'OQ- ,0 o. A^^' .0- <.^ -i.^' .x^^' ■'^•. ,aX^' ^N r,. 'V- V^' CO' vx^' • S^ 'S'. ,0 o^ ^^ o ,H 0' n ,0 o. .^^•-. •V ,,*^-' ■-' "' % ' " ■-. ^J- v^ o 0^ ,H ^t. '^^^ "^' .^v"^ '/• ,cV ^0 O, '\" '■/•_ .0^' :> ^, o V-. -\^ ' a\ ■^ V ■sv^^' ■^P. ''^ ^ ,, N ^ ■/' V * Ci. aV -^. MANUAL ov ANCIENT AND MODEM HISTORY; COMPRISING I. ANCIENT HISTORY, CONTAININQ THE POLITICAL HISTORY, GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION, AND SOCIAL STATK OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY, CAREFULLY REVISED FROM THE ANCIENT WRITERS II. MODERN HISTORY, OONTAINING THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE PRINCIPAL EUROPEAN NATIONS, THEU POLITICAL HISTORY, AND THE CHANGES IN THEIR SOCIAL CONDITION, WITH A HISTORY OF THE COLONIES FOUNDED BY EUROPEANS - i . BY W.^C^TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S., OF TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLII* KEVIBED, WITH A CHAPTER ON THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATEft, BY C. S. HENRY, D.D., PROFESSOR or PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW-YORK. WITH QUESTIONS ADAPTED FOR SCHOOLS AND C0LLEGB3. SIXTH EDITION, CAREFULLY REVISED AND CORRECTED. NEW-YORK. ,..lG.:..l^^ D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 1851. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1844, by D. APPLETON & CO., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New- York ^ PREFACE. In bringing out an American edition of this work, the publishera were desirous rot only to furnish a valuable work for general readers, but also to make it in point of size and price as well adapted to the wants of public instruction as they believed it to be in intrinsic merit In complying with their request to revise the work with this view, the present editor has made a few slight curtailments — principally in the first part of the volume of Ancient History — which could be made with- out suppressing or in any way distorting or impairing any material fact or statement. In the English edition, all that is to be found relating to the history of the United States amounts to two or three pages, interspersed in the history of England. In the place of these meager notices, the present editor has appended to the volume of Modern History a distinct and special chapter, giving to the history of the United States its proportion- ate place in general history, and to which it is certairdy entitled in a work designed for public instruction in this country. He trusts that this sketch will be found to contain a fair and clear view of the leading events of our history. In the preface to the third American edition of Guizot's History of European Civilization, the present editor took occasion to offer some remarks upon the study of history as a part of the course of studies pursued in our higher institutions : in which he attempted to answer the extremely difficult question, " How best to employ the very limited time allotted to history in the usual course of public instruction ?" On the one hand, it is obvious that a thorough knowledge of history (which it is the work of years to gain) can never be acquired in the time allowed . W PREFACE. and on the other hand, it is far more difficult to make a successful be ginning, to lay a good foundation in history, than in the other studies included in the usual public course. This it is which makes the most useful employment of the little time allowed so perplexing a problem. The conclusion to which the editor arrived was, that in the impos- sibility of communicating a thorough knowledge of history in this time, thus much should be attempted : 1 . The study of some judicious work of general history ; 2. The study of some good specimen of the phi- losophy of history, as it is called, or the method of generalizing and reflecting upon the facts of history ; and 3. The thorough investigation of some small portion of special history. The editor recommended the work of Guizot, referred to above, as a good specimen of philosophical reflection upon history ; and ho knows no work on general history bettei adapted to the purpose of public instruction than the present. C. S. H. New York, December 11, 1844. INTRODUCTION The use of history is not to load the memory with facts, but to s ore the mii;d with principles — to collect from the experience of past ages rules for our conduct as individuals and as members of society. Every historical work, therefore, professes to give only a selection of events ; and the writer's choice is determined by the nature of his history : the general historian directs attention to the occurrences that have changed the general aspect of society, the revolutions of states and empires, the causes that led to them, and the consequences by which they were fol- lowed. The special historian confines his attention to one class of facts, specified in the title of his work : thus the ecclesiastical historian writes only of the affairs of the church ; the military historian confines his narrative to wars and battles ; and the commercial historian devotes his attention exclusively to trade. But even general histories may, in some degree, be regarded as special ; their object may be called " political," that is, they profess to describe the destinies of nations, both in their external relations with foreign states, and ia tlieir internal affairs. Under the first head are comprised wtrs, treaties of p3ai:e or alliince, and con.mercial inttr- course ; under the second, governments, institutions, and manners. Such a history must, to a certain extent, be a history of civilization; for it will describe the progress of social improvement, and the prog- ress of the human miad. These essential parts of civilization m.ust not be ccnfo.inded; for -we shtdl ha^e nwe than ome occason to remark, that the social system, or, in other words, the relatious between the different parts of society, may display great wisdom and justice while men, in their individual capacity, continue the slaves of ignocanoe and superstition. A distinction is usually made between the narrative and the philoso« VI INTRODUCTION. phy of history in the former are included the actions of kings and rulers, the accounts of wars and treaties, the rise and fall of empires ; in the latter are comprehended descriptions of the political and religious institutions, the organization of society, the amount of knowledge, the state of industry and the arts, the morals, the habits, and the prevailing prejudices in any age or nation ; and the facts thus ascertained by phi- losophy, are shown to be the causes of the events detailed in the nar- rative. It is possible to go back a step further, and to trace the origin of these institutions and manners in the succession of opir^ons, and gradual development of the human intellect. But unassisted reason can go no further : the law fixed by Providence for the succession of opinions and development of mind, can oidy be known to its omniscient Author, but that such a law exists, is proved to us by the fulfilment of prophecy, by the frequent instances of unconscious agents working out the great designs of God. It is proposed in the following pages to unite the philosophy with the narrative of history, to combine events with their causes., and direct occasionally the attention of the student to the progress of civilization, both in its effect on society and on individuals. Sacred history — the account of the direct operations of the Divine agency on his chosen servants and chosen people — is necessarily excluded from a political history ; but the general course of Providence displayed in the moral t(0vernment of his creatures is an essential element of our plan : it is, in fact, the princi})le of unity that binds together its several parts. The necessary companions of history are chronology and geography ; they determine the time when, and the place where, each event oc- curred. The difficulties of chronology arise both from the imperfection of records, and from varieties in the mode of computation : the former can cot be remedied ; but, to prevent the mistakes which may arise from this cause, uncertain dates have been marked with an asterisk : the secord source of confusion is removed by using throughout solar years for a measure of time, and the birth of Christ as an era from which to reckon. Instead of constructing a general system of ancient geography, it has seemed better to prefix a geographical outline of the history of each separate country, and to combine with it some account of the na- ture i)f ihe soil, and its most remarkable animal and vegetable produc- tions. There is no doubt that the position, climate, and fertility of a country, have a powerful influence over the character, condition, and destiny of its inhabitants, and ought not to be omitted in the considera- tion of their history. INTRODUCTION. VU The arrangement of this work is both chronological and geographi- cal ; the history of each country is given separately, but the states are arranged in the order of their attaining a commanding influence in the world. To this there are two exceptions — Egypt, which is placed first, on account of its being the earliest organized government of which we have any authentic record ; and India, which is placed last, because it exercised no marked influence over the most remarkable nations of ancient times. The history of Greece in this volume has a less orderly appearance than in most similar works, because it contains not merely the histories of Athens and Sparta, to which most writers confine their attention, but also those of the minor states, the islands and the colonies. A chapter has been added on the colonial policy of the Greeks — a subject of great importance in itself, and peculiarly interesting to a commer- cial country. To the Roman history there is prefixed a brief account of the ancient inhabitants of Italy before the era usually assigned for the foundation of Rome. In the earlier period of the republic, notice -is taken of the reasonable doubts that have been raised respecting the authenticity of the common narrative ; but care has been taken to avoid an excess of skepticism, which is at least as bad as an excess of credulity. In the chapter on India, attention has been directed to the ancient routes of trade between that country and eastern Europe : many of these subsist to the present day ; projects have been formed for reopen- ing others ; some account of them consequently appears necessary, for illustrati=ng both ancient commerce and modern policy. In a general summary, restricted within narrow limits, it is scarcely possible to avoid dryness of details ; notes have therefore been added, consisting for the most part of illustrations and anecdotes, that may serve both to relieve the mind, and to place important traits of charac- ter, national and individual, in a clearer light. It has been deemed advisable to take some notice of the mythology, as well as the real history, of nations ; for though mythic traditions may in many or in most instances have had no foundation, yet they should not be wholly neglected by the historian, for they had a share in forming, and they help to illustrate, the character of the nation by which they were once believed. At the same time, care has been taken to separate these traditions from the authenticated narrative, and to discriminate between those that have, and those that have not, some probable foundation in fact. VUl INTRODUCTION. Political reflections and moral inferences from the narrative have, in general, been avoided : the instructive lessons of history are, for the most part, found on the surface, and may best be collected by the stu- dents themselves. It is not quite fair to prejudge questions for the mind ; the chief business of those w^ho write for the young should be to make them think, not to think for them. The author has to acknovi^ledge his great obligations to the works of Professor Heeren, whose volumes on the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of Ancient Nations, should form part of every historical library; he has also borrowed very copiously from the valuable essays that have appeared in the Memoirs of the French Academy of Inscriptions ; his particular obligations in the several chapters need not be specified, most of them being mentioned in the notes. The design of this introduction is merely to explain the plan of the work ; some few suggestions, however, may be added on the mode of using it. Students should compare the geographical chapters with maps, and fix in their minds the most characteristic natural features of the country whose history they are about to commence. One division should be thoroughly mastered before another is begun ; and when the whole is gone through, it will be found a most useful exercise te synchronize the events in the history of one country with the events ir the history of another ; for instance, to trace the condition of the R*- man republic at the time of the battle of Arb6la. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ANCIENT HISTORY Chapter I. — Egypt. PAGE. Sect. I. Geographical Outline I n. Political and Social Condition of the Egyptians , 2 ni. History of Egypt from the earliest Period to the Accession of Psam- mttichus 5 rV". History of Egypt from the Reign of Psammetichus to its subjugation by Camlji'ses 9 v. Egyptian Manufactures and Commerce 11 Chapter H. — The Ethiopians. Sect. I. Geographical Outline and Natural History 13 II. History of the Ethiopians 14 ni. Arts, Commerce, and Manufactures of Meroe 15 Chapter III. — Babylonia and .Assyria. SxcT. I. Geographical Outline and Natural History 17 II. Political and Social Condition of the Assyrians and Babylonians 18 III. History of the Assyrians and Babylonians 19 IV. Description of Nineveh and Baoylon .23 V. Commerce and Manufactures of the Babylonians 25 Chapter IV. — Western Asia. Sect. I. Asia Minor. — Geographical Outline , 27 II. Ancient History of Asia Minor 28 III. Syria. — Geographical Outline , 29 rV. Social and Political Condition of the Syrians and Phoenicians... , 30 V. History of the Syrians and Phccnicians 31 VI. Phtnidan Co^onits ard Foreign Possessions , .. .32 VH. Phoenician Manufactures and Commerce 33 Chapter V. — Palestine. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 36 n. History of Palestine 36 HI. The Conquest of Canaan by Joshua 39 IV. History of Israel under the Judges 40 X TABLE OF CONTENTS. FAes Sect. V. History of the United Kingdom of Israel 42 VI, The Revolt of the Ten Tribes.— The Kingdom of Israel 47 VII. The Kingdom of Judah 5] Chapter VI. — The Empire of the Medes and Persians. Sect. I. Geographical Outline .58 II. Sources and Extent of our Knowledge respecting the Ancient Persians 59 III. Social and Political Condition of Ancient Persia 60 IV. History of the Medes and Persians under the Kaianian Dynasty 62 V. History of the Persians under theHystaspid Dynasty 64 Chapter VII. — Phcenician Colonies in Northern jifrica. Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Northern Africa 68 II. Social and Political Condition of Carthage 69 III. History of Carthage from the Foundation of the City to the Com- mencement of the Syracusan Wars 70 IV. History of Carthage during the Sicilian Wars 73 V. From the Commencement of the Roman Wars to the Destruction of Carthage _, 76 VI. Navigation, Trade, and Commerce of Carthage 79 Chapter VIII. — The Foundation of the Grecian States. Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Hellas 81 II. Geographical Outline of the Peloponnesus 83 III. The Grecian Islands in the iEgean and Mediterranean Sea« .85 IV. The Ionian Islands 85 V. The Social and Political Condition of Greece 86 VI. Traditional History of Greece from the earliest Ages to the Com- mencement of the Trojan War 89 VII. From the Trojan War to the Colonization of Asia Minor. 92 Chapter IX. — History of the Grecian States and Colonies before the Persian War. Sect. I. Topography of Sparta 95 II. Legislation of Lycurgus, and the Messenian Wars 95 III. Topography of Athens 97 IV. History of Athens to the Beginning of Ihe Persian War 99 V. Historical Notices of the Minor States of Greece previous to the Persian War 102 VI. History of the principal Grecian Islands 103 VII. History of the Greek Colonies in Asia Minor 104 VIII. History of the fr-eek Colonies on the Euxine Sea, Coast of Thrace, Macedon, &c.. 106 Chapter Y. — History of Greece from the Persian Wars to the Accessio!\i of Mexander the Great. ^ Sett. I. The First Persian War 108 II. The Second Persian War , HO- III. The First Peloponnesian War 113 IV. The Second Peloponnesian War 1 18 V. Tyrannical Rule of Sparta. — Third Peloponnesian War 121 VI. The Second Sacred War. — Destruction of Grecian Freedom 128 Chapter XI. — The Macedonian Kingdom and Empire. Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Macedon 131 II. Hif lory of the Macedonian Monarchy 132 III. Dissolution of the Macedonian Empire 138 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI Chaiter XII. — History of the States that arose from the Dismemberment of the Macedonian Empire. PAQB. Sect. I. History of Macedon and Greece from the Battle of Ipsus to the Roman Conquest 145 II. History of the Kingdom of Syria under the Seleucidse 153 III. History of E2:ypt under the Ptolemies 158 IV. History of the Minor Kingdoms in Western Asia 162 V. History of Bactria and Parthia 166 VI. History of Idumea, and its Capital Petra 168 VII, History of the Jews from their Return out of the Babylonish Cap- tivity to the Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 171 Chapter Xltl. — History of Jncient Italy. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 183 II. Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Italy 187 III. The Greek Colonies in Italy 190 Chapter XIV. — History of Sicily. Sect. I. Geograpliical Outline 193 II. Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Sicily 196 III. The History of Syracuse .197 Chapter XV. — History of the Roman Republic. Sect. I. Traditions respecting the Origin of the Romans 200 II. From the Foundation of Rome to the Abolition of Royalty 201 III. From the Establishment of the Roman Republic to the Burning of the City by the Gauls .' 206 IV. From the Rebuilding of the City to the First Punic War 215 V. From the Commencement of the Punic Wars to the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi 218 VI. From tlie Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi to the Downfall of the Republic 22S VII. The Establishment of the Roman Empire 237 Chapter XVI. — Geographical and Political Condition of the Roman Empire. Sect. I. European Countries. — Spain 243 II. Transalpine Gaul 243 III. Britain 244 IV. Northern Provinces of the Empire 245 V. Asiatic and African Provinces 247 VI. The Principal Nations on the Frontiers of the Empire 248 VII. Topography of the City of Rome ...251 Chapter XVII. — History of the Roman Empire. B^-rr. I. The Reigns of the Family of the Coesars 256 II. From the Extinction of the Julian to that of the first Flavian Family 265 III. From the Extinction of the first Flavian Family to the last of the Antonines 27) TV. Foreign Commerce of the Romans in the Age of the Anto- nines 278 V. From the Extinction of the Antonines to the Establishment of Military Despotism 280 VI. From the Murder of Alexander Severus to the Captivity of Valerian and the Usurpation of the Thirty Tyrants ;285 Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Sect. VII. From the Captivity of Valerian to the Resignation of Diocksian. . .289 Vni. From the Resignation of Dioclesian to the Death of Constantine tlie Great 295 IX. From the Death of Constantine to the Reunion of the Empire under Theodosius the Great 30) X. Overthrow of the Western Empire 312 Chapter XYin.—In.iia. Early History 3.f TABLE OF CONTENTS. MODERN HISTORY Chapter I. — Consequences of the Fall of the Western Empire. PASE. Sect. I. The Gothic Kingdom of Italy 327 II. The Reign of Justinian 329 III, The Establishment of the Civil Law 334 IV. History of the Silk Trade. — Introduction of the Silkworm into Europe 337 V. The Monarchy of the Franks, under the Merovingian Dynasty 341 VI. The Lombard Monarchy 346 VII. Tne Anglo-Saxons 349 Chapter II. — The Rise and Establishment of the Saracenic Power. Sect. I. Political and Social Condition of the East at the Coming of Mohammed. 352 II. State of Arabia at the Coming of Mohammed 355 III. The Preaching of Mohammed 357 IV. Early Progress of the Saracens 361 Chapter III. — Restoration of the Western Empire. Sect. L The Life of Charlemagne , 369 II. Decline and Fall of the Carlovingian Dynasty 375 III. The Foundation of the Germanic Empire 382 IV. State of the East from the Establishment to the Overthrow of the Khaliphate 387 Chapter IV. — Growth of the Papal Power. Sect. I. The Origin of the Papacy 390 II. The earl;' Development of the Political System of the Papacy 394 III. The Struggle for Supremacy between the Popes and Emperors 398 IV. Revival of the Papal Power 401 V. Pontificate of Gregory VII 406 VI. The War of Investitures 412 VII. The Crusades 416 VIII. The Crusade against the Albigenses 421 IX. Consequences of the Crusades 427 X. Formation and Constitutional History of the Spanish Monarchy 430 XI. Survey of the Constitution of Aragon 434 XII. State of Western Europe at the Commencement of the Fourteenth Century 437 XIIL Pontificate of Boniface VIII 442 XIV. State of England and the Northern Kingdoms at the Commence- ment of the Fourteenth Century 448 XV. Revolutions in the East in Consequence of the Mongolian Invasion .. .45C xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter V. — The Revival of Literature. — The Progress of Civih- zation and Invention. FADE Sect. I. Decline of the Papal Power.— The Great Schism of the West 453 II. First Revival of Literature, and Inventions in Science. . , 469 III. Progress of Commerce ^ 472 IV. Revolutions ol^ Germany, France, and Spain 479 V. The State of England and the Northern Kingdoms in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries 483 VI. Rise and Progress of the Ottoman Empire 486 Chapter VI. — The Reformation, and Cojnmencemsnt of the Stales- System in Europe. Sect. I. Progress of Maritime Discovery 490 n. Origin of the Reformation . 495 III. History of the Negotiatio7is and Wars respecting Italy 500 IV. The History of Burgundy under the Princes of the House of Valois. . .502 V. The History of Burgundy {continued) 505 VI. Tlie History of Burgundy (concluded) 507 VII. The Age of Charles V 512 VIII. The Age of Elizabeth 524 IX. The Age of Gustavus Adolphus 536 X. Administration of the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarine 540 XI. Formation of the States-System in the Northern Kingdoms of Europe.. 546 XII. Progress of the Turkish Power in Europe 549 Chapter VII. — The .Augustan ^ges of England and France. Sect. I. State of the Continental Kingdoms after the Peace of Westphalia. ... .553 II. History of England under tlie Commonwealth 551? III. History of Ensland, from the Restoration to the Revolution ; and Rise of the Power of Louis XIV 564 IV. General History of Europe, from the League of Augsburg to the Formation of the Grand Alliance 578 V. The War of the Spanisii Succession 583 VL Peter the Great of Russia.— Charles XIL of Sweden 590 Chapter VIII. — Growth of the Mercantile and Colonial System. Sect. I. Establishment of the Hanoverian Succession in Ensland 599 II. The Colonial Struggle between France and Great Britain 609 III. The Seven Years' War 613 Chapter IX. — The ^geof Revolutions. Sect. I. Change in the Relations of the Catholic Powers to the Holy See. — Dismemberment of Poland 626 II, History of England, from the Peace of Paris to the Commencement of the A merican War 630 III. The American War 634 IV. The British Empire in India .- 637 V". History of Europe, from the End of the American War to the Com- mencement of the French Revolution 639 VI. The French Revolution 642 Chapter X. — The French Empire. Sect. I. Renewal of the War between Endand and France 655 II. Progress of Napoleon's Power §^9 III. The French Invasion of Spain 663 IV. The Russian War 673 V. History of Europe, from the Dethronement of Napoleon to the Conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna 678 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV Chapter XI. — History of the Peace, PAOE. Sect. I. State of Europe at the Close of the War 682 II. History of Europe during the Reign of George IV 684 III. History of Europe during the Reign of William IV 692 Chapter XII. — History of Colonization. Sect. I. The Establishment of the Spaniards in Mexico 706 II. The Establishment of the Spaniards in Peru 716 III. The Portuguese Colonies in South America 719 IV. The English in America 725 V. Colonization of the West Indies 726 VI. The Portuguese in India 728 VII. The Spaniards in the East Indies 730 VIII. The Dutch in the East Indies 730 EX. The Danes in the East Indii^s 732 X. The French in the East Indies 732 XI. The English in India 733 Chapter XIII. — Histoiy of China 742 Chapter XIV. — Histoiy of the Jews 747 Chapter XV. — History of the United States. Sect. I. Colonial History 752 II. Revolutionary History 759 in. Constitutional History 767 Tables of Contemporary Dynasties 786 Genealogical Table of the Bourbons 796 Genealogical Table o ' the Royal Family of England 797 THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER I. EGYPT. Section 1. — Geographical Outline. Egypt is the country in which we first find a government and polit- ical institutions established. Civilization everywhere seems to have commenced in the formation of agricultural associations, on the banks of rivers ; and the Nile invites men to tillage more forcibly than any other. Egypt itself has been called, from the earliest antiquity, " the Gift of the Nile," and its annual inundations have had a vast influence over the lives and customs, the religion and science, indeed, the entire social existence of the people. It appears that civilization advanced northward along the valley of the river : and we shall therefore com- mence our examination of the land, at the southern frontier of Egypt. The Nile enters Egypt near the city of Syene, below the cataracts, and flows through a narrow valley, about nine miles in breadth, to Chem'mis, whjre the valley begins to widen. At Cercasorus, sixty miles from its mouth, the stream divides, and encloses a triangular piece of country, called the Delta. The narrow valley from Syene to Chem'mis was called Upper Egypt ; the wider valley, Middle Egj'^pt ; and the Delta, Lower Egypt. Rain seldom falls in Lower Egypt, almost never in the upper regions : the fertility of the country, therefore, depends on the armual overflowings of the river. These inundations are caused by the heavy rains, that fall in Upper Ethiopia, from May to September. The rivers of that country pour their waters into the Nile, which begins to rise about the middle of June. Early in August, the river overflows its banks, giving the valley of the Nile tiie appearance of an inland sea. Toward the beginning of October, the waters begin to subside, and, by the end of the month, are confined to the proper channel of the river. The fertility of Egypt extends as far as this inundation reaches, or can be continued by artificial means. 1 2 ANCIENT HISTORY. The eastern side of the valley of the Nile is a mountainous range of country, extending" to the Red sea, suited, in some districts, for pas- turage, but unlit for agriculture ; abounding, however, in those rich quarries of marble and building stone, that formed the inexhaustible magazines for the architectural wonders of Egypt. On the western side of the Nile, the valley is bounded by a stony ridge covered with sand, which slopes on its remote side, into the Great Desert This ridge protects the valley from the sands of the desert, which would otherwise desolate the whole country. Upper Egypt contains far the most numerous and intere.-5ting monu- ments. Near the cataracts, are the islands of Philee ami Elephantine containing the proudest edifices of antiquity ; lower down, the t ty ol Apollo ; then Thebes, filling the whole valley on both sides of the Nile with enormous temples, more like mountains than human edifices colossal statues, sphinxes, and obelisks, with the Catacombs, in the mountains on the western bank of the river ; and lastly, Dendera, with the celebrated Zodiac sculptured on its mighty temple. Middle Egypt is a wider valley. It contains the lake Moeris, ar immense reservoir, partly natural, partly artificial, and affording suet facilities for regulating the irrigation of the country, that this was the most fertile district of Egypt. The labyrinth, so renowned in antiquity was near Arsinoe. Below Arsin'oewas Memphis, the capital of Middle Egypt. This was the city of the Pharaohs who received the family of Israel. There are now but slight remains of its temples and palaces : the neighboring mountains are, however, filled with catacombs similar to those of Upper Egypt. But the most remarkable moimments of this district are the Pyramids. Lower Egypt, or the Delta, possesses, from the extension of the river, a greater quantity of fertile land than the other districts. It was covered wdth flourishing cities, as Sa'is, Naucratis, and Alexandria, which last, situated on the western frontier of the Lybian desert, still retains the name, and proves by its extensive trade the wisdom of its great founder. The more civilized portion of the Egyptians dwelt in the rich plains of the valley, and attained a perfection in the arts of social life, that but for the irresistible evidence of the monuments, v/ould scarcely be credited. It was the groat object of the sacerdotal and royal policy, to keep this population stationary, to direct their attention to agricul- ture, commerce, and manufflctures, and to prevent them from adopting the nomad life of the pastoral and plundering tribes on their north- eastern frontiers : and hence we find it recorded, that " every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians." Section II. — Political and Social Condition of the Egyjytians. [t appears that the Egyptians were a brown race of people, and that the higher castes of priests and warriors were fairer than the othei classes. It has been conjectiu'ed that the Egyptians derived their" system of civilization from the Hindus : but it is difficult to conceive how this could be. Local circumstances produced marked differences in the habits and fiGYPT. 3 manners of the people. In the mountainous eastern districts and in the fens of the Delta, where agriculture was impossible, the inhabitants led a pastoral life. On the Nile and along the coast, were tribes of fishermen. In the rich plains, dwelt the more civilized part of the nation. The institution of castes existed among them. The priests and warriors were the most honored ; next, the agriculturists, mer- chants, mariners, and artisans ; the lowest caste was that of shep- herds. The migrations of the priestly caste from their native regions in the south, were not simultaneous ; they formed settlements at different times, in the most fertile portions of the valley. The central point of the colony was always a temple, round which cities were gradually formed. These settlements afterward led to the division of the country into nomes, a name given by the Egyptians to a city, its environs and dependant villages. There was a religious (as originally a politicai; distinction between these nomes : each city had its own presiding deity, and the animals regarded as sacred in one nome were not respected in another. The history of these petty states is unknown ; but they were finally absorbed in the dominion of Thebes and Mem- phis. The nations bordering on the Egyptians were, for the most part, barbarous and wandering tribes, whose avarice was roused by the increasing opulence of the valley of the Nile. The Hyk'sos, or shepherd-kings, as they were called, came from Arabia, and, after many predatory incursions, made themselves masters of Lower and Middle Egypt. Egypt became united under one sovereign, after the expulsion of the Hyk'sos : and the divisions of the people into castes, and of the country iato nomes, were permanently fixed. The priestly caste was subdi- vided into families, each devoted and restricted to a separate temple and a particular God. Over each of these sacerdotal subdivisions a high-priest presided, whose office was hereditary ; and the high-priests of metropolitan temples enjoyed authority almost equal to that of kings. And their influence was greatly strengthened by their monopoly of every branch of scieitific knowledge. They were not only priests, but also judges, soothsayers, physicians, architects, and sculptors. The warrior-caste ranked next to that of the priests : the royal family belonged to it. Certain nomes were assigned to the support of this caste, most of which were in Lower Egypt, where the country was most exposed to attack. The Egyptians were the earliest nation that organized a regular army, and thus laid the foundation of the whole system of ancient warfare. A brief account of their military affairs will therefore illus- trate, not only their history, but that of the great Asiatic monarchies, and of the Greeks, during the heroic ages. The most important division of an Egyptian array was the body of war-char ots, used instead of cavalry. These chariots were mounted on two wheels, and made, especially the wheels, with great care. They were hung low ; open behind, so that the warrior could easily step in and out ; and without seat. They were drawn by two horses, and generally contained two wairiors, one of whom managed the steeds 4 ANCIENT HISTOEY. while the other fought. Nations were distinguished from each othei by the shape of their chariots. Great attention was paid to the breeding and training of horses, ifl Egypt. The harness and housings of the horses were richly deco- rated ; and fixed to the chariots, on the outside, was a quiver and bow- case, decorated also with extraordinary taste and skill. The bow was the national weapon, employed both by infantry and cavalry. No nation of antiquity paid so much attention to archery as the Egyptians , their arrows were drawn to the ear ; and their bows were more pow- erful, and their arrows better aimed, than those of other nations. The children of the warrior-caste were trained from earliest infancy to the practice of archery. The arms of the Egyptian heavy-armed infantry were a spear, a dagger, a short sword, a helmet, and a shield. Pole-axes and battle- axes w^ere occasionally used. Coats-of-mail were used only by the principal officers, and some remarkable warriors, like Goliath, the champion of the Philistines. The light troops were armed with swords, battleaxes, maces, and clubs. The system of discipline and drill was very complete. Every bat- talion had its standard, with some symbol or sacred object represented on it, usually the cognizance of the nome or tribe. The soldiers were levied by conscription, drilled to the sound of the trumpet, and taught to march in measured time. Cavalry, in the earlier period, were not employed as a military body, but used as skirmishers, videttes, and expresses, rather than as war- riors. The Egyptians generally treated their captives with great cruelty, putting them to death, or reducing them to slavery. The religion and government of Egypt were intimately blended : there were prescribed forms and ceremonies for every important action which even kings dared not neglect. This gave the priests paramount control over public affairs and domestic life. The religion of the priests seems to have been more refined than the gross idolatry of the lower classes : one general idea, however, pervades the entire system — the importance of agriculture to a state. Hence, the great influence of astronomy in Vieir theology, as determining the times and seasons for agricultural operations ; hence, also, the deification of the produc- tive powers of nature. Never were a people more dependant on priestly astrologers than the Egyptians : the stars were consulted for every undertaking, private or public, and the priests alone had the right to consult them and deliver their oracles. The belief in a future state influenced every portion of Egyptian life : but the nature of the creed is difficult to be explained. In fact, there were two inconsistent creeds, the belief in transmigration of souls, confined to the priestly caste ; and the belief that the soul will continue as long as the body endures — whence the practice of so carefully embalming, and of hewing sep- ulchres in the solid rock. The latter was the popular opinion ; hence, the importance of the rites of burial, and the dread of the trial after death, when a tribunal, under priestly direction, determmed whether the body should be placed in the tomb, or left to natural decay. The relative position of the lower castes varied at different times ; but all trades and professions were hereditary. It was probably sup EGYPT O posed that this exclush^e dedication of families to separate employments would insure perfection in the arts ; and, certainly, the progress of the Egyptians, especially in architecture, surpasses that of any other nation. Gymnastic exercises and music were the favorite amusements of the ancient Egj"pti3.ns. At their meals, they used chairs and tables not unlike our own. Women were treated more respectfully than in other countries of the East. Great respect was paid to age and rank. The principal trees of Egj'pt were the sycamore, the fig, the pome- granate, the peach, the locust-tree, and the Adne. Great care was taken of the vines. Wine was used in great quantities, by the nobles and wealthy merchants. Of esculent vegetables growing w'ld, the most remarkable were the lotus, a kind of lily, and the papyrus . the leaves of the latter, dried and prepared, were used for waiting upon. The cultivated vegetables were com and pulse, cotton, melons, cucumbers, onions, &c. The domestic animals of the Eg}^tians were the same as those of most civilized countries. The cat was held in particular honor. The animals of the mountain and desert were the wild ox, the goat and sheep, and the antelope. They seem to have obtained camels from some foreign country. Among the amphibious animals of the Nile, the crocodile and the hippopotamus deserve to be noticed, the skin of the latter being regarded as the best covering for shields. Wild and tame fowl abounded ; the eggs of geese and other poultry were hatched in ovens heated to the requisite temperature, a process still used by the modern Copts. Section III. — History of Egypt from the earliest period to the Accession of Psammetichus. FROM B. C. 1900 TO B. C. 650. Egypt was originally composed of several small states, of which the first were founded in Upper Egypt. Though Thebes was the most ancient of the powerful states, Memphis is that of which we have the earliest accounts. It was the metropolis of a powerful kingdom when it was visited by the patriarch Abraham, and already the centre of a flourishing corn -trade. The court of the reigning Pharaoh was reg- ularly organized : the jealousy o foreigners, especially the heads of pastoral tribes, was not yet apparent, for Abraham was received with great hospitality. In the interval between the departure of Abraham from Egypt and the sale of Joseph to Potiphar, the Hyk'sos and other wandering tribes had began to make incursions into the valley of the Nile, and to ravage its fruitful fields. The policy which induced the Pharaoh who then occupied the throne to grant the land of Goshen to the colony of the Israelites, was equally creditable to his sagacity and generosity ; it was a pasturage and frontier province, forming the eastern barrier of Egypt toward Syria and Palestine, the countries from which invasion was most dreaded. By assigning this district to Jacob and his family, it was covered in a short time by a numerous, brave, and industrious people, giving additional security and resources to the country. 6 ANCIENT HISTORY. After the death of Joseph, but at what distance of time thero is no evidence to determine, a change of dynasty took place in Egypt. This was probably the event described by profane writers as the conquest of Egypt by the Hyk'sos, and consequently the Pharaoh who so cruelly tyrannized over the Israelites was not a native Egyptian, but an intru- sive foreigner. The motive assigned for oppressing the Israelites was, *' this people are more and mightier than we" — which could hardly be tr:e of the whole Egyptian nation, but might very probably be of a race of conquerors. One of the tasks which this cruel despot imposed on the Israelites, was the building of " treasure cities." Among the cruel- ties inflicted on them, their being employed in the manufacture of brick is particularly mentioned : under the burning sun of Egypt, the process of wetting, tempering, and Avorking the clay previous to its being moulded, was so painful and unwholesome that it -vas usually the work of slaves and captives. But when the Pharaoh found that the Israelites still continued to " multiply and wax very mighty," he had recourse to the barbarous expedient of extermination, and ordered that all the male children should be destroyed. Moses was saved from the general slaughter and educated at the Egyptian court ; after which, though the fact is not expressly stated, the cruel edict appears to have fallen into disuse. Moses never forgot his parentage and nation ; prob- ably the courtiers of Pharaoh failed not to remind him that he belonged to a degraded caste. Having been compelled to quit Egypt for having slain one of the op- pressors, Moses sought shelter in the land of Midian, where Jehovah appeared to him, and commanded him to achieve the deliverance of His chosen people, investing him with the miraculous powers neces- sary for so difficult an object. The reigning Pharaoh refused to part with so valuable a race of slaves, and his obstinacy was punished with ten dreadful plagues. The smiting of the first-born was the consum- mation of these fearful judgments : Pharaoh and his subjects hasted to send the Israelites away, and they quitted the land of Egypt. Av arice induced the Pharaoh to pursue them with a mighty army ; but God opened a passage for the Israelites through the Red sea, while the Egyptian host, attempting to pursue them, were overwhelmed with the returning waters. I, This calamity (b. c. 1491) greatly weakened the power of th Hyk'sos, a 'ready menaced by the increasing strength of the Theban monarchy. Previous to this, we have scarcely any probable account of the names and ages of the Egyptian kings, except that Menes ap- pears to have been the founder of the monarchy, and Osirtesen I. the Pharaoh who received Joseph. But henceforth we are able to deter- mine with probability some general epochs by comparing the evidence of the monuments with that of the historians. To this period belong the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties of Manetho, the founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt. In the reign of Am'e- noph I., the Thebans extended their conquests to the south, and seized on part of Nubia. Crude brick arches were consti'ucted at this period (b. c. 1540) and glass was soon after brought into use. Under the fourth king of this dynasty, Thutmosis, or Thothmes III., the children of Israel departed from Egypt, and the Theban monarch succeeded in EGYPT. 7 expelling the Hyk'sos — greatly weakened by the destruction of their best warriors in the Red sea — from the greater part of the country, and shutting them up in their fortresses. Their great stronghold was taken by his son and successor, Thoth^mes IV. ; and the shepherd- kings surrendered on condition of being allowed to withdraw into Syria. The intimate connexion between these two events — the Exodus of the Israelites, and the expulsion of the Hyk'sos — have led to their being confounded together. The next remarkable monarch was Am'enoph III., who reigned conjointly with his brother; but, soon becoming weary of divided empire, he expelled his partner. The dethroned brother was probably the Dan^aus* of the Greeks, who, leaving Egypt with his partisans, settled in Ar'gos, of which he became king (b. c. 1430). The pretended vocal statue of Mem'non was erected in honor of Am'enoph ; and in his reign the building of the great temples seems to have been commenced. He annexed the greater part of Nubia to his dominions. Among his successors the name of Rame'ses is the most distinguished. It was borne by four sovereigns ; two in the eighteenth, and two in the nineteenth dynasty. The first was expelled by his brother, and is by some identified with Dan'aus : the second, called Mi-Am'mon, " he who loves Am'mon," was the founder of the palace of Medmet Abu at Thebes ; and from the sculptures on its walls, he appears to have been a warrior and conqueror. Am'enoph IV. was the last of the eighteenth dynasty. In his un- fortunate reign the Hyk'sos renewed their invasions ; and the king, confiding his son, a child of five years old, to the care of a friend, fled into Ethiopia, where he remained thiiteen years an exile. During this period the Hyk'sos were guilty of the most wanton excesses ; for '' they not only set fire to the cities and villages, but committed every kind of sacrilege, and destroyed the images of the gods, and roasted and fed upon those sacred animals that were worshipped ; and having com- pelled the priests and prophets to kill and sacrifice them, they cast them naked out of the country."! Amen'ophis at length, aided by an Ethiopian army, and supported by his gallant son, expelled the shep- herd-kings, and restored the prosperity of his country. Rame'ses the Great, called also Sethos or Sesos'tris,| is the most jelebrated of the Egyptian monarchs. The conquests attributed to him are so mighty, that he has been by some regarded as merely a sym- bolical being ; but from the evidence of the monuments, he appears to be undoubtedly an historical personage. It is indeed doubtful whether the Ram'eses Avho founded Medinet Abu, or the son of Am'enoph, be the great conqueror who carried his arms into Bac'tria in the east, and Thrace in the west, and before whose throne captives from the frozen Cau'casus mingled with the sable tribes from the extreme south of Ethiopia : but the existence of this conqueror, his daring hunts of the lion in the desert while a youth, his aid in the expulsion of the Hyk'sos, his extensive conquests, and the vast treasures he collected from the vanquished nations, are satisfactorily proved by the sculptured hislory of his exploits on the walls of the buildings he erected or enlarged. * Others assign Dan'aus to a later period. fManetho, as quoted by Josephus. X Wilkinson identifies Rame'ses II. with Sesos'tris. 8 ANCIENT HISTORY Having subdued the mountainous districts east of Egypt, and part of the Arabian peninsula, he fitted out a fleet of war-galleys to scour the Indian seas. The naval engagements sculptured on the walls of Me- dinet Abu and Karnac fully support the account of these expeditions given by the historians, and show that they were extended to the western coast of Hindost'an. Ethiopia was subdued, and compelled to pay a tribute of ebony, gold, and elephants' teeth. The battle, the vic- tory, the offering of the booty and tribute, are represented on the mon- uments at Kalabshe, in Lower Nvibia. His campaigiis in Asia and Europe were equally remarkable. Northward he subdued Syria, An- atolia, and part of Thrace ; eastward he is said to have advanced as far as Bac'tria and India. There can, however, be no doubt of his ex- ploits in the neighborhood of Assy'ria and the Euphrates ; for they are represented on the sculptures of the building called the tomb of Osy- man'dyas, but which should rather be called the temple-palace of King Ram'eses. It is singular that no record of such a conqueror should be found in the Scriptures ; for he must have subdued the land of Canaan and Syria, countries which were always coveted "by the rulers of Egypt. Mr. Milman very plausibly argues that the conquests of Sesos'tris took place while the Israelites were wandering in the desert, and that this providential arrangement was intended to facilitate the conquest of the promised land. There can, however, be no doubt that some king of Egypt performed many of the exploits attributed to Sesos''tris, though it is very difficult to ascertain the exact period in which he flourished. The successors of Sesos^tris seem to have sunk into the usual in- dolence of oriental monarchs. Their history, for nearly three hundred years, presents little more than a catalogue of names, until we come to Sesouchis, the Shishak of the Holy Scriptures, who was the first mon- arch of the twenty-second d}'Tiasty. In the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the foolish and wicked son of Solomon (b. c. 970), Shishak made war against Palestine, and pillaged Jerusalem. His army con- sisted of twelve hundred chariots, sixty thousand horsemen, and an in- numerable body of infantry, consisting not only of Egyptians, but also of Libyans, Ethiopians, and Troglody'tes. His empire consequently extended beyond the bounds of Egypt, and included a large portion of gouthern and western Africa. In the next century the Egyptian monarchy declined rapidly, and the country was subjugated by Sab'aco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia The history of the Ethiopian dynasty will be found in the next chapter After some time, a priest named Sethos usurped the government, contrary to all precedent. He not only neglected the caste of warriors, but deprived them of their privileges and lands ; at which they were so incensed, that they refused to bear arms in his defence. Sennach'erib, king of Assyria, prepared to invade Egypt with a very powerful army, and advanced to Peliisium (b. c. 713). Sethos, deserted by the milita- ry caste, armed the laborers and artificers, and with this undisciplined host marched to meet the invader. A pestilence in the Assyrian camp saved Egypt from ruin, and Sennach'erib returned to meet fresh mis- fortunes at Jerusalem. When Sethos died, twelve princes, or heads of nomes, shared the kingdom among them ; but soon quarrelling aboui EGYPT 9 the limits of tlieir respective principalities, they engaged in mutual war, and drove one of their number, Psammet'ichus, prince of Sais, into exile. Psammet'ichu ^ levied an army of Greek and Carian mercen- aries, most of whom appear to have been pirates ; and having overcome all his rivals, once more united all Egypt into a single monarchy, of which Mem'phis ranked as the capital, though Sais was usually the seat of government. The intercourse with the nations in the eastern Mediterranean was greatly extended during the reign of Psammet^- ichus : many Greeks settled in the Egyptian seaports ; and a new caste of interpreters and brokers was formed to facilitate commerce. But the patronage of foreigners, and the preference that ^sammefichus showed for the mercenaries to whom he owed his crowi., so disgusted the caste of warriors, that the whole body emigrated from their country, and setttled in Etliiopia (b. c. 650). Section IV. — History of Egypt from the Reign of Psatnmetichus to its Subjugation by Cambyses. FROM B.C. 650 TO B.C. 525. The accession of Psammet^ichus was followed by a complete revo- lution in the ancient policy of Egypt ; foreign auxiliaries performed the duties of the warrior caste ; plans of permanent conquests in Syria succeeded to the predatory expeditions of the ancient Pharaohs ; and the political influence of the priesthood rapidly declined, as new opinions Avere imported from abroad, and new institutions rendered necessary by increasing commerce. For several reigns, the gxeat object of Egyptian policy Avas to obtain possession of tlie commercial cities of Syria and Phoenicia. Psammet'ichus led the way by laying siege to Azotus, a frontier town of Syria — persevering in successive attacks for twenty-nine years, until he accomplished his object. Nechus, called in Scripture Pharaoh-Necho, succeeded his father Psammefichus (e.g. 616), and became a powerful prince, both by land and sea. He built fleets in the Mediterranean and the Red seas, and attempted to unite them by cutting a canal across the isthmus of Suez ; an enterprise subsequently completed by Darius Hystaspes.* The increasing strength of the Medes and Babylonians, who had over- thrown the ancient empire of Assjnria, justly alarmed Necho. He led an army against the king of Assyria, directing his march toward the Euphrates, but was checked by the interference of Josiah, king of Judah, who tried to prevent him from besieging Car'chemish or Circe- sium, but was defeated and slain. f Necho, having reached the Euphrates, captured the important city of Car'chemish, or Circesium, which he garrisoned. On his return to Egypt he became master of Jerusalem, led its monarch, Jehoahaz, away captive, and placed Jehoiakim upon the throne. The Chaldean dynasty in Bab'ylon rose into power on the ruins of • The navigation of the northern part of the Red sea Is so very dangerous that this canal was never of much use. Vessels usually stopped at My'os Hor mos, now Cosseir, whence there was a good caravan-road to the Nile. t 2 Chron. xxxv. 21. 10 ANCIENT HISTORY. the Assyrian empire. Nebuchadnez'zar, its mightiest monarch, resolved on the conquest of western Asia ; and one of his earliest efforts was the expulsion of the Egyptians from Car'chemish. Necho tried to check the progress of this formidable opponent ; but he was defeated with great slaughter, and stripped of all his possessions in Syria and Judea, to tlie very walls of Pelusium. Jeremiah's prophetic descrip- tion of this important battle has all the minute accuracy of history.* During his wars in Syria, Necho did not neglect the improvement of navigation. A Phoenician fleet, equipped at his expense, sailed down the Red sea, passed the straits of Bab-el-Man'deb, and, coasting the African continent, discovered the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, two thousand years before the rediscovery of it by Diaz and Vasco de Gama. The expedition returned to Egypt through the Atlantic ocean, the straits of Gibraltar, and the Mediterranean, after an absence of three years. During the reign of Psam'mis, the son of Necho, a remarkable cir- cumstance occurred (b.c. 600), tending to prove the ancient connexion between the institutions of Greece and Egypt, which has been denied by the modern historians of the German school. An embassy was sent from the city of E'lis to obtain directions for the management of the Olympic games ; and the regulations suggested by the Egyptian priests were implicitly obeyed. A'pries, the Pharaoh-Hoph'ra of Scripture, immediately after his accession (b.c. 594), attacked the Phoenician states, and conquered Sidon. He entered into a close alliance with Zedekiuh, king of Judah, promising to aid him in his revolt against Nebuchadnez'zar. A'pries, in fulfllment of his engagement, led an army into Judea, and Nebuchad- nez^zar, on receiving intelligence of his approach, broke up the siege of Jerusalem, and hastened to meet him : but the Egyptians were afraid to encounter the Babylonian forces, and retired, without striking a blow, to their own country, leaving their allies to bear the brunt of Nebuchadnez^zar's vengeance. For this act of perfidy, God, by the mouth of his prophet Ezekiel,t denounced severe vengeance on the Egyptians and their sovereign. Not less distinct is the prophecy of Jeremiah : " Behold, I will give Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, king of Egypt, into the hands of his enemies, and into the hand of them that seek h/s life ; as I gave Zedekiah, king of Judah, into the hand of Nebuchadnez''zar, his enemy, and that sought his life."| The accomplishment followed close upon the latter prediction. A Grecian colony, established at Gyrene, being strengthened by fresh bodies of their countrymen, under their third king, Bat'tus the Happy, attacked the neighboring Libyans, and seized their land. An'dican, one of the dispossessed princes, applied for aid to Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, who sent a large army to his relief. The Egyptians were routed with great slaughter by the Cyreneans ; and the lugitives, to excuse their defeat, averred that they had been designedly betrayed by their mon- arch. This calumny was the pretext for a universal revolt. After a long civil war, of which Nebuchadnez'zar took advantage to devastate Lower Egypt, A'pries was dethroned by Ama'sis, and strangled in prison (b.c. 569). • Jeremiah xlvi. 1-10. f Ezekiel xxL\. 8-15. J Jeremiah xliv. .30. EGYPT. 11 The usurper was a man of mean birth, but his great abilities enabled nim to overcome the Egyptian prejudice of caste, especially as he had the wisdom to conciliate the affection of the priesthood. Following the policy of his predecessors, he tried to establish his supremacy in western Asia, on the decline of the Babylonian power, and entered into close alliance with Croe'sus against Cy'rus. He was defeated, and compellled to become tributary to the conqueror. On the death of Cyrus, he attempted to assert his independence, and thus provoked the rage of Camby'ses, that monarch's successor. At the very moment when the Persian invaders were approaching, Ama'sis quarrelled with Phanes, the commander of the Greek, mercenaries, and his ally, Poly'- crates, the king of Samos, both of whom tendered their aid to Camby'ses. But before the evil hour of the Persian invasion arrived, Ama'sis died (b.c. 525), bequeathing to his son Psammeni'tus a king- dom torn by internal dissensions, and menaced by a formidable enemy. Scarcely had Psammeni'tus ascended the throne, when Camby'ses appeared on the frontiers of Egypt, and laid siege to Peltisium. This important garrison was taken, after a very weak resistance ; and the Persians advanced into the open country. Psammeni'tus led an army, chiefly composed of mercenaries, against them ; but was so completely overthrov/n, that he was no longer able to save his capital. Camby'ses provoked by the murder of one of his ambassadors, put to death the chief of the Egyptian nobles, and reduced their wives and children tc slavery. He was at first inclined to spare the life of the unfortunate king ; but subsequently learning that he had incautiously expressed a desire for revenge, the cruel conqueror condemned him to drink poison, (/amby'ses was the deadly enemy of the religion and the priestly caste of the Egyptians : he slew their sacred animals, destroyed their idols, scourged their priests as slaves, and pillaged their temples. The Egyptians, instigated by the heads of the sacerdotal caste, frequently rebelled against the Persians, but were never able to estab- lish their independence ; these insurrections were punished with the most relentless severity, and thus the awful prophecy of Eze'jiel was fulfilled to the letter.* Section V. — EgypHan Manufactures and Commerce. The monuments show us that the progress of the Egyptians in tlie mechanical arts was much greater than had been usually supposed, and that an accurate examination of their machinery might suggest useful hints for the present day. Weaving was an important branch of industry, the cotton aiid tlax being indigenous. It is uncertain whether silk was used. The stuffs were woven in large manufactories, imder the superintendence of the priests, who had a monopoly of all the cloths used for sacred purposes, especially for the mummies. These stuffs were generally died in the wool, and many of them embroidered with thread of gold and silver wire ; fome of them are striped, others stained or flowered, and the • Ezek. XXX. 13-19. 12 . ANCIENT HISTORY colors of all exhibit those dazzling hues of the East, which we are unable to rival in Europe. The manufactures in metal rank next in importance. Iron appears to have been but little known : nearly all the implements not made of gold or silver, were, it would seem, either copper or brass. The workmanship of the Egyptians, both in metal and wood, was superior to that of any other ancient nation. The forms of their couches, harps, &c., the elegance of the spindles and work-baskets of the ladies, inspire a high idea of the refinement of their domestic life. Egypt produced excellent clay for pottery, and earthen ware was used, not only for domestic purposes, but for preserving the mummies of the sacred animals. Their vases, in the indescribable variety ^.jid beauty of their shapes, rival the choicest specimens of Grecian or Etruscan art. Ship-building did not become common in Egypt, until its rulers became masters of the Phoenician forests ; but they manufactured vessels of burden for navigating the Nile. The Theb'aid was the central point of trade between southern Asia and the western regions, and between Ethiopia and northern Africa. Besides the advantages of its position, the most ancient and productive gold mines in the world were in its neighborhood. From Ethiopia and the Negro countries were brought gold, ivory, ebony, skins, and slaves ; from Arabia, incense, and from India, spices ; and these were sold to the Greek and Phasnician merchants. The native commodities exported were principally corn and cloths : the corn-trade must have been particularly valuable, for Egypt was regarded as the granary of the odjaceat countries. THE ETHIOPIAN& 13 CHAPTER II. THE ETHIOPIANS. Section I. — Geographical Outline. Natural History. The eastern districts above the Nile, now called Nubia and Sennaar have been possessed from a remote age by two different races the Ethiopian and the Arabian, which are even now but partially blent ed. The country is 'uU of historical monuments, chiefly erected on the banks of the Nile. There were, in these countries above Egypt, all the grada- tions from the complete savage to the hunting and fishing tribes, and from them to the wandering herdsman and shepherd ; but there was also a civilized Ethiopian people, dwelling in cities, possessing a gov- ernment and laws, acquainted with the use of hieroglyphics, the fame of whose progress in knowledge and the social arts had, in the earliest ages, spread over a considerable portion of the earth. The Nile, before its confluence with the Astab'oras (Mugriim), runs through a very irregular valley formed by two chains of hills, which sometimes retire back, and sometimes advance to the very margin of the river. The soil of this valley was once as fertile as the richest part of Egypt, and where protected, it still continues so ; but the hills on both sides are bordered by sandy deserts, against which they afford but a scanty protection. The Nubian valley below the junction of the Nile and the Astab'oras appears to have been sometimes subject to the Ethiopians of Mer'oe and sometimes to the Egyptians. The naviga- tion of the Nile is here impeded by the windings of the river, and by the intervention of cataracts and rapids ; so that intercourse is more generally maintained by caravans than by boats. At the southern ex- tremity of the valley, the river spreads itself, and encloses a number of fertile islands. Along the whole course of the Nubian valley is a suc- cession of st"''pendous monuments, rivalling those of Thebes in beauty, and exceeding them in sublimity. The productions of the Ethiopian and Nubian valleys do not differ materially from those of Egypt. The island of Mer'oe as it was called from being nearly surrounded with rivers, possessed an abundance of camels, which, as we have seen, were little used in Egypt ; but the ivory ebony, and spices, which the Ethiopians sent down the river, were probably procured by trafhc with the interior of Africa. Mer'oe had better harbors for Indian commerce than Egypt : not only wt-re her ports on the Red sea superior, but the caravan-routes to them were shorter, and the dangerous part of the navigation of that sea was wholly avoided. The wild tracts in the neighborhood of Mer'oe are tenanted by an- imals whose chase afford(id employment to the ancient, as it does now 4 ANCIENT HISTORY. to the modern hunting tribes ; especially that singular creature the giraffe, or camelopard, so recently known in Europe. The elephant is found in Abyssinia, not far from the southern confines of the state of Mer'oe Section II. — History of the Ethiopians. The early history of Meroe is involved in impenetrable obscurity- Its monuments bear evident marks of being the models for the wondrous edifices of Egypt ; but, shut out from all intercourse with civilized na- tions by the intervention of the Egyptians, it is oiily when they were invaded, or became invaders, that we can trace the history of the Ethi- opians. It has been already mentioned that several of the Egyptian monarchs carried their arms into Ethiopia, and became for a time mas- ters of the country. In the eleventh century before the Christian era, the Assyrian heroine Semir'amis is reported to have attempted its con- quest ; Ijut there is some doubt of the truth of this, as indeed of many other exploits attributed to this wonderful queen. But we have certain information of the Ethiopians being a powerful nation (b. c. 971) when they assisted Shishak in his war against Judeea " with very many chariots and horsemen." Sixteen years after this, we have an account of Jud.3sant ; when raised to the throne, he consecrated his cart to the gods. The beam was fastened to the yoke by a complicated knot ; and a traditional oracle declared, that whoever untied the knot should be king of Asia. When this was told to Alexander the Great, he cut it through with his sword. In the reign of Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the Lydian empire. The Lydians, called also Maeonians, were a branch of the Carians. Three dynasties reigned over them successively. That of the Aty'adae terminated (b. c. 1232) in the person of Om'phale, who was said to be the wife of Hercules. The race of the HeraclidcB terminated with Candaules, who was murdered at the instigation of Ijis queen, by Gy'- ges, a Lydian nobleman (b. c. 727). Gy'ges founded the dynasty of the Merm'nadae, under whose sway Lyd'ia rose to great power. During the reign of Ar'dys, the second of the dynasty, Asia Minor was Gfi> SYRIA. 29 vastated by hordes of northern barbarians, called Cimmerians, who had been expelled from their original seats by the Scythians. Their rav- ages were continued for about half a century : but they were finally driven out by Alyat'tes, the grandson of Ar'dys. Encouraged by his success against the Cimmerians, Alyat'tes endeavored to check the growing power of the Medes, and for six years waged war against Cyax'ares. The contest was at length about to be decided by a great battle, when a total eclipse of the sun so terrified both armies in the midst of the fight, that they separated in consternation (b. c. 601). This re- markable eclipse was predicted by Thales of Miletus, and is the first recorded to have been calculated by astronomers. Crog'sus, the son and successor of Alyat'tes, subdued all the Grecian states in. Asia Minor, and extended his empire on the eastern side to the river Halys. The magnificence of his court at Sardis attracted visiters from different countries ; but Crce'sus was more anxious to : n- tertain philosophers and men of learning from Greece. The illustrious Solon was once his guest, and with honorable freedom refused to de- clare Crog'sus perfectly happy until he knew the termination of his career. The Lydian monarch was deeply offended ; but ere long he had reason to admire the wisdom of the Athenian sage. Seduced by the pretended oracles of Delphi, he waged war against the rising Per- sian empire ; but was defeated by Cy'rus, and taken prisoner. Being sentenced to death by the barbarous victor, he exclaimed, when placed on the funeral pile, " O Solon, Solon !" Cy'rus asked the meaning of this invocation ; and was so struck by the impressive example of the philosopher's wisdom, that he not only spared the life of Croe'sus, but made him his friend and counsellor (b. c. 549). Lydia, and the rest of Asia Minor, remained subject to the Persian empire until the time of Alexander the Great. Section III. — Syria. — Geographical Outline. The name of Syria was loosely given by the Greeks, as that of A^ram Avas by the Hebrews, not only to the country now cal'-'d by that name, but also to Mesopotamia and part of Asia Minor ; but it is prop- erly restricted to the region between Mount Am'anus on the north, the Euphrates on the east, Arabia on the south, and Phcenicia on the west. It has been variously divided, but the most convenient division is into three unequal portions — Syria Proper, which includes* the prov- hices of Commagene, Seleucis, and Coele-Syria ; Phcenicia and the I ountry of the Philistines ; and Palestine, of which we shall treat in a separate chapter. The principal city of Commagene was Samosata on the Euphrates : there were several trading towns of minor importance, all in the vicin- ity. Seleucis was adorned with many splendid cities during the reigns of the successors of Alexander, of which the most remarkable were Antioch and Seleucia. It contained also Hierap'olis, dedicated to the Syrian goddess Beroea, the modern Aleppo, and Heliop'olis (Baal'bec), whose magnificent ruins still attract admiration. Ccele-Syria, or Hol- low Syria, was so called because it lies between two parallel chains of mountams. Lib'anus and Antilib'anus : it contained Damascus, the 30 ANCIENT HISTORY. ancient metropolis of Syria, which existed as a city in the days of Abraham, Ab'ila, and Laodicea. The Syrian desert adjoins this divis- ion, in the midst of which is a fertile oasis, on which the city of Tad- mor, or Palmy'ra, Avas founded by Solomon. Its ruins rival those of Baalbec in magnitude and beauty. Southeast of this was Thap'sacus, opposite to which the Euphrates was fordable. Phoenicia, or Phcenice, skirted the eastern coasts of the Mediterra- nean, but its boimdaries were almost perpetually varying. It contained Si'don, the most ancient commercial city in the world ; Tyre, commonly called " the daughter of Sidon ;" Ar'adus, also an insular city ; Trip'- olis, so called because it was colonized by the three preceding cities conjointly : Byb'lus and Bery'tus, the modern Beiroot, which is still a good harbor. Tyre was originally a Sidonian colony, but rose rapidly aUjve the parent state, and became a flourishing commercial city. After its cap- ture by Alexander the Great, Tyre gradually declined, less in conse- quence of the conqueror's vengeance than of the founding of Alexan- dria in Egypt, which soon became the seat of the commerce that had previously centred in Tyre. Section IV. — Social and Political Condition of the Syrians and Phoenicians. Syria contained but one large river, the Oron^tes, a turbid and rapid stream, whose navigation is impeded by rapids, and whose waters can not be used for domestic purposes. But there are several minor rivers in the neighborhood of Damascus, which, as well as their tributary streams, are remarkable for their limpid waters and abundance of fish The soil is generally better suited to pasturage than agriculture. Two large valleys of mineral salt added greatly to the natural wealth of the country ; and the mountains of Leb'anon supplied abundance of excel- lent timber both for house and ship-building. Syria was consequently partly suited to a nomad, and partly to a commercial people ; and this mixture of the two opposite characters, with scarcely any trace of the intermediate agricultural class, led to many revolutions in the Syrian government ; the cities were more or less republican, while the rural districts were subject to petty despots. The Syrian religion appears to have been elementary ; that is, the objects of worship were the personificcitions of some powers of nature : their most celebrated deity, Astar''te, or the Syrian, goddess, represented both the moon and the prolific power of the earth, and was worshipped with the same licentious ceremonies as the Babylonian Mylit'ta. The Phcenicians, like the Syrians, belonged to the great Aramean, or Semitic family of nations. Their narrow and short line of coast, indented with excellent bays and harbors, was covered with lofty and wooded mountains, that jut out into the sea, and form bold promonto- ries. Several islands stud the coast, on which cities and commercial establishments were founded, as well as on the mainland. Each ®t these cities was an independent state ; but they were generally united by a federative league, under the presidency of Sidon, and afterward SYRIA. 31 of Tyre. The religion of the Phoenicians appears to have been more sanguinary than that of most other nations. Tham'muz, or Adonis, was worshipped with very licentious rites, which were supposed to have a mystic signification. Section V. — History of the Syrians and Phanicians. Syria was divided into a number of petty states, most of which were subdued by the Jewish king, David (b. c. 1044). Toward the close of Solomon's reign, Rezon, •'vho had been originally a slave, threw off the yoke, and founded the Syrian kingdom of Damascus. Ben-hadad, the most powerful of his successors, waged a long and sanguinary war against the kingdom of Israel, during the reigns of Ahab and Jehoram. He was finally murdered by Hazael, one of his servants (b. c. 884) who usurped tire vacant throne. Hazael was a warlike prince ; he gained several brilliant victories over the forces of Israel and Judah, compelling the monarchs of both to resign several important provinces, and pay him tribute. He also made himself mas- ter of E'lath on the Red sea, and greatly increased the commercial prosperity of his dominions. But these advantages were lost under the reign of his inglorious son, Ben-hadad II. The Syrians recovered some of their power under Rezin ; toward the close of his reign, he entered into alliance with Pekah, king of Israel, against A^haz, king of Judah. The Syrians and Israelites gained so many advantages, that A'haz sought the protection of Tig- lath-pileser, king of AssjTia, who marched against Damascus, cap- tured the city, dragged the inhabitants away captive, and put an end to the kingdom (b. c. 740). It has been already mentioned that most of the Phcenician cities were independent states. Tyre is, however, the only one whose his- tory can be satisfactorily traced. Its first sovereign was Ab'ical (about B. c. 1050), who was contemporary with David. His son and succes- sor, Hiram, was united by the strictest bonds of friendship to the great Jewish king, and also to his son Solomon. During the reign of Hiram, Tyre acquired the supremacy of Phoenicia, and became the most flour- ishing emporium of commerce in the ancient world. The most remarkable successors of Hiram were Ethbaal I., the father of the wicked Jez'ebel, wife of Ahab, in whose reign some im- portant colonies were planted ir Africa ; and Pygmalion, whose murder of Sichse'us led to the foundation of Carthage (about b. c. 900). Dido, the wife of Sichae'us, aided by numerous Tyrians, escaped by sea with her husband's treasures, and sought a new country on the northern shores of Africa. Here she erected the city of Carthage, which soon rivalled Tyre itself in commercial prosperity. The Tyrians exercised their supremacy over the surrounding cities with so much cruelty, that the Phoenicians applied for protection to the Assyrians, and afterward to the Babylonians. The Assyrians, unable to cope with the Tyrians by sea, retired, leaving the city uninjured. But Nebuchadnez'zar so exhausted Tyre by a constant blockade, that it was almost wholly abandoned by its inhabitants, who erected the city 32 ANCIENT HISTORY. of New Tyre upon a neighboring island. Soon after this event, a change was made in the form of government ; annual magistrates, called Shophetim, or, according to the Greek orthography, Suffetes, being chosen instead of kings. After Cyrus had conquered Babylon, the Phoenician cities submitted of their own accord (b. c. 538) ; but though they became dependancies of the Persian empire, they were permitted to retain their native governments. Tyre again became sub- ject to kings, and supplied the strength of the Persian naval power. It was taken by Alexander the Great (b. c. 332), and from that time il sunk into hopeless decay. Section VI. — Phcenician Colonies and Foreign Possessions. The system of colonization in commercial states has been always the greatest aid to the progress of civilization : colonies are founded by trading nations for the purpose of securing a lucrative commerce, by establishing a market for the manufactured produce of the parent state, and a carrying-trade for its merchants and seamen. Such colo- nies, unlike the military establishments of despotic states, require to be placed under the gaiidance of persons advanced in political knowledge who know how to vary the institutions derived from the government at home, so as to suit the altered circumstances of their position and for- eign relations : hence civil liberty has always advanced more rapidly in commercial colonies than in the states from which they were derived, and the science of legislation has attained greater perfection than in more ancient establishments. In commercial states, the distinction between the citizen and the soldier is very strongly marked ; and most commercial states, in ancient and modern times employed foreign mercenaries. The prophet Eze- kiel, whose accoimt of Tyre is the most perfect record of its ancient condition, enumerates the countries that supplied the Tyi'ian armies and navies with warriors.* The Phoenician colonies proceeded from east to west along the coasts of the Mediterranean, occupying the principal islands. Cy'prus, called in Scripture Kittim, or Chittim, was not only a colony but a province of the Tyrians, and vestiges of their establishments on the island still exist. From Cj'prus they extended their settlements to Crete and some of the islands in the Archipelago. Thence they pro- ceeded to Africa, Sicily, and Sardinia, spreading their cities unequally along the coasts, and very rarely attempting the conquest of the inte- rior. Their establishments in Sicily and Sardinia, indeed, appear to have been only naval stations for the vessels employed in the trade with wpstern Europe, especially with Spain, which was the Mexico or Peru of the ancient world. The Spanish peninsula, called in Scrip- ture Tar'shish, from the city Tartes'sus, was the country with which the Tyrians had the most lucrative trade ; and the colonies they estab- lished there soon became independent states. It would seem that the Tyrians were by no means anxious to retain supremacy over their col- onies, wisely preferring a close alliance, cemented by common descent, •Ezekiel xxvii. 8-11. SYRIA. 33 angiiage, and religion, to a hollow dependance. Colonies were also planted beyond the straits of Gibraltar, or, as they were called by the ancients, the Pillars of Hercules. Trade was extended to the British islands and the coasts of the North sea, which must have led to the (Establishment of colonies and naval stations along the western and northern coasts of Spain. The colonies in northern Africa, Leptis, Carthage, Utica, &c., attained greater splendor than any of the other Phoenician cities, and rivalled Tyre itself in wealth and magnificence. It is exceedingly probable that they had also settlements in western Africa, and that they had even reached the island of Madeira. But to prevent any interfer- ence with their lucrative commerce, they designedly cast a veil of mystery over their intercourse Avith the western regions, of which the Greek poets took advantage to embellish their narratives of fictitious voyages and travels with the most fanciful inventions. It is known that the Phoenicians preceded the Greeks in forming commercial establishments along the coast of Asia Minor and the shores of the Black sea ; but we have no account of the mode in which they were deprived of these possessions by the Greeks. It is probable that the Phoenicians resigned this branch of commerce to attend more closely to their lucrative trade with the western regions. In the eastern seas they had establishments on the Persian and Ara- bian gulfs ; but their settlements on the latter were probably not made until David had conquered their commercial rivals, the Edomites, or Idumeans. From that time they paid great attention to their southern trade, and seem to have become close allies of the Egyptians. Section VII. — Phoenician Manufactures and Commerce. The textile fabrics of the Sidonians, and the purple cloths of the Tyrians, were celebrated from the earliest antiquity. The Tyrian purple was not a single color, but was a generic name for all the shades of purple and scarlet. The dye was obtained from, a shell-fish found in great abundance on the shores of the Mediterra- nean. Vegetable dyes of great beauty and variety were also used ; the dyeing was always performed in the raw materials ; and the Phoe- nicians alone understood the art of producing shot colors by using threads of different tints. Glass was very anciently manufactured both at Sidon and Sarepta : tradition, indeed, ascribes the invention of glass to the Phoenicians ; but the Egyptians seem to have a claim at least as good to the discovery. Carvings in wood and ivory, manufactures of jewelry and toys, complete all that has been recorded of the products of Tyrian industry ; and it seems probable that their commerce con- sisted more in the interchange of foreign commodities than in the ex- port of their own wrought goods. The land-trade of the Phoenicians may be divided into tliree great branches : the Arabian, which included the Egyptian and that with the Indian seas ; the Babylonian, to which is referred the commerce with central Asia and north India ; and the Armenian, including the overland trade with Scythia and the Caucasian countries. From Yem'en, called Arabia the Happy, the southern division of tha 3 34 ANCIENT HISTORY Arabian peninsula, caravans brought through the desert frankincense, myrrh, cassia, gold, and precious stones, the gold being probably obtained from the opposite shores of Africa. But before the Phceni- cians had a port on the Red sea, they obtained, through Arabia, the produce of southern India and Africa, more especially cinnamon, ivory, and ebony. This trade is fully described by Ezekiel,* by vv^hom the traffic in the Persian gulf is also noticed. f The Arabian trade appears to have been principally carried on by caravans. The northern Arabs, especially the princes of Kedar and the Midianites, v^^ere in ancient times great travelling merchants : and the kingdom of Edom, or Idumtea, in the north of the Arabian peninsula, attained a very high degree of commercial prosperity. On the seacoast the Idumeans possessed the ports of E'lath and E'zion-geber (Ak'aba) ; in the interior, they had for their metropolis Petra, vi^hose magnificent remains have been but recently discovered. So permanent and almost immutable is the aspect of civilization in Asia, that the coimnercial caravans of the present day scarcely differ in any particular from those which were used in the flourishing days of TjTe. The merchants trav- elled in bands organized like an army, having their goods on the baclcs of camels, the only animals which can endure the fatigues and priva- tions of tl.ie desert. They were escorted by armed forces, sometimes supplied from home, but more frequently consisting of one marauding tribe, hired at a large price, to save the caravan from the exactions and attacks of the rest. The greater part of the Phoenician trade with Egypt was overland, at least so long as the seat of government was at Thebes in Upper Egypt : when Mem'phis rose into power, an entire quarter of the city was assigned to the Phcsnician merchants, and the trade by sea to the mouths of the Nile grew into importance. The first branch of the eastern Phoenician trade was with Judaea and Syria Proper.^ The dependance of the Phtenicians on Palestine for grain fully explains the cause of their close alliance with the Jewish king- dom in the reigns of David and Solomon. But the most important branch of eastern trade was that through Bab'ylon with the interior of Asia. A great part of the route lay through the Syrian desert ; and to facilitate the passage of the caravans, two of the most remarkable cities of the ancient Avorld, Baal'bec and Palmy'ra, were founded. They were both built by Solomon : " he fovmded," says the Scripture, " Baalath (Baal'bec) and Tadmor (Pal- my'ra) in the desert."^ They were erected by that wise monarch to procure for his subjects a shiire in this lucrative traffic ; but this object was frustrated by the sul^scfjiiont revolt of the ten tribes, and the wars between Israel and Judah. The northern land-trade of the Phoenicians is described by no an- cient writer but the prophet Ezekiel : " Javan [Ionia, and the Greek colonies], Tubal, and Meshech [ihe countries around the Black and north Caspian seas], they were thy merchants : they traded the persons of men and vessels of brass in thy markets. They of the house of To- gar''mah [Armenia and Cappadocia], traded in thy fairs with horses and horsemen and mules. "|| • Ezekiel xxvu. 19-23. t lb. xxvii. 15. 1 Ezekiel xxvii. 17, 18. § 1 Kings ix. 18. || Ezekiel xxvii. 13, 14. SYRIA. 35 Eui the Mediterranean sea was the great high road of Phoenician tnftiinterce : it probably commenced with piracy ; for in the infancy of Grecmn civilization, we find frequent mention of the kidnapping prac- tised oy coirfairs from Tyre and Sidon. But Avhen Greece advanced in povvt>r, and Athens and Corinth had fleets of their own, the Greeks became tuo rivals and political enemies of the Phoenicians, purchasing from them oniy such aiticles as could not be procured from their own colonies in Asia MiiiOi. Spain was the richest country of the ancient world in the precious meials. The Phoewician colonies enslaved the natives, and compehea tnein to woik in the mines : these metallic pro- ductions are enumerated bv hiea-iei. '' Tar'shish [Tartes'sus, or south- western Spain], was thy meichani by reason of the multitude of all kind of riches ; with silver, iron, tin, and lead, they traded in th>' fairs."* From Spain the Phoeniciano entered the Atlantic ocean, and proceeded to the south of the British islands, where they procured the tin of Cornwall ; and probably to the coasts of Prussia for amber, which in the ancient world was deemed more precious than gold. In the eastern seas, the Phoenicians had establishments on the Arabian and Persian gulf, whence they traded with the coasts of India and Af- rica, and the island of Ceylon. During the reign of Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, they discovered the passage round the Cape of Good Hope ; but this led to no important results, on account of the calamities that Tyre endured from the invasion of Nebuchadnez'zar. Though their voyages did not equal in daring those of modern times, yet, when we consider that they were ignorant of the mariner's compass, and of the art of taking accurate astronomical observations, it is wonderful to reflect on the commercial enterprise of a people whose ships were to be seen in the harbors of Britain and Ceylon. * Ezekiel xxvii. 12. 36 ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER V. PALESTINE. Section I. — Geographical Outline Palestine, or the Holy Land, lies between Phoenicia on the north, and Idumse'a on the south, separated from both by chains of loftv mountains ; to the east its boundaries were the Asphaltic lake, i\w river Jordan, and the sea of Galilee ; on the west it extended to the Mediterranean. The mountains are the most remarkable features in the geography of Palestine. These moimtains divided Palestine into a series of valleys and tablelands, leaving two great plains, called " the region about Jordan," and the plain of Esdraelon, or Jez'reel. These valleys and plains were of very unequal value ; some were so unpro- ductive as to be called deserts, others were the most fertile spots in western Asia. Jordan was the only great river of Palestine ; it falls into the As- phaltic lake, or Dead sea, which occupies the site of the ancient cities Sod'om and Gomor'rah. There is no outlet from the Asphaltic lake^ and its waters are bitter and unwholesome. The sea of Galilee, through which the Jordan flows, is a beautiful fresh-water lake, abound- ing in fish. The principal cities were Jerusalem, the metropolis of the kingdom of Judah, and Samaria, the capital of Israel. Idumae'a lay south of Palestine, beyond the chain of Mount Seir : it was in general a rocky and barren country ; but being the high road of Arabian traffic, its nat- ural capabilities were improved to the utmost, and it contained the great city of Petra, whose commercial wealth was deservedly celebra- ted. Idumae'a, or Edom, was annexed to the kingdom of Israel in the reign of David. The valleys of Palestine were in general very fruitful ; and the va- ried elevations of the country, causing so many different climates, gave the country a greater variety of natural productions than is usually found in so confined a space. A series of calamities, unparalleled in any other portion of the globe, has now reduced Palestine almost to sterility ; but v^ven now there are spots to be found whose luxuriance revives the memory of the verdure and beauty that once covered the entire country. Sfction II. — History of Palestine. iROM B. c. 1920 TO B. c. 975. God called Abram from the land of the CbaHees to Palestine, then named Canaan, to be the founder o.*" a ration th?' sJiould be his peculiai PALESTINE. ^7 people (b. c. 1920). Abraham, at his death (b. c. 1821), transmitted the inheritance of the divine promise to his son Isaac ; and he was de- ceived into making his second son Jacob, or Israel, the heir of this glorious privilege. The sons of Jacob sold their brother Joseph as a slave to some Arabian merchants, by whom he was carried into Egypt. There he became the chief minister of the Pharaoh of Egypt ; his brethren having come into that country to purchase corn, he made himself known to them, and invited his father, with his whole family, to dwell to the rich district of Goshen (b. c. 1705). In process of time, the Israelites became so numerous as to excite the envious alarm of the Egyptians : they were in consequence cruelly persecuted, until God raised up Moses as their deliverer. The miraculous plagues he inflicted on the land of Egypt induced the reigning Pharaoh to consent to the departure of the Israelites (b. c. 1491). Repenting of his per- mission, he pursued them with a mighty host ; but he and all his fol- lowers perished in the Red sea. After the miraculous deliverance of the Hebrews from the Egyptian army, and their safe passage through the Red sea, it seemed as if their chief difficulties had been overcome ; that with Jehovah ^or their pro- tector, and Moses for their guide, they would soon reach the frontiers of Canaan, and find no difficulty in subduing its idolatrous inhabitants. Were there no other difficulties to be overcome than the ruggedness of the way, and the hostility of the various warlike races in and round Palestine, the wanderings of the Israelites would soon have terminated, but during their protracted bondage they had been deeply imbued with all the vices of slavery ; they had become stubborn, rebellious, and in- constant ; they vacillated between the extremes of cowardice and rashness, and they had acquired an almost invincible fondness for idol- atry and superstition, which proved a constant source of misfortimes to themselves and of the most harassing vexations to their leader. In the beginning of the third month after the departure from Goshen, the Israelites reached the plains around Sin'ai, where amid the most awful manifestations of the Divine presence, Moses ascended the mountain, and received from the Lord the sacred code of laws by which the Israelites were thenceforth to be ruled under God's immediate gov- ernment, and which was moreover designed, both by its moral and ceremonial institutions, to be " a schoolmaster to the Jews to bring them unto Christ." The constitution thus given to the Israelites may be described as a theocracy ; that is, a government in which God him- self was the sovereign, communicating his will by certain authorized ministers. The priests through whom the Divine commands were made known, could only be chosen from the descendants of Aaron ; and all the inferior ministers of religion belonged to the tribe of Levi. All the institutions appointed for the people were directed to one great ob- ject, the preservation of the purity of religious worship : the Israelites were not chosen to be the most wealthy or most powerful of nations, but to be the guardians of the knowledge of the true God, until the ar- rival of that divine Savior who was to unite both Jews and Gentiles as one flock, under one shepherd. While Moses continued on the mount, the Israelites, impatient at his long absence, formed a golden ■ calf, or representation of a young bull, as an object for their idolatrous worship 38 ANCIENT HISTORY When Moses, who had been now forty days on the mount, learned from the Lord the crime of which the people had been guilty, he hastily descended toward the camp ; as he approached, the sight of the people, dancing round the object of their stupid veneration, filled him with such wrath that he broke the tables of stone on which the Ten Command- ments had been graven by " the finger of God." The tribe of Levi, which seems not to have participated in the national guilt, slew three thousand of the worst criminals ; the idol was broken to pieces, and the people compelled to drink the water with which its dust had been min- gled ; and atonement having been made for the sin, Moses again ascended the mountain, and, after an absence of forty days, returned with two new tables of commandments, in place of those that had been broken. Having broken up the encampment at Sin'ai, the Israelites directed their march to the frontiers of Canaan ; but notwithstanding all the signs and wonders that had been wrought in their favor, they broke out into acts of rebellion against Moses, and on every trifling occasion pro- voked, by their seditions, severe chastisements from the righteous anger of the Almighty ; until, at length upon the very borders of the promised land, for their rebellious murmurings at the report of the spies, the Lord ordained that none of the existing generation should enter the promised land, except Joshua and Caleb. Forty years of wandering in the Des- ert were to expiate the national crime, after which a new generation was to inherit the promise made to Abraham. In their wanderings, the miraculous pillar, which had guided them from Egypt, continued still to direct them, and the manna to nourish them ; their raiment and their shoes suffered no decay, and their feet were unhurt, by their long and frequent marches. Notwithstanding these signal proofs of the Divine protection, the children of Israel fre- quently rebelled against Moses, and provoked severe chastisements from their oft'ended God. Thirty-eight years after their departure from Egypt, the march to Canaan was resumed ; but being defeated in their first attempt, and, tlaough more successful on a second trial, finding the western frontiers of Palestine difiicult, the Israelites resolved to make a circuit, and at- tack the country more to the eastward. On this march, Moses and Aaron, having evinced a want of confidence in the divine power, were included in the sentence of not being permitted to enter the promised land. Commanded by God to regard the descendants of Esau as their brethren, the Hebrew army avoided the land of Edom, turning their course northward, encountering various enemies, who tried to impede their passage. They gained signal victories over Sihon, king of the Amorites, and Og, the gigantic ruler of Basan, and spread the terror of their name through the surrounding nations. In a pitched battle, which the Israelites fought also against five kings of Mid'ian, the confederate monarchs fell; a terrible slaughter was made of their subjects, the cities of the land were taken and sacked, and a considerable booty brought to Moses and Eleazar, the latter of whom had succeeded Aaron iu the priesthood. Immediately after the punishment of the Midianites, Moses, by the PALESTINE. 39 divine direction, took a census of the people, and assigned to the tribes by lot their future inheritance in Canaan. He found that all the old murmuring generation, save Joshua and Caleb, had disappeared, as God had foretold. Being warned that his own end was approaching, he solemnly constituted Joshua his successor, and assembling the people recapitulated all the miracles which God had wrought in their favoi since their departure from Egypt, and exhorted them to be firm in their allegiance to Jehovah, setting before them the blessings promised for obedience, and the curses denounced against idolatry. Having thus completed his task, he ascended Mount Nebo, by God's command, whence he was gratified with a view of the promised land ; after which he breathed his last, in the one hundredth and twentieth year of his age (b. c. 1451). The place of his burial ivas carefully concealed, probably to prevent the Israelites from making his tomb an object of idolatrous veneration. Section HI. — The Conquest of Canaan by Joshua. Nothing less than the strongest assurance of divine aid could have supported Joshua's courage in so arduous an enterprise. He was now ninety-three years of age, and wanted neither experience nor sagacity to foresee the perils which he had to encounter. Though at the head of six hundred thousand fighting men, his army was encumbered by a multitude of old men, women, and children, beside servants and cattle ; before him was a large river, which he was to cross, equally exposed to the arms of those he went to attack, and those he left behind. The na- tions he had to subdue were warlike, remarkable for their personal strength and gigantic stature ; their towns were well fortified by nature and art ; their forces and interests cemented by mutual treaties ; they had long been aware of the meditated invasion, and had made formi- da?Dle preparations for the defence of their country. The tribes of Reuben and Gad, and half the tribe of Manasseh, pre- ferred settling in the land east of the Jordan, but they sent a contingent of forty thousand men to aid their brethren in the subjugation of Ca- naan. Passing over the river Jordan by a miraculous passage, the Israelites celebrated the feast of the passover, which had been intermitted since their encampment on Sin'ai, from the want of corn to prepare unleav- ened bread ; now, also, that they were in a productive land, the mirac- ulous supply of manna ceased, being no longer necessary. So great was the alarm of the Canaanites, that no attempt was made to interrupt the Israelites while celebrating this solemn feast ; when it was conclu ded, they advanced against the fortified city of Jer'icho, which was straightly shut up because of the children of Israel, — " none went out, and none came in. By divine command, Joshua made no military preparations for the siege of this important place, but led the army round the city once a day for six days, preserving strict silence, broken only by the sound of the sacred trumpets which accompanied the Ark of the Covenant. On the seventh day, the people " compassed the city, after the same manner, seven times ; and it came to pass at the Beventh time, when the priests blew with the trumpets, Joshua said un- 40 ANCIENT HISTORY to the people, Shout, for the Lord hath given you the city. . . . And the people shouted with a great shout, that the wall fell down flat, so that the people went up into the city, every man straight before him, and they took the city." The king of A'i next became the victim of a stratagem devised by Joshua, and its citizens were utterly exterminated. Great fear spread over the land of Canaan in consequence of the destruction of Jer'ichc and A'i ; the Gibeonites, anxious to escape from impending ruin, sought a treaty of peace from Joshua, and obtained it by pretending to be na- tives of a distant country. Adonized'ec, king of Jerusalem, was greatly enraged when be heard that the Gibeonites had deserted the common cause ; he sent .mbas- sies to four of the neighboring princes to aid him in punisliing their defection ; they readily assented, and " went up, they and all their hosts, and encamped before Gibeon, and made war against it." Joshua imme- diately marched to their deliverance. The five kings were completely routed ; at Joshua's command " the sun stood still and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies And there was no day like that before it or after it, that the Lord hearkened unto the voice of a man ; for the Lord fought for Israel." During the space of seven years, the Israelites were almost inces- santly engaged in completing the conquest of Canaan, but they met with no very formidable resistance after the memorable battle against the five kings before Gibeon. They did not however wholly extermi- nate the idolatrous tribes, as the Lord had commanded ; they became weary of the protracted warfare, and the warriors of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh, were naturally anxious to return to their families beyond Jordan. This impolitic act of disobedience was subsequently produc- tive of fatal consequences, for the surviving Canaanites eagerly sought and embraced every opportunity of taking revenge for the extermina- tion of their brethren. Even in peace they Avere scarcely less danger- ous to the prosperity of the chosen people than in war, for they fre- quently seduced the Israelites to join in the impure and impious rites of their licentious idolatry. Soon after tranquillity had been established in Palestine, and the dif- ferent tribes and families had taken possession of their allotted portions, Joshua died, at the advanced age of one hundred and ten, having ruled the country as wisely as he had conquered it bravely : " And Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders that overlived Joshua, and which had known all the works of the Lord ihat he had done for Israel." Section IV. — History of Israel under the Judges. Under the theocracy, as established by Moses, the civil government of Israel was to be administered by Skophetim, or Judges, nominated by the divine oracle, the mysterious Urim and Thummim, which were in the custody of the high-priest ; but after the death of Joshua the Israelites frequently apostatized to idolatry, the oracles of God were neglected, the appointment of chief magistrates omitted. The tribe of Tudah at first actively engaged in completing the conquest which had PALESTINE. 41 been left imperfect, but otners entered into compact with the Canaan- ites, and were so insnared by the beauty of their women as to contract affinities with them. These intermarriages soon reconciled them to the worship of the false gods of the heathen, and provoked the Almighty to deliver them over to the hands of their enemies. God permitted the idolatrous Israelites to be subdued by the king of Mesopotamia, who held them in subjection for nearly eight years ; but on their repent- ance, Oth'niel was raised up to be their deliverer, and under his admin- istration " they had rest forty years." A second defection was pun- ished by a servitude to the Moabites for eighteen years, at the end of which time E'hud slew the king of Moab, delivered Israel, and restored peace. Sham'gar, the third judge, repelled the incursions of the Phil- istines, and slew six hundred of them with an ox-goad. But " the children of Israel again did evil in the sight of the Lord, \vhen E'hud was dead. And the Lord sold them into the hand of Jabin, king of Canaan." For twenty years the Israelites groaned under the yoke of this despot, but they were at length delivered by the prophetess Deb'- orah, aided by Barak, a leader of established reputation. A new apostacy was punished by a more severe servitude ; " the Lord delivered them into the hand of Midian seven years. And the hand of Midian prevailed against Israel ; and because of the Midian- ites, the children of Israel made them the dens which are in the moun- tains, and caves, and strongholds." The liberator chosen to deliver the Israelites from this miserable bondage was Gid'eon, who, with only three hundred men, made a night attack on the camp of the Midianites. Thrown into confusion by the unexpected assault, and deceived as to the number of their enemies, the Midianites turned their arms against each other, and finally fled in disorder. They were vigorously pur- sued, great numbers were slain, an immense quantity of valuable spoils taken, and the freedom of Israel restored. Under Gid'eon's administration, " the land had rest for forty years ;" but after Iris death the people of Shechem, at the instigation of Abim'- elech, a natural son of Gid'eon, slew all the legitimate children of Gid'eon except the youngest, and proclaimed Abim'elech king. This dreadful crime produced a civil war, and the fratricide was himself afterward killed by a woman. There was nothing remarkable in the administration of the judges Tola anc? Jair ; but after the death of the latter, the idolatry of the Israelites became so gross, that God delivered them into the hands of the Philistines and the Ammonites. In their distress, the children of Israel, probably by divine direction, applied to Jeph'thah, the natural son of Gil'ead, who, having been refused a share of his father's inher- itance, had become the chief of a predatory band beyond Jordan. .Jeph'thah was succeeded by Ib'zan, E'lon, and Ab'don, of whom nothing remarkable is recorded. They were followed by E'li, who united in his person the office of high-priest and judge. Under his administration, the apostacy of the Israelites was punished by their being delivered over to the Philistines, who harassed them for nearly forty years. These oppressors deprived the Israelites of all their weapons of war, and of the means of procuring others. During this period appeared Sam'son, the most extraordinary of the 42 ANCIENT HISTORY. Jt;wish heroes, whose birth and prowess were miraculously foretold to both his parents. During his life he harassed the Philistines, slaugh- tering them with wonderful displays of strength ; and by his last act, in pulling upon himself and upon his enemies the temple of their national god, in which a general assembly of the people were gathered, the dead which " he slew at his death were more than they which he slew ih his life." The Israelites were too disorganized to take advantage of this extraordinary slaughter of the Philistine lords ; E'li, their judge, wat nearly one hundred years old, and his two sons, Hoph'ni and Phin' ehas, who acted under him, took advantage of his weakness to commi> the most profligate abominations. Samuel, whom God had called in his youth to become a prophet and the future judge of Israel, was commanded by the Lord to denounce divine vengeance agai\ist E'li ; after which he became generally known as an inspired person, divinely chosen to be E'li's successor. Samuel, though still a youth, was chosen judge of Israel after the death of E'li. He assembled the people, and impressed upon them the criminality and folly of their idolatry ; they were convinced by his reasoning, and put away their strange deities, promising to servs the Lord alone. They were rewarded by a signal victory over the Philis- tines ; after which the land had rest during the remainder of Samuel's administration. When Samuel had judged Israel twenty years, he appointed his two sons to assist him ; but these young men, like the sons of E'li, per- verted justice, and the elders of Israel unanimously demanded a king to rule over them like other nations. Samuel remonstrated with them for thus abandoning their peculiar distinction of havmg the Lord for their king ; but when the demand was renewed more urgently, on a threatened invasion of the Ammonites, he was directed by the Lord to comply with the popular request. According to the divine instructions he selected Saul, the son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, to be the first monarch of the Israelites (b. c. 1095). He was presented to the tribes at Miz'peh, " and Samuel said to all the people, See ye him whom the Lord hath chosen, that there is none like him among all the people ? And all the people shouted and said, God save the king !" Section V. — History of the United Kingdom of Israel. Many of the Israelites were discontented with the choice that had been made of a monarch. But these symptoms of discontent were soon checked by the signal proof which Saul gave of his military qualifications. Nahash, king of the Ammonites, invaded Israel, and laid siege to Jabesh-Gil'ead ; ,the inhabitants proposed to capitulate, but Nahash sternly replied, " On this condition will I make a covenant with you, that I may thrust out all your right eyes, and lay it as a reproach upon Israel." When this intelligence reached the general assembly of the Israelites, they burst into loud lamentations ; but Saul commanded an instant levy of the people. A numerous body of sol- diers obeyed the summons ; Saul marched against the Ammonites, and defeated them so effectually, that not two of them were left together PALESTINE. 43 So delighted were the people with this victory, that they proposed to punish with death all who had resisted the elevation of their young monarch ; but Saul said, " There shall not be a man put to death this day ; for to-day the Lord hath wrought salvation in Israel." A solemn assembly of the tribes was then convoked at Gil'gal. in order that the people should renew their allegiance. Here Samuel resigned his office. Saul was aided in his government by his son Jonathan, a young man of heroic valor and the most generous disposition. With a select band, he attacked and stormed the Philistine garrison at Geba, which neces- sarily led to war. The Israelites were badly prepared for hostilities, and when the tribes met at Gil'gal, they showed the greatest timidity and confusion. They were also disheartened by the absence of Sam- uel, whose duty it was to offer the solemn sacrifice, and began to dis- perse ; Saul, alarmed lest he should be entirely deserted, offered the solemn sacrifice himself; but the ceremony was not concluded when Samuel appeared, and announced to the too hasty monarch, that for this wilful violation of the law, the kingdom should not be hereditary in his family. The Philistines, advancing with an immense army, blockaded Saul, who had only about six hundred men under his command in the mountains of Gib'eah, but he was unexpectedly liberated from his dif- ficulties by the daring valor of his son Jonathan, who, accompanied only by his armor-bearer, attacked a Philistine outpost, and spread such a panic through the whole army that they were easily routed by Saul. After this victory, Saul led his forces against the different nations that harassed the frontiers of his kingdom ; when these had been re- strained from their incursions, Samuel, by the direction of the Lord, commanded Saul to execute divine vengeance on the Amalekites, who Had been long the most bitter enemies of the chosen people. Saul smote the Amalekites with great slaughter ; but, in direct violation of the Divine prohibitions, he spared the life of A'gag, their king, and brought away with him a vast booty of cattle. Samuel bitterly re- proached the king for his ingratitude to God, and announced to Saul that his disobedience should be punished by the loss of his kingdom, which the Lord would transfer to a more worthy person. Samuel departed from Saul, whom he never again visited : directed by God, he went to the family of Jes'se, in Bethlehem of Judah, where he anointed David, Jes'se's youngest son, who thenceforth was gifted with supernatural endowments. In the meantime, Saul became subject to fits of phrensy and melancholy, which his servants suppostjd could be best dispelled by the influence of music : they therefore sent for David, whose skill on the harp was already celebrated, and his ex- quisite skill frequently enabled him to dispel the gloom that depressed the king's spirits. The Philistines, probably encouraged by secret in- formation of Saul's urJiappy condition, renewed the war against Israel, and Saul led out an army to protect the frontiers. While the hostile forces were encamped in sight of each other, the gigantic Goliath of Gath came forth as champion of the Philistines, and challenged any Israelite warrior to contend against him ; all were daunted by the stat- ure, strength, and ferocity of the giant. At length David presented himself to the combat, armed only with his staff and a sling : the vaunt- ing Philistine treated the young hero with contempt, but a stone from 44 ANCIENT HISTORY. the sling, striking him full in the forehead, penetrated to the brain, and laid him prostrate on the earth. Disheartened by the loss of their champion, the Philistines fled in confusion, and were pursued with great slaughter beyond the frontiers of their own country. David's distinguished valor led to a warm and sincere friendship be- tween him and Jonathan, but it excited bitter jealousy in the mind of Saul. The marriage of David to Michal, Saul's daughter, did not allay the king's jealous hatred ; he openly declared his intention of putting his son-in-law to death, and took active measures for the purpose. Once David was saved by the stratagem of his wife, and again by the vigilant friendship of Jonathan ; but he saw tijat he was no longer sure of his life, if he remained within the reach of Saul, and therefore sought •safety in exile. After a brief residence among the Philistines, he re- turned to Palestine, and became the leader of a band of men of broken fortimes, compelled to endure all the vicissitudes of such a perilous life. He was closely pursued by his vindictive enemy, Saul, and twice had it in his power to destroy his persecutor. But he was too loyal " to lift his hand against the Lord's anointed ;" he therefore only in- formed Saul of the danger to which he had been exposed, and thus proved his own innocence. These events led to a temporary recoa- ciliation ; but David, having reason to fear that Saul meditated treach- ery, withdrew to the court of A^chish, one of the kings of the Philis- tines. The death of Samuel left Saul in a most wretched condition ; the prophets fled from him, the priests were slaughtered, " and when Saul inquired of the Lord, the Lord answered him not, neither by dreams, nor by Urim, nor by prophets." At this crisis, the Philistines invaded the country with a numerous army. Saul was encamped on Mount Gil'boa, with forces far inferior to the enemy. Eager to learn some- thing of his fate, he resolved to consult one of those unlawful diviners who had been in better times severely proscribed ; he was conducted by his servants to a woman residing near En'dor, " who had a familiar spirit," and he persuaded her to evoke Samuel from the tomb. The image of the prophet appeared, and predicted to the terrified monarch the fatal news of his approaching defeat and death (b, c. 1055). On the second morning after this vision, Saul entered the last of his fields ; the Israelites had long neglected the use of the bow, and to their su- periority in this weapon the Philistines chiefly owed their victory : " the battle went sore against Saul, and the archers hit him, and he was sore wour.led of the archers." Afraid of falling alive into the hands of his enemies, he fell upon his own sword ; his gallant sons had pre- nously fallen, and the overthrow of the Hebrew army was complete. David had just returned to Zik'lag from pursuing the Amalekites, when he heard of the calamitous result of the battle on Mount Gilboa. H-iving consulted the Lord as to his future proceedings, he was di- rected to go to Heb'ron, where he was anointed king over the tribe of Judah, who regarded him as the champion of their race. In the mean- time, Ab'ner, Saul's general, prevailed upon the northern tribes to elect Ish'bosheth, Saul's son, their monarch, and he removed him to Ma- hanaim, which was beyond Jordan, in order that he might have time to recruit his shattered army. One of David's earliest measures was to PALESTINE. 45 Bend a message of thanks to the iixhabitants of Jabesh-Gil'ead, for their honorable conduct to the deceased king and his sons : he next caused the young men of Judah to be instructed in the use of the bow, and they soon rivalled the Philistines in archery. War was soon declared between the kings of Israel and Judah : Joab, who commanded David's forces, inflicted a severe defeat on Ab'- ner, Ish'bosheth's general, and from that time David's power began rapidly to increase. Ab'ner, while exerting himself to strengthen Ish'- bosheth, incurred the displeasure of that prince ; he therefore resolved to seek a reconciliation with David, whom he visited in the character of a mediator, but on his return he was treacherously slain by Joab, who probably feared that Ab'ner would become a powerful rival. The death of Ab'ner disheartened the supporters of Ish'bosheth ; two of his captains murdered him in his bed, and brought the newt to David, but instead of being rewarded as they hoped, they suffered the punishment of treason. No other claimant appearing for the throne, the heads of all the tribes of Israel came to Heb'ron, and recognised David as their sovereign. But the breach which had taken place between the north- ern "vnd southern tribes was never completely healed ; they continued to regard themselves as distinct in policy and interest, until they were finally divided into separate states by the folly of Rehoboam. The city of Jerusalem had long been held by the Jebusites, who, ac- cording to the traditions of the east, were a tribe of the wandering and plundering Hyk'sos. David resolved to besiege this important city with all the forces of his kingdom ; the place was carried by storm, and David was so pleased with the situation of the place that he made it the cfipital of his dominions. The Philistines were alarmed at the increasing power of David ; as- sembling all their forces, they crossed the frontier, took Bethlehem by storm, and compelled David for a while to seek shelter in the cave of Adul'lam ; but the Hebrew king soon gathered his forces, and he so utterly routed the Philistines in two successive engagements that they never more were able to compete with him or any of his successors. Hiram, king of Tyre, entered into a firm alliance with the victorious monarch, and supplied him with workmen and materials to erect a palace in his new city. David's next care was to remove the ark from Kir'jath-jearim to Jerusalem. The pious monarch was also anxious to build a temple for the national worship, but the prophet Nathan de- clared to him tha 't was not fit for a warrior, whose hands were so often stained with blood, to erect a temple to the God of peace, but that this glorious duty would devolve upon his son and successor. David now directed his attention to the surrounding nations ; he overthrew the Philistines, the Moabites, and the Amalekites ; he com- pelled the Syrians and Edomites to become tributary, and he amassed a prodigious quantity of spoil, a large portion of which he dedicated as a sacred treasure to defray the future expenses of building the temple. The Ammonites and Syrians soon renewed the war, but they were again vanquished, and the dominions of David were extended to the Euphrates. But while this war was continued David provoked the anger of the Lord, by taking Bath'sheba, the wife of Uriah, one of hia bravest captains, to himself, and exposing her husband to certain death. 46 ANCIENT HISTORY. The prophet Nathan was sent to reprove his guilt ; David humbly con- fessed his sin, and his remorse and repentance procured him pardon from his offended God. Domestic calamities interrupted the prosperity of David's reign ; Amnon, his eldest son, was slain by his brother Ah'- salom, in revenge for a gross insult offered to his sister, and the young prince was no sooner pardoned and taken into favor, than he began to plot the dethronement and probable death of his indulgent father. The standard of revolt was raised ; but a numerous army headed by Joab and his brothers marched against Ab'salom, and completely routed his forces in the forest of Ephraim. The unfortunate prince, attempting to escape, was entangled by his long hair in the branches of an oak ; in this situation he was slain by Joab, contrary to the express commands of David, who was fondly attached to his rebellious i.rxi. The northern tribes again revolted, under the command of Sheba, but they were soon subdued, and their leader punished with death. David next turned his arms against the Philistines, whom he over- threw in four successive battles ; but the joy inspired by these victori(;s was soon changed into mourning, for David, having presumed " to num- ber the people," was punished by a pestilence, which swept av/ay seventy thousand of his subjects. Shortly afterward, David, being in- formed that his son Adonijah was tampering with some of the nobles, in order to obtain the throne, gave orders that Solomon, his son by Bath'sheba, should be proclaimed king. When this ceremony was performed, David tranquilly prepared to meet the approach of death. He died after a troubled but glorious reign of forty years. Sol'omon commenced his reign by putting to death Adonijah and Joab. In order to strengthen himself against foreign enemies, he mar- ried the daughter of the Egyptian Pharaoh, receiving as her dowry a portion of Canaan which had been subdued by that monarch. The Lord appeared to Sol'omon in a dream, and promised to grant him whatever he should ask ; the young king chose wisdom, and not oidy was his request granted, but riches, honor, and length of days, were ad- ded, on condition of his persevering in obedience to the divine com- mandments. The proofs which Sol'omon gave of his wisdom and dis- cernment were so celebrated throughout the east, that the most power- ful monarchs entered into alliance with him ; thus tranquillity Avas es- tablished, and leisure afforded for th^ erection of the temple. Seven years and a haF were spent in the bunding of this magnificent edifice ; the costliness of ns materials could only be surpassed by the beauiy of the workmanship ; all the resources of wealth and ingenuity were ex- hausted on the wondrous structure. When completed it was dedicated to Jehovah in a solemn festival, and the Shekinah, or cloud of glory, which amiounced the visible presence of the Lord, overspread the en- tire edilice. Opi)osite Moimt Moriah, on which the temple stood, Sol'omon erect- ed a magnificent palace, and furnished it with unrivalled splendor. He was the first who introduced the use of chariots and horses for warlike purposes in Israel; these he procured from Egypt, through his alliance with the Pharaoh; and as cavalry was then scarcely known in western Asia, his power appeared so formidable that his authority was recog nised in all the countries between the Nile and the Euphrjites. Sol'o- PALESTINE. 47 mon was a distinguished patron of commerce ; he opened a hicrative trade with Egypt, not only in chariot-horses but in linen-yam and cot- ton manufactures ; to facilitate the commercial intercourse between western and central Asia, he erected the city of Tad'mor, which, in a later age, became so celebrated under the name of Palmy'ra ; finally, he built a navy at Ez'ion-geber, a convenient harbor on the gulf of Ak'aba, in the northern part of the Red sea, whence his subjects, aided by the experienced mariners of Tyre, carried on a lucrative trafhc with the rich countries of southern Asia and Africa. The learning of SoFo- mon was not less conspicuous than his wealth. In his old age, Sol'omon, seduced by his numerous " strange wives," forsook the Lord, by whom he had been protected, and not oidy per- mitted, but practised the rites of an impious and licentious idolatry. Enemies were raised up against him on every side ; a revolt was or- ganized in E'dom. Damascus was seized by an independent adventu- rer, and Jeroboam, to whom the prophet Ahijah had predicted his future greatness, began openly to aspire at the government of the northern tribes ; but being unprepared for revolt he sought shelter in Egypt, where he was protected by King Shishak. It is generally believed that Sol'omon, before his death, repented of his guilt. He died, after a reign of forty years (b. c. 975), and was buried in the city of David his father. Section VI. — The Revolt of the Ten Tribes. — The History of the Kingdom of Israel. Rehoboam succeeded his father Sol'omon, and immediately after his accession went to Shechem, in order to receive the homage of the northern tribes. They hiid suffered severely, in the close of the late reign, from the pressure of taxation, and from the loss of trade conse- quent on the revolt of the Syrians ; they now deputed Jeroboam, and their elders, to demand a redress of grievances, promising implicit obe- dience if their burdens were removed. His father's aged and experi- enced ministers recommended compliance with the popular demands, but the king instigated by his rash associates, returned a haughty and threatening reply. Such an answer was the signal for rebellion. The northern tribes immediately chose Jeroboam for their king ; and thence- forward Israel and Judah became separate kingdoms. Rehoboam levied a large army to subdue the insurgents, but the Lord sent the prophf t Shemaiah to forbid his march, and he was forced thenceforth to rest contented with reigning over the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. Jeroboam, " the son of Nebat," immediately after his elevation, pre- pared to break off all connexion with the kingdom of Judah, and as the unity of the national worship, and the custom of going up three times a a year to Jerusalem, greatly impeded his plan, he resolved to establish idolatrous sanctuaries in his own kingdom, and accordingly, in imitation of the Egyptians, with whom he had so long resided, erected two golden calves, one at Beth'el, and the other at Dan. The choice of these places was not the result of caprice ; Beth'el had long been ven- erated as the place in which Jacob, the father of the Hebrew race, had his miraculous vision, and Dan had been the seat of idolatrous worship since the days of the Judges. The Levites refused to countenance 48 ANCIENT HISTORY this impious innovation, and sought shelter in the kingdom of Judah , Jeroboam supplied their place by selecting priests for his new deifies from the lowest of the people. A desultory warfare was maintained between the kingdoms of Judah and Israel through the whole of Jero- boam's reign, which lasted twenty-two years ; but in the nineteenth year Jeroboam received so severe a defeat that he never again dis- played his former spirit of enterprise. Nadab succeeded his father Jeroboam in his kingdom, and his idola- trous courses. His brief reign of two years produced no event of im- portance ; he was assassinated by Baasha, one of his generals. Baasha put all that remained of Jeroboam's family to death. Baasha adopted the wicked policy of Jeroboam, and though the prophets of the Lord forewarned him that similar vengeance would overtake his family, obstinately persevered in his guilt. But many of the Israelites were secretly attached to the pure worship of their fathers, and secretly went up annually to olfer their devotions at Jerusalem. Baasha built a fortress at Ramah to intercept the {)ilgrims, but this was destroyed by A'sa, king of Judah, who also bribed the Syrians to invade the territories of his rival. Baasha's reign of twenty- three years was feeble and inglorious, and the warlike spirit of the Is- raelites seemed extinct. E'lah, a weak and luxurious prince, succeeded Baasha ; at the end of two years he was assassinated, while feasting in the house of his steward, by Zim'ri, the captain of his chariots. When the Israelite army, which was besieging Gib'bethon, heard of the murder, they ele- vated Om'ri, their leader, to the vacant throne, and marched against the usurping assassin. Zim'ri, hopeless of escape, fled into the palace, and setting it on fire, perished in the flames. Om'ri had still to con- tend against another rival, named Tib'ni, whom he easily subdued. The most important act of his reign was building the city of Samaria, so named from Siiemer, the proprietor of the hill on which it was erected. Samaria became the capital of the kingdom of Israel, and long after the fall of that kingdom continued to be a place of great im- portance. " Om'ri wrought evil in the sight of the Lord, and did worse than all that went before him ;" but even his iniquities were sur- passed by those of his son and successor. A'hab connnenced his reign by marrying Jez'ebel, the daughter of the king of Si'don, and at her instigation introduced the worship of the Si- donian deities, which consisted in the ofi"ering of human sacrifices, and other ceremonies too abominable for description. Those who adhered o the religion of Jehovah were bitterly persecuted, the schools of the prophets were closed, and many of the teachers murdered. Elijah, undaunted by danger, denounced Divine vengeance against such iniquity, ait he was forced to fly, and seek concealment in the fastnesses on the frontier. God punished the iniquity of the land by fearful drought and famine. A'hab, in his distress, sent for Elijah, who challenged the priests of Baal to appear in sight of all the people on Mount Carmel, and there determine which deity, Baal or Jehovah, was the most pow- erful protector of the nation. The challenge was accepted ; the supe- riority of the Lord was proved by the most signal miracles, and the multitude, enraged at those by whom they had been duped, put to death PALESTINE. 49 all the prophets of Baal, by command of Eh'jah, at the brook Kishon 'Jne curse was then removed from the hiiid, plenteous rain descended, and the famine ceased. Jez'ebel was greatly enraged at the defeat of her national deity, and Elijah once more fled into the wilderness. Af- ler having witnessed some wondrous manifestations of Divine power, he was commanded to announce to Haz'ael that he should be king of Syria, to Jehu that he should be king of Israel, and to Elisha that he should be his successor in the office of prophet. When A'hab had reigned eighteen years, Benhadad, king of Syria, at the head of thirty-two tributary princes, and a numerous army, laid siege to Samaria. Encouraged by a prophet of the Lord, A'hab at- tacked this immense host with a mere handful of men, and gained a signal victory. Benhadad attempted to retrieve his losses in the fol- lowing year, but was routed with terrible slaughter. A new crime pro- voked God's wrath against A'hab and his family ; he was anxious to obtain a vineyard belonging to Naboth, a native of Jez'reel, in order to- enlarge his garden. The wicked Jez'ebel contrived that the innocent man should be stoned to death, and A'hab took possession of the vine- yard. In the moment of his triumph the prophet Elijah appeared, and denounced fearful vengeance for this crime, but A'hab, by timely re- pentance, obtained a gracious respite, so that the evils impending over his house did not happen until after his death, Avhich took place in a battle against the Syrians, in which the allied forces of A'hab and of Je- hoshaphat, king of Judah were defeated. Ahaziah succeeded A'hab, and like him, was devoted to idolatry. A fall from a window, in the second year of his reign, so severely injured him, that fears were entertained for his life, and he sent his servants to^ consult the oracle of Baalzebub, in Ek'ron. On their road the messen- gers were met by Elijah, who predicted the approaching death of the king, as a punishment for having consulted false gods. Ahaziah sent two detachments, of fifty men each, to arrest the prophet, but both com- panies were consumed by fire from heaven. A third captain of fifty interceded with the prophet ; Elijah accompanied him to the king's- presence, where he repeated his denunciation, which was soon accomi plishec' by Ahaziah's death. Jehoram, another son of A'hab succeeded, but was less prone to idol- atry than his father and brother, for he prohibited the worship of the Sidonian Baal, though he did not remove the golden calves Avhich Jero-- boam had set up at Dan and Bethel. It was about this time that Elijah; was taken up into heaven, without enduring the pangs of death, and his, successor, Elisha, began to prove his mission by a series of stupendous miracles. Benhadad, the Syrian monarch of Damascus, defeated in> several attacks on the kingdom of Israel, attributed his ill success to the prophet, and sent a body of his soldiers to make him prisoner ; bu the Syrian troops were smitten with blindness, and in tliis helpless con- dition easily taken captive. The Syrian monarch was not daunted; he assembled a large army, advanced against Samaria, blockaded the city, and reduced the inhabitants to the greatest extremities of famine. Je- horam menaced vengeance against Elisha, but the prophet assured him,, that by the next day Samaria would have abundance of provisions.. On tt.at night, under the influence of supernatural terror, they fled. 60 ANCIENT HISTORY. The rich plunder of the vacant tents soon restored plenty to the hoiMcs of the besieged ; Benhadad, after his return, was murdtred by his ser- vant Haz'ael, who usurped the throne, and became a most formidable enemy of the kingdom of Israel. Jeh(5ram entered into alliance with Ahaziah, king of Judah, in order to recover Ramoth-Giread, but their joint forces were routed by the .Syrians ; the king of Israel was severely wounded, and retired to Jez'reel to be healed. In the meantime, Eli- sha, by command of the Lord, sent a prophet to anoint Jehu king of Israel ; and the new sovereign who was a great favorite with the army, • advanced toward .lez^reel. Hearing of his approach, Jehoram went out to meet him, accompanied by Ahaziah, king r^f Judah. Their con- ference was brief ; Jehu shot Jehoram through the heart, with an arrow, and ordered his body to be cast into the vineyard of Naboth, as the Lord had foretold. Ahaziah was overtaken and slain ; but his servants conveyed his body to Jerusalem, and buried it in the sepulchre of his fathers. Jehu advanced to Jez'reel without opposition ; as he came near the palace, Jez'ebel looked out from the window, and reproached him with his treason ; the servants, .by Jehu's direction, threw her headlong down on the pavement, and her mangled body was trampled under the feet of the horses. In the evening orders were given for her inter- ment, but it was found that the greater part of the body had been devoured by dogs and beasts of prey, as the prophet Elijah had fore- told. A'hab's family was very numerous ; seventy of his sons were in Samaria, but they were all beheaded by the citizens, who dreaded the power of Jehu ; and forty-two of the family of the king of Judah shared the same fate. Jehu completely extirpated the worship of Baal, but he continued the idolatry which Jeroboam had established, and there- fore the duration of his dynasty was limited to his descendants of the fourth generation. The Syrians, under Haz'ael, grievously afflicted the Israelites during 'the reigns of Jehu and his son Jehoahaz ; but these visitations failed to turn the princes or the people from their impious idolatries. In the reign of the latter Elisha died, but his miraculous powers did not cease with his life, for a dead body was restored to life by touching his bones in the tomb. The Israelites gained three victories over the Syrians, and thus recovered the ancient frontiers of their kin'gdom ; they also •conquered Amaziah, king of Judah, plundered Jerusalem, and brought its rich spoils to Samaria. The kingdom of Israel continued to flourish during the long reign of Jeroboam II. ; he enlarged his hereditary dominions by the conquest of several cities belonging to the kings of Syria and Judah, and made his kingdom respected among surrounding nations. His death was followed by a period of great confusion ; there was an interregnum of eleven years before Zachariah, his son, succeeded him ; and he, after a brief reign of six months, was murdered by Shal'lum, who was in his turn slain by Men'ahera._ In the reign of this usurper the Israel- ites were attacked by a new enemy ; the Assyrians under Pul, supposed by some to be the Sardanapalus of profane writers, came against he land and Men'ahem was forced to purchase his forbearance by the payment of a large tribute. The conqueror, however, in return, pro- PALESTINE. 51 tected Men'ahem against all other enemies, and the remainder of liia reign was passed in tranquillity. His son Pekahiah succeeded, but at the end of two years he Avas murdered by Pekah, one of his generals who usurped the throne. Though Pekah was a wicked and sanguinary prince, yet on account of the sins of A'haz, God permitted him to prevail over the rival king- dom of Judah. In conjunction with Rez'in, king of Damascus, he invaded southern Palestine, and brought away a vast number of cap- tifves, v/ho were, however, restored to their country upon the injunction of a prophet of the Lord. But notwithstanding this single act of obe- di-ence, the sins of the Israelites continued to increase, and the threat- ened punishments began to be inflicted. The Assyrian hosts ravaged all the country beyond Jordan ; the interior of the kingdom was con- vulsed by factions, and in the midst of these tumults Pekah was slain bv Hoshea, a general of some reputation. After nine years of civil war, Hoshea succeeded in establishing him- self upon the throne, but during the interval, the Assyrians under Tig- lath-pileser, and his son Shalmaneser, overran the kingdom, and ren- dered it tributary. As soon as liis title was established, Hoshea became anxious to regain independence, and for this purpose entered into alli- ance with So or Sab'aco, an Ethiopian prince who had subdued Egypt. Shalmaneser immediately invaded the country, and laid siege to Samaria. After a brave Resistance of three years, the city was taken by storm, and treated with the most ferocious cruelty by the barbarous conquerors (b. c. 719). Shalmaneser carried the Israelites captives into some dis- tant region beyond the Euphrates, and divided their country among Assyrian colonies. In consequence of the signs by which the Lord's wrath against idolatry was manifested, the new settlers adopted a cor- rupted form of the true religion. From them, and a portion of the old inhabitants which remained in the land, the Samaritans descended, be- tween whom and the Jews there was always the most bitter national enmity. Section VII. — History of the Kingdom of Judah. Rehoboam's kingdom was not so much injured by the revolt of the ten tribes as might be supposed. When idolatry was established by Jeroboam, the priests, the Levites, and a multitude of persons who still adhered to the worship of the true God, emigrated to Judah, where they were received as brethren. Rehoboam introduced the worst abominations of Ammonite idolatry, and the great body of the people participated in his guilt. His guilt was punished by an invasion of the Egyptians : " in the fifth year of King Rehoboam, Shishak king of Egypt came up against Jerusalem, because they had transgressed against the Lord, with twelve hundred chariots and threescore thou- sand horsemen : and the people were without number that came with him out of Egypt; the Lub'ims, the Sukk'iim, and the Ethiopians. And he took the fenced cities which pertained to Judah, and came to Jerusalem." The account here given of Shishak's power, and of his ruling over the Libyans, the Ethiopians, and the Sukk''iim, or Trog'lo- dytae, is confirmed by the Egyptian monuments, for the sculptures ascribed to him on the walls of Carnak, exhibit him offering to the 52 ANCIENT HISTORY. deity a great number of captives belonging to different nations. Reho- boam purchased the forbearance of Shfshak by the payment of a large ransom. " Shfshak took away the treasures of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king's house ; he took all : he carried away also the shields of gold which Solomon made. Instead of which, King Rehoboam made shields of brass, and committed them to the hands of the chief of the guard that kept the entrance of the king's house." Abijah, the son of Rehoboam, soon after his succession, had to de fend his kingdom against the usurper of Israel, whose army greatly outnumbered that of Judah. The Lord gave the victory to Judah This victory greatly depressed the Israelites, and exalted the glory of Judah ; but before the king could improve his advantages, he was pre- maturely cut off by disease. A'sa, who succeeded his father, was a wise and pious prince. " He took away the altars of the strange gods . . . and commanded JudaL to seek the Lord God of their fathers, and to do the law and the com- mandment." He expelled the Egyptians from their ree'^nt conquests, and secured his frontiers by a chain of fortresses judiciousi-y placed and strongly garrisoned. His piety Avas rewarded by Divine protection in the hour of danger. A vast horde of invaders approached the southern boundary of Judea : in the original, these enemies are called Ciis/iim, a word usually rendered Ethiopians. A'sa prayed to the God of his fa- thers for aid against this enormous host ; his prayers were heard " The Lord smote the Ethiopians before A'sa and before Judah, and the Ethiopians fled." A'sa afforded every encouragement to the emigrants from Israel, who fled from the idolatry and wickedness which prevailed in that country. Baasha, who then reigned in Israel, erected a fortress at Ramah to check the emigration, and made such formidable preparations for war, that A^sa, with culpable distrust of the Divine favor, paid a large sum to the king of Syria for support and assistance. When re- proved for liis crime by the prophet Han'ani, he thrust his honest ad- viser into prison, and thenceforward became tyrannical and oppressive. Being subsequently attacked by a disease in the feet, " he sought not to the Lord but to the physicians,'^ and died in the prime of manhood. Jehosh'aphat succeeded his father A'sa, and in the commencement of his reign used the most vigorous exertions to root idolatry from the land. Under this wise administration the kingdom of Judah became so prosperous, that not only the Philistines, but the distant Arabians paid tribute. Unfortunately, he contracted affinity with the wicked A'hab, and gave his son in marriage to Athali'ah, the daughter of that monarch, a princess whose character was scarcely less depraved than that of her mother Jez'ebel. In consequence of this unfortunate alliance, Je- hosh'apha' was present at the disastrous battle of Ramoth-Gil'ead, where A'hab was slain ; he was surrounded by the enemy, and would have been killed, had he not " called upon the Lord," who rescued him from his imminent peril. Shortly after his return from the Assyrian campaign, Jehosh'aphat was attacked by the united forces of the Moab- ites, the Amorites, and the Edomites of Mount Seir. Jehosh'aphat threw himself on the protection of Jehovah, and the Lord sent a spirit of disuiiion among the invaders, which led them to destroy each other PALESTINE. 53 by mutual slaughter. The people of Judah came upon their enemies thus broken, and obtained a great quantity of valuable spoil. Anxious to restore the commerce which Sol'omon had established on the Red sea, Jehosh'aphat entered into close alliance with the wicked Ahaziah, the son of A'hab ; and a navy was prepared at their joint ex- pense, in E'zion-geber. But the unhallowed alliance was displeasing to the Lord, and the ships were destroyed in a storm. At his death Je- hosh'aphat left the kingdom of Judah in a more prosperous condition than it had been since the days of Sol'omon. Jehoram commenced his reign by the slaughter of his brethren, after which he legally established the abominations of the Sidonian idolatry in Judah. His iniquity was punished by the revolt of the Edomites, who maintained their independence, and by invasions of the Philistinea and Arabians, who carried away his wives and most of his children into captivity. He was finally smitten by a loathsome and incurable disease, of which he died in great tortures. Ahaziah, the youngest of Jehoram's children, and the only one spared by the Arabians, succeeded to the throne. During his brief reign of one year, he followed the evil courses of his father and mother. Ke entered into an alliance with Jehoram, king of Israel, and joined with him in the unsuccessful attempt to recover Ramoth-Gil'ead from Hazael, king of Syria. Having gone to meet Jehoram, while he lay sick of his wounds at Jez'reel, just at the time of Jehu's insurrection, he was involved in the fate of his ally, and slain by command of Jehu. Athaliah, the queen-mother, having heard of Ahaziah's death, usurp- ed the royal authority, and to secure her power, murdered all the royal family, save the infant Jehoash, who was saved by his paternal aunt, wife to the chief priest Jehoiada, and for six years secretly educated in vhe temple. At the end of that time, Jehoiada gathered together the priests, the Levites, and the chief princes of Judah, to whom he re- vealed the existence of the young heir to the throne. " And Jehoiada and his sons anointed him, and said, God save the king." The accla- mations of those who witnessed the ceremony alarmed the wicked queen ; she rushed into the assembly, rending her garments, and ex- claiming, " Treason ! treason !" but she was forsaken by all her parti- sans, and, at Jeh^iada's command, was put to death beyond the precincts of the temple. Under the regency of Jehoiada, the worship of the true God was re- stored, the administration of justice purified, and the prosperity of the land re-established. He died at the great age of one hundred and thir- ty years. After the death of the regent, Jehoash yielded to the evil counsels of the profligate young nobles of Judah, and restored the Wor- ship of the Sidonian Baal, with all its licentious abominations. Several prophets were sent to denounce his transgressions, but he persecuted them for their fidelity, and even put to death Zechariah, the son of his benefactor, Jehoiada, " in the court of the house of the Lord." His crime was soon punished : " the army of the Syrians came with a small company of men, and the Lord delivered a very great host into their ■lands." They had scarcely departed, when he was seized with " grea liseases," and in the midst of his agony was murdered by his own ser ■ants. His subjects were so displeased by the calamities of his reign^ 54 ANCIENT HISTORY. that they would not allow his remains to be buried in the tombs of the kings, an insult which had been previously offered to the body of Je- horam. Amaziah's first care, after his elevation to the throne, was to punish the murderers of his father. He then marched against the Edomites Avith an auxiliary force which he had hired from the kingdom of Israel. On the recommendation of a prophet, he dismissed his al- lies, by which they were so grievously offended, that they committed the most savage excesses on their way home. In the meantime, Am- azi'ah routed the Edomites with great slaughter, and subdued all the country round Mount Seir. With strange perversity, he adopted the idolatry of the nations he had just subdued. The prophets warned him of the fearful consequences of his apostacy ; but their remonstrances were vain, and he was delivered into the hands of his enemies. Je- hoash, king of Israel, was the chosen instrument of Amaziah's punish- ment ; he defeated the men of Judah in a decisive engagement, took the king prisoner, captured Jerusalem, destroyed a large extent of his fortifications, and returned laden with spoil to Samaria. A conspiracy was subsequently organized against Amaziah ; he fled from Jerusalem to Lachish, but was overtaken by some of the emissaries of the rebels, and put to death. Uzziah, the son of the murdered king, though only sixteen years of age when he ascended the throne, displayed, in the commencement of his reign, the wisdom of mature age. He restored the worship of the true God, and reformed the abuses which had crept into every depart- ment of the administration. God prospered his undertakings ; he sub- dued the Philistines, the Arabians, and the most warlike of the nomad tribes that border on the desert. To secure his conquests he erected a chain of fortresses, and to render them profitable, he excavated a grea* number of tanks or cisterns, by which means large tracts of land, hith- erto unprofitable, were brought into cultivation. " But when he wag strong, his heart was lifted up to his destruction ;" he attempted to usurp the priestly office by " burning incense upon the altar of incense,' and persevered in spite of every warning. But, at the very momeni that he was about to consummate this act of impiety, he was struck by a leprous disease, which at once severed him from all society with hia fellow-men. Compelled to reside in a separate house, and unable tc transact public affairs, he transferred the reins of government to hia son. On his death, his disease was assigned as a reason for refusing his body admission to the royal sepulchre, and it was interred in th« adjoining field. Jotham had been accustomed to affairs of state during the lifetimi of his father, whose piety he emulated, without imitating his faults His fidelity to the worship of Jehovah was rewarded by the conques' of the Ammonites, who paid him a large tribute ; and thus " Jotham be- came mighty because he established his ways before the Lord his God." No particulars are recorded of his death, which took place m the seventeenth year of his reign. The most wicked king which had yet occupied the throne of Judah, was A'haz, the successor of the pious Jotham. He not only deserted ihe worship of the true God, but adopted those abominable supersii- tions which many of the heathen viewed with horror ; " he burnt in PALESTINE. 53 cense in the valley of the sons of Hin'nom, and burnt his children in the fire, after the abominations of the heathen whom the Lord had cast out before the children of Israel." His dominions were invaded by the kings of Syria and Israel, who carried multitudes into captivity ; but the Israelites generously released their prisoners, as has been already related. The Edomites and Philistines next attacked the kingdom of Judah : A'haz, unable to meet them in the field, sought to purchase aid from Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria ; but that monarch received the tribute, and withheld any effectual assistance. In his distress, A'haz sunk deeper into idolatry ; " he sacrificed unto the gods of Damascus which smote him, and he said, because the gods of the kings of Syria help them, therefore will I sacrifice to them that they may help me. But they were the ruin of him and of all Israel." A'haz went further ; he shut up the temple of the Lord, broke the sacred vessels in pieces, and erected idolatrous altars " in every corner of Jerusalem." The country was thus brought to the brink of ruin ; but its fall was arrested by the death of the impious monarch. His subjects showed their re- sentment for the evils of his administration by refusing his body admis- sion to the sepulchres of their kings. Hezekiah commenced his reign by a thorough reformation of the abuses which had so nearly brought destruction on Judah. The chief adviser of the pious king was the prophet Isaiah, who had proclaimed the future advent of the Messiah, and denounced the national sins in the two preceding reigns. All the vestiges of idolatry were destroyed, the images were broken, the groves cut down, and the polluted altars over- thrown ; even the brazen serpent, which had been preserved since the days of Moses, was demolished, because it had become the object of idolatrous veneration. The kingdom of Judah soon acquired such strength, that Hezekiah ventured to shake off the Assyrian yoke, to which his father had submitted. Shalmaneser, who had just conquered Israel, would haA^e immediately marched against Judah, had not the wealthy cities of Phtenicia offered a more tempting prize to his avarice and ambition. His son, Sennacherib, inherited his revenge against Judah : he advanced to Lachish with a powerful army, but Hezekiah, with culpable timidity, attempted to purchase his forbearance by a larg-- bribe. This rich tribute only served to stimulate the cupidity of Sennacherib ; he sent a large army directly against Jerusalem, but Hezekiah, encouraged by the gracious promises of Divine protection, communicated to him by the prophet Isaiah, made the most judicious preparations for a vigorous defence. Rab'shakeh, the Assyrian gen- eral, summoned the city to surrender, in a haughty and insolent tone, speaking in the Hebrew language, that his threats might be understood by the people. Hezekiah, who was suffering under severe illness, sought protection from the Lord, and his wavering faith was confirmed, by the shadow of the sun retrograding on the dial at the command of Isaiah. In a few days, the Assyrians were summoned away to defend their dominions against Tirhakah, the king of Meroe, or Ethiopia, who< had conquered Egypt, and was endeavoring to extend his empire to the Euphrates. Sennacherib defeated the Ethiopians, and, flushed with. victory, renewed the siege of Jerusalem, threatening death and destruc- tion to the entire kingdom. But his vaunts were suddenly checked ;, " the angel of the Lord went forth and smote in the camp of the Assyri- 56 ANCIENT HISTORY. ans a hundred fourscore and five thousand ; and when they arose early in the morning, behold they were all dead corpses." Sennacherib fled to Nin'eveh with the miserable remnant of his forces, and was soon af- ter murdered by his own sons, " as he was worshipping in the bouse of Nis'roch, his god." The intelligence of this wondrous deliverance was spread over the east ; Ber'odach-Bal'adan, king of Babylon, sent ambassadors to con- gratulate Hezekiah, and also to inquire into the phenomenon of the retrogression of the solar shadow. Hezekiah, with foolish pride, dis- played all his treasures to the ambassadors. Isaiah Avas sent to re- prove his ostentation, and to inform him that these Babylonians would destroy the kingdom of Judah. The repentant monarch heard the re- buke with pious resignation, and submissively yielded himself to the dispensations of Providence. His death was sincerely lamented by his subjects ; " they buried him in the chiefest of the sepulchres of the sons of David ; and all Judah and the inhabitants of Jerusalem did him hon- or at his death." Manas'seh was scarcely less remarkable for iniquity than his father for piety ; He even exceeded A'haz in impiety, for he revelled in the grossest abominations of eastern idolatry. His subjects too readily im- itated his example ; they joined him in persecuting the prophets of the Lord, who remonstrated against their transgressions ; there is a con- stant tradition among the Jews, that Isaiah was sawn in sunder during the reign of this merciless tyrant. But an avenger was at hand ; the Assyrians invaded Judah with overwhelming forces, stormed Jerusa- lem, and carried the impious Manas'seh in chains to Babylon (b. c. 676). The imfortunate monarch was treated with savage cruelty by his captors ; he was so loaded with iron bands, that he could not move his head. But " when he was in affliction, he besought the Lord his God, and humbled himself greatly before the God of his fathers ; and prayed unto him, and He was entreated of him, and brought him again to Jerusalem into his kingdom." Manas'seh, thus restored, applied himself diligently to extirpate idolatry ; and the remainder of his reign was spent in peace and comparative tranquillity. Notwithstanding the fearful punishment inflicted on Manas'seh, and his example of sincere penitence, A'mon, his son and successor, re- vived all the infamous rites of idolatry. In a brief reign of two years, the kingdom was brought to the verge of destruction ; corruption spread through every department of the administration, and crimes at which nature revolts were not only permitted, but encouraged. At length, some of the oflicers of the household slew the licentious monarch ; they were however put to death for their treason ; and Josiah, the son of A'mon, at the early age of eight years, was raised to the throne. From the moment of his accession, Josiah eagerly applied himself to restoring the worship of the true God, and reforming the abuses of the kingdom. Josiah travelled through his kingdom, and through some of the adjoining cities of Israel which lay almost desolate, removing 'from them every vestige of idolatry ; and having thus purified his king- idom, he celebrated the feast of the Passover with the utmost solemnity ;and splendor. The greater part of Josiah's reign was spent in tran- rquillity ; but when he had been rather more than thirty years upon the -Jirone, the overthrow of the Assyrian empire by the M^fioe ?>nd Bab- PALESTINE. 57 ylonians, induced Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, the powerful king of Egypt, to at- tempt the extension of his dominions to the Euphrates. Josiah rashly attacked the Egyptian forces in the valley of Megid'do, and was mor- tally wounded. His servants brought him to Jerusalem, where he died. " And all Judah and Jerusalem mourned for Josiah." The people of Jerusalem raised Jehoahaz, the youngest son of Josiah, to the throne ; but he was set aside by the victorious Pharaoh-Necho, who gave the kingdom to the elder prince Eliakim, and changed his name to Jehoiakim. A complete revolution in the affairs of Asia was effected by the victorious career of Nebuchadnez'zar, king of Babylon. He overthrew the Egyptians at Car'chemish, " and took from the river of Egypt unto the river Euphrates, all that pertained to the king of Egypt." Jehoiakim submitted to the conqueror, and agreed to pay tribute for the kingdom of Judah, but afterward planning a revolt, Neb- uchadnez'zar returned to Jerusalem, plundered the city, sent the treasures and sacred vessels of the temple as trophies to Babylon, put Jehoiakim to death as a rebel, and left his unburied corpse a prey to the fowls of the air, and the beasts of the fields. He was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin, who after a brief but profligate reign of three months, was deposed by the imperious conqueror, and sent in chains to Babylon, with a multitude of other captives. Zedekiah, the uncle of the deposed monarch, was chosen his succes sor ; but he did not take warning by the fate of his predecessors, and abstain from intrigues with Egypt. Instigated by Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, and encouraged by false prophets, he renounced his allegiance to the king of Babylon. When the forces of Nebuchadnez'zar approached. Pharaoh-Hoph'ra made but a faint effort to assist his unfortunate ally ; on the first repulse, he retreated within the frontiers of his own king- dom, leaving Zedekiah to bear the brunt of the Assyrians' rage. Neb- 'ichadnez'zar, after a short siege, compelled Jerusalem to surrender unconditionally. Zedekiah and his family fled, but Avere overtaken by the pursuers in the plains of Jericho ; the degraded king was dragged in chains before the cruel conqueror ; his wives and children were slain in his presence, his eyes were put out, and he was sent in chains to terminate his miserable existence as a captive in Bab'ylon. Jeru- salem and its temple were razed to the ground ; the wretched inhab- itants were transported to Bab'ylon ; and for seventy years the holy city had no existence save in the memory of heart-broken exiles (b. c. 568). The day on which Jerusalem was taken, and that on which its destruction was completed, are observed even in our age, as days of fasting and humiliation, by the scattered remnant of the Jewish nation. The former event occurred on the ninth day of the fourth month ; the latter on the seventh day of the fifth month. Oriental conquerors subjected their captives to the most cruel treat- ment. They were bound in the most painful attitudes and driven like cattle to the slave-markets, where families were divided, by their mem- bers being sold to different masters. It is probable that the Babyloni- ans were not less severe task-masters than the Egyptians had been , ibr we find in the later prophets that the memory of what the Jews had suffered ever rankled in the mind of the nation ; and it is remarkable that after their deliverance they never again lapsed into idolatry 68 ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER VI. THE EMPIRE OF THE MEDES AND PERSIANS. Section I. — Geographical Outline. The boundaries of Iran, which Europeans call Persia, have undef gone many changes : in its most prosperous periods, its limits were the Persian gulf and Indian ocean on the south, the rivers Indus and Ox'us on the east, the Caspian sea and Caucasian mountains on the north, and the Euphrates on the west. The most striking features of this ex- tensive country are numerous chains of mountains, and extensive tracts of desert, interspersed with fertile valleys and rich pasture-lands. The southern coast along the Persian giilf is a sandy plain, desolated by pes- tilential winds from the desert of Kerman, and scarcely possessing any indentation or navigable river which could serve as a harbor. Thence to the Caspian sea and the Ox'us there is a succession of mount- ains and valleys of different elevation and extent. Few of the mount- ains are of extraordinary height, though some of the ranges are capped with perpetual snow. None of the valleys are wide, but some of them extend to the lengtli of one hundred miles. Persia Proper, the modern province of Phars, contained the sacred metropolis of the empire, known to us only by its Greek name, Per- sep'olis. This celebrated city was destroyed by Alexander ; but its ruins testify that it must have rivalled the most splendid cities of anti- quity. The province of Susiana (Khuzistan) separated Persia Proper from Babylonia ; between the two provinces was a range of mountains, in- habited by warlike pastoral tribes, of which the most celebrated were the Ux'ii, who compelled the Persian kings to pay them trioute when they went from Susa to Persep'olis. Susiana was a fertile province, watered by several small streams, that supplied a vast number of canals and water-courses. Susa, the capital of this district, once the favorite residence of the Persian monarchs, is now a vast desert, where the ruins of a city can with difficulty be traced. Media was divided into two provinces ; Atropatene or Media Minor (Azerbijan), and Media Major (Irak Ajemi). Ecbatana (Ham'adan) was the capital of Media, and rivalled Susa and Persep'olis in magnificence, while it exceeded them in extent and the strength of its fortifications. The eastern districts of Media, named A'ria, formed an extensive steppe, which merged in the desert of Carmania (Kerman). The capital was named A'ria, a.nd occupied the site of the modern Herat. MEDES AND PERSIANS. &9 North of Media lay Par'thia and Hyrcania (Taberistan and Mazen deran) ; mountainous regions, with some fertile valleys. Northeast of these were the sandy deserts now called Khirwan, tenanted by nomade tribes, who then and now practised alternately the arts of merchants, herdsmen, and robbers. East of A'ria was Bactriana, divided by the Ox'us from Sog'diana : its capital city was Bac'tra, which is usually identified with the modern city of Balkh. The metropolis of Sogdiana was Maracan'da, now called Samarcand, one of the most ancient com- mercial cities in the world. East of the province of Phars were Carmania (Kerman) and Gedrosia (Mekran) ; flat and sandy, but interspersed with some very fertile tracts. The hills in the interior of Persia are but thinly clad with vegetation, and none but those of Mazenderan and Georgia possess forests ; there are but few rivers of sufficient magnitude to be navigable : the most re- markable are the Ulai or Eulas'us (Karun), the Ar'ras or Arax'es, and the Etyman'der (Her'mund). The valleys of the centre of Persia aboimd in the rarest and most valuable vegetable productions. The orchards produce all the fruits of the temperate zone, and the most beautiful flowers of our gardens grow wild in the fields. The horses and dogs are of uncommon size, strength, and beauty ; and no country possesses a more robust, active, and well- shaped race of men. In short, Persia possesses every natural advantage for becoming a poAverful and prosperous empire ; but from the remotest ages it has been subjected to a blighting despotism, by which its re- sources have been not merely neglected, but wasted and destroyed. Skction II. — Tlie Sources and Extent of our Knowledge resj)ecting the Ancient Persians. The sources of Persian history are either native or foreign ; the lat- ter including the accounts both of the Greek historians and the Jewish prophets. The first native authority is the Zend-a-vesta, a collection of the sacre/1 books of the ancient Persians. In this work are contained the early traditions of the nation, the religious system and moral code ascribed to Zerdusht, or Zoroas'ter, the great Persian legislator, and the liturgy still used by the "worshippers of fire." Connected with this is the Dabistan, written by a Mohammedan traveller about tv/o cen- turies ago, in which the author treats very fully of the ancient religion of Persia, professedly deriving his information from original sources. To these must be added some minor Parsi works, collected by oriental ists in India. Next in importance to these ranks the Shah Nameh, or Book of Kings, an immense epic poem, written by Ferdousi, the greatest poet of Persia, about the middle of the tenth century. This historical poem was com- piled from vague traditions, and from the few fragments of ancient Per- sian literature that survived the political destruction of national records by the Greeks and Parthians, and the fanaticism of the first Moham- medan conquerors ; and, consequentlj^, facts are so disguised by a mul- titude of fictions, that it is always difficult, and frequently impossible, to arrive at the truth of lis representations. Mirkhond and his son Klion- 60 ANCIENT HISTORY. demir both wrote histories of Persia, about the close of the filteenth century ; they have, however, in general followed the narrative of Fer- dousi ; but in some places Mirkhond undoubtedly has used the same authorities as the compiler of the Dabistan. Herod' otus, Xen'ophon, and the fragments of Ctesias, are the princi- pal Greek authorities for the history of ancient Persia : of these the first is by far the most valuable, and his account of the Persian wars with Greece is entitled to our confidence. It must also be added, that many parts of his narrative are singularly confirmed by the legends pre- served in the works of Mirkhond and Ferdousi. In the Bible, the Book of Est'her is altogether a Persian history, and much important information is given incidentally in the Books of Dan'iel, Ez'ra, and Nehemiah. Finally, much light has been thrown on ancient Persian history by the writings of modern oriental scholars ; especially the philological researches of Eupp, Burnouf, and Schlegel, which have shown how closely allied the ruling people of Hindustan was with the ruling nation of Iran, by pointing out the close resemblance between the original lan- guages of both, the Sanscrit and the Zend. Section III. — Social and Political Condition oj Ancient Persia. Central Asia, from the most remote ages, has been exposed to the invasions of nomad hordes from the north and east, most of which, ac- cording to their native legends, descended from the mountainous tracts extending from the great Altaian chain to the borders of India. Recent investigations have rendered it probable that this was also the native country of the Brahmins and Hindus, at least of the higher castes ; but it is impossible to discover at what period migrations commenced to the south and west. The colonists who came into Media called themselves A'rii, manifestly the same word as the Sanscrit Ar'ya, which signifies pure men, in opposition to the Mlechas, or barbarians. They were a mixed priestly and warrior caste, who treated their subjects as beings of an inferior nature. Their early success was chiefly owing to their skill in horsemanship ; if not the first nation of the East that employed cavalry, they were the first to make that military body the main strength of their army. A cognate race, the Persians, having nearly the same institutions proceeded further to the southwest, and formed a nation of herdsmen and shepherds. A monarch named Jemshid, the Achse'- menes of the Greeks, first instructed his subjects in agriculture, and they gratefully made royalty the inheritance of his family. The Medes, having long held dominion as he ruling caste, were overthrown in an insurrection of the agricultural and shepherd tribes : this political revo- lution was effected by Cy'rus; and it was followed necessarily by a religious change, consequent on the altered position of the priestly caste. Under the Medes, or rather the Magi, as their priests were called, a species of the Sabian superstition seems to have prevailed : the sun, moon, and planets, receii^ed divine worship, while the more ancient be- lief in one supreme God though obscured, was not wholly lost. Whep the Persians triumphed, the priestly caste lost much of its influence MEDKS AND PERSIANS. 6 and seems to have been regarded as naturally hostile to the new dynasty ; hence we find the Persian monarchs bittei persecutors of the prietitt wherever they established their s'lvay, destroying the Chaldeans in Babylon, and the sacerdotal caste in Egypt. The nature of the reli- gious changes made by Cy'rus can not now be determined ; but the revolution was completed by Zoroaster, Avhose system is the most per- fect devised by unassisted human reason. God, he taught, existed from all eternity, and was like infinity of time and space. There were, he averred, two principles in the universe — good and evil : the one was named Hormuzd, the other Ahriman. Each of these had the power of creation, but that power was exercised with opposite designs ; and it was from their co-action that an admixture of good and evil was found in every created thing. But the source of good alone, the great Hor- muzd, was eternal, and must therefore ultimately prevail.* With these speculative tenets was combined a system of castes, whiclr are described by Ferdousi, who attributes their introduction to Jemshld. The conservation of the ordinances that regulated public morals was Litrusted to the Magi, who were, as we have said, originally a caste or tribe of the Medes. Zoroas'ter reformed the institutions of this body, and appears to have opened the priestly dignity to persons of every caste, though few entered on the functions of public worship who were not of the Magian descent. Thus the sacerdotal rank in Persia par- took of the nature both of a caste and an order. It was high in power : the court was principally composed of sages and soothsayers. The priests also were judges in civil cases, because religion was the basis of their legislation ; but they were strictly bound by the ancient code. No circumstances were deemed sufficiently strong to warrant a depar- ture from ancient usages ; and hence " the laws of the Medes and Per- sians" were proverbial for their strictness of execution. The king was as much bound by the national code as his meanest subject ; but in every other respect his power was without control ; and the satraps, or provincial governors under him, were equally despotic in their respective provinces. The court scarcely differed in any material point from the oriental courts of the present day. It was a heaA'; tax on the national resources to support the barbarous splendor with which the kings and satraps deemed it necessary to surround their dignity ; and the exactions wrung from the cultivators of the soil al- ways made the Persian peasantry the most miserable even in Asia. The army was another source of wretchedness to the country : a vast amount of standing forces was always maintained, and hordes of the wandering tribes on the borders of Persia kept in pay : beside this, in case of any emergency, every man capable of bearing arms was en- rolled in his own district, and forced to become a soldier on the first summons. This constitution enabled the Persians to make rapid con- quests, but it prevented their empire from becoming permanent : the soldiers fought for pay or plunder, and were held together by no com- mon principle, save attachment to their leader ; hence the fall or flight of the commander-in-chief instantly decided the fate of a Persian army * Sir John Malcolm's Persia, vol. i., p, 194. The Jews have a tradition thai Zoroaster was instructed in the true rehgion by one of the prophets. 62 ANCIENT HISTORY however great its numbers ; and when the army was defeated, the kinodom was subdued. The great oriental monarchies were liable to vicissitudes scarcely known in European states. There was no patri- otic spirit in the people, no love of independence in the nation ; if the invader prevailed in the battle-field, he had no further enemies to dread ; the mass of the population cared little for a change of rule, which left unaltered the miseries of their situation. Section IV. — History of the Medes and Persians under the Kaiajiian Dijnastj. FROM B.C. 710 TO B.C. 522. Media and Persia were provinces of the great Assyrian empire ; and their native legends preserve the memory of the cruelty with which they were treated by the monarchs of Nineveh. When that empire was broken to pieces after the death of Sardanapalus, Media fell into a state of anarchy, from which it was delivered by Deioces (b. c. 710), the Kai-K6bad of oriental writers : he hdlt the city of Ecbatana, and greatly strengthened his new kingdom by inducing his subjects to form permanent settlements ; but in the midst of his useful career, he was summoned to check the rising power of the Babylonians, and fell in battle. The Median power was restored by Phraor'tes, who succeeded his father ; but it attained its highest glory under Cy- ax'ares, the third monarch of this dynasty. In the early part of his reign, Cyax'ares had to encounter many for- midable difficulties. While he was engaged besieging Nineveh, the Scythian hordes from the north entered Media, and overran the greater part of central and western Asia. Their ravages were continued for twenty-eight years, and they had compelled the Medes to give them free admittance to their houses, when they were simultaneously de- stroyed by a conspiracy of their hosts, which Cyax'ares had organized. A party that had escaped the general massacre entered into the service of the Median monarch ; but finding reason to dread the fate of their countrymen, they transferred their allegiance to the king of Lydia, and thus caused a war between the two monarchs. The most memorable event o*" this war, which lasted five years, was the total eclipse of the sun, tiat took place in the midst of a battle, and so alarmed the con- tending parties, that both the Medes and Lydians fled in confusion from the field. A peace was soon after concluded between the two crowns, and Cyax'ares renewed his war against the Assyrians. Aided by the king of Babylon, he besieged and took Nineveh, and totally de- stroveu that ancient city (b. c. 601). The allies next attacked the dis- tricts that the Egyptians possessed in Syria, defeated Pharaoh-Necho at Car'chemish, and subdued the principal part of western Asia. It seems probable that the supremacy of the Medes over the Persian principalities was first established during the reign of Cyax'ares, who is generally identified with the Kai Kaoos of Mirkhond and Ferdousi. Asty'ages, called in the book of Daniel Ahasuerus,* that is, " the ;nighty hero" (Achash Zwerosh), an epithet given .o several oriental • Daniel ix. 1. MEDES AND PERSIANS. 