypt, Morocco, and India had at an early period their separate sovereigns, who continued to regard the caliphs of Bag- dad as the successors of the prophet, although they acknowledged in them no temporal jurisdiction. Thirty-seven caliphs of the house of Abbas reigned in succession. For four hundred and ninety years, Bagdad continued to be the seat of the Saracer empire, during which time it sustained several obstinate sieges, and was the seat of various revolutions. 13. In the six hundred and fifty-sixth year of the Hegira, A. D. 1258, Bagdad was taken by Hulaku, the grandson of the cele- brated Genghis Khan. Al Mostasem, the last of the caliphs, was put to death, the caliphate abolished, and the Saracen empire terminated. The manner in which Al Mostasem was put to death was somewhat singular. He had been noted for his pride and ostentation ; when he appeared in public he usually wore a veil to conceal his face from the people, whom he considered as unworthy to look upon him. After the taking of the city, Hula- ku, with the design of punishing his pride, ordered the wretched caliph to be confined in a leather bag and to be dragged through the streets till he expired. At the present time, the Saracens, once so^ powerful, possess little other territory than the deserts of Arabia, and are usually known by the name of Arabs FEUDAL SYSTEM. 1. The Feudal System had its origin among the Goths, Van dais, Lombards, and other barbarous nations that overrun the continent of Europe on the decline of the Roman empire. It was adopted in France during the reign of Charlemagne, and is gen- erally supposed to have been introduced into England by Wil- liam the Conqueror. 2. When the northern barbarians had overrun the Roman em- pire, the conquered provinces were divided by lot among the dif- ferent chieftains, without any other obligation existing between them than that of uniting their forces in case of war for their mutual defence. But the fundamental principles of the Feudal System were established in the following order: The king or chief who led his respective tribes to conquest, retained for him- Yi. What is said of many of the interior provinces? What had Spain, &c, at an early period? How long was Bagdad the capital? — 13. When and by whom was Bagdad taker? Relate the mannefin which Al Mostasem was put to death. At present, what is said of the Saracens? 1 Where had the Feudal System its origin? When was it adopted in France,' When in England? — 2 in what order were the principles established ? 132 THE CRUSADES. self by far the largest share of the conquered territory, dividing the remaining portion of the land among his followers according to their rank, who bound themselves to render him merely mili- tary services. The example of the king was imitated by his nobles, who, under similar conditions, granted portions of their estates to their dependents. The granter was called lord, aud those to whom the grant was made were styled feudatories or vassals. 3. The feudal government, though well calculated for defence. was nevertheless very defective in its provisions for the internal order of society. The great barons or lords possessed extensive tracts of country, erected on them fortified castles in places diffi- cult of access, oppressed the people, slighted the civil authorities, and frequently set their sovereigns at defiance. 4. A kingdom resembled a number of confederate states under one common head; the barons or lords acknowledging a species of allegiance to their sovereign, yet when obedience was retused, it could only be enforced by an appeal to arms. But the great mass of the people who cultivated the land were called serfs or villains, and lived in the most servile condition. They were not f permitted to bear arms, nor suffered to leave the estates of their ords. As each of the feudal lords was independent within the limits of his own immediate possessions, and as the thread of f unity existing between them was at all times feeble, it was natu ral to suppose that frequent disputes and sanguinary contests were the consequence. Such in reality was the case; hence we find that Europe, during the existence of the Feudal System, exhibited an almost uninterrupted scene of anarchy, turbulence, and destructive warfare. 5. Some of the causes assigned for the gradual decline of the Feudal System were the Crusades, the extension of commerce the increase and distribution of wealth and knowledge, and lastly, the change of warfare which followed the invention of gunpowder. It still exists in a partial degree in some parts of Europe, parti- cularly in Russia, Poland, and in some portions of Germany. THE CRUSADES. 1. The Crusades were military expeditions undertaken by the Christians of Europe for the purpose of delivering the Holy Land, and particularly the sepulchre of our Saviour, from the oppressive dominion of the Turks. As early as the year 637, Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Saracens, who, for political reasons, permit- W^iat was the grantor called? And those to whom the grant was made?— 3. What is paid of the feudal government? Of the great barons? — t. What did a kingdom re- semble? What is said of the people? As each lord was independent, &c, what was natural to suppose? — 5. What are some of the causes assigned for its decline? \Vl,i iocs it exist in a partial degree ? 1 What were the Crusades? In the vear C37, what took place » THE CRUSADES. 133 ted the Christians to visit the city. In 1065 the Seljukian Turks, la wild and ferocious tribe of Tartars, obtained posession of tho aoly city; from this period the Christian inhabitants were exposed ;o every species of outrage and insult. The Christians of Europe, 'ictuated by motives of religion, were often induced to visit those Slaces hallowed by the footsteps and sanctified by the sufferings of he Saviour of man. But if, after travelling thousands of miles, 'imidst dangers and hardships, they reached Palestine, they were only allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem on the payment of a pertain sum of money, and if they succeeded in gaining admittance, .hey were exposed, like other Christian inhabitants, to all the •igors of Mahometan cruelty ; it is even stated by creditable his- torians, that some were loaded with chaius and compelled to draw i cart or plough, while others were condemned to an ignominious leath. 1 2. Such was the condition of Palestine, when Peter, a native : )f Amiens, in France, surnamed the Hermit, on account of his retired life, undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Moved at the Wlit of the cruel oppression which weighed upon the Christians Sf Asia, he prevailed upon Simon, the venerable patriarch of Jerusalem, to write to the pope and to the princes of Europe, for :he purpose of soliciting their aid in arresting the cruelty of the [Turks exeicised against their brethren in the East, offering him- self to be the bearer of these letters. The patriarch having as sented to this measure, Peter immediately returned to Europe ind presented himself before Pope Urban II. He was kindly received by the pontiff, who readily entered into his views, and commissioned him to go forth and preach in favor of the suffer- ing Christians in Palestine, and the deliverance of Jerusalem from the hands of the Infidels. ; 3. Peter, who was eminently qualified for this important office, [travelled through Italy, France, and other countries, and by his [pathetic and glowing eloquence, enkindled in the breasts of his inearers the same zeal that animated his own. Finally, the sub- ject was brought before a council held at Placeniia, and after- wards before the council at Clermont, in France, towards the close of the year 1095. After Peter had spoken on the subject t>t the holy war with his usual ardor, the pope himself addressed the assembled bishops and princes in an eloquent and animated discourse, which he concluded in the following words: " Go now and take the sword of the Maccabees, protect the people of God and defend your persecuted brethren against the implacable ene- mies of the Christian name. Mussulman impiety has overspread ithe fairest regions of Asia; Ephesus, Nice, and Antioch have be- come Mahometan cities; the barbarous hordes of the Turks have 'planted their colors on the very shores of the Hellespont, hence they threaten war to all the states of Christendom. Unless you _ And in 10C>? From this period, wbat is said? What did the Christians of Europe do? After travelling thousands of miles, what is said of them 7 What is stated? — 2. Who now undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem? I\ r oved at the sight of the oppres- sion, what did Peter do? How was he received by the pontiff? What commission did tie receive?— 3. What is said of Peter ? Where was the subject firaliy brought. Alter Petei had spoken, who addressed the assembly ? How did he cojicl'^de? 12 f 134 THE CRUSADES. oppose a mighty barrier to their triumphant course, how can Europe be saved from invasion?" 4. At the coDclusion of this discourse the -whole assembly exclaimed, "It is the will of God," and hastened to enroll their names for the sacred expedition. As a mark of their engagement, it was proposed that a cross of red material should be worn on the right shoulder, and from this circumstance the name of the Crusade is derived. Such were the views entertained by the first crusaders, and such were the circumstances that called the Crusades into being. 5. The First Crusade. The enthusiasm which had manifested itself at the council at Clermont, was soon diffused throughout every part of Christendom ; thousands from every part of Europe hastened to enlist under the banner of the cross. Domestic quar- rels and private animosities were buried in oblivion ; the sovereign and the noble, the prince and the peasant, animated alike with a kindred feeling, began to prepare for their departure to the East. 6. Among the princes who .engaged in the first Crusade, the following were the most conspicuous: Raymond, count of Tou- louse ; Robert, Duke of Normandy, brother to the king of Eng. land ; Hugh the Great, count of Yermandois, and brother to the king of France ; Robert, earl of Flanders ; Godfrey of Buillon, duke of Lorraine, and various persons of distinguished rank. Among these, Godfrey of Buiilon, equally eminent for his amiable virtues and extraordinary valor, held the most prominent place, although it does not appear that he was invested with the chief command. 7. Early in the spring of 1096, the army of the Crusaders, amounting, according to some authors, to more than seven hun- dred thousand persons, commenced their march towards the East, in two different directions. The first division of this vast multi- tude, under the command of Peter the Hermit, being destitute of that subordination and discipline so requisite in large armies, met, in general, with a disastrous fate. Many of them were slain on their march through Hungary and Bulgaria, by the inhabitants, whose attacks they had provoked by the outrages they committed ; those who succeeded in reaching Asia, were met by sultan Solyman, on the plains of Nice, and almost entirely annihilated before they came in sight of Jerusalem. 8. 'ihe second division under the command of able and experi- enced officers, such as Godfrey and Baldwin, his brother, acted with more prudence and arrived safe at Constantinople. The Greek emperor Alexis, alarmed at the multitude of warriors that surrounded his capital, lost no time in facilitating their departure. He treated the leaders of the Crusaders with every courtesy, and concluded a treaty with them, by which they agreed to conquer in 4. At the conclusion of the discourse -what was said ? From what is the word Cru- sade derived ? — 5. What is said of the enthusiasm of the Council of Clermont ? Ot do- mestic quarrels? Of the sovereigns? G. in the first Crusade, who wc:e the most conspicuous princes ? Who held tne most prominent place ?— 7. What was done early in the spring of 1G90 ? What is said of the first (iivision ? Where were many of them slain ? 8. What is said of the second division ? Of the Greek emperor ? How did he treat the leaders ? THE CRUSADES. 135 his name, and restore those cities which had formerly belonged to his empire, on condition that he should aid them in the conquest of the Holy Land ; he then gave orders that his vessels should be prepared without delay, to convey them across the Bosphorus to the Asiatic coast. 9. The Christian army, which amounted to about six hundred thousand infantry, and one hundred thousand cavalry, com- menced its march towards Nice, a city in Bithynia, to which they laid siege. Nice, reduced to the last extremiry, was on the point of yielding to the Crusaders, when i\m Greek emperor, by private embassies, prevailed on the inhabitants to surrender to him, rather than to the Latins. This duplicity on the part of Alexis highlv displeased the Crusaders, and from the little inclination manifested by the Greek monarch towards fulfilling his engage- ments, the Latin lords thought themselves no longer bound by the treat}'. After the reduction of Nice, they proceeded eastward, conquered Edessa, defeated an army of six hundred thousand Saracens, near Durylseum, in Phrygia, took Antioch, where they were reduced to the utmost distress by famine, and finally ad- vanced to Jerusalem, which they took after a siege of forty days. 10. Dreadful was the scene that followed the first transports of victory. The Crusaders, exasperated by their long suffering, and by the obstinate resistance of the Saracens, and being proba- bly.afraid of new dangers, put to the sword nearly all the garri- son and inhabitants of Jerusalem. The streets, the mosques and citadel, were all filled with blood. After this, the attention of the princes was directed towards the defence of the recently con- quered city. The heroic and generous Godfrey, duke of Lorraine, who had abstained from all the carnage that followed the taking of the city, was chosen king by unanimous consent. He accepted the appointment with diffidence, but constantly refused the dia- dem and other insignia of royalty, saying that he could never con- sent to wear a crown of gold, where the Saviour of the world had worn a crown of thorns. 11. Scarcely was he proclaimed king, when the approach of an army of four hundred thousand Saracens threatened the destruc- tion of the kingdom. With about twenty thousand followers, Godfrey sallied forth to meet this powerful host. The two armies met on the plains of Ascalon, and notwithstanding the disparity of numbers, the Saracens suffered a most disastrous defeat, and Godfrey returned in triumph to Jerusalem. 12. The Crusaders having divided Palestine and Syria into four states, and seeing the object of their expedition accomplished, began to think of returning to Europe ; but as they withdrew their torces, the Turks gradually recovered their power. Godfrey, What orders did lie g:* r e? — 0. What was now the amount of the Christian army! When Nice was on the point of yielding, what did the Greek emperor do ? What was the effect of this duplicity? After the reduction of Nice, where did they pioceed. and what did they do ? — 10. After taking Jerusalem what did the Crusaders do? After this, to what was their attention directed? Who was chosen king? What did he refuse, and what did he say ?— 11. AVhat threatened the destruction of the kingdom ? What did Godfrey do? Where did the two armies meet, and what was the issue of the battle'— 12. Of what did the Crusaders now begin to thirk? 136 THE CRUSADES. after enjoying the regal dignity for the short space of one year, also returned to Europe, and was succeeded in the kingdom of Je- rusalem by his brother, Baldwin I. 13. After the death of Baldwin II., in 1130, jealousy and violent dissensions began to prevail among the princes in the kingdom of Jerusalem, and from this period its prosperity began rapidly to decline. The Saracens taking advantage of these disorders, renewed their attacks, took Edessa, and threatened the entire destruction of the Christian kingdom in the East. Surrounded by these calamities, the Christians of Palestine found themselves constrained to the necessity of soliciting aid from the princes of Europe ; this circumstance gave rise to the second Crusade. 14. The Second Crusade. Immediately after the arrival of the deputies, who had been sent from Syria, for the purpose of obtain- ing assistance from Europe, a second Crusade was preached, under the direction of Pope Eugenius III., by St. Bernard, the learned and eloquent abbot of Clairvaux, A. D. 1147. 15. Louis VII., of France, and Conrad III. of Germany, with three hundred thousand of their subjects, assumed the cross and began to prepare for an expedition to the East. Conrad, who proceeded in advance of the French monarch, was defeated by the Turks near Iconium, and Louis himself suffered a signal over- throw near the city of Laodicea, in Phrygia, with the loss of the flower of his army. After these disasters, the two monarchs suc- ceeded in reaching Palestine, and having arrived at Jerusalem, they summoned all the Latin princes of Asia to a council, where iti was determined to abandon the design of re-conquering Edessa, which had been the first object of the Crusade, and- to make one united effort against Damascus. After their operations had been carried on for some time with every appearance of success, their de- signs were suddenly frustrated by a violent disease, that broke outi in the Christian camp ; the siege was consequently abandoned. Louis and Conrad, disgusted at the conduct of the Latin princes in Asia, left them to their own wretched condition, and took their de-> parture for Europe. Thus terminated the second Crusade, with immense loss to the West, without having produced the slightest: advantage to the Christians of the East. 16. The illustrious Saladin, who, about the year 1174, had raised himself to the sovereignty of Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Persia, formed the design of re-conquering Palestine from the Christians. He defeated their army in the battle of Tiberias, and laid siege to Jerusalem, which was forced to surrender by capi- tulation, the Christian inhabitants being permitted to depart on the payment of a certain sum of money. Thus again, the Holy City fell into the hands of the Saracens, eighty-eight years after it had been conquered by the first Crusaders, A. D. 1187. What is said of Godfrey ?— 13. After the death of Baldwin, what took place ? What did tho Saracens do? What did the Christians find themselves constrained to do?— 14. After the arrival of the deputies in Europe, what was done? — 15. What princes assumed the cross 1 What happened to Conrad ? Louis ? What broke out in the Chris- tian camp? What did Louis and Conrad finallydo ?— 16. What is said of Saladin 1 ? What did he defeat ? How long had the Holy City remained in possession of the Christians ? THE CRUSADES. 131 17. The Third Crusade. When the intelligence of the fate of Jerusalem reached Europe, the deepest affliction pervaded all ranks of the people. The venerable pontiff, Urban III., was so af- fected at the news, that he died of a broken heart. This, how- ever, was soon succeeded by a desire to retrieve the loss sustained by the Christians in the East. The most illustrious morarchs, reigning at that time in Europe, were Philip Augustus of France, Henry II. of England, and Frederic I. of Germany, These three sovereigns, with the principal lords of their respec- tive dominions, assumed the cross, and began to make prepara- tion to enter on a third Crusade. 18. Frederic, at the head of an army of one hundred and fifty thousand men, was the first of the three monarchs that com- menced his march towards the East. Victory and success attend- ed his arms whenever he advanced, until an unfortunate circum- stance frustrated his brightest hopes. Having crossed into Asia Minor, and passed the defiles of Mount Taurus, the German monarch proceeded at the head of his army, along the banks of the Cydnus, in which he was accidentally drowned while bathing in the river. In the interval, Henry II. of England died, and was succeeded by his son Richard, su roamed Caur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted, on account of his extraordinary valor. To the adventurous and military spirit of Richard, the Crusades pre- sented an irresistible attraction ; after making the necessary pre- parations, he joined Philip Augustus of France, and embarked on an expedition to the Holy Land. 19. The two monarchs, in conjunction, took Ptolemais; but unhappily a misunderstanding between them prevented their further action in concert; in consequence of this, Philip, leaving a part of his forces in Palestine, returned to France. Richard hav- ing been left to the sole command, ably sustained the contest against the sultan Saladin, whom he signally defeated in the memorable battle near Ascalon. The feats of arms displayed by Richard on this, and other occasions, more resemble the achieve- ments of a hero of romance, than the deeds of a prince of authentic history. On one occasion, it is related, that with one stroke of his sword he severed the head, right shoulder, and arm, from the body of a Saracen chief; on another, he threw himself with so much ardor into the thickest of the contest, that for some mo- ments he disappeared amidst the host of his enemies ; when he returned, his horse was covered with blood, and so numerous were the darts and arrows, fastened in his shield and dress, that according to an ocular witness, he resembled a cushion covered with needles. 2D. His army being at length reduced by famine and fatigue, the English monarch began to think of returning to Europe. Accordingly, having concluded a truce foi three years and eight 17. When this intelligence reached Europe, what is said? Who were the most il- lustrious sovereigns at this time in Europe ? What did they do ?— 1 8. What is said of Frederick? What was his end? What is said of Richard?— 19. What is said of the two monarchs? Being left to the sole command, what did Richard do? What is said of his feats of uims? On one occasion what is said of him? — 20. What did he conclude ? 12* 138 THE CRUSADES. months with Saladm, on terms advantageous to the Christians, he took his departure for his own dominions. The vessel in which he sailed being wrecked on the coast of the Adriatic sea, Richard resolved to pursue Ins course by land; but as he passed through Germany with only a few attendants, he fell into the hands of the emperor Henry IV., by whom he was retained a prisoner until he was ransomed by his subjects, who paid for hi? release the sum of £300,000; he finally reached his own domi- nions after an absence of four years. Such was the result of the third Crusade; although it did not terminate in the recovery of the holy city, still it led to the con- quest of the island of Cyprus, and the surrender ol Acre, a town of considerable importance to the Christians. 21. The Fourth Crusade. A fourth Crusade was undertaken about the year 1195, in which Henry IV., emperor of Germany, bore the most distinguished part; but his death, which happened before he reached Palestine, and the unfortunate quarrels among the other leaders,' frustrated the design of recovering the Holy Land. 22. The Fifth Crusade. About the close of the twelfth cen tury, during the pontificate of Pope Innocent III., a fifth Crusade was undertaken by Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, and Bald- win, earl of Flanders. Having made the necessary preparations, they collected their forces at Zora, a city in Dalmatia, for the purpose of transporting them to Palestine by sea. But before their departure from this place, Alexius, the son of Isaac, the Greek emperor, arrived at the camp, bearing the intelligence that his father had lately been dethroned and inhumanly deprived ol his sight, and was then in the hands of the usurper of his crown; at the same time pledging himself, in the most solemn manner, to aid the Crusaders in the recovery of the Holy Land, to main- tain during his life five hundred knights for its defence, and offer- ing, moreover, the payment of a considerable sum of money, il they, on their part, would lend assistance in expelling the usur per and in restoring his father to the throne. 23. After some deliberation, the Crusaders accepted his pro- posals; and sailing immediately from Zora, they directed their course to Constantinople, which they took after a siege^ of ten days. The usurper made his escape; the old emperor being re- leased from prison and restored to his throne, immediately rati- fied the engagements made by his son to the Latins. But scarcely had the* Crusaders departed on their march towards Palestine, when a sudden revolution in the city_ obliged them to return. The emperor and his son Alexius fell victims to the intrigues and perfidy of one of their courtiers, surnamed Murzuphlis, who placed himself upon the throne. 24. As soon as the news of this murder and usurpation reached Wr.at is said of the vessel ? "What happened to him ar he passed through Germany? What was paid for his ransom ? — '21 . When was the fourtb Crusade undertaken ? Who bore a distinguished part? — 22. When was the fifth CrusacTe undertaken ? Where did they collect their forces? Before their departure, what took place? What did Alexius pledge himself to do? — 23. After some deliberation, what did the Crusaders do? What is said of the old emperor? What happened to the emprror and Alexius? THE CRUSADES. 139 the camp of the Crusaders, they resolved to avenge the death of the unfortunate princes, their allies and benefactors. Marching back to Constantinople, they took the ciiy alter a furious assault, ithough it was defended by upwards of two hundred thousand men, and contained a population of about one million of inhabit- ants. Having thus a second time, in the short space of a few months, conquered the great capital of the East, the Latins proceeded to elect an emperor from their own body. The choice fell upon Baldwin, count of Flanders, who was accordingly invested with the ensigns of royalty, and quietly ascended the imperial throne, A. 1). 1204. 25. Here terminated the efforts of the Crusaders; satisfied with this splendid acquisition, they attempted nothing further against I he Saracens. Such were the circumstances that led to the esta- blishment of the Latin empire at Constantinople, few events on the page of history are more curious and interesting than this singular revolution. It was destined, however, to be of short duration; after a precarious existence of fifty-seven years, it again fell under the dominion of the Greeks. 26. The Sixth Crusade. The last expedition having failed to accomplish the object for which it was designed, namely the re- covery of the Holy Land, a sixth Crusade was shortly afterwards undertaken. Among those who bore a distinguished part in this expedition was John of Brienne, a French nobleman, who at the head of one hundred thousand men, made a descent upon Egypt, with a design of destroying the power of the sultan at the seat of his government. He took Damietta, but owing to subsequent disasters, particularly the inundation of the Nile, he was finally compelled to abandon his conquests and to evacuate Egypt, A. D 1221. 27. About the same period, the famous Frederic IT., emperor of Germany, led an army into Palestine and obtained by treaty from the sultan the restoration of Jerusalem; but so little precau- tion did he take to defend it, that it shortly fell a^ain into the hands of the infidels. Palestine was afterwards visited by seve- ral other princes of Europe, without being able to effect little more than to conclude a treaty of peace. After the departure of Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to the king of England, a sudden irruption of fierce barbarians from Korazan laid waste the Holy Land, and left Palestine in the most deplorable condi lion. • 28. The Seventh and Eighth Crusades. At this period, A. D 12 14, France was under the mild administration of St. Louis IX., a prince equally distinguished for his heroic fortitude and for all the more amiable virtues that adorn the Christian heart. The deplorable state of Palestine deeply afflicted his generous soul, 34. As soon as this news reached their camp, what did the Crusaders do? Having thus conquered the capital of the Easl. to what did they proceed? On whom did the choice fall ?— 25. Satisfied, &c.,what did they attempt? How long did the empire last? -20. What was shortly afterwards undertaken? Who was the most distinguished! What city did he take'?— 27. What did Frederick II. do and obtain ■ After the depar- lure of Richard, what took place?— 23. At this period, who leig'.icd in France? 140 THE CRUSADES and on the recovery from a dangerous illness he resolved to assume the cross, and by his exhortations induced many of his nobles to imitate his example. After four years' preparation he set out on the expedition, accompanied by his queen, his three brothers, and all the knights of France. He began the enterprise by invading Egypt, and after losing one-half of his numerous army by contagious diseases, he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Saracens. Having ransomed himself and his army he proceeded to Palestine, where he remained for several years in endeavouring to secure the welfare of the Christian colonies, by repairing the fortifications of the towns which yet remained in their possession. The death of his mother, to whom he had in- trusted the government during his absence, obliged him to return to France. 29. About thirteen years after his return from his first Crusade, Louis was induced to undertake a second. Having provided for the government of his kingdom in his absence, he embarked with sixty^ thousand chosen troops, landed in Africa, and laid siege to Tunis. Before any thing of importance could be effected, a I raging pestilence carried off one-half of his flourishing army, the king himself being numbered among its victims. This terminated the last of the Crusades, A. D. 1272. 30. The effects of the Crusades. The period during which the Crusades continued, has been styled by some historians, " the ! heroic age of Christianity." No other military enterprise evei i claimed ue attention of the Christian world so long and so uni- versally as the Crusades. For nearly two centuries Europe con- tinued to send forth her legions, to conquer or die upon the plains i of Asia. The two most powerful agents that can operate upon i the human mind, combined to call them into being; namely, zeal I for religion and sympathy for suffering humanity. 31. To see the land of Palestine, so hallowed by all the associa- tions dearest to the Christian heart, that land sanctified by the foot- steps and watered by the tears and blood of the Son of God, that I land where the first light of Christianity dawned, trodden down i by the footsteps of infidelity; to see that Calvary where died the ! Redeemer of man, that sepulchre in which he was laid polluted I and defiled by Mussulman impiety, is even at this distant day capable of producing the deepest emotions. To deliver this land ! from the power of the infidels, who only held it by the right of conquest, was at that period deemed not only a lawful, but even a holy and sacred duty. 32. On the other hand, the cruelties exercised against the de fence-ess Christians of Palestine and the pilgrims, whom a reli- gious zeal had drawn to the holy city, cried aloud to the princes of Europe for their interposition. The evils which marked the What did he resolve? How did he begin the enterprise? Having- ransomed him- self, where did he proceed ?— 29. When did he undertake a second Crusade? Whal was the fate of his army? Of the king himself? When did the Crusades terminate ?- •JO. What has this period been styled ? What is said of the enterprise ? What agents combined lo call them into being?— 31. What is capable of producing the deepest em> tion? What was deemed a sacred duty ?— &}. What cried aloud for Oe interposition 01 the princes of Europe? THE CRUSADES l41 progress of the Crusades were similar to those that follow in the 'train of other great military enterprises. It is computed that two millions of Europeans, during their continuance were buried in die East. 33. Various opinions have been formed and maintained respect- ing the tendency and effects of the Crusades. But whatever in- dividual opinions may be entertained with regard to their object or their final issue, it is generally admitted that they have been, [hi their ultimate results, beneficial to mankind. These results ;are observable in a greater or less degree, in the political condi- tion, manners and customs, navigation, commerce and literature 'of Europe. 34. In the first place, they checked the alarming progress of | the Saracens and Seljukian Turks, who were thus prevented from pen>et rating into the very heart of Christendom. Secondly, they greatly contributed towards the gradual decline of the Feudal System, which at that period prevailed throughout Europe. The .great barons who engaged in the Crusades were obliged to sell a portion of their lands in order to procure the means of convey- ing their troops into a foreign country. By this means the aris- tocracy was weakened, wealth more widely diffused, and the . lower orders of society began to acquire property, influence, and a spirit of independence. The sovereigns, in like manner, im- ' pelled by the same pecuniary necessity, sold to towns important ' privileges and immunities, such as the right of electing their own magistrates, and being governed by their own municipal laws. 35. Thirdly, these expeditions had a most beneficial influence on commerce and navigation. Previous to this period commerce ' had been carried on only in a very limited scale. The attention 1 of the people of Europe had never been sufficiently drawn to the great advantages of water transports, until the disasters of the first Crusaders, in attempting to march their forces by land, im- j pressed upon the minds of those who succeeded the expediency of conveying their troops by water. Hence, by the frequent voy- ages to Palestine, the arts of navigation and ship-building were | rapidly improved, and from this period maybe dated the great ' commercial prosperity and power of Venice, Persia, and Genoa. I Moreover, several new and valuable articles were imported from the East, which have since formed important branches of trade, ( such as the sugar cane, with its various products, and silk, which began to be manufactured in Italy about the year 1209. 36. Finally, the Crusades, although in some respects injurious to literature, were, nevertheless, ultimately beneficial to it. The frequent communication of the people of the West wkh Greece and Syria, which the Crusades necessarily occasioned, was one of the most powerful helps towards the complete revival of learn- How many were buried in the East?— 33 Of what have various opinions been formed? What is generally admitted? In what are these results observable? — 34. In the first place, what d'd they do? In the second place? What were the great barons obliged to do? By this means, what was done ? "What is said of the sovereigns? — 'J5. Previous to this period what is said of commerce ? Of the attention of the people of Europe? From this period what maybe dated? What is further observed*-- 36 What was one of the most powerful helps towards the revival of learning? 142 CHIVALRY. ing. At the time when the Crusades were undertaken, owing to the almost uninterrupted series of hostilities, civil feuds and san- guinary wars, that had desolated the lace of Europe, literature was, comparatively speaking, much neglected. In the East^ however, particularly at Constantinople, learning and the arts were still cherished to some extent; the Crusaders, therefore, by their intercourse with a people more polished and enlightened than themselves, acquired a taste for the arts and sciences which they did not fail to improve on their return to Europe. 37. Hence we find that the principal universities of Europe, even at the present day, were founded during the period of the Crusades, or immediately after. The University of Padua, and : that of Paris, was founded in 1180; that of Naples in 1230; that I of Vienna in 1238 : that of Salamanca in 1240; Cambridge in 1280 ; and that of Lisbon in 1290. For the man}; local and tem- porary calamities, to which the Crusades gave rise, these are a few of permanent and generally admitted advantages that have followed as their ultimate results. CHIVALRY. 1. Chivalry, or knighthood, was a military institution preva- lent in Europe during the Middle Ages, and forms a remarkable feature in the history of that period. Nothing can be conceived more truly noble than the leading objects of Chivalry: it united in its institution a love of arms and military renown, an eagerness to support the weak, to protect the oppressed, to avenge the wrongs of the widow and the orphan, to restrain the lawless, and to refine the rude; it blended with religion the highest senti- ments of honor, and inculcated a devoted attachment and invio- lable fidelity to the female sex ; in fine, it combined in its com- ponent elements, valor and honor, courtesy and religion. 2. The early history of Chivalry is involved in obscurity ; the particular nations and the peculiar circumstances in which it had its origin are not precisely known; still the leading principles by which it is distinguished may be found among the manners and customs of the Gothic nations, by whom the profession of arms was the only employment esteemed honorable, and who weie remarkable for the delicate and respectful gallantry which they manifested towards the female sex. It was imbodied into a form dnd regulated by certain laws under the Feudal System, and afterwards brought to maturity and gained the meridian of its splendor during the Crusades, when it assumed the aspect of a religious institution. Chivalry prevailed in almost every part of At the time when the Crusades were undertaken what is said of literature? What did they acquire? — 37. Hence, what do we find? When were these universities founded? i. What is Chivalry ? What is said of it? What did it combine as its component elements?- -2. What is said of its early history? Where may its leading principles be found ' When was it imbodied into a form ? Where did it prevail? CHIVALRY. 143 Europe, but in France, Spain, and Germany, it attained its Teatest purity; in England its introduction was later and its irogress slower. ' 3. There were three degrees of Chivalry, namely, knights lannarets, knights, and esquires. The first rank, to which pecu- •iar privileges were allowed, could only be attained by those who »ad passed through the other two degrees. The second, and by far he most numerous class, consisted of knights, who Mere gene- ally persons of noble birth, although it frequently became the eward of merit, and soldiers distinguished for their valor were sometimes admitted into this class. The third class was the quirehood, consisting of a body of efficient soldiers, inferior \x.. '•ank to the knights, but superior to the common soldiery. 1 4. Those who were destined for Chivalry were placed for edu- ction, at the age of seven years, in the castle of their father, o; hat of some neighboring noble, where they received the appel - ation of page or valet, until they arrived at the age of fourteen, when they obtained the title of esquire, and were authorized to Dear arms. They were kept in active employment in the castle, jeing obliged to wait upon the lord and his lady at home, and ittend them abroad, and thus become accustomed to obedience md courteous demeanor. Surrounded by noble and virtuous ladies, and valiant knights, the first impressions made on their minds were those of virtue and love, honor and valor. From the ladies they learned the first rudiments of religion and love ; md in order that they might practice in some degree the lessons they received, it was customary for each youth to select some young, accomplished, and virtuous lady as his patroness, before whom he might display all his gallantry, and whose duty it was to improve and polish his manners. i 5. The esquires were employed in various offices in the castle until the age of twenty-one, which was the proper age for admit- ting them to all the honors of knighthood. The candidate was required to prepare himself by rigid fasting, passing the night in prayer, and by a solemn confession ; and as a type of the purity of the life ana manners that would be required of him, he was clothed in white. Having performed these preliminary rites, he then entered the church, where an examination took place; and if judged worthy to be admitted into the order of knighthood, he received the sacraments and took the oath, consisting of twenty six articles, in which, among other things, he solemnly pledged himself to defend the church, to respect the priesthood, to pro- tect the ladies, and to redress the wrongs of the widow and the orphan. 6. While yet on his knees, he received from the hands of the knights and the ladies the insignia of Chivalry; his spurs, cuirass, coat of mail, and other parts of his armor ; and lastly, his sword, 3. "What were the three degrees? What is said of the first rank? Of the second . Of the third? — 4. Where were those destined for Chivalry placed? Hew were they kept 7 By whom were they surrounded? What was customary for each youth? — 5. How were esquires employed? How was the candidate required to prepare 1 What d.d lie solemnly pledge himself to do ?— 6. While on his inees, what d;d he re- ceive? 144 CHIVALRY. which was previously blessed by the priest. The concluding ceremony was performed by one of the most distinguished Cheva- liers present, who bestowed on the young knight the accolade, which consisted in giving him a slight blow on the shoulder or cheek with his sword. 7. The most important equipments of a knight were his horse and his lance; his other offensive arms were his sword, dagger, battle-axe, and mace. The endowments of an accomplished knight at the most flourishing period of Chivalry, were beaury, dexterity in dancing, riding, hunting, and tilting; while piety, chastity, modesty, courtesy, liberality, and sobriety, and above i all, an inviolable attachment to truth and invincible courage, were regarded as his necessary virtues. 8. The professed knight possessed various privileges and dig nities which were not confined to the territories of his own sove- reign, but extended through a greater part of Europe. He could roam where he pleased in quest of adventures, and was at liberty , to challenge all those of his order he met to single combat. The laws of the institution made it the duty of every knight to protect i the chastity and honor of the ladies, and forbade nim to speak I disrespectful of them, or to suffer others to do so in his presence; : it was moreover incumbent upon him to warn them against the e commission of any thing that might lower them in his opinion. , Strictly decorous and respectful towards himself, he expected I that they would never forfeit their claim to his esteem. If, how ever, a lady transgressed the laws of decorum or prudence, he i 1 did not fail to stigmatize her fault in the most pointed manner. , If he passed the castle of one of this character, he marked it in i some striking manner as the dwelling of a lady unworthy to o receive a true chevalier. 9. Chivalry enjoined, in a special manner, the three virtues of 1 hospitality, humanity, and courtesy. Every loyal knight was * expected to have the door of his castle constantly open. As soon i as one chevalier entered the castle of another, he considered him- ■ self at home, and was treated as if he were one of the family. , Every thing that could contribute to his comfort and his luxury | was at his command. If he arrived wounded, every possible e care was taken of him by the ladies, who were proud of having irn i their possession the remedies proper for such occasions. To ,a i vanquished foe the most scrupulous and delicate attention was ■ Eaid; he was treated rather as a conqueror than one who had I een conquered. 10. Tournaments and Jousts. Tournaments were military exercises performed by two parties of cavaliers, with hurtless weapons. No amusement was more patronized by the knights, or even sovereigns themselves, than these images of war, which "What was the concluding ceremony? — 7. Wnnt were the equipments of a knight! What were his endowments? His virtues? — S. Yv'hat did the professed knight pos- sess ? "What did the rules of the institution oblige every knight to do? If a lady transgressed the laws of decorum, what did he do? — 9. What did Chivalry enjoin! As soon as one Chevalier entered the castle of another, what did lie consider? If he arrived wounded, what was done? — 10. AVhat were tournaments ? What is said cf them ? CHIVALRY 145 were often celebrated with a splendor beyond description, par- ticularly at coronations, royal marriages, and after important victories. If the occasion was solemn, it was announced at the courts of different sovereigns, who were invited to attend. Not only knights, but even kings and princes, who valued themselves upon their valor and gallantry, frequently entered the list. 11. At a tournament, the place enclosed for the combatants was surrounded by sovereigns and other nobles, by knights of distin- guished fame, and by ladies of the highest rank, who were always appointed judges on these occasions — a privilege, however, which they seldom exercised, generally deputing their power to a knight, who on that account was called the Knight of Honor. When the knights reached the lists, their arms were examined by the constables, in order that only hurtless weapons might be used. But notwithstanding this precaution, there existed, in many instances, a disposition to convert the tournament into a real battle, and thus much blood was often uselessly spilt. 12. Nothing but the reality could exceed the performance of these hazardous and animating scenes. Frequently lances were ; broken, horses and knights were overthrown, and sometimes, ■ though seldom, death ensued. While the tide of victory flowed I to either side of the lists, the air was rent with the acclamations of the ladies, the minstrels, and the whole assembled multitude, , while the successful knight was hailed with triumphal honors little inferior to those bestowed on a hero returning wreathed i with the laurels of victory over a vanquished foe. The court ot Rome was justly hostile to tournaments, refusing the rite of Chris tian burial to those who fell on the tilting ground. 13. Jousts were generally a combat between two knights, and usually took place at the conclusion of the tournaments. A knight who had acquired a distinguished fame would ride through the lists, and call on the surrounding cavaliers to encounter him in three strokes of the lance. If the challenge was accepted, the combat was conducted according to specified rules, but such was the dexterity of the combatants, that the encounter with the lance Seldom proved fatal. 14. The origin of the duel, which is now used as a mode ot private revenge, may be traced to the Gothic nations. Under the Feudal System, and during the age of Chivalry, it was greatly patronised ; and it so far prevailed, at an early period, among the Franks and nations of Germany, that none were exempt from it, but women, invalids, and such as were under the age of twenty- one, and above the age of sixty. It was resorted to as a method of discovering truth, establishing innocence, and vindicating the character from a real or imaginary imputation. It is not sur- prising that a practice so absurd should have found adherents, during those ages when the profession of arms was regarded as If the occasion was solemn, what was done ? — 11. At a tournament, by whom was the place surrounded ? Who was the Knight of Honor ? When they reached the :ists. what was done? — 12. What frequently took place? What is s?.::i of the court of Rome? — 1:1. What were jousts? How was the challenge givenl If accepted, what was done? -14. Where l'nav the origin of the duel be traced ? For what was it re- sorted to? Was ii not surprising? 13 146 CHIVALRY. the only honorable employment, at a time when the human mind was, comparatively speaking, unenlightened ; but that the same pernicious practice should still prevail, and meet with patrons at this age of enlightenment, is something diametrically opposite to the purer dictates of human reason. 15. Whatever opinions we may entertain of Chivalry at the present day, it certainly had a powerful influence in producing a favourable change in the manners of society, during the ages in which it existed. It infused humanity into war, at a period when men made it almost a business of life; it introduced courtesy ot manners among those who possessed but little refinement; it fos- tered in its maxims a delicate sense of honor, and a scrupulous adherence to truth; it cherished the finest feelings and respectful attachment towards the female sex ; and no institution, perhaps, evjr had a more powerful influence to elevate woman to her pro- per sphere, than Chivalry. 16. Chivalry embraced various orders or associations of cava- liers, formed for specific purposes, generally of a benevolent character, many of which remain to the present time. These orders were generally of two descriptions, namely, military and religious, and were established in different countries, particularly in Palestine, England, Spain, France, and Italy. The foundation of the order of the Knights Hospitallers, who afterwards became so famous as the Knights of Malta, was laid about the middle of the eleventh century, by a few Neapolitan merchants, who ob tained permission of the Saracen caliph to erect at Jerusalem a house tor pilgrims. They afterwards founded, in honor of St. John, a church and hospital, from which they took their name; and besides attending to the sick and pilgrims, they bound them- selves, by vow, to defend the Christians of the Holy Land against the insults of the infidels. Thus the Hospitallers, without ceasing to be a religious, became a military order. 17. The order of the Knights Templars was instituted in the year 1118, also at Jerusalem, by several French and Flemish no- blemen. They occupied a house in the city which stood near the. site of Solomon's Temple, from which they derived their name. The Teutonic order was established by a few noblemen from the cities of Bremen and Lubbeck, about 1190, and was intended for the relief of the German pilgrims. 15. What had Chivalry? What did it infuse? What did it introduce and foster 1 What did it cherish ? — 16. What did Chivalry embrace ? Where was the foundation of the Knights Hospitallers laid? What church did they build?— 17. When and where was thoorlc it Ux Knights Templars instituted? When was the Teutonic orJoi established! FRANCE. SECTION I. The Foundation of the French Monarchy; Merovingian and Carlovingian Kings, from Ji. D. 420 to 987. 1. The history of France is intimately connected with that of ' England, as the kings of the latter, for a long period, assumed the \ title of king of France, and held possession in it of varied ex tent, from the time of William the Conqueror to the reign or Queen Mary. The kingdom of France was originally possessed by the Celts or Gauls, a brave and warlike people, who were re- duced to the Roman power in the time of Julius Caesar. The Franks, from whom the monarchy receives its name, emerging from the forests of Germany, made an irruption into Gaul about the year 420, and gradually increased in power under their suc- cessive kings, Pharamond, Clodio, Meroyaeus, and Childeric. 2. In 481, Clovis, the son of Childeric, became king of the Franks, and is generally regarded as the founder of the French monarchy. He embraced Christianity through the influence of his virtuous queen, Clotilda, the daughter of the Duke of Bur- gundy, and received baptism on Christmas day; his example was immediately followed by three thousand of his subjects. He made Paris the seat of his government, and after a long and pros- perous reign, he left his kingdom, according to the custom of the country, divided between his four sons, A. D. 511. 3. In the year 690, Pepin cVHeristel became mayor of the pa- face, the first office under the crown ; at his death, he was suc- ceeded in the office by his son, Charles Martel, one of the most renowned warriors or his age. He defeated the Saracens in a sanguinary battle, between Tours and Poic(iers, in which, accord ing to many historians, three hundred thousand of the enemy were slain, while the French lost only about fifteen hundred. Charles was succeeded in the office of mayor by his son, Pepin the Short, who continued to govern France for several years, while the weak and indolent Childeric III. was nominally king. 4. Such was the state of things, when Pepin first thought of assuming the title and ensigns of royalty, while exercising the duties of the sovereign. Finding the people favorable to his views, and having obtained a favorable answer* from Pope Zachry, who had been consulted on the subject, he finally con- cluded to prosecute his design. Accordingly, in a great assembly of the people, he was proclaimed king, while Childeric was re- •Ihfi answer of the Pope was in the following words: <; It were better that he Bbould he king, in whom the sovereign authority resides." — Eginard Annal. 1. What is said of the history of France? Bv whom was the kingdom ongmahy wisse?3ed ? What is said of the Franks?— 2. What is said of Clovis ? What did ho BHibrace ? How did he leave his kingdom?— 3. When did Pepin become mayor of tho piilac ? WSiat is said of Charles Martel? By whom was Charle* succeeded ?--4 F ndii'g ilie pcoj le favourable to lus views, what did Pepin do ? 148 FRANCE. moved to a monastery, where he died three years after this event and with him ended the dynasty of the Merovingian sovereigns, A. D. 752. 5. About this period, the Lombards, who were already masters of a great part of Italy, aimed at. subduing the whole, had ex- tended their conquests over the province of Ravenna; even Rome itself was* on the point of falling into their hands, when Pope Stephen applied for assistance to the emperor of Constantinople, in whose name the government of Rome was still exercised. But Constantine, who was at that time too much engaged in his dis- putes with the church, to give his attention to the affairs of state, , neglected to send assistance to the Romans, who in their ey- •' tremity were obliged to turn for aid to the monarch of France. 6. Pepin immediately responded to the call, but previous t;i any act of hostility, he sent, at the pope's request, deputies to Astolphus., the king of the Lombards, requesting him to desist from his hostile designs: his proposals, however, were only an- swered by threats and insults. Pepin, therefore, hastily collected his army, crossed the Alps, defeated the Lombards, and obliged Astolphus to accept humiliating conditions of peace. But scarcely- had he departed from Italy, when the perfidious Astolphus re- commenced hostilities, and laid siege to Rome. Pepin a second time crossed the Alps, and having again defeated the Lombards, solemnly bestowed on Pope Stephen and his successors in the pontifical chair, his conquests in Italy ; in this manner was com- menced the temporal power of the pope, A. D. 755. 7. Pepin w T as succeeded by his two sons, Charles and Carlo- mon, but the latter dying shortly after the death of his father, Charles was left in possession of the undivided sovereignty. This distinguished monarch, known in history by the name of Charle- magne, or Charles the Great, is said to have been seven feet in height, of a robust constitution and majestic appearance. He was eminent as a statesman, and as a warrior he far surpassed all the sovereigns of his age. He carried on a long and sanguinary war with the Saxons, which finally resulted in the reduction of their whole country. At the earnest solicitation of the Romans, he turned his arms against the Lombards, who, under their kin 10, leaving his dominions divided between his three sons. Charles II. presided over France; Louis obtained Germany, Ind Lothaire reigned in Italy, under the title of emperor. Bitter ontentions between the three brothers soon involved their sub- jects in sanguinary wars. Charles and Louis united their forces [gainst Lothaire, who endeavoured to deprive them of their in- leritance. The rival brothers at length met in the famous battle >f Fontenoy, where Lothaire was defeated, and compelled to etire to his Italian dominions. The loss on both sides, in this jattle, is estimated atone hundred thousand men. 10. Charles, after a weak reign, was succeeded by his son Louis, the Stammerer, who, after a short reign, left his kingdom .o his two sons, Louis III. and Carlomon. After the death of Jiese princes, Charles the Fat was elected to the throne, but he governed with so much weakness that he was deposed, and the r,rbwn transferred to Eudes, during the minority of Charles the Simple, who afterwards succeeded to the throne. During the peign of this prince, the Normans, under their celebrated chief, Rollo, invaded Neustria, and established themselves in the north of France, which from them took the name of Normandy, A. D. 912. The remaining kings of the Carlovingian line were < r enerally weak princes, and their reigns were not distinguished For any remarkable events. After the death of Louis V., who died without issue, the French lords refused as his successor his uncle Charles, duke of Lorraine, and transferred the crown to Hugh Capet, duke of France, who, after defeating his rival, ob- tained possession of the throne, and thus formed the third or Capetian race of French kings, A. D. 987. Whom did he call to his court ? What is said of him with regard to his table. Sec. ? —9. When did Charlemagne die? By whom was lie succeeded? What was the reign Of this monarch? How did he leave his dominions? What is said of Charles and Louis ? Where did ihe rival brothers meet ? What was the loss on botn sides ? — 10. By whom was Charles succeeded ? AVho was next elected ? During the reign of this prune what took place? After the death of Louis V., to rvhom was the crown trans- ferred ? 13* 150 FRANCE. SECTION II. (Japeuan Kings; from Uugh Capet to Philip VI, of ValoU Jl. D. 987 to 1328. 1. Hugh Capet was an able sovereign, and his administration was directed with wisdom ; lie enacted several salutary laws, added considerably to his territory, and again made Paris the seat of government. Either through modesty, or a fear of exciting the jealousy of his nobles, he never assumed the ensigns o? royalty; even on great and solemn occasions, he appeared inn plain and simple dress. 2. Robert, the son of Hugh, succeeded his father in 996. This prince is described as handsome in person and gentle in his dis- position, but his reign presents few events of importance. His son Henry I. succeeded to the throne in 1031 ; his reign was generally tranquil and free from any extraordinary incidents. The reign of Philip, who succeeded his father in 10*80, was dis- tinguished for the preaching of the First Crusade, by Peter the Hermit, and the invasion of France, by William the Conqueror, an event which laid the foundation of that long continued rival- sir, p and series of hostilities, which for several succeeding cen- turies existed between France and England. 3. Philip died in 1108, and left his dominions to his son Louis VI., surnamed the Fair, an able and accomplished sovereign, who enjoyed a prosperous and useful reign. On his death-bed, he ad- dressed his son, who succeeded him, in the following words: " Remember that royalty is nothing more than a public charge, of which you must render a very strict account to Him who makes kings and will judge them." Louis VII. was the next sovereign who swayed the sceptre of France. In conjunction with Conrad III., of Germany, he headed the third Crusade to Palestine, but was most unfortunate in that expedition. Louis had married Eleanor, heiress to the great duchy of Guienne, but divorced her for her levity and vices; and in a few weeks after- wards, she married Henry Pkintaga.net, earl of Anjou, who, in the following year, became Henry II. of England, and who, by his marriage, acquired a great addition to his possessions in France. 4. Philip II., surnamed Augustus, succeeded to the throne in 1180. No prince, since the reign of Charlemagne, surpassed Philip in military skill and enterprise^ He signalized the com mencement of his reign by the expulsion of the Jews from his dominions, and shortly afterwards joined his great rival, Richard I. of England, in the third Crusade. After the death of Richard, John, his brother, who succeeded him, was strongly suspected foi naving murdered Arthur, his nephew ; for this he was summoned 1. What is said of Hugh Capet ? "What did lie never assume ?— 2 Who succeeded? What is said of him "J Who w;is the next sovereign? By what was the reign 01 Philip distinguished? — 3. To whom did Philip leave his dominions?. On his death-bed, '..ow did he address his son? Who was the next sovereign? What did lie do? Whom did he marry? — 1. Who next succeeded to the throne ? What were the principal events ol his reign ? TZANCK. 151 by Philip, as his vassal, to be tried by a court of his peers ; on his refusal, Philip invaded Normandy, and wrested that important province from the English monarch. 5. Philip died in 1223, and was succeeded by his son Louis VIII., surnamed the Lion, on account of his valor. He died after a short reign of three years, on his return from an expedition against the Albigenses, who had disturbed the south of France. Louis IX., , commonly styled *S'/. Louis, succeeded to the throne at the early age of twelve years, and during his minority, his mother, Blanche, of Castile, filled the office of regent, in which she displayed great anilities. In the person of St. Louis were united all those emi- nent qualities that distinguish an illustrious sovereign, with all the virtues that adorn the Christian. His benevolence, piety and purity of intention are conspicuous in every action. In the early part of his reign, he vigorously repelled the invasion of Henry III. : of England, whom he signally defeated near Taillebourg, and finally compelled him to sign a treaty of peace. His zeal for re- ligion prompted him to engage in two disastrous crusades, in the second of which he died ot a fever, near Tunis, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and the forty-fourth of his reign, A. D. 1270. C. St. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip III., surnamed me Hardy, who continued the war against the infidels with vigor; defeated the Saracens, and compelled the king of Tunis to conclude a peace on terms favorable to the Christians. Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, from the beauty and elegance of his per- son, succeeded to the throne in 1285. One of the most remarka- dle events of the reign of this monarch, was the suppression of the order of the Knights Templars. Charges of the greatest i magnitude being brought against them, Philip ordered all the templars of his kingdom to be arrested on the same day. A committee was appointed at Paris, before which one hundred and forty knights were examined, all of whom, with the excep- tion of three, treely acknowledged themselves guilty of the denial of Christ, of sacrilege, and other enormous crimes. 7. But as the persons accused belonged to an order which was religious as well as military, it became necessary to refer the affair to the ecclesiastical authorities. Accordingly, a general council was convened by Pope Clement V., at Vienne, before which the investigation into the conduct of the Templars and their trials, which had now occupied nearly five years, was laid After a deliberation of several months, the order was suppressed: and toe property belonging to it was transferred to the order of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John, who were still fighting the battles of Christendom against the infidels, from whom they had lately recovered the island of Rhodes. It appears that the order of the Templars, though generally corrupt, was not equally so in 5. By whom was Philip succeeded? When did he die? By whom was he sue ceeded? In the person of St. Louis, what were united ? In the early part of his re.gn what was done ? In what did he engage ? Where did he die ?— 6. By whom was St. Loins succeeded? Who was the next sovereign? What was one of the most re- markable events of his reign? Of what did they acknowledge themselves guilty?— 7 Bat as the persons accused, &c, what became necessary ? WheTe was a council convened ? After a deliberation of several months, what was done ? What appears? 152 FRANCE. all places; which fact accounts for the different treatment it« members received in different countries. Many were acquitted particularly in Germany and Spain; some were condemned to perpetual or temporary imprisonment ; while others, who, instead of repenting, obstinately retracted the free avowal of their guilt were delivered to the secular power, to be punished according t( J the rigor of the law. Fifty-nine were burnt at Paris, and several others in the south of France. 8. Philip died in 1314, leaving his dominions to his son Louis X., surnamed Hutin, or Wrangler, who was succeeded after a reign of a few mouths, by his brother, Philip V., whose short reign was distinguished for his severity against the Jews. With the succession of Charles IV. ended the (Japetian line of kings. A.. L). loZo. SECTION III. Branch of Valois ; from Philip VI. to CLaiies VIII. , A, D. 1328 to 1498. 1. On the death of the late monarch, the crown devolved upon Philip of Valois, the grandson of Philip III., the nearest male heir, as, according to the laws of the kingdom, females were ex- cluded from the throne. His succession, however, was disputed I by Edward III. of England, who claimed the crown of France in i right of his mother, Isabella, the daughter of Philip the Fair. I Philip maintained that a mother could not transmit to her issue a \ right which she never possessed ; and the case being laid before I the peers and barons of France, they unanimously declared in i his favor. 2. In the mean time, Edward prepared to enforce his claim by an appeal to arms. He invaded France with an army of thirty thousand men, and gained the famous battle of Cressy, in which { his eldest son, the Black Prince, (so called from the color of his armour,) first displayed those distinguished military abilities 1 which afterwards rendered him so illustrious. Edward, pursuing J his good fortune, besieged and took Calais, which remained in the hands of the English until the reign of Queen Mary. It was ■ during the reign of Philip that the title of Dauphin was given to the eldest son of the king of France. 3. Philip died in 1350, and was succeeded by his son, John II., surnamed the Good. It was during the reign of this prince that ] the famous battle of Poictiers was fought, in which Edward the Black Prince added to the glory which he had already gained at Cressy. The French monarch, it the head of sixty thousand men, advanced against the prince whose army did not exceed sixteen thousand men; still, notwithstanding the disparity of How many w«re burmt at Paris? — 8. When did Philip die? Who were the next two sovereigns? On the accession of Charles IV. what took place? 1. By whew was the succession of Philip disputed? What did Philip maintain?— 2. In the. mean time, what did Edward do? AVhat battle did he gain? What did he take ? — ■ 3. By whom was Philip succeeded? During his reign what took place? FRANCE. 153 lumbers, the scale of victory turned in favor of the latter; the French were signally defeated, their king- fell into the hands of he conquerors, and was led captive to London The conduct of ;he prince towards the fallen monarch deserves the highest com- mendation. He endeavored to console him in his misfortune, waited on him at table, and, in every manner in his power, mani- fested towards him the utmost courtesy and respect. John was afterwards released on condition that he should pay one million five hundred thousand pounds sterling as the price of his ransom. But on his return to France, finding himself unable to comply with his engagement, he returned again to England, saying that, " If honor were banished from every other place, it should find an asylum in the breasts of kings." He was received with every mark of respect by Edward, who assigned him, as his residence, Savoy Palace, where he shortly afterwards died, A. D. 1364. 4. On the death of John, Charles V., surnamed the Wise, suc- ceeded to the throne. This distinguished prince labored inces- santly to retrieve the losses of the preceding reign, and so successful was he in his efforts, that in the course of a few years the English were expelled from all their possessions in France, with the exception of Calais, Bayonne, and Bordeaux. Charles himself did not appear in the field, but from his cabinet directed the operations of his armies by his wise and prudent counsels. He raised to the office of constable of France the celebrated Du Guesclin, one of the greatest generals of the age. Besides being an eminent statesman, Charles was a distinguished patron of literature ; he possessed a library of nine hundred volumes, which was a considerable number for the period, when the art of print- ing was yet undiscovered ; and he may be regarded as the founder of the present magnificent royal library of Paris. On his death, in 1380, his son Charles VI., surnamed the Well Beloved, ascended the throne. 5. The reign of this sovereign was signally unfortunate. He fell into a state of insanity, which rendered him incapable of attending to the administration of the government. In conse- quence of the king's incapacity, regents were appointed, whose misconduct threw the kingdom into a civil war. During these calamities which afflicted France, Henry V. of England invaded the country, and gained the memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this victory, and other advantages gained by Henry, enabled him to conclude a treaty by which his succes- sion to the throne of France was acknowledged on the death of Cfearles. Henry and Charles both died shortly after this event, A. D. 1422. C. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, asserted his right to the throne of his father, while at the same time the infant Henry VI. of England was proclaimed king of France under the regency What is said of the conduct of the prince'* Of John? On returning .o England •x-liat (I'd he say ?— 4. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of him ? Of what wus Charles a patron? 'By whom was he succeeded ? — 5. What is related of this monarch * Durin? these calamities, who invaded France? Waat was Hrnrj enar bled to do?~G. Whr.t is said of Charles VII. ? 154 FRANCE. of his uncle, the Duke of Bedford. The English laid siege to Orleans, a place of tne greatest importance, and so successful were they in their operations against this and other places, that the affairs of France began to wear the most gloomy aspect ; they were, however, suddenly restored by one of the most extraor- dinary events recorded in history. 7. When the hope of saving Orleans was almost abandoned, a young girl named Joan, about seventeen years of age, who had lived an humble life in a village on the borders of Lorraine, pre- sented herself to the governor of Vaucouleur, and maintained with much earnestness that she had been sent by divine commis- sion to raise the siege of that city, and procure the coronation of Charles in the city of Rheims. After undergoing a most rigid examination before a committee of persons appointed for that purpose, and also before the court and king himself, it was gene- rally admitted that the commission was supernatural. She was, accordingly intrusted with the liberation of Orleans. As she approached the city her presence inspired the inhabitants witl confidence, while it spread dismay and consternation among thdi English, who hastily raised the siege and retired with precipihi tion, but being pursued by the heroine at the head of the French army, they were entirely defeated at Patay, with a loss of near!) five thousand men, while the French lost only one of their nuin ber. From this event Joan was called the Maid of Orleans, 8. The second part of her mission, which yet remained to lad accomplished, was equally arduous and dangerous. The city oli, Rheims and the intermediate country being in possession of flu! English or their allies, presented apparently insurmountable difliJ culties. Charles, however, placing full confidence in her guid; ance, commenced his march, and as he advanced every obstacle disappeared ; the citizens of Rheims, having expelled the garri son, received him with every demonstration of joy. After the coronation was performed, Joan threw herself at the feet oi Charles, declaring that her commission was accomplished, ant solicited leave to return to her former humble station; butfhr* king, unwilling to part with her services so soon, requested hei«, to remain for some time with the army, with which at length slid complied. She afterwards attempted to raise the sie^e of the citj of Carnpiegne ; but her good fortune seemed to have deserted her she fell into the hands of the English, who, to gratify their reveng< for the many losses they sustained through her valor, con demned her, under a charge of various pretended crimes, and caused her to be burnt in the public square at Rouen, 9. By this cruel measure the English hoped to check the sue cess that had attended the operations of Charles. In this, how ever, they were disappointed ; such was the impulse which tin heroine had given to the affairs of France, that the English in i To what place did the English lay siege? — 7. When the hope of saving Orleans wa almost abandoned, what is related ? As she approached the city what is said of her — S. What is said of the city of Rheims ? What did Charles d Francis now do? After he obtained his liberty, \v lat is said of him? What was tha fate of Hourbon '! What is said of the c.itv ? FRANCE; 157 of rnraous desolation, more frightful than that which it endured when it fell beneath the hand of the Goth or Vandal. I 6. After the war had raged for some time with but little ad- . vantage on either side, a truce was concluded, and the two rival , monarchs were brought to a personal interview at Aigues Mortes, in France, where the warmest expressions of friendship passed between them. The following year, Charles obtained permission to pass through France on his way to the Netherlands ; he re- mained for six days at Paris, where he was entertained with great magnificence. The war was again renewed between the two sovereigns, respecting Milan, which terminated unfavorable to Francis, who died shortly after peace was restored, in the fifty- second year of his age, A. D. 1547. Francis possessed, in many respects, the reputation of a great sovereign. His impetuous courage, his frank and generous disposition, gained him the affec- tion of his subjects. He was a liberal patron of literature and the arts, which made great progress in France during his reign, and the French court acquired that polish and refinement which have sioce rendered it so conspicuous. 7. Henry II., who succeeded Francis, was brave, affable, and po- lite; he inherited in some degree the abilities and courage of his father. His reign, which continued for thirteen years, was almost one uninterrupted series of hostilities with Charles V., and his sou Philip II., of Spain. Henry gained an important advantage over the imperialists at the siege of Metz ; but Philip, in his turn, gained the famous victory of St. Quentin. The reign of Henry was also signalized by the recovery of Calais, which was taken after a siege of eight days, by the celebrated Duke of Guise, after it had remained in the possession of the English for two hundred and ten years. Henry's severity against the Huguenots gave rise to those sanguinary civil wars, which for several succeeding reigns distracted and desolated France. His death was occasioned by an accident which happened to him at a tournament. 8. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., who, after a short reign of one year, left the throne to his brother, Charles IX., then a boy, in the tenth year of his age, who commenced his reign under the regency of his mother, Catherine de Medicis. At this time the Protestant religion began to make considerable progress in France, and had gained the patronage of several distinguished men, among whom were the Prince of Conde and Admiral Co- ligni. The leading men in the administration were the celebrat- ed Duke of Guise, and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. In order to bring about an accommodation, and to settle the difficulties without further bloodshed, a conference was held at Poissy, for the purpose of discussing the points in dispute between the Catho- lics and Protestants. The conference was attended by the king After the war had rajred for some v.me. what was concluded ? Whnt look plae*.- the nvingycar? When did Francis die ? Wh.it did he possess ? Of what was lie 6. followi: the patron'?— 7. Who succeeded Francis ? With whom was he engaged \n hostiliriesil By what was his reig-n signalized ? What occasioned his death ?— S. Who were ll e next two sovereigns? What is said of the Protestant religion at this time? Who were the leading men :n l ic administration ? What was the ohject of the conferen-'e al roissy ? 14 158 FRANCE. and the most prominent personages of the court. The Protestant cause was supported by the celebrated Theodore Beza, while the Catholic doctrine was defended by the distinguished Cardinal of Lorraine. 9. After this conference, an edict was published granting im- portant privileges to the Protestants. But the spirit of discontent still prevailed between the two parties, and the flame of civil war again burst forth and deluged the fairest portion of France in de- vastation and blood. The Catholics under the command of the Duke of Guise and Montmorency, defeated the Huguenots under the Prince of Conde,and the Admiral Coligni, in several engage- ments. During the contest, the Protestants lost their most able leader, the Prince of Conde, who fell in battle ; while on the other hand, Charles had to lament the loss of the firmest support of his throne, the Duke of Guise, who was cut oft' by assassination. Peace was at length restored, and the Protestants obtained free toleration in religion. 10. The most memorable transaction in the reign of Charles, was the massacre of the Protestants which took place on St. Bar- tholomew's day. So various and contradictory are the accounts given of this event by different writers, as to the number of the vic- tims, and the motives that prompted it, that it is a difficult task, at the present time, to arrive at the true state of the facts. On the occasion of the marriage of the sister of Charles, to the king of Navarre, Coligni and other distinguished Protestant leaders were invited to court. During the celebration of the nuptial ceremonies, various circumstances happened which contributed to bring about the odious measure that followed. As Coligni passed through the streets, he was severely wounded by an assassin. The public voice attributed the attempt to the young Duke of Guise, in re- venge for the murder of his father at the siege of Orleans ; it pro- ceeded, however, from the queen-mother, Catherine de Medicis, who was alarmed at the gradual influence which the Admiral seemed to acquire over the mind of Charles. 11. The wounds which Coligni had received were not danger- ous : but his followers crowded to his residence; their threats of vengeance terrified the queen ; and in a secret council the king was prevailed upon to give his sanction to the destruction of the leaders of the Protestant party. From the close connection of events immediately preceding the massacre, it would seem that it originated in the animosity of the French court against the Pro- testant leaders, and was dictated rather by a momentary impulse, than by any studied or preconcerted pian. The youn* king, whose mind was harassed by the frequent revolts of the Hu- guenots against his authority, was only induced to consent to this cruel measure after the positive assurance of his mother and chic/ counsellors, that his safety required that the leaders of the 9. After this, what was published? What is said of the spirit of discontent ? During this, whom did the Protestants lose 7 What had Charles to lament? — 10. What wai the most memorable transaction of the reign of Charles ? During the celebration of the nuptials what took place? From whom did it proceed? — 11. In a secret council, what was the king prevailed on to do? From what would it seemed to have origi- nated ? When was the king induced to consent to the cruel measure ? FRANCE. 159 party should be cut off, and that if he waited until morning, his most faithful officers, his family, and perhaps himself, would be sacrificed to their vengeance. . 12. In this state of mind, he gave his consent to the projected massacre, which took place during the night of the twenty-third of August, and a part of the following day. The residence of ■ Coligni was forced, and he was put to death, with his principal ■ counsellors ; the populace joined in the work of blood, and every •Huguenot who fell in their way was sacrificed to their fury. Although the massacre was only intended for the capital, still it extended to several provinces ; the governors, though instructed to prevent similar excesses, had not always the power or the will to check the fury of the people, and the bloody tragedy of Paris was imitated in several other towns. With regard to the number of the victims, it is impossible to speak with certainty. Some writers exaggerate the number to seventy thousand ; others estimate thir- ty, twenty, or fifteen thousand. The reformed niartyrologist adopted a means of ascertaining the real number, by procuring from the ministers in the different towns where the massacre took place, a list of the names of the persons who suffered. He pub- lished the result in 1582, and in all France he could discover the names of no more than seven hundred and eighty-six persons. 13. Charles, in order to palliate the shame of this murderous edict against the Huguenots, wrote to every court in Europe, stating, that having just detected their horrid plots against his authority and person, he was fortunate enough to escape from the imminent danger to which he was exposed, by cutting off the leaders of the party. Many, deceived by this statement, and yet unacquainted with the true nature of the facts, congratulated him on his good fortune. Among others, Pope Gregory XIII., on re- ceiving the account of the transaction, as given by Charles, of- fered up public thanks, not that he rejoiced at the death of the supposed traitors, but for the preservation of the French monarch and his kingdom from ruin. 14. Charles did not long survive this event ; he died shortly after- wards, of a pulmonary complaint, and was succeeded in the throne by his brother, Henry III., a weak and fickle prince. In the be- ginning of his reign, he granted important privileges to the Pro- testants, but he afterwards joined the League projected for the defence of the state and religion, and took the field against them. By this conduct he lost the confidence of both parties; he was finally assassinated by James Clement, a Dominican friar, in the fourth year of his reign, A. D. 1588. 12. "When did it take place? What was the fate of Coligni? With regard io the number of victims, what is said ? "What do some writers exaggerate it to ? What was the number according to the reformed martyro'gist ? — 13. What did Chicles do in order to palliate the shame? What is said of Pope (Gregory XIII. ?— 14. Fy vhotn was Charles Buc.cee.Ud? What ;s said of Henry ? How did he die? 160 FRANCE. SECTION V. House of Bourbon, from Henry IV., to the Death of Louis AT. A. D. 1589 to 1774. 1. On the death of Henry III., the king- of Navarre ascended the throne of France under the title of Henry IV., who was after- wards called the Great. His accession was however greatly opposed by a powerful party in the state. The Cardinal of Bourbon was proclaimed king by the army of the League, then under the com- mand of the Duke of Mayenne, and took the title of Charles X. But the army was signally defeated by Henry, in the famous bat- tle of Ivry. m The difficulties and dangers which surrounded Henry daily increased. He had been educated in the reformed religion, which he still continued to profess, while the greater part of his subjects were Catholics. The king began now serious- ly to turn his mind to the subject of religion, and having; asked several Protestant divines if he could be saved by professing the Catholic doctrine, and being answered in the affirmative, he con- cluded that it would be a safer policy, in his peculiar situation, to embrace that religion. Accordingly, in 1593, he abjured Pro- testantism, and declared himself a Catholic. 