63 monarchs. was the next king. To reconcile the Persians to his axi- thority. he gave his daughter in marriage to Camby'ses, of the family of the Achaemen'idae, and the royal tribe of the Pasar'gada;. The issue of this union Avas Agrad'ates, subsequently named Cy'rus, Khoresh, or Khosrau, difterent forms of a Persian word which signifies the sim. The main facts of the romantic legend that Herodotus has preserved respecting the early years of Cyrus, are confirmed by the oriental his- torians , and when stripped of some embellishments, can scarcely be deemed incredible. The following are the facts in which the Greek and Persian historians confirm each other's testimony ; the Persian names of the principal actors are enclosed in parentheses. Camby'ses (Siyawesh) is said to have sought refuge at the court of Asty'ages (Afrasiab), king of a country north of Persia (Turan), to avoid the ef- fects of his father's jealousy. He obtained the hand of his host's daughter Mandane (Ferangiz) in marriage. Envious courtiers preju- diced the Median king against his son-in-law ; he resolved to destroy him, and the child of which his own daughter was pregnant. The Persian prince, according to the oriental historians, was murdered ; but the princess and her unborn child were saved by Har'pagus (Piran Wisah), the tyrant's prime minister. The posthumous child of Cam - by'seswas the celebrated Cyrus : he was brought up in obscurity until he approached the age of manhood, when he learned the secret of his birth. With all the courage of enthusiastic youth, he went among his countrymen, who revered the memory of his father, and were weary of the tyranny of Asty'ages ; they flocked to his standard, and the young prince, entering Media, dethroned Asty'ages, and threw him into prison. Instead, however, of seizing the crown for himself, he sub- mitted to the rule of Cyax'ares H. (Kai Kaoos), his maternal uncle whom the Persians describe as his paternal grandfather. Cyax'ares, immediately after his accession to the dignity of Dara- wesh, or king of Media (b. c. 560), sent his nephew to invade the Babylonian empire, which had now fallen from its high estate. Cy'rus invested the city of Bab'ylon, and, after a long siege, took it, in the manner that has been already related. Cyax'ares, whose title of Dara- wesh, or Darius, is frequently mistaken for a proper name, removed the seat of his government to the newly-acquired city, where becoming acquainted with the merits of the prophet Dan'iel, he took him into his service, and appointed him his chief vizier. Some envious courtiers at- tempted to ruin him by means of his well-known piety, and procured an edict from the Darawesh, forbidding any one, for thirty days, to ofler up prayers to any one but the king, under penalty of being ex})osed to lions. Dan'iel disobeyed the impious command, and was thrown into the lions' den ; but God closed the mouths of the ferocious animals, and he was taken out uninjured. He was immediately restored to his office, which he retained to the end of his life ; and it deserves to be added, than in consequence of his fidelity to the Median and Persian kings, he is described as a renegade in some ancient Jewish traditions. Cy'rus succeeded Cyax'ares in the kingdom ; and thus the suprem- acy was transferred from the Medes to the Persians (b. c. 534). But long before he reigned alone, he had been associated with his uncle in the government, and had the sole command of the army that subdued 64 ANCIENT HISTORY. Ly^dia, Assyr'ia, Babylonia, and western Asia, to the confines of Egypt. Immediately after his accession, he issued an edict permitting the Jews to return to their native land, and rebuild the walls and tem- ple of Jerusalem, as the prophet Isaiah had predicted a hundred years before his birth. For seven years he ruled his empire in peace and prosperity, directing his attention to establishing a stable government in his extensive dominions, and endeavoring, as we have good reason to believe, to restrict the extravagant privileges claimed by the Magi, or priestly caste. Whatever may have been the manner of his death, about which there is some doubts, it is certain that he was buried at Pasargads, where the remains of his tomb may still be see. In the age of Strabo, it bore the following inscription, " O man, I am Cy'rus, who founded the Per- sian empire : envy me not then the little earth which covers my re- mains." Camby'ses (Lohorasp) succeeded to the throne (b. c. 529), and im- mediately prepared to invade Egypt. He soon made himself master of Pelusium, and, being aided by the local information of Phanes, a Greek deserter, he overthrew Psammenitus, the last Egyptian monarch, and subdued the entire country. His fierce hostility to the sacerdotal caste, which he inherited from his father, made him a persecutor of the Egyptian priests, who, in revenge, have portrayed him as the worst of tyrants. After the conquest of Egypt, he resolved to annex Ethio- pia to his dominions, and, at the same time, to plunder the Ammonium, or great temple of Jupiter Am'mon, built on an oasis in the midst of the desert. In the midst of the desert the Persians were deserted by their perfidious guides, and the greater part of them were finally over- whelmed by the moving sands that winds sometimes raise in the desert. Camby'ses intended to have carried his arms into western Africa ; but his designs were frustrated by the refusal of the Phoenician mar- iners to serve against their Carthagenian brethren. To secure his throne, he, with the cruel precaution so common in Asia, put his brother Smer'dis to death ; but was soon alarmed by hearing that a usurper, under his brother's name, had seized the Persian crown. On his re- turn home, Camby'ses died of an accidental wound from his own sword, having first solemnly assured his officers of the falsehood practised by the pretended Smer'dis. As Camby'ses died without heirs, the Kaian- ian dynasty, which, as we have seen, included both Medes and Per- sians, became extinct (b. c. 522). Section V. — History of the Persians under the Hystaspid Dynasty. FROM B. 0. 522 TO B. c. 330. The real history of the false Smer''dis appears to be slightly dis- guised in the narratives of the Grecian writers : he was manifestly raised to the throne by a conspiracy of the priestly caste, who were de- sirous of restoring their own supremacy, and that of their allies, the Medes. The Persian nobles combined to prevent sucfi a calamity, de- stroyed the usurper, and chose for their sovereign, or darawesh, Hys- tas'pes (Gushtasp), who appears to have been a member of the family of the Achaimen'ibsB. Darius Hystas'pes appears to have been tho THE PERSIANS. 65 first who used the old title of royalty (Darawesh or Darius) as a proper name. When fixed upon the throne, he persecuted the magi with great severity, and patronised the religious system ascribed to Zerdusht, or Zoroas^ter. The Persian legends describe this philosopher as his contemporary ; and this is rendered exceedingly probable by a com- parison of the various accounts given of this great reformer.* To secure his title, Darius, for henceforth he will be best known by this name, united himself in marriage with the two surviving daughters of Cy'nis, and then prepared to punish the Babylonians, who, in con- sequence probably of the ancient connexion between the Chaldeans and the sacerdotal caste of the Medes, had not only revolted but mur- dered all whom they regarded as useless mouths, to prove their de- termined obstinacy. Baby'Ion sustained a siege of twenty months : and might have baffled its besiegers, had not a Persian noble mutilated himself, and gone over to the citizens as a deserter who had escaped from the inhuman cruelty of his sovereign. His wounds gave credit to his words : he was intrusted with the command of an important post, which he betrayed to Darius, and thus enabled that monarch vo become master of the rebellious city. The attention of the conqueror was next directed to quelling an insurrection of the Greek commercial cities of western Asia ; he added Thrace to his dominions, and undertook an invasion of Scythia. The Danube was passed on a bridge of boats ; and the Persians advanced without opposition through a difficult and barren country, until they had advanced beyond the reach of their sup- plies. Darius was forced to retreat, and his safety was purchased by the loss of the greater part of his followers. Having severely punished a subsequent revolt of the Greeks of Asia Minor, Darius resolved to extend his vengeance to their Grecian allies, and collected a large naval and military force, which he intrusted to the command of his son-in-law Mardonius. Mardonius crossed the Hellespont into Thrace, whence he passed into Macedonia, at that time a Persian province. All the neighboring countries submitted ; but his fleet was shattered in a storm, while doubling Mount A'thos, and his army soon afterward was attacked unexpectedly by the bar- barous Thracian tribes, who slew a great many of the soldiers, and severely wounded Mardonius himself. A second expedition was sent to Greece, under the command of Datis and Artapher'nes, who forced a passage into the northern parts of that country, stormed Eret'ria, and' were menacing Athens, when they were totally routed by the Atheni- ans undei Miltiades, at the memorable battle of Mar'athon (b. c. 490). To avenge these losses, Darius resolved to invade Greece in person ; but an insurrection of the Egyptians, and disputes among his children respecting the succession, and not long after his own death, frustrated his designs. Xer'xes, immediately after his accession (b. c. 485), marched against the Egyptian rebels, whom he completely subdued. Elated by this success, he prepared to invade Greece, and collected the largest army that had ever beer assembled. His naval preparations were on an. equally extensive scale. But on the very threshold of Greece, at the mountain-pass of Thermopylae, his countless hordes were checked and • Sec Professor Shea's admirable translation of Mirkhond, p. 274. 5 66 ANCIENT HISTORY. repulsed by a handful of men wider the command of Leonidas, king of Sparta. Treachery enabled him to turn the flank of rhe gallant war- riors, and he entered Greece ; but the account of his campaigns be- longs properly to Grecian history. It is sufficient to say, that after having suffered unparalleled losses by sea and land, he returned to Persia covered w^ith disgrace. The forces that he left behind him un- der Marddnius vv^ere annihilated at the battle of Platese ; and the Greeks, following up their success, destroyed the power of the Persians in the Mediterranean, and made them tremble for the security of their provin- ces in Asia Minor. Xer'xes is unknown by name to the oriental historians ; they name him Esfendiar, and ascribe to him the most eminent qualities of a gen- eral and soldier. It is probable that the memory of Xer'xes's exploits in youth were alone preserved in eastern Persia. It is generally thought that Xer'xes was the Ahasuerus (Achash Zwerosh, that is, " brave hero") mentioned in the book of Est'her. Xer'xes was murdered by a captain of his guards, named Artabanus (B.C. 470), and his eldest son shared his fate. The assassin conferred the crown on Artaxer'xes, the third son of the deceased monarch, sur- named Macrocheir, or " the long-handed," called by the native histori- ans Ardeshir Bahman, who is celebrated for his just and beneficent administration. But his virtues were insufficient to check the decline of the empire, which began to exhibit signs of weakness in every quar- ter. After countless humiliations, Artaxer'xes was forced to sign a dis- graceful peace, by which he recognised the independence of the Asiatic Greeks ; consented that his fleet should be wholly excluded from the Mgean : and that the Persian army should not come within three days' march of the coast (b. c. 449). Internal wars and rebellions were of frequent occurrence ; the royal forces were often defeated and the empire kept in a state of turbulence and confusion. On the death of Artaxer'xes (b. c. 424), his only legitimate son, Xer'xes, ascended the throne ; but within forty-five days was mur- dered by his natural brother, Sogdianus ; and he again was deposed by another illegitimate prince, O'chus, who, on his accession, took the name of Darius II. Under the administration of Darius II., sumamed Nothus, that is, -' illegitimate," the empire declined rapidly, chiefly owing to the in- creased power and consequent turbulence of the provincial satraps. On the death of Darius, his son Artaxer'xes, surnamed Mnemon, from the strength of his memory, ascended the throne (b. c. 405) ; but was op- posed by his brother Cy'rus, who had the support of the queen-mother, Parysatis, and of an army of Greek mercenaries, which he was enabled to levy through his connexion with Sparta. Cy'rus, at first successful, was slain at the battle of Cunax'a (b. c. 401); but his ten thousand Greek auxiliaries, under the guidance of Xen'ophon, a renegade Athe- nian, though a delightful historian, succeeded in forcing a safe passage to their native land. During the remainder of his reign, the weak Ar- taxer'xes was the mere puppet of his mother, Pary'satis, whose in- veterate hatred against Queen Statira, and all whom she suspected of having contributed to the overthrow of her favorite son, Cy'rus, filled the palace with murders, treasons, and assassinations. While tho THR PERSIANS 67 court was thus disgraced, Agcsiluus, king of Sparta, joined with the Asiatic Greeks, was making rapid conquests in western Persia ; and he would probably have dismembered the empire, had not the troubles excited in Greece by a lavish distribution of Persian gold, compelled him to return home. The remainder of the reign of Artaxer'xes was singularly unfortu- nate : he attempted to reduce Egypt, but his efforts failed, owing to a disagreement between the Athenian auxiliaries and the Persian com- manders ; Cy'prus regained its independence ; and the spirit of revolt spread through all western Asia. His domestic calamities were still more afflicting : he was obliged to punish his oldest son Darius with death, for conspiring against him ; O'chus, his youngest son, murdered his brother, to open a path to the succession ; and Artaxer'xes, over- come by such a complication of m.iseries, died of a broken heart. O'chus, on the accession (b. c. 360), took the name of Artaxer'xes III. ; and, to secure himself on the throne, put to death no fewer than eighty of the royal family. Artabazus, the satrap of Asia Minor, at- tempted to take advantage of the unpopularity which those crimes brought on the monarch ; and, aided by the Thebans and Athenians, made a vigorous effort to seize the throne. O'chus, however, was as conspicuous for his military prowess as for his crimes ; he defeated Artabazus, and forced him to seek refuge in Greece. He next marched against the Phoenician insurgents, who were supported by the Cypri- ots and Egyptians : the treason of the general of the confederates gave O'chus an easier victory than he had expected, and he levelled the city of Sidon with the ground. Being joined by a powerful body of Greek auxiliaries, he recovered the island of Cy'prus, and once more reduced it to a Persian province. But the king's cruelties were not compensated by his victories ; and he was at length poisoned by the eunuch Bagoas, who placed Ar'ces, the youngest son of O'chus, ou the throne. Ar'ces, after a brief reign, suffered the fate of his lather ; and the treacherous Bagoas transferred the crown to Darius Codoman'nus, a descendant of Darius Nothus (b. c. 336). The eunuch hoped that by raising so remote a branch to the throne, he would be permitted to re- tain royal power in his hands ; but Darius soon asserted his indepen- dence, and Bagoas prepared to remove him by poison. The treachery was discovered ; and Darius compelled the baffled eunuch to drink the medicated portion that he had prepared. But the fate of the Persian empire was now at hand ; Alexan'der the Great of Macedon appeared in Asia, and his brave little army scattered the myriads of Persia like chaff before the wind. After the loss of the two battles of Is'sus and Arbela, Darius, while seeking refuge in a remote part of his empire, was murdered by the eunuch Bes'sus ; and Asia received a new mas- ter.* The Persians inherited the commercial power of the Babylonians and Phoenicians ; but they opened no new branch of trade, and scarce- ly maintained those they found already established. It is not, there- fore, necessary to repeat here what has been said in the preceding chapters on the commerce of central Asia. * See the history of Macedon in a following chapter. 68 ANCIENT HlSTOttY. CHAPTER VII. PHCENICIAN COLONIES IN NORTHERN AFRICA, ESPECIALLY CARTHAGE. Section I. — Geographical Outline of Northern Africa. Although Africa was circumnavigated at a period of very remote antiquity, the interior of the country still remained unexplored, and the southern part, on account of the difficulty of navigation in the ocean, was neglected until the knowledge of i+s discovery was forgotten. But the northern coast bordering on the Mediterranean became the seat of flourishing Greek and Phoenician colonies. This extensive district was divided by nature into three regions, or bands, of unequal breadth, nearly parallel with the sea-line: 1, the maritime country, consisting generally of very fertile districts, whence it was called Inhabited Africa, is now named Barbary ; 2, a nigged mountainous country, whose loft- iest peaks form the chain of Mount Atlas, abounding in wild beasts and palm-groves, whence it was called by the ancients the Land of Lions, and by the moderns Beledulgerid, or the Land of Dates ; the Romans usually named it Gaetulia ; 3, a vast sandy desert, which the Arabs call Sahara. From the chain of Moimt Atlas several small rivers flow into the Mediterranean by a short northern course ; but there are no streams of importance on the south side of these mountains, and no great river in the interior until we reach the remote Niger, concerning which the ancients had very imperfect information ; indeed, nothing was known with certainty of its true course, until the recent discovery of its mouth by the Landers. Proceeding westward along the shore from Egypt, Africa presented tlie following political divisions : 1, Marmar'ica, a sandy tract tenanted by nomad tribes ; 2, Cyrenaica, a fertile territory, occupied by Greek colonies, extending to the greater Syi-'tis ; its chief cities were Cyrene, and Bar'ca ; 3, Regio Syr'tica, the modern kingdom of Trip'oli, a sandy tract subject to the Carthaginians, but almost wholly occupied by nomad hordes ; 4, the domestic territory of Carthage, which forms the modem kingdom of Tunis ; 5, a very fruitful country subject to the Carthagin- ians, the northern part of which was named Byzacena, and the south- em Zeugitana ; and, 6, Numid'ia and Mauritania, occupied during the Carthaginian age by nomad hordes ; but having some Carthaginian colonies along the coasts. CARTHAGE. 69 Carthage was built on a peninsula in the interior of a large bay, now jailed the gulf of Tunis, foniied by the projection of the Hermaean prom- ontory (now Cape Bon) on the east, and the promontory of Apollo (now Cape Zebid) on the west. The peninsula was about midway between U'tica and Tunis, both of which could be seen from the walls of Carthage ; the former being about nine, and the latter only six miles distant : it was joined to the land by an isthmus averaging three miles in length ; and on the seaside there was a narrow neck of land project- ing westward, which formed a double harbor, and served as a mole or breakwater for the protection of shipping. Toward the sea the city was fortified only by a single wall ; but the isthmus was guarded by the citadel Byr^sa, and a triple wall eighty feet high and about thirty wide. The African territory of Carthage extended westward along the coast of the pillars of Hercules, and eastward to the altars of the Philae'ni, which marked the frontier between the territories of Cyrene and Carthage. Southward, the dominions of Carthage extended to tjre Tritonian lake ; but many of the nomad tribes beyond these limits paii nominal obedience to the republic. The fertile provinces of Carthage, occupied by people who tilled the soil, extended from Cape Bon, in a direct line, to the most eastern angle of the Triton lake, a distance of nearly two hundred geographical miles. Its average breadth was one hundred and fifty miles. The foreign possessions of Carthage included the Balearic islands, Cor'sica, Sardinia, and the smaller islands in the Mediterranean, the southern part of Sicily and Spain, some settlements on the western coast of Africa, and the Fortunate islands in the Atlantic, which are probably the Canaries, and the fertile Madeira. Section II. — Social and Political Condition of Carthage. The government of Carthage was formed by circumstances ; it was originally monarchical, like Tyre, its parent state ; but at a very early period it assumed a republican form, in which aristocracy was the pre- vailing element, though the power of the people was not wholly ex- cluded. There were two kings, or chief magistrates, called Suffe'tes (the shophet'tm,or judges, of the Hebrews), who appear to have been nominated by the senate, and then presented for confirmation to the general assembly of the people. There was a double senate ; a syned'rivun, or house of assembly, and a select council, denominated gerusia, which was composed of a hundred of the principal members of the syned'rium, and formed the high court of judicature. Public affairs were not submitted to the assembly of the people, ex- cept when there was a difference of opinion between the suffetes and the senate, when the decision of the general assembly was final. In one particular the Carthaginian government was more constitu- tional than that of Rome, or most of the Grecian republics ; it kept dis- tinct the civil and militaiy power : the dignity of chief magistrate was not united to that of general without an express decree for the purpose. When a king was sent to conduct a war, his military powers expired at the close of the campaign, and previously to a new one a fresh noraina- 70 ANCIENT HISTORY. tion was necessary. There are also instances of a general being elected one of the suffetes, or kings, while he was engaged in conduct- ing war. Other foreign expeditions were sometimes intrusted to the kings ; for Hanno, who conducted an armament to establish colonies along the coast of western Africa, is expressly called king of the Car- thaginians. The religion of the Carthaginians was the same as that of their an- cestors the PhoBnicians, and was consequently polluted by sanguinary rites and human sacrifices. But the Carthaginians were not averse to the introduction of foreign goods ; they adopted the worship of Ceres from the Sicilians, and sent ambassadors to the oracle of Delphi. It does not appear that there was a distinct sacerdotal caste, or even order, in Carthage ; the priestly functions were united with the magisterial. A species of national banking was established at Carthage which was very curious. Pieces of a compound metal, the secret of whose composition was strictly preserved, in order to prevent forgery, were sewed up in leather coverings, and marked with a government seal, which declared their nominal value. This money was, of course, cur- rent only in Carthage itself. The public revenues of Carthage were derived from the tribute imposed on the dependant cities and Afiican tribes, from the custondiouse duties collected in the port, and from the Spanish mines, the richest of which were in the neighborhood of Carthago Nova, the modern city of Carthagena. The Carthaginians, like their ancestors the Phoenicians, paid great attention to naval affairs, and long possessed maritime supremacy over the western Mediterranean. They were eminent for their skill in ship- building, and it was after the model of a Carthaginian galley, accident- ally stranded, that the Romans built their first fleet. The Carthaginians most commonly used triremes, or galleys with three banks of oars, but we read of their using ships with five banks, and in one instance with seven. The rowers were composed of slaves bought by the state for this particular purpose, and as they required constant practice, formed a permanent body, which was not disbanded in time of peace. The oflice of admiral was rarely united to that of general, and the naval commanders, even when acting in concert with the military, received their orders direct from the senate. Carthage supported numerous land armies ; but, unlike most other ancient states, its forces were chiefly composed of mercenaries and slaves ; the citizens themselves, engrossed by commercial pursuits, were unwilling to encounter the hardships and perils of a campaign. There was, however, always one Carthaginian corps, which was re- garded as the pride of the army. Section III. — History of Carthage from the Foundation of the City to the Commencement of the Syracusan Wars. FROM B. C. 880 TO B. C. 416. Di'do, after having escaped from the tyranny of her brother Pygma- lion, chose for her new country the Carthaginian peninsula. She is said to have acquired by a fraudulent purchase, the ground on which jie city was built ; but this legend is unworthy of serious notice. At CARTHAGE. 71 first the Carthaginians were compelled to pay tribute to the neighbor- ing barbarian princes ; but when their riches and strength increased, they shook of this degrading yoke, and extended their dominion by the subjection of the nearest native tribes in the interior, and by new establishments along the coasts. The more ancient Phoenician colo- nies, such as U'tica and Lep'tis, far from feeling jealous of the rising power of Carthage, joined in a federation, of which the new city was recognised as the head. The Greek settlers at Cyrene, whose state had attained great commercial prosperity, viewed the Carthaginians with more jealousy, and war soon broke out between the rival cities. ""Vhile the Persian empire was rising into importance in the east, Car- thage was fast acquiring supremacy over the western world, chiefly by means of the family of Mago — a family that held the chief power of the state for more than a century. But just as they were nsmg into eminence, they had to encounter a formidable enemy in the western Mediterranean, whose proved sldll and courage threatened dangerous rivalry. This led to one of the first naval engagements recorded in history, and arose from the following circumstances : — After Cy'rus had overthrown Crce'sus, he intrusted the subjugation of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor to Har'pagus, one of his generals, and returned to complete the conquest of Babylonia. One of the first places against which Har'pagus directed his efibrts was Phocaj^a, the most northern city of Ionia (b. c. 589). Its inhabitants were celebra- ted for their commercial enterprise and skill in navigation ; they had frequently visited the coast of Spain, and ventured beyond the pillars of Hercules. But they had not strength to resist the myriads of Per- sia ; and when summoned by Har'pagus, they begged for a short inter- val to deliberate on his proposals. During this period, they embarked their wives, cliildren, and moveable property, on board their galleys, and abandoned the naked walls of their city to the Persians. They pro- ceeded to the island of Cor'sica, part of which was already occupied by the Carthaginians, and prepared to establish themselves on its coasts. The Carthaginians and the Tyrrhenians, or Tuscans, dreading the rivalry of the enterprising Phoca^ans, entered into an alliance for their destruction, and sent a fleet of one hundred and twenty sail to drive them from Cor'sica. The Phocajans, with half the number of vessels, gained a brilliant victory ; but, conscious that their numbers Avere too weak to sustain repeated attacks, they abandoned Cor'sica for the shores of Gaul, where they founded the city of Marseilles. In the year that the Tarquins were expelled, a treaty was concluded between the republics of Rome and Carthage (b. c. 509) ; from the terms of which it appears that the Carthaginians were already supreme masters of the northern coast of Africa and the island of Sardinia, and that they possessed the Balearic islands, and a considerable portion of Sicily and Spain. Ever since the seafight off Cor'sica, the Carthaginians had a jeal- ous dread of Grecian valor and enterprise, which was naturally aggra- vated by the increasing wealth and power of the Greek colonies in Sicily and southern Italy. When Xer'xes, tlierefore, was preparing to invade Hel'las, they readily entered into alliance with the Persian monarc h. and agreed to attack the colonies, while he waged war against 72 . ANCIENT HISTORY. the parent state. An armament was accordingly prepared, whose mag- nitude shows the extensive power, and resources of Carthage. It con- sisted of two thousand ships of war, three thousand transports and ves- sels of burden, and a land army amounting to three hundred thousand men. The command of the whole was intrusted to Hamil'car, the head of the illustrious family of Mago. This immense army consisted chiefly of African mercenaries, and was composed of what are called light troops. They were, however, wholly undisciplined, and if de- feated in the first onset could rarely be persuaded to renew the attack. A landing was efiected, without loss, at Panor'mus (the modern Pal- ermo) ; and when the troops were refreshed, HamiFcar advanced and laid close siege to Himera. The governor Theron, made a vigorous defence, though pressed not only by the overwhelming forces of the enemy, but by the still more grievous pressure of famine. Foreseeing, however, that the town, unless speedily relieved, must be forced to surrender, he sent an urgent request for assistance to Syracuse. Gelon, king of Syracuse, could only collect about five thousand horse and fifteen thousand foot. With this very disproportionate force he marched against the Carthaginians, to take advantage of any opportu- nity that fortune might offer. On his road he fortunately captured a messenger from the Selinuntines to Hamil'car, promising on a certain day to join him with the auxiliary force of cavalry that he had demand- ed. Though his forces were formidable, in point of numbers, HamiF- car was too prudent to trust such undisciplined hordes, unless aided by regular soldiers, and had therefore offered large bribes to win over some of the Grecian states in Sicily to his side. The Selinuntines alone listened to his terms, and promised to aid him against their old enemies the Syracusans. Gelon sent the letter forward to Hamil'car ; and hav- ing taking measures to intercept the treacherous Selinuntines, he de- spatched a chosen body of his own troops to the Carthaginian camp in their stead at the specified time. The Syracusans being admitted with- out any suspicion, suddenly galloped to the general's tent, slew HamiF- car and his principal officers, and then, hurrying to the harbor, set fire to the fleet. The blaze of the burning vessels, the cries of Hamil'car's servants, and the shouts of the Syracusans, threw the whole Carthagin- ian army into confusion ; in the midst of which they were attacked by Gelon with the rest of his forces. Without leaders and without com- mand, the Carthaginians could make no effective resistance ; more than half of the invaders fell in the field ; the remainder, without arms and without provisions, sought shelter in the interior of the country, where most of thrm perished. It is remarkable that this great victory was won on the same day that the battle of Thermop'ylae was fought, and the Persian fleet defeated at Artemis'ium ; three of the noblest triumphs obtained in the struggle for Grecian freedom (b. c. 480). The miserable remnant of the Carthaginian troops rallied under Gis'- gon, the son of HamiFcar ; but the new general found it impossible to remedy the disorganization occasioned by the late defeat, and was ■forced to surrender at discretion. For seventy years after this defeat, little is knov»n of the history of Carthage, except that during that period the state greatly extended its ©ower over the native tribes of Africa, and gained important acquisi- CARTHAGE. 73 lions of lerritory from the Cyrenians. Sicily was, in the meantime, the scene of a war which threatened total annihilation to Syracuse, the Athenians having invaded the island, and laid siege to that city. But when the Athenians were totally defeated (b. c. 416), the Carthagin- ians had their attention once more directed to Sicilian politics by an embassy from the Segestans, seeking their protection against the Syra- cusans, whose wrath they had provoked by their alliance with the Athenians. Section IV. — History of Carthage during the Sicilian Wars. FROM B. c. 416 TO B. c. 264. The Carthaginians gladly seized the pretext afToided them by the Segestan embassy ; and a new expedition Avas sent against Sicily, ander the command of Han'nibal, the son of Gis'gon. This new in- vasion was crowned with success ; Selinun'tum and Him'era were taken by storm, and their inhabitants put to the sword. The Sicilians solicited a truce, which was granted on terms extremely favorable to the Carthaginians. So elated was the state at this success, that nothing less than the entire subjugation of Sicily was contemplated. In'ules, the son of Han'no, and Han^nibal, at the head of a powerful armament, proceeded to besiege Agrigen'tum, the second city of the island. During the siege, which lasted eight months, the assailants suffered severely from pestilential disease, and the garrison from famine. After having en- dured with wonderful patience the severest extremities of famine, the. Agrigentines forced their way through the enemies' lines by night, and retreated to Gela, abandoning the aged, the sick, and the wounded, to the mercy of the Carthaginians. Himil'co, who had succeeded to the chief command on the death of his father Han'nibal, ordered these helpless victims to be massacred. Gela soon shared the fate of Agri- gen'tum ; and Diony'sius I., the king of Syracuse, who had taken the command of the confederated Sicilians, deemed it prudent to open ne- gotiations for peace. A treaty was concluded (b. c. 405), which neither party intended to observe longer than the necessary preparations for a more decisive contest would require. Scarcely were the Cartha- ginians withdrawn, when Diony'sius sent deputies to all the Greek states in Sicilj , exhorting them by a simultaneous effort to expel all in- truders, and secure their future independence. His machinations were successful ; the Carthaginian merchants who, on the faith of the late treaty, had settled in the principal commercial town, were perfidiously massacred ; while Diony'sius, at the head of a powerful army, cap- tured several of the most important Carthaginian fortresses. All the forces that the wealth of Carthage could procure were speed- ily collected to punish this treachery ; and Himil'co advanced against Syracuse, and laid siege to it with the fairest prospects of success. But a plague of such uncommon virulence broke out in the Carthagin- ian camp, that the living were unable to bury the dead, and mformation of this state of things being conveyed to Sy'racuse, Diony'sius sallied forth with all liis forces, and assaulted the Carthaginian camp. Scarce 74 ANCIENT HISTORY. any attempt was made at resistance: night alone put an end to th« slaughter ; and when morning dawned, Himil'co found that nothing but a speedy surrender could save him and his followers from total ruin. He stipulated only for the lives of himself and the Carthaginians, aban- doning all his auxiliaries to the ■'^engeance of the Syracusans. The Carthaginians sent another armament, commanded by Mago, a nobleman of high rank, to retrieve their losses in Sicily ; but their forces were routed with great slaughter, and the leader slain. The younger Mago, son of the late general, having received a strong rein- .forcement from Africa, hazarded a second engagement, in Avhich the Syracusans were totally defeated. Diony'sius was induced by this overthrow to solicit a peace, which was concluded on terms honorable to both parties. The conclusion of the Sicilian war was followed by a plague, which destroyed multitudes of the citizens of Carthage (b. c. 347) ; and scarcely had this visitation passed away, when insurrections broke out in the African provinces, and in the colonies of Sicily and Sardinia. But the Carthaginian senate showed itself equal to the crisis ; by a course of policy in which firmness was tempered by conciliation, these dangers were averted, and the state restored to its former vigor and prosperity. In the meantime, Sy'racuse Avas weakened by the death of Diony'- sius I., who, though stigmatized as a tyrant by the Greek historians, appears to have been a wise and prudent sovereign. " No one," said Scip'io Africanus, " ever concerted his schemes with more wisdom, or executed them with more energy, than the elder Diony'sius." His .son, Diony'sius H., was a profligate prince, whose excesses filled the state with tumult and distraction. The Carthaginians eagerly embra- ced the opportunity of accomplishing the favorite object of their policy, the conquest of Sicily ; and a great armament was prepared, of which Mago was appointed the chief commander. Mago, at the very first attack, made himself master of the harbor of Sy'racuse. The Syracusans, destitute of money, of arms, and almost of hope, solicited the aid of the Corinthians ; and Timoleon, one of the greatest generals and purest patriots ot antiquity, was sent to their assistance. A great portion of the Carthaginian army had been levied in the Greek colonies; Timoleon, hoping to work on their patriotic feelings, addressed letters to the leaders of these mercenaries, expos- tulating with them on the disgrace of bearing arms against their coun- trymen : and though he did not prevail on any to desert, yet Mago, having heard of these intrigues, felt such distrust of his followers, that he at once abandoned Sy'racuse, and returned home. Great was the indignation of the Carthaginians at this unexpected termination of the campaign ; Mago committed suicide to escape their wrath. New forces were raised to retrieve their losses in Sicily ; two generals, Han'nibal and Hamil'car were appointed to the command, and were intrusted with an army of seventy thousand men, and a fleet consisting of two hundred war-galleys, and a thousand ships of burden. Timoleon hasted to meet the invaders, though his forces barely amounted to seven thousand men. He unexpectedly attacked the Car haginian armv on its march, near the river Crimisus ; and the confu CARTHAGE. 75 Bion produced by the surprise terminated in a total rout. The Syracu- sans captured town after town, until at length the senate of Carthage was forced to solicit peace, and accept the terms dictated by the con- queror. While Carthage was thus unfortunate abroad, her liberties at home narrowly escaped destruction. Han'no, one of the principal leaders of the state, resolved to make himself master of his country by poison- ing the leaders of the senate at a banquet. This diabolical plot was frustrated by a timely discovery, and the exasperated traitor resolved to hazard an open rebellion. Having armed his slaves, to the number of twenty thousand, he took the field, and invited the native African tribes to join his standard. This appeal was disregarded ; and before Han'no could levy fresh forces, he was surrounded by an army hastily raised, his followers routed, and himself made prisoner. He was put to death with the most cruel tortures ; and, according to the barbarous custom of Carthage, his children and nearest relatives shared the same fate. New dissensions in Sy'racuse afforded the Carthaginians a fre,«h pretext for meddling in the aflairs of Sicily. Agath'ocles, an intriguing demagogue of mean birth, had acquired great influence among his countrymen, and, finally, by the secret aid of the Carthaginians, be- came master of the state. But he soon showed little regard for the ties of gratitude, and declared his resolution to expel his benefactors from the island. The Carthaginian senate immediately sent HamiFcar with a powerful army against this new enemy. Agath'ocles was com- pletely defeated, and forced to shut himself up within the walls of Sy'- racuse. The city was soon closely invested, and everything seemed to promise Hamil'car. complete success at no distant day, when Aga- th'ocles suddenly baffled all his calculations, by adopting one of the most exiraordinary measures recorded in history. Having assemljled the Syracusans, he declared that he could liberate them from all dangers, if an army and a small sum of money were placed at his disposal ; adding, that his plan would be instantly defeated, if its nature was di- vulged. An army of liberated slaves was hastily levied, the sum of fifty talents intrusted to his discretion, and a fleet prepared in secret ; when all was ready, Agath'ocles announced his design of transporting his forces into Africa, and compelling the Carthaginians, by the dread of a nearer danger, to abandon Sicily. Having eluded the vigilance of the blockading squadron, Agath'ocles ariived safely in Africa before the Carthaginians had received the sliglr'^ • est notion of his intention (b. c. 309). To inspire his soldiers with a resolution to conquer or die, he cut off all chance of retreat by burning his transports ; then fearlessly advancing, he stormed Tunis and sev- eral other cities, the plunder of which he divided among his soldiers, and instigated the African princes to throw ofi' the yoke of Carthage. Han'no and Bomil'car were sent to check the progress of this daring invader, with forces nearly four times as great as the Sicilian army ; but Agath'ocles did not decline the engagement. His valor was re- warded by a decisive victory. Following up his success, Agath'ocles stormed the enemies' camp, where were found heaps of fetters and chains, which the Carthaginians, confident of success, had prepared for the invading army. 76 ANCIENT HISTORY. Dreadful consternation was produced in Carthage by the news of this unexpected defeat. Hamil'car, who was vigorously pressing for- ward the siege of Sy'racuse, was surprised by the unexpected order to return home and defend his own country. He broke up the siege, and sent home five thousand of his best troops. Having supplied their place by Wring fresh mercenaries, he again invaded the Syracusan ter- ritories ; but was unexpectedly attacked, defeated, and slain. Ophel'las, king of Cyre'ne,had joined Agath'ocles with aU his for- ces ; but the Syracusan monarch, jealous of his influence, had him pri- vately poisoned. Having thus removed his rival, he thought he might safely revisit Sicily, and intrust the command of the African army to his son. But, during his absence, the ffuits of all his former labors were lost : the army under a young and inexperienced general, threw aside the restraii.ts of discipline ; the Greek estates, indignant at the murder of Ophel'las, withheld their contingents ; and the African princes renewed their allegiance to Carthage. Agath'ocles hearing of these disorders, hasted to remedy them : but finding all his efforts vain, he fled back to Sicily, abandoning both his sons and his soldiers. The army, exasperated by his desertion, slew their leaders, and surrendered themselves to the Carthaginians ; and Agath'ocles died soon after, either from grief or poison. After the death of this formidable enemy, the Carthaginians renewed their intrigues in Sicily, and soon acquired a predominant influence in the island. Finding themselves in danger of utter ruin, the Greek col- onies solicited the aid of Pyr'rhus, king of Epirus, who had married a daughter of Agath'ocles, and was then in Italy endeavoring to protect the colonies of Magna Gree'cia from the increasing power of the Ro- mans (b. C. 277). Pyr'rhus made a very successful campaign in Sicily, every Carthaginian town, except Lilybas'um, submitted to his anns. But he was soon induced to return to Italy ; and the fruits of his victories were lost almost as rapidly as they had been acquired, notwithstanding the heroic exertions of Hiero, king of Sy'racuse. Section V. — From the Commencement of the Roman Wars to the Destruction of Carthage. FROM B. c. 264 TO B. c. 146. When Pyr'rhus was leaving Sicily, he exclaimed to his attendant?, " What a fine field of battle we are leaving to the Carthaginians and Romans ?" His prediction was soon verified, though the circumstances that precipitated the contest were apparently of little importance. A body of mercenaries in the pay of Agath'ocles, after the death of that monarch, treacherously got possession of Messina, and put all the in- habitants to the sword. Hiero, king of Sy'racuse, marched against the Mamertines, as the independent companies that had seized Messina were called, and defeated them in the field. Half the Mamertines in- voked the aid of the Carthaginians, and placed them in immediate pos- session of the citadel, while the others sought the powerful protection of Rome. After much hesitation, the Romans consented to grant the required aid. The citadel of Messina was taken after a brief siege, and the Carthaginians were routed with gre^i slaughter. Thus com- CARTHAGE. 77 menced the first Punic war, which lasted twenty-three years, the de- tails of which will be found in the chapters on Roman history. In this war Carthage lost Sicily, and its supremacy in the western Mediterranean, which involved the fate of all its other insular posses- sions. The treasury was exhausted, and money was wanting to pay the arrears due to the soldiers. The mercenaries mutinied, and advancing in a body, laid siege to Tunis. Thence they marched against U'tica, while the light African cavalry that had joined in the rebellion ravaged the country up to the very gates of Carthage. The revolters were sub- dued ; but not until they had reduced the fairest provinces of the repub- lic to a desert. The mercenaries in Sardinia had also thrown off their allegiance ; and the Romans, in violation of the recent peace, took possession of the island ; an injury which Carthage was unable to resent. Hamil'car Bar'ca,* grieved to see his country sinking, formed a pro- ject for raising it once more to an equality with its imperious rival, by completely subduing the Spanish peninsula. His son Han'nibal, then a boy only nine years of age, earnestly besought leave to accompany his father on this expedition ; but before granting the request, Ham- il'car led the boy to the altar, and made him swear eternal hostility to Rome. During nine years Hamil'car held the command in Spain, and found means, either by force or negotiation, to subdue almost the entire country. He used the treasures he acquired to strengthen the influence of the Barcan family in the state, relying chiefly on the democracy for support against his great rival Han'no, who had the chief influence among the nobility. Has'drubal, the son-in-law of Hamil'car, succeeded to his power and his projects. He is suspected of having designed to establish an inde- pendent kingdom in Spain, after having failed to make himself absolute in Carthage. He built a new capital with regal splendor, which re- ceived the name of New Carthage ; the richest silver-mines were opened in its neighborhood, and enormous bribes were sent to Carthage to dis- arm jealousy or stifle inquiry. Unlike other Carthaginian governors of provinces, he made every possible exertion to win the affections of the native Spaniards, and he married the daughter of one of their kings. The Romans were at length alarmed by his success, and compelled him to 6ign a treaty, by which he was bound to abstain from passing the Iberus (Ebro), or attacking the territory of the Saguntines. When Has'drubal fell by the dagger of an assassin, the Barcan family had sufficient mfluence to have Han'nibal appointed his successor, though he had barely attained his legal majority (b. c. 221). The youthful general having gained several victories over the Spaniards, boldly laid siege to Sagun'tum, and thus caused the second war with the Romans, for the details of which we must refer to the chapters on Roman history. During the course of this war, the Carthaginian navy, the source of. its greatness and the security of its strength, was neglected. The spirit of party also raged violently in Carthage itself. At the conclusion of the • Barca signifies " thunder" in the Phoenician language, and also in Hebrew, which is closely allied to Phoenician. The Hebrew root is P1^ tc thunder. 78 ANCIENT HISTORY. war, Carthage was deprived of all her possessions out of Africa, and her fleet was delivered into the hands of the Romans. Thenceforward Carthage was to be nothing more than a commercial city under the pro- tection of Rome. A powerful rival also was raised against the repub- lic in Africa itself by the alliance of the Numidian king Massinis'sa with the Romans ; and that monarch took possession of most of the western Carthaginian colonies. Han'nibal, notwithstanding his late reverses, continued at the head of the Carthaginian state, and reformed several abuses that had crept into the management of the finances and the administration of justice. But these judicious reforms provoked the enmity of the factious nobles who had hitherto been permitted to fatten on public plunder ; they joined with the old rivals of the Barcan family, and even degraded themselves so far as to act as spies for the Romans, who still dreaded the abilities of Han'nibal. In consequence of their machinations the old general was forced to fly from the country he had so long labored to serve ; and, after several vicissitudes, died of poison, to escape the mea.. and malignant persecution of the Romans, whose hatred followed him in his exile, and compelled the king of Bithynia to refuse him protection. The mound wMch marks his last resting-place is still a remarkable object. But the Carthaginians had soon reason to lament the loss of their champion : the Romans were not conciliated by the expulsion of Han'- nibal ; and Massinis'sa, relying upon their support, made frequent in- cursions into the territories of the repulilic. Both parties complained of each other as aggressors before the Roman senate (b. c. 162) ; but though they received an equal hearing, the decision was long previously settled in favor of Massinis'sa. While these negotiations were pend- ing, Carthage was harassed by political dissension ; the popular party — believing, and not without reason, that the low estate of the republic was chiefly owing to the animosity that the aristocratic faction had shown to the Barcan family, and especially to Han'nibal, on account of his financial and judicial reform — convened a tumultuous assembly, and sent forty of the pricipal senators into banishment, exacting an oath from the citizens that they would never permit their return. The exiles sought refuge with Massinis'sa, who sent his sons to intercede with the Carthaginian populace in their favor. The Numidian princes were not only refused admittance to the city, but ignominiously chased from their territory. Such an insult naturally provoked a fresh war, in whicu the Carthaginians were defeated, and forced to submit to the most oner- ous conditions. The Roiuan senat^:, continually solicited by the elder Cato, at length came to the resolution of totally destroying Carthage ; but it was diffi- cult to discover a pretext for war against a state which, conscious of its weakness, had resolved to obey every command. The Carthaginians gave up three hundred of their noblest youths as hostages, surrendered their ships-of-war and their magazines of arms ; but when, after all these concessions, they were ordered to abandon their city, they took courage from despair, and ab'solutely refused obedience. War was in- stantly proclaimed ; the Romans met with almost uninterrupted suc- cess ; and at the close of the four years .hat the war lasted, Carthage CARTHAGE. 79 was taken by storm,, and its magnificent edifices levelled with the ground. Section VI. — Navigation, Trade, and Commerce of Carlhage. The colonial and commercial policy of the Carthaginians was far less generous than that of their ancestors, the Phcenicians ; the harbors of the capital were open to the ships and merchants of foreign nations, but admission was either wholly refused to all the remaining ports in the territory of the republic, or subjected to the most onerous restrictions. This selfish system, which has been imitated by too many modern commercial states, was forced upon the Carthaginians by peculiar cir- cumstances. Their trade with the barbarous tribes of Africa was car- ried on principally by barter ; the ignorant savages exchanged valuable commodities for showy trifles ; and the admission of competition would at once have shown them how much they lost in the exchange. Had the Carthaginians, under such circumstances, permitted free trade, they would, in fact, have destroyed their own market. The principal commerce of the Carthaginians in the western Medit- erranean was with the Greek colonies in Sicily and the south of Italy, from which they obtained wine and oil, in exchange for negro slaves, precious stones, and gold, procured from the interior of Africa, and also for cotton cloths manufactured at Carthage and in the island of Malta. Cor'sica supplied honey, wax, and slaves ; Sardinia yielded abundance of corn ; the Balearic islands produced the best breed of mules ; resin and volcanic products, such as suli)hur and pumice-stone, were obtained from the Lipari islands ; and southern Spain was, as we have already said, the chief source whence the nations of antiquity procured the precious metals. Beyond tire pillars of Hercules the Carthaginians succeeded the Phosnicians in the tin and amber trade with the south British islands and the nations at the entrance of the Baltic. After the destruction of Carthage, this trade fell into the hands of their earliest rivals, the Phocaeans of Marseilles, who changed its route ; they made their pur- chases on the north shore of Gaul, and conveyed their goods overland to the mouth of the Rhone, in that age a journey of thirty days. On the west coast of Africa the Carthaginian colonies studded the shores of Morocco and Fez ; but their great mart was the island of Cer'ne, now Suana, in the Atlantic ocean (29° 10' N. lat., 10° 40' W. long.). On this island was the great depot of merchandise ; and goods were transported from it in light barks to the opposite coast, where they were bartered with the native inhabitants. The Carthaginian exports were trinkets, saddlery, linen, or more probably, cotton webs, potter)', and arms ; for which they received undressed hides and elephants' teeth. To this trade was added a very lucrative fishery: the tunny fish [thynnus scomber), which is still plentiful on the northwestern coast of Africa, was "deemed a great luxury by the Carthaginians. There is every reason to believe that these enterprising merchants had some in- tercourse with the coast of Guinea, and that their navigators advanced beyond the mouths of the Senegal and Gambia ; but the caution with which everything respecting this trade was concealed, renders it im- possilde to determine its nature and exterit with accuracy. 80 ANCIENT HISTORY. It is very difficult to discover any particulars respecting the caravan- trade which the Carthaginians carried on from their southern settle- ments vi^ith the interior of Africa. From the districts bordering on the desert the chief articles obtained were dates and salt ; but from beyond the desert, the imports were negro slaves and gold-dust. The nature of this lucrative commerce was the more easily concealed, as the cara- vans were formed not at Carthage, but at remote towns in the interior, and all the chief staples were situated on the confines of the Great Desert. GRECIAN STATES. 81 CHAPTER VTTI. THE FOUNDATION OF THE GRECIAN STATES. Section I. — Geographical Outline of Hellas. Greece was bounded on the north by the Cambunian mountains,' which separated it from Macedonia ; on the east by the iEgean, on the south by the Mediterranean, and on the west by the Ionian seas. Its extent from north to south was about two hundred and twenty geo- graphical miles, from east to west one hundred and sixty miles, and consequently its area was about 34,000 square miles ; making a small, indeed too small, a reduction for the irregularity of its outline. No European country was so advantageously situated ; on the eastern side, the iEgean sea, studded with islands, brought it into close contact with Asia Minor and the Phoenician frontiers ; the voyage to Egypt was neither long nor difficult, though it afforded not so many resting-places to the mariners ; and from the west there was a short and easy pas- sage to Italy. The entire line of this extensive coast was indented with bays and harbors, offering every facility for navigation ; while the two great gulfs that divided Hel'las, or northern Greece, from the Peloponnesus, or southern Greece, must have, in the very earliest ages, forced naval affairs on the attention of the inhabitants. Nature herself has formed three great divisions of this very remark- able country. The Saronic and Corinthian gulfs sever the Pelopon- nesus from Hel'las ; and this latter is divided into two nearly equal portions, northern and southern, by the chain of Mount CE^ta, which traverses it obliquely, severing Thes'saly and Epirus frorr central Hel'las. Th:es'saly, the largest of all the Grecian provinces, may be generally described as an extensive table-land, enclosed on three sides by the mountains, and by the ^Egean sea, close to whose shores rise the lofty peaks oi Os'sa and Olym'pus. Its principal, indeed almost its only river is the Peneus, which rises in Mount Pin'dus, and flowing in an easterly direction, falls into the ^Egean sea. Thes'saly was ruined by its nat- ural wealth ; the inhabitants rioted in sensual enjoyments ; anarchy and tyrpnny followed each other in regular succession ; and thus Thes' saly prepared for the yoke of a master, was the first to submit to tht' Persian invaders, and afterward to the Macedonian Philip. Epiiius was, next to Thes'saly, the largest of the Grecian provinces , but it was also the least cultivated. It was divided into two provinces ; Molos'sis, and Thesprotia. The interior of Epirus is traversed by wi/d 6 b2 an'cient history ana uncultivated mountains. The wildnes'? of the country, and the rudeness of the inhabitants, have given occasion to the Greeks to rep- resent the risers Ach'eron and Cocytus, which flow into the gulf of Acherusia, as rivers belonging to the infernal regions. Its oxen and horses were unrivalled ; and it was also celebrated for a large breed of dogs, called Molossin, whose ferocity is still remarked by the traveller. Central GREEce, or Hel'las, contained nine countries : 1, At'tica ; 2, Meg'aris ; 3, Boeotia ; 4, Phocis ; 5, eastern Locris ; 6, western Locris ; 7, Doris ; 8, iEtolia ; 9, Acarnania. At'tica is a headland extending in a southeasterly direction &,bout sixty-three miles into the iEgean sea. It is about twenty-five miles broad at its base, whence it gradually tapers toward a point, until it ends in the rocky promontory of Sunium {Cape Colonna), on jhe sum- mit of which stood a celebrated temple of Minerva. It was not a fer- tile country, never being able to produce sufficient com for the support of its inhabitants ; but it had rich silver mines in Mount Larium, ex- cellent marble quarries in Mount Pentel'icus, and the ranges of hills, by which it is intersected in every direction, produced abundance of ar- omatic plants, from which swarms cf industrious bees formed the most celebrated honey. Mega'ris, the smallest of the Grecian territories, lay west of At'tica, close to the Corinthian isthmus. It capital was Mega'ra, a town of considerable strength. Boeotia was a large plain, almost wholly surrounded by mountains : it was divided by Cithae'ron from At'tica, a mountain celebrated by the poets for the mystic orgies of Bac'chus, the metamorphosis of Actee'on, the death of Pen'theus, and the exposure of CE'dipus. On the west were the chains of Parnas'sus and Hel'icon, sacred to the Muses, sep- arating it from Phocis ; and on the north it was divided from eastern Locris by a prolongation of the chain of Mount Cnemis. On the east was Mount Ptoiis, extending to the Euripus, a narrow strait that divides the island of Eubce'a from the mainland. The climate was cloudy, and the soil marshy, as might be conjectured from the position of the coun- try ; but it was a fertile and well-watered district, and the most densely populated in Greece. Phocis, a district of moderate size and unequal shape, extended from the mountain chains of ffi'ta and Cnemis, southward to the Corinthian gulf. It contained several important mountain-passes between north- ern and southern Greece, the chief of which, near the capital city Elateia, was early occupied by Philip in his second invasion of Herias. Mounts Hel'icon and Parnas'sus, and the fountains of Aganippe and Hippocrene, are names familiar to every reader of poetry ; and these, with the temple and oracle of Del'phi, render the soil of Phocis sacred. Del'phi ( C'jstri.) was situated on the south side of Mount Parnas'sus, overshadowed by its double peak ; and above the city was the mag- nificent temple of Apol'lo. Here, under the patronage of the god, were collected all the masterpieces of Grecian art in countless abundance, together with costly offerings from nations, cities, and kings. Here the Amphictyonic council promulgated the first maxims of the law of na- tions ; here the Pythian games, scarcely inferior to those of Olympia, GRECIAN STATES. 83 exercised the Grecian youth in athletic contests ; while the poets, as sembled round the Castalian fountain, chanted their rival odes in noble emulation. East Locris extends along the Euripus : it was inhabited by two tribes, the Opun'tii and Epicnemid'ii, deriving their names from O'pus and Mount Cnemis. The most remarkable place in the province is the pass of Thermop'ylse, so memorable for the gallam stand made there by Leon'idas against the Persian mja'iads. Western Locris, separated by Phocis from the eastern province, joined the bay of Cor'inth ; its inhabitants were called Ozolae. The mountainous district of Doris, though a small territory, was the parent of many powerful states. The province was enclosed be- tween the southern ridge of CE'ta and the northern extremity of Mount Parnas'sus. ^loUa extended from Mount CE'ta to the Ionian sea, having the Locrian territory on the east, and the river Acheloiis on the west. Acarndnia, the most western country of Hel'las, lay wcist of the river Acheloiis, from which it extended to the Ambracian gulf. It was very thickly covered with wood ; and the inhabitants remained barba- rians after other branches of the Hellenic race had become the in- structers of the world. Sectiox II. — Geograjihical Outline of the Peloponnesus. Southern Greece, anciently called the A'pian land, was named the Peloponnesus in honor of Pelops, who is said to have introduced the arts of peace into that peninsula from Asia Minor. It consists of a mountainous range in the centre, whence hills branch out in various directions, several of which extend to the sea. Its modern name, the Morea, is derived from its resemblance to a mulberry leaf, which that word signifies. It was divided into eight countries, 1, Arcadia; 2, Laconia ; 3, Messenia ; 4, E'lis ; 5, Ar'golis ; 6, Achaia ; 7, Sicyonia ; and 8, the Corinthian territory. Arcadia, so renowned in poetical traditions, occupied the central mountainous district of the Peloponnesus, nowhere bordering on the sea It resembles Sw' "zerland in appearance ; and this similarity may be expended to the character of the inhabitants, both being remarkable for their love of freedom and their love of money. Arcadia is sup- posed by many writers to have been the cradle of the Pelasgic race ; but though this is doubtfnl, it certainly was retained by that people long after the Hel'lenes had occupied every other part of Greece. Laconia occupied the southeastern division of the Peloponnesus : it was rugged and mountainous, but was nevertheless so densely inhabited, that it is said to have contained nearly a hundred towns and villages. The chief city, Spar'ta, on the river Eurotas, remained for many ages without walls or gates, its defence being intrusted to the valor of its citizens ; but fortifications were erected when it fell under the sway of despotic rulers. Messema lay to the west of Laconia, and was more level and fruit- ful than that province. Messe'ne [Mauromati), the capital, was a strongly-fortified town ; and when the country was subjugated by Spar- 84 ANCIENT HISTORY. ta, its citizens escaping to Sicily gave the name of their old metropolii to the principal town of the colony they formed, which it still retains with very slight alteration. Ar'o-olis was a foreland on the south side of the Saronic gulf, op- posite At'tica, and not unlike it in shape, extending southward from Arcadia fifty-four miles into the ^Egean sea, and terminating in the Scyllaean promontory. The chief chief city was Argos, on the river In'- achus, a stream that had disappeared even in ancient times. During the reign of Perseus the seat of government was transferred to Mycenae, the celebrated city of Agamem'non ; but soon after the Trojan war it was besieged by the Argives, and levelled to the ground. E'hs, in the west of the Peloponnesus, was the holy land of Greece. It was safe from the din of arms ; and when bands of warriors traversed the sacred soil, they laid aside their weapons. It was subdivided into three districts : the northern, named E'lis Proper, from the chief city of the province. The central district, Pisatis, was named from the city of Pisa, in the neighborhood of which the Olympic games were cele- brated every four years. The maritime district* occupying the northwestern portion of the Peloponnesus was originally called vEgi'lus, or iEgialeia, either from some hero, or from its situation on the coast. Its inhabitants were afterward blended with a colony of lonians from Africa, when it took the name of Ionia ; but these being subsequently expelled by the Achaeans, it received and retained the denomination of Achaia, by which it is best known in history. It was a narrow strip of country, watered by a multitude of mountain-streams, which descended from the lofty Arcadian ridges ; but it was not eminent either for fertility or pop- ulation. The inhabitants were a peaceful, industrious people, aspiring to neither eminence in war nor literature, but attached to liberty, and governed by wise laws. The territory of Sicyonia, frequently regarded as a part of Achaia was remarkable only for the city of Sic'yon, the most ancient in Greece having been founded more than two thousand years before the Chris tian era. The Peloponnesus was connected with Hel'las by the Corinthian isthmus, having the Saronic gulf on the eastern side, and the Corinth- ian on the western. Several attempts were made to join these seas by a canal ; but the nature of the ground to be cut through presented insu- perable difficulties ; and hence "to cut the Corinthian isthmus" was a proverbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. On this narrow pass the Isthmian games were celebrated in honor of Neptune, near the national temple of that deity, which stood in the midst of a grove of fir-trees. Here also a stand has frequently been made in defence of the liberties of Greece ; the narrowness of the isthmus easily admit- ting of fortification. At the south of the isthmus stood the wealthy city of Corinth, anciently called Ephy're, more than four miles in extent : it was erected at the foot of a lofty hill, called the Ac'ro-Corin'thus, on which the citadel was built. This was the strongest fortress in Greece, and perhaps no other spot in the world afforded so brilliant a prospect. The Corinthian territory was one of the smallest ir. Greece ; but com- merce, not dominion, secured the strength of Corinth, and trade render GRECIAN STATES. 85 ed it rich and powerful ; like Venice, whose prosperity was never greater than when the republic possessed not a single square mile on the continent. Section III. — The Grecian Islands in the ^gean and Mediterranean Seas.. The Thracian islands occupy the north of the ^gean sea : the prin cipal were, Thasos, Sam'othrace, and Im'brus. Opposite to Im'brus, on the Asiatic coast, at the entrance of Helles- pont, was the island of Ten'edos, remarkable for a temple dedicated to Apollo, under the name of Smin'theus. Southwest of Ten'edos was Lem'nos (Sfalimejte), dedicated to He- phaes'tus or Vulcan, because the poets asserted that Vulcan, when flimg from heaven by Jupiter, had fallen in this island. South of these were Sciathus {Sciatica). Scop'elos [Scopelo), and Scyros {Shiro), where Achilles was concealed by Thetis. South of Ten'edos, and opposite the city of Eph'esus, on die Asiatic coast, was Lesbos (Metelin). Further to the south was Chios (Scio\ whose wines were deemed the best in the ancient world. It also con- tained quaries of beautiful marble. The largest island in the ^gean was Euboe^a {Egripo), separated from the Boeotian coast by a narrow strait called the Euripus, which is now choked up. In the Saronic gulf were the islands of Sal'amis and ^Egina. Southeast of Eubce'a were the Cyc'lades, a cluster of islands de- riving their name from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. Orty'gia, or Delos, is celebrated in mythology as the birth- place of Apol'lo and Dian'a. The other remarkable islands in this group were An'dros ; Ceos ; Paros, celebrated for its white marble ; Melos ; Nax'os, sacred to Bac'- chus ; and I'os, said to have been the burial-place of Homer. East of the Cyc'lades, and close along the Asiatic coast, was another cluster of islands called the Spor'ades, from their being irregularly scattered over the sea. The chief of these were, Samos, sacred to Juno, and tlu birthplace of the philosopher Pythag'oras ; Pat'mos, where St. John wrote the Revelations ; Cos, the native country of the celebrated physician Hippocrates ; Car'pathus (Scarpanto), which, gave name to the Carpathian sea ; and Rhodes. Crete {Candia), the largest of the Grecian islands except Eubcea, lies at the entrance of the iEgean. In ancient times it was celebrated for its hundred cities. Northeast of Crete is Cy'prus, the favorite island of Venus, whose Paphian bower is not yet forgotten in song and whose loveliness has been celebrated by poets of every age and nation. Section IV. — The Ionian Islands. Corcy'ra, formerly called Drepand (Corfu), is celebrated by Ho- mer under the name of Phaeacia, for its amazing riches and fertility. It was opposite that part of Epirus named Thesprotia, from which it w«* separated by a narrow strait called the Corcyrean. 86 ANCIENT HISTORY. Leucadia (Santa Maura), was originally a peninsula, but the isthmus tliat joined it to the mainland was cut through to facilitate navigation. The Echin'ades (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands near the mouth of the river Acheloiis, of which the most celebrated was Du lichium, part of the kingdom of Ulys'ses. Near it was the little island of Ith'aca {Thcaki), immortalized by Homer. Cephalonia, anciently called Scheria, was the largest of the western Grecian islands, and the least noted in history. South of this was Zacyn'thus [Zante], with a capital of the same name, celebrated for its fertile meads, its luxuriant woods, and its abun- dant fountains of bitumen. West of the Peloponnesus are the Stroph'ades [Strivoli), more an- ciently called Plotce, because they were supposed to have been floating islands ; and south of them is the island of Sphacteria [Sphagice), which guards the entrance of Py'los {Navarino). South of the Peloponnesus is the island of Cyth'erea (Cerigo), sa- cred to Venus, and celebrated in ancient times for its fertility and beauty. Section V. — Social and Political Condition of Greece. It is useless to investigate the social condition of the Greeks in what are called the heroic ages, because we have no credible account of that period. But when the certain history of Greece commences, we find the country divided between two races, the lonian and the Do- rian, distinguished from each other by striking characteristics, which were never wholly obliterated. We know, also, that two other races the ^olian and Achaean, existed ; but they seem to have become in a great decree identified with one or other of the two former. The lonians were remarkable for their democratic spirit, and conse- quent hostility to hereditary privileges. They were vivacious, prone to excitement, easily induced to make important changes in their institu- tions, and proud of their country and themselves. Their love of refined enjoyments made them diligent cultivators of the fine arts, but without being destitut :> of martial vigor. They were favorably disposed tow- ard commerce , but, like too many other free states, they encumbered it with short-sighted restrictions, and they were cruel masters to their colonial dependancies. The Dorian race, on the contrary, was remarkable for the severe simplicity of its manners, and its strict adherence to ancient usages. It preferred an aristocratic form of government, and required age as a qualification for magistracy, because the old are usually opposed to innovation. They were ambitious of supremacy, and the chief object of their institutions was to maintain the warlike and almost savage spirit of the nation. Slavery in its worst form prevailed in every Dorian state ; and the slaves were almost deprived of hope — for the Dorian legislation was directed chiefly to fix every man in his hereditary con- dition. Commerce was discouraged on account of its tendency to change the ranks of society, and the fine arts all but prohibited, be- cause they were supposed to lead to effeminacy. The differences between these two races is the chief characteristic GRECIAN STATES. S7 of Grecian politics ; it runs, indeed, through the entire histor\ and was the principal cause of the deep-rooted hatred between Athene and Sparta. Next to this, the most marked feature in the political a»{)ect of Greece is, that it contained as many free states as cities. At dca, Meg'aris, and Laconia, were civic rather than territorial states . but there are few of the other divisions of the country that were u dted under a single government. The cities of A'chaia, Ariadia, and BcEotia, were independent of each other, though the Acheean ities were united by a federative league ; and Thebes generally exercv ;ed a precarious dominion over the other cities of Boeotia. The supri!..nacy of the principal state was called by the Greeks Hegem'ony ; it intruded the right of determining the foreign relations of the inferior state /, and binding them to all wars in which the capital engaged, and all ti eaties of peace which it concluded ; but it did not allow of any interim rence in the internal administration of each government. This parcelling out of a small country, added to the frequent revolutions, facilitated by the narrow limits of each state, necessarily led to a more rapid de- velopment of political science in Greece than in any other country. Divided as the Greeks were, there were many circumstances that united the whole Hellenic race by a common bond of nationality. Of these the chief was unity of religion, connected with which were the national festivals and games, at which all the Hellenes, and none others, were allowed to take a share. If, as is commonly supposed, the Greeks derived the elements of their religion from Asia or Egypt, they soon made it so peculiarly their own, that it retained no features of its original source. All Asiatic deities are more or less of an elementary character ; that is, they symbolize some natural object, such as the sun, the earth, an important river ; or some power of nature, such as the creative, the preserving, and the destroying power. In many in- stances both were combined, and the visible object was associated with the latent power. On the other hand, the gods of Greece were human personages, possessing the forms and the attributes of men, though in a highly exalted degree. The paganism of Asia was consequently a re- ligion of fear ; for it was impossible to conceive deities of monstrous forms sympathizing with man : hence, also, the priesthood formed a pe- culiar caste ; for the mystery which veiled the god was necessarily extended to the mode in which he should be worshipped. Instead of this gloomy system, the Greeks had a religion of love ; they regarded their gods as a kind of personal friends, and hence their worship was cheerful and joyous. The priesthood was open to all ; the office was commonly filled for a limited time only, and was not deemed inconsistent with other occupations. There is no doubt that the Grecian religion received its peculiar form from the beautiful fic- tions of the poets, especially Homer and Hesiod ; for in all its features It is essentially poetical. We need scarcely dwell on the beneficial eflects produced by this system on the fine arts, or its facilitating the progress of knowledge, by separating religion from pliilosophy. The oracles of Dodona and Del'phi, the temples of Olym'pia and Delos, were national ; they belonged to the whole Hellenic race. The responses of the oracles were more reverenced by the Dorian than the Ionian race, for the latter early emancipated itself from the trammels OO ANCIENT HISTORY. of superstition. The worship in all was voluntaiy, and the large gifta emulously sent to t-hem were the spontaneous oifers of patriotic affection. Del'phi was under the government of the Amphictyon'ic council ; but this body did not limit its attention to the government of the temple : by its influence over the oracle, it acquired no small share in the af- fairs of different states ; and it superintended the administration of the law of nations, even when the states represented in it were engaged in war. The great public games were the Olympian, the Pythian, the Ne- mean, and the Isthmian. Foreigners might be spectators at these games, but Hellenes alone could contend for the prize. This right be- longed to the colonies as well as to the states in the mother-country ; and, as it was deemed a privilege of the highest value, it preserved the unity even of the most distant branches of the Hellenic race. All the constitutions of the Grecian states were republican ; brt they varied so much in the different cities, that hardly any two were alike. In general, however, it may be stated, that in all the most severe pub- lic and private labors were intrusted to slaves ; and in many, as Laconia, agriculture was managed by them exclusively. This degraded manufacturing industry, and led to an undue depression not only of ar- tisans and retailers, but even of master manufacturers. Foreign mer- chants were treated with unwise jealousy, and could never obtain the privileges of citizens. The right of coinage was resented to the state ; but it was not until a very late period that the Greeks began to pay attention to finance. Little or no taxation was necessary while the citizens served as voluntary soldiers ; and the magistrates were re- warded Avith honor, not money. But when mercenary armies were employed, and ambassadors sent into distant lands, when the impor- tance of a navy induced cities to outbid each other in the pay of their sailors, heavy taxes became necessary, and these brought many of the cities into great pecuniary embarrassment. Another source of expense was the provision for public festivals and theatrical shows ; to which was added, in Athens and other places, the payment of the dicasts, or persons analogous to our jurymen ; though, in- stead of their number being limited to twelve, they frequently amounted to several hundreds, and had no presiding judges. This was doubly injuri- ous ; the m dtitude of the dicasts not only entailed a heavy expense upon the state, but the sum paid being small, few save those of the lower classes attended, whose decisions were not unfrequently guided by prejudice and passion, instead of law and justice. The poetical nature of its religion, and the free constitution of its states, not only rendered Greece peculiarly favorable to the progress of iitorature, philosophy, and the fine arts, but gave these, in turn, a de- cided influence on the government. The tragic and lyric poets pro- duced their pieces in honor of the gods ; the comic poets at Athens discussed public affairs on the stage with a freedom, or rather licen- tiousness, which the wildest excesses of the modern press have never equalled ; and the influence of the orators at Athens rendered them the leaders of the state. The seeds of dissolution were thickly sown in the social system of the Greeks. The rivalry between the Dorian and Ionian races ; the GRECIAN STATES. 89 turbulence and sedition natural to small republics ; and the gradual de- cline of religion, followed by a consequent corruption of morals — rendered the duration of the constitution as brief as it was glorious. Section VI. — The traditional History of Greece from the earliest Ages to tht Conunencement of the Trojan War. FROM AN UNKNOWN PERIOD TO ABOUT 1200 B. C. Sacred history, confirmed by uniform tradition, informs us (.hat Thrace, Macedon, and Greece, were peopled at an earlier period than the other portions of the western world. The first inhabitants were tribes of hunters and shepherds, whose earliest approaches to civiliza- tion were associations for mutual defence against robber-tribes, and the Phcenician corsairs that swept the coast of the iEgean to kidnap slaves. The Pelas'gi were the first tribe that acquired supremacy in Greece : they were probably of Asiatic origin ; and the fiis.; place in which they appear to have made a permanent settlement was the Peloponnesus, where they erected Sic'yon (*b. c. 2000), and Argos (*b. c. 1800). In'achus was regarded by the Pelas'gi as their founder : he was prob- ably contemporary with Abraham ; but nothing certain is known of his history. To the Pelas'gi are attributed the remains of those most ancient monuments generally called Cyclopian. They are usually composed of enormous rude masses piled upon one another, with small stones fitted in between the intervals to complete the work. From the Pel- oponnesus the Pelas'gi extended themselves northward to Attica, Boeotia, and Thessaly, which they are said to have entered under three leaders, Achee'us, Phthius, and Pelas'gus ; though by these names we ought probably to understand separate tribes rather than individuals. Here they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and continued to flourish for nearly two centuries. (From *b. c. 1700 to *b. c. 1500.) The Hellenes, a more mild and humane race, first appeared on Mount Parnas'sus, in Phocis, under Deucalion, whom they venerated as their founder (*b. c. 1433). Being driven thence by a flood, they migrated into Thessaly, and expelled the Pelas'gi from that territory, From this time forward the Hellenes rapidly increased, and extended their dominion over the greater part of Greece, dispossessing the more ancient race, which only retained the mountainous parts of Arcadia and the land of Dodona. Numbers of the Pelas'gi emigrated to Italy, Crete, and some cf the other islands. The Hellenic race was subdivided into four great branches, the iEolians, lonians, Dorians, and Achaeans, which, in the historic age of Greece, were characterized by many strong and marked peculiarities of dialect, customs, and political government ; we may perhaps add, religious, or at least, heroic traditions, only tnat these appear to be con- nected rather with the localities in which they settled than with the stock from which, they sprung. There were many smaller ramifications of the Hellenic race ; but all united themselves to one or other of bhe four great tribes, whose names are derived from Deucalion's immediate posterity. It is the common attribute of ancient traditions to describe the achievements of a tribe or army as personal exploits of the leader ; 90 ANCIENT HISTORY. and hence we find the history of the tribes and their migrations ntcJ' woven with the personal history of DeucaUon's descendants. Hel'len, the son of Deucalion, gave his name to the whole Hellenic race : he had three sons, tEoIus, Dorus, and Xuthus ; of whom the first settled in the district of Thessaly called Phthiotis, and became the founder of the vEolian tribe ; the second settled in Estiseotis, and there established the Dorian tribe ; the third, expelled by his brethren, migrated to Athens, where he married Creiisa, the daughter of king Erec'theus, by whom he had two sons, I'on and Achseus. After the death of Erec'theus, Xuthus \vas forced to remove to ^gialeia (the province of the Peloponnesus afterward called Achaia), where he died. His son Fon, the founder of the Ionian race, became general of the Athenian forces, and lord of ^gialeia, to which he gave the name of Ionia. Achffius, the founder of the Achaean race, obtained possession of the greater part of the Peloponnesus, especially Argolis and Laconia. The iEolian tribe spread itself over western Greece, Acarnania, iEtolia, Phocis, Locris, E'lis in the Peloponnesus, and the western islands. The Dorians, driven from Estiaeotis by the Perrhaebians, spread themselves over Macedonia and Crete ; a part of them subse- quently returning, crossed Mount CE'ta,, and settled in Doris on the Doric Tetrap'olis, where they remained until they migrated into the Peloponnesus under the guidance of the Heracleidee ; an important rev- olution, which will soon engage our attention. The lonians inhabited At'tica and ^Egialeia ; but they were expelled from the latter by the Achaeans at the time of the great Dorian migra- tion, and the name of the country changed to Achaia. The Achaeans retained Argolis and Laconia until they were expelled by the Dorians, when, as we have just said, they established themselves in iEgialeia. From the middle of the sixteenth to the middle of the fourteenth cen- tury before Christ, several colonies from Egypt, Phcenfcia, and Phry'- gia, settled in different parts of Greece, bringing with them the im- provements in the arts and sciences that had been made in their re- spective countries, and thus greatly advancing the progress of civiliza- tion in Greece. The chief of these colonies were : — An Egyptian colony was led from Sais in the Del'ta to At'tica by Cecrops (*b. c. 1550) : he is said to have introduced the institution of marriage and the first elements of civilization. A second colony, from Lower Egypt, was led by Dan'aus,who fled from a brother's enmity, and settled in Ar'gos (*b. c. 1500). The fa- ble of his fifty daughters is well known ; but its historical foundation is altogether uncertain. A Phoenician colony, under Cad'mus, settled in Boeotia, and founded Thebes, nearly at the same time that Cecrops established himself al At'tica. He was the first who introduced the use of letters into Greece Pelops led a colony from Phry'gia, the northwestern kingdom of Asia Minor, into the Peloponnesus (*b. c. 1400) : he did not acquire so large a kingdom as the settlers mentioned before ; but his descend- ants, by intermarriages with the royal families of Ar'gos and Lacedae'- mon, acquired such paramount influence, that they became supreme over the peninsula, and gave it the name of their great ancestor. Several circumstances, however, impeded the progress of civilization. The coasts of Greece were temptingly exposed to" the Phoenicians, GRECIAN STATES. 91 Carians, and islanders of the iEgean, who at first made the art of nav- igation subservient to piracy rather than commerce ; and the Thracians, the Amazons, and other barbarous tribes from the north, made frequent incursions into the exposed Hellenic provinces. To resist these in- cursions the celebrated Amphictyonic league was founded by Amphic- tyon, a descendant of Deucalion : the federation was constantly re- ceiving fresh accessions, until it included the greater part of the Gre- cian states ; deputies from which met alternately at Del'phi and Ther- mop'ylae. Like Europe in the middle ages, Greece at this period was infested by bands of robbers, who deemed plunder an honorable profession, and some of whom exercised the most atrocious cruelties on the hapless passengers. The adventurers who acquired most fame by their ex- ertions in destroying the freebooters were Perseus, Her'cules, Beller'- ophon, Theseus, and the Dioskouroi Cas'tor, and Pol'lux, whose ro- mantic histories form a very large portion of Grecian mythology. The most celebrated events in this period of uncertain history are, the Argonautic expedition, the two Theban wars, the siege of Troy, the return of the Heracleidse, and the migration of the Ionian and iEolian colonies to Asia Minor. It is not easy to discover the real nature and objects of the Argonautic expedition : it appears certain that in the thirteenth century before the Christian era, a Thessalian prince, named Jason, collected the young chivalry of Greece, and sailed on an expedition, partly commercial and partly piratical, in a ship named Argo, to the eastern shores of the Euxine sea. The Argonauts fought, conquered, and plundered ; they planted a colony in Col'chis, and their chief brought a princess of that country home to Thessaly. But though impenetrable darkness veils the nature of this expedition, there can be no doubt of its results. From the era of the Argonauts, we may discover among the Greeks not only a more daring and more enlarged spirit of enterprise, but a more decisive and rapid progress toward civilization and humanity. The worship of Diony'sus or Bac'chus was established at Thebes by Cad^mus ; and the Phoenician mythology is full of the miseries and crimes that debased and ruined the family of Cad'mus. CE'dipus, the most remarkable of his descendants, having been removed from the throne for an involuntary series of crimes, his sons, Ete'ocles and Polynices, seized the kingdom, and agreed to reign in turn. Ete'ocles refused to perform the agreement ; and Polynices being joined by six of the most eminent generals in Greece, commenced the memorable war of "the Seven against Thebes" (*b. c. 1225). The result was fa- tal to the allies ; Ete'ocles and Polynices fell by mutual wounds ; and Creon, who succeeded to the Theban throne, routed the confederate forces, five of whose leaders were left dead on the field. After the lapse of about ten years, the sons of the allied princes, called the Epig'oni, marched against Thebes to avenge the death of their fathers. After a sanguinary conflict, the Thebans were routed with great slaughter, their leader slain, and their city captured. In consequence of these wars the Thebans were long odious to the res'", of the Greeks, and they re- paid this hatred by infidelity to the Hellenic cause during the Persian war. 92 ANCIENT HISTORY. When the family of Pelops became powerful in southern Greece, they appear to have attempted to retaliate the injuries that had driven their ancestors into exile. In one of their plundering expeditions to the Phrygian coast, a young prince named Podar'kes was carried away cap- tive, and detained until a large ransom had been paid for his liberation. From this circumstance, he was afterward named Priam, or " the pur- chased." At a subsequent period, Priam having become king of Troy, sent his son Paris, or Alexan'der, as an ambassador to the Peloponnesian princes, probably to negotiate a peace. He seduced HeFen, the beau- tiful wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and conveyed her, with some valuable treasures, to Troy. The injured husband applied to his countrymen for redress. A large army, raised by the confederate kings, was placed under the command of Agamemnon, the brother of Menelaus. Troy was at this time the capital of a powerful kingdom, possessing "umerous allies and subjects. It mustered, according to Homer, an army of fifty thousand men ; its walls could defy the imperfect machines then used in sieges, and its citadel was impregnable. Against this powerful kingdom the Greek princes undertook their expedition, with an army of about one hundred thousand men, conveyed in eleven hun- dred and eighty-six ships. These vessels were of very rude construc- tion, having only halfdecks, and stones instead of anchors ; the soldiers acted as rowers, and when they reached their destination the ships were hauled upon land. The war was protracted ten years, during which several battles were fought under the wails of Troy ; and we find that the military weapons used were in every respect similar to those employed by the ancient Egyptians. The city was finally taken by stratagem, and razed to the ground ; most of the inhabitants were slain or taken, and the rest were forced to become exiles in distant lands. The victors, however, suffer- ed nearly as much as the vanquished. During the protracted absence of the chiefs, usurpers had seized many of their thrones, aided by faith- less wives and the rising ambition of young men. These circumstances necessarily led to fierce wars and intestine commotions, whr:h greatly retarded the progress of Grecian civilization. Section VII. — Grecian History from the Trojan War to the Establishment of the Greek Colonies in Asia. FROM *B. 0. 1183 TO B. c. 994. We have seen how the posterity of Pelops, by various means, ob tained possession of the entire Peloponnesus, to the exclusion of the more ancient dynasties. Their rivals were the Perseidse, who claimed, through their ancestor Per'seus, the honors of a divine descent, and who could boast of having in their family such heroes as Per'seus, Beller'ophon, and Her'cules. From the last-named hero a powerfiJ branch of the Perseid family received the name of the Heracleidse ; they were persecuted by the Pelop'id sovereigns, and driven into exile. After having been hospitably received by the Athenians, they retired to the mountainous district of Doris, and became masters of that wild and GRKCIAN STATES. 93 barren province. The Dorian mountains were ill-calculated to satisfy men whose ancestors had inherited the fertile plains of the Peloponnesus. When the consequences of the Trojan war filled Greece with confusion, the Heracleidae were encouraged to make an efibrt to regain their ancient rights ; twice they attempted to break through the Corinthian isthmus, but were each time repulsed with considerable loss. Warned by these misfortunes, they abandoned the design of entering the Peloponnesus by land, and resolved to try their fortune in a naval ex- pedition. Their rendezvous was Naupac'tus {Lepanto), on the Corinthian gulf, where they were joined by a body of iEtolians, and by several of the Dorian tribes. By secret intrigues, a party was gained in Lacedae'- mon. A favorable gale, in the meantime, wafted their armament to the eastern coast of the Peloponnesus. Laconia was betrayed to the invaders ; Ar'golis, Messenia, E'lis, and Corinth, submitted to their authority ; the moimtainous districts of Arcadia, and the coast province, ^gialeia (afterward Achaia), were the only parts of the pen- insula that remained unsubdued. The revolution was effected with lit- tle bloodshed ; but not without great oppression of the ancient inhab- itants, many of whom emigrated, while those who remained were re- duced to slavery. The associated victors divided the conquered provinces among them- selves by lot. Aristodemus, who obtained Laconia, happening to die, the kingdom was secured for his twin children, Eurys'thenes and Procles, and from that time forth Sparta was governed by two kings. The commander of the Pelop'id forces at the isthmus, instead of attempt- ing to recover his kindgom, invaded ^gialeia, expelled the lonians, and gave that province the name of Achaia, which it ever after retained (b. c. 1104). Many of the fugitives sought refuge in At'tica, where they were hospitably entertained by the Athenians, who were alarmed by the success and ambition of the Dorians. A still greater number passed over into Asia Minor, and founded the colonies of Ionia, ^olia, =?"ad Caria. The jealousy of the Athenians was soon proved to be derived from reasonable fears. In the reign of Codrus the Dorians passed the bound- aries of At'tica, and seized the territory of Meg'ara, on the northern coast of the Saronic gulf. A cruel war ensued ; Codrus in vain at- tempted to drive the intruders from their stronghold : at length, hearing that a superstitious rumor prevailed among them, that they would be successful as long as they refrained from injuring the Athenian king, he entered their camp in disguise, provoked a quarrel with a Dorian soldier, and suffered himself to be slain. On recognising the body, the superstitious Peloponnesians, despairing of success, abandoned their hostilities ; and the Athenians, out of respect for his memory, declared that none of the human race was worthy to succeed Codrus, and there- fore abolished royalty altogether (b. c. 1068). Two of the Pelop'idae, having unsuccessfully traversed the northern part of Greece in search of new settlements, finally crossed the Hellespont eighty-eight years after the taking of Troy, and established themselves along the coast of the ancient kingdom of Priam. Their colonies grad- ually extended from the peninsula of Cyzicus on the Propontis to the 94 ANCIENT HISTOUY mouth of the river Her'mus, Avhich delightful country, together with the island of Les'bos, received the name of ^Eolia. The younger sons of Codrus, dissatisfied with the abolition of royalty, collected a numerous band of Athenians and Ionian exiles, with which they crossed the sea, and established themselves along the coast from the river Her'mus to the promontory of Posideion, expelling the ancient inhabitants. The islands of Chios and Samos were subsequently seized, and all these countries were united by the common name of Ionia, or, as it was some- times called, the Pan-Ionian confederacy. The renewal of hostilities between the Athenians and Dorians led to *he establishment of a third series of Greek colonies in Asia (b. c. 994). The Dorians having been driven from their stronghold in Meg'ara, were ashamed to return to the Peloponnesus ; part of them sailed to the islands of Crete and Rhodes, already peopled by Doric tribes ; the rest settled in the peninsula of Caria, to which, in honor of their mother-country, they gave the name of Doris. At a later period, the tide of emigration turned toward the west, and colonies were established in Sicily, and on the coasts of southern Italy. The Greeks seldom made settlements in the interior of the country ; for most of their colonies were designed to extend commerce rather than conquests. Most of these colonies were independent states, and their institutions were generally improvements on those of the parent-country. Owing to their freedom and their superiority to their neiglibors in the arts of civi^lized life, many of the colonies not only equalled but greatly surpassed their parent states in wealth and power. GRECIAN STATES AND COLONIEa W CHAPTER IX. THE HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES AND COLONIES, BEFORE THE PERSIAN WAR. Section I. — Topography of Sparta. The city of Spar'ta, called also Lacedse'mon, a name properly be- longing to the suburbs, was built on a series of hills, whose outlines are varied and romantic, along the right bank of the Eurotas, within sight of the chain of Mount Taygetum. We have already mentioned, that it was not originally surrounded by walls ; but the highest of its eminences served as a citadel, and round this hill were ranged five towns, sep- arated by considerable intervals, occupied by the five Spartan tribes. The great square or forum, in which the principal streets of these towns terminated, was embellished with temples and statues : it contained also the edifices in Avhich the senate, the ephori, and other bodies of Spartan magistrates, were accustomed to assemble : there was besides a splen- did portico, erected by the Spartans from their share of the spoils taken at the battle of Platae'a, where the Persians were finally overthrown. Instead of being supported by pillars, the roof rested on gigantic statues, representing Persians habited in flowing robes. On the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Miner'va, which, as well as the grove that surrounded it, had the privileges of an asylum. It was built of brrss, as that at Delphi had formerly been. The greater part of these edifices had no pretensions to architectural beauty ; they were of rude workmanship, and destitute of ornament. Private houses were small and unadorned ; for the Spartans spent the greater part of their time in porticoes and public halls. On the south side of the city was the Hippodromos, or course for horse and foot races ; and at a little distance from that, the Platanis'tse, or place of ex- ercise for youth, shaded by beautiful palm-trees. Section II. — Legislation of Lycurgus, and Messenian Wars. FROM *B. C. 880 TO B. C. 500. The Dorian conquerors of Laconia formed themselves into a perma- nent ruling caste, and reduced the greater part of the inhabitants of the country to a state of vassalage, or rather perfect slavery. During two centuries the Spartans were engaged in tedious wars with the Argives, 96 ANCIENT HISTORY. and their state was agitated by domestic broils, resulting from the un equal division of property, the ambition of rival nobles, and the dimin- ished power of the kings. At length, Lycur'gus having obtained thg supreme authority, as a guardian of his nephew Charilaus, directed his attention to establishing a system of law, which might prevent the re- currence of such disorders. The legislation of Lycur'gus was not a written code ; and many things of later origin, have been erroneously at- tributed to this lawgiver. His great object, was to insure the continu- ance of the Spartans as a dominant military caste, by perpetuating a race of athletic and warlike men ; and hence his laws referred rather to domestic lile and physical education than to the constitution of the state, or the form of its government. He continued the relation of caste between the Spartans and Laconi- ans, and the double line of kings as leaders in war and first magistrates in peace. He is said to have instituted the gerusia, or senate, of which no one could be a member who had not passed the age of sixty ; but it is uncertain whether he founded the college of the five eph'ori, or inspectors, chosen annually, with powers somewhat similar to those of the Roman tribunes ; he certainly did not invest them with the power they assumed in later ages. There were also popular assemblies ; hut they could originate no law, nor make any alteration in the resolutions submitted to them by the kings and the senate, their power being con- fined to a simple approbation or rejection. The chief regulations in private life were, the equal distribution of lands, the removal of every species of luxury, the arrangement of do- mestic relations so as to insure a race of hardy citizens, and the com- plete establishment of slavery. Thus a military commonwealth was established in Greece, which for ever banished a chance of tranquillity ; since the Spartan citizens must have been impelled to war by the rest- lessness common to man, when all the occupations of household life and of agricidture were intrusted to the care of the Helots, as their slaves were usually called. The strength of the Spartan army lay in its hea^'y-armed infantry ; they usually fought in a phalanx or close col- umn, and were remarkable for the skill and rapidity of their evolutions. They marched to the charge with a measured regular step, and never broke their ranks either to plunder or pursue a flying enemy. After battle, every soldier was obliged to produce his shield, as a proof that he had behaved bravely and steadily. The first great war in which the Spartans engaged was with their neighbors the Messenians (b. c. 743). After a long series of sanguinary engagements, whose horrors were aggravated by cruel superstitions, the Messenians were totally subdued, and forced to give up half the revenue of their lands to the Spartans (b. c. 722). During tliis war, the Spartan army, consisting of the greater part of the citizens who had attained the military age, bound themselves by a voluntary oath not to return home until they had subdued their enemies. The war being pro- tracted beyond expectation, the senate, fearing that the Spartan race would become extinct, invited the young men, who had not taken the obligation, to return home, and permitted them to have promiscuous in- tercourse with the women. The offspring of these irregular connex- ions were called Parthen'iae ; they had no certain father, nor were they. ATHENS. 97 though citizens of Sparta, entitled to any inheritance. Finding them- selves despised by the other Spartans, they entered into a conspiracy with the Helots, which was detected at the moment it was about to ex- plode. The senate, however, was afraid to punish so powerful a body ; sufficient means of transport, arms, and munitions, were supplied to the Parthen'iae, who, under the guidance of Phalan'tus, proceeded to south ern Italy, where they founded the city of Taren'tum. The oppression of the Spartans drove the Messenians to revolt, and they found a worthy leader in Aristom'enes, a youth descended from the ancient line of Messenian kings. So rapid and decisive were his suc- cesses, hat the Spartans sought the advice of the oracle, and received the mortifying response, that they should solicit a general from the Athenians. Ambassadors were sent to urge this request ; and the Athenians sent back the poet Tyrtaj'us, who had, indeed, borne arms, but was never distinguished as a warrior. His patriotic odes roused the spirit of the Spartan soldiers, and they renewed the war with more zeal and greater success than ever. Notwithstanding these advantages acquired by the Spartans, Aristom'enes protracted the defence of his country more than eleven years ; but at length Messene was taken by treachery, aud its heroic defenders forced to seek refuge in Arcadia. Here Aristom'enes planned an expedition against Sparta, whose citi- zens were engaged in plundering Messenia ; but he was betrayed by the Arcadian monarch, and his last plan for the redemption of his coun- try frustrated (b. o. 671). Sparta had conquered, but the struggle had greatly weakened the strength of the state ; and in her subsequent wars with the Tegeans and Argives, she was far from maintaining her ancient superiority in arms. The important island of Cythera was, however, wrested from the Ar- pives, about b. c. 550. Section III. — Topography of Athens ^ Atm£iVS was situated in a plain, which on the southwest, extended for about four miles toward the sea and tlie harbors, but on the other side was enclosed by mountains. Several rocky hills arose in the plain itself; the largest and highest of which was fortified by Cecrops as the citadel, or Acropolis, and was sometimes called Cecropia. Around this the city was built, most of the buildings, however, spreading toward the sea. The summit of the hill was nearly level for a space of about eight hundred feet in length and four hundred in breadth ; as if Nature herself had prepared a fit locality for those masterpieces of architec- ture which announced at a distance the splendor of Athens. The only road that led ^o the Acrop'oUs passed through the Propylaea, a magnificent gateway adorned with two wings, and two temples full of the finest pieces of sculpture and painting. It was erected under the administra- tion of Per'icles, by the architect Mnesic'les, and was decorated with admirable sculptures of Phid'ias. Through these splendid portals was an ascent by marble steps to the summit of the hill, on which were erected the temples of the guardian deities of Athens. On the left was the temple of Pallas iVthene [Minerva), the protectress of cities, con- taining a column fabled to have fallen from heaven, and an olive-tre» 7 98 ANCIENT HISTORY. believed to have sprung spoataiieously from the earth at the mandat'e of the goddess. Beyond this was a temple of Neptune. On the right side arose the Par'thenon, sacred to the virgin Minerva, the glory of Athens, the noblest triumph of Grecian archhecture. From whatever quarter the traveller arrived, whether by land or sea, the first thing he saw was the Par'thenon rearing up its lofty head above the city and the citadel. At the foot of the Acrop'olis, on one side, was the Odeum, or music- hall, and the Theatre of Bacchus, where the tragic contests were cel- ebrated on the festival of that deity ; on the other side was the Pry- taneum, where the chief magistrates and most meritorious citizens were honorably entertained at a table furnished at the public expense. A small valley called Coele [thfi hollow) lay between the Acrop'olis and the hill on which the court of Areop'agus held its sessions ; and it also separated the Areop'agus from the Pnyx, a small rocky hill on which the general assemblies of the people were held. It was remarkable only for the meanness and simplicity of its furniture, which formed a striking contrast to the grandeur of the neighboring buildings. Here the spot from which the eminent orators addressed the people may still be seen : for it is imperishable, being cut in the natural rock, and it has been recently cleared from rubbish, as well as the four steps by which it was ascended. Beyond the Pnyx lay the Ceramicus, or pottery-ground, containing the market-place. This was a large square, surrounded on all sides with statues and public buildings ; at the south was the senate-house, and the statues of the Epon^ymi, ten heroes from whom the tribes of Athens received their respective names. At the east were erected two splendid stoat, or porticoes ; that of the Her'mas, or statues of Mercury, on which were inscribed the names of the citizens, allies, and slave.j, who had distinguished themselves in the Persian war ; and that called Poecile, ornamented with many splendid paintings, particularly one representing Miltiades at the battle of Marathon. Under this stoa the philosopher Zeno used to lecture his pupils, whence his followers are called Stoics. There were three principal gymnasia, or places of public exercise, near the city, where philosophers and rhetoricians delivered their lectures. The most celebrated of these was the Academy, deriving its name from having been the country-seat of the wealthy Academus, who spent the greater part of a large fortune in ornamenting this delightful spot. Here Plato delivered his eloquent lectures, and hence his followers are called Academics. The Lyceum, on the opposite side of the city, near the Ilys'sus, was chosen by Aristotle for his school after his return from Macedon, the Academy having been pre-occupied by Xen'ocrates, He generally instructed his pupils while walking about the groves and avenues of this highly-cultivated place, and on this account his followers were called Peripatetics. Cynosar'ges was about a mile from the Lyceum, and was the residence of Antis'thenes, the founder of the Cynic sect. The whole country round Athens, particularly the long road to the Peirse'us, was ornamented with monuments of all kinds, especially with tombs of great poets, statesmen, and warriors. This road was enclosed ATHENS. 99 by a double wall, called the northern and southern, erected under the administration of Themis'tocles : it was nearly five miles in length on both sides, and enclosed the two harbors Peirs'us and PhaFereus. It was rather more than eighty feet high, built entirely of freestone, and so broad that two baggage-wagons could pass each other. The Pei- rse'us and Phal'ereus, but especially the former, might be regarded as little cities, with public squares, temples, market-places, &c. ; and the commercial crowd that enliven the quays gave the chief harbor a more animated appearance than Athens itself. The Munychian port lay eist of Athens, and, like the others, was formed naturally by the bays of the coast. It was a place of considerable natural strength, and was gar- risoned by the Lacedaemonians after they had subdued Athens. Section IV. — The History of Alliens to the Beginning of the Persian War. FROM *B. C. 1300 TO B. C. 500. The political history of Athens begins properly with the reign of Theseus, who succeeded his father jEgeus about b. c. 1300. Certain institutions, such as the court of Areop'agus, and the division of the people into eupat'ridae [nobles), georgi [hushandmcn), and demiur'gi [me- chanics), are so manifestly derived from the Egyptian system of caste, that we may without hesitation assign them to Cecrops. Theseus, however, deserves to be regarded as the founder of the state, since, in- stead of the four independent districts, or demoi, into which Attica was divided, he established one body politic, and made Athens the seat of government. Among his successors, the most remarkable were Mnes'- theus, who fell before Troy, and Codrus, whose generous devotion, as has been already related, led to the total abolition of royalty. After the abolition of royalty (b. c. 1068), thirteen archons of his family ruled in succession, differing from kings ordy in being accountable for their administration. The first was Medon, the last Alcma;on ; after his death (b. c. 752), archons were chosen every ten years from the family of Codrus. There were seven of these, the last of M^hom ceased to rule B.C. 682. Nine annual archons were then appointed by the pow- erful class of nobility, consisting not only of the descendants of such foreign princes as had taken refuge in Athens, but of those Athenian families which time and accident had raised to opulence m\a distinc- tion. The powers of these magistrates were not equal ; their rank and offices werr so arranged, that the prerogatives of the former kings and the preceding arc^^ons were divided among the first three of the nine. Nothing was gained by the great body of the people during these rev- olutions. The equestrian order, so called from their fighting on horse- back, enjoyed all authority, religious, civil, and military. The Athenian populace were reduced to a condition of miserable servitude ; the lives and fortunes of individuals were left at the discretion of magistrates, fvho were too much disposed to decide according to party prejudices or their own private interests. In this confusion, Draco was chosen to prepare a code of laws (b. c. 622). He was a man of unswerving integrity, but of unexampled severity. His laws bore the impress of his character ; the punishment of death was denounced against all crimes, small as well as great ; and this in- 100 ANCIENT HISTORY. discrimijiate cruelty rendered the whole code inoperative. Human na- ture revolted against such legal butchery ; and Draco, to avoid the pub- lic indignation, fled to iEgina, where he died an exile. This ineffectual effort only augmented the divisions of the state ; the excesses of the aristocratic factions produced the most violent indigna- tion. The state was in fact reduced to perfect anarchy. To remedy these disorders, Solon, who had already won the confidence of his countrymen by planning and accomplishing an enterprise for the re- covery of SaPamis, was unanimously raised to the dignity of firat magistrate, legislator, and sovereign arbiter (b. c. 594). He was em- inently qualified for this important station. Descended from the ancient kings of Athens, he applied himself in early life to commercial pursuits, and having secured a competency by honorable industry, he travelled to distant lands in search of knowledge. Such was his suc- cess, that he was reckoned the chief of the sages commonly called the Seven Wise Men of Greece, who in his age laid the foundation of Grecian philosophy. The chief object of Solon's legislation was to restrain the excessive power of the aristocracy, without, however, introducing a pure democ- racy. He abolished all the laws of Draco, except those against mur- der. The state of debtors calling loudly for relief, he made an equita- ble adjustment of the claims of creditors ; but at the same time concil- iated capitalists by raising the value of money. He abolished slavery and imprisonment for debt, which had led to great abuses and cruelties Without abolishing the ancient local divisions he arranged the citizens in four classes, according to their property, measured in agricultural produce. 1 . The first class were the pentacos'i-medim'ni, whose annual income exceeded five hundred bushels (medim'ni ; 2, the knights (hip- peis), whose revenue was equal to four hundred ; 3, the zeugitae, Avho had three hundred ; and 4, the thetes, whose yearly revenue fell short of that sum. Citizens of all classes had a right of voting at the popular assemblies and in the courts of judicature ; but magisterial offices were limited to the first three classes. The arclionship was left unaltered ; but it was ordained that none of these magistrates should hold military command during his year of office. A council of four hundred was chosen from the first three classes, possessing senatorial authority : the members were selected by lot ; but they were obliged to undergo a very strict examination into their past lives and chai'acters before they were permitted to enter upon office. The archons were bound to consult the council in every important public matter ; and no subject could be dis- cussed in the general assembly of the people which had not previously received the sanction of the four hundred. The popular assemblies consisted of all the four classes, and usually met on the rocky hill called the Pnyx, described in the proceeding sci*- tion. They had the right of confirming or rejecting new laws, of elect- ing the magistrates, of discussing all public affairs referred to them by the council, and of judging in all state trials. According to Solon's plan, the court of Areop'agus should have been the chief pillar of the Athenian constitution. Before his time it was a mere engine of aristocratic oppression ; but Solon modified its constitu- tion, and enlarged its powers. It was composed of persons who had ATHENS. 101 held the office of archon, and was made the supreme tribunal u all capital cases. It v/as likewise intrusted with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship upon the conduct of the archons at the ex- piration of their office ; and it had besides the privilege of amending or rescinding the measures that had passed the general assemblies of the people. Soon after this constitution was established, Solon was sent as a deputy to the Amphictyon'ic council at Del'phi, and had no small share in stimulating that body to undertake the first sacred war against the Crisseans who had invaded the sacred territories, and not only ravaged the country, but even plundered the shrine of Apol'lo. T^ie war was protracted ten years ; but it terminated in the final destruction of the Crissean community, and the dedication of their territory to the deity whose temple they had sacrilegiously plundered (b. c. 590). The ter- mination of the war was celebrated by the revival of the Pythian games, which had been discontinued during the contest. Scarcely had the liberties of Athens been established, when they were again subverted by the usurpation of Peisis'tratus. Like Solon, the usurper was descended from the ancient kings of Athens. He was also possessor of an enormous fortune, which he distributed to the poor with lavish munificence. His generosity, his eloquence, and his cour- teous manners, won for him universal favor : but he had the art to per- suade the lower ranks of his countrymen, that his popularity had ren- dered him odious to the nobles, and that the protection of a body-guard was necessary to the safety of his life. Scarcely had this been granted, when he seized on the Acrop'olis, and made himself absolute master of Athens (b. c. 561). Solon refused the usurper's offers of favor and pro- tection : he v/ent into voluntary exile, and died, or at least was buried, at SaFamis. Meg'acles, the chief of the powerful family of the Alcmaeon'idse, retired, with all his attendants and political friends, be- yond the boundaries of At'tica ; but he entered into a secret intrigue with Lycur'gus, the chief of another faction, and by their joint efforts Peisis'tratus was driven into exile about twelve months after he had obtained the sovereignty. Meg'acles soon quarrelled with Lycur'gus, and opened a negotiation with Peisis'tratus, offering to restore him, if he would become his son- in-law. The terms were accepted, and Peisis'tratus was again sum- moned to assume sovereign power, amid the general exultation of the people. A quarrel with Meg'acles drove him a second time into ban- ishment ; but he returned again at the head of an army, and having recovered the reins of power, held them without interruption to the day of his death. The power thus illegally acquired, was administered with equity and mildness. Peisis'tratus ceased not to exert himself to extend the glory of Athens, and secure the h,appiness of the Athenians. On the death of Peisis'tratus (b. c. 528), his sons Hippar'chus and Hip'pias succeeded to his power, but not to his prudence and abilities. After a joint reign of fourteen years, Hippar'chus was murdered by two young Athenians, Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whose resentment he had provoked by an atrocious insult (b. c. 514). The cruelty with which Hip'pias punished all whom he suspected of having had a share in his brother's death, alienated the aff*ections of the people, and encour 102 ANCIENT HISTORY aged the Alcmaeonidse to make an effort for his expulsion. By large bribes to the Delphian priesthood, they obtained a response from the oracle commanding the Spartans to expel the Peisistrat'idae ; and that st.perstitious people immediately sent an army for that purpose (b. c. 510). After a brief struggle Hip'pias was forced to abandon Athens, and thenceforward lived in perpetual exile. Scarcely was the tyrant expelled, when the state was rent in sunder by the rivalry of contending factions. Clis'thenes, the son of Meg'acles^ headed one ; the other, chiefly composed of the aristocracy, was led by Isag'oras. Isag'oras received armies to support his cause from ihe Spar- tans, the Corinthians, the BcEOtians, the Chalcidians, and the iEgine- tans. But the confederates could not agree ; and these dissensions broke up the alliance. After some time, the Spartans, having discover- ed the trick played upon them by the Delphian oracle, wished to re- store Hip'pias ; but, finding their allies universally opposed to the proj- ect, they abandoned him to his fate, and he fled to the court of Persia, where his exertions greatly contributed to the forcing Darius into a war against Greece. Section V. — Historical Notices of the minor Grecian States previous to the Persian War. FROM *B. C. 1100 TO B. C. 500. After the capture of Thebes by the Epig'oni, the Boeotians were ex- pelled by Thracian hordes, and retired to Ar'ne in Thessaly, but about the time of the great Dorian migration they returned to the land of their forefathers, and became united with some ^olian tribes. Royalty was abolished upon the death of Xuthus (b. c. 1126), and the Boeotians formed a confederation of as many states as there were cities in the province : at the head of which was Thebes, but with very indefinite privileges. The constitutions of the states were unfixed ; and they continually fluctuated between a licentious democracy and a tyrannical oligarchy. This great evil, combined with the unsettled nature of the confederation, prevented the Bosotians from taking a lead- ing share in the affairs of Greece. Acarnania, iEtolia, and Locris, offer nothing remarkable ; and the most important event in the history of Phocis was the sacred war, which has been described in the last section. The states of Thessaly were for the most part governed by arbitrary individuals. In the Peloponnesus, Corinth was the most remarkable state next to Sparta. At the time of the Dorian conquest of southern Greece, its throne was seized by Aletes, whose descendants retained the power and title of royalty for five generations. On the death of Teles'sus, the last of the Aletian race, Bac'Chis usurped the throne (b. c. 777), and his descendants, called Bacchiadae, held the regal authority for five genera- tions more. Teles'tes, the last of these kings, having been murdered, the kingly office was abolished, and a species of oligarchy established in its stead, under yearly magistrates, called prytanes, chosen exclu- sively from the house of Bac'chis. It would have been scarcely possi- ble for such a narrow oligarchy to maintain its ground, even if it had PRINCIPAL GRECIAN ISLANDS. 103 used its power with moderation and wisdom ; but the Bacchiads, proud of their race and great commercial wealth, insulted their subjects ; and Cyp'solus, an opulent citizen of iEolian descent, aided by the com- monalty, usurped the government (b. c. 657), and held the supreme power for thirty years. On his death, he was succeeded by his son Perian'der, who is sometimes ranked among the Seven Wise Men of Greece, though he is described by many writers as a rapacious, oppres- sive, and cruel despot. His reign lasted forty years, and yet is supposed to have been shortened either by violence or grief for the loss of his son. He was succeeded by his nephew Psammet'ichus, whose reign lasted only three years, when he was expelled by his subjeci^, assisted by a Spartan army (b. c. 584). This revolution was followed by the establishment of a commercial aristocracy, whose exact constitution is unknown, but which long kept Corinth in close alliance with Sparta. The Corinthian trade consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic and Italian merchandise, for which her position gave her many peculiar advantages. The period of Corinth's highest prosperity closed with the government of the Cyp'selids ; and the loss of Corcy'ra one of her colonies which had been kept in subjection by Per'iander, but revolted after his death, proved a blow to her power which she never recovered. The naval engagement between the Corcyrians and Corinthians (b. c. 650) is the first sea-fight recorded in history. The history of Sic'yon and the other Achaean states presents a series of revolutions similar to those of Corinth. After various revolutions and usurpations, they all adopted republican institutions, about.the time that the Cyp'selids were expelled from Corinth. The constitution of Arcadia became republican when Aristodemus, its last king, was stoned by his subjects for having betrayed Aristom'- enes and the Messenians. The regal dignity was abolished in Argos so early as b. c. 984 ; but nothing is known of the circumstances that led to the change, or the peculiar nature of the republic by which it was succeeded. E'lis preserved its internal peace, owing to the wise laws of Iph'- itus, a contemporary of Lycur'gus ; while the sanctity of its soil ensured its external security. After the abolition of royal power two supreme magistrates were chosen, called Hellanodicaj, to whose ofiice was added the charge of superintending the Olympic games. Their number was subsequently increased to ten, one being chosen from each of the Elian tribes ; and their power was limited by a senate of ninety, whose mem- bers were chosen for life. Section VI. — History of the principal Grecian Islands. The revolutions in the Grecian islands were very similar to those on the continent, republican constitutions having succeeded to mon- archy in most of them. After the Athenians had acquired the sover- eignty of the sea, the insular states lost their independence ; for though they were called confederates, they were treated as subjects ; no change, however, was made in their internal constitutions. We shall only no- tice the islands that were \ lost remarkable in history. Corcy'ra was occupied by a Corinthian colony under Chersic'rates 104 ANCIENT HISTORY. (b. c. 753), who expelled or subdued the former inhabitants. As th« leader and most of his companions had been driven into exile by polit- ical commotions, they retained but little affection for the parent state ; while the rapid progress of the Corcyrean power excited the commer- cial jealousy of Corinth. These circumstances led to an open war. The Corcyrean constitution appears to have been originally aristocratic or oligarchical, like that of most Dorian states ; but after the Persian wars a democratic faction arose, powerfully supported by the Athenians, which produced the most violent internal commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corey 'ra. ^Egina, first colonized b. c. 1358, rapidly grew, by commerce, and navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. It even established colonies of its own in Crete and Pontus. ^Egina Avas long the suc- cessful rival of Athens; it was subdued by Themis'tocles (b. c. 485). The island of Euboe'a received many different colonies from the main- land of Greece ; but its cities were not united by any confederation, each possessing a separate constitution. It was subdued by the Athe- nians after the Persian wars ; but the islanders made several sanguin- ary struggles to regain their independence. The Cyc'lades were all, except Delos, rendered tributary to Athens, when that state acquired the supremacy of the sea. Crete was celebrated in the heroic ages for the laws of Mmos (*b. c. 1300). After the death of Clean'thus (*b. c. 800), republican constitu- tions were adopted in the principal cities, which thenceforth became in- dependent states. The Cretans rarely engaged in foreign wars, but they were almost incessantly involved in mutual hostilities ; a circum- stance that tended greatly to degrade the national character. Cy'prus was only partially colonized by the Greeks, whose principal settlement was at Sal'amis, founded by Teucer, a little after the Trojan war (b. c. 1100). The island was successively subject to the Phoeni- cians, Egyptians, and Persians. The kings of Sal'amis frequently re- volted against their Persian masters, and always maintained a qualified independence. When Alexander the Great besieged Tyre (b. c. 332), he was voluntarily joined by the nine Cypriot kings, and thenceforth the island was annexed to the Macedonian monarchy. The history of Rhodes belongs properly to the portion of this work which treats of the successors of Alexander, to which we refer our readers. Section VII. — History of the Greek Colonies in Asia Minor. FROM b. c. 1200 TO B. c. 500. The colonies founded by the Greeks, between the period of the Dorian migration and the final subversion of Grecian liberty by the triumph of the Macedonians, were the most numerous and important established by any nation, and all acted a very conspicuous part in accelerating the progress of civilization. The colonies that first engage our attention are those that were es- tablished along the western coast of Asia Minor, from the Hellespont lo the confines of Cilic'ia, in consequence of the revolutions produced by the Dorian migration and conquest of the Peloponnesus. They were GREEK COLONIES IN ASIA MINOR, 105 established by the iEolians, lonians, and Carians ; their commerce soon exceeded that of the parent states ; and in them were produced the first of Grecian poets, Homer and Alcae'us ; and the first of Grecian philos- ophers, Thales and Pythag'oras. The tEolians, after the conquest of the Peloponnesus, settled for a time in Thrace, whence they passed over, after the lapse of a genera- tion, to Asia (*B. c. 1124), and occupied the coasts of Mysia and Caria giving to the strip of land they colonized the name of iEolis. They acquired possession, also, of the islands of Les'bos, Ten'edos, and the cluster called the Hecatonnesi (hundred islands). Twelve cities were erected on the mainland by the iEolians, of which the chief were Cyme and Smyr'na. The latter city was destroyed by the Lydians (*b. c. 600), and was not restored until four hundred years later, when it be- came a flourishing Macedonian colony. The ^olian cities maintained their independence until the age of Cy'rus, when those on the mainland were subdued by the Persians. When Athens acquired supremacy by sea, the insular states were forced to submit to her authority, and were in general ruled with great severity. The Ionian migration took place some years after the iEolian, about B. c. 1044. It was the largest that ever left Greece ; and fortunately it is that, with whose details we are best acquainted. It originated in the abolition of royalty at Athens : the sons of Codrus reluctant to live as private individuals, declared their design of leading a colony into Asia : they were readily joined by the Ionian exiles from the northern Peloponnesus, who were straitened for room in At'tica, and by large bands of emigrants from the neighboring states, actuated by political dis content, or the mere love of change. They were supplied liberally with ships and munitions of war. They pursued their voyage to Asia Minor, and landed on the coast south of iE'olis. After a long se- ries of sanguinary wars, the native barbarians resigned their lands to the intruders ; and the lonians acquired possession of the whole of the valuable district between Miletus and Mount Sip'ylus. The lonians then began to erect cities ; they established twelve, united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy ; viz., Eph'esus, Ery'thrae, Clazom'enEe, Colophon, My'us, Miletus, Priene, Phocae'a, Leb'edos, Samos, Teos, and Chios, of which the last three were insular stations. Miletus was the chief of the Ionian colonies : but Eph'esus was the most renowned of the cities. All the Ionian cities were united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy. Deputies from the diff"erent states met, at stated times, in a temple of Nep'tune, erected on the headland of Mycale, which they named Heli- conean, from Helice, the chief of their ancient cities in the northern Peloponnesus. Here they deliberated on all matters that aflected the Pan-Ionian league ; but the council never interfered with the domestic government of the several cities. They also celebrated festivals and public games, which rivalled in magnificence those of Greece. In the midst of their prosperity, the Ionian cities became engaged in a long and arduous struggle with the Lydian kings, which continued almost without intermission until both were absorbed in the rising greatness of the Persian empire. Neither the extent nor progress of the Dorian colonies could com- 106 ANCIENT HISTOB-Y. pare with those we have just described. Limited to a narro\f and nc very fruitful territory, their confederation always continued in a state of feebleness ; and, with the exception of Halicarnas'sus, which, at a com- paratively recent age, became the capital of an opulent monarchy, and the isle of Rhodes, whose daring navigators rivalled those of the most potent commercial states, there is scarcely a Dorian state that rose above mediocrity. The Dorians, after the conquest of the Peloponnesus, meditated new acquisitions ; but, being checked by the Athenians at Meg'ara, they pro- ceeded in detaclied bands to the coast of Caria, and to the islands of Cos and Rhodes. It is impossible to assign the exact age of these mi- grations ; but they were certainly later than the Ionian and iEolian ; they appear also to have been conducted without any definite plan, and to have taken place at very different times. The six cities forming the Doric confederation, called Hexapolis, were Halicamas'sus and Cnidus on the Carian peninsula, Cos in the island of the same name, and Ha- lys'sus, Camirus, and Lin'dus, in the island of Rhodes. The Dorians submitted without a struggle to the Persian power, and seem to have made no effort to regain their independence. Section VIII. — The G-reek Colonies on the Euiine Sea, the Coasts of Thrace^ Macedon, 8^. Most of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Propon'tis, the Euxine sea, and the Palus Maeotis, were founded by the citizens of Miletus between the eighth and sixth centuries before the Christian era. That city, whose commerce occupied four harbors, and whose naval power amounted to eighty or a hundred galleys of war, owed its great- ness to its possession of the northern trade ; and to secure this lucra- tive commerce, it planted several colonies, all of which became pros- perous marts of trade. Their commerce was not confined to the sea- coasts : their merchants penetrated into southern Russia, and advanced even beyond the Caspian to the countries which now form the king- doms of Khiva and Bokhara. The Phocseans shared the honor of founding these important colonies ; but they were too much devoted to the western trade to waste their energies on the northern ; aad it may be generally stated, that the settlements on the Euxine depended chiefly on Miletus. On the Propon'tis adjoining the Hellespont, stood Lamp'sacus, originally founded by some Phocajans, who obtained a grant of the site of the city from one of the native princes whom they had assisted joi war. It was afterward occupied by the Milesians, under whom it became a place of great wealth and extensive commerce. Cyz'icus, erected on an island joined by bridges to the Asiatic coast, was a very ancient city ; it is said to have been colonized in the earli- est ages by the Tyrrhenian Pelas'gi, and afterward by the Argonauts. About B. c. 751, it was occupied by the Milesians, who at the same time took possession of the neighboring island of Proconnesus [Mar- mora). Cyz'icus, in a late age, under the dominion of the Romans, became one of the most beautiful and flourishing cities in Asia. Opposite to Cyz'icus on the Thracian coast, was Perin'thus, at a la- GREEK COLONIES ON THE EUXINE SEA. 107 ter age called Heracleia, founded by a Samian colony ; on the Euro- pean side of the Thracian Bosphorus was Byzan'tium [Constantinople); and over against it, on the Asiatic coast, ChaFcedon [Scutari), both colonized from Meg'ara. The first Greek city on the Black sea was Heracleia, on the Bithy- nian coast, which appears to have been successively colonized from Meg'ara and Miletus. Sinope, in Paphlagonia, was the most powerful of the Greek states on the Euxine se a. Am]sus,in Pon'tus, was, next to Sinope, the best harbor on the Euxine sea. After having been long subject to Miletus, it was seized by the Athenians in the age of Per'icles, and its name changed to Peirae'seus. During the days of its prosperity, Amisus is said to have become the parent of a colony that soon surpassed itself in importance, Trap'ezus [Trebisonde). On the eastern coast of the Euxine were Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria. In the Macedonian age, Phanagoria became the capital of the Greek cities on the Asiatic side of the Bos'phorus : its prosperity was owing to its being the chief mart for the slave-trade, which has always prevailed in the countries round the Caucasus, and also to its being the staple for the goods brought from central and southern Asia by the route of the Caspian sea and the Oxus. The Milesians formed several establishments in the Tauric Cher- sonese [Crimea), and wrested the greater part of that peninsula from its barbarous inhabitants. The city of Panticapae'um was the most important, and probably the most ancient, of these settlements. It be- came the capital of the little Greek kingdom of the Bos'phorus, and continued to maintain its independence imtil, in the Roman age, it was seized by Mithridates the Great, who laid there the foundations of his subsequent power. The coasts of Thrace and Macedon were covered with Greek colo- nies, principally derived from Corinth and Athens. On the coasts of Africa was the celebrated Greek city of Cyrene, long the commercial rival of Carthage, founded by a Dorian colony from the island of Thera (b. c. 651), in obedience to the directions of the Delphic oracle. The government was at first monarchical, the crown Deing hereditary in the family of Bat'tus, the founder. About b. c. 450, royalty was abolished, and a republic formed ; but the citizens of Cyrene never were able to form a permanent constitution ; and their state continued to be rent by factions until it was annexed to the Egyp- tian kingdom, in the age of the Ptolemies. The history of the Greek states in Sicily and southern Italy being closely connected with the Roman 'vars, will be found in the chapters on Italy. 108 ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER X. HISTORY OF GREECE, FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE PERSIAN WARS TO THE ACCESSION OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT FROM B. C. 500 TO B. c. 336. Section I. — The First Persian War. FROM B. C. 500 TO B. C. 490. When Darius Hystas'pes invaded Scythia, he intrusted the guard of the bridge of boats that he had constructed over the Danube to the Greeks of Asia and Thrace, who had been so recently brought under subjection to the Persians. Many of those were anxious to recover their freedom, and they deliberated seriously on the propriety of de- stroying the bridge, and leaving the Persians to perish without resource in an inhospitable desert. The proposal v/as strenuously advocated by Miltiades, the king or tyrant, as he was called, of the Thracian Cher- sonese ; but he was opposed by Histise'us, the tyrant of Miletus, whose selfish counsels finally prevailed. Miltiades retired to Athens, his na- tive city, where he subsequently rose to the highest honors ; Histiae'us accompanied the monarch he had saved to the court of Persia. But the o-ratitude of absolute princes is not permanent : Histiae'us soon found that the very magnitude of his services exposed him to danger ; and he concerted with his nephew, Aristag'oras, a revolt, which in- cluded all the Ionian colonies. In order that the insurrection should have any reasonable prospects of success, it was necessary that it should be supported by the Grecian states ; and to engage this assistance. Aristag'oras came to Lacedae'mon. Beiro" repulsed at Spar'ta, Aristag'oras proceeded to Athens, where he was more generously received (b. c. 500). Twenty ships were prepared for him with all convenient speed ; and these being rein- forced by five more from the little state of Eret'ria, in the island of Eubce'a, sailed over to the harbor of Miletus, and commenced the war. The allies were at first very successful. Sar'dis, the wealthy capital of Lydia, was taken and plundered ; but Aristag'oras had not the tal- ents of a general ; the fruits of success were lost as soon as won ; the several divisions of the army quarrelled and separated ; and the Asiatic Greeks were left to bear the brunt of the vengeance of their ineiciless masters. Miletus was taken, its walls razed, and its citizens mas iacred ; several minor cities suffered similar calamities. Aristag'oras* GREECE 109 fled to Thrace, where he was murdered by the barbarians ; and His- tiae'us, after a vain attempt to escape, was crucified at Sar'dis by com- mand of the Persian satrap. Darius next turned his resentment against the Greeks, who had aided this revolt ; he sent ambassadors to demand homage from the Grecian states, especially requiring the Athenians to receive back Hip'pias, their exiled tyrant. All the states, insular and continental, except Athens and Spar'ta, proffered submission ; but those noble republics sent back a haughty defiance, and fearlessly prepared to encounter the whole strength of the Persian empire. Darius, having prepared a vast armament, intrusted its command to his son-in-law Mardonius, who soon subdued the island of Thasus, and the kingdom of Macedon (b. c. 493). But his fleet, while doubling Mount A'thos, was shattered by a violent storm ; three hundred vessels were dashed against the rocks, and twenty thousand men are said to have perished 'n the waves. Mardonius returned home to excuse his disgrace, by exaggerating the cold of the climate, and the dangers of the ^gean sea. A second and more powerful armament was prepared (b. c. 490), over which Darius placed his two best generals, Datis, a Mede, and Artapher'nes, a Persian nobleman. The fleet passed safely through the Cyc'lades, and arrived at the island of Euboe'a. Thence the Persians crossed the Euripus, and, by the advice of the exiled Hip'- pias, encamped with an army said to exceed five hundred thousand men on the plains of Mar'athon, within ten miles of Athens. The Athenians could only muster an army often thousand citizens, and about double that number of slaves, who were armed in this extremity. The little city of Platae'a sent an auxiliary force of a thousand men ; but the Spartans, yielding either to superstition or jealousy, refused to send their promised aid before the full of the moon. Miltiades dis- suaded his countrymen from standing a siege, because the immense host of the Persians could completely blockade the city, and reduce it by starvation. He led the army to Mar'athon ; but when the Persian hosts were in sight, five of the ten generals, commanding jointly with himself, were afraid to hazard a battle ; and it was not without difficulty that Callim'achus was prevailed upon to give his casting vote in favor of fighting. But when the bold resolution of engaging was adopted, all the generals exerted themselves to forward the wise plans of their leader (b. c. 490). Miltiades formed his lines at the foot of a hill that protected Ids rear and right flank ; his left was secured by an extensive marsh, and his front protected by trunks of trees, strewn for some distance, to break the force of the Persian cavalry. The Athenian citizens occupied the right wing, the Plateeans the left, while the raw levies of slavey were stationed in the centre. Datis saw the advantages of thid position ; but confident in his superior numbers, he gave the signal for battle. The Greek centre was broken at the moment that the two wings had routed the divisions opposed to them : this had been fore- seen ; and Miltiades directed the victorious wings to attack the Per- sians rushing incautiously through the broken centre on both flanks. Surprise is fatal to an oriental army ; in a few minutes the Asiatics 110 ANCIENT HISTORY. were wholly routed, and fled in confusion to their ships. The Greeks pursued them vigorously, and destroyed seven of their vessels. But the Persian Heet was still powerful, and its commanders deemed it possible to suprise Athens before the army could return. Miltiades, however, bafiled this attempt by rapidly marching from the field of battle to the city, and securing the posts before the hostile navy could get round the promontory of Sunium. Thus disappointed, the Persians took advan- tage of a favorable gale, and returned to Asia. Miltiades was subsequently accused of having taken a bribe, con- victed on rather doubtful evidence, and sentenced to pay a heavy fine, which not being able to pay, he was thrown into prison, where > e died of -his wounds. Themis'tocles, the most able statesman, and Aristides, the most uncorrupt patriot of Greece, for a time shared the power that had been previously possessed by Miltiades. Their struggle for power ended in the banishment of Aristides ; but when his wise counsels were required in the hour of emergency, he was recalled on the UiOtion of his successful rival. Themis'tocles directed all his efforts to improving the naval power of Athens, and he succeeded in securing for his country the complete supremacy of the Grecian seas. In the interval between the two Persian wars nothing remarkable occurred in any other of the Grecian states, save that in Spar'ta, one of its kings, Demaratus, was deposed and driven into exile by the in- trigues of the other, Cleom'enes. Demaratus sought refuge in the court of Persia ; Cleom'enes perished by his own hand, a victim to remorse. Leoty'chides succeeded the former, Leon'idas the latter. Section II. — The Second Persian War. FROM B.C. 480 TO B. c. 449. Nine years after the battle of Mar'athon, Xer'xes, the son and suc- cessor of Darius, resolved to attempt the conquest of Greece, and for this purpose collected an army, which, after making every allowance for the exaggerations of historians, appears to have been the most numerous ever assembled. When he reached the pass of Thermop- ylae, through which lay the road from Thessaly to Greece, he found a body of eight thousand men, commanded by the Spartan Leon'idas, prepared to dispute the passage. The haughty Persian instantly sent a herald, com.^anding these warriors to surrender their arms, and was maddened by the contumelious reply, " Come and take them." After many ineffectual efforts to break the Grecian lines, all of which were repulsed with great slaughter, Xer'xes was on the point of retiring in despair, when the treachery of Ephial'tes, a Trachinian deserter, revealed to him a path leading to the top of the mountain, that secured the Grecian flank. Leon'idas advised his allies to retire, declaring that he and his Spartans were forbidden by law to abandon their posts. Retaining with him otdy a thousand men, he resolved to attack the Persian camp by night, hoping in the confusion and darkness to reach the royal tent, and, by the slaughter or capture of Xer'xes, to put an end to the war. The plan had nearly succeeded when morning dawned on the assailants, wearied with slaughter ; they then retreated GREECE. Ill to the upper part of the pass, where they were soon surrounded by muUitudes ; but they still tought with all the energies of despair, until they sunk, fatigued rather than vanquished. About the same time the Greeks obtained a victory over the Persian fleet oft' the headland of Artemis'ium, in the island of Eubce'a ; but this triumph was rendered fruitless by the loss of the pass of Ther- mopylae ; and Themis'tocles persuaded the allies to remove the navy in5i^t61ia and Epirus. The term of his command having expired (b. c. 425), he was returning home, when the Messenians who served in his fleet proposed to effect a landing in the harbor of Py'lus [Navarino), and, fortifying themselves there, make the Spartans tremble in their own capital, which was only fifty miles distant. The bold design was accomplished ; and the Spar- tans in alarm sent a fleet and army to besiege Py'lus ; they garrisoned the little island of Sphacteria ; but their navy being defeated by the Athenians, this garrison, consisting of the noblest of the Spartan fami- lies, was brought to the brink of ruin, and would have been utterly destroyed, but for the inadequate resources which Demos'thenes had at his command. Under these circumstances, the Spartans sent deputies to solicit peace ; but the Athenian people, instigated by their unworthy favorite Cleon rejected the proffer with disdain. This arrogant boaster, whose cowardice was notorious, offered, if he were made general, that he would make the Spartans in Sphacteria prisoners within twenty flays. He had no notion that his offer would be accepted ; but the Athenian populace, ready at all times to sacrifice everything for a joke, took him at his word. Cleon sailed to the scene of war, and was enabled, by an accidental fire, which destroyed the Spartan fortifica- tions, to accomplish his promise. This success was followed by the capture of the island of Cythera, the destruction of the Megareaij harbor Nicae'a and of several seaports on the coast of the Peleponnesus, But these triumphs were counterbalanced by the defeat of the Atheni- ans at Delium, the revolt of their northern colonies, and the commence ment of hostilities against them by Perdic'cas, king of Macedon. The 118 ANCIENT HISTORY. Spartans, roused to vigor by this unexpected turn of events, sent an army under Bras'idas, their ablest general, through northern Greece, to aid the revolted colonies ; and this eminent leader soon deprived tlie Athenians of their principal cities in Thrace and Macedon. Cleon headed an Athenian anny sent to retrieve these losses ; he was defeat- ed and slain ; but the Spartan victory was deprived of all its fruits by the death of Bras'idas, Avho incautiously exposed himself, and was mor- tally wounded (b. c. 422). Sparta had no general fit to succeed Bras'idas, and the senate was anxious to recover the prisoners taken in Sphacteria ; the Athenians were equally eager to procure the restitution of their northern colonies ; and Nic'ias, who had succeeded Cleon, was naturally of a pacific dis- position. These favorable circumstances led to the conclusion of a peace, or rather truce, for fifty years, on the basis of mutual restitution, by which Sparta wantonly sacrificed the interests of her allies. Section IV. — The Second Pdoponnesian War. FROM B. C. 421 TO B. C. 404. Justly proA'^oked by the neglect of their interests in the recent treaty, the Corinthians privately instigated the Argives against the Spartans ; and a combination was formed by the principal democratic states, which was secretly encouraged by the Athenians. The sudden depar- ture from pacific policy was owing to the influence of Alcibiades, the nephew of Per'icles, who, to a large share of his imcle's abilities, added a boundless ambition, and a reckless disregard of the means he used to accomplish his ends. The Argives and Spartans, after having harassed each other by petty expeditions, at length prepared for open war ; but just as the two armies were on the point of engaging, the remembrance that they were both descended from the Dorian race sus- pended their rage, and a truce was concluded between their respective leaders. Alcibiades, who was then ambassador at Ar'gos, roused the populace to refuse the ratification of this agreement ; a fresh attack was made on the Spartan allies, but it proved unsuccessful. Two years of mutual recrimination followed ; during which the Argive republic was harassed by sanguinary revolutions, which ended in the complete establishment of a democracy. In the meantime, the Athenians, anxious to restore their naval supremacy, attacked the Dorian island of Melos, and punished the resistance of the inhabitants by a cruel massacre, which provoked universal indignation throughout Greece. But public attention was soon engrossed by a more important topic, the Athenian expedition to Sicily, undertaken at the instigation of Alcibiades (b. c 415), nominally to deliver the Egestans from the tyranny of the Syra- cusans, but really to establish the Athenian supremacy in that island. Notwithstanding the remonstrances of Nic'ias and Soc'rates, the most powerful armament which had ever left a Grecian port was speedily prepared, and intrusted to the just command of Alcibiades, Nic'ias, and Lam'achus. When reviewed at Corcy'ra, it was found to consist of a hundred and thirty-four ships-of-war, with a proportional number of transports and tenders. The army was composed o( five thousand GREECE. M* heavy-armed infantry, accompanied by a sufficient body of slingers Mid archers. Instead, however, of sailing directly to Syracuse, which pi^/b- ably would have fallen, the fleet was steered to Cat'ana, whose inhab- itants were induced to join the Athenians by the brilliant eloquence of Alciblades. Scarcely, however, had he obtained this triumph, when he was summoned home to be tried for his life on a charge of impiety and sacrilege. He was accused of having violated the Eleusinian mysteries, of his reign were spent in war with the ^toliaiis, who had formed a confederacy similar to that of the Achaeans. After his death (b. c. 233), Antig'onus Doson, cousin to the late monarch, succeeded to the throne, nominally as guardian of the infant prince Philip II., just as a revolution i- *Jie Peloponnesus 148 ANCIENT HISTORY. was about to effect a great and important change in the political aspect of Greece. The ancient laws of Lycur'gus were only nominally observed in Spar'ta : the plunder of foreign countries had introduced wealth and luxury ; a law sanctioning" the alienation of landed estates had effaced the ancient equality of property ; and the gradual decrease of the ruling caste of Spartan families had rendered the oligarchy as weak as it was odious. A bold plan of reform, including a fresh division of landed property, an abolition of debts, and the weakening of the power of the Eph'ori, was brought forward by King A'gis III. (b. c. 244) : it was at first very successful, but the luisteadiness of Agis, and the opposition of the other king, Leon'idas, brought about a counter-revolution (b. c. 241). A'gis was strangled by the order of the Eph'ori, and his mother and grandmother shared the same fate. Leon'idas compelled the widow of A'gis to marry his youthful son Cleom'enes, not foreseeing that she was likely to inspire the prince with the principles of her former husband. Soon after his accession to the throne, Cleom'enes, relying on the reputation he had acquired by defeating the efforts of Aratus to force Sparta into the Achaean league, renewed the reforms of A'gis (b. c. 227) ; and, as he was unscrupulous in the use of the means requisite to effect his object, he speedily over- threw the Eph'ori, and opened the right of citizenship to all the La- cedasmonians. He then turned his arms against the Achajans (b. g. 224), compelled Ar'gos and Corinth to secede from the league, defeated the confederates at Dy'me, and reduced Aratus to such difficulties that he was forced to solicit assistance from the king of Macedon. Antig'- onus II. readily embraced so favorable an opportunity for restoring the influence of his family in southern Greece. He entered the Pelopon- nesus, and, after some minor operations, he obtained a complete vic- tory over Cleom'enes at Sellasia, on the borders of Laconia, which placed Spar'ta at his mercy (b. c. 222). Cleom'enes fled to Egypt; "the Macedonians, advancing from the field of battle, took possession of Lacedajmon without a blow, but they used their victory moderately, and its ancient constitution was restored. Antig'onus did not long survive his victory ; he died generally lamented by the Greeks (b. c. 221) and v/as succeeded by Philip II., son of Demetrius. The iEtolians were greatly dissatisfied with the peace that followed the battle of Sellasia. No sooner had they received intelligence of the death of Antig'onus, than, despising the youth and inexperience of his successor Philip, they commenced a series of piratical attacks on the Messenians and Macedonians, which speedily rekindled the flames of war. Aratus was sent to expel the iEtolians from Messenia, and en- tered into a convention with their leaders for the purpose ; after which he imprudently dismissed the greater part of his army. The iEtolians took advantage of his weakness to attack him unexpectedly, and then, having ravaged the greater part of the Peloponnesus, they returned home laden with plunder. Philip, being invited to place himself at the head of the Achaean league, went to Corinth, where a general assembly of the states was held. A declaration of war against the iEtolians was voted by all the southern Greeks, except the Spartans and Eleans, who were both ad- MACEDON AND GREECE. 149 verse to the league ; and active preparations for hostilities were made on both sides. While these affairs engaged attention throughout Greece, little regard was paid to the commercial war between the By- zantines and Rhodians, in consequence of the heavy tolls exacted by the former from all vessels entering the Euxine sea (b. c. 222). It terminated in favor of the latter, and the Byzantines were forced to abolish the onerous duties. Cleom'enes, in his exile, was a careful observer of the transactions in Greece, and perceiving that the Lacedajmonians, according to his original policy, were preparing to join the iEtolians against the Achae- ans, he believed that an opportunity was afforded for recoA^ering his hereditary throne. The young king of Egypt, dreading his talents and his temper, was unwilling to see him restored to power, and therefore not only refused him assistance, but even detained him from attempting the enterprise with his own hired servants. But Cleom'enes was scarcely less formidable in Alexan'dria, than he would have been if restored to his former power in Spar'ta, for he had won the favor of the Grecian mercenaries in the Egyptian service, who showed a strong at- tachment to his person. The ministers of the young Ptolemy caused him to be arrested, but he baffled the vigilance of his guards, and fol- lowed by his friends rushed through the streets of Alexan'dria, exhorting the multitude to strike for freedom. No one responded to his call ; the royal forces prepared to surround him, and Cleom'enes, dreading io encounter the tortures of the cruel Egyptians, committed suicide. Thus perished a king, who, in spite of many grievous faults, was the last hope of his country, and the only person capable of restoring the su- premacy of Spar'ta and the Peloponnesus. The war between Philip and the ^tolians was conducted with great obstinacy and cruelty on both sides ; Philip's progress was aided by his fleet, which soon rose into importance ; but it was also greatly checked by the intrigues of Apel'les and other wretches who envied Aratus, and weakened the influence of his prudent counsels. The in- creasing power of the Romans and Carthaginians, who were already contending for the empire of the world in the second Punic war, at length inclined all the Greeks to peace, for they felt that it would be soon ni^cessary to defend the independence of Greece either against Rome or Carthage, whichever should prove victorious. A treaty was accordingly concluded between the general assembly of the iEtolian states at Naupac'tus and the representatives of the Achaean confederacy (b. c. 217) : Philip attended in person, and greatly contributed to the success of the negotiations. The Macedonian monarch possessed the ambition, but not the milita- ry talents of Pyr'rhus. Like the great Epirote, he hoped to become the conqueror of Italy, and entered into a strict alliance with Han'nibal, who had already invaded the peninsula. About the same time, to get rid of the remonstrances of Aratus, who frequently warned the king of the dangers that would result from his indulgence in ambitious projects, he caused the old general to be poisoned : a crime which filled all Greece with horror and indignation. The Romans resolved to find Philip so much employment in Greece, that he should not have leisure to attack Italy. They prevailed ou the 150 ANCIENT HISTORY. iEtolians to violate the recent treaty, promising .hem, as a reward, the possession of Acarnania and the Ionian islands. To this confederacy the republics of Sparta and Elis, and the kings of Per'gamus and E'lis, acceded (b. c. 211). Philip, on the other hand, was supported by the Acarnanians, the Boeotians, and the Achajans. The Romans and their ally At'talus, king of Per'gamus, became masters of the sea ; but the former were too much engaged by the presence of Han'nibal in Italy to continue their aid to the iEtolians ; and At'talus wns recalled home to defend his own kingdom from an invasion of the Bithynians. Nearly at the same time, Philopoe'men, the worthy successor of Aratus, as head of the Achsean league, defeated and slew wiih his own hand Machan'idas, the usurper of Lacedaemon. The iEtolians, thus deprived of all their allies, made overtures of peace, which Avere readily accepted (b. c. 208). The Romans made some efforts to interrupt the treaty ; But the ^tolians had suffered too severely to continue the war any longer. Scarcely had peace been restored, when Philip entered into an alliance with Prusias, king of Bith'ynia, against At'talus, king of Per'gamus ; and with the Syrian monarch against the infant ruler of Egypt. As if these enemies were not sufficient, he declared war against the Rhodians ; but was soon punished by the overthrow and ruin of the Macedonian fleet at Chios (b. c. 202). The Athenians were next added to the number of his enemies ; and this once-powerful people, no longer able to protect their fallen fortunes, supplicated the Romans for aid. A fleet and army were sent to secure this illustrious city, and it reached Athens just in time to save it from a sudden attack of the Macedonians. Having delivered Athens, the Romans advanced into northern Greece, where they compelled the Boeotians to join in the league against Philip. The legions in Epirus at the same time marched into Macedon itself, and, though they gained no immediate advantages, they facilitated the passage of troops for a future and more decisive invasion. In the second campaign, when the conduct of the war was confided to the consul Flamin'ius, Philip's fortunes declined so rapidly, that his allies, especially the Achaeans, lost all courage, and accepted terms of peace. Though deserted, the Macedonian monarch did not resign all hope ; he assembled an army in Thessaly nearly equal to that of his enemies, but inferior in discipline and equipment, with which he took post on a range of low hills, called from their singular shape Cynos- ceph'aljE, or " the dogs' heads." In the early part of the decisive bat- tle, the Macedonians at first had the advantage, theu' right wing having borne down the opposing divisions ; but the consul, observing that the left of the Macedonians had not been formed into order of battle, charged them with his cavalry and elephants, and scattered them in a few moments ; he then assailed the victorious Macedonian wing in flank and rear. The phalanx, admirable for attack, was an inconvenient body to manoeuvre ; the phalangites attempted to face about, broke their lines, and were in a moment a disorderly mass, unable to fight or fly. The route was complete : eight thousand Macedonians fell ; five thou- sand remained prisoners ; while the loss of the Romans did not exceed seven hundred men. Without an army and without resources, Philip was forced to beg a peace (b. c. 197) ; he purchased it by the sacrifice MACEDON AND GREECE. 151 of his navy and the resignation of his supremacy over the Grecian states. The Romans, thus successful, vi^ent through the farce of proclaiming the liberties of Greece at the Isthmian games, amid the wildest exulta- tion of the spectators. This extraordinary scene can not be viewed without gratification, even by those who have learned how large a pro- portion of history is occupied by fair professions unfulfilled, and hopes unworthily disappointed. The spectators were assembled from all the Grecian states and colonies, they were full of anxiety and busy in conjecture as to the conduct likely to be followed by the new arbiters of Greece, when the trumpet sounded, and proclamation was made to this effect : " The Roman senate and T. Quinc'tius the proconsul, having overcome King Philip and the Macedonians, leave free, ungar- risoned, unburdened with tribute, the Corinthians, Phocians, Thessa- lians, and others," specifying all the Greeks who had been subject to Philip. The voice of the crier was drowned in acclamations, so that many failed to hear the purport of the proclamation ; and others thought that what they heard must be spoken in a dream, so far did it exceed their expectation. The crier was called back, and the same words being repeated were followed by loud and reiterated shouts of ap- plause ; after which the various shows and trials of skill proceeded unregarded, the minds of the spectators being too full to heed them. When all these were finished, a general rush was made toward the Roman commander ; and it is said that, had he not been a man in the full prime and vigor of youth, his life might have been endangered by the multitude of those who thronged to see him, to address him as a savior, to take him by the hand, or to throw garlands upon him. " It was glorious that a state should exist in the world, which had will to contend for Grecian freedom, and power and fortune to achieve it." Such a praise may have been partly due to the present conduct of the Romans, but Flamin'ius showed his insincerity by secretly laboring to weaken the Achaean league ; which, however, was strengthened, after the murder of the tyrant Nabis (b. c. 192), by the accession of Sparta. Antiochus, king of Syria, instigated by Han'nibal, who had sought refuge in his court when exiled from his native country, declared war against the Romans (b. c. 194) ; but instead of attacking their power in Africa or Italy, he passed over into Greece, and was gladly welcomed by the turbulent ^Etolians. The Achajans, of course, joined the Ro- mans as soon as their ancient enemies had declared for Antiochus ; and Philip, notwithstanding his recent defeat, lent his interest to the same cause. The campaigns of Antiochus were mere repetitions of error and presumption; at length he returned to Asia (b. c. 191), leav- ing his allies exposed to the vengeance of their enemies. The ^Eto- Hans were the most severely treated ; the only terms of peace which the Romans would consent to grant reduced them to poverty, and deprived them of independence (b. c. 189) ; but Antiochus having been defeated utterly by the Scipios in Asia, they had no alternative, and were forced to bend their stubborn necks to the heavy yoke imposed upon them. About the same time Sparta was captured by the Acha^ans, under the command of Philopoe'men, and the constitution of Lycur'gus finally abolished. 152 ANCIEKT HISTORY. The Romans affected great indignation at the sufferings of the Spar- tans, and compelled the Acheeans to modify the terms they had imposed on the conquered. But this was a trifling calamity compared with that which the league sustained by the loss of Philopce'men, the last great o-eneral that maintained tlie glory of the Hellenic race (b. c. 183). The petty war between the Messenians and Achaeans would scarcely deserve notice but for its having proved fatal to the last of the long Hue of Grecian heroes and patriots. Philopce'jnen was surprised by the enemy, when passing with a small party of cavalry through a difficult defile. It was thought that he might have escaped by the aid of some light-armed Thracians and Cretans in his band ; but he would not quit the horsemen, whom he had recently selected from the noblest of the Achaeans ; and while he was bringing up the rear, and bravely cover- ing the retreat, his horse fell with him. He was seventy years old, and weakened by recent sickness ; and he lay stunned and motionless under his horse, till he was found by the Messenians, who raised him from the ground with as much respect as if he had been their own commander, and carried him to the city, sending before them the news that the war was finished, for Philopoe'men was taken. The first im- pression of those who heard, Avas that the messenger was mad ; but when others coming after confirmed the statement, men, women, and children, freemen and slaves, all crowded to see. So great was the throng, that the gates could scarcely be opened ; and as the greater part could not see the prisoner, there was a general cry that he should be brought into the theatre close by. The magistrates showed him there for a moment, and then hastily removed him, for they feared the effects which might be produced by pity and reverence for so great a man, and gratitude for his merits. A long and anxious debate took place, which Avas protracted throughout the entire night. Finally, murderous counsels prevailed, and a cup of poison was sent to Philo- poe'men in his dungeon. He submitted to his fate with great forti- tude, and his only soUcitude was respecting the safety of his compan- ions. A little before he expired he had the gratification of learning i.hat they had succeeded in making their escape. His fate was soon civenged ; Messene was forced to surrender to the Achaean general Lycos'tas, and all who had a share in the murder of Philopoe'men were put to death. Philip had in the meantime borne very impatiently the overbearing conduct of the Romans ; but the exertions of his son Demetrius, whom he had givtn as a hostage after his defeat at Cynos-ceph'alae, with the leading men at Rome, prevented a rupture. On this account Demetrius was enthusiastically received by the Macedonians on his return home — a circumstance of which his elder brother Per'seus took advantage, to accuse the young prince of treason. Philip dehvered this promising young man to the executioner ; but soon after his death, discovering his innocence, he made an attempt to change the succes- sion, and have Antig'onus acknowledged as his heir ; but, before this could be effected, the wretched monarch died of a broken heart (b. c. 179). Per'seus ascended the throne with the certainty that he was secretly hated by the Romans and his own subjects. One of his earliest acts was to put Antig'onus to death, and thus prevent the perils SYRIA. 153 of competition at home when hostihties abroad were inevitable Pre- tences for war were easily found : a Roman army crossed the sea, and passed through Epirus and Athamania into Thessaly. Per'seus neg- lected many opportunities of attacking his enemies at a disadvantage ; and when he asked for peace, after having triumphed in slight skir- mishes, he found that the Romans were more haughty after defeat than after victory. The alliance of Gen'tius, king of Illyria, might probably have turned the scale of war in favor of the Macedonian monarch ; but he defrauded his ally of the subsidy he had promised to enable him to levy an army ; and the Romans, landing in lUyr'ia, subdued the whole kingdom within thirty days. Soon afterward the consul Lucius iEmil- ius Paulus appeared in Macedon ; and his name gave confidence to the friends of Rome, while it filled the partisans of Per'seus with confu- sion (b. c. 169). After some indecisive skirmishes, the Macedonian monarch was forced to hazard a decisive engagement at Pyd'na, in which he was irretrievably ruined. Twenty thousand Macedonians were slain ; Per'seus himself was taken prisoner, and was led in chains to Rome to adorn the triumph of his haughty conqueror. An eclipse of the moon had taken place on the eve of the battle. Such appearances were then superstitiously believed to be ominous of ill to states and kingdoms. C. Sulpic'ius Gal'luS; a Roman officer, had science enough to know their nature and foretell their occurrence : and he, lest the soldiers should be disheartened by the eclipse, called them together, declared that it would happen, and explained its cause. This changed the fear, which might otherwise have arisen, into wonder at the knowledge of Gal'lus : while in the Macedonian camp the ap pearance was apprehended by many to portend the extinction of the kingdom. By the victory at Pyd'na the fate of Macedon and Greece was sealed : the Romans permitted both, indeed, for a time to enjoy quali- fied independence ; but they exercised over them a galling supremacy, which rendered their freedom an empty name. Above a thousand of the most eminent Achseans were summoned at one time to Rome, and detained there seventeen years in prison, without being admitted to an audience. Some of these, on their return, stimulated their countrymen to insult the Roman ambassadors at Corinth, who had come to arrange some disputes between the Acha;ans and the Spartans (b. c. 148). This of course led tc a war : the Ach2eans were everywhere defeated, and at length Corinth was taken by Mum'mius, the Roman consul (b. c. 146), who razed that splendid city to the ground. Thencefor- ward, Greece, under the name of Achaia, became a Roman province, and Macedon had been reduced to the same condition some years pre- viously. The shadow of freedom, however, was left to some of the cities, but especially to Athens, which became the university of the Roman empire. Section II. — History of the Kingdom of Syria under the Seleucidce. FROM B. C. 312 TO B. C. 64 The victory of Seleu^sus over the satraps of Persia and Media, already mentioned (p. "1413), gave that monarch possession of the pria- 154 ANCIENT HISTORY. cipal part of upper Asia. In less than four years he- became master of the countries between the Oxus, the Indus, and the Euphrates (b. c. 306) ; and, reviving the projects of Alexander, he invaded India, More fortunate than his illustrious master, he penetrated as far as the Ganges, where he entered into a treaty with Sandracot'tus, the king of the rich country between the Sutlege and the Ganges. The great number of elephants which Seleucus obtained by this alliance enabled him to turn the scale at the battle of Ip'sus : but a more important advantage was, the commercial intercourse established between his subjects and those of Sandracot'tus. After the death of Antig'onus at Ip'sus, Seleucus, having obtained the greater part of the late satrap's provinces, made Syria the seat of his government — an unfortunate choice, since it exposed his kingdom to the jealousy of Egypt, in- volved it in the troubled politics of the western world, and led the rulers to neglect the rich countries on the Tigris and the Euphrates. During the eighteen years of peace that followed the death of Antig'- onus, Seleucus founded or embellished several important cities, espe- cially Antfoch in Syria, which he made the capital of his dominions, and two Seleiicias ; one on the Tigris, the other on the Oron'tes. Anxiety to add Macedon to his dominions induced Seleucus to invade Europe ; but in the midst of his career he was murdered by Ptolemy Ceraiinus (b. c. 281). He was succeeded by his son Antlochus, sur- named Soter [the savior), who had for some time governed the provin- ces of upper Asia. Antiochus pursued his father's plans of conquest in Asia Minor : but he ceded his claims over Macedon to Antig'onus Gonnatus, and gave his step-daughter in marriage to that monarch. The northern states in Asia Minor that had asserted their independence rapidly attained matu- rity ; Antiochus was defeated by Nicomedes, king of Bith'ynia, who had obtained the support of the Gallic hordes after their defeat in Greece (b. c. 275), and he was similarly unsuccessful in a war with the king of Per'gamus (b. c. 263), whose complete defeat of the Syri- ans gave security to all the new states. Nor was Soter more fortunate hi a war he undertook against Egypt : Magas, the brother of the Egyptian Ptolemy, having married into the Syrian royal family, hoped that by this alliance he would be enabled to establish a new kingdom in Gyrene. Antiochus united with the usurper, and both marched against Ptolemy. The Syrians were defeated in every engagement ; their coasts were laid waste by the Egyptian fleet ; and Magas was speedily hurled from his throne. On his return, Antiochus marched against the Gauls, who had advanced toward Eph'esus (b. c. 262), and in the neighborhood of that city he was defeated and slain. Antiochus II. avenged his father's death on the Gauls, and received, from the excessive adulation of his subjects, the surname Theos [god). In his reign, the provinces of upper Asia began to slip from the grasp of the Seleacidae, owing to the progress of the Parthian tribes, the exactions of the provincial governors, and the unwise efforts of the monarch to force the Grecian customs and religion on his subjects. In order to encounter his eastern enemies with eflect, Theos deemed it necessary to tranquillize the west, and he accordingly made peace with the king of Egypt. In pursuance of the conditions of this treaty. SYRIA. 