2. The event was productive of beneficial results to France; his claim was immediately acknowledged by all orders of the state, and the sanguinary civil wars which had so long afflicted the kingdom, were happily terminated. Henry having gained quiet possession of the throne, was governed by principles of the wisest policy. By the celebrated Edict of Nantes, he granted ta the Protestants the free exercise of their religion, confirmed all their rights and privileges, and gave them free admission into all the offices of honor and emolument. 3. Henry now turned his attention towards the improvement of his kingdom. A civil war of nearly thirty years' duration had produced the most calamitous effects. The land was unfilled, the people poor and wretched, the crown loaded with debt. But by the wise and prudent measures of Henry, these evils were soon removed, and prosperity began again to diffuse itself throughout the kingdom. The wisest of his" counsellors was the Baron de Rosny, afterwards Duke of Sully, in whom he found an able minister and a faithful friend. 4. Henry, by his great abilities, having elevated France from the wretched condition in which he found her, at his accession to the throne, to a high state of prosperity and happiness, fell a victim to the fanaticism of a monk named Ravaillac, who had long planned his death. As the king rode through the streets of the capital, he was accidentally stopped by some obstruction in the way; Ravaillac, who was always on the watch, seized this fa- vourable moment, mounted on the wheel of the carriage, and 1. On the dealh of Henry III., who ascended the throne? Who was declared king by the army ot the League? In what had he been educated ? What did lie do in 1 W'i ?— 2. Of what was this event productive? What did he do by the Edict of Nantes?— 3. To what did lie now turn his attention? Who was the wisest of his counsellors?— 4. How did Henry die\ Relate, the circumstances of his death? FRANCE. 161 stabbed the king twice before any one could oppose him. Thus fell Henry IV., who may justly be ranked among the greatest of the French monarchs, in the fifty-seventh year of his age, and in the twenty-first of his reign, A. D. 1610. 5. When the fatal event was made known in Paris, the whole city presented a scene of mourning. Ravaillac was seized, and put to the most cruel tortures, to induce him to confess the name9 of those who were his accomplices ; but to the last, he persisted in 'maintaining that no one except himself was concerned in the action. As a sovereign, Henry was deservedly great; to pro- mote the happiness of his people, seems to have been his predomi- nate passion; he was kind and familiar to the lowest of his sub- jects, and was beloved by them to a degree bordering on enthu- siasm. His private life was far from being so commendable, and the manners of his courtiers were rendered profligate from the example of their sovereign. G. Louis XIII., the son of the late monarch, succeeded to the 1 throne at the age of nine years, under the regency of his mother, Mary of Medicis, who displeased the nobility by her partiality for Italians; and during her administration the kingdom relapsed into many disorders. Louis, on assuming the reins of govern- ment, chose for his prime minister the famous Cardinal Richelieu, one of the greatest men of his age. During the reign of this mon- arch, the kingdom was again distracted by civil war; the Pro- testants attempted to throw off their allegiance, and to establish an independent state, selecting jRochelle for the capital. Riche- lieu laid siege to this city, which finally surrendered after an ob- stinate resistance of twelve months. The fall of this city termi nated the civil war, and greatly weakened the Protestant powei in France. A second rebellion was excited by the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother, and supported by the Duke of Montmorency; but it was finally crushed, and Montmorency executed for treason. 7. The great abilities of Richelieu were conspicuous in all his undertakings. While he extended the glory of France and com- manded the respect of all the powers of Europe, he became also the zealous patron of literature and science, and instituted the French Academy. He died in 1642, and was followed to the tomb in the succeeding year by Louis himself, in the forty-third year of his age and the thirty-fourth of his rei0. After this battle, what did he do ? Where was he sent? When did he die ? — 37. W ho was agan placed upon the throne ? What was the goveinment compelled to do ? 15* 174 ENGLAND. expense of the war, and maintain for five years an army consist- ing of one hundred and fifty thousand of the allied troops, to be placed in different fortresses on the frontiers. Murat, who had neen raised to the throne of Naples, and Marshal Ney, having both taken part with Buonaparte after his return from Elba, were sentenced to be shot. 38. Louis XVIII. was succeeded in 1824 by his brother, Count d'Artois, under the title of Charles X. # The reign of this monarch was signalized by two foreign enterprises; one in favor of the Greeks, in which France united with England and Russia, the other against the city of Algiers, which surrendered to the French after a siege of six days, on the 5th of July, 1830. This reign was also disturbed by the contests between the ultra-royalists and the liberal party. 39. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies made a strong stand against the ministry; in consequence of this, the chamber was dissolved by the king and new elections ordered. On the 2Gth of July, it having been ascertained that a great majority of the newly elected members were liberal, an ordinance was issued I by the government, dissolving the chamber before it met, sus- pending the liberty of the press, and altering the mode of elec- tions. 40. The publication of this ordinance caused the greatest com-, motion in Paris; the citizens took up arms against the govern- ment, and on the 29th of July gained a decided advantage over the king's guards. The chamber of deputies met on the third of August ; the throne was declared vacant, and the Duke of Orleans was called to accept the crown. On the 9th of August the Duke took the oath prescribed, and ascended the throne of France under the title of Louis Philip, the present king. At the com-i mencement of the outbreak in Paris, Charles X. tied to Scotland,' where he resided some time with his family, in tranquil obscurity, in the ancient palace of Holyrood. ENGLAND. SECTION I. England from the Conquest by the Romans, Jl. C. 55 to Ji, J) 827. 1. In pursuing the history of England the mind is forcibly struck with her gradual rise from the lowest state of barbarism to the highest point of civilization and refinement. Early records represent her as a weak and defenceless province prostrate at the What was the fate of Murat and Marshal Ney?— 33. By whom was Louis succeed- ed? By what was his reiern signalized? — 39. In March, 1830, what took place? Id July, what ordinance was issued ? — 40. What is said of the citizens ? Who was called to accept the crown ? What became of Charles ? J. In pursuing the history of England, how is the mind struck? How do early records represent her? ENGLAND. 175 feet of a foreign power, while her present history exhibits her aa a nation holding the highest rank in power, in the arts of peace and war, and with her commerce holding communion with the most distant regions of the earth. 2. The authentic history of this country can only be traced from its conquest by the Roman arms. A Dart of the island was invaded and conquered by Julius Caesar, fifty-five years before tlie Christian era. According to ancient writers, the first inha- bitants were a tribe of Gauls or Celtae, who had landed on the island from the neighboring continent. This is probable, as their language, manners, and mode of government bear a striking resemblance to each other. Although, comparatively speaking, in a state of barbarism, the inhabitants had made some slight pro- gress in civilization and had gained some knowledge of agricul- ture previous to the invasion of the Romans. They lived in huts built in the forest, clothed themselves in the skins of beasts, and lived on the milk and flesh of their herds. They were not wholly ignorant of the arts of war; their armies, which consisted princi- pally of foot soldiers, were equipped chiefly with the bow, the shield, and the lance. They had, moreover, a kind of war-cha- riot set with scythes, which caused dreadful slaughter when driven among their enemies. 3. The religion of the ancient Britons was that of Druidism, a degrading form of superstition; their priests, called Druids, pos- sessed an unbounded control over the minds of the people. They taught the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul, and offered human victims to appease the wrath of their gods. The oak was considered the peculiar residence of the deity, and at their reli- gious solemnities, both the priest and the people wore chaplets of oak, and covered the altar with the leaves. No vestiges of their sacred groves are now to be found, but the ruins of their temples which still remain show that they attained, at an early period, a considerable advancement in the mechanical arts. 4. Such was the condition of Britain when it attracted the ambition of the Roman power. Julius Caesar, who had spread his conquests over Germany and Gaul, now cast his eye upon the isle of Britain. He was not allured by the prospect of wealth nor the richness of the soil, but led on by the ambition of carrying his arms into a region which before was considered inaccessible to the flight of the Roman eagle. With this view, having col- lected a numerous fleet, he embarked with about ten thousand of his troops. On his arrival in sight of the coast he beheld it covered with the Britons, prepared to dispute his landing. Not a little surprised on meeting with such determinate resistance, the Ro- man soldiers remained some time in doubtful suspense, until the standard-bearer of the tenth legion, leaping into the sea, advanced towards the shore, declaring that he would do his duty to Caesar and to Rome. Her present history ?— 2. What is said of the authentic history? According to an- cient writers, wnat were the inhabitants? How did they live? Of what did their armies consist?— 3. What is said of religion? What did they teach and offer ? Whal 18 said o* the oak? What do the ruins of their temples show ? — 4. AVhat is said of Caesar? J3y -ruat was he allured? What is said of the Roman soldiers? 176 ENGLAND. 5. His example was followed by his companions; they gained the shore and put themselves in order for battle. The undisci- plined Britons, unable to cope with Roman legions, were routed and tied iu confusion. Although discomfited for the present, they were not conquered, but rallying under tneir respective leaders, they soon obliged the invader to retire to the continent with all his forces. Caesar, however, was indefatigable in what- ever he undertook; returning the following year, he again invaded the island, forced the inhabitants to a subjection rather nominal than real, obliged them to give hostages for their future obedience, and again returned to Gaul. 6. In the reign of Claudius, A. I). 44, the Roman arms were again directed towards the final subjugation of Britain. For nine years the illustrious Caractacus bravely defended his dominions against the power of Rome; but being at length defeated by tlie Roman general Ostorius, he was taken prisoner and led captive to Rome; as he passed through the streets and beheld the splen- dor of the city, he was heard to exclaim, "Alas! how is it pos- sible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home, should envy Caractacus in his humble cottage in Britain." In A. D. 59, during the reign of the emperor Nero, Suetonius was sent to con- duct the war against the Britons; he defeated them under their celebrated queen Boadicea, who put an end to her own life to avoid falling into the hands of the conquerors. But the final subjugation was effected during the reign of Titus by Jigricola^ who conquered Galcagus, a distinguished Caledonian chief, and established the Roman dominion over all the southern part of the island. A. D. 78. 7. In order to prevent the incursions of the barbarians from Caledonia, the Romans built three walls across the northern part' of the island. The first was of turf, built by the order of the emperor Adrian, extending from Sol way Frith to the mouth of the river Tyne; a second of wood by Antoninus, between the frith of Clyde and Forth ; and a third of stone, by the emperor Severus. In order to repel the irruptions of the Goths and other barbarous tribes from the North, who now found their way into the plains of Italy, the Romans were obliged to recall their legions from the protection of their more distant provinces. Impelled by this necessity, near the middle of the fifth century, they withdrew their forces entirely from Britain, leaving the inhabitants to their own resources, four hundred and sixty-five years after the land ing of Julius Caesar. 8. The northern inhabitants, the Scots and Picts, no longer intimidated by the Roman legions, demolished the walls and car- ried their devastations over the southern part of the islai d. The Britons, unable to protect themselves, sent deputies soliciting the aid of the Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting the north of Ger- 5. What is said of the Britons? What did they soon oblige ihe invader to do? What did Ca?sar again do ?— 6. What took place in 44? What is said of Caractacus ? Whal did he exclaim? In A. D. 59, what took place? When was the subjugation finally flfccte J? — 7. To prevent the incursions of the barharians, what did the Romans do? By whom were they built? When wei ; their forces entirely withdrawn from Britain 1 .-&. What did the northc-n inhabitant do? Tc whom did the B- tons apply for aidT ENGLAND. 177 many. The invitation was kindly accepted: a Saxon armv of sixteen hundred men under the command of two brothers flen- gist and Horsa, was sent to their relief; and the Scots and Picts were soon compelled to retire to their own dominions. The Saxons having expelled the Scots and Picts, instead of returning to their own country] turned their arms against the Britons them- selves, and sending for a reinforcement of Saxons, Angles and Jutes, they took possession of the country and reduced the inha- [ bitants to subjection. From the Angles, the name of England is derived. 9. A series of contests ensued between the inhabitants and the invaders. Among the chieftains who opposed the Saxons, the name of Arthur stands conspicuous. This renowned prince, whose history is regarded by many as a romance, is said to have defeated them in many signal engagements, without, however, being able to effect a deliverance of his country. After a contest of nearly one hundred and fifty years, the Saxons succeeded in establish- ing their power, and erected a Heptarchy, or seven Saxon king- doms, which continued for about two hundred years, and exhi- bited during that period an almost unbroken series of dissensions and sanguinary contests. At length Egbert, king of Wessex, a man of superior talents, prudence and valor, first united them in one kingdom, under the name of England. 10. Previous to this period, the light of Christianity had shone upon the island. Towards the close of the sixth century, St, Austin, was commissioned by Pope Gregory the Great to carry the glad tidings of salvation to the inhabitants of Britain. Austin, ac companied by forty monks, set forward to England ; and having arrived in the island, announced to Egbert the object of his mis- sion. Egbert and his queen,* attended by; a vast retinue of their warlike subjects, kindly received the missionaries, and gave them an audience in the open air. St. Austin explained the doctrines of Christianity ; the king shortly after this received baptism public- ly, and such was the salutary influence of his example that ten thou- sand of his subjects are said to have been baptized in a single day. SECTION II. From the foundation of the Monarchy, to the Norman conquest, A. B. 827 to 1066. 1. During the reign of Egbert the coast of Britain was visited by a formidable enemy in the Danes, who repeatedly plundered and devastated the land, destroying every thing by five and * Bertha, the name of his queen, was the daughter of the king of Paris and had previously embraced Christianity. Having expelled the S;ols and Picts. what did the Saxons do ? — 9. Among the chief- tains, -who is conspicuous ? What is said of him ? After a contest of one Hundred and fifty your;, what did the Saxons establish? "What is said of Egbert?— 1(1. Toward the close of die sixth century what took place ? What is said of Austin ? What did he explain, and what followed ? 1. During the reign of Egbert, by whom was the coast of Britain visiter)? 178 ENGLAND. sword, and continued to be a scourge to the country for upwards of two hundred years. 2. Nothing of great importance occurred from the reign of Egbert to that of Alfred the Great, the sixth king of England. On coming to the throne he found himself surrounded on all sides by those inveterate enemies, the Danes. In One year he is said to have defeated them in eight different battles, and succeeded in forcing them to retire from his dominions. However it was but for a short duration; returning with reinforcements, they ex- tended their ravages, and obliged Alfred to solicit a peace. In his distress, the king was compelled to seek shelter for his safety by retiring into obscurity, and thus disguised in the habit of a peasant, he passed several months in the cottage of a herdsman, in the capacity of a servant. While in this humble abode, he was ordered by the herdsman's wife to take care of some cakes that she had left baking at the fire. But Alfred, whose mind was other- wise employed, forgot the injunction he had received, and lettfie cakes burn ; for which neglect he was severely reprimanded by his mistress, who told him that he was always pleased to eat her cakes, though negligent in toasting them. 3. From his retreat he carefully observed the movements of the Danes, who from success had become remiss, and watched the earliest opportunity of again placing himself at the head of h{9 followers, who had lately gained some slight advantage over their enemies. In order to ascertain the state of the Danish army, he disguised himself as a harper, entered their camp and played for the amusement of the soldiers ; he was even introduced to Guth- rum, the Danish prince, in whose tent he remained for several days. Having thus learned in person the unguarded condition of the Danes, he returned to his followers, and placing himself at their head, he attacked the enemy by surprise, and routed thera witli great slaughter. 4. Having subdued the enemies of his country, and restored peace to his kingdom, Alfred turned his attention towards repair- ing the evils they had caused, and improving the moral condi- tion of his subjects. He invited to his dominions the most emi- nent scholars from all parts of Europe; established schools for the instruction of his people; founded the University of Ox- ford, composed a code of laws, and, according to many his- torians, he established the trial by jury, and translated various works into the Saxon language. It is recorded of Alfred, that he executed forty corrupt judges in one year; and so exact and im- partial were the police, that he even suspended gold bracelets by the highway, and no one was found to lay a rapacious hand upon them. 5. He usually divided his time into three equal parts ; one of which was employed in study and devotion: a second in the dis- charge of business ; and the third in sleep and recreating his 2. On coming to the throne, how did Alfred find himself? In this distress, what is related of him t — 3. From his retreat what did he carefully do? — In order to ascertain the sta'e of the Danish camp, what did he do ? — 4. Having subdued his armies, what did Alfred do ? Whai is recorded of him . ? — 5. How did he divide his time ? ENGLAND. 173 body by exercise and diet; these divisions he exactly measured by burning tapers of equal length. Alfred has been justly re- carded by all subsequent historians, as one of the wisest and most illustrious princes that ever adorned the English throne. He was distinguished equally for his private virtues and his public charac- ter, justly reputed the greatest warrior, legislator, and statesman of his age. He was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the £h!er, A. D. 901. Edward inherited much of the military spirit of his father, and his reign was almost one continued contest with the Northumbrians and Danes. 6. Edward was succeeded by his brother Athelstan, a prince of great ability; he carried on a successful war against the Danes, Scots, and Northumbrians; strengthened and enlarged his king- dom, caused the Scriptures to be translated into the Saxon lan- guage, and enacted a law conferring the title of thane, or gentle man, on every merchant who should make three voyages to the Mediterranean Sea. 7. Edmund, his brother, succeeded to the throne. The reign of this king was short, and his death tragical. As he was cele- brating a festival in Gloucester, the notorious robber Leolf, whom Edmund had banished, entered the hall where the king was dining, and took his seat among his attendants; being ordered to leave the apartment, he refused to obey ; upon this Edmund rose and seized him by the hair; Leolf drawing his dagger, killed the king upon the. spot. Edmund was succeeded by his brother Edred, whose reign was distinguished by the final subjection of Northumbria. He had for one of his principal advisers Bunstan, the learned and venerable abbot of Glastonbury. The king de- posited with him all his treasures, and the title of his lands; and earnestly besought him to accept the vacant bishopric of Win- chester, which preferment he declined. Edred, whose constitu- tion was naturally weak, expired in the tenth year of his reign, and left the throne to Edwin. 8. Edwin, or Edwy, is generally represented by cotemporary writers, as a prince of a profligate character, whose reign would scarcely be worthy of notice, were it not for several disputed points which occupy a considerable space in some of our modern historians. Elgiva, a lady of high birth, conceiving the design of securing for herself, or daughter, the dignity of queen, and with the view of captivating Edwin's affections, one or the other, was constantly in his company. On the day of his coronation, after the banquet was over, Edwin hastily left the hall where his nobles were seated, and repaired to the company of Elgiva and her daughter. His nobles considering his departure as an insult, appointed the Bishop of Litchfield, and the abbot of Glastonbury, in the name of the whole assembly;, to go and recall the king. They found him in a most unbecoming situation with Elgiva and For what was he distinguished ? By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of Edward? — 0. By whom was Edward succeeded ? What were his principal acts?— 7. Wlio succeeded to the throne? Relate vhe circumstances of his death. By whore was he su-cceeded ? To whom did Edred leave the throne? — 8. How is Edwin re presented? What is said of Elgiva? On llie day of bis coronation, what is said of Edv/m ? What did his nohles do ? ISO ENGLAND her daughter, and having placed the crown upon his head, they conducted him back into the hall. 9. Shortly after this, Dunstan was banished from the kingdom, at the instigation of El-giva, and Edwin was married. This event, it was natural to expect, would put an end to his amorous con- nections with Elgiva. Whether on that occasion she was sent home t<. her husband, or committed to the care of her relations, does not apnear ; but the king, instigated by his passions, or by her solicitations, carried her oft' by force, and placed her on one of the royal farms* Archbishop Odo undertook to remove the scan- dal by enforcing the laws prescribed against women of abandoned character. {Leg. Sax. 58.) Through his influence she was re- moved from the farm and banished to Ireland. 10. In the second yearof his reign, the Mercians having re jected his authority, Edwin marched against them in person, but was defeated, and fled with precipitation into Wessex. Elgiva, who had returned from banishment, accompanied him on his flight; at Glo'ster she fell into the hands of the insurgents, who put her to death in a most cruel manner. That she was never married to Edwin, at least at the time of his coronation, will ap- pear evident by consulting the original extracts from the histo- rians of that period, to be found transcribed in Lingard's notes to his history of England. (Vol. 3, page 311.) 11. Edwin died shortly after the Martian war, and was suc- ceeded by his brother Edgar, A. D. 959. One of the first acts" of the new monarch was to recall from exile the Abbot of Glas- tonbury, who received episcopal consecration, and was appointed to the bishopric of Worcester, but was afterwards translated to the metropolitan see of Canterbury. The reign of Edgar was rendered memorable for being the period in which England was freed from wolves ; by offering a reward for each head, he pro- dueed such diligence in the search of them, that the race shortly disappeared. 12. Hearing of the extraordinary beauty of Elfrida, daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, he sent his favorite Athelwold to ascertain if her beauty corresponded with the report. Athel- : wold was so completely overcome by the charms of Elfrida, that he resolved, if possible, to espouse her himself. Accordingly on his return, he represented to the king that her beauty had been greatly exaggerated, and that she was not handsome ; but on ac- count of her wealth, he thought she would be a suitable match for an earl, and thus obtained the king's permission to marry her. Having afterwards discovered the treachery, Edgar, resolving to be avenged, killed Athelwold with hi-s own hand while hunting, and shortly afterwards espoused Elfrida. 13. Edgar was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the Martyr, in consequen:e of his having been assassinated at the 9. Shortly after this, what took place ? What did Odo undertake?— 10. In the second year of his reign what took place ? What is said of Klgiva ? What will appear evi- dent?— 11. What was one of the first acts of Edsrai ? Fur what is his reign uiepio rahle?— 12. Hearing of the beauty of Klfrida, what die! lie dc ? What is related oi Athelwold 7 What was his ei.d?— 13. By whom was Kdgar succeeded ? What WOS 3fs end' ENGLAND 181 i instigation of his step-mother, EJfrida, who was induced to this crime for the purpose of procuring the crown for her own son #> Ethelred II. next ascended the throne, to whom historians give the surname of Unready, from his want of promptness when called to duty. He was a weak and inactive prince. During his reign the Danes again invaded the kingdom under Sweyn their king. Ethelred fled to Normandy, leaving the kingdom in the hanlls of the invaders. The people, thus left without a leader, quietly acknowledged the Danish sovereign ; but on the death of Sweyn, Ethelred was again restored. After an unfortunate reign of thirty-five years, Ethelred died, leaving the throne to his son Edmund, surnamed Ironside, on account of his great strength and valor; but courage and abilities were unable to save his declining country. 14. Canute, the son of Sweyn, having succeeded to the throne of Denmark, asserted his claim to the crown of England, invaded the country with a powerful army, and compelled the English monarch to divide his dominions with him. In a month after this event, Edmund was murdered at Oxford by the treachery of Edric, his brother-in-law, and Canute was acknowledged sole monarch of England. He was one of ihe most powerful mon- archs of his time, and received the appellation of Great, from his talents and the success of his name. The early part of his life was stained with acts of cruelty, but the latter part was distin- guished for mildness and benevolence. After a reign of eighteen years, he died much lamented by his subjects. 15. Canute was succeeded by his son Harold, whose principal amusement was the chase ; he received (he surname of Harefoot, from his swiftness in running. He was a prince of a weak and profligate character; he reigned only three years, and was suc- ceed d by his brother Hardicanute, the last of the Danish kings, whose reign was only distinguished for his cruelty and vices. 16. As the late king left no issue, the English availed them selves of this opportunity to shake off" the Danish yoke, and again restored the Saxon line in the person of Edward, the brother of Ironside. Edward was distinguished for the mildness of his dis- position and for his personal virtue. After his death he was canonized by the Pope, and received the surname of Confessor. "By the death of Edward, England was re-plunged into all the miseries of war. As he died without issue, the British sceptre was claimed by several competitors, among whom, Harold, son of the famous Earl of Godwin, and William Duke of Normandy, were the most powerful. Harold, however, being present at Kdward's death, quietly stepped into the vacant throne, and was joyfully acknowledged by the whole nation. William of Nor- mandy resolved 1o assert his claim to the crown of England by force of arms. Having collected a numerous fleet, he sailed from Who next ascended the throne 1 Who invaded the kingdom? What became of Ethelred ? What did the people do ? By whom was F.the.red succeeded ? — 14. Whal .s said of Canute? AVliat was he? By what was his early ..i'e stained? — 15. By whom was Canute succeeded ? "What is said of liim ?--16. As the king left no issue- . What did Harold do ? What did William resuvc ? 10 182 ENGLAND. St. Valeria* in France, and landed at fevenwy, in Sussex, with* 9n army of sixty thousand men. 17. He was met l>y Harold with an army equally numerous The night previous to the engagement, the two armies had pitched their camps in sight of each other, and waited with impatience for the return of the morning. As soon as the day dawned, they were drawn out in array, and awaited the signal for the combat. The two monarchs appeared at the head of their armies, William on horseback, and Harold on foot, in the centre of the host. The memorable battle of Hastings ensued; long and bloody was the contest; at length the valor of the English yielded, and victory declared in favor of the Normans; the nation sub- mitted to the sceptre of William, who in consequence was called The Conqueror. SECTION III. Hie Norman Family ; William I. the Conqueror ; William U.; Henry L; Stephen of Blois. From Ji. D. 1066 to 1154. 1. After the battle of Hastings, the spirit of the English was broken ; city after city submitted to the conqueror, until he found I himself firmly seated on the English throne. Though William was a sovereign possessed of great abilities as a statesman and a warrior, yet many of his acte have stamped upon his reign the blot of cruelty and oppression. He was re- j markable in his person, being tall and well proportioned, audi possessed of such strength that few persons of that age were found who could bend his bow or wield his arms. 2. As was natural to expect, he entertained a partiality for his Norman followers, and advanced them to all the posts of honor and distinction — a measure which did not fail to excite the dis- affection of the English subjects, who made several attempts to throw off the yoke ; but their endeavors were fruitless and only tended to tighten the chains of their bondage. He endeavored, in a manner, to abolish the English language, by causing thej youth throughout the kingdom to learn the French tongue. No other language was used at court, and among the more fashion- able society; hence proceeded that mixture of French words i which we find at present in the English tongue. Being much addicted to the pleasure of the chase, he reserved to himself the exclusive privilege of killing game throughout the kingdom, and formed the New Forest, by depopulating a tract of land nearly thirty miles in circuit. One of the most usefui acts of his reign was the completing the Dooms-day Book, which contained a register of all the estates of his kingdom. 17. The night previous to the engagement, what is said of the arnves ! Of the twc monarch* ? Describe the battle ■ 1. After the battle of Hastings, what is said of the English? Of William' In his person ?--2. AVhat did he entertain ? What did he endeavour to abolish ? What was one of the most useful acts of his reign? ENGLAND. 183 3. His domestic repose was somewhat embittered by the dis- union of his three sons, who resided in a castle in Normandy. He did all that lay in his power to compromise their differences without effect. His unnatural son, Robert, openly revolted and declared war against his father. William besieged him in the castle of Gerberoy, where many encounters took place, resem- bling more the combats of chivalry than the contests of hostile armies. In one of these, it happened that Robert encountered the king himself, who was concealed by a helmet ; a fierce com- bat ensued ; at length the young prince wounded and dismounted his father. The king called out for assistance; Robert, hearing his voice, recognised his parent ; struck with remorse, he alighted from his horse, threw himself at the feet of William, and implored his pardon; then assisting him to mount, he saw him return to his camp. A reconciliation soon after took place, through the interpo- sition of his queen, Matilda, whom William tenderly loved. Hav- ing reached the sixty-third year of his age, William died on th<* continent, at the monastery of St. Gervais, in the thirty-first yea) of his conquest of England. 4. W T illiam II., surnamed Rufus, from his red hair, succeeded his father in the English throne, A. D. 1087. His reign was marked by many acts of cruelty and perfidy. As he was hunting in the New Forest, he was accidentally shot by Sir Walter Tyr- rel, who had aimed an arrow at a stag, after a reign of thirteen years. 5. Henry I., the younger brother of William, taking advantage of the absence of his brother Robert, the rightful heir, who was then on a crusade to the Holy Land, ascended the throne. Robert, on his return, made preparations to gain, by force of arms, the crown of England, of which he had been deprived during his absence. An accommodation, however, was effected between the two brothers ; but Henry, shortly after this, infringed upon the treaty, and made war upon Normandy; the conquest he effected after the severe fought battle of Tenchclray, where Robert was taken prisoner. This unfortunate prince was detained in custody during the remainder of his life, which lasted twenty- eight years, in a castle in Wales; leaving a melancholy proof how feeble are the barriers which the nearest ties of kindred can afford to the raging impulse of ambition. Henry was rendered inconsolable in the latter part of his life by the loss of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy; after the news of this accident he was never seen to smile. Henry was, in many respects, an able and accomplished sove- reign, but ambitious and ungrateful. 6. On his death he left the throne to his daughter, Matilda $ but Stephen, Earl of Blois, and nephew to the late king, a noble of great ability and unbounded ambition, seized the crown. 3. What is said ofhis domestic repose? Of his son Robert? What did William do? On cue cccasion what happened ? When did he die ? — 4. By whom was William suc- ceeded? What was his end? — 5. AVho next ascended the throne? What is said ot Kobert? Shortly after this what was done by Henry? How Ion? wns Robert de- tamed a prisoner ?— 6. To whom was the throne left 7 What c'ul Matilda determine . Who invaded the country ? What cr.sued ? 184 ENGLAND, Matilda immediately determined to assert her right by force of arms, and raising an army, she defeated Stephen and took pos- session of the throne ; but by a strange occurrence of events, which are tedious and by no means interesting, Stephen, in his turn, having defeated her and compelled her 10 leave her do- minions, again ascended the throne. _ Henry, the son of Matilda, resolving to maintain his rightful inheritance to the Eirglish crown, invaded the country at the head of a powerful army; but an accommodation ensued by which it was agreed that Stephen should reign until his death, after which the crown should fall to Henry. SECTION IV. Family of Plant a genet ; Henry II. ; Richard I.; John; Henry III ; Edward I. ; Edward II. ; Edward III. ; Richard II. , from Ji.D. 1154/0 1399. Henry II., in whom were united the families of the Saxon and Norman monarchs, now ascended the British throne, at the aga 1 of twenty-one. By his marriage with Eleanor, heiress of Guicnnr t he possessed by inheritance nearly half of France. The mosf important achievement of this monarch's life was his invasion and subjugation of Ireland, which country has remained, more or less, in a state of subjection to the English crown to the present time. During the early part of his reign the famous Tlwmas-a-Becket t a man of extraordinary abilities, held the first place in the favor of the king, who promoted him to the office of high chancellory and made him preceptor of the young princes. Becket displayed a magnificence equal to his dignity ; his table was free of access to every person who had business at court ; he took precedence of all the lay barons, and among his vassals he numbered upwards of a hundred knights. 2. Henry lived on terms of the greatest familiarity with his chancellor, and seemed to have resigned into his hands the go- vernment of his dominions. About this time it happened that the see of Canterbury became vacant, and Becket, on account of his situation, was pointed to as the person most likely to fill it. Accordingly the king sent a message to the chancellor, who was then on the continent, to repair to England, intimating to him at the same time that in a few days he would be archbishop of Can-; terbury. Becket replied that if the king were serious, he begged permission to decline the preferment, because it would be impos- sible for him to perform the duties of that station, and at the same time to retain the favor of his sovereign. But Henry was in- flexible, and insisted on his accepting the preferment. Beckel at length, much against his own judgment, was induced to acqui 1. Who now ascended the British throne? Whom did he marry? What was \hi most important achievement? What is said c f Thomas-a-Becket? What did he dis- play ? — 2. About tins time what happened? What message did the king send? How did Becket reply ? What ia said of Henry ? ENGLAND. 1S5 ebce. Shortly after his return to England he was ordained priest, and in a few days received episcopal consecration. | 3. Becket, whose private life had always been marked by the strictest integrity and morality, now began to think more seri- ously of acquiring those virtues that more particularly adorn the clerical character. The ostentatious parade and worldly pursuits of the chancellor were instantly renounced by the archbishop. The train of knights and noblemen who were accustomed to attend him were exchanged for a few companions, selected from among the most virtuous and learned of the clergy. His diet was abstemious and his charities were abundant; his time was occupied in prayer, study, and in the discharge of his episcopal functions ; and as he found it difficult to unite the duties of his present station with those of chancellor, he resigned this latter office into the hands of the king. 4. The good understanding which for some time subsisted be- tween the primate and the king, was not destined to be of long •continuance. Henry began to make encroachments on the rights of the church and the clergy ; sought to deprive them of the privi- lege of being tried for offences in the ecclesiastical courts, which privilege they had enjoyed from a very early period, and required that a clergyman, after he had been degraded by the sentence of ■ his spiritual judges, should be delivered into the custody of a lay officer to be punished by the lay tribunal. To this it was replied, j that U would be placing the English clergy on a footing inferior to their brothers in any other Christian country; it was repug- nant to those liberties which the king had sworn to preserve at his coronation, and that it violated the iirst principle of law, by re- quiring that the same individual should be twice punished for the same offence. 5. The king grew indignant at the opposition of the bishops, and in order to bring the matter to an issue, summoned a great council to meet at Clarendon. Here, by entreaties, threats, and intimidation, he prevailed on the bishops to sign what is called the " Constitution of Clareyidon." As several articles in this constitution were derogatory to the rights of the church, and in- fringed on the papal jurisdiction, by prohibiting appeals to the court of Rome without the king's consent, the bishops, in signing it, had sacrificed their conscience. 6. As the primate returned, he meditated in silence on his con- tract in the council, and saw the error into which intimidation had betrayed him ; he bewailed his fault and immediately retract- ed his assent. His conduct inflamed anew the indignation of Henry. At length the archbishop thought it prudent to withdraw for a season from England, and retired into France. 7. A reconciliation was soon after effected between Henry and the primate, who again returned to England, carrying letters of •}. What is now said of Becket? How was his time occupied? — 4. What did Henry b.^in to do? What did he require? To this what was replied? — 5. What did ihe '-ci:ig summons? Here what did lie prevail on the bishops to sign? What were seve- ral art,cles in this constitution ?— 6 As the primate returned, what is said of hun' What did he think proper to do ' — 7. A T hat was soon after effected ? 16* 186 ENGLAND. suspension or excommunication from the pope, against the bishops of York, London, and Salisbury. The bishops, on receiving these letters, burst into violent complaints against the primate, and hastened into Normandy to seek redress from the kinf(. Henry, in a moment of irritation, exclaimed, " Of all the cowards who eat at my table, is there not one who will free me from this turbulent priest." Four of his knights, who were present, taking this for the royal approbation, bound themselves by oath to cany off or murder the primate. 8. They immediately set out for England, hastened to Canter bury, and entering the palace of the archbishop, they upbraided him with insolence to the king. As they left his apartment, the! hour for vespers arrived, and the undaunted prelate went unat- tended to the cathedral. He was ascending the steps of the choir when the assassins entered the church. One of the number cried out, '* Where is the traitoi ?" To this no answer was returned. I3ut when another asked, " Where is the archbishop?" the pre- late replied, "Here is the archbishop, but no traitor." Upon this one of the assassins aimed a blow which wounded him on the head. As he felt the blood trickling down his face, hci clasped his hands, and bowing down, he said, "In the name of Christ and for the defence of his church, I am ready to die." In this posture, he turned towards his murderers, and under their repeated blows he sunk to the floor, at the foot of St. Ben- neVs altar. 9. Thus perished this extraordinary man, a martyr to what lie) deemed his duty, the preservation of the privileges and immunk ties of the church. His death vyas the triumph of his cause; thei church seemed to derive new vigor from the blood of her cham- pion. The first news of this e\ ent filled Henry with consternation and alarm ; he now lamented when too late the hasty expression* that had led to the commission of so terrible a crime. But sub- sequent events caused the monarch to think more seriously on this transaction than at present. Some few years afterwards he beheld his own sons uniting in rebellion against him, in conjunc- tion with his perfidious barons. Such things, he concluded, were not in the ordinary course of nature; they could be no other than the effects of the divine wrath which he had enkindled by his persecution of the archbishop. 10. The name of the prelate had been lately enrolled by the pope in the catalogue of the saints, and the fame of the miracles I wrought at his shrine resounding through every part of Europe Henry, to expiate his offence, resolved to make a pilgrimage t( the tomb of the martyr. For this purpose he hastily set sail foi England, and when he came within sight of Canterbury, he dis- mounted from his horse and walked, without any covering on his What did the bishops do on receiving these letters? What did Henry exclaim What did the four knights do ? — 8. As they left his apartment what took place ? Wha did one of their number cry out? What did the prelate reply? Upon this what wai done ? In bowing down what did he say ? — 9. What is said of Henry at the first new Of this event? Some years afterwards, what did he behold ? What did he conclude —10. What is said of the name of the prelate ? What did Henry resolve »o do? Re iatc what followed ENGLAND. 187 leet, towards the city; as he entered the gate, it was observed that his footsteps were stained with blood. Without making- any delay, he hastened to the cathedral, and there threw himself at the foot of the tomb, while the bishop of London addressed the . spectators. As soon as the prelate had concluded his discourse, Henry arose and repaired to the chapter-house of the convent, where the monks, a few bishops and abbots were assembled. Before them, the royal penitent, on his knees, confessed his crime, and received on his shoulders, with a knotted cord, a few stripes from each. After this extraordinary act of humiliation he returned again to the shrine, and spent the night in prayer. 11. The latter part of his life was embittered by the unnatural conduct of his sons, who joined in a second rebellion against their father, aided by the king of France. On receiving a list of those who had conspired to deprive him of his crown, the first name that caught his eye was that of his favorite son, John. He read no more, but returned the paper with a broken heart. At first he sunk into a deep melancholy ; this was followed by a raging fever, during which he called down the heaviest denunciations of hea- ven on his ungrateful children. He died in the fifty-eigth yeai of his age and thirty-fifth of his reign. Henry, in many respects, maybe ranked among the ablest of the English monarchs. He possessed distinguished abilities as a statesman and warrior; yet his private life was far from being commendable; pride, passion, duplicity, and ambition, seem to have been the most prominent features of his character. 12. Richard I., surnamed Cceur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted, now ascended the throne, and endeavored to atone, in some mea- sure, for his ungrateful conduct towards his father, by renouncing those who had assisted in the unnatural rebellion, and receiving into his favor the ministers of the former reign. Richard was a prince of a chivalrous and romantic turn of mind. Shortly after his accession to the throne, he engaged in the crusades, and in conjunction with Philip Augustus of France, embarked on an ex pedition to the Holy Land. Here his personal valor was con- spicuous in every engagement; he defeated the celebrated Saladin, in the memorable battle of Ascalon, in which forty thousand Saracens were slain, and finally compelled him to con- clude a treaty of peace. 13. On his return homeward, being shipwrecked, he endeavored to pass in disguise through Germany, but was discovered and de- tained a prisoner by the emperor, Henry VI., who released him after a long confinement, on the payment of ^6300,000. Haying regained hts liberty, he returned to his own dominions, from which he had been absent for nearly four years. The year fol- lowing, having laid siege to the castle of Chalus, he received a wound of which he died, in the tenth year of his reign, and the forty-second of his age. Richard has been styled the Achilles of 11. What is said of the latter iart of his life ? What are the circumstances of his death? AVhen did he die ? What is said of him ?■— 12. Who succeeded to the throno? In what did he engage? Whom did he defeat ?— 13. On his return, what napr ened to him ? What occasioned his death ? What is sa d of Ricnara f 188 ENGLAND. modern times; his achievements more resemble the deeds of a hero of romance, than those of a wise and political sovereign. 14. John, the brother of Richard, succeeded to the throne; his reign is regarded as one of the most infamous in English history. Mis nephew, Arthur, the son of Geoffrey, an elder brother, was the rightful heir to the crown. The young prince happened to fall into the power of John, by whom he was basely murdered, lest at any future period he might assert his claim. This act of treachery excited universal disgust. Philip Augustus, of France, supported the claim of Arthur, and to avenge his death, deprived the English monarch of his French possessions. 15. John, although his queen was yet alive, indulged a passion for Isabella, daughter of Aymar, Count of Angoulcme, a lady who had been already betrothed to the Count de le Marehc, yet by reason of her age, the marriage had not been consummated. Having procured a divorce from his own wife, he espoused Isa-: bel-la. The sovereign pontiffs, during the Middle Ages, were frequently called on to interpose their spiritual power, to shield the people from oppression, and to arrest the vices and check (lie passions of their rulers, and even the jurisprudence of that period acceded to the pope, on some extraordinary occasions, the power of absolving the people from their allegiance to their sovereign. 1G. On this occasion, Innocent III. remonstrated with John without effect. Another circumstance which happened at this; time, caused the pope to put in execution the full extent of his, spiritual power. It had been a custom from an. early period, in England, to consult the king in the appointment of a bishop to fi!l°any of the vacant sees. It happened at this time, that the: bishopric of Canterbury became vacant, and Lancton was chosen to fill it ; the pope thought proper to depart from the usual cus-' torn, and confirmed the appointment without consulting the king, whose late conduct had given so much scandal to his subjects. John, highly incensed at this, sent two of his knights to expel the: monks from the convent, and vented his rage on all who had any hand in the instrument. For this infringement of his spiritual, jurisdiction, the pope proceeded to place the kingdom under an Interdict, an instrument which was only resorted to on extraordi-i nary occasions, and one calculated to strike the mind with sensa tions of awe. 17. While it remained in force, the nation was deprived of all the exterior exercises of religion; the altars were despoiled of their ornaments ; the crosses, relics, pictures, and statues of the. saints, were laid on the ground and covered up; the bells were removed from the churches; mass was celebrated with closed doors ; the laity partook of no religious rites except baptism, and communion to the dying ; the dead were not interred in conse- crated ground, and marriage was celebrated in the churchyard. IS. John, at length overcome by the evils which he had brought 14 Who succeeded to the throne ? What act of treachery did he commit? Of what Was he deprived ? — 15. What is now related of John ? What is said of the sovereign pontifTs? — 16. Relate the circumstance which caused the pope to put in execution the extent of his spiritual power ? To what did the pope now proceed ?— 17. While it rt> m lined in force, of what was the kingdom deprived? ENGLAND 189 vii Lis kingdom, yielded his obstinacy, became reconciled to the ::bmch, and fearful of the. invasion of the French monarch, lie iui rendered his crown to the pope, from whom he consented tc lold it as a vassal. ^ In the mean time, his natural disposition for tyranny seemed to increase ; he despised his nobles, an([ sought ivery opportunity of infringing upon their privileges. The barons \t length, unable to support his tyrannical exactions, under the lirection of Lancton, the primate, formed a confederacy against v .im. They met at Ihmnymcdc, and compelled him, after much ^position, to sign and seal the famous document of Magna \UiUirta, which is even now regarded as the great bulwark of English liberty, and by which important liberties and privileges ire secured to every order of men in the kingdom, A. I). 1215 folin died the following year, after an odious reign of eighteen fears, with scarcely a single virtue to redeem a thousand vices. His son, Henry III. succeeded to the throne at the age of nine Vears, under the guardianship of the Earl of Pembroke. The listory of this reign consists of little more than a recital of a series of internal contests between the king and his turbulent mrons. Henry was a weak and timid prince; gentle and mild n his disposition ; but he greatly displeased the nation by his par iiaiity to foreigners. The barons, with the Earl of Leicester at their head, took up inns and compelled the king to resign his authority to twenty four of their number, and having thus divided all the offices of the government among themselves, they disregarded the privileges nf the crown and trampled on the rights of the people. But the knights of the Shire, who now began to assemble separately from 'the lords, indignant at the usurpation of Leicester and his con- federate barons, took up arms in favor of the king. A battle was fought at Lewes, in which the royal army was defeated, and the king, with his son Edward, was made prisoner. 19. Leicester now compelled the king to ratify his authority by a solemn treaty.; assumed the character of regent, and called a parliament, consisting of two knights from each shire, and de- puties from the principal boroughs. From this period is generally dated the first outline of the present English House of Commons. Young Edward having at length regained his liberty, in conjunc tion with the Duke of Gloucester, took the field against Leices- ter, who was defeated and slain in the famous battle of Evesham. j Henry was again restored to the throne, but died shortly after this event, in "the sixty-fourth year of his age, and the fifty-sixth of his reign, A. D. 1272. 20. Edward, who had early given indications of distinguished military abilities, was absent on a crusade at the time of his lathers death. On one occasion, as he sat in his tent, an assassin entered and aimed a poisoned arrow at his breast ; he found IS. Fearful of the invasion of the French monarch, what did John do ? What is satd of the barons ? Where did they meet? What was he aompelled to sign? When did Jo.m die ? Who succeeded ? What is said of his history ? What was he compelled to do by the barons? What battle was fought?— 19. What did Leicester now do? What is said of voting Edward t What is said of Henry ?— 20. What is said of fid* * r ard ? On one occasion what happened ? 190 ENGLAND means to ward off the blow, but received a wound in his arm His devoted queen, Eleanor of Castile, saved his lile at the evi- dent risk of her own, by extracting the poison by applying hei mouth to the wound He had advanced as far as Sicily on his return, when he received information of his father's death. 21. On his arrival in England, he was received with joy by all classes of the people, and immediately turned his attention to- wards removing the disorders which tilled the state during the preceding' reign. Having restored order and tranquillity at home, ne turned his arms towards the subjugation of Wales, and having defeated and slain Llewellyn, the king, he annexed that country to the British crown, and created his eldest son Prince of Water. a title which at the present time distinguishes the oldest son of I the English monarch. Edward was shortly afterwards madeum pire, in a dispute between Robert Bruce and John Baliol, respect ing the succession of the Scottish throne. He adjudged the crown to Baliol, who engaged to hold it as a vassal of the English monarch. He, however, threw off his allegiance, and Edward invaded Scotland with a powerful army, defeated the Scots in the battle of Dunbar, subdued the kingdom, and carried Baliol I captive to England. 22. The Scots, who had unwillingly submitted to the yoke of subjugation, were roused to assert their independence through the | influence of the renowned hero, Sir William Wallace; but after a series of brilliant achievements, their efforts failed for the pre- sent ; the illustrious Wallace was basely betrayed into the hands ; of Edward, and. put to death with barbarous cruelty. They found, , however, a more successful champion in the person of Robert Bruce, grandson of Baliol, who, after he had expelled the British from the country, was restored to the throne of his ancestors. Edward having made preparation for a second invasion of Scot land, died at Carlisle, in the thirty -fifth year of his reign. Ed ward was eminently distinguished as a legislator and warrior, but his cruelty towards the Jews, and his cold-blooded massacre of the bards of Wales, have stamped upon his memory an indeli- ble blot of tyranny and rapacity. 23. Edward II. succeeded his father to the throne, and imme diately invaded Scotland with an army of one hundred thousand men, which was met at Bannockburn by Robert Bruce, with thirty thousand. A dreadful conflict ensued, in which the Eng- lish were signally defeated. Edward possessed but few qualities to distinguish him as a sovereign ; he was miid in disposition, but weak and indolent, fond of pleasure, and allowed himself to be governed by unworthy favorites, which excited against him the turbulent spirit of his barons, and filled his reign with civil dis sensions. 24. Isabella, his queen, a woman of the most infamous charac • 21. Edward having- restored tranquillity at home, what did he do ? Being made um 5 lire between Bruce "and Baliol, to w;iom did he adjudge the crown ? What is said of laliol? What did Edward do? — 2C. By whom were the Scots roused to assert their independence ? What was the fate of Wallace ? In whom did they find a more suc- cessful champion ? Mow was Edward distimruished ?— 23. What did Edward II. do * What is said of him?— 21. What is said of Isabella, his queen? What was the fate o( Edwaid? ENGLAND. 19J Ur, fixed her affections upon Mortimer, a young and powerful baron, with whom she entered into a conspiracy against the king, and compelled him to resign in favor of his son. Edward was cast into prison, and barbarously murdered at the instigation of Isabella, in Berkeley Castle, A. D. 1328. 25. Edward III. succeeded to the throne in the fourteenth year of his age. During his minority, a regency of twelve person? was appointed; yet Mortimer and the infamous queen maintained (heir power and exercised the chief control. Almost the first act of Edward, on coming of age, was to punish the murderers of his unhappy father. Mortimer was publicly executed ; Isabella was confined in the castle of Risings, where she remained for twenty- eight years, a memorable example of blasted ambition. Edward's first expedition was against the Scots, whom he defeated with great slaughter in the battle of Hallidon Hill. 26. He claimed the crown of France, which he pretended he inherited from his mother, and resolved to maintain it by force of arms, in opposition to Philip of Valois, who had ascended the French throne. Having collected a powerful armament of two hundred and fifty sail, he departed from England, and having encountered a French fleet of four hundred ships on the coast ot Flanders, he gained one of the most memorable naval victories recorded in history. The loss of the English is said to have been only four thousand men and two ships, while thirty thousand of the French fell in the engagement, with the loss of two hundred and thirty of their vessels. 27. He then invaded the country at the head of thirty thousand troops, and spread devastation wherever he advanced. He met the French monarch, who advanced to oppose, at the head of an army of one hundred thousand men, and defeated him in the famous battle of Cressy. This battle is rendered memorable for being the first in which the English made use of cannon; also for being the scene in which Edward, the Black Prince, (so called from the color of his armor,) the king's eldest son, then in the sixteenth year of his age, commenced his brilliant military career. While the battle raged in its greatest fury, a messenger was despatched desiring that succour might be sent to the aid of the Prince; Edward replied to the messenger, " Go tell my son, that I reserve for him the glory of this day; he will be able, without my aid, to repel the enemy." Edward having taken the city of Calais, after a memorable siege, returned again to England. 28. While the English monarch was conducting his conquests on the continent, the Scots made an irruption into his dominions at home, but were defeated in a battle at Neville^s Cross by Phi- lippa, his heroic queen, and their king was led captive to London. John, who succeeded his father in the throne of France, resolved to expel the English from his dominions, and took the field with 25. Wno exceeded lo the throne? What was his first act on cominjr of ago? What was the fate of Mortimer and Isabella? — 2(>. What did he claim? What "did he do? What was the loss on both sides?— 27. What did he then do? By whom was he met? For what is the battle memorable? While the battle raged, wnaj w« dore?— 28. AVhile the English monarch, &c, what did the Scots dc* \\ nat baule was fought? Wher maids o£ honor ? Whai is said of this accomplished ady 1 Of his pi ior marriage ? 200 ENGLAND. to Catherine at an early period, through the inflnence of his fa. ther, and married shortly after he ascended the throne. But now, after living with her for eighteen years, he began to feel conscien- tious scruples respecting his marriage, on account of her having been the wife of his brother, and applied to Clement VII. for a di- vorce. The pope, unwilling to grant his request, from time to time held him in suspense, hoping that delay might change the mind of the English monarch. In his prime minister, the celebrated Car- dinal Wolsey, Henry expected to find an obsequious agent. But perceiving that the cardinal did not meet his expectations, he re- solved on his ruin, and ordered him to be arrested for high treason. 9. This extraordinary man was born at Ipswich, in Sufiolk, of humble parentage, but gifted with superior talents and great abilities, he rose" to the highest preferments in church and state; having been elevated to the arch-episcopal see of York, then crea- ted Cardinal, and soon afterwards Lord High Chancellor of En- gland and Prime Minister. The fame of his talents, riches, and power was known throughout all Europe. On his way from York to London, to stand his trial, he stopped at Leicester Abbey, where he died after a short illness. A few moments before his death, he uttered these remarkable words, in reference to the ingratitude of his sovereign : " If I had served my God as faithfully as I have served my king, he would not have abandoned me in my gray hairs." From the fate of this great man, we may demonstrate the instability of human greatness, and the weakness of human power. 10. In the meantime, the king pushed forward the divorce with all his energy. The see of Canterbury having become vacant, he pitched upon the famous Cramner to fill it ; in this man, Henry found a ready instrument, not only to accomplish his present wish, but also to serve him in similar circumstances on a future occasion. Growing impatient of delay, and failing to obtain the pope's con- sent for the divorce, he resolved to carry the measure without his consent. For this purpose he assembled a court, over which Cran- mer presided ; this tribunal, after a short deliberation, pronounced his marriage with Catherine invalid, and immediately proceeded to grant the divorce. The king whose amorous affections would not permit him to delay, had been previously married to Ann Bo- leyn, even before he had received the decision of the court ap- pointed to annul his marriage with Catherine. 11. Henry now threw off all restraint; abolished the papai jurisdiction in England, and caused himself, by act of parliament to be proclaimed head of the English church. He arrogated to himself infallibility, and condemned all, both Catholics and Pro- testants, to the stake, who held opinions contrary to his own. The venerable Bishop Fisher, and the celebrated Thomas More, then After eighteen years, what did he begin to feel ? What is said of the pope ? Who was his prime minister ?— 9. What is said of this extraordinary man? Of the fameo! bis talents? Before his death, what remarkable words did he utter?- -10. Who was chosen to fill the see of Canterbury? Growing impatient, what did he resolve. ? For this purpose, what was done? What had the king done before receiving the decision of the cour' ?— 11. What did the king now do ? What is said of Bishops Fisher wu More' ENGLAND. 201 high chancellor, were Drought to the scaffold for refusing to ac- knowledge his supremacy. By an act of parliament, the monas- teries in England, to the number of six hundred, were suppressed, besides a much greater number of other religious institutions 5 their estates were converted to the use of the crown, and their revenues swept into the royal exchequer. Speaking of these in- stitutions, Mr. Collier says": " To the abbeys we are indebted for most of our- best historians, both church and state; the youth there had their education with little charge to their parents ; the nobility and gentry a credible way of providing for their younger children." 12. But Henry did not stop here; he even extended his rapa- cious hand from the dwellings of the living to the silent repose of the tomb. He plundered the rich shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury, despoiled it of its ornaments of gold and silver, con- verting the whole to the royal treasury; then ordering the saint to be indicted for high treason committed against his sovereign, Henry II., he condemned him as a traitor; his bones were dug up and scattered to the wind. 13. In less than three years after his late marriage, he caused the new queen, Jinn, to be condemned and beheaded for real or imputed crimes, and on the day after her execution, he married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of Prince Ed- ward. His fourth wife was Ann, of Cleves, from whom he ob- tained a divorce because he had been deceived in the estimate he had formed of her personal appearance. Thomas Cromwell, who was the son of a blacksmith in Putney, now created Earl of Es- sex, and prime minister, having been instrumental in bringing about the unhappy marriage, lost the favor of the king, and sut fered on the scaffold. His fifth wife was Catherine Howard, who, also, ended her days on the scaffold, in a few months after her exalt- ation to the throne. His last wife was Catherine Par, the widow of Lord Latimer, whose life was saved by the death of the king, which took place in the thirty-seventh year of his reign, and fifty sixth of his age, A. D. 1547. 14. Henry was succeeded by his son Edward VI., in the tenth year of his age, the Duke of Somerset, his uncle, being appointed protector of the kingdom during his minority. The reign of this prince is distinguished by the important change in the religion of the realm. During the reign of his father ihe principles of the reformation which had been introduced int. the kingdom were now patronised and tolerated. By degrees the forms of the an- cient church were removed in order to make place for those of the new. A new liturgy in the English language, and a book of Common Prayer, were composed by archbishop Cranmer. By the adoption of this liturgy, which was done by act of parliament, all the rights and ceremonies of the Catholic church were abo- What was done hy act of parliament? What does Mr. Collier say of these .nstitu- Lons? — 12. What did he plunder ? What did he order ? — 13. In less than three years, fcrr.at happened? Who was his fourth wife? "What is sa : d of Thoi/ias Cromwell? V",o was his fifth wife ? Who was hiz sixth wife ? When did Henry die ?-14. Whc succeeded? For what is the reign of this prince distinguished ? "What whs composed by Cianmer? By the adoption of this liturgy what was effected? 202 ENGLAND. lished, and a form of worship nearly resembling that of the present church of England, established throughout the kingdom. 15. The young king, who possessed many amiable qualities was suddenly carried off by death, in the sixteenth year of his age. Previously, however, he had been prevailed on, by the influence and intrigues of the Duke of Northumberland, the protector, to set aside his two sisters Mary and Elizabeth, and to leave the crown to Lady Jane Grey, who had married Lord Guilford Dud- ley, the son of the protector. Through the influence of her friends, Lady Jane Grey was immediately proclaimed on the death of Edward ; but after wearing the crown for ten days, she resigned the ensigns of royalty and retired again into a private station. After this unsuccessful attempt of Northumberland to snatch the crown from the brow of the rightful heir, Mary, the sister of Ed ward, quietly succeeded to the throne. 16. The duke of Northumberland and two others were the only persons who suffered on the scaffold to atone for this conspiracy against their lawful sovereign. Lady Jane, who was considered as a mere instrument in the hands of the duke to work out his ambitious designs, was pardoned by the queen. But shortly after this a second conspiracy was entered into against Mary, at (he nead of which appeared the Duke of Suffolk and his brother; they were defeated, and atoned for their rebellion by the sacrifice o| their lives. 17. Mary, who had been much blamed for her lenient conduct at the termination of the former conspiracy, was now induced, by the urgent persuasion of her ministers, to sign a warrant for the execution of Lady Jane Grey and her husband. On the fatal morning permission was given them to take leave of each other; the indulgence Jane refused, saying that they would shortly meet in heaven. From the window of her cell she saw her husband led to execution, and his bleeding corpse brought back to the chapel. When led forth herself, she mounted the scaffold with a firm step. She acknowledged in a few words to the spectators her fault in consenting to the treason of Northumberland, although she was not one of the original conspirators; and after repeating a psalm, she laid her head upon the block ; at the first stroke of the axe it was severed from the body. 18. Mary has been much censured in consenting to the execu • tion of this unfortunate lady. It is true that her life had been spared as a pledge tor the loyalty of the house of Suffolk ; that pledge had been forfeited by the late rebellion of the duke ; but still " it would have been to the honor of Mary," as Dr. Lingard observes, " to have over'ooked the provocation, and refused to visit on the daughter the guilt of the father." Mary, in the second year of her reign, married Philip IT , of Spain, a measure unpopular at the time, and productive of much unhappiness to 15. What is said of the young king? T.> whom did he leave the crown? "What is said oi Lady Jane Grey? — 16. Who suffered on the scaffold? What was again entered into ugainsv Mary ? — 17. What was Mary now induced to do? On the fatal morning what is said of her ? When brought forth, what did she do? — 18. For what his Mary been censured? What 'Joes Dr. Lingard observe? Whom did she marry? ENGLAND. 2U3 herself ', and towards the close of her reign the French took Calais, which had remained in possession of the K lglish for up- wards of two hundred and ten years. This event hastened her death ; she never seemed to recover from the stroke, and was often heard to say that the ^vord Calais was written on her heart. "She died in the forty-sixth year of her age, after a reign of six years, A. D. 1558. 19. The foulest blot upon the memory of this queen is her per- secution of the Reformers* during her reign. It might be re- marked, not, however, in vindication of her acts, but as an apology for her conduct, that she lived at a time when the prin- ciples of religious toleration were not understood or practised by either Catholics or Protestants ; when the extirpation of erro- neous doctrines was inculcated as a duty by the leaders of every religious party. It was the misfortune rather than the fault of Mary, that she was not more enlightened than the wisest of her cotemporaries. With the exception of this, she is regarded even by many of those writers who differed from her in religion as a queen possessed of many amiable qualities ; they have borne honorable testimony to her virtues; have allotted to her the praise of piety and clemency, of compassion for the poor and liberality to the distressed. "The queen's private life," says Mr. Collier, " was all along strict and unblemished. The other world was always uppermost with her : she valued her con- science above her crown. She was not of a vindictive or impla- cable spirit." t 20. As Mary had always remained firm in the belief and prac- tice of the Catholic faith, one of her first measures was to restore the ancient religion of the kingdom, the public exercise of which had been nearly extinguished during the reign of her brother. 21. Upon the death of Mary, her sister Elizabeth ascended the throne. Elizabeth, during the reign of her sister, had been a Catholic, but shortly after her accession, she openly avowed herself the protectress of the reformers, established the Protestant faith as the religion of the realm, assumed the title of supreme head of the English church, and revived all the penal statutes against non- conformists, to which were added many others of the most op- pressive nature.! It was made high treason to deny the queen's supremacy, or acknowledge the jurisdiction of the see of Rome within her dominions, or to absolve, persuade, or withdraw, any one from the established to the Catholic church. 22. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, the grand-daughter of Henry VII., was the next heir to the English throne. This fact did not fail to excite the fears and jealousy of Elizabeth, who never * The principal sufferers were Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley and Hooper, t EKz. Act 23—27. What place did the French take ? "When did she die? — It What is the foulest blot upon her memory? What might be remarked? With this exception, how is she re- garded ? What does Mr. Collier say of her ? — 20. What was one of her first measures ! --21. On the death of Mary who ascended the throne? What is said of Klizabetn ? Wha*. 'lid she assume and revive ? "What was made high treason ? — 22. Who waa the fjo.jrc heir to the throne 7 204 ENGLAND. ceased in her resei.tment until she brought her unhappy cousin to a premature and tragical end. The young queen of Scotland had been renowned throughout Europe for her beauty and ac- complishments; she had been educated at the French court, and married Francis II., who died shortly after that event, and Mary returned to her own dominions. After a strange succession of events, which come more properly under the head of Scotland, the Scottish queen was compelled to quit her dominions and take refuge in England, where she was detained in captivity for nearly twenty years, and finally put to death by order of hei cousin Elizabeth. 23. In 1588, Philip of Spain projected the invasion of England, to avenge the queen's interference with his subjects of the Nether- lands, who had revolted against his authority. For this purpose he fitted out the Invincible Armada, which consisted of one hun- dred and fifty ships, carrying three thousand pieces of cannon and twenty-seven thousand men. It entered the English chan- nel in the form of a crescent, and extended to the distance of seven miles. It was met by the English lleet, under the com- mand of Lord Admiral Howard, aided by Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and Raleigh. Being gradually weakened and dis- persed by a violent storm, the Invincible Armada was completely overthrown; only one-third of the vessels, with six thousanl men, returned to Spain. 24. In the administration of the government, Elizabeth waa assisted by many eminent statesmen; among whom were Bacon, Burleigh, and Walsingham ; but her chief favorites were men of abandoned characters. Of these, in the early part of her reign, was the Earl of Leicester ; and after his death, the Earl of Essex seemed to hold the first place in the queen's affections. Eliza- beth and Essex had various quarrels and reconciliations; at last, unable to restrain the impetuosity of his temper, he broke out in open rebellion against her, for which he atoned by his death on the scaffold. 25. After the death of Essex the. health of the queen visibly declined. At length she fell into a profound melancholy, which nothing could alleviate, and terminated her life in sorrow and gloom. All the splendor of royally faded from her view ; the time was come, to use her own expression, when " men would turn from the setting, to worship the rising sun.." She expired in the seventieth year of her age, and in the forty-fifth of her reign. 26. Elizabeth possessed eminent abilities as a sovereign, and was distinguished for her talents in directing public affairs. In principles she was despotic, jealous, cruel, and revengeful ; over- bearing to her ministers in council; imperious to her servants in the palace; and her conversation was often grossly profane. What is said of the young queen? After a s ircession of evenls, what took place? — y3. In 15S8 what was done? For this purpose what did lie fit out? AVho com- manded the English fleet? What was the fate of the Armada? — 2-1. Who were soroc yf her eminent statesmen? Who were her favourites.' — '25. At length into what did 6he fall? What expression did she make use of? When did she expire? — 'JG. What did Elizabeth possess? What was she in principle? Of what did she possess fevft By what was her reign distinguished ? What was introduced by Raleigh ' ENGLAND. 205 In her private character she was even less to be admired. She possessed few of those milder and softer qualities that adorn the Female character. Her reign was distinguished for men of genius and learning; among whom Bacon, Shakspeare, and Spencer, were the most distinguished. The custom of smoking tobacco was introduced by Sir Walter Raleigh ; and potatoes were also brought to England from America at this period. SECTION VIII. Stuart Family; James I.; Charles I.; the Commonwealth; Crom- well; Charles 11.; James 11.; William and Mary; Anne; from A. D. 1603 to 1714. 1. Elizabeth shortly before her death nominated as her succes- sor, James VI. of Scotland, who was the rightful heir by descent. On ascending the English throne he took the title of James I., and thus were the crowns of the two kingdoms united. Shortly after his arrival in England, a conspiracy was formed against him in favor of his cousin Arabella Stuart. It was prematurely dis- covered, and Sir Walter Raleigh, under a charge of being con- cerned in the plot, was sentenced to death, which was carried into execution after he had languished in prison with little inter- mission for fifteen years. 2 Another conspiracy followed, of a more serious nature. This was the famous Gunpowder Plot, which was a design of a few daring adventurers to blow up the parliament house, and involve in one common ruin the king, lords, and commons. It was fortu- nately discovered on the eve of its accomplishment, and one of the leaders, named Guy Fawkes, was taken with matches in his pocket for firing the magazine. 3. It was the misfortune of James to be attached to unworthy favorites, such as the Earl of Somerset and the Duke of Buck- ingham, men whose only merits were their personal appearance and superficial accomplishments. During the reign of Mary the Puritans made their first appearance in England, and during the last reign their number had greatly increased. At the accession of James, who had been educated a Presbyterian, they flattered themselves that their views would meet the royal approbation. Being disappointed in their expectations, some of their number sought an asylum from restraint in matters of religion in the wilds of America, and formed a settlement on the shores of New England. 4. In 1625 the king was seized with an illness which termi- nated his life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age and the twenty- second of his reign over England. James possessed many virtues, 1. Who succcedeo. Elizabeth? After his nrrival in England, what was formed against him? What is said of Raleigh? — 2. AVhat other conspiracy followed? Who was one of the leaders? — 3. What was the misfortune of James? During the reign of Mary, who made their appearance in England? At the accession of James wha: did thiv expect? Where did many of them go ? — 1. When did the king die? 18 206 . ENGLAJSD but few free from the contagion of the neighboring vices. Hi3 generosity bordered on profusion; his learning on pedantry; his friendship on a puerile fondness. His leading passion seems to have been a love of arbitrary power. The divine right of kings to govern without control, was with him a favorite theme. Be- ing naturally averse to war, his reign was peaceful. He was fond of ilattery, which was dealt out to him with an unsparing hand by his bishops and courtiers, who regarded him as the British Solomon, yet by others he seems to have merited the appellation given him by the Duke of Sully, that of the " wisest of the fools of Europe." 5. Charles I. succeeded his father to the throne under many apparent advantages. He had not assumed the reins of govern- ment long, before he proved that he had imbibed the arbitrary principles of his father; he patronised the same unworthy favor- ite, Buckingham, who still retained all his former influence and authority. He married Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV of France, a princess distinguished for her devotedness to her husband throughout all the eventful scenes of his life. 6. The refusal of the parliament to grant adequate supplies to enable him to carry on a war against France and Spain, led Charles to adopt a resolution of ruling without their aid, and of levying money without their authority. This manifestation of a tyrannical disposition on the part of the king, first roused the parliament against him. Charles could not brook the denial of supplies, dissolved the parliament, and issued a warrant for bor- rowing money of his subjects. 7. After an unsuccessful expedition against France, Bucking- ham, who had long since rendered himself detestable to the parliament, was assassinated by one Felton. The death of his favorite, however, did not deter Charles from his arbitrary pro ceedings. A new parliament was formed, as uncompromising as the former, and exhibited a spirit of determined opposition. A petition of rights was passed by both houses, which declared the illegality of raising money without their sanction, or of enforcing loans from the subjects, and annulled all taxes imposed without the consent of parliament. 8. At this period, the current of public feeling seemed to run strongly in favor of Puritanism, which had been on the ascend- ency since the accession of James to the English throne. Charles now proceeded to a very injudicious and unpopular measure, which was to enforce, throughout his kingdom, a strict confor- mity to the liturgy of the church of England ; and through the indiscreet zeal of Archbishop LauiU the measure was rigidly en- forced. Not satisfied with attempting to enforce the liturgy in England, the king endeavored to impose the new liturgy upon the national Church of Scotland. Here the measure met with the What is his character? What was he styled by the Duke of Sully?