155 Antiochus married Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy, divorcing his for- mer wife Laodice, and excluding her children fiom the succession. On the death of Ptolemy, the divorced queen was restored to her sta- tion ; but she could not forget the insult she had received, nor conquer her dread of being sacrificed to some future arrangement. Influenced by these motives, she poisoned her husband (b. c. 247), and procured the murder of Berenice and her infant son. Seleucus, surnamed Callinicus {illustrious conqueror), succeeded to the throne by his mother's crime, and was immediately engaged in war with Ptolemy Ever'getes,who was eager to avenge his sister's murder. Crossing the Syrian deserts with a numerous army, Ptolemy overran rather than conquered Palestine, Babylonia, Persia, and the wealthy provinces of upper Asia. He returned, bringing with him enormous spoils, among which were the Egyptian idols which Camby'ses had takea from Mem'phis and Thebes. On his way back he encountered Seleucus, whom he defeated with great slaughter, and forced to take refuge in Antioch. He then returned to Egypt, having gained immense treasure, but no additional territory, in his expedition. Eiimenes, king of Per'gamus, took advantage of the Egyptian war to enlarge his dominions at the expense of the Syrian monarch ; and Hierax, the brother of Seleucus, aided by a body of Gauls, attempted to usurp the throne. The rebellion was at first successful ; but the ravages of the Gauls provoked such general indignation, that Seleucus found all his subjects rising in one body to support him ; and, thus strengthened, he assailed the army of the rebels and invaders in Babylonia. The battle was fierce ; but it ended in the total deleat of the Gauls, who were almost annihilated in the pursuit. Hierax fled to the Egyptian court, but was thrown into prison by Ptolemy, where he languished thirteen years, and only escaped to perish by the hands of robbers in the Syrian desert. Callinicus then turned his arms against the Parthians (b. c. 237), but was defeated by their king Arsaces ; and the Parthians date the origin of their monarchy from this battle. In a second campaign, Seleucus fell into the hands of his enemies (b. c. 236), and was dcjain ed a prisoner by the Parthians to the day of his death (b. cr227). Seleucus III., surnamed Ceraunus {the thundcrboli), succeeded his father ; but, after a brief reign, was removed by poison (b. c. 224). The hopes of his murderers, however, were frustrated by the vigor of his cousin Achae'us, who secured the inheritance for Antiochus, the younger brother of the deceased monarch, who had been satrap of Bab'ylon. In the early part of his reign, Antiochus III., surnamed the Great, was brought into great danger by the intrigues of his prime minister Hermeias, a native of Caria. Deceived by the artifices of this crafty vizier, Antiochus quarrelled with Achae'us, to whom he was mainly in- debted for his crown, and set Melon and Alexander, the brothers of Hermeias, over the important provinces of Media and Persia. The new satraps raised the standard of revolt, and defeated the royal generals sent against them. At length Antiochus took the field in person, con- trary to the wishes and remonstrances of his minister. Wlien the armies were about to engage, the rebel forces, by an almost intuitive movement, threw down their arms, and submitted themselves to their 156 ANCIENT HISTORY. youthful sovereign. Molon and Alexander escaped a public execution by suicide, and Hermeias expiated his complicated treasons on the scalTbld (b. c. 220). Whilst Antiochus was thus engaged in the re- mote east, Achae'us, whom he had forced into rebellion, had strengthen- ed himself in Asia Minor ; and the Egyptian monarch Ptolemy Phi lop'ater was becoming formidable on the southern frontiers of Syria Antiochus obtained possession of Coele-Syria by the treachery of Theodutus, its governor ; but he was soon after defeated by Ptolemy^ at the battle of Raphia'near Gaza (b. c. 217), and forced to purchase peace by the sacrifice of the newly-acquired province. This defea was in some degree compensated, the following year, by the capture of Achae'us, whose ravages to support his troops having provoked the re sentment of the kings of lesser Asia, he was besieged in the citade of Sar'dis by the joint forces of Antiochus and At'talus, king of Per' gamus, treacherously betrayed, and ungratefully put to death. Freed from the dangers of this war, Antiochus turned his attention to the aflairs of upper Asia, and gained several victories over the Par- thians and Bactrians (b. c. 214). He was, however, forced to recog- nise the independence of both nations. To secure his dominions, he gave his daughter in marriage to Demetrius, the son of the Bactrian monarch, and joined that prince in an important expedition against northern India (b. c. 206). In return, he made some efforts to revive the commercial system of Alexander the Great, and paid particular atten- tion to the trade of the Persian gulf. On the death of Ptolemy Philop'- ater (b. c. 203), and the accession of his infant son, Antiochus entered into an alliance with Philip, king of Macedon, to wrest Egypt from the family of the Ptolemies. He conquered Ccele-Syria ai.d Palestine ; but was prevented from pursuing his success by the interference of At'talus, the Rhodians, and the Romans. Checked in this direction, he revived the claims of his family on the northern states of Europe and Asia. While his generals besieged Smyr'na and Lamp'sacus, he con- quered the Thracian Chersonese, and prepared to invade Greece (b. c. 196). Th^ Romans again interfered; but the Syrian monarch, insti- gated by Hannibal, who had sought refuge at his court, treated their remonstrances with disdain. War immediately followed. Antiochus lost the fairest opportunities of success by neglecting the advice of Hannibal : driven from Europe into Asia, he was forced to act solely on the defensive, until his total defeat at Magnesia, near Mount Sip'y- ius, laid him prostrate at the feet of his enemies. The Romans depriv- ed him of all his dominions in Asia Minor, the greater part of which were annexed to the kingdom of Per'gamus. The unfortimate monarch did long survive his defeat : he was murdered by his servants (b. c. 187) ; but the cause and manner of the crime are uncertain. Seleucus IV., surnamed Philop'ater (a lover of his father), succeeded to a throne fast falling into decay. His reign lasted eleven years, but was not distinguished by any remarkable event. Anxious to have the aid of his brother Antiochus, who had been given as an hostage to the Romans, Seleucus sent his son Demetrius to Rome in exchange. Be- fore Antiochus could reach home, Heliodorus poisoned Seleucus, and usurped the crown (b. c. 176). This is represented by many Jewish SYRIA. 157 writers as a providential punishment of the king, who had employed that very minister to phinder the sacred treasury of Jerusalem. Antiochus IV. soon expelled the usurper, and assumed the surname of Epiphanes [illustrious) which his subsequent conduct induced his contemporaries to change into that of Epimanes (madman). He sought to combine the freedom of Roman manners with the ostentatious luxury of the Asiatics, and thereby provoked universal hatred. His reign coiMnenced with a war against Egypt, in consequence of the claim made by the Ptolemies to Coele-Syria and Palestine. Antiochus was very successful : in two campaigns he penetrated to the walls of Alexandria, and gained possession of the person of Ptolemy Philom'eter, the right ful heir of the Egyptian throne, who had been driven from Alexandria by his brother Phys'con. With this prince the Syrian monarch con- :;luded a most advantageous peace ; but scarcely had he returned home, when Philom'eter entered into an accommodation with his brother, and Doth combined to resist the power of Syria. Justly enraged a,t this treachery, Antiochus returned to Egypt ; but his furthe*- progress was stopped by the interference of the Romans, at whose imperious command he found himself compelled to resign all his conquests (b. c. 169). The ambition of Antiochus was next directed against his own sub- 'jects : he resolved to establish uniformity of worship throughout his dominions, and to Hellenize all his subjects. His intolerance and rapa- city engendered a determined spirit of resistance (b. c. 168). The Jews, headed by the gallant Mac'cabees, commenced a fierce struggle, which, after much suffering, ended in the restoration of their former in- dependence ; and the Persians, equally attached to their ancient faith, raised the standard of revolt. Antiochus hasted to suppress the insur- rection in upper Asia ; but being severely defeated (b. c. 165), he died of vexaUon on his road to Babylon. Eupator, the young son of the deceased monarch, was placed on the throne by the Syrians ; but Demetrius, the son of Seleucus Philop'a^jr, having escaped from Rome, no sooner appeared in Asia than he was joined by such numerous partisans, that he easily dethroned his rival (b. c: 162). With the usual barbarity of Asiatic sovereigns, he put the young prince to death, and found means to purchase the pardon of his crimes from the Roman senate. After an inglorious reign, he was slain in battle by Alexander Balas (b. c. 150), an impostor who personated the unfortunate Eupator, and was supported in his fraud by the Mac'- cabees and the Romans. Balas was in his turn defeated by Demetrius Nicator, the son of the late nionarch (b. c. 145), and forced to seek refuge in Arabia, where he was murdered by his treacherous host. Nicator, having lost the afTections of his subjects, was driven from Antioch by Try'phon, Avho placed the crown on the head of young An- tiochus, the son of Balas ; but in a short time murdered that prince, and proclaimed himself king. Demetrius was withheld from marching against the usurper by the hope of acquiring a better kingdom in up- per Asia, whither he was invited by the descendants of the Greek ana Macedonian colonists, to defend them from the power of the Parthians (b. c. 140). He was at first successful, but was finally captured by his enemies, who detained him a prisoner for ten years. In the mean- time his brother Antiochus Sidetes, having overthrov/n Try'phon, seized 158 ANCIENT HISTORY. the crown of Syria. He appears to haA^e been a good and wise sover- eion ; but unfortunately he was induced, by the provincials of upper Asia, to Avage war against the Parthians, and was treacherously mur- dered by his own allies (b. c. 130). Demetrius, about the same time, escaped from prison, and was restored to the throne. But after a brief reign he was defeated and slain by Zebinus (b. c. 126), a pretended son of the impostor Balas. Seleucus, the son of Demetrius, was waging a successful war against Zebinas, when he was treacherously murdered by his own mother Cleopatra, who wished to secure the crown for her favorite child Antiochus Gry'phus. She also prevailed on her relative, the king of Egypt, to declare war against the usurper ; and Zebinas was soon defeated and slain. Gry'phus no sooner found himself secure on the throne than he put his mother to death for the murder of Seleucus (b. c. 122) ; and it must be added, that this measure was necessary to secure his own life. After some years, Cyzicenus, the half-brother of Gry'phus, attempted to usurp the throne ; and during the civil war that ensued, many cities and provinces separated from the Syrian kingdom. Gry'phus was assassinated (b. c. 97). His five sons and the son of Cyzicenus engaged in a dreary series of civil wars ; until the Syrians, weary of enduring the calamities and bloodshed of their protracted dis- sensions, expelled the entire family, and gave the crown to Tigranes, king of Armenia (b. c. 83). Tigranes, after a long and not inglorious reign, was involved in a war with the Romans, which ended in his complete overthrow ; and he was forced to resign Syria to the conquer- ors (b. c. 64.) Thus the kingdom of the Seleucidaj was made a Roman province, and the family soon after became extinct in the person of Se leucus Cybrosac'tes (b. c. 57). He was raised to the throne of Egypt by his wife, the princess Berenice, and afterward murdered by her orders. Section HI. — History of Egypt under the Ptolemies. FROM B. C. 301 TO B. C. 30. Ptol'emy, the son of Lagus, was the wisest state sman among the suc- cessors cf Alexander. No sooner had the battle (»f Ip-'sus put him in possession of the kingdom of Egypt, than he begin to provide for the happiness of his new subjects by a regeneration of their entire social system. Unlike the Seleucida;, he made no attempt to Hellenize the Egj'ptians ; on the contrary, he revived, as much as altered circum- stances would permit, their ancient religious and political constitution ; the priestly caste was restored to a portion of its ancient privileges ; the division of the country into nomes was renewed ; Memphis, though not the usual residence of the monarchs, was constituted the capital of the kingdom, and its temple of Phtha declared the national sanctuary, where alone the kings could receive the crown. But not less wise was the generous patronage accorded to literature and science : the Museum was founded in Alexandria as a kind of university for students, and a place oi assembly for the learned ; the first great national library was established in another part of the city ; and the philosophers and EGYPT. 139 men of letters were invited to seek shelter from the storms which shook every other part of the world in the tranquil land of Egypt. Im- pressed by the example of his illustrious master, PtoFemy paid great attention to trade and navigation. Colonists from every quarter of the globe were invited to settle at Alexandria, and the Jews flocked thither in great numbers, to escape the persecution of their S)'rian masters. So many of that singular people became subjects of the Ptol'emies, that the Septuagint version of the Old Testament from Hebrew^ into Greek was made for their use, and a Jewish temple erected in Egypt similar to that of Jerusalem. The double harbors of Alexandria, on the sea, and on the Marseot'ic lake, were constructed at the same time, and the celebrated Pharus, or lighthouse, erected at the entrance of the haven. The city of Alexandria, which had been begun before the death of Alexander, owed most of its splendor to Ptol'emy. But among all the public buildings he planned or erected, there is none better deserves our attention than the Museum, or College of Philosophy. Its chief room was a great hall, which was used as a lecture-room and common dining-room ; it had a covered walk or portico all round the outside, and there was a raised seat or bench on which the philosophers some- times sat in the open air. The professors and teachers of the college were supported by a public income. Ptol'emy's love of art, his anxiety to reward merit, and his agreeable manners, brought to his court so many persons distinguished in science, literature, and the fine arts, that the Museum of Alexandria became the centre of civilization for the known world. The arts and letters thus introduced, did not bear their richest fruit in the reign of the founder : they flourished most in the age of his son ; but this does not detract from the merit of the first Ptol'emy, who gave the institutions he planted such permanence, tha; they struck deep root in the soil and continued to flourish under all his successors, unchoked by the vices and follies which unfortunately grew up around them. In return for the literature which Greece then gave to Egypt, she gained the knowledge of papy'rus. Before that time books had been written on Unen, wax, or the bark of trees : and public records on stone, brass, or lead : but the knowledge of papy'rus was felt by all men of letters like the invention of printing in modern Europe ; books were then known by many for the first time, and very little else was afterward used in Greece and Rome ; for when parchment was invent- ed about tv'f centuries later, it was found too costly to be generally used so long as papy^rus could be obtained. The papy'rus reed is only found in Egypt and a small district in Sicily. Successful attempts have been made to manufacture it in modem times, but the process is too tedious and uncertain to be remunerative, and the papy'rus is only prepared as a matter of curiosity. The external security of Egypt wa« strengthened by the conquest of the Syrian frontiers, the ancient kingdom of Cyrene, a considerable rnrt of Ethiopia, and the island of Cyprus. Hence, during the ad- ministration of Ptol'emy I., Egypt was free from the fear of foreign in- vasion, and its inhabitants, for the first time during several centuries, were, free to develop the great internal resources of the country. Few 160 ANCIENT HISTORY. sovereigns were more deservedly lamented than the son of Lagus (b. c. 284) : his death spread universal sorrow among his subjects, who at once lamented him as a father, and worshipped him as a god. The reign of Ptol'emy II., surnamed Pliiladel'phus (a lover of his brethren), was disturbed only by the rebellion of Magas, which was supported by Antiochus II., as has been mentioned in the preceding section. Under the peaceful administration of Philadel'phus, Egyptian commerce made the most rapid strides ; ports for the Indian and Ara- bian trade were constructed on the Red sea, at Arsinoe (Siiez), My'os Hor'mus (Cosseir), and Berenice. From the two latter stations cara- van roads were made to the Upper Nile, and the lower river was united to the Red sea by a canal, which was further continued to the lesser harbor of Alexandria, on the Marreotic lake. The Ethiopian trade was revived with great spirit ; and remote countries of central and southern Africa Avere opened to the enterprise of the Alexandrian merchants. Unfortunately, the luxury of the court increased in the same proportion as the wealth of the country. Philadel'phus fell into all the efleminate dissipation of the Asiatic sovereigns, and adopted their pernicious habits of intermarriages between near relations. He set the example by repudiating his first wife, and marrying his own sister Arsinoe, who exercised the greatest influence over her husband. She brought him no children, but she adopted the offspring of her predecessor. It was during the reign of Ptol'emy PhiladeFphus that Pyr'rhus was driven out of Italy by the Romans (b. c. 274) ; and this event induced the Egyptian king to send an ambassador to the senate, to wish them joy of their success, and to make a treaty of peace with the republic. The Romans received the envoy with great joy, and in return sent four ambassadors to Egypt to seal the treaty. Ptol'emy showed the Roman deputies every kindness, and explained to them those processes of Greek art with which they were acquainted. Subsequently two of the ambassadors, Quin'tus Ogul'nius and Fabius Pic'tor, having been elected consuls, introduced a silver coinage at Rome, the advantages of which they had been taught in Egypt. Philadel'phus was succeeded by his son Ptol'emy III., surnamed Ever'getes( fresh exertions in behalf of their freedom ; and at length the senata vielded a reluctant assent to the formation of a code. Ambassadors having been sent to the principal Grecian states and colonies for the purpose of collecting the best codes of celebrated legis- lators, on their return, ten persons, hence called decemviri, were chosen, wi*h consular power, to arrange and digest a body of laws. A new constitution was established, known in history as the laws of the Twelve Tables, which continued, down to the time of the emperors, to be the basis of all civil and penal jurisprudence. It established the legal equality of all the citizens ; but it preserved some of the most odious privileges of the aristocracy, especially the exclusive eligibility to the consulship, and it prohibited the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians (b. c. 450). The patricians, hoping to procure some modification in law.s ROMAN REPUBLIC, 213 which they regarded as ruinous to their interests, and the plebeians, gratified by the advantages they had obtained, united to continue the decemviral authority for another year. The decem'virs, now secure of power, threw off the mask, grievously oppressed the people, and treach- erously betrayed old Sic'cius Dentatus, whose approved valor they dreaded, to the enemy. At length Ap'pius, one of their number, at- tempted to make Vir'ginia, the daughter of a brave officer, the victim of his lust, by illegally assigning her as a slave to one of his creatures. Her father, Vir'ginius, slew the girl in the public court to save her from dishonor, and, aided by her lover Icil'ius, raised such a Ftorm against the decemvirs, that they were forced to resign their office, and the ancient forms of government were restored. The tribunician power was not only re-established, but formidably increased by a law of the consul Valerius (b. c. 446), which invested the votes of the commons with the force of laws.* Civil commotions were renewed in consequence of the exertions made by the tribune Canuleius to abolish the law against intermarriages, and to open the consulship to plebeians. The repeal of the marriage-law was conceded, after a difficult struggle (b. c. 455) ; and the second popular demand was evaded by transferring the consular power to the annual commanders of the legions,! who were to be six in number, and one half chosen from the people (b. c. 443). But even this concession was for some time evaded by the senate, under the pretence of informal- ities in the election of those officers. Soon afterward (b. c. 442), new magistrates, called censors, were chosen, not only to regulate the taking of the census, but also to superintend public morals ; a power that soon enabled these magistrates to take rank among the very highest dignitaries of the state. These changes, however, did not conciliate the people, and a severe famine (b. c. 438) aggravated their discontent. In the midst of this distress, Spurius Mse'lius, a plebeian knight, pur- chased with his private fortune a large quantity of corn in Tuscany, which he distributed gratuitously to the people. His object probably was to become the first plebeian consul, which laudable object the patricians perverted into the crime of aiming at the sovereignty. They therefore appointed Cincinnatus dictator, who at once sent Spurius Ahala his master of the horse, to summon Mae'lius before his tribunal. The knight was standing unarmed in the forum when thus called upon to take his trial ; he showed some reluctance to obey the dictator's command, and was cut down by Ahala. The old dictator applauded this murder of a defenceless man as an act of patriotism ; but the people took a different view of the transaction, and Ahala only escaped con- demnation by voluntary exile. While these commotions raged in the city, the Romans were engaged in desultory wars against the Sabines, the ^Equians, and the Volscians, which generally terminated to the advantage of the republic, though they led to no decisive result. A more important affair was the war against Veil, provoked by Lar Tolum'nius, king of the Veien'tes, who put to death the Roman ambassadors to the people of Fidenae. Satis- faction being refused for this outrage (b. c. 404), the Romans came to • Lex Valeria ; ut quod tributim plebes jussisset, populum teneret. ) TribunJ railitum co:;sulari potestate. 214 * ANCIENT HISTORY. the resolution of destroying Veii, which, being the richest city of Etruria, had long been a dangerous rival of their republic. To effect this object, it was necessary to have a permanent standing army ; and a property-tax was levied to supply payment for the troops. After the blockade and siege had continued nearly ten years, Furius Camil'lus, who had distinguished himself by defeating the Etrurian armies that attempted to aid the Veien'tes, was chosen dictator. By his directions a mine was constructed from the Roman camp into the Veientine citadel, through which an entrance was obtained, and Veii taken (b. c. 395). Its riches were shared by the soldiers, its inhabitants enslaved or held to ransom, and the images of its gods transferred to Rome. Notwithstanding his great services, Camil'lus was condemned to exile on the charge of having embezzled part of the plunder of Veii ; but scarcely had he departed, Avhen the Romans were involved in the most calamitous war that has yet occurred in their history. The barbarous Gauls, having crossed the Alps in numerous hordes, laid waste the fer- tile fields of Etruria, and besieged the important city of Clusium. The Etrurians sought aid from the Romans, who sent some of the young nobiUty to remonstrate with the Bren'nus, or chieftain of the Gauls. This barbarous chieftain treated the deputies with such scorn, that, for- getting their sacred character, they entered the besieged city, and joined in a sally of the garrison. The Bren'nus, enraged at such a violation of the law of nations, demanded satisfaction from the senate ; and when this was refused, broke up his camp, and marched direct against Rome. A body of troops, hastily levied to repel the invasion, took post on the river Al'lia, about eleven miles from Rome (b. c. 389). In the very commencement of the engagement, the Romans, seized with sudden panic, broke and fled ; they were pursued with dreadiul slaughter to their very gates ; and had not the victors paused to gather the spoil, an end would have been put to the Roman name and nation. To defend the city of Rome against such an enemy was impossible ; it was therefore resolved to place the best troops as a garrison in the citadel, supplying them with whatever provisions remained in the city, while the mass of the population should seek retuge in the neighboring towns. The priests and principal objects of religious reverence were removed to the old Pelasgic city, Cae're Agyl'la. About eighty of the chief pontiffs and patricians, probably devoting themselves, according to the superstition of the age, for the safety of the republic, remained quietly sitting on their curule chairs in the forum. When the Gauls entered the city, they were amazed to find it deserted : pursuing their march, they entered the forum, and slew those whom they found there. They then laid siege to the capitol ; but soon became weary of so tedious a task, especially after tlieir attempt to take the citadel by 5torm had been frustrated by the caclding of the sacred geese kept in the temple of Juno, and the valor of Mar'cus Man'lius. They finally agreed to quit the city, on receiving a ransom of one thousand pounds' weight of gold. According to the ordinary legend, Camil'lus, recalled from banishment by a hasty decree of the people assembled at Veii, appeared with an army while the gold was being weighed, defeated the Gauls, and liberated his country. Polyb'ius, a Greek historian, gives a much more probable account. He says, that the Gauls returned home ROMAN REPUBLIC. 215 to protect their own country from an invasion of the Veii'eti, and inti- mates that they bore oiF their pkmder without interruption. Section IV. — From the Rebuilding of the City to the first Punic War. FROM B. c. 388 TO B. c. 264. So helpless was Rome after the departure of the Gauls, that it was exposed to repeated insults from the neighboring townships, which had hitherto been subject to its sway. The citizens looked forward with dismay to the task of rebuilding their walls and houses ; they clamored for an immediate removal to Veii, and were with difficulty prevented from accomplishing their purpose by the firmness of Camil'lus. While the subject was under discussion, a lucky omen, probably preconcerted, decided the irresolute. Just as a senator was rising to speak, a centu- rion, coming with his company to relieve guard, gave the usual word of command : " Ensign, plant your colors ; this is the best place TO STAY IN !"* The senators rushed out of the temple, exclaiming, " A happy omen : the gods have spoken — we obey." The multitude caught the enthusiasm, and exclaimed with one voice, " Rome for EVER !" Under the prudent guidance of Camil'lus, the military strength of Rome was renewed, and the states which had triumphed in the recent humiliation of the city Avere forced again to recognise its superiority. Man'lius, the brave defender of the capitol, finding himself excluded from office by the jealousy of his brother patricians, declared himself the patron of the plebeians. This revived the old dissensions with all their former virulence. Camil'lus was appointed dictator ; and by his orders Man'lius was brought to trial, convicted of treason, and thrown from the Tarpeian rock (b. c. 382). A plague, which burst forth soon after, was popularly attributed to the anger of the gods at the destruc- tion of the hero who had saved their temples from pollution. By their triumph over Man'lius, and their steadiness in opposing popular claims, the patricians acquired such strength, that the populace became over- awed, and the commons ceased to display the spirit and courage they had previously shown in their contests with the nobles. " Rome was on the point of degenerating into a miserable oligarchy ; her name is the utmost we should have known of her, had not her irretrievable de- cline been arrested at the moment by the appearance of two men, who changed the fate of their country and of the world." f The renovators of the constitution were Caius Licin'ius Stolo, and Lucius Seu'tius Lateranus. They were aided in their patriotic labors by Mar'cus Fabius Ambus'tus, a patrician, the father-in-law of Licin'- ius, who is said to have favored the popular cause to gratify the ambi- tion of a favorite daughter. There were three rogations, or bills, brought forward by Licin'ius : the first opened the consulship to the plebeians ; the second prohibited any person from renting more than five hundred acres of public 1-and, and forbade any individual to feed on a common pasturage more than one hundred of large, and five hundred of small cattle. It also fixed the rents of tho public lands at the tenth • Hie maiiebimus optime. t Niebuhr. 216 ANCIENT HISTORY. of the corn produce (fruges), and a fifth of the produce of vines, aloes, and other fruit-trees. The third rogation proposed that, in all cases of outstanding debts, all the interest which had been paid should be de- ducted from the capital, and the balance paid by equal annual instal- ments in three years. The patricians protracted their resistance to these laws during five years, using every means of force and fraud in their power to frustrate the designs of Licin^ius. At length the people took, arms, and occupied Mount Aventine. Camil'lus, being chosen dictator, saw that nothing but concession could avert the horrors of a civil war ; and the senate allowed the three bills to become law (b. c. 366), stipulating only that the consuls should no longer act as civil judges, and that new magistrates should be chosen, with the title of praetors, to exercise judicial functions. The plebeians having once made good their claim to the consulship, acquired successively, as a matter of course, participation in the other high offices of state • the lictatorship was opened to them b. c. 353 ; the censorship, b. c. S-iS ; the praetorship, b. c. 334 ; and even the priestly office, b. c. 300. During these civic struggles the Romans maintained their reputation abroad by several victories over their enemies, especially the Gauls and the Etrurians. But they were soon engaged in a more important struggle with the Samnites ; and this contest, which lasted, with little urtermission, more than half a century, opened a way for the subjuga- tion of southern Italy, and laid the foundation of Rome's future great- ness. The Samnites having invaded Campania, the people of Cap'ua, to ward off impending danger, declared themselves subjects of Rome. Ambassadors being sent to warn the Samnites against invading the new province, the Samnites treated their remonstrances with contempt, and war was immediately declared. It was carried on slowly at first, but generally to the advantage of the Romans, until the Samnites sought terms of truce. During this interval the Latins attacked the Samnites, who requested assistance from their recent enemies, and orders were issued by the senate that the Latins should desist from hostilities. These commands being disobeyed, war was declared against the Latins, and the conduct of it intrusted to the consuls Man'- lius and Decius. To prevent the confusion which might arise between armies speaking the same language, Man'lius commanded that no Ro- man soldier should quit his ranks under pain of death (b. c. 330). The consul's own son, challenged to single combat by a commander of the enemy, disobeyed these orders, and was instantly sent to execution by the stern father. In the engagement which ensued, the Romans were on the point of being routed, until Decius, the plebeian consul, devoting himself, according to the superstitions of the age, for the good of his country, rushed into the thickest of the fight, and fell covered with wounds. The soldiers, now persuaded that the gods had been concil- iated, renewed the fight with enthusiastic confidence, and the Latins were completely defeated. The Romans followed up their success with so much spirit during the three ensuing campaigns, that all La- tium and Campania were subdued, and annexed as provinces to the territory of the republic. These great advantages gained by their rivals, alarmed liie Sam- nites ; many also of the states in southern Italy, especially the Luca* ROMAN REPUBLIC. 217 nians and Tarentines, became jealous of the rising greatness of Rome. Papir'ius Cur'sor was appointed dictator to crush this dangerous con- federacy : he gained several victories over the Samnites ; and these successes being improved by the generals that followed him, reduced the enemies so low, that they were once more forced to solicit a ces- sation of arms (b. c. 321). But these peaceful appearances lasted only a few months : Pon'tius, an able Samnite general, stimulated his coun- trymen to renew the war, and bade defiance to the Roman power. The consuls Vetiirius and Posthumius were sent with a large army to in- vade Sam'nium (b. c. 320) ; but the crafty Pon'tius contrived to draw these generals, with their leaders, into a mountainous and rocky defile, called the Caudine Forks, where they could neither fight nor fly ; and while they were in this situation, the Samnites blockaded all the pas- sages. The Romans being forced to capitulate, Pon'tius sent to ask his father in what manner the persons should be treated : the old man recommended that they should either be dismissed with all honor and freedom, or slaughtered without mercy. Pon'tius unwisely adopted a middle course ; he spared the lives of the Romans, but compelled them all, officers and soldiers, to pass under the yoke, and forced the consuls to give hostages for evacuating Sam'nium. This disgraceful treaty was disavowed by the senate, and the offi- cers who had signed it were sent bound to Pon'tius, that he might wreak his vengeance upon them ; but the Samnite general spurned such poor satisfaction, and vainly demanded either that the whole Ro- man army should be again placed in his power, or that the articles of capitulation should be strictly observed. The Romans turned a deaf ear to these proposals ; Papir'ius Cur'sor once more showed them the way to victory ; his successors in command followed his example ; and the Samnites, completely humbled, sought and obtained conditions of peace (b. c. 303). But amity could not long subsist between nations aspiring each to the • supremacy of Italy : the war was renewed (b. c. 297) ; and Fabius Max'imus, with his colleague, the younger Decius, rivalled the exploits of Papir'ius Cur'sor. The Samnites were aided by the Umbrians, the Etrurians, and the Gauls ; but the despef ate valor of the Romans enabled them to triumph over this formidable con- federacy. Once they were on the point of being defeated by the Gauls (b. c. 294) ; but the younger Decius, imitating the example of his father, devoted himself an offering to the gods, and, at the sacrifice of his life, purchased a decisive victory for his countrymen. At length the Samnites, having lost their brave general Pon'tius, were completely subdued by Ciirius Dentatus (b. c. 290), and forced to submit to the terms dictated by the conquerors. In the same year the Sabines were conquered ; and Curius had ihe unusual honor of having two triumphs decreed to him in one consulate. The Tarentines, and the other states in southern Italy, dreading that the Romans would take vengeance on them for their having aided the Samnites, incited the Gauls to attack the republic. These barbarians were at first successful ; but they were finally crushed by Dentatus and Fabricius. Preparations were made for a war against Taren'tum, and its luxurious citizens placed themselves under the protection of Pyr'- rhus, king of Epirus. That royal knight-errant, believing that it was 218 ANCIENT HISTOR-Y. m his power to found as extensive an empire in the western world w Alexander the Great had recently established in Asia, readily obeyed the summons ; and having sent his friend Cineas with a strong de- tachment to secure the citadel of Taren'tum, soon followed with a powerful army, having some elephants among his forces, the first that had been used in the wars of western Europe (b. c. 279). It was solely to these animals that Pyr'rhus was indebted for his first victory over the consul Lasvinus ; and so little were the vanquished terrified by defeat, that they vainly offered him a renewal of battle before the termination of the campaign. He was still more unsuccessful in his attempts at negotiation ; his bribes were rejected by the Roman consul and ambassador Fabrfcius ; and the offers of peace which he sent to the senate by the orator Cineas were peremptorily rejected. A second time Pyr'rhus defeated the Romans ; but was so little sat- isfied with his success as to exclaim, " Another such victory and I am undone !" The war then lingered, and Pyr'rhus passed over into Sicily, with his usual inconstancy, to deliver the Greek states in that island from the Carthaginians. During his absence his allies suffered very severely, and sent pressing messages soliciting his return ; an ex- cuse of which Pyr'rhus readily availed himself to cover the shame of his failure in Sicily (b. c. 274). Curius Dentatus and Cornelius Len'- tulus were chosen consuls to oppose him, and two considerable armies were placed at their disposal. Pyr'rhus marched against the former, hoping to surprise him in his camp near Beneven'tum ; but his lights failing him, he was ol)liged to halt, luitil the dawn revealed his ap- proach to the Romans. Instead of being the assailant, the Epirote monarch was himself attacked by Dentatus ; his elephants were driven back on his own lines by fireballs and torches ; and after vainly en- deavoring to stop the slaughter of his bravest troops, he was forced to fly with a small escort to Taren'tum. Thence he returned to Greece, leaving a garrison under the command of Milo- in the citadel, which, however, finally surrendered to.the Romans. The Samnites, Bruttians, and Lucanians, Avho had joined Pyr'rhus, were easily subdued after his'»departure ; and Rome established her supremacy over all the coun- tries in Italy, from the northern frontiers of Etruria to the Sicilian straits, and from the Tuscan sea to the Adriatic. Section V. — From the Commencement of the Punic Wars to the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Grac'chi, FROM B. c. 264 TO B. c. 134. The Mamer'tine mercenaries^ who had seized Messena and slaugh- tered the citizens, justly dreading the vengeance of the Syracusans, divided into two parties ; one seeking the protection of the Cartha- ginians, the other that of the Romans. Thus the first pretence of quar- rel between the two mightiest republics of ancient times was, which should have the honor, or rather dishonor, of shielding from merited punishment a piratical banditti, stained by every species of crime. The Romans were long delayed by their reluctance to acknowledge such discreditable allies ; but finding that the Carthaginians had gained possession of the Messenian citadel, they made speedy preparations to ROMAN REPUBLIC. 219 prevent their rivals from beoming masters of Sicily. An army in- tnisted to the command of the consul Ap'pius Claudius, was conveyed across the straits (the vigilance of the Carthaginian fleet being eluded by stratagem), and gained possession of Messena. Successive victo- ries over the Syracusans and Carthaginians soon procured the Roman allies among the Sicilian states, and inspired them with the hope of becoming masters of the island. Hiero, king of Syracuse, deserted his former allies, and by his early alliance with Rome, secured the tranquillity of his kingdom in the coming contest. The Carthaginians, on the other hand, who had looked upon Sicily as an almost certain conquest, were filled with rage when they learned the danger that threatened their possessions in that island. They hired a vast number of mercenaries in Gaul, Ligairia, and Spain ; they made Agrigen'tum their chief naval and military depot, storing it plentifully with the mu- nitions of war. Notwithstanding the great natural and artificial strength of Agrigen'tum, the Romans, eager to seize the Carthaginian magazines, laid siege to the city, and defeated an immense army that had been sent to its relief (b. c. 262). Dispirited by this misfortune, the garrison abandoned the city, which, with all its stores, fell into the hands of the Romans. But this success only roused the senate and people of Rome to fresh exertions ; they saw that their conquests could not be secure while the Carthaginians held the supremacy of the sea, and they there- fore directed all their energies to the preparation of a fleet. Though not wholly imacquainted with ships, the Romans had hitherto paid little or no attention to naval aff"airs ; and their model for building Bhips-of-war was a Carthaginian vessel that had been driven ashor^ in a storm. After some indecisive skirmishes, the consul Duil'ius, relying on his invention of the " corvus," a machine which served both as a grappling-ii'on and drawbridge, hazarded an engagement Avith the Carthaginian fleet (b. c. 260). No sooner had the hostile ships closed, than the Romans lowered the new machines on the enemies' decks, and, fighting hand to hand, carried no fewer then fifty gah^ys by board- ing. The Carthaginian admiral finding naval tactics of no avail, drew oft' the rest of his fleet. To commemorate this their first victory by sea, the Romans erected a rostral* column in the forum, which still continues in excellent preservation, the chief injury it has sustained being the lr?« of part of the inscription. In a second naval engc^ge- inent, near the island of Lip'ara (b. c. 256), the Carthaginians lost eighteen vessels, of which eight were sunk and ten taken. From this time forward the Romans began to pay great attention to maritime af- fairs ; they maintained navies in the two seas of Italy, and when the ships were not employed in war, they were sent to make surveys of the coasts. The increasing importance of navigation appears manifest, from the repeated representations of war-galleys on the Roman coins ; these do not occur before the first Punic war, but after that, period we find them becoming very common. The struggle between the rival republics had lasted about eight years, when the Romans, following the example of the Syracusan Agathoc'les, resolved to invade Africa, knowing that the native tribes of that con- • That is, ornamented with representations of the rostra, or beaks of ships. 220 ANCIENI HISTORY. tinent were weary of the tyranny and rapacity of Carthage. An arma« merit of three hundred and thirty ships was prepared for this great en- terprise, and intrusted to the command of the consuls Reg'ulus and Man'lius (b. c. 255). A third sea-fight was a necessary preliminary to iJjis invasion ; the Carthaginians were once more defeated, sixty-four of their galleys were taken, and thirty destroyed. The victorious fleet pursued its voyage ; Reg'ulus effected a landing without loss, and took the city of Clypea by storm. Soon after, he defeated the Carthaginian army in a general engagement, and seized the city of Tunis. In great terror the Carthaginians sought for peace ; but the terms demanded by Reg'ulus were so harsh, that they resolved, at all hazards, to continue the war, and were confirmed in their determination by the arrival of a body of mercenary troops from Greece, under the command of Xanthip'- pus, a Spartan general of high reputation. To this foreigner the Car- thaginians intrusted the command of their army : he eagerly sought an opportunity of bringing the enemy to an engagement ; the Romans did not decline his challenge ; but they found that one man was sufiicient to change the fortune of the war. Xanthip'pus won a complete vic- tory : the greater part of the Romans were taken prisoners or cut to pieces, two thousand alone escaping to the city of Clypea ; Reg'ulus himself was among the captives. The Spartan general, after this brilliant exploit, returned home. A Roman fleet was sent to bring off" the garrison of Clypea, and gained on the voyage a great victory over the Carthaginians ; but on the re- turn of the ships, three hundred and twenty of them, with all on board, were destroyed by a tempest. A second naval armament suffered a similar fate ; and the Romans, disheartened by these repeated misfor- tunes, abandoned for a time the sea to their enemies. But they were in some degree consoled by a second triimiph obtained near Panor'mus, in Sicily, over As'drubal (b. c. 249), which gave them a decided supe- riority in the island. The Carthaginians, daunted by this misfortune, took Reg'ulus from his dungeon to go as their ambassador to Rome, trusting that, weary of a long captivity, he would urge the senate to grant favorable terms of peace. Reg'ulus, however, persuaded his countrymen to continue the war, assuring them that the resources of Carthage were exhausted. It is generally stated, that the patriotic general, after his return to Africa, was tortured to death by the disappointed Carthaginians. On the other hand, there is reason lo believe that he died a natural death, and that the tale of his savage murder was invented to excuse the cruelty w'^^h which his family treated their Carthaginian captives. The renewed war began unfavorably for the Romans, their entire fleet having been wrecked on the south coast of Sicily (b. c. 248), and Hamil'car Bar'ca, the new commander of the Carthaginians, proving a worthy successor of Xanthip'pus. But they were not dispirited by these losses ; a new fleet, of better construction than any they had yet possessed, was built, and placed under the command of the consul Lutatius Cat'ulus ; at the same time strong reinforcements were sent to the army in Sicily. The hostile navies met near the iEgates ; the consifl had lightened his ves- sels by landing all unnecessary burdens on one of these islands ; but Han'no, the Carthaginian admiral, in his hurry to engage, left his ves- ROMAN REPUBLIC. 221 sels encumberod with baggage. The battle was brief but decisive ; fifty of Han'no's vessels were sunk, and seventy taken ; and the Car- thaginians Avere for ever deprived of the empire of the sea (b. c. 241). But the consequences of this defeat threatened still more fatal results to Carthage : Hamil'car Bar'ca, with the last army on which the re- public could depend, was closely blockaded in a comer of Sicily, and the Roman cruisers cut him off from all communication with Africa : were he forced to surrender, Carthage would be left at the mercy of the barbarous tribes in its neighborhood. Under these circumstances the Carthaginians sought peace, but could obtain no better terms than those which Reg'ulus demanded when in sight of their gates (b. c. 240). These conditions were, that the Carthaginians should evacuate all the islands of the Mediterranean, restore the Roman prisoners without ransom, and pay three thousand talents of silver (about 600,000'.) to defray the expenses of the war. After the termination of the first Punic war, Rome enjoyed a brief period of domestic and external tranquillity ; and the temple of Janus was shut for the second time since the foundation of the city. Tedious wars were waged against the Ligurians and the Gallic tribes which had settled in northern Italy, when the people became weary of peace ; but a more important contest was provoked by the piracies of the lUyrians, whose queen, Teuta, procured the murder of the ambassadors sent to remonstrate against the outrages of her subjects. A navy was soon established in the Adriatic, and an army sent into Illyricum, whose rapid successes compelled Teuta to purchase peace by resigning the greater part of her territories (b. c. 227). This speedy conquest diflused the fame of the Romans throughout eastern Europe ; for most of the Greek states had suffered severely from the piracies of the Illyrians. The war was subsequently renewed (b. c. 218), and the Illyrians again overthrown with greater disgrace and loss. The Carthaginians were anxious to compensate their losses in Sicily by the subjugation of Spain ; and their extensive conquests in that pen- insula gave great umbrage to their suspicious rivals. A pretext for in- terference was soon found. Han'nibal, the son of Hamil'car Bar^ca, who had been brought, while yet a child, to the altar by his father, and sworn i\ever to relax in his enmity to Rome, laid siege to Sagun^tum, a Greek colony south of the Iberus, and treated with contempt the re- monstrances of the Roman ambassadors (b. c. 218). His conduct hav- ing been approved by the Carthaginian senate, both parties made instant preparations for renewing hostilities, and soon commenced the seco-^'i Punic war. Before tJie Roman armies were ready to take the field, Han'nibal had completed the conquest of Spain, and crossed the Pyrenees on his road to Italy. The consul, Scip'io, hastened to prevent him from passing the Rhone ; but being frustrated by the superior diligence of the Car- thaginian general, he sent the greater part of his forces into Spain, and sailed with the remainder for Italy, in order to intercept his enemies as they descended from the Alps. Even ihese formidable mountains caused but little delay to the enterprising Han'nibal. He led his army across them in fifteen days (b. c. 217) ; and, advancing through the country of the Taurini, took their capital city (Turin) by storm. 222 ANCIENT HISTORY. Scip'io hasted to meet tlie invaders on the banks of the river Ticinus ; bit he was defeated with great loss, and further weakened by the de- sertion of his Gallic mercenaries, who eagerly flocked to the standard of Han'nibal, regarding him as another Bren'nus. In the meantime, Scip'io had been reinforced by Sempronius, the other consul ; but he found that these succors were more than counter- balanced by the impetuosity of his colleague. Sempronius, eager to engage, imprudently forded the river Trebia. though its waters were swollen by rain and melted snow. The Romans, suddenly attacked as they came out of the river, were not able to cope with their enemies, who were fresh and vigorous ; nevertheless they made a brave resist- ance, and the central division, unbroken, made its way from the Held to the city of Placen'tia. The victory, however, was of the greatest ser- vice to Hiu/nibal, as it secured him the alliance of the Gauls in north- ern Italy. Flamiu'ius, the consul of the next year, displayed eve.i more impet- uosity and imprudence than Sempronius. Marching incautiously in search of Han'nibal, he fell into an ambuscade near the Thrasyraenian lake, and was slain, with the greater part of his army (b. c. 216). The Romans were so alarmed by the intelligence of this great calamity, that they created Fabius Max'imus dictator, though, in the absence of the surviving consul, they were obliged to dispense with the legal for- malities. Fabius adopted a new system of tactics ; he declined light- ing ; but moving his camp along the summit of the liills, he closely watched the motions of the invaders, harassed their march, and inter- cepted their convoys. From his steadfast adherence to this policy Fabius receiv^ed the' name of Cunctator (i/te delayer). During this pe- riod, the Roman armies in Spain, under the command of the Scip'ios, gained many important advantages, and thus prevented the Carthagini" ans from sending succors to Flan'nibal. At the close of the year, Fabius resigned his authority to the consuls Paul'lus iEmil'ius and Teren'tius Var'ro (b. c. 215). The latter hur- ried Ivis more prudent colleague into a general action at the village of Can'nae, near the river Aufidus, where the Romans suflered a more se- vere defeat than any they had received since their fatal overthrow by the Gauls on the Allia. This A^ctory gave Han'nibal a secure position in southern Italy : it is even supposed, that he would have got posses- sion of Rome itself, had he marched thither immediately after the battle. But the Romans, notwithstanding their great losses, did not despair : Scip'io, a young man destined at no distant period to raise his country to the sununit of greatness, encouraged the nobles of his own age to stand lirm at this crisis ; and Fabius Cunctator being appointed to the couunand of the army, resumed the cautious system, the advantages of which had been already so fully proved. Han'nibal, in the meantime, led his forces to Cap'ui, where his veterans were enervated by the lux- ury and del)auchery of that licentious city. At the same time he con- cluded an alliance with Philip, king of Macedon ; but the Romans, b)*- their intrigues in Greece, found sufiicient employment for that monarch at home, to prevent his hiterference in the aflairs of Italy. They eveu sent an army against him, under the command of the praetor Laivimus. ROMAN REPUBLIC. 223 and thus, though exposed to such danger in Italy, they maintained a vig- orous contest in Greece, Spain, and Sicily. It was in Sicily that success first began to dawn upon the Roman cause (b. c. 211) : the ancient city of Syracuse was taken by the pree- cor Metel'lus ; and the celebrated mathematician, Archime'des, by whose engines the defence had been protracted, was slain in the storm. Two years afterward, Agrigen'tum, the last stronghold of the Carthaginians, was betrayed to Lffivinus ; and the Romans remained masters of the entire island, which henceforth became a regular province. In the meantime the war lingered in Italy ; the Roman generals were rarely able to cope with Han'nibal, though Marcel'lus is said to have gained a general battle over the Carthaginians. On the other hand, Han'nibal, receiving no reinforcements from Carthage, feared to peril his limited resources in any decisive enterprise. At length he sum- moned his brother As'drubal, who had long maintained the Carthaginian cause against the Sci.pios in Spain, to join him in Italy ; and As'drubal, without encountering any great difficulty, soon crossed the Pyrenees and Alps. The consuls, Liv'ius and Nero, having discovered the di- rection of the Carthaginian's march, hastened to intercept him. As'- drubal, misled by his guides, was forced to hazard an engagement at a disadvantage on the banks of the Metaurus, and was cut to pieces with his whole army (b. c. 206). The first information Han'nibal received of this great misfortune, was the sight of his brother's gory head, which the consuls caused to be thrown into his camp. Soon after, the Romans alarmed the Carthaginians by the prospect of a war in Africa, having en- tered into a treaty of alliance with Massinis'sa, the legitimate king of Numidia, and also with the usurper Sy'phax. At length Scip'io, the conqueror of Spain, was chosen consul, and, contrary to the strenuous exertions of Fabius, he prevailed upon the sen- ate to permit him to transfer the war into Africa ; and this was the more readily conceded, as the conclusion of peace with Philip (b. c. 203) had placed a fresh army at their disposal. Scip'io, on landing in Africa (b. c. 202), found that Sy'phax had been won over to the Carthaginian side by his wife Sophonis'ba, the daughter of As'drubal. The Roman general, knowing, however the inconstancy of the Numidian, coni« menced negotiations, which were protracted with equal duplicity. While Sy'phax was thus amused, Scip'io suddenly surprised and burned his camp ; then attacking the Numidians in the midst of the confusion, he put forty thousand of them to the sword. After this achievement, Scip'io laid siege to U'tica : the Carthaginians raised a large army to relieve a place of so much importance ; but they were routed with great slaughter, and pursued to their very walls. This victory exposed Car- thage itself to the perils of a siege ; Tunis, alir. )st within sight of the city, opened its ga'es to ihe Roaa..s ; ai. 1 the Carthaginian senate driv- en almost to despair, recalled Han'nibal from Italy to the defence of his own country. Ha;''ii:bal, on his return home, would have made peace on reasonable terms, had not the Carthaginian populace, elated by the presence of the hero of a hundred fights, obstinately resisted any concession. With a heavy heart the brave old general made preparations for a decisive en- gagement in the field of Zama. Hau'nibal's abilities were not less con- 224 ANCIENT HISTORY. spicuoiis in this fatal fight than in the battles he had won in Italy : but the greater part of his forces were raw troops, unfit to cope with Scip- io's disciplined legions. After a dreadful struggle, the Romans prevail- ed, and they followed up their advantages with so much eagerness, that twenty thousand of the Carthaginians fell in the battle or the pursuit. Han'nibal, after having performed everything that a general or brave soldier could do to restore the fortune of the day, fled with a small body of horse to Adrumetum, whence he was soon summoned to Carthage to assist the tottering republic with his counsels (b. c. 201), There he informed the senate that " Carthage had no resource but in peace ;" and these words, from the mouth of the warlike Han'nibal, were decisive. Ambassadors were sent to seek conditions fiom the conqueror ; and the humbled Carthaginians accepted the terms of peace dictated by Scipio. who henceforward was honored with the title of Africanus. The chief articles of the treaty were, that Carthage should deliver up to the Romans all their deserters, fugitive slaves, and prisoners-of-war ; sur- render all her ships-of-the-line, except ten triremes, and all her ele- phants ; restore Numidia to Massinis'sa ; enter into no war without the permission of the Roman people ; pay as a ransom ten thousand talents of silver (about two millions sterling) : and give one hundred hostages fi)r the performance of the treaty. To these harsh terms the Cartha- ginians subscribed : Scip'io returned home, and was honored with the most magnificent triumph that had yet been exhibited in Rome. Rome was now become a great military republic, supreme in western Europe, and commanding a preponderating influence in the east, where the kingdoms formed from the fragments of Alexander's empire had sunk into weakness from the exhaustion of mutual wars. The Athenians, exposed to the attacks of Philip, king of Macedon, sought the protection of the Romans, which Avas readily granted, as the senate had long been anxious to find a pretext for meddling in the afi'airs of Greece (b. c. 206). War was declared against Philip, notwithstanding the opposition of the tribunes of the people ; and it was resolved to follow up Scipio's policy, by making the enemy's country the theatre of hostilities. An army was sent into Macedonia, and its conduct was soon intrusted to Quin'- tius Flamin'ius, whose diplomatic skill was even more conspicuous than his military talents. After some minor engagements, in none of which did Philip evince much ability as a general or statesman, a decisive bat- tle was fought at Cynosceph'alae (b. c. 206), in which the Macedoni- ans were irretrievably overthrown, and forced to submit to such terms of peace as the conquerors pleased to dictate. This success was followed by the solemn mockery of proclaiming liberty to Greece at the Isthmian games, which filled the foolish spectators with so much delight, that they virtually became slaves to the Romans through gratitude for freedom. Antiochus, king of Syria, hoping to establish the empire of the Se- leucidae in the east, soon caused a renewal of the wars in Greece. Han'nibal was accused to the Romans by his treacherous countrymen of having secretly intrigued with this monarch ; and having reason to fear that he would be surrendered to his enemies, he fled to Antiochus in Asia. The great general, however, found that the vain-glorious Syr- ian was unable to comprehend his prudent plans for conducting the war, and had the mortification to find himself suspected of being secretly in KOMAN REPUBLIC. 225 teagu« with the Romans. In the meantime the _^tolians, displeased by the policy which the Romans were pursuing, invited Antiochus, into Europe ; and that monarch, passing over into Greece, made himself master of the island of Euboe'a (b. c. 191). War was instantly de clared ; the consul, Acil'ius Glabrio, appeared in Greece with a power- ful array ; he gained a signal victory over the Syrians at the straits of Thermop'ylae, and reduced the ^tolians to such great extremities, that they were forced to beg a peace ; but the senate demanded such harsh conditions, that they resolved to endure the hazards of war a little longer (b. c. 190). In the following year, the senate intrusted the conduct of the war to Lucius Scip'io, under whom his brother Africanus served as a lieuten- ant. Having soon tranquillized Greece, the two brothers passed into Asia : after many minor successors, they forced Antiochus to a general battle near the city of Magnesia, in which that monarch was complete- ly overthrown (b. c. 189). He was forced to purchase peace by re- signing all his possessions in Europe, and those in Asia north of Mount Taurus ; paying a fine of fifteen thousand Euboean talents (about three millions sterling) ; and promising to give up Han'nibal. That illustri- ous exile fled for refuge to Prusias, king of Bith'ynia ; but finding that he was still pursued by the vindictive hatred of the Romans, he put an end to his life by taking poison, which in anticipation of such an ex- tremity, he always carried with him concealed in a ring. On their return home, the Scip'ios were accused of having taken bribes from Antiochus and embezzling the public money (b. c. 186), Africanus refused to plead, preferring to go into voluntary exile at Li- ter'num, where he died. Lucius was condemned ; and on his refusal to pay the fine imposed, all his property was confiscated. About the same time Rome exhibited the first example of religious persecution : a sect called the Bacchanalians, having been accused of the most monstrous crimes, several laws were enacted for its extirpation ; but it is scarcely possible to discover how far the charges against this unfortunate society were supported by evidence. The mastery assumed by the Romans in Greece gave great and just offence to the principal states ; but their yoke was felt by none so griev- ously as Per'ses, king of Macedon, who opened for himself a way to the throne by procuring the judicial murder of his brother Demetrius. Mu- tual complaints and recriminations soon led to open war (b. c. 170) Per'ses having collected his forces, entered Thessaly, captured severai important towns, defeated a Roman army on the river Peneus, and was joined by the greater part of the Epirote nation. His successes con- tinued until the Romans intrusted the conduct of the war to iEmil'ius Paul'lus, son of the general that had fallen in the battle of Can'nae, though he was past the age at which they usually sent out commanders. While the new general advanced against Macedon, the praetor Anciua invaded Illyr'icum, whose monarch had entered into alliance with Per'- ses, and subdued the entire kingdom in the short space of thirty days. Per'ses being hard pressed, resolved to hazard a battle near the walls of Pyd'na (b. c. 167). After both armies had remained for some days in sight of each other, an accident brought on an engagement contrary to the wishes of the leaders ; it ended in a complete victory of the Ro 15 226 ANCIENT HISTORY. mans. Pe/ses fled to Samothrace, but was soon forced to surrender, and was reserved to grace the triumph of the conqueror. Macedon. Epirus, and Illyr^icum, were reduced to the condition of provinces, and it became evident that the independence of the remaining Grecian states v/ould not long be respected. The triumph of iEmil'ius Paul'- lus was the most splendid which had been yet exhibited in Rome, and it became the precedent for the subsequent processions of victorious generals. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy was soon followed by that of the miserable remains of the once proud republic of Carthage. To this war the Romans were stimulated by the rigid Cato, surnamed the Censor, who was animated by his envy of Scip'io Nasica, on ac- count of Ms great influence in the senate, and by a haughty spirit of revenge for some slights which he imagined lie had received from the Carthaginians when sent as ambassador to their sta,te. The pretext for the war was some quarrels between the Carthaginians and the Numid- ians, in which, however, the former only acted upon the defensive. At flrst, the Carthaginians attempted to disarm their enemies by sub- mission ; they banished all who had incurred the displeasure of the Romans, and surrendered their arms and military stores to the consuls ; but when informed that they must abandon their city and consent to its demolition, they took courage from despair, and set their insulting foes at deflance (b. c. 148). They made the most vigorous exertions to supply the place of the weapons they had surrendered : men of every rank and station toiled night and day in the forges ; the women cut ofT their long hair, hitherto the great source of their pride, to furnish strings for the bows of the archers, and engines of the slingers ; and the ban- ished As'drubal was recalled to the defence of his country. From this unexpected display of courage and patriotism, the Romans found Carthage not quite so easy a conquest as they had anticipated : during the flrst two years of the war they suffered repeated disappoint- ments ; but at length they intrusted the command of their armies to Scip'io iEmilianus, the adopted son of the great Africanus (b. c. 147). On his arrival in Africa Scip'io's first care was to restore the discipline of the soldiers, who had been allowed by their former commanders to indulge in dangerous licentiousness. His strictness and moderation won him the friendship of the African nations, and enabled him in his second campaign (b. ":. 146) to press vigorously the siege of Carthage. After a severe struggVe, the Romans forced an entrance into the city on the side of Cothon, or the port, and made themselves masters of the great wall. Thence Scip'io, with a large body of soldiers, cut his way to the principal square of the city, where he bivouacked all the follow- ing night. On the next morning the fight Avas renewed, and the whole city, except the citadel and the temple of ^Esculapius, taken : six days were spent in preparation for the siege of these strongholds ; but, on the seventh, the garrison in the citadel surrendered at discretion ; and the deserters in the temple of iEsculapius, setting fire to that buildiiig, perished in the flames. Scanty as are our limits, two incidents connected with the destruc- tion of this ancient commercial metropolis, so long the rival of Rome for supr smacy in the western world, must not be omitted. When Scip'io ROMAN REPUBLIC. 227 beheld Carthage in flames, his soul was softened by reilections on the instability of fortune, and he could not avoid anticipating a time when Rome herself should experience the same calamities as those which had befallen her unfortunate competitor. He vented his feelings, by quoting from Homer, the well-known lines in which Hector predicts the fall of Troy :— " Yet come it ■will, the day decreed by fates ; (How my heart trembles, while my tongue relates !) The day when thou, imperial Troy, must bend, And see thy warriors fall, thy glories end." The second incident is still more tragic : As'drubal, (he first Jiiover of the war, had fled with the deserters, accompanied by his wife and children, to the temple of iEsculapius, but went over tc the Romans a little before the destruction of that edifice. While the fire was kindling, the wife of As'drubal, having decked herself in the best manner she could, appeared with her two children on the top of the temple, whence, calling out to Scip'io, she begged him to punish her husband according to his deserts, that traitor to his God, his countiy, and his family. Then directing her speech to As'drubal — " Thou wicked, perfidious wretch," she exclaimed, " thou most cowardly of men ! This fire will quickly consume me and my children ; but thou, once ruler of mighty Carthage, what a triumph shalt thou adorn ! And what punishment wilt thou not sufter from him at whose feet thou art sitting !" This said, she cut the throats of her children, threw their bodies into the burning building, and sprung after them into the very centre of the flames. During the third Punic war, the disturbances excited in Macedonia by an impostor, Andris'cus, who pretended to be the son of Philip, kindled a new war, which proved fatal to the independence of Greece. The Achajans stimulated by some factious leaders, took up arms but were subdued the very same year that Carthage was destroyed. Mum'mius, the consul who conducted this war, sacked and burned Corinth ; and after having plundered the city of its statues, paintings, and most valua- ble eftects, levelled its walls and houses to the ground. Thebes and Chalcis soon after shared the same sad fate. If we may believe Vel- leius Pater'culus, Mum'mius was so little acquainted with the value of the beautiful works of art which fell into his possession, that he cov- enanted with the masters of the ships, whom he hired to convey from Corinth to Italy a great number of exquisite pieces of painting and statuary, that " if they lost any of them, they should furnish others in their stead." Spain next began to attract the attention of the Romans. No nation that the republic had subdued defended its liberties with greater obsti- nacy. The war for the subjugation of the Spaniards commenced six years after the expulsion of the Carthaginians from the western penin- sula, and was exceedingly obstinate (b. c. 200). This struggle was protracted partly from the natural state of the country, which was thickly populated and studded with natural fortresses, partly from the covu'age of the inhabitants, and partly from the peculiar policy of the Romans, who were accustomed to employ their allies to subdue other nations. The chief enemies against whom the invaders had to contend were the 228 ANCIENT HISTORY. Celtiberians and Lusitanians ; and so often were the Romans defeated, that nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than an expedi- tion against such formidable foes. At length the Lusitanians found a leader worthy of their bravery (b. c. 146) in Viriatus, who, from a shepherd, became a hunter and a robber ; and in consequence of his distinguished valor was chosen general-in-chief by his countrymen. Tlris bold leader long maintained his ground against the Roman armies, and was equally formidable whether victorious or vanquished. Indeed, he was never more to be dreaded than immediately after defeat, because he knew how to make the most of the advantages arising fi-om his knowledge of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. Unable to compete with Viriatus, the consul Cae'pio treacherously pro- cured his assassination (b. c. 140) ; and the Lusitanians, deprived of their leader, were easily subdued. The Numantine war in hither Spain had been allowed to languish while the Lusitanians remained in power ; it was now renewed with fresh vigor on both sides, and the pro-consul Pompey laid siege to Numan'tia. He was soon compelled to raise the siege, and even to enter into a treaty with the Numantines ; but dreading the resentment of the senate, he disavowed the negotiation, and, by his great interest, escaped the punishment of his perfidy. A similar disgrace befell Pom- pey's successor, Mancinus ; and the Romans, alarmed by the great victories of the Numantines, raised Scip'io iEmilianus a second time to the consulship, and assigned him Spain as his province. Scip'io spent his entire consular year in restoring the discipline of soldiers dispirited by defeat, and neglected by their former generals ; he then, with the inferior title of pro-consul, directed all his attention to concluding the war. Having obtained reinforcements from Africa, he laid close siege to Numan'tia, blockading every avenue to the town. After a protracted defence of more than six months, the Numantines destroyed their wives and children, set fire to their city, threw themselves on their swords or into the flames, and left the victors nothing to triumph over but empty walls (b. c. 133). Spain henceforth became a Roman province, gov- erned by two annual prsetors. A rich province in Asia was obtained nearly at the same time on much more easy terms. At'talus, king of Per'gamus, dying, bequeathed his dominions to the Roman republic : and the senate took possession of the valuable inheritance, without heeding the remonstrances of the legitimate heir. But this acquisition of the wealthiest and finest dis- tricts in Asia Minor eventually cost the Romans very dear, both by the corruption of morals consequent on the great influx of Asiatic wealth, and the dreadful wars in which this legacy involved them with Mithri- datesy king of Pon'tus. Section VI. — From the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Grac'chi, to the Downfall of the Republic and Death of Pompey. FROM B. C. 134 TO B. C. 48. During the Punic, Macedonian, and Spanish wars, the power of the senate, on which the administration of the government necessarily de- volved, increased very rapidly, and the form of the constitution con- ROMAN REPUBLIC. ,229 Bequently was changed more and more into that of a hateful arijitocracy, against which the tribunes of the people struggled rather as factious demagogues than as honest defenders of popular rights. The aristoc- racy acquired vast wealth in the government of the provinces, and they employed their acquisitions in extending their political influence. The most obvious means of effecting this purpose was jobbing in the public lands, undertaking the management of extensive tracts, and sub-letting them to a crowd of needy dependants. Tiberius Grac'chus, the son of a consul, whose mother Cornelia was a daughter of the celebrated Scip'io Africanus, witnessed with indig- nation the progress of corruption, and, to check it, resolved to enforce the Licinian prohibition against any individual renting more than five hundred acres of the public land. His office of tribune enabled him at once to commence operations ; but before committing himself to the hazards of a public struggle, he sought the advice of the most virtuous and respectable men in Rome, all of whom sanctioned his project. Not daring to oppose directly the attempt to enforce a well-known law, the corrupt nobles engaged one of the tribune's colleagues to thwart his measures. Grieved, but not disheartened, Tiberius procured the depo- sition of this unworthy magistrate, and carried a law, constitutino- a triumvirate, or commission of three persons, to inquire into the admin- istration of the public lands, and the violations of the Licinian law (b. c. 132). This was followed by a proposal, that the treasures which At'talus, king of Per'gamus, had bequeathed to the Romans should be distributed among the poorer classes of the people. During the agitation of this and some similar laws, his year of tribuneship expired, and the patricians resolved to prevent his re-election by abso- lute violence. So great was the uproar on the first day of the comitia, that the returning officer was obliged to adjourn the proceedings. Early in the following morning, when the assembly met, Tiberius received information that some of the nobles, accompanied by bands of armed retainers, had resolved to attack the crowd and take his life. Alarmed by this intelligence, he directed his friends to arm themselves as well as they could with staves ; and when the people began to inquire the cause of this strange proceeding, he put his hand to his head, intima- ting that his life was in danger. Some of his enemies immediately ran to the senate, and reported that Tiberius Grac'chus openly demand- ed a crown from the people. Scip'io Nasica, a large holder of public lands, seized this pretext to urge the consul to destroy the reformer. On the refusal of that magistrate to imbrue his hands in innocent blood, Nasica, accompanied by a large body of the patricians, with their clients and dependants, assaulted the unarmed multitude ; Tibe- rius was slain in the tumult, and many of his friends were either mur- dered or driven into banishment without any legal process. So great was the odium Nasica incurred by his share in the murder of his kins- man, that the senate, to screen him from popular resentment, sent him tc Asia, under a pretext of public business, but in reality as a species of honorable exile : he died in a few months, the victim of mortification and remorse. While the city was thus disturbed by civil tumults, Sicily waa harassed by the horrors of a servile war ; and the new province of 230 ANCIENT HISTORY. Per'gamus was usurped by Aristonicus, a natural brother of Vrie lata king At'talus. Both wars were terminated by disgraceful means, which the Romans would have scorned to have used at an earlier period of their history: Eiinus, the leader of the slaves, was betrayed by some wretches the consul had bribed : and Per^gamus was not subdued until the springs which supplied water to the principal towns were poi- soned. Caius Grac'chus had been a mere youth when his brother Tiberius was so basely murdered ; but, undaunted by that brother's fate, he re- solved to pursue the same course, and was confirmed in his determina- tion by his mother Cornelia, a woman of undaunted spirit, animated by the purest principles of patriotism. He commenced his career by offering himself a candidate for the oflice of quaestor, to which he vt^as elected without opposition. His integrity and ability in this station won him " golden opinions from all sorts of men." On his return to Rome he was chosen tribune of the people ; and he immediately began to take measures for enforcing the agrarian law (b. c. 122). In his second tribuneship, he procured the enactment of a law transferring the power of judging corrupt magistrates from the senators to the equestrian order ; a change rendered absolutely necessary by the im- punity that had long been granted to the grossest delinquency and extortion. At length the senate set up Driisus, another tribune, as a rival to Grac'chus. This wretched minion of an unprincipled faction made several grants of public money and remissions of taxes to the people, with the direct sanction of the senate ; and soon became a favorite with the ignorant multitude. A severer blow was the exclu- sion of Grac'chus from the tribuneship when he stood candidate the third time, the officers having been bribed to make a false return ; and this was followed by the election of Opim'ius, the most violent of the aristocratic faction, to the consulship. A contest coidd not long be avoided : the nobles, confiding in the numbers of their armed retainers, were anxious to provoke a battle ; but Grac'chus, though personally menaced by the consul, was desirous that peace should be preserved. An accident precipitated the struggle. While the consul was performing the customary morning sacrifice, AntyFius, one of his lictors, carrying away the entrails, said, with con- temptuous voice and gesture, to the friends of Grac'chus and Ful'vius, " Make way there, ye worthless citizens, for honest men !" The pro- voked bystanders instantly assaulted the insolent lictor, and slew him with the pins of their table-books. This imprudence afforded Opim'ius the opportunity he had so eagerly desired ; the senate hastily assembled, and passed a vote investing him with dictatorial power.* Grac'chus, with his most zealous followers, took possession of Mount Aventine : here he was soon attacked by the sanguinary Opim'ius ; three thousand of his followers were slain, and their bodies thrown into the Tiber ; and Caius himself chose to fall by tlie hands of a faithful slave, rather than glut his cruel enemies by his tortures (b. c. 120). With the Grac'chi perished the freedom of the * The vote by which absolute power, in cases of emergency, was given to the consuls, consisted in the following formula : " Ut darent operarn consules ne respua- lica quid detrimenti caperet," H.OMAN REPUBLIC. ' 231 Roman republic ; henceforth the supreme power of the state was wielded by a corrupt, avaricious, and insolent aristocracy, from whose avarice and oppression even the worst tyranny of the worst of the em- perors would have been a desirable relief. The profligacy and corruption of the senate, now that the check of popular control was removed, soon became manifest by their conduct in the Jugurthine war. Micip'sa, king of Numidia, the son of Massi- nis'sa, divided his monarchy on his death-bed between his two sons Hiemp'sal and Ad'herbal, and his nephew Jugur'tha, though the latter was of illegitimate birth. Jugur'tha resolved to obtain possession of the entire inheritance, procured the murder of Hiemp'sal, and com- pelled Ad'herbal to seek refuge at Rome. The senate at first seemed disposed to punish the usurper ; but soon won over by his bribes, they actually voted him a reward for his crimes, decreeing that the kingdom of Numidia should be divided equally between him and Ad'herbal. Impunity only stimulated Jugur'tha to fresh iniquities ; he declared war against his cousin, gained possession of his person by a capitulation, and, in violation of the terms, put him to death. Even this atrocity failed to rouse the senate ; and Jugur'tha would have escaped unpun- ished, had not Mem'mius, one of the tribunes, exposed the profligate venality of the aristocracy in a general assembly of the people, and persuaded them to send Cas'sius the praetor into Africa, to bring Jugur'- tha thence to Rome, on the public faith, in order that those who had taken bribes might be convicted by the king's evidence. Jugur^tlia, being brought before the assembly, was interrogated by Mem'mius ; but Bae'bius, another tribune, who had been bribed for the purpose, forbade the king to make any reply. The Numidian, however, soon added to his former crimes, by procuring the murder of his cousin Massiva in Rome, suspecting that he was likely to be raised to the throne of Numidia by a party in the senate. Such an insult couid not be borne; Jugur'tha was instantly ordered to quit Italy (b. c. 109), and an army raised against him was intrusted to the command of the consul Al'binus. Instead of prosecuting the war, Al'binus left his brother Aulus, a vain, avaricious man, in command of the army, and returned to Italy. Aulus invaded Numidia, hoping that Jugur'tha would purchase his forbearance by a large sum ; but he was surrounded, betrayed, and forced to capitulate on the most disgraceful terms. The Roman people was roused to exertion by this infamy ; a commission was issued for inquiring into the criminality of those who had received bribes ; several of the leading nobles, among whom was Opim'ius, the murderer of Caius Grac'chus, were convicted on the clearest evidence, and sen- tenced to different degrees of punishment. Finally, the conduct of the war was intrusted to Quin'tus Metel'lus, a strenuous partisan of the aristocracy, but an able general, and an incorruptible statesman. When Metel'lus had almost completed the conquest of Numidia, he was sup- planted by his lieutenant Cains Marius, a man of the lowest birth, but whom valor, talent, and a zealous devotion to the popular cause, had elevated to fame and fortune. Raised to the consulship, and intrusted with the conduct of the war against Jugur'tha,by the favor of the people, Marius showed little respect for the vote of the senate that had con- tinued Metel'lus in command. He raised fresh levies, and passed over 232 ANCIENT HISTORY into Africa just when Jugur'tha had been forced to seek refuge with Boc'chus, king of Mauritania (b. c. 106). Tlie principal cities and fortresses of Numidia were speedily subdued, and the united army of .Tugur'tha and Boc'chus routed with great slaughter. The Moorish king, terrified by his losses, was at length prevailed upon to betray Jugur'thato Syl'la, a young nobleman who held the important office of quaestor in the army of Marius ; and this wicked usurper, after having been exhibited in the conqueror's triumph, was starved to death in prison. In the meantime, the barbarous hordes of the Cim'bri and Teutones were devastating Transalpine Gaul, and had defeated the Roman armies sent to check their ravages. At length, their total defeat of Cae'pio's army, and slaughter of eighty thousand men, spread such general consterna- tion, that the senate and people combined to raise Marius to the con- sulate a second time, contrary to law. It was not, however, until his fourth consulship (b. c. 100), that Marius brought the Teutones to a decisive engagement at A'quae Lutiae. The annals of war scarcely re- cord a more complete victory ; more than one hundred thousand of the invaders having been slain or made prisoners. He was no less fortu- nate in a second engagement with the Cimbrians ; but on this occasion his old quaestor, but now his rival, Lucius Syl'la, had fair grounds for claiming a large share in the honors of the day. About the same time, a second servile war in Sicily was terminated : so cruelly was the re- volt of these unhappy men punished, that more than a million of the insurgents are said to have perished in the field, or been exposed to wild beasts in the arena. A much more dangerous war, called the Marsic, the Social, or the Italic, was provoked by the injustice with which the Romans treated their Italian allies. The different states having in vain sought a re- dress of grievances from the senate and people, entered into a secret conspiracy, which soon extended from the LIris eastward to the ex- tremity of ancient Italy. The Mar'si, long renowned for their bravery, were foremost in the revolt, and hence their name is frequently given to the war. After a tedious contest of three years, in which half a million of men are supposed to have perished, the Romans granted the freedom of their city to the states that laid down their arms (b. c. 87), and tranquillity was restored in Italy. But the Roman power was exposed almost to equal danger in Asia by the rising greatness of Mithridates, the celebrated king of Pon'tus, who, in a short time, made himself master of all the towns and islands in Asia Minor, with the single exception of Rhodes. Marius and Syl'la eagerly contended for the chief command in this important war ; the latter prevailed, and procured the banishment of his rival, who very narrowly escaped with his life. Syl'la departed with his army to Asia ; but, during his absence, the consul Cin'na recalled Marius, and Italy was involved in all the horrors of civil war (b. c. 86). After a severe struggle, the aged exile having everywhere defeated the partisans of the nobles, made his triumphant e" try into Rome, and filled the entire city with slaughter. Having caused the murder of most of the leading senators and knights ihat had joined in procuring his banishment, he ROMAN REPUBLIC. 23S declared himself consul without going through the formality of an elec- tion, and died soon after, in the seventy-first year of his age. In the meantime, Syl'la defeated the armies of Mithridates in Greece took Athens by storm, slaughtered its citizens without mercy or com- punction, and compelled the king of Pon'tus to solicit peace. Syl'la willingly consented, for he had neither ships nor money to carry on the war ; and he longed impatiently to be in Italy, that he might re- venge himself on his enemies, who were so cruelly persecuting his partisans. On the news of the approach of Syl'la with a victorious aimy ^b. c. 83), the consuls Cin'na and Car'bo made every preparation for the im- pending war ; but the former was murdered by his mutinous troops, and the latter, though aided by the younger Marius. Jid not possess abilities adequate to the crisis. After a severe struggle, Syl'la prevailed, and became master of Rome. He surpassed even the cruelties of Marius, slaughtering without mercy not merely his political opponents, but all whom he suspected of discontent at his elevation. While the city was filled with mourning and consternation, he caused himself to be elected dictator for an unlimited time (b. c. 81) ; but, to the great astonishment of everybody, he resigned his power at the end of three years, and re- tired to private life. He died soon after (b. c. 77) of a loathsome dis- ease brought on by intemperance and debauchery. The consul Lep'idus attempted to seize the power which Syl'la had abdicated ; he was declared a public enemy, defeated in the field, for- saken by his friends, and abandoned by his faithless wife : he sunk under this complication of misfortunes, and died of a broken heart. But though the senate escaped this danger, they were alarmed by the rapid progress of the Marian faction in Spain (b. c. 76), where Sertorius had collected a powerful army from the relics of that party. After some de- liberation, the management of this war was intrusted to Pom'pey, after- ward surnamed the Great, though he had not yet attained the consular age, and was still a simple Roman knight. Sertorius proved more than a match for the young general, defeating him in several engagements ; but treach- ery proved more efficacious than valor ; the bold adventurer was murdered by Perper'na (b. c. 73) ; and the insurgents, deprived of their able leader, were finally subdued by Pom'pey (b. c. 70). Before the Spanish wa* was terminated, Italy was thrown into confusion by the daring revolt of Spar'tacus (b. c. 72). This dangerous insurgent, with about eighty com- panions, forced his way out of a school for training gladiators at Cap'ua, and resolved, instead of hazarding his life in the arena, for the brutal sport of the Roman popidace, to make war on the republic. Two bril- liant victories so established his fame, that the slaves, deserting their masters, flocked to his standard from all quarters, and he soon found himself at the head often thousand men. Fresh successes now crowned his arms ; praetors and consuls were sent against him, and defeated ; his forces rapidly increased to one hundred and twenty thousand ; and he even attempted to make himself master of Rome. At length the praetor Cras'sus succeeded in suppressing this formidable revolt ; but his victory was chiefly owing to the want of union and discipline in the army of the insurgents (b. c. 70). Spar'tacus himself fell in the 234 ANCIENT HISTORY. field, and great numbers of his followers were crucified by the bat barous conquerors. Cras'sus and Pom'pey were chosen consuls the next year : both were ambitious of supreme power, and both began to pay their court to the people ; Cras'sus by largesses of corn and money, Pom'pey by re- storing the tribunitian power, and repealing many of the unpopular laws of Syl'la. These measures gave Pom'pey so much influence, that he was chosen to manage the war against the Cilician pirates, in spite of the most vigorous opposition of the senators ; and to this commission there were added, by the Manilian law, the government of Asia, and the entire management of the war against Mithridates (b. c. 65). Little did the tribune Manil'ius foresee that he was placing the whole power of the Roman empire in the hands of a man who would soon become the most strenuous supporter of the senate. Pom'pey made a judicious use of the power with which he was in- trusted ; he subdued Mithridates, and established the sway of the Ro- mans over the greater part of western Asia. But while he v\^as thus engaged gathering laurels in the remote east, the republic narrowly escaped destruction from the conspiracy of Cat'iline (b. c. 62). The original contriver of this celebrated conspiracy, Ser'gius Cat'iline, was a young man of noble birth, sullied, however, by the most infamous de- bauchery and crimes. The recent examples of Marius and Syl'la stimulated him to attempt making himself master of his country ; and he found many associates among the profligate young nobles, whom their riotous extravagance had overwhelmed with a load of debt. The great impediment to the success of the plans of the conspirators was the vigilance of the consul Cicero, who had raised himself to the high- est rank in the state by his consummate eloquence and great skill in -political affairs. His murder was deemed a necessary preliminary to any open efforts ; but Cicero received secret warnings of his danger from Curius, one of the conspirators, whose mistress had been bribed by the consul ; and he was thus enabled to disconcert all the plans of Cat'iline. While the city was alarmed by rumors of danger, Cat'iline had the hardihood to present himself in the senate-house, where Cicero pronounced so dreadful an invective against him, that the hardened con- spirator was unable to reply, and fled from the city to commence open war. In the meantime, his associates in the city attempted to form an alli- ance with the AUob'roges, a people of Gaul that had sent ambassadors to petition the senate for some relief from the debt with which their na- tion was oppressed. These ambassadors betrayed the negotiations to Cicero, who took his measures so well, that he arrested the chiefs of the conspiracy with the proofs of their guilt on their persons. After a warm debate in the senate, it was resolved that the traitors should be put to death ; Julius Ceesar, who was now fast rising into notice as the chief of the popular party, protesting almost alone against the danger- ous precedent of violating the Porcian law, which forbade the capital punishment of a Roman citizen. When Cat'iline heard the fate of his associates, he attempted to lead his forces into Gaul ; but he was over- taken by a consular army, defeated, and slain. So pleased were the senate with the conduct of Cicero on this occasion, that they gave him the honorabie title of Father of his Country. EOMAN REPUBLIC. 235 l^om'pey soon afterward returned to Rome, and the old jealousies be- tween him and Cras'sus were renewed ; but Julius Caesar, whose emi- nent abilities were now known and valued, succeeded in bringing the rivals together, and uniting them with himself in a partnership of power, generally called "the first triumvirate" (b. c. 59). They were supported in this project by the infamous Clodius, whose sole aim was to be revenged on Cicero for having given evidence against him on 8 criminal trial. To wreak his vengeance more effectually, he had himself transferred from the patrician order to the plebeian, and then becoming a candidate for the tribuneship, was elected without much op- position. By the exertions of Clodius, Cicero was driven into banish- ment ; but he was honorably recalled after a year's exile, and restored to his dignity and estates. While Clodius, by his violence, kept the city in constant agitation, Pom'pey and Cras'sus were again elected consuls together ; the former chose Spain, the latter Syria, for his province, hoping that its wealth would be the prey of his boundless avarice (b. c. 54). Csesar was in the meantime winning fame by the conquest of Gaul, and establishing a military reputation which soon eclipsed that of all his contemporaries. The union of the triumvirs was first disturbed by the death of Julia, Caesar's daughter, who had been married to Pom'pey, and exercised great influence over both her father and her husband. But the compact was completely broken by the unfortunate termination of the rash expe- dition which Cras'sus undertook against the Parthians, in which he perished, with the greater part of his army (b. c. 52). Caesar's victorious career in Gaul lasted nearly eight years (from B. c. 57 to B. c. 49). During this space of time he subdued all the barbarous and warlike tribes between the Pyrenees and the German ocean ; he even crossed the Rhine, and gained several victories over the Germans ; and, passing over into Britain, he subdued the southern part of the island. Pom'pey at first favored all the projects of his col- league, procured him a prolongation of liis command and supplies of troops ; but he soon became envious of exploits that obscured the fame of his own achievements ; his creatures began to detract from the brilliancy of Caesar's victories, and many of that general's official let- ters were suppressed by the senate. It became soon obvious that the jealousies of the two surviving triumvirs could be arranged only in the field of battle, and their partisans began to prepare for combat long be- fore the principals had any notion of breaking the peace. The contest began by Caesar's demanding permission to hold the consulship while absent. He had secured his interest and in- creased his adherents by the most lavish bribes, having spent nearly half a million on the purchase of Caius Curio alone. This powerful and popular tribune placed the senate in a very difficult position, by proposing that both Pom'pey and Caesar should re- sign their offices, and retire into private lifo (b. c. 51). Some time was wasted in negotiations ; but at length the senate (Jan. 7, B. c. 49) passed a decree by which Caesar was co nmanded to disband his army before a specified day, under the penalty of being declared a public enemy. Mark Antony and Quin'tus Cas'sius, tribunes of the people, put their negative on this vote ; but their prerogative was dis- 236 ANCIENT HISTORY. puted, and a debate ensued, in the course of which many severe speeches were made against them. Finally, the vote for suspending the constitution passed by a large majority in a very full house. It was decreed that " the consuls, praetors, proconsuls, and other magistrates near Rome, should take care that the republic received no detriment." Antony and Cas'sius fled from the city the same night, disguised as slaves. They were followed by Ciirio and Cae'lius. When Caesar received this intelligence, he resolved to march imme- diately into Italy, before Pom'pey could collect forces sufficient for the defence of the peninsula. The rapidity of his movements disconcerted his enemies ; and the news of his having passed the Rubicon, spread such alarm at Rome, that the senate and Pom'pey's party abandoned the city, leaving the public treasure behind them. All Italy was subdued in sixty days. On the 17th of March, Pom'pey sailed from Brundu- sium for Greece, abandoning his country to his rival. Sicily and Sar- dinia speedily followed the fate of the peninsula. Elated by this great success, Csesar returned to Rome, took the funds from 'he public treasury, and, after a brief respite of six or seven days, set out to attack Pom'pey's lieutenants in Spain. He met with unex- pected resistance from the city of Marseilles, but, leaving a detachment to besiege the place, he continued his march to Iler'da, where he found his enemies posted under the command of Afranius and Petreius. An undecisive battle was fought at Iler'da ; but Caesar, taking advantage of the inexperience and incapacity of his opponents, soon reduced them to such straits, that they were forced to surrender at discretion. The reduction of the remainder of the Spanish peninsula was soon com- pleted, and Caesar returned into Gaul to finish the siege of Marseilles. Caesar's presence soon forced the citizens to surrender. Their lives were spared, but they were forced to give up all their arms, magazines, and money. But while he was thus everywhere victorious in person, the armies commanded by his lieutenants met with some reverses in lUyricum and Africa. On his return to Rome, Caesar was created dictator. Having made proper arrangements for the government of the city, he prepared to fol- low Pom'pey into Greece, where that general had collected ai? immense army from the principal states of the east. His inferiority by sea ex- posed Caesar's soldiers to great dangers and hardships in their passage from Brundusium to Dyrac'chium ; but they were finally transported into western Greece, and a tedious campaign, in which both leaders showed themselves equally reluctant to hazard a general engagement. From Epirus both armies moved into Thessaly ; and on the 30th of July (b. c. 48), the battle, which decided the fate of the world, was fought on the plains of Pharsalia. Pom'pey's forces were completely routed, their camp stormed, and the bodies of fugitives that preserved a semblance of regularity in their retreat, forced to yield themselves prisoners. The unfortunate general himself made no effort to retrieve the fortune of the day : when his squadron of cavalry, on which he plar.ed his principal reliance, were routed, he retired to his tent, whence he lied in disguise when the enemy began to storm his entrenchments. From the field of battle Pom'pey fled to the iEgean sea, probably designing to renew the war in Syria ; but finding the Asiatic states in- ROMAN REPUBLIC. 237 clined to withdraw their allegiance when they heard of his defeat, he steered for Egypt, accompanied by his wife CorneUa, trusting he would receive protection from the young king of that country, with whose fa- ther he had been united by the strictest bonds of friendship. But the guardians of the young king resolved to murder the unfortunate fugi- tive, and intrusted the execution of the crime to Septim'ius, a Roman deserter, and Achil'las, the captain of the Egyptian guards. Lucan has given a very vivid description of the catastrophe. " Now in the boat defenceless Pompey sate. Surrounded and abandoned to his fate ; Nor long they held him in their power abroad, Ere every villain drew his ruthless sword : The chief perceived their purpose soon, and spread His Roman gown, with patience, o'er his head : And when the cursed Achillas pierced his breast, His rising indignation close repressed. No sighs, no groans his dignity profaned. No tears his still unsullied glory stained : Unmoved and firm he fixed him on his seat, And died — as when he lived and conquered — great." At the sad sight of the Egyptian treachery, Cornelia's attendants, disregarding her lamentations, weighed anchor and stood out to sea. PonT'pey's body was flung into the waves, but it was dragged out in the night by one Cor'dus, who had been Pom'pey's quaestor in Cy'prus, and interred with the Roman rites of sepulture. Plutarch informs us that his ashes were subsequently removed to Italy, and deposited in a vault in his Alban villa, by Cornelia : but Lucan asserts that they re- mained in Egypt, and remonstrates against the neglect shown to the remains of the hero. Section VII. — The Estahlishment of the Roman Empire. FROM B. C. 48 TO B. C. 30. Thl news of Pom'pey's death occasioned a fresh division among his fugitive friends. Many who were attached personally to him, and who held out in hopes of seeing him again at their head, determined to have recourse to the conqueror's clemency. Cornelia returned to Italy, Avell knowing that she had nothing to apprehend from Caesar. Cato, with Pom'pey's two sons, remained in Africa, and marched over- land to join Varus and Jiiba, king of Numidia. We shall see imme- diately how they renewed the war, and exposed the victor to fresh fatigues and dangers. Caesar, immediately after his victory, commenced a close pursuit of his competitor ; and did not hear of his death until his arrival in Alex- andria, when messengers from the Egyptian king brought him Pom'- pey's head and ring. Caesar turned with disgust from these relics. He ordered the head to be inhumed with due honor ; and to show his dis- approbation of Egyptian treachery, he caused a temple to be erected near Pom'p3y's tomb, dedicated to Nem'esis, the avenging power of cruel and ii human deeds. His next task was to arrange the disputed succession rf the crown ; but, seduced by the charms of the princess Cleopatra, he showed an undue preference for her interests, and thus 238 ANCIENT HISTORY. induced t*he partisans of the young king Ptolemy to take up arms. As CcEsar had only brought a handful of men with him to Alexandria, he was exposed to great danger by this sudden burst of insurrection. A fierce battle was fought in the city. Cajsar succeeded in firing the Egyptian fleet ; but unfortunately the flames extended to the celebrated public library, and the greater part of that magnificent collection of the most valuable works of ancient times perished in the flames. After the struggle had been protracted for some time, Cassar at length received reinforcements from Syria, and soon triumphed over all his enemies. From Egypt he marched against Pharnaces, the unnatural son of the great Mithridates, and subdued him so easily, that he described the campaign in three words, '' Veni, Vidi, Vici" — (/ came, I saw, I con- quered). Having thus settled the aff'airs of the East, he departed for Rome, having been created dictator in his absence ; and found on his return the affairs of the city in the greatest confusion, caused by the quarrels between Antony and DolabeFla. Ca;sar with difficulty reconciled their differences, and began to make preparations for his war in Africa against Cato and the sons of Pom'pey. On his arrival in Africa, he did not find victory quite so easy as he had anticipated ; but at length he forced his enemies to a decisive engagement at Thap'sus, and gave them a complete overthrow. Thence he advanced to U'tica, which was garrisoned by the celebrated Cato, whose hostility to Caesar Avas inflexible. It was not, howev^er, supported by his followers ; and Cato, seeing his friends resolved on yielding, committed suicide. The sons of Pom'pey made their escape into Spain, where they soon col- lected a formidable party. Having concluded the African war in about five months, Caesar returned to Rome (b. c. 45) to celebrate his triumph. The senate placed no bounds to their adulation, passing, in their excessive flattery, the limits even of ordinary decency. They decreed that in his triumph his chariot should be drawn by four white horses, like those of Jupitei and the Sun : they created him dictator for ten years, and inspector of morals for three years : they commanded his statue to be placed in the Capitol, opposite to that of Jupiter, with the globe of the earth beneath his feet, and with the following inscription, " To Caesar, the demigod." During his residence at Rome, the dictator distinguished himself by several acts of clemency, more truly honorable to his character than all the titles conf>rred upon him by a servile senate. Having provided for the safety of the city during his absence, he hasted into Spain to terminate the civil war by crushing the relics of his opponents, who still made head under the sons of Pom'pey. Early in the spring (b. c. 44), the two armies met in the plains of Mun'da : the battle was arduous and well contested ; Caesar had never been exposed to such danger ; even his veterans began to give ground. By leading, how- ever, his favorite tenth legion to the charge, he restored the fortune of the field, and his exertions were crowned with a decisive victory, which put an end to the war. The elder of Pom'pey's sons was taken and slain ; Sex'tus the younger escaped to the mountains of Celtiberia. Having thus completely extinguished thf iast embers ">f the civil war, Caesar contemplated several vast designs for extending and im- ROME 239 proving the empire he had acquired. He resolved to revenge the defeat and death of Cras'sus on the Parthians ; he undertook to rebuild and repair several towns in Italy, to drain the Pomptine marshes, to dig a new bed for the Tiber, to form a capacious harbor at Os'tia, and to cut a canal through the isthmus of Corinth. But these gigantic projects did not compensate, in the minds bf his countrymen, for the criminal design he was understood to have formed of making himself king of Rome. Mark Antony, it is supposed at Caesar's secret instigation, of- fered the dictator a regal crown at the feast of the Lupercalia, which Caesar, perceiving the displeasure of the people, deemed it prudent to refuse : Antony, however, had it entered in the public acts, " That by the command of the people, as consul, he had offered the name of king to Cffisar, perpetual dictator ; and that Caesar would not accept of it." A large body of the senators, regarding Caesar as a usurper, con- spired for his destruction, among whom Brutus and Cas'sius were the most conspicuous. They resolved to put their plot into execution in the senate-house (March 15, b. c. 44) ; but ihey very narrowly escaped detection, from a variety of untowai'd accidents. As soon as Cajsar had taken his place, he was surrounded by the conspirators, one of whom, pretending to urge some request, held him down by his robe : this was the signal agreed upon ; the other conspirators rushed upon him with their daggers, and he fell, pierced by twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pom'pey's statue. The murderers had no sooner finished their work, than Brutus, lifting up his dagger, congratulated the senate, and Cicero in particular, on the recovery of liberty ; but the senators, seized with astonishment, rushed from the capitol and hid themselves in their own houses. Tranquillity prevailed until the day of Caesar's funeral, when Mark Antony,- by a studied harangue, so inflamed the passions of the populace, that they stormed the senate-house, tore up its benches to make a funeral pile for the body, and raised such a con- flagration that several houses were entirely consumed. This was a clear warning to the conspirators, who immediately quitted Rome, and prepared to defend themselves by force of arms. Mark Antony long deceived the conspirators by an appearance of moderation, and an affected anxiety to procure an act of amnesty ; but when joined by Octavius Ccesar, the nephew and heir of the murdered dictator, he threw off the mask, and proposed extraordinary honors to the memory of Caesar, with a religious supplication to him as a divin- ity. Brutus and Cas'sius at length discovering that Antony meditated nothing but war, and that their affairs were daily growing more desper- ate, left Italy, and sought refuge in the East. Octavius Csesar, becom- ing jealous of Antony, joined the party of the senate ; and Antony, retiring into Cisalpine Gaul, levied an army of veterans, and came to an engagement with the armies of the republic, in which both the consuls were slain. x\ntony, defeated in the field, fled to Lep'idus in Spain : and Octavius Csesar, whom the death of the consuls had placed at the head of the army, entered secretly into a correspondence with the ene- mies of the senate. Their mutual interests led to the formation of a league between Octavius, Lep'idus, and Antony, called the second tri- umvirate (November 27, b. c . 43), and their confederacy was cemented 240 ANCIENT HISTORY. by the blood of the noblest citizens of Rome, shed in a proscription more ruthless and sanguinary than those of Marius and Syl'la. The most illustrious of the victims was the celebrated Cicero, whose severe invectives against Antony had procured him the relentless hatred of the triumvir. Octavius is said to have hesitated long before consenting to the sacrifice of the greatest orator that Rome ever produced, and the most patriotic of her recent statesmen ; but at length he permitted the fatal consent to be extorted, and Cicero fell a victim to a band of assas- sins, headed by a tribune whom he had formerly defended and preserved in a capital cause. The triumvirs having taken vengeance on their enemies in Italy, be- gan to prepare for carrying on war against Brutus and Cas'sius. Mace- donia became the theatre of the new civil war : the republicans at first seemed destined to conquer ; they appeared to possess superior talents and greater forces by land and sea. But in the double battle at Phi- lip'pi, fortune rather than talent gave the victory to the triumvirs ; and Cas'sius destroyed himself after the first contest, and Brutus after the second (b. c. 42). Antony made a cruel use of his victory, putting to death his political opponents Avithout mercy. Octavius emulated the crimes of his colleague, and treated the most illustrious of his prison- ers Avith barbarity and abusive language. After his victory Antony visited Greece, where he was received with the most refined flattery. Thence he passed into Asia, where all the sovereigns of the East came to offer him homage ; but he was most gratified by a visit from the celebrated Cleopatra, who rendered the voluptuous triumvir a captive to her charms. Resigning all his plans of war against the Parthians, he followed this celebrated beauty into Egypt, and in her company neglected all care of public affairs. Octavius Czesar, on the other hand, proceeded to Italy, and took the most efficacious means for securing the permanence of his power. Lucius the brother, and FuFvia the wife of Antony, excited a new war against Octavius ; but they were soon defeated, and the capture of their principal stronghold, Perusia (b. c. 41), rendered Caesar's nephew master of Italy, and almost the recognised heir of his uncle's power. Antony was still immersed in pleasure at Alexandria, when he re- ceived the account of his brother's defeat, and the ruin of his party in Italy ; at the same time he heard that Octavius had made himself mas- ter of both Gauls, and had got all the legions into his hands that were quartered in those districts. He was roused by these tidings from his lethargy, and immediately proceeded toward Italy ; but blaming Ful'via for all his disasters, he treated her with so much contempt, that she died of a broken heart. This circumstance paved the way to a recon- ciliation ; Antony married Octavia, the half-sister of his rival, and a new division was made of the Roman empire. Sex'tus Pom'pey, who during the troubles had become powerful by sea, was included in the new arrangements, and obtained the possession of the Peloponnesus and several important islands. But the mutual jealousies of the triumvirs rendered peace of short duration. Octavius drove Pom'pey from Sicily, and compelled him to seek refuge in the East, where he was put to death by one of Antony's lieutenants; and about the same time he deprived Lep'idus of all his ROME. 241 power, and took possession of his dominions. Antony, while his rival was thus acquiring strength, degraded himself by an unsuccessful wai against the Parthians ; after which he returned to Alexandria, and lost all regard to his character or his interest in the company of Cleopatra. Octavia went to the East, hoping to withdraw her husband from the fascinating siren ; but the infatuated triumvir refused to see her, and sent her orders to return home. He completed this insult by sending her a bill of divorce, and professing a previous marriage with Cleopa- tra. Preparations for war were instantly made on both sides ; but Antony's debauchery, and slavery to the caprices of an abandoned woman, disgusted his best friends, and many of them deserting him brought such an account of his extravagance to Rome, that the indignani citizens passed a decree for deposing him from the consulship. The great rivals were soon in readiness for action. Antony had the most numerous forces ; but Octavius had the advantage of a more disci- plined army, and, at least in appearance, a better cause. Their fleets and armies were soon assembled at the opposite sides of the gulf of Ambracia, where they remained for several months without coming to a decisive engagement. At length, Antony, instigated by Cleopatra, formed the fatal resolution of deciding the contest by a naval battle. The fleets met off the promontory of Ac'tium (September 2, b. c. 31), while the hostile armies, drawn up on the shore, were simple spectators of the battle. For a long time success was doubtful ; until Cleopatra, wearied with expectation, and overcome with fear, unexpectedly tacked about, and fled toward the Peloponnesus with the Egyptian squadron of sixty sail ; and, what is more surprising, Antony himself, now regardless of his honor, fled after her, abandoning his men who so generously ex- posed their lives for his interest. The battle, notwithstanding, con- tinued till five in the evening, when Antony's forces were partly con- strained to submit by the great conduct of Agrip'pa, and partly persuaded by the liberal promises of Octavius. The army of Antony could not believe in the flight of their general, and held out for seven days in ex- pectation of his returning to join them ; but hearing no tidings of him, and being deserted by their allies, they hasted to make terms with the conqueror. Antony and Cleopatra continued their flight to Egypt, where the queen displayed more courage and enterprising spirit than her lover. She caused some of her galleys to be carried over the isthmus (of Suez) into the Red sea, proposing to save herself, with her treasures, in an un- knowii world ; but the Arabians having burned her vessels, she was forced to abandon a design so full of difficulties, and she therefore com- menced fortifying the avenues of her kingdom, and making preparations for war. She also solicited foreign assistance, addressing herself to all the princes in the alliance of Antony. While Cleopatra was thus em- ployed, Antony exhibited the most lamentable weakness : at first he afl'ected to imitate Timon the misanthrope, and shut himself up without either friends or domestics ; but his natural temper did not allow him to remain long in this state, and quitting his cell, he gave himself up to feasting and every kind of extravagance. In the meantime, the forces of Octavius advanced on each side ol Egypt. Cornelius Gal'lus took possession of Paretonium, which was the 16 242 ANCIENT HISTORY key of Egypt on the west side ; and Antony, who speeded with his fleet and army to wrest it out of his hands, was forced to retire with great loss, especially of his ships. Pelusium, the eastern security of the kingdom, was surrendered to Octavius at the first summons : it was re- ported that Seleucus the governor betrayed the place by Cleopatra's orders ; but she, to clear herself from such an imputation, delivered up his wife and children into Antony's hands. Caesar advanced to besiege Alexandria : Antony made an effort to impede his march, but he was abandoned by his soldiers ; and finding he could not die with glory in the field, he returned to Alexandria, overcome with rage and fury, run- ning and crying out, " that Cleopatra had betrayed him, when he had ruined all his fortunes for her sake alone." The queen, hearing his violent transports, retired in terror to a monument she had erected, secured the doors, and caused a report to be spread of her death. Upon this news, Antony attempted to commit suicide, and inflicted on himself a mortal wound : hearing, however, in the midst of his agonies, that Cleopatra still lived he caused himself to be transported to her monument, and expired in her presence. Cleopatra seems to have formed some hope of obtaining the same influence over Octavius Caesar that she had exercised over Antony ; but finding the conqueror insensible to her charms, and having received secret information that he reserved her to adorn his triumph, she bribed a countryman to convey an asp to her in a basket of figs, and applied the venomous creature to her arm, and thus died. Egypt was then reduced into the form of a Roman province, and its immense riches transported to Rome, which enabled Octavius to pay all he owed to his soldiers. On his return to Rome, the senate saluted him by the hon- orable name of Augus'tus, and by a unanimous vote conceded to him the entire authority of the state. The era of the Roman empire is usually dated from Jan. 1st, b. c. 28. The title of Augus'tus was at first only personal, and did not con- vey any idea of sovereignty : several of the imperial family took it who never were emperors, such as German'icus. The female line, who had not the least shadow of sovereignty with the Romans, had it as Antonia Major ; and thus Liv'ia first took the name of Augusta when she wa3 adopted, by her husband's will, into the Julian family. After the time of Dioclesian it was changed into Sem^per Augus'tus ; and this title was, in modem times, assumed by the emperors of Germany and Austria. It may appear surprising that the Romans made no vigorous effort to recover their republican constitution ; but, in truth, Roman liberty was destroyed when the Grac'chi were murdered : all the subsequent civil dissensions were contests for power between different sections of the oligarchy ; and the people, weary o'" the oppression of the aristocracy, gladly sought shelter from the tyrannj of the nobles in the despotic sway of a single master. ROMAN EMPIRE 243 CHAPTER XVI. GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Section I. — European Countries. — Spain. In general the boundaries of the Roman empire may be described as the great western ocean, the rivers Rhine and Danube in Europe, the chain of Mount Caucasus, the river Euphrates and the Syrian deserts in Asia, and the sandy deserts of Africa. It thus included the fairest portions of the known world surrounding the Mediterranean sea. Its most western province was the Spanish peninsula, whose bound- aries, being fixed by nature, continue unvaried. This great country, usually called Iberia by the Greeks, either from a colony of Iberians, or from the river Iberus (Ebro), was known to the Romans by the names Hispania or Hesperia. It was usually divided into three great portions, Lusitania, Baetica or Hispania Ulterior, and Tarraconensis or Hispania Giterior. The chief islands were the major and minor Baleares (Majorca and Minorca), whose inhabitants were celebrated for their skill as slingers and archers. Section II. — Transalpine Gaul. Ancient Gaul was boundea on the north and south by the sea, on the west Viy the Pyrenees, and on the east by the rivers Rhine and Var. It wis divided into three great sections, Bel'gia, Aquitania, and Gal'lia Propria ; in which the language, manners, and customs, differed con- siderably. The religion of the ancient Gauls, like that of the ancient Britons, was druidical ; they worshipped a supreme deity called Hesus, or iEsar, to whom they believed the oak to be sacred, especially if the parasitical plant called mistletoe were found growing upon it. Their rites were very sanguinary : human victims were sacrificed in their groves and circles of stone ; and it is said that their nobles occasionally volunteered to offer themselves upon the national altars. Temples were not erected in Gaul, until after its conquest by the Romans ; but long before that period the worship of a crowd of inferior deities had been introduced. The several Gallic tribes were usually independent of each other ; but on great occasions a general council of the nation was summoned. 244 ANCIENT HISTORY especially when preparations were made for any of the great migrations which proved so calamitous to Greece and Italy. Their superior valoi rendered these tribes very formidable to all the southern nations ; it was commonly said, that the Romans fought with others for conquest, but with the Gauls for actual existence. But from the time of the subju- gation of their country by Julius Caesar, their valor seemed to have disappeared together with their liberty ; they never revolted, except when the extortions of their rulers became insupportable ; and their efforts were neither vigorous nor well-directed. In no province did Roman civilization produce greater effects than in Gaul ; many public works of stupendous size and immense utility were constructed ; roads were constructed and paved with stone ; durable bridges were built, and aqueducts formed to supply the cities with water. Remains of these mighty works are still to be found, and they can not be viev/ed without wonder and admiration. Section III. — Britain. Though Britain was not reduced to the form of a Roman province until long after the time of Julius Cassar, yet, as that general brought it nominally under subjection, it will be better to descri-be its ancient state here than to interrupt the history of the empire in a subsequent chapter. The name of Britain was originally given to the cluster of islands in th<; Atlantic now called British, the largest of which bore the name of Albion. The southern part of Albion, or England, was originally colo- nized from Gaul ; the tribes that inhabited the east and north are said to have been of German descent ; and there is a constant tradition, that the Scots in the northwest came originally from Ireland. That part of Britain now included in the kingdom of England and principality of Wales, was anciently divided among seventeen tribes, to whom probably some of inferior note were subject. The principality of Wales, formerly comprehending the whole country beyond the Severn, was inhabited, in the Roman times, by the Siliires, the Dem'etse, and the Ordovices. The last-named tribe possessed North Wales, and long bade defiance to the Roman power in their mountain fastnesses. The island of Mona (Anglesey), celebrated as the ancient seat of the Druids, belonged to the Ordovices. The inhabitants of the country beyond the Firths of Solvvay and the Forth were named Me'tte and Caledonii, but, in a later age, the Picts and Scots. Juverna, or Iliber'nia [heland), was known only by name to the Romans. Three walls, strengthened by castles, were successively raised to check the incursions of the Picts and Scots by the emperors Adrian, Antoninus, and Severus. The last was the most important, according to Camden, who seems to have traced it with great care. It began at Blatobul'gium {Bulness), on the Irish sea, kept along the side of Solway Firth, by Burgh-upon-sands, to Lugoval'lum [Carlisle), where it passed the Ituna [Eden). Thence it was carried on over the little rivers Cam- beck, Living, and Poltrosc, into the Northumbrian hills, along which it passed to the German ocean. This wall was about eight feet thick, and was protected by a dit:h twelve yards broad. ROMAN EMPIRE. 245 When Britain was first visited by the Romans, the inhabitants had made considerable adv^ances in civihzation. Their country was well peopled and stocked with cattle ; their houses were as good as those of the Gauls, and they used iron and copper plates for money. They made litiie use of clothes, instead of which they painted and tattooed their skins. In Avar they made use of chariots, with sharp blades fixed to the axle-trees, which they drove at full speed against the hostile ranks. Their chief traffic was with the Gauls and the Phoenicians, who came to the (.Jassiter'ides {^Scilly islands), for tin. Little is known respecting their religion, except that they were held in mental thraldom by a caste of priests named Druids, and that they were guilty of ofTering human sacrifices to their gods. Each tribe had its own king ; but in cases of emergency, a common chief was elected, who possessed, however, little more than a nominal authority. The most singular monument of the Druids remaining is Stonehenge in Wiltshire, a circular edifice of enormous stones, which probably was the national temple. Britain was finally abandoned by the Romans in the early part of the fifth century. Section IV. — The Northern Provinces of the Empire. Italy, Greece, Sicily, Macedon, &c., having been already described in former chapters, we shall conclude the account of the Roman empire in Europe by a notice of the countries south of the Danube, which were formed into provinces during the reign of Augus'tus Caesar. Vindelic'ia was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the east by the ^'nus {Inn), on the west by Helvetia {Switzerland), and on the south by Rhae'tia : it derived its name from the river Vindo (the Wert). Its chief tribes were the Vindelic'ii and Brigan'tii. Two others are mentioned by Horace in his ode celebrating the conquest of this country by Tiberius and Driisus, addressed to Augus'tus : — " Of late the Vindelicians knew Thy skill in arms, and felt thy sword. When Drusus the Genanni slew, And Breiini swift, a lawless horde. The towers which covered all around The rugged Alps' enormous height. By him were levelled with the ground, And more than once confessed his might." Their prmcipal towns were Augus'ta Vindelicorum (Avgsburgh) and Brigan'tia [Bregenz), neither of which were remarkable in ancient his- tory. The principal rivers were the Vedo and the Ly'cus {Lech). Rhae'tia nearly coincided with the country now called the territory of the Grisons ; it had Vindelic'ia on the north, the jE'nus {Inn) on the east, the chain of the Alps from Lacus Verbanus {Logo Maggiore) to Lacus Brigaiitinus {Lake of Constance) on the south, and Helvetia on the west. The principal tribe were the Rhae'ti, whom some have identi- fied with the Rasena or ancient Etrurians. They were a brave, but cruel people ; and when the)- invaded Italy in the reign of Augus'tus Caesar, their ravages exceeded those that had been in earlier times per- petrated by the Gauls. The chief towns were Curia {Chur), which became the capital of the 246 ANCIENT HISTORY. province in the reign of the emperor Adrian, Veldidena (Wilden), and Tridentum {^Tient). Nor'icura, formerly a kingdom, but afterward a Roman province, ex- tended between the Danube and the Alpes Norise in the neighborhood of Trent from the j^E'nus {Inn) to Mons Cetius (Kahlenberg), and conse- quently included a great portion of modern Austria, the archbishopric of Saltzburgh, and all Styria and Carinthia. Its southern boundaries were the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save). Its chief cities were, in Nor') cum Ripense, or the part bordering on the Danube, Jovavum or Jovavia (Saltzburgh), Boidtirum (Innstadt), so named from the Boii, the most important of the Noric tribes ; Lentia [Lenz) and Lauriacum (Lorcli). In the interior, or Norlcum Mediterraneum, we find Pons jE'ni {Innspruck), Vis'celli (Weltz), Graviacii (Gurch), Agun'tum (Inniclien), Teur'nia [Villach), and Sol'va, once the capital of the country, but long since buried in its ruins. Pannonia was divided into Superior and Inferior. The former had the Danube on the east and north, the Ar'rabo (Raab) on the west, and the chain of Mons Cetius (KaMenberg) on the south. It consequently comprehended Carniola, Croatia, Windesch, Mark, and part of Austria. Pannonia Inferior had the Ar'rabo on the north, the Danube on the east, and the Savus (Save) on the south. The chief cities were Seges'taor Sescia [Siseck) on the Save ; Amona (Untcrlaubach), a Roman colony; Naupor'tum (Oberlaubach), upon the river Naupor'tus (Laubach) ; Vin- doniana or Vindebona (Vien?ia), obscure in ancient times, but now the capital of the Austrian empire, Scaraban'tia (Scarbing) ; lsi\ix's?i(Esseg); Sir'mium (Sirmich), the ancient metropolis of Pannonia on the Save ; and Taurunum {Belgrade), an important frontier fortress both in ancient and modern times. Mce'sia was the name given to the country between the conflux of the Save and Danube and the Euxine sea. It was divided into two unequal portions, Superior and Inferior. Moe'sia Superior was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the south by the Scordian mountains, on the v^est by Pannonia, and on the east by the river Ccbrus {Ischia). Its chief cities were Singidunum (Semlin) and Nais'sus {Nissa). This province comprehended the countries now called Bosnia and Servia. Mce'sia Inferior, nearly coinciding with the modern Bulgaria, was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the west by the Cebrus, on the south by Mount Haemus {the Balkan), and on the east by the Euxine sea. Its chief cities were Odes'sus {Varna) and Tomi (Teineswar). The part of lower Moe'sia bordering on the Euxine was frequently named Pon'tus ; and hence, Tomi, the place of the poet Ovid's exile, is called a city of Pon^tus, though it did not belong to the kingdom of that name. Tomi is said to have derived its name from Medea's having cut her brother Absyr'tus to pieces in that place,* in order that her fether's pursuit of her might be delayed, while he gathered the scattered limba of his child. To this Ovid alludes in a well-known distich : — " Tomi its name from horrid murder bore, For there a brother's limbs a sister tore." • From TCjivM, to cut. ROMAN EMPIRE. 247 North of the Danube was the province of Dacia, annexed to the Ro- man empire in the reign of Trajan. Some geographers describe i< loosely as including all the country between the Borys'thenes [Dnieper) and the Dan'ube ; but its proper boundaries were Mon'tes Carp'atii [the Krapack chain) on the north, the Tibis'cus [Theiss) on the west, the Hier'asus {Pruth) on the east, and the Danube on the south. P consequently included Upper Hungary, Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. The inhabitants were called Getae by the Greeks, and Daci by the Romans : they possessed no city of importance. Thrace was long permitted to retain its own sovereigns, on the con- dition of acknowledging the supremacy of the Romans ; but in the reign of the Emperor Claudian it was reduced to the form of a province. It was nearly enclosed by the chain of Mount Hee'inus and the sea. The principal cities of Thrace were the Greek colonies, which have already been noticed in a preceding chapter. Il'lyricum is a name sometimes given to all the countries south of the Danube, but it is properly applied only to the strip of land on the north- east coast of the Adriatic, from the Rhajtian Alps to the river Drinus (^Drino), and easterly to the Savus {Save). Its inhabitants were re- markable for their skill in naval architecture ; and infamous for their in- veterate attachment to piracy. Their chief cities were Salona, Epidau- rus [Ragusa), and Scodra [Scutari). Section V. — Asiatic and African Provinces. The Roman provinces in Anatolia were : 1, Asia, as the Romans with proud anticipations named the first cession of country made to them east of the ^Egean : 2, Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part of Pon'tus : and 3, Cilicia, with Pisid'ia. These provinces were in gen- eral the most tranquil portion of the empire ; and the most peaceful, if not the most happy period, in the history of Asia Minor, was that during which it remained subject to Rome. No greater proof can be given of the wealth to which individuals attained, than that the sepulchres of private persons, like that of Icesms, discovered by Mr. Ainsvvorth, rival- led those of the ancient Pontic kings. The various divisions of Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, and Commagene, for the purpose of government, can not easily be enumerated. At first, several states were permitted to retain a qualified independence ; but before the close of the first centu- ry of the Christian era, they were all absorbed in the empire. Arme- nia and Mesopotamia became provinces in the reign of Trajan, and part of Arabia paid nominal allegiance to that emperor ; but these acquisitions were abandoned in the reign of his successor. The African provinces were : 1, Egypt, which became a province after the battle of Actiam : 2, Cyrenaica, which soon followed the fate of Egypt ; Crete was annexed to this government : 3, Numid'ia and Africa Proper, which were finally subdued by Julius Caesar : and, 4, Mauretania, whose king was dethroned a. d. 41, and the country di- vided into two provinces, separated by the river Muluch^a (Ma/iala), called Csesarien'sis and Tingitania. The chief towns in Mauretania Cae- sarien'sis, were IgilYhs (Zezeli), Sal'dae {Delluz), lonVnmm (Algiers), Kususcucu'.ri (Koleah^, Csesarea { Teunez), and Siga (Sigale). The most 248 ANCIENT HISTORY. remarkable tribe was the MasscBsy'li, on the river Muluch'a, near the seacoast. Mauretania Tingita'na derived its name from its chief city Tin'gis {Tangiers), on the Fretum Gaditanum (Straits of Gihraltar). It con- tained also the towns and ports of Busadir {Melilla), and AbMa ( Ceuta), in the Mediterranean. There were besides, on the Atlantic ocean, Zilis, or Julia Constantina (Arzillo) ; Ban'asa Valen'tia [Mehedund), and Sala (Sallce) : but these were scarcely known to the Romans until a very late period of the empire. The Gsetulians, first made known to the Ro- mans during the Jugurthine war, never were subdued by their armies ; but in later ages paid homage to the proconsul or praefect of Africa. Though the Romans had thus succeeded in Asia to the great commer- cial marts of the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Egyptians, and had acquired in Africa the ancient stations of the Carthaginians, they made little or no effort to encourage traffic. They do not seem to have opened a sin- gle new route for trade ; and under their government many of the an- cient highways of commerce, particularly in Asia, fell into disuse. One principal cause of this was, the distance of Rome from the chief trading stations in the eastern seas, by which the attention of the ruling powers was withdrawn from the great abuses that prevailed in the pro- vincial administration and colonial government. This appears evident from the vast improvement in the commerce between Europe and Asia, which took place immediately after the seat of government was trans- ferred from Rome to Byzantium (ConstajitinopJe) ; and, however some politicians may be disposed to blame the division of the empire, a slight glance at the nations that pressed on the frontiers of the Roman do- minions will show that the interests and dangers of the eastern and western empires were so very different, that the course of policy which suited the one would be injurious to the other. Section VI. — The Principal Nations on the Frontiers of the Empire. Germanv was a name loosely given by the Romans to all the coun- tries north of the Rhine and Danube. Sarmatia, in as uncertain a sense, was applied to the countries now called Poland and Lithuania ; while the greater part of the vast dominions of Russia in Europe and Asia were included under the general name of Scythia, and were almost wholly unknown in ancient times. In the northwest of Europe the countries about the Sinus Codanus (Baltic sea), though probably visited in very ancient tnnes by the enterprising Phoenicians, remained unvis- ited, or at least unexplored, by the Romans, who were never remarka- ble for their zeal in maritime discovery. Indeed, they seem to have regarded Scandinavia, or Scan'dia (Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and Erin'gia, or Furnin'gia (Finland), as isles of the German ocean. When Britain was circumnavigated, the Or'cades [Orkney islands) yf ere discovered ; but, previous to that time, some indistinct account had been received of a distant island, named Thule, which some believe to have been one of the Zetland cluster, and othen- Iceland. The Germans took their name from their own language, Ghar-mans , signifying warlike men, or warriors ; for, like most savage tribes, they principally prided themselves on their military virtues. They were ROMAN EMPIRE. 249 called in the earliest ages Cim'briand Teu'tcnes by the Romans; but it is not easy to determine whether these may not have been very dif- ferent races, accidentally united in a common migration. The Cim'bri gave their name to the Chersonesus Cim'brica {Jutland) ; from that of theTeu'tones the modern names Teutschen and Dutch have manifestly been derived. A confederation of several tribes, formed in the third century, took the name of AUeman'ni, or All-mans, that is, complete men, from which the French of the present day call Germany Alle- magne. It would be impossible, within our limits, to enumerate all the tribes of ancient Germany, but a few of the principal may be noticed. On the east bank of the Al'bis (Elbe), between that river and the Vistula, were the Cim'bri and Saxones, of whom the former were the most re- markable in ancient times, and the latter dnring the middle ages. West of the Al'bis were the upper and lower Chauci, divided from each other by the Visurgis (Weser) ; and the Fris'ii, separated from the Chauci by the river Amasia (Erus), whose territory still preserves the name of Friesland. The Marcoman'ni anciently possessed all the country between the sources of the Rhenus [Rhine) and the Is'ter, or Danubius (Danube) : they afterw^ard fixed themselves in Bohemia and Moravia, and also in part of Gaul, driving the Boii before them. On this side of the Rhine, between that river and the Mosa (Maese), were the U'bii, who were invited by Agrip'pa to this country during the reign of Augus'tus. To commemorate this migration they named their capital Colonia Agrippi'na ( Cologne), in honor of their patron. Higher up the Rhine, and beyond the Mosella (Moselle) were the Treviri, whose chief city was Augusta Trevirorum (Triers), and some minor tribes, possessing the city of Argentoratum, or Argentinae (Strasburgh). The Hercynian forests and mountains, by which the Romans seem to have understood all the unexplored part of eastern Germany, appear to have been the original abode of the Quadi, the Suevi, and the Herman- diiri, who became very formidable to the Romans in the age of Antoni- nes. The original seat of the Longobar'di, celebrated in Italy under the name of Lombards, was the upper part of the Elbe : they are said to have derived their national appellation from their " long barts," or spears ; but others think that they were so called from the length of their beards, or from having been formed by a coalition of the Lingones and Bar'di. Near the mouth of the Vistula were the Gep'idae ; and it is supposed that the first seat of the warlike Burgundians was on the same river ; but they, as well as the Semnones, had pushed forward to the Elbe in the first century of the Christian era. The iEs'tui, cele- brated for their trade in amber, resided on the coasts of the Baltic sea. Beside the Hercynian forest already mentioned, Germany contained Sylva Melibo'ca(^/^e Hartz), Sylva Barcenia (the Black Forest), Sylva Sudeta (the. Thuringian Forest), and Sylva Cas'sia (Forest of Teuloberg). Most of the rivers have been already mentioned ; but we must notice the northern embouchure of the Rhine, called Flavum Os'tium ( Vlie), in the territory of the Batavians ; the I'sela (Isel), separating the Bruc- teri from the Fris'ii ; the Liipias (Lippe), in the territory of the Marsi ; and the Viadrus (Oder), near whose source many authors place the original habitation of the Burgundians 250 ANCIENT HISTORY. In considering the state of ancient Germany, it must be borne in mind that the tribes frequently migrated from cne quarter to another, especially after the second century of our era, and that the name of a principal tribe, such as that of the Suevi, was frequently given to a large confederation. This is particularly the case with the Franks {free men), who were not so much a tribe, as a union of several hordes determined to maintain their national independence. The religion of the ancient Germans seems to have resembled that of the Gauls, except that it was rather more sanguinary, and that greater regard was paid to oracles and old prophetesses. Their chief deity was Odin, or Woden, their god of war, whose name is preserved in our Woden's day, or Wednesday. Their notion of future happiness was to sit for ever in Odin's presence, quaffing beer from the sculls of their enemies. This opinion is forcibly expressed in the death-song which Lodbrog sings for himself in the Edda : — " With flashing swords our might we proved ; But this my hearty laughter moved, That bliss eternal shall be mine Where the halls of Odin shine ; To him, great sire, my deeds are known, For me he has p'-cpared a throne. Where richest ale incessant flows In the hollow sculls of foes. The brave man never shrinks at death, Gladly I resign my breath ; No regrets my soul appal As I haste to Odin's hall." This is manifestly the creed of a savage race of warriors, and such all the Germans were ; they took, no pleasure but in military weapons ; they never attended any festival or public assembly without arms ; and so sacred was the sword among them, that their most solemn oath was taken by kissing its naked blade. In Asia, the Roman empire was bounded by the wild tribes of the Caucasus, and the kingdoms of Armenia and Parthia. On the south it was limited by the unconquered Arabs, who defied every effort made to reduce them to obedience. India became known to the Romans after the conquest of Egj-pt ; and some efforts were made to establish an extensive commerce with that empire by the route of the Red sea, in the reigns of the later em- perors. It was divided into India Proper, or India at this side of the Ganges, whose western coast {Malabar) appears to have been pretty well known ; and India beyond the Ganges, which included the Bur- man enquire and the peninsula of Malacca. The extreme south of the Indian peninsula, called Regio Pandionis {the Carnatic), was said to have been the seat of a powerful and enlightened dynasty, whose capi- tal was Madura. Malacca was known as the Chersonesus Aurea {golden peninsula) ; the island of Ceylon was called Taprobane or Sal'- ice, and that of Sumatra, Labodii or Hor'dei. The frontier races of the empire in Africa have been mentioned in the preceding section. ROMAN EMPIRE. 251 Section VII. — Topography of the City of Rome. Rome was oiiginally built in a square form, whence it is called Roma Quadrata, on the Palatine hill. When the city was founded, and when 't was at any subsequent period enlarged, the first care was to mark out the Pomce'rium, a consecrated space round the walls of the city on which it was unlawful to erect any edifice. This custom manifestly arose from the necessity of preventing besiegers from finding shelter near the fortifications ; and in this, as in a thousand other instances, the early legislators gave utility the sanction of superstition. A set form was prescribed for marking the Pomce'rium ; a bullock and heifer were yoked to a bronze or copper ploughshare, and a furrow was drawn marking the course of the future wall. The plough was so guided that all the sods fell to the inside, and if any went in an opposite direc- tion, care was taken that they should be turned into the proper way. As the plough was sacred, it would have been profanation if anything impure passed over the ground which it had once touched ; but as things clean and unclean must necessarily pass into a city, when the plough came to a place where the builders designed to place a gate, it was taken up, and carried to the spot where the wall was resumed. Hence the Latins named a gate porta, from the verb portare, to carry. The comitmm, or place of public assembly, was next consecrated : the most remarkable part of this ceremony was the preparation of a vault, named mundus, in which were deposited the first-fruits of all things used to support life, and a portion of each colonist's native earth. To this structure many superstitious notions were attached ; it was sup- posed to be the entrance to the invisible world ; and it was opened three days in the year, with many solemn forms, to admit the spirits of the deceased. It is probable that the first extension of the Pomce'rium was occa- sioned by enclosing the Quirinal hill for the Sabines, when, under Tatius, they united themselves to the people of Rom'ulus. The next addition was the Ccelian hill, on which the followers of Cog'les Viben'- na, whoever that Etruscan adventurer may have been, erected their habi+.?.tion. Tul'lus Hos'tilius enclosed the Viminal hill after the de- struction of Al'ba, to which An'cus Mar'tius added the Aventine, which was regarded as the peculiar habitation of the plebeians. In the reign of the first Tar'quin, Rome was increased by the Esquiline and Capilo- line ; these completed the number of the seven hills for which the city was celebrated. At a much later period the Pincian and Vatican mounts were added ; and these, with the Janic'ulum on the north bank of the Tiber, made the number ten. An'cus Mar'tius was the first who fortified the city with outworks, especially by raising a castle and garrison on the Janic'ulum, which was connected with Rome by a wooden bridge {pons sublicius). But the elder Tar'quin was the first who beautified his capital with splen- did buildings, not only ornamental, but useful. To him the great sewer by which the city was drained, whose vast proportions still claim ad- miration, is generally attributed. Though Rome began to be more regularly built when it was re- stored after the departure of the Gauls, and many splendid edifices, 252 ANCIENT HISTORY. both public and privite, were erected, when vvea.th was so vastly in creased as it must have been after the conquest of Carthage and west- ern Asia ; it could scarcely be called a splendid city before the reign of Augus'tus, who boasted that " he found it brick, and left it marble." When Corinth was subdued by Mum'mius, so little were the Romans acquainted with the fine arts, that many precious pieces of statuary were destroyed for the sake of their materials ; but from that time taste was improved by a more constant intercourse with the Greeks, es- pecially when Athens became the university of the empire. But the long civil wars between the aristocratic and democratic factions pre- vented the development of these improvements, until the battle of Ac'tium gave Rome tranquillity and a master. In the days of its great- est prosperity the circumference of Rome, enclosed by Avails, was about twenty miles • but there were also very extensive suburbs. The city had thirty gates, some authors say more, of which the most remarkable were the Tergeminal, the Carmental, the Triumphal, and the Naval ; to which we may add the Cape'na,near the great aqueduct. The most remarkable buildings were ihe amphitheatres, the Capitol with its temples, the senate-house, and the forum. The first amphitheatre was the Cir'cus Max'imus, erected by Tar- quinius Priscus ; but so enlarged by subsequent additions, that it Avas capable of containing two hundred thousand spectators. In the arena were exhibited the cruel fights of gladiators, in which the Romans took a pleasure equally infamous and extravagant, together with races, ex- hibitions of strange animals, and combats of wild beasts. A still larger edifice was erected for the same purpose in the reign of Vespasian, whose massive ruins are called the Colos'seum. Theatres, public baths, and buildings for the exhibition of naumachiae, or naval combats, were erected by the emperors, who seemed anxious to compensate the people for the loss of their liberty by the magnificence of their public shows and entertainments. The Capitol was commenced on the Saturnian hill, Avhich received the name Capitoline from a human head being found by the laborers digg-ing the foundation, in the reign of Tarquin'ius Pris^cus. It was erected on the northern summit of the hill ; the rocky eminence to the south was called the Tarpeian cliff, to commemorate the treason of Tarpei'a ; and public criminals were frequently executed by being pre- cipitated from its peak. The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was usually regarded as the national sanctuary of the Romans : it was begun by Tarquin'ius Pris^cus, and finished by Tarquin'ius Super'bus, and it was almost yearly improved by the rich presents that successful generals and foreign princes, eager to conciliate the Romans, offered as votive gifts. Augus'tus alone presented gold and jewels exceeding five thou- sand pounds in value. During the civil wars between Marius and Sylla this temple was burnt to the ground ; but it was rebuilt with greater splendor ; and Cicero informs us, that the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus was erected on its pedestal at the very time that the con- spiracy of Cat'iline was discovered. It was destroyed twice again during the reigns of Vespasian and Domitian, but was restored each time with additional splendor. The Sibylline books, and other oracles, supposed to contain important predictions respecting the fate of the city, ROMAN EMPIRE. 253 were pi-eserved in the sanctuary, under the charge of fifteen persons of the highest rank, called the Quhidecemviri. Here, also, were pre- served the chronological archives of the city. A nail was annually driven into the temple by the chief magistrate ; and this curious custom is supposed to have been the first rude mode of marking the lapse of time. There were several other temples on this hill, the most remarkable of which Avas that of Jupiter Feret'rius, erected by Rom'ulus where the spolia opima were deposited. The spolia opima were the trophies pie- sented by a Roman general who had slain the leader of the enemy with his own hand ; they were only thrice offered, by Rom'ulus, Cossus, and Marcellus. From the ferel' rum, or bier, on which these spoils were borne to the temple, the deity was called Feret'rius. The Capitol was the citadel of Rome, except la the reign of Numa, when the Quir'inal was chosen as the chief place of strength. This circumstance tends greatly to confirm Niebuhr's theory, that an ancient Sabine town, named Quir'ium, stood on that hill, which modern writers confounded with Cures : perhaps the double-faced Janus, whose temple was closed during peace, was the symbol of the united cities, and the opening of the temple gates was to enable the inhabitants of the one in time of war to assist the other. In the valley between the Palatine and Capitoline hills was the forum, or place of public assembly and great market. It was sur- rounded with temples, halls for the administration of justice, called lasiltccB, and public offices ; it was also adorned with statues erected in honor of eminent warriors and statesmen, and with various trophies from conquered nations. Among these memorials of conquest were several rostra, or prows of ships taken at Antium, which were used to ornament the pulpits from which the magistrates and public orators harangued the general assemblies of the people : from this custom the phrase " to mount the rostrum" originated. In the middle of the forum was a drained marsh, called the Curtian lake, to which a singular le- gend was attached. Traditions recorded that an immense chasm had suddenly opened in this place, which the augurs declared could not be closed until .he most precious things in Rome were thrown into it. Cur'tius, a Roman knight, armed and mounted, leaped into the yawning pit, declaring that nothing was more valuable than courage and patriot- ism ; after which it is added that the fissure closed. A much more probable account is, that the place derived its name from a Sabine general named Cur'tius, smothered there while the place was as yet a swamp. In the forum was the celebrated temple of Janus, built entirely of bronze, supposed to have been erected during the reign of Numa. Its gates were only closed three times in eight centuries, so incessant were the wars in which the Romans were engaged. Not far from this was the temple of Concord, in which the senate frequently assembled : storks were encouraged to build in the roof of the edifice, on account of the social instincts attributed to those birds. In the same quarter of the city was the temple of Ves'ta, where a perpetual fire was main- tained by the Vestal virgins : in it were said to be preserved the Palla- 254 ANCIENT HISTORY. dium, or sacred image of Pal'las Min'erva, on which the fate of Troy depended, and other relics consecrated by superstition. The senate-house was above the pulpits belonging to the public orators : it was said to have been originally erected by Tul'Ius Hostil'- ius : but the senate had several other places of meeting, frequently as- sembling in the temples. Near it was the comitium, or court in which the patrician cnrice were convened : it was not roofed until the end of the second Punic war, soon after which the comitia curidta fell grad- ually into disuse. This space, before it was covered, was called a temple ; because templum. properly signifies not merely an edifice, but an enclosure consecrated by the augurs. The principal theatres and public baths were erected in this vicinity. The elections of magistrates, reviews of troops, and the census or registration of the citizens, were held in the Cam'pus Mar'tius, which was also the favorite exercise-ground of the young nobles. It was originally a large common, which had formed part of the estate of the younger Tar'quin, and being confiscated after the banishment of that monarch, was dedicated to the god of war, because the Rinnans be- lieved Mars to be the father of their founder. It long remained un- improved ; but in the reign of Augus'tus it began to be surrounded by several splendid edifices ; ornamental trees and shrubs were planted in different parts, and porticoes erected, under which the citizens might continue their exercises in rainy weather. Most of these improvements were due to Mar'cus Agrip'pa, the best general and wisest statesman in the court of Augus'tus. He erected, near the Cam'pus Martins, the celebrated Pantheon, or temple of all the gods ; the most perfect and splendid monument of ancient Rome that has survived the ravages of time.* At present it is used as a Christian church, and is universally admired for its circular form, and the beautiful dome that forms its roof. Near the Pantheon were the gardens and public baths, which Agrip'pa at his death bequeathed to the Roman people. Perhaps no public edifices at Rome were more remarkable than the aqueducts for supplying the city with water. Pure streams were sought at a great distance, and conveyed in these artificial channels, supported by arches, many of which were more than a hundred feet high, over steep mountains, deep valleys, and, what was still more difiicult, dan gerous morasses, which less enterprising architects would have deemed insuperable. The first aqueduct was erected during the censorship of Ap'pius Caj'cus, about four hundred years after the foundation of the city ; but under the emperors not fewer than twenty of these stupendous and i;seful structures were raised, which brought such an abundant supply of water to the metropolis, that rivers seemed to flow through the streets and sewers. Even at the present day, when only three of the aqueducts remain, after the lapse of centuries, the neglect of rulers, and the ravages of barbarians, no city in Europe has a better supply of wholesome water than Rome. It would be tedious to enumerate all the public buildings that deco- rated " the Eternal City ;" we may therefore conclude by observing that Rome, when in the zenith of its glory, contained four hundred and • The Collosseum in the Regent's Park is built on the model of the Pantheoa. ROMAN EMPIRE. 25.^ twenty temples, five regular theatres, two amphitheatres, and seven cir- cuses of vast extent : there were sixteen public baths, built of marble, and furnished with every convenience that could be desired. From the aqueducts a prodigious number of fountains were supplied, many of which were remarkable for their architectural beauty. The pala- ces, public halls, columns, porticoes, and obelisks, were without num- ber ; and to ihese must be added the triumphal arches erected by the later emperors. The public roads in the various parts of the empire, but more espe- cially in Italy, though less ostentatious than the aqueducts, were not inferior to them in utility and costliness. Of these the most remarka- ble was the Appian road, from Rome to Brundusium, through the Pomptine marshes, which were kept well drained during the flourish ing ages of the empire, but by subsequent neglect became a pestilential swamp. This road extended three hundred and fifty miles, and was paved through its entire length with enormous square blocks of hard stone. Nineteen centuries have elapsed since it was formed, and yet many parts of it still appear nearly as perfect as when it was first made. Rome was inferior to Athens in architectural beauty, but it far sur- passed it in works of public utility. Every succeeding emperor deemed it necessary to add something to the edifices that had been raised for the comfort and convenience of the citizens : even after the seat of government had been transferred to Constantinople, we find the son of Constantine evincing his gratitude for the reception he met with in the ancient capital, by sending thither two magnificent obelisks from Alex- tadria in Egypt. 256 ANCIENT HISTORY CHAPTER XVII. HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Section I. — The Reigns of the Family of the Ccesars. FROM B. C. 30 TO A. D. 96. Though the battle of Ac'tium made Octaviiis Ccesar sole sovereign of the empire, the forms of the republic were faithfully preserved ; the senate sat as a council of state, and, though little weight was attached to its deliberations, the freedom of speech and comment preserved the government from sinking into absolute despotism. With supreme power, Octavius, or Augus'tus, as he was about this time named by the senate, assumed an entirely new character ; the cruelty with which he may justly be reproached in the early part of his career disappeared : he became a mild and merciful ruler, truly anxious to insure the happi- ness of the people intrusted to his charge. Under such a benignant administration, the Romans ceased to regret their ancient freedom, if, indeed, such a term can be applied to the oppressive government estab- lished by the aristocracy during the preceding century ; and before the close of the tirst emperor's reign, the last traces of the republican spirit had disappeared. It is said that Augus'tus at first wished to resign his power, after the example of Syl'la ; but was dissuaded by his friends Agrip'pa and Meca^'nas, who represented to him, with great truth, that the Roman state could no longer be governed by its old constitution, and that he would retire only to make room for another master. He went through the form, however, of an abdication in the senate ; but, on the urgent request of that body, he resumed his sway ; instead, however, of taking the supreme authority for life, he would only accept it for a term of ten years. This example was followed by the succeed- ing emperors, and gave rise to the sacra deccnnalia, festivals celebrated at each renewal of the imperial authority. Amid all the adulations of the senate and people, Augus'tus felt that it was to the army he was indebted for empire, and therefore exerted himself diligently to attach the soldiers to his interest. He dispersed his veterans over Italy in thirty-two colonies, dispossessing, in many places, the ancient inhabitants, to make room for these settlers. He maintained seventeen legions in Europe ; eight on the Rhine, four or the Danube, three in Spain, and two in Dalmatia. Eight more were kept in Asia and Africa : so that the standing army of the empire exceeded one hundred and seventy thousand men. Twelve cohorts ROMAN EMPIRE. 2t> f amo Anting to about ten thousand men, were quartered in Rome and im ricmity ; nine of these, called the prsetorian bands, were intended lo protect the emperor's person, the others were destined for the guard of the city. These household troops became afterward the author of many cnanges and revolutions, imtil they were all dismissed by Constantine ihe Great (a. d. 312). Two powerful fleets were established in the Italian seas ; one at Ravenna, to guard the Adriatic, the other at Mise- iiLim, to protect the western Mediterranean. It is calculated that tbu revenues of the empire at this time exceeded forty millions sterling ; but this sum was not more than sufficient to defray the expenses of tb« ■.;ivil, naval, and military establishments, and of the public works un- dertaken to adorn the metropolis. Some disturbances in Spain and Gaul induced the emperor to .jross ;he Alps and Pyrenees ; he subdued the Cantabrians, who inhabited the province now called Biscay (a country whose mountains and defiles have always proved formidable obstacles to an invading army), and the Asturians. To restrain these tribes in future, lie erected several new lortified cities, of which the most remarkable were Cajsarea Augus'ta (Sara<{ossa) and Augus'ta Emer'ita [Merida), so called because it was colonized by the veteran soldiers {emeriti). While resting at Tar'raco (Tarragona) from the fatigues of his campaign, Augus'tus received am- bassadors from the most remote nations, the Scythians, the Sarmatians, the Indians, and even the Seres, who inhabited northern China. On his recovery from a fit of illness which spread universal alarm throughout the empire, the senate conferred the tribuneship for life upon Augus'tus, which rendered his person sacrosanct. This dignity was henceforth annexed to the empire, and consequently all attempts against the life of the sovereign became high treason {Imsa majestas). At the same time he declined the title of dictator, which had been ren- dered odious by the cruelties of Syl'la. Having made a tour in the east of the empire, he was overwhelmed with adulations by the degen- erate Greeks (b. c. 20) ; but the honor most gratifyhig to him and the Roman people was the restoration of the standards that had been taken from Cras'sus. Oa his return to Italy, he drove back the Rhastians, who had invaded the peninsula, and intrusted their subjugation to Tibe- rius and Drusus Nero, his step-sons, youths of great promise and v^alor. They succeeded in conquering Vindelicia and Nor'icum ; bm their efforts to subdue Germany were bafiied by the undaunted valor of the native tribes, and the great difficulties of the country, whosu forests and marshes rendered discipline vmavailing. When the second decennial period of the imperial authority termm?. ted, Augus'tus, harassed by domestic calamities, as well as the cares o( empire, seemed really anxious to resign, and enjoy the quiet of domes- tic life ; but the character of Tiberius, now generally regarded as his successor, gave so much alarm to the senate and people, that they cordially joined in supplicating the emperor to continue his reign. The greatest calamity he had to endure was the disgraceful conduoi, of lu« daughter Julia, whose scandalous debaucheries filled Rome with horror , she and the partners of her crimes were banished to various parts of the empire, and some of her paramours were put to death. When peace was established in every part of the Roman dominioii"ii 17 358 ANCIENT HISTORY. Augus'tus closed the temple of Janus, and issued a decree for a general census, or enrolment, of all his subjects. It was at this period that lesus Christ was born ; and thus, literally, was his advent the signal of " on earth peace, and good will toward men." The great prosperity of the reign of Augus'tus was first interrupted by the rebellion of the Germans, which the extortions of Quintil'ius Var'us provoked. Armin'ius, a young prince of the Cat'ti, united his countrymen in a secret confederacy ; and then, pretending friendship to Var'us, conducted him into the depths of a forest, where his troops could neither fight nor retreat. In this situation Armin'ius attacked the Romans, from whose camp he stole by night, and so harassed them that most of the officers slew themselves in despair (a. d. 10). The legion- aries, thus left without leaders, were cut to pieces ; and thus the Romans received the greatest overthrow that they had suffered since the defeat of Cras'sus. When the news of this calamity was brought to Rome, everybody expected that the Germans would immediately cross ■he Rhine, and advance against the city. Augus'tus, though over- whelmed with sorrow, made every exertion to allay the general con- sternation : he sent his son-in-law and heir, Tiberius, to guard the Rhine ; but he prohibited him from following the wild tribes to their fastnesses. For several months the emperor abandoned himself to transports of grief, during which he frequently exclaimed, " Var'us, re- store me my legions !" and he observed the fatal day as a mournful so- lemnity until his death. This event probably tended to hasten his dissolution ; he was seized with a dangerous attack of illness at Naples, and as he was returning home to the capital, the disease compelled him to stop at Nola, in Campania, where he expired (a. d. 14). It was cur- rently reported that the empress Liv'ia accelerated his death by admin- istering poisoned figs, in order to secure the succession for Tiberius. Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as he was called after his adoption, Augus'tus Tiberius Cse'sar, commenced his reign by procuring the murder of young Agrip'pa, grandson of the late emperor, whom he dreaded as a formidable rival. As soon as his accession was known at Rome, the consuls, senators, and knights, ran headlong into slavery, pretending to hail Tiberius with extravagant joy, while they professed equally extravagant sorrow for the loss of Augus'tus. Tiberius met them with duplicity equal to their own : he affected to decline the sov- ereign power ; but, after long debates, allowed himself to be won over by the general supplications of the senators. Having bound himself by oath never to depart from the regulations of his predecessor, he ex- erted himself to win the affections, or rather disarm the suspicions, of the virtuous German'icus, whom Augus'tus had compelled him to declare his heir. But the jealousies of the emperor were greatly aggravated by a mutiny of the troops in Germany, who offered to raise German'icus to the throne ; and though he firmly refused, and severely rebuked their disloyalty, yet Tiberius thenceforth was resolved upon his destruc- tion. The glory which the young prince acquired in several successful campaigns against the Germans, at length induced the emperor to recall him to Rome, under the pretence of rewarding him with a triumph. But Tiberius soon became anxious to remove from Rome a person whose mildness and virtue were so powerfully contrasted with his own tyranny ROMAN EMPIRE. 259 And debauchery : he appointed him governor of the eastern provinces ; but at the same time he sent Piso, whh. his infamous wife Plancina, into Syria, secretly instructing them to thwart German'icus in all his under- takings. The wicked pair obeyed these atrocious commands ; and the brave prince, after undergoing many mortifications, at last sunk under them. Attacked by a severe disease, aggravated by suspicions of Piso's treachery, whom he believed to have compassed his death by magic or by poison, he sent for his wife Agrippina ; and having besought her to humble her haughty spirit for the sake of their children, expired, to the general grief of the empire (a. d. 19). His ashes were brought to Rome by Agrippina ; and though she arrived in the very middle of the Saturnalia, the mirth usual at that festival was laid aside, and the whole city went into mourning. In the early part of his reign Tiberius had affected to imitate the clemency of Augus'tus ; but he soon began to indulge his natural cruelty and many of the most eminent nobles were put to death under pre- tence of high treason. The emperor's depravity was exceeded by tha. of his minister, the infamous Sejanus, whose name has passed into a proverb. This ambitious favorite secretly aspired at the empire, and applied himself to win the favor of the praetorian guards : he is also ac- cused of having procured the death of Drusus, the emperor's son, and of having tried to destroy Agrippina and her children. But his most successful project was the removal of Tiberius from Rome, persuading him that he would have more freedom to indulge his depraved passions in Campania than in the capital. The emperor chose for his retreat the little island of Cap'rese, where he wallowed in the most disgusting and unnatural vices : while Sejanus, with an entire army of spies and informers, put to death the most eminent Romans after making them undergo the useless mockery of a trial. Tiberius, however, soon began to suspect his minister, and secret warnings were given him of the dangerous projects that Sejanus had formed. It was apparently neces- sary, however, to proceed with caution, and the emperor felt his way by withdrawing some of the honors he had conferred. Finding that the people gave no signs of discontent, Tiberius sent the commander of the praetorian guards privately to Rome with a letter to the senate, instruct- ing him to inform Sejanus that it contained an earnest recommendation to have him invested with the tribunitian power. The minister, deceived by this hope, hastily convened the senate, and on presenting himself to that body, was surrounded by a horde of flatterers, congratulating him on his new dignity. But when the fatal epistle was read, in which he was accused of treason, and orders given for his arrest, he was imme- diately abandoned, and those who had been most servile in their flat- teries became loudest in their invectives and execrations. A hurried decree was passed condemning him to death, and was put in execution the very same day ; a general slaughter of his friends and relations fol- lowed ; his innocent children, though of very tender years, were put to death with circumstances of great barbarity ; and the immerous statues that had been erected to his honor were broken to pieces by the fickle multitude. This memorable example of the instability of human gran- deur is powerfully described by Juvenal, in his satire o-n the Vanity of Human Wishes. The passage is thus translated by Dryden : — • 260 ANCIENT HISTORY.'* " Some asked for envied power, which public hate Pursues and hurries headlong to their fate ; Down go the titles, and the statue crowned Is by base hands in the next river drowned. The guiltless horses and the chariot-wheel The same efl'ects of vulgar fury feel: The smith prepares his hammer for the stroke, While the lunged bellows hissing fire provoke ; Sejanus, almost first of Roman names. The great Sejanus crackles in the flames ! Formed in the forge the pliant brass is laid On anvils : and of head and limbs are made Pans, cans, and gridirons, a whole kitchen trade. Adorn your doors with laurel ; and a bull, Milk-white and large, lead to the Capitol ; Sejanus, with a rope, is dragged along, The sport and laughter of the giddy throng ! ' Good Lord,' they cry, ' what Ethiop lips he bears 1 See what a hang-dog face the scoundrel wears ! By Jove, I never could endure his sight ; — But, say, how came his monstrous crimes to light ? What is the charge, and who the evidence ? The savior of the nation and the prince V — ' Nothing of this ; but our old Caesar sent A tedious letter to his parliament.' — ' Nay, sirs, if Ca?sar wrote, I ask no more ; He's guilty, and the question's out of door.' How goes the mob ! for that's a mighty thing — When the king's trump, the mob are for the king • They follow fortune, and the common cry Is still against the rogue condemned to die. But the same very mob, that rascal crowd. Had cried Sejanus, with a shout as loud. Had his designs by fortune's favor blest. Succeeded, and the prince's age opprest." The cruelty of Tiberius was increased tenfold after the removal of his favorite ; the least circumstance rendered him suspicious ; and when once a noble Avas suspected, his fate was sealed. In all his extravagan- cies he was supported by the servile senate ; and this body, once so independent, never ventured even to remonstrate against his sanguinary decrees. At length, continued debauchery undermined the emperors constitution : but with the usual weakness of licentious sovereigns, he endeavored to disguise the state of his health, not merely from his court, but his physicians. At length, finding death approach very rapidly, he bequeathed the empire to Caius Calig'ula, the only surviving son of his nephew and victim German'icus. It is said that he chose this prince, though well aware of his natural depravity, that his own reign might be regretted, when contrasted with the still more sanguinary Tule of his successor. Soon after having signed his will, Tiberius was seized with a fainting fit, and the courtiers, believing him dead, hastened to offer their homage to Calig'ula ; but the emperor rallied, and there was reason to fear his vengeance. Mac'ro, the commander of the guards, averted the danger by smothering the weak old man with a weight of coverings, under pretence of keeping him warm (a. d. 37). In this reign, though the forms of the constitution were retained, its pijit and substance wero completely altered ; the government became ROMAN EMPIRE 261 a complete despotism ; and the only use of the senate was to register the edicts of the sovereign. While Tiberius was emperor, Jesus Christ was crucified in Jiidea, under the propratorship of Pontius Pilate (a. d. 33). It is said, but on very doubtful authority, that Tiberius, having received an account of his miracles, wished to have him en- rolled among the gods, but that his designs were frustrated by the op- position of the senate. Caius, surnamed Calig'ula from the military boots [caligtB) which he was accustomed to wear, was received on his accession with the utmost enthusiasm by both the senate and the people, on account of the great merits of his father German'icus. He began his reign by libera- ting all the state prisoners, and dismissing the whole horde of spies and informers whom Tiberius had encouraged. By these and other similar acts of generosity, he became so popular, liiat when he was attacked by sickness, the whole empire was filled with sorrow, and innumerable sacrifices were offered in every temple for his recovery. This sickness probably disordered his brain, for in his altered conduct after his resto- ration to health there appears fully as much insanity as wickedness. Young Tiberius, whom he had adopted, Avas his first victim ; he then ordered all the prisoners in Rome to be thrown to wild beasts without a trial. But Calig'ula was not satisfied with simple murder ; it was his fiendish pleasure to witness the sufferings of his victims, and protract their tortures, in order that they might, as he said, feel themselves dying. Finding no one dare to oppose his sanguinary caprices, he began to regard himself as something more than a mere mortal, and to claim divine honors ; and finally, he erected a temple to himself, and instituted a college of priests to superintend his own worship. A less guilty but more absurd proceeding was the reverence he claimed for his favorite horse Incitatus, whom he frequently invited to dine at the im- perial table, where the animal fed on gilt oats, and drank the most costly Avines from jewelled goblets. It is even said that nothing but his death prevented him from raising this favorite steed to the consul- ship. While the whole city was scandalized by his outrageous licen- tiousness, men were suddenly astounded to hear that the emperor had resolved to lead an army against the Germans in person, and the most extensive preparations were made for his expedition. As might have been expected, the campaign was a mere idle parade ; and Calig'ula, notwithstanding, claimed the most extravagant honors ; and finding the senate slower in adulation than he expected, seriously contempla ted the massacre of the entire body. At length the Romans became weary of a monster equally wicked and ridiculous ; a conspiracy was formed for his destruction ; and he was slain in one of the passages of the Cir'cus by Chserea, the captain of the praetorian guards (a. d. 40). His body lay a long time exposed, but was finally interred like that of a slave : his wife and infant child were murdered by the conspirators, who dreaded future vengeance. Claudius, the brother of German'icus and uncle of the late emperor, a prince of weak intellect, was raised to the throne by the conspirators, whose choice was sanctioned by the senate. The unfortunate idiot, thus placed at the head of the empire, was during his entire reign the pup- pet of worthless and wicked favorites, among whom the most infamous 262 ANCIENT HISTORY. were the empress Messalina and Agrippina, the eunuch Posi\ es, and the freedmen Pal'las and Narcis'sus. His reign commenced with the punishmejit of those who had conspired against Calig'ula : they were slain, not for the crime they had committed, but because they were sus- pected of a design to restore the ancient constitution. Notwithstanding his weakness, Claudius undertook an expedition into Britain, where the native tribes were wasting their strength in mutual wars, and he commenced a series of campaigns which eventually led to the complete subjugation of the southern part of the island. The senate granted him a magnificent triumphal procession on his return ; and Messalina, whose infidelities were now notorious, accompanied the emperor in a stately chariot during the solemnity. The cruelty of the empress was as great as her infamy : at her instigation Claudius put to death some of the most eminent nobles, and the confiscation of their fortunes supplied her with money to lavish on her paramours. At length she proceeded to such an extravagant length, that she openly married Sil'ius, one of her adulterers ; and Narcis'sus, whom she had displeased, gave the em- peror private information of her guilt, and she was slain in the gardens which had been the chief theatre of her crimes. Soon after the death of Messalina, Claudius married his niece Agrip- pina, the widow of Domitius Ahenobar'bus, by whom she had one son, originally called after his father, but better known in history by the name of Nero. The new empress did not, like her predecessor, render the state subservient to her amours, but she grasped at power to indulge her insatiable avarice, boundless ambition, and unparalleled cruelty. She ruled the emperor and the empire, appeared with him in the senate, sat on the same throne during all public ceremonies, gave audience to foreign princes and ambassadors, and even took a share in the admin- istration of justice. She at length prevailed upon Claudius to adopt hei child Domitius (Nero), and constitute him heir of the sovereignty, in preference to his own son Britan'nicus. But Claudius showing some signs of an intention to change the succession again, Agrippina pro- cured him to be poisoned by his favorite eunuch and the state physician (a. d. 54). Having previously gained over Bur'rhus, the captain of the prtetorian guards, to her interest, the empress concealed her husband's death until she had secured the army in favor of her son, rightly judging that the senate would confirm the choice of the soldiers. Nero Claudius Cae'sar had been nurtured in the midst of crimes, and educated for the stage rather than the state ; he was still a youth of seventeen, and he looked on the empire as only an extensive field for the indulgence of his passions. He soon became weary of his mother's imperious rule ; and Agrippina, finding herself neglected, threatened to restore the crown to Britan'nicus. This was the signal for the destruc- tion of that young prince : poison was administered to him by one of the emperor's emissaries, and a ^ew hours after his death, his body was borne to the pile ; for so little care had the emperor of concealing his share in the murder, tha the preparations for the prince's funeral were made before the poison Avas administered. An infamous woman, Pop- pae'a Sabina, who had abandoned her husband to live in adultery with the emperor, stimulated Nero to still greater crimes. Persuaded thai during the lifetime of Agrippina she could not hope to remove Octavia ROMAN EMPIRE. 263 Nero's wife, and become herself a partner in the empire, she urged her paramour, by every means in her power, to the murder of his mother Nero himself was anxious to remove one whom he so greatly feared ; but he dreaded the resentment of the Romans, who, in spite of hei crimes, reverenced the last representative of the family of German'icus. After various attempts to destroy her secretly had failed, a body of armed men were sent to her house, and she was murdered in her bed. A labored apology for this matricide was soon after published, which, it is painful to learn, was composed by the philosopher Sen'eca. The death of Bur'rhus, whether by poison or disease is uncertain, led to a great deterioration of Nero's character . for the influence of that able statesman had restrained the emperor from many extravagances in which he was anxious to indulge. Tigellinus, a wretch infamous for all the crimes that are engendered by cruelty and last, became the new minister ; and Nero no longer kept within the bounds of ordinary decency. Sen'eca was banished from the court ; the empress Octavia was divorced, and afterward murdered ; finally, Poppse'a was publicly married to the emperor. A tour through Italy gave Nero an opportunity of appearing as a singer on the stage at Naples, and he was excessively gratified by the applause with which the Neapolitans and some Alex- andrians fed his vanity. Soon after his return to Rome, a dreadful con- flagration, which lasted nine days, destroyed the greater part of the city ; and it was generally believed that the fire had been kindled by the emperor's orders. Upon the ruins of the demolished city Nero erected his celebrated golden palace, which seems to have been more remarkable for its vast extent, and the richness of the materials used in its construction, than for the taste or beauty of the architectural design. To silence the report of his having caused the late calamity, Nero transferred the guilt of the fire to the new sect of the Christians, whose numbers were rapidly increasing in every part of the empire. A cruel persecution commenced ; first, all who openly acknowledged their con- nexion with the sect were arrested and tortured : then from their ex- torted confessions, thousands of others were seized and condemned, not for the burning of the city, but on the still more ludicrous charge of hatred and enmity to mankind. Their death and torture were ag- gravated with cruel derision and sport ; for they were either covered with the skins of wild beasts, and torn to pieces by devouring dogs, or fastened to crosses, or wrapped up in combustible garments, that when the daylight failed, they might serve, like torches, to illuminate the dark- ness of the night. For this tragical spectacle Nero 'lent his own gar- dens, and exhibited at the same time the public diversions of the circus ; sometimes driving a chariot in person, and sometimes standing among the people as a spectator, in the habit of a charioteer. The extravagant expenses of the golden palace, the restoration of the city, the emperor's luxuries, and the entertainments given to the people, exhausted the exchequer, and led to a system of plunder and extortion which nearly caused the dissolution of the empire. Not only Italy, but all the provinces, the several confederate nations, and all the cities that had the title of free, were pillaged and laid waste. The temples of the gods and the houses of individuals were equally stripped of their treasures ; but still enough could not be obtained to support the 264 ANCIENT HISTORY. emperor's bounaiess prodigality. At length a conspiracy was formed for his destruction by Cneius Piso, in which the greater part of the Ro- man nobility engaged. It was accidentally discovered ; and Nero eagerly seized such a pretence for giving loose to his sanguinary dispo- sitions. Among the victims were the philosopher Sen'eca, the poet Lucan, Piso, and most of the leading nobles. In the midst of the massacres, Nero appeared on the stage as a candidate for the prize of music which of course he obtained. About the same time he killed the empress Poppfe'a by kicking her while pregnant. It may appear strange that such repeated atrocities should not have driven the Roman people to revolt ; but the lower classes felt nothing of the imperial despotism, and did not sympathize with the calamities of the nobles, because the ancient oppressions of tlu aristocracy were still remembered. They were, besides, gratified by a monthly distribu- tion of corn, by occasional supplies of wine and meat [congiaria et eviscerationcs), and by the magnificent shows of the circus {inunera). In fact, the periods of tyranny were the golden days of the poor ; and Nero was far more popular with the rabble than any statesman or general of the republic had ever been. Not satisfied with his Italian fame, Nero resolved to display his mu- sical skill at the Olympic gumes, and for this purpose passed over into Greece. The applauses he received in his tour from the spectators so gratified him, that he declared " the Greeks alone perfectly understand music." He transmitted a particular account of his victories to the sen- ate, and ordered thanksgivings and sacrifices to be offered for them in every temple throughout the empire. That no monuments of other vic- tors might remain, he commanded all theii statues to be pulled down, dragged through the streets, and either dashed to pieces, or thrown into the common sewers. While he was thus engaged, the dreadful rebel- lion, which destroyed the Jewish nation, commenced in Palestine : Ces'- tius Gal'lus, the governor of Syria, having been defeated in an attempt to besiege Jerusalem, the conduct of the war was intrusted to the cele- brated Vespasian. Though Nero had been greatly delighted by the ex- cessive adulations of the Achceans, he did not abstain from plundering their country ; and A'chaia suffered more from his peaceful visit than from the open war of Mum'mius or Sylia. Soon after the emperor's return to Rome, formidable insurrections burst forth in the western provinces, occasioned by the excessive taxa- tion to which they were subjected. Julius Vin'dex, descended from the ancient kings of 'Aquitain, was the firvt to raise the standard of revolt in Celtic Gaul, of which he was governor. Gal'ba soon after was pro- claimed emperor in Spain by his soldiers, and was supported by O'tho, the governor of Lusitania. Nero was not much disturbed by the re- bellion of Vin'dex ; but the hostility of Gal'ba filled him with conster- nation. He was, however, consoled for a time by the intelligence of the defeat of the Gauls, who were so completely overthrown by Vir- ginius, the imperial lieutenant, that Vin'dex slew himself in despair Gal'ba would now have been ruined, had not Nymphid'ius, whom Nere had appointed the colleague of Tigellfnus, seduced the praBtorian guards to renounce their allegiance. The emperor was immediately abandoned by all his ministers and servants ; he fled from Rome, and sought refuge ROMAN EMPIRE. 265 in the hoiise of Phaon, one of his freedmen. Here he so.m learned that he had been declared an enemy to the state, and sentenced to be executed according to ancient custom {more majorum). Inquiring the nature of this punishment he was informed that he was to be placed in a pillory, and beaten to death with rods (a. d. 68). At the prospect of such a cruel fate he was filled with horror, and declared that he would commit suicide ; but his courage failed when he was about to use the dagger. At length, hearing the galloping of the horse sent to ar- rest him, he requested the aid of his freedman Epaphroditus, and re- ceived a mortal wound. He was not quite dead when the centurion, sent by the senate, arrived, and endea\ored to stop the blood. Nero, looking at him sternly, said, " It is too late. I« this your fidelity ?" and soon after expired. His body was interred privately, but honorably ; and many of the lower ranks, whose favor ht aad wen by his extrava- gant liberalities, lamented his loss, honored his memory, and brought flowers to decorate his tomb. During this reign the provinces were harassed by frequent revolts : in addition to those we have already noticed, it may be necessary to mention the revolt of the Iceni in Britain, under the command of their heroic queen Boadicea. She took up arms to revenge the gross insults and injuries she had received ; falling unexpectedly on the Roman col- onies and garrisons, she destroyed a great number both of them and their allies ; and could she have secured the co-operation of all the na- tive tribes, might have liberated her country. This dangerous insur- rection was quelled by Suetonius Paulinus, who added the island of Anglesey to the Roman dominions ; thus taking from the Druids, the secret instigators of resistance to all foreign power, the great centre both of their religion and their influence. The family of the Caesars, properly speaking, ended with Calig'ula ; but as both Nero and Claudius were maternally descended from Augus'- tus, they are usually reckoned among the members of the Julian, or first imperial house. Its extinction, notwithstanding the A'ices of its later members, was a serious calamity to the empire ; it led to a series of sanguinary wars, arising from disputed successions, during which the supreme authority o^ the state was wrested equally from the emperors and senate by a liceniious soldiery. Section XL — From the Extinction of the Julian to that of the first Flavian Family. FROM A. D. 68 TO A. D. 96. Ser'vius Sul'pitius Gal'ba, universally acknowledged seventh em- peror after the death of Nero, was descended from an illustrious family that had been eminently distinguished for warlike achievements during the la^.er ages of the republic. He was now in the seventy-third year of his age, and, on account of his infirmities, travelled very slowly toward Rome. Nymphid''ius took advantage of this delay, to make a siruggle for empire by bribing the praetorian guards ; but his conduct du- ring the reign of Nero had rendered him so deservedly unpopular, thai he was murdered by the very soldiers who had taken his money. This rash conspiracy induced Gal'ba to sully the commencement of his 266 ANCIENT HISTORY. reign by unseasonable severities, which gave the more offence to hia subjects, as they had not been anticipated. It was soon discovered that the new emperor, however virtuous himself, was the tool of unworthy favorites, who, under the sanction of his name, plundered the people, and deprived the soldiers of their usual donative. A revolt of the le- gions in Upper Germany induced Gal'ba to nominate a successor ; he chose Cneuis Piso, descended from the old triumvirs Cras'sus and Pom'- pey, who was greatly esteemed for his talents, virtues, and engaging manners. But this appointment gave great offence to O'tho, who had been foremost to espouse the cause of Gal'ba : taking advantage of the discontent of the prajtorian guards, he went to their camp, and easily induced these turbulent warriors to proclaim him emperor. Gal'ba pre- pared to make a vigorous struggle for his crown, but his soldiers refused to obey the orders of their commander ; and when he was borne in a litter to enforce obedience, those who carried him, terrified by the tu- inult, threw down the chair, and the aged emperor, thus lying helpless, was slain by one of the veterans (a. d. 69). His body was treated with the greatest indignity by the factious troops ; Piso, his appointed successor, was murdered ; and the praetorian guards threatened destruc- tion to all who did not acquiesce in their decision. O'tho, thus raised to the empire, was, during his brief reign, a pas- sive instrument in the hands of the licentious soldiers. Scarcely had he been fixed upon the throne, when he found that he would have to struggle for empire Avith a formidable rival, Vitel'Iius, the commander of the legions in lower Germany. Valens and Caecina joined the usurper with numerous forces, and intelligence soon arrived of their advance toward Italy through Gaul. Their arrival in Italy filled Rome with consternation, which the licentious indolence in which O'tho in- dulged by no means tempted to abate. But on the near approach of danger, the emperor laid aside his pleasures and debaucheries, making the most vigorous measures for resistance. Most of the provinces de- clared in his favor, and could he have protracted the war, he would probably have preserved his crown. But the prajtorian guards, wearied of the unusual hardships of a campaign, and eager to return to the pleasures of the capital, demanded to be led instantly against the en- emy. O'tho withdrew to a place of safety, but ordered his generals to give battle without delay. The decisive engagement was fought at Bedriacum, near the banks of the Po : early in the day, the prictorian guards, attacked in flank by a Batavian column, fled in disorder, and threw the rest of the army into confusion. This unexpected disasfe; gave Viteriius an easy victory ; and following up his success, he took possession of the imperial camp. O'tho, having learned the news of the battle, convened the rest of his soldiers, thanked them for their fi- delity, and intimated his resolution not to permit his life to be the cause of further bloodshed. That night he committed suicide, having only reigned three months. He ./as honorably interred by his soldiers, who showed sincere sorrow for his loss. Vitel'Iius was a slave to gluttony and debauchery : he received very coldly the congratulb'ions of the senate on his victory and accession, and he was reluctant to expose himself to the dangers of the turbu- Hences that the soldiers, both of his and O'tho's army, excited in Italy ROMAN EMPIRE. 267 At length he made his public entrance into Rome, and ende; vored to win the favor of the populace by large donatives and expensire enter- tainments in the circus. Intrusting all the power of the state to unworthy favorites, he devoted himself wholly to the pleasures of the table, on which he squandered nearly seven millions of money in less than four months. Nothing, however, gave greater scandal to the higher ranks of the senators, than his solemnizing, with great pomp, the obsequies of Nero, and compelling the Augustal priests, an order consecrated by Tiberius for superintending the religious rites of the Julian family, to attend at that ceremony. While he was thus insulting his subjects, and wasting the wealth of the empire, fortune, or rather Providence, was raising him up a competitor in a distant province. Vespasian was car- rying on the war against the Jews Avith great success, when he heard of the death of Nero, and the election of Gal'ba : he sent his son Ti- tus to present his allegiance to the new emperor : but ere he could reach Italy, Gal'ba was no more, and O'tho and Vitel'lius were con- tending for the empire. Titus returned to his father, whom he found ready to swear allegiance to Vitel'lius, though the army wished him to declare himself emperor. Vespasian's reluctance, whether real or af- fected, was overcome by the exhortations of Mucianus, governor of Syria, and the tributary monarchs of the east, whose friendship he had won by his justice and moderation. No sooner did he commence his march toward Europe, than the legions quartered in Illyr'icum and Pannonia declared in his favor ; nor was there any province on which Vitel'lius could rely for support except Africa. Primus and Varus, at the head of the Illyrian armies, crossed the Alps, and made themselves masters of Verona, and at the same time the fleet at Ravenna declared in favor of Vespasian. Caecina, who had the principal share in raising Vitel'lius to the throne, followed the same course, b'lt his soldiers dis- approved his conduct, and put him in irons. Primus, advancing south- ward, encountered the forces of Vitel'lius near Cremona, and totally routed them, after a battle which lasted the entire day and a great part of the following night. The city of Cremona, after a desperate resist- ance, was taken by storm, and the greater part of the inhal)itants put to the sword Valens, who went to raise an army in the western provin- ces to suppor'. the emperor, was taken prisoner, upon which Gaul, Spain, and Britain, declared in favor of Vespasian. Vitel'lius at first refused to believe the evil tidings that reached him cm every quarter ; but at length on the near approach of danger, he hasted to secure the passes of the Apennines. Primus, however, by a hazardous march through the snow, forced his way over the mountains, and sent the head of Valens to be displayed to the imperial army, as a proof of liis success in other quarters. Immediately Vitel'lius wa3 abandoned by his troops : he fled hastily to Rome, and receiving no en- couragement from senate or people, abdicated his authority. Some of the praetorian guards, however, dreading the strict discipline of Vespa- sian, compelled the wretched monarch to resume the purple. The city was distracted by a horrid civil tumult, in which many of the principal nobles perished, and the Capitol was burned to the ground. Primus, hearing of these disorders, advanced with all speed to Rome, forced an entrance into the city, and took the camp of the praetorian guards by 268 ANCIENT HISTORY. Storm. Vitel'liiis hid himself in the palace, but was discovered in his retreat by the licentious populace, ready to rise under any pretext through hopes of plunder, dragged ignominiously through the streets to the place of common execution, and put to death with a thousand wounds (a. d. 69). His brother, Lucius Vitel'lius, who was advancing to his aid with an army from the south of Italy, surrendered at discre- tion, and was put to death. The factions that had been formed during this disgraceful reign of eight months, took advantage of the confusion to wreak mutual vengeance. Primus, and Vespasian's second son, Do- aiit'ian, abandoned themselves to debauchery and plunder : Rome ap- peared on the very brink of ruin from the madness of its own citizens. At length tranquillity was restored by the arrival of Vespasian, whose accession diffused universal joy. His first care was to restore the dis- cipline of the army, which he found in a shocking state of demoraliza- tion : he next revived the authority of the senate, supplying its dimin- ished ranks with eminent men from the provinces and colonies ; finally, he reformed the courts of law, Avhich had long ceased to be courts of justice. The virtues of Vespasian, supported by a firm temper, led to a great improvement in the social condition of Rome. His only fault was an extravagant love of money, which, however, was probably ex- aggerated by those who compared his parsimonious expenditure with the lavish extravagance of former emperors. The early part of his reign was signalized by the final termination of the Jewish war, and the destruction of Jerusalem and its holy tem- ple. It would be impossible to give even a faint outline of this mem- orable war here ; suflice it to say, that the Jews, deceived by false prophets, who promised them a temporal deliverer, persevered in their rebellion long after every reasonable chance of success had disappeared ; that they were divided into hostile factions, who fought against each othc in the streets of Jerusalem, while the walls of the city quivered under the battering engines of the common enemy ; and that they re- fused proffered mercy when the Roman ensigns were waving above their battlements. Dreadful was the punishment of this fated nation : their city and temple were reduced to heaps of shapeless ruins ; their best and bravest fell by the swords of the Romans or each other ; most of the wretched survivors were sold into slavery, and the Jews, since khat period, dispersed over the face of the earth, have become a mock- ery, a by-word, and a reproach among nations. Tftus and his father triumphed together on account of this success, and the rich ornaments of the temple were displayed in the procession. A triumphal arch was also erected for Titus, on which his noble deeds were sculptured : it continues nearly perfect to the present day, a lasting monument of his victories over the Jewish nation. The Batavian war, which threatened great dangers to the Roman dominions in Gaul and Germany, was con- cluded about the same time by the prudence and valor of Cerealis ; and Comagene, which had been permitted to retain its own sovereigns, was reduced to a province. Britain had yet been very imperfectly subdued, and the completion of its conquest was intrusted to Cneius Julius Agric^ola, a native of Gaul, justly celebrated for his great merits as a general and a states- man. His first enterprise was to recover the island of Anglesey from ROMAN EMPIRE. 269 the Ordovjces. His success was owing to his promptitude as much as to his valor • he appeared in the midst of the hostile countiy before the enemy knew of his having passed the frontiers ; and the Britons, dis- concerted by a sudden attack, agreed to purchase safety by submission. The advantages thus won by military prowess, he resolved to confirm and secure by enlightened policy. He induced the Britons to lay aside their own barbarous customs, and adopt the Roman manners ; but un- fortunately, in giving them a knowledge of the arts of civilization, he also inspired them with a taste for luxury. He next proceeded to attack the Caledonians ; a fleet was ordered to examine the coast ; and by this expedition Britain was first discovered to be an island. The Caledo- nians drew together under the command of Gal'gacus, and hazarded a pitched battle with the army of Agric'ola, in which they were utterly routed, and pursued with gTeat slaughter ; but the fastnesses of the Scottish highlands were too formidable to be overcome ; and th^ north- ern part of Britain was never subdued by the Romans. Several conspiracies were formed against Vespasian, whose rigid rule vt^as found a severe check on the licentiousness of the nobles ; but they were all detected and punished. At length, his close attention to the aiTairs of state brought on a mortal disease. He retired to his country-seat for change of air ; but the sickness was aggravated by the alteration, and he died in the seventieth year of his age (a. d. 78). He was the second of the Roman emperors that died a natural death, though some suspicion is attached to the fate of Augus'tus, and he was the first who was succeeded by his son. His obsequies were performed with ex- traordinary pomp by Titus ; but the solemnity was disturbed by a ludi- crous circumstance, too characteristic of the age to be omitted. The Romans were so preposterously fond of mimics and farces, that they were even exhibited at funerals, where actors personated the deceased, imitated his actions, mimicked his voice, and satirized his peculiarities. At Vespasian's obsequies, a pantomime named Favor personated that emperor, and took an opportunity of attacking his parsimony. Imita- ting the voice of the deceased emperor, he loudly demanded the price of the ceremony ; a large sum was named in reply, " Give me the money," he continued, holding out his hand, " and throw my body into the Tiber." Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, whose first action after his accession was a sacrifice of his dearest afl"ections to the popular will. He dismissed the beautiful Berenice, daughter to Agrip'pa, the last king of Judea, because that his connexion with a foreigner was displeasing to the senate and people. Nor was this the only instance of his complaisance ; he allowed the spectators to choose their own entertainments in the circus ; and he never refused audience to a peti- tioner. His clemency was equally remarkable ; he abolished the law of treason ; and severely punished spies and informers. In the first year of his reign, Campania was alarmed and devastated by the most dreadful eruption of Vesuvius on record ; it laid waste the country for many miles round, overwhelming several cities with their inhabitants, among which Hercvdaneum and Pompeii were the most remarkable. This was followed by a dreadful conflagration at Rome, which lasted three days, and destroyed a vast number of edifices, bo'.h 270 ANCIENT HISTORY. public and private. The exertions of Titus to remedy both these calamities procured him, from his grateful subjects, the honorable title of "benefactor of the human race." A plague afforded him fresh op- portunities of displaying his native goodness of heart ; but these exer- tions proved too much for his constitution ; he was seized with a fever, which terminated fatally in a few days (a. d. 81). His death diffused universal sorrow throughout the empire ; every family lamented as if it had been deprived of its natural protector ; and his name has become a proverbial designation for wise and virtuous princes. Flavins Domit'ian succeeded his brother without any opposition, though his character for debauchery and cruelty was sufficiently noto- rious. He was naturally timorous, and fear, of course., aggravated his .sanguinary disposition ; yet he professed a passionate attachment to niilitary sports, and possessed so much skill in archery, that he could shoot arrows through the expanded fingers of a domestic placed at a considerable distance without ever inflicting a wound. In the begin- ning of his reign, he studied to gain the favor of the people by a line of conduct worthy of an upright sovereign — disguising his vices, and affecting the opposite virtues. He presented large sums to his minis- ters and officers of state, that they might be raised above the temptation of receiving bribes ; he refused the inheritances bequeathed to him, distributing the legacies among the nearest relations of the deceased ; and he pretended to have such a horror of shedding blood, that he is- sued an edict forbidding the sacrifice of oxen or any other living ani- mals. He confirmed all the grants made by the preceding emperors, increased the pay of the soldiers, and finished, at an immense charge, all the public buildings which had been begun by Titus. In the second year of his reign he attacked the Cat'ti, the most war- like of the German tribes ; and, as the invasion Avas unexpected, made several of the peasants prisoners. Hearing, however, that the enemies were preparing an army, he retreated with great speed ; yet the servile senate voted him a triumph for this pretended success. But flattery could not hide from the emperor his vast inferiority to Agric'ola, whose conquests in Britain were the theme of universal praise : he recalled this victorious general, who deemed it prudent to decline a triumph, and retire into the seclusion of private life. From this time forward the emperor indulged in the most sanguinary excesses, putting to death, without the form of trial, the most eminent senators and knights. The herd of informers, discouraged and punished during the preceding reign, ouce more came into favor ; and such was their activity, that the most iimocent conversation was frequently made the ground of a capi- tal charge. The infamous vices of the palace were so far from being hidden, that they were ostentatiously displayed to the public ; and when Domit'ian had thus degraded himself in the eyes of his subjects to the condition of a beast, he required to be worshipped as a god, and all the streets leading to the Capitol were daily crowded with victims to be offered in sacrifices before his altars and stafues. Tlie Daci and Gets, under their gallant king Deceb'alus, invaded the Roman frontiers, and defeated the generals sent to oppose them in two great battles. Domit'ian, encouraged by the news of a subsequent victory, resolved to take the field in person ; but instead of marching ROMAN EMPIRE. 271 against tlie Daci, he attacked the Quadi and Marcomanni, and was shamefully beaten. Discouraged by this overthrow, he conckided a dishonorable peace with the Dacians, engaging to pay Deceb'ahxs a yearly tribute : but he wrote to the senate, boasting of extraordinary victories ; and that degraded body, though well aware of the truth, im- mediately decreed him the honors of a triumph. Wearied by the tyranny of Dorait'ian, Lucius Antonius, the governor of upper Germany, raised the standard of revolt in his province, but was easily defeated and slain. This abortive insurrection stimulated the cruelty of the emperor : vast numbers were tortured and executed, under pretence of having been accomplices d( Antonius. An edict was published, banishing all philosophers from Rome, and prohibiting instruction in the liberal sciences ; for Domit'ian felt that all learning was a satire on his own ignorance, and all virtue a reproof of his infa- my. But though thus tyrannical, Domit'ian had little fear of rebellion ; he had secured the support of the troops by increasing their pay, and his splendid entertainments rendered him a favorite with the degraded populace. The adherents to the national religion were also gratified by a second general persecution of the Christians, who were odious to the emperor because they refused to Avorship his statues (a. d. 95). Among the most illustrious martyrs in the cause of truth on this occa- sion was Flavins Clem'ens, cousin-german of the emperor, whose example proves that the new religion was now beginning to spread among the higher ranks of society. It was the custom of Domit'ian to inscribe on a roll the names of the persons he designed to slaughter. One day a young child with whom he used to divert himself took this paper from under the pillow on which the emperor was sleeping, and unaware of its important con- tents, gave it to the empress Domit'ia. She saw with surprise and consternation her own name on the fatal list, as well as those of the imperial chamberlain and the captain of the prfctorian guards, to whom she immediately communicated their danger. They at once conspired for his destruction, and he was murdered in his bed (a. d. 96). The Roman populace heard his fate with indifference ; but the soldiers, whose pay he had increased, and with whom he had often shared his plunder, lamented him more than they had Vespasian Titus ; it is even said that they would have avenged his fate by a general massacre, had they not been restrained by their oflicers. During this reign flourished a philosopher, ApoUonius Tyaneus, whose austere life and extensive knowledge procured him so much fame, that he pretended to have the power of working miracles, and aspired to become the founder of a new religion. Like Pythag'oras, he travelled into the remote east, and incorporated in his system many of the tenets that are now held by the Buddhists. During his life, this impostor enjoyed the highest reputation ; but, in spite of all the eflorts of his disciples, his system, after his death, sank rapidly, into merited oblivion. 272 ANCIENT HISTORY. Section III. — From the Extinction of the first Flavian Family to the last of the Antonines. FROM A. D. 96 TO A. D. 193. Domit'ian was the last of the emperors commonly called the twelve Caesars : he was succeeded by Mar'cus Cocceius Ner'va, who was chosen to the sovereignty by a unanimous vote of the senate. He was a native of Narn^ia in Umbria, but his family came originally from Crete ; and we may therefore regard him as the first foreigner placed at the head of the empire. Though past the age of seventy, he appUed him- self to the reformation of abuses with all the zeal of youth, punishing informers, redressing grievances, and establishing a milder and more equitable system of taxation. His greatest fault was excessive lenity, which encouraged the profligate courtiers to persevere in their accus- tomed peculations. The turbulent praetorian guards raised an insurrec- tion, under pretence of avenging the death of Domit'ian, and not only compelled the emperor to abandon such victims to their fury as they demanded, but actually forced him to return them public thanks for their proper and patriotic conduct. This outrageous indignity, however, pro- duced a highly beneficial result. Ner'va, finding himself despised on account of his old age and infirmities, resolved to adopt Mar'cus Ul'pius Trajan, the greatest and most deserving person of his age, as his col- league and successor, though he had many relations of his own, who might, without incurring the imputation of presumption, aspire to that dignity. The news of this appointment was received with great joy by the senate and people, and the soldiers immediately returned to their duty. Soon after, Ner'va, while chiding severely an infamous informer, so heated himself, that he was seized with a fever, which proved mor- tal, in the sixteenth month of his reign (a. d. 98). He was ranked among the gods by his subjects ; and Trajan, out of gratitude, caused several temples to be erected to his memory, both at Rome and in the provinces. Trajan was by birth a Spaniard, descended from a family that had some claim to royal honors. He was equally gr^ at as a ruler, a general, and a man ; free from every vice, except an occasional indulgence in wine. After completely abolishing the trials for high treason [judicia majestdtis), he restored as much of the old constitution as was con- sistent with a monarchy ; binding himself by oath to observe the laws, reviving the comitia for the election of civic officers, restoring freedom of speech to the senate, and their former authority to the magistrates. Deceb'alus having sent to claim the tribute granted to him by Domit'ian, Trajan peremptorily refused to be bound by such a disgraceful treaty, and hastily levjdng an army, marched against the Dacians, who had already crossed the Danube. A dreadful battle was fought, in which the Romans gained a complete victory ; but so great was the carnage on both sides, that linen could not be found to dress the wounds of the soldiers, and Trajan tore up his imperial robes to supply that want. Pursuing his advantages, the emperor soon reduced Deceb'alus to such distress, that he was forced to purchase peace by giving up all his engines of war, and acknowledging himself a vassal of the Romans. After sometime, however, the Dacian monarch, unused to servitude ROMAN EMPIRE. 273 again had recourse to arms, and was proclaimed a public enemy by the senate. Trajan once more took the field in person. To facilitate the advance of his army, he constructed a stupendous stone bridge over the Danube, fortified with stong castles at both ends ; and having thus secjired his communications, he marched into the very heart of the country, and made himself master of the capital (a. d. 106). Deceb'alus, despairing of success, committed suicide ; and ai\er his death, the coun- try was easily formed into a province, and several Roman colonies and garrisons for the first time planted north of the Danube. In the same year Arabia Petrgea was subdued, and annexed to the empire by the governor of Syria. These successes rendered Trajan ambitious of further .;onque&t, and he resolved to contend with the Parthians for the sovereignty of ceu f.ral Asia. He commenced by subduing Armenia, which he made si new province, and thence he advanced into Mesopotamia. A bridge not less remarkable than that over the Danube was constnicted across the Tigris ; and the Romans passing this river to a country where their eagles had never before been seen, conquered the greater part of ancient Assyria. Seleiicia and Ctes'iphon {El Modain), the capital of the Parthian kingdom, were besieged and taken ; after which, the emperor, descending the Tigris, displayed the Roman standards for the first time in the Persian gulf. Thence he sailed to the southern part of the Arabian peninsula {Arabia Felix), a great part of which he annexed to the empire. He is said to have meditated the invasion of India ; but was probably deterred by considering the great difliculties with which he would have to contend in the deserts of eastern Persia. No permanent advantages resulted from these conquests. No sooner had the emperor returned, than most of the nations v.'hich he had con- quered revolted, and massacred the Roman garrisons. The Jews, prompted by false prophets, raised a dangerous insurrection in the prov- inces through which they had been dispersed : after having committed the most shocking excesses, they were subdued, and their treason pun- ished with remorseless severity. Trajan was making vigorous prep- arations to regain his conquests, when he was attacked by dropsy and palsy, Avhich induced him to return to Italy. He, however, only pro- ceeded so far as Selinus in Cilicia, when the disease assumed a mortal character ; and in this little town the best of the Roman monarchs died, in the twentieth year of his reign (a. d. 117). His ashes were carried to Rome, and deposited under the stately column he had erected to commemorate his Dacian victories, though it stood within the city, where no one had ever been buried before. One stain on Trajan's character must not be omitted ; he sanctioned the persecution o-f the Christians, and even when convinced that they were innocent of the atrocious charges brought against them by the pagans, he only forbade inquisitions to be made, but continued the punishment of all who were accused. Adrian, the cousin-german and pupil of Trajan, succeeded to the empire, it is said, by adoption ; but there is some reason to doubt the truth of the assertion. A much stronger claim was the unanimous declaration of the Asiatic armies in his favor, whose potent choice was ratified by the senate. Anxious to preserve peace, he at once abandoned all the cou- 18 J274 ANCIENT HISTORY quests made by his pr(decessors,both in Asia and Europe, destroying the bridges over the Tigris and Danube. On his return to Rome the senate offered him a triumph, whicli he had the good sense to refuse ; at the same time, to show Iris moderation and love of tranquillity, he diminished the military establishments, and lowered the taxes through- out the empire. But the virtues of Adrian were not unalloyed ; he was a cruel persecutor of the Jews and Christians ; he allowed himself to be influenced by unworthy favorites, and too often lent an ear to the tales of slanderers and informers. Deeming that all parts of the empire had a claim to the protection of the sovereign, he resolved to make a tour through the provinces, and began his course by visiting Gaul; Germany, and Britain. He found the Britons far advanced in civiliza- tion ; but no longer able to contend with the barbarous Caledonians. In order to check the incursions of these savages, he erected the first Roman wall from the Eden to the Tyne, as has been mentioned in a preceding chapter. He twice visited Asia, and ordered that a Roman colony should be established at Jerusalem, whose name he changed to yElia Capitolina (a. d. 131). The introduction of idolatry into the holy "ity piv^oked a fierce insurrection of the Jews, headed by an impostor calling him- self Bar-C6chab [the son of a star), who pretended to be the expected Messiah. x\fter a sanguinary war, which lasted three years, the infat- uated insurgents were subdued, but their revolt Avas punished by the most horrible cruelties, and their name and nation were all but exter- jtaiinated. While Adrian continued in the East, Sal'vius Julianus, the most cean for the Malabar coast, and usually made Musiris in forty days. They began their voyage homeward early in December, and generally 280 ANCIENT HISTORV encountered more difficulty on their return on account of the unsteadi ness of the winds. The chief imports from India were spices, precious stones, and mus- lins. There is a singular confusion in the Latin authors between the finer cotton goods and manufactured silks, which has led to their mix- ing up the Chinese and Indian trade together. The principal exports were light woollens, chequered linens, glass, wine, and bullion. Com'modus, with a providence which could scarcely have been ex- pected from him, made some efforts to open the old Carthaginian trade with the interior of Africa ; but the result of his labors is unknown. He also paid some attention to the corn-trade, so essential to the pros- perity of his central dominions, when Italy had long ceased to produce sufficient grain for the support of its inhabitants ; and he established a company to supply corn from northern Africa whenever the crops failed in Egypt. The trade of the Black sea, so flourishing iti the age cf the Greek republics, appears to have been greatly diminished after the Romans became masters of the countries at both sides of the JEgean ; and it seems probable that little or no commerce passed through the straits of Hercules (straits of Gibraltar) into the Atlantic ocean. In conse- quence of this change, the amber-trade was transferred from the coasts of the northern sea to the banks of the Danube, and the barbarous tribes who brought it from the shores of the Baltic are said to have been astonished at the prices they received for what seemed to them so use- less a commodity. Furs were purchased from the vScythian tribes ; but this branch of trade appears never to have been of any great amount. The British tin-trade was rather neglected by the Romans ; indeed, it appears to have been monopolized by the Gauls, and conseqviently was confined to the British channel. From this slight sketch it will bo seen that the Romans were not naturally a mercantile people. We must now return to the history of the civil wars and revolutions which frustrated the plans of the Antonines for making commercial pursuits the source of unity and happiness to the empire. Section V. — From the Extinction of the Flavian Family to the Establish' meni of Military Despotism, after the murder of Alexander Severus. FROM A. D. 192 TO A. D. 235. After the conspirators had murdered Com'modus, they proceeded to the house of Pulj'lius Hel'vius Per'tinax, and declared that they had come to offer him the empire, as being the person who best deserved sovereignty. Per'tinax at first believed that this was some plot for his destruction ; but on further inquiry, having learned that Com'modus was really dead, he proceeded to the praetorian camp, and was saluted em- peror rather reluctantly by the guards. He met a much warmer recep- tion from the senators, who expected that his firmness and virtue would be displayed in checking the turbulence of the soldiers, now the real masters of the empire. Nor did his conduct disappoint their expecta- tions : he diminished the lavish expenditure of the palace, restored the property that his predecessor had unjustly confiscated to the rightful ROMAN EMPIRE. 281 owners, and punished those who, by false informations, had stimulated Com'modus to cruelty. These reforms endeared him to the senate and people, but provoked the anger of the turbulent praetorians : three days after his accession, they attempted to make Laciv'ius emperor, but that senator fled from their violence and sought shelter Avith Per'tinax him- self. Their next choice was the consul Fal'co, who showed equal re- luctance to accept the precarious station. The emperor, to prevent the recurrence of similar outrages, prepared to restore the ancient military discipline ; but this exasperated the mutineers still more, and a party of them, breaking suddenly into the palace, slew Per'tinax, after a brief reign of less than three months. The Romans lamented, but did not venture to revenge his death ; most of the citizens shut themselves up in their houses, leaving the soldiers to choose a master for the empire at their discretion. When the praetorians heard that Per'tinax was dead, they issued a proclamation, declaring that the empire was for sale, and would be given to the highest bidder. Did'ius Julianus, the wealthiest man in Rome, oflfered to become a purchaser ; his money, and his promise that he would restore all things to the condition in which they were under Com'modus, so pleased the dissolute soldiers, that they proclaimed hun emperor, and compelled the senate to recognise their choice. But the Roman populace showed their indignation at this scandalous traffic by showering curses and reproaches on Did'ius whenever he appeared in public, and even assailing him with stones and other missiles. The weak emperor bore these attacks with great equanimity, relying for se- curity on the praetorians, whose favor he secured by fresh largesses. Put though Did'ius, by the favor of the household troops, was able to secure himself in Rome, he could not secure the respect or allegiance of the provinces ; and the distant armies, deeming that they had as good a right to confer empire as the praetorian cohorts, oflfered sovereignty to their commanders. Three competitors together appeared to contest the throne with the ambitious merchant ; Clodius Albi'nus in Britain, Pescen'nius Niger in Syria, and Septim'ius Severus in Illyria. Did'ius prepared to meet the storm with more fortitude than could have been expected; he convoked the senate, and had Severus, the nearest of his rivals, declared a public enemy : he also sent deputies to exhort the Illyrian soldiers to return to their allegiance. But the unfortunate em- peror was betrayed by his own officers^, the deputies tendered their homage to Severus, and exhorted him to expedite his march toward Rome. The rapid advance of the Illyrians, the capture of Ravenna and the Roman fleet, and the desertion of the troops sent to guard the passes of the Apennines, so alarmed the praetorians, +hat they resolved to abandon Did'ius, and make terms with Severus. They communica- ted their resolutions to the consul, who forthwith convoked the senate. A decree was passed for the deposition and death of Did'ius, and ere it was enrolled, the band of executioners was on its march to the palace Did'ius was found trembling and in tears, ready to resign empire, pro vided his life might be spared. At sight of the armed band, he ex- claimed " What crime have I committed ? whose life have I taken away ?" But his remonstrances were cut short, by one of the soldiers, ^iio struck off" his head. The body was exposed to insult and mockery 282 ANCIENT HISTORY. in the public streets, and thus ended the two months' reign of " the im perial merchant." Severus, as he approached Rome, issued orders for the execution of all who had shared in the murder of Per'tinax, and for disbanding the praetorian cohorts ; but he chose new guards, four times as numerous, in the place of those he had dismissed, which filled Rome with soldiers, and proved the fruitful source of many future disorders. Having con- ciliated AFbinus by procuring for him the titles of Ctesar and emperor from the senate, he marched to contend against Pescen'nius Niger in the east, previously inducing the senate to declare him a public enemy. Plis progress appears to have been uninterrupted until he reached Cyz'icus, where he routed the lieutenant of his rival, and by this vic- tory gained possession of lower Asia. Niger did not despair, but col- lecting a numerous army, occupied the mountain-passes between Cilicia and Syria, posting his main body along the Is'sus, where Alexander and Darius had long before contended for the sovereignty of Asia. After several engagements, Niger was completely defeated: be at- tempted to seek safety among the Parthians, but was overtaken near Antioch, and put to death (a. d. 194). Severus made a cruel use of his victory, slaughtering without mercy all who had favored the cause of his competitor. Byzantium remained faithful to the defeated general even after his death : it sustained a siege of three years' duration ; but was finally taken by storm, its inhabitants sold as slaves, and its walls levelled to the ground. Thus successful, Severus resolved to destroy Al'binus, whose sus- picions he had calmed while he was engaged in war with Niger. He first attempted to remove him by assassination ; but Al'binus discovered the plot, and made vigorous preparations for open war. This second contest for empire was decided in Gaul ; Al'binus, having been com- pletely routed near Lugdunum (Lyons), committed suicide ; and Severus could only vent his brutal spite on a senseless carcass. The friends of Al'binus met the same fate as the partisans of Niger. Severus re- turned to Rome, where he insulted the senate by pronouncing a labored eulogy on Com'modus ; and imitated that wicked monarch's example, by sentencing to a cruel death the most eminent of the nobility. A war with Parthia recalled the emperor to Asia. He was accom- panied by his sons Caracal'la and Geta, who were, like their father, learned in camps from infancy. Severus obtained distinguished suc- cess ; he captured Seleucia, Ctes'iphon, and Bab'ylon ; but he was com- pelled to raise the siege of Hat'ra (Hadhr), which had previously laaffled the exertions of Trajan. These exploits might have procured the empire all the advantages to be derived from the rule of a gallant soldier, had not Severus chosen for his prime minister Plautianus, the captain of the prretorian guards : a man of insatiable avarice, whom he intrusted with almost absolute power. The ruin of the premier, how- ever, was occasioned by the very means he took to confirm his secu- rity : he procured the marriage of his daughter with Caracal'la ; but the young prince, disgusted by her imperious temper, became the bitter enemy of her and Plautianus. He soon inspired his father with a sus- picion that the minister secretly aimed at empire ; a charge to which the conduct of Plautianus gave some color of probability ; and when ROMAN EMPIRE. 283 Severus called his servant to account, the prince rushed upon him, and slew him in the imperial presence. A revolt in Britain once more called the emperor into the field. He proceeded to that island, easily quelled the disturbances, and marching northward, gained several victories over the Caledonians. He extended the frontiers beyond Adrian's wall, and erected a new line of fortiiica- tions between the friths of Clyde and Forth ; but the additional ter- ritory was abandoned in the reign of his successor. The fatigues of these campaigns, and the grief caused by the misconduct of his son Caracal'la, brought the emperor's gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. He died at Eboracum (York), in the eighteenth year of his reign (a. d. 211). Severus deserves to be ranked among great rather than good princes ; he was cruel on system, attributmg the misfortunes of Pompey and the murder of Csesar to their excessive clemency : indeed, he wrote a vindication of his excessive severity, which, unfortunately, has not come down to our times. Caracal'la and Geta succeeded their father ; but lie former was the bitter enemy of his more virtuous brother, and soon after his return to Rome, he slew him in his mother's arms. To prevent the consequen- ces of this atrocious murder, he gained the support of the praetorian cohorts by large donatives, and then, with strange inconsistency, pre- vailed upon the senate to rank his brother in the number of the gods. His sole dependance being on the army, he used the most iniquitous means to procure money for purchasing their venal support. The richest men in Rome were massacred under false accusations of trea- son, their properties confiscated, and their fam.ilies insulted. He im- poverished his subjects in all the provinces of the empire by excessive taxes ; yet he gave away such immense sums to his guards, and paid such heavy annuities to the barbarous tribes on the frontiers, that he was forced to debase the coinage. To lower the pride of the Romans, he granted the name and privileges of free citizens to all the subjects of the empire, and soon after commenced a tour through the provinces, to escape from his unpopularity at home. He undertook an expedition against the Cat'ti and AUeman'ni, but was defeated with great loss, and forced to buy a peace. From Germany he passed into Asia, where he gained some advantages over the Armenians ; and then visiting Egypt, he almost depopulated Alexandria, massacring the greater part of its citizens, on account of some lampoons that had been published against him. He was at length assassinated near Edes'sa by Macrinus, the prefect of the prtetorian guard, an officer who since the time of Se- verus, ranked next to the emperor (a. d. 217)'. The soldiers were greatly enraged at the murder of Caracal'la ; but Macrinus, by concealing his share in it, procured his election to the empire. Immediately after his accession, h^ proclaimed his son Dia- dumenus his successor, giving him the names of Caesar and Antoninus : when the troops were assembled to witness this ceremony, they de- manded, with one accord, the deification of Caracal'la ; and this dis- grace to humanity was actually ranked among the gods. While he was thus engaged, the Parthians passed the Roman frontiers, defeated the imperial armies, and compelled Macrinus to purchase a disgraceful peace by a vast sacrifice of wealth and territory His extreme severity 284 ANCIENT HISTORY. at length provoked the resentment of the licentious soldiery ; they were persuaded by Mce'sa, maternal aunt of the late emperor, that her grand- son Heliogabalus, a youth of fourteen, was the son of their favorite Caracal'la ; and a conspiracy was formed to place this young Syrian priest upon the throne. Macrinus, deserted by most of the legions, marched against his competitor with the praetorian cohorts ; but he fled from his men the moment that a battle commenced ; and the guards, enraged by his cowardice, pursued and slew him (a. d. 218). His son was at the same time taken prisoner, and executed as a common male- factor. Heliogabalus being thus victorious, sent intelligence of his success from Antioch to the senate, and was immediately acknowledged emperor. Though a mere boy, he was the most infamous monster tha* ever dis- graced a throne. He exceeded Nero in cruelty, Calig'ula in piodigality, and Com'modus in lewdness and debauchery. Soon after his arrival in Rome, he brought his grandmother to the senate, and ordered that he should for the future rank among the members ; he also instituted a a senate^.of women, under the presidency of his mother, the subjects of %vhose debates, consultations, and decrees, were the dresses of the Roman ladies, and the ceremony and etiquette to be observed in visits and entertainments. The Roman ladies scarcely wanted such an in- centive, they were at this time remarkable for the great attention they paid to decorating their persons, and especially ornamenting the head ; false hair was very commonly worn, and imported from Gaul, Germany, and the northern parts of Europe. The lascivious and superstitious idolatry of Syria was established in Rome, and the old forms of the national worship neglected — a change which gave great offence even to the demoralized guards. Moe'sa, foreseeing that the Romans would not long endure the yoke of so con- temptible a profligate, persuaded him to nominate his cousin, the vir- tuous Alexander Severus, heir to the empire ; but scarcely had the ap- pointment been made, when Heliogabalus attempted to assassinate the worthy prince. This crime provoked a mutiny of the praetorian cohorts. Heliogabalus, and his mother Soe'mis, were murdered by the enraged soldiers, and their bodies thrown into the Tiber (a. d. 222). The senate imm sdiately passed a decree excluding women from their body for ever. Alexander Severus commenced his reign by revoking all the edicts that had been issued by former emperors against the Christians. It is probable that his mother was a convert to the faith ; for he was well acquainted with its principles, and constantly repeated the golden rule, " Do unto others as you would they should do unto you," which he caused to be inscribed on his palace and several other edifices. Sup- j orted by the favor of the guards, he introduced many beneficial re- forms, restoring the authority of the senate, and purifying the adminis- tion of justice. In the fourth year of his reign (a. d. 226), an important revolution .n the east produced a total change in the political condition of central Asia. Ardeshir Babegan, 'ialled Artaxerxes by the western writers, restored the ancient dynasty and religion of Persia, or, as it was called by the natives, Iran. His standard was the apron of a blacksmith ROMAN EMPIRE. 285 named Gavah, who, at an unknown age, had headed an insurrection against the oppressors of his country, similar to that of Wat Tyler in England. Multitudes flocked to the popular flag, and the Parthian, or Arsacid dynasty, was speedily subverted. One great effect of this rev- olution was to give a sudden and complete check to the progress of Christianity eastward ; it was thrown back upon the west ; but it long retained the marks of its contact, with the mystic and gloomy doctrines that have from unknown ages prevailed in central Asia. The Magian religion was restored to its pristine splendor : the sacred fire, that had been concealed in the mountains, once more burned on the ancienl altars ; and the Sassanides, as Ardeshir's dynasty was -named from Sassan, the most celebrated of his ancestors, refused to tolerate any faith but that of Zerdusht, or Zoroaster. The great aim of the Sassanid dynasty was to restore the nationality of Persia ; many of the edifices of the Hystaspid times were repaired, and all new buildings erected by the successors of Ardeshir were, as much as possible, constructed on ancient models. Hence many of their buildings are attributed to the earlier races of kings ; and it is not often easy to determine from external evidence to which age of Persian his- tory their splendid halls and palaces should be assigned. The remains of the magnificent palace of the Persian kings in Ctesiphon, which bears the name of Cyrus, maybe unquestionably regarded as a Sassanid monument ; and as such the building affords proof of the great power and wealth of the house of Sassan. Ardeshir, placed upon the throne of Cyrus, claimed that monarch's empire as his inheritance, and prepared to drive the Romans from Asia. Alexander hastened to z\ntioch, and marched against the Persians, over whom he gained a great victory ; but a pestilence breaking out in his army prevented him from improving his advantages. He returned to Rome, and entered the city in triumph, his chariot being drawn, not, as was usual, by four white horses, but by four of the elephants he had captured. Soon after his return, intelligence arrived that the Germans had passed the Rhine, and were devastating Gaul ; upon which the emperor, to the gr.^at grief of the senate and people, led his victorious armies to protect that province. He found the legions quartered in Gaul demoralized by a long course of indulgence, and immediately ex- erted himself to restore the ancient discipline. The licentious soldiers could not endure the change, and their discontents were fomented by Maximin, a Thracian peasant, who had risen from the ranks to high command by his uncommon strength and valor. The prince's guards were bribed to quit their posts ; and a band of assassins entering the imperial tent slew him without resistance (a. d. 235). Thus fell this excellent prince in the very bloom of youth, just as his plans for resto- ring the ancient glory of the empire were beginning to be matured. Section VI. — From the Murder of Alexander to the Captivity of Valerian and the Usurpation of the Thirty Tyrants. FROM A. D. 235 TO A. D. 259. The murder of Alexander occasioned a great tumult, and confusion ia the camp, during which the Pannonians proclaimed Maximin em- 286 ANCIENT HISTORY. peror ; and the rest of the army seeing no other candidate come fot' ward, acquiesced in their choice. Great personal strength was the first cause of the new emperor's elevation : it is said he could draw a wagon which two oxen could not move, tear trees up by the roots, and crush pebbles to dust in his hands. But he was a brutal, ignorant bar- barian, uniting the cunning to the ferocity of a savage. He commenced his reign by massacring all who had been intimate with the late emperor, or who had shown sorrow for his death ; and he sent orders to the senate to register his sanguinary decrees, without asking that body to confirm his election. The war against the Germans was contiujed with great success ; one hundred and fifty of their villages were burned to the ground ; their country, to an extent of four hundred square mile? laid desolate ; and an incredible number of prisoners sent to be sold as slaves in Italy. Maximin marched next against the Dc^ians and Sarmatians, over whom he gained several victories ; and *.; is believed that he would have extended the frontiers of the empire to the norihern ocean, had not his avarice and cruelty provoked a civil war. The revolt commenced in Africa, where two young men of high rank being condemned by the emperor's receiver-general to pay a fine that would have reduced them to beggary, conspired to save their fortunes by de- stroying hmi ; they were joined by several of the legionaries, and so rapid was their success, that they ventured to proclaim Gordian, pro- consul of Africa, then in the eightieth year of his age, sovereign of the empire. When news of this event reached Rome, the senators witlji one accord revolted from Maximin, and ordered all his friends in the city to be murdered. Intelligence of these events being conveyed to Maximin, he made peace w'ith the northern barbarians, and led his array toward Italy, promising his soldiers that they should be enriched by the forfeited estates of his enemies. On his march he learned that Gordian and his son had been defeated and slain by Capelianus in Africa, but that the senate, undaunted by this calamity, had conferred the empire on Pupienus and Balbinus. This choice did not satisfy the people ; a vast multitude assembled while the new emperors were offer- ing the usual sacrifice, and demanded with loud clamor a prince of the Gordian family. After vainly attempting to disperse the mob, Balbinus and Pupienus sent for young Gordian, then only twelve years old, and proclaimed him Ctesar. In the meantime, Maximin entered Italy, and laid siege to Aquileia. Tne garrison made a very brave defence ; and the besiegers, hated by the entire empire, suffered more than the besieged, their stragglers being cut off, and their convoys intercepted. Exasperated by their suficrings, the imperialists resolved to remove the cause ; a large body marched in the noonday to the tent of Maximin, and slew him, his son, and all his principal favorites (a. d. 238). Though several legions of Pannonians and Thracians were in the camp, they did not attempt to revenge the death of an emperor who had always shown more favor to the barbarian than the Roman legions. Scarcely had domestic tranquillity been restored, when the empire was involved ir foreign wars. The Car'pi and Goths, passing the Danube, ravaged the province of Moe'sia ; while the Persians renewed their hostilities on the eastern frontiers. It was agreed among the princes, that Pupienus should undertake the defence of Syria, Balbinus ROMAN EMPIRE. 287 march against the Golns, and Gordian remain at the head of the admiu- xstration in Rome But while the necessary armaments were in prepa- ration, a dangerous mutiny broke out among the praetorians : Pupienua and Balbinus, divided by mutual jealousies, could not unite for its sup- pression : they were both murdered, and young Gordian remained sole emperor. Misith'eus, captain of the prajtorian guards, and father-in-law of the emperor, acted as minister and guardian of young Gordian. He was admirably qualified for such an important office, uniting the valor of a soldier to the wisdom of a statesman. The rapid successes of Shah pur, or, as he was called by the Romans, Sapor, tlie second prince of the Sassanid dynasty, directed the attention of the emperor to the Per- sian war, and he went in person to protect the province of Syria. On his march toward the Hellespont, Gordian was defeated in a tumultu- ous engagement by the Alans ; but the barbarians did not know how to improve their success, and, after a short delay, he arrived safely iii Asia. The Persians were defeated in every engagement ; and Sapor, forced to abandon Mesopotamia, was pursued to the very gates of Ctes'iphoa. But these victories were more than counterbalanced by the death of Misitl/eus,who showed his patriotism, even in his last moments, by bequeathing all his estates to the Roman people. Gordian, having appointed Philip, the Arabian, his prime minister, continued the war against Sapor, and gave the Persians a decisive overthrow on the banks of the Chab'oras {Khabur), a tributary to the Euphrates, in Mes- o])olamia. But while the young conqueror was pursuing the advantages of his victory, a mutiny was excited in his army by the traitor Philip, whom he was compelled to make a partner of his empire. Not content with this elevation, Philip procured the assassination of his youthful benefactor (a. d. 244) ; but the soldiers soon repented of their crime and raised a splendid mausoleum to the memory of the youthful hero. Philip, being elevated to the empire by the anny, wrote to the sen- ate, ascribing the death of Gordian to a natural disease : he then con- cluded a hasty peace with the Persians, and, returning to Syria, made all speed to Rome. Though the senate and people, warmly attached to the Gordian family, at first regarded him with aversion, he soon won their afiections by his mild administration and obliging behavior. He is said to have been secretly a Christian, but many of his actions show that he had little regard for any religion ; however, he was a decided enemy to persecution. His reign was rendered remarkable by the celebration of secular games for the thousandth anniversary of the foundation of the city : it was also disturbed by several insurrections, especially in Pannonia, the suppression of which he intrusted to Traja- nus Decius. Scarcely had this general reached Illyi-'icum, when his soldiers compelled him, by the threat of instant death, to assume the imperial purple. Philip, leaving his son to protect Rome, marched against Decius, but was defeated and slain near Verona (a. d. 249) His son was massacred by the prastorian guards. Decius commenced his reign by one of the most sanguinary perse- cutions that ever oppressed the church. The Christians throughout the empire were driven from their habitations, dragged to execution like common malefactors, and subjected to the most exquisite tortures 288 ANCIENT HISTORY. cruelty itself could invent. The laws of nature and humanity were violated, friend betrayed friend, brother informed against brother, chil- dren against their parents, and parents against their children ; every one thinking it meritorious to discover a Christian and procure his death. ' Decius vented his rage chiefly against the bishops. Among his victims were Fabian, bishop of Rome ; Bab'ylaz, bishop of Anti- och ; and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem. Great numbers of Chris- tians betook themselves to mountains, rocks, and deserts, choosing rather to live among wild beasts than with men who had divested them- selves of reason and humanity. Among these was the celebrated Paul, who withdrew into the deserts of Egypt, where he is said to have lived a solitary life for the greater part of a century. He is usu- ally regarded as the father and founder of the order of anchorets, or hermits, whose superstitious austerities appear to have been derived from the extraordinary penances practised by the fanatics of centra] and southern Asia. This persecution was interrupted by an invasion of the Goths, who, for the first time, • crossed the Danube in considerable numbers, and devastated Mce'sia. Decius marched against them, and gained some important advantages ; but in his last battle, charging into the midst of the enemy to avenge the death of his son, he was overpowered and slain (a. d.251). A great number of the Romans, thus deprived of their leader, fell victims to the barbarians ; the survivors, grateful foi the protection afforded them by the legions of Gallus, who commanded in the neighborhood, proclaimed that general emperor. Gallus concluded a dishonorable peace with the Goths, and renewed the persecutions of the Christians. His dastardly conduct provoked general resentment ; the provincial armies revolted, but the most dan gerous insurrection was that headed by TEmilianus, who was proclaimed emperor in Moe'sia. He led his forces into Italy, and the hostile armies met at Interamna (Tcrni) ; but just as an engagement was about to commence, Gallus was murdered by his OAvn soldiers (a. d. 253), and ^milianus proclaimed emperor. In three months jEmilianus him- self met a similar fate, the army having chosen Valerian, the governor of Gaul, to the sovereignty. Valerian, though now sixty years of age, possessed powers that might have revived the sinking fortunes of the empire, which was now invaded on all sides. The Goths, who had formed a powerful monar- chy on the lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black sea, extended their territories to the Borys'thenes (^Dnieper) and Tanais {^Doti) : they ravaged Mce'sia, Thrace, and Macedon ; while their fleets, which soon became formidable after the capture of the Tauric Cherso- nese (Criin Tartary), devastated the coasts both of the European and Asiatic provinces. The great confederation of the Franks became for- midable on the lower Rhine, and not less dangerous was that of the AUemanni on the upper part of that river. The Carpians and Sarma- tians laid Moe'sia waste. The Sarmatians were particularly formidable for their cavalry : both horses and men were covered with a curious kind of scale armor formed of the sliced hoofs of animals, which hung sufficiently loose not to impede the motions of the warrior, and was yet strong enough to ROMAN EMPIRE. 289 ram aside arrows and javelins. The light cavahy of the Persians at the same time devastated the greater part of western Asia, extending their ravages even to the shores of the Mediterranean. Gallienus, the emperor's son, whom Valerian had chosen for his col- league, and Aurelian, destined to succeed him in the empire, gained several victories over the Germanic tribes, while Valerian marched in person against the Scythians and Persians, who had invaded Asia. He gained a victory over the former in Anatolia, but, imprudently passing the Euphrates, he was surrounded by Sapor's army near Edes'sa, in a situation where neither courage nor military skill could be of any avail, and was forced to surrender at discretion (a. d. 259). During nine years Valerian languished in hopeless captiv^.y, the object of scorn and insult to his brutal conqueror, while no ellbrt was made for his libera Hon by his unnatural son. Section VII. — From the Captivity of Valerian to the Resignation of Diodesian. FROM A. D. 260 TO A. D. 305. Gallie'nus succeeded to the throne, receiving the news of his fa- ther's misfortunes with secret pleasure and open indifference. He seemed to be versed in everything but the art of government ; " he was master of several curious but useless sciences, a ready oi"ator and ele- gant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and most contemptible prince."* At the moment of his accession, the barbarians, encouraged by the captivity of Valerian, invaded the empire on all sides. Italy itself was invaded by the Germans, who advanced to Raven'na but they were forced to retire by the emperor. Gallienus, after this exer- tion, sunk into complete inactivity : his indolence roused a host of com- petitors for the empire in the different provinces, commonly called " the thirty tyrants," though the number of pretenders did not exceed nine- teen. It would be impossible to describe the various struggles for power between these rivals, which distracted every part of the empire Far the most remarkable of them was Odenatus, who assumed the pur- ple at Palmy'ra, gained several great victories over the Persians, and besieged Sapor in Ctes'iphon. Though he failed to take the city, he checked for a long time the progress of the Sassan'ides. Gallienus, hearing of these great achievements, resolved to convert a rival into a friend, and proclaimed Odenatus his partner in the empire. But this great man was murdered by some of his own family : he was succeeded by his Avife, the celebrated Zenobia, who took the title of Queen of the East. Gallienus did not long survive him : he was murdered while be- sieging Aureolus, one of his rivals, in Mediolanum [Milan) ; but before his death he transmitted his rights to Claudius, a general of great rep- utation (a. d. 268). Most of the other tyrants had previously fallen in battle or by assassination. Mar'cus Aurelius Claudius, having conquered his only rival, Aureo- lus, marched against the Germans and Goths, whom he routed with groat slaughter. He then prepared to march against Zenobia, who had * Gibbon. 19 290 ANCIENT HISTORY conquered Egypt ; but a pestilence broke out in his army, and /be em- peror himself was one of its A'ictims (a. d. 270). Extraordinary hon- ors were paid to his memory by the senate. His brother was elected emperor by acclamation ; but in seventeen days he so displeased the army by attempting to revive the ancient discipline, that he was deposed and murdered. Aurelian, a native of Sir'mium, in Pannonia, was chosen emperor by the army ; and the senate, well acquainted Avith his merits, joyfully confirmed the election. He made peace with the Goths, and led his army against the Germans, who had once more invaded Italy. Aure- lian was at first defeated; but he soon retrieved his loss, and cit the whole of the barbarian army to pieces. His next victory was obtained over the Vandals, a new horde that had passed the Danube ; and hav- ing thus secured the tranquillity of Europe, he marched to rescue the eastern provinces from Zenobia. The queen of Palmy'ra was one of ithe most illustrious women re- corded in history : she claimed descent from the Egyptian Ptolemies, but was probably of Jewish origin, since she is said to have professed the Jewish religion. She was well acquainted with the principal lan- guages of the eastern and western worlds, skilled in the leading sci- ences of her day, •and so well versed in affairs of state, that the suc- cesses of her husband, Odenatus, are generally attributed to his having acted bv her advice. For nearly six years she ruled Syria and Meso- potamia, discharging all the duties of an excellent sovereign and intrepid commander. Ambition, however, precipitated her ruin : not satisiied with the conquest of Egypt, she aspired at the sovereignty of Asia, and Aurelian resolved to put an end to usurpations so disgraceful to the Roman fame. On his march through Thrace, the emperor fought a great battle with the Goths. Not satisfied with a single victory, he pursued them across the Danube, routed their forces a second time, and slew one of their kings. Passing over into Asia, he encountered the forces of Zenobia near Antioch ; the battle was sanguinary and well contested, but in the end the Romans prevailed. A second victory enabled Aurelian to be- siege Palmy'ra, Avhich the dauntless queen defended with great spirit and resolution. At length, finding that there was no hope of succor, she attempted secretly to fly into Persia, but was betrayed by her ser- vants, and taken prisoner. Palmy'ra surrendered ; but the citizens soon revolting, this great commercial capital was stormed, its inhabitants put to the sword, and its trade and prosperity irretrievably ruined. Scarcely had this revolt been subdued, when Aurelian was called upon to quell a formidable insurrection in Egypt. The celerity of his march disconcerted the rebels ; they were speedily coru|aered ; and the emperor, having thus suppressed all the troubles of thb east, resolved to recover Gaul, Spain, and Britain, which had now fur thirteen years 6een the prey of different tyrants. A single campaign restored these provinces to the empire ; and Aurelian, returning to Rume, Avas honored with the most magnificent triumph that the city had ever beheld. Far more honorable to him, however, was his generous tiealment of his cap- tivts — a suitable estate was granted at Tibur (Tivfii) to Zenobia and Qei children. The princess, reconciUug herself to lier lot, became a ROMAN EMPIRE. , 291 respectable Roman matron ; and her family v/as not extinct in the fifth century. Tranquillity was first disturbed by a violent insurrection excited at Rome by the debasing of the coinage. The imperial troops, sent to drive the mob from the Coelian hill, were routed with the loss of seven thousand men, and it was with the utmost difficulty that the insurgents were reduced. Aurelian punished the principal authors of the tumult with great severity, not to say cruelty, and, finding that he had thus be- come unpopular, left the city. He directed his course to Gaul, where he appeased some growing disturbances ; thence he marched to Vinde- licia, and restored it to the empire : but he abandoned the province of Dacia to the barbarians, withdrawing all the Roman garrisons that had been stationed beyond the Danube. Aurelian's virtues were sullied by the sternness and severity that naturally belongs to a peasant and a soldier. His officers dreaded h:.s inflexibility, which had been already shown in his sentencing his , vvn nephew to death. While he was thus preparing to lead his army against the Persians, he discovered an act of peculation committed by Mnestheus, one of his secretaries, and threatened a severe punishment. The guilty functionary, having no other hope of escape, conspired with several others exposed to legal vengeance : they assailed the emperor, escorted only by a few friends, on his road to Byzantium, and slew him with innumerable wounds (a. d. 275). But the assassins did not escape the punishment due to their crimes ; the soldiers, attached fondly to an emperor who had so often led them to victory, tore the authors of his death to pieces. They showed, at the same time, greater respect for the law than had ever been displayed by their predecessors, cheerfully referring the choice of an emperor to the senate. After a tranquil interregnum of more than six months, the senate elect- ed Mar'cus Claudius Tacit'us, a member of their own body, in spite of his great age, for he was already passed his seventy-fifth year. Having enacted some useful laws, the emperor marched against the A'lans, who had overrun Asia Minor. He defeated the barbarians ; but the fatigues of the campaign proved too much for his constitution, and he died in Cappadocia, after a short reign of about seven months. Florian the brother of Tacit'us, was elected emperor by the senate, bU" Mar'cus Aurelius Probus was the choice of the Syrian army ; and a civil war soon began between these rivals. But Florian's own soldiers took offence at some part of his conduct, rose in sudden mutiny, and put him to death. Probus, now undisputed master of the empire, led his troops from Asia to Gaul, which was again devastated by the German tribes ; he not only defeated the barbarians, but pursued them into their own country, where he gained greater advantages than any of his pre- decessors. Thence he passed into Thrace, where he humbled the Goths ; and returning to Asia, he completely subdued the insurgent Isaurians, whose lands he divided among his veterans. Alarmed at these victories, Bahram II., king of Persia, called Var'ames by the western writers, sent ambassadors to solicit peace, and submitted to the terms dictated by the emperor. Three competitors in difl'erent provin- ces were next subdued ; but when wars were at an end, the emperor employed his armies in useful public works, which so ofiended the licen 292 ANCIENT HISTORY. tious soldiery, that they suddenly attacked and slew him (a. d. 282) They subsequently repented of the crime, and united to raise a stately monument to his memory. Cams, the captain of the praetorian guards, was elected emperor by the army ; and the senate, not without reluctance, assented to the ar- rangement. The new emperor gave the title of Caesar to his sons Ca- riBus and Numerianus, the former of whom was one of the most de] raved young men of his time ; the latter a model of every virtue . The new emperor signalized his accession by a brilliant victory ovei the Sarmatians : he would have pursued these barbarians into their na> tive wilds, had he not been summoned to Asia by a new invasion of the Persians. Leaving the care of the western provinces to Carinus, the emperor, accompanied by Numerianus, hastened into Mesopotamia, where he defeated Bahram, and, pursuing the Persians into their own country, besieged Ctes'iphon. The city would probably have been taken, had not the emperor fallen a victim to disease, or, as others say, to a thunderbolt (a. d. 283). Numerianus was chosen his successor; but, after a few months' reign, he was assassinated by A'per his father- in-law and captain of his guards. The crime, however, was discovered, and the murderer put to death by the army. Dioclesian, said to have been originally a slave, was unanimously saluted emperor, by the army. He was proclaimed at Chal'cedon on the 17th of December, a. d. 284 ; an epoch that deserves to be remem- bered, as it marks the beginning of a new era, called " the era of Dio- clesian," or " the era of martyrs," which long prevailed in the church, and is still used by the Copts, the Abyssinians, and other African na- tions. When Carinus heard of his brother's death, he assembled a nu- merous army, marched from Gaul into lUyr'icum, where he conquered a usurper named Julianus, and thence advancing into Moe'sia, inflicted a severe defeat on the army of Dioclesian, in the plains of Mar'gus (Morava Hissar). But in the very moment of victory a tribune, whose wife he had seduced, seized the opportunity of revenge, and by a single blow put an end to the civil war. Dioclesian made a generous use of his victory : in an age when death, exile, and confiscation, were the usual fate of the conquered party, the new emperor did not even deprive his rival's ministers of oflice. The troubles of the empire appearing too great to be managed by a single mind, Dioclesian voluntarily gave himself a colleague, selecting for this high situation his friend Maximian, a brave and skilful soldier, but un- fortunately also an ignorant and ferocious barbarian. Scarcely had the appointment been made, when Maximian was called upon to exert his military talents in Gaul, both in suppressing insurrections and checking the barbarians. He effected his purposes with great skill ; while his colleague gained several victories over the Sarmatians in the east. A brief interval of tranquillity was followed by new and more alarm- ing disturbances in every part of the empire. The two sovereigns, in great alarm, resolved on a further division of authority ; each chose an associate and successor, with the title of CsBsar, who was to be invested with a considerable share of imperial power : to this new dignity Dio- clesian nominated Max'imin Galerius ; and Maximian, Constan'tius Chlorus. L iivision of the empire followed : Dioclesian took the prov- ROMAN EMPIRE. 293 inces beyond the ^gean sea ; Thrace and Illyr'icum were assigned to Galerius ; Maximian received Italy and Africa ; Gaul, Spain, and Brit- ain, were intrusted to Constan'tius. Although this arrangement appears to have been rendered necessary by the circumstances of the empire, it undoubtedly hastened its decline : four courts, with all their expensive adjuncts, were now to be maintain- ed, instead of one : taxes were multiplied ; the inhabitants of several provinces reduced to beggary, and agriculturists, unable to meet the imposts levied on land and produce, left the fields in many districts un- cultivated. Italy, which had hitherto borne a very light share of the public burdens, was no longer permitted to claim exemption as the seat of domestic empire, and was soon reduced to a deplorable condition. Britain, which had been usurped by Carausius, early claimed the at- tention of Constan'tius : it was, however, necessary to prepare a lleet for the invasion, as the usurper was powerful by sea ; and while the naval armament Avas preparing, Constan'tius gamed several victories over the German hordes. Just as he was about to set sail, he learned that Carusius had been deposed and murdered by a new usurper, named AUec'tus, far inferior to his victim in talent and popularity. The Caesar instantly hastened to cross the channel ; Allec'tus was defeated and slain in Kent, the remainder of the province quickly reduced to obedience, and the ravages of the barbarians on the northern frontiers prevented. Galerius was as successful on the Danube as Constan'tius in Britain and on the Rhine ; Maximian reduced the barbarous tribes that had in- vaded Africa, while Dioclesian quelled a dangerous revolt in Egypt. He was soon summoned to protect the empire from a dangerous inva- sion of the Persians ; Galerius had been sent from the Danube to the Euphrates to check their progress, but he was defeated by the Sassa- nid monarch Narsi, on the very field which had been so fatal to Cras'- sus and his legions. Dioclesian showed great indignation at the mis- conduct of Galerius, to which he attributed the recent calamity ; but at length he permitted himself to be mollified, and intrusted the Caesar with a new army for a second campaign. In the following ysar the Romans again invaded Persia ; but, profit- ing by recent and buier experience, the leader left the plains of Meso- potamia on the right, and led his forces through the Armenian mount- ains, which were more favorable for the operations of his infantry, in which the principal strength of his army consisted. Masking his course from the enemy, Galerius unexpectedly rushed down from the the hills on the Persian lines : the surprise, the impetuosity of the at- tack, and the desire for revenge which animated the Romans, rendered their onset irresistible. NarsI was severely wounded, but escaped by the swiftness of his horse, leaving his entire family, his magnificent tents, and his sumptuous camp-equipage, as a prize to the conquerors A bag of embossed leather filled with pearls, fell into the hands of a private soldier : unacquainted with the value of his prize, he flung the pearls away, keeping the bag as something that might be useful. Ga- lerius treated his royal captives with the greatest kindness and gener- osity ; his conduct produced such an effect on Narsi's heart, that he so- licited peace. The great province of Mesopotamia {(Juzirah) was yielded to the Romans, together with five districts beyond the Tigris, 294 ANCIENT HISTORY. including the greater part of Cardiichia {Knrdistdn), a country more fruitful in soldiers than grain, but which, from its strength and position, commands the greater part of western Asia. These districts were taken from Tiridates, king of Armenia, the ally of the Romans ; but he was indemnified, at the expense of Persia, by the fine province of Atropa- Xe\\e[Azerbijdii). When the Armenian took possession of this country, he made its chief city, Taiiris (^Tabriz), the metropolis of his kingdom, and greatly improved that ancient capital. But these triumphs were sullied by a general persecution of the Christians (the tenth and last), which Dioclesian is said to have com- menced at the instigation of Galerius (a. d. 303). It lasted ten entire years, and exceeded all the preceding in its indiscriminate massacres and severities. Such multitudes of Christians suffered death, in all the provinces of the empire, that the emperors believed that they had ac- complished their purpose, and completely extirpated Christianity. They told the world in a pompous inscription, that they had extinguish- ed the Christian name and superstition, and everywhere restored the worship of the gods to its former purity and lustre. But the church triumphed over all their artifices and power ; and, in spite of the ut- most efforts of tyranny, many years had not elapsed after the publica- tion of this boast, when it reigned triumphant in the very metropolis of idolatry and superstition. Dioclesian prepared to return to Rome, but was delayed for some time by a strange revolt in Syria. Eugenius, an oflicer of little or no reputation, had been intrusted with the command of five hundred men in Seleiicia, who, being employed all day in cleansing the harbor, and compelled to work all night baking their own bread, resolved to de- liver themselves from such insupportable drudgery ; and forthwith pro- claimed their governor emperor. Eugenius at first refused the dignity ; but being threatened with instant death, he allowed himself to be in- vested with the purple, and by a rapid march, got possession of Anti- och. When the citizens, however, recovered from their surprise, they fell upon the insurgents, and cut them to pieces. Dioclesian, instead of rewarding the people of Antioch for their fidelity, ordered their chief magistrates to be put to death without inquiry or trial ; a crime Avhich rende od him so odious to the Syrians, that for more than ninety years they CL-uld noL hear his name pronounced without a shudder. Rome, on the return of the two emperors, witnessed for the last time, the splendid ceremonial of a triumph ; it was less costly than those ol Aurelian and Probus, but it commemorated greater and more useful vic- tories. In his triumph, and in the spectacles that followed it, however, Dioclesian having displayed more parsimony than was pleasing to the people, he was assailed by jests and lampoons, which annoyed him so much, that he quitted the city for Raven'na. On his journey a severe storm arose, and the cold which he caught produced a long and linger- ing disease that affected his reason. After he had begun to recover, he was induced, or perhaps compelled, to resign the empire, by Galerius (a. d. 305). He persuaded Maximian to abdicate also. The two Caesars became emperors, and chose two other nobles to fill the station they had occupied. Dioclesian survived his abdication nearly nine years ; he resided ROMAN EMPIRE. 295 during this time at his country-seat near Salona {Spalatro), where tlie ruins of his palace may still be seen. He never regretted the power he had resigned ; and when Maximian and others wrote, inviting him to make a struggle for empire, he replied : " I wish you would come to Salona, and see the cabbages I have planted : after having once visited my garden, you would never again mention to me the name of empire." The close of his life was embittered by domestic misfortune, by the in- gratitude of Constantino and Licin'ius, and by the calamities which ho foresaw that the dissensions of these rivals would bring upon the em- pire. There are various accounts given of the manner of his death, and it is impossible to discover whether he fell by his own hand or by natural disease. Section VIII. — From the Abdication of Dioclesian to the Death of Constan- tine the Great. FROM A. D. 303 TO A. D. 337. The Caesars, Severus and Max'imin, owed their elevation to Gale- rius ; but they were not quite so subservient to his wishes as he ex- pected, both showing themselves favorable to the toleration of the Christians. Arrangements were made for the division of the empire ; Constan'tius and Severus received the western provinces ; Galerius and Max'imin ruled all the territories east of the Adriatic. Constantine, the celebrated son of Constan'tius, was sick in the provinces assigned to Galerius when the empire was thus divided ; some eflbrts were made to assassinate a prince whose talents and popularity had already ren- dered him formidable. He escaped the danger by a rapid flight, and came to his father, who was just about to embark at Gessoriacum {^Boulogne) for Britain. The presence of Constan'tius was required in that island by a formidable invasion of the Picts, a nation now for the first time mentior.ed in history ; but while on his march against these barbarians, he was seized with a mortal disease, and died at Ebor'acum (York), where his body was honorably interred by his son Conslantine (a. d. 306). Constantine was instantly proclaimed Augustus by the soldiers ; but Galerius would only give him the title of Ctesar, declaring that Severus was his partner in the empir \ Maxen'lius, the son of Maximian, in- dignant at his exclusion from power, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor by the dissatisfied soldiery, and induced his father to abandon his solitude, and remount the throne. Severus led an army against them ; but he was abandoned by the greater part of his troops, taken prisoner, and put to death (a. d. 307). Maximian, knowing that Ga- lerius would revenge the murder of Severus, strengthened himself by entering into close alliance with Constantine, to whom he gave his daughter Fausta in marriage. Nor did he dread Galerius without a cause : that emperor hastened from the east with a large army, and attempted to besiege Rome ; but failing in this enterprise, he permitted his soldiers to devastate Italy. Maximian had gone to Gaul, hoping to receive aid from Constantine ; but finding that prudent prince by no means disposed to encounter the hazards of a dangerous war, ajid hear- ing that Galerius had retreated precipitately, he returned to Rouie, 296 ANCIENT HISTOR.Y. where he reigned conjointly with his son. In the meantime, Galerius conferred the title of emperor on his friend Licinius ; and thus the em- pire was shared between six sovereigns.* Maximian having quarrelled with his son, returned to Gaul, Avhcre he began to plot against the life of Constantine ; but his treachery was discovered, and he was deservedly executed (a. d. 310). In the fol- lowing year a loathsome disease, produced by debauchery, removed Galerius from the stage ; his dominions were divided between Maximin and Licinius. It was scarcely possible that pe:.ce could long continue between the four princes who now shared the empire. Constantine had won the affections of his subjects by his wise and beneficent ad«- ministration in Gaul, while the cruelty and rapacity of Maxen'tius filled Italy and Africa with confusion. But the tyrant was not conscious of the weakness that resulted from his crimes. Under pretence of re- venging the death of his father, he ordered all the statues erected in honor of Constantine throughout Italy to be thrown down, and thus pro- voked a war with the most able prince of the age. Constantine having passed the Alps, defeated the lieutenants of Maxen'tius at Augusta Tau- rinorum [Turin) and Vero'na, while the tyrant himself remained sunk in sloth and luxury at Rome. At length he Avas roused from his lethargy by the rapid approach of the victorious army ; a dreadful battle was fought at a place called Sax'a Rubra, within nine miles of Rome, near the little river Cremera, so memorable for the destruction of the Fabii. The result was fatal to Maxen'tius ; the praetorian guards, on whom he chiefly relied, were broken and cut to pieces by the repeated charges of the Gallic horse. The tyrant himself was drowned in the Tiber, while attempting to make his escape through the crowd over the Milvian bridge (a. d. 312). It was during this campaign that Constantine js said to have seen a miraculous vision of a luminous cross in the heavens, a little before sunset ; and to have been warned in a dream to take this sacred symbol as his standard. The principal evidence for the ti-uth of this miracle is the emperor's own account of the event, related many years afterward to Eusebius ; one circumstance, however, greatly weakens his testimony ; the vision was so far from producing the con- version of Constantine, that he did not receive baptism until a short time before his death. No sooner had the death of Maxen'tius made Constantine master of Rome, than he removed the great source of all the calamities that had befallen the city under the empire, by disbanding the praetorian guards and destroying their fortified camp. He restored the authority of the senate and magistrates, recalled all those who had been banished by Maxen'tius, and dismissed the entire tribe of spies and informers. He revoked all the edicts that had been issued against the Christians and paid great re^'^ect to the bisliops and clerg;,', either on account of the miraculous vision already mentioned, or, as is more probable, through gratitude for the efficient aid he had received from the Christians in the recent contest, and anxiety to secure their assistance in any future struggle. Maximin was a devoted adherent of paganism ; he viewed the in- novations of Constantine with great hostility ; and when Licinius mar • Maximian, Galeriusj Licinius, Maximin, Constantine, and Maxeatius. ROMAN EMPIRE. 297 ried the sister of that prince, he resolved to destroy both. Taking ad^ vantage of the war in which Constantine was involved with the Franks, ne marched against Licin'ius, hoping to destroy him before any as- sistance could arrive from the west. His first efforts were crowned with success ; but being totally defeated near Adrianople, he fled with- out attendants to Nicomedia, where he soon died of rage and disap- pointment (a. d. 313). Licin'ius made a cruel use of his victory, slaughtering without mercy all whom he deemed likely to become com- petitors for empire : among the most illustrious of his victims were the wife and daughter of Dioclesian. Constantine, during this war, was engaged in securing the tranquil- lity of western Europe ; he gave an unquestionable proof of his attach- ment to Christianity by convening a general council of the bishops at Arelate [Aries), to suppress the heresy of the Donatists ; but before the assembly met, he was forced to take the field against Licin'ius, who had thrown down his statues in ^Enona (Lai/buch), a city of upper Pan- nonia. With his usual celerity, Constantine hastened into Panncnia before Licin'ius could expect his arrival ; but he found that prince al- ready in the field. A fierce battle was fought at the little town of Cib'alis or Ceb'alee (Sevilei), not far from Sir'mium, in which Licin'ius was defeated, and forced to fly into Thrace. Thither he was followed by Constantine, vanquished a second time, and forced to consent to an accommodation, by which lUyr'icum, Macedon, Greece, and lower Moe'sia, were yielded to Constantine (a. d. 314). The conqueror im- mediately took the most prudent measures to secure his new acquisi- tions ; while Licin'ius continued to provoke his subjects by repeated cruelties and exactions. Foreign invasions led to a renewal of the civil war. Constantine ha^ng conquered the Sarmatians and Goths, pursued the latter into ter- ritories of Licin'ius, and that prince immediately declared that the reAnt articles of peace had been Adolated (a. d. 322). Great prepara- tions were made on both sides for the renewal of hostilities, but Con- stantine was the first to take the field, and entering Thrace he found his rival encamped on the Hebrus [Marifza), not far from Adrianople. The battle was in some measure a struggle between Christianity and paganism : Constantine displayed the banner of the cross, Licin'ius the ancient idolatrous standards of the empire : the struggle was fierce — it ended in the total overthrow of Licin'ius, who had the further mortification of learning that his fleet had been destroyed in the straits of Callip'olis (^Gallipoh) by Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine. An attempt was made to terminate the struggle by negotiation, but it was frustrated by the insincerity of Licin'ius : he hazarded a second engagement, and was irretrievably ruined. From the field of battle the defeated tyrant fled to Nicodemia, but he was soon taken prisoner, and put to death (a. d. 324). Constantine being thus sole master of the empire, restored the churches, of which the Christians had been de- prived in the eastern provinces, to their respective pastors, and issued several edicts for the suppression of idolatry. New controversies in the church led to the conv^ocation of the cele- brated council of Nice, in Avhich the doctrine of the Trinity was fixed and defined, the heresy of Arius condemned, and the spiritual suprem- 298 ANCIENT HISTORY. acy of the emperor virtually acknowledged (a. d. 325). When the laoors of this celebrated assembly terminated, Constantiiie retvirned to the western provinces, and paid a visit to Rome. His reception in the city was anything but flattering ; the populace /oaded him with insults and execrations for abandoning the religion of his forefathers ; and his rage at such injurious treatment is said to have greatly influenced his determination of transferring the seat of government from Rome to By- zantium. At the same time he was harassed by domestic troubles, which led him to commit a horrid crime. Instigated by the empress Fausta, he put his eldest son, the virtuous Crispus, to death without a trial ; and when he too late discovered his error, he caused Fausta and her accomplices to be slain. These horrors aggravated his unpop- ularity among the Romans ; but he no longer regarded their displeas- ure, having Anally resolved to give a new capital to the empire (a. d. 330). Anger and caprice were not the only causes that induced Constan- tino to make such an important change ; indeed, the removal of the seat of government was justified by considerations of the soundest policy. The eastern provinces were exposed to the attacks of a pow- erful dynasty, the Persian Sassan'ides, who openly aspired to the an- cient empire of Cy'rus ; the frontier of the Danube was not sufficient to restrain the Goths and Sarmatians ; the emperors would therefore have endangered the most faithful and wealthy portions of their domin- ions, had they continued to reside in western Europe. A metropolis on the confines of Europe and Asia was at once recommended, by the politirtil advantages of its central situation, and the opportunities it af- forded for reviving the lucrative commerce of the Euxine and the east- ern Mediterranean. A slight glance at the natural advantages of By- zantium, will show that it was worthy of being made the metropoli*of an empire by the wise sovereign whose name it bears. '^ The area of Constantinople is an irregular triangle, whose apeXjlan obtuse point advancing to the east and toward the Asiatic coast, meets and repels the waters of the Thracian Bosphorus. On the north is a winding harbor, known both in ancient and modern times by the name of Chryso-Keras, or the Golden Horn : it is about seven miles in length, with good anchorage through the greater part of its extent : the entrance is not more than fi.ve hundred yards wide, and may be easily defended against a hostile armament. On the southeastern side the walls of the city are washed by the Propon'tis (^sea of Marmora), and the west forms the base of the triangle which is connected with the continent. Thus situated, the Euxine sea on the one side, and the iEgean on the other, could supply it with the richest productions of Europe and Asia ; while its shape rendered it easily defensible against the savage and plundering tribes of Thrace. Enormous sums were expended by Constantine in embellishing his new capital ; unfortunately, there was equal prodigality in the other branches of the administration, and the emperor's rule became grinding and severe. But he did not abandon his warlike character; he se- verely chastised the Goths and Sarmatians, who invaded Thrace, and compelled them to give hostages for their future good conduct. In the decline of his life, he appears to have adopted much of the pomp and ROU^N EMPIRE. 299 luxury characteristic of Asiatic despots ; but when increasing disease warned him of approaching dissolution, he received the sacrament of baptism, and expired ten months afterward, in the thirtieth year of his reign (a. d. 335). He left three sons to inherit his empire. The removal of the seat of government consummated the revolution in the Roman constitution which had been commenced in the reign of Dioclesian ; it became a simple despotism, with more of a political than military character. An entire change was made in the form of administration ; the magistrates being divided into three classes, the illustrissimi, the spectab'iles, and the clarissimi (illustrious, respectable, and honorable). The magistrates of the first class were, the consuls and patricians, the praetorian and metropolitan prsefects, the masters-general of cavalry and infantry, and the seven great officers of the household. The titles of consul and patrician were merely honorary. They were conferred by the emperor at his pleasure, and in both cases the distinctions were personal, not hereditary. The power of the prfetorian proBfects ranked next to that of the emperors. The Roman dominions were divided into four great prsefectures, and these again were subdivided into dio- ceses and provinces. The praefectures were named, those of the East, Illyr'icum, Italy, and Gaul. To the praetorian prcnefects was assigned the civil government of these several divisions ; but Constantine had taken care that such power should not be rendered too dangerous by being united with military command. To their charge were intrusted the coinage, the highways, the ports, the granaries, the manufactures, and everything that could interest the public prosperity of their respect- ive districts. They were empowered to explain, enforce, and in some c|fcs modify, the imperial edicts. They could remove or punish the incial governors ; an appeal lay to their tribunal from all inferior sdictions ; and the sentence of the prajfect was final, lome and Constantinople had prajfects of their own. The superior fnily of their tribunals caused those of the prajtors to be deserted, affd the most ancient title of Roman magistracy soon fell into desue- tude. The peace of both capitals was preserved by a vigilant police ; and so numerous were the statues with which they were adeemed, that a magistrate was specially appointed to preser\8 them from injury. The great officers of the state and court were, 1. The pra'positus sancli cubiculi (lord chamberlain), whose duty it was " to attend the emperor iv his hours of state or amusement, ai d to perform about >js person all those menial offices which can onl_, derive their splendor from the influence of royalty." Under him were all the comiles palatii (lords of the palace), and cuhiculani (chamberlains), many of whom, at a later age, were eunuchs of great influence. 2. The magister ojjlcio- rum (minister for the home department) : to him was intrusted the nnm- agement of all correspondence between the prince and his subjects, memorials, petitions, letters, and their answers. He was also inspector- general of the civil and military schools, and appeals lay to his tribunal from every part of the empire, in cases where the privileges of tlie imperial officers were concerned. 3. The comes sacrarum largiLuDuim (lord high treasurer), was the chief minister of finance : his duties were not confined to the charge of the exchequer and superintendence 300 ANCIENT HISTORY. of tax-gatherers : he had also the charge over manufactures and com merce, which Constamine, with more wisdom than most of his prede- cessors, brought under the especial care of the state. 4. The queestor (principal secretary of state) was the representative of the emperor's legislative power, and the original source of civil jurisprudence ; some of his functions appear to have been similar to those of the British lord chancellor. 5. The comes ret principis (keeper of the privy purse) had the charge of the imperial private estates, which were scattered through the provinces, from Mauritania to Britain. 6 and 7. The com- ites domesticorum (commanders of the household guards) presided ovei the seven scholos (troops or squadrons) of cavalry and infantry that guarded the emperor's person. The commander? of the army were the magistri equitum (generals of cavalry), magistri peditian (generals of infantry), and the magistri utri- usque militia; (commander-in-chief) ; those who commanded under them were called duces and comites (dukes and counts) ; they were distin- guished by wearing a golden belt, and received, in addition to their pay, a liberal allowance, sufficient to maintain one hundred and ninety ser- vants, and one hundred and fifty-eight horses. Constantine changed the entire constitution of the legions, diminishing their number to less than one fourth : to secure a regular supply of young soldiers, he made it one of his conditions, in assigning lands to the veterans, that their sons should be trained to the profession of arms. But the necessity for such a stipulation is not the only proof we have of the decay of military spirit. Such was the dislike the degenerate Romans entertained for a soldier's life, that many young men in Italy mutilated the fingers of their right hand to avoid being pressed into the service. In cor quence of this reluctance, the custom of employing the barbarian! soldiers became every day more frequent and more fatal. They not only enlisted in the ranks, but many of them were raised to] highest dignities of the state. These changes in the constitution of the civil and military a^'rair tration of the empire rendered the government more costly, and required an entirely new system of taxation for their support. It is one of the few advantages of an arbitrary government, that it is not tempted to de- lude its subjects by the onerous and expensive machinery of indirecl taxation through the excise and customs, where an apparent choice is left to the purchaser, and his payment of the tax, by buying the taxed article, seems to be voluntary. A despot may venture on direct taxa- tion of property or person ; and, though this is apparently more harsh, it is in reality more favorable to the subject. The first of the new taxes was the indiction, an annual land-tax, levied proportionately to the fertility of the estates possessed by landed proprietors ; anc} a general census, or survey of property, Avas made throughout the empire every fifteen years, to regulate this assessment. Hence the name of indiction is given indifferently to the tax and to the cycle of registration. Trade and commerce were subjected to an impost called the auruni lustrale, which was collected every fourth year. " The honorable merchant of Alexandria, who imported the gems and spices of India for the western world ; the usurer who derived from the interest of money a silent and ignominious profit ; the ingenious manufacturer, the diligent mechanic, ROMAN EMPIRE. 30' and even the most obscure retailer of a sequestered village, were obliged to auniit the officer'' of the revenue into the partnership of their gain ; and the sovereign of the Roman empire, who tolerated the profession, consented to share the infamous gain of prostitutes."* The last impo sition that need be noticed was originally a free gift, called aurmn coro- narium, being a compensation for the crown of gold presented by the allies of the Romans to generals who had been the authors of their de- liverance, or who had conferred upon them any remarkable favor. This spontaneous offering was at length exacted as a debt, whenever the emperor announced any remarkable event which might give him a real or apparent claim to the benevolence of his subjects, such as his ac- cession, the birth of a son, or a victory over the barbarians. To these must be added, the municipal expenses, which fell almost wholly on the civic officers. Instead of having a system of local taxation, the rich- est citizens were obliged to take in turn the duty of providing for the administrative wants of the towns in which they resided ; but our in- formation respecting the practical operation of this plan is too limited for us to pronounce any opinion upon its efficiency. It must not be supposed that evil alone resulted from these changes ; on the contrary, under the circumstances of the empire, Constantino's innovations were for the most part useful reforms. The great curse of the Romans during several centuries had been military despotism ; bur the license of the turbulent soldiery was checked and restrained bj '■ the pride, pomp, and circumstance," with which the civil administra, don was surrounded. The despotism of a court was put in place of the despotism of a camp, and it needs not to be told, how vast was th« improvement that must have resulted from such an alteration. tTnder Constantine, Christianity became the established religion of ther'empire. He found the constitution of the church already organized — -1,ts form of government firmly estabUshed. Even in the reign of Dio- qlesian the bishops held an honorable rank in their respective provinces, ami were treated with proper respect, as men of high and sacred sta- timi, not only by the people, but the magistrates themselves. Constan- tine saw clearly the advantages that would result to the extent and sta- bility of his power by cementing the union between the church and the state ; he therefore appropria^^^d a great portion of the revenue of cities to the endowment of churches and the support of the clergy. Thus religion came to the aid of police in checking turbulence, and, but for the crimes and follies of the rulers, the Roman empire might have enjoyed a long course of prosperity under the constitution of Constan- tine. Section IX. — From the Death of Constantine lo the Reunion of the Empire under Theodosius the Great. FROM A. D. 337 TO A. D. 394. Constantine bequeathed portions of his dominions to his nephewa Dalmatius and Hannibilianus ; but no notice was taken of their claims by the army or the Roman senate, the late emperor's three sons being • Gibbon. 302 ANCIENT HISTORY. * proclaimed unanimously heirs of his dominions. These prmces had been educated with the greatest care ; the most pious of the Christian teachers, the most celebrated professors of Grecian philosophy and Ro- man jurisprudence, were engaged to superintend their instruction ; but the youths, Constantine, Constan'tius, and Constans, resembled their mother Fausta more than their illustrious father, and were as similar in depravity of disposition as they were in name. Some portion of their faults, must, however, be attributed to paternal weakness. Ere they had emerged from boyhood they were successively invested with the title of Caesar and invited to share in the administration. Such inju- dicious indulgence necessarily surrounded them with a crowd of flatter- ers, ready to take advantage of the warm passions and confiding dispo- sitions of youth : they were summoned too early from their studies, and were permitted to exchange the pursuit of knowledge for the enjoymeni of luxury, and the expectation of a throne. Constan'tius was the nearest of the brothers to the capital when their father died ; he hastened to take possession of the palace, and, to re- move the apprehensions of his kinsmen, who justly suspected his jealous teiuper, he took a solemn oath to protect them from all danger. In a very few days a ibrged scroll was placed in his hands by the bishop of Nicoiuedia, purporting to be the genuine testament of the late emperor, in which Constautine was made to declare that he had been poisoned by his brothers, and to exhort his children to vengeance. The sokliers, secretly prepared to second this incredible charge, loudly demanded the punishment of the accused ; all legal forms were violated ; a pro- miscuous massacre was made of the Flavian family. The two lirothers of the great Constantine, seven of his nephews, the patrician Opt;itus, who had luarried his sister, and his chief favorite, the prsefect Ablavius, were butchered, without being permitted to speak a word in their own defence. Gallus and Julian, the youngest sons of Julius Coustautius were with difficulty concealed URtil the rage of the assassins had sub- sided. A new division of the empire was made by the princes. Constan tine, the eldest, took possession of the capital ; Constan'tius received Thrace and the Asiatic provinces ; the western dominions were as- signed to Constans. Ere long, the enemies of Ror ^, that had been daunted by the fame of Constantine, began to harass his successors ; but far the most dangerous of the wars in which they had to engage v/as that waged by Shah-piir II., king of Persia, against Constan'tius. Shah-pur's previous history deserves to be noticed. His father Ilor- mtiz (Hormisdcs) died, leaving no son (a. d. 310): the kingdom was on the point of Lsing thrown into confusion, when it was announced by the principal luobeds, or priests, that one of the ladies in th* harem was pregnant and that from certain indications, they knew that the child would be a male. A strange ceremony of coronation was performed or the unborn infant. From the hour of his birth the whole nation watched over his progress with the most afi'ectionate interest, and the early proofs he exhibited of spirit and ability spread universal joy through Persia. He had not emerged from boyhood, when the fierce Arab tribes from the neigboring peninsida took advantage of his minor ity to desolate his kingdom : the royal youth marched against them ROMAN EMPIRE. 303 routed theii" forces, slew many, and took a greater number prisoners. To terrify their countrymen i'rom renewing- such an invasion, he caused the shoulders of his captives to be pierced, and then dislocated by a '■'r'ng }-d,ssed through them ; and from this circumstance he received the formidable title of Zu/a/ctdf, or " Lord of the shoulders." 8hah-pur, or Sapor as he is called b}' western writers, inherited the pretensions of the Sassanides to the empire of Cyrus ; but he was par- ticularly anxious to recover the five provinces that had been ceded to the Romans beyond the Tigris, and to assert the ancient supremacy of his family over Mesopotamia. Constan'tius hastened to the banks of the Euphrates on the first news of the approach of so formidable an inva- der ; but the war long continued to be a series of petty skirmishes and predatory incursions. Nine sanguinarj^ but indecisive engagements were fought ; but at length the Romans, by their own imprudence, re- ceived a decisive overthrow in the plains of Sin'gara (Si/ijar), not far from the ruins of Bab'ylon (a. d. 348). Sapor, encouraged by this victory, laid siege to Nis'ibis (Nisibiii) ; but, after he had lost more than twenty thousand men before the walls, he was forced to relinquish the enterprise, and hasten to the defence of his eastern provinces, which were invaded by the fierce tribes from beyond the Oxus. This war in- duced him to propose terms of truce to Constan'tius, which that prince readily accepted (a. d. 350), as the troubled state of the empire ren- dered his presence necessary in Europe. Three years had scarcely elapsed from the partition of the empire, when the ambition of Constan'tine kindled the flames of civil war (a. d. 340). Not content with wresting the African provinces from Constans, he invaded that prince's dominions through the Julian Alps, and devastated the country round Aquileia. But, advancing with great imprudence, he fell into an ambuscade near the little river Al'sa {Ansa), and was slain with the greater part of his followers. Constans took possession of his brother's provinces, and showed no inclination to re- se-rye any share for the absent Constan'tius. Diu-ing ten years Constans remained master of two thirds of the em- pire, which he plundered by his rapacity, and disgraced by his vices. He usually resided in Gaul, whose forests afforded him opportunities for hunting, the only manly sport to which he was addicted. While pursuing game ii, a neighboring forest, Magnen'tius, who commanded the imperial forces sta^oned at Augustodiinum (Autiin), caused himself to be proclaimed emperor, and closed the gates of the city. Tidings of the revolt were, however, conveyed to Constans : he fled toward Spain, but was overtaken at Ellib'eris [EIne), or, as it was then called, Hel'ena, in memory of the mother of Constantine, and put to death. The usurpation of Magnen'tius in Gaul was followed by that of Ve- tranio in Illyria ; but the latter general assumed the purple very reluc- tantly, being compelled by the clamors of his soldiers, and urged by the princess Constantina, who placed the crown on his head with her own hand. This ambitious woman had been the wife of Hannibilianus, her cousin, whose sad fate has been already mentioned. She was eager to possess power, and so unscrupulous about the means, that she persuaded Vetranio to form an alliance with Magnen'tius, whose hands yet reeked with the blood of her brother Constans. 304 ANCIENT HISTORY Coiistan'tius, having concluded a truce with Sapor, intrusted the caie of the east to his lieutenants, but afterward to his cousin Gallus, whom he thus raised from a prison to a throne. He then hastened to Europe, deceived Vetranio by offering to make him his colleague, and obtained admission into Constantinople. In a public assembly of the army and people, the artful prince, in a studied address, asserted his claims to the empire ; a unanimous burst of applause was followed by shouts for the deposition of the usurpers ; Vetranio quietly submitted, and, taking the diadem from his head, tended his homage to Constan'tius. The prince not only spared his rival's life, but assigned him a considerable pension. Vetranio retired to Prdsa [Brusa], where he spent the rest of his life in retirement, without ever expressing a desire to resume the sceptre. Magnen'tius foresaw that he would be the next assailed, and he led his army into lower Pannonia, which became the theatre of a fierce and sanguinary war. The armies finally met for a decisive battle on the plains of Mur'sa (Essek) ; the heavy cavalry of Constan'tius, sheathed in full panoply of plates of steel, decided the fate of the day, the very weight of their onset breaking the lines of the western legions, while the light archers of Asia harassed the naked German auxiliaries, on whom Mai,nen'tius chiefly relied, and reduced them to such despair, that battalions threw themselves into the rapid stream of the Drave. Still, so obstinate was the battle, that fifty-four thousand fell in the field, and the victors suf- fered more severely than the vanquished. It has been justly observed, hat the destructive plains of Mur'sa absorbed the strength of the empire ; for never again could the Roman rulers collect such noble bands of veterans as perished there by mutual slaughter. Magnen'tius fled to Italy, whither he was followed by Constan'tius in the following spring. The peninsula soon submitted to its legitimate sovereign ; but the usurper escaped into Gaul. Finding, however, that he could not long protract resistance, he baflled the vengeance of Con- stan'tius by suicide ; his associates were reduced either to follow his example, or suffer the penalties of treason. Constan'tius had given Constantina in marriage to his cousin Gallus, invested him with the title of Csesar, and intrusted him with the admin- istration of Asia. The Cajsar, naturally of a sullen and morose temper, had been soured by the sufferings of his early youth, and his evil passions were stimulated by the ambitious intrigues of the princess to whom he was unfortunately united. His excesses at length compelled Constan'tius to send commissioners to investigate the state of the east : these officers proceeded to Ant'och, where they seem to have conducted themselves with unnecessary and offensive haughtiness ; but their faults afford no sufficient excuse for the crime of Gallus, who urged the populace of Antioch to put the commissioners to death with torture and insult, and then ordered their bodies to be thrown into the Oron'tes (Aaszy). Constan'tius, instead of openly resenting the outrage, invited Gallus to visit him : the Caesar delayed until further procrastination was impossible ; he proceeded on the road to Milan through Asia and Thrace, in safety ; but when he passed the frontiers of Pannonia, he was placed under arrest, hurried to a distant castle in Istria, and secretly put to fleath (a. d. 354). Julian, the only surviving descendant of Con ROMAN EMPIRE 305 »1in'tius Clilorus, except the reigning emperor, would have shared hia brother's fate, but for the generous interference of the empress Eusebia. She procured him permission to prosecute his studies in Athens, where, dazzled by the false philosophy of the schools, he forsook Christianity for paganism, and earned for himself the unenviable title of Apostate. After he had been more than a year in retirement, he was summoned to court, united to Hel'ena, the sister of the emperor, and appointed to govern the countries north of the Alps, with the title of Caesar. Constan'tius himself had gained several victories over the Germanic tribes ; but he delayed in the west after the departure of Julian, to sup- port the cause of the Arians against the orthodox prelates. Before re- turning to the east, he resolved to visit the ancient capital of the em- pire ; and Rome, after an interval of thirty-two years, was gladdened with the presence of its sovereign. Constan'tius was so pleased with his reception, that he presented to the city the splendid Theban obelisk, with which his father had intended to adorn Constantinople. He was compelled to hurry his departure by intelligence of the Sarmatians hav- ing invaded Pannonia. Constan'tius soon appeared on the Danube : he gained several important victories over the barbarians ; but scarcely had he secur(}d the tranquillity of his northern frontiers, when he was threatened with more dangerous hostilities on the side of Persia. Having subdued the fierce tribes of Turkestan, Sapor renewed his attacks upon the Roman empire, and, guided by a deserter, entered Mesopotamia. Irritated by the insolence of the inhabitants, he laid siege to Am'ida (Diarbekr) ; and though he captured that strong city, he •ost the favorable season of invading Syria, and was forced to content himself with reducing Sin'gara {Sa/ijar) and Bezabde (Jezirnh). Con- stan'tius made an effort to recover Bezabde, but was compelled to raise the siege. He returned to Antioch, where his mortification was increased by intelligence of the brilliant achievements of Julian in Gaul. The young prince had vanquished the AUemans, the Franks, and several other formidable tribes ; he had pursued his victorious career beyond the Rhine, and by his rapid conquests filled Germany with confusion ; while the prudence of his civil administration raised Gaul to unexampled prosperity. Constan'tius resolved to weaken the strength of the Caesar, and summoned his best legions from Gaul to defend the east ; the soldiers refused to obey, and proclaimed Julian emperor. Preparations for civil war were made on both sides ; but its calamities weie averted by the death of Constan'tius (a d. 361). During this entire reign, the Christian church was scandalized and distracted by fierce disputes arising out of the Arian heresy : Constan'tius was the avowed partisan of the Arians, and encouraged them in their per- secution of the orthodox, especially sanctioning the eflbrts made or the destruction of the celebrated Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria. When Julian reached Hevsiclea (Ere kit), though he was still sixty miles distant from the capital, the whole population of Constantinople came out to welcome his arrival, and he made his triumphal entry amid general acclamations. One of his earliest measures was to constitute a court at Chal'ci^don (Scutari) for the trial of such ministers of Con- stan'tius as might be accused of peculation. Many of them indeed well deserved punishment ; but the ostentatious mode in which they were 20 S06 ANCIENT HISTORY. brought to trial was an ungenerous attack on the memory of the late emperor, and the inquisitions were conducted with such indiscriminate severity, that many innocent persons suffered with the guilty. He then commenced a complete reform of the court, banishing the eunuchs and other ministers of luxury; but with the idle parade of pomp, Julian discarded many of the decencies of life, ostentatiously exhibiting a dis- regard for personal cleanliness, as if filth was a necessary element of philosophy. But the great object of his ambition was to restore ancient paganism ; he revoked the edicts that had been issued against idolatry, under the plausible pretext of granting freedom of opinion to all his sub- jects ; he encouraged the philosophers to veil the most revolting fictions of mythology under allegorical explanations ; he showed a marked dis- like to the Christians who visited the court , and finally he closed the schools which were kept by the clergy. But the most remarkable of his enterprises for the overthrow of Christianity was his celebrated attempt to rebuild the temple of Jeru- salem, which appears to have been miraculously defeated. Seeing that the condition of the Jews was a standing miracle in proof of Chris- tianity, he resolved to weaken or destroy its effect, by restoring to that people their ancient city and national worship, erecting for them at the same time a temple on Mount Moriah, whose splendor should surpass that of the church of the holy sepulchre. This measure was frustrated, after great expense had been incurred in making preparations for its execution, as most historians declare, in consequence of balls of fire that burst from the earth, and scared the workmen employed to dig the foun- dation. Whether these phenomena were supernatural, or whether they ever had existence, is really of little importance in the great weight that the occurrence gives to the evidence in favor of the divine origin of Christianity : the most powerful monarch of the earth attempted to erect a building in one of his cities ; he was aided by a wealthy and zealous people ; pride, passion, and interest, equally urged him to per- severe ; yet was he forced to abandon the enterprise. Assuredly we must say, " the finger of God is here !" While Julian, by withholding his countenance from sincere believers on the one hand, and placing every possible impediment in the way of instruction on the other, was using all his efforts to check the progress of Christianity, he was summoned to take the field against the Persians, who had renewed their incursions. Julian invaded their dominions, and gained several great triumphs, though he was -unable to bring the enemy to a decisive engagement. His march led him through the deserts of Hat'ra, which skirt the Tigris ; but the city of Hai'ra, erected like Palmy'ra in a fertile oasis, appears to have been deserted at his approach. From the magnificence of its ruins, and the fact that the city continued to be inhabited until the twelfth century of our era, it is probable that this, with several other cities, was dismantled by the Persians to deprive the Romans of the resources which these " settle- ments in the desert," might have supplied. At length, deceived by treacherous guides, he burned his boats, and advanced into a deserl country, where his army was soon reduced to great distress from want of provisions. Under these circumstances he resolved to return ; but his retrograde march was greatly impeded by the light cavalry of the ROMAN EMPIRE. 307 t^ersians, who hovered round the flanks and rear, discharging showers of darts and arrows, but retreating, like the Parthians their predecessors whenever any effort was made to bring them to a regular engagement. At length Julian himself was mortally wounded, in a skirmish wffich proved favorable to the Romans. He died the same night (a. d. 363) about twenty months after his becoming sole master of the empire. Jovian, the first of the domestics, was saluted Augustus by the army; and his first care was to conclude a dishonorable peace with the Per- sians, resigning to Sapor not only the five provinces beyond the Tigris, but the Avhole of Mesopotamia, including the fortified cities of Nis'ibis and Sin'gara, which had so often baffled the most vigorous efforts of the Sassan'ides. His next enterprise was more glorious : he restored the Christian religion to its ancient supremacy ; but he calmed the fears of his pagan subjects by a wise edict of toleration, in which he pro- hibited no rites, however idolatrous, save those of magic. On his jour- ney toward Constantinople, he slept in a damp room, which his attend- ants had heated with charcoal ; he was suffocated by the mephitic va- por, and found dead in his bed (a. d. 364). For ten days after the death of Jovian, the empire remained without a sovereign. At length the Count Valentinian was chosen by the coun- cil of ministers and generals, and the army unanimously acquiesced in their decision. Soon after his election the new emperor divided his dominions with his brother Valens, to whom he assigned the eastern provinces, reserving to himself Illyr'icum, Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Africa. The emperor of the west made Milan the seat of his gov- ernment ; Valens established his court at Constantinople. This divis- ion of the Roman dominions into eastern and western empires was so manifestly required by the necessity of the times, that it provoked nei- ther observation nor remonstrance. Henceforth their histories re- quire separate consideration ; and we shall, in the first place, direct our attention to the reign of Valentinian. The emperor had scarcely reached Italy, when he was summoned to cross the Alps by an invasion of the Germans, who devastated all north- ern and westei'n Gaul, defeating two Roman armies that had been sent to check their inroads. Valentinian made the most vigorous efforts to retrieve the fame of the empire, and succeeded ; but his exertions brought on a disease that nearly deprived him of life. The angry dis- putes respecting the succession Avhich had taken place during his ill- ness, filled him with just alarm : and immediately after his recovery, he jjok care to have his son Gratian recognised as his heir, and pro- claimed Caesar in the presence of the army. The piracies of the Sax- ons in the northern seas first began to attract attention in the reign of Valentinian ; and so severely did they harass the northern coasts of Gaul, that it was necessary to appoint a maritime court for their pro- tection. At the same time the province of Britain was invaded by the Picts and Scots : so rapid was the progress of the barbarians, aided probably by some of the discontented natives, that Britain would have been lost to the empire, but for the heroic exertions of Theodosius, -o whom Valentinian intrusted the pacification, or rather the recovery of the island. This able commander not only restrained the barbarians, but in some measure restored the ancient prosperity of the province : 308 ANCIENT HISTORY. he was rewarded by the emperor with the office of master-general of the cavalry, and aprpointed to protect the frontier of the upper Danube from the inroads of the Allemans, until he was chosen to a more im- portant station, and intrusted with the suppression of the formidable re- volt of Africa. Count Romanus, the military governor of Africa, had provoked gen- eral resentment by his avarice and exactions ; complaints were made of him to Valentinian, and a commissioner appointed to investigate his delinquency ; but the count bribed the imperial ministers and commis sioners, purchased security from a venal court, and severely punished those who had been guilty of the treason of complaint. Provoked by such accumulated wrongs, the Africans revolted, choosing for their leader Fin'nus, the son of the wealthy Nabal, who had been summoned to appear before the governor's tribunal on a charge of murdering his brother. Numidia and Mauritania were already in possession of the insurgents, when the entire face of the war was changed by the arrival of Theodosius : from the moment of his landing, the revolters seem to have lost all courage ; after a weak struggle, Fin'nus abandoned his army, to seek refuge with the prince of a native tribe in the interior ; but he was betrayed to the Romans, and could only escape a public ex- ecution by committing suicide. Scarcely had this war terminated, when Valentinian died suddenly, while waging war against the Quadi (a. d. 375). He had conquered these savage warriors, and deputies had been sent to deprecate his resentment ; but while reproaching the ambassadors with national perfidy, he worked himself into such a pas- sion, that he burst a blood-vessel, and instantly expired. Valentinian was naturally cruel and severe, but he was disposed to be inflexibly just ; and the many unmerited executions that he sanctioned must be attributed to the artifices of corrupt ministers. He was warmly attached to the orthodox faith, and readily gave shelter to the bishops and clergj' who sought refuge in his court from the persecutions of his brother Valens. The emperor of the east, soon after his accession, went into Syria, which was threatened by a Persian invasion ; but before he could complete his preparations for war, he was alarmed by the revolt of Pro- copius, a kinsman of the emperor Julian, but possessing no other merit, whose pretensions were acknowledged by a considerable body of the army, and the citizens of Constantinople. Valens was defeated in his first efibrts to overthrow the usurper ; but Procopius soon disgusted his supporters by excessive haughtiness and tyranny ; he was deserted by those who had been foremost in placing him upon the throne, and was taken prisoner almost without a cijntest. His fate involved that of many others, for Valens was a stranger to mercy. The emperor Avas soon more honorably engaged in a war with the Goths, whom he completely subdued, and compelled to submit to humiliating conditions of peace. The dangerous schism in the church caused by the heresy of A'rius was greatly aggravated by the intemperate zeal, and in some instances by the unhallowed ambition of rival prelates : Valens declared himsell a patron of the Arians, and caused no fewer than eighty orthodos ecclesiastics to be murdered, for maintaining the election of a bishop of iheir creed to the see of Constantinople. Armenia was at the same ROMAN EMPIRE. 309 time invaded by the Persians ; but Sapor having received a severe de- feat, and the Armenian prince Paras, on whose aid he relied, having been treacherously murdered by the Romans, the truce was once more renewed. In the western empire Valentinian had been succeeded by his sons Gratian and Valentinian II. ; the latter, a child only five years old, was added as a colleague to Gratian by the general council of the army. Gratian II. commenced his reign by punishing those ministers and sen- ators who had been guilty of extortion ; but yielding to the suggestions of envious courtiers, he sanctioned the execution of the gallant Theodo- sius, who had just completed his conquest of the Moors : the emperor, after some time, discovered by what gross misrepresentations he had been led to commit so great a crime, and bitterly repented of his guilt. He made several laws favorable to the interest of the church, ordaining that all controversies respecting religion should be decided by the bishop and synod of the provinces in which they occurred ; that the clergy should be free from personal charges ; and that all places where hetero- dox doctrines were taught should be confiscated. The western empire was enjoying profound peace, and the eastern provinces were beginning to taste the unusual sweets of repose, when a people more ferocious than any barbarians hitherto known appeared for the first time on the northeastern frontiers. The Huns, crossing the Tanais (Don) and Palus Mzeotis [Sea of Azov), drove before them the nations that dwelt north of the Danube ; and these fugitives, hurled one upon another, were forced to invade the Roman provinces, and com- mence the dismemberment of the empire. The earliest accounts of the Huns are to be found in the Chinese historians, who call these savages, " Huing Nu," and describe them as masters of the country between the river Irtish, the Altaian mountains, the Chinese wall, and Mantchew Tartary. Their personal appearance was almost a caricature of hu- manity ; so that the Romans compared them to a block of wood which had been only partially trimmed : this is said to have been in some de- gree caused by the strange custom of flattening the nose of male in- fants the moment they were born, in order that the vizor which they wore ill battle should fit closer to the face, and also to their plucking out the beard by Uie roots as soon as it began to grow. They lived on raw flesh, or at best only sodden by being placed under their saddles and pressed against the backs of their steeds during a sharp gallop : devoted to war and the chase, they left the cultivation of their fields to womey and slaves ; they built no cities ; they erected no houses ; any place encircled by walls they looked upon as a sepulchre, and never believed themselves in safety beneath a roof. About the commence- ment of the second century of the Christian era, the southern Huns, aided by the Chinese and the eastern Tartars, expelled their northern brethren from their ancient habitations, and compelled them to seek refuge in the territories of the Bashkirs. Here they were brought into contact with a fiercer but less warlike race, the A'lans, whom they gradually drove before them, being pressed forward themselves by fresh hordes from the east, until they took possession of the plains between the Rha ( Volga) and the Tanais. Joined by the A''lans and other barbarous tribes that they had con- SIO ANCIENT HISTORY. quered, the innumerable cavalry of the Huns passed the lower Tanaia, and swept the rich fields of the Ostrogoths. The Gothic armies were defeated, and at length the greater part of that nation abandoned the country that they had laboriously brought to a high state of cultivation and retired beyond the Borys'thenes [Dnieper) and the Danas'tus (^Dniester). The Huns made a horrible carnage of those who remained, sparing neither women nor children ; and all who did not save them- selves by a precipitate flight, perished by the edge of the sword. The conquerors soon passed the Danas'tus, and inflicted the same calami- ties on the Visigoths to which they had already subjected their eastern brethren. Athan'aric, the Gothic monarch, after having suffered a se- vere defeat, saw no better mode of defence than to fortify himself be- tween the Hieras''sus (Pruth) and the Danube, by a wall extending from one river to the other, leaving the rest of his country exposed to the ravages of the dreadful Huns. The whole Gothic nation was reduced to despair ; their warriors, who had so often maintained a fierce struggle against the legions, now appeared as suppliants on the banks of the Danube, petitioning for per- mission to cultivate the waste lands of Thrace. Their request was granted, on condition of their resigning their arras ; but the officers sent to see this stipulation enforced were bribed to neglect their duty : most of the Goths retained their weapons, which they regarded as the means of obtaining more valuable possessions than those they had lost. About the same time, Arianism was established among the Goths, by the exertions of their bishop, the celebrated Ul'philas, who invented the Gothic alphabet : this subsequently aggravated their hostility to the Romans ; for the enmity of rival sects had, toward the close of the fourth century, become greater than that between Christians and pa- gans. The officers whom Valens chose to superintend the settlement of the Goths were the most proffigate extortioners even of his corrupt court ; instead of supplying provisions to the fugitives until their new lands would yield a harvest, as had been promised, they closed the mag- azines, and charged exorbitant prices for the worst and most revolting kinds of food. At length Lupicinus attempted to murder Frit'igern and the other chiefs of the Goths, at a banquet in Marcianop'olis [Pravadi) to which they had been treacherously invited. The plot exploded pre- maturely ; the Gothic leaders escaped ; and their followers took revenge for the atrocious breach of hospitality by massacring the greater part of the Roman legions. In the meantime, the Ostrogoths, pressed for- ward by the Huns, had crossed the Danube and reinforced Frit'igern just as the war was about to commence : thus supported, the irritated sovereign devastated Thrace, Macedon, and Thessaly, approached the walls of Constantinople, and destroyed its suburbs. Valens wrote to Gratian for aid ; and the young emperor, though harassed by wars with the Germanic tribes and the A'lans, marched to his assistance. He was delayed, however, by illness at Sir'mium ; and before he could re- sume his march, Valens was no more. The eastern emperor, baffled by the artifices and enraged by the boldness of Frit'igern, hazarded a decisive battle near Adrianople, in which he was defeated and slain (a. d. 378). The Romans had not suffered so severe a loss since they were overthrown by Han'nibal at Cannae : two thirds of the legion.s, ROMAN EMPIRE. 311 including thiity-five tribunes and commanders of cohorts, fell in the fatal field. Gratian was incapable of remedying this disaster without the aid of a colleague, for he could not advance against the Goths without leaving the western provinces a prey to the Germans. He chose as his asso- ciate Theodosius, afterward named the Great, son of the elder The- odosius, whom he had unjustly put to death. The accession of Theodosius was hailed with delight by all the east- em provinces ; he defeated the Goths in the field ; but what was of still greater importance, he won their affections by his justice and modera- tion ; so that they voluntarily promised not only to abstain from hostili- ties, but to protect the frontiers of the Danube. Being himself sin- cerely attached to the orthodox faith, he summoned a general council at Constantinople to check the progress of heresy, and issued several edicts to restrain the teachers of erroneous opinions. While he was thus engaged, Max'imus, the governor of Britain, revolted against Gra- tian, and was joined by the whole of the western legions. The em- peror, seeing himself abandoned by his troops, fled toward Italy, but was overtaken at Lugdiinum (Lyons), and put to death (a. d. ^83). St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, courageously went into Gaul, claimed the body ot the deceased emperor from the usurper, obtained it after some delay, and honorably interred the remains of Gratian in the sep- ulchre that had been raised for the Valentinian family in the Milanese cathedral. Max'imus, to support his usurpation, had brought with him the flower of the British youth ; but the Roman province, thus deprived of its de- fenders, was exposed to the ravages of the Picts and Scots, who broke through the Roman wall, and pushed their incursions far into the south. Theodosius, harassed by the attacks of the barbarians in the east, at first entered into a treaty with Max'imus : but the usurper, encouraged by impunity, soon meditated depriving Valentinian II. of Italy, though that prince had shown little inclination to revenge the murder of Gra- tian, his brother and benefactor. Valentinian, unable to defend his ter- ritories, fled to Theodosius, who instantly marched against Max'imus. The usurper was defeated in two decisive battles ; he sought shelter in Aquileia.- but he was arrested by his own soldiers, brought in chains to Theodosim , and executed (a. d. 388). It is said that his death was hastened by the imperial ministers, who feared that he might extort a pardon from their master's compassion. The generous conqueror not only restored Valentinian to his ancient dominions, but resigned to him the provinces that had belonged to Gra- tian. Having visited Rome, and sanctioned some severe measures for extirpating idolatry in that city, he returned to the east, where he made similar efforts to crush pagan superstitions and Christian heresies. The young Valentinian did not long r;tain his throne ; he was murdered by Arbogas'tes, a Frank, whom he had unwisely admitted to too great a share of sovereign power (a. d. 392). The Frank did not dare to as- sume the purple himself, but he conferred the empire on one of the royal secretaries, named Eugenius, whom he trusted that he could make the mere instrument of his ambition. Theodosius refused to enter into any negotiation with the usurper, 312 ANCIENT HISTORY. but made preparations for war. Having levied a powerful army, he forced the passes of the Alps (a d. 394), and encountering the forces of Eugenius on the banks of the Frig'idum ( Wibach), put them to the rout. The usurper was murdered by his own soldiers, and Arbogas'- tes committed suicide. Theodosius, in consequence of this victory, be- came master of the whole Roman empire, which was thus once more reunited under a single head. Section X. — The Overthroio of the Western Empire. FROM A. D. 394 TO A. D. 476. Theodosius was well aware that the partition of the empire origin- ally made by Valentinian was rendered necessary by the condition of the Roman dominions in Europe and Asia ; he therefore invited his younger son Honorius to receive the sceptre of the western empire, ap pointing Arcadius, the elder, his successor on the throne of Constanti- nople. He did not long survive this arrangement ; the ease and luxury in which he indulged after his victory proved fatal to a constitution already enfeebled by the fatigues of a severe campaign : he died uni- versally lamented by his subjects, who knew too well that they " ne'er should look upon his like again." Arcadius and Honorius ascended the thrones bequeathed to them by their father, but both abandoned the cares of empire to their ministers Rufinus and Stil'icho. There are few greater stains on the charactei of Theodosius than his elevation of such an unworthy favorite as Ru finus, a wretch whom all parties describe as stained with every crime He was the scourge of the east, and was universally hated : aware of his unpopularity, he resolved to secure his power by uniting Arcadius in marriage with his daughter ; but some courtiers, jealous of his in- fluence, took advantage of his absence to persuade the young emperai to share his throne with Eudox'ia, universally regarded as the most beautitul woman of her age. Though disappointed in this darling ob- ject of his ambition, the wealth and power of Rufmus enabled him to triumph over Arcadius and his courtiers ; but he dreaded more justly his great rival in the western empire. Stil'icho, the minister and master-general of the west, was worthy of the eminent station to which he had been raised by Theodosius. Or his death-bed the emperor recommended to him the charge of both em- pires -, but some pretext was necessary for assembling a force suffi- cient to depose Rufinus, without giving such alarm as would put thai wary statesman on his guard. The Gothic war furnished the desired excuse ; Stil'icho led his forces round the Adriatic ; but he had scarce- ly reached Thessalonica, when he received orders to return, with a threat that his nearer approach to Constantinople would be considered a declaration of war. Leaving the army in the charge of the Galnas, Stil'icho returned to Italy ; and Rufinus, believing all danger past, went to review the western troops. As he passed along the ranks, he was suddenly surrounded by a chosen band, and, on a signal from Gainas, pinned to the earth by a lance, and mangled with a thousand wounds. If Stil'icho had contrived this murder, he derived no advantage from it ROMAN EMPIRE. 313 Gainas, the eunuch Eutropius, and the empress Eudox'ia, combined to exchide him from Constantinople ; their puppet Arcadius procured a decree from his obsequious senate, declaring him a public enemy, and confiscating all his property in the east. Instead of hazarding a civil war, Stil'icho exerted himself to sup- press the revolt which Gil'do, the brother of Fir'mus, had excited in Africa. He intrusted the command of the forces raised for this pur- pose to Mas'cezel, the brother and deadly enemy of Gil'do. Accident left the Romans an almost bloodless victory. Before giving the signal to engage, Mas'cezel rode to the front of the lines with fair offers of peace and pardon ; he encountered one of the standard-bearers of the Africans, and, on his refusal to yield, struck him on the arm with his sword. The weight of the blow threw the standard and its bearer pros- trate. This was regarded by the rest as a signal of submission, which all the African legions hastened to imitate ; they flung down their en- signs, and, with one accord, renewed their allegiance to .heir rightful sovereign. Gil'do attempted to fly, but he was arrested by the citizens of Tab'raca (Tabarca), and thrown into a dungeon, where he commit- ted suicide, to avoid the punishment of treason. Mas'cezel was subse- quently murdered by Stil'icho, who feared the hereditary enmity of the house of Nabal. The Goths were now become more formidable than they had ever been. Instead of being guided by several independent chiefs, they were united into a compact body under the renowned Al'aric ; and the withholding of the subsidy paid them by Theodosius, afforded a plau- sible pretext for war (a. d. 396). Disdaining to ravage the exhausted lands of Thrace, ATaric led his soldiers into Greece, passed the straits of Thermop'ylge Avithout opposition, devastated Boeotia, At'tica, and the Peloponnesus, while Athens, Corinth, Ar'gos, and Spar'ta, yielded to the barbarous invaders without opposition. Stil'icho hastened to repel the Goths from Greece. His masterly movements drove Al'aric into a corner of Elis, whence his extrication appeared impossible ; but the Goth, perceiving that the watchfulness of his enemies was relaxed, gained the gulf of Corinth by a rapid march, passed over the narrow strait between the headlands of Rhium and Antir'rhium [Dardanelles of Lepanto), and was ma&ter of Epirus before Stil'icho could renew his pursuit. The Romans were preparing to pass into northern Greece, when they received information that Al'aric had not only made his peacg 'vith the Byzantine court, but had been appointed master-general of lUyr^icum by the feeble Arcadius. Stil'icho returned to Italy, and was soon compelled to defend that peninsula against Al'aric, who forced a passage over the Julian Alps, and advanced toward Milan. Honorius fled from his capital, but was so hotly chased, that he was forced to seek refuge in As'ta (^Asti), which the Goths immediately blockaded. Stil'icho hastened to the relief of his sovereign, and gained a complete victory over Al'aric at PoUentia [Polenza) ; but the Gothic sovereign, having rallied his shat- tered forces, crossed the Appenines, and made a sudden rush toward Rome (a. d. 403). The capital was saved by the diligence of Stil'- icho ; but Al'aric's departure from Italy was purchased by a large pension. 314 ANCIENT HISTORY. Honorius went to Rome, where he enjoyed the empty honor of being received in triumph ; but after a short time he removed to Raven'na, which from this time began to be regarded as the most secure seat of Italian government. Scarcely had Al'aric departed, when Italy was invaded by new hordes of Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, and Goths, under the command of Radagaisus. Once more the peninsula was saved by Stil'icho : he allowed the barbarians to lay siege to Florence, which was well garrisoned and provisioned ; then securing all the pas- ses, he blockaded them in their turn, and reduced them to such distress, that they surrendered at discretion (a. d. 406). Radagaisus was put to death ; his followers were sold as slaves ; . but about two thirds of the hordes fell back upon Gaul, and laid waste that province from the Rhine to the Pyrenees. The provincials, receiving no aid from the court of Raven'na, proclaimed Constantino, the governor of Britain, emperor, who gained some advantages over the Germans, and wrested Spain from Honorius. Stil'icho entered into a treaty with Al'aric against the usurper ; but before it could take effect, the able minister was treach- erously murdered by his unworthy master (a. d. 408), and the wretched Olym'pus was appointed premier in his stead. The first measure of the new minister was as impolitic as it was monstrous. He ordered a promiscuous massacre of the families of the barbarians throughout Ita- ly, instead of retaining them as hostages for the fidelity of his merce- nary cohorts. The barbarous edict was too well obeyed ; and thirty thousand of the bravest soldiers in the Roman pay invited Al'aric to head them in avenging the slaughter of their wives and children. Al'aric was not slow in obeying the summons : he hastened into Italy, and, disregarding meaner prizes, marched directly against Rome (a. d. 408). "The eternal city" was closely besieged: plague, pesti- lence, and famine, raged within its walls. The emperor at Raven'na made no effort to relieve his hapless subjects ; and the senate at length purchased temporary safety by paying an enormous ransom, Al'aric le-d his forces into Tuscany, and was joined on his march by forty thousand Goths and Germans, whom his victorious career had enabled to burst the bonds of slavery. Honorius refused to ratify the treaty that had been concluded by the Romans ; and in the following year, Al'aric appeared once more before the city. He took possession of Os- tia, where the magazines were established for the corn that supplied the capital ; and having thus deprived the citizens of all means of sus- tenance, summoned them to surrender. They complied with great re- luctance : Al'aric raised At'talus to the empire, but soon deposed him, and renewed his negotiations with the court of Raven'na. Once more Honorius refused to treat, and once more Al'aric marched to punish the Romans for the crime of their sovereign (a. d. 410). He marched against Rome ; the Gothic slaves in the city opened to him one of the gates, and the city became the prey of the barbarians. The horrors of the pillage that ensued were in some degree alleviated by the piety of the Goths, who spared the churches and religious houses. AKaric himself wa? xm willing that a city which had been so long the mistress of the world should be so totally ruined ; and on the sixth day after its capture evacuated the place, and took the road for southern Italy. He WIS preparing to invade Sicily, Avhen he was seized with a mortal di* ROMAN EMPIRE. 315 ease, which brought him prematurely to his grave. His remains were interred in the bed of a small rivulet near Consen'tia (^Cosenza), and the captives w^ho prepared his grave were murdered, in order that the Romans might never learn the place of his sepulture. Adol'phus succeeded his brother Al'aric, and concluded a peace with the empire, on condition of receiving the princess Placid'ia as his bride. He led his forces into Gaul, reunited that province to the do- minions of Honorius, and then passed into Spain, which had been inva- ded by hordes of Suevi, Vandals, and A'lans. He was murdered ; but his successor Wal'lia established the supremacy of the Visigoths in Spain and the east of Gaul. About the same time, the Franks, the Burgundians, and other barbarous tribes, established themselves in Gaul ; while Britain and Armorica, neglected by the emperor, became independent. The Britons had so degenerated under the empire, that they were unable to resist the barbarous Picts and Scots ; they there- fore applied for aid to the Angles and Saxons, warlike tribes (a. r>. 448). The Saxons readily obeyed the summons ; but, after repelling the Picts and Scots, they took possession of southern Britain, which they named Angle-land, since contracted into England. In the meantime, the reign of Arcadius in the east was dishonored by the profligate administration of the eunuch Eutropius and the em- press Eudox'ia, to whose cruelty the most illustrious persons, and among others St. Chrysostom, were victims. After his death (a. d. 408), the young Theodosius succeeded to the purple ; but the adminis- tration was usurped by his sister Pulcheria, who ruled the east with singular energy and ability for more than forty years. During a great portion of this period, there was little sympathy between the courts of Rome and Constantinople ; but the family intercourse was renewed when Placid'ia, the widow of Adol'phus, was banished by her brother, after the death of her second husband Constantius. She sought refuge in the court of Theodosius, bringing with her Valentinian and Honoria, her infant children. She had scarcely time to enjoy the hospitality with which she was received, when news arrived of the death of E[o- norius (a. d. 423), and the usurpation of the empire by John, his prin- cipal secretary. Theodosius levied an army to support the claims of his relative ; John was deposed and slain ; Valentinian HI. was pro- claimed emperor o the west, under the guardianship of his moth'^r Placid'ia ; and thus two women wielded the destinies of the civilized world. Placid'ia, seduced by the interested c( unsels of her minister iE'tius, recalled Count Boniface, the most faithful friend of the imperial family, from Africa ; but that governor, deceived by the same crafty adviser, refused obedience, and invited Gen'seric, king of the Vandals, to his aid. That nation occupied the Spanish province, called from thera Vandalusia, a name which it still retains, with but slight alteration. They were still restless, eager to seek further conquests and fresh plunder, so that nothing could have been more grateful to Gen'seric than such an invitation. Boniface had soon reason to lament the etTects of his precipitate resentment. When it was too late, he attempted to check the progress of the Vandals, and returned to his allegiance. Auxiliaries were sent to his aid from the eastern empire ; but the un- 316 ANCIENT HISTORY. fortunate count was irretrievably defeated . He returned to Italy, where he engaged in a civil war with ^'tius, and was slain by his rival. Placid'ia having discovered the double treachery of iE'tius, proclaimed him a traitor, and that general found it necessary to seek shelter in Pan- nonia with the Huns. At'tila, justly called " the scourge of God," was no.v the rulor of the formidable Hunnish hordes: he extorted vast sums, as the price of his forbearance, from the Byzantine empire. On the death of Theodosius H. he threatened war against Marcian his successor, the nominal husband of Pulcheria ; but the victories of iE'tius over the Franks and Vandals, when restored to Placid'ia's fa- vor, induced the fierce barbarian to turn his arms against the western empire (a. d. 451). He had an additional pretext, through the malice of the princess Honoria, who secretly offered him her hand, to revenge her exclusion from power ; and the barbarian monarch, though he al- ready had several wives, proclaimed himself her champion. When the Huns appeared in Gaul, ^'tius entered into an alliance with vhe Visi- goths, aided by whom he gained a great victory over At'tila, and drove him beyond the frontiers. But in the ensuing spring (a. d. 452) the Huns poured like a torrent into Italy, and laid waste the peninsula. The death of At'tila, who fell a victim to intemperance, and the civil wars between his followers, delayed the utter ruin of the empire ; but the murder of jE'tius by the ungrateful Valentinian, and the unchecked ravages of the barbarians, rendered all the provinces miserable and wretched. Valentinian himself was murdered by the patrician Max''- imus, whose wife he had debauched (a. d. 455), and the injured hus- band assumed the imperial purple. Max'imus had scarcely been three months upon the throne when the fleet of the Vandals appeared in the Tiber. His subjects, attributing this new calamity to his supineness, stoned him to death ; but ere a successor could be chosen, Gen'seric marched his soldiers into the de- fenceless city, and pillaged everything that had been spared by the piety or mercy of Al'aric. Many thousands of the unfortunate citizens were transported as slaves into Africa ; but their condition was in some degree alleviated by the generosity of Deogratias, bishop of Carthage, who sold the gold and silver plate of his churches to purchase the re demption of his brethren. By the influence of Theod'oric, king of the Visigoths, Avitus, a Gaul of noble family, was installed emperor ; but he was soon deposed by Count Ricimer, the principal commander of the barbarian auxiliaries intrusted with the defence of Italy. He did not long survive his fall ; he died on his way to the Alps, as he was about to seek refuge among the Visigoths. Majorian received the degraded sceptre from Ricimer, and made some vigorous eflbrts to remedy the disorders of the state. His virtues were not appreciated by his subjects. He was dethroned by a licentious soldiery (a. d. 461), and died in a few days after. Ricimer chose one of his own creatures, Severus, to be nominal t.m- peror, retaining all the power of the state in his own hands ; but the superior strength of the Vandals compelled him to have recourse to the court of Constantinople for aid, and to offer the nomination of a sov- ereign for the west to Leo, the successor of Marcian. Leo appointed the patrician Anthemius to this high but dangerous station, and sent a ROMAN EMPIEE. 317 large armament against the Vandals in Africa. The imperial forces were completely defeated, and when the shattered relics of the arma- ment returned to Constantinople, Ricimer deposed Athemius, put him to death, and elevated Olyb'rius to the throne (a. d. 472). Both Rici- mer and Olyb'rius died within a few months : and Leo, after some de- lay, appointed Julius Nepos his colleague. Glycerius, an obscure soldier, trusting to the aid of the Burgundians, attempted to dispute the empire with Nepos ; but finding his strength inadequate to the contest, he resigned the sceptre for the crosier, and became bishop of Salona. Nepos himself was soon driven from the throne by Ores'tes, the successor of Ricimer in the command of the barbarian mercenaries. He fled into Dalmatia, where he was assassi- nated by his old rival Glycerius. Ores'tes gave the throne to his son Rom'ulus MomiFlus, whom he dignified with the title of Augus'tus, or, as he is more frequently called, Augus'tulus. Odoacer, the leader of the German tribes in the Roman pay, pfcr''uaded his countrymen to take arms against the usurper. Ores'tes was made prisoner, and put to death. Augus'tulus was sent into captivity, but was allowed a pension for his support ; and the con- queror, abolishing the name and office of emperor, took the title of king of Italy (a. d. 476). The Ostrogoths finally conquered Italy (a. d. 492), deposed Odoacer, and founded a new empire. During this calamitous period Christianity was sullied by the admix- ture of various superstitions, borrowed from ancient paganism. The Gnostics attempted to combine the truths of the gospel with the wild dreams of oriental philosophy, and they prepared medals with mystic devices, which were worn as charms or amulets, in the belief that they would protect men from danger and disease. 318 ANCIENT HISTORY CHAPTER XVIII. INDIA. When India became knowni to the Greeks by the co-, quests of Alex- ander, its inhabitants were found in very nearly the sai^ie state of civil- ization as the Hindoos of the present day ; we mav therefore fairly conclude that this civilized state nuist have been several hundred years in existence, else it could not have been so complete in its parts and so permanent in its influence. As Alexander's invasion took place about the fourth century before the Christian era, we mav regard it as prettv certain that the civilization of India reaches back to at least one thou- sand years before Christ, but how much further it is impossible to de- termine with certainty. From the institution of caste, it seems probable that the Hindoos are of a mixed origin, for the difference between the castes is so ver}- great that we are almost obliged to admit a corre- sponding difference of original extraction. " I could at all times, and in every part of India," says Major Bevan, " distinguish a Brahmin by his complexion and pecidiar features." All the Hindoo traditions unite in representing the neighborhood of the Ganges as the cradle of their race ; their most ancient records intimate that the first kingdoms in this sacred spot were founded by persons who came from the north, and the existing series of temples and monuments, both above and below groimd, is a species of chronicle of the progressive extension of an im- migrating and highly-civilized race from north to south. This is the very reverse of what we find to have occurred in Egypt, where the social and religious advance was from south to north. The Brahmins in India, like the priests in Egypt, exercised an in- direct sover''ignty over the other classes of society ; the kings, in both countries, wcre selected from the warrior caste, but the priestly caste restrained the power of the sovereign by religious enactments and in- stitutions which brought both public and private affairs under their cog- niTance. How this influence was obtained is merely matter of conjec- tuie, but it certainly existed before the appearance of the two great In- dian epics, the Ramayana and the Maha-bharata, both of which contain several instances of the awful veneration in which the Brahmins were held by the kings themselves. In the interesting drama, " The Toy Cart," translated by Professor Wilson, we find a notice of a strange revolution efiected in the government of Ujayin (Oogein) by Brahmini- cal intrigue. The drama itself was written before the Christian era, but the incidents on which it is (bunded are of much earlier date ; it de- scribes how the Brahmins, offended by their sovereign Palaka's public disregard of them, brought about a change in the government, employ- ing a hermit and a cow-boy as their instruments. Aryaka, the cow- INDIA. 319 herd, is chosen king, and his accession is thus announced to a Brah> min whom Palaka had condemned to death : — " And Brahmin, I inform you, that the king, The unjust Palaka, has fallen a victim, Here in the place of sacrifice, to one Wlio has avenged his wrongs and thine; to Aryaka, Who ready homage pays to birth and virtue." The conclusion of the drama still more forcibly shows the influence of the Brahmins, for reverence to their caste is invoked as one of the chief blessings of heaven : — " Full-uddered be the kine, the soil be fertile ; May copious showers descend, and balmy gales Breathe health and happiness on all mankind; From pain be every living creature free. And reverence on the pious Brahmin wait ; And may all monarchs, prosperous and just, Humble their foes and guard the world in peace." It appears that there were two great dynasties in India proper ; that is, north of the Krishna river, and excluding the Dec'can ; the Solar race was established at Ayad'da, the modern Oude ; the Lunar race fixed itself more to the west, in the country round Delhi. The war be- tween the Pan'doos and Kooroos, both descended from the Lunar race, was to the Indians what the Trojan war was to the Greeks, by its in- fluence upon their poetry, literature, and arts. It forms the subject of the great Hindoo epic, the " Maha-bharata" (great war), which contains one hundred thousand slokas, or distichs. How far the events of this war are to be regarded as historical, would be an inquiry more curious than useful ; but it seems probable that, like the Trojan war, it Avas not less fatal to the victors than the vanquished, for a new dynasty arose at Magad'ha, which gradually acquired the supremacy of India. Th kingdom of Magad'ha is identified with the province of Behar, and its capital was Paliboth'ra, which stood in or near the modem city of Patau. After the retreat of Alexander from India, the throne of Paliboth'ra was occupied by a celebrated conqueror, known to the Greeks by the name of Sandracop'tus or Sandracot'tus, who has been completely identified with the Chan'dra-Gup'ta of the Hindoo poets The Greek anr' Hindoo writers concur in the name, in the private his tory, in the political elevation, and in the nation and capital of an In dian king, nearly if not exactly contemporary with Alexander ; such an approximation could not possibly be the work of accident, and we may therefore regard this monarch's reign as historical. Combining and comparing the different accounts given of Chan'dra- Gup'ta it appears that about the time of Alexander the kingdom of Magad'ha was ruled by a monarch named Mahapad'ma Nan'da. He was a powerful and ambitious prince, but cruel and avaricious, by which defects, as well as by his inferiority of birth, he probably provoked the hostility of the Brahmins. By one wife he had eight sons, who, with their father, were called the nine Nan'das ; and by a wife of low ex- traction he had according to tradition, a son called Chan'dra-Gup'ta. I is, however, by no means certain that Chan'dra-Gup'ta was the son of 820 ANCIENT HISTORY. Nan'da, but from uniform testimony he appears to have been closely re- lated to the royal family by his father's side, though his mother was of a very inferior caste. But whatever may have been the origin of this prince, it is very likely that he was made the instrument of the rebellious spirit of the Brahmins, who, having effected the destruction of Nan'da and his sons, raised Chan'dra-Gup'ta, while yet a youth, to the throne. In the drama Mudra Nahshasa, which represents the various artifices employed by the Brahmin Chanak'ya to establish the throne of Chan'dra-Gup'ta, Chanak'ya declares that it was he who overthrew the Nan'das : — " 'T is known to an the world I vowed the death of Nanda, and I slew him .... The fires of my wrath alone expire Like the fierce conflagration, of a forest. From lack from fuel — not for weariness. The flames of my just anger have consumed The branding ornaments of Nanda's stem, Abandoned by the frightened priests and people. They have enveloped in a shower of ashes The blighted tree of his ambitious councils, And they have overcast with sorrow-clouds The smiling heavens of those moon-like looks That shed the light of love upon my foes." It is thus evident that the elevation of Chan'dra-Gup'ta to the throne was owing to the Brahmins ; they were, however, aided by a prince from the north of India, Pawats'wara, to whom they promised an ac- cession of territory as the reward of his alliance. The execution of this treaty was evaded by the assassination of the mountain-prince ; his son, Malayaketu, led a mingled host against Magad'ha to avenge his father's death : among his troops we find the Gavanas, the Lakas, or Lacse, and the Kambojas, or people of Arachosia, the northeastern province of Persia. The failure of Seleucus Nicator, in his attempt to extend his power in India, and his relinquishment of territory, may be connected with the discomfiture and retreat of Malayaketu, as nar- rated in the drama, although it is improbable that the Syrian monarch and the king of Magad'ha ever came into direct collision. The retreat of Malayaketu was occasioned by jealousies and quarrels among the confederates ; he returned, baflled and humbled, to his own country Chan'dra-Gup'ta's power was now so firmly established that Seleucus Nicator relinquished to him all the country beyond the Indus, receiving fifty elephants in exchange ; he also formed a matrimonial alliance with the Hindoo prince, and sent Megasthenes as an ambassador to his court. Chan'dra-Gup'ta reigned twenty -four years, and left the kingdom to his son. There is a complete blank in Indian history from the death of Chan'- dra-Gup'ta to the accession of Vicramadit'ya, who is called the sover- eign of all India. He ruled with such extraordinary success that his reign forms an important era in history, commencing b. c. 58, according to one account, and ten years later, according to another. Toward the close of his reign he was conquered by Shapour, the second Persian monarch of the Sassanian dynasty, and the empire of India became INDIA. 