— 5. Who suc- ceeded? Whom did he patronise? Whom did he marry? — 0. What led him to adopt the resolution of rulimr without the aid of parliament? What did he dissolve? — 7 VVhat was the end of Buckingham ? What was ,1 new parliament formed for ? Wha was passed? — 8. At this period, how did the current ct public opinion seerr. to run! To what measure did Charles now proceed? How n*s he met in Scotland .' ENGLAND. 207 most determined opposition, and excited the strongest sensation? among all ranks of people; an association was entered into, called the National Covenant, by which the parties bound themselves by oath to resist all religious innovations. 9. After eleven years of intermission, the king found himself obliged again to convoke the parliament; but that body, instead of listening to his demand for supplies, began with presenting (lie public grievances, complaining of the infringement of the privileges of parliament, illegal taxation, and the violence done to the cause of religion. Charles, finding that nothing could be obtained from this assembly, so determined to oppose all his mea- sures, dissolved the parliament, but shortly afterwards convoked another. 10. One of the first acts of the new parliament was the impeach- ment of the Earl of Strafford, the minister of state, and Arch- bishop Laud, on a charge of endeavoring to subvert the constitu- tion, and to introduce arbitrary power. Strafford was arraigned for trial before the house of peers; his defence on this occasion is said to have been one of the most pathetic pieces of eloquence ever delivered ; but nothing could save him from the vengeance of his enemies; he was found guilty, sentenced, and beheaded. This was a severe stroke to the king, who lost in the Earl a faith- ful minister and the firmest supporter of the prerogative of the crown. 11. The contention between the king and the parliament from this period began to wear a more alarming aspect, until at last both parties resolved to decide the issue, of the contest by an appeal to the sword. Thus the standard of civil war was unfurled during the year 1642. The first serious overthrow of the royal forces happened at Marston Moor, where Charles and Prince Rupert were defeated by Oliver Cromwell, who commanded the parliament forces. After this victory Archbishop Laud, who had remained a prisoner in the Tower since the impeachment of Strafford, was brought to trial, condemned, and executed: and on the sawie day the liturgy of the Church of England was abolished, and the rigid principles of Puritanism established in its place. 12. After the war had raged about five years, the royalists were entirely defeated in the battle of Naseby, and Charles very im- prudently surrendered himself to the Scottish army, by which he was basely delivered into the hands of the parliament for the sum of 26400,000. In the house of commons a vote was passed de- claring it treason in a king to levy war against his parliament, and instituted a high court of justice, composed of one hundred and thirty-three members, to try Charles for that offence. This measure was rejected by the house of lords, but the commons, 9. After eleven years, what did the king no? What is said of th:s body? What course did the king- pursue? — 10. "What was one of the first acts of the new parliament? What is said of Stratford's defence? — lLWhst did the contention between the kingand the parliament begin to wear? When did the war break out? Where was the first overthrow? After this victory, what is said of Archbishop Land? — 12. W. ere were the rovuhsts defeated, and what lid Charles do? What was dc.Jt; in the house of com 208 ENGLAND. supported by the parliamentary army, disregarded their dissent and issued an order for the trial. The king having been arraigned before this self-created tribunal, refused to answer any questions put to him, disavowed its legality, and denied its jurisdiction; but all was of no avail ; his enemies thirsted for his blood, and nothing less than his death would satisfy their vengeance. The trial proceeded ; Charles was found guilty, and the sentence of death was pronounced against him as a tyrant, murderer, and traitor. 13. He bore the sentence of death, and all the unworthy treat- ment he received on ins trial, with a degree of fortitude that ex- cited the admiration even of his enemies. Permission was given him to see his children. He took his last leave of them with ten- derness and affection, and spent the short respite that was allowed him in private devotions with Juxton, Bishop of London, in ordei to prepare himself for the trying scene through which he was about to pass. On reaching the scaffold, which was erected before Whitehall, he surveyed the preparations with a countenance un- dismayed, addressed a few words to those who were near him, declared his innocence, and freely forgave his enemies; he then laid his head upon the block, and at the first stroke of the axe it was severed from the body. Such was the unhappy end of Charles I., in the forty-ninth year of his age and twenty-fourth of his reign. 14. If we take a survey o this period, we will find much to ad- mire, and much to condemn. That Charles had committed er- rors in the administration of the government, is obvious to all $ but that these errors were such as to sanction the proceedings against him, few are willing to admit. That many of those who first opposed his arbitrary measures were actuated by a sense of justice, and a desire of maintaining the liberties of the people, may be admitted; while the result will show that there were others who only aimed afhurling the monarch from his throne, that they themselves might exercise his arbitrary principles. The house of commons ordered a new Great Seal to be made, bearing the words, " On the first year of freedom, by God's blessing, re- stored, 1648." The king's statue in the exchange was thrown down, and on the pedestal was inscribed, Exit tyrannus, JRegitm ultimus- -the tyrant is gone, the last of the kings. 15. After the death of the king, the commons proceeded to abolish the monarchy and the house of lords, and to establish a republican form of government. A proclamation was issued, stating that the supreme authority of the nation was vested in the representatives of the people, and it should be high treason to give to any person the title of king without the consent of parliament. Nothing, perhaps, in the history of this period is more remarkable than the sudden revolutions in religion. After the execution of What did they refuse ? What was the isstie of the trial ?— 13. How did he hear the sentence? How did he take leave of his children? On reaching the scaffold, what did he do? \V lien was he executed?— 14. What is said of Cliarles and of those engaged in his death ? What did the house of commons ordei ?— 15. After the king's death, what did the commons do ? What was issued ? What arc we now to behold ? ENGLAND. 209 Laud, we have seen that the Episcopacy was abolished, and Presbyterianism established in its stead ; we are now to behold the Presbyterian interest decline in favor of the Independents, who Degan to gain the ascendency. Through the management of Cromwell, the power which had been vested in the king was trans- ferred to the army, and measures were taken to exclude the Presbyterians from parliament. In this manner the Presbyte- rians, who had been instrumental in subverting the church and throne, fell victims to the power of the army, through whose agency they had accomplished their designs. 16. The people of Ireland and Scotland were still faithful in their allegiance to the fallen monarch, and unfurled the royal Btandard in favor of his son, Charles II. Cromwell haying pro- cured for himself the appointment of commander-in-chief of the forces directed against Ireland, landed at Dublin; thence he pro- ceeded to Drogheda, which was well fortified, and garrisoned with three thousand men, under the command of Sir Arthur Als- ton. The place was finally taken by a furious assault, and only one of all the garrison escaped the barbarous massacre that fol- lowed ; after this, the country submitted to his authority. 17. He next marched into Scotland at the head of sixteen thou sand men, defeated the royalists at Dunbar, overthrew them again in the desperate battle of Worcester, and completely esta- blished the sovereignty of the parliament After this battle, young Charles, having with difficulty escaped from the scene of de- feat, assumed the disguise of a peasant, and travelled in the least frequented roads, pursuing his journey by night, and fre quently passing the day in obscure cottages. On one occasion he passed the day concealed in the branches of a large oak; while in this situation, he heard and saw his pursuers passing beneath him. After many adventures, he effected his escape to France. 18. At this period the republic astonished all Europe by the brilliancy of its naval achievements. The famous navigation act which prohibited any state from carrying into England any com- modity which was not the growth or manufacture of the country to which the vessel belonged, produced a war with Holland, in which Admiral Blake obtained a great naval victory over the celebrated Dutch commanders, Van Tromp and De liuyter. 19. The parliament, which had been in session for eleven yenrs, and known by the name of the Long Parliament, attempted to reduce the army, with a view of diminishing the power of Crom- well, who, perceiving their design, and being secure of the at tachment of the soldiery, resolved to wrest the sovereign power from their hands. An unfavorable reply being returned to a pe- tition which he sent to parliament, he rose in a violent rage, and taking with him a strong guard, he entered the house with marks What was effected through the influence of Cromwell?— 16. What is said of the people of Ireland and Scotland? Of Cromwell? After taking Drogheda, what fol- lowed? — 17. Where did he next march? After this battle, what is said of young Charles ? On one occasion, how did he pass the day ? — 18. At this period what i r said ntthe vepubTc? Wi.at did the navigation act produce ? — 19. What is said ot the par- liament ? 18* 210 ENGLAND. of indignation in his countenance, and afier loading the members with reproaches, he cried out, " For shame ; get you gone; give place to honest men. I tell you, you are no longer a parliament; the Lord has done with you." Having turned them out, he or- dered the doors to be locked, and taking the keys, he departed to his residence at Whitehall. 20. He then called anew parliament in quite a novel form. He took the census of the congregational churches in the several counties, and reported the names of such persons as were deemed qualified to fill the high office; of these, one hundred and sixty-. three representatives were selected, and on the day appointed, presented themselves to the number of one hundred and twenty, in the council chamber at Whitehall. This body, composed of men imbued with all the fanaticism of the time, received the name of the Barebone Parliament, from one of its leading members, who bore the singular name of Praise- God Barebone. The Bare- bone Parliament, after a session of a few months, resigned all their authority into the hands of Cromwell, a measure which he had probably intended or expected. The parliament immediately dissolved, and the officers of the army, by their sole authority, de- clared Cromwell Protector of the commonwealth of England. 21. The Protector entered on the duties of his new office with energy and ability. He was assisted by a council of twenty-one members, declined the title of majesty, but received that of high- ness ; refused the title of king, although he possessed the power and assumed all the ensigns of royalty. His administration, how* ever, advanced the military glory of England. Abroad, his fleets and armies were victorious ; he obliged the Dutch to sue tor peace, and humbled the power of Spain. 22. Having attained the height of his ambition, Cromwell found that his situation was by no means enviable. The nation despised the man, who, under the pretence of espousing the lib- erties of the people, had aspired to unlimited power. He was aware of this hatred, and the dread of assassination caused him to wear armor under his clothes. His health began to decline, and he was at length seized with a fever, which terminated his life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, A. D. 1658. 23. His son, Richard Cromwell, who inherited neither the abilities nor the ambition of his father, was proclaimed Protectoi in his place ; but after holding the office for a few months, he re- signed the title, and retired to private life. A military despotism for some time succeeded, the army directing the affairs or govern- ment at will. At length General Monk, who then commanded an army in Scotland, marched into England, crushed the con- tending factions, and caused a new parliament to be assembled. After the meeting of the members, some time intervened before the king was mentioned. At length they were informed that a An unfavorable reply being returned to a petition, what did Cromwell do? Whal did he cry out? — 20. How dm he call a new parliament ? What name did this body receive? What did the officers of the army do? — 21. What is said of the Projector 1 What title did he receive ? What is snid of his administration? — 22. What did Crom- well find ? What did the nation do? When did he die? — 23. Who was proclaimed Protector in his place? What did he do ? What succeeded ? What is said'of Genera. Monk ' ENGLAND. 211 messenger was at the door with a letter from the king to the com- mons. The letter was received and read, the parliament assented to the proposals, and in this manner Charles II was restored to his kingdom, and to the throne of his father, A. D. 16(50. 24. 'Ihe whole demeanor of Charles at the commencement of his reign, was such as to inspire the affection of his subjects, and Co render him generally popular. He was in the thirtieth year of his age, possessing a handsome exterior, familiar and affable in his manners; but at the same time much inclined to indolence and pleasure. An act of general indemnity was passed, except to those immediately concerned in the late king's death. Accord- ingly, Harrison, Scott, Jones, and several others engaged in the trial of his father, were executed. But the vengeance of the king passed from the living to the dead ; the bodies of Cromwell, (kadshaw, and Ireton, were dug up from their graves, and after hanging for some time, were cut down and buried under the gal- lows. 25. Charles was soon distinguished for the same arbitrary prin • ciples which seemed hereditary in the family of the Stuarts. The doctrine of passive obedience and non-resistance now came into use. ; from which originated the distinguishing epithets of Whigs and Tories ; the former opposed to the pretensions of the crown, the latter its advocates. A new parliament was assembled, con- sisting chiefly of high churchmen and loyalists ; the episcopacy was restored, and an act of conformity in religion was passed. 26. The next year Charles married Catherine of Portugal, and with her obtained a dowry of five hundred thousand pounds, a sum which greatly relieved his present necessities. But his pro- digality kept him always in want; he next bartered away Dun- kirk, which had been acquired by Cromwell, to the French for four hundred thousand pounds sterling, which was soon squan- dered on his pleasures. He soon after this declared war against the Dutch, which continued to rage for several years, until at length a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the Dutch ceded the colony of New York to the English. 27. During this war London was visited with a plague, which carried off* ninety thousand of its inhabitants; and in the following year a fire took place by which thirteen thousand houses were laid in ruins. To perpetuate the calamity, a monu- ment was erected, bearing an inscription, falsely charging the Roman Catholics as the authors of the conflagration ; the inscrip- tion has lately been erased by the order of parliament. 28. Towards the close of the reign of Charles, the Whigs having the ascendency in parliament, distinguished themselves by their hostility to the Catholics, and insisted on the king's as- sent to a bill for the exclusion of his brother, the Duke of Fork, Of what was parliament informed? How was the letter received? — 24. What was the demeanor of Charles ? What act was passed ? Who were executed ? What was done with the bodies of Cromwell. &c. ?— 25. For what was Charles scon distinguished ? What doctrine now came into use, and what epithets originated from it? What is said of the new parliament?— 20. "Whom did Charles marry? What did he barter awav ? What war was declared ? How did it terminate ?— 27. By what was London visited 1 In ihe following year what U.nk place? To perpetuate the calamity, what was erect- ed?— 28. How did the Whigs distinguish themselves? 212 ENGLAND. who had lately embraced the Catholic faith. To this highly unjust and unnatural measure, the king could not consent, and in con- sequence dissolved two successive parliaments. A pretended plot was discovered by the infamous Titus Oates, (a man guilty of almost every crime in the catalogue of human vices,) which oc- casioned the unjust execution of Lord Stafford, and several other eminent Catholics. Another conspiracy was shortly after de- tected, in favor of reform, called the Rye-house plot ; in which Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney, were accused of being con* cerned. They were brought to trial, found guilty, and be- headed. 29. The king himself did not lon<> survive these acts of seventy, being seized with an apoplexy, he died in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and twenty-fifth of his reign. Shortly before his death, lie sent for a Catholic clergyman, and received the sacraments from his hands. During the reign of Charles, the famous act of Ha- beas Corpus was passed, by which persons were freed from arbi- trary imprisonment. The most distinguished poets of this period, were Butler, Cotton, Dryden, Otway, and Roscommon. A re- markable instance of longevity is mentioned of Thomas Parr, a laboring man in Yorkshire, w r ho had lived in ten reigns, and completed one hundred and sixty years. 30. As Charles had left no legitimate issue, his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne, under the title of James II., with every mark of public approbation, notwithstanding his open profession of the Catholic faith. It is probable that James might have reigned in tranquillity, and have ended his days on the throne of his ancestors, had it not been for his own impru- dence, and the unfortunate choice he made of his ministers. The early part of his reign was disturbed by the rebellion of the Duki of Monmouth, who aimed at seizing the crown. Encouraged by the Prince of Orange and Sunderland, the perfidious minister o( James, the duke landed in England, caused himself to be pro- claimed king, and unfurled his standard at Taunton. Aftei wearing the empty title of royalty for a few weeks, he was de- feated, taken prisoner, and atoned for his rebellion on the scaffold 31. A special commission was issued to Jcffrys, the Lord Chief Justice, for the trial of the rebel prisoners. Jcffrys, in the exe cution of his commission, is represented as guilty of wanton cruelty; for although there was no doubt of the guilt of the accused, yet the number of those who suffered made the acts of public justice assume the appearance of cruelty and revenge, while all the odium of these severities fell upon the king. 32. James now finding himself firmly seated upon the throne, proceeded to a measure that did not fail to excite the disaffection of a great number of his subjects. As he had openly professed the Catholic faith, it was his ardent wish to restore the ancient What pretended plot was discovered ? What other conspiracy was detected ? Who were accused of being concerned in it? — 29. How did the king die? What act was passed in his reign? "Who were distinguished poets? What is said of Parr?— 30 Who succeeded to th.5 throne? By what was the early part of his reign disturbed? What was the fata of Monmouth ? — 31. To whom was a commission issued? How is J"e ? ENGLAND. 215 This period has been so prolific in men of genius, that it has been styled the Augustan Age of England. Some of the most distinguished names are those of Pope, Swift, Addison, Parnell, Rowe. and Gay. SECTION IX. House of Brunswick ; George I; George II.; George III.} George IV.; William IV.; from A. D. 1714 to 1830. 1. On the death of Anne, George I., Elector of Hanover, suc- ceeded to the throne, with the general approbation. The features of his reign were generally pacific, and afford few events of im- portance in history. Upon assuming the reins of government, he attached himself to the whig party, which had strenuously advo- cated his accession, and entered into violent measures against the late tory ministry. 2. A committee of investigation was appointed to inspect the papers relative to the treaty with France; Lord Bolingbroke, the Earl of Oxford, and the Earl of Mortimer, with several others of t\\Q tory party, were impeached for high treason. These vindic- tive proceedings excited the indignation of the people, and the flame of rebellion broke out in Scotland. The Earl of il/r/r, at the head often thousand men, proclaimed the son of James II. as the lawful monarch of Great Britain. The rebellion, however, was soon crushed, and the most exemplary severity exercised against the leaders. Various lords and earls were impeached, and suffered death on the scaffold ; many others of inferior rank were executed, and about a thousand transported to North America. 3. At this period a plan was devised for lessening the national debt, by lowering the interest, called the South Sea Scheme; the measure, however, gave a severe stroke to public credit, and ruined the fortunes of thousands. George died suddenly of a paralytic disorder, while on a visit to his electoral dominions of Hanover, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and the thirteenth of his reign, A. D. 1727. 4. George II., who succeeded his father in the forty-fourth year of his age, was a prince possessed of considerable abilities, of a violent temper, and distinguished in military exercise. Like his father, he inclined to the whig party, and was particularly biassed in favor of his continental dominions, on account of which he involved England in an expensive war. The most prominent person in the administration during the reign of George, was Sir Robert Walpole, a man of eminent abilities, but accused by many as guilty of a system of corruption and venality, which he practiced while in office. What has this period been styled? What were some of the most distinguished names ? 1. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of his reign? — 2. What committee was appointed? Who were impeached ? What did these proceedings excite? What is said of the rebellion ?— 3. At this lime what was devised? When did George die ? —4. Who succeeded? To what was he incined 7 Who was the most prominent ln;r6on m the administration ? 216 ENGLAND. 5. The military operations during- this reign were extensive, and the British arms were generally triumphant. England espoused the cause of Maria Theresa of Austria, against the emperor Charles and Louis XV. of France. In this contest, called the war of the Austrian Succession, the principal states of Europe were in- volved. Various was the success that attended the contending powers. The English, with their allies, under the command of George II. in person, defeated the French in the celebrated battle of Detlingen, and (he French, in their turn, under Marshal Saxe, gained the victory at Fontenoy. After war had raged for some time, peace was again restored by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the claim of Maria Theresa to the throne was confirmed. 0. During the absence of the king on the continent, Charles Edward, the eldest son of James II., assisted by Louis XV. of France, made a last and dying effort to regain the throne of his ancestors. He landed in Scotland, and placing himself at the head of an army, he defeated the royalists in the battles of Pres- ton-Pans and Falkirk; but on the 16th of April, 1746, was fought the famous battle of Culloden, in which Charles was signally de- feated by the royal forces under the Duke of Cumberland. By this battle the hereditary pretensions to the crown of England were forever extinguished; the prince, after a series of adven- tures, escaped to France. 7. Towards the close of this reign, the war was again renewed between England and France, on account of the encroachments of the latter on the British colonies in America. The war was finally terminated by the surrender of all Canada on the part of France. It was during this war that the brave and illustrious Wolf perished in the moment of achieving the capture of the city of Quebec. During their operations in America the British also carried on a war in India. 8. George II. died in 1760, at his palace of Kensington, in the seventy-seventh year of his age and the thirty-third of his reign. His reign was distinguished Tor many eminent writers and men of genius ; among the poets, Young, Akenside, and Gray, stand pre-eminent. 9. George III., the grandson of the late monarch, succeeded to the throne in the eighteenth year of his age. He commenced his reign at a favorable period, when the national arms were everywhere triumphant, and the administration of the govern- ment was directed by the genius of William Pitt, (Lord Chatham,) one of the most eminent and popular ministers in the annals of the nation. It was at this period that an oppressive and unjust course of policy was adopted by the British government towards her American colonies. Against these measures Pitt exerted all the power of his eloquence, but in vain ; the colonies were finally 5. What is said of the military operation? of this reign? What did England espouse? What was this war called ? How was peace restored ? — G. During the abse*;2e of tho king what took place? Where did he land? What took place in 1746?— 7. Towards the close of his reign what took place? How was it terminated? Duiing this war ?rhai happened? — S. 'When did George II. die ? Among the poels who stanc pre-em». nent? — 9. Who succeeded to the throne? How did he commence his reign ? WbHi took place at this period ? ENGLAND. 217 driven into hostilities with the mother country, and Great Britain, after a long and expensive warfare, was compelled to acknow* ledge their independence. [See United States.'] 10. The other most important events of this reign were the ex- tension of tae British possessions in India, where Hyder Ali and his son distinguished themselves by their opposition to the en- croachments of the English ; the Irish rebellion, which took place in 1798, and her subsequent union with Great Britain, (see Ire- land;) and her long and sanguinary conflicts, which grew out of the French Revolution. 11. Some of the principal achievements of the British during this period were the famous naval victories of the Nile and Trafalgar, by Lord Nelson, and those of Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo, by Wellington. George died on the 29th of January, 1820, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, after a reign of sixty years, the longest we find in English history During the last ten years of his life he was afflicted with insanity, which disqualified him for all public business, and his son, the Prince of Wales, acted as regent. The subversion of his intellect is supposed to have been brought on by the death of his favorite JLmilia, aided by advanced age and toils of state. His natural endowments were not great, although a good monarch and much beloved by his subjects. 12. George IV., who succeeded to the throne, was a prince ftossessed ot eminent abilities and talents. The early part of his ife was distinguished for unrestrained dissipation and prodigality. His reign was generally peaceful and prosperous. Some of the most important events were the war in India, by which the Eng- lish gained a great part of the Burman Empire ; the celebrated trial of his queen in the House of Lords for misconduct; the in- terposition in favor of the Greeks in their struggle for indepen- dence; during which was gained the celebrated naval victory at Navarino, over the Turks, by the united fleets of England, France, and Russia; and also the passage of the Catholic Relief Bill, by which the disabilities of the Roman Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland were removed, and by which they were placed on an equal footing with members of the established church, with three exceptions; exclusion from the throne, and from the office of Lord -lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Chancellor of that kingdom and of England. 13. George IV. (fied at Windsor on the 26th of June, 1830, in the sixty-eighth year of his age and the eleventh of his reign, and was succeeded in the throne by his brother, William, Duke of Clarence, under the title of William IV. His short rei^n was riot distinguished for any important event ; at his death he was succeeded by her present majesty, Queen Victoria. \Yhat is said of Pitt?— 10. What were the other most important events of th. 5 reign' — li. What were some of the achievements of the British period ? When did George dift? What is said of the last ten years of his life? Of his abilities *— 13. Who suc- ceeded to the throne? What were some of the most important events of ) is reign? What are the three exceptions to the Catholic Relief Bill?— I'd. When did George die and by whom succeedfid ? At Ti is death who succeeded? 19 SCOTLAND. SECTION I. 1. The early history of Scotland is greatly involved in fable and obscurity. Their pretension to a regular succession of kings from the time of Alexander the Great seems entitled to little credit. Fergus J. they consider as the founder of their monarchy, and he is said to have been the first who displayed on his banner the royal emblem of Scotland; namely, a red lion with his tail folded on his back, the attitude which that noble animal assumes when roused to anger. When the Romans took their final leave of England, in 410, the people of Scotland were divided into a number of hostile tribes, the principal of which were the Scots and Picts ; the latter was subdued by Kenneth II., who became king of all Scotland, A. D. 843. 2. Little of importance or interest occurs in the history of the country from the time of Kenneth until the reign of Alexander HI. Upon the death of Alexander a number of competitors for the crown appeared, among whom Robert Bruce and John Baliol seemed to have the nearest claim. They were both descended from David, Earl of Huntington, third son of David I . To avoid, however, the miseries of civil war, they resolved to refer the case to Edward I. of England, as umpire, and submit to his decision. Edward finding Baliol the more obsequious, decided in his favor. Baliol consented to receive the crown as a vassal of England. _ 3. But the fierce and warlike barons could not brook the pas- sive spirit of John, and the encroachment of their liberty by the English monarch. A war ensued between the two kingdoms; Edward marched into Scotland at the head of a powerful army, and after defeating the Scots in a battle near Dunbar, reduced the whole country to subjection. The weak and timid spirit ot Baliol induced him to surrender the crown into the hands of the English king. 4. At this critical juncture, when the liberties of Scotland lay prostrate at the feet of the conqueror, the dying energies of the nation were roused by the valor and patriotism of Sir William Wallace. The deeds of this hero are, in many instances, colored with fiction; yet, divested of all their embellishments, they remain sufficiently great to render him worthy of the name of patriot. He almost single-handed ventured to take up arms in defence of the kingdom, and by his boldness revived the spirit of his countrymen. He persuaded Robert Bruce to assert the right and vindicate the honor of his country. The Scots nocked to the standard of Bruce, who, after a variety of victories, succeeded 1. What is said of the history of Scotland ? Whom do they consider as the founder o* their monarchy? What is said of him ? How were the people divided ? By whom were the latter subdued? — 2. On the death of Alexander what took place? To avoid civil war. what did they resolve? What did Edward do ?— 3. What .s said of the barons? What ensued? What did Edward do? — 4. At this critical juncture whai took place ? AVhat is said of his deeds? What did he«peisiiade Bruce? What is said of the Scots? 218 SCOTLAND. 219 in restoring the independence of his country, and was elevated to the throne, A. 1). 1306. 5. Edward again made preparations for invading Scotland, and had advanced as far as Carlisle, when he suddenly died. In the reign of his successor was fought, near Stirling, the famous battle of Bannockbum. Edward commanded the English forces in person, and Robert Bruce those of Scotland; the engagement terminated in the signal defeat of the English army, and firmly established the victorious Bruce on the throne of his ancestors. Bruce died in 1329, and was succeeded by his son, David II., at the age of four years. During his minority, the Earl of Murray was appointed regent of the kingdom, and fulfilled the duties of his station with justice and moderation. 6. About the year 1331, Edward Baliol, the son of John Baliol, taking advantage of the king's minority, began to bring forward pretensions to the crown. Aided by many of the English barons, he landed in Scotland and defeated the Earl of Mar, who had succeeded Murray in the office of regent. Baliol was immediately crowned king, and acknowledged the English monarch as his superior. Thus was Scotland a second time reduced to a state of dependence and subjection to England. 7. The spirit of freedom which had so long characterized the Scots slumbered for a season, but was not subdued. The faithful adherents of the deposed king watched the earliest opportunity to strike for the liberty of their country, and to shake oft' the English yoke. At length the Scottish valor prevailed: Baliol was expelled from the country, and David II. was again restored to the throne, A. D. 1341. 8. David was a weak but virtuous prince, and passed through many reverses of fortune. He was taken prisoner by the English in the battle of Durham, and remained in captivity for eleven years ; he was at length ransomed by his subjects, and died in 1370. He was succeeded by his nephew, Robert Stuart, the first of that family who swayed the sceptre of Scotland. The race of the Stuarts is the most unfortunate in the annals of history; with few exceptions, they all became the victims of some ill-fated or tragical end. SECTION II. Tlie House of Stuarts ; from Pobert II. to James VI., Jl. D. 1370/0 1603. 1. "Robert II., a prince characterized for the mildness of his disposition, was quite unequal to the task of managing his fierce and ungovernable subjects. His reign was marked by a series 5. In the reign of his successor, what battle was fought? flow did it terminate? WIumi did Bruce die? My whom succeeded? — 6. In the year 1331 what took place? What followed?— 7. What is said of the spirit of freedom? Of Bahol?— 8. Whnl IS said ot David? By whom >vas he succeeded? 1. What is said of Robert? 220 SCOTLAND. of contests which took place between the English and Scotrisn borderers. The great families, Douglas and Percy, whose estates lay contiguous to each other, were at continual variance. On one occasion they met at Otterburn; an obstinate battle ensued, in which the English were routed, but the Earl of Douglas was slain. The celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace was written to commemorate the single combat between Douglas and Percy. Robert died in 1390, and was succeeded by his son under the title of Robert III. 2. The reign of this prince was rendered unhappy through the conduct of his turbulent nobles. The Duke of Albany, the bro- ther of the king, a man of the greatest ambition and cruelty, hav- ing represented to Robert some misconduct of his son, prevailed on the king to deliver him into his custody. Having obtained possession of the person of the young prince, he conducted him to the castle of Falkland and cast him into a dungeon, where he died in a short time for want of food. 3. Robert, now old and infirm, was unable to revenge this out- rage; but having another son called James, then eleven years of age, resolved to send him to France to avoid the power and cru- el ty of the duke. On his way, the young prince unfortunately fell into the hands of the English, by whom he was taken to Lon- don, and by order of Henry committed to the Tower. At the news of this disaster, Robert was so overpowered with grief that he died shortly after with a broken heart, A. D. 1405. 4. James was detained eighteen years in captivity in England, during which time he adorned his mind with every valuable ac- complishment, and had leisure to learn the superior wisdom of the English laws and government. In 1424 he married Lady Joan Beaufort, the daughter of the Earl of Somerset. The young king of England presented him with a suit of gold cloth for the ceremony, after which he departed for Scottand, and was crowned the same year at Scone under the title of James I. 5. James, on his arrival, found the affairs of Scotland very different from those of England. During the regency of Albany the kingdom was filled with great disorders, and the royal autho- rity had fallen into utter contempt; in every section of the coun- try some barbarous chieftain ruled at pleasure, without regard to the authority of the king or the interests of the people. The first object of James was to curb the exorbitant power of the nobility. A statute was passed in parliament, by which the leagues and combinations which rendered them so powerful were declared illegal. He caused a number of the most refractory to be arrested and brought to trial; the king himself presided in person, dressed in his royal robes, with the sceptre and globe in his hand. They were found guilty and publicly executed. Of the Earls of Douglas and Percy? On one occasion, what took place? When did Robert die?— 2. What is said of the reign of this prince? Of the Duke of Albany? Where did he conduct the young prince? — 3. What is said of Robert? On the way, what happened to the prince? At the news, what is said of Robert? — 4. How long was James detained in captivity? In 1424, what did he do? With what was he pra- scnted by the king of England? — 5. On his arrival, how did he find the affairs of Scot- land ? What was the firs' act o r James Whai. did he cause? SCOTLAND. 221 6. James haying tnus reduced order in his kingdom, and being 1 a prince of refined accomplishments and the most elegant scholar or his age, turned all his attention towards the improvement and civilization of his subjects. But the check that he had given to the power of the nobility had irritated the whole body, and they only waited a favorable opportunity for conspiring against him. While holding a feast at Perth he had taken up his abode at the Convent of Blackfriars, there being no palace or castle conveni- ent, and had quartered his guards among the citizens. A con- spiracy was entered into, at the head of which appeared the earl of /Jtlwl and Sir Robert Graham, and this was deemed a favor- able moment for carrying it into execution. 7. The king had passed the 20th of February, 1437, in various amusements with his nobles and the ladies of his court, and was cheerfully conversing with his queen and her attendants, when suddenly a noise was heard and the flaming of torches was seen in the convent gardens. At the first alarm, the king, judging that his life was in danger, ordered the doors to be closed, while he endeavored to effect his escape. Lady Catharine Douglas has- tened to bolt the outer door of the hall, but not finding the bar, she resolutely pushed her arm through tne staples, which was broken by the conspirators in forcing the door. Dunbar, a young nobleman who attempted to guard the ante-chamber, was struck dead ; and the queen herself received several wounds from the assassins. James, who was remarkably active and strong, de fended himself for some time with great resolution; but at length, overpowered by numbers, he fell under the repeated blows of the conspirators. 8. The traitors immediately retreated to the Highlands, but by the unremitting exertions of his queen they were all taken in the short space of a month, brought to trial, and executed. The earl of Jit hoi, to whom it had been predicted that he should die a king, was crowned with a red-hot diadem as king of traitors; and aftei that horrible ceremony, he was beheaded. James I. was murdered in the forty-fourth year of his age, and in the thirteenth of his reign. He was one of the wisest -4nd most accomplished sovereigns that ever swayed the Scottish sceptre. 9. James II. succeeded his father to the throne at the early age of six years, while Ihe affairs of state were chiefly under the direc- tion of Alexander Livingston and Sir William Crichton. At this period the house of Douglas had arrived at the height of its power. The Douglases were remarkable for their courage and military talents, also for the pomp of their retinue and the number of their armed followers. In 1438 the earl of JDohglas died, leaving two sons, the eldest a youth of sixteen. Livingston and Crichton thought this a favourable opportunity for crushing foi ever the powerful house of Douglas. With this intention 6. To whai did James turn his nttentic* ? At Perth, where did he take up h.s abode' What was entered into against him? — 7. Fowdid the king pass the 20th of February ¥ At the first alarm, what was done? What is said of Lady Catharine? Of Dun-ai ? Of James?— 8 What is said of the traitors? Of the Earl of Athol? When did Jamea die ? What was he ? — 9. Who succeeded ? in 1438, what took place ? V\ hat is reiaied of Livingston and Crichton, ar.vi what was the fate of the '.wo sons ci" Doug.as? 19* 222 SCOTLAND. they invited the young- earl and his brother to court, as companions for the young king. Without suspecting the base design in con- templation, they accepted the invitation and set out with their attendants to Edinburgh castle. They were received with every mark of respect, especially by James, who had no suspicion of the treacherous intentions of his guardians. A splendid enter- tainment was given them, in the midst of which a party of armed men rushed into the apartment, and seizing upon the unsuspect- ing companions of James, dragged them into the court of the castle, where,undergoing a mock trial for the insolence of their ancestors, they were condemned and beheaded. 10. James II. is said to have been a handsome man, and of a quick, impetuous temper. His reign was distinguished by his strenuous efforts to humble the power of his haughty nobles. In 1460, he laid siege to the castle of Roxburgh for the purpose of re covering it from the hands of the English. During the siege, James ordered the artillery to fire upon the castle, when one of the guns burst, and killed him upon the spot, in the twenty-ninth year of his age. 11. James III., who succeeded his father, possessed neither his abilities nor his talents. He secluded himself in the castle oi Stirling, where he devoted himself to pursuits ill becoming a sovereign, and raised the indignation of his barons by his attach- ment to unworthy favorites*. At length a powerful league was formed against him, which was joined by most of the southern lords. ( The king marched towards the north, and having arrived at Stirling, was refused admittance by the governor. He then demanded his son, but was told that the young prince had been carried off by the rebel lords. 12. Upon receiving this intelligence, the king immediately ad- vanced at the head of thirty thousand men to meet the insurgents. The army was arrayed in three divisions, the king himself com- manding the rear. The battle commenced with fury on both sides, and for some time was sustained with equal success. At length the western borderers charging with their long spears, bore down all before them ; James, unable to stand the charge, turned and fled. As he retreated, he passed by a small hamlet near a mill ; his horse taking fright at a woman who came out for water, sud- denly turned, and precipitated the king to the ground, who being heavily armed, and stunned by the fall, was unable to rise. The people soon collected, and removed him into the mill. When he recovered, he called out for a priest. Being asked by the miller's wife, who he was, he replied : " I was your king this morning." The woman, struck with surprise, hastened out and called loudly for a priest to attend the king. Upon this a stranger rode up ana said : " I am a priest, lead me to the king." He was immediately introduced, and kneeling down, asked James if he thought he was dangerously injured. The king replied that he thought not, but 10. What is said of James? How was he killed ?— 11. Who succeeded ? What is Baid of him? What was formed against him? — 12. On receiving this intelligenre what did the king do ? Describe the battle ? As he retreated, what happened ? Ben.g »8ked who he was, what did he reply ? SCOTLAND. 223 in the mean time, desired that his confession might be heard, and that he might receive absolution. " This shall absolve you," re- plied the assassin, and drawing a poniard, plunged it into the breast of the unhappy monarch. Such was the unfortunate end oi James III., in the thirty-sixth year of his age. 13. The throne was immediately occupied by his son and suc- cessor. James IV., a great and accomplished prince, respected by his nobles, and beloved by his subjects ; he loved magnificence, and his court was renowned throughout Europe. He bitterly regret- ted his misfortune, in being compelled to appear in the field with the rebel lords ; and considering himself in a manner accessory to his father's death, he imposed upon himself a voluntary penance, which he continued to observe during the remainder of his life. He caused an iron girdle to be made, which he wore under his clothes ; and, as if desirous that his penance might increase with his age, he every year added a new link to its weight. 14. In 1502, he married the princess Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. of England, an accomplished and virtuous woman. James, who excelled in all the martial exercises, and particularly delighted in tilts and tournaments, was eager for an occasion to display his prowess. During the reign of Henry VIII., the har- mony which had subsisted between England and Scotland began gradually to weaken, until at length it broke out into open rup- ture. James, contrary to the advice of the ablest of his ministers, and against every entreaty of his queen, resolved upon the inva sion of England. 15. Having with much difficulty obtained the consent of par liament, he gave orders for the forces of the kingdom to meet hirr. at Edinburgh. After haying completed his preparations, the king, on the twenty-second of August, entered England at the head of his army, attended by all the flower of the Scottish nobility, and pitched his camp on Flodden Field. Here he was met by the English army, commanded by the Earl of Surrey, who, confident of his superior strength, endeavored to bring the Scottish king to an engagement. 16. After some mutual suspense, the signal for the battle was given ; and the combatants on both sides rushed to the contest with equal vigor. At the first onset, the forces of James threw the right wing of the English into disorder ; but at that moment, Thomas Howard, at the head of his English division, bore down upon the Scots, while at the same time they were charged in the rear by Sir Edward Stanley. Dreadful was the carnage that now ensued. The king fought on foot in the thickest of the contest. His nobles, to whom he was dear, pressed, and entreated hin; to escape. Night at length put an end to tlu-. conflict, during which the Scottish army silently withdrew, leaving the king and the flower of the nobility numbered among the slain. Wh it was his end ? — 13 By whom was the throne occupied ? "What did he regret ? Waai did 1 e cause ? — 14. Whom did he marry ? In what did he e.ccel ? During; his reign -what was weakened? — 15. When did he enter England ? Where did he pitcft his car.ip ?— 16. After the signal was given, what is said of the comba'-ants? Describe the battle ? What was tne fate of James ? 224 SCOTLAND. 17. James the V., who succeeded his father, was then an infant of only a year old ; during his minority, the office of regency was conferred on the Duke of Albany. The Duke, however, being a native of France, and quite unacquainted with the manners and customs of Scotland, met with considerable opposition from the turbulent nobles; and after an unsuccessful struggle, he volunta- rily resigned his office, and retired to France. The king, now in his thirteenth year, assumed the reins of government, with eight persons appointed as his chief counsellors, of whom the Earl of Angus was the most prominent. James bore the empty title of king, while the ambitious earl exercised the regal authority. His person was guarded by a body of one hundred men; all the higher offices of his household were filled by members of the Douglas family, and relatives of Angus. This was a restraint which the young king reluctantly bore, and waited every opportunity to free himself from the power of the .earl. Having at length effected his escape, he rode to Stir- ling, assembled around him his faithful adherents, and issued a proclamation, declaring any of the Douglas family a traitor, who should dare to approach' within twelve miles of his person. Angus and his adherents were accused of treason in parliament, tlieir goods were forfeited, and they themselves driven into exile. 18. The education of James had been much neglected; his character was that of a great but uncultivated mind ; his passions were violent, yet he was distinguished for the affability of his de- portment. Henry VIII. having declared war against Scotland, James prepared to defend his dominions. At the approach of the Scottish army, the English retired; James proposed to pursue them ; but his barons resolutely refused to advance beyond their own borders. The king, mortified and disappointed, disbanded his army, and returned to his capital. Shortly after this, it was proposed to make an attack upon the English borders, and the troops for this purpose were placed under the command of Oliver Sinclair. But the barons, indignant to see a person of inferior rank placed over them, basely surrendered their whole army, consisting of ten thousand men, to the enemy, without the slight- est resistance. _ When the news of this event was brought to the king, he burst into a transport of rage ; after which a distressing melancholy seized upon his mind. , While in this state, he was informed of the birth of his daughter, afterwards the unfortunate Queen Mary. At this news he exclaimed : " It will end as it be- gan ; the crown came with a woman, it will go with one. How many miseries await this poor kingdom." These were his last words ; he expired of a broken heart, in the thirty-first year of his age ; A. D. 1542. 19. Mary, Queen of Scots, so celebrated for her misfortunes, was but a few days old at the time of her father's death. Hamil- 17. By whom was he succeeded ? In his thirteenth year, what did the king do ? What 13 said of his person ? Having effected his escape, what did he do ? — 13. What was his character ? What was done by Henry VIII. ? What, did James propose ? What did 'he barons do? What after this was proposed ? What did the barons again do ? A* this news what is said of the king? Of what was he informed ? What did" he exclaim? —10. What is said of Mary, Quewi of Scots ? SCOTLAND. 225 ton, Earl of Arran, was appointed regent of the kingdom. Pro- posals were made by Henry the VIII. of England, of marriage between the infant queen of Scots, and his son Edward, who was then also a child. The proposals were rejected by the Scots, in consequence of which hostilities were declared by the two countries, which were carried on for some time with various success. 20. All prospects of a union between Mary and Edward being now at an end, it was resolved that she should form an alliance with the Dauphin of France, and should be sent to that country that she might be educated at the French Court. Accordingly, in 1648, the young queen then in her sixth year, embarked for France, while her mother Mary of Guise, was made regent of Scotland, in place of Hamilton. On the death of Queen Mary of England, Elizabeth, her sister succeeded to the throne of that country. But as the divorce between Henry and his first queen had never been ratified by the pope, the Catholics naturally re- garding Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn, as illegitimate, looked upon the queen of Scotland, the grand-daughter of Margaret, Henry's sister, as the rightful heir to the English crown. Mary was induced to assert her claim ; money was coined, on which Mary and Francis assumed the title and arms of England and Scotland. 21. The reformers in Scotland, assisted by Elizabeth, had taken up arms against the queen regent, and the English army under the command of Lord Grey, having entered Scotland, was joined by the members of the congregation from all parts of the king. dom. '1 he queen regent, unable to withstand their united forces, retired to the castle of Edinburgh v/here she shortly after died. She was a princess possessed of great abilities and many amiable qualities. After her death, peace was restored and a treaty con- cluded, by which great concessions were made to the Reformers, During the contest, many of the most splendid churches and beautiful buildings were demolished by the Reformers: the abbeys and monasteries, with the cells of the monks, were levelled to the ground. 22. In 1560, Francis II. of France died ; after which Mary resolved to return to her native kingdom. During her residence in France, her education had been particularly attended to; she was mistress of several languages ; wrote both prose and verse with elegance and ease ; excelled in music and all the accom- plishments of her sex. She was condescending and gay in her manners, graceful in all her movements, and was reputed to have been the handsomest woman, at that period, in Europe. With the deepest regret, she bid adieu to France, where she had passed the happy scenes of childhood, and after a short passage, landed at Leith in her own dominions, where she was received with every What proposals were made, and how were they received ? — 20. All prospects of a union being ended, what » as resolved ? As the divorce, &c, had never been ratified, what did the Catholics legard and look upon ? What was j\lary induced to do? — 21, What is said of the Reformers ? Of the queen regent ? During the contest, what took place? — 22. In 1560, what happened? What did Mary resolve to do? What is said of her education and accomplishments? Where did she land? 226 SCOTLAND. demonstration of joy by her subjects and nobles, who conducted her to Holy rood, the palace of her ancestors. 23. As she rode through the streets of the capital, the inhabit- ants were dazzled by her splendor, and struck with admiration of her beauty. Her warlike nobles, as they crowded around her, were softened into the deepest reverence. Happy for Mary, if she could have gained equally the affection of all her subjects. But there was one class over which all her gentleness could not exert the slightest iniluence. She was a Catholic ; the Reformers, therefore; regarded her as an enemy to their religion, although she had early declared her determination to molest no one for the exercise of religion. The reformed preachers spoke openly against her with the most intemperate violence ; Knox even boasted that he had spoken so roughly to her, when she condescended to ex- postulate with him, as to bring tears from her eyes. On the Sun- day after her arrival, she had mass celebrated in the chapel at Holyrood, but such was the intolerant spirit of the populace, that the priest narrowly escaped being murdered at the altar. 24. The most powerful princes of Europe solicited the hand of the Scottish queen. But Mary rejected them all, and turned her affections towards a young nobleman of high birth, connected with the royal family both of England and Scotland. This was Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, the eldest son of the Earl of Len- nox, a man whose only recommendation seems to have been his personal appearance and external accomplishments. They wero married on the 29th of July, 1565. 25. Shortly after her marriage, an insurrection was excited against her, at the head of which appeared the Earl of Murray, Mary's natural brother. The queen appealed to the loyalty of her subjects, and the alacrity with which they responded to the call, proved her popularity. She rode at their head to inspire them with courage, and lead them against the insurgents ; the insur- rection was soon quelled, and order again restored. 26. Mary soon found that her union with Darnley was likely to Eroduce but little comfort or pleasure. He was a man of no sta- ility of character: naturally haughty^ and jealous; rendered giddy by the height to which he was raised by his marriage with the Queen of Scotland, he demanded the crown matrimonial, that is, an equal right in the crown with his consort. This concession Mary refused, without the consent of her parliament. He grew impatient, and set no bounds to his resentment. In conjunction with several of the nobles of his court, he determined on the death of Rizzio, the queen's Italian secretary. This atrocious deed was perpetrated at Holyrood palace, in the very presence of the queen and several ladies of her court. 27. Darnley, a few months after this event, being seized with a violent illness, was advised, as soon as the^ state of his health would permit, to remove to a house near Edinburgh, called the 23. What is said of her as she rode through the capital ? What was she ? What happened on the Sunday after her arrival ?— 24. What is said of the princes of Europe ? On whom did Mary turn her affections ?— 25. After her marriage what took place ? What is said of the queen ?— 26. What did she soon rind? What did he demand? What did he do ?— 27. A few months after this event, what is said of Darnley ? SCOTLAND. 227 Kirk of Field, for the benefit of the air. Mary frequently visited him here, with every mark of affection. On the 9th of February, 1567, the house in which the king resided was blown up with •gunpowder; his body, with several of his attendants, was thrown into an adjacent garden. 28. The suspicion of the murder fell upon the Earl of Both- vi el 1, and the queen herself was accused of being - an accomplice [n the death of her husband. In a few days, the Earl of Lennox came forward and openly accused Both well. Bothwell and several others were impeached as the murderers, and a day was appointed for their trial. At the appointed time, Bothwell ap- peared in Edinburgh to stand his trial, accompanied by a large body of soldiery, and attended by four thousand gentlemen. A motion made by Lennox to suspend the trial for forty days, was rejected; and no prosecutor appearing, the jury, with the consent of ihe nobles and gentlemen, returned a verdict in favor of the accused. Bothwell, disregarding the murmurs of the people against this mockery of justice, invited the nobles to a splendid entertainment, and prevailed on them to sign a bond, in which they not only declared him innocent of the king's death, but re- commended him to Mary as the most suitable person for her future husband. 29. Shortly after this, as Mary was returning from Stirling, where she had been on a visit to her son, she was met by Bothwell, at the head of a thousand horse, and led captive to the castle of Dunbar, from which she was only released after she consented to become his wife. Mary requested time, that she might consult the King of France, and her relations of the house of Guise. But the ambition of Bothwell was too impatient to run the hazard of delay. The only remaining obstacle, his marriage with Janet Gordon, the sister to the Earl of Huntly, was in a few days re- moved by a divorce, which he obtained on the grounds of consan- guinity. In the short space of one month after his trial, Bothwell led the queen to the court sessions, where she forgave him the outrages committed against her person, and created him Duke of Orkney. On the following day, they were married in the hall of Holyrood House. 30. To explain this extraordinary transaction, would too fat exceed the limits of these short outlines; suffice it to say, that many of the ablest historians have deduced the clearest evidence to prove, that Mary was innocent of all participation in the death of her husband, and that her marriage with Bothwell was effected by force.* 31. The nobles, roused by the insult cast upon themselves and their sovereign, flew to arms. A battle was fought at Carberrp *See her Life, by H. Bell, Esq., vol. ii.. page 221. Dr. Lingard's History of England, vol. vii., page 235. Andersor >>age S9 — 102. Or. the 9lh of February. 1507, what took place? — 28. On whom did the suspicion fall? What is said of Both well and several others? What did the inry do ? What did Bothwell now do? — 2... After this, what is related of Mary? What did she re- guest? What ohstacle was in the way? Where did Bothwell lead the queen? — HQ What have many of the ab'^st historians deduced" —31. What is said of the noble? 228 SCOTLAND. Hill, iii which the forces of the queen were routed ; Bothwell fled from the field, and Mary surrendered herself into the hands of the lords, and was conducted by them to Edinburgh. As the queen rode through the streets of the capital, she was accosted in the most insulting language by the populace, and upbraided as the murderess of her husband. On the following morning, she was escorted by a strong force, and conveyed to the castle Loch- leven, situated on a small island in the middle of a lake. 32. Here she was compelled to resign her crown in favor of her infant son, and the Earl of Murray was immediately appointed regent. Mary, after languishing in captivity for some months, effected her escape, and assembling her faithful adherents around her, made an unsuccessful effort to regain her crown. She was met by the regent at Langside, and after an obstinate engage- ment, the queen's forces were completely routed. Mary having witnessed the defeat of her arms, contrary to all the entreaties of her friends, took the fatal resolution of throwing herself upon the mercy of Elizabeth, the English queen, from whom she re- ceived the warmest expressions of friendship and offers of pro- tection. Accordingly, on the 16th of May, she crossed the Sol way in an open fishing boat, with a few attendants, and landed on the English shore. 33. But Elizabeth, instead of affording the promised protection, sent the unhappy queen to Tutbury castle, where she was placed in the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury. Various circumstances contributed to render Elizabeth jealous of her rival, the chief of which was her pretension to the English crown. For eighteen years the Queen of Scots languished in captivity in the dominions of her cousin. At length the English government resolved to crown the measure of her sorrows by an ignominious death. After much affected delay and apparent regret, Elizabeth signed the warrant for Mary's execution. 34. When the messengers sent to inform her of her fate arrived at Fotheringay castle, they found Mary, with her female attend- ants, engaged in evening prayer. She received them with her usual serenity, and heard her sentence read with the greatest composure. After which, placing her hand upon her Bible, she solemnly protested her innocence of the crimes laid to her charge, particularly that of conspiring against the English queen. The Earl of Kent observed, that as the book was a Romish Bible, her oath, therefore, was of no avail. Mary replied, that her oath on that account was the more solemn, as she herself was a Catholic. Being informed that her execution would take place on the fol- lowing morning, she began immediately to prepare for that trying scene, and asked that she might be allowed to see her confessor, who had not been permitted to visit her for some time previous ; What battle followed ? Wkt't is said of Mary ? On the following morning, where was she conveyed? — 32. What was she compelled to do heie? What did Mary do afteT some months ? Where was she met? What resolution did she take ?— 33. What :s said of Elizabeth ? How many years did the queen languish in captivity? A« ength, what was resolved ? — 34. How did the messengers find Mary? How chil she receive them? What did she protest ? What did the Earl of Kent observe ? WhaJ did Mary rep'.y ? Y\ hr* Hid she ask? SCOTLAND. 229 this only request, however, was denied her ; she was refused the consolation of the last rites of her religion. _ 35. On the evening previous to her execution, she wrote seveial letters ; one to the king of France, and another to Elizabeth, in a mild and dignified style, in which she expressed her gratitude that the period of her sorrowful pilgrimage was drawing to a close, and requested that her remains might be conveyed to Prance, and placed beside tiie relics of her mother. Before re- tiring, she called together her servants, and taking a glass of wine, she drank to them all. They pledged her in turn upon their knees, and asked her pardon for any neglect in their duty. On her part, she condescended to ask their forgiveness for any offence towards them, and after distributing among them what remained of her money and jewels, she took her leave of them in the most affectionate manner. 36. She retired to rest at her usual hour, although she slept but little, being engaged the greater part of the night in prayer. As it inclined towards morning, she arose and dressed herself in a rich robe of silk and velvet. When the sheriff entered her room and informed her that the fatal hour had arrived, she replied that she was ready, and followed him with a cheerful countenance. On passing through the hall she met Sir Andrew Melville, the master of ner household, who, in tears, lamented the ill-merited fate of his mistress. She told him not to weep, but rather to re joice, that she was so soon to be released from all her afflictions. She then delivered to him her last farewell to all her friends, and to her son in particular. Up to this moment Mary seemed to bear all the circumstances of the trying scene with a fortitude that elicited the admiration even of her enemies. At the mention of her son, however, she was no longer able to restrain the emo- tion of her heart; all the love, the affection, and tenderness of a mother was recalled — she burst into tears. 37. She advanced to the hall of execution, holding in her hand a crucifix of ivory, ascended the scaffold with a majestic air, and took her seat upon a chair, while the Dean of Peterborough, in a discourse, exhorted her to renounce the faith of her ancestors, and die in the Reformed religion. Mary replied that she had been born in the Catholic religion, in that she had lived, and in that she had resolved to die. She then offered up her prayers aloud for the Catholic church, for her son, and for her cousin, Queen Elizabeth. Having taken her last farewell of her faithful attendants, without the least emotions of fear, she calmly resigned her head to the block, which was severed from her body by^ the second stroke of the axe. Thus ended the eventful life of the illustrious Queen of Sc f s, an event which has stamped an indeli- ble stain upon the memory of Elizabeth. 35. On the evening previous to her execution, what did she do? Before retiring, what did she do ? What did she ask ?— 36. Wl.«c did she do ? As it inclined towards morning? When the sheriff entered, what did she reply? Whom did she meet? What did she tel and deliver to him ? At the mention of her son. what is said of Mary? — 37. How did she advance to the lull of execution ? What did .Mary reply 1 For what did sns effer her prayers ? Having taken leave of her attendants, what did she do ? 9C. 230 IRELAND. 38. James VI., who was only an infant when placed upon (he throne, assumed the reins of government at the age of fourteen. His partiality to unworthy favorites excited against him the in- dignation and jealousy of his nobles. In consequence of which several conspiracies were formed against him, and on several occasions the king narrowly escaped with his life. There was no event of importance occurred during his reign in Scotland, In 1603, Elizabeth of England died, having previously appointed James her successor to "the English throne. On the Sundav be- fore his departure for England, he repaired to the church of St. Giles, and took a solemn farewell of his Scottish subjects. On the 7th of May he entered London, and was received with shouts of approbation by the people. From this period the. history of Scotland becomes united with that of England. During the reign of Queen Anne, the legislative union between England and Scotland was effected, by which the latter was deprived of her national parliament, and both included under the common title of Great Britain, A. D. 1707. IRELAND. SECTION I. 1. The early history of this country is greatly involved in ob- scurity, and lias afforded a subject of research lor antiquaries for nearly two centuries. The first inhabitants of Ireland, ac- cording to the best authorities, were originally descended from the Ceits, who first peopled the western part of Europe. This appears probable from the striking similarity between their modes of worship, their objects of adoration, and the language of that ancient people, the purest dialect of which still exists in Ireland. 2. By consulting the ancient authors, it will appear reasonable that, while England was peopled from the coasts of Gaul, Ireland received her population directly from the shores of Celtic Spain. It is at least certain, that between these two countries relations of affinity had been at an early period established, and the western coasts of Spain were the immediate regions from which the com- munication was maintained. That the. country was inhabited at a very remote period of antiquity is admitted by all impartial his torians : but to pursue the early history of Ireland to that extent necessary to give a clear view of this early period, would too fai exceed the limits of these outlines; therefore a few particulars must suffice. Z z . What is said of James VI ? In 1603. -vhat took place ? On the Sunday befflM his departure, what did he do ? Durinc the :eif fire what was associated ? "What is said D!' the priests 7 — I. How was Ireland divided? What is said of every snhord.r.dte prince? Of tbe light of primogeniture ? Of the -nonarch himself? From this state if things what may w; infer? — 5. What are we informed by the Irish annalists' 1 What name is distinguished ? "What renders his name ar important ej a? lu these assemthes what do wo. observe? AVho were the leading persons ? 232 IRELAND. purpose of passing such laws and regulations as the public good seemed to require. 0. Among the important offices transmitted hereditary in Ire- land, were those of heralds, bards, and musicians. To the pro- fession of these arts, Ollam Fodhla assigned lands for their use. lie also instituted at Tara a school of general instruction, which afterwards became celebrated under the name of the Mur -ollam ham, or the college of the learned. At the commencement of the Christian era, the Irish throne was occupied by Conary the Great, of whose reign we have but few particulars. 7. One of the most illustrious of the Irish monarchs was Cormat Ulfadah, who flourished about the middle of the third century To his munificence and love of learning the country was indebted, it is said, for the foundation of three academies at Tara: in the first of which, the science of war was taught; in the second, his- torical literature; while the third was devoted to the cultivation of jurisprudence. Under his auspices, a general revision of the annals of the kingdom took place; the national records, preserved in the Psalter of Tara since the days of the illustrious Ollam, were corrected and improved. According to an ancient custom of the country, no one could retain possession of the throne who was affected with any personal blemish; and as Cormac, in de- fending his palace against a rebellious attack, had incurred the loss of an eye, he was thereby disqualified for retaining the sove- reignty. After his abdication of the regal power, Cormac retired to an humble cottage, where he devoted the remainder of his days to literary pursuits, while he was succeeded in the throne by his son. 8. No event of importance occurs in the history of Ireland from this period, until Christianity was introduced into the island by the illustrious apostle St. Patrick. The holy missionary, accord- ing to the most authentic accounts, was born in Gaul, of respect- able parentage, about the year 387. In his youth he was taken captive to Ireland and sold to a man by the name of Milcho, by whom he was employed in attending flocks. After six years of servitude he again escaped to his native country; and having spent some time with his parents, he repaired to the celebrated monas- tery or college of St. Martin, near Tours, where he remained for several years, and is believed to have been initiated into the eccle- siastical state previous to his leaving that institution. 9. The attention of the Roman Pontiff had been for some time directed towards establishing Christianity in Ireland; at length Pope Celestine resolved to send a bishop to that country, and Palladius was the person appointed for that mission. But on the death of Palladius, which happened shortly after his appointment, St. Patrick was selected to succeed him in the mission. Having been consecrated bishop at Ebona, a town in the north of Gaul, 6. What offices were transmitted hereditary ? At the Christian era who occupied the throne? — 7. Who was one of the most illustrious monarchs? To him, for what is the country indebted? What ancient custom of the country is mentioned? Wha. happened to Cormac ? — S. By whom was Christianity introduced ? In his youth, wha* ■B said of him? Having escaped, where did he repair? — 9. What is said cf the atten tianof the Roman oontuf? On the death of Palladius who was selected? IRELAND. 233 the saint proceeded on his passage to the scene of his labors, and after some short delay in Britain he arrived in Ireland, as the Irish annals inform us, in the first year of the pontificate of Sextus ill, A. D.432. 10. The most abundant fruit followed his labors; proceeding from province to province he preached the truths of the gospel, and by his eloquence converted all who heard him to Christianity. lie was permitted to explain the object of his mission before Lor- gerhis, the chief king of the country, at a meeting of the great council of the nation then assembled at Tara, and numbered among his converts several members of the "Royal family. It does not appear evident that the monarch himself embraced Christian- ity, although he allowed the holy man to pursue his mission un- molested. In a few .years St. Patrick built a number of churches, and founded monasteries designed for the education of persons for the priesthood. He is said to have banished all the vipers and noxious animals from the island ; whether this be the fact or not, it is certain that they will not live in that country at the present time. The saint died at Sabhul on the 17th of March, A. I). 465, in the seventy-eighth year of his age ; the day of his death is still held in grateful remembrance by the natives of Ireland, no matter in what part of the earth fortune may have cast them. 11. During the seventh and the greater part of the eighth cen- tury, literature flourished in Ireland ; the fame of her institutions spread to other climes, and numbers from all parts of Europe flocked to her shores to study in her schools, while at the same time Irish scholars were invited to impart instruction in foreign coun- tries. Hence we find that Charlemagne patronised several distin- guished Irish scholars ; and during the reign of Charles the Bald, the learned, though subtle John Scotus Erigena received not only the royal patronage, but was made the intimate companion of that monarch. 12. Towards the close of the eighth century, Ireland was in- vaded by the Danes, who continued to hold possession of the chief maritime towns of the country for more than two hundred years. During this period an almost uninterrupted series of warfare was carried on between the natives and the invaders ; but to follow the history of the country through that period would too far exceed our present limits; it will be sufficient to notice the great victory gained by the Irish heroes on the plains of Clontarf, where the death-blow was given to the Danish power. As this is one of the most memorable battles recorded in the Irish annals, it deserves a particular notice. 13. About the year 1014, the Danes, whose chief power was concentrated at Dublin, began to make preparations for reducing the entire country. For this purpose they not only collected all their forces from the different parts of Ireland, Scotland, lie- When did he arrive in Ireland ? — 10. What is said of the fruit of his labors ? What was he permitted ? In a few years what did St. Patrick do ? What is he said to have dune ? Where and when did he die? — 11. During this period, what is said of litera- ture ? Of the fame of other institutions ? Hence, what do we find ?— 12. What took place towards the close of the eighth century?' What will it be sufficient to notice ? — 13 In 1014, what did the Danes do ? 20* 234 IRELAND. brides, and Orkneys, but, moreover, brought fresh reinforcements from Denmark and Normandy.' It happened at this time that the chief throne of Ireland was occupied by the famous Brian Boru. This illustrious monarch, aware of the intention of the Danes, lost no time in opposing their designs; and placing him- self at the head of his own forces of Munster, and joined by those of Meath under Malachy, and by the troops of Connaught com- manded by Teige, the king of that province, he marched directly to the vicinity of Dublin, and took up his position on the plain ot Clontarf. The Danes, confiding in the superiority of their num- bers, were anxious for the engagement. At the dawn of day, on the morning of the 23d of April, the battle was commenced, and raged with abating fury until the close of the evening, when vic- tory declared in favor of the Irish, and the Danes were driven with immense slaughter from the field. 14. Brian, who is said to have triumphed in fifty battles over the enemies of his country, was now destined to fall in the mo- ment of another victory, by the hand of an assassin. In the midst of the rout and carnage that followed the retreat, Bruadair, one of the Danish chiefs, took refuge in a small wood in the vicinity of Brian's tent, and perceiving that the monarch was almost en- tirely unattended, and at that moment engaged in prayer with his hands upraised to heaven, rushed into the tent and plunged a dagger into the royal veteran's heart. The power of the Danes never recovered from the overthrow it received in the battle ot Clontarf; the blow struck on that memorable occasion by Brian., was followed up by his able successor Malachy; hence we find that their numbers gradually diminished, until at length their feeble remains are mingled with the general mass of the popula- tion, and disappear as a distinct people. 15. Irish literature, which had been so renowned throughout the west, naturally decreased from its former state of advance- ment during the Danish invasion. The schools and monasteries, though frequently ravaged 'and burnt by the Danes, again arose from their ashes, and again resounded with the voice of instruc- tion and prayer as the invader retired. Hence during the eleventh century her literary institutions became famous abroad, and her shores were visited by foreign students.* * See Moore's History of Ireland, page 2L4— 235. Who at this time was the chief king 1 What did he do? When was tne Dattie fought, and what was the issue ? — 14. What is said of Brian ? Relate the circumstances of his death? What is said of the power of the Danes ? Of the blow struck on this occasion ? — 15. What is .'aid of Irish literature i Of the schools? Of her literary •institutions ? IRELAND. 235 SECTION II From the Invasion of Ireland by Henry II. of England, j2, I). 1171, to the Insurrection o/17*JS. 1. After the overthrow of the Danes in the great battle of Clontarf nothing of importance occurs in the history of Ireland, until we come to the memorable struggle which terminated in the titter extinction of her national independence, and the subjection of the country to the dominion of the British crown. As early as the year 1155, Henry II. of England had conceived the design of invading Ireland ; but having neither a legal right to the pos- session of the country, nor any ground of a quarrel to justify an invasion of it, he saw that by no other means could he plausibly attain his object, than by concealing the real motive of his enter • prise under a pretended zeal for the interest of religion and mo- rality. 2. With this view he applied to Pope Adrian, an Englishman by birth, who had been lately raised to the pontifical throne, foi permission to invade and subdue the Irish for the purpose of effecting a reformation among them. The pontiff, assuming an extent of temporal power, such as no pope before had thought o( arrogating to himself, acceded to the will of the English monarch, on condition that a penny for every house in Ireland should be annually paid to the court of Rome. Either from >he internal commotion of his kingdom, or from some other cause, Henry was restrained from carrying into effect his projected invasion of Ire- land for many years after he obtained the pretended grant of the country from the pope. 3. An opportunity at length presented itself favorable to.his ambitious views. Ijermot Mac MurcJiad, king of Leinster, hav- ing been expelled from his country on account of his crimes and cruelty, fled to England for aid. On his arrival, however, finding that the king was absent in Normandy, he immediately sailed for that country, and threw himself at the feet of Henry, offering, if restored to his kingdom, to hold it as a vassal of the English Crown. The English monarch received, without hesitation, the proffered fealty of his new liegeman, and as the only way in which he could at present forward his objects, he gave him letters patent, for the purpose of raising forces in his dominions. 4. Having been thus successful in the object of his mission, Dermot hastened back \o England, and succeeded in interesting in his cause several persons of distinguished rank ; among whom Richard de Clare, earl of Pembroke, surnamed Slrongbow, was the most prominent; also two brothers of high rank, Maurice Fitz-Gerald, and Robert Fitz-Stephen, who, like the Earl of Pembroke himself, were persons of broken fortunes and ready to 1. A.% early as 1155 what had Henry II. conceived? What did he see?— 2. With this view, to whom did he apply? What did the pontiff do?— 3. What is said of Dermot Mac Murchad ? What did he offer to Henry ? How was he received by the English monarch? What did he give him? — i. What did Dermot now do? What did ha prwr.ise to the Earl of r'cmbrokc.'f 236 IRELAND. embark in any enterprise, however desperate, which held out the prospect of a speedy relief. To the Earl of Pembroke, Der- mot promised his daughter Eva in marriage, and to secure to him the succession to the throne of Leinsler, on condition that he would raise an efficient body of men, and transport them into Ire- land during the following spring. To the two brothers, Mam ice and Robert, he engaged to grant the town of Wexford and the adjoining land; while they, on their part, engaged to transport into Leinster a body of English and Welsh forces, to aid him in recovering the throne of his kingdom. 