321 subject to that of Persia. The Hindoo accounts of Vicramadit'ya are intermingled with the most extravagant fables, and all that we can learn from them with certainty is, that this prince was a sedulous upholder of the influence of the Brahmins. From this period to the Mohammedan invasion, India appears to have been divided into a number of petty independent states, in which the rajahs were completely under the influence of the Brahmins. As the royal power declined, the rules of caste, on which the influence of the hereditary priesthood depended, were rendered more rigid and severe. The caste of the Brahmins arrogated to itself the exclusive privilege of studying and expounding the Vedas, and as these are the source of all Hindoo learning, whether religious or scientific, the priesthood thus obtained a monopoly of knowledge. Brahmins alone could exercise the medical art, for sickness being considered as the punishment of transgression, it is remedied only by penances and religious ceremonies • they alone had the right to interpret the laws, to offer sacrifices, and to give counsel to the sovereign. The Kshatriya or warrior caste, is generally regarded as extinct ; it was naturally viewed with great jealousy by the Brahmins, and the in- stitutions imposed upon it by them, were little calculated to ft)ster a war- like spirit. Hence Hindoostan has so frequently and so easily become the prey of foreign conquerors, for the priestly caste made it the chief object of their policy to humiliate and weaken the caste of warriors. The Vaisy'a caste includes the higher industrial classes, and was perhaps one of the most numerous. The Siidras formed the lowest class, and were slaves to the rest. In process of time, the number of mixed castes was greatly multiplied, and the determination of their re- lations to each other became a matter of considerable difficulty. At a very early but uncertain period, the religious institutions of the Brahmins were opposed by a reformer named Buddha, who rejected the Vedas, bloody sacrifices, and the distinction of castes. His follow- ers, called Buddhists, must have been both numerous and powerful at a very remote age, for a greater number of the oldest rock-temples are dedicated to him. From the Christian writers of the seoo id century it is evident that in their day the religion of Bud'dha was very prcAalent in India, and in the drama of the Toy-Cart, Bud'dha observances ure described with great accuracy, and the members of th'^ sect rep resonted in a flourishing condition, for they are not only t<) lei ate tl bat publicly recognised. One of the characters in tlie pl)y is a Buddha ascetic, and he describes his creed ia the following hyiiin . — " Be virtue, friends, your only store. And restless appetite restrain, Beat meditation's dnim, and sore Your watch against each sense maintdn; The thief that still in ambush lies, To make devotroa's wealth his p/ize. " Cast the five senses all away That triumph o'er the virtnons will, The pride of self-importance slay, And ignoraace reniorseless kiil ; So shall you sale the body gnani. And Heaven snail be tout last reward. 21 322 ANCIENT HISTORY. " Why shave the head and mow the chin, While bustlinar follies choke the breast ? Apply the knife to parts within, And heed not how deformed the rest ; The heart of pride and passion weed, And then the man is pure indeed." At some uncertain period, but probably not much later than the twelfth century of the Christian era, nor earlier than the fourth, the Buddhists were expelled from India by the Brahmins ; they sought shelter in Cey- lon, in the mountains of the north, in the countries beyond the Ganges, in Tartary, and in China, where their religion had been previously preached by active missionaries. By the persecution of the Buddhists in their native country, a great portion of the literature of India has been lost, and in particular, according to Professor Wilson, all the an- cient literature of the people that speak the Tamul language. But in the countries surrounding India, Buddhism still prevails ; it is indeed the most widely extended of any religion, being professed by not less than two hundred millions of people. Its success is mainly owing to the excellent organization of its liierarchy, and the solemnity of its cer- emonies. Celibacy is enjoined on its priesthood, and thus a monastic corporation is formed, which in Tibet possesses the sovereign power, and in the other countries enjoys considerable political influence. The Buddhists were not the only reformers that opposed the Brah- mins ; they were followed by the Jains, who cut down more extensively the vast forest of fraud and superstition. The rise of Jainism was con- temporary with the decline of Buddhism in Hindoostan. Both affect to be new doctrines produced by a fresh incarnation of Vishnoo, the con- servating principle of the Hindoo Triad. The ancient trade of the Egyptians and Phoenicians with India has been already noticed in the earlier part of this work ; but Indian com- merce did not excite much attention in the western world until the first Ptolemy ascended the throne of Egypt, and prepared to realize the vast projects of his master, Alexander the Great. His successor, Ptolemy Phiiadelphii.s, attempted to connect the Red sea with the Mediterranean, by cutting a canal from Arsinoe (Suez) to the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. This was not found so useful as the king anticipated ; he there- fore built a city lower down the Red sea, nearly under the Tropic, called Berenice, wldch became the staple of the trade with India. Goods were transported from Berenice to Cop'tos on the Nile, and thence floated down the river to Alexandria. The Egyptian vessels sailed from Berenice eith(;r to the mouths of the Indus or to the Mala- bar coast. ; they were too small to venture directly out to sea, and there- fore crept timidly along the shores. The Persians had an insuperable aversion to maritime affairs, else they might have opened the same trade by a shorter and safer course of navigation through the Persian gulf. They procured Indian commodities overland from the banks of the In- dus, and the northern provinces were supplied by the caravans which travelled from the Indus to the Oxus, and sent their goods down that river int*^ the Caspian sea. After Egypt had been some time subject to the Romans, the discover}' of the regiilar shifting of the periodical winds or monsoons brought In INDIA. 323 dia nearer to the rest of the world. Hippalus, the commander of a ship engaged in the Indian trade, about eighty years after Egypt was an- nexed to the Roman empire, stretched boldly from the mouth of the Arabian gulf across the ocean, and was wafted by the western monsoon to Musius on the Malabar coast, somewhere between Goa and Tel- licherry. From this time the Indian trade rapidly increased, and the merchants of Alexandria supplied Europe with spices, and aromatics, precious stones, pearls, silk, and cotton cloths. Taprobane or the island of Ceylon, was not known by name to Eu- ropeans before the age of Alexander the Great. The Egyptians seem not to have visited it or the Coromandel coast, until after the discovery of the periodicity of the monsoons, but so early as the reign of the empe- ror Claudius an ambassador was sent from the island to Rome. It sub- sequently became a great mart of trade for the commodities produced in the countries beyond the Ganges, and probably even for the productions of China. Little change was made in the commercial routes of communication with India from the time of the Romans, until the discovery of the pas- sage round the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco de Gama. The ancients were contented with traffic, and after the time of Alexander made no efforts to establish colonies in Hindoostan ; hence their accounts of the country and its inhabitants are very loose and indefinite. But even from these vague accounts we find that the social institutions of the Hindoos have scarcely been altered by the many changes of realm and chances of time which have since occurred ; and hence we may con- clude, that its system of civilization, so original and so stereotype in its character, belongs to an age of very remote antiquity, and that there i^ no improbability in its having been connected with that of ancient Egypt. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL MODERN HISTORY. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER I. CONSEQUENCES OF THE FALL OF THE WEST- ERN EMPIRE. Section I. — The Gothic Kingdom of Italy. There is no period in the annals of the human race which presents to the historical student a greater scene of confusion than the century succeeding the overthrow of the Western Empire. The different hordes of barbarians, following no definite plan, established separate monarchies in the dismembered provinces, engaged in sanguinary wars that had no object but plunder, and were too ignorant to form anything like a political system. There is consequently a want of unity in the narrative of a time when nations ceased to have any fixed relations toward each other, and history must appear desultory and digressive until some one state, rising into command, assume such importance, that the fate of all the rest may be connected with its destinies. It is necessary, before entering on the various incidents of this calamitous time, to take a geographical survey of the places occupied by the prin- cipal nations who succeeded the Romans in the sovereignty of Europe. The Visigoths, after their establishment in Spain, began gradually to adopt the refinement of their new subjects ; that peninsula had ad- ranced rapidly in civilization under the Roman dominion, and had escaped from much of the corruption which had degraded Italy ; the conquerors, more advanced than any other of the barbarians, soon learned to appreciate the advantages of social order, and began to cul- tivate the higher arts of life. In Pannonia, the Ostrogoths derived great improvement from their vicinity to Italy on the one side, and the court of Constantinople on the other ; they were thus gradually trained to civilization, and their early adoption of Christianity secured them the benefits of literature, which was sedulously cultivated by the clergy. Tribes of a very different character pressed into the empire from the 328 MODERN HISTORY. German forests — the Burgundians, the Lombards, and the Franks, of whom the last were long distinguished for their hostility to all refine- ments, and their exclusive attention to the military- virtues. Still more barbarous were the Saxons and Angles ; they were not only strangers to the civilization and religion of the empire, but were kept in their rude state by the practice of piracy, for which their maritime situation afforded them great facilities ; their government, divided among several petty chiefs, was favorable to personal independence, and furnished a striking contrast to the absolute despotism that had been estabUshed in the Roman empire. All the Germanic tribes were remarkable for the respect which they showed to the delicacy of the female character ; they neither treated their women like slaves, as most other barbarians have done, nor did they degrade them into mere objects of sensual gratification, like the Romans and Byzantines. The German woman was the companion and counsellor of her husband ; she shared his labors as an equal, not as a servant. It was from the sanctity of the domestic circle among the northern nations that races of conquerors derived the firmness and courage which ensured them victory. The northeastern part of Europe was occupied by Sclavonic tribes, differing from the Germans in language, manners, and tactics ; like the Tartars of more modern times, they placed their chief reliance on their cavalr\- ; and they were more opposed to civilization than any of the Gennanic nations. Their form of government was a kind of aristo- cratic republic, but in war the tribes generally united under a single leader. They were very averse to fixed residences, and when they occupied a countrj' they rarely entered the cities, but remained in their camps or in rude circular fortifications called rings. The Sclavonians hated the Germans, and could rarely be induced to unite with them against their common enemy, the Romans. After the fall of the Western Empire, the court of Constantinople sunk into obscurity, from which it did not emerge for half a century, when its supremacy was restored during the memorable reign of Jus- tinian. The Isaurian Zeno, raised to the purple by his marriage with the princess Ariadne, was forced to fly into the mountains by a fierce revolt which his mother-in-law Verina had instigated. He was restored to the throne chiefly by the aid of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, who had been carefully educated as a hostage at the court of Con- stantinople. The turbulence of the Goths, and the faithlessness of the Byzantines, soon destroyed the amity of the two sovereigns ; a desul- tory, but sanguinary warfare harassed the Eastern Empire, until Zeno purchased peace by ceding to Theodoric his right over Italy, or rather stimulated the Goth to undertake the conquest of that peninsula. The march of Theodoric was the emigration of an entire people ; the Goths were accompanied by their wives, their children, and their aged parents, a vast multitude of wagons conveyed their most precious ef- fects, and their store of provisions for a toilsome march undertaken in the depth of winter. Odoacer boldly prepared to meet this formidable invasion; he took post on the river Sontius {Isonzo) with a powerful host ; but he was unable to resist the daring energy of the Goths, and his defeat gave Theodoric possession of the Venetian province as fai as the walls of Verona (a. d. 489). Italy, however, tv-i-» «i<»t wou FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 329 without further struggles : Ravenna alone sustained a siege of more than three years ; but at length Odoacer capitulated (a. d. 493), and was soon after assassinated at a solemn banquet by his rival. Theodoric secured his conquest by distributing one tliird of the lands of Italy to his soldiers in military tenures. This partition was effected with very little violence to the ancient possessors ; the Goths were in- structed to spare the people, to reverence the laws, and to lay aside their barbarous customs of judicial combats and private revenge. The Gothic sovereignty was soon extended from Sicily to the Danube, and from Sirmium (Sirmich) to the Atlantic ocean ; thus including the fair- est portion of the Western Empire. The monarch of this new king- dom showed great wisdom and moderation in his civil government, but unfortunately his attachment to the Arian heresy led him to persecute the Catholics. The legal murder of the philosopher Boethius and .he venerable Symmachus were crimes which admit of no palliation ; tkey hastened Theodoric's death, for remorse brought him to the grave in the thirty -third year of his reign (a. d. 526). Section II. — Reign of Justinian, A Dacian peasant, named Justin, who had travelled on foot to Con- stantinople in the reign of the emperor Leo, enlisted in the imperial guards, and, during the succeeding reigns, so distinguished himself by his strength and valor, that he was gradually raised to the command of the household troops. On the death of the emperor Anastasius, the eunuch Amantius, anxious to secure the throne for one of his creatures, intrusted Justin with a large sum of money to bribe the guards ; but he used it to purchase votes for himself, and was thus elevated to the em- pire (a. d. 518). Totally ignorant himself, Justin was not insensible of the value of education ; he made his nephew Justinian his associate in the empire ; and as this prince had been instructed in all the learn- ing of the times, he soon obtained the whole power of the state. After the death of Justin (a. d. 527), Justinian ruled alone ; but his first exercise of authority fixed a lasting stigma on his reign. He chose for his empress, Theodora, a woman of mean birth and infamous char- acter, whose vices had disgusted even a capital so licentious as Con- stantinople. Among the most singular and disgraceful follies of the Eastern Empire were the factions of the circus, which arose from the colors worn by the charioteers who competed for the prize of swiftness. Green and blue were the most remarkable for their inveterate hostility, though white and red were the most ancient ; all, however, soon ac- quired a legal existence, and the Byzantines willingly hazarded life and fortune to support their favorite color. Justinian was a partisan of the blues ; his favor toward them provoked the hostility of the opposite faction, and led to a sedition which almost laid Constantinople hi ashes. The disturbances first burst forth in the circus ; Justinian ordered the rioters to be secured ; both factions immediately turned against the monarch, the soldiers were called out, but they were unable to contend against the citizens in the narrow streets. Assailed from the tops of the houses, the barbarian mercenaries flung firebrands in revenge, and thus kindled a dreadful conflagration, which destroyed a vast number 330 MODERN HISTORY. ot public and private edifices. After the city had been for several days in the hands of the rioters, Justinian contrived to revive the ancient animosity between the greens and blues ; the latter faction declared for the emperor, a strong body of veterans marched to the Hippodrome, or race-course, and tranquillity was restored by the slaughter of thirty thousand of the insurgents. While the internal state of the empire was thus disturbed by faction, a costly and unprofitable war was waged against the Persians, until the emperor purchased a disgraceful and precarious truce, which both he and his rival chose to designate as an endless peace. The usurpation of the throne of the Vandals in Africa by Gelimer, ■who owed his success chiefly to the support of the Arian clergy, in- duced Justinian to undertake a war, in which he appeared both the generous friend of an allied sovereign and the protector of the Catholic faith. Belisarius, the best general of his age, was appointed to the command of the imperial forces, and a large fleet was assembled for the transport of the army in the harbor of Constantinople (a. d. 533). After the armament had been blessed by the patriarch it set sail ; and, after a prosperous voyage, Belisarius effected a landing on the coast of Africa without opposition. He advanced toward Carthage, defeating the Vandals on his march, and became master of the city with little opposition. Gelimer made one effort more to save his kingdom ; it was unsuccessful, his army was irretrievably ruined, and he was closely besieged in the castle where he sought refuge. The unfortunate king, after having borne the most dreadful extremities of famine, was forced to surrender unconditionally ; he was carried captive to Constantinople, ■where he was led in the triumphal procession that honored the return of Belisarius. The dethroned monarch showed no sorrow for his fall, but consoled himself by Solomon's reffection on the instability of hu- man greatness, frequently repeating. " Vanity of vanities, saith the preacher, all is vanity." The murder of Amalasontha, queen of the Goths, by her ungrateful husband Theodatus, aflTorded Belisarius a pretext for attacking the king- dom of Italy. He sailed from Constantinople to Sicily, and easily con- quered that important island (a. d. 535). Theodatus, in great terror, hasted to avert danger, by declaring himself the vassal of Justinian ; but hearing in the meantime that two Byzantine generals had been de- feated in Dalmatia by the Gothic troops, he passed suddenly from ex- treme despair to the height of presumption, and withdrew his allegi- ance. Belisarius soon appeared to chastise his perfidy ; he transported his army across the Sicilian strait, and effected a landing at Rhegium {Reggio). The greater part of southern Italy, including the important city of Naples, was speedily subdued by the imperial forces ; while Theodatus, secure within the walls of Rome, made no effort to protect his subjects. At length the Goths, disgusted by the incapacity and weakness of their sovereign, removed him from the throne, and chose the valiant Vitiges for their king. But Vitiges was forced to commence his reign by abandoning Rome, of which Belisarius took possession without encountering any opposition (a. d. 537). During the ensuing winter, the Goths assembled from every quarter to save, if possible, their kingdom in Italy : a powerful army, animated by dauntless spirit, PALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 331 was soon collected, and "Vitiges led his followers to the siege of Rome. Belisarius concentrated his forces in the Eternal city, which was de- fended with equal skill and bravery ; but famine soon appeared within the walls, and the citizens became anxious for a capitulation. A con- spiracy was formed under the sanction of the pope, Sylverius, for be- traying the city to the Goths ; but it was discoA'^ered by an intercepted letter. Belisarius sent Sylverius into banishment, and ordered the bishops to elect a new pontiff: before however a synod could be assem- bled for the purpose, the general's wife, the infamous Antonina, sold the Holy See to Vigilus for a bribe of two hundred pounds weight of gold. Reinforcements soon after arrived from the east, and the Goths were forced to raise the siege of Rome, having lost one third of their number before its walls. Belisarius pursued the retreating enemy to the marshes of Ravenna, and would probably have captured that city, but for the jealousy of the eunuch Narses, whom Justinian had intrusted with the independent command of a large division of the Byzantine army. Though the differences between the two leaders were finally adjusted, the Goths had taken advantage of the interval to collect new strength ; and ten thousand Burgundians, sent to invade Italy by the command of Theodobert, king of the Franks, had stormed and plun- dered Milan. Soon after, Theodobert passed the Alps in person at the head of one hundred thousand men. The Franks stormed Genoa, and devastated Liguria ; but their excesses brought pestilence into their camp, they perished by thousands and Theodobert was induced, by his increasing distresses, to enter into terms of accommodation with the emperor. Delivered from this pressing danger, Belisarius laid siege to Ravenna, which was forced to capitulate (a. d. 539) ; and thus the Gothic kingdom of Italy was destroyed. Belisarius returned to Constantinople in triumph, leading with him the captive Vitiges ; he was sent to conduct the Persian war, but was soon recalled and disgraced by the ungrateful Justinian. While the conquests of Belisarius were restoring the western provinces to the empire, barbarous hordes ravaged, almost with impunity, the northeast- ern frontiers. Unable or unwilling to meet the Gepidee in the field, Justinian entered into alliance with the Longobardi or Lombards (so called from their long barts or lances), who had just thrown off the yoke of the Heruli, and gave them settlements in Pannonia. A war of forty years' duration, between the Lombards and Gepidse, protected the em- pire from the invasions of both hordes ; but it was still exposed to the incursions of the Sclavonians and Bulgarians, who annually purchased a passage through the territories of the Gepidae, and extended their in- roads even into southern Greece. Commotions in the remote east brought Europeans, about this time, acquainted with new and more for- midable races of barbarians, the Avars and the Turks, whose impor- tance may justify a short digression on their origin. The Avars, from an unknown age, possessed the mountains and deserts that border on the lake Baikal in northeastern Asia. Thence they advanced southward under a monarch named Tulun, and extended their empire to the eastern sea, which separates Corea from Japan. The conqueror took the title of Chakan or Chagan, a name still used on the coins of the Turkish sultan. But the prosperity of the Avars was 332 MODERN HISTORY. not of long duration ; ihey were assailed by rival tribes from the north, and at the same time harassed by civil wars ; while thus distressed, they were attacked by a new horde, called Thiukhiu by the Chinese writers, but known ^o the Europeans as the Turks. The Avars were overthrown by these new competitors for empire, and their power totally destroyed ; but their name was taken by a new nation, the Ogors or Varchonites, who after being defeated by the Turks, migrated toward Europe by the route of the Volga. They chose the false designation, because the name of the Avars was still formidable, and the/ preserved it on account of the terror which they saw it produced. The Turks first appear in history as the slaves of the original Avars ; they inhabited the great Altaian mountains, and were engaged in work- ing the mines and attending the forges of those rich "mineral districts. Their skill in fabricating armor and weapons was very great, and they prided themselves upon the excellence of their manufactures so much, that, when they became lords of eastern Asia, their Khakans annually forged a piece of iron in the presence of the heads of the nation. Un- der the guidance of Thii-men, they asserted their independence, and made slaves of their former masters. So rapid was their progress, that during the reigns of Thu-men and his successor Dizabul, their empire was extended from the Volga to the sea of Japan. They were thus brought to the frontiers of the Byzantine and Persian dominions, and engaged in commercial relations with both, by their occupation of the countries through which the silk-trade was carried. The great rival of Justinian was Chosroes or Nushirvan, the most celebrated Persian monarch of theSassanid dynasty ; in the early part of his reign he won the affection of his subjects, by extirpating the perni- cious system of policy and religion which his predecessor Kobad, seduced by an impostor named Mazdak, had patronised. His next care was to give confidence to the laboring classes by judicious laws securing the rights of industry, and by a sedulous attention to the administration of justice. Having thus secured the tranquillity and prosperity of Persia, he directed his attention to the favorite project of the Sassanides, the re-establishment of the empire of Cyrus, and perceiving that the forces of Justinian were engaged in the west, invaded Syria, at the head of a powerful army (a. d. 540). His victorious career was checked for a brief space by Belisarius, but after the recall and disgrace of that general, he urged forward his conquests with alarming rapidity. Justinian, in his distress, repented of his ingratitude ; Belisarius was restored to command, and by his judicious exertions, Nushirvan was forced to re- turn across the Euphrates, loaded, however, with the spoils of western Asia. His next enterprise was the conquest of the Caucasian districts inhabited by the Lazi, the Colchians, and other semi-barbarous tribes which the Byzantines struggled to prevent, and this led to the tedious Lazic war, in which the strength of both empires was uselessly wasted. In consequence of the Persian war, Justinian entered into a treaty with the Abyssinians, whose monarch had subdued the greater part of Arabia, in the expectation of opening, by his means, a naval communication with China and India; but the design was fn strated by the reluctance of the Ethiopian monarch to engage in a doubtful contest with the power of Persia. FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 333 Tho provinces of Africa and Italy, acquired by the valor of Belisarius, were nearly lost by the incapacity and tyranny of his successors. Their weakness provoked the Moors to take arms ; and, though these barbarians were finally reduced, the African province was changed from a fertile and populous country into a savage and silent desert. Still more dangerous was the revolt of the Goths under the gallant Totila (a. d. 541), who in a very brief space recovered the greater part of Italy. Finding his generals successively defeated, Justinian sent Belisarius to the theatre of his former glory ; but he neglected to supply the hero with sufficient forces ; and Rome was captured by Tcvent the title from being usurped by the patriarch of Con- stantinople. The recognition of Pepin's elevation to the throne of France was something more than a mere form : it was a ratification of his claims by the only authority that was respected by the nations of western Europe. In return, Pepin gave military aid to the popes, in their wars with the Lombards, and openly proclaimed himself the chimpion of the church. The French king intrusted the command of the armies he employed in Italy to his youthful son, Karl, better known by his French name, Charlemagne. The prince, thus early brought into public life, displayed more than ordinary abilities, both as a general and a statesman ; he acted a distinguished part in the subjugation of Aquitaine, and deservedly obtained the fame oJT adding that fine pre ince to the dominions of the Franks. Pepin did not long survive this acquisition ; pursuing the pernicious policy which had already proved so destructive to the preceding dynas- ty, he divided his dominions between his sons Charles and Carloman Their mutual jealousies would have exploded in civil war, but for tht> judicious interference of their mother Bertha. At length Carloman died suddenly ; his wife and children fled to the Lombards, his subjects, with one accord, resolved to have Charlemagne for their sovereign, and thus the French monarchy was again reunited under a single head. The protection granted to the family of Carloman was not the only ground of hostility between Charlemagne and the Lombard king Desid erius ; Charlemagne had married, and afterward repudiated, that mon- 24 370 MODERN HISTORY. arch's daughter; Desiderius menaced war, but had not the means ot executing his threats ; Charlemagne was prevented from crossing the Alps, by the appearance of a more formidable enemy on his eastern frontiers. The Saxons, and other Germanic tribes, were still sunk in idolatry : they frequently devastated the frontier provinces of the Christian Franks, and showed particular animosity to the churches and ministers of re- ligion. A missionary, St. Libuinus, had vainly endeavored to convert the Saxons by denouncing the vengeance of Heaven against their idol- atry ; irritated by his reproaches, they expelled him from their country burned the church erected at Daventer, and slew the Christians. The general convocation of the Franks, called from the time of meeting the Champ de Mai, was at the time assembled at Worms under the presi- dency of Charles ; its members regarded the massacre at Daventer as a just provocation, and war was declared against the Saxons. As the assembly of the Champ de Mai was at once a convention of the estates and a review of the military power of the Franks, an army was in im- mediate readiness : Charlemagne crossed the Rhine, captured their principal fortresses, destroyed their national idol, and compelled them to give hostages for their future good conduct. He had scarcely re- turned home, -when he was summoned into Italy, to rescue the pope from the wrath of Desiderius, who, enraged at the pontiff"'s refusal to recognise the claims of the sons of Carloman, had actually laid siege to Rome. Like Hannibal in ancient, and Napoleon in modern times, Charlemagne forced a passage over the Alps, and was actually de- scending from the mountains before the Lombards knew of his having commenced his march. Desiderius, after vainly attempting to check the Franks in the defiles, abandoned the field, and shut himself up in Pavia. The city was taken after a year's siege : during the interval, Charlemagne ah sited Rome, and was received with great enthusiasm by the pope and the citizens. Soon after his return to his camp Pavia surrendered, Desiderius and his queen were confined in separate mon- asteries, and the iron crown, usually Avorn by the kings of Lombardy, was placed upon the head of the French monarch. The Saxons and Lombards made several vigorous efforts to shake off the yoke, but their insurrections were easily suppressed ; while, how- ever, alarming discontents prevailed in both nations, Charlemagne was involved in a new and perilous war. A Saracenic prince sought refuge in the French court, and persuaded the monarch to lead an army over the Pyrenees. The frontier provinces were easily subdued, owing to the disputes that divided the Mohammedans in Spain. Charlemagne gained a decisive victory over the Saracens at Saragossa, but before he could complete his conquest, he was recalled home by a new and more dangerous revolt of the Saxons. The rear-guard of the French, com- manded by the gallant Roland, was treacherously assailed on its return, by the Gascons, in the defiles of Roncesvalles, and almost wholly de- stroyed. The celebrated valley of Roncesvalles is the line of commu- nication between France and Navarre ; the road through it is rugged and tortuous, with narrow gorges between steep mountains. While the Franks were toiling through these defiles, the Gascons and Navarrese formed ambuscades on the summits of the mountains, concealed by the RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 37J thxck foiests with which they abound. After the greater part of the army had passed, the mountaineers suddenly rushed down the steeps, fell upon the rear-guard, and the divisions intrusted with the charge of the baggage. The Franks were surprised but not disheartened ; they made a desperate resistance, and vainly tried to cut their way to the main body ; but the assailants had the advantage of a light equipment and a favorable position ; the whole of the rear-guard was cut off, and the baggage plundered before Charlemagne knew that they were en- dangered ; and the mountaineers disappeared so rapidly with their booty that all pursuit was unavailing. Such was the battle of Ronces- valles, which has been strangely exaggerated and misrepresented by writers of romance. But though the legendary account of Roncesvalles contains a very small portion of truth, it is not devoid of historical importance, because there never was a history which possessed wider influence than this ro- mantic tale. It was by singing the song of Roland that the Normans were encouraged at the battle of Hastings, and the French inspired to their most glorious deeds. We must therefore give an abstract of the ancient tradition. According to the legend, Charlemagne, in a war which lasted more than seven years, had nearly completed the conquest of Spain. The Moorish monarch, whom the romancers are pleased to designate Mar- siles, in dread of total ruin held a council of his principal emirs and nobles, who unanimously recommended him to conciliate Charles by immediate submission. A Saracen ambassador, with the usual incon- sistency of romance, is said to have been pitched close to the Spanish marches, and he addressed the monarch in the following words : " God protect you ! Behold here are presents which my master sends ; and he engages if you withdraw from Spain to come and do you homage at Aix-ia-Chapelle." Charlemagne summoned his twelve paladins to council, to deliberate on this offer. Roland strenuously opposed entering into any terras with an infidel, and declared that it was their duty to rescue Spain from the dominion of the crescent, and place it under the banner of the cross. Two of the paladins, however, Ganelon and the duke Naimes, main- tained that it was contrary to the rules a chivalry to refuse grace to a conquered enemy. Charlemagne, who in the romances is represented as a perfect model of knightly courtesy, yielded to the arguments of the friends of peace, and inquired which of his peers would undertake to return with the ambassador, and bear back a suitable reply to the king Mar.siles. Ganelon proffered his services, but Roland contemptuously declared him unfit for such a duty, and offered himself in his stead. A warm debate arose in the council ; Ganelon, irritated by the scorn with which Roland treated his pretensions, and indignant at some im- putations on his fidelity and courage, said angrily to his rival, " Take care that some mischief does not overtake you." Roland, among whose virtuous qualities moderation can not be enumerated, replied, " Go to, you speak like a tool ! We want men of sense to carry our messages ; if the emperor pleases, I will go in your place." In great irritation Ganelon replied, " Charles is commander here ; I submit myself to his will." At these words Roland burst into an immoderate fit of laughter ■ 372 MODERN HISTORY. but this act of discourtesy so offended the rest of the paladins, that with one voice they recommended Ganelon as the most suitable ambas- sador to be sent to Marsiles. The Saracenic ambassador had received private information of the angry discussion which had taken place in the imperial council. As he returned to his court, he took every opportunity of reminding Gane- lon of the insult he had received, and though he did not immediately suc- ceed, he certainly weakened the paladin's loyalty, and led him secretly to deliberate on the possibility of obtaining revenge by means of trea- son. At his first interview with Marsiles, he maintained the pride and dignity of a French chevalier. " Charles is now old," said the Moorish monarch, " he must be close upon a hundred years of age ; does he not think of taking some repose ?" Ganelon firmly replied, " No ! no ! Charles is ever powerful ; so long as he has round him the twelve peers of France, but particularly Oliver and Roland, Charles need not fear a living man." Subsequent conversations, however, enabled the Moorish monarch to work upon Ganelon's cupidity, and his jealousy of Roland, so effectually, that he agreed to supply him with such information as would enable him to cut off the rear of the Christian army, when it re- turned to Roncesvalles, according to the terms of the treaty. Ganelon returned to the Christian camp, and informed the emperor that Marsiles had consented to become his vassal, and pay him tribute. Charles immediately gave orders that the army should return to France ; he took the command of the van in person ; the rear-guard intrusted with the care of the baggage and plunder, followed at a little distance through the passes of Roncesvalles. In the meantime Marsiles had collected an immense army, consisting not merely of his own subjects, but of numerous auxiliaries from Bar- bary, Morocco, and the wild tribes in the interior of Africa. According to the instructions of Ganelon, he sent large detachments of his men to occupy the woods and mountains which overhung " the gloomy Ronces- valles' strait." When the Christians were involved in the pass, they were suddenly attacked, at the same moment, in front, flank, and rear. Oliver clam- bered up a tree in order to discover the number of the enemy. Per- ceiving that their hosts were vastly superior to the French, he called out to Roland, " Brother in arms ! the pagans are very numerous, and we Christians are few ; if you sounded your horn the emperor Charles would bring us succor." Roland replied, " God forbid that my lineage should be dishonored by such a deed ! I will strike with my good sword Durandel ; and the pagans falling beneath my blows, will discover that they have been led hither by their evil fate." " Sound your horn, companion in arms !" reiterated Oliver ; " the enemies hem us in on every side." " No !" repeated Roland, our Franks are gallant warriors ; they will strike heavy blows, and cut through the host of the foul pay- nim." He then prepared his troops for action. Archbishop Turpin, perceiving that the fight would be desperate and bloody, commanded all the soldiers to kneel, and join in a general confession of faith, after which he bestowed upon them absolution, and his episcopal benedic- tion. The Christians made a gallant defence ; but numbers finally tri< RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 37i um^ ned over valor. " Down went many a noble crest ; cloven was maiiy a plumed helmet. The lances were shivered in the grasp of Chn^tendom's knights, and the swords dropped from their wearied arms." Turpin, Oliver, and Roland, still survived, and faintly main- tained the fight. At length, Roland turning to Oliver, exclaimed, " I will sound my horn, Charles will hear us, and we may yet hope again to see our beloved France." " Oh ! shame and disgrace," answered Oliver, " why did you not sound when first I asked you ? The best war- riors of France have been sacrificed to your temerity : we must die with them !" Turpin, however, insisted that the horn should be blown as a signal to the emperor ; and Roland blew such a blast, that the blood spurted from his mouth, and his wounds, opened afresh, poured forth torrents. Charles, though thirty leagues distant, heard the sound, and said, " Our men are engaged at disadvantage ; we must haste to their assistance." " I do not believe it," replied the jaitor Ganelon. and dissuaded the emperor. Roland once more, with his dying breath, rung a wailing blast from the horn. Charles knew the character of the sound. " Evil has come upon us," he exclaimed ; " those are the dy- ing notes of my nephew Roland !" He hastily returned to Roncesval- les ; but Roland, and all his companions, lay dead upon the plain, and the emperor could only honor their corpses with Christian burial. Such are the salient points in the old romance, on which the sono- of Roland is founded. So late as the close of the fifteenth century the narrative was received as an historical fact ; and when John, king of France, a little before the fatal battle of Poictiers, reproached his nobles that there were no Rolands to be found in his army, an aged knight replied, " Sire, Rolands would not be wanting, if we could find a Charlemagne." The devastations of the Saxons, which recalled Charlemagne from Spain, exceeded anything which Europe had witnessed since the days of Attila. Witikind, prince of Westphalia, was the leader of this dan- gerous revolt ; he had united his countrymen into one great national confede-acy, and long maintained a desperate struggle against the whole strength of the French monarchy. He was at length irretrieva- bly routed, and submitting to the conqueror, became a Christian. Sev- eral minor revolts in his extensive dominions troubled the reign of Charlemagne, but he quelled them all, and secured the tranquillity of Germany, both by subduing the Saxons, and destroying the last rem- nant of the barbarous Avars who had settled in Hungary. The brief intervals of tranquillity were spent by this wise monarch in extending the blessings of civilization to his subjects, by estabUshing schools, and patronising science and literature. In these labors he was assisted by Alcuin, an English monk, the most accomplished scholar of his age. Such was the fame of the French monarchy at this time, that embassies came to the court from the most distant contemporary sover- eigns. The most remarkable was that sent from the renowned Harun- er-Rashid, khaliph of Bagdad ; among the presents they brought were some beautiful pieces of clock-work, which were regarded as something almost miraculous in western Europe, where the mechanical arts were still in their infancy. But in the midst of these glorify* Charlemagne was alarmed by the 374 MODERN HISTORY. appearance of a new enemy on the coasts of France, whose incur* sions, though repelled, filled the monarch's prescient mind with sad bodino-s of future danger. These were the Northmen, or Normans, pirates, from the distant shores of Scandinavia, whose thirst of plun- der was stimulated by the desire of revenging the wrongs that their idolatrous brethren, the Saxons, had endured. At their first landing in France, they had scarcely time to commit any ravages, for they fled on the news of the dreaded king's approach. Charlemagne saw their de- parting ships without exultation ; he burst into tears.* and predicted that these " sea-kings" would soon prove a dreadful scourge to southern Europe. Probably about the same time that Charles was excited by the ap- pearance of these pirates, whose ferocity and courage he had learned to dread during his expeditions into the north of Germany, three ships of a similar character to those described, entered one of the harbors on the southeastern coast of Britain, about a century and a half aftei the Anglo-Saxons had established their dominion over the southern part of the island, and given it the name of Angle-Land, or England. Here the sight of the strange ships produced the same doubts as in France. The Saxon graf, or magistrate of the district, proceeded to the shore to inquire who these strangers were, and what they wanted. The foreigners, who had just disembarked, attacked him and his escort without provocation, slew them on the spot, pillaged the neighboring houses, and then returned to their vessels. Some time elapsed before it was discovered that these pirates were the Danes, or Normans, names with which the ears of Anglo-Saxons were destined soon to form a terrible familiarity. Soon after the retreat of the Normans, Charlemagne was induced to visit Italy, both to quell the rebellion of the duke of Beneventum, and to rescue Pope Leo from his insurgent subjects. He succeeded in both enterprises, and the grateful pontiff" solemnly crowned his benefactor Emperor of the West. A project was soon after formed for re-es- tablishing the ancient Roman empire, by uniting Charlemagne to the Byzantine empress, Irene, but this was prevented by the factions of Constantinople ; the degraded Greeks dreaded nothing so much as the vigorous administration of such a sovereign as the restorer of the Western Empire. Charlemagne intended to divide his dominions equally between his three sons ; but two of them died while the arrangements were ir progress, and Louis, the weakest in mind and body, became sole heir to the empire. His clanns were solemnly recognised in a national assembly of the Frank nobility, at Aix-la-Chapelle ; soon after which, the emperor died, in the seventy-second year of his age, universally lamented tliroughout his extensive dominions. • The monk of St. Gall lells us, that when Charlemagne was asked the cause of these tears, he replied, " My faithful friends, do you inquire why I weep thus bitterly ? Assuredly it is not that I dread any annoyance to myself from the pi- racy of those wretches ; but I am deeply afl'ected to find that they have dared to visit these coasts even in my lifetime ; and violent grief overwhelms me, when I look forward to the evils they will inflict on my subjects." RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 375 Section II. — Decline and Fall of the Carlovingian Dynasty. The Western Empire, established by Charlemagne, extended from the Ebro in the west to the Elbe and Raab in the east, and from the dutchy of Beneventura and the Adriatic sea to the river Eyder, which separated the Germanic tribes from the Scandinavian hordes, or, as they began about this time to be called, the Danes and Normans. It consequently included all ancient Gaul, a great portion of Spain and Italy, several islands in the Mediterranean, especially Corsica, Sar- dinia, and the Baleares, western and northern Germany, with a consid- erable part of Pannonia, or Hungary. No other European power could compete with that of the Franks ; the monarchies of Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Russia, were not yet founded ; Eng- land was still divided by the Heptarchy ; the Saracenic empire in Spain was distracted by civil commotions, and the Christian kingdom of the Asturias was barely struggling into existence ; finally, the By zantine empire was sunk into hopeless lethargy, and owed its continued existence only to the decay of the spirit of enterprise among the Arabs, after the seat of the Khaliphate was removed to Bagdad. But the con- tiftuation of an empire including so many nations essentially dift'erent in interests, habits, and feelings, required a superior genius in the sov- ereign. Louis the Debonnaire, the son and successor of Charlemagne, was deficient in every quality that a ruler should possess ; foolish, weak, and superstitious, he could not make himself beloved, and he failed to inspire fear. Yielding to the suggestions of his queen, Pler- mengarde, Louis sanctioned the murder of his nephew Bernard, and forced the three natural sons of Charlemagne to assume the clerical tonsure, by which they were for ever prevented from taking a share in temporal affairs. These crimes had*scarcely been committed when Louis became the victim of reir.orse. Unable to stifie the reproaches of conscience, he appeared before the general assembly of his sub- jects, and publicly confessed that he had been deeply criminal in con- senting to the murder of Bernard, and in forcing his brothers to enter religious orders ; he humbly besought pardon from all present, solicited the aid of their prayers, and undertook a solemn penance. This strange scene rendered Louis contemptible in the eyes of his subjects ; some doubted his sincerity, others questioned his motives, but all believed this public confession a needless sacrifice of the royal dignity. Louis chose for his second wife, Judith, the daughter of a Bavarian count. His three sons were indignant at a marriage which threatened to produce new sharers in their inheritance, but nearly four years elapsed without any appearance of such an event. At length the em- press gave birth to a child, afterward known as Charles the Bald, who was popularly said to be the son of her unworthy favorite, Bernard, count of Barcelona. The three former sons of Louis not only refused to acknowledge their nev/ brother, but took up arms to force their father to dismiss his ministers and divorce hi^ wife. After a desultory war Louis prevailed over his rebellious children, but the fatigues of cam- paigning broke down his feeble constitution, and put an end to his in* glorious life. The seeds of discord were thickly sown during his life, 376 MODERN HISTORY they were forced into maturity after his death by his unwise distribution of his dominions between his three sons. Scarcely had Louis been laid in the grave, when his sons Louis the Germanic and Charles the Bald took up arms against their elder brother Lothaire, and engaged him in a general battle at Fontenay, which proved fatal to the flower of the ancient Frank nobility (a. d. 841). After a desultory war, the brothers finally agreed on a partition of the empire, by which Lothaire obtained Italy, and the eastern prov- inces of France ; Louis received his father's Germanic dominions ; and to Charles were assigned the provinces of France west of the Saone and the Rhone, together with the Spanish marches (a. d. 843). Thus Charles the Bald may be considered as the founder of the French monarchy properly so called, for hitherto the sovereigns of the Franks were Germans in language, customs, coimtry, and blood. It is unne- cessary to detail the petty revohitions in the family of Charlemagne ; it is sufficient to say, that the empire was momentarily reunited under Charles the Fat, younger son of Louis the Germanic (a. d. 884), but he being deposed by his subjects, its dissolution became inevitable ; from its fragments were formed the kingdoms of Italy, France, and Germany, with the states of Lorraine, Burgundy, and Navarre. These new states owed their origin . less to the disputes that con- vulsed the Carlovingian family than to the exorbitant power of the nobles, which had been increasing rapidly from the death of Charle- magne. The titles of duke and count were not in that age merely honorary ; they conferred nearly despotic sway over the provinces. The great feudatories of the crown were invested, not merely with the administration of justice and regulation of police in their respective districts, but had also the command of the army and the direction of the revenue. It is easy to see that the union of such diff"erent and im- portant departments of government in a single person must necessarily have been dangerous to royal authority, and constantly tempted ambi- tious nobles to proclaim their independence. Charlemagne saw this evil, and endeavored to abate the danger by dividing the great dutchies mto several counties ; but in the civil wars among his posterity, rival competitors, to secure the support of powerful feudatories, offered the restored dutchies as temptmg bribes, and further weakened themselves by alienating the royal domains to secure the favor of the church Taking advantage of this impolicy, the dukes and counts contrived to make their dignities hereditary ; and this dangerous innovation was not only sanctioned by Charles the Bald, but extended to all fiefs (a. d. 877), in a parliament held at Chiersi, toward tlie close of his reign. The principle of inheritance, thus introduced, may be regarded as the foundation of the feudal system, and the source of the calamitous wars between rival nobles which convulsed all central and southwestern Europe. The Normans, like the Saxons and Franks, were a branch of the great Teutonic race ; but the conversion of the latter to Christianity was viewed by their brethren of the north as an act of treason against the national religion of Germany, and their iiiJignation was still farther exasperated, by the tales of wrong and suffering related by the crowds of idolatrous Saxons, who fled to the isles of the Baltic from the merci- RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 377 less persecutions of Charlemagne. The maritime Teutones from the earliest ages were distinguished by their hardihood, their ardent passion for adventure, and their contempt of death. They navigated the dangerous seas of the north with more courage and freedom, than the Greeks and Romans exhibited in the Mediterranean ; they did not despair when they lost sight of land ; they did not come to anchor when clouds obscured the stars. On board every vessel there was a cast of hawks or ravens, and when the adventurers were uncertain in what direction the land lay, they let loose one of the birds, knowing that he would make with instinctive sa- gacity for the nearest coast, and by his flight they steered their course. Toward the close of the eighth century the Normans became formidable as pirates to western Europe : they particularly Infested the coast of Brit- ain, Ireland, and France. Their leaders assumed the proud title of sea- kings, though the limits of each royalty did not extend beyond the deck of a single vessel, and all superiority was at an end when the expedition was over. A sea-king had only to announce his intention of undertaking some buccaneering enterprise, and he was sure to find crowds of adventurous youth ready to volunteer their services as his associates. Whither the adventurous sea-king would steer, provided that there appeared a reasonable chance of plunder, was a matter of perfect indifference to him and his associates. They effected a landing when least expected ; no mercy was shown to age or sex, the fate of those who submitted or resisted was alike, but the special objects of their vengeance were the clergy and the churches, because they regarded themselves as the avengers of the insults offered to Odin, and of the persecutions with which Christian sovereigns afflicted their worshippers in their domin- ions. Sir Walter Scott has drawn the character of an ancient sea-king with so much poetic force and historic truth, that the extract will su- persede the necessity of further description. " Count Witikind came cf a regal strain, v And roved with his Norsemen the land and the main ; Wo to the realms which he coasted ! for there Was shedding of blood and rending of hair, Rape of maiden anC ^"aughter of priest. Gathering of ravens and wolves to the feast ! When he hoisted his standard black, Before him was battle, behind him wrack : And he burned the churches, that heathen Dane, To light his band to their barks again. On Erin's shores was his outrage known, The winds of France had his banners blown ; Little was there to plunder, yet still His pirates had forayed on Scottish hill ; But upon merry England's coast. More frequent he sailed, for he won the most. So far and wide his ravage they knew. If a sail but gleamed white 'gainst the welkin blue Trumpet and bugles to arms did call. Burghers hastened to man the wall ; Peasants fled inland his fury to scape. Beacons were lighted on headland and cape; Bells were tolled out, and aye as they rung Fearful and faintly the gray brothers sung, ' Save us, St. Mary, from flood and from fire. From famine and pest, and Count Witikind's ire.' '* 378 MODERN HISTORY. Thierry has collected the principal characteristics of a sea-king fiom the Icelandic sagas. " He could govern a vessel as the good rider manages his horse, running over the oars while they were in motion. He would throw three javelins to the mast-head and catch them alter- nately in his hand without once missing. Equal under such a chief, supporting lightly their voluntary submission, and the weight of their coat-of-mail, which they promised themselves would soon be exchanged for an equal weight of gold, the pirates held their course gayly, as their old songs express it, along the track of the swans. Often were their fragile barks wrecked and dispersed by the north sea-storm, often did the rallying sign remain unanswered, but this neither increased the cares nor diminished the confidence of the survivors, who laughed at the wind and waves from which they had escaped unhurt. Their song in the midst of the tempest was : — " The force of the storm helps the arms of our rowers, The hurricane is carrying us the way which we should go." Nearly all the information which we possess respecting these for- midable pirates is derived from the sagas, or songs of the Skalds ; these singular compositions are unlike any other form of literature, they are records of adventure in verse or measured prose, in which no notice is taken of historical events, and no regard paid to chronology. The Skalds, or bards, were more honored by the Scandinavians than their priests ; indeed it is doubtful whether they had any regular sacer- dotal caste, or order. Some of their heroes prided themselves on de- fying the gods themselves ; thus Gauthakor, when asked his religion, by Olaf the saint, who was anxious to introduce Christianity among his countrymen, replied : " My brothers in arms and 1 are neither Chris- tians nor pagans. We have no faith but in our arms, and our strength to vanquish our enemies, and those we have ever found sufficient." So far was the character of a pirate or Vikingar from being disgraceful, that it was eagerly sought by men of the highest rank, and was only accorded to those who had given distinguished proofs both of their bravery in battle and their skill in navigation. An ancient law enacted, that a man in order to acquire glory for bravery, should attack a single enemy, defend himself against two, and not yield to three, but that he might without disgrace fly from four. Every kin^, whether of sea or land, had a chosen band of champions, called Kempe ; warriors pledged to the personal service of their chief, and whose only hope of advancement arose from the performance of some exploit, which common fame, and the songs of the Skalds, might spread over the north. Each sea-king laid down the rules for the government of his own champions, and fame was assigned to him whose regulations were the most strict and rigorous. Thus we are told, that Half, and Hiorolf, the sons of a Norwegian king, both devoted themselves to maritime adven- ture, or, in plain terms, to piracy. Hiorolf collected a great number for ships, which he manned with volunteers of every kind both of serfs and freemen ; he was defeated in all his expeditions. On the other hand his brother Half had only one ship, but his crew were all picked men. They were at first bvit twenty- RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 379 three in number, all descended from kings ; the troop was subsequently increased to sixty. To obtain admission into the company, it was necessary that the champion should lift up a large stone which lay in the front of Half's residence, and which could not be moved by the force of twelve or- dinary men. These champions were forbidden to take women and children, to seek a refuge during a tempest, or to dress their wounds before the battle was ended. Eighteen years Half's band carried ter- ror to all the shores of western Europe. Finally, when the sea-king was returning to enjoy the wealth he had acquired, his vessel, over- laden with plunder, appeared on the point of sinking within sight of the Norwegian shore. The brave crew immediately drew lots to deter- mine who should throw themselves into the sea, for the purpose of saving their chief and the cargo ; those on whom the lot fell, instantly jumped overboard and swam to shore, while the vessel relieved of the weight reached the harbor in safety. Sometimes these warriors, like the Malays in Java, were seized with a kind of phrensy, either arising from an excited imagination, or from the use of stimulating liquors. In this state they were called " berserker,^- a word of frequent occurrence in the sagas. While under the influence of this madness, the champions committed the wildest extravagances ; they danced about, foamed at the mouth, struck indiscriminately at friends and foes, destroyed their own property, and like the mad Orlando waged war against inanimate nature, tearing up rocks and trees. Sivald, king of Sweden, had five sons, all of whom became berserker ; when the fit was on them they used to swallow burning coals and throw themselves into the fire. They and their father were slain by Halfdan, whom Sivald had previously dethroned, the nation having become im- patient of the extravagances of the frantic princes. Halfdan had a contest with another berserker, named Hartben, who came to attack him accompanied by twelve champions. Hartben was a formidable pirate, but when the fit was on him it was as much as his twelve com- panions could do to prevent him devastating everything around him. Halfdan challenged the pirate and his entire crew. Such an insult so inflamed Hartben, that he was immediately seized with a fit of phrensy during which he killed six of his companions ; he rushed against the king with the remaining six, but the pirates were slain, by the irresist- ible blows of the mace of Halfdan. The sons of Arngrim, king of Helegoland, the most celebrated pirates of their age, are described as suffering severely from the berserk mad- ness ; when under its influence they slaughtered their crews and de- stroyed their shipping: sometimes they landed on desert places and vented their fury on the stocks and stones. After the fit was over they lay quite senseless from sheer exhaustion. A sea-king rarely condescended to the blandishments of courtship. If he heard of any noble or royal damsel celebrated for beauty, he al once demanded her from her father, and if refused, equipped a vessel to take her away by force. He generally brought away, if success- ful, her dowry at the same time, and thus could boast of a double victory. A Swedish pirate named Gunnar, having heard the Skalds celebrate 380 MODERN HISTORY. the charms of Moalda, a Norwegian princess, sent to her father Reg- nald a peremptory demand for the fair lady's hand. Regnald rejectiid such a suitor with scorn, but aware of the consequences of a refusal, he made instant preparations for defence. Before marching against ihe pirates, he had a cavern hollowed out in the mountains, withm which he concealed the princess and his choicest treasures, leaving her a proper supply of provisions. Scarcely were his arrangements com- pleted than the fierce Gunnar appeared off the coast ; Regnald met the pirates on the shore, a desperate battle ensued, and the king was slain. After his victory Gunnar sought out the place where Moalda was con- cealed, and carried away the princess with her treasures to Sweden. A second and a third conquest of this kind often followed the first, for polygamy was sufficiently common among these adventurers. The ladies themselves could not view with indifference heroes who risked their lives to obtain their hands, and whose exploits, immortalized by the Skalds, were sung in all the islands and in all families. France suffered most severely from their hostilities ; their light harks ascended the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, and the Rhone, carrying fire and sword into the very centre of the kingdom. Most of the prin- cipa.1 cities were laid waste ; Paris itself was thrice taken and pillaged ; and the French, at length losing all courage, refused to meet the north- ern warriors in the field, but purchased their retreat with large bribes. This remedy was necessarily as inefficacious as it was disgraceful, for it stimulated the barbarians to fresh incursions in the assured hope of gain. Nor were the Normans regardless of permanent conquests ; Ruric, a leader of their adventurous bands, founded the Russian mon- archy toward the close of the ninth century ; Iceland was colonized, and the greater part of Ireland subdued, at a still earlier period ; and the northern and western islands of Scotland were successively occu- pied as convenient stations for their piratical navies. Finally, they ob- tained fixed establishments in France ; the province of Neustria, now called Nofmandy, was ceded to Rolf or Rollo, the chief of a large horde of these northern pirates, by Charles the Simple (a. d. 912) ; the prov- ince gained great advantages by the exchange, for Rollo becoming a Christian, was baptized by the name of Robert, and applied himself with equeal diligence and success to improve the condition of his new subjects. Charles also ceded to Rollo all the pretensions of the crown to that part of Brittany which no longer recognised the sovereignty of the kings of France, and Rollo came to the borders of his new province to per- form liege homage and confirm the articles of peace. The Norman swore allegiance to Charles, who in return presented his daughter to the adventurer, and gave him the investiture of Neustria. The French prelates, who assumed the regulation of the ceremonials employed on all solemn occasions, had introduced the degrading prostrations of the Orientals into the forms of European homage ; they now informed Rollo that after receiving a gift of so much value, he should on his bended knees kiss the feet of ihe king. " Never," replied the haughty barbarian, " will I bend my knees before another mortal — never will I kiss the foot of man." As the prelates, however, were urgent, he or- dered one of his soldiers to perform the ceremony in his steal. The RESTORATION OF THE ^VESTERN EMPIRE. 381 soldier advancing, rudely seized the foot of Charles, and by a sudden jerk threw the monarch on the ground. The Normans who witnessed the transaction, applauded their comrade's insolence, while the French nobles deemed it prudent to conceal their indignation. The ceremony was continued as if nothing had happened ; the several Norman lords took the usual oaths of allegiance, after which the king returned to Laon. He had chosen this city for his capital, because Paris was included in the fief of one of the great vassals of the crown. The establishment of the Normans in Neustria put an end to the sys- tem of piracy and plunder which for more than a century had devasta- ted western Europe ; the repetition of pillage had so wasted Germany, Gaul, and Britain, that the plunder to be acquired no longer repaid the hazards of an expedition, and as war was no longer profitable, Rollo resolved to cultivate the arts of peace. To prevent the future incur- sions of his countrymen, he fortified the mouths of the rivers, restored the walls of the cities, and kept his subjects in constant military train- ing. Under Rollo the feudal system, which had been slowly forming, received its full development ; immediately after his baptism, he diviv ded the lands of Neustria among his principal followers, to each of whom he gave the title of count, and these counts subdivided the land among their soldiers. The Normans displayed the same ardor in cul- tivating their new estates which they had formerly shown in devasta- ting them ; the peasants resumed the cultivation of their fields ; the priests restored their ruined churches ; the citizens resumed their trading occupations ; strangers were invited from every country to cul- tivate the waste lands : and the most rigorous laws were enacted for the protection of person and properly. Robberies were so efficiently checked, that Rollo, as a bravado, hung up a golden bracelet in a forest near the Seine, which remained untouched for three years. While the Normans devastated the coasts, central Europe was devas- tated by the Hungarians, or, as they called themselves, the Magyars, who extended their ravages into Greece and Italy. Germany suffered most from their hostilities, and was the longest exposed to their fury. These incursions, to which must be added occasional enterprises of the Sclavonians and Si'^'acens, destroyed the political institutions that Charlemagne had formed, and threw Christendom back into the barbar- ism from which it had just begun to emerge. England, under the gov- ernment of Alfred, for a brief space preserved the elements of civiliza- tioi? • he expelled the Normans from the island (a. d. 887), restored the ancient seminaries of learning, and founded new schools. But his glorious reign was followed by fresh calamities ; the Danish-Normans reappeared in England, and spread trouble and desolation throughout the country. From the reign of Charles the Bald, the royal authority rapidly de- clined in France, while the power of the feudal lords constantly in- creased. The dukes and counts, usurping regal rights, raised, on the slightest, or without any provocation, the stand.ard of revolt : the kings, to gain some, and secure the allegiance of others, abandoned to them successively the most valuable royal domains and privileges, until the Carlovingian monarchs, so far from being able to counterbalance the power of the nobility, were unable to support the expenses of their own 382 MODERN HISTORY. courts. A change of dynasty was thus rendered inevitable, and the throne was certain to fall to the lot of the most powerful or most daring of the nominal vassals. This event, which had been long foreseen, took place on the death of Louis the Sluggard, the last of the Carlovin- gian dynasty, who died without issue at the early age of twenty (a. d. 987). Hugh Capet possessed already the centre of the king- dom ; he was count of Paris, duke of France and Neustria, while his brother Henry held the dutchy of Burgundy. It was not difficult for so powerful a noble to form a party, by whose favor he was invested with the title, after having long enjoyed the power of royalty (a. d. 987). Charles of Lorraine, the late king's uncle, took up arms in defence of his hereditary rights ; but he was betrayed to his rival by the bishop of Laon, and ended his days in prison. Hugh became the founder of the Capetian dynasty in France, a branch of which still retains posses- sion of that crown. But for many years after the accession of Hugh Capet, France was an aristocratic republic rather than a monarchy, for the royal authority was merely nominal. The domains of the count of Paris were indeed annexed to the crown, and thus the Capeiians had greater territorial possessions, and consequently greater influence, than the Carlovingians. But the peers of France, as the great feudatories were called, still preserved their independence : and their tacit assent to Hugh's usurpation was anything rather than a recognition of his au- thority. In the south of France, Languedoc, no notice was taken of Hugh's elevation ; and the inhabitants for many years dated their public acts by the nominal reigns of the children of Charles of Lorraine. Section III. — The Foundation of the Germanic Empire. From the first foundation of the Germanic empire by the treaty of Verdun, the royal authority was extremely limited, and Louis, its mon- arch, was obliged to swear in a national assembly, held at Marone (a. d. 851), that "he would maintain the states in all their rights and privileges." His youngest son, Charles the Fat, was deposed by his subjects ; and Arnold, the natural son of Prince Carloman, was elected to the vacant throne. The custom of electing emperors was thus es- tablished in Germany, and it continued almost to our own times. Ar- nold was succeeded by his son Louis ; the states chose Conrad, ^uke of Franconia, as his successor, to the exclusion of Charles the Simpl«, king of France, the legitimate heir male of the Carlovingians. On the death of Conrad, the states elected Henry, sumamed the Fowler, as his successor (a. d. 919), the first of the Saxon dynasty of kings and emperors. Henry I., by his civil and military institutions, raised Germany to the highest rank among the states of Europe. Profiting by the intes- tine commotions of France, he conquered the province of Lorraine which he divided into two dutchies, that of Upper Lorraine, or the Moselle, and that of Lower Lorraine, or Brabant. The former retained the name of Lorraine ; it was long governed by the family of Gerard, duke of Alsace, whose descendants obtained the Germanic empire ir. the eighteenth century. Brabant was assigned to Godlrey, count ot Louvain, whose descendants retained it, with the title of duke, until, on RESTOEATION OF THE WESTERIi EMPIRE. 383 the failure of male heirs, it passed by marriage into the hands of the dukes of Burgundy, who thus found means to render themselves masters of a great portion of the Netherlands. Henry successfully repelled the invasions of the Sclavonians and Hungarians ; by the defeat of the latter he freed the Germans from the disgraceful tribute with which they had been compelled to purchase the forbearance of these barbari- ans, and the memory of his victory was annually commemorated by a grateful people for several succeeding centuries. The great merits of Henry secured the election of his son Otho to the Germanic throne. His reign was disturbed by frequent revolts of the powerful feudatories ; their faction and insubordination effectually prevented him from giving his subjects a code of laws, the great object of his ambition ; he was forced to yield to the turbulent spirit of the times, and leave some more fortunate sovereign to gather the laurels of a legislator. One incident will serve to mark the character of the age better than any labored dissertation. During one of the national as- semblies or diets, it was debated " whether children could inherit the property of their fathers during the lifetime of their grandfathers." After a long discussion, in which the point became more obscure than ever, it was gravely resolved to leave the matter to the decision of a duel. An equal number of combatants, chosen on both sides, entered the lists ; the champions of the children prevailed, and thenceforward the law of inheritance was considered to be fixed. Italy had been raised into a kingdom after the partition of the Carlo- vingian dynasty, and several of its princes had taken the imperial title ; but the government of these feeble rulers exposed the peninsula to dreadful calamities ; it was harassed by the private wars of the nobles, and devastated by invasions of the Hungarians and Saracens. Ade- laide, the widow of Lothaire, king of Italy, menaced with the loss of her dominions by Berenger, or Berengarius the Younger, supplicated the aid of Otho, and her request was strenuously supported by Pope John XII. (a. d. 951). Otho passed into Italy, conquered several of the strongest cities, and gave his hand in marriage to the queen whom he had come to protect. Berenger was permitted to retain the crown of Laly on condition of doing homage to Otho ; but the tyranny and faithlessness of this prince excited such commotions, that the German sovereign was once more summoned to cross the Alps by the united entreaties of the Italian princes and prelates. Otho entered Italy at the head of an army which his rival could not resist ; he marched directly to Rome, where he was received with the greatest enthusiasm (a. d 962). The pope revived in his favor the imperial title, which had been thiiity-eight years in abeyance, proclaimed him Augustus, crowned him emperor of the Romans, and acknowledged him Supreme Head of the Church. But the pontiff's gratitude was not of long duration ; enraged by the emperor's remonstrances against his vicious courses, he took advantage of Otho's absence in pursuit of Berenger to enter into alliance with Adelbert, the son of his ancient enemy, to form a secret league for the expulsion of the Germans from Italy. Otho heard the intelligence of John's treachery with great indigna- tion ; he returned to Rome, held a council, in which the pope was accused of the most scandalous immoralities, and on his refusal to 384 MODERN HISTOaY. appear, he was condemned as contumacious, deposed, and a new pon- tiff, Leo VIII., elected in his stead. All Italy, as far as the ancient kingdom of the Lombards extended, thus fell under the sway of the Germans ; there were only some maritime places in Lower Italy which, with Apulia and Calabria, still remained subject to the Greeks. Otho transmitted this kingdom, with the imperial dignity, to his successors on the German throne ; but from his reign to that of Maximilian I., no prince took the title of emperor until he had been consecrated by the pope. Maximilian designated himself " Emperor Elect" (a. d. 1508), and his example was followed by his successors down to oui times. Otho I. died after a prosperous reign (a. d. 975), and was succeeded by his son Otho II. His reign was occupied in sanguinary wars, which harassed Germany and Italy. Otho having married the Greek princess Theophania, claimed the provinces of Apulia and Calabria as her dowry. After a tedious struggle, the emperor was mortally wound- ed by a poisoned javelin in a battle with the Greeks (a. d. 983). His death is said to have been accelerated by indignation at the joy whioh Theophania showed for the victory of her countrymen, though it was obtained over her own husband. Otho III., when elected successor to his father, was only twelve years of age ; ambitious rivals prepared to dispute his title, but the affection of the Germans for his family enabled him to triumph over all opposition. His authority was more fiercely questioned in Italy, where Crescentius, an ambitious noble, became such a favorite with the Roman populace, that he deposed Pope Gregory, and gave the pontifical digni- ty to John XVI. Otho hastened to Italy, captured Rome, and put both Crescentius and John to death. These severities did not quell the tur- bulence of the Italians ; fresh insurrections soon compelled the empe- ror to return to the peninsula, where he was poisoned by the widow of Crescentius, whom he had seduced under a promise of marriage (a. d. 1002). He died without issue. After some competition, the electors chose Henry, duke of Bavaria, descended from the Othos in the female line, emperor of the West. His reign was disturbed by repeated insurrections, both in Germany and Italy ; he succeeded in quelling them, but was so wearied by these repeated troubles, that he seriously designed to abdicate and retire into a monastery. The clergy took advantage of his piety and liberality to extort from him several rich donations, which proved, in an after age, the cause of much evil. His death (a. d. 1024) put an end to the Sax- on dynasty. Conrad II., duke of Franconia, being chosen by the electors, united the kingdom of Burgundy, or, as it was called, Aries, to the empire. But this was an acquisition of little real value ; the great vassals of the kingdom, the counts and bishops, preserved the authority they had usurped in their respective districts, leaving the emperors a merely nominal sovereignty. It is even probable that the high authority pos- sessed by the Burgundian lords, induced the German nobles to arrogate to themselves the same prerogatives. The power of the clergy was in- creasing even more rapidly than that of the nobles, for they extorted fresh privileges and grants from every successive sovereign ; Conrad, RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 385 who was naturally of a generous disposition,* impoverished the state by imitating the unwise liberality of his predecessors. Italy, during this reign and that of Conrad's son and successor, Henry III., continued to be distracted by rival factions ; but Henry was an energetic supporter of the imperial authority ; he deposed three rival popes, who claimed succession to St. Peter at the same time, and gave the pontifical chair to a German prelate, Clement II. He even exacted an oath from the Romans, that they would never elect a pope without having previously received the imperial sanction. The imperial pov er, wielded by an energetic monarch like Henry, was still formidable, but its resources were exhausted ; and when a feebler sovereign attempted to exercise the tiway over the church which his father had held, he found the papacy stronger than the empire. The great struggle between the papal and imperial power began in the reign of Henry IV., whose long minority, for he succeeded his father when only five years old, necessarily weakened the influence of the sovereign. On the other hand, the circumstances of Europe, at this crisis, were peculiarly favorable to the policy of the popes. The Saxon line, restored in England by Edward the Confessor, had lost its nation- ality : Edward conferred the chief ecclesiastical dignities of his king- dom on foreigners, or persons remarkable for their foreign attachments •■ and thus those who wielded the power of the church in the island, were more like missionaries, laboring for the benefit of a distant see, than clergymen, attentive only to their flocks. In Spain, the new provinces wrested from the Moors, when the unity of their empire was destroyed by the subversion of the Ommiade khaliphs, became closely attached to the Roman see. The spread of Christianity in Norway, Poland, Russia, and the other northern states, gave additional vigor to the papal power ; for the Northerns, with all the zeal of new converts, became eager to prove their sincerity by some enterprise in support of the pon- tift', whom they regarded as the great director of their faith. But the most potent allies obtained by the church were the Normans of England and Italy. William, the natural son of Robert, duke of Normandy, had been nominated heir of the English throne by Edward he Confessor, who had no right to make any such appointment. Har- old, the son of Godwin, earl of Kent, was the favorite of the English people, and it was generally known that he woidd be elected to the throne on the death of the confessor. Unfortunately Harold's brother was detained as a hostage in Normandy, and in spite of the warnings of King Edward, he crossed the sea in order to obtain his deliverance. The vessel in which the Saxon chief crossed the channel was wrecked near the mouth of the Somme, and, according to the barbarous custom of the age, the court of Ponthieu seized upon the shipwrecked strangers, and threw them into prison, for the purpose of obtaining large ransom. Harold and his companions appealed to Duke William, who procured their liberation, and invited them to his court, A grand council of the Norman prelates and nobles was then convoked, in whose presence • Many remarkable anecdotes are related of Conrad's generosity ; one deserves to be recorded. A gentleman having lost his leg in the imperial service, Conrad ordered tha'^ his boot should be filled with gold coins, to defray the expenses of his cure. 25 386 MODERN HISTORY. William required Harold to swear that he would support with ail his might William's succession to the crown of England, so soon as a va- cancy should be created by the death of Edward. Harold's life was in the duke's power, and he consented to take the oath, secretly resolving to violate its obligations. But an artifice was employed, which, in that superstitious age, was supposed to give the oath such sanctity as to ren- der its violation an inexpiable crime. By the duke's orders, a chest was secretly conveyed into the place of meeting, filled with the bones and relics of the saints most honored in the surrounding country, and covered with a cloth of gold. A missal was laid upon the cloth, and at William's summons Harold came forward and took the required oath, the whole assembly joining in the imprecation, " So help you God, at his holy doom." When the ceremony was concluded, the cloth of gold was removed, and Harold shuddered with superstitious horror when he found that his oath had been taken on the relics of saints md martyrs. On Edward's death, Harold, notwithstanding his oath, allowed him- self to be elected king by the English nobles and people ; but the papal clergy refused to recognise his title, the pope issued a bull excommuni- cating Harold and his adherents, which he sent to Duke William, accompanied by a consecrated banner, and a ring, said to have con- tained one of St. Peter's hairs, set under a valuable diamond. Thus supported by the superstitious feelings of the period, William found no difficulty in lev^-ing a numerous army, with which he passed over into England. The fate of the kingdom was decided by the battle of Hastings, in which Harold and his bravest soldiers fell. William found little difficulty in completing the conquest of England, into which he introduced the inheritance of fiefs, and the severities of the feudal law. He deprived the native English nobles of their estates, which he shared among his own needy and rapacious followers, and he treated his new subjects with more than the cruelty that barbarous conquerors usually display toward the vanquished. About the same time, some Norman adventurers laid the foundation of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, in southern Europe. The prov- inces that compose it were shared among the Lombard feudatories of the empire, the Greeks, and the Saracens, who harassed each other with mutual wars. About a hundred Normans landing on the coast (a. d. 1016), offered their services to the Lombard princes, and dis- played so much valor, that they obtained from the duke of Naples a grant of territory, where they built the city of Aversa. Encouraged by their success, Tancred, with another body of Norman adventurers, un- dertook the conquest of Apulia, which was completed by his son, Robert Guiscard. This warrior subdued Calabria also, and took the title of duke of both provinces. To secure his possessions, he entered into alliance with the pope, securing to the pontiff" homage, and an annual tribute, on condition of receiving investiture. Nicholas II., who then filled the chair of St. Peter, willingly ratified a treaty by which the papacy gained important advantages, at the price of un jm.^)ty title ; he Stimulated Guiscard to undertake the conquest of Sicily also, an enter- prise in which that adventurer completely succeeded. Thus, at the moment that the papacy was about to struggle for power with the em pire, the former had been strengthened by the accession of powerful RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 387 allies and vassals, while the latter had given away the greater part of Its strength by the alienation of its domains, to gratify the church, or to win the favor of feudatories whose influence was already formidable. Sect/on IV. — State of the East from the Estahlishmenl to the Overthrow of the Khaliphate. The history of the Byzantine empire, ni the ninth, tenth, and elev- enth centuries, is little better than a tissue of usurpation, fanaticism, and perfidy. " Externally surrounded by foes, superior in numbers, in dis- cipline, and in valor, it seemed as if i.s safety was guarantied by cow- ardice, and its security confirmed by defeat. Internally were at work all the causes that usually eflect the destruction of states : dishonor and profligacy triumphant in the palace ; ferocious bigotry, based at once on enthusiasm and hypocrisy, ruling the church ; civil dissensions, equally senseless and bloody, distracting the state ; complete demoralization, pervading every rank, from the court to the cottage ; so that its exist- ence seemed owing to the antagonising effect of the causes that singly produce the ruin of empires." In the tenth century these causes seemed to have reached their consummation ; emperor after emperor perished by poison, or the dagger of the assassin ; parricide and fratricide v/ere crimes of such ordinary occurrence, that they ceased to excite feelings of horror or disgust. Theological disputes, about questions that pass the limits of human knowledge, and a jealous rivalry between the patri- arch of Constantinople and the pope of Rome, produced a division be- tween the eastern and western churches, which the disputes respecting the Bulgarians aggravated into a formal schism. These barbarians were converted to Christianity by Greek and Latin missionaries ; the patriarch and the pope contended for the patronage of the new ecclesi- astical establishments ; the Greeks prevailed in the contest, and forth- with banished their Latin adversaries, while the court of Rome took re- venge by describing the Greeks as worse than the worst of the heathen. A brie^ display of vigoi by Nicephorus, Phocus, and John Zimisces, arrested the progress of the Saracens, who were forming permanent establishments within sight of Constantinople. But Zimisces was poi- soned at the very moment when his piety^ courage, and moderation, had averted impending ruin, and promised to restore some portion of the empire's former strength and former glory. His feeble successors swayed the sceptre with unsteady hands, at a time when the empire was attacked by the fiercest enemies it had yet encountered, the Nor- mans in Sicily, and the Seljukian Turks in Asia Minor. The names Turk and Tartar are loosely given to the inhabitants of those regions which ancient authors included under the designation of Scythia. Their uncivilized tribes possessed the countries north of the Caucasus and east of the Caspian, from the river Oxus to the wall of China : hordes issuing from these wide plains had frequently devastated the empire of Persia, and more than once placed a new race of sover- eigns on the throne. It was not, however, until the eighth century that they were themselves invaded in turn ; the Saracens, in the first burst of their enthusiasm, passed the Oxus, subdued Kharasm and Transox- •ana, and imposed the religion and law of Mohammed on a race of 388 MODERN HISTORY. warriors more fiery and zealous than themselves. Soon aher the es tablishment of the khaliphate at Bagdad, the Saracenic empire began to be dismembered, as we have already stated, and the khaliphs, alarmed by the revolt of their armies, and surrounded only by subjects devoted to the arts of peace, began to intrust the guard of their persons and their capital to foreign mercenaries. Al Moutassem was the first who levied a Turkish army to protect his states (a. d. 833) ; and even during his reign, much inconvenience was felt from the pride and insolence of soldiers unconnected with the soil they were employed to defend. The evil went on daily increasing, until the emirs, or Turkish commanders, usurped all the real authority of the state, leaving to the khaliphs the outward show and gewgaws of sovereignty, with empty titles, whose pomp was increased as the authority they pretended to represent was diminished. The revolution was completed in the reign of Al Khadi (a. d. 936) ; hoping to arrest the progress of the revolution, he created a new minister, called the Emir-al-Omra,* to whom far greater powers were given than had been intrusted to the ancient viziers. This, as might have been expected, aggravated the evil it was designed to pre- vent. The family of the Bowides, so called from their ancestor Buyah, usurped this high office and the sovereignty of Bagdad ; the khaliph was deprived of all temporal authority, and was regarded simply as the chief Iman, or pontifl" of the Mohammedan faith. Such was the state of the khaliphate, when a new horde from the in- terior of Turkestan appeared to change the entire face of Asia. This horde, deriving its name from Seljuk, one of its most renowned chiefs, was invited to cross the Oxus by the Ghaznevidf sultans,| who had already established a powerful kingdom in the east of Persia, and sub- dued the north of Hindostan. Tne Seljukians finding the pasturages of Khorassan far superior to those of their native country, invited new colonies to the fertile land ; they soon became so powerful that Togrul Beg proclaimed himself a sultan, and seized several of the best provin- ces belonging to the khaliphate. Finally, having taken Bagdad, he be- came master of the khaliph's person (a. d. 1055) and succeeded to the power which had formerly been possessed by the Bowides. Togrul transmitted his authority to his nephew and heir, the formidable Alp Arslan.t^ This prince renewed the war against the Greek empire, ob- tained a signal victory over its forces in Armenia, and took the emperor, • " Lord of the lords," or " Commander of the commanders." t The Ghaznevid dynasty was founded by Sebektagen, who is said to have been originally a slave (a. d. 977). But his fame is eclipsed by that of his son Mah- mud, Avhose conquests in northern India rival those of a hero of romance. His desire of conquest was rendered more terrible tc those he attacked by his cruel b'.gotry, for in every country that he subdued, the horrors of war were increased by those of religious persecution. At his death, the empire of Ghizni included a great part of Persia, Afghanistan, and northern India, to the provinces of Ben- gal and the Deccan. But the rise of this great dynasty was not more rapid than its downfall, which we may date from the death of that monarch, to whom it owes all its lustre in the page of history (a. d. 1028). Little more than a century after Mohammed's death, the last of the Ghaznevids was deposed by Mohammed Gouri, Uie founder of a new dynasty, equally transitory as that which it displaced. t The title of sultan, which in the Chaldaic and Arabic languages signifies a •"vereign, was first assumed by the Ghaznevid princes. § His name signifies the Conquering Lion. RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 389 Romanus Diogenes, prisoner (a. d. 1070). The distractions produced by this event in the Byzantine dominions, enabled the Turks not only to expel the Greeks from Syria, but also to seize some of the finest provinces in Asia Minor. Under Malek Shah, the son and successor of Alp Arslan, the Sel- jukian monarchy touched the summit of its greatness. This wise prince extended his dominions from the Mediterranean to the wall of China. Guided by the wise counsels of the vizier, Nezam-al-Mulk, the sultan ruled this mighty empire with great justice and moderation, Asia enjoyed tranquillity, to which it had been long unaccustomed, and learning and civilization began to revive. In the midst of this prosperity, a circumstance occurred, which, though little noticed at the time, became the source of unparalleled misfortunes to the east. This was the seizure of the mountain-castle of Alamut, and the foundation of the order of the Assassins, by Hassan Sabah. This formidable enthusiast had become a convert to the Ismaelian doc- trines, in which the creed of Islam was mingled with the darker am more gloomy superstitions of Asiatic paganism. His followers, per- suaded that obedience to the commands of their chief would ensure their eternal felicity, never hesitated to encounter any danger in order to remove his enemies. Emissaries from the formidable Sheikh al Je- bal* went in disguise to palaces and private houses, watching the favor- able opportunity of striking the blow, to those who had provoked the hostility of their grand master. So dreadful was this scourge that ori- ental historians, during a long period of their annals, terminat?e their account of each year with a list of the men of note who had fallen victims during its course to the daggers of the assassins. After the death of Malek Shah (a. d. 1092), disputes arose between his sons, which led to sanguinary civil wars, and the dismemberment of the em- pire. Three powerful sultanies were formed from its fragments, namely, Iran, Kerman, and Rum, or Iconium. That of Iran was the most pow- erful, for it possessed the rich provinces of Upper Asia, but its great- ness soon declined. The emirs, or governors of cities and provinces, threw oft" ..heir allegiance, and under the modest title of Atta-begs,t ex- ercised sovereign authority. The Seljukians of Rum, known to the crusaders as the Sultans of Nice, or Iconium,| were first raised into notice by Soleiman. Their history is important only from its connex- ion with that of the crusades. These divisions were the cause of the success which attended the early wars of the Christians in Palestine, and of the qualified independence of the late khaliphs, who shook off the Seljukian yoke, and established themselves in the sovereignty of Irak Arabi, or the province of Bagdad. • " Lord of the Mountain ;" from the equivocal sense of the Arabic word Sheikh, the name is commonly translated " Old Man of the Mountain." t Mta-beg is a Turkish word, and signifies " father or guardian of the prince." X Cogni, or Iconium, is a city of Lycaonia, which these sultans made their caj)- ital, after Nice had been taken by the crusaders. 390 MODERN HISTORY CHAPTER IV. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. Section I. — The Origin of the Papacy. There is nothing more remarkable in the clerical organization of Christianity at its first institution, than its adaptation to all times and al circumstances. Without entering into any controverted question, we may generally state, that in the infant church provision was made for self-government on the one hand, and general superintendence on the other ; and that, before the gospel was preached beyond the bounds of Judfjea, the two great principles of the independence of national church- es, and the authority of a council to ensure the unity of the faith, were fully recognised. Infidels have endeavored to trace the form of church government to Constantine, though the slightest glance at the history of the preceding age suffices to prove that the ecclesiastical constitution was, long before that emperor's accession, perfected in all its parts. The management belonged to the local priesthood, the government to the bishops, the superintendence of all to the council. This is the general outline of the apostolic model, and we may see in it one mark, at least, of a more than human origin, its capability of unlimited expan- sion. The best institutions are open to abuse, and the Christian clergy were exposed to two different lines of temptation, both, however, tend- ing to the same point, acquisition of power. The emperors of Con- stantinople endeavored to make the clergy their instruments in estab- lishing a perfect despotism, while the people looked upon their spiritual guides as their natural protectors against the oppressions of their tem- poral rulers. Under these circumstances, episcopacy formed a new power in the empire, a power continually extending, because it was soon obvious that a common faith was the only bond which would hold together nations differing in language, institutions, and blood. But this political use of Christianity naturally suggested a gross and dangerous perversion of its first principles ; when unity of faith appeared to be of such great value, it was natural that toleration should be refused to any great difference of opinion, and consequently, persecuting edicts were issued against paganism and heresy. This false step led to a still more dangerous confusion between spiritual and temporal power ; when ecclesiastical censures produced civil consequences, the priest was identified with the magistrate, and every hour it became more diffi- cult to separate their functions. In the decline of the empire also, the GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 391 temporal power was deservedly hated and despised ; a profligate court, a venal magistracy, and a cowardly soldiery, constituted the ordinary materials of the imperial government ; and, compared with these, the sacerdotal body, in the worst stage of its degradation, had powerful claims to respect, if not to esteem. It is of importance to remember that the corruption of the episcopal power was produced by the general corruption of the empire, and con- sequently, instead of furnishing an argument against episcopacy as an institution, it may rather be urged as a proof of its excellence. The church had fallen, indeed, from its origmal purity, but the state was a mass of unmixed evils ; ecclesiastical power was frequently abused, but the temporal authorities scarcely went right by accident ; wt itever prin- ciples of justice and rectitude remained in the world, owed their conser- vation to the Christian clergy ; and to the examples of ecclesiastical traffic there might easily be opposed a longer and more honorable list of instances, in which bishops supported the dignity of their order, by protecting the interests of morality against the craft of courtiers and the vices of sovereigns. While the discipline of the church was injured by the clergy having temporal power forced upon them — in the first instance at least — with- out their solicitation, the doctrines of Christianity were corrupted by a practice arising from the best feelings of our nature. The saints and martyrs who had faced danger, torture, and death, to promulgate Chris- tianity, were remembered with just gratitude, when that religion became triumphant. Their bones were removed from unhonored graves to tombs more worthy of their virtues, and a generation enjoying the ad- vantages that their toils and their blood had purchased, testified its thankfulness by rich offerings at their shrines. Thus the avaricious and the designing were tempted to multiply the number of relics, and to exaggerate their importance, until the feeling of thankful reverence was gradually changed into one of religious adoration. These steps in the progress of error were easy, they were likewise profitable ; crafty men propagated stories of miracles wrought at the tombs of the martyrs, pray- ers were soon addressed to persons supposed to be possessed of such supernatural powers, the invocation of saints and the worship of relics naturally led to the introduction of images and pictures, and to the revi- val of many pagan ceremonies, which had, perhaps, never fallen into complete oblivion. But an ecclesiastical establishment must not bear the entire blame of the introduction of image-worship into the Christian church. The de- sire of possessing representations of those whom we venerate is natural to the human mind ; and in an age of ignorance, the symbols of a creed were found useful aids in teaching the multitude the historical facts of Christianity. It must, however, be observed, that the ignorance and credulity of the laity had a far greater share in leading to a corrupt use of images, than the craft of the clergy : the perversion was in many, per- haps in most instances, forced upon the priesthood by the flock, and it was still further supported by the monastic bodies, which have in every age been the most prominent among the originators and supporters of every superstition. The monastics were the first who introduced what is called the 392 MODERN HISTORY roluntar}. principle, into the Christian church ; tney Avere also the first to allow self-ordained instructers to interfere with the duties of the proper pastors. Fanaticism and superstition were the necessary results of these disturbing forces, and by none was the progress of evil more seriously lamented than by the parochial clergy and the tegular bishops. The charge of idolatry was justly urged against the Christian church in the beginning of the eighth century, both by the Jews and the Mo- hammedans. The latter were far the more formidable, for to the argu- ments of truth they added the weight of victory. There was scarcely an eastern city which was not fortified by the possession of some mirac- ulous image, supposed to be the palladium of its safety ; but in spite of this protection they had fallen, one after the other, into the hands of the Mussulmans. Ashamed of the reproaches they encountered, and con- vinced practically of the insufficiency of these objects of their devotion, many of the eastern bishops began to oppose the wor.'.nip of images, but their exertions were rendered unavailing, by the influence and obstinacy of the monks, until Leo the Isaurian ascended the throne of Constantinople. A fierce struggle ensued : the Iconoclasts, as the opposers of images were called, made a vigorous effort to restore the purity of the Christian »vorship, and at the synod of Constantinople (a. d. 754) three hundred and thirty-eight bishops pronounced and subscribed a unanimous de- cree, that " all visible symbols of Christ, except in the eucharist, were either blasphemous or heretical ; that image-worship was a corruption of Christianity, and a revival of paganism ; that all such monuments of idolatry should be broken or erased ; and that those who should re- fuse to give up the objects of their private superstition, should be deemed guilty of disobedience to the authority of the church and of the emperor." The enemies of the Iconoclasts have spared no terms of reproach in denouncing the proceedings of this synod, but an impartial view of the authentic relics of its proceedings, which have been preserved, proves that its members displayed more of reason and piety than could have been expected in their age. They seem, indeed, to have felt that they were fighting the battle of episcopacy against monachism, and that the saf'^ty of their order was compromised by the assumptions of volunteer instructers ; but they made no direct attack upon monastic institutions, and only assailed the abuses which they encouraged. Six successive emperors supported, the cause of reason and religion against idolatry in the eastern church, but the worshippers of images finally triumphed. Still, down to a very late period, there were prelates in the East who resisted the corruption, and the Armenians especially refused to admit images into their churches even in the twelfth century. But the contest was decided much sooner in western Europe, by the promptitude with which Pope Gregory II. appealed to arms against his sovereign and the Iconoclasts. The ambitious pontiff found sufficient support in the national enmity between the Greeks and Latins ; he had the art to persuade the Italians that there was some connexion between the new superstition and their hereditary glory ; and tliat, while they supported the worship of images, they were imposing a necessary re- GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 393 straint on Byzantine tyranny. The Lombards embraced the religious pretext to expel the Greeks from Italy ; but the pope, finding that the conquerors were anxious to impose a yoke upon him more grievous than that which had just been shaken off, invoked the assistance of the Franks. Supported by the arms of Pepin and Charlemagne, the popes maintained the independence of the Roman territories, and were thus raised to the rank of temporal princes. Grateful for the aid they re- ceived, the pontiffs, as has been already mentioned, decided that it was lawful for the Franks to depose an imbecile sovereign, and substitute in his place one who had proved an able protector of the state, and a generous benefactor to the church ; and in consequence of this sentence, Pepin was solemnly crowned at Paris. The proper history of the papacy begins at this union of temporal and spiritual jurisdiction. Three transactions combined to give it form : the revolt against Leo, the establishment of the Roman principality, and the coronation of Pepin. In the first of these, the popes were hurried for- ward by circumstances to lengths which they had not antici{)ated ; nei- ther the second nor third Gregory wished to destroy completely the power of the Byzantine emperor, and they continued to acknowledge the successors of Constantino as their rulers, until the Lombards sub- verted the exarchate of Ravenna. But in spite of their moderation, real or affected, they had established to some extent the dangerous prece- dent, that the heresy of a sovereign justifies a withdrawal of allegiance in his subjects, though they themselves never asserted such a principle, and indeed seem never to have contemplated it. The independence of the Roman principality, and the establishment of the pope as a temporal sovereign, necessarily resulted from the dread which the Latins, but especially the Romans, had of the Lombards. It was impossible to revert to the sovereigns of Constantinople ; indepen- dent of the unpopularity produced by their Iconoclast propensities, they wanted the power of retaining the Italian provinces, even if the govern- ment had been offered them ; there was no choice between the asser- tion of independence and submission to the Lombards ; there were no materials for constructing a national government outside the precincts of the church, and the popes consequently became princes by the pres- sure of a necessity which was confessed by the unanimous consent of their subjects. In sanctioning the usurpation of Pepin, Pope Zachary pronounced his opinion more as a statesman than a prelate. There was an obvious ex- pediency for dethroning the weak Chilperic, and giving the title of king to him who really exercised the functions of royalty. There was noth- ing authoritative in the sentence — it did not command the Franks to dethrone one king and elect another — it merely declared that considera- tions of public safety justified a people in changing its rulers : it did nothing new, but it ratified what had been done already. But the new dynasty eagerly sought in the proceedingffor a confirmation of their de- fective title ; it was Pepin and his friends, rather than the pontiff, who perverted the opinion of a ft-dsuist into the sentence of a judge and the oracle of a prophet. Thus popery, like most human institutions, was founded on opinions in which truth and falsehood were strangely mixed ; and it is fortunately 394 MODERN HISTORY. easy to separate the parts. In rejecting the Byzantine yoke, the popes asserted a right to resist, but not to depose, sovereigns ; in becoming temporal princes, they declared that there could be a union between civil and ecclesiastical jiirisdictions, but not that they were necessarily connected, and still less that they were inherited of right by the succes- sors of St. Peter : finally, in the most equivocal case, the sanction of Pepin's election, the pope put forward the expediency of having an in- telligent umpire to decide in cases of a dispute, not that he was neces- sarily that umpire ; and still less that he had authority to act as su- preme judge in a court of appeal. It is sufficiently obvious, however, that the truths are easily capable of being perverted into the falsehoods, and that there were strong temptations to the change. Ere a genera- tion had passed away, the truths sank into oblivion, and the falsehoods were everywhere proclaimed as the true foundations of the papal system. Section II. — The early Development of the Political System of the Papacy. The Iconoclast controversy, and the mutual obligations of the popes and the Carlovingian family, form the important links between ancient and modern history, as well as between civil and ecclesiastical affairs. Pepin recognised the pope's arbitration as an authoritative act, though, as we have seen, it was merely an opinion founded on expediency, and furthermore might have been justified on constitutional grounds, for the monarchy of the Franks was originally elective, and the principle of hereditary right was an innovation gradually introduced by the succes- sors of Clovis. But Pepin naturally felt that he would weaken the title of his sons to the succession, if he rested his claims on popular election ; and he was therefore anxious to invest his dynasty with the mysterious sanction of religion. It is doubtful whether the Roman pontiffs foresaw the importance of the measures they adopted, but prudence and prophe- cy united could scarcely have suggested better means for extending the papal power. They revived the Jewish ceremonial of anointing kings ; and Pepin, as well as his successors, regarded this ceremony as an as- sertion of a divine right to the crown ; while the popes represented it, not as a simple recognition, but almost an appointment of the sovereign. Both the kings and the pontiffs shared in a profitable fraud, which gave security to the one, and power to the other ; the Frank nobles murmured, without being able to discover the exact nature of the principles which destroyed for the future their ancient rights of election, though these principles were very intelligibly expressed by a new effort of Pope Ste- phen to gratify the new dynasty. Pressed by his eneaiies in Italy, Stephen III. sought Pepin's court to obtain aid, and gratified the mon- arch by solemnly crowning both his sons. In Pepin's case, the coro- nation had followed the election ; and thus the popular rights were abol- ished almost at the moment that they were most " strongly asserted. Royalty and popery gained, btit not in equal proportions : for though the principles of divine right and inheritance by descent were estab- lished for kings, the higher power of pronouncing on these rights was reservec' for the pontiffs. The Carlovingians, grateful for the security thus given to their title. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWEB. 395 enlarged the papal dominions by territories wrested from the Lombard kingdom — the Greek exarchate. To secure these acquisitions, tho pontiffs had recourse to a more daring fraud than any they had yet per- petrated : a forged deed was produced, purporting to be a donation from the first Christian emperor, Constantine, to the successors of St. Peter, of the sovereignty over Rome, Italy, and the western provinces. Thus the gift of the French monarch was made to appear the restitution of ancient possessions, and the temporal power of the popes, while yet in its infancy, was invested with the sanction of remote antiquity. It is useless to expose the falsehood of this audacious forgery, which is now condemned by even the most bigoted writers of the Romish church ; but in its day it was universally received as valid, and was long regarded as the legal instrument by which the papal power was established. Adrian I. was the pontiff who first combined the elements of the? pa- pacy into a system. He was startled at the very outset by a difRcalty which seemed to threaten the foundation of his power. The Greek emperess, Irene, who administered the government during the 3 eign of her son, Constantine the Porphyrogennete, re-established the worship of images, and persecuted the Iconoclasts. Adrian, however, was nat- urally reluctant to return under the Byzantine yoke, and were he even so inclined, he would probably have been prevented by the Romans ; the popes had tasted the pleasures of sovereignty, and the people of freedom ; neither, therefore, would sacrifice such advantages to the Greeks. A closer union was made with the Franks, though Charles and his bishops had stigmatized the worship of images, and declared they should be regarded only as objects of reverence. But the pope foresaw that the use of images would soon lead to their adoration, and he courted Charlemagne as a friend and protector. Leo III., who succeeded Adrian, sent to Charlemagne the standard of Rome, requesting him to send delegates to receive the allegiance of the Romans. From the latter circumstance, it has been rather hastily inferred that the popes acknowledged the sovereignty of Charles ; but, in truth, the relations between the pontiffs and the Frank nion- archs were purposely left indefinite ; any attempt to state tliem would have shown that the claims of both were irreconcilable, but their mu- tual interests required that they should combine, and each avoided ex- planations that might provoke a contest. Leo soon experienced the benefits of his moderation ; driven from Rome by the relatives of the late pope, he sought refuge among the Franks ; and Charlemagne not only sent him back with a powerful es- cort to his capital, but went thither in person to do him justice. Leo was permitted to purge himself by oath of the crimes laid to his charge, and, in gratitude for his acquittal, he solemnly crowned Charles, Em- peror of the West. The ceremony was performed on the festival of Christmas, in the last year of the eighth century ; and the pontiff who had so recently stood before his sovereign as a criminal making his de- fence, now appeared as his superior, conferring on him the highest earthly title by the authority of Heaven. There was obvious danger to papal ambition in the establishment of an empire ; the successors of the Caesars must of necessity have been 396 MODERN HISTORY, formidable rivals to the successors of St. Peter ; but there were many important advantages to be gained, which did not escape the notice of the crafty pontiffs. The secure enjoyment of their temporal dominions, as the most honorable species of fief or benefice, was obviously an im- mediate result, but there was a remote one of much greater importance, the change of the precedence, universally conceded to the Romish see, into an acknowledgment of its supremacy. » It is not easy to discover at what time the papacy directly fixed its attention upon destroying the independence of national churches, but assuredly the period was not very remote from that which we have been considering. The contests between the bishops of Rome and Constantinople, like those of more modern times between the archbish- ops of York and Canterbury, were struggles for dignity r-sther than power. The primacy which Boniface III. assumed, by taking the title of universal bishop, was nothing more than presidency : thjs was a good foundation for a future claim to supremacy, but there is no proof that any such claim was contemplated by Boniface, and every probabil- ity is against the supposition. But when the independence of nations was compromised by the establishment of an empire, it was "^^ery natural that the independence of national churches should also be endangered. In the age of Charle- magne, law, order, and intelligence, had no sure support but religion : the popular opinion identified with ecclesiastical influence all that so- ciety enjoyed or hoped for ; it was the bond that held the discordant parts of the empire together, and the emperor joined with the pope in giving it strength and unity. The death of Charlemagne relieved the pontiffs from the pressure of •mperial power ; his successor, Louis the Debonnaire, had not strength of mind sufficient to support the weight of empire, while the popes stood ready to grasp the reins of power as they slipped from his hands ,- chey began to exercise their pontifical functions immediately after their election, without waiting for the confirmation of their power, and Louis, ambarrassed by nearer dangers, was unable to punish the usurpation. Louis divided his empire among his sons ; a fatal error, for in their con- tests for supremacy the sovereign authority was sacrificed to the feudal lords, and to the spiritual power. L must, however, be confessed, that the usurpations of the church, during the sanguinary wars between the successors of Charlemagne, were almost rendered necessary by the circumstances of the time. The competitors for empire were weak and cruel, the profligacy of the feu- dal lords was only equalled by their ignorance, and the church alone preserved the semblance of justice. The clergy of all ranks profited by the popular opinion in their favor ; usurpation followed usurpatioA without provoking opposition : Charles the Bald acknowledged the right of the bishops to depose him, and the bishops of his council bound themselves by a canon to remain united, " for the correction of kings, the nobility, and the people." This gross assumption was ap- plauded by the laity, at once ignorant, wicked, and devout : it was felt by all parties that supreme power should exist somewhere ; kings, no- bles, and commons, equally felt the want, and, in a greater or less de- gree, the consciousness that it could not safely be intrusted to them- GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 397 Belves. Nicholas I., more bold than any of his predecessors, constitU' ted himself the Judge of bishops and kings : he deposed the archbishop of Ravenna for asserting his independence, and would not permit him to be restored until he acknowledged himself a vassal of the holy see : he even cited the king of Lorraine to appear before his tribunal (a. d. 860). Lothaire, king of Lorraine, had divorced his first wife, Theut- berga, on a charge of adultery, and, by the advice of his council, cho- sen a beautiful young lady, called Valdrade, for his second queen. The pope annulled the second marriage, and compelled Lothaire to take back his first wife ; he persevered in enforcing his edict, even after Theutberga herself had submitted to the pretensions of her rival. Adrian II. was chosen successor to Nicholas ; the imperial ambassa- dors were excluded from the election, and their remonstrances treated with neglect. He interfered on the side of justice, to secure the inher- itance of Lorraine for the emperor Louis II., but the jontiffwas foiled by the firmness of Charles the Bald, and his claims to decide between the competitors refuted by Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims. Adrian re- solved to conciliate the prince whom he could not subdue, and won Charles to submission by promising him the succession to the. empire. This project was executed by Adrian's successor, John VIII.; finding that the king of France was determined to have the title of emperor on any terms, he made him stipulate to acknowledge the independence of Rome and its territory, and to confess that he only held the empire by the gift of the pope. In an assembly held at Pavia (a. d. 878), Charles was recognised by the Italian prelates and nobles in the following memorable words : " Since the Divine favor, through the merits of the holy apostles and of their vicar Pope John, has raised you to the empire, according to the judgment of the Holy Ghost, we elect you unanimously for our protec- tor and lord." The pontiff by no means suffered Charles to forget that the empire was his gift : when the Saracens invaded Italy, he wrote to Charles, reproaching him for his delay in affording succor, and desiring him, " to remember the hand that had given him the empire, lest, if driven to despair, we should change our opinion." But while the popes were thus triumphant over the emperors, they Were severely harassed by the turbulent feudal lords, who had taken ad- vantage of the weakness of their sovereign, to establish a virtual inde- pendence. They interfered in the pontifical elections, and generally controlled them ; they insulted, imprisoned, and murdered the pontiffs ; while the claims of the apostolic see to complete supremacy were tacitly acknowledged throughout Europe, it was itself held in disgraceful ser- vitude by petty tyrants. Two infamous prostitutes, by their influence with the profligate nobles, procured the throne of St. Peter for their paramours, and their illegitimate children ; and the disorders of the church finally attained such a height that the imperial power was once more raised above the papal, and Pope John XII. deposed by the em- peror Otho. The vices of this dark period are not justly attributable to popery ; they were the result of feudalism, and so far as the papal system was able to exert any influence, it was employed in counteracting these evils. The great error of the pontiffs was, that they did not arrange a 398 MODERN HISTORY. iudicious plan for elections ; they left their power thus exposed to the disturbances of a disputed succession which had already proved fatal to the imperial power : had the arrangements been such as to prevent any lay interference, ecclesiastical influence would have gone on increasing without interruption. But the vice and violence of the Roman nobles rendered popery, as a system, for a time inoperative, and prevented a Nicholas from anticipating a Hildebrand Section III. — The Struggle for Supremacy between the Popes and Emperors. Otho, deservedly called the Great, was the third emperor of Ger- many, elected by the sufirage of the German princes. His high char- acter pointed him out to Pope John XII. as a proper protector for the church and the republic, against the fierce nobles of Lombardy, but especially against Berengarius, who claimed the kingdom of Italy. Otho crossed the Alps, tranquillized Italy, and was rewifded with the iron crown of Lomoardy, and the revived title of Emperor of the West. But both the pope and the Romans were jealous of their bene- factor, and even during the ceremony of his coronation, Otho had to take precautions against the daggers of assassins. John soon found that the German emperor was not content with an empty title ; enraged at the progress of the imperial authority, he entered into a secret com- pact with Adelbert, the son of his ancient enemy, to expel foreigners from Italy, and, at the same time, he invited the Hungarians to invade Germany. Otho promptly returned to Italy, and having entered Rome, he com pelled the nobles and people to renew their oath of allegiance. He then summoned a council for the trial of Pope John, whose immoralities were flagrant and notorious. The charges against the pontiff contained a dreadful catalogue of crimes, but we can not vouch for the integrity of the witnesses, or the impartiality of the court. There is, however, no doubt that John was a licentious profligate, whose vices not only dis- graced his station, but were shocking to humanity. The pope refusing to appear before the tribunal, was condemned as contumacious, after having been twice summoned in vain. Leo VIII. was elected to the papacy, in the room of John, and he not only took an oath of obedience and fidelity to the emperor, but issued a bull, ordaining that Otho and his successors should have a right of appointing the popes, and investing bishops and archbishops ; and that none should dare to consecrate a bishop without the permission of the emperor. This fatal blow to the papacy was unpopular with the bishops ; they complained that Leo had subverted, at one blow, the structure which his predecessors had toiled to raise during two centuries. When John, after the emperor's departure, returned to Rome, he easily procured the deposition of Leo, and the acknowledgment of his own claims. The restored pope began to exercise great cruelties against his opponents ; but in the midst of his career, he Avas assassinated by a young noble- man, whom he had rivalled in the affections of his mistress. Such horror had this pontiff's crimes inspired, that many of the Romans be- lieved that Satan in proper person had struck the fatal blow which sent him to his dread account, " with all his imperfections on his head." GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 399 The adherents of John still refused to acknowledge Leo, and without consulting the emperor, they chose Benedict to succeed the murdered pontiff. But the return of Otho threw them into confusion : Benedict Irastily tendered his submission to Leo, by whom he was banished ; and the Roman nobility and clergy promised the emperor that they would never confer the papal dignity on any but a native of Germany. On the death of Leo, the electors, obedient to their promise, chose John XIIL by the emperor's permission. The pope was too grateful to his sovereign, to resist the encroachments of the imperial power on the city and the church : the turbulent Romans revolted and threw John into prison, but Otho soon came to suppress these disturbances. He restored John, and severely punished the authors of the revolt. Thus the political system of popery seemed utterly ruined, the pontiff ruled the Roman states as a lieutenant instead of a prince, and, far from being regarded as the supreme umpire of monarchs, he was reduced to the condition of a subject. We have seen that the papacy owed its first success to the national hatred between the Latins and the Byzantines ; strength for a new struggle to retrieve its fortunes was derived from the animosity with which the Germans were regarded by the Italians. The death of Otho (a. d. 973), was the signal for new convulsions in Italy; the feudal lords aimed at independence, the cities tried to establish freedom ; Pope John tried to uphold the imperial cause, but he was arrested by Cincius, the head of the popular party, and strangled in prison. Cincius and his faction chose Boniface VII. for their spiritual head; the aristocratic party, headed by the counts of Tuscany, elected Ben- edict VII.; the former was soon driven from the capital; he sought shelter at Constantinople, where he strenuously urged the Greek em- perors to invade Italy. These princes took his advice, and, uniting themselves with the Saracens, subdued Apulia and Calabria. Otho II. vanquished these enemies ; but when he returned to Germany, Boni- face came back to Italy, made himself master of Rome, and threw his rival into prison, where he was starved to death. Four months after- ward the murderer died suddenly, and was succeeded by John XV. So low had the papacy now sunk, that the whole of John's reign was occupied by a struggle for the government of the city of Rome. Crescentius, an ambitious noble, eager to establish his own despotism under the name of freedom, persuaded the citizens to reject the au- thority both of the piope and the emperor. Otho II. crushed the revolt, and so firmly established the imperial authority, that he was enabled to nominate one of his creatures successor to John ; and the cardinals re- ceived as their head Bruno, a Saxon stranger, who took the title of Gregory V.* Ciescontias had little trouble in exciting a new insurrection ; but the Italians were too feeble to contend with the entire strength of the em- pire ; they were defeated with ruinous loss ; their leader was captured and beheaded. On the death of Gregory, Otho nominated Gerbert to the pa])al dignity, and he was installed under the title of Sylvester II. Although he did not foresee the consequences, Sylvester may be re * Every pope changes his name on his accession, in imitation of St. Peter, wlion our Lord called Cephas, or Peter, instead of Simon. 400 MODERN HISTORY. garded as the first who made any progress in restoring the power of popery. His personal virtues removed the scandal which had long weakened the influence of his see, his patronage of learning restored to the church its sziperiority in intelligence, and, through his intimacy with the emperor, he obtained a renewal of the temporal grants which Charlemagne and Pepin had made to his predecessors. The popes now began to support the imperial cause against the turbulent nobles of Italy ; in return they were aided by the emperors in their struggles with the Roman princes and citizens ; but by this alliance the pontiffs were the principal gainers, for the emperor's attention was distracted by various objects while the popes were always on the spot to secure the fruit of every victory. So rapidly had their power been retrieved, that when Benedict VIII. crowned the emperor Henry, to whom he owed the preservation of his dignity, he demanded of his benefactor, before he entered the church : " Will you observe your fidelity to me and my successors in everything ?" and the emperor had the weakness to answer in the affirmative. But the factions of the Roman nobles and citizens prevented the papal power from being consolidated ; three rival popes, each remarkable for his scandalous life, shared the revenues of the church between them ,(a. d. 1045) ; they were finally persuaded to resign by John Gratian, a priest of piety and learning, and he was elected to the vacant throne by the title of Gregory VI. The emperor Henry procured the deposi- tion of Gregory, and the election of Clement II. The most remarkable of the deposed popes was Benedict IX. ; he was the son of a Tusculan count, and was raised to the chair of St. Peter at the early age of ten years. His vices induced the Romans tc raise rivals against him ; but, supported by the aristocratic faction, hf would probably have held his place, had he not been bribed to resign in favor of Gregory. The agent in this transaction was Hildebrand, the son of humble parents, who had raised himself by the force of his abilities and his reputation for piety to high rank in the church, and commanding influence in the state. Gregory was undoubtedly a better ruler than his immediate predecessors ; he expelled the robbers and freebooters who infested the roads around Rome ; he opened a secure passage for the pilgrims Avho wished to visit the shrine of St. Peter, and he vigorously exerted himself to reform the administration of jus- tice. It was imprudent in the emperor Henry to depose such a man at the instigation of the enemies of order; Clement II. felt great aversion to the proceeding, and very reluctantly consented to his own elevation. Gregory and Hildebrand, to the great regret of the Italian people, and especially the citizens of Rome, were driven into exile ; they re- tired to the celebrated monasteiy of Clugni, where Gregory died of vexation, leaving Hildebrand the heir of his wealth and his resentment. Clement was poisoned by an emissary of Benedict nine months after his consecration ; and his successor, Damasus II., shared the same fate. When the news reached Hildebrand, he immediately departed from the imperial court, hoping to have some influence in the nomina- tion of the next pope, but on the road he learned that the Diet of Worms, directed by the emperor, had elected Bruno, bishop of Toul, under the title of Leo IX. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 401 We have now reached an important crisis in the struggle between ifie papal and the imperial power ; the latter had touched the highest point of its greatness, and was destined to fall by the dauntless energies of one man, Hildebrand, the humble monk of Soano by birth, the con roller of the destiny of nations by talent and position. Section IV. — Revival of the Papal Power. FROM A. D. 1048 TO A. D. 1070. We have seen that papal usurpation began by an attack on the power of the Greek empire, and prevailed over the Byzantine court, because it was supported by the public opinion of western Europe. To secure its acquisitions, the papacy entered into alliance with the Carlovingian dynasty on terms favorable to both; but in the struggle that folkwed the partition of Charlemagne's empire, it was shorn of its strength, for the growth of its greatness was too rapid to be permanent. When the nobles of Italy had attained the rank of petty princes, the territorial possessions of the church, naturally excited their cupidity, and when the German emperors had extended their sway beyond the Alps, they felt that a controlling influence in the papal elections was necessary to the permanence of their power. Had both combined, the papacy would have been annihilated, the pope would have been a mere vassal of the emperor, and his temporal dominions would have been rent in sunder by rival princes. But even when the papacy was enslaved, either to aristocratic factions, or to despotic autocrats, it was secretly collecting materials for its liberation and future triumph. It was generating an opinion which gave the papacy, as an institution, greater strength and surer pennanence than it possessed in the days of its former prosperity. It was under the pressure of the feudal system that the organization of popery was completed and defined ; opposed both to princes and emperors, it was thrown for support entirely on the people. By its nu- merous gradations of rank, the church of the middle ages linked itself with every class of the community : its bishops were the companions of princes ; its priests claimed reverence in the baronial hall ; its preach- ing friars and monks brought consolation to the cottage of the suffering peasant. Great as were the vices of individuals, the organization of the clerical body continued to be respectable, and this was an immense ad- vantage when erery other portion of civilized society was a mass of confusion. When the distinction of caste was rigidly established in all the political forms of social life, the church scarcely knew any aristocracy but that of talent ; once received into holy orders, the serf lost all traces of his bondage ; he was not merely raised to an equality with the former lord, but he could aspire to dignities which threw those of temporal princes into the shade. The clerical was thus identified with the popular cause, and the bulk of the laity not only received the claims of the priesthood, but gave them additional extension. Hildebrand was the first who perceived the tendency and the strength of this current, and he probably was sincere in his belief that the church supplied the only means by which the regeneration of Europe could be effected. Feudalism, the worst of foes to social order, stood opposed to the sovereignty of the monarch and the liberty of the 26 402 MODERN HISTORY subject ; the em^ierors were too v/eak, the people too ignorant, to strug gle against it; and the Avise arrangements of Providence, by which good has been so frequently wrought out of evil, made the revival of popery the instrument by which Europe was rescued from barbarism. Hildebrand's personal ctiaracter is really a matter of no importance ; his measures in the present age would justly subject him to the charge of extravagant ambition and blundering tyranny ; but in the eleventh century, every one of these measures was necessary to counteract some evil principle, and milder or more justifiable means would not have been adequate to the occasion. We must not pass sentence on an institution without examining the opinion on which it is founded ; and before we judge of the opinion, we must estimate the circumstances by which it was engendered. The disorganized state of Europe produced a strong opinion that some power for appeal and protection should be constitu- ted ; a power with intelligence to guide its decisions, and sanctity to en- force respect for them : the revived papacy seemed an institution suited to these conditions, and under the cir:;umstances it was capable of being rendered the great instrument for reforming civil society. Hildebrand's own writings prove that his design was to render the papacy such an institution as we have described ; it was indeed a beautiful theory to base power upon intelligence, and concentrate both in the church. But Hildebrand did not make a discoveiy which too often has eluded reformers and legislators, that his plan was suited only to peculiar circumstances, that it was only applicable to a period when state power was corrupt and popular intelligence restricted, and that to give it permanence was to extend its duration beyond the period of its utility, and consequently prepare the way for its becoming just as mis- chievous as the evils it had been devised to counteract. This general view of the state of society will enable us to form a better judgment of the struggle in which Hildebrand engaged than could be done if v/e confined ourselves to a simple narrative ; we shall now proceed to relate the course adopted by the enterprising monk to exalt the spiritual power. Leo IX., on whom the emperor, as we have said, conferred the papacy, was a prelate of virtuous principles and strict integrity, but he was a man infirm of purpose, and weak in understanding. Hildebrand was well aware of the advantages that might be derived from the pope's character, and in his first interview he gained such an ascendency over Leo's mind, that henceforth the pope was a passive instrument in the hands of his adviser. The pontiff" naturally dreaded that the circum- stance of his having been nominated by the emperor, and elected by a German diet, would render him unpopular in Italy ; but Hildebrand smoothed the way, and by his personal influence secured Leo a favor- able reception at Rome. This service was reAvarded by an accumula- tion of dignities ; Hildebrand soon united in his person the titles and offices of cardinal, sub-deacon, abbot of St. Paul, and keeper of the altar and treasury of St. Peter. The clergy and people of Rome ap- plauded these proceedings, because the favorite had induced Leo to gratify the national vanity, by submitting to the form of a new election immediately after his arrival in the city. Leo made unremitting exertions to reform the clergy and the monas- GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 403 tic orders ; but, in the fifth year of his reign he marched against the Nor- mans, who were ravaging the south of Italy, and was unfortunately taken prisoner. Though the conquerors showed every respect to their cap- tive, the misfortune weighed heavily on his proud spirit ; and his grief was aggravated by the reproaches of some of his clergy, who con- demned him for desecrating his holy office by appearing in amis. He died of a broken heart soon after his liberation, and the deposed Bene- dict IX. seized the opportunity of reascending the papal throne. Hildebrand was opposed to the imperial influence, but he hated more intensely the nearer and more dangerous power of the Italian no- bles, and therefore he became an active and energetic opponent of their creature, Benedict. The monastic orders supported one whom they justly regarded as the pride and ornament of liLcir body, and by their means Hildebrand gained such a commanding influence over the Roman people, that he could truly represent himself to the emperor as their delegate in choosing a new pope. Henry nominated a German bishop to the dignity, who took the name of Victor II., and the cardinal-monk hoped to exercise the same authority in the new reign that he had pos- sessed under Leo IX. The pope, however, soon became weary of having " a viceroy over him ;" he sent his ambitious minister into France with the title of legate, under the honorable pretext of correct- ing tlie abuses that had crept into the Galilean church. Hildebrand performed his task with more rigor than it would have been prudens for a less popular minister to display; he excommunicated several iirt' moral priests and bishops, and even sentenced some monks to death for a breach of their monastic vows. After a year's absence he returned to Rome more powerful than ever, and Victor was content to receive him as his chief adviser and director. In the meantime the emperor Henry died, and was succeeded by his son of the same name, who was yet an infant. Hildebrand was too sagacious not to discover the advantage with which the papal power would struggle against the imperial during a minority, and he secretly prepared for the contest. The death of Victor, speedily followed by that of his s 'ccessor, Stephen IX., delayed, but did not alter, the car- dinal-monk's .ntentions, for circumstances compelled him to appear as an advocate of the imperial authority. On the death of Stephen, the aristocratic faction, presuming on the minority of the emperor, rushed at night, with a body of armed men, into the Vatican church, where they declared John, bishop of Velitri, one of heir body, pope, with the title of Benedict X. Hildebrand received this intelligence as he returned from Germany ; it was brought ♦n him by the terrified cardinals and bishops Avho had fled from Rome ; he assembled the fugitives at Sienna, and prevailed upon them to elect the bishop of Florence, who took the name Nicholas II. The empe- ror's sanction was easily procured for the latter election, and the impe- rial court was persuaded that it was supporting its own interests when it placed Nicholas upon the papal throne. Circumstances soon occurred to prove that the Germans had been deluded ; Nicholas assembled a council at Rome, in which it was de- creed that the cardinals alone should in future have a voice in the election of tli e pope ; but to avoid any open breach with the emperor, 404 MODERN HISTORY. a clause was added, reserving to liim all due honor and respect. A less equivocal proceeding soon followed ; the Normans, who had set- tled in the south of Italy, had become more amenable to the church than they had been in the days of Leo. The lust of conquest was abated, and they were now anxious to obtain some securify for their possessions ; they therefore tendered their alliance and feudal allegi- ance to the pope, on condition of his confirming their titles. By the advice of Hildebrand, Nicholas gave to Richard Guiscard the princi- pality of Capua, and granted Robert Guiscard the title of duke, with the investiture of all the lands he had conquered, or should conquer, in Sicily, Apulia, and Calabria. The pope readily granted that to which he had no right, a proceed- ing that might have cost him dear, if the old emperor had survived : the Normans, in return, lent their aid to punish the enemies of Nicho- las in the Roman territory. The lands of the turbulent aristocracy were ravaged with unsparing cruelty, and it is to the desolation thus produced, that the depopulation of the country round Rome, even at the present day, must be attributed. While Hildebrand was maturing his plans for re-establishing the papacy, many circumstances occurred, which proved the expediency of establishing a central controlling power in the church. The eccle- siastics of Milan had been, for nearly tv/o hundred years, independent of the holy see, and their church had become the scandal of Italy. Benefices were openly sold, immoralities flagrantly practised, until at length a respectable portion of the laity requested the interference of the pope. Peter Damian was sent as a legate to Milan, but the popu- lace, incited by the priests, raised a formidable insurrection, and threat- ened to murder him for menacing their independence. Peter, undis- mayed, ascended a pulpit in one of their principal churches, and made such an effective discourse, that the rioters not only submitted, hut en- couraged him to pursue his task of investigation. The inquiry proved, that nearly every priest in Milan had purchased his preferment, and lived with a concubine. The archbishop, after an obstinate resistance, was brought to confess, that he had transgressed the canons ; but he was pardoned by the legate, on condition of swearing, with his clergy, to observe the ecclesiastical rules for the future. Scarcely, hoAvever, had the legate departed, when the clergy assailed the archbishop for betraying the rights of their church, and compelled him to retract the conditions to which he had so recently sworn. The troubles in Milan burst out afresh, and the profligacy of the clergy seemed to have been increased by the temporary interruption. Ere Nicholas could make any effort to terminate these disorders, he was seized by a mortal disease ; his death made a great change in the political aspect of Italy, for the church party, encouraged by Hilde- brand, set both the emperor and the aristocracy at defiance. The car- dinals and bishops, without waiting for the imperial sanction, conferred tlie papacy on Anselmo, bishop of Lucca, who took the title of Alex- ander II. ; on the other hand, the counts of Tuscany, hoping to recover the lands that had been wrested from them by the Normans, declared that they would support the emperor's right of nomination. The Ro- man nobles had hitherto owed their partial success to their having sup GROWTH OP THE PAPAL POWER. 405 ported a national prelate ; they soon found that their strength was gone, when they gave their aid to a foreign competitor. Supported by a German and Lombard army, Cadislaus, who had been chosen by the emperor, appeared before the gates of Rome, but the citizens refused him admission. At first the imperialists gained some advantages, but the arrival of Duke Godfrey, with an auxiliary force of Normans, changed the foi'tunes of the war, and Cadislaus was compelled to make a hasty retreat. He sought refuge in the castle of St. Angelo, where he was closely besieged. Soon afterward, the young emperor, having been removed by a stratagem from the protection oi his mother, was placed under the control of the archbishops of Bremen and Cologne ; at their instigation he recognised Alexander as the legitimate pope, and Cadislaus, finding himself abandoned by his principal protector, fled in disguise from the castle of St. Angelo to his native diocese, wheue I.e died in obscurity. During the brief reign of Alexander, Hildebrand was the real gov- ernor of the church. As soon as the war with Cadislaus was ended, he directed his attention to the affairs of Milan, excommunicating the perjured archbishop, and ordering that all the priests who were mar- ried, or who lived in concubinage, should be ejected from their cures. Supported by the populace and a large body of the nobles, the papal legate not only enforced this decree, but obtained from the clergy and people a solemn oath, that, for the future, they would hold no election of a bishop valid, unless it was confirmed by the pope. The excommunicated archbishop resigned his see, and sent the in- signia of his office, the pastoral rod and ring, to the emperor. God- frey, a deacon of Milan, was appointed to supply the vacancy by the imperial council ; but the citizens of Milan refused to receive him, and chose for their archbishop, Atto, a nominee of the pope. A fierce war raged between the rival prelates, and Alexander, indignant at the support that Godfrey received from the emperor, summoned that prince to appear before his tribunal, on a charge of simony, and granting in- vestitures without the approbation of the see of Rome. Neither the ambition nor the cares of Pope Alexander, or rather his instigator Hildebrand, were confined to the Italian peninsula. By means of the popularity which the pretensions of the mendicant friars had given their order throughout Europe, he established an interest for himself in every part of Christendom. Faithful agents kept a strict watch over the proceedings of the emperor Henry, legates were sent to Denmark and Norway, the allegiance of the king of Bohemia was secured by permission to wear the mitre, and the virtual independence of the Anglo-Saxon church was destroyed by the Norman conquest, to the success of Avhich the interference of the pope and of Hildebrand materially contributed. The pretexts of the pontiffs are characteristics of the superstitions of the age. Harold, the last .Saxon monarch of England, had, during an accidental visit to Nciinandy, been forced to swear that he would faA'or the succession of William, whose claims were founded on a real or pretended promise of Edward the Confessor. This compulsory oath, it seems, would not have been considered binding, had not Harold un- wittingly swtrn it on a chest of relics, collected from all the surround- •i06 MODERN HISTORY. ing churches. When, therefore, on the death of Edward, he accepted he crown, proffered to him by the free voice of the Anglo-Saxon."*, he was regarded, not as a patriot resolved to maintain his country's inde- pendence, but as a perjured wretch who had trampled on the most sol- emn obligations. Hildebrand eagerly seized this opportunity of estab- lishing the papal supremacy over a national church, whose claims to independence had long given offence at Rome. At his instigation, the claims of the Norman duke to the English crown were solemnly recog- nised by the papal council : a bull containing this decision was sent to William, together with a consecrated standard, and a ring, said to con- tain a hair from the head of St. Peter, enclosed in a diamond of consid- erable value. But we learn from a letter, subsequently addressed by Hildebrand to the conqueror, that there were some in the conclave who opposed this iniquitous interference with the rights of nations, and se- verely reproached the cardinal-monk for advocating the cause of a *y- rannical usurper. But Hildebrand did not extend to the Normans in Italy the same fa- vor that he showed to their brethren in England. Aided by the forces of the countess Matilda, a devoted adherent of the church, and heiress to a considerable territory, he forced them to resign the districts they had wrested from the holy see. Anxious to retain this sovereignty, Hildebrand violently opposed a marriage between the countess and God- frey Gobbo, a son whom her step-father had by a former wife, before his marriage with her mother. Such a union, indeed, was warranted by the strict letter of the canonical degrees, but still it was, in some degree, revolting to the feelings. Gobbo was excommunicated, but Hildebrand secretly hinted that he might be reconciled to the church, on making proper submissions. But all these political struggles were cast into the shade, by the daring citation of the emperor Henry : every one regarded it as a dec- laration of war between the spiritual and temporal authorities, and i\ must have been obvious to all, that the death of Alexander H. only de- layed the contest. More had been done during the reign of this pope to extend the authority of the papacy, than in any former pontificate , but this must not be attributed either to the faults or to the merits of Alexander, who was a mere instrument in the hands of his ambitious minister. The monks, to raise Hildebrand's fame, published tales of the numerous miracles he wrought, which were greedily received by the superstitious populace, and tended greatly to extend his influence . we have taken no notice of these legends ; a greater miracle than any they record, is, that rational beings should be found sufficiently credu- lous to believe and repeat such monstrous absurdities. Section V. — Ponlificale of Gregory VII. FROM A. D. 1073 TO A. D. 1086. There were few statesmen in any part of Christendom, who did not dread the accession of Hildebrand to the papacy, but there were none prepared to provoke his resentment by interfering to prevent his elec- tion. The irregular and precipitate manner in which he was chosen, seems to prove that some opposition was dreaded by his partisans ; and GHOWTH OP THE PAPAL POWER. 407 HiJdebrand himself found it necessary to disarm hostility, by an affec- tation of submission to the emperor. He wrote to Henry, that he had been chosen against his will, that he had no wish for the office, and that he would not be consecrated without the imperial sanction. Deceived by this hypocrisy, Henry ratified the irregular election, and Hildebrand was enthroned with the title of Gregory VII. No sooner was he secured on the throne, than he began to put in ex- ecution his favorite plan for securing the independence of the church, by preventing lay interference in the collation of benefices. Before he had been a month elected, he sent a legate into Spain, to reform the ec- clesiastical abuses of that kingdom ; but principally to claim for the apos- tolic see all the conquests that had recently been made from the Moors, under the pretence that the Spanish peninsula, before the Saracenic invasion, had been tributary to the successors of St. Peter. Henry was so much daunted by this and similar displays of vigor, that he sent a submissive letter to the pontiff, acknowledging his former errors in his dispute with Alexander, which he attributed to his youth and the influ- ence of evil counsellors, desiring him to arrange the troubles in the church of Milan at his discretion, and promising to assist him in every- thing with the imperial authority. The two great objects of the pope were, to enforce the celibacy of the clergy, and the papal right to the investiture of bishops. The for- mer of these projects was a matter of discipline, defended on plausible grounds of expediency. Its advocates pleaded that a clergyman unen- cumbered with the cares of a family could devote his whole attention to the flock intrusted to his charge ; and that a bishop without children would be free to exercise his patronage without being Avarped by domes- tic affection. On the other hand, men were thus forced to sacrifice the noblest and best of human feelings ; they were denaturalized, cut off from the influences of social life : the church became the country and the home of every person who embraced the ecclesiastical profession. After ordination, the priest and the bishop were no longer Germans, Spaniards, or Englishmen ; they were Romans — ministers and peers of a mighty empire, that claimed the dominion of the whole globe. Like the envoy or minister of any foreign government, a member of the Romish hierarchy observes the laws of the state in which his master may have placed him, and respects for a time the authority of the local magistrate : but his order is his country, the pontiff is his natural sover- eign, and their welfare and their honor are the appropriate objects of his public care. The constant sight of such a sacrifice of the natural feel- ings of mankind, was obviously calculated to win the respect of the laity, and gain credence for the superior sanctity that was supposed to invest the character of a priest. The pope's determination to destroy the practice of lay investitures, was defended on more plausible grounds. The administration of eccle- siastical patronage by the emperor and other temporal princes, was lia- ble to great abuses, and had actually led to many : tlxey supplied vacan- cies with the ignorant, the depraved, and the violent ; they sought for the qualifications of a soldier or a politician, when they had to elect a toishop. In a dark age, when monarchs and nobles were rarely able to write their own names ; when the knowledge of the alphabet, even in 408 MODERN HISTORY. aristocratic families, was so rare, as to be deemed a spell against witch- craft ; and Avlien the fierce qualities of a warrior were valued more highly than the Christian virtues, it seemed almost necessary to render ap- poiKtments in the church independent of the state. But to this obvious expediency, Gregory VII. added a blasphemous claim of right, as Christ's vicar on earth, and inheritor of his visible throne. While, however, we condemn such impious assumptions, we should not re- fuse to Hildebrand the credit of higher and purer motives than those of personal aggrandizement, mingling in his schemes for extending his own power and that of his successors. It is undeniable that the cor- porate authority he procured for the church became, in many Euro- pean countries, a source of much benefit during the middle ages, overawing the violent, protecting the forlorn, mitigating the prevailing ferocity of manners, and supplying in various ways the defects of civil institutions. Gregory having assembled a general council at Rome, ordained, by consent of the bishops present, that if any one should accept investiture from a layman, both the giver and the receiver should be excommuni- cated ; that the prelates and nobles Avho advised the emperor to claim the collation of benefices should be excommunicated ; and that all mar- ried priests shoidd dismiss their wives, or be deposed. These decrees were communicated to the sovereigns of Europe by Gregory himself, in letters that must ever remain a monument of his consummate abilities. His monstrous claims for the universal supremacy of the church and of the Romish see, are proposed in a tone of humility and candor, well calculated to win the unthinking and unwary ; his dictations assume the form of affectionate suggestions, and his remonstrances resemble those of a tender and affectionate father. But the pope did not confine his exertions to mere words ; he obliged the Normans to quit their conquests in Campania, proposed a crusade against the Saracens, v/ho v/ere menacing Constantinople, and offered a proAance in Italy to Sweno, king of Denmark, under the pretence that the inhabitants were heretics. The emperor Henry was not deceived by Gregory's professions ; he hated the pontiff* in his heart, and had good reason to believe that the enmity was reciprocal. It was there- fore with mingled jealousy and indignation that he saw a new power established which more than rivalled his own, and he entered into a se- cret alliance with the Normans against their common enemy. In the meantime, a conspiracy was formed against the pope in Rome itself by some of the aristocracy, whose privileges he had invaded , Cincius, the prefect of the city, arrested the pontiff while he was celebrating mass on Christmas day, and threw him into prison ; but the populace soon rescued their favorite, Cincius would have been torn to pieces but for Gregory's interference, and aK who had shared in this act of violence were banished from the city. Soon afterward, Gregory cited the empe- ror to appear before the council at Rome, to answer to the charge of protecting excommunicated bishops, and granting investitures withou the sanction of the holy see. Henry, enraged by the iu'jult, and re- lieved from his anxieties in Germany by a recent victory over the Sax- ons, resolved to temporize no longer. He assembled a synod at Worms, of the princes and prelates devoted to his cause, and procured sente-nce GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER, 409 ot deposition against Gregory, on a charge of simony, murder, and atheism. Gregory was far from being disheartened by the emperor's violence ; he assembled a council at Rome, solemnly excommunicated Henry, ab- solved his subjects in Germany and Italy from their oath of allegiance, deposed several prelates in Germany, France, and Lombardy, and pub- lished a series of papal constitutions, in which the claims of the Roman pontiffs to supremacy over all the sovereigns of the earth were asserted in the plainest terms. The most important of these resolutions, which form the basis of the political system of popery, were — That the Roman pontiff alone can be called universal. That he alone has a right to depose bishops. That his legates have a right to preside over all bishops assembled in a general council. That the pope can depose absent prelates. That he alone has a right to use imperial ornaments. That princes are bound to kiss his feet, and his only. That- he has a right to depose emperors. That no synod or council summoned without his commission cm be called general. That no book can be called canonical without his authority. That his sentence can be annulled by none, but that he may annul the decrees of all. That the Roman church has been, is, and will continue, infallible. That whoever dissents from the Romish church ceases to be a catholic Christian. And, that subjects may be absolved from their allegiance to wicked princes. Some cautious prelates advised Gregory not to be too hasty in ex- communicating his sovereign ; to their remonstrances he made the fol- lowing memorable reply : " When Christ trusted his flock to St. Peter, saying, ' Feed my sheep,' did he except kings ? Or when he gave him the power to bind and loose, did he withdraw any one from his visita- tion ? He, therefore, who says that he can not be bound by the bonds of the church, must confess that he can not be absolved by it ; and he who denies that doctrine, separates himself from- Christ and his church." Both parties now prepared for war, but all the advantages were on the side of Gregory At the very commencement of the struggle, Gobbo, the most vigorous supporter of the emperor, died, and his widow, the countess Matilda, placeu all her resources at the disposal of the pontiff. So completely, indeed, did this princess devote herself to support the interests of Gregory, that their mutual attachment was suspected of having transgressed the limits of innocence. The duke of Dalmatia, gratified by the title of king, and the Norman monarch of Sicily, prof- fered aid to the pontiff; even the Mohammedan emperor of Morocco courted his favor, and presented him with the liberty of the Christian slaves in his dominions. Henry, on the contrary, knew not where to look for support ; in ev- ery quarter of his dominions monks and friars preached against their 410 MODERN HISTORY. sovereign, and the prelates by whom he had been supported * the Sax( n nobles eagerly embraced a religious pretext to renew their insurrection ; the dukes of Suabia and Carinthia demanded a change of dynasty ; even the prelates who had been most zealous in urging Henry forward, terrified by threats of excommunication, abandoned his cause. A diet was assembled at Tribur, attended by two papal legates, in whicli it was resolved that Henry should be deposed, imless within a limited period he presented himself before the pope and obtained absolution. The prelates and nobles of Lombardy alone maintained their courage, and boldly retorted the excommunications of Gregory. Animated by the hope of obtaining their efficient aid, Henry resolved to cross the Alps instead of waiting" for Gregory's arrival in Germany. The hard- ships which the unfortunate monarch underwent during this journey, in the depth of a severe winter — the dangers to which he was exposed from the active malice of his enemies — the sight of the sufferings of his queen and child, who could only travel by being enclosed in the hides of oxen, and thus dragged through the Alpine passes — would have bro- ken a sterner spirit than Henry's. He entered Lombardy completely disheartened, and, though joined by considerable forces, he thought only of conciliating his powerful enemy by submission. Having obtained a conference with the countess Matilda, Henry prevailed upon her to in- tercede for him with the pope ; and her intercession, supported by the principal nobles of Italy, induced Gregory to grant an interview to his sovereign. On the 21st of January, 1077, Henry proceeded to Canosa, where the pope resided, and was forced to submit to the greatest indignities that were ever heaped upon imperial majesty. At the first barrier, he was compelled to dismiss his attendants ; when he reached the second, he was obliged to lay aside his imperial robes, and assume the habit of a penitent. For three entire days he was forced to stand barefooted and fasting, from morning till night, in the outer court of the castle, during one of the severest winters that had ever been known in northern Italy, imploring pardon of his transgressions from God and the pope. He was at length admitted into the presence of the haughty pontiff, and, after all his submissions, obtained, not the removal, but the suspension of the excommunication. Such harsh treatment sank deep into Henry's mind ; and his hostility to Gregory was exasperated by the pontiff accepting a grant of the countess Matilda's possessions lor the use of the church, which would legally revert to the empire after her decease. The reproaches of the Lombards also induced him to repent of his degradation, and he renewed the war by a dishonorable and ineffectual attempt to arrest Gregory and Matilda. In the meantime the discorvtented nobles of Germany had as- sembled a diet at Fercheim, deposed their sovereign, and elected Ro- dolph, duke of Suabia, to the empire. This proceeding greatly embar- rassed the pope ; he dared not declare against Henry, who was power- ful in Italy, and if he abandoned Rodolph, he would ruin his own party in Germany. He resolved to preserve a neutrality in the contest, and in the meantime he directed his attention to the internal state of the church, which had for some time been distracted by the controversy respecting the eucharist. GROWTH 01 THE PAPAL POWER. 411 It is not easy to determine by wham the doctrine of transubstantiation was first broached : Selden very justly says, " This opinion is only rhet- oric turned into logic," and it is easy to see how the spiritual presence of our Savior in Ihe holy communion might, in a dark and ignorant age, be represented as an actual change of the consecrated elements into his material substance. We are not concerned with the theological errors of this doctrine ; our subject only requires us to notice the political pur- poses to which it was applied. No article of faith was better calcu- lated to exalt the power of the priesthood ; it represented them as daily working a miracle equally stupendous and mysterious ; true, its nature was incomprehensible, but this circumstance, instead of exciting a sus- picion of its absurdity, only increased the reverence with which it was regarded. We must not then be surprised at the zeal that the Romish priesthood has ever manifested in defending an opinion which has so materially strengthened its influence. The confessor to the queen of Spain is said to have rebuked the opposition of a nobleman, by saying, " You should respect the man who every day has your God in his hands and your queen at his feet." In this brief sentence, the purpose of the doctrine is distinctly stated ; it conferred political power, and was there- fore to be defended at all hazards. But common sense frequently re- volted at a doctrine contracted by sight, feeling, and taste ; in the elev- enth century it was ably exposed by Berengarius, a priest of Tours, who assailed it at once with ridicule and with argument. But in his eightieth year, Berengarius was prevailed upon by Gregory to renounce his for- mer opinions, and transubstantiation was generally received as an article of faith. A victory obtained by Rodolph induced Gregory to depart from his cautious policy ; he excommunicated Henry, and sent a crown of gold to his rival. The indignant emperor summoned a council in the moun- tains of the Tyrol, pronounced Gregory's deposition, and proclaimed Gilbert, archbishop of Ravenna, pope, by the name of Clement III. Gregory immediately made peace wilh the Normans, and, supported by them and the Countess Matilda, he bade his enemies defiance. But in the meantime, Rodolph was defeated and slain, the discontented Germans were forced to submit to the imperial authority and Henry, at the head of a victorious army, crossed the Alps. The Norman dukes, engaged in war with the Greek emperors, neglected their ally, and the forces of the countess Matilda were unable to cope with the imperialists. Twice was Henry driven from before the walls of Rome ; but the third time he gained an entrance, by a lavish distribution of bribes, and procured the solemn installation of Clement. The emper- or's departure left his partisans exposed to the vengeance of Gregory ; the pontiff returned at the head of a Norman army, and gave the city to be pillaged by his barbarous auxiliaries. Having reduced Rome al- most to a mass of ruins, Gregory retired to Salerno, where he was seized with a mortal disease. He died unconquered, repeating with his latest breath the excommunications which he had hurled against Henry, the antipope, and their adherents. He viewed his own conduct in the struggle with complacency, and frequently boasted of the good- ness of his cause. " I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity," he exclaimed, " and it is therefore I die an e^'i-^ " 412 MODERN HISTORY. Gregory may be regarded as the great founder of the political system of popery ; and therefore, while he is extolled by some historians as a saint, others have described him as a disgrace to humanity. But the character of this remarkable man was formed by his age, and developed by the circumstances that surrounded him. He was the representative both of popery and democracy, principles apparently inconsistent, but which in ancient and modern times have frequently been found in close alliance. With the sanctity of the church he shielded the people ; with the strength of the people he gave stability to the church. In the course of his long career as the secret and as the acknowledged ruler of the papacy, he displayed unquestionable abilities of the highest or- der ; his pretensions to ascetic piety gained him the enthusiastic ad- miration of the multitude ; the soldiers regarded him as a brave warrior and successful general ; the higher ranks of the clergy yielded in the council to his fervid eloquence and political skill. His very faults be- came elements of his success: he was severe, vindictive, and inexor- able : he Ivnew not what it was to forgive ; none of his enemies could elude the patient search and the incessant vigilance with which he pursued those against whom he treasured wrath. It was his custom to witness the execution of those whose death he decreed ; and it was awful to contemplate the serenity of his countenance and the placidity of his manners while he presided over tortures and massacres. It can not, therefore, be a matter of wonder that the power of such a man should have swept over Christendom like a torrent, and hurried every- thing into the vortex of his new and gigantic institutions. ''■ Section VI. — The War of Investitures. FROM A. D. 1086 TO A. D. 1152. Henry gained only a brief respite by the death of his formidable and inveterate antagonist. Victor III. was elected by the cardinals, and during his brief reign he gained several advantages over the impe- rial party. He was succeeded by Urban II., the friend and pupil of Gregory, who commenced his pontificate by sending an encyclical let- ter to the Christian churches, declaring his resolution to adhere to the political system of his deceased master. Supported by the Normans, Urban entered Rome, and assembled a council of one hundred and fif- teen bishops, in which the emperor, the antipope, and their adherents, were solemnly excommunicated. At the same time he negotiated a marriage between Guelph, son of the duke of Bavaria, a distinguished supporter of the papal cause in Germany, and the countess Matilda. From this union, the present dukes of Brunswick and Lunenburgh, and the reigning family of England, trace their descent. Henry marcht J into Italy, and though vigorously opposed by Guelph, gained several important advantages ; but the papal intrigues raised enemies against him in the bosom of his family ; his eldest son Conrad rebelled, and was crowned king of Italy by Urban. This revolt compelled Henry to abandon his recent acquisitions, and retire toward the Alps. A council was summoned to meet at Placentia, and so large a num- ber of bishops assembled, that no church could contahi them, and they were forced to deliberate in the open air. Most of Gregory's decrees GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 413 were re-enacted; but, in addition to the affair of im^estitures, the atten- tion of the council was directed to the rapid progress of the Moham- medans in the east, and the dangers that threatened the empire of Con- stantinople (a. d. 1095). The tales of the persecutions to which the Christian pilgrims were exposed by the ferocious Turks, who had be- come masters of the Holy Land, had excited general indignation throughout Europe. Peter the Hermit, a wild fanatic, preached every- where the necessity of rescuing the faithful from the infidel Saracens, as he ignorantly called the Turks, and such a flame was kindled by his exertions, that a decree was issued by the council of Clermont, author- izing the first crusade ; and at the same time the king of France, in whose dominions the council met, was excommunicated, and could only obtain absolution by humiliating submissions. The general insanity diffused through Europe by the preaching of the first crusade, the multitudes that abandoned their homes to follow Walter the Pennyless or Godescald the Fanatic, the massacres of the Jews, the sufferings and exploits of the disciplined adventurers that marched under the banners of Godfrey, will form the subject of the next section ; it is enough here to say that the general fanaticism proved of essential service to the papal cause, and that the partisans of Henry suffered severely from the fury of the crusaders in their passage through Italy. Paschal II. was the successor of Urban, and, like him, steadfastly pursued the policy of Gregory ; he easily triumphed over the antipope, who died of a broken heart, and he urged a second general crusade, which the reverses of the Christians in the Holy Land rendered neces- sary. To consolidate the papal structure, he assembled a council at Rome, and procured the enactment of a new oath, to be taken by all ranks of the clergy. By this oath they abjured all heresy, they prom- ised implicit obedience to the pope and his successors, to affirm what the holy and universal church confirms, and to condemn what she con- demns (a. d. 1104). Soon after, the old emperor, Henry, was treach- erously arrested by his own son Henry V., and deprived of his impe- rial dignity : he subsequently escaped, but before hostilities made any progress, he died of a broken heart. The bishop of Liege honorably interred the body of his unfortunate sovereign, but papal enmity pur- sued F =nry beyond the grave ; the benevolent prelate was excommu- nicatei, and could only obtain absolution by disinterring the corpse. Though Henry V. owed his throne to papal influence, he would not yield the imperial right to granting investitures, and his example was followed by the kings of England and France. The form in which monarchs gave investiture by bestowing a pastoral ring and staff', was regarded by the popes as an interference with their spiritual jurisdic- tion, and when the form was altered, they gave no further trouble to the English and French monarchs, but, in their disputes with the em- perors, they not only forbade ecclesiastics to receive investiture from laymen, but even to take an oath of allegiance to them. The fifth Henry proved a more formidable enemy to the papacy than his father •> he led an army into Italy, made Paschal prisoner, compelled him to perform the ceremony of his coronation, and to issue a bull se- curing the right of investiture to the emperor and his successors. But 414 MODERN HISTORY. the remonstrances of the cardinals induced the pope to annul the treaty, and he permitted Henry to be excommunicated by several provincial councils. The pontiff, however, did not ratify the sentence until the death of the countess Matilda, and the disputes about her inheritance created fresh animosities between the empire and the holy see. The death of Paschal prevented an immediate war. His successors Gelasius H. and Calixtus H., however, supported his policy, and, after a long struggle, the emperor was forced to resign his claim to episco- pal investitures, but he was permitted to retain the investiture of the temporal rights belonging to the sees. During the pontificate of Honorius H., the successor of Calixtus, the church of Ireland, for the first time, was brought under the su])rem- acy of the pope by the exertions of St. Malachi, a monk of great ii.flu- ence and reputation. The greater part of the reign of Honorius was spent in a contest with the Normans in southern Italy, wWm he forced to continue in their allegiance. Innocent II. and Anacletus, elected by rival factions, were both en- throned the same day, and the papacy was consequently rent by a schism. x\nacletus was the grandson of a converted Jew ; he posses- sed great wealth, was a favorite with the Roman populace, and had an undoubted majority of the cardinals in his favor, yet he is stigmatized as an antipope. This was principally owing to the exertions of the celebrated St. Bernard, who warmly espoused the cause of Innocent, and procured him the support of the king of France and the German emperor. On the death of Anacletus, his party elected another anti- pope, but he soon made his submission to Innocent, and the schism was appeased. A general council was soon afterward assembled at Rome (a. d. 1139), at which no less than a thousand bishops were present ; several ordinances were made for completing the ecclesiastical organization of the church. The opinions of Arnold of Brescia were condemned at this council ; they were derived from the celebrated Abelard, whose controversy with St. Bernard began to excite universal attention. Abelard was generally regarded as the most accomplished scholar md the best logician in Europe ; crowds of disciples flocked to hear his lectures, and though he did not break through the trammels of scho- lastic philosophy, he gave an impulse to the spirit of inquiry which, in a future age, produced beneficial eflects. St. Bernard, whose opinions were invested by the bishops with a kind of apostolic authority, accused' Abelard of teaching heretical opinions respecting the doctrine of the trini- ty. Abelard denied the imputation, and the dispute turned on metaphys- ical subtleties, to which neither party affixed a definite meaning. A'ft'el- ard's opinions were condemned by a council at Sens, but he was permitted to retire into the monastery of Clugny, where he died in peace. This obscure controversy was the first symptom of the struggle be- tween scholastic divinity and philosophy. Abelard was subdued, but he bequeathed his cause to a succession of faithfid disciples, who grad- ually emancipated knowledge from the confinement of the cloister, and liberated the human mind from the thraldom of popery. Abelard's opin- ions were purely theological ; his disciple, Arnold of Brescia, abandon- ing his master's mysticism, directed his attention to the reform of the GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 415 church and of the government. He declared that the political power and wealth of the clergy were inconsistent with the sanctity of their profession, and he began to preach these doctrines in Italy and Ger- many ; so great was his influence, that he was invited to Rome, in order to revive the republic. Innocent II., Celestine II., Lucius II., and Eugenius III., had to struggle with " the politicians," as the followers of Arnold were called, for the maintenance of their domestic power ; and during this period the aggressions of popery on the rights of kings and nations were suspended. Rome set the example of resistance to the pontiffs ; Italy, for a brief space, furnished the boldest opponents to the papal usurpations ; but when Europe began to profit by the example, the Italians discovered that the overthrow of the papacy would diminish the profits which th9.y derived from the payments made by superstition and ignorance to the Roman exchequer ; and they lent their aid to the support of the lucrative delusion they had been the first to expo&e, and even yielded their liberties to the pontiffs, on condition of sharing in their unhallowM gains. The claims of the popes to spiritual and temporal power, the means they employed to effect their object, their struggle against royal power on the one side, and national independence on the other, form the most important part of European history during several centuries. A calm and careful examination of the origin and growth of the papal system is therefore necessary to a right understanding of the social condition of Europe in the ages preceding the Reformation. To render this portion of history satisfactory to the student, it is necessary to trace back the early history of Christianity, and point out some of the corruptions by which its purity was early disfigured. I Section VII. — The Crusades. / The wars undertaken by the crusaders for the conquest of Palestine, at the instigation of the popes, form an essential part of the history of the great struggle between the spiritual and temporal powers. To un- derstand aright the influence they exercised, it will be necessary to cast a retrospective glance at their origin, and at the state of society in tlie eastern and western world, when first this great movement began. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem, and the localities that had been hallowed by our blessed Savior's presence, were common in the earliest ages of the church. They began to multiply very rapidly at the beginning of the eleventh century, in consequence of an opinion very generally dif- fused, that the end of the world was at hand ; many persons sold their estates, fiRd migrated to the Holy Land, to wait there the coming of the Lord. While the Saracens remained masters of Palestine, they encour- aged and protected visiters whose arrival brought them considerable profit, but when the Seljukian Turks wrested the country from the kha- liphs of Egypt, the pilgrims were subjected to every extortion and out- rage that fanaticism and ignorance could dictate. Their sad recital of the calamities they were forced to endure excited universal indignation, and Gregory VII. was the first to propose a general arming throughout Christendom, for the purpose of driving the Turks beyond the Euphrates. The time was not propitious for such an undertaking ; the wars of the 416 MODERN HISTORY. empire engaged the attention and employed the arms of the chief mill tary leaders. But when the Normans had completed the conquest of England and the two Sicilies, when the imperial power had sunk before the popes in Italy and the feudal princes in Germany, vast hordes of military adventurers who remained without employment, ready to em- brace any cause that promised to gratify their love of glory and plunder. At this moment an enthusiastic monk, usually called Peter the Hermit, indignant at the oppression of the Christians, which he had witnessed in Palestine, began to preach the duty of expelling the infidels from the patrimony of Christ, and by his- energetic labors, widely diffused his own fanaticism. Peter's zeal was vigorously seconded by Pope Urban II. ; the pontifl went personally to France, and held a council at Clermont (a. d. 1095), where the war was sanctioned with great enthusiasm, and multitudes assumed the badge of the cross, as the symbol of their enlistment. The first hordes of crusaders v/ere ignorant fanatics, guided by men of no note or experience. They marched without order or discipline, pil- laging, burning, and plundering the countries that they traversed. So great was the delusion that whole families joined in these wild expedi- tions ; farmers were seen driving carts containing their wives and chil- dren in the line of march, while boys bearing mimic implements of war, sported round, mistaking every stranger for a Turk, and every new town for Jerusalem. Most of these wretches perished by fatigue, famine, disease, or the swords of the people they had outraged, but not before their excesses had indelibly stigmatized the cause in which they were engaged. The Jews along the Rhine suffered most severely from these fanatics, who were persuaded that the sacrifice of this unfortunate race would be the best propitiation for the success of their expedition. Myr- iads of the hapless Jews were massacred with every torture and indig- nity that malice could suggest ; whole families committed suicide by mutual agreement ; a few submitted to be baptized, and purchased safety by apostacy. The archbishop of Mayence exerted all the means in his power to protect the wretched victims, but had the mortification to wit- ness the murder of those who sought refuge in his own palace. At length a regular army was organized, under the command of God- frey of Bouillon, duke of Lower Lorraine, one of the most celebrated generals of the age. No sovereign joined his standard, but the leading nobility of Christendom were enrolled among his followers, among whom may be mentioned, Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William the Conqueror, Hugh, brother of the king of France, Bohem- ond, prince of Tarentum, and Raymond, count of Toulouse. When the divisions of this formidable army arrived near Constantinople Alexis, who then ruled the Byzantine empire, was naturally terrified by the appearance of hosts too powerful to be received as auxiliaries, and too formidable to be rejected as enemies. The crafty Greek had recourse to treachery and dissimulation ; after a disgusting train of fraudulent negotiations, the Latin warriors passed into Asia, leaving behind them worse enemies in the Christians of the Byzantine empire, whom it was part of their object to protect, than the Turks they had come to assail. Their early career in Asia was glorious, but purchased at an enormous expenditure of life. Nicea, the capital of the sultany of Rum, was GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 41? taken ; a great victory over the sultan Soleiman opened a passage into Syria ; Antioch was captured after a seige of unparalleled difficulty, and finally, Jerusalem, which had been recently wrested from the Turks by the Egyptians, fell before the arms of the crusaders, and became the capital of a new kingdom (a. d. 1099). Jerusalem was obstinately defended by the Mussulmans ; they hurled beams and stones on the heads of those who tried to scale the walls, •ind flung burning oil and sulphur on the moveable towers and bridges employed by the assailants. The crusaders displayed equal energy, but on the second day of assault, just as they were sinking under the united effects of weariness and a burning sun, Godfrey declared that he saw a celestial messenger on the Mount of Olives, cheering the Chris- tians to the combat. The enthusiasm awakened by such a declaration bore down every obstacle ; the crusaders made good their lodgement on the wall, and the Mohammedans fled into the city. Amid the most rapturous shouts of triumph the banner of the cross was planted on the towers of Jerusalem, and as it unfurled itself in the wind, many of the bravest warriors wept for joy. But the triumph was sullied by an indis- criminate and unsparing massacre ; a helpless crowd sought shelter ii* the mosque of Omar, but the gates were speedily forced and the fugi lives butchered ; the knights boasted that they rode in Saracen blood up to the knees of their horses. The massacre lasted all day, bui when the shades of evening began to close around, the crusaders sud denly recollected that they were in the midst of those places which had been hallowed by the presence and sufferings of their Savior. As if by some common and supernatural impulse, the savage warriors were suddenly changed into devout pilgrims ; each hasted to remove from his person the stains of slaughter ; they laid aside their weapons, and in the guise of penitents, with bare heads and feet, streaming eyes and folded hands, they ascended the hill of Calvary and entered the church of the Holy Sepulchre. The services of religion were performed by the clergy of Jerusalem, who hailed their deliverers with enthusiastic gratitude. Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen sovereign of Palestine ; he refused the title of king, declaring that Christ was the true monarch of the Holy Land, and declined to wear a crown of gold, where his Savior had borne a crown of thorns. Baldwin, his brother and successor, was less scrupulous ; he assumed the royal ensigns and title, and transmitted the throne to his cousin, Baldwin du Bourg, whose posterity continued. to reign in Palestine until the kingdom was overthrown by Saladin (a. d. 1187). Several minor states were established by the crusadofs, of which the most remarkable were the county of Edessa, the principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli, and, at a later period, the kingdom of Cyprus. None of these states had long duration ; the Christians of the east, continually assailed by powerful enemies, could not be persuaded to unite cordially for mutual defence ; victories were scarcely less calamitous to them than defeats, on account of the difficulty of obtaining reinforcements from Europe ; and though the crusading enthusiasm en- dured for two centuries, its heat gradually abated, and nothing would have kept it alive but the privileges and grants made by the popes, and the principal European potentates, to those who joined in such expedi* 27 41S MODERN HISTORY. tions. Six principal crusades followed the first, great movement ; they were all either unsuccessful or productive of advantages as fleeting as they were trivial. Forty-eight years after Jerusalem had been taken by the Christians, the emperor, Conrad III., and Louis VII., king of France, undertook a second crusade to support the sinking fortunes of their brethren in Pal- estine (a. d. 1117). The Atta-beg Zenghi, who had, by his superior prowess, obtained the chief command over the Turkish tribes in Irak, attacked the Christian territories beyond the Euphrates, and made him- self master of Edessa, justly regarded as the bulwark of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Conrad proceeded to Constantinople, without waiting for his ally. He had to encounter the treacherous hostility of the By- zantine emperor, which proved fatal to an army containing the flower of German chivalry, including a troop of noble ladies wiio served in the attitude and armor of men. Manuel, who then held the throne of Constantinople, gave the sultan secret intelligence of the German line of march, and furnished Conrad with treacherous gmdes. After a glorious but unsuccessful battle on the banks of the Majander, Conrad was forced to retreat ; he met the French advancing from the Bospho- rus, and the contrast of his own condition Avith the pomp of Louis, led him to desert the cause. The French, imdismayed and unwarned, pur- sued their march with inconsiderate speed ; their rear-guard was sur- prised by the Turkish troops, while the van was at a considerable dis- tance, and the greater part put to the sword. Louis brought the shat- tered remnant of his forces by sea to Antioch ; the Christians of Pales* tine joined him in an unsuccessful siege of Damascus, after which the monarch returned to Europe, dishonored by a faithless wife, and de- serted by ungrateful allies. This disgraceful termination of an expedi- tion from which so much had been expected, diflused feelings of mel- ancholy and surprise throughout Europe. St. Bernard, abbot of Clair- vaux, through whose influence the crusade was undertaken, had to en- counter the storm of public indignation ; he was stigmatized as a lying prophet, who, by pretended inspiration and false miracles, had lured myriads to a miserable doom. But Bernard was not daunted by these reproach ?s ; he replied to those accusations by pointing out the true causes of the failure, the follies and vices of the crusaders themselves ; he asserted that a new expedition, undertaken in a spirit of piety, would be crowned with success ; and he urged the states of Christen- dom to combhie in one great ellbrt for scouring the kingdom of Jerusa- lem. His eflbrts to revive the crusading spirit were, however, una- vailing, and death surprised him in the midst of his exertions. Noureddin,* the son of Zenghi, destroyed the dynas':y of the Fati- mite khaliphs in Egypt. His favorite, Saladin,t usurped the govern- ment of Egypt, and, though a Kurd by descent, became the favorite hero both of the Turks and Arabs. On the death of his ancient master, Saladin invaded the Christian territories, and, after a brief siege, made himself master of Jerusalem (a. d. 1187). The loss of the holy city filled all Europe with sorrow ; the emperor, Frederic I., the lion-hearted • Nur-ed-din signifies " the light of religion." t Salah-ed-din signifies " the safety of religion." GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 419 Kicliard Ef, i-land, Philip Augustus of France, and several minoi princes, m >.med the cross, while the maritime states of Italy, by send- ing immediate reinforcements to the garrisons on the coasts of he Mediterranean, arrested the progress of Saladin. Frederic advanced through the Byzantine territories, harassed at every step by Greek fraud and treachery. Having wintered at Adrianople, he crossed the Hellespont, defeated the Turks in several engagements, and stormed the city of Iconium. But in the midst of his glorious career he Avas drowned in flie river Cydnus (a. d. 1190). The army persevered, and joined the eastern Christians in the famous siege of Acre. While Acre was closely pressed by the Christians, the oesiegers were, in their turn, so strictly blockaded by Saladin, that they suffered more than the garrison. The kings of England and France, however, followed by the flower of their dominions, apj eared together as com- panions in arms, and reached Palestine by sea. The siege of Acre was so vigorously prosecuted after the arrival of the English that the town was soon forced to surrender, and the Christians began to indulge the hope of recovering Jerusalem. Their expectations were frustrated by the jealousy which arose between the French and the English ; Philip, unable to brook the superiority which Richard acquired by his military prowess, and perhaps, in some degree, by his wealth, returned home, leaving a part of his army under the command of the duke of Burgundy, for the defence of the Holy Land. But the animosity be- tween the French and English parties was increased rather than abated by the departure of Philip ; the envy of his companions rendered the valorous exertions of Richard unavailing ; he entered into a treaty with Saladin, obtaining for the Christians free access to Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulchre, and then hasted home to defend his dominions from the attacks of his ancient rival (a. d. 1192). On his return, the English monarch was seized and imprisoned by the duke of Austria, whom he had grievously insulted in Palestine ; he was subsequently re- signed to the custody of the emperor of Germany, from whom he had to purchase his liberation by the payment of a large ransom. The il- lustrious Saladin did not long survive the departure of the royal crusa- der ; he died at Damascus, and the disputes that arose respecting his inheritance, prevented the Mohammedans from completing the destruc- tion of the Latih kingdom of Palestine. The fourth crusade Avas undertaken at the instigation of Innocent III. (a. d. 1202), aided by a fanatic preacher, Foulke of Neuilly. The fer- vor of euthus'asm Avas now abatetl ; no great sovereign joined in the enterprise, but several of the most potent feudatories off'ered their ser- vices, and Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, Avas chosen commander-in- .ihief. The crusaders obtained transports from the Venetians, by con- quering Zara, in Dabnatia, for the republic of Venice, in spite of the threats and remonstrances of the pope, who was justly indignant at seeing their first efforts directed against a Christian city. But this de- parture from their original design was followed by a still more remark- able deviation ; instead of proceeding to Palestine, they sailed against Constantinople, to dethrone the usurper, Alexius Angelus. The cru- saders succeeded in restoring the lawful emperor, Isaac, to his empire ; but the reward they claimed for their services was extravagant, and 420 MODERN HISTORY, Isaac's efforts to comply with the stipulations provoked such resent' ment, that he was deposed by his subjects, and put to death, together with his son. The crusaders instantly proclaimed war against the usurper, Mourzoufle, laid siege to Constantinople, took the city by storm, pillaged it with remorseless cruelty, and founded a new Latin empire on the rains of the Byzantine (a. d. 1204). Baldwin, count of Flanders, was chosen sovereign of the new state, which, under five Latin emperors, lasted little more than half a century. Constantinople was recovered by the Greeks (a. d. 1261), and the hopes of uniting the eastern and western churches, which the possession of the Byzantine capital had inspired, were blighted for ever. The fifth crusade was conducted by the king of Hungary. Two hundred thousand Franks landed at the eastern mouth of the Nile, persuaded that the conquest of Egypt was a necessary preliminary to the recovery and safe possession of Palestine (a. d. 1218). After having obtained some important successes, their cause was ruined by the arrogance and presumption of the papal legate, who assumed the direction of the army. They purchased some trivial concessions, by evacuating all their conquests ; and the pope, who at first proposed to come in person to their assistance, was too busily engaged in checking the progress of heresy, to venture on an expedition to Pales- tine. Frederic IL, emperor of Germany, led a formidable army to Pal- estine, after having been excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. foi delaying his expedition, a sentence which was renewed because he ventured to sail without waiting for the papal orders (a. d. 1228). This war exhibited the strange anomaly of a champion of the cross exposed to the bitterest hostility of the church. Frederic was every- where victorious, but the papal legates and the priests harassed him by constant opposition ; a crusade was preached against him in Italy, and efforts were made to weaken his authority in his own hereditary dominions. On receiving this intelligence, Frederic concluded an equitable treaty with the sultan Melek Kamel, crowned himself at Jerusalem, for no ecclesiastic would perform the ceremony, and re- turned to Europe, after having effected more for the Christians of Pal- estine than any of their former protectors. Gregory again hurled anathemas against a prince who had made a treaty with the infidels ; but Frederic's vigorous exertions soon changed the aspect of affairs ; he reduced those who had rebelled during his absence, dispersed the papal and Lombard troops, and won absolution by his victories. Tranquillity, which endured fifteen years, „raised the Latins of Palestine to a prosperous condition ; but a new and more formidable enemy, issuing from the deserts of Tartary, subverted the kingdom which had been founded at such an expense of blood and treasure. The Khorasmian Turks, driven from their native deserts by the Mon- gols, threw themselves upon Palestine, stormed Jerusalem, subverted the Latin principalities^ and the small Turkish states in Syria. Jeru- salem, and the greater part of Palestine, was subsequently annexed to the sultany of Egypt. Louis IX., of France, commonly called St. Louis, led the ninth crusade. Egypt was the scene of his operations ; after obtaining some GftOWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 421 important triumphs, he was defeated, made prisoner, and forced to purchase his freedom by the payment of a large ransom (a. d. 1250). The pope's inveterate hostility to Frederic was one of the chief causes that led to the ruin of this crusade. At the moment that Louis sailed, Innocent was preaching a crusade against the emperor in Europe, and the Dominicans were stimulating their hearers to rebellion and assassi- nation. The lamentable loss of the French army, the captivity of the " most Christian king," and the utter ruin of the Latin kingdom in Pal- estine, failed to shake the obstinacy of the pontiff. It seemed even that the death of Frederic redoubled his fury, as if his prey had escaped from his hands. " Let the heavens rejoice, and let the earth be glad," was his address to the clergy of Sicily, " for the lightning and the tempest, wherewith God Almighty has so long menaced your heads, have been changed, by the death of this man, into refreshing zephyrs and fertilizing dews." Untaught by calamity, he prepared for a second crusade ; on his voyage to the place of rendezvous, he was induced to steer to Tunis, in the wild hope of baptizing its king (a. d. 1270). Instead of a proselyte, Louis found a tedious siege, and a mortal disease. On his death, the remnant of his army was led back to Europe without making any further effort. The fate of Palestine was for a time delayed by the valor of Edward I., of England, who extorted a three years' truce from the Mohammedans. At length, some excesses of the Latins pro- voked the resentment of the Mameluke sultan, Khalil ; he resolved to expel them completely from Palestine, and laid siege to their last stronghold, Acre (a. d. 1291). The city was taken after a tedious siege, and after its fall the title of King of Jerusalem, still preserved by the Christian princes, became an empty name. Section VIII. — The Crusade against the Albigenses. It has been already mentioned that the growth of heresy was be- ginning to alarm the advocates of papal supremacy in the reign of Alexander III., and that a general council had pronounced a solemn decree against the Albigenses. But the feudal lords of France and Italy were slow in adopting an edict which would have deprived them of their best vassals, and the new opinions, or rather the original doc- trines of Christianity, were secretly preached throughout the greater part of Europe. It may be conceded to the defenders of the papal system that there were some among the preachers of a reformation who had given too gveat a scope lo their imaginations, and revived many of the dangerous errors of the Manichaeans and Paulicians. There seems no just cause for doubting that a few enthusiasts ascribed the Old Testament to the principle of Evil ; because, as they asserted, " God is there described as a homicide, destroying the world by water Sodom and Gomorrah by fire, and the Egyptians by the overflow of the Red sea." But these were the sentiments of a very small minori- ty ; the bulk of the Albigensian reformers protested simply against the doctrine of transubstantiation, the sacraments of confirmation, confes- sion, and marriage, the invocation of saints, the worship of images, and the tempcal powei of the prelates. Their moral character was 422 MODERN HISTORY confessed by their enemies, but while they acknowledged its exterr»at purity, they invented the blackest calumnies respecting their secret practices, without ever bringing forward a shadow of proof, and conse- quently without incurring the hazard of refutation. The progress of reform was silent ; for the efforts of the paterins, or Albigensian teach ers, were directed rather to forming a moral and pure society within the church, than to the establishment of a new sect. They seemed anxious to hold the same relation to the Romish establishment that John Wesley designed the Methodists to keep toward the church of England. Their labors generated an independence of spirit and free- dom of judgment which would probably have led to an open revolt, had not Innocent III. discerned the danger to which the papal system was exposed, and resolved to crush freedom of thought before us exercise would subvert his despotism. Innocent's first step was to enlist cupidity and self-inteiest on his side ; he abandoned to the barons the confiscated properties of heretics, and ordered that the enemies of the church should be for ever banished from the lands of which they were deprived. He then sent commis- sioners into the south of France, to examine and punish those suspected of entertaining heretical opinions, and thus laid the first foundation of the Inquisition. The arrogance and violence of these papal emissaries disgusted every class of society ; finding that their persecutions were unpopular, they resolved to support their power by force of arms, and they were not long m discovering the materials of an army. Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, was engaged in war with some of the neighboring barons, and Peter de Castelnau, the papal legate, offered to act as mediator. He went to the barons, and obtained from them a promise that, if Raymond would consent to their demands, they would employ all the forces they had assembled to extirpate heresy. Castelnau drev/ up a treaty on these conditions, and oflered it to Ray- mond for his signature. The count was naturally reluctant to purchase the slaughter of his best subjects, by the sacrifice of his dominions, and the admission of a hostile army into his states. He peremptorily refused his consent, upon which Castelnau excommunicated Raymond, placed his dominions under an interdict, and wrote to the pope for a confirmation of the sentence. Innocent III. confirmed the legate's sentence, and began to preach a crusade ; but his violence transcended all bounds, when he learned that Castelnau had been slain by a gentleman of Toulouse whom he had personally insulted (a. d. 1208). Though Raymond appears to have had no share in this murder, it was against him that the papal vengeance was principally directed : he was excommunicated, his sub- jects absolved from their oath of allegiance, and the French king was invited to despoil him of his estates. Philip Augustus was too busily engaged in wars with the king of England and the emperor of Germany to turn his attention to the extir- pation of heresy ; but he permitted a crusade against the Albigenses to be preached throughout his dominions, and the monks of Citeaux be- came the chief missionaries of this unholy war ; they promised the pardon of all sins committed from the day of birth to death, to those who fell in the war, unlimited indulgence, the protection of the church GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 423 and a large share of spoil to all who survived. While the monks were enlisting ferocious bands of wretches, who believed that they might expiate their former crimes by the perpetration of fresh atrocities, In- nocent was preparing a new mission to Languedoc, whose savage bru- talities exceeded even those of the crusaders. A new monastic order was instituted, at the head of which was placed a Spaniard named St. Dominic, whose special object was to extirpate heresy, by preaching against the doctrines of those who dissented from the church, and pun- ishing with death those who could not be convinced by argument. This institution, too Avell known by the dreaded name of the Inquisi- tion, appears to have been originally planned by the bishop of Tou- louse, who introduced it into his diocese about seven years before it was formally sanctioned by Pope Innocent at the council of Lateran. Raymond VI., and his nephew Raymond Roger, viscount of Albi, alarmed at the approaching danger, presented themselves before the papal legate, Arnold, abbot of Citeaux, to avert the coming storm by explanations and submissions. They protested that they had never sanctioned heresy, and that they had no share in the murder of Castel- nau. The severity with which they were treated by the legate, con- vinced the young viscount that nothing was to be hoped from negotia- tion, and he returned to his states, resolved to defend himself to the last extremity : the count of Toulouse showed less fortitude ; he prom- ised to submit to any conditions which the pope would impose. Raymond's ambassadors were received by the pope with apparent indulgence ; but the terms on which absolution were offered to the count could scarcely have been more severe. He was required to make common cause with the crusaders, to aid them in the extirpation of heretics — that is, his own subjects — and to give up seven of his best castles as a pledge of his intentions. Innocent declared that, if Ray- mond performed these conditions, he would not only be absolved, but taken into special favor ; yet, at the very same moment, the pope was inflexibly resolved on the count's destruction. In the spring of the year 12U9, all the fanatics who had taken arms at the preaching of the monks of Citeaux, began to assemble on the borders of Languedoc ; the land was spread in beauty before them — ere long it was to be a howling wilderness. Raymond VI. sank into abject cowardice ; he yielded up his castles, he promised implicit sub- mission to the legate, he even allowed himself to be publicly beaten with rods before the altar, as a penance for his errors. As a reward for his humiliation, he was permitted to serve in the ranks of the cru- saders, and to act as their guide in the war against his nephew. Raymond Roger showed a bolder spirit ; finding the papal legato implacable, he summoned his barons together, and having stated all his exertions to preserve peace, made a stirring appeal to their generosity and their patriotism. All resolved on an obstinate defence ; even those who adhered to the church of Rome justly dreaded the excesses of a fanatical horde eager to shed blood, and gratify a ruffian thirst for plun- der. The crusaders advanced : some castles and fortified towns were ' abandoned to them ; others not subject to the imputation of heresy were allowed to ransom themselves ; Villemur was burned, and Chas- seneuil, after a vigorous defence, capitulated. The garrison was per- 424 MODERN HISTORY. mitted to retire, but all the inhabitants suspected of heresy, male and female, were committed to the flames amid the ferocious shouts of the conquerors, and their property abandoned to the soldiery. Beziers was the next object of attack ; the citizens resolved to make a vigorous resistance, but they were routed in a sally by the advanced guard of the crusaders, and so vigorously pursued, that the conquerors and conquered entered the gates together. The leaders, before taking advantage of their unexpected success, asked the abbot of Citeaux how they should distinguish Catholics from heretics ; the legate's mem- orable answer was, " Kill all : God will distinguish those who belong to himself." His words were too well obeyed ; every inhabitant of Beziers was ruthlessly massacred, and when the town was thus one immense slaughter-house, it was fired, that its ruins and ashes might become the monument of papal vengeance. Carcasonne was now the last stronghold of Raymond Roger, and t was gallantly defended by the young viscount. Simon de Montfort, .'he leader of the crusaders, found himself foiled by a mere youth, and was detained for eight days before he could master the suburbs and invest the town. Peter II., king of Aragon, whom the viscount of Albi and Beziers recognised as his suzerain, took advantage of this delay to interfere in behalf of the young lord, who was his nephew as well as his vassal. The egate, unwilling to offend so powerful a sovereign, accepted his me- diation, but when asked what terms would be granted to the besieged, he required that two thirds of Carcasonne should be given up to plun- der. Raymond Roger spurned such conditions ; Peter applauded his courage, and personally addressed the garrison. " You know the fate that waits you ; make a bold defence, for that is the best means of finally obtaining favorable terms." The prudence of this advice was proved by the legate's consenting to a capitulation ; but when the vis- count, trusting to the faith of the treaty, presented himself in the camp of the crusaders, he was treacherously arrested, and thrown with his attendants into prison. Warned by the fate of their leader, the citizens of Carcasonne evacuated the town during the night, but some of the fugitives were overtaken by the cavalry of the crusaders ; the legate selected a supply of victims from his prisoners ; four hundred of them were burned alive, and about fifty were hanged. It seemed that the object of the crusade was obtained ; the count of Toulouse had submitted to every condition, however humiliating ; the viscount of Narbonne abandoned every notion of resistance ; and the gallant lord of Beziers was a prisoner. The crusaders too began to grow weary of the war ; the French lords were ashamed of the cruel- ties they had sanctioned, and the faith they had violated ; the knights and common soldiers, having completed the term of their service, were anxious to revisit their homes. But the legate, Arnold, was still un- satisfied ; he summoned a council of the crusaders, and tried to induce them to remain, in order that they might protect their conquests of •Beziers and Carcasonne, the investiture of which he conferred on Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. But the greater part of the French nobles refused to remain longer, and Montfort had to defend his new acquisitions with the vassals from his own estates. The gallant GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 425 Raymond Roger was detained a close prisoner in his own baronial hall at Carcasonne, where he soon died, the victim of a dysentery, produced by gri'^f, or, as was generally suspected, by poison. The armies of the crusaders withdrew ; they left a desert, and called it peace ; but the sufferings of the Albigenses were not exhausted ; the monks of the Inquisition, attended by trains of executioners, went at their will through the land, torturing and butchering all who were sus- pected of heresy. Nor were the monks of Citeaux idle ; they had found honor and profit in preaching a crusade, and they were not dis- posed to relinquish the lucrative employment. Thus a new crusade was preached when there was no enemy to combat, and nev hordes of fanatics were poured into Languedoc. They forced their chiefs to renew the war, that the exertions of those who profited by preaching extermination should not be lost, and that the bigotry of those who hoped to purchase their salvation by murder should not remain un- gratified. Strengthened by these reinforcements, Simon de Montfort threw off the mask of moderation, and declared war against the unfortunate count of Toulouse. Raymond was once more excommunicated, and his do- minions placed under an interdict. But the earl of Leicester soon found that he had been premature in his hostilities ; the king of Aragon refused to receive his homage for the viscounties of Beziers and Car- casonne, declaring that he would support the claims of the legitimate heir, Raymond Trencanel, the only son of the unfortunate Raymond Roger, a child about two years old, who was safe under the guardian- ship of the Count de Foix. A dangerous insurrection was raised in the states so recently assigned *o Montfort ; and out of the two hundred towns and castles that had been granted to him, eight alone remained in hi5 possession. The count of Toulouse was too much afraid of ecclesiastical ven- geance to defend himself by arms ; he sought the protection of the king of France, and he went in person to Rome to implore absolution. In- nocent promised him pardon on condition of his clearing himself from the charge of heresy and of participation in the murder of Castelnau ; but when he presented himself before the council, he found that his judges had been gained over by his inexorable enemy, the abbot of Citeaux, and instead of being permitted to enter on his defence, he was overwhelmed by a series of new and unexpected charges. His re- monstrances were neglected, his tears afforded theme for mockery and insult, and the sentence of excommunication was formally ratified. In the meantime the crusaders, under Simon de Montfort, pursued their career of extermination ; those whom the sword spared fell by the hands of the executioner ; and the ministers of a God of peace were found more cruel and vindictive than a licentious soldiery. Even the king of Aragon became alarmed, and sought to secure the friendship of the papal favorite, by affiancing his infant son to a daughter of De Montfort. The monarch probably expected that by this concession, he would obtain more favorable terms for Raymond, and he accompanied the count to Aries, where a provincial council was assembled. The terms of peace fixed by the legate were so extravagant, not to say ab- surd, that even Raymond rejected them, and secretly withdrew from 426 MODERN HISTORY. the city in company with the king of Aragon. Once more the count was excommunicated, pronounced an enemy of the church and an apos- tate from the faith, and declared to have forfeited his title and estates. The war was now resumed with fresh vigor ; after a long siege, De Montfort took the strong castle of Lavaur by assault, hanged its brave governor, the lord of Montreal, and massacred the entire garrison. " The lady of the castle," says the Romish historian, " who was an execrable heretic, was by the earl's orders thrown into a well, and stones heaped over her : afterward, the pilgrims collected the number- less heretics that were in the fortress, and burned them alive with great joy-" The same cruelties were perpetrated at every other place through which the crusaders passed ; and the friends of the victims took re- venge, by intercepting convoys, and murdering stragglers. It was not until he had received a large reinforcement of pilgrims from Germany, that the earl of Leicester ventured to lay siege to Toulouse. Raymond, in this extremity, displayed a vigor and courage, which, if he had man- ifested in the earlier part of the war, would probably have saved his country from ruin. He made so vigorous a defence, that the crusaders were forced to raise the siege, and retire with some precipitation. The friendship between the monks of Citeaux and the crusaders soon began to be interrupted by the ambition of the former. Under pre- tence of reforming the ecclesiastical condition of Languedoc, they ex- pelled the principal prelates, and seized for themselves the richest sees and benefices. The legate, Arnold, took for his share the archbishop of Narbonne, after which he abandoned Montfort, and went to lead a new crusade against the Moors in Spain. Innocent III. himself paused for a moment in his career of vengeance, and, at the instance of the king of Aragon, promised Raymond the benefit of a fair trial. But it is easier to rouse than to allay the spirit of fanaticism ; disobeyed by his legates, and reproached by the crusaders, the pope Avas com- pelled to retrace his steps, and abandon Raymond to the fury of his enemies. The king of Arragon came to the aid of his unfortunate relative, and encountered the formidable army of the crusaders at Muret ; but he was slain in the beginning of the battle ; the Spanish chivalry, disheartened by his fall, took to flight ; and the infantry of Toulouse, thus forsaken, could ofier no eff^ective resistance. Trampled down by the pilgrim- knights, the citizens of Toulouse who followed their sovereign to the field, were either cut to pieces, or drowned in the waters of the Garonne. Philip Augustus had triumphed over his enemies, the king of Eng- land and the emperor of Germany, just when the victory of Muret seems to have confirmed the power of De Montfort. But the ambitious adventurer derived little profit from his success, for the court of Rome began to dread the power of its creature (a. d. 1215). His influence with the papal legates and the prelates who had directed the crusade was, however, still very great, and he procured from the council of Montpellier the investiture of Toulouse and all the conquests made by " the Christian pilgrims." Philip Augustus was by no means disposed to acquiesce in this arrangement ; he sent his son Louis with a numer- GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 427 cms army into the south of France, under pretence of joining in the crusade, but really to watch the proceedings of De Montfort. Louis subsequently returned to accept the proffered crown of England, and the quarrel in which this proceeding involved him with the pope di- verted his attention from Languedoc. Arnold of Citeaux, having returned from his Spanish crusade, took possession of his archbishopric of Narbonne, where he began to exer- cise the rights of a sovereign prince. Simon de Montfort, who had taken the title of duke of Narbonne in addition to that of count of Tou- louse, denied that his old companion in arms had a right to temporal jurisdiction ; he entered the city by force, and erected his ducal stand- ard. Arnold fulminated an excommunication against De Montfort, and placed the city under an interdict while he remained in it ; he found, however, to his great surprise and vexation, that these weapons were contemned by the formidable champion of the church. But a more vigorous enemy appeared in the person of Raymond VII., son of the count of Toulouse, who, in conjunction with his father, made a vigoi'ous effort to recover the ancient inheritance of his race. Simon de Mont- fort, contrary to his own better judgment, was induced by Foulke, bishop of Toulouse, to treat the citizens with treacherous cruelty for showing some symptoms of affection to their ancient lord ; the conse- quence was, that they took advantage of his absence to invite Raymond to resume his power ; and on the 13th of September, 1217, the count was publicly received into his ancient capital amid universal acclama- tions. Simon, by the aid of the papal legate and the clergy, was able to collect a large army, but the bravest of the crusaders had either fallen in the preceding wars, or returned disgusted to their homes. Every one now knew that heresy was extinguished in Languedoc, and that the war was maintained only to gratify private revenge and individual ambition. De Montfort laid siege to Toulouse, but he was slain in a sally of the inhabitants, and his son Almeric, after a vain effort to re- venge his death, retired to Carcasonne. The Albigetisian war was not ended by the death of its great leader. Almeric de Montfort sold his claims over Languedoc to Louis VIII., king of France ; and though this prince died in the attempt to gain pos- session of Toulouse, the war was so vigorously supported by the queen- regent, Blanche, that Raymond VII, submitted to his enemies, and his dominions were united to the crown of France (a. d. 1229). The In- quisition was immediately established in these unhappy countries, which have never since recovered completely from the calamities in- flicted upon them by the ministers o.f papal vengeance. Section IX. — Consequences of the Crusades. Though the popes did not succeed in establishing their supremacy over the eastern churches, yet they derived very important advantages from the wars of the crusaders. Not the least of these was tlie gen- eral recognition of their right to interfere in the internal management of states ; they compelled emperors and kings to assume the cross ; they levied taxes at their discretion on the clergy throughout Christen- 428 MODERN HISTORY. dom for the support of these wars ; they took under their immediate protection the persons and properties of those who enlisted, and grant- ed privileges to the adventurous warriors, which it would have been deemed impiety to contravene. Those who joined in these wars, fre- quently bequeathed their estates to the church, in the not improbable case of their death without heirs ; those whom cowardice or policy de- tained at home, atoned for their absence by founding ecclesiastical en- dowments. While the papal power increased, that of monarchs declined ; in Germany, the Hohenstauffen gradually lost all influence ; in England, the barons extorted a charter from John, and the Hungarians chiefs placed similar restrictions on their sovereign. Peculiar circumstances led to a contrary result in France ; many of the great feudatories hav- ing fallen in a distant land, the monarchs were enabled to extend their prerogatives, while their domains were increased "^y seizing the properties of those who died without feudal heirs, or of those who "vere suspected of heretical opinions. The Christian kings of Spain and northern Europe derived also some profit from the fanaticism of the age, being aided by troops of warlike adventurers, in extending their dominions at the expense of their Mohammedan and pagan neigh- bors. Chivalry, though older than the crusades, derived its chief influence and strength from these wars. The use of surnames, coats of arms, and distinctive banners, became necessary in armies composed of men diflering in language, habits, and feelings, collected at hazard from every Christian kingdom. Tournaments were the natural result of pride and courage, in warriors naturally jealous of each other's fame, while the institution of the military orders invested knighthood with a mysterious religious sanction. The first of these was the order of the Hospital- lers, or Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, known subsequently as the Knights of Malta. They were formed into a confraternity by Pope Pascal (a. d. 1114), but their order was greatly enlarged by Pope Ca- lixtus. They bore an octagonal white cross on their black robes, and were bound to wage war on infidels, and attend to sick pilgrims. After the loss of the Holy Land, they removed successively to Cyprus, Rhodes, and Malta. Their order held Malta until a. d. 1798, when they were deprived of their last possession by Napoleon. The Knights Templars, distinguished by the red cross, were institu- ted soon after the Hospitallers. Tneir original duty was to keep the roads free for the pilgrims that visited the Holy Sepulchre, but as their numbers increased, they became the great bulwark of the Christian kingdom of Palestine, and the possessors of rich endowments in every part of western Europe.* At length their wealth excited the cupidity of monarchs ; they were overwhelmed by a mass of forged accusations ; many of the noblest knights were put to death by torture, and the order wholly abolished at the council of Vienne (a. d. 1312). The Teutonic order was originally a confraternity of German knights, formed during the seige of Acre, for the relief of the sick and wounded It was Ibrinally instituted by Pope Celestin HI. (a. d. 1192), and a • The Temple in London belonged to the Red-cross knights ; the Hospitallers possessed a splendid preceptory in Clorkenwell, part of which is still standing. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 429 code of regulations prescribed for its direction. Their ensign was i black cross, on a white robe. They subdued the kingdom of Prussia (a. d. 1230), of which they held possession until the progress of the Reformation gave that country to a protestant prince (a. d. 1525). The last great order was that of St. Lazarus, instituted originally for super- intending the treatment of leprosy, a loathsome disease which the cru- saders introduced into Europe. It soon became military, like the pre- ceding, but never rose to similar eminence. The Italian maritime states supplied the crusaders with transports, and conveyed to them provision and the munitions of war. This traf- fic led to a rapid increase in the commerce and navigation of the Med- iterranean ; a taste for spices and other articles of oriental luxury was gradually diffused throughout Europe, and trading depots Avere formed by Venice, Genoa, and other Italian powers, on the shores of the Le- vant, and the coasts of the Greek empire. Several French towns imi- tated this example, and in the remote north an association was formed for the protection and extension of commerce between the c'ties of Lu- beck and Hamburgh (a. t>. 1241), which laid the foundation of the Hanseatic league. The progress of industry, the encouragement which sovereigns found it their interest to grant to trade, and their anxiety to check the arrogance and rapacity of their feudal vassals, led to a great chang* in most European countries, the establishment of municipal in- stitutions. The royal authority gained considerably by the extension of munici- pal freedom. The cities and towns saw that the sovereign was the person most interested in protecting their growing freedom, and they therefore gladly gave him their support in his struggles with the aris- tocracy and the clergy. The emancipation of the serfs was a conse- quence of municipal freedom. The free cities granted protection to all who sought shelter Avithin their walls, and the nobles saw that they must either ameliorate the condition of their vassals, or witness the de- population of their estates. Liberty thus gradually recovered its right civilization consequently began to extend its blessings over society. The imperial house of Hohenstauffen fell from its pride of place on the death of the emperor Frederic II., the great opponent of the pa- pacy (a. d. 1250). His son Conrad fell a victim to disease, after a brief but troubled reign ; and the anarchy which sucr-eeded in Ger- many, is justly named the calamitous period of the great interregnum. William of Holland, and an English prince, Richard, earl of Cornwall, were successively elected emperors, and enjoyed little more than the title. At length, Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was chosen (a. d. 1273) and showed himself worthy of the crown by his energy in sup- pressing the predatory wars that were waged by his vassals. In the meantime, the popes, in defiance of the rights of the Hohenstauffen, had bestowed the kingdom of Naples on Charles, duke of Anjou brother to the king of France. The cruelties of Charles led the Italians to invite young Conradin to assert the hereditary claims of his family. At the age of sixteen this brave prince entered Italy, where he was enthusiastically received But the Italians were not able to compete with the French in the field , vvhen Conradin encountered Charles, his followers broke at the first on- 430 MODERN HISTORY. set, and he remained a prisoner. The duke of Anjou subjected the young prince to the mockery of a trial, and commanded him to be exe- cuted. Thus fell the last prince of the house of Suabia, which had long been the most formidable obstacle to papal usurpation. The triumph of the papacy appeared complete : Italy was seA^ered from the German empire ; but the peninsula recovered its independence only to be torn in sunder by factions ; the church did not succeed to the empire, and the pontiffs found that the spirit of freedom, which they had themselves nurtured, was a more formidable foe than the sovereigns of Germany. Section X. — Formation and Constitutional History of the Spanish Monarchy. For several hundred years after the great Saracen ii. rasion in the beginning of the eighth century, Spain was broken up into a number of small but independent states, divided in their interests, and often in deadly hostility with one another. By the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury, the number of states into which the country had been divided was reduced to four; Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and the Moorish kingdom of Granada. The last, comprised within nearly the same limits as the modern province of that name, Avas all that remained to the Moslems of their once A'ast possessions in the peninsula. Its concentrated pop- ulation gave it a degree of strength altogether disproportioned to the extent of its territory ; and the profuse magnificence of its court, which rivalled that of the ancient khaliphs, was supported by the labors of a sober industrious people, under whom agriculture and several of the mechanic arts had reached a degree of perfection probably unequalled in any other part of Europe during the middle ages. The little kingdom of Navarre, embosomed within the Pyrenees, had often attracted the avarice of neighboring and more powerful states. But since their selfish schemes operated as a mutual check upon each other, Navarre still continued to maintain her independence when all the smaller states had been absorbed in the gradually increasing do- minion of Castile and Aragon. This latter kingdom comprehended the province of that name, together with Catalonia and Valencia. Under its auspicious climate and "ree political institutions, its inhabitants dis- played an uncommon share of intellectual and moral energy. Its long line of coast opened the way to an extensive and flourishing commerce ; and its enterprising- navy indemnified the nation for the scantiness of its territory at home by the important foreign conquests of Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, and the Balearic Isles. The remaining provinces of the peninsula fell to the crown of Castile, which, thus extending its sway over an unbroken line of country from the bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean, seemed, by the magnitude of its territory, to be entitled to some supremacy over the other states of the peninsula ; especially as it was there that the old Gothic monarchy may be said first to have revived after the great Saracen invasion This claim, indeed, appears to have been recognised at an early period of her history. The Saracens, reposing under the sunny skies of Andalusia, so con- genial with their own, seemed willing to relinquish the sterile regions GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 431 of the north to an enemy whom they despised. But when the Span- iards, quitting the shelter of their mountains, descended into the open plains of Leon and Castile, they found themselves exposed to the pred- atory incursions of the Arab cavalry. It was not until they had reach- ed some natural boundary, as the river Douro, that they were enabled, by constructing a line of fortifications behind this natural fence, to se- cure their conquests. Their own dissensions were another cause of their tardy progress. More Christian blood was wasted in these na- tional feuds than in all their encounters with the infidel. The soldiers of Fernan Gonzales, a chieftain of the tenth century, complained that their master made them lead the lives of very devils, keeping them in the harness day and night, in wars not against the Saracens, but one another. These circumstances so far checked the energies of the Christians, that a century and a half elapsed after the in -asion before they had penetrated to the Douro (a. d. 850), and nearly ihrice that period before they had advanced the line of conquest to the Tagus (a. d. 1147), not- withstanding this portion of the country had been comparatively desert- ed by the Mohammedans. But it was easy to foresee that a people living as they did under circumstances favorable to the development of both physical and moral energy, must ultimately prevail over a natior. oppressed by despotism, and the effeminate indulgence to which it was naturally disposed by a sensual religion and a voluptuous climate. Ir truth, the early Spaniard was urged by every motive which can give energy to human purpose. His cause became the cause of Heaven The church published her bulls of crusade, offering liberal indulgences to those who served, and paradise to those who fell in the battle against the infidel. Indeed, volunteers from the remotest parts of Christian Europe eagerly thronged to serve under his banner, and the cause of religion was debated with the same ardor in Spain as on the plains of Palestine. To the extraordinary position in which the nation was placed may be referred the liberal forms of its political institutions, as well as a more early development of them than took place in other countries of Europe. From the exposure of the Castilian towns to the predatory incursions of the Arabs, it became necessary, not only that they should be strongly fortified, but that every citizen should be trained to bear arms in their defence. An immense increase of consequence was given to the burgesses, who thus constituted the most effective part of the national militia. To this circumstance, as well as to the policy of in- viting the settlement of frontier places by the grant of extraordinary privileges to the inhabitants, is to be imputed the early date, as well the liberal character of the charters of community in Castile and Leon. These, although varying a good deal in their details, generally conce- ded to the citizens the right of electing their own magistrates for the regulation of municipal affairs. In order to secure the barriers of jus- tice more eflectually against the violence of power, so often superior to law in an imperfect state of society, it was provided in many of the charters that no nobles should be permitted to acquire real property within the limits of the municipality ; that no fortress or palace should be erected by them there ; that such as might reside within the terri- 432 MODERN HISTORY. tory of a chartered city or borough should be subject to its jurisdiction , and that any violence offered by the feudal lords to its inhabitants might be resisted with impunity. Thus, while the inhabitants of the great towns in other parts of Europe were languishing in feudal servitude, the Castilian corporation, living under the protection of their own laws and magistrates in time of peace, and commanded by their own officers in time of war, were in full enjoyment of all the essential rights and priv- ileges of freemen. The earliest instance on record of popular representation in Castile, occurred at Burgos in 1169 ; nearly a century antecedent to the first convocation of the English house of commons, in the celebrated Lei- cester parliament. Each city had but one vote whatever might be the number of its representatives. The nomination of the deputies was originally vested in the householders at large, but was afterward con- fined to the municipalities ; a most mischievous alteration which sub- jected their election eventually to the corrupt influence of the crown. They assembled in the same chamber with the higher orders of the nobility and clergy ; but on questions of importance retired to deliber- ate by themselves. After the transaction of other business, their own petitions were presunted to the sovereign ; and his assent gave them the validity of laws. The Castilian commons, by neglecting to make their money grants dependant on corresponding concessions from the crown, relinquished that powerful check on its operations so bene- ficially exerted in the British parliament, but in vain contended for even there until a period much later than that now under consideration. Whatever may have been the right of the nobility and clergy to attend the Cortes, their sanction was not deemed essential to the validity of legislative acts ; for their presence was not even required in many as- semblies of the nation which occurred in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The extraordinary power thus committed to the commons was, on the whole, unfavorable to their liberties. It deprived them of the sympathy and co-operation of the great orders of the state, whose authority alone could have enabled them to withstand the enactments of arbitrary power, and who in fact did eventually desert them in their utmost need. But notwithstanding these defects, the popular branch of the Castilian Cortes, very soon after its admission into that body, assumed functions and exercised a degree of power superior to that enjoyed by the com- mons in other European legislatures. It was soon recognised as a principle of the constitution, that no tax should be imposed without the consent of the representatives of the people. The commons showed a Avise solicitude in regard to the mode of collecting the public revenue. They watched carefully over its appropriation to its destined uses. A vigilant eye was kept on the conduct of public officers, as well as on the right administration of justice, and commissions were appointed by the Cortes to inquire into any suspected abuses of judicial authority. They entered into negotiations for alliances with foreign powers, and by determining the amount of supplies for the maintenance of troops in time of war, preserved a salutary check over military operations. The nomination of regencies was subject to their approbation, and they de- fined the nature of the authority to be intrusted to them. Their con- OftOWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 433 fr«rtt was esttJortied indispensable to the validity of a title to the crown ; Htxti this prerogative, or at least the shadow of it, long continued to sur- vive the wreck of theii ancient liberties. Finally they more than once set nside the testamentary provisions of the sovereign in regard to the succession. it would be improper to pass by without notice an anomalous insti- tution -peculiar to Castile, which sought to secure the public tranquillity by means which were themselves scarcely compatible with civil subor- dination. This was the celebrated Hermcmdad, or " Holy Brotherhood," which was designed as a substitute for a regularly-organized police. It consistett of a confederation of the principal cities, bound together by solemn league and covenant for the defence of their liberty in seasons of civil anarchy. Its affairs were conducted by deputies, who assem- bled at stated intervals for the purj70se, transacting their business under a common seal, enacting laws which they were careful to transmit to the nobles and the sovereign, and enforcing their measures by an armed body of dependants. This wild kmd of justice, so characteristic of an unsettled state of society, repeatedly received the legislative sanction ; and however formidable such a popular engine may have appeared to the eye of a monarch, he was often fed to countenance it by a sense of his own impotence, as well as of the overweening power of the nobles, against whom it was principally directed. Hence these associations, though the epithet may seem somewhat overstrained, have received the appellation of " Cortes Extraordinary." With these immunities the cities of Castile attained a degree of opu- lence and splendor unrivalled, unless in Italy, during the middle ages. At a very early period indeed their contact with the Arabs had familiar- ized them with a better system of agriculture and a dexterity in the mechanic arts unknown in other parts of Christendom. Augmentation of wealth brought with it the usual appetite for expensive pleasures but the surplus of riches wa« frequently expended in useful public works. The nobles, though possessed of immense estates and great political pri '.'ileges, did not consume their fortunes or their energies in a life of efleminate luxury. From their earliest boyhood they were accustomed to serve in the ranks against the infidel, and their whole subsequent lives were occupied either with war, or those martial exercises vvhicn reflect the image of it. Looking back with pride to the ancient Gothic descent, and to those times when they had stood forward as the peers, the electors of their sovereign, they would ill brook the slightest indig nity at his hand. Accordingly we find them perpetually convulsing the kingdom with their schemes of selfish aggrandizement. The petitions of the commons are filled with remonstrances on their various oppres- sions, and the evils resulting from their long desolating feuds. The over-weening self-confidence of the nobles, however, proved their ruin. They disdained a co-operation with the lower orders in defence of their privileges, when both were assailed by the Austrian dynasty, and relied too unhesitatingly on their power as a body, to feel jealous of their exclusion from the national legislature, where alone they could make an effectual stand against the usurpations of the crown. The long minorities with which Castile was afflicted, perhaps more 28 434 MODERN HISTORY. than any country in Europe, frequently threw the government into the hands of the principal nobility, who perverted to their own emolument the high powers intrusted to them. They usurped the possessions of the crown, and invaded some of its most valuable privileges ; so that the sovereign's subsequent life was frequently spent in fruitless attempts to recover the losses of his minority. He sometimes, indeed, in the impotence of other resources, resorted to such unhappy expedients as treachery and assassination. Skction XI. — Survey of (he Consiiiution of Aragon. Aragon was first raised to political importance by its union with Catalonia, including the rich country of Barcelona, and the subsequent conquest of the kingdom of Valencia. The ancient country of Barce- lona had reached a higher degree of civilization than Aragon, and was distinguished by institutions even more liberal than those we have de- scribed in the preceding section as belonging to Castile. It was in the maritime cities, scattered along the coasts of the Mediterranean, that the seeds of liberty, both in ancient and modern times, were implanted and brought to niaturity. During the middle ages, when the people of Europe generally maintained a toilsome and unfrequent intercourse with each other, those situated on the margin of this great inland sea found an easy mode of communication across the great highway of its waters. Among these maritime republics, those of Catalonia were eminently conspicuous. By the incorporation of this country, there- fore, with the kingdom of Aragon, the strength of the latter was greatly augmented. The Aragonese princes, well aware of this, liberally fos- tered the institutions to which the country owed its prosperity, and skil- fully availed themselves of its resources for the aggrandizement of their dominions. The Catalan navy disputed the empire of the Mediterranean with the fleets of Pisa, and still more with those of Genoa. With its aid the Aragonese monarchs achieved successfully the conquest of Sici- ly, Sardinia, and the Balearic isles, which they annexed to their empire. It penetrated into the farthest regions of the Levant, and a Catalan ar- mament conquered Athens, giving to their sovereign the classical title of duke of that city. But though the dominions of the kings of Aragon v/ere thus extended abroad, there were no sovereigns in Europe v/hose authority was so limited at home. The national historians refer the origin of their gov- ernment to a written constitution of about the m.iddle of the ninth cen- tury, fragments of which are still preserved in certain ancient documents and chronicles. On the occurrence of a vacancy in the throne at this epoch, a monarch was elected by the twelve principal nobles, who pre- scribed a code of laws, to the observance of which he was compelled to swear before assuming the sceptre. The import of tliese laws was to circumscribe within very narrow limits the authority of the sovereign- ty, distributing the principal functions to ajusticia or justice ; and these peers were puthorized, if the compact should be violated by the mon- arch, to withdraw their allegiance, and in the bold language of the or- dinance " to substitute any other ruler in his stead, even a pagan if they listed." The great barons of Aragon were few in number, they claimed GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 435 descent from the twelve electoral peers we have described, and they very reluctantly admitted to equality those whom the favor of the sov- ereign raised to the peerage. No baron could be divested of his fief unless by public sentence of the justice and the cortes. The nob'es filled of right the highest offices in the state ; they appointed judges in their domains for the cognizance of certain civil causes, and they exer- cised an unlimited criminal jurisdiction over certain classes of their vas- sals. They were excused from taxation, except in specified cases ; were exempted from all corporal and capital punishments ; nor could they be imprisoned, though their estates might be sequestrated, for debt. But the laws conceded to them privileges of a still more dangerous character. They were entitled to defy and publicly renounce their al- legiance to their sovereign, with the whimsical privilege in addition, of commending their families and estates to his protection, wliich he was obliged to protect until they were again reconciled. The mischievous right of private war was repeatedly recognised by statute. It was claimed and exercised in its full extent, and occasionally with circumstances of peculiar atrocity. The commons of Aragon enjoyed higher consideration, and still larger civil privileges, than those of Castile. For this they were perhaps somewhat indebted to the example of their Catalan neighbors, the infiu- ence of whose democratic institutions naturally extended to other parts of the Aragonese monarchy. The charters of certain cities accorded to their inhabitants privileges of nobility, particularly those of immunity from taxation ; while the magistrates of others were permitted to take their seats in the order of the lesser nobles. By a statute passed in 1307, it was ordained that the cortes should assemble triennially. The great of- ficers of the crown, whatever might be their personal rank, were jealously excluded from their deliberations. It was in the power of any member to defeat the passage of a bill, by opposing to it his vAo or dissent for- mally registered to that effect. He might even interpose his negative on the proceedings of the house, and thus put a stop to the prosecution of all further business during the session. During the interval of the sessions of the legislature, a committee of two from each department was appointed to preside over public affairs, particularly in regard to the revenue and the security of justice ; with authority to convoke a cortes extraordinary, whenever the exigency might demand it. The cortes exercised th;; highest functions, whether of a deliberative, legislative, or judicial nature. It had a right to be consulted on all mat- ters of importance ; especially on those of peace or war. No law was valid, no tax could be imposed without its consent ; and it carefully pro- vided for the application of the revenae to its destined uses. It deter- mined the succession to the crown ; removed obnoxious ministers ; re- formed the household and domestic expenditure of the monarch ; and exercised the power in the most unreserved manner of withholding sup- plies, as well as of resistin.g what it regarded as an encroachment on the liberties of the nation. The governments of Valencia and Catalonia were administered inde- pendent of each other long after they had been consolidated into one monarchy, but they bore a very near resemblance to the constitution of Aragon. The city of Barcelona, which originally gave its name; to th« 436 MODERN HISTORY. county of which it was the capital, was distinguished from a very early period by ample municipal privileges. Under the Aragonese monarchs, Barcelona had so well profited by the liberal administrations of its rulers as to have reached a degree of prosperity rivalling that of any of the Italian republics. The wealth which flowed in upon Barcelona, and the result of the activity and enterprise which the merchants of the place exhibited, was evinced by the numerous public works in which it set an example to all Europe. Strangers who visited Spain in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, expatiate on the magnificence of . this city, its commodious private edifices, the cleanliness of its streets and public squares, and on the amenity of its gardens and cultivated environs. But the peculiar glory of Barcelona was the freedom of its municipal institutions. The government consisted of a senate or council of one hundred, and a body of corrcgidores or counsellors, varying at times from four to six in number ; the former intrusted with the legislative, the lat- ter with the executive functions of administration. A large proportion of these bodies was selected from the merchants, tradesmen, and me- chanics of the city. They were invested, not merely with municipal authority, but with many of the rights of sovereignty. They entered into commercial treaties with foreign powers ; superintended the de- fence of the city in time of war ; provided for the security of trade ; granted letters of reprisal against any nation who might violate it ; and raise«l and appropriated public money for the construction of useful works, or the encouragement of such commercial adventures as were too hazardous or expensive for individual enterprise. Under the influence of these democratic institutions, the burghers of Barcelona, and, indeed, of Catalonia in general, which enjoyed more or less of a similar freedom, assumed a haughty independence of character, beyond what existed among the same class in other parts of Spain ; and this, combined with the martial daring fostered by a life of maritime adventure and warfare, made them impatient, not merely of oppression, but of contradiction on the part of their sovereigns, who have experi- enced more frequent and more sturdy resistance from this part of their dominions than from any other. Navogiers, the Venetian ambassador to Spain early in the sixteenth century, although a republican himself, was so struck with what he deemed the insubordination of the Barcelo- nians, that he asserts, " The inhabitants have so many privileges that the king scarcely retains any authority over them ; their liberty," he adds, " should rather go by the name of licentiousness." Such, in the earlier stages of Spanish history, were the free consti- tutions of Castile and Aragon ; but when these two kingdoms were united into one great monarchy, it became the settled policy of the sov- ereigns to destroy all the institutions by which the liberties of the people were secured. As the power of the Mohammedans grew weaker, the kings of Castile had less reason to grant municipal privileges on condi- jcn of defending the frontiers ; and their nobles, continually engaged in mutual dissensions, were unable to check the inroads of the crown on aheir aristocratic privileges. The nobles of Aragon, indeed, were al- ways ready to combine in a common cause, and it was aptly said by one of the monarchs, in reference to these two aristocracies, that " it GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 437 was equally difficult to divide the nobles of Aragon, and to unite those of Castile." But union availed little to the Aragonese nobles, when the seat of government was placed beyond the sphere of their influence, and when Castilian armies were ready to crush the first appearance of insurrection. It is also to be remarked, though rather in anticipation of what we shall have to discuss hereafter, that the conquest of Amer- ica not merely gave the kings of Spain vast supplies of gold, without their being compelled to have recourse to their parliaments or cortes, but it also enabled them to create many lucrative monopolies, for which the Spanish nobles bartered the privileges of their order and the rights of the people. There is a closer connexion between freedom of trade and freedom of institutions than is generally imagined : every protected interest exists at the expense of all the other classes of the community, and being itself based on injustice, must connive at injustice in others. Prospective loss, however great, is constantly hazarded bj' the ignorant and unthinking for immediate gain, however small, and it was this self- ish folly which mainly enabled the Austrian line of Spanish monarchs to overthrow the ancient constitution of their country, and to render Spain a memorable and sad example of the great truth, that a land of monopoly soon becomes a land of slavery, and eventually a land of misery. Section XII. — State of Western Europe at the commencement of the Four- teenth Century. RoDOLPH of Hapsburgh had no sooner obtained possession of the empire, than he resolved to strengthen the sovereign authority, by an- nexing some of the great fiefs to the crown. The usurpation of the dutchy of Austria by Ottokar, king of Bohemia, afforded him a pretext for inter- fering in the disposal of that province ; he defeated Ottokar, and deprived him not only of .Austria, but also of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, which were formed into a new principality, and the investiture given to Albert, the emperor's son (a. d. 1282), who founded the imperial house of Austria. But while the emperor's authority was extended in Germany, it was almost unknown in Italy, where the republican cities generally withdrew even nominal allegiance from their former masters. Of these commer- cial states Venice was the most important. This city had been origi- nally founded by some refugees who sought shelter in the islands and lagoons of the Adriatic, from the ferocity of the Huns (a. d. 452) ; but it first rose into importance under the doge Pierre Urseoio II. (a. d. 992), who obtained freedom of commerce for his fellow-citizens from the By- zantine emperor and the sultan of Egypt, and subjected the maritime cities of Istria and Dalmatia. In the wars between the empire and the papacy, they had generally supported the latter ; Pope Alexander III., as a reward for their services, conferred on them the sovereignty of the Adriatic, and hence arose the singular ceremony of celebrating annu- ally a mystic marriage between that sea and the Venetian doge. The crusades tended greatly to extend the power of the republic, especially the fourth, in which, as we have already stated, the Greek empire was dismembered. On this occasion, the Venetians received from their allies several maritime cities in Dalmatia, Albania, Epirus, and Greece, 438 MODERN HISTORY. the islands of Crete, Corfu, Ceplialonia, and several others in the Ionian cluster. But the increasing wealth of Venice led to a fatal change in its po- litical constitution. The government was originally democratic, the power of the doge being limited by a council, who were freely chosen by the citizens. Several tumults at these elections furnished the doge, Peter Grandenigo, with an excuse for proposing a law abrogating an- nual elections, and rendering the dignity of councillor hereditary in the families of those who were at the period members of the legislative as- sembly (a. d. 1298). This establishment of a close aristocracy led to several revolts, of Avhich that headed by Tiepolo was the most remark- able (a. d. 1310). After a fierce battle within the city, the insurgents were routed ; ten inquisitors were chosen to investigate the conspiracy, and this commission was soon rendered permanent under the name of the Council of Ten. the most formidable tribunal ever founded to support aristocratic tyranny. Genoa, like Venice, owed its prosperity to its extensive commerce, which flourished in spite of the several political con^iilsions that agi- tated the republic. The Genoese embraced the cause of the Greek eftiperors, and helped them to regain Constantinople. Their services were rewarded by the cession of Caffa, Azov, and other ports on the Black sea, through which they opened a lucrative trade with China and India. They obtained also Smyrna, and Pera, a suburb of Constantino- ple, together with several important islands in the Archipelago. Nor were they less successful in extending their power in Italy and the western Mediterranean, though they had to contend against powerful rivals in the citizens of Pisa. The mutual jealousies of these republics, and the anxiety of both to possess the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, led to a long and sanguinary war. It ended (a. d. 1290) in the com- plete overthroAv of the Pisans, whose commerce was annihilated by the loss of the island of Elba, and the destruction of the ports of Pisa and Leghorn. Charles of Anjou did not long enjoy the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. His subjects justly hated him for the murder of Conradin, and the inso- lence of the French soldiery confirmed their aversion. An atrocious insult offered to a Sicilian lady, provoked the celebrated insurrection, commonly called the Sicilian Vespers* (a. d. 1282), in which all the French residents in Sicily were massacred, with the exception of Wil- liam Parcellet, whose virtues honorably distinguished him from his countrymen. The islanders placed themselves under the protection of the king of Aragon, and Charles, though aided by the pope, was unable to regain his authority over them. Pope Martin, who was warmly attached to Charles of Anjou, excom- municated the king of Aragon, and placed his kingdom under an inter- dict ; and, finding these measures ineffectual, he preached a crusade against him, and gave the investiture of his states to the count of Va- * The evening prayers in the catholic church are called Vespers, and the revoH commenced as the congregation were assembling at Palermo for the evening ser- vice, during the festival of Easter. Some historians describe this massacre as the result of a deep and long-planned conspiracy; but it is much more likely to have, been simply a su ^den outbreak of popular indignation. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 439 lois, second son of the king of France. He proclaimed Charles of Anjou chasipion of the holy church, and declared that this sanguinary tyrant was a prince chosen by God himself. The pope, who thus be- stowed crowns, and exonerated subjects from their allegiance, was un- able to maintain himself in his own capital ; and while he hoped to humble kings, could not enforce the obedience of the Roman citizens. But this is not the only instance of a similar anomaly in the history of the papacy. Peter of Aragon, feigning obedience, exchanged his title of king for that of a simple knight, retaining, however, all the power of royalty ; but dreading the succors that the king of France sent to his uncle more than the papal menaces, he sought out aieans of gaining time to organize the defence of Sicily. Knowing the vain-glorious dis- position of his rival, Peter proposed that Charles and he, with a hundred knights at each side, should decide their respective titles in a combat, near Bordeaux. The duke of Anjou, elated by the hopes of a duel with a prince who added to his modest title, " Knight of Aragon," the sound- ing designations, " Lord of the Seas, and Father of Three Kings," ac- cepted the terms ; and, while he prepared for the expected field, neg- lected his preparations for war. Martin fulminated against the Juel, single combats being forbidden by the church ; but Peter had nev^ intended to expose himself to the chance, and on the appointed day Charles discovered, from the non-appearance of his adversary, that he had been baffled by superior policy, perhaps we should rather say, perfid}^ ,■ Martin more than shared the indignation of his favorite ; he renewed the preaching of the crusade against Peter, granting to all who fought in the papal cause the same indulgences assigned to those who joined in the expeditions for the recovery of Palestine ; and he sent ambassa- dors urging the French king to hasten the invasion of Aragon. It is not easy to conceive how raonarchs could be blind to the consequences of accepting these proffered crowns ; they thus recognised the principle of the pope's right to depose sovereigns, and sanctioned a power which might at any time be employed against themselves or their successors. But the lessons of prudence are slow in penetrating hearts fascinated by ambiticn or fanaticism. The Anathemas of Martin did not deprive Peter of his crown ; they scarcely even checked the current of his fortunes. All his subjects, clergy, nobles, and commons, ostentatiously displayed their attachment to their sovereign, and laughed the papal decrees to scorn. The Ara- gonese admiral defeated the fleet of the duke of Anjou within sight of Naples, and made his son, Charles the Lame, a prisoner (a. d. 1284).' This scion of a detested race would not have escaped the fury of the Messenians, who wished to sacrifice him in revenge for the murder of Conradin, only for the generous interference of Queen Constance, Man- fred's daughter, who rescued him from the fury of the populace, and sent him for security to Catalonia. Charles of Anjou did not long sur- vive this calamity ; the remembrance of his former triumphs and pros- perity, his pride, his contempt for his enemies, and shame for having been baffled by policy, aggravated the mortification of a defeat which he no longer had power to retrieve. Spain continued divided into several small kingdoms, Christian and 440 MODERN HISTORY. Mohammedan. To the former belonged Navarre, Aragon, and Castile, of Avhich the last two were gradually extending themselves at the ex- pense of their Mohammedan neighbors. The Castilian monarch, Al- phonso I., captured Madrid and Toledo (a. d. 1085) ; he would proba- bly have expelled the Moors from Spain, had not a new burst of fa- naticism in Africa supplied the Mohammedans with hordes of enthusi- astic defenders in the moment of danger. The Moors not only recov ered their strength, but became so formidable, that Pope Innocent III. published a crusade against them. A numerous Christian army assem- bled on the confines of Castile and Andalusia ; they encountered their enemies near the city of Uleda, and inflicted on them a defeat, from which tjie Spanish Mohammedans never recovered (a. d. 1212). Fer- dinand III., king of Castile and Leon, profiting by the weakness of thb Moors, subdued the little kingdom of Cordova, Murcia, and Seville (a. d. 1256), so that the Mohammedans were reduced to the single kingdom of Granada. The crusade in Spain led to the foundation of a new kingdom in Europe. Henry of Burgundy, a member of the royal family of France, was so eminently distinguished by his valor in the Mohammedan wars, that Alphonso VI., king of Castile, gave him his daughter in marriage, with the investiture of the country of Portugal as her dowry. Henry enlarged his territory at the expense of the Mohammedans, but his fame was eclipsed by that of his son Alphonso, whom his soldiers proclaimed king on the glorious field of battle in which the power of the Moham- medans was destroyed (a. d. 1139). To secure his new royalty, Al- phonso placed himself and his kingdom under the protection of the holy see, and declared himself a liege subject of the pope. His suc- cessors found the Roman pontiffs by no means slow in availing tli^m- selves of the power thus ceded to them ; several violent struggles were made by the kings to free themselves from the yoke, but the power of the popes prevailed, and a treaty was concluded, by which the Portu- guese clergy were secured in extensive possessions, almost royal priv- ileges, and a complete exemption from secular jmisdiction (a. d. 1289). As the governments of France and England began to assume a sta- ble form, rivalry arose between the two nations, which led to a long series of sanguinary wars. From the time of Capet's usurpation, the policy of the French kings had been to lessen the power of the great feudatories ; and it was a perilous error in Philip I. to sanction the duke of Normandy's conquest of England, for he thus permitted a vas- sal, already dangerous, to become his rival sovereign. The danger was greatly increased when Louis VII. divorced his faithless wife Eleanor, the heiress to the provinces of Guienne, Poitou, and Gascony. She married Henry II., king of England, and thus enabled him to add her inheritance to that of the Plantagenets in France, which included the dutchies of Normandy and the counties of Anjou and Maine (a. d. 1252). The vassal was now more powerful than his sovereign ; the throne of France indeed would scarcely have been secure, had not the family dis- putes of the Plantageneti, secretly fomented by the wicked Eleanor, caused Henry's sons to revolt against their indulgent father, and brought that able sovereign with sorrow to his grave. Philip Aug^ustus was the foimder of the greatness of the French monarchy. The Plantagenets GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 441 ol England sank rapidly before his superior talents. Richard I. was no (ling more than a brave warrior, and unable to compete Avith the Dolicy of his rival ; his successor, John, was neither a soldier nor a statesman ; he provoked the resentment of all his subjects, and while assailed in England by the discontented barons, and menaced abroad by the pope, he was deprived of most of his continental dominions by the watchful king of France. Philip's neighbors, and many of his vassals, were alarmed at the vast increase of his power after his con- quest of the Norman provinces ; they formed a league against him, but at the battle of Bouvines (a. d. 1214), he triumphed over the united forces of the Germans, the English, and the Flemings, and by this vic- tory secured the possession of his acquisitions. After the death of Nicholas (a. d. 1292), the papacy, as if exhausted by its own excesses, seemed to have fallen into a lethargy. The holy see remained vacant for two years and three months ; an interval which the heads of the church might have improved to accommodate the ec- clesiastical system to the improved state of intelligence, and the con- sequent changes in the wants and wishes of Europe But, in an evil hour, they had adopted the doctrine of infallibility, and believed them- selves bound to keep their system stationary while everything around was in progress. In a former age the papacy had taken the lead in the advancement of intelligence ; the clergy and the friars were the mis- sionaries of knowledge ; but the church had now fallen into the rear ; kings, not pontiffs, were the patrons of learning ; in the new contest between the spiritual and temporal powers, we shall find the latter con- quering, because on their side were ranged all who took a share in the advancement of civilization. Intelligence, emancipated from the clois- ter, found a temporary abode in the palace, and finally spread even to the cottage ; the popes became its enemies from the moment it quitted their protection, but they were necessarily vanquished in the struggle ; one age beheld monarchs despise the deposing power, the next witnes- sed the pope's authority a mockery, and his very name a reproach in one half of Europe. The vacancy in the papacy became the signal for civil wars in Rome, and throughout Italy ; superstition attributed these calamities to the car- dinals, who left the church without a head : an insane hermit stimula- ted the populace to menace them with death unless they proceeded to an election, and they chose a feeble, ignorant, old fanatic, who took the name of Celestine IV. Though destitute of any other qualification, Celestine had at least the pride of a pontiff — the bridle of the ass, on which, with blasphemous imitation, he made his public entry into Aquilla, was held by two kings, Charles II., the perjured sovereign of Naples, and his son Charles Martel, nominal king of Hungary. But the cardi- nals soon became weary of an idiot monk forced upon them by an in- sane hermit ; Benedict Cajetan worked upon the weak mind of Celes- tine to resign a dignity which he was unable to maintain, and, having previously gained the suffrages of the college, ascended the throne un- der the name of Boniface VIII.* In its altered circumstances, the * Almost the only thing memorable in the pontificate of Celestine, is the fabled miracle of the chapel of Loretto, which was said to have been transported bj angels from Nazareth to the place where it now stands, that it should not be 442 MODERN HISTORT. papacy thus found a ruler who had fortitude and courage sufficient lo maintain its pretensions against the kings who had now begun to dis- cover their rights ; but the defeat of the pontiff added one to the many examples that history affords of the failure of antiquated pretensions when opposed to common sense and common honesty. Section XIII. — Pontificate of Boniface VIII. Most historians assert that Boniface had recourse to very treacher- ous artifices, in order to obtain the resignation of Celestine : however this may be, the abdicated pontiff was immediately shut up in a prison, lest his scruples, or his remorse, should trouble his successor. Boni- face, to the ambition and despotic character of Gregory YII , added a more crafty manner, and more dissimulation, than had been recently seen in the chair of St. Peter. He aspired to universal sovereignty over ecclesiastics, princes, and nations ; and he diligently sought out means for rendering them submissive to his laws. Aware that it would be impossible to revive the crusading passion in Europe, he resolved to make the recovery of Palestine a pretext for interfering in the quarrels of sovereigns. He wrote to Philip the Fair, king of France, to Ed- ward I. of England; and to Adolphus, emperor of Germany, command- ing them, untT^ pain of excommunication, to accommodate their differ- ences ; and he mediated a peace between the sovereigns of France and Aragon. James, king of Aragon, anxious to conciliate the pope, resigned his pretensions to Sicily ; but the islanders, detesting the house of Anjou, and despising the commands of a sovereign who had so weakly aban- doned his rights, crowned Frederic, the brother of James, at Palermo, and expelled the papal legates. Excommunications were fulminated against the Sicilians, and the sovereign of their choice ; even the fee- ble James v/as induced to arm against his brother, and aid in his expul- sion from the island ; and this violation of natural ties was rewarded by the cession of Sardinia and Corsica, over which the pope had not a shadow of right. But the ambition of Boniface was not limited to bestowing islands and Italian principalities ; he resolved to establish his authority over the most powerful sovereigns of Europe. Philip the Fair was one of the most able monarchs in Christendom , resolute in establishing his influence over the great vassals of the crown, he strengthened himself by the support of his people, and re- solved that the nobles and the clergy should, henceforth, form classes of his subjects. Feudal anarchy disappeared, and equal jmisdiction was extended over all ranks ; the lower classes were delivered from the most galling burdens of vassalage, and the despotism of the sover- eign became a blessing to the nation. » In the midst of his career he re- ceived an embassy from the pope, commanding him to spare a con- quered vassal, to abstain from taxing the clergy, and to submit his dis- putes with the count of Flanders to the arbitration of the holy see. Philip spurned these demands, upon which the pope issued the cele- brated bull, called, from the words with which it commences, Clericis polluted by the Saracens. This absurd story was long credited by the Romanistsi but it is now derided even in Italy. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. 443 la,KOS, excommunicating the kings who should levy ecclesiastical subsi- dies, and the priests who should pay them ; and withdrawing the clergy from the jurisdiction of lay tribunals. 'I'his attempt to establish a theocracy, independent of monarchy excited general indignation. In England, Edward ordered his judges to admit no causes in which ecclesiastics were the complainants, but to try every suit brought against them, averring that those who refused to contribute to the support of the state, had no claim to the protection of the law. This expedient succeeded, and the English ecclesiastics hastened to pay their subsidies, without further compulsion. Philip the Fair exhibited even more vigor ; he issued an edict prohibiting the ex- port of gold, silver, jewels, provisions, or munitions of war, without a license ; snd he forbade foreign merchants to establish themselves in his dominions. Boniface, aware that these measures would destroy the revenue which the court of Rome derived from France, remonstrated in urgent terms, explained away the most offensive parts of his formei bull, and offered several advantages to the king if he would modify his edicts. Philip allowed himself to be persuaded ; the bull Clerms laicos was rendered less stringent : Louis IX. was canonized, and Philip could boast of having a saint for an ancestor ; finally, the pope prom- ised that he would support Charles of Valois, as a candidate for the empire. Dazzled by these boons, the French monarch accepted the arbitration of the pope, in his disputes with the king of England and the count of Flanders. But Boniface, to his astonishment, decided that Guienne should be restored to England, that all his former posses- sions should be given back to the count of Flanders, and that Philip himself shoujd undertake a new crusade. When this vmjust sentence was read in the presence of the French court, by the bishop of Dui- ham, Edward's ambassador, the king listened to it with a smile of con- tempt ; but the count of Artois enraged at such insolence, snatched the bull, tore it in pieces, and flung the fragments into the fire. This was the only answer returned : Philip, heedless of the pope's anger, renew- ed the war. Boniface VIII. little dreamed that Philip's resistance would be so energetic, or of such dangerous example ; but he prepared for the coming struggle, by securing his authority in Italy, and especially in Rome, where the papal power had been long controlled by the factious Tiobles. Immediately after his elevation to the pontificate, he had caused himself to be elected senator, but the Ghibellines rendered the dignity of such a magistrate very precarious ; it was necessary to de- stroy them, and in this instance personal vengeance was united to the projects of ambition. The leaders of the Ghibeliine faction at Rom« were the illustrious family of the Colonna : two cardinals of that name had strenuously resisted the abdication of Celestine, and had long been marked out as victims. Under the pretext of their alliance v/ith the kings of Sicily and Aragon, they were summoned to appear before the papal tribunal ; but, justly dreading that their doom was predetermined, they fied to their castles, protesting against the sentence of him whom they denied to be a legitimate pope. Boniface hurled the most terril^le anathemas against them, declaring them infamous, excommunicate, and incapable of any p-ablic charge, to the fourth generation : he devoted 444 MODERN HISTORY. them to the fires of the Inquisition, and preached a crusade for tlieir de- struction. Intimidated for a moment, the Colonnas submitted, and sur- rendered their town of Palestrina as a pledge of their fidehty. No sooner was Boniface master of this stronghold, than, regardless of his oaths, he levelled the fortress to the ground, forbade it to be rebuilt, re- newed his persecutions against the Colonnas, and compelled them to fly from Italy. They sought shelter at the court of France, where they were hospitably received by Philip, who thus gave a signal proof of hia independence and his generosity. Boniface was alarmed, but not dismayed ; he resolved to lull the king's vigilance by stimulating his ambition : for this purpose he pro- posed to dethrone Albert, emperor of Germany, and give the crown to Charles of Valois, whom he had already created imperial vicar, and captain-general of the holy church. Philip turned a deaf ear to this tempting proposal ; he even entered into alliance with Albert, and ce- mented the union by giving his sister in marriage to the emperor's son, Rodolph, duke of Austria. Boniface was enraged at this disappoint- men- bwt his attention was diverted by the institution of a jubilee, to mark Jie commencement of a new century (a. d. 1300). He published a bull, promising full pardon and remission of all sins to those who, being confessed and penitent, should visit the tombs of the apostles at Rome, during fifteen days. Multitudes of pilgrims, anxious to obtain the benefits of the crusades, without the perils of war, flocked to the city, and, by their liberal expenditurl, made some consid- erable additions to nian'tinie knowledge ; but it was not until the time of Elizabeth that regular plans of colonization were formed. The growth of commerce in this age was very rapid, but there ap- THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EJE,OPE. 495 psared still room for further discoveries until the globe was circumnav- igated by Magellan (a. d. 1521). From that time the attention of na- tions began to be directed more to completing old discoveries than to the search for new lands. The navies of Europe began to assume a formidable aspect ; manufactures multiplied, and states, previously poor, became suddenly rich. Sovereigns and governments began to direct their attention to commerce, justly persuaded that mercantile wealth is equally the source of the prosperity and glory of nations. Section II. — Origin of the Reformation. The extravagant claims of the popes to temporal, as well as spirit- ual supremacy, had been resisted by several men of learning, whose works did not die with them, but continued to exercise a powerful, though secret effect, on succeeding generations. This repugnance to ecclesiastical domination was greatly increased by the scandalous schism at the close of the fourteenth and commencement of the fifteenth century. Two or three popes reigning at the same time, excommuni- cating each other, appealing to the laity for support, compelled men to exercise the right of private judgment, and directed attention to the ecclesiastical abuses that had produced such unhappy fruits. The par- tial reforms, or rather attempts at reformation, made by the councils of Constance and Basil, spread the disrespect for the Romish see still wider ; their deposition of contending pontiffs taught men that there was a jurisdiction in the church superior to the papal power, their fee- ble efforts to correct abuse brought the evils prominently forward, and left them unamended to meet the public gaze. While this dissatisfac- tion was hourly increasing, the papal chair was filled successively by two pontiffs, whose career of unscrupulous guilt was sufficient to dis- gust even a less enlightened age. Alexander VI., profligate in private life, cruel and tyrannical in his public administration, was followed by Julius II., whose overbearing ambition led him to trample on the very semblance of justice and moderation when they interfered with the success of his schemes. The sovereigns of France and Germany, alternately engaged in active hostilities with these heads of the church, could not prevent their subjects from ridiculing papal pretensions, and assailing papal vices. Nor were these scandals confined to the papa- cy ; the licentious lives of the ecclesiastics in Italy and Germany, the facility with which they obtained pardons for enormous crimes, their exorbitant wealth, their personal immunities, and their encroachments on the rights of the laity, had given just offence ; and this was the more sensibly felt in Germany, because most of the great benefices were in the hands of foreigners. When men's minds were everywhere filled with disgust at the exist- ing administration of ecclesiastical affairs, and eager for some change, a dispute, trivial in its origin, kindled a flame, which rapidly spread over Europe, destroying all the strongholds that had been so laboriously erected for the security of tyranny and superstition. Leo X., on his accession to the papal chair, found the treasury of the church exhausted by the ambitious projects of his predecessors, Alexander VI. and Ju- lius II Generous in his disposition, magnificent in his habits of lifo, 496 MODEEN HISTORY. eager for the aggrandizement of his family, the princely Medicis, he could not practise the economy necessary to recruit his finances, and he therefore had recourse to every device that his ingenuity could sug- gest to raise money for the splendid designs he contemplated. Among these he introduced an extensive sale of indulgences, which often had proved a source of large profits to the church. The origin of indulgences has been sometimes misrepresented by eminent writers ; and as we have now reached a period when their abuse produced the most decisive blow which the papacy had yet re- ceived, it will be necessary to take a brief survey of their history. In the primitive church it was customary that those who had committed •any heinous offence should perform a public penance before the con- gregation, " that their souls might be saved in the day of the Lord ; and that others, admonished by their example, might be the more afraid to offend." In process of time rich and noble offenders became anxious to avoid public exposure, and private penances or a pecuniary compensation were substituted for the former discipline. On this change the popes founded a new doctrine, which, combined with the commutation of indulgences, opened the way for profitable traffic. They taught the world that all the good works of the saints, over and above those which were necessary to their own justification, are de- posited, together with the infinite merits of Jesus Christ, in one inex- haustible treasury. The keys of this were committed to St. Peter and his successors the popes, who may open it at pleasure, and by trans- ferring a portion of this superabvmdant merit to any particular person for service in a crusade, or for a sum of money, may convey to hira either the pardon of his own sins, or a release for any one, in whose happiness he is interested, from the pains of purgatory. These indul- gences were first issued to those who joined personally in the expedi- tions for the recovery of the Holy Land ; subsequently to those who hired a soldier for that purpose ; and finally to all who gave money for accomplishing any work which it pleased the popes to describe as good and pious. Julius II. bestowed indulgences on all who contributed to the building of St. Peter's at Rome, and Leo continued the traffic under the same pretence. Different orders of monks derived considerable profit from the sale of indulgences, and great indignation was excited among the Augus- tinian friars when the monopoly of the trade in Germany was granted to their rivals, the Dominicans. Tetzel, the chief agent in retailing them, was a man of licentious morals, but of an active spirit, and re- markable for his noisy and popular eloquence.* He executed his com- • The following is the form of absolution used by Tetzel : — " May our Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon thee, and absolve thee by all the merits of his most holy passion ; and I, by his authority, that of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul, and of the most holy pope, granted and committed to me in these parts, do absolve thee first from all ecclesiastical censures, in whatever manner they have been incurred, and then fi'om all thy sins, transgressions, and excesses, how enor- mous soever they may be, even from such as are reserved for the cognizance of the holy see : and as far as the keys of the holy church extend, I remit to you all punisliment which you deserve in purgatory on their account ; and I restore you to the holy sacraments of the church, to the unity of the faithful, and to that in- nocence and purity which you possessed at baptism ; so that when you die, the THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 497 mission with little regard to discretion or decency, describing the merits of the indulgences in such a blasphemous style of exaggeration, that all men of sense were disgusted, and even the ignorant began to sus- pect the worth of pardons for sins dispensed by men whose profligacy was notorious and disgusting. The princes and nobles of Germany were enraged by witnessing the large sums of money drained from fheir vassals to support the lavish expenditure of the pontiff, and many of the higher ranks of the clergy viewed with jealousy the favor dis- played to the monastic orders. Martin Luther, an Augustinian friar of great learning and indom- itable courage, had prepared his mind for the noble career on which he was about to enter by a diligent study of the Holy Scriptures; the question of indulgences early engaged his attention, and he convinced himself that the Bible, which he began to consider as the great stand- ard of theological truth, afforded no countenance to a practice equally subversive of faith and morals. Having vainly sought to procure the suppression of the traffic from the archbishop of Magdeburgh, he ap- pealed to the suffrages of men of letters, by publishing ninety-five theses condemning the sale of indulgences as contrary to reason and Scripture. Much has been written respecting the personal character of this daring reformer ; his boldness frequently degenerated into violence, hia opposition to the corrupt discipline of the church sometimes passed the bounds of decency ; but these errors arose from the circumstances of his position ; he was in fact the representative of the public opinion of his age ; and before we pass too severe a censure on the aberrations ihat sully his career, we must remember that the age had scarcely emerged from barbarism, and that the human mind, as yet unaccustomed lo freedom, when suddenly delivered from habitual restraint, necessarily rushed into some extravagances. While hostile writers describe Luther as the vilest of sinners, or the purest of saints, they forget that there is a previous question of some importance, the standard by which his conduct must be measured. We have no right to expect that Luther, engaged in a struggle for life and death, should display the moderation of a modem controversialist, or to look for the intelligence of the nine- teenth century at the commencement of the sixteenth. Remembering the school in which he was educated, it is reasonable to believe that many monKish absurdities must long have been perceptible in his words and actions ; we need not, therefore, deny that he was sometines wrong, we need not disguise nor palliate his errors, for the cause which he promoted depends not on the character of him or of any other per- son. His adversaries, however, have never ventured to deny his cour- age, his sincerity, his integrity of purpose, and his superiority to all pecuniary considerations. He lived and died poor, though Rome would have purchased his return by wealth and dignity, though the leading reformers were ready to reward his perseverance by any grants he might have required. gates of punishment shall be shut, and the gates of the paradise of delight shall be opened ; and if you shall not die at present, this grace shall remain in lull force when you are at the point of death. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." 32 498 MODERN HISTORY. Luther comprehended the state of pul)lic opinion ; his publications were the manifestation of the revoh of reason against authority, rather than a thesis in his theology. His perseverance, the very violence and grossness of his invectives, showed that he felt human reason to be on his side. If he had not at first calculated the effect of his first blow, he showed great sagacity in measuring its results. Numerous echoes responded to his summons ; Zuinglius began to preach in Switzerland, and the reform engaged the attention of enlightened men of letters ; among others, the celebrated Erasmus pointed out corruptions in the church, though he had not moral courage enough to separate himself from it openly. The papal party accepted Luther's challenge, fully believing that the slightest exertion of power v/ould at once stifle op- position (a. d. 1520). Leo X., too indolent to examine the state of the public mind, and too proud to trouble himself about the opposition of a simple friar, published a bull condemning the theses of Luther ai. he- retical and impious (a. d. 1520). The bold reformer at once declared open war against the papacy, by appealing to a general council, and burning the bull of excommunication in presence of a vast multitude at Wittemberg. He treated the volumes of the canon law with the same contumely, and justified his action in a manner more offensive to the advocates of the papacy than the action itself. Having collected from the canon law some of the most extravagant propositions with regard to the plenitude and omnipotence of the papal power, as well as the sub- ordination of all secular 'jurisdiction to the authority of the holy see, he published these, with a commentary, pointing out the impiety of such tenets, and their evident tendency to subvert all civil governments. From this time, the interests of princes were even more deeply en- gaged on the side of Luther than popular reason. In fact, as a Romish historian has remarked, " policy became more Lutheran than religous reform !" Sovereigns naturally received with enthusiasm a doctrine which placed at their disposal the enormous wealth of the clergy, and gave them mastery over more riches than could be acquired by the most formidable force, or the most sanguinary combats. Thus, in Ger- many, Luther, who could at first with dilficulty procure a horse when he had lO appear before the diet, soon counted princes and entire nations among his disciples. Frederick the Wise, duke of Saxony, was the first among his converts^ and the most powerful of his protectors. It is assuredly very inconsistent in the advocates of tbe Romish church, to expose the mixture of secular and religious motives in the active supporters of the Reformation ; lor the abuses which they con- demned were equally temporal and spiritual. Indeed, it is very obvi- ous, that ihe corruptions of doctrine were introduced to serve the politi- cal purposes of the papacy ; a sordid desire for wealth was the founda- tion of the system of indulgences, which first provoked the revolt ; an ambitious lust for power had caused the subversion of the independence of the national churches, wliich it was the earliest object of the Luther- ans to restore. Politics influenced the enemies of the papacy only be- cause popery was itself a political system, and because in the struggle that now menaced its existence, it had at once recourse to secular aux- iliaries John Calvin, another reformer, was a follower of Zuinglius ; he was THE STATESSYSTEM OF EUROPE. 499 a native of Noyon, in Picardy, and began first to publish liis opinions at Paris (a. d. 1532). Driven thenceby the persecutions of the French clergy, he removed to Strasburgh, where he soon rendered himself so eminent by his talents as a writer and a preacher, that the name of Calvinists were given to that section of the reformed congregations which had at first been named Zuinglians. Calvin was subsequently invited to Geneva, where he organized a system of church-government on the presbyterian principle ; and under the pretence of providing for purity of moi'als and the continuance of sound doctrine, he contrived to transfer no small portion of the power of the state to the ecclesiastical courts. Unfortunately, these courts soon began to emulate the tyranny of the Romish inquisition, by per- secuting those who differed from the standard of religious opinion adopted by the church of Geneva, and an unfortunate Spaniard, named Servetus, was burned alive for publishing some obnoxious doctrines on the subject of the Trinity. The differences which arose between the followers of Luther and Calvin, the obstinacy manifested by each of the parties in support of their own opinions, and the virulence with which they inveighed against each other, sadly checked the progress of the Reformation, and produced a reaction which enabled the court of Rome to recover several countries which it had very nearly lost. Although much of the early success of the Reformation was owing to the general progress of intelligence and scientific research, there were many among the leading reformei's who viewed all secular learn- ing with suspicion, and thus enabled their adversaries to identify their cause with ignorance and barbarism. This was a serious injury to the progress of improvement, for there were many like Erasmus who would gladly have joined in overthrowing the monkish corruptions which had defaced Christianity, but who were alarmed at the prospect of being subjected to the bigoted caprice of the presbyteries and other bodies which began to claim and exercise a power of control over opinion in most of the cities where the reformed religion was established. Whether the Romish church would have displayed a greater spirit of concession, had the reformers exhibited more moderation in their de- mands for innovation, may be questioned, but it is certain that the papal party could not have made so efiectual a struggle as it maintained, had it not taken advantage of the violence, the imprudence, and the dissen- sions of the reform ^rs themselves. The rapid progress of the new doctrines was attempted to be check- ed by the diet of Spires {\. d. 1529), where a decree was promulgated, forbidding any innovation until the assembling of a general council. Luther's friends and followers protested against this decree, and hence the professors of the reformed religion received the common name of Protestants. Soon afterward they presented a general confession of their faith to the emperor at Augsburgh ; but unfortunately this cele- brated document showed that there were irreconcilable difl'erences be- tween the Calvinistic and Lutheran sections of the reformers. As the struggle, once begun, was maintained with great obstinacy., it soon led to serious political convulsions. Half of Germany, Den- mark, Sweden, Norway, Prussia, and Livonia, adopted the doctrines o! Luther, as taught in the confession of Augsburg. England, Scotlai/d 500 MODERN L STORY. * Holland, and Switzerland, embraced the tenets of Zuingliiis and Cal- vin ; while efforts to establish similar principles were made in France, Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. The means taken to end the controversy only aggravated the evil. It was proposed that the entire matter of dispute should be submitted to a general council, but it was impossible to determine the basis on which it should be convoked. After much delay, a council was assem- bled at Trent (a. d. 1545), whose sittings were continued, with some interruption, for several years ; but when at the close (a. d. 1563), its decrees were published, they were rejected, not only by the protestants, but by many catholic princes, especially the king of France, as subver- sive of the independence of national churches, and destructive of the lawful authority of sovereigns. Section III. — History of the Negotiations and Wars respecting Italy. In the midst of the civil and ecclesiastical changes produced by the progress of intelligence, a system of policy for regulating the external relations of states was gradually formed, and attention began to be paid to what was called the Balance of Power ; that is, the arrangement of the European states in such a system that the weak might be protected from the aggressions of the powerful and the ambitious. This system first began in Italy, which was divided into a number of petty states ; its chief members were the dutchy of Milan, and the republic of Venice, in the north ; the republic of Florence, and the states of the church, in the centre ; and the kingdom of Naples, in the south. Encouraged by the distracted condition of the peninsula, foreigners were induced to attempt its conquest ; and the kings of France and Spain, and the em perors of Germany, made this country the battle-field of rival ambition After the expulsion of the house of Anjou from Italy, it was estab- lished in the petty principality of Provence, where the graces of courtly refinement and light literature were more sedulously cultivated than in any other part of Europe. Rene, the last monarch of the line, the father of the heroic English queen, Margaret of Anjou, had the prudence not to hazard his security by mingling in the troubled politics of France and Burgundy, but amused himself and his subjects by floral games and poetic contests, heedless of the sanguinary wars that convulsed the surrounding states. On Rene's death Provence became a county under the French crown, and was justly deemed a most important acquisition (a. d. 1481). But with the substantial dominions of the house of Anjou, the French mon- archs also inherited its pretensions to the thrones of Naples and Sicily Louis XI. was far too prudent a monarch to waste his strength on the assertion of such illusory claims ; he directed his attention to a far more useful object, the establishment of the royal power over the great vassals of the crown, several of whom possessed greater real power than the nominal sovereign. Charles VIII. departed from his father's prudent line of policy; in- stead of securing the royal authority at home, he directed his attention to foreign conquests, and resolved to assert his imaginary claims to the throne of Naples. He was instigated also by the invitations of Ludov- THE STATES-SYSTEM OP EUROPE. 501 ico Sforza, duke of Milan, and by some romantic hope of overthrowing the Turkish empire. A French army crossed the Alps (a. d. 1494), and marched through the penirsula without encountering any elTective opposition. Rome, Florence, and Naples, submitted to the conqueror, and Ferdinand II. fled to the island of Ischia. But during the progress of the expedition, a league was formed for the expulsion of all foreign- ers from Italy ; the Venetian republic was the moving power of the confederacy, in which the pope and even Sforza were associated, while the emperor Maximilian, and Ferdinand of Spain, secretly favored its designs. Alarmed by the coming danger, Charles, leaving half his army to protect his conquests, led the remainder back to France. He encountered the Venetians on his road, and gained a complete victor^^ ; but the forces he left in Italy were compelled to capitulate, and Fei- dinand II. was restored to the throne of Naples. Charles VIII. was bent on vengeance, and the distracted state of the peninsula gave him hope of success ; but before he could complete his arrangements for a second expedition, he was snatched away by a sud- den death (a. d. 1498). The duke of Orleans, Louis XII., in addition to his cousin's claims on Naples, inherited from his grandmother a title to the dutchy of Milan. But the French monarch, before undertaking such an extensive conquest, deemed it necessary to strengthen himself by alliances with the republic of Venice, Pope Alexander VI., and Ferdinand, king of Spain. Thus strengthened, he found little difficulty in overrunning Italy; Milan was captured (a. d. 1499), and the turbu- lent Sforza, after vain attempts to re-establish his power, died in cap- tivity. Naples was next attacked ; Ferdinand of Spain had entered into alliance with the Neapolitan monarch Frederick ; and his invader, Louis, secretly determined to cheat both. By his aid the kingdom of Naples was subdued, and the dupe Frederic imprisoned for life (a. d. 1501) ; but no sooner vi^as the conquest completed, than the Spaniard prepared to secure the whole of the spoil. Aided by the abilities of Gonsalvo de Cordova, Ferdinand succeeded in expelling the French from Naples ; and the kingdom was finally confirmed to him on his marriage with Germaine de Foix, niece of Louis XII., with whom the French monarch on the receipt of a million of ducats, assigned over his claims on Naples as a dowry (a. d. 1505). Italy, however, was soon destined to have its tranquillity disturbed by the grasping ambition of Pope Julius II. Anxious to recover the dependencies of the holy see which had been seized by Venice, he organized a confederacy against that republic, of which he was himself the head ; v/hile Louis, Maximilian, and Ferdinand, were active mem- bers (a. d. 1509). The republic would have been ruined, had the union of the confederates been sincere and permanent ; but, owing to the mutual jealousies of its enemies, it escaped when brought to the verge of destruction. The impetuous valor of the French disconcerted all the measures the Venetians had taken to preserve their territories ; and the total ruin of their army at Aguadello (a. d. 1509), left them wholly without defence. Julius seized all the towns which they held in the ecclesiastical territories ; Ferdinand added all their seaports in Apulia to his Neapolitan dominions ; but at the moment when the dis. memberment of the republic seemed inevitable, the mutual jealousies of 502 MODERN HISTORY. Louis and Maximilian dissolved the confederacy. The Venetians ap peased the pope and Ferdinand, by large concessions, which were the more readily accepted, as Julius had now formed the design of expel- ling all foreigners from Italy, especially the French, of whose valor and ambition he was justly afraid. From the fragments of the league of Cambray, a new and stronger confederacy was formed against France, and Henry VIII., who had just ascended the throne of England, was engaged to divert the atten- tion of Louis from Italy, by an invasion of his dominions (a. d. 1511). The master-stroke, however, of the pope's policy was winning over the Swiss, whose mercenary infantry was the best body of troops then used in war. Louis XII. resisted all the efforts of this formidable conspir- acy with undaunted fortitude. Hostilities were carried on during sev- eral campaigns in Italy, on the frontiers of Spain, and in Picardy, with alternate success. But weakened by the loss of his allies, Florence and Navarre, of which the former having been subjected to the Medicis, joined the league (a. d. 1512), and the latter was conquered and annex- ed to Spain, Louis would probably have been reduced to great distress, had not the death of Pope Julius (a. d. 1513) come to his relief. Leo, of the princely house of the Medicis, succeeded to the papacy, and im- mediately made peace with France. Spain, England, and the empire, followed this example, and the war terminated with the loss of every- thing which the French had acquired in Italy, except the castle of Milan and a few inconsiderable tow-ns in that dutchy. Section IV. — The History of Burgundy under the Princes of the House of Valois. No feudal state was more important in the middle ages than the dutchy of Burgundy, and its history is the best calculated to illustrate the political condition of states, and the relations between powerful princes and their sovereign, produced by the institutions of feudalism. At the same time, the history of Burgundy must in some degree be regarded as an episode in the general annals of Europe, for though its existence was brilliant, it left no permanent trace behind, save the re- sentment between the houses of France and Austria, arising from the division of its spoils. The dutchy of Burgundy lapsed to the crown of France soon after the liberation of King John from the captivity in which he had been detained by the English after the battle of Poictiers. He resolved to bestow this rich inheritance upon his third son, Philip, surnamed the Hardy, who had fought gallantly by his side in the unfortunate battle of Poictiers, though only sixteen years of age, and who when John was taken prisoner had accompanied him to England to share his captivity. John's bequest was honorably executed by his son and successor, Charles V. of France ; he gave to Philip the investiture of the dutch;y with all legal forms, and on the 2d of June, 1364, the new duke entered upon his inheritance ; he soon afterward married the only daughter of the count of Flanders, and thus became involved in the wars which that nobleman waged against the insurgent citizens of Ghent, and at the same time he actively assisted his brother against the English. After a long war, in which the burgesses of the free cities of Flan THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 503 ders sustained with great bravery their municipal franchises against the feudal chivalry of their count and his allies, the insurgents suffered a severe defeat at Rosebecque, in which their gallant leader, the younger Artavelde, was slain. Philip took advantage of the crisis to mediate a peace between the count of Flanders and the revolted cities, which was finally concluded on very equitable conditions. When tranquillity was restored, the duke directed his whole attention to the affairs of France, and during the reign of his unfortunate nephew, Charles VI., took a principal share in the government of that kingdom. While he was thus engaged, ambassadors arrived from the king of Hungary to announce that the Turks not only menaced his territories with ruin, but avowed their determination to subdue the whole of Christendom. Sultan Ba- yezid openly vaunted that his cavalry should trample on the cross in every European city, and that he would himself feed his horses on the altar of St. Peter's in Rome. Duke Philip eagerly seconded the solicitations of the Hungarian am- bassadors : under his auspices a crusade was proclaimed ; the great body of French chivalry and all the young nobility embraced the proj- ect with the greatest ardor, and the young count de Nevers, heir of Burgundy, was appointed to command the expedition (1396). Sigismund of Luxemburg, king of Hungary, was far from being grat- ified by the arrival of such auxiliaries. Bayezid, engaged in suppres- sing some petty insurrections in his Asiatic dominions, had concluded a truce with the Hungarians, and the prudent king was far from being disposed to revive a war with so dangerous an enemy. His remon- strances were wasted on the proud chivalry of France ; the count de Nevers at once crossed the Turkish frontier, and after capturing some places of minor importance, laid siege to Nicopolis. In the hurry of their advance the French had left their battering artillery behiijd ; they were therefore compelled to blockade the place in the hope of reducing it by famine. \J So little vigilance was 'exhibited by the Christians, that the garrison of N 3opolis had intelligence of the near approach of Bayezid before the Christians knew that he had commenced his march. The news that the sultan was close at hand filled their camp with confusion ; the siege of Nicopolis was precipitately raised, and in the first alarm the knights massacred all their prisoners, forgetting that the chances of war might expose them to a terrible retribution. They, however, were all eager to come to an immediate engagement ; the Hungarians vainly advised them not to hazard a battle until they had ascertained the num- ber of the Turks, and the tactics which the sultan intended to employ. Some of the more aged and experienced warriors seconded this advice, but they were overborne by the clamors of the young knights, whose ardor was far too great to be moderated by prudence. Bayezid had arranged his troops in the form of a crescent, with the convex side turned toward the enemy : he expected thus to induce the Christians to attack his centre, by gradually withdrawing which he might reverse the form of his line, and thus getting his enemies into the concavity of the crescent, avail himself of his vast superiority of numbers to oveiwhelm them on both flanks. The Christians fell into the snare, and were surromided. The Hungarian infantry, left exposed 504 MODERN HISTORY. by the rapid advance of the French knights, was broken by a cnarg© of a select body of the Turkish cavalry ; Sigismund and the grand mas- ter of Rhodes escaped in a small boat, leaving their allies to their fate ; the palatine of Hungary alone remained vi^ith a small body of his coun- trymen to rescue the French from the consequences of their rashness. Friends and foes have equally celebrated the desperate valor of the French knights on this fatal day. The Turks at first gave no quarter ; it was late in the day before Bayezid commanded them to make pris- oners, and even then he was induced to do so by no feelings of mercy, but by his desire to have an opportunity of revenging the fate of the Turks who had been slaughtered in the camp before Nicopolis. Bayezid r&cognised Sir .lames de Helly (one of the prisoners) as one of his old companions in arms, and ordered him to be set at liberty by his captors. He then commanded him to point out who were the greatest lords among the Christian captives, that they might be spared lor the sake of their ransoms. The count de Nevers and several other princes were pointed out to the sultan as " of the noblest blood in ^rance, nearly related to the king, and willing to pay for their liberty a great sum of money." The sultan said, " Let these alone be spared, and all the other prisoners put to death, to free the country from them, and that others may take example from their fate." Heavy taxes were laid on the states of Burgundy to raise the enor- mous sum which the sultan demanded as a ransom for the heir of the dutchy. To increase the difficulty of the transaction, the king of Hun- gary refused to allow such rich treasures to pass through his dominions for the purpose of strengthening his enemies. It was not until after the lapse of several months that a Genoese merchant, named Pellegrini, in the island of Chios, undertook to arrange the terms of ransom ; and the sultan more readily accepted the security of a commercial house, which could only exist by credit, than the plighted oaths of kings and princes, which he knew were too often most flagrantly and shamelessly violated. While the count de Nevers was thus engaged in the east, his brother- in-law, the count of Ostrevant, aided by his father, Albert, duke of Ba- varia, was carrying on a war scarcely less destructive against the Fris- ons. These barbarous tribes sent out piratical expeditions, which rav- aged the coasts of Holland, Flanders, and sometimes of France ; the naval forces maintained to keep them in check were found very expen sive, and no*: always efficacious, so that the Flemings and Hollanders supplicated their princes to attack the Frisons in their native fastnesses. An immense armament was prepared for this hazardous enterprise ; auxiliaries were obtained from England, France, and western Germa- ny, while crowds of Hollanders and Flemings hastened to volunteer their services against enemies who had been their constant plague. In about five weeks after the landing, winter set in with umisual se- verity, and at an earlier period than had been known for many years before. The duke was forced to evacuate the country and disband his army ; but about three years aller he took advantage of the civil dissen- sions among the Frisons to reduce the entire country to obedience. , The administration of the government of France by Philip, duke of Burgundy, was on the whole advantageous to the nation. It was chiefly owing to his prudence that the insanity of Charles VI did not produce THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 505 the calamities of civil war. He had, however, one great fault ; his ex- penditure, both public and private, was most extravagant, and at his death his sons were forced to sell his plate in order to defray the ex- penses of his funeral. He died of fever (April 27th, 1404), generally- regretted, for it was not difficult to foresee the commotions that would ensue when the conduct of the state, which had taxed his talents and energies to the utmost, should be intrusted to a feebler hand. Section V. — The History of Burgundy (continued). John the Fearless succeeded Philip the Hardy, and immediately be- gan to take measure for procuring to himself the same influence in the government of France which his father had possessed ; he was opposed by the queen and the duke of Orleans, who justly dreaded his ambition. In the fury of civil contest he hired assassins to murder the duke of Orleans ; and this atrocious crime was perpetrated in the very midst of Paris. Such, however, were the power of the duke and the apathy of the times, that he would probably have obtained a justification of his conduct from the court, had he not been obliged to retire to his territo- ries to quell an insurrection of the citizens of Liege ; the partisans of Orleans took advantage of his absence to raise a cry for justice, and being joined by all the enemies of Burgundy, they soon formed a very powerful faction. I'he general belief that the duke had committed treason against the state, enabled the faction of Orleans to persuade the dauphin that his death was necessary for the safety of the kingdom, and to join in a perfidious plot for his assassination. Ambassadors were sent to invite John the Fearless to an interview with the dauphin on the bridge of Montereau, in order that they might in common concert measures for the defence of the kingdom; He went to the appointed rendezvous with a very scanty train, armed only with such weapons as gentlemen of the period usually wore on visits of ceremony. So soon as he came into the dauphin's presence, he took oft' his velvet cap, and bent his knee in token of homage ; but before he could rise, he was struck down by the axes and swords of the royal guards, and butchered with such of his tran as had entered the saloon (a. d. 1419). The murder of the duke of Orleans was almost the only stain upon the memory of John the Fearless ; his Flemish subjects, whose franchises he had protected, and whose trade he had fostered, were most grieved for his loss ; but they respected his memory most for his having intrusted the education of his eldest son to the magistrates of the free cities, and in fact the young prince had been educated as a Fleming rather than as a Buigundian. Philip the Good, immediately after his accession, prepared to take vengeance for the murder of his father; his Flemish education had prevented him from having any very strong sense of the feudal obliga- tions which bound the dutchy of Burgundy to the crown of France, he therefore did not hesitate to enter into alliance with Henry V. of Eng- land, and recognised him as the legitimate heir to the crown of France, on condition that Charles VI. should not be deprived of his regal dig- nity during the remainder of his unhappy existence. 506 MODERN HISTORY The war between the English and French now became ideniified with the struggle between the Burgundians and Armagnacs, as the fa- vorers of Orleans were called ; the virulence of private animosities was thus added to the horrors of open war, and the atrocities committed on both sides were shocking to human nature. The death of Henry V. of England, followed speedily by that of Charles VI. of France, produced a great change in the aspect of the war. Henry VI., who was proclaimed king of England and France, was an infant in the cradle, while the dauphin was in the very prime of life, surrounded by the greater part of the French nobility, and warmly supported by the bulk of the nation. Though severely defeat- ed, and apparently brought to the brink of ruin, when his chief city Orleans was besieged, a deliverer suddenly appeared in the person of Joan of Arc, the tide of prosperity which had hitherto flowed in favor of the English, suddenly turned, and the duke of Burgundy opened negotiations with the dauphin. It was at this crisis that Philip insti- tuted the order of the Golden Fleece, on the occasion of his marriage with Isabella of Portugal (a. d. 1430), an order of knighthood v/hich soon became the most illustrious in Europe. Soon after his marriage, the alienation of the duke from the English interest continued to in- crease, and finally, under the auspices of the pope, he concluded a treaty with Charles VII., whom he consented to recognise as legitimate sovereign of France. Having disengaged himself from the French wars, the duke of Bur- gundy devoted himself to the improvement of his dominions in the Low Countries. His brilliant court realized the visions of chivalry ; the jousts and tournaments given under his sanction surpassed in magnifi- cence any that had yet been witnessed in Europe ; the wealth of the commercial cities in Flanders was freely poured forth to defray the ex- penses, and noble knights from all parts ol" Europe flocked to the court of Burgundy to prove their valor in the lists. Philip encouraged this taste for display among his subjects from political motives ; he found that luxury diverted the attention of the turbulent municipalities and their magistrates from affairs of state, and suspended, if it did not erad- icate, the ancient jealousies between commercial freedom and feudalism. Nearly a century and a half had now elapsed since the Swiss can- tons had emancipated themselves from the yoke of the house of Aus- tria ; the free states had become jealous of each other, some leagued with their ancient enemies, others sought alliances with the petty prin- ces of Germany, and the feudal powers, to whom the example of Swiss independence seemed fraught with dangerous consequences, believed that an opportunity was offered for reducing the mountaineers to their former bondage. A league for the purpose was formed by the poten- tates of western Germany under the direct sanction of the emperor, and application was made to the duke of Burgundy for assistance. He received the proposal very coolly, upon which the imperialists sought the aid of the king of France, who was very anxious, now that the wars were over, to get rid of the Armagnacs, and other companies of soldiers, who lived at free quarters on the pf isantry, and prevented the country from enjoying the blessings of tranquillity. An immense army was soon raised and placed under the command of the dauphin. THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 507 On the morning of the 24th of August, 1444, Switzers and French- men met for the first time in mortal combat. The advanced guard of the French, which alone was ten times more numerous than the entire Swias army, occupied the heights on the right bank of the river Pirse, while the main body remained on the left bank, urging forward the siege of Basle. The Swiss were routed, but the dauphin's victory was obtained with the loss of eight thousand of his best soldiers. The French were not willing to fight a second battle with such fearless war- riors ; in spite of the remonstrances of the Germans, the dauphin re- solved to act the part of mediator, and a peace was concluded under his auspices, by which the liberties of the Swiss cantons were formally recognised. The duke of Burgundy took no share in this war ; he was too deeply engaged by the troubles of Flanders, where a formida- ble revolt had been raised by the citizens of Ghent. After a sanguin- ary struggle the insurgent Flemings were subdued, and Ghent was de- prived of most of its municipal privileges. The dauphin of France, afterward Louis XL, having provoked his father to war, was obliged to fly from his estates and seek shelter with the duke of Burgundy, who was at the time rendered uneasy by the turbulent disposition of his own son, the count of Charolais, subse quently known in history as Charles the Bold. These family disturb- ances embroiled the courts of France and Burgundy for several yeare but at length the death of Charles VIL rendered the dauphin king cl France ; the duke escorted him safely to his dominions, rendered hira homage as his sovereign, and assisted in the ceremonies of his corona- tion. Louis was far from being grateful for these benefits ; he formed several plots to seize the person of the count of Charolais, foreseeing that he would become his most formidable rival, and he broke all the engagements he had made to restore the towns which had at various times been wrested from the dukes of Burgundy by the monarchs of France. The count of Charolais was not disposed to endure these wrongs with patience ; contrary to the wishes ol' his father, he suoport- ed the nobles of France in their revolts against their sovereign, and had just organized a formidable league against Louis, when the death of Duke Philip compelled him to adjourn his warlike designs, until he had secured to himself liis inheritance of the dutchy of Burgundy. Few sovereigns were more generally and justly lamented than Philip the Good ; during the fifty years of his reign. Burgundy was the most wealthy, prosperous, and tranquil of all the states of Europe ; and had he pleased to assert his independence, he might have become a more powerful sovereign than the king of France himself. The general grief for his loss was increased by the dread which the character of his successor inspired ; the rashness, the pride, the obstinacy, and the cruelty of Charles the Bold had stained his entire career as count of Charolais ; his subjects and his neighbors were equally filled with alarm, lest the same qualities should be still more signally manil'ested in the duke of Burgundy. Section VL — The History of Burgundy (concluded) Immediately on the installation of Charles the Bold, as duKe of Burgundy, an insurrection was organized in Ghent. The duke was 508 MODERN HISTORY. forced to yield to the popular demands, but in doing so, he made a s©« cret vow that he would exact deadly vengeance for the insult which had been offered to his authority. His indignation was increased bv similar revolts in the cities of Brabant and in Liege, which he justly attributed to the example of Ghent, aided by the secret intrigues of French emissaries. The troubles of Brabant were easily quieted ; but the citizens of Liege, relying on the indistinct promises of aid made by the king of France, not only raised the standard of revolt, but committed such atrocious crimes, that Charles determined to destroy the city. With some difficulty his councillors dissuaded him from executing his design. In revenge for the incentives to rebellion which the king of France was more than suspected of having supplied to the people of Liege, Charles entered into a close league with the discontented French prin- ces who had taken up arms against Louis XL, while that monarch re- newed his intrigues with the discontented burgesses in all the cities subject to the duke of Burgundy. Louis was, however, far the more successful in this species of imavowed warfare ; cold, cautious, and cunning, he was able to conduct complicated intrigues, and to av/ait their success with patience, while the violent temper of Charles frequently led him to frustrate the plans on which he had bestowed the most care and attention. In one memorable instance, the reliance of Louis on his own craft had nearly proved his destruction ; finding that his envoys did not produce the effect he desired on the mind of his rival, he re- solved to try the effect of a personal interview, and unexpectedly pre- sented himself at the duke of Burgundy's court in Peronne, escorted by a feeble company of his personal retainers. The interview be- tween the king and the duke was far from satisfactory ; their mutual jealousies soon began to threaten a rupture, when the intelligence of a new revolt in Liege, and the massacre of all the partisans of Burgundy in that city, including the prince-bishop, so roused the fury of Charles, that he made his sovereign a prisoner, and would probably have pro- ceeded to further extremities, but for the interference of his council. Louis, taken in his own toils, was obliged to submit to the terms of j/oiice dictated by Charles ; the most mortifying condition of his libera- tion was that he should lead an army against the insurgent citizens of Liege, and thus aid his vassal in suppressing a revolt which he had himself secretly instigated. The ducal and royal armies were soon assembled, and they marched together against the devoted citizens of Liege, who had never imagined the possibility of such a combination. They did not however despair, but defended themselves with great courage, until the advanced guard of the Burgundians had forced its way through the breaches of the walls, and made a lodgement in the princi- pal street. All resistance was then at an end ; the city became the prey of the barbarous soldiers ; it was cruelly pillaged for several days, and those citizens who escaped the sword either perished of hunger as they wandered through the woods and fields, or were delivered over to the executioner. After this scene of massacre had lasted eight days, Charles left the city, after having given orders that every edifice in Liege should be destroyed, except the- churches, and the houses belong- ing to the clergy. As Liege was an episcopal city, the clergy pes- THE STATKS-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 509 sessed or claimed a very considerable portion of it, and the exception made in their favor saved it from ruin. Louis never forgave the indignities which he had endured at Pe- ronne, and in his forced march to Liege ; vv^ithout openly declaring war against Burgundy, he secretly raised up enemies against the duke in every quarter and Charles, by the violence of his passions, constantly exposed himself at disadvantage to the machinations of his rival. Ren- dered insolent by continued prosperity, he alienated from him the brave chivalry of Burgundy, by bestowing all his confidence on a foreign fa- v^orite, the count of Campo-Basso, who flattered his vanity by an ab- solute submission to his caprices. Louis had the good fonane to win (he friendship of the Swiss, whom his rival had changed from friends into foes by the most wanton violation of treaties ; and Charles, to whom the very name of freedom was odious, on account of the revolts of Ghent and Liege, resolved to bring the independent mountaineers once more under the yoke of feudal bondage. Rarely had Europe seen so splendid an army as that which Charles led to the invasion of Switzerland ; it consisted of thirty-six thousand soldiers, long inured to military exercises, accompanied by the most formidable train of artillery that had ever yet been brought into the field. The duke advanced to besiege Granson ; it was bravely de- fended, but the walls soon began to crumble undtr the heavy fire of the Burgundian artillery, and several of the citizens, seduced by prom- ises and bribes, clamored for a capitulation. It was agreed that the governor and the best soldiers of the garrison should present themselves before Charles and demand to be admitted to mercy, as his emissaries had promised. The moment, however, that they appeared, Charles ordered them to be seized ; the governor and his officers to be hanged, and all the rest to be hurled as they were, bound hand and foot, into the lake. About two hundred Swiss were thus treacherously mas- sacred. Intelligence of this event spread rapidly through the cantons ; on every side the bold mountaineers flew to arms, while the duke, having formed an entrenched camp at Granson, advanced with a strong de- tachment toward Neufchatel. Pride had rendered him so regardless of ordinary precaiitions that he came unexpectedly in presence of the main body of the Swiss in the mountain defiles, when Avith his usual impetuosity he gave the signal to engage. The Swiss pikemen formed in close line, drove back the Burgimdian cavalry, and steadily advancing in close order forced the squadrons of horse before them, destroying some of the brav 3st knights of the enemy as they got en- tangled in the press. Every efibrt which the duke made to extricate his gallant chivalry only added to the confusion, and while he vainly strove to form his lines, fresh troops appeared upon the heights on his left flank, raising the war-cry of " Granson ! Granson !" to show that they came to revenge the massacre of their brethren. Soon after the horns of Uri and Unterwalden were heard in the distance ; they were two enormous horns, which according to tradition had been bestowed upon these cantons by Pepin and Charlemagne ; their sound had often filled invaders with dread during the old wars of Austria, and appeared on the present occasion scarcely less ominous to the Burgundians. 510 MODERN HISTORY. The retreat of the advanced guard of Charles became even' moment more disorderly, it was at length converted into a precipitate fliarht, and the fugitives on reaching the entrenched camp, tilled it with the same terror and confusion hy which they were possessed themselves. In vain did Charles attempt to remedy the disorder : his artillerinnen alter a feeble and ineffectual fire abandoned their gmis ; his Italian auxiliaries fled without striking a blow, and at length, being left almost alone, he quitted his camp with a few attendants, leaving to the Swiss the richest booty that had been gained in war for several centuries. Among the spoils thus abandoned were three celebrated diamonds, of which one now adonis the tiara of the pope, a second is reckoned among the most splendid treasures of the emperor of Austria, and the third, usually called the Souci diamond, was long the richest briUiant in the crown of France. Grief and rage for his defeat reduced Charles to a state bordering on insanity. It was not until after the lapse of several weeks that he began to take active measures for repairing his losses, and pre^ . nting the king of France from proliting by his reverses. All the wealth which he had hoarded during his reign ; all the treasures which he could procure from the wealthy commercial cities in Flanders and Bra- bant, were freely poured forth to recruit his army : the bells of the chuiuhes were melted down and cast into cannon to repair the loss of his artillery at Granson; he hired ausiharies from France, from Italy, and from England. On the other hand the Swiss employed themselves in fortiiH'ing Morat, which they regarded as the key of Berne, and sent pressing messages to their confederates to hasten the arrival of their respective contingents. On the 27th of May, 1476, Charles quitted his camp at Lausaune to commence the siege of Morat ; rarely has a place been more vigorously assailed or more obstinately defended : the walls were breached in several places, but ever}" sssault of the Burgundians was repulsed, and the duke himself was twice driven back from the mined ramparts. This marvellous resistance gave the Swiss time to assemble their ar- mies, but Morat was on the point o( falling when they advanced to its relief. Several of his officers advised Charles to raise the siege on the a-'^T>roach of the Swiss, and retire to ground more favorable for a field of oatile : but he was as obstinately deaf to good counsel as he had been at Granson, and his passions had produced a kind of fever which ren dered him so irritable that his dearest friends were afraid to approach him. The Swiss formed their line of battle under the shelter of a line of hills covered with trees, which effectually concealed their move ments from their enemies : Charles advanced to dislodge them from this position in a tempest of rain which injured his powder and relaxed the bowstrings of his archers. The Burgundians, finding that ihey eould not get through the wood, nor entice the Swiss from their lines, began to retire toward their camp, drenched with rain and exhausted by their useless march. The Swiss general, Hans de Hallwyll. who had already earned high fame in the wars of Hungary, gave the signal of pursuit; Rene, the young duke of Lorraine, whom Charles had strip{>ed of his paternal djminions, advanced at the head of the ca\'alry of the confederates, and th-j Burgimdians were attacked in their in- THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 511 trenched camp. Charles could scarcely be persuaded that the Swiss would have hazaided so perilous an attempt ; he hastened to bring up his men at arms to the place where the chief assault was made, and at the same time opened a heavy fire from his batteries on the advancing columns. His best artillerymen however had fallen at Granson ; his cannon being ill-served did but little execution, while Halhvyll under cover of the smoke led a body of troops along the Burgundiau lines and suddenly falling on their exposed flank, forced his way into the midst of the camp before the manoeuvre was discovered. On the other extreme the Burgundians were equally surprised by an unexpected sally from the garrison of Morat ; they fell into remediless confusion, the battle was no longer a fight but a carnage, for the Swiss sternly refused quarter, so that " cruel as at Morat," long continued to be a proverb in their mountains. The states of Burgundy, Flanders, and Brabant, refused to grant the duke the enormous sums which he demanded to raise a third army, and while he was engaged in threatening them with his wrath, and collecting as many soldiers as he could procure from his own resour- ces, he learned that Lorraine was nearly recovered by its young duke Rene, who, after making himself master of several towns, with little or no opposition, had laid siege to Nancy. The city was taken before Charles was ready to march, and Rene having secured it with a faith- ful garrison, proceeded to the Swiss cantons to solicit aid against their common enemy. Sieges were always unfavorable to the duke of Bur- gundy ; he was unable to reduce Nancy, but he obstinately persisted in remaining before the walls, while his army suflered severely from an inclement winter and the increasing want of pay and provisions. In fact the unfortunate duke was now sold to his enemies by his favor- ite Campo-Basso, and his rash cruelty had led him to precipitate the execution of the chief agent of the plot, whom he had by chance made prisoner. On the 4th of January, 1477, Rene of Lorraine, at the head of the Swiss confederates, was seen from the Burgundian camp advancing to the relief of Nancy. In the very beginning of the battle the desertion of the traitor Campo-Basso decided the fate of the day, but the brave chivalry of Burgundy in this, the last of their fields, maintained a des- perate resistance until night put an end to the combat. The fate of the duke of Burgundy was for a long time uncertain, but after a tedious search his body was found covered with wounds, some of which had every appearance of being inflicted by assassins. Rene paid every possible respect to the remains of the unfortunate Charles, and he lib- erated all his Burgundian prisoners that they might attend tlie funeral. The history of Mary of Burgundy, the daughter and successor of Charles the Bold, must be related briefly. No sooner was the news of her father's death known, than the king of France prepared to seize on her dominions in Burgundy, and the Flemings rose in insurrection against her authority. Louis at first was disposed to force her to marry the dauphin, and thus reunite Burgundy to France, but the tortuous course of policy which he pursued defeated his object. The Flemings discov- red the intrigue ; they seized on the favorite counsellors of the uiihap ty princess, and beheaded them before her eyes in the market-place of 512 MODERN HISTORY Ghent. Mary was subsequently married to Duke ]\Iaximilian of Aus- tria, but he only obtained possession of her dominions in the Nether- lands ; Burgundy was conquered by the French, and Maximilian had neither the energy nor the wisdom to recover it from Louis. This was the origin of the bitter hostility between the sovereigns of France and Austria, which for a long series of years kept the continent of Europe in almost perpetual war. Section VII. — The Age of Charles V. The political idea of maintaining a balance of power, which was first formed in Italy, began to spread north of the Alps, in consequence of the rapid and overwhelming increase of the Austrian power. Maxi- milian of Austria, son of the emperor Frederic III., married Mary of Burgundy, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy (a. d. 1477), as has been already related, and in her right obtained pos- session of the fertile and wealthy provinces of the Netherlands. His son, Philip the Fair, was united to Joanna, infanta of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, whose union had joined the kingdoms of Ara-gon and Castile. The fruit of Philip's marriage with Joanna was two sons, Charles and Ferdinand ; and the elder of these, at the age of sixteen, inherited the crown of Spain and its colonies, in addition to his paternal dominions in the Netherlands (a. d. 1516). The death of his grandfather Maximilian transmitted to him the Austrian territories, and the other domains of the house of Hapsburgh, and the electors chose him to fdl the vacant throne of the empire. Thus Charles, the first of Spain, and the fifth of the empire, possessed greater power than any sovereign that had fiourished in Europe since the days of Charlemagne. In the beginning of his reign, he resigned his hereditary dominions in Germany to his brother Ferdinand, who afterward succeeded him in the empire, and became the founder of the second Austrian line of emperors, which ended with Charles VI. (a. d. 1740). From the emperor Charles de- scended the Austrian family of Spanish kings, which was terminated by the death of Charles II. (a. d. 1700). These two branches of, the Austrian house, the German and the Spanish, long acted in concert, to procure reciprocal advantages, and were fortunate in strengthening their power by new alliances. Ferdi- nand married Anne, sister of Louis, king of Hungary and Bohemia ; and when that monarch fell in war against the Turks, added both these kingdoms to the hereditary dominions of Austria. Charles V., by his marriage with Isabella, daughter of Emmanuel, king of Portu- gal, prepared the way for his son Philip's annexation of that country to Spain. Two monarchs, contemporary with Charles, were almost equally bound by their interests to check the preponderance of the house of Austria — Henry VIII. of England, and Francis I. of France. Henry VII., after the victory of Bosworth-field had given him undisputed pos- session of the crown, labored diligently and successfully to extend the royal authority, and to raise the commercial prosperity of the nation. On his death (a. d. 1509), he bequeathed to his son a rich treasury and a flourishing kingdom. Possessing such advantages, Henry VIIL might THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 51S have been the arbitrator of Europe ; but his naturally fine talents were perverted by flattery ; he allowed free scope to all his passions, and hia actions were consequently the result of caprice, vanity, or resentment — rarely, if ever, of enlightened policy. Many of the defects in his ad- ministration must, however, be ascribed to the pride and ambition of hi& prime minister, Cardinal Wolsey, who sacrificed the welfare of England and the honor of his sovereign to further his private ends or gratify hi.