5. Being thus assured of foreign assistance, Dermot returned, probably to Leinster, where, after some short time, we find him making the most unqualified submission to Roderic, then the chief, and the last of the Irish monarchs, renouncing the claim to the government of Leinsler, requesting to be allowed only ten cantreds of that province. This specious submission was only in- tended to disguise his treacherous designs, as his subsequentcon- duct proved, until the arrival of his expected succors. In the mean time, the English adventurers hastened to fulfil their en- gagements, and in the month of May, during the spring of 1169, the first landing of the Anglo-Normans on the coasts of Ireland, under the command of Robert Fitz-Stephen, took place. 6. Dermot, full of joy at the welcome intelligence, instantly collected all the forces in his power, and hastened to join the in vaders. Tl*e first attack was made on the city of Wexford, which finally yielded to their arms. An instance of cruelty committed by the invaders about this time, deserves particular notice. Seventy of the principal inhabitants of Waterford were made prisoners during their attack upon the city ; every offer was made by their fellow citizens for their ransom, even the surrender of the city itself was proffered as the purchase of their liberty. It was de- termined, however, by the English chieftains, to decide the fatf] of the prisoners in a council of w r ar, in which the counsel of Heii' ry of Mount Maurice, who thus early urged a policy, which has been only too faithfully pursued by the British government to the present time, "of striking terror into the Irish," unfortunately prevailed- The prisoners were borne away to the adjacent rocks, where they were cruelly put to death, by first breaking their limbs and casting them into the sea. 7. Subsequent to this event, the Earl of Pembroke arrived in Ireland with reinforcements, and in a short time Dublin, Water" ford, and other important places, fell into the hands of the Eng- lish. In the mean time, the English monarch having made all the necessary preparations, embarked for Ireland, and after a short voyage, landed at Crock, near Waterford, on the eighteenth of October, A. D. 1171. The design of the king, if we may judge from some of his act>, immediately after his arrival, was clearly to impress upon the What to the two brothers? — 5. After some short time, what do we find him doing? What was this submission intended for ? In 1169. what took place? — 6. When was the lira c attack made? What is said of seventy of the inhabitants of Waterford? What was determined ? What was tneir fate ?— 7. What took place subsequent to this event ? When and where did the English monarch land ? IRELAND. 237 minds of (he people, (hat he came rather to protect them from the oppression of others, than to acquire any advantage or possession for himself. This refined policy, combined with a total want of a united or national spirit among the people, will account in some measure for the little resistance the royal invader met, during the progress which he made through the country. 8. After receiving the homage of the king of Desmond, who made a voluntary oft'er of submission and tribute, Henry advanced at the head of his army to Lismore, and from thence to Cashel, where he received the submission of Donald W Brian, king Tho- mond. The example of these princes was followed by many of the inferior potentates, who, after meeting with a courteous re- ception, were dismissed to their territories, laden with presents from the English monarch. From Cashel, Henry returned through Tipper ary to Waterford, and after making but a short stay, he marched to Dublin, a city, which, from the extent of its commerce, had risen at that time to such importance as to become the rival of London. 9. Here, we are told, he was joyfully received by the inhabit- ants; while all the neighboring chieftains hastened to proffer their allegiance ; and among the rest who now joined in the train of the^English sovereign, was O'Ruarc, of Breffny, and finally Rodcric O'Connor, who was the last chief monarch of Ireland. In 1175, a treaty was concluded between Henry and Rode- ric, in which it was solemnly determined that the kings of England should be, in all future time, the lords paramount of Ire- land; that the fee of the soil should be invested in them, and that all succeeding monarchs of Ireland should hold their dominions but as tenants or vassals of the English crown. 10. hi 1185, Henry transferred the government of Ireland to his fon John, then a youth in the twelfth year of his age. The inso- lent behavior of the young prince and his courtiers roused the indignation of the Irish chieftains, who now began to perceive, when too late, that they had intrusted their liberties to treacher- ous keepers, whose object was to render them not only tributa- ries, but slaves. Forgetting all local and personal differences, they agreed to unite against the enemies of their country ; and so suc- cessful were they in their efforts, that according to the English chronicles themselves, John lost, in his different contests with the Irish, almost the whole of his army. Henry being informed of the danger that, threatened the very existence of his power in Ire- land, instantly despatched orders recalling the prince, and placed the whole power of the government, civil and military, in the hands of De Courcy. Such is the brief outline of the establishment of the English power over the Irish nation ; a power that has placed the two na- tions in the attitude in which we see them at present, the one What was the first design of the king?— 8. After receiving the homnge of the king Of Desmond, wnat did Henry do? What is said of the example of these princes? How din Henrv return ?— 9. Here, what are we told ? Who was among the rest ? In 1 175, what took place ?— 10. In 1185, what did Henry do? What is said of the behavior ot Ihc young prince ? What did thev egree 7 What did Henry c'.o when informed o'* this danger ? 238 IRELAND. subjected, without being conquered; the other a ruler without being a master. 11. In 1315, Ireland was invaded by Edward Bruce, brother to the king of Scotland He landed on the island with three thousand adventurers, and was joined by several of the Irish lords of Ulster. After committing various devastations, a deci- sive battle was fought, in which Bruce was killed, and the Scots compelled to retire. In the reign of Henry VII. of England, the power of the go- vernor of Ireland was much diminisled by decreeing that no act passed, or parliament held, without the consent of the kin£ of Eng- land, should be deemed valid. By this measure the Irish legis- lature became dependent on that of England. James I., who valued himself greatly upon promoting the arts of peace, did something towards meliorating the condition of his Irish subjects. He abolished the customs of the country, and substituted English laws in their place, while no authority but that of the king and the laws, were permitted throughout the kingdom. During the civil war in England, in the reign of Charles I., Ireland was also disturbed by insurrection. 12. The loyalty of the Irish to the house of the Stuarts mani- fested itself after the execution of the unfortunate Charles 1., in declaring; in favor of his son, afterwards Charles II. To quell the insurrection that followed, Cromwell was appointed to the com- mand of the parliament forces, and despatched to that country. After some delay at Dublin, where he landed, he determined to lay siege to Drogheda. The town was garrisoned by Sir A. As- ton, with two thousand soldiers and a regiment of horse, besides several volunteers. On coming before the town, Cromwell sent a formal summons to the governor, which was peremptorily rejected^ and a blockade was accordingly commenced. 13. The besiegers were delayed some time by the want of ar- tillery; but when the cannon arrived from Dublin, they opened a tremendous fire from their batteries, which the walls of Drogheda were unable to resist. A practicable breach was soon made, but the attempt at storming was twice repulsed with great slaughter. Cromwell rallied his men to a third attack, and placed himself at their head. The resistance was vigorous; but the Irish Colonel Wall, being killed at the head of his regiment, his soldiers sur- rendered the town under a solemn promise of quarter. This en- gagement made by his officers, Cromwell, on entering the city, refused to ratify, and ordered the garrison to be put to the sword The inhuman massacre was continued during the two following days. Thirty of the brave defenders of Drogheda alone sur vived, and these were sold as slaves. 14. Cromwell next took the city of Wexford, where all the horrors of Drogheda were renewed ; the conqueror strictly for- 11. 1 i 1315, what took plac; ? In the reign of Hemy VII., what was diminished? How '. What did James I. abolish and substitute ?— 12. What is said of the loyalty of the im-!i in favor of the Stuarts 1 Who was sent, to the country ? To what place d;d he lay sieje i*— 13. On taking the town what did Cromwell order ? How many sur- vived?— 14. What city was next taken, and what was renewed : IRELAND. 239 bade his soldiers to give quarter. Strafford, the governor, with some few others, escaped by swimming their horses across the river. The excuse for these atrocious barbarities, was the neces- sity, it was said, of striking immediate terror into the Irisr., in order to prevent them from future opposition. After these, and similar acts of unexampled severity, the whole country submitted to the power of the parliament. 15. At the conclusion of the war, the greater part of the no t)ility and gentry, with the flower of the army, had sought an asylum in foreign lands; their estates were forfeited, and the English commonwealth prepared to put into execution a system of confiscation more extensive and complete than that which had been attempted by Elizabeth or James I. An ordinance was made out for the settling of Ireland, which declares, in its first clause, that it was the intention of the English parliament " to extirpate the Irish nation." 16. In the year 1653 preparations were made to put this act into execution, and another ordinance was passed for the satisfac- tion of the adventurers and soldiers. By this decree the forfeited lands in the counties of Limerick, Tipperary, and Waterford, in the province of Munster; the King and Queen's counties; east and west Meath, in the province of Leinster ; Down, Antrim, and Armagh, in the province of Ulster, were all to be charged with the money advanced by adventurers, and to be divided among them by lot. Thus a material portion of Ireland was distributed among the followers of Cromwell and the supporters of the par- liament. In this division, the Puritans declared that they were directed by the example set by the Israelites in the division of Canaan, and believed that they were justified. The ancient pos- sessors being thus displaced, a new and strange class of proprie- tors succeeded in their place, and have preserved their acquisi- tions under every succeeding change. 17. That the act which gave them the lands of the kingdom was an unparalleled public robbery and the most atrocious in stance of unprincipled spoliation recorded in history, no one can deny. Few, however, felt any scruples at that period ; the coun- try they deemed theirs by the right of conquest ; a right which they supposed to give them absolute authority over the lives and property of the vanquished. The sufferers were Catholics, and they had been taught to look upon them as idolaters, whose punish- ment was most acceptable service in the sight of Heaven. Many of the native inhabitants were kept as bondsmen and slaves to the new proprietors ; they were looked upon as an inferior species, a degraded cast, for whom they could feel no sympathy. The very name of Irish was with them and their descendants an expression of contempt, and associated with ideas of intellectual and moral degradation. The peasants were forbidden to leave their parishes What was the excuse for these barbarities?— 15. At the conclusion of ihe war what is said of the nobility and gentry? What ordinance wa~ made Out? — 16. In 1653, what was done ? By this decree what lands were forfeited? In this division what did the Puritans declare ?— 17. What is said of the act? How did they deem the country? Who were the sufferers? What is said of many of the native inhabitants Of the very name of Irish ? What were the peasants forbidden ? 240 IRELAND. without pernvissicn, and strictly prohibited from assembling for religious worship or any other purpose. The Catholic clergy were ordered to quit the country under penalty of death ; and it was moreover declared a capital offence to celebrate mass, or to perform any ceremonies of the Catholic worship. 18. Nothing occurred in the history of Ireland of any particu- lar importance until after the dethronement of James II. The Irish still remained firm in their allegiance to the unfortunate monarch, and unfurled the royal standard in his favor. On the 12th of March, 1688, James landed in Ireland, at Kinsale, with a small bodv of French forces. Proceeding immediately to Dublin, he entered the capital amidst the joyous acclamations of all classes of the inhabitants. As soon as time would permit, he convoked a parliament to meet at Dublin ; one of the first acts of this assem- bly was a decree granting full liberty of conscience to the profes- sors of every religious creed. 19. On the part of King William, nothing was more anxiously desired than to bring his rival to a decisive engagement, for every day that protracted the war in Ireland added to the dangers of his situation. He therefore resolved to conduct the campaign in person, and arrived in Ireland on the 14th of June. James, on hearing of William's landing, hastened to join his army, which nad retired from Dundalk to Drogheda, and took up his position onthe southern bank of the river Boyne. The French and Irish officers labored to dissuade James from coming to an engagement on that occasion. They represented to him that his numbers were inferior to those of the enemy : that the greater part of his forces were new levies ; that the promised succors from France might speedily be expected; they showed how easily he could maintain a defensive warfare beyond the Shannon, until France should strengthen his force, and delay weaken that of his rival. 20. Courage never had formed any very striking feature in the character of James, but on this occasion he insisted on fighting with so much animation, that his officers and soldiers were pei- suaded that he intended to take a desperate part in the engage- ment, birt at the same time, with ominous precaution, he des- patched Sir Patrick Trant to Waterford, in order to secure a vessel for his escape in case of misfortune. On the last day of June, William's army advanced towards the river, and the Eng- lish king proceeded to take a survey of the enemy's lines from a hill which commanded an extensive prospect. Anxious, how- ever, to gain a nearer view of the enemy, he advanced with some of his officers towards the ford opposite the village of Old Bridge, and having spent some time in reconnoitering. sat down to re- fresh himself on some rising ground. While in this position several field-pieces were discharged at the spot, and as rhe king arose to mount his horse, a shot from one of the guns killed one What were clersry ordered ?— IS. What is said of the history of Ireland ? On the 12th of March, 1038, what took place ? What did he convoke? What was one of the first acts?— 19. On the part of William, what is said ? What did he resolve? Where did James take up his position? What did the French officers do?— 20. What were ills officers and soldiers persuaded? On the last day of June what did William do* After this, what is related of him? ■^^JRELAND, 241 of his attendants and two horses, and a second ball grazed his right shoulder, tearing the coat and inflicting a slight wound. 21. On the memorable morning of the 1st of July, 1690, Wil- liam's army advanced in three columns to the banks of the Boyne. After some delay in crossing the river, the engagement became general. The conflict was sustained for some time on both sides with determined bravery. William animated his soldiers by his presence, and frequently mingled in the thickest of the contest, while James remained a passive spectator on the hill of Donore, and he is said to have exclaimed when he witnessed the destruc- tive charge of Hamilton's dragoons, " Spare, spare my English subjects!" 22. Before the fate of the battle was decided, James, deserting his brave and faithful soldiers, fled with precipitation to Dublin, and there falsely ascribed his defeat to the cowardice of the Irish, who, throughout the whole action, had displayed the greatest courage, and only wanted a worthy leader to have gained a triumphant victory. On their part, they justly ascribed the i'- success of the day to the cowardice and incapacity of James " Change kings," was their eommon cry, " and we will fight the battle over again." Making but a short stay at Dublin, James continued his flight to Waterford, and embarked for France. In ihe battle of the Boyne, William lost several of his most distin- guished and able officers. The Irish lost no person of distinction except the brave and courageous Hamilton, who was taken prisoner. When brought into the presence of William, he was asked by the king if he thought the Irish would fight again : to which the intrepid general replied : " Upon my honor, I believe »hey will." 23. After the departure of James, the Irish leaders, thus left to themselves, for some time ably sustained the cause of their country. The operations of the Irish army were chiefly directed by the brave and patriotic Sarsfield. During the following year, 1691, James obtained some few forces and military stores from Louis of France, who was still anxious to protract the war in Ireland. But the exiled monarch could not resist the opportunity of insulting his Irish subjects, even in this crisis of their fate. Although under a thousand obligations to the gallant Sarsfield, the favorite of the people, still Tie would not intrust him with the command of the army, but conferred it on St. Ruth., a French general of some reputation, whose subsequent conduct by no means tended to soothe the irritated feelings of the Irish gene- ral and army. 24. The first operation of the French general was ihe defence of the town of Milone, which was taken by the English after a siege of several months. After the loss of Athlone, St. Ruth re- 21. On the first day of July what took place 1 . How was the conflict sustained! What is said of William? Of James, and what did he exclaim?— 22. Before the fate Of the battle was decided, what did James do? What was the common cry ? What became of James? Whom did the Irish lose ? What did he reply when aeked if the Irish would fight again ?— 23. By whom was the Irish army chiefly directed? In 1(191 what did James obtain ? On whom was the chief comma-id conferred ? — 24. After the Joss of Athlone, where did St. Ruth retire? 21 242 IRELAND. tired with his army into the county ot Roscommtn, and having taken up a favorable position near the ruins of the castle ot Aughrbn, prepared to decide the fate of Ireland by a single battle. The engagement was commenced on both sides with equal resolution; the fortune of the day seemed to incline in favor of the Irish; the English were repulsed with slaughter in every onset ; a few moments more must have sealed their destruc- tion. At this critical juncture St. Ruth fell by a cannon ball shot from the enemy's battery. This unfortunate circumstance changed the scale ot victory. As the fallen general had not com- municated his plan of action to any of the Irish leaders, no one was found at the moment capable of assuming the command. The Irish soldiers, unacquainted with the fall of their general, waited for new orders until it was too late to oppose the success of the enemy. As each troop and battalion now acted indepen- dently, their evolutions soon interfered with each other ; the cavalry became mingled with the infantry, and before the close of the evening their retreat became general. 25. Before the fall of St. Ruth, the Irish had scarcely lost a. man ; after that event they suffered severely. The number of the British killed and wounded was over two thousand men; that ot the Irish is said to have exceeded seven thousand. General Ginckle, who commanded the British forces, was but little elatea by his victory at dughrim. He felt that it was nothing bette.* than a fortunate escape ; and from the spirit displayed by th§ enemy, he feared that the termination of the war was still fat distant. 26. After the battle of Aughrim, the Irish forces retired to the city of Limerick, under the command of Sarsfield, who was again placed at the head of the army, although much controlled by the other leaders. As soon as time would permit, Ginckle laid siege to Limerick; but as the task of reducing the place seemed hope- less, and as both parties were weary of hostilities, it was deter- mined to conclude the protracted war by a treaty. Accordingly, on the 23d of September, a reluctant assent to this measure was wrung from Sarsfield by the other leaders, and on the evening oi the same day a cessation of arms was granted, to afford an oppor- tunity for settling the terms of capitulation ; and by the 3d of October, the articles of the Treaty of Limerick were concluded, and solemnly signed by the different authorities on both sides. 27. This celebrated treaty provided, that all the Roman Ca- tholics should enjoy the free exercise of their religion, as in the reign of Charles II., and promised that their majesties would en- deavor to procure them further security in this particular, when the parliament should be convened. It was agreed that all the inhabitants of Limerick, all those in arms for James, should enjoy their estates and pursue their professions freely, as in the reign of Charles II., and that the Catholic gentry should be allowed to What did he prepare ? What is said of the engagement ? What was the fate of St. Ruth? What was the consequence of this misfortune? — 25. What was the loss on ■both sides? What is said of General Ginckle? — 26. Where did the Irish forces retire? What was finally determined? By the 3d of October, what were concluded? — 27 By this treaty, what was provided ? What was agi eed ? IRELAND. 243 nave E.rms, and should be required to take no oath but that of allegiance. 28. Two days after the treaty was signed, a French fleet arrived oft' the coast, bearing reinforcements and a large supply of mili- tary stores. Never was there a more trying moment for the Irish leaders; supplies sufficient to insure them a triumphant victory were at hand ; but the honor of their nation was pledged ; the treaty of Limerick was signed y that treaty they deemed inviola- ble ; the French fleet was dismissed, taking with it several regi- ments of the Irish soldiery, who preferred to pass the remainder of fheir days in a foreign land, rather than live in bondage at nome. 29. Unfortunately for the period of which we are speaking, re- ligious fanaticism, or intemperate zeal, seemed to characterize almost every proceeding. The treaty of Limerick was loudly denounced by many of the reformed clergy, and Dr. Dopping, Bishop of Meath, after condemning the articles of that treaty, declared that Protestants were not bound to keep faith with Papists. In 1695, the Irish parliament was assembled, and the first mea- sure of that body was to inquire into the articles of the treaty of Limerick. A committee was appointed to consider what penal laws were already in force against the Catholics, not for the pur- pose of repealing them, as had been promised in the treaty, but to add others to their number. An act was passed to deprive Catholics of the means of educating their children, at home or abroad, and to render them incapable of being guardians of their own, or the children of others ; a second act was passed to disarm all Catholics; and lastly, an act to banish all Catholic priests and bishops. (See History of Ireland, by \V C. Taylor, vol. ii p. 207.) SECTION III. The Insurrection of 1798 L EvLtt a brief outline of this interesting portion of Irish his- tory cannot be given, in this short compendium ; a few of the most important particulars must suffice. In 1782, Ireland de- manded and obtained from England, the independence of her na- tional legislature. But it was with the utmost reluctance, and under circumstances of imperious necessity, that these conces- sions were made by the British cabinet. In 1784, the British parliament thought proper to annihilate the independence of the national legislature of Ireland, and impose new restrictions on } blishment in Spain? What did the Cortes demand? What is said of Isabella?— 13. Of what is the tribunal composed? What is said of the inferior inquisitors? What was the duty of the tribunal? What is said of the ecclesiastics w.ho composed the tribunal ? — 14. What ii» said of the Inquisition 1 252 PORTUGAL. blished, it was generally under the immediate control of the sovereign. The king alone appointed the Inquisitor General, who in his turn nominated the particular inquisitors, subject to the approbation of the king. In different countries various pun- ishments were inflicted on those declared guilty of capital offenses by the tribunal of the Inquisition. At Rome no one was ever known to have suffered death in consequence of any sentence coming from the Inquisitorial tribunal. In Spain the cruel pun- ishment of burning to death was the usual punishment inflicted on those who obstinately maintained and promulgated erroneous doctrines, or adopted them again after having renounced them. The goods of the persons thus condemned were confiscated to the state. The other punishments were less severe, and consisted in some slight penance or temporary confinement. If, however, the accused recanted what was thought to be heterodox opinions, and gave signs of repentance, his trial immediately ceased, and no punishment was inflicted.* PORTUGAL. 1. The history of Portugal is closely united with that of Spam j it partook of all the vicissitudes of that nation, being successively overrun by the Romans, Goths, and Moors. About the year 1094, Alphonso, king of Castile, bestowed that part of Portugal which he possessed, with his daughter, in marriage, on Henry, duke of Burgundy, who had rendered him important services during his contest with the Moors. Henry was succeeded by his son Al- phonso, who defeated the Moors in a great battle at Orique^ threw off the Castilian yoke, and assumed the title of king, A. D. 1139. 2. The reign of John I. is distinguished by his victories over the Castilians and Moors, but more particularly for the progress the Portuguese made in navigation. During the reign of John II., Bartholomew Diaz discovered the Cape of Good Hope ; and in a few years after this event, Vasco de Gaina doubled that Cape, and was the first navigator that accomplished a voyage to the Indies, A. D. 1497. From the reign of John I., down to the year 1580, forms the most brilliant period of Portuguese history. It i9 illustrated by several important discoveries, and also by the pro- duction of several men of learning and genius. * For a more detailed account of this institution, the reader is referred to the kttm on the Inquisition, by Count de Maistre, from which these few remarks have beer, chiefly taken. Of the King? What is said of the punishments in different countries? At Rome! In Spain? What was done with the goods ? If the accused recanted, what was dene? 1. What is said of the history? About the year 1094. what took place ? Who sue- ceded Henry? What did Alphonso do ?— 2. i'or what is the reign of John 1 distin- guished? During the reign of John II., what was done? POLAND. 253 3. In 1580, Philip II. of Spain, taking advantage of the weak- ness of Portugal, occasioned by the extinction of the male line of the royal family, seized upon the country, and united it to his do- minions ; by the revolution of 1640, the Spaniards were expelled, and the Duke of Braganza, the presumptive heir, was raised to the throne, under the title of John IV. In 1807, Portugal was invaded by the French, on which occasion the royal family re- moved to Brazil, where they remained until the year 1820, when he again returned to Lisbon, leaving Don Pedro, his eldest son, as regent of that country. In 1823, Brazil renounced its allegi- ance to Portugal, was declared an independent empire, under Don Pedro, who assumed the title of emperor. On the death of John VI., the throne of Portugal became vacant; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, resigned his claim to the crown in favor of his daugh- ter Donna Maria da Gloria, appointing his sister Isabella regent during the infancy of the young queen; but Don Miguel, a younger brother of Pedro, usurped the throne. POLAND. 1. The history of Poland exhibits but few important events, until near the early part of the fifteenth century, when the throne was occupied by Cassimer III., surnamed the Great. This illustrious prince founded the University of Cracow, patronized learning, encouraged industry and commerce ; he also furnished the nation with a new code of written laws. Under the reign of Segismund 1., who was a great and accomplished sovereign, Poland attained to the meridian of her greatness. But of all the sovereigns who swayed the Polish scepter, none have been more distinguished than John Sobieski, who succeeded to the throne in 1074. He was elected, not from any hereditary right, but on account of l#s vir- tues and eminent military talents. He maintained a successful war against the Turks, and immortalized his name by obliging them to raise the siege of Vienna. He died in 1696, leaving the country prosperous and nappy 2. Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, was chosen to suc- ceed Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. Shortly after his accession, he declared war against Charles XII., king of Sweden; but being defeated, he was dethroned, and through the influence of Charles, at the Diet of Warsaw, Stanislaus Mas elected to the throne in his place ; but after the defeat of the Swe- dish monarch at the battle ofFultowa, Augustus was again restored 3. In 15S0, what did Philip IT. do? In 1040 what was done? In 1S07. by whom was Portugal invaded? What di-d the royal family do? In 1S23, what did Brazil do . in whose favor did Pedro resign his claim ? What followed ? 1. What does the history orPoland exhibit? What did this prince do? What is said of Sobieski? Why was he elected? What did he maintain?— 2. Who was chosen to succeed him? What did he declare? What was the result? What hap- pened af'er the defeat of the Swedish monarch at the battle of Pultowa? 9/2 254 POLAND. to tne throne. The reign of his son Frederick Augustus II. was generally tranquil. 3. In 1763, Stanislaus Augustus was elected king of Poland, through the influence of Catharine, empress of Russia. Civil commotions soon distracted the kingdom ; the malcontents were encouraged by the surrounding powers, who secretly increased the factions and difficulties in which the state was involved, in order that they might the more effectually accomplish its ruin. In 1772 was perpetrated one of the most unjust and tyrannical acts recorded in history, namely, the dismemberment of Poland, by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. These three powers taking ad- vantage of the disorder and weakness of the kingdom, agreed to divide Poland between them. 4. In the first division, Frederick seized upon Polish Prussia, and a part of great Poland ; Catharine received Polish Livonia and a part of Lithuania; while Galicia and Lodomeria, fell to the share of the emperor of Austria. After an ineffectual struggle, unhappy Poland was obliged to submit to this dismemberment and to sanction, by a legislative act, the injustice that these powers had committed against her. In 1791, a revolution took place in Poland; a new constitution was formed, in which the crown, which had hitherto been elective, was declared hereditary, a measure which met the entire approbation of the people. 5. The empress of Russia, displeased with the new constitution, because it opposed her ambitious views, ordered her troops to in- vade the Polish dominions. The Poles flew to arms in defence of the rights and liberties of their country. They chose for theii general the brave and patriotic Kosciusko, who had borne a dis- tinguished part in the war of the revolution in the United States. For some time they withstood the united forces of their ene- mies ; but at length, overpowered by numbers, they were defeated, and the gallant Kosciusko was taken prisoner. Warsaw was taken and sacked by Suwarrow the Russian general, and nine thousand Poles perished in the defence of their capital. A new di- vision was now agreed on between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which included a considerable part of the remaining portion of the Polish territory, A. D. 1793. 6. Stanislaus, the last of the Polish monarchs, worn out with age and infirmity, was compelled to resign his crown at Grondo, where he died in captivity, during the year 1795. This event broke the spirit of the Poles ; a final division followed, by which the rapacious powers seized upon the remaining parts of the country. Thus ill-fated Poland, by acts of the vilest tyranny, has been blotted out from the list of nations. During the reign of Nicholas, the present emperor, an ineffectual struggle was made by the Poles to regain the liberty of their country. Though over- powered by the numbers of the Russian army, they failed in this 3. In 1763, who was elected ? What followed ? /n 1772, what .was perpetrated ?~ 4. How were the divisions made? What was Poland obliged to do? In 1791, what took place?— 5. What is said of the empress of Russia ? Of the Poles? Whom did they choose for their general? What is said of Warsaw? What was now agreed on? —G. What is said of Stanislaus? What followed? During the reign of Nicholas wljal was made ? What did their courage prove ? Russia. 255 struggle; still the courage and valor displayed by the patriots, proved to the world that the spirit of their freedom only slumbers and awaits a favorable opportunity to arise from that slumber and shake oft' the fetters that bind it. RUSSIA. 1. The early history of Russia, which is greatly involved in obscurity, is marked by few events of importance. In the fif- teenth century, John Basilowitz recovered the country from the dominion of the Tartars, and united a great part of it into one monarchy. ^ But civilization made but little progress in Russia, until the reign of Peter the Great, who ascended the throne in 1689, and assumed the title of emperor. To this illustrious mon- arch Russia is indebted for all her present greatness. His youth was spent in dissipation, and his education was much neglected ; but on ascending the throne, he displayed talents and abilities that have ranked him among the greatest of the sovereigns ot Europe. 2. Peter's first military expedition w r as against the Turks, whom he signally defeated, and returning to Moscow after the capture of Azof, he caused the first medals to be struck that were ever seen in Russia. In order to improve and polish the manners of his court, he sent a number of his young nobility to travel, and to acquire a knowledge of foreign countries. After this he re- solved to go himself and visit the various states of Europe, in order to profit by his own personal experience and observations. In the capacity of a private, in the attendance of one of the no- bles of his court, he travelled through Germany to Holland. At Amsterdam he engaged himself as a workman in the dock-yard, under the name of Peter Michaehff. From Holland he passed into England, where he was similarly employed, and where he gained still higher improvement. At the end of sixteen months, he returned to his own dominions, carrying with him the fruit of his experience, which he successfully employed for the benefit of his subjects. 3. In 1711, Peter married Catharine, a young and beautiful girl, the daughter of a peasant of Ringen, a small village in Li- vonia. At this period, Charles XII., king of Sweden, the most renowned warrior of his age, who had astonished all Europe by the brilliancy of his conquests, invaded Russia at the head of a powerful army. Without the loss of time, Peter hastened to op- pose his progress. They met in the famous battle of Pultoiva, in 1. What is said of the early history? In the fifteenth century ? What is said of ci vilization? How was his youth spent?— 2. What was his first military expedition? To improve the manners of his court, what did he do? After this, what did he resolve? How did he travel? Where was he employed? When did he return to his own do- minions ' — y. Whom did Peter marry ? Wha: is said of Charles XII. ? Where did they meet? 256 eussia. which the Swedish monarch was signally defeated, with the loss of nine thousand of his army killed, and fourteen thousand taken prisoners. The other principal events of his reign were the de- struction of the Sterlityes, a body of troops resembling the Turkish Janizaries ; the building of the city of St. Petersburg, and the institution of a numerous and powerful army. He died in 1725, not without some suspicions of being poisoned by the empress. 4. Peter, as a sovereign, was unquestionably great; but as a roan, he possessed many qualities that degraded his private cha- racter : he is said to have been cruel, passionate, and given to intemperance. The empress, having ascended the throne under the title of Catharine I., was succeeded, after a prosperous reign of two years, by Peter II., grandson of Peter I. After a short and peaceful reign, he left the throne to his niece, Anne, Duchess ot Courland. Her reign was prosperous, and added to the strength of the empire. Her generals gained several important victories over the Turks, and conquered several towns in Crim Tartary On her death, John, an infant only a few months old, succeeded to the throne; but, by a sudden revolution, the young prince was deposed, and Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, was pro claimed empress. 5. Her reign was more brilliant than any of her predecessors, with the exception of her father. She was a princess possessed of eminent abilities and political talents. Her army was com- pletely victorious over the Swedes, and her alliance was courted by Great Britain. Elizabeth was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III., a weak and indolent prince. He had married Catharine of Anhalt, a German princess, who having discovered that it was his intention to confine her for life, and to marry a lady of his court, entered into a conspiracy with her favorite, Count of Orloff, against her husband, who was accordingly deposed, and afterwards assas- sinated. 6. Catharine was immediately proclaimed empress, under the title of Catharine II. Her reign was the most magnificent in the history of Russia. She introduced elegance and refinement into her empire ; encouraged the arts and manufactures ; enlarged her dominions, by extending her conquests over Poland, Crimea, and other territories. As an empress, she possessed extraordinary talents for government; but her total disregard for justice in her conduct towards defenceless Poland, has stamped an indelible stain upon her public character, while her private life was a dis- grace to her sex. She was succeeded by her son Paid, whose 6hort and tyrannical reign was terminated by assassination, A. D. 1801. 7. Alexander I., his eldest son, who now succeeded to the What were the other principal events of his reign ? When did he die! — 4. What is eaid of Peter? By whom was the empress succeeded? To whom did he leave the throne? What was her reign? To whom did she. leave the throne ? What revolu- tion took place ? — 5. What is said of her reign ? By whom was she succeeded? Whom did he marry ? "What is related of her ?— 6. What was Catharine proclaimed? What did she do? Whit did she possess ? By whom was she succeeded?— 7. Who nexl succeeded to the throne ? Prussia. 257 throne, was a wise and popular sovereign. During his reign, the power of Russia was extended, and public improvement promoted. Alexander, alarmed at the progress of Napoleon, joined with Austria against him. But after many sanguinary battles, the Rus- sian monarch was compelled to sign the peace of Tilsit. In 1812, upon the refusal of Alexander to concur in the scheme of the Emperor of France, for excluding the British commerce from the continent of Europe, Napoleon invaded Russia at the head of a powerful army. At Borodino, near Moscow, one of the most terrible battles was fought recorded in history. When the French emperor made his disastrous retreat from Moscow, Alexander pursued the enemy beyond the limits of his empire, and entered Paris with the other allied sovereigns, where Napoleon was de- throned. 8. Alexander died in 1825, and was succeeded by his brother, Nicholas I., whose reign has been distinguished by the successful termination of a war carried on against the Turks and Persians. His character has been deeply stained by his cruelty and tyranni- cal measures towards the Poles. PRUSSIA. 1. Little is known of the early history of this country. It was inhabited by a rude and barbarous race, called the fiorussi, and denominated Brussia or Porussia, from which the present name is derived. In 1594, Prussia and Brandenburg were united into one government, by a matrimonial alliance between John Sip;ismond, Elector of Brandenburg, and Anne, the daughter of Albert, Duke of Prussia. On the death of Sigismond, in 1619, his son, the elector, George William, succeeded to the govern- ment. During his administration, the electorate suffered the severest calamities, occasioned by the Thirty Years' War, which grew out of the religious controversies which at that time dis- tracted the continent of Europe. 2. On the death of George, in 1640, his son, Frederick Wil- liam, succeeded to his dominions. By a wise and well regulated policy, he succeeded in removing the disorders into which the country had fallen, in consequence of the wars that continued to rage during the reign of his father, and at his death he left the electorate in a prosperous condition. He was succeeded by Frederick I., who assumed the title of king in 1701 ; as previous to this period the country was styled the Electorate of Branden- burg, and the ruler the Elector. In 1812, what took place? At Borodino, what took place? When the emperor mad© his retreat, what did Alexander do ? — S. When did he die, and by whom succeeded ? By what is his character stained ? 1. What is said of the history, and by whom was it inhabited ? In 1594, what took vdace? AVho succeeded Sigismond in 1619? — 2. By whom was George succeeded? What did he succeed in removing? By whom was he succeeded, and what did ho assume ? 22* 258 Prussia. Frederick was remarkable for his economy ana frugality, and even denied himself the ordinary comforts of life; in his manners he was rude and harsh, and treated his children with a degree of severity bordering on brutality. 3. Frederick II., styled the Great, who succeeded to the throne in 1740, is regarded as one of the greatest warriors of modern times. Shortly after his accession, he revived his claim to the duchy of Silesia, invaded the country, and defeated the Austrians in the great battle of Mohvitz. After the conquest of Silesia, he turned his victorious arms against Saxony. Having alarmed all Europe by the rapidity of his conquests, a defensive alliance was formed against him by France, Russia, and Austria. A great and sanguinary contest ensued, called the Seven Years' TFar, during which Frederick maintained his ground against his power- ful enemies, until peace was restored by the treaty of Hubertsberg. 4. Frederick was remarkable for the severe discipline which he maintained in his army. On one occasion, while in sight of the enemy, he gave orders that all the lights in the camp should be put out at a certain hour, under the penalty of death. It hap- pened as he went round the camp to see if his order was obeyed, that he perceived the glimmering of a light proceeding from the tent of one of his officers. As the king entered the tent, the officer, who was in the act of folding a letter, immediately arose and threw himself at the feet of Frederick, and implored his for- giveness for having disobeyed his order, stating at the same time that he had been writing a few lines to his wife, and on that ac- count had retained the light for a few moments over the time appointed for extinguishing it. The king, with a stern counte- nance, ordered him to add a few words more to the letter he had just concluded, and to inform his wife that he would be shot on the following day; this rigorous sentence was accordingly executed. 5. In the latter part of his reign, Frederick applied himself to the internal improvement of his kingdom ; he built several towns, and gave encouragement to agriculture, manufactures, and com merce. He was fond of literature, and possessed some merits as an author. In religion, he was a skeptic, and made Voltaire an intimate companion. The part he acted in the dismemberment of Poland has proved him destitute of every principle of justice or humanity. 6. He died in 1786, at the advanced age of seventy-four years, and was succeeded by Frederick William II., a prince more ad- dicted to pleasure than to the affairs of government. After a short and unimportant reign, he was succeeded by his son, Frederick William III., in 1797. Frederick suffered a memorable defeat in his contest with the French, under Napoleon, at the battle of Jena; and at the peace of Tilsit he was deprived of nearly half What is said of Frederick ?— 3. "What is said of Frederick II.? On his accession, vhat did he do ? What was formed against him ? What ensued? — 4. For what waa Frederick remarkable? On one occasion, what orders did he give? Relate what followed. — 5. In the latter part of his reign, to what did he apply himself? What waa be in religion, and who was his companion ?— 6. When did he die ? Who succeeded Ui 179? ? What defeat did ho suffer ? In 1S12, what did the Prussian monarch do f GERMANY. 259 of his dominions. In 1312, the Prussian monarch joined the coalition against France, and his army, under Blvchcr, at the famous battle of Waterloo the Emperor Napoleon. considerable accession of territory. Nothing of importance has, since that period, transpired in Prussia. Of late years, Frederick has bestowed much of his attention towards promoting the arts of peace, and the intellectual improvement of his people. , turned the fortune of the day against By the treaty of Vienna, he gained a GERMANY. 1. Our knowledge of the primitive inhabitants of Germany, who were most probably of Celtic origin, is very limited, until the period of the Roman conquests in that country. At the time when Julius Caesar invaded the country, Germany seems to have been divided into a number of independent principalities ; but the inhabitants frequently united for their mutual defence, and the many bloody battles they fought before they sunk under the power of the invaders, established their reputation for bravery. On the decline of the Western Empire ot the Romans, Germany fell under the dominion of the Franks, and remained in their posses- sion until Charlemagne extended his power over the whole country. 2. In the year 843, the Empire of the West was divided into three monarchies, France, Germany, and Italy ; and about the year 887, the imperial dignity was transferred entirely to Ger- many, which, in the history of Europe, is called, by way of dis- tinction, the Empire, and the subjects, the Imperialists. After the death of Louis III., in 912, the empire became strictly elective, although, during the hereditary succession, the consent of the bishops and nobility had always been asked. Conrad was the first elected to the vacant throne, and after a reign of seven years, Henry /., surnamed the Fowler, was raised to the imperial dig- nity. Henry possessed great abilities, and introduced good order into his dominions; he built and embellished several cities, re- duced and conciliated many of the revolted lords, subdued the Hungarians, Danes, Bohemians, &c, and added Lorraine to his empire. 3. His son, Otho I., was elected emperor in 936. He possessed all the abilities of his father, and pursued a similar systemof policy. In 961, he invaded Italy, at the solicitation of the Italian states, during their contest with Berenger. Otho defeated Be- renger and Adalbert, caused himself to be crowned at Milan as Emperor of the Romans. He died in 972, after an active reign of thirty years. Otho II. succeeded his father in 973, during 1 What is our knowledge of the inhabitants ? In the time of Julius Cfesar, how were they divided ? On the decline of the Western Empire, what was the f-ite of the Germans ?— 2. In S43, what took place ? And in S87 ? And in 912 ? What is said cl Henry I.? — 3. Who was nest elected ? In 961, what did he do ? When drlhe die? Who succeeded ? 260 GERMANY. whose reign nothing of importance occuned. The reigns of lu an enter- prise, he first solicited the patronage of the senate of Gfenoa; but, to his great mortification, they treated his theory as a visionary project. He next applied for assistance to the Portuguese, but was again refused. He then despatched his brother Bartholomew to the court of England, to solicit the patronage of Henry VII.; but Bartholomew having been captured by pirates, did not reach England for several years. 4. In the mean time, Columbus laid his plans before Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain, who gave him a favorable hearing. At length after years of patient solicitation, and after surmounting difficulties under which any other than Columbus would have sunk in despair, he obtained a gleam of hope from the royal favor of Isabella. The queen, fired with the glory that must follow from the accomplishment of so grand an enterprise, and anxious to spread the Christian religion, resolved to lend her assistance to Columbus. But owing to the low state of her finance, in consequence of the long war with the Moors, who had jusl been expelled from Spain, she offered to pledge her jewels iu order to complete the preparations necessary for the voyage; from this embarrassment, however, she was relieved by the liberality of two Spanish noblemen, who advanced the necessary sum from their own private means. 5. On the 17th of April, more than seven years from the time of his first application, an armament was fitted out, consisting of three small vessels, called the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and ffig- na, carrying ninety men, with provisions for only twelve months. Columbus, previous to entering on the voyage, was appointed admiral of all the seas he should explore, and governor of all the islands he should subdue. 6. On the 3d of August, in the year 1492, Columbus set sail from the port of Palws in Spain; and after touching at the Canary islands, where he refitted his vessels, he proceeded on his voyage, taking a westerly direction into seas unknown and unexplored, without a chart to guide his course. By the 14th of September, the fleet stood two hundred leagues west from the Canaries Here it was observed that the magnetic needle in the compass did not point directly to the north star, but varied towards the west. The phenomenon, which had never been observed before, excited alarm and terror in the breasts of the Spanish sailors. They were then in a vast and trackless ocean, nature itself seemed to change and their only guide was about to fail. What on one occasion ?— 3. Why did he solicit the patronage of Genoa? Where did Jie next apply? Where did lie send his brother? — 4 In the mean time what d;d Columbus do? At length what did he obtain? What is said of the queen? By whom was she relieved ? — 5. On the. 17th of April, what was done? What were the names of the vessels?— 6. When did Columbus set sail? By the 14th of September, where was the fleet 7 Here what was observed? What is said ol this phenomenon? AMERICA. 281 7. Columbus, with his usual presence of mind, gave a solution for this phenomenon, which served to dispel the fears and silence the murmurs of his companions, although it was not satisfactory to himself. Having proceeded on his voyage for thirty days more without any prospect of land, the spirit of mutiny began again to manifest itself among the sailors, who now agreed among themselves to compel Columbus, by force, to return, while the vessels were in a condition to keep at sea. Never was there a more trying moment for Columbus. To exercise coersive mea- sures on such an occasion, would be a dangerous expedient; to reason with men in whose breasts fear had extinguished every generous sentiment was useless, to return would blast for ever his highest expectations. Therefore, as the last expedient, he had recourse to exhortations and encouragement, and so far yielded to their importunities, as to propose to abandon the expedition and return to Spain, if land should not be discovered within the short space of three clays. 8. For some days previous to this, the sounding line had reached the bottom, the flocks of birds increased, the air was more mild and warm. From all these symptoms, Columbus concluded that land was at no great distance; and on the evening of the 11th of October, he ordered the sails to be furled and a watch to be set. While standing on the forecastle, he beheld a light carried from place to place, and shortly after midnight the joyful sound of land was heard from the crew of the Pinta. From this moment until the return of day realized their expectations, no eye was closed; all on board were in the deepest suspense and sleepless expecta- tion. But as the morning dawned, their doubts were expelled; a beautiful island presented itself to their view. 9. The crew of the Pinta immediately broke forth in a hymn of thanksgiving to God, in which they were joined by those of the other vessels, in tears of joy and congratulation. This office of gratitude to Heaven was next followed by an act of retribution to their commander; they threw themselves at his feet with the hum- blest acknowledgments of their rashness and disobedience, and besought his forgiveness. As the sun arose, the boats were man- ned and rowed towards the shore, with the Spanish colors floating to the breeze, while at the same time martial music rent the air. Co- lumbus richly attired and with a drawn sword in his hand, was the first European who set his foot upon the New World. His men immediately followed, and falling upon their knees, with tears of joy they kissed the ground which they had long desired to behold. They next erected a crucifix, and prostrating them- selves before it they returned solemn thanks to God, whose benign hand had guided them safe through a thousand dangers, and con- ducted their voyage to so happy an issue. They then took solemn 7. What did Columbus do ? What again manifested itself ? What did they agree ? What did he propose, &c. ?— 8. For some days previous what had been observed? From these what did Columbus conclude and order ? What was heard at midnight? From this moment what is said ? — What did the crew of the Pinta do ? By what was this office, &c. followed ? As the sun arose, what was done ? Who was the first to land on the New World? W r hat did his men do? What did they erect? What followed ? 282 AMERICA. possession of the country in the name of the sovereigns of Castile and Leon. 10. On the landing of the Spaniards, they found the coast co- vered with a race of people differing from any that they had ever seen before. They were of a dark copper color, without clothing or beards, and their hair flowing loosely upon their shoulders. The natives were equally surprised at the appearance of the Spa- niards, whom they considered as the children of the sun, their idol ; they regarded the ships as a species of animals, with eyes of lightning and voices of thunder. 11. The first land discovered by Columbus was one of the Ba- hama islands, called by him St. Salvador; it is also distinguished by the name of Cat Island. He afterwards visited Cuba and ttayli or St. Domingo, to which he gave the name of Ilispaniota, anil on which ne left some of his men for the purpose of forming a colony. As Columbus had reached these islands by a western pas- sage, and believing them not far distant from the unexplored region of India, they were denominated the West Indies, and the abori- gines of the country were designated by the appellation of In- dians, a name which they retain to the present time. After some time spent in exploring the country and in amicable traffic with the natives, and having collected a quantity of gold, Columbus set sail on his return to Spain. 12. During the voyage he was overtaken by a violent storm, which continued for fifteen days, and exposed the already shat- tered vessels to the most imminent danger. While the storm continued, Columbus, with great presence of mind, enclosed in a cake of wax a short account of the voyage and discovery, and placing it in a cask he committed it to the sea, with the hope that if he should perish, it might fall into the hands of some navigator or be cast ashore, and thus the knowledge of his discovery might be preserved to the world. But the storm fortunately abated, and Columbus arrived safely in the port of Palos, from which he had sailed about seven months before. He was received with the loudest acclamations by the people ? who gazed with astonishment on the riches and the various curiosities which he brought with him from the New World 5 at Barcelona he met with a gracious reception from Ferdinand and Isabella. 13. Columbus, in his third voyage to the new world, discovered the continent, and landed in several places in the northern part of South America. But his success and the great marks of favor shown him by his sovereign, did not fail to excite envy and jc.i- lousy against him in the court of Spain. In consequence of vaii ous false and groundless charges, he was deprived of the govern ineut of Hispaniola, and sent home in chains. The captain of the vessel in which he returned, through respect to his illustrious captive, offered to release him from his fetters To whom Co- 10. On landing:, what did the Spaniards find? What is said of tne natives?— 11. "What was the first land discovered? What did he afterwards discover? What were these islands denominated ? What were the aborigines called? — 12. During; the voyage, what happened? While the slorrn continued, what did Columbus? Where did lie arrive? How was he received? — 13. In his third voyage, what did Columbus disco rer ? In consequence of false charges, what was done ? AMERICA. 283 lumbus replied, "No, 1 wear these chains in consequence of an order from their majesties the rulers of Spain. They will find me as obedient in this as in every other injunction. By their command I have been confined, and their command alone shall set me at liberty." 14. On his return to Spain, a prisoner and in chains, the voice of indignation was heard from men of every rank ; even Ferdinand himself, for a season, seemed to feel the blush of shame; he ordered the venerable Columbus to be set at liberty, but ungratefully re- tained him in Spain until he appointed another person governoi of Hispaniola. Such was the reward that the great discoverei of the western continent received, for having devised and accom- plished one of the noblest enterprises that ever entered into the mind of man. Columbus never forgot this unjust and shameful treatment; and during the remainder of his life, he carried about him the fetters in which he had been bound, as a memorial of the ingratitude he had received, and gave orders that they should be buried with him in his grave. 15. But his spirit of enterprise was not subdued. Bent on find in£ a passage to India by the west, which had been the leading object of his discovery, he undertook a fourth voyage to the new world ; during which he examined the coast of Darien, but suffered shipwreck on the isle of Jamaica. After having endured a variety of sufferings and calamities, occasioned by the mutiny of his men, scarcity of provisions, and sickness, he again reached Spain. Shortly after his return he died at Valadolia, in the seventieth year of his age. His funeral, at the royal expense, was grand and imposing; on his tomb was placed the following inscription: " To Castile and Leon, Columbus has given a new world." 16. Though the world is indebted to Columbus for the dis- covery of the Western continent, still the honor of associating his name with the country he discovered has unjustly been wrest- ed from him. Americus Vespucius, a native of Florence, who accompanied Ojeda on a voyage to the New World in 1499, dis- covered a part of South America the year after the continent had been visited by Columbus. Americas, on his return to Spain, published an account of his voyage, and claimed the honor of 'laving been the first discoverer of the main land; and the conti- nent from him gradually received the name of America. 17. The achievement of Columbus, who first crossed the ex pause of the Atlantic, and visited regions hitherto unknown, excited throughout Europe a lively spirit of enterprise and adven- ture. In 1519, Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain, sailed to the western continent, passed the straits in the soutnern part of South America, which now bear his name, and was the first who entered that vast ocean called by him the Pacific, "What reply 'lid Columbus make to the captain? — 14. What is said of him on hi9 return to Spajn? What did Ferdinand do? What did Columbus do during the re- rminder of his life ?— 15. What did he undertake? What did he suflW? "When and where di.l he die? What inscription is placed on his tomb? — 16. From whom did the coiritry receive tne name of America? On his return to Spain, what did he Sublish : -17 What did :hu achievement of Columbus excit3? In 1519, what was one? 284 AMERICA. from the calmness of its waters. Magellan lost Iiis life in one of the Philippine islands, yet his officers proceeded on their voy- age, and for the first time accomplished the circumnavigation of the globe. 18. John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, under a commission from Ilchry VII. of England, accompanied by his son Sebastian, sailed on a voyage of discovery in 1497, and discovered the continent of North America, a year before the main land of South America had been reached by Columbus. On the 20th of November, 1497, Vasco de Gama, employed by the king of Portugal, for the first time doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and in the following May arrived at Calicut on the coast of Malabar. By this he effected what had been the leading object of Columbus in all his enter- prises, and what, in the preceding age, had been the great object of investigation, namely, to find a more expeditious and conve- nient mode of passage to the East Indies than through Egypt. 19.- Cabot having proceeded on his voyage to the north in quest of a passage to India, without being able to effect his object, re- turned and sailed along the coast as far as Florida, erected crosses at various points as he passed, and took possession of the country in the name of the crown of England. This was the foundation of the English claim to North America. 20. Several years had now elapsed since the discovery ot America by Columbus, and no permanent settlement was yet made upon the continent. At an early period after the arrival of the Spaniards, they had been apprised of the existence of the rich and powerful empire of Mexico. The Governor of Cuba having conceived the design of subjugating it to the power of Spain, fitted out a small fleet for that purpose, and placed it jnder the command of Fernando Cortex. On the 10th of January, 1519, Cortez sailed from Cuba with eleven small vessels, having on board six hundred men, sixteen horses, six pieces of artillery, and a few muskets. Having reached the continent, he caused himself to be proclaimed independent of the Governor of Cuba, (who had already revoked the commission intrusted to him,) and accountable to none but the monarch of Spain. 21. He then laid the foundation of the colony of Vera Cruz, and the better to inspire his troops in their arduous undertaking, by cutting off all hope of returning, he caused the vessels to be burnt on the coast. Cortez now proceeded rapidly on his march to the capital of the Mexican empire, which he finally reached after encountering innumerable difficulties. He entered the city under the assumed quality of ambassador of the Spanish monarch, and was cordially received by the emperor Montezuma, who assigned him one of the royal palaces as a place of residence during his stay. Where did Magellan lose his life -19. What did John Cabot do 7 Who first dou&Ied the Cape of Good Hope ? What was effected by this ?— 19. What laid the foundation of the English claim in North America? — 20. At an early period, of what had the Spaniards been apprised? What designs did the governor of Cuba form? When did Cortez sail, and with what number of vessels ? What did he cause himself?— 21. WLat did he then dc ? Where did he proceed ? 11 v did he enter the city ? AMERICA. 285 22. In the mean time an attack was made upon the Spanish colony al. Vet a Cruz by one of the Mexican generals. Cortez, on receiving intelligence of this transaction, taking with him a small band of resolute men, went to the palace of the emperor, seized the person of Montezuma, and compelled him to return with him to his residence. The Mexicans, roused by this breach of hospitality, flew to arms, and, after many sanguinary contests, the Spaniards were compelled to leave the capital. On one occasion, as Montezuma appeared on the rampart, in order to quell a sedition among the citizens, the unhappy monarcji was killed by a stone thrown by one of the assailants ; he was imme- diately succeeded by his brother, Qiietlavaca. 23. But no reverse of fortune could intimidate the courage or abate the ardor of the enterprising Cortez. Having obtained the assistance of a nation of Indians, who were tributary to the sove- reign of Mexico, and being reinforced by a body of Spaniards, he again presented himself before the city, which was accordingly taken after a siege of seventeen days. Gualimozin, who. had succeeded Quetlavaca, endeavored to escape with his family and court, but was intercepted and taken prisoner before he could effect his design. 24. The Spaniards, who were greatly disappointed in the amount of treasure they expected to find in the city, in order to discover them, resolved to put the unfortunate monarch and his chief minister to the rack. The prince bore his sufferings with incredible constancy, and hearing his minister complain, he turned to him and said : 4 ' And myself, am I on a bed of roses?" He was liberated from the hands of the soldiery through the influence of Cortez, but was afterwards put to death on a charge of treason and conspiracy, during the year 1523. Thus was the great, em- pire of Mexico overthrown, and reduced to a Spanish province by a few bold and daring adventurers. 25. Shortly after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, a similar expedition was undertaken against the rich and powerful empire of Pent, by Francis Pizarro, who sailed from Panama in 1525, and began to explore the shores of the Pacific. His enterprise was for some time impeded by a variety of causes ; but in 1531, having obtained from Charles V. of Spain a commission as gover nor ot the country, and a small force to enable him to conquer it, he continued his adventures, and advanced into the very heart of Peru, then an extensive empire, governed by sovereigns styled Incas. 26. The country at that time was divided into two hostile parties, by the two sons of the late monarch, who disputed the succession to the throne. JUaballpa, the younger, was finally successful, having defeated his brother in battle and taken him 22. In the mean time what took place? On receiving this intelligence, what did Cortez do? What is ?aid of the Mexicans? What was the fate of Montezuma? — 23. What did'Cortez again do? What is said of Guatimozin? — 24. What did the Spaniards do? What is said of the prince ? What was his fale ? — 25. After this what similar expedition was undertaken? In 1531, having obtained a commission &.& go- vernor, what did he do ? — 20. How was the country at that time divided ? 286 AMERICA. prisoner, he ordered him to be put to death. Both princes had previously endeavored to gain the assistance of the strangers, a cir- cumstance which Pizarro did not fail to render subservient to his views. Marching to meet Mtabalipa, under the cover of friendship, ne suddenly attacked the army of the unsuspecting monarch ; four thousand of the Peruvians were slain, and Atabalipa himself fell into the hands of the Spaniards. The unhappy monarch, in order to procure his release, engaged to fill the room in which he was confined, measuring twenty-two feet in length and seventeen in' breadth, with vessels of gold and silver, as high as he could reach. The contract was fulfill -id on the part of the Peruvian sovereign, yet he did not obtain Ms liberty, but being brought to trial on I charge of treason, and as the murderer of his brother and the usurper of his crown, he was put to death. 27. The entire country now submitted to the conquerors, who, for the better security, laid the foundation of the city 'of Limn, a short distance from the sea. The Peruvian monarchy being thus overthrown, discord began to prevail among the conquerors, and violent contentions ensued. Jllmagro, the rival of Pizarro, was taken prisoner, condemned and executed, and shortly afterwards Pizarro himself was assassinated. After his death the civil feuds continued until the year 1548, when the disasters which had so long desolated Peru were terminated, and the country reduced to a Spanish province by the wise and prudent measures of Pedro de la Gasca, who had been appointed governor. 28. At the time of the invasion of the Spaniards, the Mexicans and Peruvians had made considerable advances towards civiliza- tion. Their many magnificent palaces, temples, and pyramids, prove that they carried architecture to a high degree of perfection. They understood the arts of sculpture, mining, and working the precious metals; agriculture was in a high state of advancement; they had a regular system of government and a code of civil and religious laws. They worshipped the sun as the supreme deity ; but the religion of the Peruvians possessed fey/ of those sangui- nary; traits that characterized the Mexicans, who offered human victims in sacrifice. In the other parts of America the natives had made but little progress in civilization. The following are a few of the characteristics that distinguish the Indians of North America, except the empire of Mexico. i 29. In person, the Indians were tall, straight, and well propor- tioned. Their complexion was of red, or copper color; their eyes weie dark, their hair black, long and coarse. They are quick of apprehension, and not wanting in genius. When pro- voked to anger they are sullen and reserved; but when deter- mined on revenge, no danger can deter them, or absence cool What had both princes endeavored to obtain? Marching to meet Atabalipa, what did Pizarro do? What did the monarch engage to do to procure his release? What was his fate?— 27. What is now said of the country? What prevailed? What was the fate of Almagrc and Pizarro ? In 1543, what took place ?— 23. At the time of the Invasion, what is said of the Mexicans and Peruvians ? What did they understand .' What did ihey worship? What is said of the religion of the Peruvians? — 29 Wiaf were the Indians m person? Their complexion? When provoked to anger? W.ien japtured? AMERICA. 28*7 {heir resentment. When captured by an enemy they nevei ask for life, or betray the least signs of fear. 30. They had no books at the time they were liist visited, or 'any written literature, except rude hieroglyphics. Education, among them, was confined to the arts of war, hunting, and fish- ing. Their language was rude, but sonorous, metaphorical and energetic. Their arts and manufactures were confined chiefly to the construction of the wigwam, bows and arrows, ornaments of 'various kinds, stone hatchets, and weaving a kind of coarse mat 'from bark or hemp. Their agriculture was very limited, and the articles they cultivated consisted of corn, beans, peas, potatoes, melons, &c. Their skill in medicine was confined to a few sim- ple prescriptions, but the diseases to which they were subject were tew compared with those which prevail in civilized society 31. The employments of the men were principally hunting, fishing, and war; the women dressed the food, tilled the fields, and performed nearly all the drudgery, besides attending to their domestic concerns. Their domestic utensils consisted of a hatchet of stone, and a few shells which they used as knives. With these ihey scalped their enemies, dressed their game, &c. Money among the Indians was called Wampum, and consisted of small beads wrought from shells. War was the favorite employment of the aborigines of North America. When they fought in the open plain, they rushed to the attack with the utmost fury, at the same time uttering the frightful war-whoop. If peace was con- cluded, the chiefs ratified the treaty by smoking, in succession, the Calumet or pipe of peace. 32. Their government was an absolute monarchy; the will of the chief being regarded as the law, although in matters of mo- ment, he consulted his counsellors, but his own decision was final. The religion of the natives consisted of traditions, mingled with many superstitions. Like the Hindoos, and some of the ancient nations, they believed in the existence of two gods; the one good, who was superior, and whom they styled the Great Spirit ; and the other evil, who was thought to be inferior in power. They worshipped them both, and of both they made images of stone, to which they paid religious homage. They; also entertained some confused ideas of future rewards and punishments. Their chief mode of worship was to sing and dance around a large fire, to which they added prayer, and sometimes they offered in sacrifice a kind of sweet-scented powder, blood and tobacco. 33. Marriage among them was, in general, a temporary con- tract 5 the men chose their wives agreeably to their fancy, and could put them away at pleasure ; but generally, the contracts were observed with much fidelity. Polygamy was prevalent among them. Their treatment of their wives was cruel and op pressive; they were considered as slaves, and treated as such. 00 What is said of books? Their language? Their arts? Their agriculture! Thp.ir skill in medicine?— 31. What were the employments of the men ? Of the wo- men? What were their domestic utensils? What was war?— 32. What wn3 their government? The religion of the natives? In what did they believe ? What was their chief mode of worship ?— 33. What was marriage among them? What was prevalent ? How did thev treat their wives ? 288 AMERICA. The rites of burial among Indians differed but little throughout the continent. They generally made an opening in the ground, at the bottom of which the corpse, wrapped in skins or mats, w&s deposited. The arms and ornaments of the deceased were buried with them, and a mound of earth raised over the grave. 34. The origin of Indians inhabiting the country on the arrival of the Europeans, has long been a subject of investigation, and as yet, the matter remains undecided. The best supported opinion is, that at some unknown period, they emigrated from the north- eastern part of Asia to the northern coast of North America. This may be probable, as Behring's Straits, separating the two continents, is only about forty miles wide, a much shorter dis- tance than the Indians are known to sail in their canoes; this strait is frequently frozen over, hence they may have crossed on the. ice SECTION II. Settlement of Virginia and New York. 1. The French were among the first adventurers in the West- ern continent. As early as the year 1504, they had visited the banks of Newfoundland, and in 1524, Francis I. of France, will- ino- to share with his neighbors a portion of the New Worfcl com- missioned Verrazano on a voyage of discovery. This nevigator explored a great part of the shores of North America. About ten years after this, James Cartier, under a similar commission from the French king, sailed to the new world, entered the gulf of St. Lawrence, and took possession of the country in the name of his sovereign, and called it New France; this name was sub- sequently changed to that of Canada, 2. In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh, under a commission from Queen Elizabeth, of England, arrived in America, entered Pam- lico Sound, and proceeding to Roanoke Island, near the mouth of Albemarle Sound, he took possession of the country for the crown of England. On his return, he gave so flattering an ac- count of the beauty and fertility of the country, that Elizabeth bestowed on it the name of Virginia, as a memorial that it had been discovered during the reign of a virgin queen. Several at- tempts to form a settlement in Virginia were made by Sir Walter Raleigh; he despatched several small vessels, under the com rnand of Richard Granville, carrying one hundred ar.d eighty adventurers, who were landed on the Isle of Roanoke But the colonists, deluded by the prospect of finding mines of the pre- cious metals, neglected the cultivation of the soil ; they were, in consequence, reduced to the utmost distress by famine ; many of Describe the rites of burial ?— 34. What has been a subject of investigation? What is the best supported opinion? 1. Who were among the first adventurers ? In 1524, what was done bv Francs I.* Who next sailed to the new world ? What was the country called ?— 2. In 1534, who arrived in America? On his return what did he give? AVhat is said of his attempts to form a settlement ? Of the colonists? AMERICAN COLONIES. 289 their number returned to England with Sir Francis Drake, while others perished with disease, or were destroyed by the natives. 3. This unsuccessful attempt withdrew for some time the atten- tion of the English from these distant regions. In 1602, however, Bartholomew Gosnold sailed from England, and discovered Cape Cod, which name he gave it on account of the number of codfish caught near it. From this period we find that the spirit of adven- ture again revived. In 1606, James I. of England granted let- ters patent, an exclusive right or privilege, to the London and Plymouth companies, by which they were authorized to possess and occupy all the territory lying between the 34th and 45th de- grees of north latitude, which at that time was included under the common name of Virginia. To the former company was as- signed the section of country included between the 41st and 34th degree of south latitude, called South Virginia; and to the latter that part of the territory lying to the north, called North Vir- ginia. 4. Under this patent, the London company, in 1607, sent out a vessel under the command of Captain Newport, carrying one hundred and five adventurers. After a tedious voyage of four months, they arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, and sailed some distance up the Powhatan, now called the James River, where they built a fort, and laid the foundation of a town, which in honor of their king they called Jamestown. The go- vernment of the colony was framed by the London company, and was administered by a council of seven persons, with a president chosen from among their own number. 5. The name of the first president was Wing field, but the most distinguished person in the council was the celebrated Captain John Smith, who, from the active part which he took in the trans- actions of the new settlement, has been styled father of the colony. The life and actions of this extraordinary man resemble the deeds of a hero of romance. In the early part of his life, he had the command of a body of cavalry in the Austrian army, and during a contest with the Turks, he was taken prisoner, and sent as a slave to Constantinople, from which he afterwards obtained his release and returned to England. His romantic and enter- prising spirit led him to engage in an expedition to the new world, and by his superior abilities, the colony was repeatedly rescued from the brink of ruin. 6. Unfortunately for the colonists, they were soon involved in hostilities with the natives, whose antipathy to the English was occasioned by the cruel treatment they had previously experienced from Sir Richard Granville, who burnt an entire Indian village and destroyed their corn, in retaliation for their stealing a silvc;r cup. The singular adventures of Captain Smith form a conspi- cuous portion of the history of the colony. On one occasion, 3. In 1G02. what took place? In 1600, what was granted by James ? What was assigned to the former ? To the latter ? — 4. What did the London company do in 1»»071 Where did they arrive ? W r hat town did they commence? — 5. Who was the most dis- tinguished pel son ? In early life what had he ? — How was ihe antipathy of the natlvet to the English occasioned ? Relate the adventures of Captain Smith 1 25 290 AMERICAN COLONIES/ while exploring the country, he was taken prisoner by a band of two hundred Indians ; but charmed, however, with his valor, and the various arts which he used to astonish or please them, they released him from captivity. After this he was again taken by a party of three hundred, who le-d him in triumph to Powhattan, their king. The sentence of death was immediately pronounced against him, and he was conducted to the place of execution. His head was laid upon a stone, and the savages, with uplifted clubs, were about to despatch their victim, when Pocahontas, the fa- vorite daughter of Powhattan, threw herself between the prisoner and the executioners, and by her tears and entreaties prevailed on her father to recall the sentence. Her prayers were heard, and Smith was set at liberty. 7. In 1609, Powhattan had concerted measures for the destruc- tion of the colony ; but Pocahontas, who had always manifested a friendly disposition towards the English, visited Jamestown alone, on a dark and stormy night, and disclosed to Captain Smith the designs of her father ; the colony was by this means saved from destruction. Pocahontas, during a subsequent visit to James- town, was there detained, and her father, who was devotedly attached to his daughter, concluded a treaty with the English on their own terms. Pocahontas was afterwards married, with the consent of her father, to a Mr. Kolfe, a young planter of a re- spectable family. After their nuptials, which were celebrated with great pomp, Rolfe and the princess sailed for England, where she was instructed in the Christian religion, and publicly baptized. She died at Gravesend, in the twenty-second year of her age, leaving one son, from whom are descended some of the most respectable families of Virginia. 8. During the first year the colonists suffered severely from want of provisions and from sickness, which in a few months carried off half their number ; but by the arrival of new adventu- rers, the population of the colony, at the close of the year, amounted to about two hundred persons. During the year 1609, Captain Smith, in consequence of an injury he received by the ac- cidental explosion of gunpowder, was obliged to return to Eng- land for medical aid. His absence was a severe loss to the colony. In consequence of a waste of provisions, a most distressing famine followed ; the period was long known by the name of the starving times. So dreadful was its effect, that in the space of six months, their number was reduced from nearly five hundred to sixty. The small remnant that survived, were so disheartened by these disasters that they resolved to abandon the settlement, and return to England. From this they were prevented by the timely arrival of Lord Delaware, who had been appointed go- vernor, with one hundred and fifty men, and a large supply of provisions. Through his exertions, they were induced to remain* 7. In 1609, what was concerted ? How was it prevented ? What is said of Poca- hontas on a subsequent visit to Jamestown ? To whom was she married? Where did they sail for ? Where did she die?— 8. From what did they suffer? What hap- pened during the year 1609 ? In consequence of waste of provisions, what fol- lowed ? In six months, to what was the number reduced ? What did they resolve i How were they prevented ? AMERICAN COLONIES. 291 and their number being- increased by new arrivals, the condition of the colony soon began to assume a prosperous appearance. 9. The planters were men generally destitute of families, and had emigrated with a prospect of obtaining wealth, and expected eventually to return to their native country. But with a view of attaching them to the new settlement, and of rendering their resi- dence permanent in the colony, an expedient was devised of sup- plying them with wives. Accordingly, a number of unmarried females were sent over from England, to be sold to such as were desirous to purchase. The price of a wife was at first one hun- dred pounds of tobacco; but as the number diminished, it was raised to one hundred and fifty pounds ; the price of tobacco at the time was three shillings a pound. 10. The year 1620 is rendered memorable for the introduction of negro slavery into America. A Dutch vessel from the coast of Guinea, sailed up the James river, having on board about twenty negroes, who were sold as slaves to the planters of Vir- ginia. The colony had enjoyed, for some time, a great degree of pros- perity. In 1623, however, it experienced a stroke that nearly proved fatal to its existence. Powhatan died in 1618, and was succeeded by his son, who did not inherit the friendly disposition of his father towards the English. A deliberate plan for the an- nihilation of the colony atone blow was concerted, and succeeded to a fearful extent. On the twenty-second of March, while the colonists were engaged in their usual occupations, the Indians fell upon them, sparing neither age nor sex, and in one fatal hour three hundred and forty-seven persons fell victims to their cruelty. 11. This treachery of the Indians was followed by a war of ex- termination; during which the colonists indulged in acts of atro- city, little inferior to those by which they had been visited. They fell upon the Indians at the approach of harvest, when they knew the attack would prove most fatal, destroyed their crops of corn, and, in their fury, murdered all who came in their way, or drove them into the forest, where so many perished with hunger, that some of the tribes nearest to the colony were totally extirpated. 12. In 1624, the London Company, which had been so active in establishing a settlement in Virginia, was dissolved by an ar- bitrary act of king James I., who invested the government of the colony in the crown, and appointed a governor, with a council of twelve persons, to aid him in the administration. The prosperity of the colony was subsequently retarded during the arbitrary ad- ministration of Sir John Harvey ; but in 1639, Sir William Berkley, a man of superior abilities, was appointed governor, when it again began to flourish. During the revolution in Eng- land, which terminated in the execution of Charles, the colonists 9. What were the planters ? With a view of attaching them to the settlement, what expedient was devised? What was the price of a wife?— 10. For what is the year 1620 rendered memorable? In what manner? In 1623, what deliberate plan was formed 7 What took place on the 22d of March?— 11. By what was this followed? When did they fall upon the Indians?— 12. In 1624, what took place? How was the prosperity of the colony again retarded? 292 AMERICAN COLONIES. preserved their loyalty to the king. In 1651, the commonwealth under Cromwell, took vigorous measures for the reduction of th« colony. Berkley made a spirited resistance ; but being obliged to yield to a superior force, he retired from public life, and Mathews was appointed governor by Cromwell. 13. On the death of Mathews, the spirit of opposition was again manifested ; the colonists threw off their allegiance to the com- monwealth, recalled Berkley from his retirement, erected the royal standard, and proclaimed Charles II., son of the late king, as their lawful sovereign. Fortunately for the colonists, the re- storation of Charles, which shortly afterwards took place, preserved them from the chastisement to which their previous declaration in his favor had exposed them. In 1676, towards the close of Berkley's administration, the restriction imposed on trade by the king, occasioned considerable discontent in the colony, and finally gave rise to an insurrection, known by the name of Bacon's Re- bellion, so called from the name of its leader. During the pro- gress of this unfortunate insurrection, the country was given up to pillage, Jamestown was burnt, and all the horrors of civil war continued to rage, until they were terminated by the death of Bacon. 14. The territory now comprising the Middle States of the Union, was originally settled by the Dutch and Swedes. In 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the East India Company of Holland, on a voyage in search of a north-west pas- sage to India, touched at Long Island, and sailed up the river which now bears his name. The right of discovery being thus acquired, and the favorable report of the country, induced a com- pany of Dutch adventurers to attempt a settlement on the Hudson river about the year 1613. They built a fort near the present site of Albany, called Fort Orange, and another with some few trad- ing houses on Manhattan Island, where the city of New York now stands, and styled the latter settlement, New Amsterdam, while the whole country was called New Netherlands. 15. The Swedes had already made a settlement on the Dela- ware river, and held possession of the territory until its final sub- jugation by the Dutch colonists of New Netherlands, under their enterprising governor, Stuyvesant. The extension of the New England settlements occasioned a series of disputes and contests with their neighbors in New Netherlands. In 1664, Charles II., who had been restored to the throne of his father, forgetful of the friends who had given him a shelter during his exile, sought every pretext for a dispute with Holland. Among other things, he as- serted a claim to the colony possessed by that country in America, and accordingly conveyed it to his brother, the Duke of Fork. The duke made immediate preparations for carrying the king's During the revolution in England, what is said of the colonists? In 1G51. what tool; place? — 13. On the death of Mathews, what did the colonists do ? In 1676, what did the restrictions on trade occasion and give rise? How was it terminated?— 14. By whom was the territory comprising the Middle States settled ? In 1609, what look place '! Where did ihey huild a fort? What did they call the settlements ?— 15. Whc-e had '.he Swedes settled ? In 1CG4, what did Charles do ? What did he claim, and to wham did he convey it ? What did the Duke of York do ? What is said of Stuyvesant? AMERICAN COLONIES. 293 grant into effect, and for that purpose Colonel Nichols was sent out with a fleet, having on board a considerable force. After touching at Boston, he sailed for New Amsterdam, and anchoring before the place, he demanded its surrender. Stuyvesant, the governor, after some opposition, was obliged to yield to the Eng- lish ; and the whole territory thus became subject to the British ci own, and the country, in honor of the duke, was called New York. SECTION III. New England Settlements. 1. In 1607, about the same time that the colony in Virginia laid the foundation of Jamestown, a settlement was commenced on the Kennebec river, under the direction of the Plymouth com- pany : but owing to successive misfortunes, the settlement was abandoned for the present. In 1614, the country was again visited by Captain Smith, so celebrated in the history of Virginia, who examined the coast from the Penobscot river to Cape Cod, and on his return, prepared a map of the country, to which he gave the name of New England. 2. In 1620, a patent was granted by king James I., to Ferdi nando Gorges and others, called the council of Plymouth, for the purpose of settling a colony in New England. Their patent in- cluded all the territory between the fortieth and forty-eighth de- grees of north latitucle. During the same year in which the patent was obtained, the first permanent settlement in New Eng- land was commenced at Plymouth, by a body of Puritans, also known by the name of Brownists, from the name of the founder of their sect. 3. The Puritans, who had suffered continual persecution in Eng- land, on account of their dissent from the tenets of the established church, had taken refuge in Holland, under the charge of their minister, Mr. John Robinson ; but not finding their new residence agreeable, from various causes, they resolved to seek an asylum from oppression by removing to the wilds of America. After having experienced many delays and disappointments, a patent vas obtained under the seal of the London Company, assigning to them a tract of land within the limits of the Virginia charter. 4. On the morning of the 22d of July, 1620, Mr. Robinson, their minister, kneeling in prayer on the sea-shore at Delfthaven, consecrated the embarcation of the Pilgrims. They touched at Southampton, in England, from which place they sailed on the fifth of August ; but before proceeding far they were obliged to return, in order to repair the smaller of their vessels, called the 1 In 1607, where was a settlement commenced ? By whom was the country visited in 1614 ? On his return, what did lie do ?— 2. In 1G20, w not was granted ? During the same year, what was commenced at Plymouth ?— 3. Where had the Puritans taken refuge? What did they resolve ?— 4. On the twenty-second of July 1 620, what took place? Where did they touch ? What were they finally compelled to uo ? 25* 294 AMERICAN COLONIES. Speedwell, which they were finally compelled to abandon, and to prosecute their voyage in the Mayflower. At length, on the sixth of September, they sailed from Plymouth, in England, for the Hudson river : but by t he treachery of the captain, who is sup- posed to have been bribed by the Dutch, they were carried much Further to the north, and after a stormy passage, they came ia sight of Cape Cod. 5. After some weeks spent in searching for a suitable place to land, during which they were exposed to incredible sufferings from the inclemency of the season, the Mayflower was safety moored in a beautiful harbor, to which, in grateful remembrance of the last port they left in England, they gave the name of Ply mouth. On the morning of the 20th of December, 1620, after imploring the divine assistance, the Pilgrims, to the number of one hundred and one, landed upon the rock of Plymouth. The spot on which their first steps rested is still held in deep venera- tion by their descendants, and the day of their landing is yet celebrated with great enthusiasm. 6. Though the Pilgrims had succeeded in landing, their suffer- ings and distress were only about to commence. After a long ami tedious voyage, they found themselves cast upon an unknown and hostile coast; exposed to all the rigors of a New England winter, without a roof to shelter them from the storm. Their supply of* provisions was limited, and to fill up the measure of their sufferings, they were visited by a distressing sickness. By these united calamities, in three months after their landing, they were reduced to near one-half of their original number. John Carver, the first governor, died in March, and William Bradford was chosen to succeed him. The election of the governor took place annually, and at first he had but one assistant; the number was afterwards increased to five, and at length to seven. 7. With a desire to conform to the simplicity of the apostolic time, the Pilgrims at first held all their property in common This was one of the causes of scarcity that for some time pre- vailed in the country. In the spring of 1623, each family was allowed a piece of ground for its cultivation, and after the harvest of that year, no general want of provisions was experienced For the defense of the colony against the hostilities of the natives, a military organization was formed, and Captain Miles Standish, a man of considerable courage, was appointed to the command. In March, 1621, they received a friendly visit from Samoset, die chief of the Wampanoags, who gave them a cordial welcome, and in the name of his tribe allowed them to retain possession of the soil which they occupied, since there was not one of the ori- ginal possessors then living to claim it. 8. From him they obtained important information respecting the country, and learned that a short time previous to their ar- When and from what place did they sail? — 5. Where was the Mayflower moored^ On the LH)th of December, what was done? What is said of the spot?— 6. What is said Df the pilgrims? Of their supply of provisions ? By these calamities, to what were they reduced ? Who was their first governor ?— 7. With a desire to conform, fcc, what did the pilgrims do ? In 1G23, what was each family allowed? In March, 16*^1 what d'd 'hey receive?— -3 From him wh»i did they obtain ? AMERICAN COLONICS. 295 rival, a dreadful pestilence had carried off almost all the Indians in the vicinity. In the same month, Massasoit, the most power- ful chief in that region, and from whom the name of Massachu- setts is derived, paid a visit to the colony, and entered into a league of friendship with the settlers, which was strictly observed for upwards of fifty years. 9. The colony increased but slowly, and at the end of ten years the population did not exceed three hundred. In 1028,the colony of Massachusetts Bay was commenced by a company ot adventurers under John Endicott, who formed a settlement at iVawnkeag, to which he gave the scripture name of Salem. It might readily be supposed, that the men who had bled under the lash of persecution for their religious opinions, would have learned to respect these opinions in others. While we commend that noble spirit which enabled them to quit their native soil, and brave a thousand dangers in a hostile land, in order that they might enjoy the unrestrained exercise of their religious principles, we cannot refrain from disavowing that spirit ot intolerance which they exer- cised among themselves. 10. Some of the colonists retained a high veneration for the ritual of the church of England, and refusing to conform to the colonial establishment, they assembled to a separate place of wor- ship. Endicott called before him two of the principal offenders and sentenced them to banishment; they were accordingly sent home by the first vessel returning to England. In 1630, another company of adventurers, over fifteen hundred in number, under John Winthrop, who was appointed governor, arrived in Massa- chusetts and commenced the settlement of Charlestown, Boston, and other places in that vicinity. At the first general court held at Charlestown, a law was passed, declaring that none should be free, or have any share in the government, except those who had been received as members of the church. 11. In the spring of 1623, the settlement of New Hampshire was commenced at Dover and Portsmouth, by persons sent out under the patronage of Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason, to whom the country had been granted. These settlements were united to Massachusetts in 1641, and remained a part of that colony until 1678, when New Hampshire obtained a separate go- vernment. In 1635, the colony of Connecticut was commenced by a few families, with their favorite minister Mr. Hooker, who left Massachusetts, and after a fatiguing march through the wilder- ness, settled on the west side of the Connecticut river, and laid the foundation of Windsor and Wetherslield. 12. Roger Williams, a minister at Salem, having been banished from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions, with a few companions commenced the settlement of Rhode Island, on the site where the city of Providence now stands, which name In the same month who paid a visit to the colony ? — 9. In 1G28, what colony was commenced? What might be supposed? — 10. What did some of the colonists retain? What did Endicott do? In 1G30, what took place? At the first general court at Charlestown, what law was passed? — 11 In 1623, what settlement was commenced* Ry whom? When and by whom was Connecticut commenced?— 12. What is re'ated of Roger Williams ? 296 AMERICAN COLONIES. they gave to the place, in grateful acknowledgment of the Divine protection. About two years alter this. Mr. Coddington, having been also banished from Massachusetts, with seventy-six others, for holding opinions which were deemed erroneous by the colonial establishment, purchased from the Indians, Aquelneck, a fertile island in Narraganset Bay, and named it Rhode Island, under which title the previous settlement by Roger Williams was after- wards included. 13. In 1644, Williams visited England as agent of the settlers, and obtained from the British parliament, shortly after the com- mencement of the civil war, a free charter of incorporation fo? Providence and Rhode Island plantations. The charter was con firmed and its constitutional powers enlarged in the reign of Charles II. By this instrument it was ordered, " that none were to be molested for any difference of opinion in matters of reli- gion ;" yet the very first assembly, convened under its authority, excluded the Roman Catholics from voting at elections, and from every office in the government. 14. The friendly intercourse which had for some time existed between the colonists and the natives, began gradually to be in- terrupted. The Indians in the vicinity of Massachusetts Bay were few and unwarlike, and having received a stipulated com- pensation for the land from the early settlers, they evinced no disposition for hostility ; but Connecticut and Rhode Island had to contend with numerous and powerful tribes. Among these, the Narragansets and Pequods were the most formidable. The Jatter having sent a deputation to their neighbors the Narragan- sets, requested them to forget for a season their mutual animosi- ties, and co-operate in expelling the common enemy from the country : but the former considering this as a favorable oppor- tunity for weakening or totally destroying a powerful rival, dis- covered their hostile intentions to the governor of Massachusetts, and united in alliance with the colonists against them. 15. The Pequods had pitched their camp in the middle of a swamp, near the head of Mystic river, and fortified it with pali- sades; but the colonists, under Captain Mason, marched to the place unperceived, and were about to enter the camp through a pass, which, by some unaccountable neglect was left open, when the alarm of their approach was given by a faithful do<*. In a moment the warriors flew to arms and prepared to »epel the at- tack; but in a few moments more the wigwams in which the Indians slept were enveloped in flames. Dreadful was the car nage that now ensued. Aroused from their slumbers by the dis- charge of musketry, the affrighted Indians rushed in consternation from their burning tenements. As they came forth they were received by the swords of the enemy; if they attempted to escape by scaling the palisades they were met by a shower of balls. Two vears after this, what did Mr. Coddington do ?— 13. In 1644, what did Williams do and obtain? By this instrument, what was ordered ? Ytt what was done by the first assembly?— 14. What is said of the Indians in the vicinity? Which were the most formidable tribes? What did the latter request? What did the former do?— 15. Where had the Pequods pitched their camp? What did the colonists do? De« scribe the scene that followed AMERICAN COLONIES 297 Many afraid to venture out perished in the flames; while others, recoiling from the deadly weapons of the foe, rushed back into the devouring element and shared the fate of their^ companions. "In a few minutes, live or six hundred lay gasping in their blood or were silent in the arms of death." Those that were captured, above the number of two hundred, were either sold as slave9 abroad or reduced to servitude by the English at home. So com- plete was the extermination, that in a few months the nation of requods was entirely destroyed, even their very name was no longer heard. ill. The clanger to which they were exposed by the encroach- ments of foreign enemies and domestic hostilities, induced the four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, to enter into an alliance for their mutual defence, under the title of the United Colonies of New England, A. D 1643. This confederation, which was regulated by two delegates from each colony, subsisted with but little alteration until their charters were annulled by Charles II. As many of the early settlers were men of talents and education, they gave their earliest attention to the interest of learning and to the establishment of schools. In 1638, a few years after the settlement of Massachu- setts, Harvard University, the oldest seminary of learning in the country, was founded at Cambridge. 17. Although the colonists possessed many excellent traits of character, they were not, however, without their faults. While they claim our admiration for their enterprise, for their love of liberty and attention to the interests of education, we are com- pelled to regard their misguided zeal in matters of" religion with mingled feelings of sorrow and disapprobation. In 1656, a num- ber of Quakers, flying from persecution at home, sought an asylum among their Christian brethren in New England ; but the novelty of their mode of worship greatly offended the ministers of the established church; they were accordingly imprisoned and sent oft by the first opportunity. A law was then passed prohibiting the emigration of Quakers to Massachusetts; forbidding their return, in case of banishment, under the penalty of death. In consequence of these severe proscriptions, several of these unof fenduig people were hanged. 18. In Connecticut the Quakers were treated with little less seventy. A law was passed against them, subjecting the offender to imprisonment at hard labor, and the tongue to be pierced through with a red-hot iron. These instances of intolerance, which have cast a blot upon the memory of our forefathers, are not cited to wound the feelings of their descendants, but simply to remind them that it is their duty to avoid the repetition of these errors; that ; t is incumbent on all to discountenance religious in- tolerance in every form, in every age and in every clime; that the What was done with those who were captured ? — 16. What did their danger induce the colonist to do? How lor.? did this confederation subsist? To what did they give their earliest attention? When was Harvard University founded ?— 17. WMle they ?laim our admiration, what are we compe'led? In 1656, what took place? WhaS law was passed?— 18. In Connecticut, wh»* law was passed? Why tre these in* nances ot" intolerance mentioned? 298 AMERICAN COLONIES. same ascendency that then prevailed over the civil authorities might even now plunge society into that unhappy state, which we are called to contemplate with so much regret. 19. After the termination of" the Pequod war, the New England settlements enjoyed a long continuance of peace, during which they greatly increased in wealth and population. The treatment, however, which the natives had generally received from the early adventurers, had given them great reason to regard the Europeans with an eye of jealousy and distrust ; and it must be confessed , that the colonists, in their proceedings with regard to the natives, were often directed by principles of cruelty and injustice, as a reference to the records of those times will clearly prove. In 1675, the peace which long subsisted was interrupted, and the colonists found themselves involved in a destructive war with Philip, king of the Wampanoags, whose principal residence was at Mount Hope, Rhode Island. 20. Philip, equally eminent for his warlike character and un- daunted courage, was the most formidable enemy ever encountered by the colonists. Having spent four years in maturing the plan of an extensive conspiracy which had for its object the utter ex- termination of the English, he commenced hostilities, and by means of his alliances was able to bring four thousand warriors into the field. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth united against him. The war was commenced with great energy and spirit ( n both sides, and for some time conducted with equal success. In the great battle known by the name of the Swamp Fight, two hundred and thirty of the colonists were killed, while one thousand of the Indian warriors are supposed to have perished and over five hundred of their wigwams were burned. At length an end was put to these disasters in 1676, by the death of Philip, who was shot by one of his own men who had joined a party of the English under the famous Captain Benjamin Church. 21. At the commencement of this distressing war, the English population amounted to nearly sixty thousand persons, of whom six hundred had fallen in battle during the conflict, besides a much greater number of women and children who were led into a miserable captivity by the Indians. Scarcely a family or indi- vidual remained who had not to mourn the loss of a relative or friend. After the termination of this conflict, however, the New England colonies were freed from the hostilities of the natives until the war with the French, who employed the savages as auxiliaries. 22. About the year 1692, the people of the colonies were thrown into the utmost consternation, by the extraordinary imaginary power of witchcraft. A Mr. Mather, a minister of New England, who was a firm believer in all these ridiculous stories, relates a number of these supernatural events, which at the present time are more amusing than interesting. Several laws were made 19. Afttr the Pequod war, what did New England enjoy ? In 1675 what took place ? —20 What is said 01 Philip ? How was the war conducted ? How many fell on both sides in the Swamp Fight ? What was the end of Philip ?— 21. At the commencement of the war, what is said of the English ? What had every family to mourn ?— 22. What took place in 1692 ? AMERICAN COLONIES. 299 against witchcraft, arid not until twenty persons of both sexes had been executed, did the frenzy begin to cease. 23. Maryland. The founder of Maryland was Sir George Cal- vert, Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, who was distinguished as a statesman, and had held the office of secretary of state in the. reign of James I. of England. With a view of forming in Ame- rica an asylum for himself and his persecuted brethren, he sailed to Virginia about the year 1631; but meeting an unwelcome recep- tion there on account of his religion, he fixed his attention upon : a territory beyond the Potomac, and finding it unoccupied and well adapted to his purpose, he immediately returned to England and obtained of Charles I. a grant of the land. From Henrietta Maria, the consort of Charles, the country was called Mary- land. 24. Before the patent was completed, Sir George died, and the grant was transferred to his eldest son, Cecilius Calvert, who I inherited the titles of his father. Preparations were immediately made for the settlement of a colony. Remaining in England himself, Cecilius Calvert appointed his brother Leonard as gover- nor of the intended settlement. On the 22d of November, in the ; year 1633, emigrants to the number of about two hundred set l sail from the Isle of Wight, in two small vessels, the Jirk and I Dove, and after a tedious passage arrived in March of the follow- ! ing year on the shores of the Chesapeake. Following the exam- ple of Columbus, they immediately erected a cross and returned thanks to God, who had conducted the voyage to so happy an issue, and then took possession of the country in the name of their sovereign. After having purchased the land from the natives, they commenced the building of the town of St. Mary, which for many years remained the capital of the colony. 25. The leading features of policy adopted by the founders of this colony, claim our warmest admiration. Their intercourse with the Indian tribes was marked by the strictest equity and humanity; at the same time the unrestrained exercise in matters of religion, granted to the professors of every creed, reflects the highest honor upon the memory of Lord Baltimore and his bene- volent associates. Whilst the Episcopalians in Virginia would suffer no other form of worship among them, except that of the Church of England, and whilst the Puritans of New England punished with fines, tortures, and exile, all those who differed From their creed, the Roman Catholics of Maryland, transcend- ing the proscriptive principles of the age, extended their arms, and invited among them the victims ot intolerance from every clime.* * Bancroft, in hits History of America, vol. I., p. 268, speakint, of Maryland, says: "Its history is the history of benevolence, gratitude, and tolerafccr.. TLe Roman What laws were made? — 23. Who was the founder of Maryland? Whv did ho remove to America? Where did he next fix his attention? From whom was the country named?— 24. "What happened before the patent was complete? Who whs appointed governor? When and where did they sail from? What were the names of the vessels? What did they immediately do? — 25. What claim our admiration? What reflects the highest honor on Lord 'Baltimore, &c.? Wha» did the Roman Catholics of Maryland do'' 300 • AMERICAN COLONIES, 26. The tranquillity of the colony was for some time interrupted by the intrigues of Clayborne, who finally supplanted the proprie- tor, and compelled him to retire from the settlement. The very first act of those who succeeded in the government, was to strike out the fairest feature in the original constitution of the colony, namely, religious toleration, and to enact the severest penalties against the professors of every creed at variance with that of the Church of England. Thus the Roman Catholics were doomed to see themselves deprived of the free exercise of their religion, within the limits of that colony in which they had labored to establish free toleration, and that too by the very persons to whom their benevolence had granted an asylum and home. After seve- ral years of disorder, the authority of the proprietor was restored, and the province began to assume its usual prosperity. 27. Pennsylvania, in 1681, tne settlement ot Fennsyjvania was commenced under the direction of the celebrated William Perm, after whom the state is named. This eminent man was the son of Admiral Penn, who served in the British navy during the protectorate of Cromwell, and during a part of the reign of Charles II. In early life he embraced the tenets of Quakers or Friends, and shared largely of the persecution which was carried on in England against them, being repeatedly harassed by fines and imprisonment. Roused at length by these unjust and into- lerant proceedings, Penn resolved to seek in the New World an asylum from the oppression of the Old. Accordingly he applied to Charles II., from whom he obtained the grant of a large tract of country, including the present state of Pennsylvania, in con sideration of a debt due from the crown to his father. 28. The first colony arrived in the country in 1681, and be^an a settlement above the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. In the month of October of the following year, Penn arrived in the colony, accompanied by two thousand associates, chiefly of the denomination of the Friends or Quakers, and during the next year laid out the plan for the city of Philadelphia. Penn's first care after his arrival, was to conciliate the friendship of the Indians; accordingly, having assembled a council, he obtained possession of the land by a fair purchase, giving them in exchange such European goods as were useful to them, and entered into a solemn treaty with them, which was inviolably observed for a period of seventy years. 29. His system of government was established on the most humane and liberal principles. After the example of Lord Balti- more, he made civil and religious liberty the basis of all his insti- Catholics who were oppressed by the laws of England, were sure to find a rc'.ccfhl asylum in the quiet harbors of the Chesapeake, and there, too, Protestants were shel- tered from Protestant intolerance." 26. How was the tranquillity of the colony interrupted ? What was the first act ot those who succeeded in the government? What were the Catholics dwxmed. to see?-— 27. When and by whom was the settlement of Pennsylvania commenced)? What is said of him? What did Penn resolve?— 2S. When and where did the first colony arrive:? When did Penr. arrive? What city did he lay out* \Ytut was he first care 7 -29 What is» eaid of his system of government 7 AMERICAN COLONIES. 301 tufions, and to these wise regulations may be attributed the rapid advancement of Pennsylvania in population, enterprise, and im- portance. In addition to the territory included in the grant which he obtained from Charles, Penn became the proprietor of a tract of land, the present state of Delaware, which he obtained by purchase from the Duke of York. Haying several times visited England, he at length died at London in 1718, having reached the age of seventy-five years. 30. Delaware was first settled in 1627, by a company of Swedes and Finns, who, having arrived in the country, purchased fron the natives the land from Cape Henlopen to the falls of the Dela- ware, and commenced a settlement at the mouth of Christiana creek, near Wilmington, and called the country New Sweden. But their empire was not destined to^ be of long duration. In 1651, the Dutch in the neighboring colony of New Netherlands, who had always regarded the Swedish settlement with an eye of jealousy, under their governor, Peter Stnyvesant, invaded New Sweden, and reduced the colony to complete subjection. When the English afterwards conquered New York, they also obtained Delaware, which was considered a part of that territory. 31. New Jersey was first settled by Hollanders and Swedes. When New York was ceded by Charles II. to his brother, the Duke of York, all the territory between the- Hudson and Dela- ware rivers was included in the grant. The tract, comprising the present state of New Jersey, he sold to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. In 1674, Lord Berkeley disposed of his share of New Jersey to two English Quakers, named Fenwicke and Byllinge; and in the year 1682 William Penn and eleven others of the Society of Friends, became the proprietors of the remainder of the province, which they purchased from Sir George Carteret. The first governor was the celebrated Robert Barclay, the author of the " Apology for the Quakers," whose administration was for 32. The Carolinas. The next provinces that claim our atten- tion are North and South Carolina. Towards the middle of the seventeenth century, a considerable number of persons, suffering in Virginia from religious intolerance, removed beyond the limits of that colony, and commenced a settlement in a portion of country north of Albemarle Sound, and shortly afterwards an- other company of adventurers from Massachusetts settled near Cape Fear. In 1863, Charles II. granted to Lord Clarendon and others the entire tract of land lying between the thirty-first and thirty-sixth degree of north latitude, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. 33. The proprietors endeavored to hasten the settlement of this extensive region by establishing a liberal government, allowing perfect freedom in religion, and by offering a portion of land for Of what aid Pcnn become the proprietor ? Where and when did he die ?— 30. "When and by whom was Delaware settled? In 1G51 what took place?— 31. By whom was New Jersey settled ? In 1674 what did Lord Berkeley do ? Who afterwards became the proprietors? — 32. What provinces next claim our nttention? Towards the middle of the seventeenth century what was done? In 1G63 what d d Charles grant?— 33. What did the proprietors do? 26 302 AMERICAN COLONIES. the first five years at a half-penny per acre. They afterwards extended their settlements to the banks of the Ashley and Cooper rivers, where Charleston now stands \ and in 1739 the title of the land was sold to the crown, after which the country was divided into North and South Carolina, and a royal governor appointed over each. During the year 1700 the growth of cotton was intro duced, and two years later that of rice, which articles have subse quently become the prominent staples of those provinces. 34. Georgia. _ The last settled of the thirteen original states that revolted against Great Britain was Georgia, which received its name from George II. In 1732 one hundred and sixteen per- sons embarked from England under General Oglethorpe, and arrived at Charleston early in the following year. From Charles- ton they sailed to their destined territory, and shortly after their arrival they laid the foundation of the city of Savannah. For several years after the settlement was commenced, the colony remained in a languishing state, but after the surrender of its charter to the crown, it began to flourish. 35. In the year 1736 the celebrated John Wesley arrived in Georgia, and commenced his missionary labors among the colo- nists and Indians, but. not meeting with the desired success, he returned again to England. Oglethorpe was distinguished as a soldier and a statesman. At an early age he served on the con- tinent of Europe under the celebrated Prince Eugene, until the return of peace ; and on his return to England he was elected a member of the British parliament. At the commencement of the American Revolution he was offered the command of the British army, which high office he thought proper to decline. He died shortly after the contest was decided, at the advanced age oi ninety-seven years. SECTION IV. The French tear; Conquest of Canada; the Oppressive Mea sures of Great Britain towards the Colonies ; Commencement of Hostilities ; Battle of Lexington ; Bunker Hill , Declara- tion of Independence. 1 . We have seen that the French made settlements in Canada, at Quebec, on the banks of the St. Lawrence, about the same time that the English colony at Jamestown was commenced in Virginia. Besides the possession oi Canada in the north, France had also a territory on the Mississippi, in the south, called Louisiana. The boundary between the English and French colonies had long been a subject of dispute and unavailing nego tiation. It had been for some time a favorite object on the part In 1739 what was done? What was introduced in 1700?— 34. Which was the last Of the thirteen states? AVhen and by wh' m was the settlement commenced? Of what city did they lay the foundation? — 35. In the year 1736 who arrived? What is Said of Oglethorpe? AVhen did he die? 1. Where had the French made settlenrents? What had long been a subject of iispute ? Win t was the object of the French ? AMERICAN COLONIES. 303 of France to connect her distant possessions, by erecting forts aiong the Ohio and the lakes, and thus to restrict the British to a limited territory on the sea-coast. 2. This proceeding on the part of France alarmed the British and called forth the most decisive measures. Repeated com- plaints of violence having been made to the governor of Virginia, ne determined to send a messenger to the French commander at Fort Da Quesne, on the Ohio, where Pittsburg now stands, to demand the reasons of his hostile conduct, and to insist that he should evacuate the* fort. The choice of a person to perform this arduous undertaking fell upon George Washington, the future deliverer of his country, then a youth in the twenty-first year of his age. Having received his instructions from the governor, he departed on his perilous journey to the French settlement, at. a distance of near four hundred miles, one-half of the route being through a wilderness inhabited by hostile savages. On the way, his horse failing, he proceeded on foot, accompanied by a single companion, with a gun in his hand and a pack on his shoulders. On the 12th of December he reached the French fort, delivered his message to the commander, and by the middle of January re- turned in safety with an answer to the governor of Virginia. 3. The reply not proving satisfactory, the organization of a regiment was immediately commenced in Virginia, to support the claims of Great Britain over the disputed territory. Of this regi- ment, Mr. Fry was appointed colonel, and young Washington lieutenant-colonel; but on the death of Mr. Fry, which happened shortly after his appointment, the command devolved on Wash- ington. Without delay Washington marched forward at the head of a small force to dislodge the French from Fort Du Quesne, situated at the confluence of the Allegheny andMonon- gahela rivers. But before he reached the place he was informed that the garrison had been strongly reinforced, and that a body of nine hundred French were advancing against him : he there- fore thought it prudent to fall back to a fort which he had pre- viously thrown up ; but before he had time to complete his defense fte was attacked by the French general, I)e Villier, and after making a brave resistance, he was compelled to yield on honor- able terms of capitulation. 4. In the year 1755, General Braddock arrived in Virginia with two regiments, and after being joined by the provincials, under Washington, his forces amounted to twenty thousand men. Braddock was brave, but inexperienced as to the mode of Indian warfare. Washington, who acted as his aid : de-camp, asked permission to go forward and scour the woods with the provincial troops under Ins command; but Braddock, despising this prudent advice, pushed forward incautiously, and when within a few S. Wr.at did the jro\ernor of Virginia determine? Whom did lie select? What was the distance? On"his way what happened? When did he reach thefoit?— 3. After this, what was immediately commenced ? Of this regiment, who was appointed colo- nel? Where did Washington march ? What was he informed before l.e reached tho place? What did he do ?— 4. In 1755, who arrived? What is said of Braddock , What did Washington ask ? What did Braddock do? 304 AMERICAN COLONIES miles of Fort Du Quesne, he fell into an ambuscade of French and Indians. The invisible enemy commenced a heavy dis- charge of musketry upon his unprotected troops; the van was forced back upon the main body, and the whole army thrown into disorder. A dreadful slaughter now ensued. Braddock did all that a brave general could do to encourage his men to stand the assault; but valor was unavailing. After an action of three hours, seven hundred of the English were left dead upon the field, and Braddock himself, after having three horses shot under him, fell mortally wounded; Washington had two horses killed under him, and four bullets passed through his coat, yet he escaped un- injured. The provincial troops under his command preserved their order, and covered the retreat of the regulars, who broke their ranks and could not be rallied. 5. Three successive campaigns produced nothing but expense and disappointment to the British government. The lakes and the whole western and northern border were in possession of the French and Indians. With an inferior force they had maintained a superiority, and even extended their encroachments. In 1756, a change was effected in the British ministry, and William Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham) was raised to the head of the adminis- tration. From this moment affairs began to assume a new aspect. The active and enterprising genius of Pitt seemed to diffuse itself through every department of the state. He addressed a circular to tlio colonies in America, assuring them that an effectual force should be sent from England, and called on them to furnish as large a force as their population would permit. The number of men brought into the field at the next campaign amounted to fifty thousand, of which twenty thousand were raised in the colonies. 6. The first expedition was directed against Louisburg, which, after an obstinate resistance, surrendered with a garrison consist- ing of nearly six thousand men. Ticonderoga and Crown Point next fell into the hands of the English. Niagara was besieged, and after a severe action, also surrendered. But a far more important and more dangerous enterprise remained yet to be accomplished. The city of Quebec, a place strongly fortified by nature and art, the capital of the French dominions in America, was protected by a garrison of ten thousand men, under the able and experienced General Montcalm. The arduous duty of re ducing the place was committed to the heroic general Wolfe, 7. Having landed his army, consisting of eight thousand men, on the island of Orleans, below Quebec, he made an unsuccessful attempt to reduce the city. Not discouraged by this failure, Wolfe conceived the design of ascending, during the night, a steep and craggy precipice, to an eminence on the north bmk of the river called the Heights of Abraham. This enterprise he effected with in- What was his fate ? "What is said of Washington ? — 5. "What did three campaign* produce ? In 1756 what took place ? What did he address ? AVhat was the number of men at the next campaign ? — 6. What was the first expedition? What places were aken ? What is said of Quebec ? To w..om was the duty of reducing it committed *~7 What design did Wolfe conceive ? AMERICAN COLONIES. 305 credible labor, before Montcalm had the slightest intimation of his design, and by sun-rise the following morning, his whole army was arrayed on the plains above. A sanguinary battle ensued, in which the French were entirely defeated, with a loss of fifteen hundred men, among whom were numbered four of their principal officers, who fell in the action. But while the French were called to mourn the loss of their brave general Mont- calrn^ the British were compelled to lament the death of the heroic fPo/fe, who fell in the moment of victory. This illustrious man having received a mortal wound, was carried to the rear of the army, where he caused himself to be raised that he might view the engagement. Faint with the loss of blood, he had reclined his head upon the arm of an officer, when he was roused by the cry: " They fly, they fly ! " " Who fly ?" exclaimed the dying general. Being told that it was the enemy, he replied, " I die contented," and immediately expired. The sentiments of Montcalm in the moments of death, are equally remarkable. Being told that he could not survive more than a few hours, he replied, " It is so much the better, I shall not then live to see the surrender of Quebec." This important battle was followed by the reduction of the city, and subsequently by that of all Canada; so that of all the territories claimed by France in America, New Orleans, and a few plantations on the Mississippi, alone remained in her possession, A. D. 1763. 8. Never had the attachment of the colonies to the mother country been more strongly manifested than during the French war, which had terminated so advantageously to England. The colonists felt proud of their descent and connexion with one of the most powerful nations of Europe. The peculiar circum- stances in which the early settlers had been placed, led them to study with more than usual care the principles of political liberty, and to view with a jealous eye every encroachment of power. What degree of authority the parent country might exercise over the colonies, had never been defined. In England, the doc- trine, prevailed, that parliament had the power to bend them in all cases whatever; a principle which, in America, had been publicly denied. 9. The expenses attending the recent war had rendered it necessary to increase the usual taxes of the English nation ; but the ministry, apprehensive of rendering themselves unpopular by too severely pressing on the resources of the people at home, de- termined to raise a revenue from the colonies in America. In 1765, Mr. Grenviile, the commissioner of the treasury, introduced the famous Stamp Met, by which all instruments of writing, such as law documents, deeds, leases, wills, &c, were to be null and void, unless on stamped paper, on which a duty was to be paid. The bill passed the house after a long and animated discussion. What ensued ? What was the less of the French ? What was the fate of Wolfe ? What is related of him before his death ? What is said of Montcalm ? What followed the reduction of this eity? — 8. What is said of the attachment of the colonies ? Of what were thty proud? In England, what doctrine prevailed ?— 9. What dni the expenses render necessary ? What is said of the ministry? In 1765, what was introduced* What was the uV-ure of this act? 26* 306 AMERICAN COLONIES. 10. The news of this measure created the greatest sensation among the colonists. They remonstrated against it. but in vain, the act went into execution during the following year. The as- sembly of Virginia was in session when the intelligence arrived \ a number of resolutions were immediately brought forward by the patriotic Patrick Henry, in opposition to the act. Massachu- setts also declared herself opposed to it, and in all the colonies, a determined spirit of resistance to the oppressive measure was strongly manifested. When the news of the Stamp Jict reached Boston, the bells were muffled, and rung a funeral peal; the crown officers were treated with insult, and, in some instances, the houses were broken open or demolished. In the city of New York, the act was carried through the streets with a death's head affixed to it, bearing this inscription : " The folly of England, and the ruin of America." 11. A Colonial Congress met at New York, and published a declaration of their rights, insisting particularly on the exclusive right of taxing themselves, and loudly complaining of the Stamp Act. The merchants of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, entered into a combination, and passed a resolution not to import or sell British goods until the offensive measure should be re- pealed. So great and spirited was the opposition of the colonies, that the Stamp Act, through the exertions of Mr. Pitt, Lord Camden, and others, was repealed in the spring of 1768; but the repeal was accompanied with a declaration that the British par- liament had the power to enforce upon the colonies any measure it might think proper ; and in accordance with this principle, an act was passed during the following year, 1767, imposing a duty on tea, paper, glass, and painters' colors. This act was followed by another most arbitrary declaration, that all offenders in Mas- sachusetts should be sent to England for trial, and in order to carry these measures into effect, two British regiments were sent over, and quartered in Boston. 12. The feelings of the citizens were highly exasperated to see themselves beset by an insolent soldiery, sent over with the de- sign of intimidating them into compliance with the arbitrary acts ot the British parliament. Frequent disputes occurred between them and the soldiers, and on the fifth of March, 1770, a collision took place between a detachment of troops under Captain Pres- ton, and the inhabitants of Boston, which resulted in the death of three of the latter, while five more were dangerously wounded Captain Preston and the soldiers were brought to trial, and ac- quitted, except two, who were convicted of manslaughter. 13. Lord North succeeded to the Duke of Grafton, as prime minister of England, in 1770, when all the duties were re- pealed, with the exception of the one imposing three pence per pound on tea. Things continued in this state of partia . 10. What did the news of tins measure create? In the Assembly of Virginia, wh was done? And in Boston? In the city of New York?— II. What did the Coloni Congress publish? What did the merchants of Boston, &c, do ? When was the Stamp Act repealed ? In 1767. what was passed ? By what was this followed? — 12. What frequently occurred? On the fifth of March, 1790, what happened?— 13. Bywhou fc-a.3 the Duke of GraftoT succeeded? AMERICAN COLONIES. 307 irritation until the year 1773, when the British East India Com- pany were authorized to export their tea to the colonies Tree of duty. The inhabitants of New York and Philadelphia prevented the landing of the tea ships sent to these cities, but the people of Boston shewed their resentment in a different manner ; a party of men disguised as Indians, boarded the vessels, and threw the tea, consisting of three hundred and forty-two chests, into the harbor. 14. Nothing could exceed the indignation of parliament when the news of this transaction reached England. An act was immedi- ately passed, by which the port of Boston was closed, and the go- vernment and officers transferred to Salem, A. D. 1774. In May of the same year, General Gage, who had been ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in North Ameri- ca, arrived in Boston ; and was shortly followed by two regiments more, with artillery and military stores. By these proceedings, the Americans very justly concluded that it was the object of the British government to reduce them to obedience by force of arms ; that the hour of reconciliation was passed ; that their rights could only be maintained by an appeal to force ; therefore, without delay, they began to prepare themselves for the contest. 15. An agreement was entered into by many of the most dis- tinguished men of Massachusetts, called a" Solemn League and Covenant," by which they determined to suspend all intercourse with Great Britain, until their rightsshould be restored. A regular enlistment of soldiers was commenced, and live general ofhcers were appointed. The general court of Massachusetts resolved that a congress of the colonies should be called ; accordingly, on the fifth of September, delegates from all the colonies except Georgia met at Philadelphia. This body, generally known by the name of the Continental Congress, of which Peyton Randolph of Vir ginia was the first president, consisted of fifty-five members. They published a declaration of the colonies, agreed to suspend all intercourse with Great Britain ; and drew up an address to the king, another to the people of England, and a third to the colonies. 16. When the proceedings of the Continental Congress were laid before the parliament, an address was presented to the king, declaring that Massachusetts was in a state of rebellion, and re- questing that effectual means might be taken to suppress it. Ac- cordingly, during the winter and spring of 1775, the number of royal troops in Boston were increased to ten thousand, a force deemed sufficient for that purpose. In February, General Gage despatched a body of troops to Salem, to take possession of some pieces of cannon, but they were disappointed of their object; the What took place in 1773? How did the people of Boston show their resentment? -14. What act was immediately passed ? In May of the same year, who arrived _n Boston ? By these proceedings, what did the Americans conclude ? — 15. What agree- ment was entered into ? What was commenced ? What did the Court of Massachu- setts resolve ? By what name is this body known ? Who was Hie first President? What did they do? — 16. What was done when the proceedings of Congress were J8ud ocfore Farliamert? In Fc >ruary, what die General Gage do ? 308 AMERICAN COLONIES. cannon having been removed through the precaution of the pro- vincials, who had received intimation of their design. 17. In April, Gage sent another body of troops under ColoneE Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy the military stores which had been collected at Concord, about twenty miles distant from Boston. On the morning of the nineteenth of April, as they passed through Lexington, they were met by a party of militia, to the number of about seventy, who had assembled on the green for the purpose of opposing their progress. Major Pitcairn, riding up, called out to them to disperse ; but not being obeyed, he discharged his pistol, and ordered his men to lire. Eight of the Americans were killed, and several wounded. Thus was shed the first blood in that memorable contest, which finally resulted in securing the liberty, and establishing the Independence of America. 18. The royal troops after this, proceeded to Concord, and de« stroyed some military stores collected in the town. The British commander then attempted to cut oft* the approach of the Ameri- cans from the neighborhood by destroying or occupying the bridges. Accordingly a small force was sent to take possession of a bridge over Concord river, but being attacked by the Ameri- cans, who were desirous of keeping open a communication with the town, a smart action took place, which terminated in the re- treat of the British, with a loss of several killed and wounded. Hastily burying their dead in the public square, the British troops commenced their march, or rather their retreat towards Boston, In the mean time, the people of the neighborhood flew to arms, and attacked the retreating troops on every side ; an incessant fire was kept up from behind trees, walls, and rocks, until they reached Lexington, where they were joined by a reinforcement, which secured their retreat to Boston, after sustaining a loss of sixty-five killed, and one hundred and eighty wounded. The Americans lost fifty killed and thirty-four wounded. 19. From the first appearance of the approaching contest, the Americans were anxious that when an attack should be made, the British should be the aggressors. In this they were gratified by the affair at Lexington, which was now considered as a signal for Hostilities. The forts, magazines, and arsenals, within the limits of the colonies, were instantly secured for the use of the Ameri- cans. Congress, on hearing what had taken place at Lexington, immediately passed a resolution for raising an army of thirty thousand men in New England ; and in a. short time a considera- ble force was collected in the vicinity of Boston. The first expe- dition was directed against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which were taken by surprise. Towards the end of May, a considera ble reinforcement of British troops arrived at Boston, undei the 17. In April, what took place ? On the nineteenth, by whom were they met? Wh : did Major Pitcairn do ? How many of the Americans were killed? — 18. What did the British commander attempt to do ? What took place at the bridge over Concord river 1 What did the British do? How many were killed on both sides ?— 19. For what were the Americans anxious ? What did Congress immediately ? What was the first ex- pedition ? In May, what arrived lr Boston ? AMERICAN COLONIES. 309 command of Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, officers of high reputation. 20. For the purpose of annoying, or, if possible, to drive the British from Boston, a detachment of one thousand men, under the command of Colonel Prescotr, was ordered to throw up a breastwork on Hunker Hill, but by some mistake they took pos- session of Breed's Hill, an eminence much nearer Boston. Moving silently to the spot on the evening of the sixteenth of June, they prosecuted their design with so much expedition, that by the re- turn of day they had nearly completed an intrench ment of ten rods square. At the break of day their operations being dis- covered, a brisk cannonade was commenced from a vessel lying in the harbor, against the works of the Americans, without being able to retard their progress. During the morning, Colonel Pres- cott received a reinforcement of live hundred men. About noon, a detachment of two thousand men, under the command of General Howe, were sent to drive the Americans from their intrench- ments. A severe engagement followed; during which the British ere twice repulsed with dreadful slaughter 5 but from the failure of the ammunition of the Americans, they finally succeeded in car- rying the fortifications, after sustaining a loss of one thousand and fifty-four in killed and wounded. The loss on the part of the Americans amounted to four hundred and fifty-three ; but among the slain they had to number the much lamented and patriotic Major-general Warren, who had hastened as a volunteer to the field of battle. While the British were advancing to the attack, Charlestown was ordered to be set on fire, and in a few hours, the whole town, consisting of four hundred houses, was laid in ashes. 21. The Congress, then in session in Philadelphia, resolved on immediate measures of defense ; they began the organization of a continental army, selected George Washington a member of their body from Virginia, as commander-in-chief, and made the appointment of subordinate officers under him. With much diffi- dence, General Washington received the appointment, but with- out delay entered immediately on the duties of his office, and by the second of July, joined the army at Cambridge. 22. With a view of guarding the frontiers, a plan was devised for the invasion of Canada, and, if possible, to reduce the country fn pursuance of this object, a body of troops under Schuyler and Montgomery were sent to that province ; but the former having returned to treat with the Indians, was prevented by sickness from again joining the army. The chief command therefore de- volved upon Montgomery, who having taken Fort Chamblee, St. John's, and the city of Montreal, which surrendered without re- sistance, he pursued his victories to the very walls of Quebec. Colonel Arnold was sent with a reinforcement of one thousand 20. For the purpose of driving the British from Boston, what was done? How did they prosecute their design? At noon, what took place? What followed ? What was the loss of the British ? Of the Americans ? What city was se ~n fire?— 2t. What did Congress resolve ? Who was selected as commander-in-chief ? When and where did hejoin the army ?— 22. AVhat plan was devised? Who was sent to that province? AVual places did Montgomery take ? 310 AMERICAN COLONIES. men to join Montgomery, and after a fatiguing march through the wilderness, during which his troops were exposed to incredi- ble suffering, he reached Quebec in November. After remaining before the city for some time, without the slightest prospect of being able to take it by a siege, they resolved to attempt it by an assault. Accordingly, on the last day of December, they made an attack upon the city in three separate divisions, which, how- ever, proved unsuccessful, and fatal to the brave Montgomery, who fell in the act of scaling the wails. 23. Early in the following spring, the Americans being obliged to relinquish their design of reducing Canada, evacuated the country. About this time the nourishing town of Norfolk wa9 wantonly burnt by order of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia; and Falmouth, a town in the province of Maine, shared the same fate, being laid in ashes by order of the British admiral. In October, General Gage having embarked for Eng- land, the command of the British forces devolved on Sir William Howe. 24. During the summer and autumn of 1775, the army under General Washington, amounting in number to near fifteen thou- sand men, remained inactive for want of suitable arms and am- munition; but early in the following spring, an effort was made to dislodge the British from Boston. On the night of the fourth of March, a battery was erected with much secrecy and despatch, on Dorchester Heights, a situation that completely commanded the city. Unable to remove the Americans from their position, General Howe deemed it expedient to evacuate the town ; accord- ingly, on the seventeenth of March, he embarked his troops for Halifax, and General Washington on the same day entered the city in triumph, amidst the jovous acclamations of the inhabitants, 25. Early in the ensuing summer, a small armament under the command of Sir Peter Parker, and a body of troops, under Gene- ral Clinton, made an attack on Charleston, the capital of South Carolina ; but after a violent assault upon the fort on Sullivan's Island, from which they were repulsed with considerable loss, the enterprise was abandoned. "When the news of the battle of Bunker Mil reached England, it filled all minds with surprise and astonishment. Lord Chatham, Burke, and Fox, endeavored, but in vain, to produce a change in the measures of the govern- ment. The ministry blindly persisted in their plans, and obtained an act of parliament, authorizing them to employ sixteen thou- sand mercenary troops from the Landgrave of Hesse and die Duke of Brunswick. All trade and intercourse with the colonies were prohibited, and their property on the high seas was declared forfeited to those who should capture it. 26. At the commencement of the controversy, the Americans had contended only for their rights as British subjects, but these By whom was he }oined? What did they resolve ? What was the result?— 23. About this time what town was burnt ? In October, what happened?— 24. During the Bummer of 1775, what is said of the army ? On the fourth of March, what was done ? On the seventeenth, what did General Howe do ?— 25. By whom was an attack made on Charleston? What is said of Chatham, Burke, and Fox? What did the rnimstrv obtain ? UNITED STATES. 311 hostile measures induced them to assume a loftier position Seeing there was no alternative left, but that of absolute freedom, or unconditional submission, they determined to sever entirely those ties that bound them to the mother country, and assert their , independence. On the seventh of June, a motion was made in Congress by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, and seconded by JoJm Adams of Massachusetts, for declaring the colonies free and independent; and at the same time, a committee, consisting of Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, and Livingston, were appointed to prepare the Declaration of Independence, which was finally adopted after a full discussion, by a vote almost unani- mous, on the memorable fourth of July, 1776. [See Declara- tion in Appendix.~] UNITED STATES. SECTION V. The war of the Revolution continued. 1. During the second Continental Congress, ihe provinces which had united against the oppressive measures of Great Britain, received the appellation of the United Colonies, but in the Decla- ration of Independence, they were styled the United States of America; hence, from this period, the history of the United States should probably commence. The first important battle that took place after the Declaration of Independence, was that of Long Island. In June General Howe arrived off Sandy Hook, where he was shortly afterwards joined by his brother Admiral Lord Howe, with a great naval armament. General Washington, who knew that the favorite object of the British was to get possession of New York, had removed to that city with the greater part of his army. 2. On the 22d of August the British landed on Long Island, and on the 27th a severe engagement took place, in which the Americans were defeated with a loss of nearly one thousand men. The American generals, Sullivan and Lord Stirling, fell into the hands of the British, whose loss was estimated at about four hun- dred men. During the engagement, General Washington had hastened from New York with reinforcements, to the scene of" action; but considering the inequality of numbers, it was thought expedient to evacuate the island, which was accordingly effected on the night of the 28th of the same month, with so much silence 26. For what had the Americans contended? Seeing no alternative left, what d;d they determine ? On the seventh of June, what was done in Congress? "Who were appointed en the committee to prepare the Declaration? 1. Why should the history of the United States commence from this period ? Where did the first battle take place after the Declaration? — 2. When did the British land! What followed on the 27th? During the engagement, what did General Washington do?. 312 UNITED STATES. and order, that the British army, although not more than a quar- ter of a mile distant, had no intimation of their design until the Americans, with all their tents and baggage, were safely landed in the city of New York. 3. General Howe, who had been commissioned to settle the difficulties with the colonies, thought this a favorable opportunity for making proposals for an accommodation. He therefore dis patched several letters to General Washington; but as they were directed to George Washington, Esq., &c, the commander-in- chief refused to receive them unless addressed to him in his pro per character. Howe then sent General Sullivan, who had been taken prisoner in the battle of Long Island, with a message to Congress; and in a few days after this, Dr. Fi'anklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge were commissioned to hold an interview with the British general. They were politely received, but no accommodations of peace being effected, they returned to Philadelphia. 4. In September, the city of New York was abandoned by the American army, and shortly afterwards occupied by the British Washington, with a part of his army, had retiredto White Plains, where, on the 28th of October, a severe though indecisive action took place, with a loss of several hundred on both sides; and shortly afterwards, Fort Washington, on the Hudson, was re- duced by General Howe, and its garrison, consisting of two thou- sand men, was captured. General Washington now retired to Newark; from thence he passed through New Brunswick, Prince- ton, Trenton, and finally crossed over to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware, being so closely pursued by the British under Lord Cornwallis, that the rear of the one army was often in sight of the van of the other. 5. The affairs of the Americans at this crisis bore the most gloomy appearance. The army under General Washington, re- duced by the loss of men in killed, wounded and prisoners, by the desertion of some, and the departure of others whose term ot enlistment had expired, amounted to only about three thousand; and of this number, many were without shoes or clothing suitable to screen them from the inclemency of the season. To add to these disasters, General Lee had been taken prisoner at Basken- ridge, and Rhode Island fell into the hands of the British. 6. It was at this critical moment, when despair had pervaded almost every breast, that the expiring hopes of the nation were roused by a daring exploit of General Washington. On the night of the 25th of December he crossed the Delaware on the ice, surprised the enemy at Trenton and took the whole body, con- sisting of about one thousand Hessian troops under the command of Colonel Rahl, who was slain. He then proceeded to Prince- ton, and on the 3d of January, 1777, defeated a party of the Bri- 3. What did Howe tnink? What did he send to General "Washington? Whom did he send with a message to Congress? What followed?— 4. What, was done in Sep- tember? What look place al White Plains? What fort was shortly afterwards re- duced ? What course did Washington take ?— 5. IJy what was the army under Wash- .ngton reduced ? Wnere was Lee made prisoner ?— G. On the 25th of December, wft«l did General Washington do? Where did he then proceed? UNITKD STATES. 313 tish, who lost about one hundred men, ana compelled (lie remain- der, about three hundred in number, to surrender themselves prisoners. In this action the Americans lost General Mercer, of Virginia, a brave and experienced officer. During the latter part of the year 1776, Congress had manifested the greatest energy. Measures were adopted for increasing the army, and Dr. Frank- lin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane, commissioned to Europe to solicit the aid and alliance of foreign powers. 7. During the spring of 1777, Governor Try on was sent to destroy stores at Danbury in Connecticut; the design was exe- cuted and the town partly burnt; the British on their return were severely harassed by the Connecticut militia under General Wooster, who was unfortunately killed on the occasion. It had been long the object of General Howe to get possession of Phila- delphia; for this purpose he embarked his troops, amounting to about sixteen thousand men, at Staten Island, entered the Che- sapeake Bay, and landing near the head of Elk river, commenced his march towards that city. General Washington perceiving his object, hastened to oppose his progress with a much inferior force. On the 11th of September, a battle was fought on the banks of the Brandywine, in which the Americans were defeated with considerable loss. In this battle two eminent foreigners served under the American colors, — the Marquis de Lafayette of France, and Pulaski of Poland, the former of whom was wounded. 8. After this victory, the British General immediately directed his march to Philadelphia, and stationed the principal part of his army at Germantown, about seven miles from that city. On the 4th of October, General Washington attempted to surprise the detachment at Germantown, but was repulsed with a loss of twelve hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, while the loss of the enemy was about half that number. While these operations were carried on in the Middle States, more auspicious events were taking place in the north. General Burgoyne, who commanded the British army in that quarter, took possession of Ticonderoga, which had been abandoned by the Americans under General St. Clair. But his progress was checked by the defeat of Colonel Baum, near Bennington, in Vermont, by a body of militia under General Stark. 9. Burgoyne having collected his forces, crossed the Hudson and encamped near Saratoga. General Gates, who had lately been appointed to the command of the American army in the north, advanced towards the enemy, and on the 19th of Septem- ber an obstinate but undecisive engagement took place at Still- Water; and shortly after this another severe action occu;red, in which the British were defeated and General Fraser kil ed ; the American Generals Arnold and Lincoln were wounded. Gcnc- /n this action, who was killed? "Who were commissioned to Europe?— 7. What was done in the spring of 1777? What was the object of Fowc ? "What course di«: he take? On the 11th of September, what look place? In this battle, what foreigner: served? — S. After this victory, where did the British proceed? On the 4t!i of October vnat took place? What place did Burgoyne take? How was his progress checked ' —0. WV;re did Burgoyne encamp? On the 19th of September, what took place? 27 314 UNITED STATES. ral Burgoyne having made several ineffectual Attempts to retreat, and finding his situation growing hourly more critical, called a council of war, in which it was resolved to surrender by capitu- lation. Accordingly, on the- 17th of October, his whole army, amounting to near six thousand men, surrendered to Genera! Gates as prisoners of war. 10. This event diffused universal joy among the Americana, and inspired them witli ardor in the cause of freedom. The court of France, which had secretly wished success to the cause of the United States, was restrained from giving open countenance to their agents until after the surrender of Burgoyne. This event determined the course of France. A negotiation was immediately formed with the American commissioners, and on the 6th ol February, 1778, a treaty of alliance, of amity and commerce was concluded and signed at Paris. The British ministry, on receiv- ing intelligence of the alliance between France and the United Ij States, began to hold out terms of reconciliation to the Americans, J but the Congress was now too sanguine in the hope of success, to listen to any terms short of an acknowledgment of their inde- pendence. 11. In the mean time, General Howe, who had returned to England, was succeeded in the chief command by Sir Henry Clinton. It was now determined to concentrate the British forces in New York; accordingly, Clinton, having evacuated Philadel- phia in June, crossed the Delaware, and proceeded on his march to that city. But as he retired, he was closely pursued by the American army under General Washington, and on the 28th of June a severe engagement took place at Monmouth Court-house, in which the British were repulsed with a heavy loss, and a sig- nal victory must have been obtained, had General Lee obeyed his orders. For his misconduct on that day, Lee was suspended from duty and never afterwards joined the army. 12. In July, a French fleet of twelve ships of the line and four frigates, under the command of Count d'Estaign, arrived at the mouth of the Delaware; but towards the close of the season it sailed to the West Indies, without having performed any impor- tant service. The last transaction of this year was an expedition against Georgia, and on the last day of December the British took possession of Savannah. 13. 1779. During this year the principal theatre ot the war was changed from the north to the southern provinces of the country. On the 15th of July, a detachment under General ffaynewsiS sent to dislodge the British from Stony Point, on the Hudson; the expedition was conducted with so much courage and resolu- tion, that the whole garrison, to the number of five hundred men, surrendered without the loss of a single individual on either side. Finding It impossible to retreat, what was resolved? What was done en the 17th of October? — 10. What is said of this event? Of the court of France? On the 0th of February, what was done? What did the British ministry do? — 11. I!y whom -vas Howe succeeded? What was determined.? What did Clinton do? On the '2Sth of June, what took place? What is said of General Lee? — 12. In July, what arrived! What was the last transaction of this year ?-*-13. During this year, whera was the principal theatre of the war ? What was done on the 15th of JulV ' UNITED STATES. 315 In Octcber, General Lincoln and C«unt d'F*taign made an attack upon Savannah, but were repulsed with considerable loss. In this action the brave and patriotic Pulaski, of Poland, was mor- tally wounded. 14. 1780. On the opening of the campaign of this year, the British troops evacuated Rhode Island. An expedition under Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Cornwallis was undertaken against Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, which was compelled to capitulate after a siege of six months, and the whole garrison, consisting of about two thousand live hundred men, together with all the adult male inhabitants, were surrendered as prisoners ot war. Clinton, leaving four thousand troops under the command of Lord Cornwallis, returned to New York. For the purpose of subjecting the interior of the province, a considerable force was sent to Camden under Lord jRawdon. His troops, however, were greatly harassed by small parties of the Americans under General Sumpter and other distinguished officers. 15. General Gates, who had been appointed to the command of the southern army in the place of General Lincoln, arrived in South Carolina in the latter part of July, and having concentrated his forces, prepared to oppose the progress of the British. Lord Cornwallis hastened to join Lord Rawdon with reinforcements, and on the 16th of August a severe engagement took place between the two armies, in which General Gates was defeated with the loss of upwards of seven hundred men. In this, Baron Be Kcdb, an illustrious Prussian general, then in the American service, bravely maintained his position at the head of the regular troops of Mary land and Delaware, until overpowered by numbers and almost surrounded, he was taken prisoner and died on the following day of the wounds he received. In July, 31. de Tcrnay, with a French fleet, carrying six thousai.d land forces under Count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode Island. This event gave univer- sal joy to the Americans ; but the fleet, leaving the land forces, shortly returned again to France. 16. This year is distinguished for the treachery of Genera* Arnold. General Washington, being called to Connecticut on business of importance, left the important fortress of West Point under the command of Arnold, who had previously distinguished himself at the siege of Quebec, and subsequently received a severe wound at Saratoga. He afterwards commanded in Philadelphia, where his oppressive conduct rendered him subject to a trial by court martial, by which he was sentenced to be reprimanded. He determined to have revenge; and for this purpose he entered into a negotiation with Sir Henry Clinton, to deliver up West Point with all its garrison into the hands of the British. 17. The British agent, through whom the negotiation with Arnold was conducted, was the unfortunate Major Andre. Aftei And in October? In this action, who was mortally wounded?— 14. What was un duriaken by Clinton and Cornwah'is? What was the result? -15. What did General KaKjs (Jo? What took place on the 16th of August ? In this battle, what is said ot Br.ron De Xalb? In July, what arrived at Rhode Island ?— 1G. For what is this ysur d&inguishf'd ? Into what negotiation did he enter ?— 17. Who was the British agent t 316 UNITED STATES. having an interview with the traitor, Andre was on his return to New York, with the papers in Arnold's own handwriting con- cealed in his boot, when he was detected by three Americans, and thus the treacherous designs were fortunately discovered in sea- son to prevent their execution. Andre being- convicted as a spy, his life was forfeited by the laws of war. He was accordingly condemned and executed. His youth and his many amiable qualities had endeared him to the officers of the British army, while his fate was deeply regretted by all. Arnold escaped to the English, and received as the reward of his treason an appoint- ment to the office of brigadier-general in the British army. 18. 1781. The campaign of this year commenced by an expe dition under Arnold, who made a descent upon the coast of Virginia, and committed extensive depredations. After the de- feat of Gates, General Green was appointed to the army in the southern department. From this period affairs in that quarter began to wear a more favorable aspect. Colonel Tarleton, the British commander, was defeated by General Morgan, at the battle of the Cow-Pens. The two armies at length, under their respective commanders, met near Guilford Court-house, in North Carolina, where one of the best contested battles fought during the whole war took place. The Americans were obliged to retire from the field, yet the British suffered so severe a loss that they were unable to pursue the victory. 19. In September, General Green obtained an important vic- tory over the British, under Colonel Stuart, at Eutaw Springs, where General Marion particularly distinguished himself, and Colonel Washington, a relative of the commander-in-chief, was wounded and taken prisoner. After this battle, Lord Cornwallis. leaving South Carolina, marched into Virginia, and having col- lected his forces, fortified himself at Forktown. General Wash- ington, learning the position of Cornwallis, secretly left his camp at White Flams, crossed the Hudson with his army, and passing rapidly through New Jersey and Pennsylvania, arrived at the head of Elk river, where he was joined by a considerable rein- forcement under Marquis de Lafayette. 20. In the mean time, Clinton, who was not apprised of the departure of General Washington until it was too late to pursue him, sent a detachment of troops under Arnold, the traitor, against New London, in Connecticut, which was set on fire and burnt to the ground. While Washington was on his march to Virginia, he received the cheering intelligence of the arrival of a French fleet, consisting of twenty-four ships of the line, under Count de Grasse, in the Chesapeake. A British fleet of nineteen vessels, under Admiral Graves, soon after appeared off the Capes. A slight engagement took place between the two fleets, in which Relate the circumstances of Andre's capture. What was his fate ? What became rtf Arnold? — IS. Mow was the campaign of this year commenced ? Where and by whom was Tar.eton defeated? Where did the two armies again meet? What was the result? — 19. In September, what did Green obtain? After this banle. where did Cornwallis fortify himself? What did General Washington do ? — 20. In the mean time what was done by Clinton ? While Washington was on his march to Virginia, .vha, Dews did he receive ? What fleet appenred off the capes ? What took plane ? UNITED STATES. 