« Idle vanity. Francis I. was a prince of higher character ; he had many of the noble qualities, and not a few of the faults, usually ascribed to the spirit of chivalry ; bold, enterprising, and personally brave he did not always regulate his actions by prudence, and his rashness k;st what his valor had won. Soon after coming to the crown, he undertook to recover Milan, and overthrew Sforza and the imperialists at Marignano. The defeated duke resigned his country for a pension ; the pope and the northern Italian states assented to the arrangement, and tb* possession of the contested dutchy seemed secured to France by the conclusion of a treaty with the Swiss cantons (a. d. 1516). Nearly at the sanae time a treaty was made with Charles, who had not yet succeeded tf» the ampire, which seemed to establish peace, but only rendered wa. more certain. Henry and Francis were both candidates with Charles for the em pire ; the former, however, had no rational hopes of success, while Francis could not hide his anticipations of success, no more than Ills mortification when he failed. The mutual jealousies of the French and Spanish monarchs were aggravated by hostile claims ; Charles, by right of descent, could demand the ancient possessions of the duke of Bur- gundy, and he was feudal sovereign, as emperor, over the northern Italian states, the chief dutchy of which had been recently annexed to France. On the other hand, Francis had claims to the thrones of Na- varre and Naples, which he was very unwilling to resign. Peace could not long subsist between these potentates, neither were their forces so unequally matched as might at first be supposed. The extensive domin- ions of Charles were governed by different constitutions ; in none, not even in Spain, was he wholly unfettered, while in Germany, where the Reformation was constantly raising embarrassing questions, and the princes ever anxious to circumscribe the imperial authority, added more to his nominal than to his real strength. His finances were also em- barrassed, and he often found it an almost insuperable difficulty to pro- vide for the payment of his troops, most of whom were necessarily mer- cenaries. On the other hand, Francis inherited almost despotic au- thority ; his power concentrated, his own subjects were enrolled as his soldiers, and the regular organization of the French government freed him from the financial embarrassments of his rival. Both strengthened themselves by alliances : Charles gained the aid of the pope, and won Henry VHI. to his side by duping the egregious vanity of Wolsey ; Francis, on the other hand, was supported by the Swiss and the Vene- tians. The war began nearly at the same moment in Navarre, the Netherlands, and Lombardy. The treachery of the queen-mother, who withheld from the French commander, Lautrec, the money necessary to pay the troops employed in Italy, led to the loss of Milan and the 33 514 MODERN HISTORY. greater part of the dutcliy. An effort made to recover the lost ground led to the battle of Bicocca (a. d. 1522), in which the French were to- tally defeated, and finally expelled from Italy ; and Genoa, their most faithful ally, was subjected to the power of their enemies. An event of scarcely less importance was the death of Leo, and the elevatioit of Adrian, a devoted adherent of Charles, to the papal chair ; and thii was soon followed by the desertion of the V enetians to the imperia side. Francis might have still recovered the Milanese, where the emperor's troops had bcven disbanded for want of pay, had not the queen-mother, blinded b) passion, induced him to treat the constable of Bourbon with such gross injustice, that this powerful noble entered into a secret in- trigue with the emperor, and agreed to raise the standard of revolt. The discovery of the plot delayed the French king's march into Italy ; and though he protected his own territories, the Milanese was irrecoverably lost. Encouraged by this success, Charles commanded the imperial generals to invade France on the side of Provence, while the king of England promised to attack it on the north. Had this plan been exe- cuted, Francis must have been ruined ; but Wolsey, provoked by the elevation of Clement VII. to the papacy, on the death of Adrian, avenged himself for the broken promises of the emperor, abated Henry's ardor for the enterprise, and persuaded him to keep his forces at home, under pretence of resisting the Scots, who had embraced the side of the French king. Charles, unable to command money, could- not make a diversion on the side of Spain or the Netherlands ; and the imperial- ists, having uselessly wasted the country, were compelled to retire from Provence. Elated by his success, Francis hastened to invade Italy ; but instead of pressing the pursuit of the shattered imperialists, he laid siege to Pavia, and thus gave his adversaries time to strengthen and recruit their forces. With similar imprudence, he sent a large detachment to invade Naples, hoping that the viceroy of that kingdom would withdraw a large portion of the imperialists from the Milanese for its defence ; but Charles's generals, having received a strong reinforcement raised in Germany by the constable of Bourbon, attacked the French in their in- Irenchments, and gained a decisive victory, in which Francis himself was made prisoner. This great ulamity was principally owing to the romantic notions of honor entertained by the French king : he had vowed that he would take Pavia or perish in the attempt ; and rather than expose himself to the imputation of breaking a promise of chivalry, he remained in his in- trenchments, though the means of safe retreat were open to him. Never did armies engage with greater ardor than the French and imperialists before the walls of Pavia (February 24, 1525). On the one hand, a gallant young monarch, seconded by a generous nobility, and followed by subjects to whose natural impetuosity indignation at the opposition which they had encountered added new force, contended for victory and honor. On the other side, troops more completely disciplined, and con- ducted by generals of greater abilities, fought, from necessity, with courage heightened by despair. The imperialists, however, were una^ ble to resist the first eflbrts of the French valor, and thei:7 firmest batta) THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 515 ions began to give way. But the fortune of the day was quickly changed. The Swiss in the service of France, unmindful of the repu- tation of their country for fidelity and martial glory, abandoned their post in a cowardly manner. The garrison of Pavia sallied out and attacked the rear of the French during the heat of the action with such fury as threw it into confusion ; and Pescara, falling on their cavalry with the imperial horse, among whom he had prudently intermingled a consider ble number of Spanish foot, armed with the heavy muskets then in use, broke this formidable body by an unusual method of attack, against which they were totally unprovided. The rout became universal, and resistance ceased in almost every part but where the king was in person, who Ibiight now, not for fame or victory, but for safety. Though wounded in several places, and thrown from his horse, which was killed under him, Francis defended himself on foot with an heroic courage ; miny of his bravest officers, gathering round him, and endeavoring to save his life, at the expense of their own, fell at his feet. The king, exhausted with fatigue and scarcely capable of further resistance, was left almost alone, exposed to the fury of some Spanish soldiers, strangers to his rank, and enraged at his obstinacy. At that moment came up Pomperant, a French gentleman who had entered, together with Bourbon, into the emperor's service, and placing himself by the side of the monarch against whom he had rebelled, assisted in protecting him from the vio- lence of the soldiers ; at the same time beseeching him to surrender to Bourbon, who was not far distant. Imminent as the danger was which now surrounded Francis, he rejected with indignation the thoughts of an action which would have afibrded such triumph to his traitorous subject ; and calling for Launoy, who also happened to be near at hand, gave up his sword to him ; which he kneeling to kiss the king's hand, received with profound respect ; and taking his own sword from his side, presented it to him, saying that " it did not become so great a monarcn to remain disarmed in the presence of one of the emperor's subjects." Although Launoy treated his royal captive with all the marks of re- spect due to his rank and character, he nevertheless guarded him with the utmost precaution. He was solicitous, not only to prevent any possibility of his escaping, but afraid that his own troops might seize his person, and detain it as the best security for the payment of their arrears. In order to provide against both these dangers, he conducted Francis, the day after the battle, to a strong castle, and committed him to ^.he custody of an officer remarkable for the strict vigilance which sucn a trust required. Francis, who formed a judgment of the empe- ror's disposition by his own, was extremely desirous that Charles should be informed of his situation, fondly hoping that, from his gener- osity or sympathy, he should obtain speedy relief. He therefore gave a passport to an imperial officer to carry the intelligence of the battle of Pavia and his own capture through France, as the communication with Spain by land was the most safe and certain at this season of the year. Charles received the account of this signal success with affected mod- eration, but at the same time deliberated with the utmost solicitude how he might derive the greatest advantages from the misfortunes of bis 516 MODERN HISTORY. adversary. His first demands were that Francis should restore the dutchy of Burgundy, which, as we have seen, was dishonorably wrested from his ancestors by Louis XI. ; that Provence and Dauphine should be erected into an independent kingdom for the constable of Bourbon ; that satisfaction should be made to the king of England for his claims on France ; and that all the pretensions of France to territories in Italy should be renounced for ever. Francis was so indignant at being re- quired to make such ignominious concessions, that he drew his dagger, and made an attempt to commit suicide ; he was, of course, prevented, and it was hinted that a personal interview with the emperor would lead to the offer of more equitable conditions. Francis himself was of the same opinion. He was sent in a Spanish galley to Barcelona, whence he was removed to Madrid ; but on reaching that city, he was sent to the Alcazar, and guarded more carefully than ever : and it ap peared evident that the king's reliance on the emperor's generosity had been wholly misplaced. But this triumph, which seemed to have made Charles master of Italy and arbiter of Europe, so far from yielding the substantial advantages which might reasonably have been expected, served only to array against him the jealousy of England, of the Italian states, and of the protestant princes of Germany. At the same time, the disorganized condition of his finances, and the consequent difficulty of finding pay, subsistence, oi the munitions of war, for his soldiers, reduced his Italian armies to in- activity in the very moment of victory. Henry VIII. was the first of the imperial allies to set- the example of defection ; he entered into a defensive alliance with Louise, the queen-regent of France, in which all the differences between him and her son were adjusted ; at the same time he engaged that he would employ his best offices in order to deliver his new ally from a state of captivity. Imprisonment soon began to produce such injurious effects on the mental and bodily health of Francis, that Charles began to fear that all his plans might be frus- trated by the death of his captive, and he therefore sought a personal interview with him, in which he held out a hope of milder conditions of liberation. The chief obstacle that stood in the way of Francis's liberty was the emperor's continuing to insist so peremptorily on the restitution of Bur- gundy as a preliminary to that event. But the history of Burgimdy while an independent dutchy, as detailed in preceding sections, suffi- ciently proves that compliance with such a demand would have reduced the monarch of France to a state of complete dependance on his nomi- nal vassals. Francis often declared that he would never consent to dismember his kingdom ; and that, if even he should so far forget the duties of a monarch as to come to such a resolution, the fundamental laws of the kingdom would prevent its taking effect. Finding that the emperor was inflexible on the point, he suddenly took the resolution of resigning his crown, with all its rights and prerogatives, to his son the dauphin, determining rather to end his days in prison than to purchase his freedom by concessions unworthy of a king. Charles was so alarmed by this resolution, that he consented to mod- ify his demands so far as not to insist on the restitution of Burgundy until the king was set at liberty. The remaining conditions of the THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 517 treaty were sufficiently onerous ; but a few hours before signing them, Francis assembled such of his counsellors as happened to be in Madrid, and having exacted from them a solemn oath of secresy, he made a long enumeration in their presence of the dishonorable acts as well as unprincely rigor which the emperor had employed in order to ensnare or intimidate him. For that reason, he took a formal protest in the hands of notaries that his consent to the treaty should be considered as an involuntary deed, and be deemed null and void. By this disingenu- ous artifice, for which the treatment he had received was no apology, Francis endeavored to satisfy his honor and conscience in signing the treaty, and to provide at the same time a pretext on which to break it. About a month after the signing of the treaty, the regent's ratification of it was brought from France, and two princes of the blood sent as hostages for its execution. At last Francis took leave of the emperor, whose suspicion of the king's sincerity increasing as the time of putting it to the proof approached, he attempted to bind him still faster by ex- acting new promises, which, after those he had already made, the French monarch was not slow to grant. He set out from Madrid, a place which the remembrance of so many afl!licting circumstances ren- dered peculiarly odious to him, with the joy natural on such an occasion, and began the long-wished-for journey toward his own dominions. He was escorted by a body of horse, under the command of Alar9on, who, as the king drew near the frontiers of France, guarded him with more scrupulous exactness than ever. When he arrived at the river Andaye, which separates the two kingdoms, Lautrec, one of his favorite gene- «als, appeared on the opposite bank, with a guard equal in number to /\.lar9on's. An empty bark was moored in the middle of the stream ; *he attendants drew up in order on the opposite banks ; at the same in- stant Launoy put off with eight gentlemen from the Spanish, and Lau- trec with the same number from the French side of the river ; the former had the king in his boat ; the latter the two princely hostages, the dauphin and the duke of Orleans ; they met in the empty vessel ; the exchange was made in a moment ; Francis, after a short embrace of his children, leaped into Lautrec's boat, and reached the French shore. He mounted at that instant a Turkish horse, waved his hand over his head, and, with a joyous voice, cried aloud several times, " I am yet a king!" then, putting spurs to his horse, he galloped at full speed to St. Jean de Luz, and thence to Bayonne. This event, no less hnpatiently desired by the French people than their monarch, happened on the 18th of March, 1526, a year and twenty-two days after the fatal battle of Pavia. The statts of Burgundy afforded Francis the first opportunity of refusing to fulfil the conditions of his liberation. They represented to the monarch that he had no right to make a transfer of their allegiance without their consent, and that they would rather assert their indepen- dence than submit to a foreign dominion. Upon this, Francis, turning toward the imperial ambassadors, represented to tliem the impossibility of performing what he had undertaken, and offered, in lieu of Burgundy^ to pay the emperor two millions of crowns. The ambassadors, who were well aware that the entire scene had been concerted between the 518 MODERN HISTORY. king and the states, refused to admit any modification ol the treaty , they returned to Madrid, and Charles, who perceived that he had been overreached, exclaimed in the most public manner and in the harshest terms against Francis, as a prince void of faith and honor. The French king, on the other hand, asserted that no promise obtained by force waa binding, and easily obtained from the pope a full absolution from all the obligations which he had contracted. During this period, Germany was cruelly harassed by insurrections of the peasants, goaded to madness by the oppressions of their lords. In Thuringia, where a great part of the population had been converted to Lutheranism, Muncer, a wild fanatic, became the leader of the insur- gents, and by stimulating their ignorant zeal, added religious, bigotry to the horrors of civil war. Luther sincerely lamented the scandal that these disturbances brought on the cause of the reformation ; but his own marriage with a nun who had broken her vows, gave such general of- fence, that his influence, for a season, was greatly diminished. Francis was not long at liberty before he not only protested against the treaty of Madrid and refused to fulfil any of its stipulations, but or- ganized a new league against Charles, which was named " Holy," because the pope was its nominal head. The Venetians, the duke of Milan, and the English king, joined the confederacy ; but their opera- tions were so slow and feeble, that the imperialists easily maintained their ascendency in the north of Italy. The constable of Bourbon, irritated by the vacillating conduct of the pope, marched against Rome, heedless of the truce that had been granted to the pontiff by the viceroy of Naples. " The eternal city" was taken by assault, and suffered more severely from the soldiers of a catholic king than from the barbarous pagans of an earlier age. Bourbon fell in the assault ; but the com- mand of the imperialists devolved on the prince of Orange, who be- sieged the pope in the castle of St. Angelo, and compelled him to yield himself a prisoner (a. d. 1527). Charles received the intelligence of this success with contemptible hypocrisy ; he professed the most sin- cere sorrow for the captivity of the holy pontifl', and ordered prayers to be offered for his deliverance in all the Spanish churches, instead of sending orders for his liberation. So great was the indignation excited by the harsh treatment of the pope, that Francis was enabled to invade Ita.y and penetrate to the very walls of Naples. But here his pros- perity ended ; the pope, liberated from captivity, resolved to conciliate the emperor ; the Venetians became jealous of the French power, and, finally, the Genoese hero, Andrew Doria, roused by the wrongs which Francis had inflicted on himself and his country, revolted to the empe- ror, and turned the scale of the war by making the imperialists superior at sea. Doria's first care was to restore the republic of Genoa ; and such was the opinion entertained of his patriotism and disinterestedness, that he was universally called " The father of his country and THE restorer OF ITS LIBERTY" (a. d. 1528). Thcse circumstanccs, and the defeat of his army in the Milanese, inclined Francis to peace ; a treaty was negotiated at Cambray by the emperor's aunt and the king's mother, but the fair diplomatists left enough of disputable points unset- tled to furnish grounds for a future war. Charles having thus prevailed over France, resolved to make a vigorous THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 519 Struggle to crush the reformation in Germany, but the protestant princes, undismayed by his power, formed a league for their mutual protection at Smalkald (a. d. 1530), and applied to the kings of France and England to patronise their confederacy. Henry VIII. was eager to grant them support ; he was desirous tobe divorced from his wife, Catharine of Aragon, the emperor's aunt, and attributed the pope's reluctance to the intrigues of Charles. Hostilities were for a time averted by the emperor's making some important concessions, for he was anxious to have his brother Ferdinand chosen as his successor, with the title of king of the Romans, and the progress of the Turks, on his eastern frontiers, could only be resisted by the united strength of the empire. Francis had concluded peace at Cambray, because he was no longer able to maintain war. He sought the earliest opportunity of renewing hostilities, and secured the friendship of the pope, by uniting his son, the duke of Orleans, to the pontiff's niece, Catherine de Medicis. But, though he thus gained one ally, he lost others. Henry VIII., inflam- ed by love of Anne Boleyn, and enraged by the pope's confirmation of his marriage with Catharine, no longer kept any measures with the court of Rome ; his subjects seconded his resentment ; an act of par- liament was passed, abolishing the papal power and jurisdiction in Eng- land (a. d. 1534) ; by another act, the king was declared supreme head of the church, and all the authority of which the popes were deprived, was vested in him. Henry was thus disinclined to support the pope's ally, and the protestant princes of Germany viewed Francis with some suspicion, because he persecuted the reformed in his own dominions. The death of Clement VII., and the election of Paul III., an adherent of the emperor, suddenly deprived Francis of the papal aid, on which he had confidently calculated, and compelled him to delay his projects for troubling the peace of Europe. The insurrection of the anabaptists, a new set of fanatics in Germany, and the emperor's expedition against the piratical states of Barbary, employed men's minds for a season. The suppression of the fanatics, and the conquest of Tunis, crowned the emperor with glory, yet it wa? at this moment that Francis chose to renew the war (a. d. 1535). Savoy was immediately overrun by the French troops, and its unfor- tunate duke in vain implored the aid of the emperor, whose resources had been exhausted in the African war. It was on this occasion that Chi^rles challenged his rival to single combat, in which proposal he only imitated the former follies of Francis. On the other hand, the death of the dauphin, amid the joy occasioned by the repulse of the impe- rialists, who had invaded Provence, was absurdly attributed to poison, administered by emissaries of Charles. To complete the exhibition of folly, Francis summoned Charles, as count of Flanders, to appear before the parliament of Paris, and on his refusal, he was declared to have forfeited the Low Countries to his feudal superior. The war itself was languidly conducted, but the pope, alarmed by the progress of the Turks, personally interfered, and a truce for ten years was concluded between the two sovereigns at Nice (a. d. 1538). The religious disputes in Germany between the princes of the protestant and those of the catholic league, the struggles made by the pope to prevent the meeting of a general council, unless under circum- ^20 MODERN HISTORY. stances that wcnild give him complete control over its deliberationSi filled Charles with anxiety, which was not a little increased by the tur- bulent disposition of his Flemish subjects, and the success of the Turks in Hungary. Notwithstanding all these difficulties, he undertook an expedition against Algiers (a. d. 1541), but his fleet was shattered by a storm, his army wasted by a pestilential disease, and his stores of provision rendered unavailing. He was compelled to return, overwhelmed with loss and disgrace, and his defeat raised the courage of his enemies so high that he had to encounter a new war in Europe. Francis was eager to take advantage of his rival's distress, and the crime of the imperial governor of the Milanese furnished him with a de- cent pretext. This imprudent functionary seized two ambassadors, sent from the Parisian court to Turkey, and put them to death, in direct violation of the law of nations. Francis now changed his plan of opera- tions ; acting on the defensive in Italy, he invaded the Netherlands and Rousillon (a. d. 1542), but failed to make any permanent impression. Charles found an ally in the king of England : the death of his aunt nad removed the great source of enmity between the emperor and Henry, and the close alliance between France and Scotland, recently cemented by the marriage of the Scotch king, James V., to a French princess, Mary of Guise, had excited great jealousy and alarm in England. Henry, with his usual impetuosity, having introduced the reformation into England, became anxious that Scotland should also withdraw its allegiance from the pope, and endeavored to win his nephew James to adopt his plan, by the most advantageous offers. The influence of the Scottish clergy prevailed over that of the English monarch, and Henry in his fury proclaimed war against Scotland. In the midst of these troubles, James V. died leaving his dominions to his infant daughter Mary, the celebrated and unfortunate queen of Scots. This changed all Henry's plans ; he aimed at uniting the two kingdoms, by efTecting a marriage between his son Edward and Mary, but he knew that this .could only be aff"ected by crushing the French party in Scotland, and eager to accomplish this object he readily entered into the alliance against Francis. The French monarch, on the other hand, entered into close union with the Turks, and courted the support of the German protestants ; but the princes of the empire refused to join so bitter a persecutor of the reformed doctrines, and his only ally, the duke of Cleves, was forced to submit to Charles. The sultan afforded him more effective support ; he invaded Hungary in person, and sent the celebrated admiral and pirate, Barbarossa, to join the French in invading Italy. Nice was besieged by their united forces : to the astonishment and scandal of all Christendom, the lilies of France and the crescent of Mohammed ap- peared in conjunction against a fortress, on which the cross of Savoy was displayed. The allies were finally compelled to raise the siege, and Francis had not even the poor consolation of success, in return for the infamy of having taken as auxiliaries the deadly enemies of Chris- lianity. The battle of Cerisoles (a. d. 1544) gave his arms the fame of useless victory, but it did not prevent the contemporary invasion of France by the emperor on the side of Lorraine, and the English through Calais. Had Charles and Henry acted in concert, Francis must have THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 521 yielded imcc nditionally, but he took advantage of their disunion to con- chide a separate peace with the emperor at Crespy (a. d. 1544). Henry VIII. continued the war for some time longer, but it did not produce any event of consequence. Charles had now secured his pre- dominance in Italy, and was secretly preparing to restore the imperial authority in Germany. Death removed his two powerful contemporaries, Francis and Henry, in the same year (a. d. 1547), both of whom would nave been dangerous antagonists. Though Henry's motives in favoringr the reformation were not very pure, his intense hatred of the popes must have induced him to protect the protestant interest in Germany. The secularization of Prussia, by Albert of Brandenburg (a. d. 1525), was the first example of the seizure of church property, consequent on the change of religion ; but the indignation of the catholic princes, and the ambition of the protestants, were restrained by the Turkish and the French wars. Still the emperor's conduct at the diets of Spires and Augsburg, the pope's anxiety to convene a council subservient to his will, and the intrigues of the ecclesiastics in the states that retained their connexion with Rome, compelled the protestants to renew the league of Smalkald, and assign the fixed contingent of men and arms that should be supplied by the several members. When the council of Trent finally opened (a. d. 1545), its very form and its first decision rendered it impossible for the protestants to take any part in it. But the peace of Crespy left them unprotected, and their want of mutual confidence prevented them from acting in concert. At the very com- mencement of the war. Prince Maurice of Saxony deserted the league, and joined the emperor ; John Frederic, the elector of .Saxony, and chief leader of the protestants, was made prisoner at the battle of Miihlberg (a. d. 1547), and his dominions rewarded the treachery of Maurice. The landgrave of Hesse, the last hope of the reformers, was inveigled to visit the emperor, at Halle, and dishonorably detained as a captive. This rapid success of the emperior alarmed the pope, who began to fear that Charles would prevail upon the council to limit his pontifical authority, and the two potentates, apparently believing the protestant cause crushed, began to seek for their own private advantages. Charles published a code of doctrines called the " Interim," because the regula- tions it containec were only to be in force until the convocation of a free general council, and this edict, which was strictly conformable to the tenets of the Romish church, he resolved to enforce on the empire (a. d. 1548). Catholics and protestants equally declaimed against this summary mode of settling a nation's faith, but the emperor scarcely encountered any open resistance, except from the free city of Magde- burgh, and an army sent to reduce this disobedient place, was intrusted to Maurice of Saxony. Maurice was secretly dissatisfied with the conduct of the emperor, and was especially grieved by the detention of his father-in-law, the landgrave of Hesse, He formed a bold plan for compelling the emperor, by a sudden attack, to establish religious freedom, and libe- rate the landgrave, but concealed his projects until the most favorable moment for putting them into execution. On the surrender of Magde- burgh (a d 1551), he contrived to win the confidence of the garrisoa 622 MODERN HISTORY. and the citizens, without awakening the suspicions of the emperoi, and he entered into a secret treaty with Henry II. of France, the son and successor of Francis. No words can describe the astonishment and distress of the emperor, when Maurice, having completed his prepara- tions, published his manifesto, detailing the grievances which he requir- ed to be redressed. The active prince proceeded with so much prompti- tude and vigor, that Charles narrowly escaped being made prisoner at Innspruck. The council of Trent was broken up ; the prelates tumult- uously voted a prorogation for two years, but more than ten elapsed before its proceedings were renewed. The emperor had the mortilica- tion to see all his projects overthrown by the prince whom he had most trusted, and was compelled to sign a treaty at Passau, by which the captive princes were restored to liberty, and a free exercise of their religion secured to the protestants (a. d. 1552). The war with France lasted three years longer ; it was conducted without any great battles, but on the whole, proved unfavorable to the emperor. From the hour that the treaty of Passau had wrested from Charles V. the fruits of his whole political career, he felt that his crowns were heavy on his brow.«!. The principles of mutual toleration were formally sanctioned by the diet of Augsburg : Paul IV., who may be esteemed the successor of Pope Julius — for the twenty days' reign of Marcellus produced no political event — was so offended, that he became the avowed enemy of the house of Austria, and entered into close alliance with the king of France. A storm was approaching, when Charles, to the great surprise of the world, abdicated his dominions. Though a prince of moderate abilities, Charles V. had reigned with more glory than most European sovereigns. A king of France and a pope had been his captives ; his dominions were more extensive than those of Alexander, or of Rome. By his generals, or his ministers, he had acquired all the objects which usually excite ambition ; he had gained even the distinction of being regarded as the champion of ortho- doxy, in an age when toleration was a crime. But the triiunph of civilization over the system of the middle ages, of which he v/as at once the last support and the last representative, was certain and complete, and he could not resist the mortification of finding himself vanquished ; the peace of Passau was to him " the hand-writing on the wall ;" it announced that his policy was past, and his destiny accomplished. The feebleness of old age overtook him at fifty-six ; harassed by vain repi- nings, overwhelmed by infirmities, he felt that he could no longer appear a hero, and he desired to seem a sage. He became a hermit, removed all his diadems from his head, and sank into voluntary obscurity. He was, however, sure to be regretted, for he bequeathed to the world his successor, the sanguinary Philip, just as Augustus adopted Tiberius. The protestant religion was first legally established in England by Edward VI., the pious son of the profligate Henry. But the troubles occasioned by his minority, and the ambition of his guardians, prevented the reformed church from being fixed on a permanent foundation. Ed- ward died young (a. d. 1553), and the papal dominion was restored by his bigoted successor and sister, Mary. Charles, having I'ailed to pro- cure the empire for his son PhiKp, negotiated a marriage between that prince and Queen Mary, which was concluded, much to the dissatisfac THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 523 tion of the British nation. Mary's cruel persecutions of the protestanta failed to reconcile her subjects to the yoke of Rome, and 'on her death (a. d. 1558), the reformed religion was triumphantly restored by her sister Elizabeth. The diet which assembled at Augsburg (a. d. 1555), did not secure to the protestants all the advantages they had a right to expect. Maur- ice had fallen in a petty war, and they had no leader fit to be his suc- cessor. With strange imprudence, the Lutherans consented to the exclusion of the Calvinists from the benefits of religious toleration, and left several important questions undecided, the pregnant source of future wars. When the labors of the diet terminated, Charles, mortified at being forced to resign the hope of securing the empire to his son, sad- dened by his experience of the instability of fortune, and broken down by illness, resolved to abdicate his double authority. He resigned the sceptre of Spain and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II., and the imperial crown some months after to his brother Ferdinand : he then retired to the monastery of St. Justus, in Valladolid, where he died (a. d. 1558). The lor»^ struggle for religious freedom during the reign of Charles V. terminated in the favor of the Reformation ; but the Romish church was far from being subdued, and it derived most efficient support from the institution of the Jesuits, a political rather than religious society, admirably organized for the support of the highest and most unyielding assumptions of papal authority. This body became formidable from its unity and the secrecy of its operations, but it at length excited the alarm of catholic princes, and was suppressed in the last century. In the course of the wars between Charles and Francis, the republic of Venice, which, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, had ap- peared so formidable that almost all the potentates of Europe united in a confederacy for its destruction, declined from its ancient power and splendor. The Venetians not only lost a great part of their territory in the war excited by the league of Cambray, but the revenues as well as vigor of the state were exhausted by their extraordinary and long-con- tinued efforts in their own defence, and that commerce bv whic)" they had acquired their wealth and power began to decay without any hopes of its reviving. All the fatal consequences to their republic, which the sagacity of the Venetian senate foresaw on the first discovery of a pas- sage to the East Indies, by the Cape of Good Hope, actually took place. Their endeavors to prevent the Portuguese from establishing themselves in the East Indies, not only by exciting the Mameluke sultans of Egypt and the Ottoman monarchs to turn their arms against such dangerous intruders, but by affording secret aid to the infidels in order to ensure their success, proved ineffectual. The activity and valor of the Portu- guese surmounted every obstacle, and obtained such a firm footing in that fertile country, as secured to them large possessions with an influ- ence still more extensive. Lisbon instead of Venice became the staple for the precious commodities of the east. The Venetians, after having possessed for many years the monopoly of that beneficial commerce, had the mortification to be excluded from almost any share in it. The discoveries of the Spaniards in the western world proved no less fatal to inferior branches of commerce. When the sources from which the 524 MODERN HISTORY. State derived its extraordinary riches and power were dried up, its inle* rior vigor declined, and of course its external operations became less formidable. Long before the middle of the sixteenth century, Venice ceased to be one of the principal powers in Europe, and dwindled into a secondary and subaltern state. But as the senate had the address to conceal the diminution of its power under the veil of moderation and caution ; as it made no rash effort that could discover its weakness ; as the symptoms of political decay in states are not soon observed, and are seldom so apparent to their neighbors as to occasion any sudden alter- ation in their conduct toward them, Venice continued long to be con- sidered and respected. She was treated, not according to her present condition, but according to the rank which she had formerly held. Charles V., as well as the kings of France, his rivals, courted her assis- tance with emulation and solicitude in all their enterprises. Even down to the close of the century, Venice remained, not only an object of at- tention, but a considerable seat of political negotiation and intrigue. That authority which the first Cosmo de Medici and Lorenzo his grandson had acquired in the republic of Florence by their beneficence and abilities, inspired their descendants with the ambition of usurping the sovereignty in their country and paving their way toward it. Charles V. placed Alexander de Medici at the head of the republic (a. d. 1530), and to the natural interest and power of the family added the weight as well as the credit of the imperial protection. Of these his successor Cosmo, surnamed the Great, availed himself; and es- tablishing his supreme authority on the ruins of the ancient republican constitution, he transmitted that, together with the title of grand duke of Tuscany, to his descendants. Their dominions were composed of the territories which had belonged to the three commonwealths of Florence, Pisa, and Sienna, and formed one of the most respectable of the Italian states. Section VUI.— The Age of Elizaheth. The accession of Elizabeth was the crisis of the Reformation in Great Britain ; as she was the daughter of Anne Boleyn, whose mar- riage with Henry VIIL had not been sanctioned by the Romish church, her title was not recognised by the catholics, and the king of France permitted his daughter-in-law, Mary, queen of Scots, to assume the arms and title of England. Elizabeth secured herself by entering into secret alliance with the heads of the protestant party in Scotland, who succeeded in withdrawing that kingdom from its allegiance to the pope, and so fettering the royal authority, that the queen dowager, who acted as regent for her daughter, was too much harassed at home to make any hostile attempt on England. Connected with the cause of the Reformation by her own interests, Elizabeth was naturally regarded as the head of the protestants in Europe, while Philip IL was the cham- pion of the catholics. Hence England became the counterpoise to Spain in this age, as France had been in the preceding. But the an- cient rivalry between France and Spain was of the highest importance to England ; it prevented a cordial union between the catholic powers of Europe for checking the progress of the Reformation, and it secured THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 525 support for her doubtful title, ere her noble qualities becorriing known, earned for her the best of all securities, the affections of the English nation. Mary, queen of Scots, was the niece of Henry VIII., and next heir to his crown if the illegitimacy of Elizabeth were established ; she was wedded to the heir-apparent of the French monarchy ; her maternal uncles, the princes of Lorraine, were remarkable for capacity, valor, and daring ambition, and she had reasonable prospects of success at a time when Scotland was divided between the contending communions, Ireland altogether catholic, and while catholics predominated in the north of England. The death of Henry II., by a mortal wound in a tournament, raised Mary's husband, the feeble Francis II., to the French throne, and through the young queen's influence transferred the power of the monarchy to the princes of Lorraine. The bigoted Philip II. was so alarmed at the probable accession of power to his great rivals, that he not only acknowledged Elizabeth's title, but proffered h». mar- riage. She declined the offer, and Philip gave his hand to the princess Elizabeth of France, and concluded a treaty with that power at Chateau Cambresis. Though no express stipulations were made, it was well known that the extirpation of heresy formed a part of this alliance be- tween the two great catholic powers ; it led to a furious war of religion, which ended in the estabL'shment of a new European state. Before entering on the history of the religious wars in France and the Netherlands, it is of importance to examine the slate of England and Scotland during the early part of Elizabeth's reign. On the death of Francis II. (Dec, 1560), Mary was compelled to return to her native dominions by the jealousy of her mother-in-law, Catherine de Medicis, who secretly envied the power of the princess of Lorraine. She left France with a heavy heart, and from the very first moment of her land- ing had to endure indignities the most mortifying to her proud spirit. Popery had been overthrown in Scotland, but the protestantism erected in its stead was just as bigoted and as intolerant as the ancient creed had been in the worst of times. Still, the winning manners of the queen, and the weakness of her party, prevented any immediate out- break ; and the confidence of the protestants in the earl of Moray re- strained the violence of their fanaticism. The marriage of Mary to the young Lord Darnlejv, in spite of the remonstrances both of Elizabeth and Lord Moray (a d. 1565), led to the first open breach between the queen and her subject?. Several lords, indignant at the refusal of security to the protestant religion sought safety in England, and they soon gain- ed Darnley himself to join their association. An Italian,of mean birth, David Rizzio, having been appointed private secretary to the queen, gained such an ascendency over her, that Darnley's jealousy was roused; he entered into a conspiracy with the exiled lords, introduced an armed band secretly into the palace, arrested Rizzio in the queen's presence, and murdered him at the door of her chamber. The birth of a son led to an apparent reconciliation between Mary and her husband ; but its hollowness was proved by Darnley's being excluded from witnessing the baptism of his own child. The appearance of renewed aflection was maintained notwithstanding this insult ; Darnley fell sick, Mary visited him with apparent anxiety, and, under the pretence that quiet 526 MODERN HISTORY. w^as necessary to an invalid, removed him to a solitary house called the Kirk of Field. On the 9th of February, 1567, this house was blown up with gunpowder, and the unfortunate Darnley's lifeless body carried to some distance, where it was found without any external mark of violence. The measures taken by Mary to screen Bothwell, univer- sally regarded as the author of this crime, and her subsequent marriage to that nobleman, seemed conclusive evidence that she had countenanced her husband's murder. The Scottish lords flew to arms ; Mary was forced to yield herself a prisoner to her irritated subjects, and Bothwell fled into exile. The unfortunate queen, confined in Lochleven castle, was forced to abdicate in favor of her son, who was crowned with the title of Ja^es VI. She escaped from her prison, and soon found herself at the head of a numerous army, but within eleven days from her deliverance she was completely defeated in the battle of Langside, and forced to seek refuge in England (a. d. 1568). Elizabeth placed the fugitive in close custody, a measure which her safety perhaps demanded, but which was scarcely consistent with her honor. The insurrections of the catholic lords in the northern counties, and Mary's intrigues with the duke of Norfolk, combined with the open attempts of the catholic states against Elizabeth, rendered the unfortunate queen's detention a matter of pru- dent expediency, if not of prime necessity. The imbecile Francis II. succeeded his father Henry on the throne of France ; during his brief reign he was the mere tool of the Guises, whose great anxiety was to establish the inquisition in France. Philip II. was engaged in a similar attempt in the Netherlands, and both pro- voked a desperate resistance. Like his father Charles V., Philip was ambitious of universal monarchy, but he used difl^erent means ; he hoped to gain the clergy by his zeal, to win the nobles by the bribes which the wealth of Spanish America enabled him to offer, and to subdue the people by the united efforts of ecclesiastical and aristocratic influence. But in the Netherlands, as in France, the proposal to establish the in- quisition was a fatal error of despotism ; it provoked the fierce resistance of all who were worthy of their country, it identified the papacy with cruelty and slavery, it gave to the reformed leaders the proud title or deliverers of their contry. The election of Pius IV. to the chair oi St. Peter precipitated the civil war in France (a. d. 1560). A con- spiracy was formed for removing the Guises, in which many arden. catholics joined ; it was discovered and defeated, but the sanguinar) cruelty of the Lorraine princes rendered their victory injurious to thei) cause ; the memory of the martyrs they slaughtered won proselytes and confirmed opposition. So powerful were the Huguenots, that lib erty of conscience was sanctioned in an assembly of the Notables a Fontainebleau ; and it was proposed to convoke a national council foi regulating the affairs of the Galilean church. Had France been rulec by an energetic sovereign, acquainted with the interests of his crowr and the wishes of the nation, the French church at this moment might have been rendered as independent of Rome as the English : the pope saw the danger, and he induced Francis to abandon the national synod, by promising the speedy convocation of a general council. Both the emperor and the king of France objected to reassembling the bishops THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 527 a» Trent, declaring that its name was odious to the protestants ; but the ill health of Francis II., who was fast sinking into the grave, induced Pius to quicken his proceedings, and bulls for the continuation of the council wore issued. In the meantime the states-general assembled in France The prince of Conde and the king of Navarre, the great leaders of the Huguenot parly, were arrested when they appeared at court, and the former received sentence of death. But the queen- Tiother, Catherine de Medicis, dreading that the regency would be seized by the Guises when the king died, secretly intrigued with the Huguenots to secure their support, and the life of Conde was the pledge and the reward of their assistance. But while she thus courted the alliance of the protestants, she secretly informed Philip 11. that her hatred of the Reformation was unabated, and that she only waited a fa- vorable opportunity to imitate his example of merciless butchery and persecution. She intrigued with both parties, a fatal error ; for had she frankly embraced one, she would have stamped the other with the character of revolt ; her Italian cunning only served to render civil war inevitable. The duke of Guise saw clearly that, to sustain the part he designed to act, it was necessary to attempt something of more than ordinary magnitude ; he raised the cry " the church is in danger ;" ignorance and bigotry responded to the summons ; he placed himself at the head of the zealous supporters of papal infallibility, hoping to destroy, by one blow, the queen-regent, who was suspected of culpable indiflerence to the interests of the faith, the government, which seemed ready to rec- ognise the principles of toleration, and the Huguenots. Like his op- ponents, he appealed to the people, and attempted to guide public opin- ion ; like them, too, he declared himself the steadfast friend of the monarchy : thus the struggle between the two parties had for its prize the throne of France, and for its pretext the defence of royalty. In the meantime, the council of Trent continued its deliberations, without showing any symptom of a desire to conciliate the spirit of the age, by improving either the doctrine or the discipline of the church. The bishops wasted their time in scholastic disputations, and proved how delusive were their professions of a desire for peace, by celebra- ting the victory obtained over the Huguenots at Dreux, by a public thanksgiving. In fact, the council terrified nobody but Pius IV., who saw his power attacked on every side. Maximilian, the son of the emperor Ferdinand, having been elected king of the Romans, refused for a long time to receive the sanction of his election from the pontiff, and finally accepted it as a mere ceremony, venerable on account of its antiquity ; it would have been better for the holy see to have abjured such a privilege, than to have it preserved as a subject of ridicule and mockery. But though the public proceedings at Trent were far from injuring the progress of the Reformation, there were secret plans devised fraught with imminent peril to the protestants. One of these was revealed, by the imprudence of the cardinal of Lorraine. On the 10th of May, 1563, he read a letter from his niece, Mary, queen of Scots, " submit- ting herself to the council, and promising that when she succeeded to the throne of England, she would subject both her kingdoms to the 528 MODERN HISTORY. obedience clue to the apostolic see." He added, verbally, that sne would have sent prelates, as representatives of Scotland, to the council, had she not been restrained by the necessity of keeping terms with her heretical councillors. The Italians were engaged every where alarming monarchs with the republican tendency of the Reformation ; a charge which seemed to derive some support from the revolts of the peasants in Germany, the troubles in Flanders, and the confusion of France. Philip II. was not the only sovereign who regarded heretics as rebels, and believed that the papacy would be found an efficient aid to despo- tism in crushing civil as well as religious liberty. At length the council of Trent terminated its sittings ; eighteen years of debate had produced no plan of reform for ecclesiastical morals, discipline, or doctrine (a. d. 1564). One of the last acts of the assembled fathers was to issue an anathema against heretics, which justified the protestants in their refusal to recognise the acts of the council. But we should commit a great error if we supposed that this last of the general councils produced no change in the constitution of the papacy, it organized the spiritual despotism of the popes, clearly per- ceiving that the temporal empire was irrecoverably lost, and it placed the holy see in the position of an ally to the monarchs who were eager to maintain despotic power. From the time of this council to the pres- ent day, every sovereign of France and Spain, remarkable for hostility to constitutional freedom, has been equally conspicuous for his attach- ment to the holy see, and the articles of faith ratified by the council of Trent. It was by this assembly that the marriage of priests was definitely prohibited. We have already shown how necessary an element this law has been to the spiritual despotism possessed, and temporal supremacy claimed, by the pope. Family and country had no ties on the bishops of the catholic church ; Rome enjoyed exclusive possession of every feeling that can render man a good subject or a good citizen ; the infallibility and omnipotence of the pope were made articles of faith, by prelates whose whole heart was engaged in sup- porting the supremacy of the holy see ; the popes could rouse nations to revolt, and trouble empires, because they had obedient emissaries in every parish ; the doctrine of implicit submission to the successors of St. Peter was taught by priests, when it could not be enforced by anTiies, and it was found sufficiently efficacious to harass Europe with a century of war. Pius IV. comprehended the immense value of an unmarried clergy ; though he had violently condemned the administra- tion of the eucharist in both kinds, he relaxed the prohibition at the in- stance of the emperor Maximilian, and permitted the cup to be given to the laity in Germany ; but on the point of celibacy he was inflexible, for he was justly convinced that it was the great bond by which all the portions of papal domination were united, and that if it should be relaxed, the entire edifice would fall in sunder. After the dissolution of the council, a general suspicion was difliised through the protestants of Europe, that a league for their destruction had been formed by some of the leading catholic powers. It is now sufficiently notorious that these suspicions were not groimdless, and that Pius IV. was weary of the slow steps by which the members of this pretended holy alliance advanced to the verge of an exterminating THE STATES SYSTEM OP EUROPE. 629 war. He earnestly urged a personal interview between Catherine de Medicis and Philip II. ; it was declined by the latter on account of his ill health, but he sent a worthy representative, the duke of Alva, to hold a conference with tlie queen-regent and her son, Charles IX., at Bayonne. The pretext for the meeting was an interview between the young queen of Spain and her mother, Catherine de Medicis ; but tho presence of the duke of Alva, the avowed enemy of the protestantSj whose extirpation he openly proclaimed to be his most solemn duty to God or man, was a clear proof that more important designs were con templated. The days were spent in all the sports and festivities thai are to be found in a luxurious and licentious court. But at the dead hour of midnight, when the courtiers, exhausted by the tournament, the table, and the dance, retired to repose, Catherine held secret conferen ces with Alva in the apartments of her probably unconst-'ious daughter^ Elizabeth. They agreed in their object, the destruction of the Hugue- nots, and all the parties disposed to place restrictions on the royal au- thority in the French and Spanish dominions, but they differed very widely as to the means by which this might be most effectually accom- plished. Alva recommended the most violent measures, edicts of ex- termination supported by powerful armies, military execution of all who ventured to offer any opposition, and a general massacre of the Hugue- not congregations. But though Catherine woidd not have shown any scruple in adopting these, or even more atrocious plans, she was well aware that Alva's projects could not be executed without the aid of a Spanish army, and she was too jealous of her own authority to allow a foreign court to exercise any influence in the kingdom which she gov- erned as regent. She relied on her own craft and cunning to retain power, for her zeal for religion was always made subservient to her ambition, and she was infinitely more afraid of any combination of the nobles of France to restrain the royal authority, than of the real or sup- posed progress of heretical opinions. She hated the Huguenots rather as a political than as a religious body, for the aristocratic leaders of the sect were more bent on rendering the nobles independent of the crown, , than of delivering the Galilean church from the power of the pope, and it was the aristocratic character thus imprinted on the principles of the reformation in France, which prevented ttie protestant movement from evei becoming popular with the great body of the middle and the lower »^nks in France. In their minds it wb^^ associated with feudalism, which had become so odious to the French people that they would have accepted the worst form of oriental despotism in preference. Philip began to execute his part of the agreement by a vigorous effort to establish the Inquisition in Flanders ; and to put an end to the insur- rection which such a measure provoked, he appointed the duke of Alva lord lieutenant of the Netherlands, with almost absolute authority. Many of the Flemish merchants and manufacturers left their country ; they brought their industry and their capital to England ; a circum- stance which had no small share in the rapid growth of England's com- mercial prosperity. The cruelties of Alva, the noble resistance of the prince of Orange, long the head and hope of the protestant party in Europe, and the final establishment of the independence of the Seven United Provinces, belong to general history ; but in this narrative we 34 530 MODERN HISTORY. must not omit to mention, that Philip's brutal obstinacy was frequently blamed by the court of Rome ; the crafty Italians would have preferred fraud to violence, and assassination to the perils of open war (a. d. 1572). It must also be mentioned, that the Turks joined in the contest as the protectors of the Flemings, and that their defeat by Don John of Austria, at Lepanto, finally delivered Europe from the perils with which it was menaced by Mohammedan barbarism. Pius V., who as- cended the papal throne (a. d. 1566), was disposed to take advantage of the victory at Lepanto, and organize a league against the Turks ; but Philip was jealous of the glory acquired by his brother, and he declared that nothing should divert him from the prosecution of the war in Flan- ders. This pontiff, who was afterward canonized as a saint, was in- flexible in his hatred of the protestante but he made some efforts to remedy the evils of the church by founding schools and colleges, and excluding persons of immoral life from ecclesiastical dignities. He was succeeded by Gregory XIII. In the spring of 1560, the French protestants were detected in a conspiracy for taking the infant king out of the hands of the persecu- ting Guises, and expelling the entire Lorraine family from France. The massacres with which this crime was punished, produced retalia- tion ; a civil war ensued, which, interrupted by short and unsteady truces, lasted to 1570, when a treaty, favorable to the Huguenots, was concluded at St. Germains. To cement this peace, a marriage was proposed between the young king of Navarre, the hereditary leader of the French protestants, and the princess Margaret, the beautiful sister of the king of France. The proposal diff'used such universal joy, that even the more violent of the catholic party were forced to acquiesce, and preparations were made for celebrating the nuptials at Paris with extraordinary magnificence. Admiral Coligni and the other protestant leaders were invited to witness the festivities, and the chief catholic lords, headed by the duke of Guise, came to share in the general reconciliation. The events which led to the fearful tragedy that accompanied this marriage, have been so misrepresented by party writers on every side, that it is desirable to state the facts at some length, as they have been narrated by the principal actors themselves. At this period the popu- lace of Paris was the most bigoted and sanguinary mob to be found in Europe. They went beyond the most cruel edicts of their rulers in perse uiting all who were suspected of heretical opinions, and not un- frequently took the law into their own hands, against the wishes of the court and the clergy. The presence of Coligni and the protestant lords, was, therefore, a source of indignant grief to the fanatical multi- tude, and nothing but the presence of the royal guards prevented out- burst of popular violence. Guise and his friends, opposed to the Hu- guenots as heretics, and to their leaders as rivals, fostered this general discontent, while the queen-mother, Catherine, negotiated with both parties, believing that she could only retain power by balancing one against the otlj ?r. Charles IX., feeble in body, and weak in intellect, had just attained his legal maj-ority, but the real power of the state was wielded by Cath- erine and her favorite son, Henry, for whom she always showed herself THE STATES SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 531 willing to sacrifice the rest of her children. In some of his conversa- tions with the protestant lords, Charles complained very bitterly of the state of thraldom in which he was held, and Coligni, commiserating the unhappy monarch, promised to aid in his deliverance. The king soon began to vaunt of his design to assume the reins of power, and to remove his mother and brother from the court. They took the alarm, and easily discovering by whose counsels the king was influenced, resolved to assassinate the admiral Coligni. Henry hired a man for the purpose, and lent him his own gun ; but in order to avert suspicion, he stationed the assassin in the lodgings of a retainer of the duke of Guise. Coligni was shot as he passed the house, but the wound was not mortal ; before his friends could break open the door, the assassin had escaped, leaving his gun behind him. At first, the suspicions of the protestants were directed against the duke of Guise, but the gun, and some other circumstances, soon led them to discover the real instigators of the plot, and they very imprudently proclaimed their intention to exact heavy vengeance upon Catherine and her favorite son. In this emergency, Catherine convoked a secret council of her friends, and there it was resolved to massacre all the Huguenots on the eve of St. Bartholomew (a. d. 1572), and thus crush the entire party at one blow. The conspirators, seven in number, were well aware that they could rely on the royal guards, who were still animated by all the passions of the late religious wars, and they also knew that the Parisian populace waited but a signal to indulge in the excesses of savage bigotry. It was further resolved that the atrocious plot should be kept secret from the king until it was on the eve of execution, but that all ar- rangements for effectually accomplishing the general slaughter should be made, and everything kept in readiness to begin, the moment that his consent had been obtained. It was late in the evening when Catherine went to Charles, accom- panied by her chosen advisers, and told him that the protestants had formed a plan for the extermination of the royal family, which could only be frustrated by the most immediate and decisive measures. The feeble monarch, who was not many degrees removed from idiotcy exhibited every sign of helpless alarm. While in this condition, his mother placed before him the dreadful decree of extermination, and demanded his signature ; Charles at first refused, and for some time it was doubtful whether his cor.«ent could be obtained. At length, in a paroxysm of rage mingled with insanity, he exclaimed, " I con- sent, provided that you kill them all, and leave no survivor to reproach me." It was about midnight that the sounding of the tocsin summoned the bands of murderers to conunence the work of destruction. Most of the unsuspecting Huguenots were massacred in their beds, or shot on the roofs of their houses while attempting to escape. Charles himself, armed with a gun, stationed himself in a tower, from which he fired upon such fugitives as attempted to escape across the Seine ; the palace itself was not respected ; several of the attendants of the young king of Navarre were murdered in the royal apartments, and he was himself exposed to considerable danger 532 MODERN HISTORY. The massacre lasted for eight days and niohts without any apparent diminution of the fury of the murderers. Several catholics perished, the victims of mistake or of private animosity, and similar atrocities were perpetrated in the principal cities of tlie kingdom. At lirst, the court seemed disposed to throw the blame of this fearful atrocity on the duke of Guise and his faction, but finding that the guilt could not be concealed, it was openly avowed, and a royal manifesto issued in its justitication. The wish of Charles that none should survive to reproach him was not fulfilled : nearly two millions of Huguenots still survived to avenge the fate of their murdered brethren. The civil war was re- newed with greater fury than ever ; the protestants felt themselves strengthened by the sympathy of all M'hom bigotry had not rendered callous to every feeling of humanity ; and the authors of this unparalleled crime had the mortification to discover that it had been perpetrated in vain. While public rejoicings were made at Rome and Madrid, for the sup- posed overthrow of heresy in France, the horror and indignation excited by the massacre in northern Europe, not only among protestant, but even catholic princes, proved a serious injury to the catholic cause. The prince of Orange placed himself at the head of the revolters in the Netherlands — the Gueux, or Beggars, as they were contemptuously called by their oppressors. Though at first imsuccessful, he gaxe the insurrection a determinate character by the capture of Brille (a. d. 1572), a conquest which secured him a naval station for his daring cruisers, and encouraged the cities of Holland and Zealand to reject the Spanish yoke. The massacre of St. Bartholomew weakened the insurgents, by depriving them of the aid of the French Huguenots ; but instead of quelling their courage, it only stimulated them to perseverance. De- feated by land, and deprived of their strongest cities, they attacked the Spaniards on sea, and captured several rich freights. At length Alva retired in despair, and was succeeded by Zunega y Requesens (Decem- ber, 1573). In the verj' commencement of his administration, Requesens gained a decisive victory over the insurgents at Monher Moor, near Nimeguen. The three brothers of the prince of Orange fell in this fatal battle, which would probably have terminated the war, but for a mutiny of the Span- ish soldiers. The turbulence of the royal army, the insolence and licentiousness of the Spaniards, and the pillage of Antwerp by the muti- neers, excited the indignation of catholics and protestants. Five of the Batavian and six of the Belgic provinces entered into the pacification of Ghent, which provided for the expulsion of foreigners, the repeal of Alva's sanguinary edicts, and restoration of the ancient power of the states-general (a. d. 1576). Don John of Austria, who had succeeded Requesens in the government, disarmed suspicion by acceding to the league of Ghent ; but this confederacy soon fell to pieces, owing to the jealousy between the protestant and catholic states. It now became manifest that freedom could only be attained by a close union of the northern provinces, and a final rupture with Spain. Acting on this be- lief, the prince of Orange organized the confederacy of Utrecht, the basis of that commonwealth so renowned under the name of the Repub- lic of the United Provinces (a. d. 1579). THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 533 But, notwithstanding these precautions, the nomination of the duke <}f Parma to the regency threatened to ruin all the projects of the prince of Orange. The southern provinces, inspired with a jealousy of the protestant designs on the catholic religion, entered into an alliance with the regent, and levied an army against the insurgents of the north. But the Hollanders, thus deserted, did not lose courage ; they formally re- nounced their allegiance to the Spanish crown, and chose the duke of Anjou, brother to the king of France, for their sovereign (a. d. 1581). But this choice did not produce the expected advantages ; and the duke of Anjou, after a brief struggle, abandoned all hopes of competing with the duke of Parma, and returned to France. It is probable that the states would have chosen the prince of Orange for their constitutional sovereign, but that hero was stabbed by a fanatic, whether instigated wholly by bigotry, or partly seduced by Spanish gold, it is now difficult to determine (a. d. 1584). Amid the general gloom spread over the protestant confederates by the loss of their illustrious leader, the Hol- landers and Zealanders chose Maurice, his son, a young man of eigh- teen, their stadtholder and captain-general by sea and land. The war still continued ; but though the duke of Parma prevailed in the field, and finally captured the important city of Antwerp (a. d. 1585), the confed- erates never dreamed of submission. They offered the sovereignty of their republic to Queen Elizabeth on certain conditions ; and though she rejected the proffer, she sent the earl of Leicester to their aid with a considerable army. The misconduct of Leicester prevented the Hol- landers from gaining all the advantages from the English auxiliaries that might have been expected ; but the breaking out of war between Eng- land and Spain, the death of the duke of Parma in the civil wars of France, and the heroism of Prince Maurice, gave them such a decided superiority by sea and land, that their independence was secured and finally recognised by Spain (a. d. 1609). Before entering on the history of the war between England and Spain, it is necessary to take a retrospective view of the state of France. On the death of Charles IX., his brother Henry III., resigned the throne of Poland for that of France (a. d. 1574). This prince, on his return, be- gan a war of persecution, and concluded by an ignominious peace with his own subjects, in less than a year. He then abandoned himself to the lowest debaucheries, strangely combined with the practice of the most degrading superstitions. Opposed to the king, were the princes of 1 orraine, who-^e chief, Henry, duke of Guise, was deservedly re- garded as the leader of the violent catholic party in France. Noble in person, polished in demeanor, endowed with superior talents, and ani- mated by grasping ambition, he seemed formed by nature to become the leader of a faction, and art had lent its aid to improve all these advan- tages. The utter contempt into which Henry III. had fallen, and the rage of the catholics at the tolerance granted to the protestants by the late pacification, encouraged the duke of Guise to raise the cry of re- ligion, and the fanatic populace, roused by this hypocritical pretext, be- gan to take arms to defend their church. The Holy League, drawn up by Guise's uncle, the cardinal of Lorraine, for the defence of the cath- olic religion, was signed and sworn to by catholics of all ranks and conditions in Paris and ^he provinces. The duke of Guise was ap- 534 MODERN HISTORY. pointed head of the league ; the pope and the king of Spain declared themselves its protectors, and the wretched Henry was forced to yield to the faction, assemble the states at Blois, and revoke the freedom of conscience granted to the Huguenots. The consequence was a civil war, the ninth which afflicted France since the death of Francis H. The fate of the unhappy queen of Scots, which had been determined ever since the massacre of St. Bartholomew, was precipitated by the formation of the Holy League. Some enthusiastic English catholics entered into a conspiracy for assassinating Elizabeth ; Mary was cog- inzani of their plans, but her participation in the plot is very doubtful. However, an act of parliament was passed authorizing her trial ; com- missioners were sent for the purpose to Fotheringay castle, the place of her confinement, and after an investigation, in which the forms of law and the principles of justice were little regarded, she was con- demned to death. Elizabeth, with much apparent, and some real reluc- tance, signed the warrant of execution, and placed it in the hands of Davison, her private secretary, enjoining him not to .use it without fur- ther orders (a. d. 1587). Davison, however, showed the warrant to the members of the council, and they, without further consulting Eliza- beth, had the unhappy Mary beheaded. Henry HI. of France, soon afterward, had his capital enemies, the duke and cardinal of Guise, assassinated ; but this atrocious crime only roused the leaguers to more vigorous measures. They assembled a parliament, deposed the king, and created the duke of Mayenne lieutenant-general of the king- dom. Philip H., in the meantime, prepared an expedition which he fondly hoped would conquer England, and thus destroy the great stay of prot- estantism in Europe. Ships were prepared in all the ports throughout his extensive dominions ; Spain, Portugal, Naples, and those parts of the low countries which still recognised his authority. An army of 30,000 picked men was assembled under the most experienced officers of Italy, Spain, and Germany, and the chief command was intrusted to the celebrated duke of Parma. The pope blessed an expedition that seemed destined once more to restore the supremacy of the holy see ; and the catholics throughout Europe were so confident of success, that they named the armament " The Invincible Armada." Elizabeth un- dauntedly prepared to meet the danger. She intrusted the command of her fleet to a catholic nobleman. Lord Howard of Effingham, while the land army was placed under the command of the earl of Leicester. Nothing could exceed the enthusiastic determination of the English people to defend their religion and liberties, though the queen had but one ally on whose assistance she could reckon, James, king of Scot- land ; she trusted to the attachment of her people, and found that the love of her subjects was the best security of her throne. On the thirtieth of May, 1588, the armada sailed from Lisbon: but having been shattered by a storm, it was forced to stop at Corunna, and it did not reach the English channel until the nineteenth of July. Here the Spanish admiral, the duke of Medina Sidonia, was surprised to find that the duke of Parma was not prepared to join him with a fleet and army. Whilt> he hesitated, the light English squadrons assailed THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 535 his heavy vessels on all sides, and after seven days, three of which only passed without warm actions, though there was no decisive en- gagement, the armada was so shattered by English skill and bravery, that it was forced to take shelter in the roads of Calais. The earl of Effingham, following up his advantage, sent in fireships during the night, which destroyed several vessels, and threw the others into such confu- sion, that the Spaniards no longer thought of victory, but escape. The duke of Medina Sidonia, dreading again to encounter the English fleet, attempted to return home by sailing round the north of Scotland ; but dreadful storms overtook the armada, many of the ships were driven on the shores of Norway, Ireland, and the north of Scotland, and out of the triumphant navy that sailed from Lisbon, only a few shattered ves- sels returned to bring intelligence of the calamity that had overwhelmed .he rest. This glorious success was deservedly regarded, not so much as the ■.riumph of England, as of the protestant cause throughout Europe ; it virtually established the independence of the Dutch, and it raised the courage of the Huguenots in France. It completely destroyed the de- cisive influence that Spain had acquired in the affairs of Europe ; ever since the snipwreck of the armada, the Spanish state and people seem to have lost all energy, and sunk into almost hopeless decay. Henry III. of France, obliged by the violence of the league to seek the aid of his protestant subjects, was murdered by a fanatic monk, just as he was upon the point of driving his enemies from Paris. By his death, the house of Valois became extinct, and the right of inheri- tance passed to the Bourbon family, descended from Robert, the sixth son of St. Louis. Its representative was Henry of Navarre, who now claimed to be Henry IV. of France, a warlike, chivalrous prince, en- dowed with many amiable qualities, but disliked by his new subjects on account of his attachment to the protestant religion. After a long struggle, Henry found it necessary to abjure his faith, in order to se- .•;ure his crown ; but he atoned to the Huguenots for his compulsory desertion, by issuing the celebrated edict of Nantes. Still he had to make good his rights by the sword ; for his abjuration could not induce either the pope or Philip II. to give up their plans. He received some aid from Elizabeth, but his final success was mainly due to his own eminent abilities ; his triumph was virtually completed by the capture of Paris (a. d. 1594), but Spain persevered in its hostility until the peace of Vervins (a. d. 1598). The close of Elizabeth's reign was clouded by sanguinary wars against her Irish subjects, whose insurrections were too often provoked by the injustice of their rulers, and by the execution of her ill-fated fa- vorite, the earl of Essex. But notwithstanding these domestic calami- ties, she maintained the war against Spain with great vigor, and en- couraged her subjects to imdermine the strength of that kingdom by enterprises against its commerce. The annexation of Portugal to the crown of Spain, apparently gave the subjects of Philip II. complete command of the Indian, as well as the South American trade ; but the wars of that monarch with England and Holland, raised both countries to a rivalry that terminated to the disadvantage, if not to the ruin of the Spanish commerce. In 1591, the English, for the first time, performed 536 MODERN HISTORY. the voyage to India; and in 1600, the year in which the East India company was founded, they took possession of the island of St. Hele- na. The Hanseatic league, now fast sinking into decay, complained loudly of the encouragement given by the English government to its native merchants, and prohibited the English from trading in Germany ; but this unwise attempt to enforce monopoly produced measures of retaliation that speedily proved fatal to their privileges and their power. During Elizabeth's reign, England attained the highest rank among European states, and may be said to have held the balance of power in Christendom ; that this was owing, in no small degree, to the personal character of the sovereign, is manifest from the rapid decline of British mfluence, when the sceptre passed to the feeble house of Stuart. Section IX. — The Age of Gustavus Adolphus. \ From the death of Charles V. to the accession of Ferdinand II., there were few events in German history that produced any important result in the general politics of Europe. Ferdinand I. and his son Maximilian II. were sincerely attached to peace, and Rudolph II. was willing to leave the world in quiet, if the world would have left him undisturbed. From the time of his accession (a. d. 1576), Rudolph's great anxiety was to unite the Germanic princes in a firm league against the Turks ; but theological discussions, united Avith political ambition, S"' 'd to prepare the way for fresh convulsions. The influence of the J its in the imperial court so alarmed the protestants, that they fo 'd a new alliance, called " The Evangelical Union," of w^hich the elector-palatine was declared the chief (a. d. 1609), and this was op- posed by a catholic league, in which foreign as well as German prin- ces were joined. In this unsettled state of affairs, the competition for succession to a small principality had nearly involved Europe in a gen- eral war. Henry IV. of France, after having secured himself on the throne, intrusted the chief management of his affairs to the duke of Sully, under whose wise administration the finances were so improved, and the strength of the kingdom so consolidated, that France began to take the lead in European policy. Henry had formed a great scheme for making all Christendom a federate republic, in which fne rights and independence of the several states should be firmly secured. A more immediate project was the humiliation of the house of Austria, whose increasing power in Germany and Spain was deemed dangerous xo all the surrounding countries. The vacancy in the dutchies of Cleves and Juliers, which, on the death of the duke without male heirs, had been seized by the emperor as lapsed fiefs, gave Henry a pretext for interfering in the affairs of Germany ; he formed alliances with several of his neighbors, and especially with the king of England and the Ital- ian princes. But while preparing to assist at the coronation of his queen, Mary de Medicis, he was stabbed by a fanatic, named Ravaillac (a. d. 1610), and the disturbances that ensued prevented the French from making further exertions in Germany. The dissensions in the Austrian family contributed to avert a general war. Rudolph was grad- ually driven from his whole dominions by his brother Matthias ; deserted by his ancient partisans, he became melancholy and distrustful, shutting THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 537 himself up in his palace, where grief and want of exercise sooa pro* duced a mortal disease, which brought him prematurely to the grave (a. D. 161]). Matthias succeeded to the imperial crown, and though he had been previously befriended by the protestants, he threw himself into the arms of the catholic party, and thus increased the dissatisfaction which had led to the evangelical union ; he procured the crown of Bohemia for his cousin Ferdinand, archduke of Gratz, and this bigoted monarch soon forced his protestant subjects to revolt. While the war was yet in progress, Matthias died, and Ferdinand, to the great alarm of the protestant party, was elected emperor (a. d. 1619). Ferdinand entered into close alliance with the Spanish branch of the house of Haps- burgh, but this family compact was not so prmidable as it had been heretofore. The union of the crown of Portugal to that of Spain had not added much real strength to Philip II. ; the Portuguese hated the Spaniards, especially as they were compelled to abandon their lucrative commerce with the revolted Hollanders, and were finally deprived of the greater part of their Indian colonies by the successful republica,ns. The defeat of the armada, followed by these colonial losses, rendered the reign of Philip II. calamitous to the peninsula ; but on his death (a. d. 1598) it was destined to suffer still greater losses from the bigotry of his successor. Philip III. expelled the Moriscoes or Moors, who had remained in the peninsula after the overthrow of the last Moham- medan dynasty, and thus deprived himself of the services of more than a million of his most industrious subjects (a. d. 1610). He intrusted the administration of the kingdom to favorites, chosen without discrim- ination, and made the custom of governing by ministers a maxim of state. On his death (a. d. 1621), Spain, though still respected and even feared, was in reality deplorably weak ; but the reign of Philip IV. almost completed its ruin ; the Catalans revolted, and placed them- selves under the protection of France ; the Portuguese, choosing for their monarch the duke of Braganza, achieved their independence (a. d. 1640), and the Neapolitans, harassed by the premier, the count- duke of Olivarez, attempted to form a republic. These events were not foreseen when Ferdinand became emperor. The Bohemian protestants, dreading his bigotry, chose Frederic, the elector-palatine, son-in-law of the British monarch, for their sovereign, and in an evil hour for himself, Frederic assumed the royal title. James I. was a monarch of much learning and little wisdom ; the nat- ural timidity of his disposition, and his anxiety to secure the hand of a Spanish princess for his son, induced him to observe a neutrality in this dispute, contrary to the ardent wishes of his subjects. Duped by vanity, he believed himself a consummate master of diplomacy, and entered into a series of negotiations, which only showed his weakness, and rendered him contemptible in the eyes of Europe. Deserted by his father-in-law, and by many of the protestant princes, on whose as- sistance he relied, the elector-palatine lost not only Bohemia, but his hereditary dominions, which were shared by his enemies (a. d. 1623). Circumstances, in the meantime, had occurred to change the neutral policy of England. The young prince Charles, accompanied by his favorite, the duke of Buckingham, had made a romantic journey to 538 MODERN HISTORY. Madrid, which, contrary to general expectation, led to the breaking off of the Spanish match. The discovery of a conspiracy for blowing up the British king and parliament with gunpowder (a. d. 1605), inflamed the English nation against the catholics, because the plot had been devised by some fanatics of that religion, who hoped in the confusion that must have ensued, to restore the supremacy of their church. Final- ly, Count Mansfelt, the ablest of the protestant leaders, succeeded in convincing James that he had been egregiously duped by the Spaniards. A new protestant imion was formed, of which Christian IV., king of Denmark, was chosen the head, and the war burst forth with fresh violence. The imperial generals, Tilly and Wallenstein, were far superior to their protestant adversaries. Wallenstein, having been created duke of Friedland and chief commander of the imperial army raised by himself, acted with so much vigor, that Christian, threatened with the loss of his own dominions, was forced to purchase peace by renouncing all right to interfere in the affairs of Germany, and abandon- ing his allies, especially the dukes of Mecklenburg (a. d. 1629). Wallenstein obtained the investitute of Mecklenburg, and claimed hence- forth a rank among the princes of the empire. England had borne little share in this arduous contest. On the death of James (a. d. 1625), his son Charles I. ascended the British throne, and was almost immediately involved in a contest with his parliament, which effectually diverted his attentioH from foreign affairs. The principal causes of this were the growing love of liberty in the English people ; the suspicions of danger to religion from the king's marriage with so bigoted a catholic as the princess Henrietta Maria, of France ; the unpopularity of Buckingham, the royal favorite ; and the increasing hostility of the puritans to the episcopal form of church government. The troubles and distractions by which France was weakened during the minority and the early part of the reign of Louis XIII. began to dis- appear when Cardinal Richelieu was placed at the head of the admin- istration. His great talents and singular firmness acquired for his country a new and vigorous influence in the political system of Europe, at the very moment when a counterpoise was most wanting to the over- grown power of the house of Austria. Richelieu's first operations were directed against the Huguenots, whom he completely subdued and rendered utterly helpless by the capture of Rochelle. Scarcely had the reduction of this important city been effected, when the cardinal commenced his war against Austria by endeavoring to secure the dutchy of Mantua for the duke of Nevers, in opposition to the emperor, the king of Spain, and the duke of Savoy. The war was terminated by the treaty of Chierasio (a. d. 1631), which destroyed the Spanish supremacy in Italy, restored the old influence of France, and gave that power possession of several of the most important fortresses on the frontiers. But far more important was the share which Richelieu had in renewing the war in Germany, and bringing forward a protestant leader, able and willing to cope with the imperial generals. During the war of the Mantuan succession, the emperor Ferdinand published an edict at Vienna, commanding tht proiestanls to restore all the ecclesiastical benefices of which they had taken possession since the treaty of Passau. Some submitted, others remonstrated ; imperiaJ THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 539 commissioners were sent to decide on the claims of the bishops and monks to restitution ; the execution of the decree was intrusted to Wallenstein, who acted with so much rigor that the protestants were inflamed with just rage, and even the catholics joined in demanding justice against him from the emperor. So great was the clamor, that the emperor was forced to dismiss his general, and cotifer the command of the imperial army upon Count Tilly. Scarcely had this important step been taken, when Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, secretly urged by some of the discontented protestant princes, published a dec- laration of war against the emperor, and after having captured the im- portant island of Rugen, landed in Germany (June 24, 1630). An alliance was formed between the king and the leading protestant princes of Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Hesse ; Saxony, after some efforts to preserve neutrality, was forced to accede to the league ; and Richelieu, who had no small share in forming the original plan, secured for the confederates the active co-operation of France. The early successes of Gustavus would have been more decisive but for the jealousy of the Saxon princes, who prevented his passage through their dominions, and thus hindered him from relieving the city of Magdeburg, hard pressed by Count Tilly and the imperial forces. The unfortunate city was finally taken by assault ; the cruel Tilly would show no mercy, thirty thousand of the inhabitants perished by water, fire, and sword ; and of this once flourishing city nothing was left standing except the cathedral and about one hundred and fifty fishing huts on the banks of the Elbe. This atrocious cruelty cemented the alliance between Gustavus and the protestant princes ; the elector of Saxony, justly alarmed by the fate of his neighbors, and irritated by the menaces of Tilly, whom his recent success had filled with presumptuous pride, joined the king with all his forces at Wittemburg. A resolution to try the chances of battle was taken ; and at Leipsic the imperialists were so decisively over- thrown, that if Gustavus had marched immediately to Vienna, that city would probably have fallen. All the members of the evangelical union joined the king of Sweden ; the measures of the catholic confederates were disconcerted, and the whole country between the Elbe and the Rhine was occupied by the protestant forces. Early in the following year Count Tilly was killed in disputing with the Swedes the passage of the Lech, and Gustavus overrun Bavaria. The emperor, in his distress, had recourse to Wallenstein, who was restored to command with unlimited powers. Gustavus attacked the imperialists in their intrenchments at Nuremberg, and was defeated with some loss ; but, anxious to retrieve his fame, he sought an early opportunity of bringing his rival to a second engagement. Tre armies met at Lutzen (Nov. 16, 1632), the confederates attacked the impe- rialists in their intrenchments, and after a dreadful contest, that lasted nine hours, put them completely to the rout. But the victors had little cause to triumph ; Gustavus fell, mortally wounded, in the middle of the engagement, and died before the fortime of the day was decided. His death produced great changes in the political state of Europe. The elector-palatine, believing all his hopes of restoration blighted, died ot a broken heart ; the piotestant confederates, deprived of a head, were divided into factions ; while the Swedes, overwhelmed with sorrow, 540 MODERN HISTORY. saw the throne of their heroic prince occupied by a girl only seven years old. But the council of regency, appointed to prttect the minori- ty of the young queen Christina, intrusted the management of the Ger- man war to the Chanceller Oxenstiern, a statesman of the highest order ; under his guidance, the protestant alliance again assumed a formidable aspect, and hostilities were prosecuted with vigor and suc- cess by the duke of Saxe Weimar and the generals Banier and Horn. An unexpected event added to their confidence ; Ferdinand became jealous of Wallenstein, and suspected him, not without cause, of aiming at sovereign power. The emperor was too timid to bring this powerful leader to a legal trial ; he, therefore, had recourse to the dishonorable expedient of assassination (a. d. 1634), and Wallenstein was murdered in his own camp. The confederates did not gain all the advantages they anticipated from the fall of the duke of Friedland ; the emperor's eldest son, the king of Hungary, having succeeded to the command, gained several advantages, and twenty thousand Spaniards arrived in Germany to the aid of the imperialists, under the duke of Feria. The protestant leaders, anxious to stop the progress of the king of Hungary, attacked him at Nordlingen. The battle was one of the most obstinate recorded in his- tory ; it ended in the complete rout of the confederates, notwithstanding the most vigorous efforts of the Swedes. The emperor improved his victory by negotiation ; he concluded a treaty with all the protestant princes, except the landgrave of Hesse, at Prague (a. d. 1635), and thus the whole weight of the war was thrown on the French and the Swedes. Section X. — Administralion of the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarine. RicHELTF.u ruled France with a rod of iron ; hated alike by the nobili ty and the people, he continued to hold the reins of government, and all conspiracies formed agauist him ended in the ruin of the contrivers. Jealousy of Gustavus prevented him from cordially co-operating with that prince, and Oxenstiern afterward was unwilling to give the trench any influence in Germany. But the battle of Nordlingen rendered a change r\f policy necessary, and the Swedish chancellor offered to put the French in immediate possession of Philipsburg and the province of Alsace, rn condition of their taking an active share in the war against the empeior. Richelieu readily entered into a treaty so favorable to his projects for humbling the house of Austria. He concluded treaties with the Dutch republic and ihe duke of Savoy, proclaimed war against Spain, and in a very short space equipped five armies to act at once in Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands. The balance now turned against the imperialists ; the duke of Saxe Weimar proved a worthy successor to the king of Sweden, and Banier restored the lustre of the Swedish arms by the victory he gained over the elector of Saxony at Wislock. The death of the emperor Ferdinand II. (a. d. 1637), and the accession of his son Ferdinand III., made little alteration in the state of the war; the victorious leaders of the confederates invaded the hereditary do- minions of Austria, but in the midst of their triumphant career, the duke of Saxe Weimar fell a victim to poison (a. d. 1639), said to have been administered by an emissary of Richelieu, for the cardinal had reason THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 541 o fear that the prince's patriotism would prove a serious obstacle to the aggrandizement of the French power. The war was still continued, but though the imperialists were gener- ally worsted, disunion crept into the councils of the confederates, and prevented them from improving their advantages. Banier's death might have proved their ruin, had he not been succeeded by Torstenson, a general of scarcely inferior abilities. While the Swedes, under their new leader, maintained their former eminence in Germany, and gained a complete victory at Leipsic, almost on the very ground where Gus- tavus had triumphed, the French were equally successful in Spain, having reduced Colioure and Perpignan.* The death of Richelieu, and his master, Louis XIII., the accession of the infant Louis XIV. (a. d. 1643), and some changes in Germany, for a time inclined the Swedes to peace ; but when it was found that Cardinal Mazarine had resolved to pursue Richelieu's plans, and that France possessed such generals as Conde and Turenne, the hopes of the confederates were once more revived, and the Swedes had even the courage to provoke a fresh enemy by invading the dominions of Denmark. After several vicissitudes, the triumph of the confederates was so decided, that the emperor found it necessary to solicit terms of peace. After long and tedious negotiations, which varied according to the vicissitudes of the war, the celebrated peace of Westphalia was signed at Munster (a. d. 1648), and became a fundamental law of the empire. While the protestant cause was thus triumphant in Germany, Eng- land was convulsed by civil war. The failure of the expedition to re- lieve Rochelle, and the complete overthrow of the Huguenots in France, had caused great discontent in England, and embittered the dispute be- tween the king and his parliament respecting the extent of the royal prerogative. The Petition of Right, extorted from Charles I., might have laid the foundation of a constitutional monarchy, had the king ad- hered strictly to its spirit ; but he continued to levy taxes by his own authority, and when the remonstrances of the commons became too en- ergetic, he dissolved the parliament (a. d. 1629), with a fixed resolution never to call another until he should see signs of a more compliant dis- position ii? the nation. Religious disputes aggravated these political animosities^ When the ecclesiastical jurisdiction was wrested from the see of Rome, the people of England had submitted to a jurisdiction no leos arbitrary in the prince, and the sovereign obtained absolute power in all affairs relative to the government of the church and the con- sciences of the people. An ecclesiastical tribunal, called the high com- mission court, was established under the immediate direction of the crown. Its judges enforced conformity with established ceremonies by fines and imprisonment. There were many who thought the English reformation incomplete ; they deemed that the church had not been suf- ficiently purified from Romish errors, and they wished for the simpler forms of worship that had been estabished in Scotland and Germany. Many of the puritans, as these reformers were called, had more justi- fiable reason for discontent ; they regarded the ecclesiastical so^ereign- • Rieheheu had just detected and punished a conspiracy, when Perpignan Avas taken. He sent intelligence of both events to Louis XIII., in the following laconic letter : " Sir, your enemies are dead, and your troops in possession of Perpignan.* 542 MODERN HISTORY. ty of the monarch as dangerous to general liberty, and they were &nx« ious to transfer a portion of the authority to parliament. About this time, a sect, called from their founder, the Arminians, had rejected the strict doctrines of predestination and absolute decrees, maintained by the first reformers. Their number, in England, was yet small, but by the favor of James and Charles, some who held the Arminian doctrines were advanced to the highest dignities of the church, and formed the majority of the bench of bishops. They, in return for this countenance, inculcated the doctrines of passive obedience and unconditional sub- mission to princes. Hence Arminianism was regarded by the patriots in the house of commons with as much horror as popery, and the preacher of either doctrine was voted a capital enemy to the state. The success of Charles I. in his struggle with the commons de- pended very much upon the character of his ministers. The chief of these were Wentworth, earl of Strafford, a deserter from the popular party, and Laud, archbishop of Canterbury ; they were both men of arbitrary principles, and Strafford, especially, was very unscrupulous in the use of means to gain a favorite end. Without any regard to the petition of right, which was directly opposed to such measures, 'on- nage, poundage, and other taxes were levied ; the penal laws agamst catholics were suspended on the payment of stipulated sums ; and such extensive jurisdiction given to those arbitrary tribunals, the courts of star-chamber and high commission, that the ordinary constitutional administration of justice almost entirely ceased. While these innovations spread secret discontent throughout England, Laud's efforts to model the Scottish church after the English form pro- duced a dangerous outbreak in Scotland. The attempt to introduce a liturgy, similar to that used in the English church, provoked a formida- ble riot ; and finally, " The solemn League and Covenant," a bond of confederation for the preservation of the national religion, was signed by a vast number of the higher and lower classes (a. d. 1638). Car- dinal Richelieu, fearing that the English government might oppose his designs on the Low Countries, and aware that he was disliked by the English queen, Henrietta, secretly encouraged the Scottish covenant- ers, and supplied their leaders with money, which, in spite of their exaggerated pretensions to patriotism and sanctity, they did not scruple .o accept. Armies were levied, but neither party wished to merit the mputation o* commencing civil war. A treaty was concluded at Ber^ A'ick (a. d. 1G39), by which Charles displeased his friends, who hought that he made concessions unworthy of a prince, and did not conciliate his opponents, who were resolved to be satisfied with nothing .ess than his full acceptance of the covenant. As might have been foreseen, the treaty of Berwick proved to be iiierely a suspension of arms. Strafford and Laud considered the re- i ellion of the Scots to be so manifest, that they deemed the people of rlngland could not entertain a doubt on the subject, and that the king •■*ould be supported in its suppression by a parliament. Charles adopt '->d the same opinions, and called a parliament, hoping to obtain a sufli ■-•lent grant for carrying on the war (a. d. 1640); but the house of commons, postponing all consideration of taxes, applied itself directly k> the redress of grievances, and an examination of the recent measures THfl STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 543 of the government. Incensed by this conduct, Charles dissolved the parliament, and attempted to raise money by new and unconstitutional expedients. The Scotch, not waiting to be attacked, crossed the bor- ders, defeated the earl of Northumberland at Newburn, and occupied Newcastle and Durham. The king was unable to cope with them in the field, and he therefore entered into a treaty by which he agreed to provide subsistence for the hostile army, until terms of pacification could be arranged. A new parliament was convoked, and, on the very first day of its meeting, the house of commons manifested its uncom- plying disposition, by choosing as its speaker a vehement opponent of the court. A more important and decisive step, was the impeachment of the earl of Strafford and Archbishop Laud on a charge of high trea- son ; after which, the armistice with the Scottish army was prolonged, and the Scots described not as enemies or rebels, but brethren ! Straf- ford's trial soon engrossed public attention ; he was condemned to death by an act of attainder, and Charles, after a long delay, was forced to consent to the public execution of his favorite mmister. An attempt was next made to exclude the bishops from parliament ; a bill for the purpose passed the commons, but was rejected by the lords ; as, how- ever, the public excitement continued, the bishops resolved to abstain from further attending their duty in parliament, and twelve of them published a protest, declaring everything null and void that should be determined during their absence. For this ill-advised proceeding they were accused of high treason, and committed to the Tower (a. d 1641). Charles, dismayed by the hostility of the English, resolved to seek a reconciliation with his Scottish subjects, and for this purpose undertook a journey to Edinburgh. His measures were not well suited to effect his object, and before anything satisfactory could be done, the insurrec- tion of the Irish catholics produced a change in the position of parties most fatal to the royal interests. Few events have been so much mis- represented as the Irish civil war, and in order to view it correctly, we must go back to an earlier period of history. The Norman settlers in Ireland paid but a nominal allegiance to the English crown, the most powerful of them acted as independent prin- ces, an!^ adopted the customs of the native Irish. The Tudor monarchs were anxious to break the power of this aristocracy, which was as in- "i.'rious to the national happiness, as it was opposed to the royal power ; but unfortunately, they combined this object with the reform of religion, and with a system of confiscation equally impolitic and unjust. The Irish lords took up arms, to defend at once their religion and their pow- er ; they were defeated by Elizabeth's generals, and many of them were deprived of their estates, which were shared among English col- onists. James I., under the pretence of a meditated rebellion, confis- cated the greater part of the province of Ulster, and deprived all the innocent vassals of their property, for the unproved guilt of their chiefs. Property was rendered still more insecure by an inquisition into titles, on the legal pretence that the right to land belongs primarily to the king, and consequently, that every estate ought to be forfeited for which a royal grant could not be produced. The effect of this principle would be, not only to strip all the native Irish of their estates, but also to con- 544 MODERN HISTORY. fiscate the lands belonging to the greater part of the lords descended from the companions of Strongbow and Henry II. When Strafford t)e- came lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he began to enforce the system of con- fiscation with a rigor which exceeded all former precedent. Every le- gal pretext was employed to expel the Irish from their possessions, and transfer them to strangers ; judges were bribed, juries threatened, and witnesses suborned with the most shameless effrontery. The English nation was induced to countenance this injustice by the belief that it would be useful to substitute a more noble and civilized race of men for the barbarous Irish ; though, in fact, the new settlers were for the most part rapacious adventurers, or indigent rabble. Religious intoler- ance was united to political wrongs ; catholics were excluded from all public offices and the acquisition of landed property ,> their churches and chapels were violently closed, their clergy expelled, and their chil- dren given to protestant guardians. They applied to the king for pro- tection, and gave a large sum for a charter of graces, which would se- cure their persons, property, and religion. Charles took the money, but refused the graces ; instigated by Strafford, who had devised a plan for rendering his master absolutely despotic in Ireland, as a preparatory step to his becoming supreme in England. The success of the Scots in securing their national religion, and placing restrictions on the royal power, induced many of the Irish lords to devise a plan for obtaining similar advantages. Accident pre- cipitated an outbreak ; the Ulster Irish, who had been expelled from their lands, hastened to attack the settlers that occupied them as intru- ders, and they sullied their cause by many acts of violence, which were easily exaggerated by persons who had derived much profit, and ex- pected more, from the trade of confiscation. The English house of commons regarded the Irish as a degraded and conquered people ; they deemed their efforts acts of treason, not so much against royal po^ei as English supremacy, while the difference of religion embittered thia feeling of national pride, and rendered a peaceful termination of the contest hopeless. It was studiously reported that Charles himself had instigated this revolt in order to obtain unlimited power by aid of the catholics ; to refute this suspicion, he intrusted the conduct of Irish affairs to the English parliament ; and that body, with inconceivable precipitation, resolved that the catholic religion should no longer be tolerated in Ireland ; that two millions and a half of acres should be confiscated to pay the expenses of the war ; and that no quarter should be given to the insurgents or their adherents. These ordinances led to a civil war, whose liistory may be told in a few words : the Irish catholics, after having gained possession of nearly the entire kingdom, were broken into parties more opposed to each other than to the com- mon enemy : in the midst of this disunion, Cromwell, with a mere handful of men, conquered them in detail, and gave their estates to his victorious followers. The new settlers were confirmed in their pos' session after the restoration of Charles II., and the greater part of the ancient Irish landowners were reduced to beggary. Charles gained little by sacrificing the Irish to the parliament ; find- ing that his concessions only provoked fresh demands, he attempted to arrest five of the leading members for high treason, but the popular in THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 545 dignation compelled him to abandon the charge, and soon after to quit the capital. Negotiations were tried to avert the horrors of civil war, but the requisitions of the commons, if granted, would have destroyed all royal authority, and Charles, on the 25th of August, 1642, caused the royal standard to be raised at Nottingham. War immediately commenced ; it was conducted with spirit, and was at first favorable to the king. The English parliament, alarmed at the progress of Charles, entered into an alliance with the Scottish covenanters, and on the 15th of Janu- ary 1644, a Scotch auxiliary army, commanded by General Leslie, entered England. Fairfax, the parliamentary leader in the north, united his forces to those of Leslie, and both generals immediately laid siege to York. Prince Rupert, the son of the unfortunate elector-palatine, hasted to the relief of this important city, and effected a junction with ttie army of the marquis of Newcastle. Fairfax and Leslie retired to Marston Moor, whither they were followed by the royalists, who were urged to this rash proceeding by the fiery Rupert. Fifty thousand British combatants engaged on this occasion in mutual slaughter ; the victory was long undecided ; but, finally, the skill of Lieutenant- Gen- eral Cromwell prevailed over the rash valor of Rupert, and the royalists were signally defeated, with the loss of all their baggage and artillery. A second defeat, at Newbury, so weakened the royal cause, that the king must have been forced to immediate submission, but for the divis- ions that arose among his adversaries. The presbyterians and the independents had combined against the church of England as their common enemy ; but when episcopacy was abolished, the latter saw with great indignation the presbyterian efforts to establish a system of ecclesiastical tyranny, differing from the papal only in form, the power being lodged in the general assembly of the clergy instead of a single head. The presbyterians had the majority m parliament, but the great bulk of the army favored the views of the •ndependents, which were also supported by some of the most active •members of the house of commons. A law, called the Self-denying Ordinance, prohibiting members of parliament from holding military commissions, gave the greater part of the army into the hands of the independents, especially as an exception was made in favor of Oliver Cromwell, their principal leader. The battle of Naseby was decided )n favor of the parliamentarians, principally by Cromwell's prudence and valor, an event which gave so much strength to his party, that the presbyterian majority in the house of commons feared to accept the king's proposals for an accommodation, contrary to their open profes- sions and secret wishes. Meanwhile Charles, being unable to keep the field, threw himself on the mercy of his Scottish subjects ; and having opened negotiations with their leader, through the French am bassador, ventured on the faith of uncertain promises to present him- self in their camp. He had the mortification to find himself treated as a prisoner, while all the towns and fortresses that had hitherto support- ed his cause fell into the hands of the parliament. The war was at an end, but civil dissensions raged with more fury than ever. The presbyterians and independents were each anxious to gain the king over to their side ; and the former, by a treaty with the Scots, gained possession of his person. Scarcely had they acquired 35 546 MODERN HISTORY. this advantage, when the discontent of the army threatened them with unexpected danger ; Cromwell encouraged the soldiers to resist the orders of the parliament, and by a hold measure gave fresh confidence to his party. Cornet Joyce, acting nnder his orders, I'emoved the king from Holmby house, and brought him to the army. Cromwell and his friends made such a judicious use of the advantage thus obtained, that the presbyterian party soon lost all their influence. The behavior of Charles at this crisis was very injudicious ; he negotiated with both parties, and, by his obvious insincerity, displeased all. Finally, he at- tempted to escape ; but seeking shelter in the isle of Wight, he was seized by its governor, Hammond, and from that moment Cromwell be- came the master of his fate. Another opportunity of escaping from the perils that surrounded him was oflered to the king ; the Scotch took up arms in his favor, but they were routed by Cromwell with great slaughter, and all hopes from their assistance destroyed. But the jar- liament having reason to dread Cromwell's ambition, opened negotia- tions with the king on receiving the news of this victory, and the wisest of the royal counsellors entreated their master to seize this opportunity of concluding a treaty. Unfortunately he hesitated and delayed the arrangements for more than three months, until the army once more took possession of his person, and conveyed him to Hurst. The two houses, indeed, voted that the royal concessions were sufficient grounds for settling- the peace of the kingdom; but two days afterward the avenues to the house of commons were beset with soldiers, and all the members supposed favorable to the king forcibly prevented from taking their seats. In this diminished house the resolutions leading to a rec- onciliation with the king Avere revoked, and proposals were made for bringing him to a public trial. The final resolution for impeaching the king of high treason before a court of justice constituted for the purpose, was adopted by the house of commons (January 2, 1649) : it was at once rejected by the lords ; but their opposition was disregarded, and the court regularly constituted. The form of trial was but a solemn mockery ; Charles with great spirit refused to acknowledge the juris- diction of the court, upon which some witnesses were called to prove what everybody knew, that he had appeared at the head of his army, which his judges declared to be treason against the people, and a crime worthy of death. Sentence was pronounced on the 27th of January • and, on the 30th of the same month, the misguided and unhappy Charles was beheaded in front of Whitehall, amid the unaffected sympathy of crowds of spectators. The death of Charles was followed by the usurpation of Cromwell, and Great Britain was subjected to a despotism more galling and severe than that of any monarch who ever swayed its sceptre. Section XI. — Formation of the States-system in the Northern Kingdoms of Europe. The revolutions in the northern kingdoms during the progress of the Reformation were scarcely less important than those in central Europe. Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, united by the treaty of Calmar, were never blended into a uniform goverment : the Swedish nobles kept their THE STATES-SYSTEM OP EtJROPE. 547 country in continued agitation ; without severing the union, they chose administrators of the kingdom whose allegiance to the crown of Denmark was merely nominal. Christian II., a tyrannical prince, resolved to de- stroy the Swedish independence, he overthrew the administrator at the battle of Bagesund, and had the ceremony of his coronation performed at Stockholm (a. d. 1520). A few days after this solemnity. Christian perfidiously violated the amnesty he had published ; and to gratify the vengeance of the archbishop of Upsal, whom the Swedes had deposed, caused ninety-four of the principal nobles to be publicly executed. This massacre was the signal for a revolution • Gustavus Vasa, son of one of the murdered nobles, escaped to the mountains of Dalecarlia, and supported by the hardy peasants of that province, proclaimed the freedom of his country. Victory crowned his efforts, and he finally became king of Sweden (a. d. 1523). Christian II. was deposed by the Danes, and the crown conferred on his uncle Frederic ; he wan- dered about for some years, vainly seeking support, but was finally seized by his subjects, and thrown into a prison, where he ended his days. The Danish monarchs, for nearly half a century, renewed their pretensions to the Swedish throne ; but finding that their efforts only exhausted their own resources, they recognised the independence of Sweden by the treaty of Stettin (a. d. 1570). Denmark thus lost the ascendency which it had long maintained, and it was further injured by a disastrous change in its internal constitution. The aristocracy established a vicious supremacy over the prerogatives of the crown and the rights of the people. The senate, composed en- tirely of nobles, seized on all the authority of the state ; the national assemblies ceased to be convoked ; the elections of the kings were confined to the aristocratic order, and the royal power was restrict- ed by capitulations, which the senate prescribed to the kings on their accession to the throne. It was in the reign of Frederic I., the uncle and successor of the tyrannical Christian, that the principles of the Reformation were first established in Denmark. The king invited several of Luther's disci- ples to preach the new doctrines in his kingdom ; he openly professed them himself, granted liberty of conscience to all his subjects, and sanctioned the marriages of priests throughout his dominions. Chris- tian Hi. completed the religious revolution; in a general assembly of the states he procured the abrogation of episcopacy, and the suppression of the Romish worship (a. d 153G). The castles, i'ortresses, and vast domains of the bishops, were reunited to the crown ; and the rest of their revenues applied to the maintenance of protestant ministers, the purposes of general education, and the 'relief of the poor. From Den- mark the revolution extended to No- way ; and about the same time this kingdom, having supported the deposed Christian II., was deprived of its independence, and reduced to a Danish province. Christian IV. was distinguished among the northern sovereigns by the superiority of his talents, and the zeal that he showed in reforming the different branches of the administration. In his reign the Danes first directed their attention to Asiatic trade, and founded an East In- dia company ; a commercial establishment was formed at Tranquebar, on the coast of Coromandel, which was ceded to the company by the 548 MODERN HISTORY. rajah of Tanjore. Several large manufactories were established, and many cities founded by this wise monarch, who was also a judicious patron of science and literature. He was less successful in his wars against Austria and Sweden, but this was owing rather to the restric tions which the nobles had placed on his power, than to any want of talent. Sweden, from having been subject to Denmark, rose to be its suc- cessful rival, and even menaced its total overthrow. It owed this pre- ponderance to two of the greatest men of the period, Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus. After Vasa had liberated his country, he was raised to the throne, and by his wise government justified the choice of the nation. He directed his attention both to the political and reli- gious reformation of the country ; instead of the aristocratic senate, he introduced a diet, composed of the different orders of the state, and by his influence with the commons, introduced Lutheranism, though op- posed by the bishops and nobles. He also established the hereditary succession of the crown, which was extended to females in the reign of his son Charles IX. Gustavus Adolphus, the grandson of Vasa, raised Sweden to the sum- mit of its greatness. Involved in wars at his accession (a. d. 1611), he gained signal advantages over the Russians and Poles, which so ex- tended his fame, that he was chosen, as we have seen, to be the leader of the protestant confederacy against the house of Austria After a glorious career of two years and a half, he fell in the battle of Lutzen : but the victory which the Swedes won after his death was chiefly owing to his skilful arrangements. The war was continued under the minority of Christina, and brought to a successful issue, as was also the war waged at tlie same time against Denmark. By the peace of Bromsebro (a. d. 1645), Sweden obtained the free navigation of the Sound, and the cession of several important islands in the Baltic. Prussia, under the electors of Brandenburg, gradually increased in strength and power, especially during the administration of Frederic William, the true founder of the greatness of his house. His abilities were particularly conspicuous in the protestant wars of Germany ; and he obtained such an accession of territory by the treaty of Westphalia, that his son Frederic assumed the title of king of Prussia. The dismemberment of Livonia led to a fierce struggle between the northern powers, each of which sought a portion of the spoil. Russia, which had slowly acquired consistency, obtained a considerable portion, which, however, it was forced to yield to Poland. After having long submitted to the degrading yoke of the Mongols, the grand-dukes of Moscow, strengthened by the union of several small principalities, began to aspire after independence, which was achieved by I wan III, This able ruler, having refused to pay the customary tribute to the barbarians, was attacked by the khan of the Golden Horde, as the leading sect of the Mongols was denominated. Instead of acting on the defensive, Iwan sent a body of troops into the very centre of the horde, and ruined all their establishments on the Volga. So great were the losses of the Mongols, that the Golden Horde disappeared, and left no traces but a few feeble tribes. Iwan IV. labored to civilize the empire acquired by the valor of his predecessors : he invited artisans from THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 549 England and Germany, established a printing-press at Moscow, and raised the standing army of the Strelitzes to curb his turbulent no- bles. It was in his reign that Siberia was discovered and annexed to the Russian dominions, but the complete reduction of that country be- longs to the reign of his son Fedor (a. d. 1587), who founded the city of Tobolsk. On the death of Fedor, without any issue (a. d. 1598), Russia was involved in a series of calamitous civil wars, which ended in the eleva- tion of Michael Fedrowetsch to the crown. He found his dominions exhausted by the late commotions, and could only procure peace from Sweden and Poland by the cession of many valuable provinces (a. d. 1634). During the reigns of the Jagellons, Poland was one of the most flour- ishing northern powers. The reformation was favored by Sigismond Augustus II., the last of this dynasty ; but the want of a middle order of society, which has ever been the cause of Polish misery, prevented evangelical principles from taking deep root in the country, and produ- cing the benefits that had resulted from them in other states. When the male line of the Jagellons became extinct on the death of Sigismond (a. d. 1572), the throne of Poland became elective (without any restric- tion),* and the right of voting was given to all the nobles, who met in arms to choose a sovereign. These elections were generally marked with violence and bloodshed ; but though the nobles were divided among themselves, they readily united to restrict the royal authority ; every sovereign, on his accession, was obliged to sign certain capitulations, which greatly limited his rule, and secured the chief powers of the state to the aristocracy. Under its new constitution, Poland was inter- nally weak and miserable, though some of its monarchs still distin- guished themselves by foreign conquests, especially Vladislaus IV., who wrested the dutchy of Smolensko from Russia. Section XII. — Progress of the Turkish Power in Europe. The successors of Mohammed II. on the throne of Constantinople imitated the vigorous policy of that conqueror, and for nearly a century were the terror of Christendom. Bayezid II. subdued Bessarabia, and acquired some important provinces in Asia. He was forced to resign the throne by his son Selim (a. d. 1510), and was murdered in prison. Selim I., surnamed Gavuz, or the Savage, was obliged to maintain the throne Le had so criminally gained, by a series of sanguinary wars with the other members of his family. Having triumphed over these com- petitors, he turned his arms against the Persians, and gained a complete victory over Ismael Sofi at Tabriz (a. d. 1514). In consequence of this and other successes, Diarbekr and several other provinces beyond the Tigris were annexed to the Turkish empire. The Mameluke sul- tans of Egypt having assisted the Persians in this war, Selim led an army into Syria, and encountered Sultan Gauri near Aleppo. After a sanguinary engagement, the Mamelukes were defeated and their leader slain, upon which Aleppo and Damascus submitted to the Turks This • See page 486. 550 MODERN HISTORY. success opened the way for invading Egypt : Tuman Bey, who had been elected sultan in pkce of Gauri, assembled the remnants of the Mame- lukes under the walls of Cairo, and having procured some auxiliary forces from the Arabs, prepared to meet the enemy. Selim advanced steadily, and attacked the hostile camp. The battle was obstinate and bloody, but the superior fire of the Turkish artillery, which was served principally by Christian gunners, decided the fate of the day ; and Tu- man Bey, after having done everything that could be expected from an able officer and a brave warrior, was driven into Cairo (a. d. 1517). Selim stormed the city ; but Tiiman, not yet disheartened, fled across the Nile, and by incredible exertions once more collected an army. The Turks pursued him closely, and forced him to a final engagement, in which the Mamelukes were utterly routed, and their gallant sultan taken prisoner. Selim was at first disposed to spare the captive, but his officers, who feared and envied Tuman, persuaded him that such clemency might inspire the Mamelukes with the hope of recovering their dominions, and the unfortunate sultan was hanged at the principal gate of Cairo. Soleyman, usually surnamed the Magnificent, succeeded his father Selim, and emulous of the fame acquired by the conquest of Egypt, re- solved to turn his arms against the princes of Christendom. Hungary, during the reign of Matthew Corvinus, had become a powerful and flour- ishing kingdom. Inspired by the example of his father, the renowned Hunniades, Corvinus wrested Bosnia from the Turks, and maintained his supremacy over Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia. But du- ring the reigns of his indolent successors, Uladislaus II. and Louis, who were also kings of Bohemia, Hungary was distracted by factions, and ravaged by the Turks. Soleyman took advantage of the minority of Louis, and the weakness of Hungary, to invade the kingdom. He captured, with little difficulty, the important fortress of Belgrade, justly deemed the bulwark of Christian Europe (a. d. 1521). Inspired by his first success, he returned to the attack ; having traversed the Danube and the Drave, without meeting any resistance, he encountered the Christians in the field of Mohatz, and gained over them one of the most signal victories that the Turks ever won (a. d. 1526). King Louis, and the principal part of the Hungarian nobility, fell in this fatal battle, the entire country was laid at the mercy of the invaders ; but Soleyman, instead of securing a permanent conquest, laid waste the land with fire and sword, and carried myriads of the inhabitants as slaves to Constan- tinople. A triumph of even greater importance was gained by the Turks du- ring the Hungarian war. Rhodes, the seat of the heroic knights of St. John, was besieged by Soleyman's vizier. All the arts of assault and defence that had yet been devised by human ingenuity were used in this siege, which lasted more than five months. The assailants and the garrison fought with such fury that it seemed a contest rather for the empire of the world than the possession of a single city. The sultan himself came in person to superintend the operations of his army, while the knights were not only neglected by the Christian powers, but ex- pos(!d to the open hostilities of the Venetians. They protracted their resistance until every wall and bulwark had crumbled beneath the over THE STATES-SYSTEM OF EUROPE. 551 whelming fire of the Turkish batteries, when they surrendered on hon- orable conditions ; and on Christmas day (a. d. 1522), Soleyman made his triumphant entry into what had been a city, but was now a shapeless mass of ruins. On the death of Louis, Ferdinand of Austria, who had married the sister of the unfortunate monarch, claimed the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia. He received quiet possession of the latter kingdom ; but the Hungarians chose for their sovereign John Zapolya, prince palatine of Transylvania. Zapolya, finding himself unable to resist the power of Ferdinand, claimed the protection of the Turks. Soleyman marched in person to his aid, and, not satisfied with expelling the Austrians from Hungary, pursued them into their own country, and laid siege to Vienna (a. d. 1529). He failed in this enterprise, and was compelled to retreat after having lost eighty thousand men. The emperor Charles V., alarmed at the progress of the Turks, tried to form a general confederation of the German princes against them, but found that the troubles occasioned by the progress of the Reformation would prevent any cordial union. He resolved, however, to check the growth of their naval power in the Mediterrenean, where Khair-ed-din,* or Barbarossa, a pirate whom Soleyman had taken into his service, captured Tunis and Algiers, and was collecting a formidable naval force. Charles took advantage of Soleyman's being engaged in conquering the pachalic of Bagdad from the Persians, to invade Africa, where he made himself master of Tunis. Soleyman, returning victorious from Asia, was so enraged at his losses in Africa, that he resolved to attempt the conquest of Italy. The imprudence of a Venetian captain turned the wrath of the sultan upon the republic of Venice ; he attacked two Turk- ish galleys in the Adriatic, for some mistake about their signals, and satisfaction being refused, Soleyman proclaimed war. But while thus engaged in the west, Soleyman did not neglect the enlargement of his eastern dominions. His generals conquered the whole of Arabia, and his admirals issuing from the Red sea, attacked but without success, the Portuguese dominions in India. In the mean- time the Venetian senate entered into an alliance with the emperor Charles V., and the pope, Paul III. ; their united navies were placed under the command of the celebrated Doria, but his success was fai from according with the expectations that the allies had formed. The war, however, led to no decisive result ; it was suspended by occa sional truces, during which Soleyman took the opportunity of enlarging his Asiatic dominions at the expense of Persia. The knights of St. John, expelled from Rhodes, obtained a settlement in the island of Malta ; they directed their attention to naval affairs, and inflicted severe damages on the Turks by sea. Soleyman, roused by the complaints of his subjects, resolved that Malta should share the fate of Rhodes, and collected all his forces for the siege (a. d. 1565). The knights maintained their character for obstinate valor with more success than on the former occasion : after a sanguinary contest for five months, the Turks were forced to retire, with the loss of twenty-four thousand men and all their artillery. Soleyman prepared to take revenge by com- * Khair-ed-din signifies "the goodness of the faith." This terror of the Chris- tians was named Barbarossa, on account of his " red beard." 552 MODERN HISTORY. pleting the conquest of Hungary ; but while besieging Sigeth, he fell a victim to disease, produced by old age and fatigue (a. d. 1566), after having raised the Turkish empire to the highest pitch of its greatness. Selim II., soon after his accession, made peace with the Germans and Persians, but renewed war with the Venetians, from whom he took the important island of Cyprus (a. d. 1571). But while the Turkish army was thus engaged, their fleet was utterly destroyed in the battle of Lepanto, by the allied Venetian, imperial, and papal navy. The allies neglected to improve their victory, and Selim soon repaired his losses. But this sultan sank into the usual indolence of oriental sovereigns, his successors followed his example, and the Ottoman power began rapidly to decline. The Austrian rulers became convinced of the impolicy of harsh measures, and conceded to the Hungarians full security for their political and relj.gious liberties, at the diet of Presburg. Hungary was henceforth united to Austria, and the last war, directly resulting from he Reformation, happily terminated. AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE 553 CHAPTER VII. THE AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. Section I. — Slate of the Continental Kingdoms after the Peace of Westphalia. Though the treaty of Westphalia restored tranquillity to northern Europe and Germany, France and Spain continued the war in which they had originally but a secondary share, with all the obstinacy of principals. At the same time, France was distracted by civil broils less fatal than those of England, but scarcely less sanguinary. The prime mover in these disturbances was the coadjutor-archbishop of Paris, afterward known as the Cardinal de Retz ; he wished to gain the post of prime minister from Cardinal Mazarine, and he induced several princes of the blood, with a large portion of the nobility, to espouse his quarrel. The parliaments of France resembled those of England only in name ; they were colleges of justice, not legislative assemblies, and the members purchased their seats. This was the body with which Retz commenced his operations ; instigated by the ambitious prelate, the parliament of Paris thwarted all the measures of the queen-regent and her minister, until Anne of Austria, irritated by such factious opposition, ordered the president and one of the most vio- lent councillors to be arrested. Her orders were scarcely executed when the populace arose, barricaded the streets, threatened the cardi- nal and the regent, and procured the release of the prisoners. Alarmed by the repetition of similar outrages, the queen, attended by her chil- dren and her minister, retired from Paris to St. Germains, where their distress was so great that they were obliged to pawn the crown jewels to procure the common necessaries of life. These intrigues led to a desultory civil war, which began to assume a serious aspect after the arrest of the ambitious duke of Conde, who had repeatedly insulted the queen and the cardinal ; the factious took up arras in all the provinces, and the duke of Orleans, uncle to the young king, placed himself at the head of the malcontents (a. d. 1650). Mazarine was unable to resist the confederacy ; he liberated Conde and his associates, in the vain hope of conciliating their favor, but was obliged to fly to Cologne, where he continued to govern the queen-regent as if he had never quit- ted Paris. By his intrigues, which were now seconded by de Retz, the duke of Bouillon, and his brother Turenne, were detached from the confederates, and by their aid Mazarine was enabled to enter the king- dom at the head of an army, and resume his former authority. Conde, proclaimed a traitor by the parliament of Paris, threw himself upon the 554 MODERN HISTORY. protection of Spain, and obtained from that power a body of troops, with which he pursued the court from province to province, and finally en- tered Paris. Turenne, who commanded the royal forces, brought the young king within sight of his capital ; and Louis witnessed a fierce conflict in the suburb of St. Antoine, which terminated in the defeat of his army. Encouraged by this success, the parliament of Paris proclaimed the duke of Orleans " lieutenant-general of the kingdom," and the prince of Conde, " commander-in-chief of the armies of France." But the danger with which these appointments threatened the monarchy, was averted equally by the rashness of Conde and the prudence of the king. Conde instigated a tumult, in which several citizens lost their lives ; Louis conciliated his subjects by sending the cardinal into temporary exile, and was received into his capital with the loudest acclamations. No sooner was the royal authority re-established, than Mazarine was recalled and invested with more than his former power. During these commotions, the Spaniards had recovered many of the places which they had previously lost to the French, and Louis de Haro, who governed Spain and Philip IV. as absolutely as Mazarine did France and its youthful sovereign, hoped by means of Conde's great military talents to bring the war to a triumphant issue. But the French found a general in Marshal Turenne, who was more than a rival for Conde ; he compelled the Spaniards to raise the siege of Arras, and seized all their baggage, artillery, and ammunition (a. d. 1656). He was himself soon after compelled to raise the siege of Valenciennes, but he made a masterly retreat as honorable as a victory, and even took the town of Capelle in the presence of his enemies. Still the fortune of the war was doubtful, when Mazarine, by flattering the passions of the usurper Cromwell, engaged England to take a share in the contest. Dunkirk, the strongest town in Flanders, first engaged the attention of the allies ; the English blockaded it by sea ; Turenne, with an auxiliary British force united the French army, besieged it by land (a. d. 1656) The Spaniards sent an army to its relief; Turenne did not decline an engagement ; the obstinate valor of the English, combined with the impetuosity of the French troops, procured him a decided victory ; Dun- kirk surrendered in a few days, and was given to the English according to treaty, while France obtained possession of the strongest towns in Flanders. Peace was now necessary to Spain, and it was also essential to the success of Mazarine's favorite policy ; the procuring for the house of Bourbon the eventual succession to the Spanish monarchy, by uniting King Louis to the infanta, Maria Theresa. The preliminaries were adjusted by Mazarine and Louis de Haro, in person, at a conference in the Pyrenees, and France obtained an exten of territory and the pros- pect of an inheritance, which soon made it formidable to the rest of Europe. About a year after the conclusion of this treaty, Mazarine died (a. d. 1661) ; and Louis, vvho had borne the ministerial yoke with secret impatience, took the reins of government into his own hands. Germany, exhausted by tedious wars, remained undisturbed afier the peace of Westphalia until the death of Ferdinand III. (a. d. 1657), when the diet was agitated by fierce debates respecting the cho'^e of AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 555 uccessor. Recent events had shown how dangerous was the ambi- tion of the house of Austria to the independence of the minor states, and several of the electors wished to have as their head some monarch whose hereditary dominions would not be of sufficient importance to raise him above the control of the Diet. But these considerations were forced to yield to more pressing circumstances ; the presence of the Turks in Buda, of the French in Alsace, and of the Swedes in Pome- rania, required a powerful sovereign to prevent further encroachments ; and Leopold, the son of the late emperor, was unanimously chosen. His first measure was to form an alliance with Poland and Denmark against Sweden, a power which, ever since the victorious career of Gustavus Adolphus, menaced the independence of the neighboring states. We have already mentioned that the renowned Gustavus was suc- ceeded by his daughter Christina. She was fondly attached to study, and assembled in her court the most distinguished professors of science, literature, and the fine arts. Her favorite pursuits were, however, too antiquated and abstruse for practical life ; she was pedantic rather than wise, and her great learning was never applied to a useful end. She consented to the peace of Westphalia, not from any regard for the tranquillity of Europe or her own kingdom, but simply to indulge her passion for study, with which the cares of state interfered. The Swedish senate felt little sympathy in the learned pursuits of theii sovereign ; they pressed her to marry her cousin, Charles Gustavus for whom she had been designed in her infancy, but Christina dreaded to give herself a master, and she only nominated this prince her suc- cessor. The states renewed their importunity, and Christina offered to resign the crown to her cousin ; after some delay, occasioned by rea- sonable suspicions of her sincerity, she carried her design into execution, and abdicated in favor of Charles Gustavus, who ascended the throne under the title of Charles X. (a. d. 1654). The remainder of Chris- tina's life was disgraceful to her character. Designing to fix her resi- dence at Rome, she renounced Lutheranism, and embraced the catholic faith at Innspruck, not because she deemed it the preferable religion, but because she thought it convenient to conform to the tenets of the people with whom she intended to reside. Her profligate life, her want of any valuable information, and her loss of power, soon rendered her conteniptible in Italy ; she made two journeys into France, where she was received with much respect, until her infamous conduct excited general abhorrence. In a fit of jealousy, she commanded one of her paramours to be assassinated in the great gallery of FontainebJcau, and almost in her very presence (a. d. 1657). This atrocious violation of the laws of nature and of nations, perpetrated in the midst of a civilized kingdom, and a court that piqued itself on refinement, was allowed to pass without judicial inquiry ; but it excited such universal detestation, that Christina was forced to quit France and seek refuge in Italy There the remainder of her life was spent in sensual indulgence and literary con\ ersation, if such a term can be applied to the language of a capricious woman, admiring many things for which she had no taste, and talking about others which she did not understand. While Christina was thus disgracing her sex and country, Charles 556 MODERN HISTORY. X. indulged the martial spirit of his people by declaring war against Poland. After the death of Sigismond III. (a. d. 1632), his son Ladislaus was elected to the throne, and proved to be a prince of great courage and capacity. He gained several victories over the Russians and the Turks ; he forced the Swedes to resign the places which Gus- tavus Adolphus had seized in Prussia ; but unfortunately he combined with his nobles in oppressing the Cossacks, and thus drove those un- civilized tribes to a general revolt. In the midst of this war Ladislaus died (a. d. 1648) ; he was succeeded by his brother John Casimir, who would gladly have entered into terms with the injured Cossacks, but was forced to continue the war by his turbulent nobles. Alexis, czar of Russia, took advantage of these commotions to capture Sinolensko and ravage Lithuania, while Poland itself was invaded by Charles X. The progress of the Swedes was rapid, they obtained two brilliant vic- tories in the field, captured Cracow, and compelled the terrified Casimir to seek '•efuge in Silesia. But the insulting demeanor of the Swedes, and the cruel massacre perpetrated at the capture of Warsaw, confirmed the Poles in the determined spirit of resistance, of which the burghers of Dantzic set them a noble example ; while the chief powers of the north combined to check the dangerous ambition of Sweden. Attacked at once by the czar of Russia, the emperor of Germany, and the kir.g of Denmark, Charles, though deserted by his ally the elector of Bran- denburg, did not lose courage. He led an army over the ice to Funen, subdued that and several other Danish islands, and laid siege to Copen- hagen. The city was saved by an insincere peace, which proved to be only a suspension of arms ; but when Charles renewed his exer- tions, he was opposed by the republics of Holland and England. Ne- gotiations for peace were commenced under the auspices of these great naval powers ; but ere they were brought to a conclusion, Charles died of an epidemic fever (a. d. 1660). The Swedes, deprived of their active and ambitious monarch, were easily brought to resign their pre- tensions to Poland of the treaty of Oliva ; and the general desire of preventing the minority of Charles XI. being disturbed by foreign wars, induced the regency to adjust a pacification with Denmark and the other powers. Section II. — History of England under the Commomvealth. The civil and religious constitution of England was dissolved by the execution of Charles I. ; the great body of the nation was dissatisfied with the result of the civil war, but it was overawed by an army of fifty thousand men, entirely devoted to the service of Cromwell ; and the commonwealth parliament, as the inconsiderable remnant of the house of commons was called, found itself in possession of the supreme authority. The state of affairs in Ireland and Scotland soon engaged the attention of the new government, and they were especially interest- ed to maintain the dominion that England claimed over the former country. The revolt of the Irish, like the revolt of the Americans in later days, was regarded as treason against the English people, rather than rebellion against their joint sovereign ; the partial successes of the insurgents were viewed as national wrongs, and the use of the phrase " our kingdom of Ireland" made every Englishman imagine that ho AUGUSTAN AGES OP ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 557 would be robbed of some portion of his hereditary rights, were that island to establish its independence. Cromwell, aware of the great celebrity which might be gained in a war so popular as that undertaken for the recovery of Ireland, successfully intrigued to have himself ap- pointed lord-lieutenant and commander-in-chief of the army. The state of Ireland could not be more favorable to the purposes of an invader. When Charles I. entered into a treaty with his revolted Irish subjects, he disgusted one party without conciliating the other; for he gave both reason to suspect his sincerity. He appointed the marquis of Ormond lord-lieutenant, a nobleman possessed of many high qualities, but who had imbibed the principles of the unfortunate earl of Strafford, and was bigotedly attached to the support of the royal author- ity and the episcopal church. Ormond conciliated Inchiquin and scvme other protestant leaders who had refused to acknowledge the cessation of arms which Charles had granted to the insurgents, but he protracted the negotiations with the catholic confederates until their aid was use- less to the royal cause. Alarmed at length by the progress of the par- liament, while the confederates were at the same time incensed by the intolerant ordinances of the English commons, he concluded a treaty with the catholic deputies at Kilkenny (a. d. 1646), on the basis of a general pardon and full toleration. The native Irish were dissatisfied with this pacification, which did not restore to them lands of which they deemed themselves unjustly deprived ; the bigoted catholics sought the supremacy, not the toleration of their religion, and many of the more moderate entertained suspicions of Ormond's good faith. Under such circumstances they were influenced by Rinuccini, the papal nuncio, to rejee . the treaty of Kilkenny, and Ormond at once was deprived of all authority. As the king was unable to assist him, he delivered up the fortified towns to an officer of the English parliament, a fatal meas- ure, which rendered the restoration of the royal power impossible. The Irish soon grew weary of Rinuccini's pride, bigotry, and inca- pacity ; a powerful body of the catholic nobles, headed by the earl of Clanricarde, expelled the nuncio, and invited Ormond to resume the government. The lord-lieutenant returned, and found the royal author- ity established everywhere except in the towns which he had himself surrendered to the parliament. His first care was to remedy this blun- der ; he subdued several important garrisons, but he allowed himself to be surprised near Dublin by an inferior force, and was routed with great loss. At this crisis Cromwell landed with an army of enthusias- tic soldiers trained to arms, and flushed by recent victories. He be- sieged Drogheda, took it by storm, and put all the garrison to the sword. The town of Wexford was next assailed, and its defenders similarly butchered ; and this cmelty produced such alarm, that thence- forth every town, before which Cromwell presented himself, surrendered at the first summons. The declining season, a failure of provisions, and epidemic disease, soon reduced the invaders to great distress ; but they were relieved by a revolution as sudden as it was unexpected. The protestant royalists in Munster, always jealous of their Irish al- lies, revolted to the parliament at the instigation of the lords Broghill and Inchiquin, and the gates of all the important garrisons in the south of Ireland were opened to Cromwell's sickly troops. The Irish could 558 MODERN HISTORY. no longer be brought to pay obedience to a protestant governor, Ormond quitted the country in despair, and the confederates, having no longer any bond of union, were overpowered in detail. Cromwell freed him self from all future opposition, by permitting the Irish officers and sol- diers to engage in foreign service. About forty thousand catholics went on this occasion into Ai'oluntary exile. The young king, Charles II., had intended to place himself at the head of the Irish royalists ; but when their cause was ruined, he en- tered into negotiations with the Scottish covenah..ers, and submitted to terms the most ignominious that ever a people imposed upon its prince. He was forced to publish a proclamation, banishing all malignants, excommunicated persons from his court — that is, the royalists who had perilled their lives and fortunes in the service of his family ; to pledge his word that he would take the covenant and support the presbyterian form of government ; and promise, that in all civil affairs, he would conform to the direction of the parliament, and submit all ecclesiasti- cal matters to the general assembly of the kirk. Charles did not con- sent to these disgraceful conditions, until the royal cause in Scotland was rendered desperate by the overthrow of its greatest supporter, the marquis of Montrose. This gallant nobleman, immediately after the execution of Charles I., renewed the war in Scotland, but was made prisoner by the covenanters, and ignominiously put to death as a traitor (a. d. 1650). Soon after this tragical event, Charles landed in Scotland, and found himself a mere pageant of state in the hands of Argyle and the rigid covenanters, at whose mercy lay his life and liberty. The intolerance of these bigots was not assuaged by the approach of an English army under the command of Cromwell, whom the parliament of England had recalled from the Irish war, so soon as the treaty between Charles and the covenanters was published. Cromwell entered Scotland, but found a formidable competitor in General Leslie, the head of the covenanters. The English were soon reduced to great distress, and their post, at Dunbar, was blockaded by a Scottish army on the heights that overlook tha ^awn. Cromwell was saved by the i'anatical and ignorant preach- ers in the hostile camp ; they pretended that a revelation had descended to them, promising a victory over the sectarian host of the English, and forced Leslie, in despite of his urgent remonstrances, to quit his advan- tageous position. Cromwell took advantage of their delusion ; he at- tacked the Scotch, disordered by their descent from the hills, before they could form their lines, and in a brief space gained a decided vic- tory. Edinburgh and Leith were abandoned to the conquerors, while the remnant of the Scottish army fled to Stirling. This defeat was by no means disagreeable - to Charles; it so fai- diminislied the pride of the bigoted party, that he was permitted to accept the aid of the episcopal royalists, the hereditary friends of his family. Still the king feU very bitterly the bondage in which he was held, and when Cromwell crossed the Forth, he embraced a resolution worthy of his birth and cause, and disconcerting that general by a hasty march, he boldly entered England at the head of fourteen thousand men. But the result disappointed his expectations ; the English roy- alists disliked the Scotch, and detested the covenant; the presbyteriaua AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND A.ND FRANCE. 559 were not prepared to join him, and both were overawed by the militia which the parliament raised in the several counties. At Worcester the king was overtaken by Cromwell with thirty thousand men (Sept. 3, 1651). The place was attacked on all sides: Charles, after giving many proofs of personal valor, saw his cause totally ruined, and sought safety in flight ; the Scots were all killed or taken, and the prisoners, eight thousand in number, were sold as slaves to the American planta- tions. Charles wandered about for forty-five days in various disguises and amid the greatest dangers : more than fifty persons were intrusted with his secret, but they all preserved it faithfully, and he finally escaped to France. In Scotland the presbyterian clergy, formerly all-power- ful, found themselves treated with scorn by the English army. Their assembly at Aberdeen was dispersed by a military force, their persons were paraded through the town in insulting mockery, and they were forbidden to assemble in greater numbers than three at a time. In the meantime, the English republic was engaged in a foreign war. The increase of the naval and commercial power of the Dutch had been viewed with great jealousy by the English nation ; but the com- mon interests of religion, and afterward the alliance between the Stuart family and the house of Orange, had prevented a rupture. After the death of William II., prince of Orange, the Dutch abolished the office of stadtholder ; and this advance toward a purely republican constitu- tion induced the English parliament to seek a closer alliance with Hol- land. Their ambassador, however, met but an indifferent reception at the Hague,* and on his return to London it became obvious that the mutual jealousies of the two commonwealths would soon lead to open hostilities. The English parliament passed the celebrated Act of Navigation, which enacted that no goods from Asia, Africa, or America, should be imported into England, except in English vessels ; and the prohibition was extended to European commodities not brought by ships belonging to the country of which the goods were the growth or manufacture. This, though apparently general, particularly affected the Dutch, whose commerce consisted chiefly in the carrying trade^ their own country producing but few commodities. The war commeftced in a dispute on a point of naval etiquette : the English required that all foreign vessels in the British seas should strike their flags to English ships-of-war ; Van Tromp, a Dutch admiral, with a fleet of forty sail, met Blake, the commander of the British fleet, in Dover road. Conscious of his supe- rior force, he refused to conform to the degrading ceremony, and an- swered the demand by a broadside. Though Blake had only fifteen ships, he immediately commenced an engagement, and being reinforced during the battle by eight more, he gained a glorious, though not a very valuable victory. A tierce naval war ensued between the two repub- • Mr. St. John, the English plenipotentiary, was a stern republican, and a haughty man. He had the presumption to take precedency of the duke of York who was then at the Hague, in a public walk. The prince-palatine, happening to be present, struck off the ambassador's hat, and bade him respect the son and brother of his king. St. John put his hand to his sword, refusing to recognise either the king or the duke of York ; but the populace, compassionating fallen royalty, took part with the prince, and forced the stern republican to seek refuse in his lodgings. 560 MODERN HISTORY. lies ; it was, on the whole, disadvantageous to the Dutch, though they were commanded by such excellent admirals as De Ruyter and Van Tromp. The death of the latter in an engagement that lasted three days (a. d. 1654), decided the contest, and the Hollanders were forced to beg peace from Oliver Cromwell, who had, in the meantime, dis- solved the parliament and usurped the government of England. When Scotland and Ireland were subdued, the parliament became jealous of Cromwell's power, and resolved to diminish it by disbanding a portion of the army. But the parliament, if such a name could fairly be given to a minority of the house of commons, had lost its sole s,trength, the confidence of the people, by its obstinacy in retaining the power with which it had been invested by circumstances ; it would not dissolve itself, but seemed determined to perpetuate its sovereignty.* An angry remonstrance from the army was rejected, and the soldiers reproved for interfering in public affairs. This brought affairs to a cri- sis : on the nineteenth of April, 1653, Cromwell turned out the mem- bers with military force, locked the doors, put the key in his pocket, and retired to his lodgings at Whitehall. The council of state was similarly dismissed, and so weary were the people of their late rulers, that addresses were sent to Cromwell from almost every part of Eng- land, thanking him for his boldness and courage. It was necessary still to preserve the forms of the constitution, but Cromwell could not venture on an appeal to the people, and allow them their ancient liberty of election, much less a more extended franchise ; he therefore adopted a middle course, and by the advice of his officers, nominated one hundred and sixty persons on his own authority, to form a new parliament. This extraordinary body was named the Barebones parliament, from one of its fanatic members, named Praise-God Bare- bones, who rendered himself conspicuous by his affectation of superior sanctity. Cromwell, finding this convention not so pliant as had been expected, contrived, by his creatures, that a majority should vote for an immediate dissolution, and when about thirty members con- tinued to meet, they were unceremoniously ejected by a file of mus- queteers. * A new constitutio]! was formed, by which the legislative power was granted to a lord protector and parliament, and the executive to the protector and a council of state. On the 16th of December, 1653, Cromwell took the oath of fidelity to the new form of government, and was invested with the dignity of lord protector. On the 3d of the fol- lowing September, the new parliament assembled, but though the strictest regulations consistent with the forms of election had been de- vised to exclude all but partisans of the government, the protector's au- thority was menaced on the very first day of debate, and it was resolved, by a majority of five, to refer the examination of the new constitution to a select committee. Cromwell first excluded half the members for refusing to take an oath of allegiance to the protector, and finding that the house, even after this mutilation, continued refractory, he dissolved • Ludlow asserts, without a shadow of proof, that the parliament was about to dissolve itself, and give the nation a free general election on a reformed plan, when Cromwell interfered. Such a project, indeed, was discussed, but there ap- pear no proofs of its being intended to put it into execution. Augustan ages of England and prance. 561 the parliament before it had sat the five months required by he consti- tution, which he had himself framed and sworn to support. A new parliament was summoned, but notwithstanding the inter- ference of Cromwell and the major-generals that ruled the twelve dis- tricts into which England was divided, so many opponents of the gov- ernment were returned, that Cromwell posted soldiers at the door to exclude those members to whom he had not granted tickets of admis- sion. The parliament, thus modified, proved sufficiently subservient, and on the 26th of March, 1656, it gratified Cromwell's secret am- bition, by offering him the title' of king. But Fleetwood, the protec tor's son-in-law, and Desborough, his brother-in-law, disconcerted th« entire plan by joining the republicans in the army, and procuring a pe tition from the officers against royalty, which it would have been dan- gerous to disregard.* Cromwell was forced to resign his darling ob- ject at the moment it seemed within his grasp, and to content himself with the protectorate for life, and the power of nominating his suc- cessor. To divert the attention of the nation from its internal affairs, Crom- well resolved to engage in some foreign w'ar, but was at first undecided whether he should attack France or Spain. f Mazarine's cunning de- cided the question ; he conciliated the protector by banishing the Eng- lish princes from France, and thus obtained auxiliaries at a critical moment, whose support, as we have already seen, he paid by the ces- sion of Dunkirk. Two formidable fleets were pre'pared in England ; one, under the command of Blake, was sent to cruise in the Mediterra- nean ; the other, intrusted to admirals Penn and Venables, proceeded to th.5 West Indies. To justify hostilities, Cromwell demanded of the Spatiish ambassador, that his master should abolish the Inquisition, and open the trade of South America to the English. The ambassador replied, that this was asking for his master's two eyes ; indeed, neither demand, under the circumstances, was reasonable. The Spanish In- quisition certainly exercised an unjust tyranny toward protestants, but Cromwell did not treat the Irish catholics with greater mildness ; and when England had just given an example of monopoly by passing the aavigaiion act, it showed little regard for consistency to demand free trade from Spain. But both proposals were in accordance with the spirit of the times, and the knowledge of their having been made, brought back to Cromwell a considerable share of the popularity he had forfeited. Admiral Blake first sailed to Leghorn, and having cast anchor be- fore the town, demanded and obtained satisfaction for the injuries which the duke of Tuscany had done to English commerce. Repair- ing thence to Algiers, he compelled the dey to restrain his piratical sub- • " Certain persons," said the petition, " are endeavoring to reduce the nation to the old state of slavery, and urge the protector to assume the royal title, wish- ing by this means to ruin him. We, therefore, petition the parliament to oppose such intrigues, and to abide by the old cause, for which we are ready to hazard our lives." t " In order to maintain himself, he, in common with Lambert, and some of the council, wishes for war, and is only revolving whether it were better for him t© raise it against France or Spain." — Report of the French Ambassador, April 20^ 1654. 36 562 MODERN HISTORY. jects from further lepredations on the Enjjlish. Failing to obtain sim- ilar satisfaction al Tunis, he battered its fortifications with his artillery, and burned every ship in the harbor. His fame spread through the entire Mediterranean, and no power dared to provoke his vengeance. Penn and Venables attempted to take Hispaniola, then considered the most valuable island in the West Indies, but failing in this effort, they conquered Jamaica, which has ever since been annexed to the domin- ions of England. Cromwell, however, was so little satisfied with the conduct of the two admirals, that on their retu «, he committed them to the Tower. The English, through the entire war, maintained their supremacy by sea ; several of the galleons, laden with the precious metals from South America, were taken or destroyed, and an entire fleet burned by the heroic Blake in the bay of Santa Cruz.* These conquests silenced many opponents for a time, buu secret dis- satisfaction pervaded the nation, and pamphleteers bitterly assailed the protector, both in verse and prose. f Public attention was roused by the assembling of parliament on the 20th of January, 1658; th. hLfuse of commons showed its hostility to the government, by admittmg the members who had been previously excluded by the privy council, and still more by severely scrutinizing the constitution of the upper house. After a vain effort to conciliate his opponents, Cromwell dissolved the parliament on the 4th of February, and resolved to hazard the perilous experiment of governing alone. But he encountered violent opposition, even in his own family ; Elizabeth, his second daughter, keenly re- proached him on her dying bed, and the father, who loved her fondly, felt his grief for her loss sharpened by the pangs of conscience. A pamphlet was published, and widely circulated, in which the assassina- tion of the protector was recommended as an act of justice and patriot- ism ; Cromwell read it, and never smiled again. He lived in continual fear, always wore a coat of mail, never slept two successive nights in the same chamber, had guards posted everywhere, and secret avenues contrived, by which he might escape on the least alarm. In sucn a condition, his death must be considered a happy release ; it took piace on the 3d of September, 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Worcester and Dunbar. He was interred with great pomp in West- minster Abbey, but the conduct of the populace evinced anything but sorrow for the loss of their ruler.| * April 21st, 1657. — " This was the last and greatest action of this gallant naval commander, who died in his way home. He was, by principle, an inflexible re- publican, and only his zeal for the interests of his country induced him to serve under the usurper. Though he was above forty-four years of age before he en- tered into the military service, and fifty-one before he acted in the navy, he raised the maritime glory of England to a greater height than it had ever attained in any former period. Cromwell, fully sensible of his merits, ordered him a pompous funeral at the public expense ; and people of all parties, by their tears, bore tes- timony to his valor, generosity, and public spirit." — Dr. Johnsan's Life of Blake. t Satirical poems were published, in one of which is the following passage : — "A protector! wtiat's tliat? 'Tis a stately thing That confesses liimself but the ape of a king , A tragica. Caesar, tlie actur a clown, Or a brass farthing, stamped w ith a. kind of a crown." J Evelyn says, "This was the merriest funeral that I ever saw, for no one iiowled but the dogs, with which the soldiers made sport, amid barbarous noise, parading through the streets, drinking and smoking." Ludlow adds, " The folly AUGUSTAN AGES OP ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 563 Richard Cromwell had hitherto lived a thoughtless and rather ex- travagant life, but on his father's death he was acknowledged as pro- tector both at home and abroad, without opposition. He had, however, soon to contend against a powerful republican minority in parliament, while still greater dangers menaced him from the discontent of the army, which was equally dissatisfied with the protector and the parlia- ment.* The officers urged Richard to dissolve the refractory com- mons, and when he had taken this imprudent step, seized the reins of government into their own hands. Having deliberated on several proj- ects, the military junta came to the resolution of re-assembling the Long parliament. About ninety members were hastily collected, but those who displeased the new rulers were excluded, and the delibera- tions of the rest were fettered, by what was called " an humble petition and address from the officers to the parliament of the commonwealth of England." Richard, weary of his situation, resigned the protectorate, and the chief power of the state passed to the cabal of officers, at whose head were Lambert, Fleetwood, and Desborough. In the contests that followed between the parliament and the council of officers, the nation generally took no interest. It was a period of complete anarchy ; prin- ciple was forgotten, every one was guided by his caprice, or by some prospect of private advantage. All true friends of their country were heartily tired of this confusion, and the illusion of the republicans had so completely vanished, that if we except those who wished for a pro- tector, or expected the personal reign of Christ, not more than a few hundreds could be fomid anxious to restore the commonwealth. In this state of affairs, George Monk, afterward duke of Albemarle, re- solved to act a decided part. He had been intrusted by Cromwell with the government of Scotland, and the command of the army : though suspected of a secret attachment to the royal cause,! he continued to hold his place during the protectorates of Oliver and Richard. On the abdication of the latter, he professed the utmost anxiety for a reconcilia- tion between the parliament and the English army ; but if that could not be effected, he declared that he would support the former, because the establishment of a commonwealth was dear to his heart. This declaration gave so much confidence to the opponents of the officers, that Fleetwr>od found it necessary to permit the parliament to assemble ; and the Rump parliament, as the house of commons so often mutilated was ignominiously termed, met amid the loudest acclamations of the soldiers, who only two months before had dispersed it by military violence. The house promptly made use of the power which it had and profusion (of the lying in state) so far provoked the people, that they threw dirt in the night on his escutcheon that was placed over the great gate of Somer- set house." * Richard derided the fanatical pretensions of his father's oflicers ; when a re- monstrance was made against his granting commissions to "the ungodly," he re- plied, " Here is Dick Ingoldsby, who can neither pray nor preach, and yet I will trust him before ye all." " These imprudent, as well as irreligious words," says Ludlow, " so clearly discovering the frame and temper of his mind, were soon published in the army and city of London, to his great prejudice." t Cromwell once wrote to him, " I have been informed that there is in Scotland, a certain cunning fellow, George Monk by name, who has a scheme for restoring Charles Stuart ; endeavor to catch him, and send him hither." 564 MODERN HISTORY. regained ; the members and officers of whom it did not approve were removed ; Desborough, with some others, fled to Lambert. Fleetwood was overwhelmed with consternation. On the 1st of January, 1660, Monk, at the head of six thousand men, commenced his march toward London ; he was received everywhere with the greatest enthusiasm ; in all the towns on his road the people rang the bells, lighted bonfires, and declared their ardent wish for a free parliament. Lambert's army melted away as he advanced ; but Fleetwood's soldiers excited so much alarm, that the speaker wrote to Monk to hasten his march. On the 6th of February he appeared in parliament, and first excited some suspicions of his real designs by re- fusing to take the oath of abjuration against the Stuarts. The parlia- ment tried to embroil him with the citizens of London, by sending him to arrest some members of the common council for resolving that no taxes should be paid until the parliament was filled. Monk performed this disagreeable duty ; but immediately after reconciled himself to the city, and sent a letter to the speaker, demanding a dissolution of par- liament and a new election. While this letter Avas fiercely debated, Monk took the decisive step of introducing the old excluded members, by which he gained a triumphant majority. On the 17th of March the Long parliament concluded its sittings, to the great joy of the nation, and a new house of commons met on the 25th of April. In the interval, Lambert made a desperate efl^ort to place himself at the head of a new army, but by Monk's promptitude and /igor he was taken prisoner and sent to the Tower. When the new parliament, consisting both of upper and lower house, «et, it was manifest that the royalists had such a preponderance that vtie only question remaining to be decided was, whether Charles IL should be restored with or without conditions. The latter course was unfor- tunately chosen, perhaps because it would have been impossible to frame terms, the discussion of which would not have roused the slumbering feuds of hostile parties. On the 29th of May, the day on which he completed his thirtieth year, Charles triumphantly entered London. He was accompanied by the members of parliament, the clergy, the civic authorities, and about twenty thousand persons on foot or horseback. The streets were strewed with flowers, the houses decorated with tapestry, the bells rung in every church, the air resounded with acclamations. The monarch, so recently a hopeless exile, might well ask, as he witnessed the tumult 3f universal joy, " Where then are my enemies ?" Section IIL — History of England, from the Restoration to the Revolution ; and Rise of the Power of Louis XI F. Few monarchs ever had such an opportunity of rendering himself popular, and his subjects happy, as Charles IL ; there is scarcely one who failed more lamentably. His first measures promised well ; a few of the regicides and their adherents were indeed excepted from the act of indemnity, and executed ; but pardon was granted to the chief par- liamentary leaders, and many of them received into favor. Ecclesias- tical affairs, however, began to disturb the harmony of the nation, when . AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 565 a new parliament was assembled, in which the episcopal and royalist party had a triumphant majority. An act was passed, requiring that every clergymen should possess episcopal ordination, declare his assent to everything contained in the book of common prayer, take the oath of canonical obedience, abjure the solemn league and covenant, and the right of taking up arms against the king under any pretence whatever. About two thousand of the clergy rejected these conditions, and resign- ed their benefices, rather than do violence to their religious opinions. The ejected clergymen were persecuted with unwise rigor ; severe laws were enacted against conventicles, and a non-conformist minister was prohibited from coming within five miles of a corporation. The marriage of the king to Catherine of Portugal, when his sub- jects hoped that he would make a protestant princess his queen, and the sale of Dunkirk to the French monarch, tended still further to diminish the royal popularity ; and a war, equally unjust and impolitic, undertaken against the Dutch, completed the public dissatisfaction. Hostilities were commenced without a formal declaration of war ; the English seized several of the Dutch colonies in Africa and America, especially the province of Nova Belgia, which Charles, in honor of his brother, named the state of New York. Holland was at this time ruled by the Louvestein, or violent republican party ; its head, the celebrated John de Witt, who, with the title of pensionary, enjoyed almost dictatorial power, feared that Charles might make some effort to restore William HI., prince of Orange, to the ofiice of stadtholder, which his ancestors had enjoyed ; and to avert this danger, entered into close alliance with France. The pensionary found, however, that he must rely upon his own resources ; he fitted out a powerful fleet ; the English exerted themselves with equal diligence, and a furious engagement took place upon the coast of Holland (a. d. 1665). Vic- tory declared in favor of the English ; more than thirty of the enemy's ships were taken or destroyed, and the whole would probably have fallen had not the pursuit been stopped by the oversight or cowardice of the duke of York, who had been created lord high-admiral of England by his brother. The joy occasioned by this victory was diminished by the ravages of the great plague, which swept away seventy thousand citizens of London in the course of a year. De Witt, in the meantime, exerted himself to restore the naval power of the Dutch ; he formed an alliance with the king of Denmark, procured aid from France, and soon sent out a more powerful fleet than that which had been defeated. But the English still maintained their wonted superiority ; and the Dutch, disheartened by repeated defeats, began to murmur against the govern- ment of the grand pensionary. Scarcely had the plague ceased, when London was subjected to a second calamity ; a dreadful fire, which raged for four days, destroyed four hundred streets and lanes, including thirteen thousand houses ; but it is remarkable that not a single life was lost by the conflagration. Great discontents were excited by the severity with which the non-conformists were treated in England and Scotland ; about two thousand of the discontented, in the western counties of Scotland, had recourse to arms, and renewed the covenant but they were overpowered by the royal forces, and their insurrectior 566 MODERN HISTORY. punished with remorseless cruelty. One of the first stipulations niado with Charles on his accession was, that he should not disturb the granta which Cromwell had given to his followers in Ireland. But as many, if not most, of these estates had been forfeited for the attachment of the proprietors to the royal cause, it was necessary that some compen- sation should be made to the sufferers. After a long struggle, the best arrangement that was perhaps possible, under the circumstances, was effected by the act of settlement ; and though many of those who had been dispossessed complained of injustice, the island was restored to tranquillity. It was fast recovering its prosperity, when the unwise, jealousy of the English parliament produced considerable distress, by prohibiting the importation of Irish cattle.* While these circumstances embarrassed the British government, the pensionary, De Witt, sent out a new fleet, which destroyed several vessels at the mouth of the Thames, reduced Sheerness, insulted Portsmouth and Plymouth, and for several week rode triumphant in the channel (a. d. 1667). The conclusion of a peace at Breda dissipated the alarm, but at the same time increased the discontent, of the English nation ; it was felt that the prodigality of the king had exhausted the treasury and left the king- dom exposed to insult and disgrace. The ambitious projects of Louis XIV. began now to excite general alarm ; his personal qualities won him the affections of his people ; the splendor of his court dazzled the nobility, and changed the factious lords of France into a body of the most subservient courtiers that had ever been seen in modern Europe. On the death of Philip IV. of Spain, Louis claimed the Spanish Netherlands in right of his wife, the daughter of Philip by his first marriage, asserting that females could inherit according to the custom of Brabant, and that his queen should have precedence of her infant brother, the offspring of a second marriage. Anna Maria of Austria, queen-regent of Spain, was a weak woman, entirely governed by her confessor, a German Jesuit, named Nithard, who was more anxious to check the growth of heresy than to protect the monarchy.! Louis entered Flanders at the head of a powerful army, and found the Spaniards almost wholly unprepared for resistance. The principal towns surrendered immediately ; Lisle, though a place of considerable strength, capitulated after a siege of nine days, and Louis secured his conquests by intrusting the repair of their fortifications to the celebrated Vauban, and garrisoning them with his best troops. The Dutch wera alarmed at the prospect of having their frontiers exposed to such a powerful neighbor ; they received succor from an • The discussion of this act, in the house of lords, gave rise to some singulai debates. It was secretly opposed by the king, vho felt its obvious impolicy ; i' was urged forward by the eccentric duke of Buckingham, who hoped to force him self into power by means of the house of commons. The commons declared the imimrlation of Irish cattle " a nuisance." The lords rejected a term so revolting to common sense, and substituted " a grievance." The duke of Buckingham in sisted on retaining the obnoxious phrase ; another noble lord moved that the im- portation of Irish cattle should be deemed " a felony," or a " praemunire :" a third, with more wit and as much reason, proposed that it should be accounted " adultery." t His arrogance and ignorance were displayed in his reply to a nobleman who had addressed him in a tone of disrespect. " You ought," said he, " to revere the man who has every day your God in his hands and your queen at his feet." AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 567 unexcepted quarter. Charles II., either jealous of Louis, or eager to acquire popularity, concluded a defensive alliance between England and Holland (a. d. 1668); and Sweden soon after concurred in the treaty. Louis found it necessary to stop short in his career ; he made peace with Spain, retaining a great portion of his conquests, which, however, were not sufficient to console him for the brilliant prospects tie was compelled to resign. He had to endure another mortification ; the Turks one more became formidable, under the administration of the vizier Kuproeli, and compelled the German emperor to conclude peace on terms highly favorable to their interests ; and they wrested the im- portant island of Candia from the Venetians, in spite of the efforts made by the French monarch to save the place. Louis saw that his designs on the Netherlands, and hli revenge against Holland, could not be accomplished without the active partici- pation of England. Knowing the profligate habits of Charles, whose court was a scene of extravagance and dissipation, he concluded a secret treaty with that monarch, in which it was agreed that Charles should receive a large pension from Louis, in return for which he should co-operate in the conquest of the Netherlands, propagate the catholic faith in his dominions, and publicly announce his conversion to that rehgion. France and England commenced the war by atro- ciously outraging the laws of nations ; Louis, without the shadow of a pretext, seized the dutchy of Lorraine ; Charles attempted the capture of a rich Dutch fleet, before he had announced his dissatisfaction with the recent treaty. The Dutch were wholly unable to resist this storm ; at sea they maintained their equality, but the armies of France bore down all opposition ; Louis crossed the Rhine, advanced to Utrecht, and had he not delayed there, might have conquered Amsterdam. The Dutch populace vented their rage on the unfortunate pensionary, to whom they unjustly attributed all their calamities. John de Witt and his brother Cornelius were arrested, but ere they could be brought to trial, a furious mob burst into their prison and tore them to pieces. William III., prince of Orange, was immediately chosen stadtholder ; his exhortations revived the sinking spirits of the Dutch ; they resolved, that rather than submit to disgraceful terms, they would abandon their country, seek their settlements in the East Indies, and re-establish their republic in southern Asia.* Louis soon found the results of this determined spirit ; the emperor, thoroughly alarmed, sided with the Dutch, and many of the northern German states followed his example. Indecisive engagements were fought at sea ; but the conquest of Cologne by the Dutch and Germans, intercepted the communication between France and the United Provinces, in consequence of which Louis was compelled to withdraw his forces and abandon his conquests. A more important change was the secession of England ; Charles, distressed for want of money, loaded with debt, and rendered anxious by the progress of public discontent, concluded peace with Holland on very equitable conditions (a. d. 1674). He then offered his mediation to the contending powers. • Several eiforts were made to corrupt the prince of Orange, but he sternly re- jected them. When told that the ruin of his country was inevitable, he replied, " There is one way by which I can be certain not to see the ruin of ray country ; and that is, to die disputing the last ditch." 568 Modern history. Louis surprised all Europe by the magnitude of his efforts, but ihtf •did not produce any corresponding result; and the desolation of the .'Palatinate by Marshal Turenne excited such general indignation, that Louis bribed Charles to dissolve the parliament, lest it should force its sovereign to declare vpar against France. The war was maintained with great fury duriijg the ensuing campaigns ; it was on the whole favorable to the French* but the rapid progress of Louis, in the year 1677, excited so much^larin, that the English parliament addressed the king to conclude an cffenfaiv;e and defensive alliance with Holland. Charles, however, had sold his neutrality, and would not abandon his pension to promote either the honor or advantage of his kingdom ; but he tried to conciliate the nation by giving his niece, the daughter of the duke of York, in marriage to the prince of Orange. Louis continued his victorious, career uninterrupted by Eegland, until the Dutch sought peace on any terms, and a treaty was concluded at Nimeguen (a. d. 1678), by which France acquired an increases of power dangerous to all the neighboring states. The jealousy of the English nation at the exaltation of a rival, long regarded as their natural enemy, the feeling that the national honor had been sacrificed, and the fear of the design of the court to estabhsh the Romish religion and arbitrary power, spread a deep gloom over Eng-- land, and disposed the people to suspiciyns that led them to become the ' dupes of the vilest impostors. Just as- the account of the cruelties practised on the covenanters in Scotland excited most alarm and indig- nation, the three kingdoms were roused to sudden p^rensy by the an- houiiceinent of a popish plot. A wicked impostor, named Titus Gates, j^amed a tale of a conspiracy by the Jesuits for the subversion of the f protestant religion and the murder of the king ; his narrative was im- i probable, confused, and contradictory, but it suited the temper of the t nation, and it was favorable to the ambition of some designing men^ anxious to obtain power at any hazard. Before censuring too severely the credulity of the nation, we must remember that a plot for the re-es- tablishment of the Romish religion really existed, but it was fornved by the king, not against him ; many catholics, aware of the king's secret attachment to their religion, and encouraged by the duke of York's open proiession of it, indulged hopes of the speedy reconciliation of the British kingdoms to the holy see, and several enthusiastic phrases in their letters were capable of being distorted into conlirmation of a plan formed to accclernte such a consummation.