317 the French had the advantage, and remained in possession of the, bay. 21. A body of French troops was now landed, in order to co- operate with the Americans, under General Washington, who by this time had embarked his forces and arrived at York-oum. A close siege was now commenced, and carried on with so much vigor by the united forces of France and America, that Lord Eormvallis, on the 19th of October, was compelled to sign arti- cles of capitulation, by which the British army, military stores and shipping, were surrendered to General Washington. The. number of the British forces that surrendered on that occasion amounted to something over seven thousand, but many of them at the time were unfit for duty. When the news of tliis glorious event, which was considered as deciding the contest, was report- ed to Congress, that body immediately recommended that a day of public thanksgiving should be observed throughout the United States. Shortly after the surrender of Cornwaliis, the British evacuated nearly all their posts in South Carolina and Georgia, and joined the. main army in New York. 22. As no * rational hope now remained of conquering America, Great Britain at length resolved to discontinue the prosecution of a war which had already exhausted the nation and reflected discredit upon their arms. Accordingly, on the 30th of Novem- ber, provisional articles of peace were signed, in which the inde- pendence of the United States was acknowledged ; and the 3d of September, 1783, there was concluded, at Versailles, by Franklin, Adams, Jay, and Laurens, on the part of America, and Mr. Oswald, on the part of Great Britain, a definite treaty of peace, by which the thirteen United Colonies were admitted to he * i Free, sovereign, and independent States. 5 ' Thus terminated that long and eventful war of the Revolution, which cost Great Britain, besides the loss of her colonies, the sum of £1,000,000 sterling, and the lives of fifty thousand of her sub- jects. A contest, which produced for America, as the happy reward of her trials, her sufferings, and the blood of her patriots, the establishment of her freedom and independence. 23. Peace being thus restored, the first step of Congress was to disband the army. But here a serious difficulty arose respecting the payment of the arrears of the officers and privates, many of whom had not received for five years the smallest compensation. The most serious consequences were about to ensue, when the storm, which seemed ready to plunge the rising republic into all the horrors of civil war, was happily quelled by the prudence and energy of General Washington. Congress having made arrange- ments for the payment of the soldiers, fixed upon the 3d of November for disbanding the army. 21. What was now commenced and carried on ? What was the number of forces that surrenderee! ? At the news of this event, whaj did Congress do ' — 22. What did Great Britain at length resolve? What look place 6n the 30th of November? And finally on the 3d of September, 1783? What did the contest cost Great Britain'— 23. What uow was the first siej of Congress? What difficulty arose? How was it cuellcd ? 318 UNITED STATES 24. On the da) previous, Washington issued his farewell ad- dress, bidding an affectionate adieu to the soldiers who had fought and 1)led by his side. After taking leave of the army, he was called to the still more painful duty of separation from officers endeared to him by the mutual dangers and sufferings they had endured together. After this, he immediately repaired to Anna- polis, where Congress was then in session, resigned his military commission, and declared that he was no longer invested with any public character. Having thus given back the almost un- limited power he possessed to that source from whence he received it, he retired to his estate at Mount Vernon, and again devoted himself to the peaceful pursuits of agriculture, carrying to his retirement the gratitude of his country and the applause and ad- miration of the world. 25. At the close of .the war, when the states were released from the presence of danger, the government, under the Articles oj Confederation, was found to be weak, and wholly insufficient for the public exigencies. The authority of Congress was but little respected; a large public debt had been contracted, and no pro- visions had been made for paying the principal or the interest. The necessity, therefore, of a more efficient and general system of government was extensively felt; and in accordance with a proposition of the legislature of Virginia, commissioners from several states met, in 1786, at Annapolis, for the purpose of entering into certain commercial regulations. But after some deliberation they determined to adjourn with a proposal to all the other states to appoint delegates to meet at Philadelphia ? for the purpose of digesting a form of government equal to the exigencies of the Union. 26. Agreeable to this proposition, delegates from every state, except Rhode Island, convened at Philadelphia on the 25th of May, 1787 % On the motion of Robert Morris, of Pennsylvania, General Washington, one of the delegates from Virginia, was unanimously elected President of the Convention. On taking the chair, he thanked the members of the Conven tion for the honor they had conferred upon him, reminded them of the novelty of the scene of business in which he was about to act, lamented his want of better qualifications, and claimed the indulgence of the house for any involuntary errors which his in- experience might occasion. On the 29th of May, the draft of a federal government, differing in some particulars from the present Constitution, was laid before the house by Mr. Charles Pinhney, of South Carolina. The Convention then proceeded to discuss each clause separately, during which various opinions were ad- vanced by the different delegates, and frequently animated dis- cussions followed. 27. On the subject of salaries to the executive branch of the 24. On the clay previous, what, did Washington do f After this, where did he re- pair ? Where did he relir-? — 25. At the close of the war. what was the government 'brined to he ? What is sa.d of Congress? What proposition was made in the Legis- 'ature of Virginia? What did they determine? — 26. Agreeably to this, what was done ? Who was eicetid President ? On taking his seat, what did he say ? On th While citizens of (he United States, &c, what did they do ? What was hoped alter the tr*aty of 1831 ?— 3. What was again committed? What did General Jackson say, and do? In 18111, what was done? vVhat did the claims amount to?— 4 On the 30th n{ Jim-', 1843, what was concluded.' 1 With what did Mexico fail 'o comply' VVhat is sriid ~>i the claimants 7 What, is said of this conduct UNITED STATES. 331 may be regarded as. one of the primary causes of the war, the an- nexation of Texas was the immediate cause. 5. Texas was formerly a province of Mexico, and had been set- tled principally by emigrants from the United States. In 1834 her citizens becoming displeased with the unjust and tyrannical pol- icy of the Mexican government, declared themselves independent. A war ensued, which finally terminated in favor of the Texans, by the defeat of the Mexicans in the battle of San Jacinto, at which Santa Anna, the Mexican president, was taken prisoner, A. D. 1836. 6. In 1845, the Texans, having intimated a wish to be admitted into the Union as a Slate, a proposition was laid before Congres* for the annexation of the Republic of Texas to the United States ; and after a Avarm discussion on the subject, the proposition passed, and Texas was admitted into ihe Union on the 29th of December, 1845. The boundary between Texas and Mexico had never been properly defined. Texas held the Rio Grande, from its source to its mouth, to be the boundary line between the two countries ; while Mexico regarded the river Nueces as the boundary, and claimed the territory between the two rivers. Such was the slate of things when Texas was admiited into the Union. • • 7. But, the United States having, admitted Texas with the Nueces as her boundary, claimed the disputed territory, and of necessity, became bound to settle the difficulty with the Mexican government. Mexico still maintained her right to the territoryibetween the two rivers, and began to make preparations to invade the country. On receiving intelligence of this, Mr. Polk directed General Taylor to take some convenient position beyond the river Nueces, in order to repel any invasion on the part of Mexico. Accordingly, General Taylor crossed the Nueces, and took up a position at Point Isabel. Leaving a garrison at that place, he proceeded south to the banks of the Rio Grande, and erected a fort, called Fort Brown, opposite Mala moras, a town on the Mexican side of the river. 8. On the 23d of April, General Taylor was informed that a large Mexican force had crossed the Rio Grande. On receiving this infor- mation, he immediately dispatched Captain Thornton with a small force, to reconnoitre the position of the enemy; but Thornton, in charging the Mexicans, was captured, and his men either killed or taken prisoners. On the 29th of the same month, information reached General Taylor that Point Isabel was attacked by the ene- my, and in distress. The General immediately resolved to go to its relief, and to open a communication between the two posts. Accord- ingly, on the 1st of May, he left Fort Brown with the main body of his army on his march towards Point Isabel, leaving strict orders to the garrison of the r ort to defend it to the last, if attacked by the rnemy. f>. What was Texas? in V834, what took place.' Whai ensued ' How did it termi- nate : — 6. In 1645, what was done ? When was Texas admiited into the Union ? What is said of the boundary between Texas and Mexico? What did Texas hold? What did Mexico regard? 7. What is said ot the United Stales? What did Mexico still do? What did I'olk direct? What did General Tajior do? What did he civet:— 8. On the 23d of April, of what was General Taylor informed? What did he do? What was die fat-: of Thornton? On the 29th what happened ? What did the Genera, resolve* On the irst of May, what did la- do ? 332 UNITED STATES 9. But scarcely had General Taylor departed when the Mexicans began to make preparations lo annihilate the fort he had left behind, and bury beneath its ruins its brave defenders. Accordingly on the 3d of May the sacred quiet of Sunday was broken by the thunder of cannon ; a furious assault was made upon the American works. From this time until Saturday, an almost incessant shower oi balls and shells was poured upon the entrenchments. The skua] tion of the garrison was critical in the extreme ; they were shut up within the walls of a temporary fortification, surrounded by a nu merous and powerful enemy, cut off from all communication with their companions in arms, and having only four hundred rounds o\ ammunition. 10. In the meantime General Arista sent a summons to the fort to surrender, with a declaration that if it were not obeyed within an hour, he would put all the garrison to the sword. A declaration like this, under the circumstances in which it was delivered, was calculated to shake the constancy of the stoutest hearts ; but nothing could subdue the resolution of the garrison. A council of war was called, and the awful summons laid before the members ; when the question was asked, what should be done ? "Defend the fort to death" was the unanimous reply ; and in a few mom?nts every man was again at his post, prepared to carry out the resolution. 1 1. In the meantime signal guns had been fired, with a view of communicating to their companions at Point Isabel the death strug- gle that was going on at Fort Brown. As the heavy sounds broke upon the plains, they at length fell upon the ear of General Taylor. He listened for a moment, and remembering the smallness of the force he had left behind, and the number of the enemy, he imme- diately resolved to march to the aid of the garrison. On the 7th, he commenced his march, saying : " If I meet the enemy, I will fight them." On the following day he arrived at a place called Palo Alto. At this point, the Mexicans had assembled to oppose his progress; they were drawn out in order of battle, their lines ex- tending over a mile across a plain, bordered with chaparral; their lancers were placed a little in advance, on the left; behind these, they had stationed their infantry, while their heavy batteries were placed in the centre. 12. When General Taylor came in sight of the enemy, he im mediately drew up his little army in order of battle. General Twiggs commanded the right, composed of the 3d, the 4th, and the 5th infantry, and Major Ringgold's artillery. Lieutenant Churchill commanded two eighteen pounders in the centre, while Colonel Belknap was placed over the left, composed of Duncan's artillery, and the 8th infantry. Scarcely was the order completed, when the battle was commenced by a furious discharge from Ring- 9. What did the Mexicans do? On the 3d of May what took place? What followed? What is said of ihe situation of the garrison ? — 10. In the me antime what did General Jlrista do? What is said of this declaration? What was called? What was the unanimous reply? — 11. What was done ? What is said? What did he do and resolve* On the 7th what did he do and say? Where did he arrive? At this place, who were assembled? Describe the position? — 12. What did General Taylor do ; What was the disposftion of his forces? liow was the battle commenced? UNITED STATES. 333 gold's battery, on the right. On the left Duncan's battery poured in a fierce and destructive shower of balls ; while the two eighteen pounders in the centre shook the plains with their fire, and as they advanced, they poured destruction into the ranks of the enemy. 13. The battle now for several hours raged with unabating fury The Mexicans relying in their numbers, and in the strength of theii position, fought in every confidence of victory. On the other side, our men, aware of the circumstances under which they fought, felt that victory depended on their skill and valor. The action continued with equal bravery on both sides until dark, when the Mexicans with- drew from their position, and retired into the chaparral, while General Taylor and his gallant army encamped for the night upon the field of battle. The forces of the Mexicans in this engagement amounted to six thousand men, while those under General Taylor did not exceed two thousand three hundred. The loss of the enemy in killed and wounded amounted to nearly lour hundred ; while the loss on the side of the Americans was only nine killed and forty-two wounded ; but among the number of the slain, was the much lamented Major Ringgold. 14. The situation of General Taylor was exceedingly critical. His troops were weary after a hard lought battle; he was within a short distance of the fort, but far removed from reinforcements ; while the enemy was reinforced, and preparing again to oppose his progress. In this state of things, he called a council of war. Some were for advancing, others were for entrenching where they stood, or for retreating to Point Isabel. When all had spoken, the old Gen- eral said, with a firmness that bespoke the greatness of his soul : "Gentlemen, if I live I will be at Fort Brown before night." This determined the council; his officers unanimously resolved to sup- port his resolution. 15. As soon as the morning dawned General Taylor continued his march towards Fort Brown, and came in sight of the enemy, drawn up in order of battle, at a place called Resaca at la Raima. The Mexicans had strongly fortified this point, by erecting a battery on the right of the road leading to it, another on the left, and a third in the centre. As our little army advanced, the enemy's batteries opened upon it a furious and destructive fire. Still they moved onward, pouring in a well directed fire at every step. On the right they gained considerable advantage, while on the left, Ridgely's bat- tery swept down the enemy at every discharge. 1G. From the beginning of the contest, our army had advanced, and had driven the enemy from their original positions in every part, except along the road, where the centre battery was playing. This battery had caused considerable loss to our lines. At length, Gene- ral Taylor seeing that the fate of the battle depended on the captur- What is said of the left? The centre ?— 13. What is now said of the battle? What is said of the Mexicans? Of our men? What is said of the action? What of the Mexicans ? Of General Taylor and his army ? What was the number of the f >rces on each Bid'? What was the loss of the enemy? The loss on the side of the Americans;— 14. What i< said of General Taylor 1 Of his troops? What was called? What is said of some? Of others? What (lid the General himself say ?— 15. As soon as Ihe morning dawned, what did General Taylor do? Where did he meet the Mexicans? As the arnif advanced, what Happened ? What did they still do?— 16. From the beginning, what L •aid ? What did General Taylor do, aud say ? 334 UNITED STATES. ing of that battery, rode up to Captain May, and ordered hira to charge it at the head of his dragoons, adding these words : " Sir, you must take it." May immediately turned to his companions, and pointing to the battery, said : "Men, we must take that battery. 17 In a moment, May, at the head of his gallant troop, moved along the road, in the very face of the enemy's blazing battery, a cloud of dust marking their career. 17. In a few moments more, the bugle sounded to the charge ; but just at that instant, a furious discharge swept through them, leaving nearly a third of the company prostrate upon the ground. When smoke and dust cleared away, it was seen that the fortificai ions were in possession of the Americans. May, upon his powerful charger, leaped the ditch and breast-work of the battery, followed by his com panions; they rode down the men at their guns, broke through the Mexican lines, and took General Vega prisoner. At this sight a universal shout was raised from our army ; the infantry rushed forward, driving the enemy before them. The fate of the day was decided ; from this moment the battle became a rout, and the Mexi- cans, terrified at the valor of their enemies, rushed furiously towards the river in the direction of Matamoras. 18. While the battle raged, the garrison of Fort Brown had lis- tened with intense anxiety, as the shrill sound of the musket, and the heavy roar of the cannon vibrated across the plain, and as the combat deepened, their anxiety increased ; in breathless silence they awaited the issue of the fearful contest. But when they saw the enemy routed, and rushing in wild confusion over the field, pursued by our cavalry, they mounted the rampart, and waiving their ban- ner to the breeze, they sent up a shout of victory. Although more than three thousand shots had been fired at the fort, yet only two men had been killed. In this battle the Mexicans lost upwards ol two hundred killed, and six hundred wounded, together with two thousand stand of arms, six hundred mules, and the private papers of General Arista. The loss, on the part of the Americans, was thirty-nine killed and eighty-two wounded. 19. On the south side of the river, and directly opposite Fort Brown, stands the city of Matamoras, about twenty-eight miles from Point Isabel, and six from Palo Alto, and at that time containing about ten thousand inhabitants. General Taylor, after spending a few days at Fort Brown, resolved to make himself master of Mata- moras. Accordingly, on the morning of the 17th, he sent a commu- nication to the Mexican general, demanding a surrender of the place, together with all the public property in the city, and only giving him until three o'clock to consider the matter. The peremptory tone in which the demand was made, had the desired effect; for in a few What is said of May? In a moment, what did he do ? — 17. In a few moments more, what happened ? When the ;moke and dust cleared away, what was seen ? What did May do? Whom did did he take prisoner ? At the sight, what was done? What did the Mexicans do ?— 18. While the butt'e raged, what is said of the garrison ? When they saw the enemy, &c, what did they do: How many were killed in the fort: In this ^att.e what did the Mexicans lose ? What was the loss on tlie part of the Americans ?- i.y. Where does the city of Matamoras stand? What did General Taylor resolve ? Co die 7th what did he do ? What is said of this peremptory tone ? UNITED STATES. ■ 335 hours afterwards, the governor of the city sent a communication to General Taylor stating that he might enter the city as soon as he thought proper. On the next day, he took possession of Matamoras, but found it deserted by Arista, the Mexican general, who, previous to his departure had thrown a large number of cannons into wells. 20. Although General Taylor had defeated the Mexicans in two decisive engagements, and was now in possession of Matamoras, still he found it impossible to follow up his success, owing to the want of troops and supplies, and he was obliged to remain inactive during a greater part of the summer. In the meantime a large force under the command of General Ampudia, had concentrated at Monterey, a city in New Leon, about one hundred and seventy miles from Matamoras. 21. On the 7th of September, General Taylor, having received reinforcements, left Matamoras, and on the 19th of the same month he encamped at the Walnut Springs, a short distance from Mon- terey. The city of Monterey was strongly fortified both by nature and art; its narrow streets were barricaded with heavy masonry, while from the windows of the houses, and from the flat, roofs, on which battlements were erected, a deadly fire could be poured fonh upon an advancing enemy. To the west, on a steep and craggy eminence, stood a fortification called the Bishop's Palace. Strong and massive forts were erected on the north and east, while the San Juan river flowed along the south. These fortifications were mounted with forty pieces of cannon, and manned by more than ten thou- sand men. 22. Notwithstanding the strength of the position, and the great superiority of numbers, on the part of the Mexicans, General Tay- lor resolved to attack the city. Orders were given to make the attack in three divisions ; the first was placed under General Theiggs, the second under General Worth, and the third under General Butler. On tire 20th of September, General Worth, was ordered to take a position on the Saltello road, and to storm the heights of the Bishop's Palace, but owing to unavoidable delays, Worth was not able to reach his position until the morning of the 21st. 23. On this morning the battle properly commenced, and raged but with little intermission for three days. On the first day, several of the principal forts were stormed and taken in the rear of the city; and on the following day, the heights of the Bishop's Palace were carried, and the fort itself fell into the hands of the Americans. The 23J was marked by desperate fighting on both sides. The Ameri- cans still continued to advance, but every inch of ground they gained was desperately contested ; they were compelled to drive back the enemy at the point of the bayonet. But nothing could check their What followed ? On the next day, what did he do ?— 20. What is said of_ General Taylor? In the meantime, where had a large force concentrated? — 21. On the 7th, what did' Taylor do ? What is said of the city, and how was it fortified ? Where was the Bishop's Palace? Hy what were these fortifications mounted r— 22. What did General Taylor resolve ? Wliat orders were given ? On the 20th of September, what was Gene- ril Worth ordered lo do ? What followed?— 2Ii. What is said of the battle ? On the first Cay, what were taken ? On the following day? What is said of the 23d? What in Baid of the Americans ? What were they compelled to do ? What is said of their valor 336 UNITED STATES. impetuosity, or weaken their courage ; fortification after fortification yielded to their valor, until the night of the third day's battle, tne troops of Worth and Quitman had nearly met in the principal plaza of the city. 24. On the following morning, General Ampudia surrendered the city to General Taylor. An armistice was concluded for eight weeks, or until instructions from government could be received. Monterey was defended by forty-two pieces of cannon well sup- plied with ammunition, and garrisoned by ten thousand men. The forces of the Americans amounted to six thousand six hundred men. The loss on the side of the Mexicans was estimated at about one thousand in killed and wounded; while the Americans lost one hun- dred and twenty-six killed and three hundred and fifty wounded After this battle General Taylor established his head quarters at Monterey, while General Worth with one thousand two hundred men was directed to his position at Saltello. 25. In the meantime, General Santa Jlnna, who had previously been banished from the country, was recalled, and placed at thw head of the Mexican government. The high military reputation of Santa Anna inspired the Mexicans with renewed confidence, and in a short time he collected around him an army of twenty thousand men, and encamped at San Luis Potosi, a strongly forti- fied city. While these things were going on, General Winfield Scott was ordered by the government to take command of all the land forces in Mexico ; at the same lime he was directed to withdraw from Gen- eral Taylor nearly all the regulars under his command, to aid in the reduction of the city of Vera Cruz. At the same time, General Worth was ordered to leave his post at Saltello, and march to Vera Cruz, while General Taylor was directed to fall back to Monterey, and await the arrival of reinforcements. 2G. About the middle of February, 1847, General Taylor, team- ing that the Mexican President was about to make an attempt to possess himself of the posts of communication between Saltello and Matamoras, resolved to frustrate his design. On 20th of February he was encamped at AguaJYueva, about eighteen miles from Saltello, with a force of five thousand men. Here he was informed that Santa Anna, at the head of twenty thousand men, was about twenty miles distant. On receiving this intelligence. General Taylor fell hack to Buena Vista, about seven miles from Saitello. The position selected by General Taylor was one of great strength; he ihus de- scribes it himself: 27 " The road at this point becomes a narrow defile ; the valley on the right being full of impassable gullies, while on the left, rugged ridges extend far back to the mountains. The ground was so broken 24. What is said of General Jlmpudial What was concluded? How was Monterey defended? What was ihe kiss on both sides? Wnere did Taylor establish his head- quarters?— 25. In the meantime what took place' What is said of his reputation? What did he collect? While these things were goinr; on what took niace ? What orders did Several Worth receive? What General Tay lor ?— 26. In February of what was Gene- ral Tayloi informed,, ami what did he resolve? On the 20in of February, where did Je ijiicanip? Whe>e did he fail back to.— 27. How dofs he describe the position' UNITED STATES. 337 as nearly to paralize the artillery and cavalry of the enemy. Cap- tain Washington's battery wasposted to command the road j another force under Colonels Hardin and Bissel occupied the crests of the ridge on the left and in the rear, and a small force under Colonels Yell and Marshall occupied the left, near the base of the mountain, while another body held the reserve.'' 28. On the morning of the 22d of February, the Mexican army- approached the American lines, and about eleven o'clock Santa Anna sent a communication to General Taylor, informing him that he was surrounded by twenty thousand men, and demanding an immediate surrender. The messenger was politely received by Gen- eral Taylor, but a positive refusal to comply with the demand re- turned to the Mexican General. Shortly after the reply of General Taylor was delivered to Santa Anna, the Mexican batteries were opened upon the American lines, but without doing any material injury. In sight of each other, the two armies remained within their lines, until the close of the evening. While the anxious night of the 22d wore away, the combatants on either side stood at" their arms, waiting with impatience the return of day. The Mexicans, actuated by all the emotions that patriotism and national pride can inspire, were resolved to drive back the invaders, and wipe off the disgrace that attended their arms on the plains of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Pahna, and at Monterey ; while the Americans were resolved to sustain the honor of their country, or find a burial place in the mountain ravines of Buena Vista. 29. At daybreak on the following morning the battle of Buena Vista was commenced. At an early state of the engagement Gene- ral Taylor perceived that it was the design of the Mexicans to turn the left flank of. the American line, and for that purpose they had concentrated a large body of infantry. To prevent this, he ordered Sherman's and Bragg's batteries to the left, and the second Illinois regiment to take a position between them, while the Kentucky regi- ment was removed to the right of the line, so as to occupy a posi- tion near the centre. Scarcely were these movements completed, when both armies, almost simultaneously opened on each other a ter- rific fire from their artillery, which was quickly followed by a shower of musket balls from the Mexican infantry. The combatants on both sides rushed to the contest with equal vigor; the American regi- ments seemed to vie with each other in the deadly strife, and with the coolness and firmness of veterans of a hundred battles, they poured forth their volleys with fearful precision against their numerous foes. 30. In the meantime, a body of Mexican cavalry had advanced along the defiles of the mountain, and had almost gained a position to attack the rear of the Americans. As soon as their movement • Where *yas Washington's battery placed ? What place did Hardin and Bissel occupy: -^28. On the 23d, whaj; took place? What did Santa Jlnnailo? What is said of tin ipessenger? After the rcfy, what followed? In sight of each other, what is s;iid rif the armies ? While the night wore away, what is said of the combatants? What is said o| the Mexicans? Of the American*? — 29. At daybreak, what look place? At the com- mencement, what did General T->ylor perceive? To prev< nt this, what did lie do? Wli.u did both armies do? What is said of the combatants on both sides? Of lite Americans -30. In the meantime, what f.oojc place? What followed? 29 338 UNITED STATES. was perceived, the American artillery was directed to that quarter, and opening upon them its whole fire soon dispersed them. On the right, a body of Mexican lancers were repulsed with immense loss. The battle now raged with fury ; the very earth trembled beneath the American batteries, while the infantry told with terrible eflect upon the ranks of the the enemy. Twice the Mexican cavalry rallied, and twice they were repulsed with severe loss. On the right, i large body of the enemy had gained considerable advantage over one of the Illinois, and the second Kentucky regiments ; but at this critical moment, Captain Bragg was ordered to their support. This move- ment checked the tide of success, and the Mexicans were driven back in the utmost confusion. 31. Night put an end to the contest. The Americans slept upon the battle ground, with a determination to renew the conflict in the morning. But before the return of day the Mexicans had entirely disappeared ; leaving their dead and dying upon the field of battle, they had retreated to Jlgua JYueva, and finally to San Luis Potosi. The loss of the Mexicans in this battle is estimated at about two thousand in killed and wounded. The loss on the side of the Amer- icans was two hundred and sixty seven killed and four hundred and fifty-six wounded, and twenty three missing. Among the brave officers, who fell on that day, none were more lamented than Cob. McKee, Harden, Fell, Davis, and Clay, and Captain Lincoln. After this victory General Taylor fell back to Monterey. 32. Shortly after General Taylor had received orders to take up a position on the Rio Grande, Congress had authorized the President to accept the service of fifty thousand volunteers ; and at the same time to increase the regular army. On the 13th of May, 1846, Mr. Polk issued a proclamation, stating, " that by the act of the Republic of Mexico, a state of war existed between the two governments," and called upon the people of the United States to support such mea- sures as might be adopted for obtaining a speedy, just and honorable peace. About this time the news of the splendid victories of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, reached Washington, and Congress immediately passed a vote of thanks to General Taylor, and to the officers and men under his command ; Taylor at the same time was raised to the rank of major-general. 33. On the 23d of November, 1846, General Scott received instruc- tions from the Secretary of War to repair to Mexico, and to take the command of the forces there assembled. He immediately departed and reached the Rio Grande on the 1st of January, 1847. The first operation of General Scott, after reaching Mexico, was the reduction of the city of Vera Cruz. But finding the troops under his com Wliat is now said of tlie battle? What is said of the Mexican cavalsy ? On the right what look place.-' What is sail of this movement?— 31. What is said of the Americans Before the return of dav, what happened? What was the loss of the Mexican.*? Wha was the lo.-s on the side of the Americans? Name the officers who fell ? — 3-2, SftTtlj alter, &c, what had Congress authorized ? On the Kith of May, 1846, what did Mr. l'olh issue ? About this lime, what was received at Washington ? What was passed by ("on gross 5 — 33. On the 23d of November, what did General Scolt receive? W lien did In reach the Rio Grande? What was his first operation ? Finding his troops insufficient What did he do 1 UNITED STATES. 339 mand insufficient for that purpose, lie withdrew nearly all the regu- lar troops from the army under General Taylor. The rendezvous of the troops was at the island of Lobos, about one hundred and twen- ty live miles north of the city of Vera Cruz. On the 9th of March, the troops reached the shore, a little below the city, and on the 22d everything was in readiness to commence the siege. 34. Before commencing operations, however, General Scott sent a summons to the Mexican authorities to surrender the city, giving at the same time, a certain period to the inhabitants, who wished to retire, to depart, and to take with them what property they pleased. The summons to surrender being rejected, the American batteries im- mediately opened a destructive fire upon the city. The cannonading continued from this time, with some slight intermission, until the morning of the 26th. The scene is described as one of terrific gran- deur. The darkness of the night was illumined by the blazing shells and flaming rockets, as they poured destruction over the ill-fated city; while the roar of the cannon, the crash of the falling houses, and the shrieks of the wounded and dying, reechoed across the sur rounding country. 35. On the morning of the 26th, the Mexican governor of the city sent a messenger to General Scott, with overtures to surrender; and on the following day articles of capitulation were signed. The city and the famous castle of San Juan de Ulloa, together with up- wards of four thousand prisoners, about seven hundred cannon, and nearly ten thousand stand of small arms, fell into the hands of the Americans. 36. While victory was attending the American forces on land, their flag was equally triumphant on the ocean. The squadron under Commodores Sloat and Stockton was chiefly employed in subjugating California, while the squadron under Commodore Con- nor was chiefly engaged on the Gulf of Mexico. The cities of Tabasco and Frontiera were captured, without making much resist- ance. On the day after the surrender of Vera Cruz, an expedition was fitted out for the capture of Mvarado, under Commodore Perry, who despatched Lieutenant Hunter in advance with a small steamer. Hunter, having arrived off the bar, on the afternoon of the same day, opened a fire on the fort, which surrendered the next morning. He then proceeded up the river, captured ibuir schooners, and on the following day anchored off Flacoalpam, a city, at that time, con-, taining seven thousand inhabitants, which immediately surrendered. When Commodore Perry arrived a few days afterwards, he found these important places in the hands of the Americans. 37. After the reduction of Vera Cruz, General Scott commenced his march, with about six thousand men, towards the city of Mexico, Where did the troops assemble ? On the 9th of March, what took place ? And on the 'I'd ?— :M. Before commencing operations, what did Scott do? The summons being rejected, what followed? How long did the cannonading continue? What is said of the sewr**'— 35 On the morning of the 26th, what took place? What fell into the hands of the Americans?— 36. What did the squadron under Stoat and Stockton do? What cities were t «k»'H ? On the day after the surrender of Vera Cruz, what took place? What did [hiiU'T do ? What did 1'e.ry find:— 37. AP.er the reduction of Vera Cruz, what did Gene- ral Scott 'Jo ? 340 UNITED STATES. the capital of the republic. He proceeded with little opposition from the 8th to the 10th of April, when he was informed that a strong force of the enemy was in front, strongly fortified, on the heights of a mountain. No position could be more favorable to the Mexi- cans than that which they had selected. The road by which the Americans were obliged to ascend, lay among lofty hills, whose tops were strongly fortified and garrisoned. The highest of these peaks was Cerro Gordo, elevated more than a thousand feet, on which stood a battery that commanded the road below. The whole of these formidable entrenchments were defended by fifteen thousand men, under the command of Santa Anna in person. 38. On the 16th, General Scolt arrived in front of the Mexican works, with about six thousand under his command, but instead of advancing along the national road, a road was constructed which wound around the base of the mountain, to the right, directly in the rear of the enemy, and on the evening of the 17th orders for the battle were issued. During the night the Americans succeeded in dragging several pieces of their heavy cannon up several heights, and as soon as the morning dawned they commenced a tremendous fire upon the works of the enemy. An obstinate battle ensued, irj which the Mexicans were defeated, their fortifications were stormed and the stars and the stripes unfurled from the heights of Cerri Gordo. 39. Santa Jlnna escaped on one of his mules, leaving his carriage in the hands of the Americans. The loss of the Mexicans in this battle was exceeding great; one thousand two hundred were killed and wounded, and more than three thousand prisoners were taken ; of this number, two hundred and eighty-eight were officers, and five were generals ; besides five thousand stands of arms, and forty pieces of cannon fell into the hands of the Americans. The Ameri- cans lost sixty-three killed, and three hundred and sixty-eight wounded. 40. On the 19th of April, General Worth entered Jalapa, a city situated on the national road, about fifty miles from Vera Cruz, and at that time containing a population of thirteen thousand inhabi- tants. From this place Worth pushed forward, and on the 22d took possession of the citv and castle of Perote, from which the garrison had fled, leaving behind them sixty-four guns and mortars, eleven thousand and sixty-five cannon balls, fourteen thousand three hun- dred bombs, and five hundred muskets. On the 15th of May, Gen- eral Worth took possession of the city of Puebla, where General Scott remained for the greater part of the summer. Puebla is about sixty-six miles from the city of Mexico, and one hundred and eighty - six miles from Vera Cruz, and contained at that time about eighty thousand inhabitants. On the 16th, of what was he informed ? What is said of the position ? Of the road What was the highest of these ? By what were these entrenchments defended ?--38. On the 16th, what look place? What did he do? On the the 17th, what was done During the night, what did the Americans do ? What ensued ?— 39. What is said of Santa Anna? What was the loss of the Mexicans in this battle? What did ihc Americans >ose?— 4<». On the 19th of April, what took place? On the 22d>what did Worth do? And on the 15th of May? Where is Puebla' UNITED STATES. 34i 41. Ill the early part of August, General Scolt resumed his march towards the capital of the Mexican republic, having under his com- mand about nine thousand men. He met with but little interrup- tion until he reached Agolea, about fifteen miles from the city ol Mexico. From this place, the road leading to the city is a caus- way over a marsh, and the entrance to it commanded by a lofty hill, called El Pinnel, which had been strongly fortified. Batteries, mount- ing fifty guns, were placed along the sides of this causway, and the whole defended by twenty-five thousand men, under the command of Santa Anna. In order to avoid these fortifications, General Scolt ordered a road to be cut around Lake Chalco, by which General IVorlh reached San Augustine on the 17th, a town about nine miies south of the city of Mexico. A short distance from this place, on a high eminence, called Contreras, General Valencia was stationed with a strong force. 42. On the 19th, continual skirmishes took place, but during the night the rain fell in torrents, and caused a temporary suspension of arms. Early on the following morning, a furious charge was made on the enemy's works. A desperate conflict ensued for a few hours. The Mexicans at length wavered, and finally fled in confu- sion, leaving the heights of Contreras in the hands of the Americans. The loss of the Mexicans in this battle was severe; they left seven hundred of their companions dead upon the field of battle, and up- wards of eight hundred were taken prisoners; besides this, the Americans captured twenty-two pieces of cannon, a number ot pack mules, and a large quantity of munitions of war. The loss of the Americans amounted to seventy killed and wounded. 43. After this battle, our army passed rapidly towards Churubuseo. At this point the main body of the Mexican army, to the number cf twenty-seven thousand men, under the command of Santa Anna, lad taken up its position. At one o'clock, in the afternoon, the battle commenced. The combatants of both sides rushed to the contest, with the utmost ardor. The Americans, encouraged by the many battles which they had already gained, fought in the con- dence that another victory would attend their arms ; the Mexicans felt that the fate of war was against them, nevertheless they knew that if they failed on this occasion, their capital would fall into the hands of their enemies; therefore they resolved to make a last and desperate resistance. 44. As soon as the action became general the battle raged with the utmost fury; the roar of the musketry, and the thunder of the cannon shook the very hills, and vibrated for miles across the plains. The Americans advanced amidst a most terrific fire, and drove the enemy from their guns at the point of the bayonet. After the bat- 41 . What did General Scott do ? What is said of his progress ? From this place, what is said of the mad ? What were placed alon^ the sid' j s ? How was it defended f To avoid this, what did •- cott order? What was Blationed a short distance from this placer — 42. On the l9th, what too* place? And on the following morning ? What is said ol the Mexican-? What was the loss on both sides ?— 43 After this hattle, what did out army do? What is said of this place ? What is said of the combatants ? Of the Ameri- cans? Tht Mexicans ?— 44. What is said of the battle - Of the Americans' Of th* Mexicans? 342 UNITED STATES. tie had raged for aTout two hours the Mexicans were completely routed, and (led with precipitation to the walls of their capital. This battle was attended with heavy loss on both sides. The Mexicans lost nearly two thousand in killed, wounded and prisoners; while our loss amounted to one thousand and fifty- five in killed and wounded. Among the prisoners taken in this battle, was Sergeant Riley, with seventy others, who had deserted from the American lines. They were all tried by a court martial, and fifty of them, being found guilty of high treason, were hanged in the presence of both armies. The remainder, including their leader, were publicly whipped and branded. 45. On the 20th, a negotiation was opened between the two armies, which resulted in an armistice, providing for a cessation of hostilities, and an exchange of prisoners. During the armistice, Mr. Trist, the American commissioner, offered a proposition in behalf of his government, for settling the difficulties between the two countries. The proposition was rejected by Mexico, and Gene ral Scott, finding that the Mexicans were fortifying the city, iij direct violation of the armistice, declared it at an end on the 10th ol September, and made immediate arrangements for recommencing hostilities. 46. In the meantime the Mexicans had strongly entrenched them- selves at a place called Molino del Rey, or the King's Mill. The place was surrounded by a regular field-work, mounted by ten pieces of artillery, and the whole defended by ten thousand men. The for- tification, however, was stormed and taken by General Worth., at the head of three thousand seven hundred Americans. On the 13lh, the fortress of Chapultepec, which was considered the key to the Mexican lines, was taken by the Americans after a desperate conflict. 47. After the fall of Chapullepec, Generals Smith and Quitman marched rapidly on towards the city of Mexico, although they suf- fered severely from the enemy's batteries, stationed along the road , and on the 14th, the.y entered the city, driving the enemy before th visional Government of the Confederate States of America, and elected Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, President. 3. This final step, however, was not taken before an effort to con- ciliation had been made. The Southern Representatives in Congress were instructed to demand guarantees for the future, from the friends of the in-coming administration. Virginia, the "Mother of States," remained for some time as a voluntary mediator. But the secret determination of both parties made the result inevitable. The seced- ing states had, as a precautionary measure, taken possession of most of the Federal ports on their respective territory, as well as of all the public property. The United States, however, still retained posses- sion of several strong positions, such as Forties Monroe, in Virginia ; Fort Pickens, in Florida, and Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. An attempt having been made by the government to send supplies to the last-named fort, it was attacked on the 12lh of April, 1861, by the Confederate batteries of Charleston, commanded by Gen. Beauregard. The fort surrendered, and was evacuated on the 13th. This was the first gun fired, that was destined to be the signal of the most disastrous war that has ever raged in any country. Events are too recent to 1. What happened towards the close of Mr. Buchanan's administration' — 2. How did the Southern States receive the election of Mr. Lincoln! 1 What states seceded? Wh;it action did they take?— 3. What measures did the seced ing states adopt? What was the first, act of hostility? 348 UNITED STATES. allow the historian to write an impartial appreciation of their causes and results. We must be content to record facts simply as we find them, and let posterity judge. 4. The first act of President Lincoln, after the fall of Fort Sumter, was the issuing of a proclamation, calling for 75,000 volunteers to put down the rebellion. Little was it thought then, how many hundred thousands would be required to carry on the titanic struggle, during the four years it lasted. The first shock of arms took place on the soil of Virginia, on the 10th of June. Gen. B. P. Butler having started from Newport News Avith a column of 5,000 infantry, to march on Yorktown, found 1,200 Confederates, under General (then Colonel) Magruder, intrenched at a church called Great Bethel. The advance of the Federals, led by Colonel Winthrop, charged the breastworks in gallant style, but were repulsed with great slaughter. They returned to Newport. On the 21st of July, was fought the first grand battle, made famous under the name of Battle of Manassas. The Federals, under General McDowell, met tne Confederates under Generals Beauregard and Johnston, near a stream called Bull Run. The result was the total route of the Union army, which fell back in disorder upon Washington. The. Confederates, it is said, could have taken the Capital if they had pursued the enemy, but they lacked cavalry, and remained content with the possession of the field of battle, thereby reaping lie fruits from their victory. On the 21st of September, the battle of Ball's Bluff (Virginia) was fought. The Union forces, under General Banks, were defeated by the Confede- rates, under Colonel Jenifer. The Federal General Baker was killed whilst gallantly heading his division. 5. During the remainder of the year 1861, little fighting was done; but the Federal government was preparing earnestly for the cam- paign of 1862. The Federals opened this campaign with 450,000, operating simultaneously in Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina and Kentucky. The Confederates do not seem to have been fully awake to the magnitude of the task before them, although their armies were swelled by enthusiastic volunteers during the first year. These were twelve-month troops, and their time was nearly out, when their gov- ernment passed the Conscription Bill, calling to arms all men under thirty-five years of age. A series of disasters to the Southern arms inaugurated the year 1862. General Grant attacked Fort Donelson, n the Cumberland river, and took it, after four days siege; the Con- federate General, Buckne'r, surrendering with the garrison. In April following, Grant being at Pittsburg Landing with his army, awaiting the arrival of General Buell's corps, was suddenly attacked by the Confederates, under Generals Beauregard and Albert Sidney Johns- ton. The Southerners had made a forced march to surprise the enemy before the arrival of the expected reinforcements, and very nearly suc- ceeded in the daring attempt, for they took part of the Federal camp, 4. What was Mr. Lincoln's first act? Where did the first shock of arms lake place ? With what result? What was the first great battle of the war ? What bat- tle was next fought? — 5. What was the situation during the first year of the war? What success was gained by General Grant in 18C2? Wiiat occurred at Pittsburg; Landing? UNITED STATES. 349 many cannon, and prisoners ; but night put, temporarily, an end to the conflict, and during the night General Buell arrived. The tables were turned, when the battle re-commenced next morning; the Con- federate forces, in their turn, were inferior in number, and worn with the fatigue of the previous day. They were compelled to abandon the field, after losing some of the artillery taken in the first battle. The most stubborn valor was evinced in both rights, and the slaughter on both sides was terrific. The Confederates had to mourn the loss of one of their best generals, Albert Sidney Johnston. These battles are known as the first and second battle of Shiloh. 6. A few days after this disaster, the Confederacy received another fatal blow. Commodore Farragut's fleet having succeeded in passing the forts at the mouth of the Mississippi, compelled the surrender of New Orleans, evacuated by General Lovell. The city was unde- fended, and General Butler, who arrived soon after the fleet, took quiet possession. By the fall of this important city, the Confederacy lost all hopes of controlling influence in the West, although they still prevented the free navigation of the Mississippi. 7. Whilst these events were transpiring in the South-west, a Fed- eral army of 120.000, under General McClellan, was directed upon Richmond, (Virginia,) which had been made the capital of the Con- federacy. This army, concentrated at Fortress Monroe, took up its march across the Peninsula. The first obstacle they met was at the old city of Yorktown, famous in history as the place where Lord Corn- wallis surrendered his army to Washington. This point had been strongly fortified by General Magruder, and although he had but a small garrison, the imposing aspect of the works arrested General McClellan, when he arrived on the 4th of April, and gave time for the army of Virginia, under General Jos. Johnston, to be sent hur- riedly to Yorktown. McClellan commenced siege operations, and labored during the whole month of April ; but just as he was ready for a general assault, Johnston evacuated Yorktown, (May 3d.) The invading army lost no time in pursuing the Confederate columns, and overtook them near Williamsburg. From that place to Richmond, the march was marked by a number of partial engagements, Johns- ton's policy seeming to have been to weaken the Federal army, by strategic movements calculated to delay them near the noxious swamps of the Chickahominy. At last, General McClellan arrived almost in sight of Richmond, and then commenced the series of bloody conflicts known as the "seven days' fights." Robert E. Lee had succeeded Johnston in command, the latter having been badly wounded, and now, the Confederates took the offensive. Stonewall Jackson's corps, secretly recalled from north-western Virginia, fell on McClellan's rear, and the pursuing army now became the pursued ; General McClellan trying to reach the James river, where to establish Relate the two battles of Shiloh? — G. What happened a few days later? What was the consequence, to the Confederates, of the fall of New Orleans? — 7. What general marched on Richmond? What road did he take? What obstacle did lie meet'.' What about the siege of Yorktown? How. was the retreat cf the Con- federates conducted? What general took commaud of the Southern army? What occurred before Richmond Y 30 350 UNITED STATES. a new base of operations, and General Lee endeavoring to cut him off. At last, General McClellan reached a stong position at Malvern Hill, and saved the remnant of his once fine army, for the continual losses, not merely by battle, but from disease, had terribly reduced its ranks. 8. The Confederates now sought to transfer the war to Northern soil. Lee drove back General Pope, and won the second battle of Manassas, (or Bull Run,) on the 30th of August. He entered Mary- land, and was opposed by McClellan at Antietam, September 17th. This dreadful battle was a Federal success, and Lee fell back, on the following night, across the Potomac. The slaughter on both sides was horrible. In November, General Burnside took command of the Federal army, and commenced another march on Richmond. He met Lee at Fredericksburg, (December 18th,) and was led on to attack the Confederate works near the city. Received by a fearful fire of infantry and artillery, his army was badly cut up, and compelled to evacuate Fredericksburg. During the same month, the Confederates suffered a great reverse in Tennessee in the loss of the battle of Mur- free.sboro. The Union forces were commanded by General Rose- crans, the Confederates by General Bragg. 9. No important movements took place until the ensuing spring, when General Hooker was put in command of the Federal army of the Potomac. He met General Lee on the 3d of May, 1863, at Chancellorsville, on ground of his own choosing, and gave him bat- tle. The Federals were driven back across the Rappahannock, the Confederates retaining the dearly-bought field. This victory was overshadowed by the deepest gloom, for, Stonewall Jackson, one of the most beloved Southern leaders, was killed, accidentally, after the battle, by the fire of his own pickets, who., in the darkness, mistook him for the enemy. 10. The Confederates, struggling against dreadful odds, their ports blockaded, their soil overrun and devastated, resolved to make a supreme effort to transfer the scene of woe to Northern soil. To this effect, General Lee once more crossed the Potomac, and marched north- ward, through Maryland and Pennsylvania. At Gettysburg, in the latter State, he met the Federals, under General Meade. There was fought the most terrific battle of the war. It commenced on the morning of the 1st of July, and ended on the evening of the 3d. During these three days' carnage, victory seemed to waver between the contending armies; finally, General Lee, having exhausted his ammunition, was compelled to withdraw from the conflict; he had lost 30,000 men in killed, prisoners and stragglers. The Federals, also, had suffered to such an extent that they did not molest the retir- ing foe. "Where did General McClellan save his army? — 8. What generals commanded at the second battle of Manassas ? When was it fought? What about the battle of Antietam ? The battle of Fredericksburg? What battle was fought in Tennessel 9. What great buttle was fought in May, 1803? With what success? What great general did the Confederates lose? — 10. What was the condition of the Confede- -ates after the battle of Chancellorsville? What did they resolve? What great oattle was fought in Pennsylvania? With what result? UNITED STATES. 351 11. The adverse fortune which persecuted the Confederate arms in Virginia, was dealinsr them, at the same time, a crushing blow on the Mississippi river. The Southerners had fortified Vicksburg (Miss.) and Port Hudson, (Louisiana,) thus shutting the navigation of the Mississippi and guarding the mouth of Red river, a valuable channel of communication with the trans-Mississippi department, whence they derived their best source of supplies. An expedition was gotten up in New Orleans, against Port Hudson, by the combined army and fleet of General Banks and Commodore Farragut, whilst General Grant moved on Vicksburg*. On the 14th of March, General Banks' advance engaged the Confederate pickets near Port Hudson ; and on the same night, at 11 o'clock, Commodore Farragm's fleet attacked the river defences. The Commodore's flag ship, Hartford, with another vessel, the Albatross, lashed to it, succeeded in passing the batteries under cover of the darkness, but the other vessels, severely crippled, had to renounce the attempt and to float down the stream. The steam frigate Mississippi, running aground opposite the batteries, was set on fire and burned to the water's edge. General Banks did not attack, but moved rapidly back to Baton Rouge, whence he crossed, some time later, into western Louisiana, overran that coun- try, and re-crossed the Mississippi above Port Hudson. During the intervening period, the greater part of the garrison was ordered off to strengthen General Pemberton's army, which defended the approaches to Vicksburg, and when the events about to be recorded took place, in May, the garrison of Port Hudson was reduced to about 5,000 men, under General Frank Gardner. On the 8ih of that month, the fleet came in view, and took a position some four miles below the town. Six mortar boats and five vessels of war commenced the bom- bardment, which was to last until the end of the siege. On the 21st, General Banks completed the investment of Port Hudson. 12. Despatches now reached the Confederate commander, ordering the evacuation of Port Hudson; but it was too late. A council of war, summoned by the commander, took the following points in con- sideration : That General Grant, with superior forces, was pressing Pemberton in Vicksburg; that the junction of Banks' 30,000 men with Grant's 100,000 would make the fall of Vicksburg certain ; that the little garrison of Port Hudson, although hopeless of final success, could serve more effectually the Confederacy, by detaining General Banks, than by cutting their way through his forces. The officers resolved to accomplish the sacrifice, and the garrison, in pursuance of that resolution, held the place forty-eight days. Meanwhile, defeated at Black river, General Pemberton had retired into Vicksburg with 30,000 men. But, despairing of receiving aid from General Johnston, the department commander, he surrendered Vicksburg on the 4th of July (1863.) The astounding news reached Port Hudson on the 8th, and it having been officially communicated to General Gardner by 11. How about the state of affairs at that time, on the Mississippi river? Describe the naval attack? Where did General Banks operate aftervrards? How was Port Hudson invested ? — 12. Why did the garrison resolve to defend the place? What were, meanwhile, General Pemberton's movements? What Mas the fate of Vicksburg? Of Port Hudson? 352 UNITED STATES. Genera. Banks, the former considered the further effusion of blood as unnecessary, and surrendered, with all the honors of war, on the 9th of July. There remained of the garrison but two thousand men fit for duty ; their ammunition was exhausted, three-fourths of their guns dismounted, and they had been living for the past three weeks on half a pound of mule meat and three ears of corn daily to each man. On the very night of the 8th, after the terms of capitulation had been agreed upon, General Banks sent in 4,000 rations to the famished garrison. 13. The resources of the South, both as to men and supplies, were now nearly exhausted. New levies were made, and boys left their college books to take their place by the side of gray-headed old men ; but it was only to protract the struggle in a doomed cause. The North, with her large population and the flow of immigration from Europe, kept swelling the ranks of her armies, whilst, with her rich granaries, her arsenals and manufactures, and the ports of the whole world opened to her, she had inexhaustible sources of supplies. In 1864, she had 600,000 men in the field. General Sherman's army of Tennessee took up his march from Chattanooga on Atlanta (Georgia,) the great centre of railroad communication in the South; General Sigel occupied the Shenandoah valley, while two armies marched on Richmond and Petersburg, the key to its approach. Although Gen- eral-Johnston disputed the ground inch by inch, he could not stay General Sherman's triumphant march through the very heart of the Confederacy. His successor, General Hood, tried to divert the atten- tion of Sherman, by moving into Tennessee; but the wily Federal commander did not change his plans. Hood nearly lost his little army in an attack on Franklin. Meanwhile, Sherman did not winter at Atlanta, as was supposed to be his intention, but took up his march in the direction of the Atlantic coast, destroying the railroads, and burning the mills and the crops. He took Savannah, caused the evacuation of Charleston, the proud city which had held for more than a year against fleet and army, overran the two Carolinas, leaving ruins and devastation behind him, and thus cut off the last resources of supplies for Lee's army. 14. General Grant, now Lieutenant-General, in supreme command of the armies of the United States, had steadily pursued his plan of operations against Richmond. Battles had followed battles, with alternate success ; but whilst the Confederate forces were being slowly reduced, the Federal army kept increasing, by continual reinforce- ments. The bloody battle of Five Forks, fought on the 1st of April, decided the result. Lee ordered the evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg, and commenced retreating, pursued by Grant. On the 9th of April, 1865, the shattered remnants of the army of Virginia surrendered. This was the virtual ending of the war; the last hopes of the Confederacy had long been centered in that army, and where- 13. What was the respective condition of the two contending parties at the close of 1863? With what, forces did the North open the campaign of ISO I, and what disposition was made of them? Describe Sherman's campaign and its results? 14. What was General Grant doing, meanwhile? What battle hastened the end of the war? What happened on the 9th of April, 1S05? What were the imme- diate consequences of the surrender? THE MEXICAN WAR. 353 ever the news of its surrender reached the Confederate commanders, they ceased all resistance and laid down their arms. Officers and men were paroled and disbanded, in accordance with the terms ot General Lee's surrender. 15. Almost simultaneously with the exciting news of the return of peace, a thrill of horror was sent throughout the land by 'lie report of the assassination of President Lincoln, shot in Ford's Theatre, "Washington. Mr. Lincoln had recently been re-elected for another term ; Vice-President Andrew Johnson was inaugurated President. Jefferson Davis, the President of the Southern Confederacy, was made prisoner, soon after the surrender, and taken to Fortress Mon- roe, where he was held in captivity until the spring of 1867, when he was brought into court and admitted to bail. 16. The most important result of the war has been the abolishment of slavery throughout the hitherto slaveholding slates. The immense resources of the country have been developed and made known to the world. On the other hand, the government has become burthened with a heavy debt, and the Southern States, whose wealth flowed so freely into the national treasury, are desolated and impoverished. Thousands from North and South have perished, and many are the homes made desolate, many the hearts broken by sorrow. War has left its mark on this once prosperous and happy land. The work of reconstruction has been progressing slowly in these two past years, but the wounds are still bleeding, and can only be healed bv the hand of Time. 17. The most important event, since the close of the war, has been the acquisition made by the United States, of the vast extent of country hitherto known as Russian America. THE MEXICAN WAR. European Expedition against Mexico ; the victorious French in the Capital; the Empire established ; Withdrawal of the French ; Suc- cess of the Liberals; a Military Judas; Execution of Emperor Maximilian. 1. The Republic of Mexico may be called the land of revolutions. Since that unfortunate country achieved its independence, it has been in an almost continual state of anarchy. There can be no national prosperity where there is no stability in the government, no security to be found under the law ; and internai dissensions and strife have so 15. What isvent crime was perpetrated in Washington? Who succeeded Mr. Lincoln ? What was the fate of Mr. Davis? — 16. What are the important results of the war?— 17. What important transaction has taken place since the war? 1. What is said about Mexico? 30* 354 THE MEXICAN WAR. paralyzed the vast resources of Mexico, that, with her immense area of rich soil, her inexhaustible mines and her numerous seaports, she occupies but an insignilicant place among the nations of the world. She has dropped to the rear of civilization, and her people, ignorant and debased, evince the barbarous instincts of the savage under the garb of Christianity. 2. In 1861, Benito Juarez, President of the Republic, involved his country into a foreign war, by various arbitrary measures, such as annulling or suspending obligations contracted by the government in Europe, despoiling resident foreigners, and also, by the unjust and illegal spoliation of the church property. France, England and Spain resolved to act jointly in obtaining satisfaction for the common wrong, and sent a fleet to Mexico. The expedition was successful, and the allies gained a footing en the Eastern coasts of Mexico ; but some disagreement having arisen among them, England and Spain then withdrew their vessels, and the French were left alone to carry on the war. 3. The emperor Napoleon conceived the grand idea of regenerating a nation. The moment was opportune; the United States who w r ould have seen with a jealous eye any attempt of a European power to gain influence on the American continent, were plunged into an all-absorbing civil war. He sent an army to Mexico, under com- mand of General Forey, an officer of eminent merit. The French opened the campaign with their usual impetuosity and gained a series of brilliant victories. In June, 1863, General Forey made his trium- phant entry into the city of Mexico. The notables of the capital, representing mostly the conservative party, assembled at the invita tion of the French general, and voted for an imperial form of govern- ment as the most conducive to the prosperity and tranquility of their country. They then drew up an address offering the imperial crown to the archduke Maximilian, brother of Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria, and son-in-law of the king of Belgium, a prince of amiable qualities and sterling worth, connected by the ties of consanguinity with nearly all the crowned heads of Europe. 4. A deputation was immediately sent to Europe, on a French vessel of war, to make the formal offer of the crown to Prince Maxi- milian. He demanded time to consider, and required the vote of the Mexican people to be taken, as he would not become their ruler against their wish. After the necessary delay, a second deputation was sent, which gave Maximilian all the guarantees he desired. He renounced formally all his rights to the succession of the crown of Austria, and embarked with his amiable consort, the Princess Car- lotta. The imperial pair entered the city of Mexico in May, 1864, amidst the acclamations of the people. By a prior agreement the emperor was to have a foreign legion composed of Austrians and Belgians, and France had pledged herself to leave her army in Mexico lor two years longer. 2. What happened in 1861? — 3. What was the success of the French? What determination did the notables of Mexico take? — i. Upon what conditions did Maximilian accept the crown ? What followed ? THE MEXICAN WAR. 355 5. The empire had every prospect of success. The liberals had been repeatedly vanquished, and Juarez had retired in the mountains. The new emperor immediately turned his attention to developing the resources of the country, and promoting the welfare of his subjects. Notwithstanding the continuation of hostilities, an era of prosperity seemed to dawn on Mexico; it is a stated fact that at no time there had been so much land in cultivation, so many manufactures in suc- cessful operation, and so many public works in execution, as during the years 1865 and 1866. Maximilian adopted several wise mea- sures, but he made a fatal mistake; he recognized the validity of Bales of church property, made by order of the former government, and this measure alienated from him the majority of the conser- vative or church party, without gaining, as he probably had hoped, the sympathies of the liberals. He did not understand the Mexican people. 6. Meanwhile, ihe time had come for the withdrawal of the French Iroops. The civil war in the United States had ceased, and the gov- ernment of this country demanded of France the fulfilment of her agreement and the departure of her troops. The Mexican war had never been popular with the mass of the French people; the French Chambers had voted, it is true, the necessary appropriation, in 1863, but only after a violent debate, in which Mr. Berryer, the great leader of the opposition, proclaimed "that if the French arms helped to place Maximilian on the throne, the honor of France would be pledged to maintain him there at all cost and all risk." Napoleon leit that he would not be supported, and he withdrew the French troops. Maximilian was left alone, with a divided people, to con- tinue the struggle against the liberals, now strengthened by the moral support of the United States. He refused to renounce the crown which had been voluntarily given to him, and placed himself at the head of his army. The struggle continued, with alternate success and defeat, until one of the imperial generals, a Mexican named Lopez, whom Maximilian had honored with his entire confidence and loaded with favors, vilely betrayed his master. This modern Iscariot sold lor gold the stronghold that made the principal security of the imperial army, and Maximilian compelled to surrender, was taken prisoner at Queretaro. He was tried, together with three of his gene- rals, and to the horror of the civilized world, and, against the rules of warfare as well as of humanity, was sentenced to be shot, and was executed. 7. Mexico is once more a republic. The reign of anarchy has already recommenced, and before these lines appear in print, some successful partizan may have replaced Juarez in the Presidential chair. Unless, indeed, the last prayer of the generous Maximilian was heard, when he said that "he hoped his blood might regenerate Mexico and secure her future happiness." 5. What were the prospects of the new empire? Say what good Maximilian did, and what fault "tie committed? — (J. What caused the withdrawal of the French troops? What did Maximilian do, when the French withdrew? By whom was he betrayed? What was his late' — 7. What is the present condition ot Mexico? What was Maximilian's last prayer? REVOLUTIONS AND WARS IN EUROPE. a. d. 1848-1867. SECTION I. France. — Insurrection in Paris; Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon; the Empire established; Crimean war. 1. For some time previously to the year 1848, various incidents occurred to give indications of the aporoaching storm, which was to convulse the whole continent of Europe. The flame of revolution had already burst forth in Italy and Germany, and was not long in communicating its effects to the Parisian populace. In the early part of January, 1848, an open demonstration was made in favor of reform, and reform banquets were arranged to take place in various cities, especially in Paris. The government not only prohibited these reform festivals, but the king in a speech from the throne, censured in severe terms the whole movement as tending to excite blind and hos- tile passions. These measures only tended to exasperate the minds of the people. They paraded the streets in crowds, with the cry of reform, and "down with Guizot," the Minister of Foreign Affairs. One of these processions, on the night of the 23d of February, 1848, halted in front of the foreign office, and while in front of this building, a gun was discharged, and the military posted there thinking them- selves attacked, fired upon the crowd, and fifty-two persons fell, either killed or wounded. 2. This was a signal for an open revolt. The news spread quickly through Paris; the alarm-bell was sounded, and in a few hours the whole city was in the wildest state of excitement. The people flew to arms, and were joined by the National Guard. The King, Louis Philippe, alarmed at this sudden change of affairs, and faring for his own safety, immediately abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris, and fled with his wife to England, where he was shortly afterwards joined by the other members of his family. 3. Upon the flight of the King, the monarchy was abolished, and a republican form of government proclaimed. As soon as the news of the success of the insurrection reached England, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte hastened to Paris, and addressed a few lines to Lamartine, then the head of the provisional government, announcing his arrival, and his willingness to place himself under the banner of the republic. To this letter the government replied by ordering him to quit Paris within twenty-four hours, and he again quietly withdrew to England. A few months afterwards, Louis Napoleon was elected to the Con- stituent Assembly from the department of Seine, by a large majority, and after some opposition, took his seat in that body. 4. In the meantime an insurrection broke out in Paris against the new government. It was instigated by the Socialist leaders, who 1. Previously to the year 1848, what occurred? Where had the flame hurst forth? To what did these measures tend? What took place on February 23d, 1848? — 2. What followed? What became of the king? — 3. What followed the flight of the king? Who hastened to Paris? To this letter what answer was given? What happened a few months after this? — 4. In the meantime, what nappened in Paris'? 13y whom was it instigated ? EUROPE. 357 wished to destroy every distinction of rank and fortune, and aimed at elevating themselves to power, and enriching themselves by plunder- ing their more wealthy neighbors. The streets were barricaded and the most formidable preparations were made to resist the government forces. Alarmed at the bold determination of the insurgents, the National Assembly invested General Cavaignac with dictatorial power, and intrusted to him the suppression of the revolt. After a sanguinary conflict, which lasted three days, the government triumphed; the barricades were carried, and the rebels dispersed. This, however, was not accomplished without a serious sacrifice of life and destruc- tion of property. Among the victims who fell on the occasion, none were more deeply lamented tlmn M. Affre, Archbishop of Paris. During the contest, this illustrious man approached the barricades, with a view of soothing the angry feelings of the combatants. His presence inspired respect, and both parties for a short time ceased from the conflict. While he was holding a conference with the insurgents, he received a mortal wound, and was borne in a dying state from the barricades. 5. As soon as order was restored, an election for president took place. There were no less than six candidates, the most prominent of whom were Louis Napoleon, General Cavaignac, and L;imanine; the first named, however, was elected by a large majority over all his competitors. Napoleon entered on the duties of his office of president with energy, and soon succeeded in giving stability to the govern- ment. As his term of office drew towards a close, a formidable con- spiracy was entered into, chiefly by the members of the Assembly, having for its object the overthrow of the existing government, and the arrest and imprisonment of the president. Louis Napoleon, how- ever, being made aware of the movement, anticipated their designs by seizing on the government and dissolving the National Assembly. He then appealed to the people, who approved of his coup d'etat, and invested him with the supreme sovereignty, by a vote of nearly seven millions of a majority over all opposition. Notwithstanding Napo- leon Ill.'s assertion in 1852, "fr empire c' est la paix," France has sustained several wars since the establishment of the empire; but they have been of comparatively short duration, and have always been terminated with glory to the French arms. 6. In 1853, the Czar Nicholas, thinking the moment opportune for eairying out his long-cherished scheme of aggrandizement at the expense of Turkey, declared war against that power and invaded the Danubian Provinces. The flimsy pretext for this aggressive measure was of protecting the Greek Christians persecuted by the Turks, although they enjoyed, in reality, more, religious liberty than did the Catholic Poles, in ihe Czar's own dominions. France and England formed an alliance with the Sultan, and declared war against Russia, in 1854. The allied powers soon drove the Russians from the Dan- Who was clothed with dictatorial power? How was the insurrection sup- pressed? Who were among the victims? — 5. Who were the candidates for the presidency, and who was elected? What conspiracy was entered into, and how did Napoleon act ? — 6. What did the Czar Nicholas, in 1853? What powers allied themselves against Russia? What did the allies ? 358 EUROPE. ubian Provinces; but they aimed to greater results, and they resolved to strike a blow that would check forever Russia's ambitious schemes. 7. With this view, the combined forces of England, France and Turkey, numbering 60,000 men, landed at Eupatoria on the 4th of September, 1854, and marched on the Russian stronghold, Sevasto- pol. On the 20th they encountered the enemy, and defeated him in the bloody battle of Alma. They then pushed vigorously their ope- rations against Sebastopol, upon which the attention of the civilized world was to be drawn for nearly a year, by the heroic daring of the besiegers and the stubborn defence of the besieged. The entrance of the harbor having been obstructed by the Russians by sinking several battle-ships and frigates, the allies resolved to take the place by land, and on the 17ih of October, they commenced the bombardment with 200 pieces of heavy artillery. This siege may be called one continued batt'e, for, day and night the work of bloodshed and destruction was carried on with ever renewed vigor. Reinforcements were continu- ally arriving, and in January, 1855, the allied army was strengthened by a corps from Sardinia. The forts at the entrance of the harbor had been silenced or blown up by the French and English fleets ; ihe doomed city itself was a pile of ruins, when the general assault was given, September 8th, 1855. The French finally succeeded in carry- ing by storm the famous tower, MalakolT, and Sebastopol was now untenable. The Russian commander, Prince GortschakoiT, after a fruitless attempt to intrench himself in the city and protract the defence, sank his fleet, blew up the fortifications and evacuated the place. Sebastopol was taken. 8. During the siege, the Czar Nicholas died, it is said of a broken heart at the failure of his plans. He was succeeded by his son, Alex- ander II., the present Czar, who, after the fall of Sebastopol, agreed upon an armistice. Peace was finally concluded, and by the treaty sinned at Paris in March, 1856, Russia renounced her protectorate over the Danubian Provinces; the navigation of the Danube was declared free, and the Black Sea neutral water, wherein no vessel of war can navigate. Turkey, on the other side, solemnly confirmed all the privileges heretolbre granted her Christian subjects. Russia's power, if not her desire to oppress Turkey, was effectually paralyzed. 9. Such is the brief outline of the bloody conflict known as the " Crimean War," and during which the world saw the extraordinary spectacle of the banners of the Cross and the Crescent floating side by side, and the two old enemies, France and England, fighting in one common cause. Truly, the designs of an all-wise Providence are impenetrable. 10. The year 1857 saw England and France again united in a war against the emperor of China, to obtain redress for insults proffered to their Hags, and to punish the Chinese for cruelties perpetrated upon 7. Where did they land in September, 1854? What great battle was fought? What place did they besiege? — 8. Give an account of the siege of Sebastopol ? What became of the Czar Nicholas? Who succeeded him? When was peace concluded? What were the conditions of the treaty? — 9. What singular spec* sacie was presented by the Crimean war? — 10. What expedition did France and England undertake in 1S&>7? Why? Europe. 359 *he ,v - missionaries. The allies took Canton, and advanced on Pekin so promptly that the Chinese emperor hastened to sign a treaty of peace; but, no sooner relieved from the presence of his enemies, lie broke his faith and persecuted the Christians anew. Another expe- dition was sent to China, and the victorious army of the allies entered Pekin in October, 18G0. A new treaty of peace was then signed, far more advamageous to the western powers than that of 1858 ; ihey Becured the right of having an ambassador at Pekin; the Christians were guaranteed the free exercise of their religion, eight Chinese ports were opened to European Commerce, and, finally, France and Eng- land received each a war indemnity of 00,000 francs. 11. Another and similar expedition to Cochin-China was under- taken, in 1858, by France and Spain, the emperor of Annam having given them the same grounds of offence as that of China. The allies captured Tourane and Saigon, and suspended operations for a time, Spain having accepted a pecuniary compensation, and withdrawn from the conflict. But France resumed active hostilities in 1862, and compelled the emperor of Annam to recognize the rights of the Chris- tians, to pay her an indemnity and cede her three provinces, and to open three ports in Tonkin to commerce. 12. Simultaneously with these minor expeditions, France became involved in another continental war. A quarrel had sprung up between her ally, Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, and the emperor of Austria. The latter having taken alarm at warlike pre- parations that were in progress in Sardinia, protested against them; and being unheeded, ordered his army in the Lombardo- Venetian provinces to cross the Tessino and invade the Sardinian territory. This act of hostility caused Napoleon to send immediately a French army into Italy. A short but bloody war ensued. On the 4th of June, 1859, the contending armies fought the celebrated battle of Magenta, which was gained by the French. On the 24th it was followed by the still bloodier battle of Solferino, which lasted sixteen h'-urs. Napoleon and Francis Joseph were in command of their respective armies, and their presence seemed to instill new fury m the combatants. Finally, the Austrians having suffered terrible looses', retreated across the Mincio, leaving the French in possession of the baltlelield. 13. A truce followed. The two emperors had a personal interview at Villa-franca, and agreed upon the basis of a treaty of peace, which was finally concluded at Zurich. Sardinia obtained Lombardy, and France had for her share Savoy and the county of Nice. The active part taken by France in Mexican affairs (1863-1866) has already been described in a preceding chapter. This war was one of the grrvu st mistakes of Napoleon, for it has cost France much blood and treasure, and none of the objects for which it has been undertaken have beru realized. What caused a renewal of hostilities? IIo.v did the war end? — 11. Give an account of the expedition to Cochin-Chin*? — 12. In whet ather war did Hrauce become involved.' How did Austria, Act? What were the Uro principal Inutles fought? Witii wiiat result? — U. What followed'! Upou what conditions was peace made ? 360 EUROPE. SECTION II. The Revolt in Hungary; Insurrection in Vienna; War in the North of Italy ; Revolution in Rome; Flight of the Pope; the Roman Republic; the Pope Restored. 1. The news of the Paris revolution, and the overthrow of Louis Philippe, was the signal for similar outhreaks in almost every capi tal in Europe. The smaller States of Germany, Baden, Wirtera- berg, and Saxony, were first convulsed, and many concessions and reforms wrung from the ruling authorities. Neither was the Austrian empire saved from the universal contagion. In March, 1S48, a violent insurrection broke out in Vienna, and so great was its violence, that the emperor with his court retired to Innspruck leaving for a time his capital in the hands of the insurgents. But scarcely was this outbrake suppressed, when a new revolution broke out in Hungary. This new revolt was headed by the Magyars, the predominant race of the country, who aimed at rendering the nation independent of Austria, but the movement was opposed by the Croats, Slavonians, Servians, and other races of Hungary. The struggle was fierce and obstinate, and Austria finding herself un- able to suppress the Hungarian revolt, owing to the distracted state of the empire, applied for assistance to Russia, which was readily granted. In the meantime, the Diet of Debrerzin declared the independence of Hungary, and established a provisional gov- ernment under the direction of Kossuth. Tiie hostile armies now entered the country at several points, and the insurrection was brought to a speedy termination. Gdrgey, the Hungarian general, surrendered to the Russians at Vilagos, and Kossuth fled to Turkey, and subsequently visited the United Slates. 2. The flame of insurrection also swept over Rome and the north of Italy. In Milan and Venice the Austrian garrisons were driven out, and the standard of independence raised throughout the whole of Lombardy. This success inspired Charles Albert, King of Sar- dinia, with the hope of making himself master of the Lombard- Venetian kinrJom, and he accordingly declared war against Aus- tria. In this he was joined by numerous Italian volunteers, and for a brief period success attended his arms. The scale, however, was soon changed. In the summer of 1848, the Austrian field marshal, Radetski, then in the eighty-sixth year of his age, sig nally defeated him at Custozza. The King of Sardinia fled during the night into his own dominions, and a truce was concluded with the victors. Urged on by the popular leaders, and burning with the desire to obliterate the dishonor of the late defeat, Charles Albert again resolved to try the fortune of arms. Accordingly in the fol- lowing spring, he again crossed the Austrian boundaries. He was 1. What is eaid of the news of the Paris revolution? Tn March, what took place in Vienna? By whom whs the new revolt in Hungary headed? In the me mtime, what Jill the Diet of Debreczin do? What To I owed ?— 1. What took place in Milan and Venice? Who declared war against Austria? By whom was he defeated? Urged bj Jie popular leaders what did he again try ? EUROPE. 361 met by Radetski at Vercelli, and signally defeated. He was ajrain routed on the following day at Novara, with the loss of upwards oi fifteen thousand men. This ended the war. Radetski returned in triumph to Milan after an absence of only eleven days. Charles Albert, after the second defeat, hastily abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel, fled into Switzerland, and thence into Spain, where he shortly afterwards died. 3. In the meantime Rome was the scene of the most flagrant outrages and disorders. On the death of Gregory XVI, the choice of the conclave fell upon Cardinal Ferreti, who assumed the name of Pius IX. This illustrious Pontiff, from the very commencement of his reign, gave proofs of a liberal and enlightened policy, by grant- ing to the people every reform consistent with their happiness and the well being of the State. At first his generous acts were received with enthusiasm, and the name of Pius IX was every where hailed with applause. Rome, however, had been for some time previously the centre of a secret political organization, which had for its ulti- mate object the destruction both of the altar and the throne. The leaders of this body, at that time, were Mazzini, Storbini, and Gal- letti, men of talents and energy, but of the most abandoned princi- ples. They at first strongly "urged the Pontiff to join in the war against Austria, and on his refusal to comply with their request, they cunningly threw the blame on the Jesuits, and held them up to the people as the friends of Austria, and the enemies to Italian inde- pendence. The " blacks," as they were termed, were everywhere denounced, and so great was the popular feeling, thus unjustly excited against them, that the zealous followers of St. Ignatius could not with safety any longer appear in public, and were finally expelled from the Papal dominions. 4. Encouraged by this success, they next directed their attacks against the Cardinals. It was the determination of the revolution- ary leaders from the beginning to destroy this order, and thereby remove from the Pope his most faithful counsellors. Under various preiences they assembled the people, and inflamed their minds against the Auslrians with whom they pretended the Cardinals had entered into a league for the purpose of delivering Rome into tneir hands and crushing forever the hopes of Italian independence. At the same time they professed the utmost loyalty to the Pope, but cun- ningly represented the Cardinals as restraining his Holiness in his measures of reform, and of preventing him joining in the war against Austria, as they had formerly done in regard to the Jesuits. From this time forward the cry of "'Death to the Cardinals " was heard in every part of Rome. 5. With the view of conciliating the popular leaders, the Pope, in the fall of 1848, appointed as his prime minister, Count Rossi, a statesman of liberal views, a friend of nationality, but a man of Where was Charles Albert again defeated f What became of him ?-3. [lithe mean. time, what was the condition of Rome? Who succeeded OtC2<>ry X VI ? At iir,i how were his crenerous acts hailed ? Who were ihe leaders of the secret societies? At firs! what did they urae ? Against whom did they excite the indignation < t the poople '—4, Agaiust whom did they next direct their attacks :-5. Who was appoint! i prune ruuvuter i 31 362 EUROPE. energy and determination. The Count entered on the duties of his office by the adoption of the most vigorous measures for the restora- tion of order, and for the suppression of the lawless proceedings which had for some time disgraced the city. Alarmed at his bold- ness, the conspirators resolved to remove him by assassination, which they did in the most brutal manner on the steps of the Senate chamber. Immediately after the death of the minister, and while the city was still in the utmost excitement on account of the horrid deed, the conspirators formed themselves into a Committee of Public Safety, assumed the command of the military forces, and the control of the entire municipal authorities. They then drew up a new ministry, composed of the most violent members of their own body, such as Mannani, Galletti, Sterbini, and others, and went in pro- cession to the (iuirinal, accompanied by an immense crowd of sol- diers of every grade, and followed by a curious and drunken mob. His Holiness requested time to consider their demands, but they insisted on his immediate assent. This being refused, they made a most furious assault on the palace, set fire to the gates and attempted to scale the walls. During the assault, Mons. Palma, Latin Secre- tary of the Pope, having exposed himself at one of the windows, was shot dead upon the spot. 6. For several days his Holiness was kept a close prisoner in his own palace; at length, finding himself completely at the mercy of the conspirators, and learning that they were about to compel him to renounce all temporal power over the Roman States, and that his life was threatened if he refused, he determined if possible to escape from the city. Accordingly with the assistance of the Bavarian and French ambassadors, he effected his flight from Rome, on 21th of November, 18-J8, and proceeded to Gaeta, in the kingdom ol Naples, where he was cordially received by the king and the royaJ family. 7. After the flight of his Holiness, the Papal government was abolished, and a republic proclaimed. In the meantime the Pope was not idle. In the early part of January following his arrival at Gaeta, he published a solemn protest against the proceedings of the conspirators in Rome, and appealed to the great Catholic powers of Europe, respectfully asking their armed interposition in his behalf. His request was immediately responded to by several of the powers to whom the appeal was made. Among these France took the lead. In the latter part of April, IS 19, a French army under the com- mand of General Oudinot, landed in the Papal states and marched directly for Rome. The first attack on the city was unsuccessful, and the French general was obliged to retire to Palo, a few miles from Rome, there to wait the arrival of reinforcements. About the middle of June the attack was renewed, and continued with but little intermission for nearly two weeks. The city was finally carried, What was his fate? Immediately after this, what was done? Who was killed during the assault?— 6. For several days, how was the Pope kept? By whose assistance did be escape, and where did he retire to? — 7. What was done after the flight of his Holiness ' >Vhat did he publish, &c? In April. 1U49, what did the French do ? What is said of the first attack ? What was the final result i EUROPE. 363 and General Oudinol entered with liis forces on [he 2d of July. He im- mediately dispatched one of Wis officers lo Gaeta, lo inform the Sove- reign Pontiff' of the victory, and to place al his feet the keys of the city. < K . The Pope remained at Gaeta until the following April, when he letumed in triumph to his capital, and quietly resumed the exercise of his authority. The evils entailed on the country hy the late con viilsion were serious and manifold. Commerce had been interrupted, the mechanical branches ol industry paralyzed, debts created, and the community flooded by a worthless paper currency, which had been issued by the republic. To remedy these evils was the first care of Pius IX. on being restored to his capital, and to this he applied him- self with unremitting energy. By his prudent measures public con- fidence was soon restored, and life and energy infused into every department of the government. The loyal and good were more than ever endeared to the person of the Pontiff", while the hostility of his enemies was disarmed by his clemency and mildness. 9. The magnanimity of the Holy Father did not, however, stay the revolutionary attempts of the Italian agitators. The war against Austria (1859) by exciting the public mind, gave birth to a political organization having in view the unity of Italy, and Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, was proclaimed the king of the united kingdom. States ejected their rulers to enter this new combination, thereby not gaining their independence, but simply a change of masters. The Papal territory was sadly diminished by these unceremonious annexa- tions: Bologna and the Ilomagna were absorbed, and in I860, the duchies of Parma and Modena were united to the new kingdom. 10. The Pope having appealed, in vain, to the Catholic sovereigns of Europe, resolved to make an effort lo resist these encroachments. He called upon the faithful to volunteer in defence of the Holy See, and entrusted the organization of his army lo the French general De Larnoriciere; an officer of the greatest merit, who had won imperish- able fame in the African war. Volunteers flocked from every part of Europe, and Larnoriciere was busily engaged in their organization and instruction, when, without any previous declaration of hostilities, the Sardinian general Cialdini, at the head of 60,000, invaded the Papal territory, and attacked the volunteers at Casltelfidardo. Lamo- riciere's talents as a general were unavailing to resist the attack. His raw recruits, poorly armed, and much inferior in number to the enemy, were cut down or taken prisoners, and the organization of the Pontifical Volunteers destroyed at one fell blow. The gallant general cut his way through the enemy, and threw himself into the city of Ancona. But this place, attacked and shelled by the Sardi- nian fleet, was soon after compelled to capitulate. The fall of Ancona involved the loss to the Pontifical States of the Marches and Umbria. 11. Meanwhile, the revolution was still progressing all over Italy. Garibaldi was overrunning the Two Sicilies and taking Naples, whilst Cialdini besieged and took Gaeta. The youthful King of the Two S;cilies, Francis II, defended bravely his possessions; he could be 8. When did the Pope return to his capital? What evils vrere entailer] on the community by the late convulsion?— 9. What happened in Italy in 1800? Was the Papal territory- diminished? How? — 10. What did the Pope? What g took command of his army? What happened at Castelfidardo7 Where did Ljunoriciere go? What was "the (ate of Ancona? — 11. What about the movement* of Garibaldi and Cialdini ? How did Francis II. behave ? 364 EUROPE. seen, in the batteries of Gaeta, accompanied by his young and amia- ble queen, animating the gunners by his example; but he had to succumb, and sought refuge in Rome. 12. The intervention of Napoleon, who sent troops to Rome, alone saved the eternal city from falling again into the hands of the revolu- tionists. Peace has been restored ; the seat of government of united Italy has been transferred to Florence, and the French troops have been recalled. But the Sovereign Pontiff is still threatened. The revo- lutionary party in Italy wants Rome, and the question of the temporal power of the Pope is freely discussed in the Italian parliament, whilst the demagogues avow openly their schemes for robbing the church of her last resources. They forget that Empires have fallen, Republics have passed like ephemereal meteors, and nations even have disap- peared from the face of the earth since Christ confided His church into the hands of Peter the fisherman. From all parts of the globe tributes of love are being sent to the Holy Father, and the banner of the cross may yet wave over an army strong enough to prevent the execu- tion of the work of iniquity contemplated by the Italian demagogues. VT.U IN SCHLESWia-HOLSTEIN — WAR IN GERMANY. A. D. 1863 — 1866. 1. In 1863 a quarrel arose between Christian IX., king of Den- mark, and the Duke of Augustenburg, about the right of succession to the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig, which both claimed. The German Diet supporting the Duke of Augustenburg's claim, sent troops to Holstein, whilst Prussia and Austria, ostensibly for the same object, occupied Schleswig, and taking the offensive, invaded Jutland. Denmark fighting alone against such odds was soon over- powered, and compelled to cede not only Schleswig and Holstein, but also the duchy of Lauenburg. 2. Prussia had obtained Lauenburg for her share of the spoils, but far from being satisfied, she claimed the two other duchies. Austria refused to submit to such pretensions, and Prussia, withdrawing at once from the German Confederation, declared war against her former ally, whose territory she now invaded. She had secured by a secret treaty, the assistance of Italy, who rejoiced at an opportunity of driving the Austrians from Venetia. 3. The Italian army of invasion was not fortunate. The archduke Albert gave battle to the Italians, near Custozza, on the 24th of June (1866,) and defeated them completely, compelling them to recross the Mincio. Their fleet fared still worse; on the 20th of July, the Italian admiral Persano, with 23 vessels, engaged the inferior fleet of admiral Tegetoff. Persano lost several vessels and was compelled to run into the port of Ancona, lor shelter. 4. Meanwhile, the Prussians were operating with much better for- tune than their ally; in the month of June, they entered Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Saxony; and soon occupied Frankfort and overran Darmstadt and Bavaria. The Austrian commander in chief was compelled to give battle to the formidable army, which, advancing in two columns through Saxony and Silesia made a junction at Gits- 12. What saved Rome? What is the present condition of the Pope ? 1. What was the cause of the war in Schleswig-Holstein ? What was the result? 2. What were the pretensions of Prussia, and how did she act? — '■'>. What was the fortune of the Italian army of invasion? Of their fleet? — 4. What success attended the Prussians ? What great battle was fought ? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 365 chin. The Austrians were inferior in number and demoralized by the non-arrival of 80,000 Bavarians upon which they had counted. The battle of Sadowa resulted in the total defeat and route of the Aus- trian army. The carnage was fearful, the greatest, perhaps, that has ever drenched in blood a battle field. The famous needle gun was used, for the first time, in this battle, by the Prussians. 5. Austria was vanquished; to save the national honor and get rid of at least one of her adversaries, she ceded Venetia to France, with the secret understanding that this province should be turned over to Italy. The French emperor renewed his offers of mediation, and a treaty of peace was agreed upon, on the 2Gth July, which was subsequently ratified at Prague. 0. Austria lost much more than she had contended for ; she confirmed the cession of Venetia, now a part of Italy ; renounced taking any part in the new Confederation which Prussia proposed to form North of the Meyne river: and she formally renounced all claims upon the duchies of Hoi stein and Schleswig. She had moreover to submit to the annex- ation of Hanover, Hesse, Nassau and Frankfort to Prussia. 7. Thus ended this iniquitous war, commenced ostensibly to protect the claims of a weaker third party. This successful and ambitious scheme for the aggrandizement of Prussia, was the work of the prime minister, count Bismark, a statesman of extraordinary power, who is the ruling spirit in European diplomacy. The once powerful empire of Austria has been humbled and weakened, but the other Powers watch jealously the ambition of Prussia, and peace is anything but certain in Europe. Spain. — During the last few years, Spain has made several efforts to regain the high position she once occupied among the other nations. Besides the expeditions against Cochin-China and Mexico, made jointly with France she has successfully terminated another against the emperor of .Morocco, and has been waging war against the Argentine Republic and Chili. But internal troubles are continually impeding her progress. THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. SECTION I. From ihe Birth of Christ to the Triumph of Christianity, ip the reign of Constantine, the first Christian Emperor , A. D. 312. 1. In order to render this compendium more complete, it has been thought quite expedient to add a short history of the Christian Church, or of Christianity from its first promulgation to the present time. This interesting portion of history embraces a period of more than eighteen centuries, and may be divided into three separate portions. The first division extends from the birth of Christ to the triumph of Christianity, when it became the religion of the Roman Empire, under the reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 312. The second division extends from the reign of Constantine to the Pveformation, A. D. 1517; and the third, from the Reformation to the present time. 2. At a time when the Roman Empire had reached the meri- dian of its greatness; when every nation accessible to its arms 5. What happened after the battle of Sadowa? — 0. "What did Austria lose? 7. What great statesman managed the affairs of Prussia ? What are liie pros- pect;; of peace in Europe ? What about Spain ? I. What period does this history embrace? Eow does the first div/Jou extend? The second? The third? 31* 366 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. had yielded submission to its power ; when rival monarchs and contending chieftains had ceased their strife, and the troubled elements of war, which had for ages convulsed the world, had sunk to repose under the mild reign of Augustus Caesar, Jesus Christ, the Prince of Peace, was born at Bethlehem, in Judea. At the time when this remarkable event took place, an expecta- tion universally prevailed, even among the pagan nations, that some extraordinary personage was about to appear in the world The Jews, in particular, were anxiously expecting the coming oi the Messiah, whose birth had been long foretold by the prophets; but they very erroneously imagined that he would appear as a temporal prince, clothed with worldly splendor and power; as a mighty conqueror, who would deliver their nation from the do* minion of the Romans. 3. The Pharisees, who were the most powerful of the three sects* into which the Jews were at that time divided, presided in the schools, and were the chief doctors of the law. They received all the books of the Old Testament, to which they added their traditions or oral law, which was regarded of high authority They affected the appearance of great sanctity, but being desti- tute of the true spirit of religion, they are chargeable with the grossest hypocrisy ; they looked for a Messiah only as a great de- liverer, who should rescue Judea from the yoke of a foreign power, and subject the whole world to the Mosaic institutions. It is not surprising, then, that the manner of our Saviour's appear- ance on earth disappointed the expectation of the Jews. No royal palace designates the consecrated spot where the long- expected Messiah first appeared among the children of men; a lowly manger is the place of his nativity ; Joseph, his reputed father, is an humble carpenter, and Mary,Jiis virginal mother, though descended from the royal house of David, is undistin- guished among the daughters of Judea. 4. The life of our divine Saviour was one of labor and suffer- ing ; his death was finally consummated upon an ignominious cross. He had chosen for his disciples men of the humblest walks of life. To twelve of these, styled Apostles, he gave a di- vine commission to propagate his heavenly doctrine, in these remarkable words : " To me all power is given in heaven and earth ; go ye, therefore, and teach all nations ; baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded ♦The other two sects were the Sadducees and Essences. The Sadducees were unbe- lievers in religion; they admitted the authority of the books of Moses, but denied the; inired character of the other parts of the Old Testament ; they rejected the doctrine of a future lifo, and the existence of angels and spirits. The Esse»ees were a class o: men who took no concern in the affairs of state, but professed to live in retirement and to attempt to purify the soul by abstinence, silence, and mortification. 2. When and where was Jesus Christ born ? At that lime, what prevailed ? What were the Jews anxiously expecting? But what did they imagine ? — 3. What is said of the Pharisees? Whft did they affect 7 What is not surprising? What was the Slace of his nativity ? What was Joseph ? What was Mary ?— 4. What is said of our vine Saviour? What had he chosen? In what words did he commission thetv/elva Aposues* THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 367 you ; and behold I am with you all days, even to the consumma- tion of the world."* 5. Thus divinely commissioned, the apostles, on the day of Pentecost, being imbued with the gifts of the Holy Ghost, entei upon their mission, and in the streets of Jerusalem, promulgate Che law of Jesus Christ, and so astonishing were the fruits of their labors, that no less than three thousand persons were converted by the first sermon of St. Peter. This success did not fail to awaken in the breast of the Jewish rulers a spirit of jealousy ; they dreaded the total subversion of the Mosaic law, and left nothing undone to retard the labors of the apostles. A violent persecution followed, during which St. Stephen, one of the seven deacons, fell a sacrifice to their fury, and is honored as the first martyr of the Christian church. The most active of the perse- cutors of the Christians was a young man named Saul, who, not satisfied with the cruelties he had committed at Jerusalem, ob- tained permission of the high-priest to pursue them even to the adjacent towns. With this view, he set out to Damascus, but on his road he was suddenly struck blind, and cast upon the ground; at the same time he heard a voice, saying to him, " Saul, Saul! why dost thou persecute me ?" His attendants raised him up, and conducted him to the town; he was there baptized by a holy priest, named Ananias, and Saul, from being a violent persecutor of the Christian church, became one of its most illustrious apostles, and assumed the name of Paul. 6. In the mean time, the twelve apostles having composed a symbol of their belief, commonly called the Apostles' Creed, and having appointed St. James, the son of Mpheus, as the first bishop of Jerusalem, set out to announce the truths of Christianity to the pagan world. They confirmed the doctrines they taught by the most astonishing miracles ; they healed the sick ; raised the dead to life ; and being endowed with the gift of tongues, they were enabled to speak the language of the different nations through which they travelled. The rapidity with which Chris- tianity was propagated, will appear extraordinary, when we reflect that its founder belonged to a nation undistinguished for power or importance; that he suffered a public and ignominious death; that his apostles, with few exceptions, were poor and illiterate, destitute of power or influence ; that the religion which they preached held out no promise of temporal goods, no worldly pleasures, honors or riches ; but on the contrary, often exposed its professors to scorn and reproach, persecution and temporal loss , finally, that it had to contend not only with the lon^ established superstition and popular dogmas of pagan worship, but also with the prejudices, passions, and vices of the world. * St. Matt. chap. 23. 5. What did the Apostles do? How many were converted by the first sermcn of Si Peter? What followed ? Who fell a sacrifice to their fury ? Wh^ was the most ac- tive of the persecutors? On the road to Damascus, what happeneu to him ? By whom was he baptized ? What name did he assume? — 6. In the mean time, what did the twelve Apostles do? How did they confirm the doctrine they taught? What is said of the rapidity with which Christianity was propagated ? 3C8 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 7. This rapid success, under these opposing circumstances, can be no other than the work of a divine hand. To the divine power of its founder alone, must we ascribe the wonderful triumph of the gospel. Allured by no earthly advantage, subdued by no other force than that of truth, the learned and the ignorant, the Jew and the Gentile, the Greek and the Barbarian, meekly bend their necks to the yoke of Christ, shake oil" their ancient preju- dices, and profess themselves the followers of a crucified God. 8. In a ivw years, we find that the light of Christianity lias spread its cheering rays over the various provinces of the Roman Empire. St. Peter visited the towns of Samaria, Judca, and Syria, and first fixed his episcopal chair at Jlntioch. lie after- wards traversed the provinces of Asia Minor, and preached to the Jews in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia: he visited Rome about the year 44, to which city he removed his episcopal seat, wisely judging, that from the capital the light of Christianity would spread more rapidly through the empire. St. Paul, who had lately been introduced to the apostles, was conse- crated bishop, and sent to carry the glad tidings of Christianity to the Gentile nations. Passing through the provinces of Asia, Pamphylia, and Phrygia, he converted thousands to the Christian religion; from thence he visited Greece, a country which had oeen long renowned for science, for eloquence and for arts. Here the apostle resolved to introduce a more sublime and precious knowledge, the knowledge of the true God. His labors were crowned with success ; idolatry fell before the power of his hea- venly eloquence ; nourishing churches arose in the cities of Co nnth, Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens and Ephesus. From Greece lie directed his course to Rome, and carried the knowledge of Christ into the very apartments of Nero's palace. 9. Notwithstanding the many shining virtues which adorned (lie lives of the first professors of Christianity, they were not, however, exempt from the frailties of men. A misguided zeal on the part of many of the Jewish converts at Antioch, led them to propose, as matter of obligation, that the Gentiles who became Christians, should submit to the law of circumcision, if they hoped tc attain salvation. The proposition gave rise \v warm dis- putes ; charity and religion were likely to suffer, when the affair was happily settled by a council held at Jerusalem. St. Paul and Uarnabas repaired to that city to be present on the occasion St. Peter opened the discussion, and after relating the wonders which God had wrought through his ministry among the Gentiles, concluded that no superfluous burden of the ancient law ought to be imposed upon them. St. James concluded the debate by ex- pressing his approbation of the decision given by St. Peter. 10. In this, the first council of the Christian church, the apos- tles established a judicial form of proceeding, which the church, 7. What is said of this rapid success? What is further observed in this paragraph"' —9. In a few years, what do we find? AVhat places did St. Peter visit ? When did he Visit Rome ? What is sa d of St. Paul ? What places did lie pass through ? Wh.vrs did he finally direct his course?— 9. What did a misguided zeal lead many of the Jew 'bhconvevts to propose? Mow was the affair settled? Who opened the disc us8ioa. and who concluded the deoate?— 10. In this council, what was established? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 309 m alter ages, followed, in deciding all questions that relate to faiih and discipline. A dispute, important in its consequences, had arisen among the faithful ; private authority, even that of *S'/. Paul, is unable to calm into silence the contending parties; re- course is had to the pastors of the church assembled in council ; the points in dispute are regularly discussed ; a decree is formed upon the subject; the faithful bow in acquiescence to the decision j the cause of disagreement is removed ; harmony and peace are again restored. 11. After the death of Festus, the Roman governor, by whose authority the violence of the Jews had been restrained, the name of persecution was again renewed against the Christians in the Holy City. *S'/. James, the bishop of Jerusalem, surnamed the Just, on account of his exemplary piety and charity, fell a victim to their fury. Being summoned before the council of the Sanhe drim, he was ordered to declare his opinion concerning Jesus Christ; but in order that the declaration might be more public, they commanded the apostle to ascend the battlements of the temple, and from thence declare his sentiments to the surrounding multitude. No sooner had the venerable confessor appeared on the summit, and proclaimed the divinity of Jesus Christ, than he was precipitated from the battlement, and perished amidst a furious discharge of stones from the hands of the populace, while, in imi- tation of his divine Master, he prayed for his persecutors, and Desought God to forgive them, because they knew not what they did. 12. Although the faithful had suffered in many places, both from the Jews and Gentiles, they had not, as yet, undergone any general persecution. The first of the Roman emperors who armed the sovereignty of the state against the professors of Christianity, was Nero, whose cruelty was only surpassed by his moral de- pravity. In his wild extravagance, he set fire to the city of Rome, that he might have the vain satisfaction of rebuilding it on a more magnificent plan. But finding that his excesses created against him the murmurs and disaffection of the people, he artfully' con- trived to throw the odium upon the Christians, whom he openly accused as the authors of the late conflagration, and published a decree, which made it a capital offense to profess the Christian religion. Revolting were the cruelties exercised against the un- offending professors of Christianity. Some were covered with the skins of wild beasts and devoured by dogs; others were braced in tunics steeped in pitch, and placed at certain distances, then set on fire to light the streets by night. Among t\\r many who suffered en this occasion, wore the two illustrious apostles St. Peter and St. Paul. They were confined for nine months ii\ a loathsome prison, at the foot of the capitol, before they were called to receive the crown of martyrdom. St. Peter was crucified with his head downwards, but St. Paul, being a Roman citizen, had the honor of dying by the sword. What is observed about it?— 11. After the death of Festus, what followed? Who fella victim to their fury? Relate the circumstaners of his death. — 12. Who first p.rmeJ the sovereign power against the Christians ? What did be do? On whom d< he throw the odium? What did he publish? How were some put to d.-ath? Wua* weio die most distinguished? 370 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 13. The second persecution commenced during the reign ol the emperor Domitian, about the year 95, during which, it is com- puted that forty thousand Christians received the crown of mar- tyrdom. The most illustrious sufferer was St. John, the Evangelist. He resided chiefly at Ephesus, in Ionia; but on information being lodged against him, he was cited by the emperor to appear at Rome, and on account of his faith, he was condemned to be cast alive into a caldron of boiling oil. The sentence was carried into execution before the Latin Gate, but by the miraculous power of ftod, the holy martyr came forth from the caldron, not only unhurt, but more fresh and vigorous than before. The emperor having failed in his attempt to deprive him of life, banished him to the Isle of Patmos, where the saint was favored with those heavenly visions recorded in his book of Revelations. On the death of Domitian, in the year 96, St. John again returned to Ephesus. At this early period of Christianity, the church had the mortification to see many of her children fall from their first faith, and teach erroneous doctrines. Of these, the most con- spicuous w r ere Ebion and Nicholas of Antioch. Among other errors, they denied the divinity of Jesus Christ, and asserted the necessity of observing the ceremonies of the Mosaic law. To silence the heretical declaimers, St. John, at the request of the bishops of Asia, wrote his gospel, which he commences in a strain of sublime eloquence. 14. The third persecution. After the death of Domitian, the peace of the church was restored, under the mild reign of Nerva ; but the reign of that prince was of short duration, and on the accession of Trajan to the imperial throne, the sanguinary edicts of Nero and Domitian were again renewed, and again the cities and provinces flowed with Christian blood. The younger Pliny, who was then governor of Bithynia, in a letter to the emperor, bears ample testimony to the exemplary lives of the Christians, and tells us, that so great was their number, that they filled the fields, the towns, and villages ; that on his arrival in the province, he could scarcely find a man of whom to purchase victims for the pagan altars. The most illustrious of those who suffered for the faith, on this occasion, were St. Clement, bishop of Rome; St. Ignatius, of Antioch, and St. Simeon, of Jerusalem. Simeon was nearly related to our divine Saviour, and had reached the one hundred and twentieth year of his age. 15. The fourth persecution commenced about the year 168, under the reign of Marcus Aurelius, during which thousands sealed with their blood the doctrines of Christianity. Among the most illustrious of those who suffered was St. Polycarp, the venerable bishop of Smyrna. The fifth persecution commenced in the year 202. From the 13. When did the second persecution commence ? Who was the most illustrious sufferer? Where did he reside, and to what was he condemned? How did he come forth from t'r.e caldron ? Where was he banished ? At this early period, what had the church? Of these, who were the most conspicuous? To silence them, what did St. Jonn do? — 14. When did the third persecution commence? What does the younger Puny say of the Christians? Who were the most illustrious of the suffereis? — 15. When was the fourth persecution commenced, and who suffered ? When did lUe fifth persecution commence ? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 371 death of Aurelius, the Christians had enjoyed the free exercise of their religion, under various emperors, to the reign ot Seoents who was thought even favorable to Christianity, during the first seven years of his administration. At this period, seemingly with- out any provocation, he published against them a most sanguinary edict, forbidding them to hold their religious assemblies, and to profess the name of Christ. A dreadful persecution followed, particularly in Egypt, in Gaul, and Africa, where thousands sealed the profession of their faith by the effusion of their blood. 10. The sixth persecution was ^ commenced under the reign of Maximin, who had reached the imperial throne by imbruing his hand in the blood of his predecessor. The emperor pointed not his shafts against the great body of the Christians, who had now become too numerous to be marked out for slaughter, but directed his malice against the pastors of the church. With the death of Maximin, the persecution ceased in 240, after it had lasted three years. The seventh persecution of the Christians was published on the accession of Decius to the throne. It was the mosc dread- ful hitherto experienced ; prisons, stripes, fire, wild beasts, melted wax, boiling pitch, racks, and iron hooks to tear the flesh from the bones, were employed to torment and to kill. The most distinguished of those who suffered during this persecution, were Fabianus, the bishop of Rome, Alexander, of Jerusalem, and Balytas, of Antioch. The eighth persecution was commenced under the emperor Valerian, who, in the beginning of his reign, had shown the greatest lenity towards the Chi istians. With a view of rendering the gods propitious to his anus, on the eve of an expedition against the Persians, he published a violent edict against the professors of the Christian name. Anions the first who suffered, were St. Stephen, bishop of Rome, and St. Sextus, his immediate successor, with the illustrious martyr, St. Law- rence, and also St. Cyprian, of Carthage. 17. To gratify the senate and people of Rome, the emperoi Aurelian published a sanguinary edict against the Christians, about the year 274 ; but tho hand of an assassin put an end to his life, before he had the satisfaction of seeing it properly carried into effect ; yet in several places, many received the crown of martyrdom. The tenth and last persecution took place about the year 302 The church, after enjoying a general tranquillity for thirty years, was again doomed to experience another sanguinary persecution, under Dioclesian, and his colleagues in the empire. ¥oi some time, Dioclesian rejected the measures on political motives, until he was at length overcome by the soothsayers, who declared that the empire could never flourish as long as the impious, meaning the Christians, were suffered to exist. The deluded emperor What edict was published?— 16. When was the sixth persecution commenced! Against whom did he direct his malice? When was the seven'.h persecution pub- lished? What were the modes of torture ? Who were the imst clhUinguisheu suf- ferers ? What did Valerian publish on the eve of his expedition mjtnasl Persia ? Who suffered on this occasion?— 17. To gratify the people of Romj. via: Id Aurelian do When did the tenth perseculion take r lace ? For some time what dul he reject ? At length, what did he publish ? 372 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, weakiy yielded to their persuasions, and published an edict for the total extirpation of the Christian religion. This violent decree well suited the sanguinary dispositions of his colleagues, Maxi- minus and Galenas, whose respective provinces were deluged in Christian blood. In Britain and Gaul, under the mild admin- istration of Constaniius, the horrors of the persecution were less severe; still the authority of Constantius was insufficient in some instances to restrain the more superstitious of the magistrates; hence, even in Britain, we find St. Alban, and also St. Angelus, bishop of London, dying for the faith ; and in Gaul, St. Quintin, and others, with the whole Theban legion, barbarously sacrificed to gratify an inferior officer of state. 18. At this period, when the power of darkness seemed to threaten the total extirpation of the Christian name, we are called to look for the rise of that coming dawn which is to usher in a brighter and happier era; when the church is to triumph over the ruins of pagan superstition ; when the cross is to adorn the diadem of the Csesars. By a sudden revolution in the state, or rather by the providence of God, whose superintending power directs the; destinies of nations, Constantine, having triumphed over all his competitors, was placed in the undisputed possession of the impe- rial throne. The first care of this enlightened prince was to de- clare himself the protector of Christianity, and to publish an edict, by which all the penal restraints respecting religion were removed, and full liberty allowed to every one to profess and exercise that form of religious worship he should think proper to adopt. To break the force of prejudice, which time and custom had thrown around the religion of the empire, Constantine wisely judged that lenient measures were the most likely to eifect his object; and he concluded that to overthrow the system of error, nothing more was requisite than to grant protection to the true religion, and to let the wisdom of her doctrines, and the purity of her precepts, appear in open view. 19. To remedy the evils occasioned by the edicts of his prede cessors, he recalled the exiles ; restored to the Christians theiir places of worship, and treated their ministers with the deepest respect. To the bishop of Rome, he granted the Lateran Palace, as the place of his future residence, and the adjoining palace was converted into a Christian temple, now called the church of St. John of Lateran. Thus was the church finally triumphant, after undergoing the ordeal of ten sanguinary persecutions. A change with respect to their religion, so sudden, and so unexpected, inspired the Chris- tians with the prospect of joy for the present, and the most flat- tering anticipations for the future. What is said of the persecution in Britain ?— 18. At this period, what are we called to look for ? What is said of Constantine? What was his»first care, and what did he publish ? To break the force of prejudice, what did he conclude ?— 19. To remedy the evils, &c, what did he do? Tc the bishop of Rome what d:d he grant? What is obseived of the Church ' THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 373 SECTION II. htom the triumph of Christianity to the Reformation, from A. D. 312 to 1517. 1. Under the protection of Constantine, Christianity widely extended and rapidly increased ; magnificent churches arose where pagan temples had stood for ages ; the storm of persecution had ceased; the bishops no longer lay under any restraint in the public exercise of their pastoral functions $ the people hastened to embrace a religion sanctioned by their sovereign. Such was the pleasing prospect of affairs when the church beheld her peace interrupted, and prosperity marred, not indeed by the hand of a pagan persecutor, but from the undutiful conduct of her own children. 2. Arius, a turbulent priest of Alexandria, had aspired to the episcopal chair of that city, but being defeated in his pretensions, ne began to assail the doctrines of the church, and openly denied the divinity of Christ, and asserted that the Son of God was not equal to his Father in nature and substance. At this doctrine, the faithful were shocked and scandalized ; the pastors were alarmed ; and in order to check the progress of error, and to define the doctrine of the church on the point in question, the convocation of a general council was deemed expedient. Accordingly, during the month of June, in the year 325, the famous council of Nice was convened. It was composed of three hundred and eighteen bishops, besides a much greater number of inferior ecclesiastics. Osius, the venerable bishop of Cordova, in Spain, with two priests, presided in the name of St. Silvester, bishop of Rome, who was unable to attend in person. Constantine also, with many of his chief officers of state, was present on the occasion. After mature deliberation, the fathers, with exception of five bishops, unani- mously condemned the opinions of Arius as erroneous, and con- trary to what had been taught by the apostles and their imme- diate successors, and published the Nicene Creed, which should stand to all succeeding ages, as the test of orthodox belief in the divinity of Jesus Christ. The question of faith being thus finally decided, the council proceeded to enact certain canons, for the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline. The uniform celebration ofEaster-day was fixed, and directed to be universally kept in future, on the first Sunday after the first full moon that follows the vernal equinox. Before the council separated, a synodical epistle was drawn up, and directed to St. Silvester, who is styled in that document, the blessed pope of Rome, requesting that he would confirm its decrees. 3. Arianism was checked' for the present, but not suppressed ; it continued to find many patrons and supporters among those 1. What is said of Christianity under the protection of Constantine? What arose? What did the people do ? — -2. What is said of Arius ? What did he deny and assert? In order to check the progress of error, what was done? When and where did it /licet? Of what was it composed? Who presided ? How were tin; opinions of Ariua condemned ? What was fixed and directed ? Before the council separated; what was done 7 — 3. What is said of Arianism 9 32 "™ THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. whose rank and power gave it considerable influence. Constan- UuSy cue son and successor of Constantine, with several subse- quent emperors, favored the Arian heresy, and under their re- spective reigns, the orthodox portion of the church experienced a series of persecution little inferior in point of cruelty and vio- lence to those carried on when pagan sovereigns swayed the im- perial scepter. Under the reign of Tkeodosius the Great, peace was again restored to the church ; and in order to remedy the evils, and correct the general confusion of doctrine that pervaded the east, occasioned by the violence which prevailed for nearly forty years, a second general council was convened at Constan- tinople in the month of May, A. D. 381. 4. This council consisted of about one hundred and fifty ortho dox bishops, besides thirty of the Macedonian party. The Ma- cedonians, who took their name from Macedonius, the leader of their sect, not only maintained the Arian heresy, but also denied the divine procession of the Holy Ghost. The fathers of the council condemned, in the most explicit terms, this new error, declaring the Holy Ghost to be " The Lord and Giver of life, who, with the Father and Son, is equally adored and glorified." Among the persons most distinguished for their learning and sanctity, wo find the names of St, Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria ; St. Basil, the Great, bishop of Cassarea ; St. Gregory Nazianzen, no less distinguished for his eloquence than for the holiness of his life ; St. Gregory, bishop of Nyssa,and St. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem. To these may be added the names of St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan ; St. Jerome, the learned Secretary of St. Damasus, bishop of Rome, and finally the illustrious St. Chrysostom, whe died in the early part of the succeeding century. 5. As the Arian heresy gradually declined, the schism of Dona- tus began to rise on its ruins. The first appearance of this schism is dated from about the middle of the fourth century. Donatus, a turbulent prelate, with several other bishops, contested the validity of the election and consecration of Cccilian, bishop of Carthage, and even went so far as to pass sentence of deposition against him, and to elect Majorian in his place. In defiance of all authority, they supported this violent measure, and on the death of Majorian, they_ elected one Donatus, from whom the party properly derives its name. To schism, they added heresy; as serting that God, the Son, was less than the father, and greatei than the Holy Ghost; that the church had failed, and that with them alone existed true virtue. Towards the close of the fourth, and the beginning of the fifth century, they had greatly mul- tiplied ; and with their numbers, their violence also increased; they denounced open hostilities against the orthodox clergy, drove them by force from their churches, profaned the sacred Of Constantius ? Under Theodosius the Great, what took place? When was th<5 second council convened? — 4. Of what did this council consist? What did the Ma- cedonians maintain and deny ? What did the fathers of this council declare ? AVho Who are among the persons most distinguished for their learning, &c? — 5. As tho Arinn heresy declined, \v T hat schism arose ? What is said of Donatus ? To schism what did they add and assert ? What did they denounce ? After the great conference et Cartilage, what do wo find ? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 375 vessels, and overturned the altars. After the great conference held at Carthage during the year 411, at. which *S'/. Austin, the learned bishop of Hippo, in the most satisfactory manner, refuted the arguments of the Donaiists, we find that the heresy rapidly declined; but before it had entirely disappeared, the Pelagian heresy grew into being. G. Pelagius, the progenitor of this new sect, by birth a Britain, was a monk of Bangor, in Wales, from which place he went to Rome during the fourth century. He denied the existence of original sin in the soul of man, and rejected the necessity ol divine grace for the merit of good works, contending that Adam, by sinning, only affected himself, and that his descendants are now born in that state in which they would have been had lie never sinned. These errors were repeatedly condemned by several local councils held about this period, and refuted by the unanswerable arguments of the great St. Austin. 7. About the year 428, the Nestorian heresy was first broached at Constantinople. Nestorius, from whom the heresy takes its name, was at that time bishop of that city. In opposition to the Catholic doctrine, he taught that there were two distinct persons in Jesus Christ, namely, that of God and man, joined to- gether by a moral union in such a manner that the Godhead dwelt in the humanity merely as a temple. Hence he denied the Incar- nation, or that God was made man, and asserted that the Blessed Virgin Mary ought not to be styled the Mother of God, but the mother of the man Christ, whose humanity was only tne temple of the divinity. This strange doctrine, delivered foi the first time from the pulpit of the great church of St. Sophia, so shocked the audience, that they closed their ears and rushed from the holy place. These errors of Nestorius were condemned by the third general council held at Ephesus, A. D. 431. 8. About twenty years after this event, the fourth general council was held at Chalcedon for the purpose of condemning the errors of Eutychus, who admitted but one nature in Jesus Christ, and maintained that his human nature was totally absorbed by the divine, and became one with it; so that in his opinion Christ had no real body, and consequently, as divine nature is incapable of suffering, he had neither died nor suffered really, but in appear- ance only. The heresy, however, continued to increase, causing violence and confusion, particularly in the east, until after the fifth general council, held at Constantinople during the year 553, when it gradually declined. 9. But the church was not. destined to enjoy a long continuance of repose; one heresy was no sooner checked and proscribed, than a new one started up in its place. Error had often found protection in the imperial palace, but in the present instance we 6. What is said of Pelagius? What did lie deny, reject, &c. ? By whom were these errors condemned and refuted ? — 7. About the year 428, what took place ? What was Nestorius? What did he teach ? Hence, what did he deny and assert ? Where was .his strange doctrine first delivered, and what followed? — 8. When and why was the fourth general council held ? What did Eutychus adm.t and mainuur. ? When and wheicwas the fifth general council held?— 9. In the present instan:;, what do we find ? 376 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. find the emperor himself becoming the founder of a new sect called the Iconoclasts, or Image-breakers. Leo, garnamed the /saurian, having ascended the throne of Constantinople, con- ceived a great aversion to the images of Christ and the saints, which were used in the churches, and ordered their removal under the severest penalties. In carrying this extraordinary edict into effect, much violence and bloodshed was occasioned $ and the disturbance continued to rage until the convocation of the seventh general council held at Nice towards the close of the year 787. This council was attended by about three hundred bishops, the representatives of the church from all parts of the Christian world, and after due deliberation they unanimously declared that the pictures and images of Jesus Christ and his saints are useful in the churches and other places ; that they recall forcibly to the minds of those who behold them the scenes they represent; that they may be venerated and honored, not indeed with that supreme honor which belongs to God alone, but with a relative and inferior honor, such as every Christian entertains for the Bible in which the divine law is written. 10. In the year 886, Photius, through the influence of imperial authority, was placed in the patriarchal chair of Constantinople, to the forcible exclusion of St. Ignatius, its lawful incumbent. Proceeding from one extravagance to another, Photius at length calling together a synod of twenty-one bishops, pronounced sen- tence of deposuion and excommunication against Nicholas, the Roman pontiff. Upon the accession of Leo, surnamed the Wise, Photius was compelled to relinquish his usurped dignity and to retire to a monastery in Armenia, where he died in the year 893. The foundation of the Greek Schism was thus commenced, and finally completed by Michael Cerularius, in 1053. On the death of Alexis, Michael, from th-e humble condition of a monk, was to succeed him in the patriarchal chair. Shortly after his elevation, he began by his acts and writings to display his inveterate preju- dice against the discipline and doctrine of the Latin church. 11. St. Leo, the Roman pontiff, seeing that every thing seemed to threaten an open rupture, did all in his power to prevent it. He sent the celebrated Cardinal Number to Constantinople for the purpose of effecting an adjustment of the difficulties, but without success. Michael now threw off all restraint, assumed the title of universal patriarch, and published an act of excommu- nication against the bishop of Rome and the whole Latin church; and proceeding from schism to heresy, he denied the procession of the Holy Ghost from God the Son, as well as from the Father. The maintenance of this article with the rejection of the papal jurisdiction, besides some variation in points of discipline, form he only difference at present between the Greek and Latin churches. What is said of Leo? When was the seventh general council held? By whom was it attended? What did they unanmiously declare?— 10. In SG6, wha> took piace* What did he at length pronounce? On the accession of Leo, what is saif p'' Phouus T By whom, and when was the Greek schism completed ?— 11. What did Siv V-« do* What did Michael assume, publish, and deny? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 377 12. "While these things were transacting in ihe East, new errors were broached in the West. Beregarius, archdeacon of Angers, and a native of Toys, in France, began to dogmatize against second marriages, also against the necessity of infant bap- tism, and lastly, against the real presence of Christ's body in the Holy Eucharist. Several local councils were held for the purpose of ascertaining the opinion of the church on these different points of doctrine. Beregarius being cited to appear before them, re- nounced his positions, but afterwards propagated them in the new. in the year 1079, during the pontificate of St. Gregory VII., a great council was held at Rome, at which one hundred and fifty bishops assisted. Before the assembled prelates Beregarius again solemnly recanted his opinions, confessed that he had been de- ceived, and threw his writings into the fire. It is generally be- lieved that after this he remained in the communion of the Catholic church until his death, which took place during the year 1088. 13. From an early period, it had been customary for emperors or kings to present the ring and crosier to all the bishops elected within their respective dominions. Against this custom, called Investiture, the sovereign pontiffs had long declaimed, as it was often productive of evil consequences, subjecting the church to the necessity of waiting on the capricious will of the sovereign to fill the vacant bishoprics. During the pontificate of Gregory VII the privilege was warmly contested against Henry IV., emperor of Germany, and continued to be a subject of dispute until the affair was finally settled at the council of Lateran, held in the year 1123, when his successor, Henry V., renounced his preten- sions to the right of Investiture. 14. Shortly after this period, the peace of the church was again interrupted by the pretension of two claimants of the papal chair. On the death of Honorius II., Innocent II. was chosen to succeed him by a majority of the cardinals, not, however, without strong opposition on the part of Cardinal Peter, who had long aspired to the pontifical dignity. He had the .address to procure his elec- tion in opposition to the lawful pontiff, whom he expelled from Rome, and kept possession of his usurpation until his death, in the year 1138. The most striking circumstances that distinguish the close of this and the greater part of the following century, were the Crusades, or sacred wars, undertaken for the recovery of the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels ; of these we have spoken under their proper head. 15. During the pontificate of Gregory IX., a treaty of union was commenced between the Greek and Latin churches ; and although it did not receive the entire approbation of the Greek nation, still it seemed to promise a happy issue. The project was eagerly pursued by the succeeding pope, and finally accomplished 12. What is said of Beregarius ? In 1079, what took p!aee ? "What did Beregarius solemnly do? What, is generally believed ?— 13. From an early perod, what had been the custom ? Why did the sovereign pontiff declaim against it? When was tne affair finally settled ?— 14. By what was the peace of the church interrupted ? On the death of Honorius, what took place ? What striking circumstance is mentioned T — 15. What was done during the pontificate of Gregory IX. ? When was it finally f lisiied? A _. 32* 378 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. m the time of GregorjrX., at the great counr.il held at Lyons, in France, A. D. 1274. The union, however, was of short duration. On the death of Michael, the Greek emperor, his son Jlndronicus, who had ever been averse to the union, openly disavowed the measure, and in a short time frustrated all that had been accom- plished at the council of Lyons. The bishops, who signed and refused to retract the union, were deposed, ana the Greek church i second time plunged into heresy and schism. 16. On the death of Gregory XL, Urban IV. was chosen to succeed him in the pontifical throne. At this time the abuses committed by the agents and officers of the court of Rome had oecome a subject of loud complaint. A laudable zeal in effecting a reform carried this pontiff to a degree of severity which was deemed imprudent. In his exhortations and reprimands, he spared not even the cardinals themselves. They felt the justness of his censures, but rather than reform the causes of complaint, they chose to involve all Christendom in confusion. Retiring from Rome to the number of fifteen, they proceeded to Foadi, where, declaring the Roman see vacant, they chose for pope, Robert of Geneva, who took the name of Clement, and fixed his residence at Avignon, A. D. 1379. Urban, however, steadily maintained his authority until his death in 1389. Five years afterwards, Clement, his rival, was called from the busy scenes of life to the silence of the tomb. 17. About the year 1385, John Wickliffe, styled the Reformer, appeared in England during the latter part of the reign of Edward III. Wickliffe had received a liberal education in the university, where he subsequently gave lessons of divinity with much ap- plause. The doctrines advanced by him were chiefly the follow- ing: He maintained that a bishop or priest in. the state of mortal sin, could not ordain, consecrate, or baptise ; that the substance of the bread and wine remain in the sacrament after consecration, and that Christ was not really present therein ; that the pope, if he be a wicked man has no authority over the faithful ; that the clergy ought to have no temporal possessions, and that auricular confession was superfluous and unnecessary. Wickliffe gained many adherents of whom the Duke of Lancaster, the king's un- cle, was the most distinguished, under whose patronage he con- tinued to disseminate his principles until hi3 death. His follow- ers are generally known by the name of Lollards. IB. The convocation of the general council of Constance had two important objects in view, namely, the extinction of schism, and the investigation of the doctrines advanced by Wickliffe, which were still advocated by his disciples. It was proposed for the sake of peace, that the three competitors would resign their pretensions to the pontifical throne. To this measure Gregory readily assented ; John, who was regarded as the lawful pope, On the death of Michael, what was done by his son? — 16. Who succeeded Gregory XI.? To what did his zeal carry him ? Retiring from Rome, what did the cmdinais? What is said of Urban ?— 17. In 1385, what took place ? What is said of Wieklitlc? What did he maintain? By what name were his followers known?— 13 Why was the council of Constance called? What was proposed? What is said of Gregory and John* THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 379 showing an unwillingness to resign his claim, was deposed by the council, but he afterwards freely signed the act of his deposition. Benedict, the third competitor, obstinately refused to come into any measures with the members of the council, who, regarding the Holy See as vacant, proceeded to make arrangements for the election of a new pontiff'. The choice fell upon cardinal Otho Colonna, who took the name of Martin V. His election gave universal satisfaction, and happily ended the schism which had go long 1 distracted the church, A. D. 1417. 19. The writings of Wicklift'e, which by this time had passed into Germany, fell into the hands of John Huss, rector of the university of Prague. Pleased with the principles they incul- cated, he adopted them, and preached them from the pulpit. His eloquence and the persuasive manner in which he addressed his audience, gained him many adherents, among whom a professor of divinity, known by the name of Jerome of Prague, was the most distinguished. Huss being cited to appear before the coun- cil to give an account of his doctrines, readily consented, and having obtained a passport for the security of his person from the emperor, he set out to Constance. Having arrived there, he began to disseminate his principles among the people, for which he was placed under arrest and sent to the Dominican Convent, until the council could take cognizance of his case. When called before the prelates, he was convicted of holding doctrines con- trary to the church, and refusing to retract, he was degraded from the order of the priesthood, and delivered over to the civil power. The punishment which the Germanic law at that time inflicted on those convicted of obstinate errors against faith was burning alive; to this cruel ordeal Huss was sentenced by the magistrates of Constance, and suffered on the 16th of July, in 1415. About a year after this event, Jerome of Prague was con- demned for obstinately maintaining the doctrines of Huss, and was executed in a similar manner. 20. In 1439, the last re-union of the Greek with the Latin church took place, at the council held at Florence. After the great point in dispute, namely, the procession of the Holy Ghost, had been regularly discussed, the Greeks frankly acknowledged that the Latins had proved their point. A decree was accordingly made out, which once more united the churches of Rome and Constantinople in one fold and under one pastor, and was first signed by the pope and Latin fathers, then by the Greek emperor and all his bishops, except Mark, the metropolitan of Ep he sits. This memorable event, which had been so well conducted, afforded every well grounded hope that the orthodox faith would once more diffuse its rays over the provinces of the East. But from the unsteady character of the Greeks, little could be expect- ed; the union, after enjoying a precarious existence for a few Of Benedict? Who was elected by the council?— 19. What is said of th^ -/vrmnaft of Wickliffe? Being- cited before thecouncil, what did he do? Why was he sent tc »he Dominican Convent? Of what was he convicted? AVhut punishment was in- flicted by the Germanic law? When did Huss sutler ? Who else was condemned ?— 20. In 1430, what took place ? What decree was made out, and bv Wi.om was u signed i Wha- did this event afford? In 1452, what took place; 380 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. years, **as severed for ever. In 1452 a genera, revolt took place, and threw every thing into confusion; the monks, the clergy, a part of the laity and the senate, rose tumultuously at once, pro- claimed the union at an end, and from that moment removed all communion with the Latin church. SECTION III. The Reformation, Ji. I). 1517. 1. Amidst the various circumstances which continued to awaker the jealousies and direct the interests of the rival monarchs ot Europe, the bishop of Rome was often compelled to act in the two-fold capacity, as a temporal prince and as the spiritual head of the Christian world. Unhappily the obligations annexed to his character, as head of the church, obligations which had no other object than the interest of religion and the general peace of all Christendom, were sometimes, by a dereliction of duty incident to human nature, made subservient to selfish or political ends. The sovereign pontiffs, moreover, enjoyed extensive privileges, which excited the murmurs of many of the clergy, and contributed materially to weaken the papal jurisdiction, particularly in the West, where it had numerous and formidable adversaries. 2. In this state of things, Leo X. was called to fill the pontifical chair. Julius, his predecessor, had formed the design of erecting a church in Rome in honor of Sf. Peter, which in extent and magnificence would be worthy of the capital of the Christian world. This noble design suited the lofty genius of Leo. But finding the sum in the treasury insufficient for the completion of the work, he resolved to appeal to the generosity of the faithful at large; and in order to encourage their gratuitous offerings, he published a grant of indulgences to all those who should contribute towards the expense of the edifice, solely designed for the honor of God. An indulgence accordingly, as I find it defined in several stan- dard Catholic works,* " is a relaxation of the temporal punish- ment which still remains due to sin, after its guilt has been re- mitted by the sacrament of penance." 3. In the publication of these indulgences and in the collection of the contributions of the faithful, many abuses are alleged to have been committed by those appointed for that purpose. On similar occasions, when a crusade or the like was to be put in motion, the Augustm friars were usually appointed to announce it from the pulpit; at this time, however, they had the mortilica- * Poor Man's Catechism. Catholic Christian Instructor. 1. How was too bishop of Rome often compelled to act? What did they enjoy? 2- Who was called to fill the pontifical chair? What design had his prcdeeessoi Jormcd? What did Leo resolve and publish? What is an" indulgence?- 3. In tnt publication ol" these indulgences, what are allcdged? On similar occasions who were appointed ? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 381 tion to see the Dominicans preferred before them. This circum- stance tended materially to pique the Augustinians, and led them to reprobate, in the most pointed manner, the misconduct of the members of a rival order. The most conspicuous of those who publicly denounced the abuses committed by the Dominicans, was Martin Luther, doctor and professor in the University of Wittemberg. In the warmth of his invectives, Luther passed from the abuses, to contest the efficacy of the indulgences them- selves. The University over which he presided, and the electoi of Saxony espoused his interest. The dispute was maintained for some "time with much earnestness between the papal commis- sioners and the divines of Frankfort. 4. In the mean time, his doctrine, which now began to excite universal attention, was announced to his holiness at Rome. Leo, in 1520, published a bull in which he proscribed the opinions of Luther, and called on him to retract his errors and to burn his writings, and placed him under the censure of excommun. cation unless he should comply within a given time. Luther at first determined to appeal from the pope to a general council, but being protected by the elector of Saxony, he resolved to pursue a more decided course. Finding himself excommunicated and his opinions condemned, he no longer observed any restraint, but publicly burnt the papal bull in the preserve of a vast assemblage of the people in the city of Wittemberg, and from that moment renounced the authority of the pontiff. 5. This circumstance tended materially to advance his cause. The people on a sudden lost that reverential awe which had for- merly impressed them for every thing proceeding from the Roman pontiff, and also the confidence which they had always reposed in the efficacy of indulgences. Luther, perceiving that his doc trines had caused considerable ferment in the empire, thought prudent to withdraw for some time from public view. He retired to a castle belonging to his protector, the Duke of Saxony. In this retreat he digested his system of reform. Having already renounced the papal supremacy, he next rejected transubstantia- tion, the sacrifice of the mass, purgatory, and the utility of pray- ers for the dead; also the invocation and intercession of the saints, and finally, monastic vows, celibacy of the clergy, and the. merit of good works. 0. At the solicitation of the pope and the princes of Germany, Charles V., who had lately succeeded to the imperial throne, assembled a diet at Worms in 1521, for the purpose of taking some measures relative to the new doctrines. Luther, without being the least intimidated by the late censures fulminated against him, appeared before the assembly, boldly defended all that he had done or written, and in conclusion declared that his con- science would not permit him to make the least retraction what Who was the most conspicuous, &c? In the -warmth of his invectives, what Jid Luther do 7 — 4. In the mean time, what took place- In 1520. what did Leo publish 1 What did Luther at first determine? What did he publicly do? — 5. What is said of the people? Where did Luther retirt ? What did he reject?— 6. In 152', what was done? What is said of Luther before his assembly? 382 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. ever. An imperial edict was passed, which ordered his writings to be burnt, and himself to be placed under arrest. Under these circumstances Luther thought it proper again to withdraw, but the sudden departure of the emperor to Spain rendered the edict ineffectual . 7. Lutheranism, or the Reformation, as it was now called, spread rapidly through the different states of Germany. Fron. Upper Saxony it extended over the northern districts, the princi- palities of Brunswick and Mecklenberg ; it passed into the Pala- tinate, Lunenburg, Magdeburg, and raost ot the towns along the coast of the Baltic, as far as Prussia. In 1530, the Lutheran di- rectors published their confession of faith, in twenty-one articles, which are called the Confession of Augsburg. The following year is distinguished for the famous league ot Smalkald, when the confederate princes of the confession solemnly bound them- selves to support each other in their protest against all compulsory measures that the emperor might adopt against them. From this protest made at Smalkald, those professing the reformed religion nave acquired the appellation of Protestants. 8. At the diet of Augsburg, the princes who had signed the confession, pledged themselves to abide the decision of a general council to be convened by the pope. Accordingly, in 1542, Paul III. convoked a general council to meet at Trent, for the purpose of terminating the religious contests which had so long disturbed the tranquillity of the empire and that of Europe. This celebrated synod was not concluded before the year 1563, at which time the Protestants thought proper not to be ruled by its decrees. In the mean time, a treaty of peace was concluded at Passau, between Charles V. and the princes of Germany, which secured to the Protestants religious toleration and full liberty of conscience. 9. Among those who bore a prominent part with Luther, in the early part of the Reformation, are the names of Calvin, Zirin- glius, Melancthon, Carolostadius, and Beza. \_See Biography.] The Reformation soon extended into Sweden and Denmark, and was firmly established in the city of Geneva, and the Swiss can- tons, by Calvin. It was about this time that Henry VIII., of England, applied for a divorce from Catharine of Arragon; but being disappointed in his application, he renounced the authority of the pope, and assumed the title of the supreme head of the English church. Under his successor, Edward VI., through the instrumentality of Cranmer, the reformed doctrines were effect- ually established in that kingdom. Scotland soon became the theatre of reform, through the preaching of Knox, who had im- bibed the principles of Calvin during his residence at Geneva. 10. While thousands were deserting the ancient faith, the church of Rome beheld with pleasure the formation of a religious What was passed ? — 7. How had the Reformation spread ? In 15H0, what was pub- lished ? For what is the following year distinguished ? How was the appellation ol Protestant acquired ? — 8. At the diet of Augsburg, what did the princes pledge them- selves ? When was the council of Trent convoked and concluded? In the mean time, what was concluded at Passau?— 9. Who bore a prominent part with Luther I What is said of Henry VIII. of England ? Of Scotland ? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 333 society of men, destined to carry the light of Christianity to nations over which the gloom of paganism still prevailed. The founder of this new order was Ignatius of Loyola, born in the year 1491, of a noble family in Spain. On the 15th of August iu the year 1534, Ignatius and nine champions, by ; vow consecrated themselves to God, for the purpose of promoting his service, and procuring the salvation of souls. In 1537, they^repaired to Rome, and made an offer of their services to pope Paul III. The pontiff gave them a gracious reception, applauded their zeal, and in 1540 erected them into a religious order, under the title of the Society of Jesus. To instruct children and the ignorant in the principles and duties of religion ; to assist the faithful in their spiritual wants ; to announce the truths of Christianity to pagan nations, marked the spirit and design of the institution of St. Ignatius. 11. But as these subjects could not be attained without the united force of virtue and learning, the study of the various branches of polite literature, from the first rudiments of grammar to the sub- lime lessons of astronomy, is enjoyed as a sacred duty on the mem- bers of this order. Shortly after the foundation of the society, its members rapidly increased, and in a few years, they had colleges established in various towns of Italy, Portugal, and Spain. St. Francis Xavier, one of the first companions of Ignatius, was sent to carry the light of Christianity to pagan nations of the east. The principal scene of his labor was in the empire of Japan ; from thence he passed over to China, where he died in 1552. So abund- ant were the fruits of his labor, that in the short space of one month, he is said to have baptized with his own hand ten thousand persons. About the time that St. Francis had finished his course in Asia, Joseph Anchieta undertook a similar mission among the Indians of South America. 12. The Reformed churches differ materially from each other in form and in belief ; all, however, take the Bible as the sole rule of faith, and maintain the right of private interpretation. 10. What did the church of Rome behold? Who was the founder of this order? What was done on the 15th of August ? And in the year 1534 ? What did the pontiff do ? What marked the spirit of the institution of Ignatius? — 11. What is enjoined as a sacred duty on the members of this order? What is said of St. Francis Xavier! When did he die ? What is said of the fruit of his labors 1 By whom was a similar mission undertaken in South America?— 12. How do the reformed churches duffer ? APPENDIX. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. Xs Coxgjiess, July 4th, 1776 The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America. Whbjt, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of Nature and of Na-ture's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires thai they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident; — that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, de- riving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that when- ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, thai governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more dis- posed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their nght, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance 01 these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them lo alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain, is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, ail having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. lie has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation, till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to al'end to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the righ- c£ representation in the legislature — a right inestimable lo them, and formidable to tyran s only. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 385 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortahle, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation have returned to the people at large, for their exercise ; the state remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; re- fusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing hi3 assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops amongst us : For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states: For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our consent : For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury : For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences: For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring pro- vince, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves in- vented with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- tection, and waging war against us. lie has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civ- ilised nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizen, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country,to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 33 386 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. He lias excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless In- dian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been an- swered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legis- lature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our migration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acqui- esce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war, in peace friends. WE, therefore, the representatives of the United States of Ame- rica, in general congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly pub- lish and declare, that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connexion be- tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, to- tally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, esta- blish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independ- ent states may of right do. And for the support of this»declara- tion, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. JOHN HANCOCK New-Hampshire. JOSIAH BARTLETT, WILLIAM WHIPPLE, MATTHEW THORNTON. Massachusetts-Be, y. SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY. Rhode-Island, §-c. STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY. Connecticut. ROGER SHERMAN, SAMUEL HUNTINGTON," WILLIAM WILLIAMS, OLIVER WOLCOTT. New- York. WILLIAM FLOYD, PHILIP LIVINGSTON, FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS. New-Jersey. RICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON, FRANCIS HOPKINSON, JOHN HART, ABRAHAM CLARKE. Pennsylvania ROBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN MORTON, GEORGE CLYMER. JAMES SMITH. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 387 GEORGE TAYLOR, JAMES WILSON, GEORGE ROSS. Dclaivare. (LESAR RODNEY, GEORGE READ, THOMAS McKEAN Maryland. SAMUEL CHASE, WILLIAM PACA, THOMAS STONE, CHARLES CARROLL, of Carrollton. Virginia. GEORGE WYTHE, RICHARD HENRY LEE, THOMAS JEFFERSON, BENJAMIN HARRISON, THOMAS NELSON, Jr FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE. CARTER BRAXTON. North Carolina. WILLIAM HOOPER, JOSEPH HEWES, JOHN PENN. South Carolina. EDWARD RUTLEDGE, THOMAS HEYWARD, Jr. THOMAS LYNCH, Jr. ARTHUR MIDDLETON. Georgia. BURTON GWINNETT, LYMAN HALL, GEORGE WALTON CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect anion, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. — SECTION" I. 1. All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vested in a Con- gress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of representatives. SECTION II. 1. The house of representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states ; and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shallbe determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 388 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within the three yeara alter the first meeting ?f the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative, and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New-Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one; Connecticut five ; New-York six; Ntw- Jersey four; Pennsylvania eight; Delaware one; Maryland six; Virginia ten; North-Carolina five ; South-Carolina five ; and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill up such vacancies. 5. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION III. i. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three masses. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacan- cies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legis- lature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appoint- ments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 4. The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The senate shall choc se their other officers, and also a president pro-tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall ex- ercise the office of president of the United States. 6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation, When the president of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States ; but the party con- victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. SECTION IV. 1. The times, places, and manner cf holding elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 389 thereoi out the congress may, at any time, by law, make cr alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. section v. 1 Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and quah fications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute i quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and maybe authorized to compel the attendance of absent mem bers, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may pro- vide. 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg- ment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the f wo houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury ot the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to or returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. SECTION VII. 1. All bills for raising revenues shall originate in the house of repre- sentatives; but the senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives and the senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the presi- dent of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, hs shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, iwo-thinte oi that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But 33* 390 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. In all such cases, the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting Tor and against the bill, shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any biil shall not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays ex ccpted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the congress, by theii adjournment, prevent its return ; in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the senate and house of representatives may be necessary, (except on a question of adjournment,) shall be presented to the president of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the senate and house of representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION" Till. The congress shall have power — 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; to pay tflfc debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States : but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uniforn. throughout the United States : 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United Slates : 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several crates, and with the Indian tribes: 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws od the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States: 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and lo fix the standard of weights and measures : 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States : 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads : 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to theii respective writings and discoveries : 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court: To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations : 10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water: 11. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money co that use shall be for a longer term than two years : 12. To provide and maintain a navy: 13. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces : 14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the unics, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions : 15. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as maybe employea m the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appoint' ment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according tc the discipline prescribed by congress : 16. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of congress - , become the seat o/ CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 391 government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased, by the consent of the legislature of the state in wnich the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other needful buildings: — and, 17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any de- partment or officer thereof. SECTION IX. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dol- lars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state No preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to or from one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made bylaw; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whaterer, from any king, prince, or foreign state. section x. 1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation , grant letters of marque or reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obli- gation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 2. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any im posts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the neat produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the treasury of the United States, and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the congress. No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with an- other state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. SECTION I. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of fouj 392 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. rears, and, together with the vice-president, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the congress; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 3. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the per- sons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the govern- ment of the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the house of representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for president; and if no per- son have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, me said house shall, in like manner, choose the president. But, in choosing the presi- dent, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the vice-president. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the vice-president. No. 3 has been annulled and supplied. 4. The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 5. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office o^ president: neither shall any person be eligible to that office, who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president, and the congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or in- ability, both of the president and vice-president, declaring what officer shall then act as president; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a president shall be elected. 7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation : 9. " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of the president of the United States, and will, to the best of my \ CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 393 ability, preserve, protect, and defend th* conoficu^or. of the United Siates. SECTION IT. 1. The president shaL be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur: and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and con- sent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But the congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of depart- ments. 3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III. 1. He shall, from time to time, give to the congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such mea- sures as he shall judge necessary and expedient: he may, on extraordi- nary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall re- ceive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV. 1. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. SECTION I. I. The judicial power of the United States sha*l be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior: and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. SECTION II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law f his station. He died in 735. Burns, Robert, a celebrated Scotch poet, was born at Ayr, in 1759. He seems to have been a poet by nature ; his poems in the Scottish dialect, are remarkable for their beauty, elegance, and simplicity. They no sooner appeared in print, than he was called from the plough to asso- ciate with men of letters. He died at the age of 39. His death was nastened by intemperance and licentious pleasures. Belisarius, an illustrious general under the emperor Justinian. Ht repeatedly saved the empire by his valor ; even when far advanced in years and scarcely able to wield his sword, he marched against the Huns, who made an irruption into the empire, and defeated them with great slaughter. In return for his many services, the suspicious empe ror deprived him of all his honors, and condemned him to an igno minious confinement, which lasted for several months. It is believed that he again recovered the friendship of the emperor. He died, A. D- 565. Bacon, Rope,, an eminent philosopher, was born in the year 1214, in England, of a respectable family, and became a monk of the Franciscan order. To the comprehensive mind of Bacon, many of the discoveries made by the genius and toil of later ages were known. He was ac- quainted with the structure of the air pump, with laws of optics, and the power of glasses. He gave such a clear description of gunpowder, that it is evident that he was its inventor. His writings amount to above 80 treatises on various subjects, but his chief production is his Opus Ma jus, or Great Work, which he wrote while imprisoned through the jealousy of his enemies. He died at the age of 80. Bacon, Sir Francis, an eminent English philosopher, was born in 1561. His astonishing faculties were early developed, and gained him the favorable notice of Elizabeth. On the accession of James I., he rose to power ; was made attorney-general, keeper of the seals, lord chan- cellor, and finally raised to the peerage. His elevation excited the envy of his enemies, and he was accused of bribery and corruption in the office of chancellor ; in consequence of which he was fined £40,000, and sentenced to imprisonment in the Tower. As an author, his Noiftent Or* ganum Scicntiarum, has immortalized his name. He was the first who taught the proper method of studying the sciences, or rather, to point oat the way in which we •should begin and carry on our pursuit of know- ledge, in order to arrive at truth ; and has been styled the pioneer of nature, and the priest of nature's mysteries. Burke, Edmund, an eminent Irish orator and political writer, was the son of a respectable attorney, at Carlow, where he was born, in 1730 After studying at Trinity College, Dublin, he went to London and entered at the Middle Temple; but without paying any serious attention to *he iaw, he devoted his time principally to literature and politics. His style and arguments as a writer soon attracted notice, and his Essay on tlu BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 401 Sublime, gained for him universal admiration. In 1765, he was sent to parliament, where he combined the character of an elegant wrter with an eminent speaker. During the war of the American Revolution, he exerted all the power of his eloquence against the measures of the British. When the French Revolution broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licentious principles, and with a view of counteract- ing them in England, he published his celebrated Reflections. For some time before his death, he retired from public life. He died in 1797. As an author, his merits are universally acknowledged; he was copious, elegant, and forcible. Buonaparte, Napoleon, was a native of Corsica, where he was born in 1769. The career of this extraordinary man surpassed, in many re* spects, that of every great conqueror who preceded him. In his 27th year, he was raised to the command of the French army; at the age of 30, he caused himself to be elected iirst consul; and in his 35th year, he was proclaimed emperor of France. During the ten years that he possessed the imperial throne, he was the most powerful potentate, not only of his age, but of modern times, and made the world tremble al the terror of his name. He raised to the rank of kings, his three bro- thers, his brother-in-law, and three German electors ; also BernadotU, one of his generals, was raised to the throne of Sweden. He united in his person the three-fold character of conqueror, usurper, and legis- lator. He triumphed over civilized enemies ; legislated in a refined age; and seized upon the scepters of his most powerful rivals. To him France is indebted for an admirable code of laws, in the formation ot which he was the efficient agent. No man ever enjoyed a greater op portunity of benefiting his fellow man than Buonaparte; yet this oppor tunity was cast away, except so far as it suited his insatiable ambition and lust of power, to which he was ready to sacrifice every principle of justice and humanity. He chose to be an Alexander, or a Caesar, rather than a Washington; a subverter, rather than a protector of liberty; a terror and a scourge, rather than a delight and a blessing to mankind. The close of his eventful life, furnishes a most instructive lesson on the instability of all human things, and the vanity of human glory. He died on the island of St. Helena, on the Kill of May, 1821, in the 6th year of his captivity, and 52d of his age. [Fui I he principal events of his life, set Fbajjce,] Caix, the first born of the Human family, was distinguished for his wickedness and for being the first «>f murderers; he killed his brothei Jlbel through jealousy, because his brother's sacrifice was more accept able to the Lord than his own. Nothing is mentioned in scripture of the time or manner of his death. Cato, an illustrious Roman general who took part against Caesar. After the battle of Pharsalia, he returned to Utica; but finding it impos- sible to resist the power of the conqueror, he resolved not to survive (he liberty of his country After supping cheerfully with his friends, he returned to his chamber, and having read Plato's dialogue on the im- mortality of the soul several times, he stabbed himself with his own sword. Ckchops, a native of Egvpt, who led a colony into Greece and laid the foundation of Athens, A. C. 1556. He taught his subjects the cultiva» tion of the olive, and was the first who raised an altar to Jupiter, and offered sacrifices to him. He reigned over the counlryfrr 50 years, and on his dea.'.h he was succeeded by Cranaus. 34* 402 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. Cadmus, a Phoenician who built Thebes, and was the first who intro duced letters into Greece. His alphabet consisted of only sixteen lei ters, to which eight were afterwards added. Cicero, Marcus Tulliits,ihe prince of Roman orators and philosophers, was the son of a Roman knight. His father perceiving his promising abilities, procured for him the most celebrated masters of his time. He served one campaign under Sylla, but on his return to Rome appeared as pleader at the bar, where the greatness of his genius and superior eloquence soon raised him into notice. Having passed through the in- ferior honors of the state, he was at length elevated to the office of consul; and during his administration, he detected and crushed the conspiracy of Catiline. On this occasion he received the thanks of the people, and was styled the father of his country; but his refusal to second the arbitrary measures of Ccesar and Pompey caused his banish- ment; he retired to Greece, but was allowed to return after an absence of sixteen months. After the death of Ccesar, he again espoused the republican party, and thus incurred the hatred of Antony, one of the leading members of the triumvirate, by whose order the illustrious oratoi was assassinated in the 64th year of his age, A. C. 43. Cesar, Caius Julius. This extraordinary man united in his person (he threefold character of warrior, historian, and statesman. Though ambition was his ruling passion, yet he possessed the most splendid en- dowments of genius, and many noble qualities of the heart ; clemency seems to have been his predominant virtue. On passing a small vil- lage among the Alps, on his way to take possession of his government in Spain, before the formation of the triumvirate, he remarked, that "he would rather be the first man in that village than the second man in Rome." He frequently made use of this verse of Euripides : " That if right and justice were ever te be violated, they were to be violated for the sake of reigning." In his military career, he was probably never surpassed. He was so much the idol of his troops, that in any impor- tant conjuncture, his lieutenant could say nothing more impressive to them than, " Soldiers, imagine that Caesar beholds you !" He fought no less than fifty battles, in which 1,192,000 men are said to have been slain. In the midst of his military enterprises, he found time to become the author of several works, of which only the memoirs of his wars are now extant; these are much admired for their elegance as well as the cor rectness of style. As an orator, he would have rivalled Cicero had he devoted himself to the bar; he spoke with the same spirit with which he fought. He was assassinated in the senate house in the 56th year of his age, A. C. 44. [For his achievements, see Rome.] C owper, William, a celebrated English poet, was born in the year 1730. In the early part of his life, he was afflicted with a distressing melancholy brought on by serious reflection on religious subjects; on one occasion he even attempted his life. He did not become an author antil the age of 50 years. The first volume of his poems appeared in 1782, and the second volume in 1785. His most admired work is his Task, which abounds with beauty of sentiment, combined with harmony and sweetness of style. Cowper died in 1800; aged 70. Calvin, Joan, a coadjutor of Luther in the Reformation, was born ai N'oyon, in Picardy, July 10th, 1509. He spent most of his active life at Geneva, where he filled the chair of professor of divinity, and warmly espoused the cause of the Reformation. He died in 1564. Cobbett, William. This distinguished man was born in England BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 403 in the year 1762, of humbJe parentage, and possessed but few advan- tages for education. In early life, he followed the profession cf arms as a common soldier, but employed his leisure moments in atten- tive reading. He soor. emerged from this situation, and appeared in public as a bold and elegant writer. The general characteristics of his style are purity, perspicuity and masculine vigor; frequently eloquent,, but often attended with a strain of torturing sarcasm, contemptuous jocularity and fierce invective. Cobbett is by far the most voluminous writer who has lived for centuries. He died in 1835. Copernicus, Nicholas, an eminent astronomer and the discoverer of the true system of the universe, was born at Thomc,m Prussia. He early devoted himself to the study of mathematics, applied his knowledge to an examination of the different theories respecting the universe; and after twenty years of profound investigation, he arrived at this impor- tant truth, that the sun is placed in the centre of the universe to illumi- nate and control the whole system. For various reasons he concealed this great discovery for thirty years. At length, through the importuni lies of his friends, he consented to have his work published; as soon as completed, a copy of it was brought to him, and in a few hours after- wards he was seized with a violent effusion of blood, which terminated his life in the 70th year of his age, A. D. 1543. Columbus, Christopher, an eminent navigator, and discoverer of Ame- rica, was born at Genoa in 1442. At the age of fourteen he entered on a seafaring life, and after a variety of adventures, he went to Lisbon, where he married the daughter of Pcrestrello, a navigator of considerable eminence, whose journals were peculiarly beneficial to Columbus. At this period the attention of the Portuguese was directed towards finding a passage to the East Indies; this they expected to attain by doubling the Cape of Good Hope, and then sailing towards the East. Inflamed by the desire of accomplishing so noble an enterprise, the active mind of Columbus, after attentively comparing the observations of modern pilots with the conjectures of the ancients, at length concluded, that by sailing directly west from Europe across the Atlantic, new countries, which he supposed to form a part of Asia, must infallibly be discovered. The spherical figure of the earth was known, and its magnitude ascer- tained with some degree of accuracy; and Sir John Mandeville had even demonstrated that it might be circumnavigated. Convinced of the correctness of his theory, Columbus was anxious to test it by experi- ment. At length, after many delays, he obtained assistance from Isa- bella, queen of Spain, and on the 3d of August, 1492, sailed on his voyage of discovery. On the 1 1th of October, the same year, he came in sight of an island, to which he gave the name of St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas; he also discovered Cuba and St. Domingo, which he called Hispaniola, and returned in May of the following year. He maae three other voyages to the New World, in the last of which he was ship- wrecked on the coast of Jamaica. Here for a time he obtained astonish- ing command over the Indians by predicting an eclipse of the moon. He died shortly after his return to Spain, at Valladolid, in th ? 70th year of his age, A. D. 1506. [For further particulars, see America] Dido was the daughter of Bclus, king of Tyre. Her husoand was murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Belus. The disconsolate princess, with a number of Tyrians, set sail in quest of a settlement. A storm drove them upon the coast cf Africa, where they founded the Ciiy of Carthage. Her beauty and the fame of her enterpr.se, gained 404 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. ncr many admirers; her subjects wished to compel her to marry the ting of Mauritania, but she killed herself rather than enter into a matri- monial alliance with one for whom she could entertain no affection. Drydkv, John, a celebrated English poet, was born in the year 1631. He first exhibited his poetical powers in an eulogium on Oliver Crom- well ; and this was followed, in 1GG0, by a poem, " on the happy return and Restoration of his sacred majesty, Charles II." On the accession of James II., he became a Roman Catholic, and was continued in the appointment of Poet Lavrcat, which he had held under Charles. After the revolution, he was deprived of all his honors, and from that time until his death, he was obliged to rely for subsistence on the immediate profits of his poetical productions. His Ode on S-t. Cecilia's Day, his translation of Virgil, Juvenal, and Perseus, are lasting proofs of his poetical genius. His style is flowing and musical, at the same time grand and energetic. He died in the year 1700. Dkmostiiknks, the prince of orators, was born at Athens. His early education Avas much neglected, through the treachery of his guardians, who squandered away his property. Perhaps no individual ever aspired to the art of oratory with more impediments to overcome than Demos- thenes; and no one ever attained to a higher excellence in that art. besides an impediment in his speech, he had a weak voice, accom- panied with a shortness of breath; the movements of his body, more- over, were most ungraceful. That he might remedy the imperfection m his speech, he accustomed himself to declaim with pebbles in his mouth; and in order to strengthen his voice and lungs, he frequently harangued on the sea shore, where the agitation of the waves caused him to exert his utmost strength, that he might be heard above the noise, and at the same time served to give him an idea of the commotion of popular assemblies; and finally, he corrected the awkwardness of his gesture, by speaking before a mirror, and by taking lessons from the most accomplished comedians. That he might apply himself more to his studies, he retired to a cave, and shaved one half of his head, so that he could not decently appear abroad. Having thus qualified him self, he came forth from his retreat, and presented himself before the public. His great abilities as an orator soon placed him at the head of the government, where he exerted all the powers of his eloquence against the ambitious designs of Philip, king of Macedon. His orations against that prince, are called Philippic?, a name since applied to all satirical productions. On the death of Alexander, Demosthenes or.ue more endeavored to rouse his countrymen to an effort for the recovery of their liberty; the attempt was ineffectual, and Athens was obliged to purchase peace by the sacrifice of ten of her public speakers. Demos thenes, to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies^ suffered a volun tary death by taking poison, in the 60th year of his age, A. D. 322. Eve, the name of the first woman; she was formed by the Creator of a rib taken from the side of Adam, while in a deep sleep; thus slu became the "bone of his bones, and the flesh of his flesh," and was given to him as his wife. She was the first transgressor; being deceived by Satan in the form of a serpent, she eat of the forbidden fruit, and offered it to her husband, who also followed her example. In punish- ment for this offense, she was banished from Paradise with Adam, and subjected to all the miseries that have since afflicted the human family. Euripides, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, was born at Salamis A.s a poet, he is peculiarly ha**py in expressing the passions of love, BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 405 particularly the more tender and animated; his thoughts are sublime, and his productions abound with many moral reflections. He spent the latter days of his life at the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia. His end was tragical; in one of his solitary walks, he was attacked and devoured by the hounds of the king, in the 78th year of his age, A. D. 407 Euclid, the greatest mathematician of antiquity, was born at Alex- andria, and flourished near 300 years before the Christian era. His writings were numerous; but his 15 books on the elements of mathe- matics, which consist of problems and theorems, with demonstrations,* nave acquired an imperishable fame, and have suffered but little altera- tion to the present lime. Franklin, Benjamin. This distinguished philosopher and discoverei of electricity, was born at Boston, in 1706. In youth, he was appren- ticed to an uncle in the printing business. As his occupation allowed him but little time for study, he supplied the deficiency by carefully reading at night the works which he had printed during the day, and by this means soon acquired extensive information. He was a member of the American Congress during the eventful period of the Revolution^ As a public negotiator, he effectually secured the honor and interest of the country. He died in 1790, while governor of Pennsylvania,at the advanced age of 84 years. His discoveries in science have associated his name with that of Newton. He is the father of that branch of phi- losophy, which explains the laws of the electric fluid, and the utility of lightning rods will for ever point to him as a temporal benefactor of tho human race. Gibbon, Edward, an eminent English historian, was born at Putney. in 1737. His most important work is his "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," which he completed after twenty years' labor. It is an elaborate production and generally accurate. In principle, he was a decided skeptic and unbeliever; he wrote with a view of establishing his principles ; hence throughout his works the seeds of infidelity are widely disseminated, a fact which renders his productions higMy danger- ous to the uncautious reader. He scoffs at Christianity, and rndeavors to turn it to ridicule whenever an opportunity offers. He died of the dropsy in 1794. Galilko, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. He embraced the Copernican system, which he en- deavored to establish from the Bible. For thus attempting to blend hi3 astronomical theories with the sacred writings, he was summoned be- fore the tribunal of the inquisition at Rome. Some years after this, lie published his Dialogues and Memoirs, in which he again endeavored to raise the system of the rotation of the earth to the dignity of a dogmati- cal tenet. Being again cited before the tribunal at Rome, he was lodged in the palace of Tuscany, and for a short time in the apartment of the attorney-general. After having received his sentence and made his recantation, Galileo obtained permission to visit his native country, where he died at the advanced age of 78 years. Goldsmith, Oliver. This eminent poet, historian, and miscellaneous writer, was born in Ireland in 1729. He made a tour through Europe on foot, and supported himself by playing on the flute. Having at length returned to London, he commenced his literary career The publication of The Traveller, in 1765, obtained for him a high poeti. cal celebrity, with many distinguished friends. The Pevericd HY/agc, 406 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. die most admired of his poetical productions, was published in 1769. His comedies, The Good-natured Man, and She Stoops to Conquer, are also much admired. His History of Rome, History of England, and History of Animated Nature, with the Vicar of Wakefield, are among his principal works. He died in the 46th year of his age. His life and character were eccentric, but interesting. Generosity, carelessness, and impru- dence, were the distinguishing features of his disposition. His prodi gality always kept him in poverty. Sweetness of fancy and tenderness of feeling are the peculiar features of his poetry. His expression is natural and idiomatic, yet in the highest degree select and refined. Guttenberg, John, the inventor of the art of printing. It has been contended that Lewis Coster, of Haarlem, invented the use of move- able type ; but it seems that opinion is without foundation, and that the art of printing, as practiced at present, was discovered by Guttcnbcrg, of Mayence, about the year 1438, although it was several years after this period, before the art was brought to any perfection. In 1450, Gut- tenberg entered into partnership at Mayence, with John Fust. It was about this period, that the method of casting the character in metal was discovered. This improvement is supposed to have been made by Schgeffer, who assisted them at this time. The first printers carried their types about in bags, and printed small pamphlets and the like. The first entire book issued from their press, was the Psalter in Latin, printed at Mentz, in 1457, of which there are two copies yet extant, one in the imperial library at Vienna, the other purchased by Louis XVIII. of France, for the sum of 12,000 francs. A complete edition of the Bible, in Latin, was printed m two folio vols., at Mentz, in the year 1462. From this epoch, the progress of typography was rapid, and before the close of the fifteenth century, various editions of the Bible, with a vast number of other works, were published in different parts of Europe. Homer was not only the greatest of the Greek poets, but also the earliest, whose works have survived the devastations of time. He is regarded as the most ancient of all profane classical writers. The place of his nativity is unknown; several cities claim the honor of having given him birth. Little is known of his parentage, or his circumstances of life ; but it is generally agreed that he was a wandering poer, and that he was blind, at least towards the close of his life. His greatest poems are the Iliad and Odyssey. The Arundelian marbles fix the period m which he flourished at 907, before the Christian era. Herodotus, a celebrated historian, was born at Halicarnassus, and is styled the father of history. His most celebrated work describes the wars of the Greeks against the Persians, from the age of Cyrus to the battle of Mycale. His style abounds with elegance, ease, and sweetness. Hippocrates, styled the father of medicine, was born in the island of Cos. He devoted his whole attention to medical applications ; his writings, a few fragments of which remain, procured him the epithet of divine. He died at the age of 99 years, A. C. 361. Hesiod, an eminent Greek poet, who is supposed to have flourished about the time of Homer. His greatest production is a poem on agri- culture whbh contains many moral reflections, mingled with instruc- tion for cultivating the fields. His Theogony, another poem, gives a faithful description of the gods of antiquity. So partial were the Greeks fo his moral pro\ Samuel, an eminent lexicographer, critic, aril e'-SRy'st, u r as 408 BIOGRArHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. born at Iiitchfield, 1709. He commenced his education at Oxford, but owing to the insolvency of his father, he was obliged to leave the uni- versity prematurely. Involved in poverty, and without any prospect before him, after trying various expedients to obtain a livelihood, he went to London in quest of employment, in 1737. From this period until 1763, he was engaged in literary labors, under the pressure of poverty and disappointment. On one occasion he was arrested for a debt ol five guineas, from which he was relieved by the kindness of a friend. His first important work, was his celebrated English Dictionary, which he completed in the space of seven years, and for which he re- ceived only the sum of £1575. The Rambler, and The Lives of Poets, are among some of his principal productions. He died in 1784, aged 75 years. Jefferson, Thomas. This eminent statesman was born at Shadwell, Virginia, in 1743. He was elected a member of the continental Con- gress in 1775, and was one of the committee appointed to draw up the Declaration of Independence, which document, with a few alterations, was his own composition. In 1801, he was elected to the office of President of the United States, and after serving to the expiration of his second term, he retired from public life to his seat at Monticello, where he died on the 4th of July, 1827. In private life, he was hospitable and agree able in his manners ; in public, the uncompromising, sagacious, ami 'alented leader of the democratic party. Jackson, General Andrew. This distinguished man was born on the 16th of M-arch, 1767, in the Wdu haw settlement, South Carolina. His parents were emigrants from Ireland, and followed the industrious oc- cupation of farming. Andrew, while yet in his infancy, was bereft of nis father, and left with two elder brothers, to the care of a devoted mother. During the war of the Revolution, Jackson, though young, partook largely of the calamities of that eventful period. One of his brothers was slain in the battle of Stono; he himself, with the other brother, was taken prisoner, and carried to Camden. During his cap- tivity, Andrew was ordered, by a British officer, to wipe the mud off his boots, which he peremptorily refused to do, demanding the treatment due to a prisoner of war. The officer, enraged at this refusal, drew his sword and struck at the head of Jackson, who w r a*'ded off the blow with his left hand, but received a wound, the mark of which he carried with him to his grave. His brother, for a similar offense, received a wound upon his head, inflicted by a sword, of which he eventually died. Aftei the war, he turned his attention towards the law, and was admitted to practice at the age of twenty. In 1788, he located himself permanently at Nashville, Tennessee. In 1 796, he was elected one of the members of a convention, assembled to frame a constitution for the state. In the following year he was sent to Congress, and the year after to the Senate of Ihe United States, which situation he shortly resigned, not being satisfied with his political duties at Washington. On his return from Congress, he was appointed one of the judges of the Supreme Court of Tennessee, During the late war he received the appointment of Major General in the regular army, and defeated the British on the 8th of January, 1815, in the me-morable battle of New Orleans. In 1828, lie was elected to the office of President of ihe IJnited States. After the expiration of his second term, he retired again to the repose of th? Hermitage, where he died on the 8th of June, 1845, in the 78lh year of his age. BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 409 Lucmus, an early Roman poet. He is considered as the first great satirical writer among the Romans ; his productions are harsh and in- elegant; of his thirty satires, only a few verses remain. He died at Napies in the 46th year of his age. Lucretius, a Roman didactic poet. He studied at Athens, and im- bibed the tenets of Epicurus. In his poem on the nature of things, he advocates Atheism, and endeavors to establish the mortality of the soul. He is thought to have caused his own death in the 44th year of his age. A. C. 54. Livt, a distinguished Roman historian, who wrote the history of his country in 140 books, of which only 35 are extant. His style is clear and spirited ; his descriptions bold and concise. He died at Padua in the 67th year of his age, A. D. 17. Ltcuiigus, the great Spartan legislator, nourished about the year 884 before the Christian era. He \vas regent of Sparta during the minority of Charilaus, his nephew. After returning from his travels in Asia and Egypt, he framed the celebrated code of laws for his country, which rendered Sparta for so many ages one of the leading states of Greece. Having established bis laws, and engaged the citizens not to alter them until his return, he left his country, and by a voluntary death he rendered their establishment effectual. Locke, John, a celebrated English philosopher, was born in the year 1632. By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situ- ation under government, and wrote at that time several political tracts. His lordship being compelled to retire from England, on a charge of being concerned in Monmouth's rebellion, Locke also removed to Hol- land, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits, but subsequently returned to his native country, and published his Essay on the Human Mind. He died in the year 1704. I Lutheii, Martin, the celebrated reformer, was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 1483. He was designed by his parents for a civilian, but the following awful incident directed his attention towards the church. As he was walking in the fields with a fellow-student, his companion was struck by lightning, and killed by his side. His mind was so much affected by this event, that he formed the resolution of retiring from the world. He accordingly entered into the order of Augustine Friars, at Erfurt. From this place he removed to Wittenberg, being appointed professor of divinity in the University, founded in that city by the elector of Saxony. In 1517, he commenced the Reformation, the particulars of which have been given under the head of the Christian Church. In 1524, he threw aside the monastic habit, and the following year mar- ried a nun ; he had three sons, whose descendants are still respected in Germany. Luther died at his native place in 1546. Methuselah is not known to have been remarkable fcr any thing except his age, having completed 969 years, the oldest of the human race. Mexes, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy, was worshipped as a god after his death. He is supposed to have built the city of Memphis, and is said to have reigned 62 years over Upper Egypt, and 35 over Lower Egypt. Melchisedec. Little is known of this personage. After the return of A-brah am from an expedition against some of the neighboring princes, who had committed depredations on his territory, Melchisedec met an I blessed him. The scrptural account is in the following words: " But 35 410 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. Melchisedec, the king of Salem, bringing forth bread and wine, for he was a priest of the Most High God, blessed him and said: Blessed be Abraham by the Most High God, who created heaven and earth ; and he (Abraham) gave him tithes of all." Moses, the great lawgiver of the Jews. In his infancy he was ex- posed on the banks of the Nile, in a small basket made of rushes ; in this situation he was found by the daughter of Pharaoh, who saved his life, and adopted him as her own child. After having led the Israelites from the land of Egypt, and having given them the divine law at the foot of Mount Sinai, he died on Mount Nebo, at the age of 120 years, after having taken a view of the promised land, A. C. 1447. Milton, John, the greatest of the epic poets of modern time, was born in London, 1G08. As a political writer, he has been much admired, but as a poet he has been justly celebrated as a compeer of Homer and Virgil. His Paradise Lost is the greatest poem which modern ages have produced. Towards the close of his life he became blind; he suffered considerably from personal and political enemies, and finally died comparatively poor and forsaken by the world, A. D. 1674. Montgomery, General, a distinguished officer in the war of the Revo- lution. He fell in an attempt to storm the walls of Quebec. Few men have fallen in battle more regretted on both sides, than General Mont- gomery. He had engaged in the American cause from the purest prin- ciples ; he left the enjoyment of ease and the highest domestic happiness, in Ireland, his native land, to share the toils, the dangers, and the fortunes of a war, undertaken to defend the rights of a community, of which he was only an adopted member. Newton, Sir Isaac, one of the most illustrious and greatest philoso phers and mathematicians that ever lived, was born at Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire, England. Having lost his father at an early period of his life, the utmost attention was bestowed on his education by his* mother. He studied at Trinity College, and at the age of 22 discovered the method of fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved. But his most important discovery was the principle of gravitation. He was led to the investigation of this principle by observing an apple fall from a tree; by inquiring the reason, why it fell to the ground after leaving the stem, in preference to taking any other direction. He died in the 85th year of his age, A. D. 1727. Noah, from whom the earth was a second time peopled, is considered by some as the Chronos of the Greeks. His eminent piety procured for him and his family an exemption from the awful calamity of the deluge. Having built the ark according to the Divine direction, he entered it, taking with him his wife, his three sons, and their wives, together with tne various animals of the earth, and thus under the special care of God, survived the destruction of the world. He died 350 years after the deluge, at the advanced age of 950 years. Nimrod, a great warrior, is the first king we read of in authentic history. Ninus, an Assyrian monarch, who conquered a great part of Asia He married the celebrated Semiramis, to whom he left his kingdom after a reign of 52 years. Orpheus, called the father of poetry, is said to have been the son of Apollo. The power of his music was such, as f ction reports, that at the strains of his lyre, the rivers were stayed in their course, the moun- tains were moved, and the ferocity of wild beas.s subdued. He is said BIOGRAPHY 01- EMINENT PERSONAGES. 411 to have been one of the Argonauts, of which celebrated expedition he Wrote a poetical account; this, however, is doubted; and the poems that pass under his name, are supposed to have been written by a latei author. Orpheus flourished 1284 years before the Christian era. Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet, who flourished during the reign of Augustus, and under a part of the reign of Tiberius. The most of his poems are s'ill extant; they are characterized by sweetness and ele- gance, thougn often debased by indelicate expressions. Ossian, a Caledonian bard. He is supposed, to have flourished in the fourth century, and to have been the son of Fingal. He wrote in Gaelic; and poems that go by his name, translated by Macphcrson, are marked by a simple and sublime wildness. Plutarch, an eminent biographer. His principal works are his Lives of Illustrious Men. Having travelled through Egypt and Greece in quest of knowledge, he returned to Rome, where he opened a school with great reputation. He enjoyed the special favor of the emperor Trajan, and after the death of his patron, he retired to his native place Chceronea, where he died, A. D. 140. Pindar, a Grecian lyric poet, was a native of Thebes. His compo- sitions were universally admired, and his hymns were repeated in the temples, at the celebration of the festivals ; his odes, which have sur- vived the wreck of time, are greatly admired for their grandeur of ex- pression, magnificence of style, and harmony of numbers. Pindar died at the age of 86, A. C. 435. Phidias, a Grecian, the most famous sculptor of antiquity, was born at Athens. His statue of Jupiter Olympius passed for one of the wonders of the world. That of Minerva, in the Pantheon of Athens, measured 39 feet in height, and was made of gold and ivory. He died A. C. 432. Polybius, a learned historian, who wrote the history of the Greeks and Romans. He fought against the Romans in the war of Perseus, and being made prisoner he was brought to Rome, where he was befriended by the younger Scipio. He was present at the siege of Carthage, and after the destruction of that city, he retired to Megalopolis, where he died in his 82d year, A. C. 124. Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher, was born at Samos. He travelled through Egypt and other countries, and finally settled at Crotona, where his universal knowledge gained him many friends and admirers. The world is indebted to him for the demonstration of the 47th proposition of Euclid, respecting the square of hypothenuse. The time and placo of his death are unknown. Pt ato, an eminent Grecian philosopher, called the Divine, was for eight years the pupil of Socrates. He taught in the grove of Academus, near Athens, where he was attended by a crowd of noble and illustrious pupils. His works are numerous, and generally in the form of dia- logues. The ancients, and even the learned of modern times, have admired and studied the writings of this great philosopher. They dis- play great depth of thought, with elegance and harmony of expression. Among other truths, he maintains, by many powerful arguments, the immortality of the soul. He died in the 81st year of his age, A. C. 348. Pliny, the elder, wis born at Verona, of a nobie family; he is the earliest writer on natural history, whose works are extant. To his public duties he attended through the day, but devoted himself to study during a portion of the night. His work on Natural History was com prised in 37 books. He is said to have written 160 volumes of remarks 412 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. and annotations on various authors, but these have not survived the wreck of time. His iove of knowledge cost him his life. During an eruption of Vesuvius, he was induced to approach '.he mountain, foi the purpose of making his observations on this interesting phenomenon While thus employed, he was overtaken by the burning lava and per- ished, A. D. 79. Pope, Alexander, an eminent English poet, was born in Loncon in 1688. At the age of twenty, he published his Essay on Criticism, a pro- duction which evinces all the reflections of a more mature age. The Temple of Fame, Rape of the Lock, the Dunciad, and Essay on Man, are among his most celebrated productions. His translation of Homer's Iliad is still read and universally admired. In person, Pope was dimi- nutive and somewhat crooked. In disposition he was fretful, but his manners were easy, and his wit fascinating. He died in his native city, at the age of fifty-six years. Pitt, William, a distinguished statesman and orator, was earl of Chatham, and born in the year 1708. — Being elected to Parliament at the age of twenty-seven, he was soon distinguished for his eloquence, and early enlisted in the ranks of the opposition. In 1756, he was ap- pointed Secretary of State, but his continuance in office was of shorl duration. His popularity, however, was with the mass of the nation, and he was recalled to the Secretaryship in 1757. He deprecated, with all the power of his eloquence, measures relating to the American war, in the House of Lords. His constitution was at this time so enfeebled that on one occasion, as he rose to speak, he fell into a swoon, and died m a few days, in the seventieth year of his age. As an orator and statesman, he is perhaps unrivalled in modern times ; the music and majesty of his voice, the gracefulness of his action, the power of his eye, carried conviction with his arguments. It is said that Walpole, the minister, though supported by a decided majority, never heard his voice in the House of Commons without being alarmed. Quintiliax, an eminent rhetorician, was a native of Spain. After twenty years employed in teaching rhetoric, and pleading at the bar at Rome", he retired from public life, and devoted himself to composi- tion. His institutions, in twelve books, form the most perfect system of oratory extant. He died A. D. 95. Romulus, the founder, and the first king of Rome, was the son of Rhea Sylvia, and born at the same birth with Remus. He was distin guished as a legislator, though his institutions were almost exclusively of a warlike tendency. We are fabulously told, that he was taken up to heaven whilst reviewing his army, although it is generally believed that he was killed by the senators. The Romans paid divine honors to him under the name of Quirinus. Raphael, an eminent painter, was born a Urbino, in 1483. By stu dying the best masters in painting, he soon rose to eminence, and merited the appellation of the divine Raphael. He also excelled as an archi- tect, and was employed in the building of St. Peter's at Rome. By the general consent of mankind, he was acknowledged as the greatest of painters ; he excelled particularly in beauty and grace. He died at the age of thirty-seven ; his death is said to have been hastened by intern perate habits. Rousseau, John James, was born at Geneva in 1712. He was of a weakly constitution, but his mind was strong and active, and the early reading of Plutarch and Tacitus tended to expand his ideas, and to in- BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 413 spire him with courage, The ugh equally skeptical with Hume and Voltaire, yel he quarrelled with the former, who had been his proteccoi in England, and incurred the displeasure of the latter, for maintaining the immoral tendency of the stage, although he himself had written fci it. He dieu at his native place, Geneva, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. His works prove him to have been a man of transcendent genius, but at the same time exhibit the utmost eccentricity, joined with licen- tiousness ana skepticism. He has been called the Diogenes of modern times. Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, the cotemporary and rival of Euripides, was born about 497, A. 0. Towards the close of his life, being accused of insanity by his children, who wished to obtain his possessions, the poet composed and read his tragedy of (E dip us, and then asked his judges whether the author of such a performance could be insane ; he was immediately acquitted, to the confusion of his ungrateful offspring. He died in his ninety-first year, of excessive joy, on hearing that he had obtained a poetical prize at the Ol3'mpic games. Socrates was a native of Athens. In early life he followed the pro fession of his father, who was a statuary; he also for some time fol- lowed the profession of a soldier. But he is far more distinguished as a philosopher and moralist, than as a warrior. He was remarkable for the mildness of his disposition, and acquired that serenity of mind, and firmness of countenance, which the most alarming dangers could not destroy, nor the most sudden calamities alter. He inculcated the purest principles of morality, and supported the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. Being accused by his enemies on a false charge of corrupt- ing the youth of Athens, he was condemned to death ; accordingly, he drank the juice of the hemlock, and calmly expired in the seventieth year of his age, A. C. 401. Solox, the great Athenian legislator, and one of the wise men of Greece, was born at Salamis, and educated at Athens. Having been elected archon, he reformed every department of the government. He instituted the Areopagus, regulated the Prytaneum, and his laws con- tinued to flourish for near four hundred years. He died in the eigh- tieth year of his age, A. C. 558. Sappho, a celebrated Greek poetess, and inventor of the Sapphic »rerse,was born in the island of Lesbos, about six hundred years before the Christian era. She was celebrated for her poetical talents and beauty. Her poems were much admired for their sublimity, harmony, sweetness, and elegance ; but of all her productions only a few frag- ments are now extant. Solomox, the wisest of mankind, was the son of David, king of Israel. The early part of his life was distinguished for exemplary piety, but he afterwards fell even into idolatry. He married m less than one thousand wives, seven hundred of whom held the title of queens. It is believed that he repented before his death. The temple which he built at Jerusalem rendered his name memorable. He wrote the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastcs, and Canticles. He died in the fifty eighth year of his age, and fortieth of his reign, A C. 975. Semiramis, a female conqueror, celebrated for htr beauty, and heroic mind. In her infancy, she is said to have been exposed in the desert, but her life was preserved a whole year by doves. After the death of her husband, Ninus. the Assvrian monarch, she assumed the reins of 35* 414 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. government, and immortalized her name by enlarging and embellishing the city of Babylon. She also extended her dominions by the conquest of a part of Ethiopia; but her greatest and last expedition was directed against India. Having advanced to the banks of the Indus, she crossed the river with her army, after a sanguinary contest, on a bridge of boats, but was finally defeated, and fled with precipitation to her own dominions. Having discovered that her son had entered into a con- spiracy against her, she abdicated the throne in his favor, and died after a reign of forty-two years. Samson, one of the Judges of Israel, was endowed with extraordi- nary strength. On one occasion he slew one thousand Philistines with the jaw bone of an ass. The secret of his strength, which lay in his hair, was at length discovered by his wife Delilah, who treacherously cut oft" his hair while he was asleep, and thus rendered him powerless. In this slate he was taken by his enemies, who deprived him of his sight, and retained him a prisoner. In the mean time his hair increased and with it his strength also returned. On a certain occasion, as the Philistines were holding a festival in the temple of Dagon, Samson was brought in for their amusement; but by an effort of his strength, he pulled down the pillars supporting the edifice, and perished with three thousand of his enemies in the general ruin. Sthabo, a celebrated geographer and historian, was a native of Amasia, and died A. D. 25. His geographical work, in seventeen books, is the only one now remaining. It is written in Greek, and is justly considered an elegant and classical production. Skxeca, Lucius, a celebrated moralist and philosopher, was born at Cordova, in Spain. He became early distinguished for his abilities, and acquired considerable eminence for his eloquence in pleading at the bar. He was intrusted with the education of Nero, and while the young emperor was guided by the counsels of his illustrious preceptor, he governed with universal approbation. But at length becoming im- patient of the restraint imposed on his vicious inclinations, he pre- tended that Seneca had conspired with Piso against his life, and sent a messenger to inform him that he must die; permitting him at the same time to choose the manner of his death. The philosopher received the mandate with cheerfulness, and ordered the veins of his legs and arms to be opened ; but as the blood flowed extremely slow, his life was at length terminated by warm vapor, in the seventy-second year of his age, A. D. 65. Sailust, a Roman historian. He was a man of depraved and licen- tious manners. Of his Roman history, the conspiracy of Catiline and the wars of Jugurtha are the only portions extant. He died in the fifty-first year of his age, A. C. 35. Sheridan, Richard Brinslcy. This celebrated wit, statesman, and orator, was born in the city of Dublin, in 1751. At an early age, he married Miss Linley, a beautiful young lady; but he did not obtain her without some difficulty, being obliged to fight two duels, with a Captain Matthews, on her account. On the conclusion of Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachment of Mr. Hastings, the whole assembly, members, peers, and strangers, in Westminster Hall, joined in a tumultuous burst of applause. A motion was immediately made to adjourn, m order that the members might recover from the effect of his overpowering elo- quence. Sheridan undermined his constitution by intemperance, and died in needy circumstances. BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 415 Spftvseh, Edmund, an eminent English poet, flourished during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by whom he was employed for some time in public life. His most celebrated production is his Vairij Queen. He, died at London, in 1598. Shakespeare, William, the greatest of the dramatic poets, was born in England, in the year 1564. He came to London at an early ag*, and first enlisted among the players and became an actor on the stage. He, however, shortly afterwards applied himself to dramatical writing, and soon gained a universal reputation. Towards the close of his life, he retired to his native place, where he died in the 53d year of his age, A. D. 1617. As a writer of plays, he has never been surpassed; he is admired for the beautv, elegance, and simplicity of his style. His writ- ings, however, are irequently interspersed with blemishes and moral defects. Swift, Jonathan, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose writer, was born in Ireland in 1667. About the year 1694, he took orders as a minister in the church of England, and as dean of St. Patrick's in Dub- lin. After the accession of Queen Anne, he became deeply engaged in political controversy, and wrote some able political works. He died in 1745. Among other works, he was the author of Gulliver's Travels and Tale of a Tub. Swift was eccentric in the extreme ; he delighted to differ from all other men, on those subjects in which all others agreed. Though married, he was never known to be in the company of his wife except in the presence of a third person. Whether he really believed in the truth of Christianity, is a subject of doubt. Tiiales was born at Miletus in Ionia. He was distinguished for his high attainments in philosophy, geometry, and astronomy. He was the first who calculated the solar eclipse, and the founder of the Ionic sect of philosophy. He died at the age of 96 years, A. C. 548. Theocritus, a pastoral poet, who flourished at Syracuse, A. C. 282. A few fragments of his poetical compositions, written in the Doric dialect, are yet extant, and admired for their beauty, elegance, and sim- plicity. He is said to have written several invectives against Hicro, king of Syracuse, by whose order he was put to death. Viiigil, an illustrious Roman poet, was born in a village near Mantua, about 70 years before the Christian era. Having lost his farm in the distribution of the lands to the soldiers of Augustus, he repaired to Rome and procured the restoration of his property through the influence of Mecrenas. His most celebrated writings are his Bucolics, Geo'gics, and the JEneid. He enjoyed the particular friendship and patronage of Au- gustus. He died at Brundusium in the 51st year of his age, A. C. 19. Varro, a learned Roman, who is said to have written no less than 300 volumes; all of which are lost, except two fragments. He died at the age of 88 years, A. C. 28. Voltaire, Marie Francis, an eminent French poet and writer, was born in the year 1694. In early life he evinced superior powers of mind; his fondness for satire, directed against the government, caused his imprisonment in the Bastile, from which he was at length liberated through the influence of the Duke of Orleans. After this event, he de- voted himself more to the composition of poetry. His principal efforts were directed towards the drama ; and his Alzire, Mahomet, and Merope, place him at the head of the dramatic poets of France. He spent much of his time at the court of Frederick II., king of Prussia; but at length fixed his residence in a village on the borders of France. The boldness 416 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. and extravagance of his writings often exposed him to danger, and com* pplled him at different times to retire from it. He Med while on a visit to Paris, in the 84th year of his age. His last moments are said to have been attended with the utmost horror, and dread at the reflection of the irreligious and atheistical tendency of his writings, which have been regarded as one of the agents in bringing about the awful calami- ties that befell France. Washington, George. This illustrious general, patriot, and states- man, was born in the year 173?., in the county of Fairfax, Virginia. He was educated under the care of a private tutor, and distinguished himself for his progress in mathematics and engineering. The prin- cipal events of his life have been already noticed. After the struggle, which procured the Independence of America, he resigned his military command and again retired to the tranquillity of private life. In 1789, he was called by the unanimous voice of his countrymen to fill the high office of President of the United Stales. Having filled that station a second term, or eight years, he declined the honor of being again re- elected, and returned to his peaceful residence of Mount Vernon, where he died after a few days' illness, on the 14th of December, 1799, in the 68th year of his age. The history of his country is the best eulogium of this great man; his most lasting monument, the love and admiration of the world. Washington never had any offspring. In his 27lh year, he married Mrs. Custis ; a lady possessed of every accomplishment that contributes to domestic felicity. At his death, he directed all his ser- vants shoald be emancipated after Mrs. Washington's decease. Xenophon, a celebrated general, historian, and philosopher of Greece He served in the army of Cyrus, the Younger, and chiefly conducted the retreat of the Ten Thousand after the battle of Cunaxa. After this event, he continued the history of Thucydides, wrote the life of Cyrus, the Great, and collected the Memorabilia of Socrates. He died at Corinth in the 90th year of his age, A. C. 350. Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, was a native of Cyprus. The early part of his life was devoted to, commercial pursuits ; but he at length turned his attention towards the study of philosophy, which he afterwards taught at Athens for 48 years, and died at the age of 98, A. U. *64. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF REMARKABLE EVENTS, DISCOVERIES, AND INVENTIONS, FROM TUB CREATION OF THE WORLD TO THE YEAR 1840 B. C. 4004 The Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew tex*. of tho Scriptures. 3875 Cain murders Abel. 3017 Enoch translated to Heaven 2348 Universal Deluge. 2247 The Building of Babel ; the Dispersion of Mankind ; and the Con- fusion of Languages. 2217 Nimrod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded the Baby- lonish Monarchy ; and Assur to have built Nineveh, and foun4ed the Monarchy of Assyria. 2188 Menres (in Scripture Misraim) founds the Monarchy of Egypt 1996 The Birth of Abram. 1897 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by fire from Heaven. 1896 Isaac born. 1836 Jacob and Esau born. 1823 Death of Abraham. 1716 Isaac dies. 1635 Joseph dies in Egypt. 1571 Moses born in Egypt. 1556 Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens. 1546 Scamander founds the kingdom of Troy. 1520 Corinth built. 1493 Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into Greece. 1491 Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt. 1452 The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, written. 1451 The Israelites led into the land of Canaan by Joshua. 1434 Joshua dies. 1207 Gideon, Judge of Israel. 1193 The Trojan War begins. 1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. 1155 Samson born. 1099 Samuel delivers Israel. 1079 Saul, King of Israel 1055 David, King of Israel, begins his reign. 1004 Dedication of Solomon's Temple. 980 Rehoboam and Jeroboam begin to reign over Israel. 955 Abijah, king of Judah, dies, and Asa succeeds him. 914 Jehoshaphat succeeds his father Asa — Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jene- ram, reign over Israel. 869 The City of Carthage built by Dido. 762 The foundation of Rome, by Romulus. 418 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B. C. 724 Hezekiah, tenth king of Judah. 721 Salmanazar takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes into cap tivity, which puts an end to the Israelitish kingdom. 711 Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invades Judea. 708 Habakkuk prophesied. 698 Manasseh, sixteenth king of Judah. 658 Byzantium founded by Pausanias, king of Sparta. 627 The Forty Years of Hezekiah began. 610 Josiah slain. 606 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and carries the Jews into cap tivity. 601 End of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by Nebuchadnezzar 600 Jeremiah prophesied. 599 Birth of Cyrus the Great. 588 The Jewish Capital and Temple are burned to the ground. 572 Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt. 551 Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher, born. 538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian Empire. 536 Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end to the Jew- ish Captivity, which had lasted seventy years. 534 Daniel prophesied. 529 Death of Cyrus the Great. 520 The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which is finished in four years. 508 The first Alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians. 504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians. 490 The Battle of Marathon, in which Miltiades defeats the Persians 488 The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. 486 Xerxes succeeds his father, Darius, in the kingdom of Persia. 485 Coriolanus banished from Rome. 480 The Spartans, under Leonidas, slain at Thermopylae. Naval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians, at Salamis 476 Themistocles rebuilds Athens. A great Eruption at ^Etna. 456 Cincinnatus, Dictator the siege of that town. 1436 Paris recovered by the French from the English. 1439 Reunion of the Greek and Latin churches. 1440 Invention of the art of priming, by John Guttenberg, at Strasbur 1446 Great inundation of the sea in Holland. 1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks. End of the English government in France. 1459 The art of engraving on copper invented. 1460 Battle of Wakefield,"in which the Duke of York is killed. 1474 The Cape de Verd Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Arragon and Casth 1489 Maps and sea charts first brought to England. 1492 America discovered by Christopher Columbus. 1497 The Portuguese, under Vasco de Gama, double the Cape of Go* Hope, and sail to the East Indies. 1497 Sebastian Cabot lands in North America. 150u Brazil discovered by the Portuguese. 1507 Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese. 1514 Cannon bullets of stone still in use. 1517 The Reformation in Germany begun by Luther. 1521 Cortez completes the conquest of Mexico. 1522 The first voyage round the world performed by a ship of Mag ' lan's squadron. 1534 The Reformation in England. 1539 The first English edition of the Bible authorized; the pres< translation finished 1611. — — About this time cannon began to be used in ships. 1539 Six hundred and forty-five religious houses suppressed in Engla and Wales. 1543 Pins first used in England, before which time the ladies us skewers. 1545 The council of Trent, the last of the General Councils, opens a I continues, with various interruptions, for eighteen years. 1552 The book of common prayer established in England by act Parliament. 1553 Lady Jane Grey beheaded. 1560 Beginning of the civil wars in France. The Reformation completed in Scotland by John Knox. 1561 Mary queen of Scots arrives in Scotland from France 1563 Knives first used in England. 1568 Mai/ queen of Scots flees to England for protection. 1569 The earl of Murray, regent of Scotland, assassinated by Hamilt 1572 The massacre of St. Bartholomew, xYugust 24. 1574 Socinus propagates his opinions. — Don Sebastian, king of Portugal, invades Africa. 1576 The League in France formed against the Protestants. 1679 Commencement of the republic of Holland, by the union of Utrc< 36* 426 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A. >>. 15*C The wcrld circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. 1582 The New Style introduced into Italy by Pope Gregory XIII., the T/h of October being counted the 15th. 1584 Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. 1588 Manufacture of paper introduced into England. 1589 Coaches first introduced into England. 1591 University of Dublin erected 1592 Presbyterian church government established in Scotland. 1594 The Bank of England incorporated. i597 Watches first brought into England from Germany. 1G00 The English East India Company established. 1002 Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges. (005 The Gunpowder Plot discovered. 1007 Settlement of Jamestown, Virginia. 1008 Galileo discovers the satellites of Jupiter. Arminius propagates his opinions. Quebec founded. 1010 Hudson's Bay discovered. 1014 Logarithms invented by Napier. New York settled. 1019 Discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey. 1020 The broad silk manufacture from raw silk, introduced into Eng« land. Copper money first introduced into England. Settlement of Plymouth, Massachusetts. 1023 New Hampshire settled. IG24 New-Jersey settled. 1025 The Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement in the West Indies. 1027 Delaware settled. 1033 Connecticut settled. 1034 Maryland settled. 1030 Rhode-Island settled. 1039 The first printing-press established in the American colonics. 1042 Beginning of the civil war in England. 1843 Archbishop Laud condemned by the commons, and beheaded. 1049 Commonwealth of England begins. 1050 North and South Carolina settled. 1051 The Quakers first appear in England. 1052 The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope established. The first war between the English and Dutch. 1054 End of the commonwealth of England. The English, under Admiral Penn, take possession cf Jamaica. 1000 Charles II., king of Great Britain. 1002 The Royal Society instituted in England. 1GG3 Chr.rter of Carolina, and a colony settled soon after. The French Academy of Inscriptions instituted. 1005 Great plague in London. 10GG Tea first used in England. Great fire in London, The Academy of Sciences instituted in France 1 78 The habeas corpus act passed in England 1681 Pennsylvania settled. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 427 A. t» 1685 Duke of Monmouth beheaded. 1G86 The Newtonian philosophy first published in England. Ib88 Revolution in Britain. King James abdicates the throne, Decern ber 23. 1689 Episcopacy abolished in Scotland Dy king William. 1700 Yale College (Conn.) founded. 1702 The English and Dutch destroy the French fleet at Vigo. The French send colonies to the Mississippi. 1703 Gibraltar taken by Admiral Rooke, July 24. 1704 Peter tb*» Great founds St. Petersburg. First newspaper published in America at Boston. 1706 Union between England and Scotland. 1726 Great earthquake at Palermo, August 21. J 727 Inoculation first tried on criminals with success, 1732 Washington born, Feb. 22. 1733 Georgia settled. 1744 Commodore Anson completes his voyage round the world. 1745 Louisburg and Cape Breton taken by the British troops, June C The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, July. 1750 Academy of Sciences founded at Stockholm. 1752 New Style introduced into Britain, September 3 reckoned 14. 1754 Great eruption at ^Etna. Great earthquake at Constantinople and Cairo, September 2. 1755 Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1. 1755 Defeat of Braddock. 1756 War declared between Great Britain and France, May 18. 1759 General Wolfe takes Quebec, in Canada, Sept. 17. 1760 Montreal and Canada taken by the British. 1762 American Philosophical Society established at Philadelphia. 1765 Stamp Act passed. 1775 Battle of Lexington, April 19. Battle of Bunker's Hill in North America, June 17. 1776 The Americans declare their independence, July 4. Battle of Long-Island, August 27. New-York taken, in September. Battle of Trenton, Dec. 25. 1777 Battle of Brandywine, Sept. 11. Philadelphia taken, Sept. 26. Surrender of the British army under Burgoyne, at Saratoga, intl state of New- York, Oct. 17. 1780 Treachery of Arnold, Sept. 22. 1781 Battle of Cowpens, January. Battle of Guilford, March 15. Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8. Surrender of the British army under Cornwallis, to the America and French at Yorktown in Virginia, Oct. 19. 1782 Articles of peace, between Great Britain and the United Stat' signed at Paris, Nov. 30. First English Bible printed in America at Philadelphia. 1788 Constitution of the United States adopted. 1789 George Washington, first President cf the United States, April. ?791 Vermont became a state. First Sunday School in theUnited States commenced at Philadelph 428 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A. D. 1791 Methrdist Missionary Society instituted in England. 1792 Kentucky became a state. Baptist Missionary Society formed in England. 1793 Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette beheaded. 1795 The Cape of Good Hope taken by the British, Sept. 16. 1797 John Adams, President of the United States, March 4. 1798 Ireland in open rebellion, May, June, &c. Admiral Nelson destroys the French fleet in the battle of the Nile August 1. 1799 George Washington dies, Dec. 14. London Religious Tract Society. 1800 Union of Britain and Ireland. 1801 First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Britain and Ireland January. Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States, March 4 1804 British and Foreign Bible Society. 1805 Lord Nelson defeats the combined fleets of France and Spain off Cape Trafalgar, takes or destroys 19 ships of the .ine, and is killed in the battle, Oct. 21. War between England and Spain. 1806 The British Parliament vote the abolition of the slave trade, June 10. 1808 Abolition of the slave trade in the United States of America, Jan. 1 1810 American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions formed incorporated in 1812. 1810 Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 1811 Two hundred buildings and large quantities of goods burnt in Newburyport, Mass. *■• — An unusually large comet appeared, Sept. 1. Richmond theatre burnt, Dec. 26. 1812 War against Great Britain declared by the United States, June 18. General Hull and his army taken prisoners in Canada, August 16. The French army enter Moscow, Sept. 14. British frigate Guerriere captured, August 29. do do Macedonian captured, Oct. 26. do do Java captured, Dec. 29. 1813 Commodore Perry captures the British squadron, on lake Erie, Sept. 10. 1814 Napoleon Buonaparte dethroned, April 4, and banished to the island of Elba, for which he sailed, April 28. City of Washington taken by the British, August 24. British squadron on lake Champlain captured by Commodore McDonough, Sept. 11. Pensacola taken by General Jackson, Nov. 7. — — Treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain, signed at Ghent, Dec. 24. The British repu.sed at New-Orleans, Dec. 28. 1815 The British completely defeated, and General Packcnhain slain at New-Orleans, Jan. 8. United States frigate President taken by a British squadron, Jan. 16 Peace between Great Britain and the United States ratified, Feb ruary 24. American Education Society instituted at Boston. - Battle of Waterloo. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 42$ A. D. 1816 Deaf and Dumb, Society for the instruction of, instituted at Hal ford, Connecticut, June 24. American Bible Society formed. Indiana admitted into the Union as a state. 1817 United States Bank opened for business at Philadelphia, Jan. 1. — American Colonization Society for free blacks organized, Jan. 1 James Monroe, President of the United States, March 4. Mississippi admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 11. 1818 Illinois admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 4. 1818 Commercial treaties concluded between the United States on th one part, and Great Britain and Sweden on the ether. 1819 A tieaty for the cession of Florida to the United States signed a Washington, Feb. 23. First steam-ship sails for Europe, May. Alabama admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 1820 George III., king of England, dies, Jan. 29. George IV. succeeds to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland. Maine admitted into the Union as a state. The American Colonization Society sent out their first colonist. to Liberia. Population of the United States, 9,625,734. 1821 Missouri admitted into the Union as a slate. Napoleon Buonaparte dies at St. Helena, May 5, aged 52. • Elias Boudinot, president of the American Bible Society, dies. 1822 Columbia College established. Massacre of Greeks at Scio. "824 The Marquis de la Fayette visited the United States. American Sunday-School Union instituted at Philadelphia. 1825 John Quincy Adams, President of the United States, Marcb ' American Tract Society instituted at New- York. 1826 The Ex-Presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jeffpr .July 1829 Andrew Jackson, President of the United SU h 4. 1830 An act passed by Congress, to remove tl of the states or territories, to the Fifth census of the United 8t tion, 12,850,240. George IV., kin? t William IV 1836 Formati 1837 Ma 1^41 W. 4, and dies, April Vice ted in his place. Jame Genor War be -ties and Mexico declared, April. General ds the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de Palma e Mexicans, May 8 and 9. Matamordi. ^atten, May 15. Death of Pope Gregory XVI — Election of Pius IX, June. Storming and capture of Monterey, September 21. ' Battle of Buena Vista, in which Santa Anna with 22, COO men is c feated by General Taylor with 5,000, February 23. Vera Cruz surrendered to General Scott, March 29. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 'he Mexicans defeated at Cerro Gordo by General Scott, April 18. Jattles of Contrerae and Cherubuscoj Mexican's again defeated, I August 20. T ffV, . Itorming of Cbapultepec, September 12. **%w Jity of Mexico taken by General Scott, September 14. Sx-President John Quincy Adams died at the capitol at Washing- ton, February 23. •jouis Philip abdicates in favor of the Count of Paris, and escapes to England, February 24. v The regux government abolished and republic proclaimed. insurrection in T ' : enna— the Emperor retires with his court to Inns- pruck, March. Treaty of peace between ttte United States and Mexico, signed at Guadaloupe, November. jeneral Taylor elected President of the United States, and Mr. Fill- more Vice-President, November. 3ount Rossi, the Pope's minister, assassinated on the steps of Senate Chamber, November lf>. ^he flight of the Pope from Home, and escape to Gaeta, November 24. A republic proclaimed at Rome, February. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, declares war against Austria, and is defeated .y Radetski, March. General Taylor inaugurated President of the United States, March 4. Rome taken by the French — the republic abolished, and the autho- rity of the Pope re-established, July 2. Gorgey surrenders to the Russians at Vilagos. End of the Hunga- rian insurrection, August 11. Death cf John C. Calhoun in Washington, March 31. Death f sident Taylor, at the presidential mansion, Washing- ton, July 9. .. ^pez's second invasion of Cuba — is captured and executed, May 19. < d'etat of Louis Napoleon — end of the French Republic. • Pierce elected President of the United States, Nov. * r enry Clay, June 28. ''el Webster, Oct. 24. Tfe-. fi inaugurated, March 4. ^sident, dies April 18. ->ed in the Crystal Palace, New York, July 14. luded between the United States and Japan, ^ch. v a bill, May. >v — England and France form an i. ^ussia, May. Troubi n. - Preside*, "tate of aflairs in Kansas, February ^ _, . _ James Bucha: ,. States, and John C. Breckenridge, President Buchana. Franco-English expeu Franco-Spanish expedite Italian war. Battle of Magenta. Battle of Solferino. Italian revolution. Victor Emmanuel proclaimed King of Italy.