* The inexplicable murder of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey, an active magistrate who had taken Oates's depositions, completed the delusion : to deny the reality of the plot was now to be reputed an accomplice ; even to doubt of it was criminal. Several catholics were brought to trial ; the evidence against them was a tissue of palpable falsehoods, but, in the phrensy of the moment., every absurdity received credence ; they were condemned and executed. The parliament at the same time passed a law excluding from both houses all who would not swear that '* the sacrilice of the • This is especially the case \yith the letters of the first victim to the national delusion, Edward Coleman, secretary to the duke of York. Dryden has well de- ecritted the plot in a single line : — , " Some truth there vvi(s, but dashed and bre\ved with lies " AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 569 mass was damnable and idolatrous," and it was with great difficulty that an exception was made in favor of the king's brother, the duke of York. The covenanters in Scotland were driven to such desperation by the severities of the royal government, that they murdered Archbish- op Sharpe, and broke out into open rebellion. Their revolt was sup- pressed, and those who had shared in it, or who were suspected of fa- voring the views of the covenanters, were punished with remorseless cruelty. It deserves to be remarked that, during this turbulent period, Ireland, to the great discredit of the popish plot, continued perfectly tranquil. Still its name was dragged into the controversy, and it lent a title to a party. The supporters of the court were named tories, from the Irish robbers, who, under that name, harassed the Cromwelli- an settlers ; the leaders of the opposition were denominated whigs, the appellation of the fiercest of the Scottish covenanters (a. d. 1681). A bill to exclude the duke of York from the succession passed the com- mons, but was rejected by the lords ; Charles seized the moment when the violence of his adversaries disgusted the sound part of the nation, to dissolve the parliament, and to summon a new one to assemble at Oxford. This second parliament proving refractory, it was suddenly dissolved, and a declaration vindicating the king's proceedings was or- dered to be read in all churches and chapels. Charles won the support of the clergy by vigorously enforcing the act of uniformity and persecuting sectaries, and at the same time chose some of the most pliant lawyers to be judges. By these means the doctrines of passive obedience and non-resistance were revived,, and the bench and the pulpit seemed to contend with each other which should show most zeal for the unlimited power of the crown. He next assailed his opponents with their own weapons ; the spies, the inform- ers, and false witnesses, who had been employed by the popular party to establish the reality of the popish plot, were now enlisted against their former patrons, and gave iheir perjured support to one parly as freely as they had done to another. The spirit of independence still reigned in the hearts of the citizens of London, but, on the most flimsy legal pretexts, the cap'^al was deprived of its charter, and the power of the corporation virtually transferred to the king. The popular lead- ers, not disheartened, formed a plan of insurrection ; they were be- trayed by one of their party : Lord Howard, who had been a leader, became a witness against his associates ; several of them were tried, condemned, and executed ; but the victims whose ftite excited the most sympathy were the popular Lord Russell and the virtuous Algernon Sydney. The duke of York was now placed at the head of the royal councils, but Charles soon became weary of his brother's violence and bigotry ; he is even said to have meditated a change in the government, and the adoption of popular measures, when he died sudderdy (a. d. 1685), not without strong suspicions of poison. It was supposed that some of the violent catholics attached to the duke of York perpetrated the crime without that prince's knowledge or participation. While England was thus convulsed at home, its foreign interests were wholly neglected by its profligate sovereign, who continued to be the pensioner of the French king. Louis XIV. thus had full scope to gratify his ambition ; he continually enlarged his frontiers on the most 570 MODERN HISTORY. frivolous pretences, while Spain and Holland were too wcaK, and the Germanic empire too much harassed by other enemies, to check his progress. The emperor Leopold, by flagrantly violating the privileges of his Hungarian subjects, provoked a formidable revolt ; it was headed by Count Tekeli, a leader possessing great courage and resolution, and he called the Turks to the assistance of his countrymen. While these allies were ravaging Silesia, the sultan Mohammed IV. was preparing one of the most formidable armies that the Ottoman empire had ever sent against Christendom. Leopold, convinced that his own resources were not equal to the crisis, entered into close alliance with the cele- brated John Sobieski, who, in the year 1674, had been raised to the throne of Poland. Before the Polish levies could be completed, the Turkish army, commanded by the grand vizier, Kara Mustapha, entered Austria ; the duke of Lorraine, who commanded the imperialists, was unable to rer sist the progress of the invaders ; they advanced rapidly, and at length laid siege to Vienna. During several weeks the city was vigorously defended, but, at length, its fortifications crumbled under the heavy fire of the Turkish artillery ; the suburbs were destroyed, and the final' as- sault was expected every moment (a. d. 1683). The garrison, reduced to despair, was about to resign all thoughts of resistance, when the banners of John Sobieski, approaching to their relief, were seen on the hill of Schellenberg. Kara Mustapha led the main body of his forces to meet the Poles, while a body of twenty thousand men attempted to storm the city. But the courage of the garrison was now revived, and the confidence of their enemies abated ; the assailants were repelled ; a panic seized the Turks ; they broke at the first charge of the Polish cavalry, and fled in such confusion, that they abandoned their artillery, baggage, and treasures. Even the consecrated banner of Mohammed became the prize of the victors, and was sent as a trophy to the pope. Leopold, in consequence of this decided triumph, recovered possession of Hungary, but his ingratitude to his deliverers was as signal as theii merits. Louis XIV. had raised the siege of Luxemburg when he heard oi the advance of the Turks, declaring that he would not attack a Chris- tian prince while Christendom itself was endangered by the invasion of the infidels. No sooner, however, had Sobieski's valor crushed tnw Mohammedans, than he renewed his aggressions. Spain was tnua provoked into a war which it had not strength to support, and a hasty peace confii-med Louis in his conquests. His naval power was steadily increased at the same time ; he humbled the Algerines, compelled the republic of Genoa to submit to the most degrading humiliations, and did not even spare the pope. But while his ambition was provokinu- the resentment of Europe, he weakened his kingdom by a display of fero- cious bigotry, at the moment when all its strength was required to re- sist justly-provoked hostility. The religious toleration of the Hugue- nots had been secured by the edict of Nantes, which was designed to be perpetual ; Louis, after the death of his wisest minister, the virtuous Colbert, revoked this edict, and attempted to impose his religion on his subjects by the sword. He began by issuing an edict, authorizing Huguenot children, above seven years of age, to change their religion AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND PRANCE. 571 without tht> consent of their parents ; this pernicious law introduced dissension into the bosom of families ; children were enticed to ingrat- itude and disobedience by the arts of clerical kidnappers who over- spread the country. The parents were next persecuted ; they were excluded from all public employments and the incorporations of the trades. Bribes were offered on the one hand, punishments were men- aced on the other ; apostacy was assured of reward, and the payment of conversions became a heavy charge on the state. Finally, a brutal and licentious soldiery was let loose on the hapless protestants ; dra- goons were sent as missionaries among them, and the edict of Nantes, their last security, was formally revoked. Exposed to all the cruelties and horrors that bigotry could dictate, or brutality execute, nearly four hundred thousand of the Huguenots abandoned their country, and car- ried into lands hostile to France, their wealth, their commercial intelli- gence, their manufacturing industry, and their desire of vengeance. The accounts of their sufferings published by the exiled Huguenots in England, Holland, and Germany, aggravated the hatred of France, which was spreading through these countries, and accelerated a general war. A league was formed by all the princes of Germany to restrain the encroachments of Louis ; Spain and Holland joined it as princi- pals ; Sweden, Denmark, and Savoy, were afterward gained : and a sudden revolution in England placed that country at the head of the confederacy. James II. succeeded to the English crown on the death of his brother Charles ; he commenced his reign by liberal promises, which procured him general popularity, notwithstanding his open adhesion to the Ro- mish church, and his going to mass with all the ensigns of regal dig- nity. But there were many discontented spirits who lamented his ac- cession, and these secretly instigated the duke of Monmouth, the natu- ral son of Charles II., to assert his mother's marriage, and his own consequent claim to the throne. Monmouth was a weak, vain man ; he readily adopted the scheme, and in concert with the earl of Argyle, prepared for the simultaneous invasion of Scotland and England. Ar- gyle, who was the first, readily effected a landing in Scotland, but soon found that the country was not so ripe for revolt as he had believed. Surrounded by superior forces, he attempted to force his way into the disaffected part of the western counties, but his followers gradually abandoned him ; he was taken prisoner and sent to Edinburgh, where he expiated his imprudence on the scaffold. In the meantime, Mon- mouth had landed in the west of England, where he was received with great enthusiasm. Encouraged by the proofs of attachment he received, he ventured to attack the royal army encamped at Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater. But the cowardice of Lord Grey, who commanded the horse, and the incapacity of Monmouth himself, proved fatal to the in- surgents ; they were routed with great slaughter, and their unfortunate leader, after wandering about several days in great distress, was taken prisoner. James II. induced the unhappy Monmouth to degrade himself by a mean supplication for life,* and then informed him that his offence was * Monmouth displayed great firmness and intrepidity on the scaffold. The exe- 672 MODERN HISTORY. too great to be pardoned. The cruelties exercised on all suspected of having shared in the insurrection, by the inhuman Colonel Kirke, and the still more infamous Judge Jeffries, were shocking to human nature ; they spread general consternation through the western counties, but at the same time they excited a spirit of secret hostility to the tyrannical king. Encouraged by his success, James resolved to dispense with Jie test acts, by which catholics were excluded from the public ser- vice, and, finding the parliament opposed to his views, he dissolved hat body. Eleven out of the twelve judges asserted that the dispens- ng power was an essential part of the royal prerogative ; and the king, fortified by their opinion, gave several places of trust to catholic lords and gentlemen. The lord-lieutenancy of Ireland was intrusted to the earl of Tyrconnell, a zealous adherent of the Romish church ; many of the catholics, who felt that their religion was the cause of their be- ing deprived of their estates, began to look forward to the repeal of the Act of Land Settlement, and several of the more timorous protestants sought refuge in England. Their representations, and the tales of hor- ror related by the exiled Huguenots, filled the nation with a general hatred of popery ; the king, however, unconscious of his increasing unpopularity, unwisely deprived himself of his chief security by quar- relling with the church. He commenced by endeavoring to open the !d.aors of the universities to catholics ; more opposition was oflTered than ■had been anticipated, but the king persevered, and a catholic, named Parker, was installed into the presidency of Magdalen college, Oxford. Although there was much discontent in England, no project had as yet been formed against the king ; it was believed that Mary of Mode- aaa, James's queen, would never have any children, and the nation was disposed to wait quietly for the accession of one of his daughters by his former marriage, both of whom were known to be strongly attached to the church af England. Mary, the eldest daughter of James by Anne Hyde, was married to the prince of Orange, who was engaged in sup- porting the liberties of Europe, and the protestant religion against the ambition and bigotry of Louis XIV. ; she was less popular in England than hex husband, to whom she was known to be fondly attached, and it was generally believed that she would relax the laws against prot- -estant dissenters, if ever she came to the throne, in order to gratify dJie attachment of her husiband to presbyterian principles. She was, however, childless, and the national hope of a protestant successor to the throne centred in her sister. The princess Anne, afterward queen, had been educated in the strict- .est principles of the Anglican church by her maternal grandfather, the celebrated earl of Clarendon. She was married to Prince George of Denmark, by whom she had sei'eral children, all of whom, except the duke of Gloucester, eitlier died in tkeir infancy, or were still-born. She was the favorite child of her father, and nothing had ever occurred to interrupt their affeclioji, until nearly ai the same time James's queen •cutioner, toucbed with pity, , or respect for the V40tim''s noble bearing, struck him three times without eflect, and then threw aside the axe, declaring he was unable io perlbrm his office. The sheriH" compelled him to renew his eflbrts, and the Siead of the unhappy djike was at leagth severed from his body. AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 573 appeared likely to give an heir to the throne, and he himself became involved in a contest with the church of England. Anxious to relieve the catholics from the civil disabilities imder which they labored, as a monarch of the same religion as themselves must naturally have been, and at the same time desirous to obtain the support of so powerful a body as the protestant dissenters, in the new course of policy which he meditated, James published a new declara- tion of indulgence, suspending all the penal laws against every species of dissent, and soon after issued a proclamation commanding it to be read in churches. The legality of such a command was questioned by the prelates, for though royal declarations had been read in churches with their sanction during the preceding reign, considerable doubts were entertained of the king's power to suspend the penal laws, and in fact, such an exercise of the royal authority had been pronounced un- constitutional by the best lawyers of the kingdom. Had the declaration related to a less obnoxious matter than the virtual abrogation of the laws agumst non-conformity, which had been only procured by the most vigorous exertions of the hierarchy, it is probable that the king's orders might have been obeyed : but it was unwise to call upon the English prelates to undo their work, and to proclaim in the churches that they had hitherto pursued an erroneous course of policy. It was also known that the great majority of the English dissenters, far from being grateful for the king's favor, viewed his edict of toleration with suspicion, believing that it was not intended to serve them, but to ad- vance the cause of popery. Under these circumstances six bishops, in concert with Sancroft the primate, prepared a remonstrance in the form of a petition to the king, which stated, in firm but respectful language, their reasons for refusing to comply with his injunctions. When this document' was presented to James, he was so violently enraged, that he ordered the prelates to be arrested on the charge of having uttered a seditious libel, and as they all refused to find bail, they were committed to the Tower. At this crisis the queen gave birth to a prince of Wales, and the ab- sence of the archbishop, imprisoned in the Tower, who ought in virtue of his office to have been present on the occasion, gave rise to a report that he had been purposely removed out of the way, lest he should de- tect the king and queen in their attempts to impose a spurious child on the nation. This monstrous tale was studiously circulated ; and though the queen's delivery had been as public as decency would permit, the story that the prince of Wales was supposititious was received with equal credulity in England and Holland. James at first paid no regard to the reports which were in circulation, but when he learned that the prayers for the young prince were discontinued in his daughter's chapel at the Hague, he remonstrated very strongly on the subject, but was forced to rest satisfied with excuses so disingenuous that their falla- ciousness was transparent. As the king, according to the constitution as settled at the Reforma- tion, was the head of the English church, it was impossible to avoid some collision when the monarch professed a religion at variance with that of the establishment ; and though such an evil might be endured for a season, the members of a protestant establishment naturally shrunk 574 MODERN HISTORY. from the prospect of being gOA'^erned by a continued succession of Ro« mish sovereigns. The birth of a prince of Wales forced men to take into serious consideration the position of the church and the couutry, especially as it took place at a time when seven prelates of the church were persecuted by its head for defending what they believed to be the proper privileges of the established religion. Such an anomaly was loo glaring to escape notice, and James exhibited extraordinary weak- ness in forcing it on the consideration of the country. There never, perhaps, was a trial which excited such interest as that of the seven bishops for the pretended libel contained in their petition to the king. The best lawyers in England were engaged on each side, and the question between prerogative and privilege was never more ably deba- ted. The trial lasted during the whole of the day. In the evening the jury were desired to retire and consider their verdict. They re^ manied together in close consultation all night, without fire or candle : great difl'erence of opinion appears to have prevailed among them, for it was not until ten o'clock on the foUowhig morning that they pro- nounced the acquittal of the prelates. " The moment the verdict was pronounced," says the earl of Claren- don, who was present, " there was a wonderful shout, that one would have thought the hall had cracked." — " The loud shouts and joyful ac- clamations were," as Sir John Reresby expresses, " a rebellion in noise, though not in intention." From London the tumultuous sounds of joy extended rapidly into the country, and a well-known expression of James is preserved, on hearing acclamations, even among the soldiers in his camp at Hounslow. He was told by his general. Lord Faver- sham, of whom he had inquired the cause of the noise, that it was nothing but the rejoicing of the soldiers for the acquittal of the bishops. " Do you call that nothing V he replied, " but so much the worse for them." Bonfires were made, and the bells of the churches rung not only in London, but in the greater part of the country towns, as soon as the news of the acquittal reached them, although the strictest orders were given to prevent such proceedings. So strong was the general feeling, that though several persons were indicted at the next sessions for Middlesex for riotous behavior, yet the grand jury would not find bills agains' them, though they were sent out no less than three times. It is stated further, that the churches of London were crowded on that forenoon with multitudes, eager to pour forth their gratitude to God for this great deliverance. " O what a sight was that," says Nichols, " to behold the people crowding into the churches to return thanks to God for so great a blessing, with the greatest earnestness and ecstacy of joy, lifting up their hands to heaven ; to see illuminations in every window and bonfires at every door, and to hear the bells throughout all the city ringing out peals of joy for the wonderful deliverance." It was in the midst of this popular excitement, and most probably in consequence of it, that the project of a revolution was first formed. In order to form a right estimate of this great event, which for nearly half a century became the great turning point of European policy, it will be necessary to take a brief retrospect, in order to explain the position of parlies in England. From the time of the restoration, a party, consisting of a few nobles and a very large body of country gentlemen, labored to AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 575 introcliite so much of the principles of the old commonwealth as con- sisted in restraining the power of the crown, and the ecclesiastical priv- ileges of the establishment. They were at first called the piwitanical, and afterward the whig party ; they were animated by a perfect horror of popery, or of anything which seemed approaching to it, but they were more favorable to the protestant non-conformists than to the episcopal clergy, and their main strength rested on the support of the protestant dissenters. Except in hatred of popery, the English people of that day had little community of feeling with the whig leaders ; the rigid rule of the presbyteries in the time of the commonwealth and Cromwell, when the most innocent amusements were strictly prohibited, had alienated the lower orders, and though they were rallied round the whigs for a time when the perjuries of Titus Gates and his associates had rilled the nation with senseless terror, the reaction against this delusion had re- duced the party to more than its former weakness, and it had found little support out of doors when an attempt was made to exclude James from succeeding to the throne on account of his obnoxious religion. Another reason for the small amount of popular favor enjoyed by the whig party was the notorious fact that many of the leaders, in spite of their loud professions of patriotism, accepted bribes from foreign pow- ers. Some took money from Holland, others from France, and not a few from both governments, excusing such conduct to themselves by the necessity of obtaining foreign support to resist the prerogatives of the crown, and the many advantages of position enjoyed by the court party. The more ardent whigs had raised a rebellion against James, to give the crown to the duke of Monmouth, and the ease with which that rebellion was crushed seemed to prove the extinction of their power as a party. James certainly undervalued them, and had he not taken measures which constrained a coalition between them and their rivals, he might have continued to despise the English whigs with impunity. Matters were very different in Scotland : presbyterianism was there the favored religion of the nation, and prelacy was scarcely less hated than popery. So far as the important question of church government was concerned, the Scotch were whigs and something more, but James and his court made little account of Scotland ; they had taken no warn- ing from the fate of Charles I., which had been decided by a Scottish army. A far more powerful party was known by the names of prelatists, cavaliers, or tories ; it included the great majority of the nobility, the entire body of the clergy, a large proportion of the country gentlemen and in general the masses of the agricultural and laboring population, so far as the latter were capable of forming any opinion, or selecting a party. Their great principle of union was to support the exclusive su- premacy of th«. church of England, and to extend the influence of that sovereign in his capacity of head of that church : their rallying cry was " church, and king," in which church came first not only in name but in reality. From the very moment of James's accession, the tories found themselves in an awkward and false position. They had long taught the doctrines of the divine right of kings and passive obedience to the will of the sovereign, denouncing all resistance as sinful ; but when the monarch began to exercise his prerogatives as head of the chiirch, in a 576 MODERN HISTORY. spirit of direct hostility to the principles on which the church had been established, they found themselves involved in difficulties which every day became more embarrassing. The trial of the bishops was the crisis of their loyalty ; it was not unjustly regarded as a kind of declaration of war by the monarch against the national establishment, and all the friends of that establishment felt themselves coerced to take measures for its defence and protection. It is true that the adoption of such meas- ures was a virtual abandonment of the doctrine of non-resistance, and so far a concession to the principles of their old adversaries the whigs ; hence the first movements of the tories to join in inviting the prince of Orange to England were slow and unsteady, and the most for which they looked was that the prince might act as mediator between the king, the church, and the nation. We have next to examine the connexion between the position of the king of England in relation to the general politics of Europe. At this period the arbitrary designs of Louis XIV. had excited universal dis- trust, and alliances were secretly formed to resist his designs, whether covert or avowed, to the diffisrent districts and territories over which he sought to extend his sway. England was prevented from joining in this coalition only by the strict alliance between its monarch and Louis, and hence the reign of James was odious to the princes of Germany, the houses of Spain and Austria, and even to the pope himself, who had been harshly treated by the French monarch, stripped of his terri- tory of Avignon, and menaced with further injuries. Holland was still more deeply interested in detaching England from the French alliance : Louis had openly avowed his intentions to destroy its independence, and if he had procured the promised support of the naval power of England, the Dutch would in all probability have become subjects of France. The combination of parties by which the prince of Orange was invited into England, had little unity in itself, and might have been dissolved in a moment if James had shown a disposition to adopt concil- iatory measures and regain the friendship of the tories and churchmen. William vvas well aware of these circumstances, and made the most vigorous exertions to take immediate advantage of the crisis. While he was thus engaged, the invasion of western Germany by Louis XIV. without the formality of a declaration of war, and the fearful ravages perpetrated by the French in the palatinate, excited universal alarm and indignation throughout Europe. The states of Holland immediately placed their fleets and armies at the disposal of William ; he set sail with a powerful armament, and on the 5th of November, 1688, landed safely at Torbay. The perplexity into which all parties were thrown by the landing of ' William was almost ludicrous. At first he was joined by so few par- tisans, that he began to think of returning ; then on a sudden the nobles and leading men of England flocked to him from all quarters ; the favor- ite officers of James, those who were solely indebted to him for rank and fortune, even his favorite daughter Anne, joined in the general de- fection — while he, sinking at once into despondency, abandoned his army, and after a brief delay in London, fled to France. It is unfortu- nately true that the prince of Orange made use of many dishonorable artifices to terrify the unfortunate monarch, and induce him to seek safe- AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 577 ty in flight ; but James seems to have adopted the fatal resohition of abandoning his kingdom, in the belief that the complicated embarrass- ments of parties would lead to his recall ; and that returning at the head of a French army, he might yet triumph over all his enemies. Confi- dence in the powder of Louis XIV. had been his bane from the begin- ning, and his connexion vv^ith that detested monarch was the principal cause of his dying in exile. • William assumed so much of royal power as to summon a convention to regulate the affairs of the nation. Three proposals were made to this body : first, that terms should be made with James, and the chief administration intrusted to the prince of Orange as lieutenant-generai of the kingdom ; secondly, that the flight of James should be taken as an abdication, and a regency proclaimed, with the prince of Orange at its head ; and thirdly, that the throne should be c'.cclared vacant, and William and Mary declared king and queen of England. The first pro- posal was the most acceptable to the consistent tories, includir.g the pri- mate, Sancroft, and several of the bishops whom James had so recently prosecuted, but the great majority felt the absurdity of turning a king out for the mere purpose of calling him back, and it had already passed into a proverb that " the worst of all revolutions was a restoration." In the consideration of the second proposition was involved the ques- tion of the legitimacy of the prince of Wales, which nobody really doubt- ed, but almost everybody affected to deny. There were, however, great practical difficulties in recognising the infant prince as heir to the crown. It was tolerably certain that James would not consent to reside in France, and send his son to be educated as a protestant in England ; the princesses Mary and Anne were naturally opposed to a plan which would have deprived them of their fondly-cherished hopes of wearing a crown, and William had taken pains to make it known that if a regency should be determined upon, somebody else must be sought to exercise the functions of regent. In fact, the circumstances of the time rendered the third plan the only one possible to be adopted ; but the majority of those who voted foi conferring the crown on William and Mary did so with undisguised reluctance, as men submitting to a painful necessity. The subsequent efforts of James to recover his dominions by the aid of French arma- ments completed the alienation of the English people from his cause, while the cowardice and incapacity he displayed in Ireland, particularly at the battle of the Boyne, led to the utter ruin of his unfortunate parti- sans in that country. Louis was himself injured by his efforts in favor of the dethroned king : his futile attempts to invade England, his in- trigues to provoke insurrections, and his continued menaces of conquest, provoked and kept alive against him the flame of popular indignation in GreaMiritain, and induced the people to bear the brunt of expensive continental wars, in which England was very remotely and indirectly concerned, for the me-e purpose of restraining his ambition. It was in the same way at a later period that Napoleon's menace of invading England, excited a spirit among the people which led them similarly to fight the battle of continental Europe, and pay its sovereigns for main taining their own independence. 37 578 MODERN HISTORY. Section IV. — General History of Europe, from the League of Augsburg to the Formation of the Grand Alliance. The domestic history of England, during tlie reign of William III., is so remotely connected with the progress of the war to restrain the ambition of Louis XIV., that it will be convenient to limit our attention to the former before commencing the narrative of the latter. Several parties, as we have seen, joined in effecting the revolutiun ; scarcely had they succeeded, when their old jealousies were renewed with ag- gravated fury. The Scottish convention made the establishment of presbyterianism an essential part of the settlement of the crown ; the protestant sectarians in England were thus encouraged to hope for some modifications in the discipline of the English church ; they did obtain a general toleration, to the great disgust of the tory or high-church party. Ireland remained faithful to James, though William not only offered wealth and dignity to the lord-lieutenant, Tyrconnell, but promised to secure the catholics in their civil rights, and give them one third of the churches. But the protestants, who had so recently been secured in their lands by the acts of Settlement and Explanation, conscious that the justice of their titles would not bear a very rigid scrutiny, and dreadmg that, under a catholic monarch and a catholic parliament, these acts might be re- pealed, boldly took up arms, and atoned for their deficiency of number by martial vigor and a daring spirit. They felt that under Cromv/ell they had won their possessions by the sword, and by the sword they were resolved to retain them. Some of them formed guerilla bands, and scoured the country ; others threw themselves into Londonderry, Enniskillen, and other garrison towns, resolved to hold out until aid could arrive from England. James, with a small French force, pro- ceeded to Ireland, and convened a parliament in Dublin. The act of Settlement was repealed, and all the protestants who favored, or were supposed to favor, the prince of Orange, were declared guilty of high treason. But in the meantime, the adherents of the abdicated monarch had been ruined in Scotland by the loss of their leader, the brave Vis- count Dundee, who fell in the arms of victory. The Highlanders who followed his standard dispersed, and the Jacobite party had no person of sufficient influence to collect another army. James began his opera- tions in Ireland by the siege of Londonderry ; it was nobly defended by the inhabitants, whose religious enthusiasm more than supplied their deficiency in martial discipline. They were, however, on the point of sinking under the joint sufierings of fatigue and famine, when a rein- forcement arrived from England, with provision and ammunition, upon which the besiegers abandoned their undertaking. Ere James could recover from this disaster, the duke of Schomberg landed at Carrickfergus Avith ten thousand men ; but as the operations of this general were too slow for the impatience of the people of Eng- land, William followed with a considerable reinforcement, and hasted to meet his father-in-law. The hostile armies met on the 1st of July, 1690, on the banks of the river Boyne ; the skill of William procured him a victory, which the cowardice of James rendered decisive ; he fled from the field of battle, and scarcely halting in Dublin hasted to tftke shipping at Waterford for France, abandoning his faithful subjects AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 579 o their fate. The Irish, though forsaken, did not despair ; they threw themselves into Limerick, which William immediately invested, but was finally forced to raise the siege. This failure was, however, com- pensated by the success of the earl of Marlborough, in Munster, who with five thousand men reduced Cork, Kinsale, and some other places of less importance. But Ireland was not yet subdued, and William intrusted the completion of the task to Baron Ginckle, who took Ath- lone almost in the presence of the Irish army, chiefly through the neg- ligence of St. Ruth, whom Louis had sent over at the request of James. Stung with remorse, St. Ruth hazarded a battle at Aughrim, but he was defeated and slain. The Irish a second time sought shelter in Limer- ick, which Ginckle once more besieged. All parties were now weary of the war, and a treaty was concluded at Limerick, by which it was stipulated that the catholics should enjoy the same toleration as in the reign of Charles II. ; that they should be restored to the privileges of subjects, on taking the oath of allegiance ; and that as many as chose to follow the fortunes of the late monarch should be transported to the continent at the expense of the government. About ten thousand men took advantage of the last article, and, under the name of the Irish brigades, were taken into the service of the king of France. William had, in the meantime, become disgusted with the constitu- tional jealousy of the whigs, and had sought the friendship of the tories, who were remarkable for their zealous support of the royal prerogative. But a sanguinary act of vengeance, the massacre of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, under circumstances of great treachery, brought so much odium on the new government, that James began to entertain some hopes of a restoration. The Macdonalds had recognised the new governme)it a day later than that named in the act of parliament, but as their allegiance was formally accepted by the authorities, they believed themselves in perfect security. A military force was received into their glens with- out distrust or suspicion. But in the dead hour of the night, the sol- diers, pursuant to previous orders, rose upon their hosts, set fire to the houses, and shot down the wretched inhabitants as they attempted to escape from the flames. This atrocity excited universal indignation throughout Europe ; the French king hoped that it would enable him to replace James on the throne ; and had he been able immediately to transport his forces across the channel, the liberties of England and the crown of William would have been exposed to serious danger. A camp was formed between Cherbourg ind La Llogue ; twenty thousand Irish and French soldiers were prepared to invade England, and a powerful navy Avas equipped to support the expedition. The whole was frustrated by the valor of the British seamen ; Admiral Russell having formed a junction with a Dutch squadron, attacked the French fleet off La Hogue, burned sev- eral of their men-of-war and transports, and drove the rest into their harbors. James beheld from the shore this annihilation of his hopes, but could not forbear expressing his admiration of the valor of his former subjects.* The death of Queen Mary revived the hopes of the Jacobites, as the • When he saw the French fleet set on fire, he exclaimed, " Ah ! none but mj brave English tars could have performed so gallant an action .'" 580 MODERN HISTORY. partisans of the Stuarts were called ; but instead of open rebellion, thfiy resolved lo remove the king by assassination. The plot was discovered, and the nation was so disgusted with the intended treachery, thai Wil- liam was restored to all his former popularity. From this time to the accession of Queen Anne, there is little worthy of note in the domestic histor)'- of England. On the death of the duke of Gloucester, the last protestant heir to the crown, an act was passed by which the eventual succession was settled on Sophia, dutchess dowager of Hanover, and her heirs, being protestants (a. d. 1701). She was the grand-daughter of James I., by the princess Elizabeth, married to the unfortunate elec- tor-palatine. Party animosities between the whigs and tories were occasionally violent, and William III. Avas not always on the best of terms with his parliament. The emperor Leopold, the head of the league of Augsburg, was a prince of great abilities, sullied, however, too often, by cruelty and big- otry. Though the chief of a confederacy for maintaining the liberties of Europe, he trampled on the privileges of his Hungarian subjects, and persecuted the protestants. But the overthrow of the Turks at Vienna, and the subsequent capture of Belgrade, left the discontented without an ally, and they were forced to submit in silence. Louis was not daunted by the power of the league ; he assembled two armies in Flan- ders, sent a third to check the Spaniards in Catalonia, and, to form a barrier on the side of Germany, ravaged the Palatinate with fire and sword (a. d. 1688). This barbarous policy filled Europe with horror i men, women, and children, driven from their habitations, in the inclem- ent month of February, wandered by the light of their own burning houses over the frozen fields, and fell victims by thousands to cold and hunger. Nor did this detestable expedient produce the desired effect ; the German armies, in the ensuing campaign, gained several important triumphs. liOuis sought to recover his former superiority by nobler means ; he intrusted his armies to new generals of approved talent, and the fortune of the war instantly changed. Savoy was overrun by the French marshal Catinat ; Marshal Luxemburg gained a brilliant victory over the allies in Flanders ; the united Dutch and English fleets were defeated off Beachy Head, and the Spaniards were scarcely able to de- fend Catalonia (a. d. 1690). Little was done on the side of Germany, for the emperor was once more assailed by Tekeli and the Turks, whose progress threatened the ruin of his hereditary dominions. Had this course of fortune continued, Louis must have become the master of Europe, but in the following campaigns, the Turks, deprived of all their advantages, left the emperor at leisure to watch his western frontiers, and Catinat was driven from Italy by the duke of Savoy. But in Flan- ders the French continued to be eminently successful. Mons and Na- mur were taken in spite of all the efforts v/hich the united forces of the English and Dutch could make for their relief, and the allies were de- feated in two great general engagements by the duke of Luxemburg. But William III. was never daunted by ill success, and he adopted such prudent measures, that Luxemburg was unable to derive any im- portant advantages from his victories. Similar success attended the armies of Louis in Savoy, Spain, and Germany ; but the triumphs were equally unproductive. Even at sea, notwithstanding the recent loss at AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 581 I^a Hojiie, the French navy rode triumphant, ani gained a decided superiority over the English and Dutch fleets. But France was ex- hausted by these efforts ; a dreadful famine ravaged the country, arising partly from an unfavorable season, and partly from the want of hands to till the ground ; and the finances of the state were fast falling into con- fusion. The allies, aware of these circumstances, made vigorous efibrts to recover their losses, but they were generally unsuccessful, except on th<^ side of Flanders, where William recaptured Namur, and thus, in some degree, retrieved his military reputation. All parties became weary of a war in which much blood was shed, much treasure expend- ed, and no permanent acquisitions made. Negotiations Avere com- menced under the mediation of Charles XL, of Sweden, at Ryswick (a. d. 1697), and a treaty concluded, in which Louis made many im- portant concessions, to purchase an interval of tranquillity for his future projects. The French king's renunciation of the Spanish succession, which it had been the main object of the war to enforce, was not even mentioned in the articles of pacification, and several other omissions left abundant grounds for a renewal of the war at no distant period. The emperor, though severely harassed by the Turks, consented to the peace with great reluctance, and complained bitverly of the desertion of his allies. But no one of the confederates derived more advantage from the treaty ; he was enabled to direct his whole force against the Ottomans, who, under their new sultan, Mustapha II., became, for a brief space, formidable to Europe. The danger was averted by the celebrated Prince Eugene, of Savoy, who now began to attract admira- tion. After the peace of Ryswick, he took the command of the impe- rialists, and encountered Mustapha at Zenta, a small village on the banks of the river Theysse, in the kingdom of Hungary. The battle was brief, but, for its duration, one of the most sanguinary on record ; fifteen thousand Turks were slain, and eight thousand more drowned in their flight across the river ; their artillery, baggage, and ammunition, the sultan's magnificent pavilion, countless standards, and the great seal of the Ottoman empire, remained the prize of the victors ; the grand vizier, the aga of the janissaries, and twenty-seven pa9has, were among the victims of this fatal field. Mustapha, having vainly attempted to retrieve his losses in a new campaign, Avas forced to consent to the peace of Carlowitz, by which several provinces were resigned to the Austrians, Azof ceded to the Russians, now fast rising into importance under the administration of the Czar Peter, and the Venetians gratified by the cession of the Morea, anciently called the Peloponnesus. The declining heaUh of the king of Spain, Charles II., engaged the general attention of Europe aftor the peace of Ryswick : three princes were candidates for the succession, Louis XIV., the emperor Leopold, and the elector of Bavaria. It is vmnecessary to canvass their several claims, but it is manifest tlat the general interests of Europe pointed to the electoral prince as the most eligible of the competitors. A secret treaty of partition was concluded between William and Louis, but Charles II. received information of the transaction, and enrsged thai his dominions should be shared during his life, proclaimed the electoral prince of Bavaria sole heir. Scarcely, however, had this arrangement been made, wlien that prince died suddenly, not without strong suspi- 582 MODERN HISTORY. cions of poison (a,d. 1699). A new ti'eaty of partition was arranged by Holland, France, and England, but the emperor Leopold refused his concurrence, expecting to obtain for his family the inheritance of the whole Spanish monarchy. During these negotiations, the affections of ^he Scotch were alienated from William, by his sacrificing the settle- ment which they had established at a great expense, on the isthmus of Darien, to quiet the fears of the Spaniards, and the commercial jeal- ousy of the English. Could they have found leaders, they would probably have had recourse to arms, but fortunately they were contented to vent their rage in violent language, and furious invective. Charles II. was long disposed to favor the Austrian claimant to his crown, but the arrogance of his queen and her German favorites, alienated the nation from the court of Vienna, while the Spanish nobility and clergy urged the dying monarch to bestow the sovereignty on the house of Bourbon. Charles applied to the pope for advice ; Innocent XII., who then filled the pontifical chair, was very jealous of the progress of the Austrian power in Italy ; he therefore strenuously recommended the choice of a French prince ; a new will was made, and Philip, duke of Anjou, sec- ond son of the dauphin, was nominated heir to the crown of Spain. Not long after Charles died (a. d. 1701), and Louis, after some hesi- tation between the will and the partition treaty, proclaimed his grandson king of Spain and the Indies, under the title of Philip V. Though England and Holland were equally alarmed at this proceed- ing, both powers were obliged to acquiesce for a season. William found his parliament reluctant to engage in a new war, and Louis, by an unexpected movement against the barrier towns, had secured a great portion of the Dutch army. The emperor, however, commenced a war, claiming the dutchy of Milan as a fief of the imperial crown, and his army, under the command of Prince Eugene, gained several advantages over Marshal Catinat, in Italy. During this campaign, the states-gen- eral and William, having failed to make any satisfactory explanations of his designs from the French king, concluded a treaty, called the Grand Alliance, with the emperor. Its avowed objects were " to pro- cure satisfaction to his imperial majesty in the case of the Spanish suc- cession ; obtain security to the English and Dutch for their dominions and commerce ; prevent the union of the monarchies of France and Spain, and hinder the French from possessing the Spanish dominions in America." But this treaty would probably have been frustrated by the English parliament, but for the imprudence with which Louis haz- arded an insult to the British nation (a. d. 1701). On the death of James II., he caused his son, commonly called the Old Pretender, to be recognised king of Great Britain and Ireland, under the title of James III. The parliament at once entered heartily into the war, which they had hitherto disapproved, and their martial ardor was not abated by the death of William, who fell a victim to a fall from his horse, and the unskilfulness of an inexperienced surgeon (a. d. 1702). The intelli- gence of this event filled the allies with consternation ; but their fears were of short duration, for Queen Anne, who next ascended the throne, declared her resolution to adhere steadily to the policy of hti predecessor. AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 383 Section V. — The War of the Spanish Succession. The accession of Queen Anne gave great satisfaction to the English people ; William was disliked as a foreigner, who was more strongly attached to Holland than to his adopted country, and his coldness of manner had greatly tended to increase his unpopularity. He was sus- pected by the tories of secret designs against the '^nurch, on account of his attachment to presbyterianism, and the whigs had ceased to respect him, because he had not shown himself sufficiently grateful for their services in raising him to the throne. Though his military talents were great, he had not been a very successful general, and it was stu- diously circulated, that he endeavored as much as possible to keep back the earl (afterward duke) of Marlborough, through envy of his superior abilities. He had, at first, recognised the duke of Anjou to the crown ftf Spain, and therefore when he joined the grand alliance formed to pre.ent what he had previously sanctioned, he was exposed to suspi- cions of insincerity, and it was generally believed that if Louis made an)'- large sacrifices to conciliate the Dutch, the English monarch would not persevere in his resistance. It is scarcely necessary to say that it was of very little importance to England, whether an Austrian or a French prince became monarch of Spain ; the war of the succession, in which this country bore the principal share, was that in which its interests were the least involved ; and this country lavishly poured forth its blood and treasure to accomplish objects which had no connex- ion with its real position. It was the indignation excited by the at- tempt of Louis to impose upon the English people a sovereign of his choice, which induced the queen and her people to enter on a bloody and expensive war, for no other purpose than humiliating the insolence of a despot. They subsequently found out that they had to pay too dear a price for the luxuries of war and vengeance. Queen Anne infused vigor into the grand alliance, not only by the prompt declaration of her adhesion, but by her judicious choice of ministers ; Lord Godolphin was placed at the head of the treasury, and the earl of Marlborough, who was connected with the premier by mar- riage, was appointed commander-in-chief of the English army in Flan- ders, and appomted ambassador extraordinary to the states-general. War was declared against France on the same day, at London, the Hague, and Vienna ; anvl the campaign was simultaneously opened in Italy, Germany, and Flanders (a. d. 1702). The earl of Marlborough, who commanded in Flanders, was the only one of the allied generals who obtained success ; he captured several important towns, and would probably have defeated the French in the open field, had not his motions been fettered by the presence of the Dutch field-deputies, who were too cautious or too timorous to allow of his hazarding an engagement At sea the ancient renown of the English navy was re-established ; Sir George Rooke sailed against Cadiz with a fleet of fifty sail, having with him the duke of Ormpnd and an army of twelve thousand men. Cadiz was too strong to be taken, and Rooke sailed to Vigo, where the galleons, laden with the treasures of Spanish America, lay protected by a French fleet and a formidable castle and batteries. The English admiral broke the boom that protected the narrow entrance iv^ ' the iu-- 584 MODERN HISTORY. ner harbor, Ormond stormed the castle, and the French losing all hope. set fire to their ships. But the English and Dutch were at hand to ex- tinguish the flames ; six ships of the line and nine galleons became the trophies of the conquerors. These losses, and the defection of the duke of Savoy, did not abate the courage of Louis ; and the confederates, though joined by the king of Portugal, did not improve their advantages (a. d. 1703). The elector of Bavaria, the firm ally of France, being joined by Marshal Villars, gained a great victory over the imperialists at Hochstet, by which a road was opened t* Vienna. The armies of JiOuis retained their supe- riority in Italy ; eve* at sea t^e French disconcerted the plans of the confederates, and these disasters were poorly compensated by the ac- quisition of a kw fortified towns in Flanders, which were captured by Marlborough. Even these slight successes gave courage to the allies ; the English parliament voted liberal supplies for continuing the war and the emperor, though menaced on one side by the Hungarian insur gents, and on the other by the French and Bavarians, ordered his sec- ond son, Charles, to assume the title of king of Spain, and to proceed to Portugal, for the purpose of invading that country. Marlborough had hitherto been greatly impeded by the timid cautio of his Dutch colleagues ; he concerted the plan of his next campaig- with a more congenial spirit, Prince Eugene. As his Flemish con quests, in the preceding campaigns, had secured a good barrier for th< united provinces, Marlborough now advanced to the title of duke leaving the defence of the fortresses to the Dutch garrisons, concen- trated his forces, with the professed design of invading France, and then suddenly marched into Germo.ny. A junction was eflected with the imperialists, the elector of Bavaria's lines at Donawert were forced, and the allies advanced to the Danube. The Bavarian prince having been reinforced by thirty thousand French under the command of Mar- shal Tallard, resolved to hazard a battle, and the duke having been joined by Prince Eugene, with an equal number, eagerly sought for an engagement (August 13, a. d. 1704). The French and Bavarians were advantageously posted on a hill between the Danube and the village of Blenheim ; but their line was weakened by detachments, and Marlbor- ough, taking advantage of their error, charged through, and won a de- cisive victory. Thirty thousand French and Bavarians were killed, wounded, or taken ; their camp-equipage, baggage, artillery, and stand- ards, became the prize of the conquerors ; Tallard was taken prisoner, and the Bavarian prince narrowly escaped the same fate. The allies, however, suffered very severely ; their loss amounted to no less than five thousand killed and seven thousand wounded. The consequences of this brilliant but bloody victoiy were, the im- mediate liberation of the emperor from all danger ; the Hungarian insurgents were terrified into submission, Bavaria was abandoned by its sovereign to the ravages of the imperialists, and the shattered relics of the French army were driven to seek shelter within their own fron- tiers. The moral influence of the victory was even of more impor- tance than the immediate results • it not only compensated for the ill success of the allies in Italy and Spain, but changed the whole com- plexion <)f the w^r At sea the English na^v l^p-jan to retrieve its AUGUSTAN AGES OP ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 585 fame ; though Sir George Rooke failed in an attack on Barcelona, he stormed Gibraltar, a fortress hitherto deemed impregnable, and gained a glorious but unprofitable victory over the French tleet off Malaga. Had all the allies exhibited the same vigor as the English, Louis must have been speedily ruined ; but the Germans were sluggish ; the death of the emperor Leopold, and the accession of his more enter- prising son Joseph, made no change in their policy (a. d. 1705): the prince of Baden, the general of the imperialists, obstinately refused to join Marlborough on the Moselle, and the allies could attempt no con- quest of importance in Flanders. In Italy the French obtained so ' many advantages that the duke of Savoy was forced to :hut himself up in his capital, where he was besieged, with but little prospect of relief; but on the side of Spain the allied arms were crowned with brilliant success. Sir John Leake defeated a French fleet ofl' Gibraltar, and thus forced the marshal de Tesse to raise the siege of that fortress ; the confederates, entering Spain on the Portuguese side, captured severa.; places in Estremadura, while the earl of Peterborough, having been convoyed by Sir Sir Cloudesly Shovel to the coast of Catalonia, took the important city of Barcelona, and established the authority of Charles III. in the whole province of Catalonia, and the greater part of the kingdom of Valencia. These variations of success inflamed the courage and obstinacy of ^^the belliger?int powers. Louis was so elated that he ordered Marshal Villeroy to act on the offensive in Flanders, while his Italian army be- sieged Turin, and the forces he sent into Germany drove the prince of Baden and the imperialists before them (a. d. 1706). The English parliament, now composed principally of whigs, showed the greatest eagerness for the prosecution of the war, and voted liberal supplies for the ensuing campaign. Marlborough joined the united army of Hol- land and England in May, and soon after received a subsidiary Danish force. Villeroy, relying on his superior strength, advanced to attack the allies, and the two armies met near the village of Ramillies. The French marshal posted his left wing behind a morass, where it could not be attacked, but where it was equally incapable of advancing against the enemy. Marlborough took immediate advantage of this error ; amusing the French left wing by a feigned attack, he poured his in- fantry in masses on the centre ; they encountered a brave resistance, but the duke bringing up the cavalry just as the French lines began to waver, broke through them with a headstrong charge, and in an instant Villeroy's army was a helpless mass of confusion. Seven thousand of the French were slain, six thousand taken prisoners, and a vast quan- tity of artillery and ammunition abandoned to the victors. The loss of the allies, in killed and wounded, did not exceed three thousand five hundred men. The results of this brilliant victory were the immediate conquest of Brabant, and almost all the Spanish Netherlands ; but its consequences were felt even in Italy. Marshal Vendome having been recalled to remedy, if possible, Villeroy's disaster. Prince Eugene resolved to raise the siege of Turin, and baffled the efforts of the duke of Orleans to ob- struct his march. Orleans therefore joined the besieging army, and as a battle was manifestly inevitable, the French marshals anxiously d© 586 MODERN HISTORY. liberated whether they should wait for the enemy in their intrench ments. The majority voted against the measure, but Marslial Marsin produced an order, signed by the king, immediately after receiving the account of his defeat at Ramillies, commanding his generals not to offer, but to wait for battle. This order hurt the pride and confused the measures of the duke of Orleans. While the French generals were angrily debating what arrangements should be made, Prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy fell upon their lines ; the French got entangled in their extensive intrenchments, the river Doria running through their camp prevented one part of their army from coming to the assistance of the other; they were speedily routed, and lied with precipitation, not halting until they had passed their own frontiers. In men, the loss of the French army was not great, but they abandoned all their cannon, baggage, ammunition, and military chest. By this single blow, the house of Bourbon lost the dutchies of Milan and Mantau, the principalitj of Piedmont, and eventually the kingdom of Naples. That the success of the allies was not equally decisive in Spain must be attributed to the want of energy and Austrian sluggishness of the archduke Charles. Philip besieged his rival in Barcelona, but was forced to retire by the appearance of Sir John Leake, with an English squadron, before the town. The retreat was made in great disorder, partly occasioned by an eclipse of the sun, which the superstitious Spaniards regarded as an omen of their ruin. Forty thousand English and Portuguese, under the command of the earl of Galway and the marquis de las Minas, advanced through Estremadura toward Madrid, and Philip was forced to abandon his capital ; at the same time, the count de Santa Cruz surrendered Carthagena and the galleys to the allied powers. Had the archduke gone immediately to Madrid, and closely pressed his rival, the crown of Spain would probably have been lost to the house of Bourbon ; but he lingered unaccountably in the neighborhood of Barcelona, until Philip and the duke of Berwick,* hav- ing collected a superior army, compelled the English and Portuguese to abandon Madrid. Carthagena was soon after recovered, but this was more than compensated by the loss of the islands of Majorca and Ivica, which surrendered to the English fleet under Sir John Leake. Louis was so disheartened by his losses, that he sought for peace on very humble conditions, but the allies, intoxicated with success, de- .nanded such humiliating terms, that he resolved to try the hazards of another campaign. While the English ministers were lavishing blood and treasure to support foreign wars, they did not neglect the internal affairs of the na- tion. A treaty for uniting England and Scotland under one legislature, was ratified by the parliaments of both countries ; but the Scottish na- tion generally was opposed to a union that galled their national pride, and the advantages of which time alone could develop (a. d. 1707). Louis derived one advantage from his recent misfortunes ; the expulsion of his force from Italy enabled him to send powerful succors into Spain, where the allies were acting with the greatest negligence and miscon- duct. The earl of Galway and the marquis de las Minas, having ex- * The duke of Berwick was the natural son of James II., and one of the ablest generals in the service of France. AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 587 hausted all their provisions in Valencia, attempted to pass into New Castile ; the duke of Berwick, having received large reinforcements, and aware that the allies had been weakened by the departure of the archduke, did not hesitate to attack them at Almanza, and won a vic- tory as complete as any that had been obtained during the war. This great triumph restored the cause of the Bourbons in Spain, and sim- ilar success attended the French army in Germany, where Marshal Villars penetrated to the Danube, and laid the dutchy of Wirtemberg under contribution. Nothing of importance occurred in Flanders, and the only naval enterprise was the siege of Toulon. Prince Eugene, and the duke of Savoy, marched through France to besiege this great port, while Sir Cloudesly Shovel appeared off the coast to second their operations. But unfortunately, the garrison of Toulon had been re- inforce I two hours before the appearance of the allies ; they retreated through Provence, wasting the country as they passed, and diffusing consternation almost to the gates of Paris. Nor was this the only evil that Louis suffered from the invasion ; the detachments withdrawn from the army of Marshal Villars so weakened that general, that he Avas forced to relinquish his high projects in Germany, and repass the Rhine, instead of advancing beyond the Danube. Great expectations had been formed in England, which the results of the campaign miserably disappointed ; Godolphin and Marlborough lost a considerable share of their popularity ; they were opposed even by the members of the cabinet, and though they persuaded the queen to dismiss Mr. Secretary Harley, and Mr. St. John, they saw that their influence with her majesty, and their power in parliament, had been considerably diminished (a. d. 1708). Marlborough felt that a vigorous campaign was essential to his future interests, especially as the duke le Vendome had, by treachery, gained possession of Ghent and Bruges ; ne therefore resolved to risk a general battle, and crossing the Scheldt, came up with the French army strongly posted at Oudenarde. The British cavalry broke their opponents at the first charge, the French .ines fell into confusion, and though the approach of darkness prevented the allies from completing their victory, the enemy fled in such disoider, that nine thousand were taken prisoners, and nearly six thousand de- serted. Marlborough, being reinforced by Prince Eugene, undertook tiie siege of Lisle, the principal city in French Flanders, and though it was vigorously defended by Marshal Boufflers, it was forced to surren- der after a siege of two months, while Ghent and Bruges were re- covered ere the close of the campaign. Nothing of importance occur- red in Italy, Germany, or Spain ; but the EngUsh fleet conquered the island of Sardinia, and terrified the pope into the acknowledgment of the archduke Charles as lawful king of Spain. The confidence of the allies now rose to the highest pitcli ; Godol- phin and Marlborough found the English parliament ready to grant additional supplies ; the Dutch agreed to augment their troops, and the imperialists promised to lay aside their inactivity. Louis, on the con- trary, disheartened by defeat, his treasury exhausted, his councils dis- tra 3ted, and his kingdom suflering from famine, offered to purchase peace by every concession that could reasonably be demanded (a. d. 1709). Once more his profl'ers were rejected, except upon conditions 588 MODERN HISTORY. inconsistent with his personal honor and the safety of his kingdom, and once more he appealed to the hazards of war. The confederates in Flanders, finding that Marshal Villars had taken a position from which he could not be dislodged, laid siege to Tournay, and on the surrender of that place invested Mons. Villars, unable to relieve the place, took possession of a strong camp at Malplaquet, whence he trusted that he could harass the besiegers. The confederates, elated with past suc- cess, resolved to attack the French in their intrenchments. Few bat- tles, since the invention of gunpowder, have been more obstinate and bloody ; victory finally declared in favor of the allies, but it was dearly purchased by the loss of fifteen thousand men ; while the French, Avho had fought under cover, lost only ten thousand. Mons was now closely invested, and the surrender of that important place closed the campaign Nothing of importance occurred in Germany, Italy, or Spain ; but Louis, finding his resources exhausted, once again made an unsuccessful effort to obtain peace. Conferences were opened at Gertruydenberg (a. d. 1710), but the allies, influenced by Marlborough and Prince Eugene, rejected the propositions of the French king ; he was, however, unwilling to break off" the negotiations, and the conferences were continued even after the hostile armies had actually taken the field. The duke of Marlborough took several fortified places in Flanders ; but nothing of importance was done in Germany or Piedmont ; and the misfortunes of the allies in Spain more than counterbalanced their other successes. The arch- duke Charles, aided by the English general. Stanhope, twice defeated his rival, and a second time gained possession of Madrid ; instead of improving these advantages, he loitered in the capital until forced to retire by the united forces of the French and Spaniards, under the duke of Vendome. The allies retired toward Catalonia, and marched, for the sake of subsistence, in two bodies. Stanhope, who commanded the rear division, allowed himself to be surrounded at Brihuega, and was forced to surrender at discretion. Staremberg, who led the prin- cipal division, was soon after forced to engage at a disadvantage, but he made such able dispositions, that Vendome was compelled to retreat, and the imperialists continued their march in safety. They were, however, so weakened and dispirited by Stanhope's misfortune, that the-- could not check the victorious progress of Philip. A revolution in the English cabinet proved of more consequence to Louis than even the success of his arms in Spain. The queen, a wo- man of feeble mind, had long been under the influence of the dutchess of Marlborough, who did not always use her power with discretion. A new fiivorite, Mrs. Masham, supplanted the dutchess, and was gained over, by liarley and St. John, to induce the queen to make a total change in the administration. This would have been impossible if the whigs had continued to enjoy the confidence of the nation ; but many circumstances contributed to diminish their popularity. The weight of taxes, occasioned by the expenses of the war, began to be felt as a burden, when victories, from their very frequency, ceased to excite joy ; the conduct of the allies, who contrived that " England should, fight for all and pay for all," gave just dissatisfaction'; and the rejection of the French king's offers at Gertruydenberg was justly regarded as the tri- AUGUSTAN AGES OF JJNGLAND AND FRANCE. 589 nmph of private ambition over public policy. In addition to Jhese 2;rounds of discontent, the tories raised the cry that the " church was in danger," on account of the favor shown to the dissenters ; and the whigs, instead of allowing the imputation to refute itself, imwisely attempted to silence the clamor by force. Dr. Henry Sacheverell preached a ser- mon before the lord mayor, in which he bitterly attacked the dissenters, and advocated the exploded doctrines of passive obedience and non-re- sistance. Though it was but a poor contemptible production, such is the A'iolence of party, that it was printed, and forty thousand copies are said to have been sold in a week. In anothei »veek, it would probably have been forgotten, had not Godolphin, who was personally attacked in the commons, persuaded his friends to make it the subject of a parlia- mentary impeachment. Common sense revolted from such an absurdi- y ; the generous feelings of the nation were enlisted on the side of the preacher, and this sympathy was soon transferred to his cause. During his trial, the populace shovved the liveliest zeal in his behalf ; and when he was found guilty, the house of lords, dreading popular tumults, passed a sentence so lenient, that it was hailed by the tories as a triumph. The persecution of Sacheverell was the ruin of the whigs ; the queen, aware of their unpopularity, dismissed all her ministers except the duke of Marlborough ; and a new cabinet was formed under the auspices of Mr. Harley, who was soon after created earl of Oxford. A new parlia- ment was summoned, in which the tories had an overwhelming majority (a. d. 1711), but the ministers did not abandon the foreign policy of their predecessors, and copious supplies were voted for the maintenance of the war. At this crisis an unexpected event changed the situations and views of all parties. The emperor Joseph died without issue ; his brother Charles, the claimant of the Spanish crown, succeeded to the empire, and the liberties of Europe were thus exposed to as much danger from the aggrandizement of the house of Austria, as from that of the Bourbon family. The campaign was languidly conducted in every quarter, and ere its conclusion, the English ministers were secretly negotia,ung with France. After many disgraceful intrigues, in which all the actors sacrificec. the interests of the nation to party purposes, the duke of Marlborough was stripped of all his employments, and conferences for a general peace commenced at Utrecht. The successive deaths of the dauphin of France, his son the duke of Burgundy, and his grandson the duke of Bretagne, left only the sickly duke of Anjou between Philip and the throne of France. The union of the French and Spanish monarchies filled the confederates with no unreasonable apprehension, and the Eng- lish ministers were obliged to threaten that they would renew the war, unless Philip renounced his right of succession to the throne of France (a. d. 1712). When this important point was obtained, the English and French agreed upon a cessation of arms ; the Dutch and the impe- rialists continued the campaign, but with such ill success, that they were induced to renew the conferences for peace. On the 31st of March, 1713, the treaties between the different powers were signed at Utrecht by the plenipotentiaries of France, England, Prussia (recently exalted into a kingdom), Savoy, and the United Provinces The em- 590 MODERN HISTORY. peror held out until the following year, when he signed a treaty at Rad- stadt, less favorable than that which had been offered at Utrecht ; and the king of Spain, with more reluctance, gave his adhesion to the general arrangements. Few subjects have been more fiercely contested than the conduct of the English ministers in relation to the treaty of Utrecht. The reason is perfectly obvious : both the political parties that divided the nation had acted wrong ; the whigs continued the war after all its reasonable objects had been gained ; the tories concluded a peace in which the ad- vantages that England might have claimed, from the success of her arms, were wantonly sacrificed. The people of England generally dis- liketi he peace, and the commercial treaty with France was rejected by a majority of nine votes in the house of commons. The "higs c^w began to pretend that the protestant succession was in danger, and the alarm spreading rapidly, brought back to their party a large share of its former popularity. Nor were these apprehensions groundless ; through the influence of the Jacobites, the earl of Oxford was removed from his office, and a new administration, more favorable to the house of Stuart, formed under the auspices of St. Johil, Lord Bolingbroke. But before the court of St. Germains could derive any advantage from this change, the queen, harassed by the intrigues and quarrels of her servants, sank into a lethargy, and her death disappointed the hopes of the Pretender and his adherents (August 1, 1714). Several whig lords, without being summoned, attended the council, which was of course held at the de- mise of the crown ; and the tories, overawed, concurred in issuing an order for the proclamation of the elector of Hanover, as George 1., king of Great Britain and Ireland. Section VI. — Peter the Great of Russia. — Charles XII. of Sweden. In the last two sections, we have confined our attention to the wars which the ambition of Louis XIV. excited in the south and west of Europe. During this period, the northern and eastern divisions of Christendom were occupied by the rivalry of two of the most extraor- dinary men that ever appeared on the stage of human life — Peter the Great of Russia, and Charles XII. of Sweden. Before entering or\ iheir history, we must take a brief retrospect of the affairs of the north alter the accession of the Czar Alexis, and the resignation of Queen Cliristina. Under the administration of Alexis, Russia began rapidly to emerge from the barbarism into which it had been plunged by the Mongolian invasion and subsequent civil wars. He reformed the laws, encouraged commerce, and patronised the arts ; he recovered Smolensko from the Poles, and prevented the Turks from establishing their dominion over the Cossack tribes. His son Theodore, though of a weak constitution, steadily pursued the same course of vigorous policy. " He lived," says a native Russian 1 istorian, " the joy and delight of his people, and died amid their sighs and tears. On the day of his decease, Moscow was in the same state of distress which Rome felt at the death of Titus." John, the brother and successor of Theodore, was a prince of weak in- tellect ; his ambitious sister, Sophia, seized for a time on the sovereign- AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 591 ty, excluding her young brother Peter, to whom Theodore had bequeathed '.he crown. Durmg seven years of boyhood Peter endured Sophia's galling yoke ; but when he reached his seventeenth year, he took advan- tage of the general indignation excited by the misconduct of the govern- ment, to shut that princess up in a nunnery, and banish her favorite into a distant part of the empire. Denmark was the scene of an extraordinary revolution (a. d. 1661). The tyranny of the a,ristocracy arose to such a height, that the clergy and commons voted for the surrender of their liberties to the king, and Ferdinand III., almost without any effort of his own, was thus invested with absolute power. On his death (a. d. 1670), his successor, Chris- tian v., commenced war against Charles XL, king of Sweden, who, though assailed by a powerful league, defended himself with great abili- ty and success. Charles XL, after the lestoration of peace, tried to make himself as absolute as the kings of Denmark, but he died prema- turely (a. d. 1697), leaving his crown to his son Charles XIL, whohas been deservedly styled the Alexander of the North. • Peter the Great commenced his reign by defeating the Turks, from whom he wrested the advantageous port of Azof, which opened to his subjects the commerce of the Black sea. This acquisition enlarged his views ; he resolved to make Russia the centre of trade between Europe and Asia, to connect the Dwina, the Volga, and the Don, by canals, thus opening a water communication between the northern seas and the Black and the Caspian seas. To complete this magnificent plan, he de- termined to build a city on the Baltic sea, which should be the empori- um of northern commerce, and the capital of his dominions. A still greater proof of his wisdom, and of his anxiety to secure the prosperity of his subjects, was his undertaking a tour through Europe, for the pur- pose of acquiring instruction, and bringing back to his subjects the im- provements of more civilized nations. In 1698, having established a regency to direct the government during his absence, he departed from his dominions as a private gentleman, in the train of the ambassadors that he had sent to the principal courts of Europe. Amsterdam, at that time one of the most flourishing commercial cities in Europe, was the first place that arrested his attention ; he entered himself as a common carpenter in one of the principal dockyards, laboring and living exactly like the other workmen. Thence he went to England, where he ex- amined and studied the principal naval arsenals. King William present- ed the czar with a beautiful yacht, and permitted him to engage several ingenious artificers in his service. After a year's absence, Peter re- turned home, greatly improved himself, and accompanied by a train of men well qualified to instruct his subjects. Anxious to extend his dominions on the eastern side of the Baltic, ho entered into an alliance against Sweden with Frederick Augustus, elec- tor of Saxony, who had succeeded John Sobieski on the throne of Poland, and Frederick IV., king of Denmark (a. d. 1700). The Danes commenced the war by invading the territories of the duke of Holstein- Gottorp, brother-in-law and ally of the king of Sweden. Their progress was slower than they expected, and, in the midst of their career, they were arrested by intelligence of the dangers which menaced their own capital. Charles XIL, undaunted by the power of the league, resolved 592 MODERN HISTORY. to carry the war into the dominions of Denmark. While his fleet, strengthened by an English squadron, blockaded Copenhagen, he sud denly embarked his troops at Carlscrona, and having easily eflected a passage, laid siege to the city, by land. Frederic, cut off from his do- minions by the Swedish cruisers, and alarmed by the imminent danger of his fleet and capital, concluded a peace highly honorable to the Swedes, leaving his Russian and Polish allies to continue the contest. No sooner had Charles concluded the treaty, than he resolved to turn his arms against the Russians, who were besieging Narva with a force of eighty thousand men ; though his own army did not exceed ten thousand, the heroic king of Sweden boldly resolved to attack his ene- mies in their intrenchments. As soon as his artillery had opened a small breach, he commanded his men to advance to the charge with fixed bayonets. A storm of snow, that blew full in their faces, added to the coulusion into which the undisciplined Russians were thrown by this daring assault ; the very superiority of their numbers added to their coai'usion ; after a contest ol' three hours' duration they were to- tally routed ; eighteen thousand of the besiegers fell in the battle or flight, thirty thousand remained prisoners, all their artillery, baggage, aad ammunition, became the prey of the conquerors. The czar was not disheartened by this defeat, which he attributed to the right cause, the ignorance and barbarism of his subjects ; " I knew," he said, " that the Swedes would beat us, but they will teach us to become conquer- ors in our turn." Though at the head of forty thousand men, he did not venture to encounter his rival, but evacuated the provinces that he had invaded. Having wintered at Narva, Charles marched against the Poles and Saxons, who were encamped in the neighborhood of Riga ; he forced a passage across the Duna, and gained a complete victory. Thence he entered as a conqueror into Courland and Lithuania, scarcely encoun- tering any opposition. Encouraged by this success, he formed the pro- ject of dethroning King Augustus, who had lost the afl'ection of the Poles by the undisguised preference which he showed for his Saxon subjects. With this design he entered into a secret correspondence with Radzrewiski, the cardinal primate, by whose means such a spirit of opposition was raised in the diet and senate, that Augustus sought peace as his only means of safety. Charles refused to treat unless the Poles elected a new king ; and Augustus, convinced that he could only protect his crown by the sword, led his army to meet the Swedes, in a spacious plain near Clissau (a. d. 1702). The Polish monarch had with him about twenty-four thousand men, the forces of Charles did not exceed half that luunber ; but the Swedes, flushed by recent con- quests, gained a complete vtctory ; and Augustus, after having made in vain the most heroic efforts to rally his troops, was forced to fly, leaving the enemy in possession of all his artillery and baggage. A second triumph at Pultusk, in the following campaign, gave such encourage- ment to the enemies of Augustus, that he was formally deposed by the diet (a. d. 1704), and the vacant crown given to Stanislaus Leczinski, who liad been nominated by the king of Sweden. Peter had not been in the meantime inactive ; though he had not given much assistance to his ally Augustus, he had made a powerful AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 593 diversion by invading Ingria, and taking Narva, so recently the sceH© of his misfortunes, by storm. At the same time he founded his pro- jected capital in the heart of his new conquests, and by his judicious measures protected the rising city from the attacks of the Swedish gen- erals. St. Petersburg!!, founded on a marshy island in the river Neva, during a destructive war, and surrounded by countries recently subdued or still hostile, rose rapidly into importance, and remained in perfect se- curity while all around was in confusion. Augustus had not yet re signed all hopes of recovering his crown ; he concerted a scheme of operations with Peter, and sixty thousand Russians entered Poland to drive the Swedes from their recent acquisitions. Charles was not daunted by the numbers of his enemies ; he routed the Russian divis- ions successively, and inspired such terror by the rapidity of his move- ments, which seemed almost miraculous, that the Russians retreated to their own country (a. d. 1706). In the meantime a victory obtained by a division of the Swedish army over the Saxons, opened to Charles a passage into the hereditary dominions of his rival, and crossing the Oder, he appeared in Saxony at the head of twenty-four thousand men. Augustus was forced to conclude peace on the most humiliating condi- tions. Charles wintered in Germany, where his presence created con- siderable alarm. He demanded from the emperor toleration for the protestauts of Silesia, and the relinquishment of the quota which Swe- den was bound to furnish for its German provinces. Involved in the war of the succession, Joseph submitted,* and the fears with which the presence of Charles filled the allied powers were soon dispersed by his departure in quest of new adventures. f From Saxony Charles marched back inro Poland, where Peter was making some ineffectual efforts to revive the party of Augusvus. Pe- ter retired before his rival, who had, however, the satisfaction of de- feating an army of twenty thousand Russians, strongly intrenched. In- toxicated by success, he rejected the czar's offers of peace, declaring that he would treat at Moscow ;| and without forming any systematic plan of operations, he crossed the frontiers, resolved on the destruction of that ancient city. Peter prevented the advance of the Swedes, on the direct line, by destroying the roads and desolating the country ; Charles, after having endured great privations, turned off to\\^ard the * The pope was greatly displeased by the emperor's restoring the Silesia n church- es to the protestants ; Jjseph facetiously replied to his remonstrances : "Had the king of Sweden demanded that I should become a Lutheran myself, I do not knt.\» what might have been the consequence." t The duke of Marlborough went into Saxony to dissuade the Swedish monarch from accepting the offers of Louis XIV. Marlborough was too cautious a poli- tician to enter immediately on the object of his mission. He complimented Charles on his victories, and even expressed his anxiety to derive instruction in the art of war from so eminent a commander. In the course of the conversation, Marlbo- rough perceived that Charles had a rooted aversion to, and was not, therefore, likely to form an alliance with Louis. A map of Russia lying open before the king, and the anger with which Charles spoke of Peter, revealed to the duke the real intentions of the Swedish monarch. He, therefore, took his leave without making any proposals, convinced that the disputes of Charles with the emperor might easily be accommodated, as all his demands would be granted. t When Peter was informed of this haughty answer, he coolly replied, " Mj brother Charles afiects to play the part of Alexander, but I hope he will not fiai in me a Darius." 38 594 MODERN HISTORY. Ukraine, whither he had been invited by Mazeppa, the chief of the Cossacks, who, disgusted by the conduct of the czar, had resolved to throw off his allegiance. In spite of all the obstacles that nature and the enemy could throw in his way, Charles reached the place of ren- dezvous ; but he had the mortification to find Mazeppa appear in his camp as a fugitive rather than an ally, for the czar had discovered his treason, and disconcerted his schemes by the punishment of his asso- ciates. A still greater misfortune to the Swedes Avas the loss of the convoy and the ruin of the reinforcement they had expected from Livonia. General Lewenhaupt, to whose care it was intrusted, had been forced into three general engagements by the Russians ; and though he had eminently distinguished himself by his courage and conduct, he was forced to set fire to his wagons to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy. Undaunted by these misfortunes, Charles continued the campaign even in the depth of a winter* so severe that two thousand men were at once frozen to death almost in his presence. At length he laid siege to Pultowa, a fortified city on the frontiers of the Ukraine, which contained one of the czar's principal magazines. The garrison was numerous and the resistance obstinate ; Charles himself was dan- gerously wounded in the heel while viewing the works ; and while he was still confined to his tent he learned that Peter was advancing with a numerous army to raise the siege. Leaving seven thousand men to guard the works, Charles ordered his soldiers to march and meet the enemy, while he accompanied them in a litter (July 8, 1709). The desperate charge of the Swedes broke the Russian cavalry, but the in- fantry stood firm, and gave the horse an opportunity of rallying in the rear. In the meantime, the czar's artillery made dreadful havoc in the Swedish line ; and Charles, who had been forced to abandon his can non in his forced marches, in vain contended against this formidable disadvantage. After a dreadful combat of more than two hours' dura tion, the Swedish army was irretrievably ruined ; eight thousand of their best troops were left dead on the field, six thousand were taken prisoners, and about twelve thousand of the fugitives were soon aftei forced to surrender on the banks of the Dnieper, from want of boats to cross the river. Charles, accompanied by about three hundred of his guards, esciped to Bender, a Turkish town in Bessarabia, abandoning all his treasures to his rival, including the rich spoils of Poland and Saxony. • Tais catastrophe is powerfully described by Campbell : — " Oh ! learn the fate that bleeding thousands bore. Led by their Charles to Dnieper's sandy shore. Faint from his wounds, and shivering in the blast, The Swedish soldier sank and groaned his last ; File after file the stormy showers benumb. Freeze every standard sheet and hush the drum; Horseman and horse confessed the bitter pang, And arms and warrior fell with hollow clang. Yet, ere he sank in Nature's last repose, Ere life's warm current to the fountain froze, The dying man to Sweden turned his eye, Thought of his home, and closed it with a sigh. Imperial pride lookei sullen on his plight, And Charles beheld, nor shuddered at the sight.*' AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. J>95 Few victories have ever had such important consequences as that w^hich the czar won at Pultowa ; in one fatal day Charles lost the fruits of nine years' victories ; the veteran army that had been the ter- ror of Europe was completely ruined ; those who escaped from the fatal field were taken prisoners, but they found a fate scarcely better than dea^.h, for they were transported by the czar to colonize the wilds of Siberia ; the elector of Saxony re-entered Poland, and drove Stan- islaus from the throne ; the kings of Denmark* and Prussia revived old claims on the Swedish provinces, while the victorious Peter invaded not only Livonia and Ingria, but a great part of Finland. Indeed, but for the interference of the German emperor and the maritime powers., the Swedish monarchy would have been rent in pieces. Charles, in his exile, formed a new plan for the destruction of his hated rival ; he instigated the Turks to attempt the conquest of Russia, and flattered himself that he might yet enter Moscow at the head of a Mohammedan army. The bribes which Peter lavishly bestowed on the counsellors of the sultans, for a time frustrated these intrigues ; but Charles, through his friend Poniatowski, informed the sultan of his vizier's corruption, and procured the deposition of that minister. Pu- pruli, who succeeded to the office of vizier, was averse to a Russian war, but he was removed at the end of two months, and the seals of office given to the pacha of Syria, who commenced his administra- tion by sending the Russian ambassador to the prison of the Seven Towers. The czar made the most vigorous preparations for the new war by which he was menaced (a. d. 1711). The Turkish vizier, on the other hand, assembled all the forces of the Ottoman empire in the plains of Adrianople. Demetrius Cantemir, the hospodar of Moldavia, believing that a favorable opportunity presented itself for delivering his country from the Mohammedan yoke, invited the czar to his aid ; and the Rus- sians, rapidly advancing, reached the northern banks of the Pruth, near Yassi, the Moldavian capital. Here the Russians found that the prom- ises of Prince Cantemir were illusory ; the Moldavians, happy under the Turkish sway, treated the invaders as enemies, and refused to supply them with provisions; in the meantime, the vizier arriving, formed»a fortified camp m their front, while his vast host of light ciy- alry swept round their lines and cut off all foraging pirties. The Rus- sians defeated three successive attempts to storm their intrenchments ; but they must have yielded to the effects of fatigue and famine, had not the emperess Catherine,! who accompanied her husband during che campaign, sent a private message to the vizier, which induced him to open negotiations. A treaty was concluded on terms whicii, though severe, were more favorable than Peter, under the circumstances, could reasonably have hoped ; the Russians retired in safety, and Charles • The Danish monarch invaded Schoncn, but his troops were defeated by the Swedish militia, and a few regiments of the line, commanded by General Stijen- bock. When intelligence of this victory was conveyed to Charles, he exclninied, ■' Mv brave Swedes ! should God permit me to join you once more, we will beat them all." t Catherine was a Livonian captive, of low condition, whom the emperor first saw waiting at table. Her abilities and modesty won his heart, he raised her to his throne, and never had reason to repent of his choice. 596 MODERN HISTORY. reached the Turkish camp, only to learn the downfall of all his expect ations. A new series of intrigues in the court of Constantinople led to the appointment of a new vizier ; but this minister was little inclined tc gratify the king of Sweden ; on the contrary, warned by the fate of his predecessors, he resolved to remove him from the Ottoman empire (a. d 1713). Charles continued to linger ; even after he had received a let- ter of dismissal from the sultan's own hand, he resolved to remain, and when a resolution was taken to send him away by force, he determined, with his few attendants, to dare the whole strength of the Turkish empire. After a fierce resistance, he was captured and conveyed a prisoner to Adrianople ; on his road, he learned that Stanislaus, whom he had raised to the throne of Poland, was likewise a Turkish captive ; but, buoyed up by ardent hopes, he sent a message to his fellow-suffer- er, never to make peace with Augustus. Another reTOlution in the divan revived the hopes of Charles, and induced him to remain in Turkey, when his return to the North would probably have restored him to his former eminence. The Swedes, under General Steenbock, gained one of the most brilliant victories that had been obtained during the war, over the united forces of the Danes and Saxons, at Gadebusch, in the dutchy of Mecklenburg ; but the conqueror sullied his fame by burning the defenceless town of Altona, an outrage which excited the indignation of all Europe. This, however, was the last service that Steenbock could perform to his absent master ; unable to prevent the junction of the Russians with the Danes and Saxons, he retreated be- fore superior numbers, and, by the artifices of Baron Goertz, obtained temporary refuge in a fortress belonging to the duke of Holstein. The allies, however, pursued their advantages so vigorously that Steenbock and his followers were forced to yield themselves prisoners of war. Goertz, however, in some degree averted the consequences of this calamity by a series of political intrigues, which excited various jeal- ousie:5 and discordant interests between the several enemies of Sweden The czar in the meantime pushed forward his conquests on the side of Finland ; and the glory of his reign appeared to be consumma- ted by a naval victory obtained over the Swedes near the islapd of Oelaiid (a. d. 1714). This unusual success was celebrated by a triumphal entry into St. Peterburgh, at which Peter addressed his subjects on the magnitude of the advantages they had derived from his govei nment. Charles heard of his rival's progress unmov-^d ; but when he learned that the Swedish senate intended to make his 6>.ster regent, and to make peace with Russia and Denmark, he announced his intention of returning home. He was honorably escorted to the Turkish frontiers ; but though orders had been given that he should be received with all due honor in the imperial dominions, he traversed (Germany incognito, and toward the close of the year reached Stralsund, the capital of Swedish Pomerania. Charles, at the opening of the next campaign, found himself sur- rounded with enemies (a. d. 1715). Stralsund itself was besieged by the united armies of the Prussians, Danes, and Saxons, while the Russian fleet, which now rode triumphant in the Baltic, threatened a descent upon Sweden. After an obstinate defence, in which the AUGUSTAN AGES OP ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 597 Swedish monarch displayed all his accustomed bravery, Stralsund was forced to capitulate, Charles having previously escaped in a small vessel to his native shores. All Europe believed the Swedish mon- arch undone ; it was supposed that he could no longer defend his own dominions, when to the inexpressible astonishment of every one, it was announced that he had invaded Norway. His attention, however, was less engaged by the war than by the gigantic intrigues of his new favorite Goertz, who, taking advantage of a coolness between the Russians and the other enemies of Sweden, proposed that Peter and Charles should unite in strict amity, and dictate the law to Europe. A part of this daring plan was the removal of the elector of Hanover from the English throne, and the restoration of the exiled Stuarts. But while the negotiations were yet in progress, Charles invaded Norway a second time, and invested the castle of Frederickshall in the very depth of winter. But while engaged in viewing the works, he was struck bv a cannon-ball, and was dead before any of his attendants came to his assistance (a. d. 1718).* The Swedish senate showed little grief for the loss of the warlike king ; on the first news of his death, his favorite. Baron Goertz, was arrested, brought to trial, and put to death on a ridiculous charge of treason. The crown was conferred upon the late king's sister, but she soon resigned it to her husband, the' prince of Hesse, both being compelled to swear that they never would attempt • Dr. Johnson's character of Charles XII. is the best comment on the life of that Edventurous warrior : — " On what foundation stands the warrior's pride, How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide ; A frame of adamant, a soul of fire. No dangers fright him, and no labors tire ; O'er love, o'er fear, extends his wide domain, Unconquered lord of pleasure and of pain j No joys to him pacific sceptres yield, War sounds the trump, he rushes to the field ; Behold surrounded kings their powers combine. And one capitulate, and one resign ; Peace courts his hand, but spreads Iier charms in vain : ' Think nothing gained,' he cries, ' till naught remain : On Moscow's walls, till Gothic standards fly, And all be mine beneath the polar sky.' The march begins in military state. And nations on his eye suspended wait ; Stern famine guards the solitary coast. And winter barricades the realms of frost ; He comes, nor want, nor cold, his course delay ; Hide, blushing Glory, hide Pultowa's day : The vanquished hero leaves his broken bands. And shows his miseries in distant lands ; Condemned a needly supplicant to wait While ladies interpose, and slaves debate. But did not chance at length her error mend ? Did no subverted empire mark his end ? Did rival monarchs give the fatal wound ? Or hostile millions press him to the ground ? His fall was destined to a barren strand, A petty fortress, and a dubious hand ; He left the name, at which the world grew pale. To point a moral, or adorn a tale." 598 MODERN HISTORY. the re-establishment of arbitrary power. Negotiations for peace were commenced with all the hostile powers, and treaties concluded with all bnt Russia (a. d. 1720). The appearance of an English fleet in the Baltic, coming to aid the Swedish squadron, however, finally disposed the czar to pacific measures ; and he consented to grant peace, on con- dition of being permitted to retain Ingria, Livonia, and part of Finland (a. d. 1721). Thus the great northren war terminated, just as it was about to be connected with the politics of southern Europe MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 599 CHAPTER VIII. GROWTH OF THE MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. Section I. — Establishment of the Hanoverian Successio7i in Englaad. During the wars that had been waged against Louis XIV., the funding system was established in England ; it commenced by the founding of a national bank (a. d. 1 694), which lent its capital to the government at a lower rate of interest than was then usual. Further loans were contracted to support the exigences of the wars ; parliament guarantied the payment of the interest, without entering into any obligation to restore the capital, which was transferable to any one. The gradual extension of the wealth of the nation facilitated the growth of this system, which soon gave England commanding influence on the con- tinent. The facilities of raising money possessed by the English government enabled it to conclude subsidiary treaties, and set the armies of allied states in motion. Internally the funding system wrought a still greater change ; a great portion of the political influ- ence previously possessed by the landed aristocracy was transferred to large capitalists and manufacturers ; the banking and funding systems afforded great facilities for accumulating the profits of industry, and thus fostered the growth of an intelligent and opulent middle class, whose strength was soon displayed in the increasing importance of the Vouse of commons. Even at the treaty of Utrecht, the mercantile .system began to manifest itself in all its strength. Grants of com- mercial privileges were made the conditions of peace with the maritime powers, and territorial concessions were made with a regard to the interests of trade rather than power. Justly as the British negotiators at Utrecht may he blamed for not taking sufficient advan- tage of the position in which tncir country was placed by the victories of Marlborough, it is undeniable that the treaty they concluded laid the foundation of the commercial superiority of England ; it also contained the germes of two future wars, but these consequences were slowly developed ; and at the commencement of the eighteenth century, the :epublic of Holland was still the first commercial state in Europe. The accession of George I. produced a complete change in the Einglish administration ; the tories were dismissed with harshness, the whigs were the sole possessors of office, and on the new election con- sequent on the demise of the crown, they obtained a decided majority in parliament. Unfortunately they used their power to crush their 600 MODERN HISTORY. political adversaries ; the chiefs of the late ministry were impoached for high treason, and their prosecution was hurried forward so vindic- tively, that Lords Bolingbroke and Ormond fled to the continent. This seemed a favorable moment to make an effort in favor of the exiled Stuarts, but Louis XIV., broken down by age, infirmities, and misfortune, was unwilling to hazard a new war, Avhich might disturb the minority of his great-grandson, for in consequence of the mortality in the royal family, this remote descendant was destined to be his successor. The death of Louis (Sept. 1, 1715) further disconcerted the projects of the Pretender and his adherents ; the duke of Orleans, who was chosen regent by the parliament of Paris during the minority of Louis XV., adopted every suggestion of the English ambassador, the earl of Stair, for counteracting the designs of the Jacobites ; and he did them irreparable injury by seizing some ships laden with amis and ammunilioii, at a lime when it was impossible for them to purchase any "resh supply. The Jacobites, however, persevered, and a plan was "ormed for a general insurrection ; but this was defeated by the Pre- .ender's imprudence, who prematurely gave the earl of Mar a commis- sion to raise his standard in Scotland. The earl of Mar possessed considerable influence in the highland counties ; no sooner had he pro- claimed the Pretender, under the title of James III., than the clans crowded to his standard, and he was soon at the head of nine thousand men, including several noblemen and persons of distinction. Thus supported, he made himself master of Perth, and established his authori- ty in almost all that part of Scotland which lies north of the Frith of Forth. In the meantime the government was alarmed ; the jacohite leaders who had agreed to raise the west of England were taken into custody, and the duke of Argyle was sent against Mar with all the forces of North Britain. An ill-contrived and worse executed insurrection of the Jacobites exploded in the north of England ; its leaders, the earl of Derwenfvvater, Lord Widdrington, and Mr. Foster, a Northumbrian gentleman of great influence, were joined by several Scottish lords and a body of Highland infantry. But being unable to agree upon any rational pl?n of operations, they were surrounded by the royal forces in the town oi Preston, and forced to surrender at discretion. It would have been better for the character of the government had lenity been shown to these unhappy men, but unfortunately most of the leaders were doomed to suffer the penalties of high treason. In the meantime the earl of Mar had fought an indecisive battle witt the duke of Argyle, which proved nevertheless ruinous to the Pretend- er's cause. Many who had been previously in doubt, declared for the royal cause, and several of the insurgent leaders returned to their alle- giance. In this desperate state of his affairs, the Pretender landed with a small train in Scotland ; but finding his cause hopeless, he re- turned to France with such of the leaders as did not expect pardon, and the whole country quietly submitted to the duke of Argyle. Befon^ entering on the singular changes wrought by the policy of the duke of Orleans in Europe, it will be convenient to cast a brief glance at the affairs of Russia and Turkey. No sooner had Peter the Great concluded peace with Sweden than he assumed the title of em- eror, with the consent of all the European powers. By sending an MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM 601 auxiliary force to aid the lawful sovereign of Persia against an A^fghan usurper, lie obtained the cession of the provinces on the south and west of the Caspian sea ; and, while he thus extended his dominions, he did not neglect their internal improvement, but constructed canals, planned roads, and established manufactories. But Peter's own character re- tained many traces of barbarism, and his treatment of his eldest son, Alexis, excited general horror. This unfortunate prince is said to have been induced by some of the Russian priests and boyars to promise, that in the event of his accession, he would restore the old state of things, and abolish the new institutions of his father. He was arrested and forced to sign an abdication of the crown ; soon after this, he died in prison, but whether violent means were used to accelerate his end, has never been satisfactorily ascertained. The second son of the Russian emperor died in infancy, and Peter chose his emperess as his successor. Me assisted at her coronation after his return from the Persian war; and on his death (a. d. 1725) she became emperess of all the Russias, and by the excellence of her administration justified the choice of her illustrious husband. The Turks were enraged at the diminution of their national glory in the war that was terminated by the treaty of Carlowitz, and eagerly longed for an opportunity of retrieving their lost honor. Ahmed III., the most warlike sultan that had recently filled the throne, was far from being displeased by their martial zeal, and he took the earliest opportu- nity of declaring war against the Venetians, whom he expelled from the Morea in a single campaign (a. d. 1715). The emperor, Charles VI., was solicited by the pope to check the progress of the Mohamme- dans ; he therefore interfered, as protector of the treaty of Carlowitz ; but finding his remonstrances disregarded, he assembled a powerful army, and published a declaration of war (a. d. 1716). Prince Eugene, at the head of the imperialists, crossed the Danube, and attacked the forces of the grand vizier, near Peterwaradin. He gained a complete victory, twenty-five thousand of the Turks were either killed or drown- ed, while the loss of the Austrians did not exceed one fifth of that num- ber. In the ensuing campaign, the prince laid siege to Belgrade, and having defeated with great slaughter the vast Turkish army that march- ed to its relief, became master of that important fortress. The conse- quence of these victories was the p^ace of Passarowitz (a. d. 1718) by which Austria and Russia gained considerable acquisitions ; but the republic of Venice, for whose sake the war was ostensibly undertaken, did not recover its possessions in Greece, and found its interests neg- lected by its more potent allies. These wars were very remotedly connected with the political con- dition of southern Europe, which now depended entirely on the main- tenance of the terms of ihe peace of Utrecht. Several powers were interested in their preservation ; England's flourishing commerce de- pended in many essential particulars on the articles of the treaty ; they wore the best security to Austria, for the provinces lately ceded in Italy ; and the Dutch, unable or unwilling to garrison the barrier towns, felt that peace was necessary to their security. But above all, the re- gent of France believed that this treaty was the sole support of his power, since it involved the Spanish king's renunciation of his claims 602 MODERN HISTORY. to the French crown. Altogether opposed to these views were the do signs of the court of Spain ; the marriage of Philip to Elizabeth Far nese, heiress to the dutchies of Parma, Placentia, and Tuscany, inspired him with the hope of recovering the provinces that had been severed from the Spanish monarchy ; his prime minister, Cardinal Alberoni, flattered him with hopes of success, and at the same time diligently la- bored to improve the financial condition of the country. Alberoni's projects included an entire change in the political system of Europe ; he designed to reconquer Sardinia and Sicily for Spain ; to place James III. on the throne of England by the aid of the Russian emperor and the king of Sweden ; to prevent the interference of the emperor, by engaging the Turks to assail his dominions. Pope Clement XL, a weak and stupid pontiff, could not comprehend the merits of Alberoni's schemes ; he refused to pay the ecclesiastical subsidies to Philip V., and before the ambitious cardinal could further develop his schemes, the Quadruple Alliance was formed by the alarmed potentates of Eu- rope, and Philip V., was forced to dismiss his intriguing minister. The pope had the mortification to find that his interests were totally disregarded in the new arrangements made for preserving the tranquilli- ty of Europe ; his superiorities in Parma and Placentia formed part of the bribe tendered to the court of Spain by the rulers of France and Germany ; he remonstrated loudly, but, in spite of his efforts, they were accepted and retained. On the death of Clement XL, Alberoni became a candidate for the papacy, and was very near being elected. Fortunately for the per- manency of Romish power, this violent prelate was excluded from the chair of St. Peter, and Innocent XIII. was chosen. During his pontifi- cate the society of freemasons began to be regarded with suspicion by the heads of the church, especially as several other secret associations were formed in Germany and Italy for the propagation of what were called philosophical tenets ; but these doctrines were, in reality, not only hostile to popery, but subversive of all religion and morality. Though Austria, France, England, and Holland, united against the dangerous schemes of Alberoni, and formed the Quadruple Alliance (a. d. 1716), yet the cardinal steadily pursued his course, and war was proclaimed against Spain by France and England. The strength of Spain, exhausted by the war of the succession, could not resist this powerful combination ; the English lleet rode triumphant in the Mediterranean ; a German army expelled the Spaniards from Sicily ; the French, under the command of the duke of Berwick, inva- ded Spain, and captured several important fortresses ; the duke of Or- mond failed in his attempt to land a Spanish army in Great Britain ; and Philip, completely subdued, dismissed Alberoni (a. d. 1720), and acceded to the terms of the Quadruple Alliance. During this war, France and England were involved in great financial difliculties, by the Mississippi scheme in one country, and the South sea speculation in the other. A Scotch adventurer, named Law, proposed a plan to the regent of France for speedily paying off the vast national debt, and delivering the revenue from the enormous interest by which it was overwhelmed. He effected this by an extraordinary issue of paper, on the security of the Mississippi company, from whose com- MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 603 mercial speculations tho most extravagant results were expected. So rapid was his success, that in 1719, the nominal value of the funds was eighty times greater than the real value of all the current coin of the realm. This immense disproportion soon excited alarm ; when the holders of the notes tried to convert them into money, there was no specie to meet the demands, and the result was a general bankruptcy. Some efforts were made by the government to remedy this calamity, but the evil admitted only of slight palliation, and thousands were com- pletely ruined. The South sea scheme, projected by Sir John Blount, in England, »vas a close imitation of Law's plan. He proposed that the South sea company, to which great commercial advantages had been secured by the treaty of Utrecht, should become the sole creditor of the nation ; and facilities were offered to the owners of stock to exchange the se- curity of the crown for that of the South sea company. Never did so wild a scheme meet such sudden success ; South sea stock in a short time rose to ten times its original value ; new speculations were started, and for a time had similar popularity ; but when suspicion was excited and some cautious holders of stock began to sell, a universal panic suc- ceeded to the general delusion. By the prompt interference of parlia- ment a general bankruptcy was averted, and the chief contrivers of the fraud, including many individuals of rank and station, were punished, and their estates sequestrated for the benefit of the sufferers. The confusion occasioned by the South sea scheme encouraged the Jacobites to make another effort in favor of the Stuarts (a. d. 1722). But their plans were discovered, a gentleman named Layer was capi- tally punished for enlisting men in the service of the Pretender, and Dr. Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, the soul of his party, was exiled. Fortunately for the repose of Europe, the prime ministers of France and England, Cardinal Fleury, who succeeded tr power soon after the death of the duke of Orleans, and Sir Robert Walpole, were both bent on the preservation of peace, and for nearly twenty years they prevent- ed any active hostilities. Walpole's administration, however, began to lose its popularity, on account of his not gratifying the national hatred against Spain. A powerful opposition was formed against him, com- posed of the old tories, and some disappointed courtiers, which he con- tended against by unbounded parliamentary corruption. The death of George 1. (a. d. 1727) made no change in the position of parlies, for George II. intrusted Walpole with the same power he had enjoyed under his father. The emperor Charles, having no prospect of male issue, was natu- rally anxious to secure the peaceful succession of his daughter, Maria Theresa, to his hereditary, dominions ; and for this purpose he prepared a solemn law, called the Pragmatic Sanction, and procured its contirma- tion by the principal states of Europe. The guarantee of France was not obtained without war. Stanislaus Leczinski, father-in-law to the French monarch, was elected king of Poland, but was dethroned by the influence of the German powers (a. d. 1733). To avenge this insult, the French king formed a league with the courts of Spain and Sardinia against the emperor ; and, after a brief struggle, the court of Vienna was forced to purchase peace by considerable sacrifices. The success "t)W4 MODERN HISTORY. of the Russians under the reign of the emperess Anne, niece to Petei the Great, against the Turks, induced tlie German emperor to commence a second unfortunate war. Scarcely was it conckided, when the death of Charles (a. d. 1740) involved Europe in the contentions of a nejv disputed succession. Sir Robert Walpole had long preserved England at peace ; but the interested clamors of some merchants engaged in a contraband trade with the Spanish colonies, compelled him to commence hostilities (a. d. 1739). Admiral Vernon, with a small force, captured the important city of Porto Bello, on the American isthmus. This success induced the minister to send out large armaments against the Spanish colonies. Vernon with a fleet, and Lord Cathcart with a numerous army, imder- took to assail Spanish x\merica on the side of the Atlantic, while Com- modore Anson sailed round Cape Horn to ravage the coasts of Chili and Peru. The death of Lord Cathcart frustrated these arrangements , he was succeeded by General Wentworth, an oflicer of little experient e, and very jealous of Vernon's popularity. An attack was made on Carthagena, but it failed lamentably, owing to the disputes between the naval and military commanders. Both were reinforced from England, but they effected nothing of any importance, and returned home after more than fifteen thousand of their men had fallen victims to the climate. Anson, in the meantime, encountered such a severe storm in rounding Cape Horn, that two of his ships were forced to return, and one was lost. His diminished squadron, however, took several prizes off the coast of Chili, and plundered the town of Paita, in Peru. His force was finally reduced to one ship, but with this he captured the Spanish galleon, laden with treasure, that sailed annually from Acapul- 00 to Manilla. He then returned to England triumphant ; but the loss at Carthagena was so severely felt, that the English would not venture to renew their enterprises against Spanish America. Scarcely had Maria Theresa succeeded her father, the emperor Charles, when she found herself surrounded by a host of enemies. The elector of Bavaria laid claim to Bohemia ; the king of Sardinia revived some obsolete pretensions to the dutchy of Milan ; while the kings of Poland, Spain, and France, exhibited claims to the whole Austrian succession. An unexpected claimant gave the first signal for war. Frederic HL, who had just ascended the Prussian throne, in- herited from his father a rich treasury and a well-appointed army. Relying on the goodness of his troops rather than the goodness of his cause, he entered Silesia, and soon conquered that fine province (a. d. 1741). At the same time he offered to support Maria Theresa against all competitors, on the condition of being permitted to retain his acquis- ition. The princess steadily refused, though she knew that France was arming against her, and that her enemies had resolved to elevate Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, to the empire. The forces of the king of France entered Germany, and being joined by the Bavarian army, made several important conquests, and even threatened Vienna • but Maria Theresa, repairing to Presburg, convened the states of Hun- gary, iind api)earing before them with her infant son in her arms, made such ;jii eloquent appeal, that the nobles with one accord exclaimed, ' We will die for our King, Maria Theresa." Nor was this a moment- MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 605 ary burst of passion ; they raised a powerful army for the defence ot their young and beautiful princess, and a subsidy was at the same tinif voted to her by the British parliament. So great was the attachmenl of the English people to her cause, that the pacific S'r Robert Walpole was forced to resign, and a new administration was formed by his politi- cal rivals. The new ministers had been raised to power by a sudden burst of popular enthusiasm, but they soon showed themselves unworthy of tb nation's confidence. They took the lead in suppressing the measures which they had themselves declared necessary to the security of the constitution, and they far outstripped their predecessors in supporting German subsidies, standing armies, and continental connexions, which had been so long the theme of their severest censure. They augmented the army, sent a large body of troops into the Netherlands under the command of the carl of Stair, and granted subsidies to the Danes, the Hessians, and the Austrians. The French had some hopes of gaining the suoport of the Russians, who were now ruled by the emperess Eliz- abeth. On the death of the emperess Anne, her niece, the princess of Meckltnburgh, assumed the government, as guardian of her son John. Bui the partiality that the regent showed for her German countrymen displeased the Russian nobles ; their discontents were artfully increased by a French physician named Lestocq ; a bloodless insurrection led to the deposition of the Mecklenburgh princess, and Elizabeth, the daugh- ter of Peter the Great, was raised to the throne. She found the countiy involved in a war with Sweden, which she brought to a successful is- sue, and secured the inheritance to the Swedish crown for her favorite, Adolphus, bishop of Lubeck. Though the czarina owed her elevation in a great degree to French intrigue, she was inclined to support the Austrian cause ; but she did not interfere in the contest until she had completed all her arrangements. The republic of Holland showed still more reluctance to engage in the war ; and the English army in the Netherlands, deprived of the ex- pected Dutch aid, remained inactive. In Germany, the Bavarian elec- tor was driven not only from his conquests, but from his hereditary do- minions,* v^'hile the king of Prussia took advantage of a brilliant victory o conclude a treaty with Maria Theresa, by which he was secured in he possession of Silesia. The French army, thus deprived of its most • Dr. Johnson has powerfully described the fate of this unfortunate prince :— " The bold Bavarian, in a luckless hour, Tries the dread summits of Caesarean power, With unexpected legions bursts away. And sees defenceless realms receive his sway : Short sway ! fair Austria spreads her mournful charm?. The 'lueen, the beauty, sets the world in arms ; From hill to hill the beacons' rousing blaze Spreads wide the hope of plunder and of praise ; The fierce Croatian and the wild hussar, With all the sons of ravage, crowd the war ; The baffled prince, in honor's flattering bloom, Of hasty greatness finds the fatal doom ; His foes' derision, and his subjects' blame, An,! steals to death, from 5.nguish and from shame." 606 MODERN HISTORY. powerful ally, must have been ruined but for the abilities of its general, the count de Bellisle, who effected one of the most masterly retreats record- ed in history, from the centre of Bohemia to the frontiers of Alsace. The Spaniards failed in their attacks on the imperial territories in Italy, chiefly owing to the activity of the English fleets in the Mediterranean ; and the court of Versailles, disheartened by these repeated failures, made proposals of peace. Maria Theresa, intoxicated with success, re- jected all the proffered conditions (a. d. 1743). She urged forward her armaments with such vigor, that the French were driven to the Rhine, and the unfortunate elector of Bavaria, abandoned by his allies, and stripped of his dominions, sought refuge in Frankfort, where he lived in indigence and obscurity. The errors of the French in Ti'landers led to their defeat at Dettingen, just when a little caution would have insured the ruin of the English and Austrians. But the allies made no use of their victory, owing to the irresolution of George II., who took the man- a- ement of the campaign into his own hands, and superseded the earl of Stair. The war lingered in Italy, but the haughtiness and ambition of the emperess began to excite the secret jealousy of the German princes ; and the French and Spanish courts, alarmed by her treaty with the king of Sardinia, drew their alliance closer by the celebrated Family Compact, which bound them to maintain the integrity of each other's dominions. England had now become a principal in the war, and the monarchs of France and Spain resolved to invade that country, and remove the Hanoverian dynasty. A powerful army was assembled, and a fleet pre- pared to protect the transports ; but the French ships were shattered in a storm, and forced to take refuge in Brest from a superior English force (a. d. 1744). The English navy v/as less successful in the Mediterra- nean : the combined fleets of France and Spain were met by the British admirals, Matthews and Lestock ; but owing to the misconduct of some captains, and Lestock's remaining aloof with his whole division, the re suit of the engagement was indecisive. It is a sad proof of the violence and injustice of faction, that when these officers were brought to trial, Matthews, who had fought like a hero, was condemned, and Lestock acquitted. The war in Italy was sanguinary, but indecisive. In Ger- many, however, the king of Prussia once more took up arms against Maria Theresa, and invaded Bohemia. He was defeated with great loss, and forced to retire precipitately into Silesia. Soon afterward, the death of the elector of Bavaria removed all reasonable grounds for the continuance of hostilities ; his son, who had no pretensions to the empire, concluded a treaty with Maria Theresa, and promised to sup- port the election of her husband, the grand duke of Tuscany, to the im- perial dignity. But the national animosity between the French and English prevent- ed the restoration of peace (a. d. 1745). The Austrians were completely vanquished in Italy by the united forces of the French and Spaniards, whose vast superiority of numbers could not be resisted ; and on the side of the Netherlands, the misconduct of the allies gave a signal tri- umph to the Bourbons. The French army under Marshal Saxe was strongly posted at Fontenoy, but was, notwithstanding, attacked by the English, Dutch, and Germans In i'ew battles has the valo' of the MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 607 British infantry been displayed more signally or more uselessly. Form- ing themselves into a column, they bore down everything before them, lUiiil. deserted by their Dutch and German auxiliaries, they were out- flatdied and driven back by the entire force of the French army. The loss on both sides was nearly equal ; but though the victory was not decisive, it enabled Marshal Saxe to reduce some of the most consider- able towns in the Netherlands. Tranquillity was restored to Germany by the election of the grand duke of Tuscany to the empire, under the name of Francis I. ; and about the same time Maria Theresa, as queen of Hungary, concluded the treaty of Breslau with the king of Prussia, and thus quieted her most dangerous enemy. The discontent occasioned by the loss at Fontenoy induced the grand- son of James II., commonly called the Young Pretender, to attempt the restoration of his family. He landed in Scotland with a small train, but being soon joined by the enthusiastic Highland clans, he descended from the mountains and marched toward Edinburgh. The city surrendered without any attempt at resistance, but the castle still held out. Sir John Cope, the royal commander in Scotland, had marched northward to raise the loyal clans ; having collected some reinforcements, he pro- ceeded from Aberdeen to Dunbar by sea, and hearing that the insurgents were resolved to hazard a battle, he encamped at Preston Pans. Here he was unexpectedly attacked by the Young Pretender, at the head of about three thousand undisciplined and half-armed soldiers. A panic seized the royal troops ; they fled with the most disgraceful precipita- tion, abandoning all their baggage, cannon, and camp-equipage, to their enemies. The reduction of the French colony of Cape Breton, in North Amer- ica, had revived the spirit of the English ; and the time that the Pre- tender wasted in idle pageantry at Edinburgh afforded the ministers an opportunity of bringing over some regiments from Flanders. Notwith- standing the formidable preparations thus made, the Pretender, probably relying on promised aid from France, crossed the western borders, and look Carlisle. But the vigilance of Admiral Vernon prevented the French fleet from venturing out ; and the Pretender having failed to raise recruits in Lancashire, and unable to force a passage into Wales, baffled the royal armies by an unexpected turn, and suddenly marched to Derby. Had he continued to advance boldly, London itself might have fallen ; but he delayed at Derby until he was nearly enclosed be- tween two powerful armies, and was forced either to retreat or to hazard a battle on very disadvantageous terms. It was finally determined that they should return to Scotland, and this retrograde movement was efTect- ed by the Highlanders with extraordinary courage and expedition. This retreat did not produce the dispiriting effect on the insurgents that had been anticipated. The Pretender's forces were greatly aug- mented after his return to Scotland ; but finding that Edinburgh had been secured by the royal army during his absence, he marched to Stir- ling, captured the town, and besieged the castle. General Hawley was sent with a strong force to raise the siege, but despising the undisci- plined Highlanders, he acted so hnprudently that he suffered a complete defeat near Falkirk (a. d. 1746). The Pretender, instead of following up his advantage, returned to the siege of Stirling castle, while the royal 608 MODERN HISTORY. army, reinforced by fresh troops, was placed under the command of the duke of Cumberland, a prince of the blood, who, though by no means a skilful general, was a great favorite with the soldiery. The insurgent army retired before the royal troops until they reached CuUoden Moor, where they resolved to make a stand. Warned by the errors of Cope and Hawley, the duke of Cumberland took the most prudent precautions to meet the desperate charge of the Highlanders ; they rushed on with their usual impetuosity, but being received by a close and galling fire of musketry, while their ranks were torn by artillery, they wavered. broke, and in less than thirty minutes were a helpless mass of confu- sion. The victors gave no quarter : many of the insurgents were mur- dered in cold blood, and their unfortunate prince was only saved from capture by the generous devotion of one of his adherents, who assured the pursuers that he was himself the object of their search. The cruelties of the royalists after their victory were perfectly dis- graceful ; the country of the insurgent clans was laid waste with fire and sword ; the men were hunted like wild beasts on the mountains, the women and children, driven from their burned huts, perished by thou- sands on the barren heaths. When all traces of rebellion, and almost of population, had disappeared, the duke of Cumberland returned to London, leaving a large body of troops to continue the pursuit of the surviving lugitives. During five months the young Pretender remained concealed in the Highlands and Western isles of Scotland, though a re- ward of thirty thousand pounds was set on his head, and more than fifty persons were intrusted with his secret. At length he escaped on board a French privateer, and, after enduring incredible hardships, arrived safely in Brittany. I'he vengeance of the government fell heavily on his adherents : numbers of the leaders were tried and exe- cuted, and though they died with heroic firmness, their fate excited little commiseration. In the meantime the French, under Marshal Saxe, had overrun the greater part of the Netherlands ; Brussels, Antwerp, and Namur, were captured, while the confederate army was defeated in a sanguinary but indecisive engagement at Raucoux. In Italy, the allies were more suc- cessful ; taking advantage of the mutual jealousies between the French and Spaniards, the Austrians, reinforced by the king of Sardinia, drove their enemies from Italy, and pursued them into France. The death of their monarch had abated the vigor of the Spaniards, for the designs of Ferdinand VI., Philip's son and successor, were for some time un- known ; but when he declared his resolution to adhere fo the Family Compact, the hopes of the partisans of the house of Bourbon were re- vived. About the same time the imperialists were compelled to evacu- ate the south of France by the judicious measures of the marshal de Bellisle ; and the Genoese, irritated by the severity with which they were treated, expelled the Austrian garrison, and baffled every attempt that their oppressors made to recover the city. The national animosity between the French and English was aggravated by commercial jeal- ousy ; they mutually fitted out armaments against each other's colonies ; but these expeditions, badly contrived and worse executed, led to no decisive results, and all parties began to grow weary of a war which produced no consequence but a lavish waste of blood and treasure. MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 609 Conferences were commenced at Breda, but the demands of the French appeared so exorbitant to the allies, that the negotiations were abruptly terminated, and the hostile powers made the most vigorous preparations for a decisive struggle (a. d. 1747). The exertions of the allies were long paralyzed by the indecision of the Dutch rulers ; even when their own country was invaded, they could not be induced to adopt more vig- orous councils, until a popular revolt compelled them to revive the office of stadtholder, and confer that dignity on the prince of Orange. Though this revolution gave more vigor to the operations of the allies, the whole weight of the war was ungenerously thrown upon the Eng- lish. The obstinate and bloody battle of Val would have been won by Britis A valor, but for the timidity and slowness of the Dutch and Aus- trians ; in consequence of their misconduct it terminated to the disaa vantage of the confederates. Soon after, the fortress of Bergenop- Zoom, generally believed to be impregnable, was captured by the French, who thus became masters of the whole navigation of the Scheldt. Tji Italy, the allies, though forced to raise the siege of Genoa, were gener- ally successful, while the British navy gained several important triumphs at sea. A valuable French convoy was attacked by Admirals Anson and Warren, off Cape Finisterre, and, after an obstinate engagement, six ships-of-the-line and several armed Indiamen were taken. Seven weeks after, a fleet laden with the rich produce of St. Domingo fell into the hands of Commodore Fox ; and at a later period of the year, Admiral Hawke, after a sharp battle, took six ships-of-the-line in the latitude of Bellisle. These reverses, and the sailing of a powerful British arma- ment to the East Indies, so alarmed the court of Versailles, that nego- tiations for peace were once more commenced. While conferences were opened at Aix-la-Chapelle (a. d. 1748), Mar- shal Saxe continued to carry on the war with great vigor : he laid siege to Maestricht, which was obstinately defended, but before the contest could be decided, intelligence was received that the preliminaries of peace had been signed. The basis of the treaty was a restitution of all conquests made during the war, and a mutual release of prisoners with- out ransom. It left unsettled the clashing claims of the Spaniards and British to the trade of the American seas, and made no mention of the right of search which had been the original cause of the war ; the only advantage, indeed, that England gained, was the recognition of the Han- overian succession, and the general abandonment of the Pretender, whose cause was henceforth regarded as hopeless. This result, from so expensive a contest, gave general dissatisfaction ; but the blame should fall on the authors of the war, not of the peace ; England had no interest in the contests for the Austrian succession ; under the peaceful administration of Sir Robert Walpole, her commerce and manufactures had rapidly increased ; but through an idle ambition for military glory, and a perverse love of meddling in continental affairs, the prosperity of the country received a severe check, and an enormous addition was made to the national debt. Section II. — The Colonial Struggle behveen France and Great Britain. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was soon discovered to be little better than a suspension of arms. Two causes of a very different nature 39 610 MODERN HISTORY. united to produce a new and fiercer struggle, which no arts of diploma- cy coukl long avert. The first of these was the jealousy with which the court of Austria regarded the great increase of the Prussian monarchy ; the extorted renunciation of Silesia could neither be forgiven nor forgot- ten, and its recovery had long been the favorite object of the court of Vienna. The Prussian monarch was not popular with his neighbors — all new powers are naturally objects of jealousy — and the selfish policy which Frederic displayed, both in contracting and dissolving alliances, prevented him from gaining any permanent friend ; he was the personal enemy of Elizabeth, emperess of Russia, and of Count Bruhl, the lead- ing minister in the court of Saxony, and both readily joined in the plans formed for his destruction. But with these confederates, the Austrian cabinet was reluctant to engage in hostilities, while France might at any time turn the balance, by renewing its former relations with Prussia. Prince Kaunitz, the real guide of the court of Vienna, and, during four reigns, the soul of the Austrian councils, resolved to unite the empire and France in )ne com- mon project for sharing the rule of Europe. Louis XV., who had sunk into being the slave of his mistresses, was induced, by this able diplom- atist, to depart from the course of policy which for two centuries had maintained the high rank of France among the continental powers ; from being the rivals and opponents of the Austrian dynasty, the house of Bourbon sank into the humble character of assistants to that power — a change which eventually brought the greatest calamities on themselves and their country. The commercial jealousy with which the English regarded the French, was the second cause for the renewal of the war. During the late war, the French navy had been all but annihilated, and the exertions made for its restoration were viewed with secret anger. Owing to incapacity or defective information, the negotiators at Aix-la-Chapelle had left most of the colonial questions at issue between England and France wholly undecided. The chief subjects contested were, the limits of the Eng- lish colony of Nova Scotia, the right claimed by the French to erect forts along the Ohio, for the purpose of connecting the Canadas with Louisiana, the occupation of some neutral islands in the West Indies by the French, and, finally, the efforts of both nations to acquire political supremacy in Hindustan. The maritime war between England and France had no immediate connexion with the struggle between Prussia and Austria. But when the French king, at the commencement of the contest, menaced Han- over, George II., who preferred the interests of this petty principality to those of the British empire, entered into a treaty with Frederic foi its defence. Thus these two wars, so distinct in their origin and na- ture, were blended into one ; but before their termination, they were again separated and concluded by distinct treaties of peace. The empire which the descendants of Baber had established in Hin- dustan, touched the summit of its greatness in the reign of Aurungzebe ; under his feeble successors the imperial power rapidly declined, and after the successful eruption of Nadir Shah (a. d. 1738), it was almost annihilated. The governors of provinces and districts became virtually independent sovereigns, and the allegiance they paid to the court of MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 611 Delhi was merely nominal. Both the French and the English East India companies took advantage of this state of things to extend their influence and enlarge their territories. Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry, had long sought an opportunity of interfering in the troubled politics of India ; it was afforded him by the contests which arose on the vacancies in the souhbadary of the Deccan, and the nabob- ship of the Carnatic. He supported the claims of Chundah Saheb to the latter post, and endeavored to make Murzafa .Ting souhbadar, or viceroy of the Deccan. He succeeded in these objects, but his favor- ites did not long retain their elevation ; still, however, a precedent was established for the interference of the French in the contests between the native powers, and their aid was purchased by fresh concessions in every revolution. The rapid progress of their rivals roused the Eng- lish from their supineness, and, fortunately, they found a leader whose abilities, both as a general and statesman, have scarcely been surpassed by any European that ever visited the east. Mr. Clive, the son of a private gentleman, had been originally employed in the civil service of the East India company ; but war no sooner broke out than he exchanged the pen for the sword, and the union of courage and skill which he displayed at the very commencement of his career, excited just expect- ations of the glory which marked its progress. He gained several brilliant advantages over the allies of the French, and greatly strength- ened the English interest in the Deccan or southern division of Hin- dustan. But the French East India company had begun to distrust the flattering promises of Dupleix ; they found that his plans of territorial aggrandizement involved them in expensive wars, and were, at the same time, destructive of their commerce. A similar feeling, though to a less extent, prevailed in England, and the rival companies prepared to adjust their differences by the sacrifice of Dupleix. No regard was paid by his countrymen to his defence ; he was loaded with obloquy, as a selfish and ambitious man, though it was notorious that he had sacrificed his entire private fortune to the support of what he believed to be the true interests of France. The successor of Dupleix concluded a treaty with the English au- thorities, in which all the objects of that able governor were abandoned. Mohammed Ali, the friend of the English, was recognised as the nabob of the Carnatic ; the claims of the French upon the northern Circars were relii quished, and it was agreed that the colonists from each na- tion should, for the future, abstain from all interference with the afiairs of the native princes. It was scarcely possible that these stipulations could be strictly observed ; indeed, the treaty had scarcely been signed, when mutual complaints were made of infractions ; but, in the mean- time, events had occurred in another part of the globe, which frustrated it altogether. After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the British ministry, anxious to secure the province of Nova Scotia, as a barrier for the other American colonies, induced many disbanded soldiers and sailors to settle in that country. The town of Halifax was built and its harbor fortified, and Nova Scotia begar to rise rapidly in importance. The French, who had hitherto viewed the province as little better than a barren waste, began now to raise disputes concerning its limits ; and the settlers 612 MODERN HISTORY. from both countries, did not always arrange their controversies by peaceful discussion. Still more important were the differences which arose in the interioi of North America. The French were naturally anxious to form a communication between the Canadas in the north and Louisiana in the south. This could only be effected by depriving the English of their settlements west of the Allegany mountains, and seizing the posts which the British settlers in Virginia and the Caroli- nas had established beyond that chain for the convenience of trade with the Indians. Hostilities were commenced by the colonial authorities, without the formality of a declaration of war ; the Virginian post of Logs' town was surprised by a French detachment, and all its inhab- itants but two inhumanly murdered ; the North American Indians were stimulated to attack the British colonists, and large supplies of arms and ammunition were imported from France (a. d. 1755). The British ministers immediately prepared for hostilities ; all the French forts within the limits of Nova Scotia were reduced by Colonel Monckton ; but an expedition against the French forts on the Ohio was defeated, owing to the rashness of General Braddock, who refused to profit by the local knowledge of the provincial officers. He fell into an ambus- cade of French and Indians, and instead of endeavoring to extricate himself, attempted to make a stand. At length he was slain, while vainly striving to rally his troops, and the regular soldiers fled with dis- graceful precipitation. It deserves to be remarked, that the provincial militia, commanded by Major Washington, did not share the panic of the royal army, but displayed great coolness, courage, and conduct. Two other expeditions, against the forts of Niagara and Crown Point, failed, though General Johnson, who commanded the latter, gained a vic- tory over the hostile army. But at sea the British strength was more effectually displayed ; two sail-of-the-line were captured by Admiral Bos- cawen, off Newfoundland ; and more than three hundred merchant-ships were brought as prizes into the ports of Great Britain. Notwithstanding these hostilities, a formal declaration of war was delayed ; its publica- tion was the signal for one of the fiercest strusfgles in which modern Europe had been involved. Before, however, we enter on this part of our history, we must briefly notice the important events that for a time threatened the total ruin of the English in Bengal, but whose final re- sults made their power paramount in northern India. The privileges which the emperor of Delhi had granted to the Eng- lish settlers in Calcutta excited great jealousy among the provincial governors, and were violently opposed by Jaffier Khan, the souhbadar of Bengal. Means were taken, however, to conciliate this powerful feudatory, and peace was preserved until the accession of the ferocious Suraja Dowla, who was enraged at the shelter wMch the English af- forded to some of his destined victims (a. d. 1756). He advanced against Calcutta, when most of the local authorities were seized with a scandalous panic ; the governor and the military commanders escaped in boats, leaving Mr. Holwell, Mr. Perks, and about one hundred and ninety more, to provide for their own safety as they best might. After endeavoring vainly to bring back even one vessel to aid their removal, this handful of men, after a vigorous defence, fell into the power of the ferocious Suraja. They were all thrust into a room twen- MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 613 ty feet square, Avhere, from the heat and foulness of the atmosphere, all but twenty-three died before the morning. The news of this catas- trophe reached Madras just when Colonel Clive and Admiral Watson, flushed by their recent victory over the celebrated pirate Angria, had arrived at Madras to aid in the destruction of the French influence in the Deccan. The troops assembled for that purpose were now sent to recover Calcutta, and this object was effected by the mere appearance of the fleet before the city. Several of the Suraja's own places were taken and plundered, and the French fort of Chandernagore reduced ; conspiracies were formed against Suraja Dowla, and that haughty chieftain felt that the sovereignty of Bengal must be decided by a battle. Contrary to the opinion of all his officers, Clive resolved to hazard an engagement, and took up a position in the grove of Plassy (June 23, 1757). The British force consisted of three thousand two hundred, not more than nine himdred of whom were Europeans ; their artillery consisted of eight six-pounders, and two howitzers. On the other hand, Suraja Dowla had with him fifty thousand foot, eighteen thousand horse, and fifty pieces of cannon. Though the engagement continued the greater part of the day, the British did not lose more than seventy in killed and wounded ; they owed the victory, indeed, more to the errors of their adversaries than to their own merits ; for the contest seems to have been little better than an irregular cannonade, occasion- ally relieved by ineffectual charges of cavalry. Its consequences were not the less decisive from the ease with which it was won ; Suraja Dowla, after wandering for some time as a fugitive, was murdered by one of his personal enemies ; and the viceroyalty of Bengal was given to Jaffier Khan, who purchased the favor of the British by large public grants and larger private bribes. This brief campaign established the supremacy of the English in northern India, where their power has never since been shaken. Section III. — The Seven Years' War. When the French government received intelligence of the events that had taken place in India and America, vigorous preparations for war were made throughout the kingdom, and England itself was menaced with invasion (a. d. 1756). Never was the national character of the British nation so tarnished as it was by the panic which these futile threats diffused ; Hessians and Hanoverians were hired to protect the kingdom, while the presence of these mercenaries was justly re- garded as dangerous to public liberty. It is more honorable to Britain to relate, that when Lisbon, on the very eve of this war, was almost destroyed by an earthquake, parliament voted one hundred thousand pounds for the relief of the sufferers. But the French government menaced an invasion onl / to conceal its project for the reduction of Minorca ; a formidable force was landed on the island, and close siege laid to Fort St. Philip, which commands the principal town and harbor. Admiral Byng, who had been intrusted with the charge of the English fleet in the Mediterranean, was ordered to attempt the relief of the place ; he encountered a French squadron, of equal force, but instead of seeking an engagement, he would not even support Admiral West, who had thrown the French line into confusion. After this indecisive 614 MODERN HISTORY. skirmish, he returned to Gibraltar, abandoning Minorca to its fate General Blakeney, the governor of Fort St. Philip, made a vigorous de- fence, though his garrison vi^as too small by one third ; but finding that he had no prospect of relief from England, he capitulated. But his conduct was so far from being disapproved of, that he v/as raised to the peerage by his sovereign, and welcomed as a hero by the people. The rage of the people at the loss of Minorca was directed against the unfortunate Byng ; popular discontent was still further aggravated by the ill-success of the campaign in America, where a second series of expeditions against the French forts signally failed ; while the mar- quis de Montcalm, the governor of Canada, captured Oswego, where the British had deposited the greater part of their artillery and military stores. Our ally, the king of Prussia, displayed more vigor ; unable to obtain any satisfactory explanation from the court of Vienna, he resolved to anticipate the designs of the Austrians, and invade Bohemia. For this purpose it was necessary that he should secure the neutrality of Saxony, but the elector was secretly in league with Frederic's enemies , and the Prussian monarch, finding pacific measures ineffectual, advanced against Dresden. The elector Augustus, who was also king of Poland, fortified himself in a strong camp at Pima, where he resolved to wait for the junction of the Austrian forces. Frederic blockaded the Saxon army and cut oft' its supplies ; the imperialists, who marched to the relief of their allies, were defeated at Lowositz, and the Saxons, thus left to their own resources, were forced to lay down their arms. Au- gustus fled to his kingdom of Poland, abandoning his hereditary domin- ions to the Prussians, who did not use their success with extraordinary moderation. But the victories of their ally only exasperated the rage of the Eng- lish people against their rulers ; the king was forced to yield to the storm, and dismiss his ministers. William Pitt (afterward earl of Chatham), the most popular man in the kingdom, was appointed head of the new administration, though the duke of Devonshire was nomi- nally premier ; a spirit of confidence was spread abroad, and abundant supplies voted for the war. Unfortunately, as a concession to popular clamor, the unhappy Byng, whose worst fault appears to have been an error of judgment and the dread of the fate of Admiral Matthews,* was brought to trial, found guilty of a breach of the articles of war, and sen- tenced to death. Great exertions were made to save the life of the unhappy admiral, but all in vain ; he was ordered to be shot on board the Monarque, and he met his fate with an intrepidity which effectually clears his memory from the stain of cowardice (a. d. 1757). In France, the attention of the court was engaged by an attempt on the king's life. A maniac, named Damien, stabbed Louis with a penknife as he was entering his carriage ; the wound was not dangerous, but it was sup- posed that the assassin might have accomplices in his treason. Every refinement of cruelty that scientific ingenuity could devise was exhaust- ed in the tortures of this unhappy wretch, whose manifest lunacy made him an object of compassion rather than punishment. The danger to which Louis had been exposed did not prevent him from makmg vigorous exertions to continue the war. Two armies • See page 606. MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 615 were sent into Germany, one destined to invade Hanover, the other to join the imperial forces against Prussia. George II., anxious to save Hanover, wished to send over a body of British troops for the defence of the electorate, but being opposed by the Pitt administration, he dismissed his ministers, and tried to form a new cabinet. The burst of national indignation at the removal of the popular favorite was, however, so great, that Pitt was soon recalled to power, but not until he had evinced a desire to make some concession to the royal inclinations. At the commencement of the campaign, the prospects of the king of Prussia were very gloomy ; the Russians were advancing through Lithuania, the Swedes threatened him in Pomerania, the united forces of the French and imperialists were advancing through Germany, and the emperess-queen, Maria Theresa, covered her hereditary dom^^iions with four armies, whose united strength amounted to one hundred and eighty thousand men. Frederic, baffling the Austrians by a series of masterly movements, opened a passage into Bohemia, where he was joined by the prince of Bevern and Marshal Schwerin, who had defeated the Austrian divisions that opposed their progress. Confident in the excellence of his troops he resolved to engage without delay, though his enemies were posted in a camp strongly fortified by nature (May 6). The memorable battle of Prague was vigorously contested, and success continued doubtful until the Austrian right wing, advancing too rapidly, was separated from the left. Frederic poured his troops through the gap, so that when the Austrian right was forced back by the intrepidity of Marshal Schwerin, it suddenly found itself surrounded, and fled in confusion. The centre and left, thus abandoned, could not resist the successive charges of the Prussians, and sought shelter in Prague. Frederic ventured to besiege this city though the numbers of the garrison nearly equalled those of his own array ; and his delay before the walls gave the Austrians time to recover their courage and recruit their forces. Count Daun began soon to menace the Prussian communications ; Frederic sent the prince of Bevern to drive him back ; Daun, though his forces were superior, retreated before the prince, until he could procure such additional strength as to render victory certain. When this was effected, he re- sumed the oflensive, and Frederic was forced to hasten to the prince's assistance. A junction was effected at Kolin, and Frederic marched to attack the imperial camp (June 18). The Prussians charged their enemies with their usual vigor, but they were unable to force the Aus- trian lines, and were finally driven from the field. In consequence of this defeat, the Prussians were forced, not only to raise the siege of Prague, but to evacuate Bohemia. Nor were the arms oi' Frederic and his allies more successful in other quarters. The Russians having defeated General Lehwald, invaded the Prussian do- minions on the side of Germany, and committed the most frightful devas- tations ; the British and Hanoverian troops, under the duke of Cumber- land, were forced to accept the disgraceful convention of Closterseven, by which thirty-eight thousand soldiers were reduced to a state of inac- tivity ; and the French, thus released from an enemy that might inter- rupt their communications, advanced to join the Austrians in the invasion. 616 MODERN HISTORY. of Prussia ; finally, an Austrian army, by a rapid march, arrived at the very gates of Berlin, and laid that city under contribution. An expedition, planned by Mr. Pitt soon after his restoration to power, was defeated by the weakness and indecision of the officers in- trusted with its execution. The object of attack was the French port and arsenal of Rochefort, which would have fallen an easy prey, had it been assailed when first the fleet arrived before the place. But the time which ought to have been employed in action was wasted in de- liberations, and the expedition returned ingioriously home. The con- duct of British afi'airs in America was equally disastrous ; an armament was sent against Louisbourg, but it returned without having made any efibrt to efi'ect its object ; while the French, under the marquis de Mont- calm, captured the strong fort William Henry, the bulwark of our nor- thern frontier, without meeting the slightest interruption from a British force posted in its immediate neighborhood. These disasters would have proved fatal to the new ministry, had it not been generally understood that the officers, whose cowardice or incapacity had led to such inglorious results, were the choice of their predecessors, and were maintained in their posts by court favor. This conviction proved favorable to Mr. Pitt, the king was compelled to grant full powers to his ministers, and the secret intrigues by which the cab- inet was controlled were rendered powerless for a season. An unex- pected change of fortune on the continent brightened the prospects of '.he British and Prussians toward the close of the year. Frederic, hough his dominions were invaded by three hostile armies, never lost courage ; though his army did not exceed half the number of his ene- mies, he resolved to give battle to the united forces of the French and Austrians (Nov. 5). Frederic, by a series of judicious movements, led his enemies to believe that he dreaded an engagement ; confident of victory, they hasted to force him to action, near the village of Rosbach. They advanced so precipitately, that their lines were throAvn into dis- order ; and before they could remedy the error, they were broken by the headlong charge of the Prussian horse. Every effort made by generals of the combined army to retrieve the fortunes of the day was anticipated by the genius of Frederic ; they were forced to retreat in great confusion, having lost nearly nine thousand men in killed, wound- ed, and prisoners, while the total loss of the Prussians did not exceed five hundred. From this field Frederic hasted to another scarcely less glorious. The Austrians and Hungarians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, entered Silesia, captured the important fortress of Schweidnitz, drove the prince of Bevern from his intrenchments, and made themselves masters of the greater part of the province. Frederic, by a rapid march, formed a junction with the relics of the prince of Bevern's army, and thus reinforced, attacked the Austrians at Lissa (Dec. 5). Pretending tc direct all his force against the Austrian right, Frederic suddenly poured his chief strength against their left wing, which was speedily broken ; Prince Charles attempted to restore the courage of his flying soldiers by sending reinforcements from the centre and right, but these fresh troops were unable to form under the heavy fire of the Prussians, and thus ihe Austrian battalions were defeated one after another. Night MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 617 alone prevented the total ruin of the vanquished army. About five thousand men were killed and wounded on each_ side ; but within a week after the battle the Prussians pressing vigorously the pursuit of their retiring foes, captured twenty thousand prisoners, three thousand wagons, and two hundred pieces of cannon. The Austrians abandoned all Silesia except the town of Schweidnitz, which surrendered in the following spring. The effects of the victories of Rosbach and Lissa were felt throughout Europe ; the French had flagrantly violated the convention of Closterseven ; it was now disavowed by the British and Hanoverians (a. d. 1758). Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick was chosen by George II. to command his electoral forces, and this able general in a short time not only recovered Hanover, but drove his adversaries across the Rhine. Mr Pitt changed his policy, and consented to rein- force Prince Ferdinand with a body of British troops, while liberal sup- plies were voted to subsidize the German princes. The campaign Avas honorable to Prince Ferdinand's abilities, but its most important result was the diversion it made in favor of the king of Prussia, by c-jmpelling the French to employ their chief force on the Rhine. Frederic in this campaign endured several vicissitudes of fortune. Having taken Schweidnitz, he unexpectedly entered Moravia, which had hitherto escaped from the ravages of war, laid that tine province under contribution, and even menaced Vienna. He failed, however, at the siege of Olmutz, but he effected a retreat as honorable as a vic- tory, and suddenly directed his march against the Russians, whose rav- ages in Brandenburgh were shocking to humanity. He gained a com- plete victory over the invaders at Zomdorff*, and then, without resting a moment, hasted to relieve his brother Henry, who was almost surrounded with enemies in Saxony. Count Daun, the commander of the impe- rialists, was a worthy rival of Frederic ; he surprised and routed the Prussian right wing at Hochkirchen ; but the judicious measures of the king saved the rest of his army, and Daun was unable to pursue his advantages. Indeed so little was Frederic affected by the reverse, that he drove the Austrians a second time from Silesia, and then returning, compelled Daun to raise the sieges of Dresden and Leipsic, and even retreat into Bohemia. The en'^erp rising spirit of Mr. Pitt, freed from the trammels which secret intrigues had formed, diffiised itself through the British empire, and particularly animated the officers of the army and navy. Several French ships-of-war were captured by the British ; an armament, destined for North America, was dispersed and driven on shore by Sir Edward Hawke, whose fleet rode triumphant in the channel. From apathy and despair the nation passed at once to the opposite extreme of overweening confidence. It was resolved to carry the war into France itself, and two successive expeditions were sent against the French coast. As might reasonably have been anticipated, these armaments produced no important result ; the only consequence arising from such a waste of blood and treasure, was the destruction of Cher- bourg, a triumph dearly purchased by the subsequent loss of some of ♦hi; best of the troops in the hurried embarkation. But in North America, where the British arms had been tarnished by delay, disaster, and disgrace, the removal of the earl of Loudon 618 MODERN HISTORY. from the command, led to a complete change in the fortune of the wai. His successor, General Abercrombie, planned three simultaneous ex- pedition, two of which produced triumphant results. General Amherst laid siege to I^ouisbourg, and aided by the talents of Brigadier Wolfe, who was fast rising into eminence, forced that important garrison to surrender. This was followed by the entire reduction of the island of Cape Breton, and the inferior stations which the French occupied in the gulf of St. Lawrence. Brigadier Forbes was sent against Fort du Quesne, which the French abandoned at his approach, and fled down the Mississippi. Abercrombie marched in person against Ticonderoga, which he found better fortified than he had anticipated, and after a useless manifestation of desperate valor, he was forced to retire with considerable loss. The French were, at the same time, deprived of all their settlements on the coast of Africa ; but the count de Lally not only preserved their East Indian possessions, but wrested from the English, Fort St. David and Cuddalore. Great anxiety was felt at the opening of the next campaign (a. d. 1759). Early in the year, the Prussians destroyed the Russian maga- zines in Poland, laid Bohemia under contribution, artd reduced the imperial armies to inactivity. But Prince Ferdinand was unable to prevent the French from sending succors to the Austrians ; and his ill-success once more exposed Hanover to an invasion. Had Ferdinand wavered, the British and Hanoverians might have been forced to a second convention as disgraceful as Closterseven, but his courage rose with the crisis, he engaged the French at Minden, and gained a complete victory. Minden, indeed, would have been as illustrious and decisive a battle as Blenheim, but for the unaccountable conduct of Lord George Sackville, who commanded the cavalry, and either misunderstood or disobeyed the order to charge the discomfited French. There had been some previous disputes between the prince and Lord George ; they threw the blame mutually on each other, but which ever Avas in fault, it is certain that on this occasion the best opportunity that could have been desired for humbling the power of France was irretrievably lost. The victory of the British, at Minden, was more than counter- balanced by the defeat of the Prussians by the united forces of Austria and Russia, at CunersdorfT. But the heroic Frederic soon retrieved this disaster, and he would probably have triumphed in his turn, had he not exposed a large division of his troops in the defiles of Bohemia, which was surrounded and taken by Count Daun. Still the only per- manent acquisition that the Austrians made was Dresden, for Frederic s vigor and rapidity of movement rendered even their victories fruitless. This indecisive campaign greatly diminished the ardor of the English for their ally, the king of Prussia, while their victories in North America and the West Indies, directed their attention to their colonial interests. Immediately after the conquest of Louisbourg, which was justly con- sidered the key of Canada, an expedition was planned against Quebec. The colonists were prepared to submit to a change of masters by the politic protection granted to the French settlers in Gaudaloupe, which had been subdued early in the year (a. d. 1758) ; and by the guarantee given to the inhabitants for the enjoyment of religious freedom. When General Wolfe, therefore, proceeded up the St. Lawrence, he did not MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 619 encounter any serious opposition from the Canadians, who seemed to view the struggle with indifference. While Wolfe advanced toward Quebec, General Amherst conquered Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and Sir William Johnson gained possession of the important fortress of Niagara. But Amherst, as had been originally intended, was unable to form a junction with General Wolfe, who was thus employed in a hazardous enterprise, with very inadequate means. Though he almost despaired of success, Wolfe resolved to persevere ; he adopted the dar- ing plan of landing at night under the Heights of Abraham, leading his men up the steep, and securing this position, which commanded the town. The stream was rapid, the landing-place narrow, and the pre- cipices formidable even by day, but the soldiers, animated by their heroic commander, triumphed over these difficulties ; and when morning dawned, the marquis de Montcalm was astonished to learn that the British army occupied those heights which he had deemed inaccessible. A battle was now inevitable, and both generals prepared for the contest with equal courage. The battle was brief but fierce ; the scale of victory was just beginning to turn in favor of the British, when Wolfe fell mortally wounded. This loss only roused the English regiments to fresh exertion, their bayonets broke the French lines, and a body of High- landers, charging with their broad swords, completed the confusion. The French fled in disorder ; the intelligence was brought to Wolfe, he collected his breath to exclaim, " I die happy !" and instantly expired (September 13). The marquis de Montcalm fell in the same field ; he was not infe- rior to his rival in skill and bravery, nor did he meet death with less intrepidity. When told, after the battle, that his wounds were mortal, he exclaimed, " So much the better : I shall not live to witness the surrender of Quebec." Five days after the battle, that city opened its gates to a British garrison, and this was soon followed by the complete subjugation of the Canadas, which have ever since remained subject to she crown of Great Britain. The success of the English in the East Indies was scarcely less decisive than in America. Lally, the French general, possessed more courage than prudence ; he engaged in enterprises beyond his means, and especially wasted his limited resources in a vain attack on Madras. Colonel Coote, the commander of the English forces, was inferior to his adversaries in numerical strength, but he enjoyed ampler pecuniary resources, and was far superior to Lally, both as a general and a state- man. Coote and Lally came to an engagement at Wandewash (Jan. 21, 1760), in which the French were completely overthrown, and their mfluence in the Carnatic destroyed. During the campaign. Admiral Pococke defeated a French fleet off the coast of Ceylon ; the English, in consequence, became masters of the Indian seas, and began to form reasonable expectations of driving their rivals from Hindustan. A Dutch armament arrived in Bengal, under suspicious circumstances, but Clive ordered that it should be immediately attacked by land and sea ;* the • Clive was engaged in a rubber of whist, when an express from Colonel Forde brought him intelligence of the advance of the Dutch. He replied by the follow- ing pencil-note, on a slip of paper torn from the colonel's letter : " Dear Forde— Fight them immediately, and I'll send you an order of council to-morrow." 620 MODERN HISTORY Dutch were forced to surrender, and ample apologies were made by lh» authorities of Holland for this infraction of treaties. The French court threatened to take revenge for the destruction of Cherbourg, by invading Great Britain and Ireland; but the ports were so strictly blockaded by the English squadrons, that no vessel could venture to appear in the channel. Admiral Boscawen pursued a squad- ron from Toulon, that tried to slip unnoticed through the straits of Gibraltar, overtook it off Cape Lagos, on the coast of Portugal (August 18), destroyed two ships-of-the-line, and captured two more. A still more important triumph was obtained by Sir Edward Hawke, between Belleisle and Quiberon (November 20). Conflans, the French admiral, taking advantage of the gales that drove the blockading squadrons bff the coast, put to sea, but was soon overtaken by Hawke. Conflans, unwilling to hazard a battle, sought shelter among the rocks and shallows of his own coast. Hawke unhesitatingly encountered the perils of a stormy sea and a lee shore ; he gained a decisive victory, destroying four ships-of-the-line, and compelling another to strike her colors. A tempestuous night alone saved the French fleet from destruction. Though this victory delivered the English from all fears of the invasion, some alarm was excited by the enterprises of Commodore Thurot, who sailed from Dunkirk with five frigates, and hovered round the coasts of North Britain. Having failed to make any impression on Scotland, he entered the Irish sea, and landing at Carrickfergus, stormed and pillaged that town.* Having heard the news of Conflans' defeat, he steered homeward, but was swiftly pursued by a squadron under Com- modore Elliot, and overtaken near the Isle of Man (February 28, 1760). After a fierce engagement, Thurot was killed, and all his vessels forced to surrender. Vigorous preparations were made by all parties for the maintenance of the war in Germany, although the people of England had become weary of continental connexions, and the French finances had fallen into a state of lamentable disorder (a. d. 1760). The conduct of the people of France to their sovereign was, indeed, truly generous ; the principal nobility and gentry sent their plate to the treasury to be coined for the public service ; an army of nearly one hundred thoasrind men was assembled in Westphalia, under the duke de Broglio, while an inferior army was formed upon the Rhine, under Count St. Germam. Prince Ferdinand could not have coped with such an overwhelming force, had not the French generals quarrelled with each other. Several battles were fought, but they were all more or less indecisive ; and rarely has there been a campaign in which such numerous and well- appointed armies were opposed that produced so few memorable events. The king of Prussia resolved to act on the defensive in Saxony, while his brother Henry opposed the Russians and Austrians in Silesia. • An interesting example of humanity softened the horrors of war during the attack on Carrickfergus. While the French and the garrison were engaged in the streets, a beautiful child, unconscious of its danger, ran between both parties. A French grenadier, moved with compassion, threw down his musket, rushed into the midst of the fire, took up the child, and having placed it in safety, returned to his companions, who with loud shouts applauded the heroic deed. MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 621 But his plans were deranged by the enterprise of Marshal Laudohn, who surrounded the Prussian general, Fouquet, slew three thousand of his army, and compelled the remainder to surrender at discretion. Fredei .c attempted to retrieve his affairs by a sudden advance on Dres- den, but he failed to capture the city ; his brother, Prince Henry, was more fortunate in raising the siege of Breslau, which Laudohn had in- vested after his victory. But Frederic's ruin seemed unavoidable, as the Russians were advancing with overwhelming forces, and he was himself surrounded by three Austrian armies at Lignitz. Count Daun marched to storm the Prussian camp, in full confidence of victory ; but, to his astonishment, he found it deserted, Frederic having marched that very night to meet the army of Marshal Laudohn, who was eagerly pressing forward to share, as he fondly believed, in assured victory. The heights i.f Pfatfendorff, judiciously protected by a formidable array of artillery, prevented Daun from marching to the assistance of his col'^^ague ; Laudohn was completely defeated, and the Austrian grand army driven from Silesia. But this victory did not prevent the success of the enemy in other quarters ; the Russians, being joined by a con- siderable body of Austrians, under General Lascy, pushed forward tl;-ough Brandenburgh, and made themselves masters of Berlin. They levied a heavy contribution on the city, and destroyed its arsenals, foun- dries, and public works. The Prussians were equally unfortunate in Saxony, but Frederic resolved to run every risk to recover a country that had hitherto sup- plied the chief support to his armies. Daun, equally convinced of the importance of Saxony, protected the electorate with a force of seventy thousand men, advantageously posted in a fortified camp, near Torgau. Frederic, Avith only fifty thousand men, resolved to attack the Austrians in their intrenchments, and to stake his life and crown on the hazard of the engagement (November 3). The battle was furious, but the ardor of the Prussians, who felt that they fought for the very existence of iheir country, was irresistible. Dunn was borne from the field severely wounded ; the Austrians were broken by separate charges, and night alone saved them from total ruin. The result of this glorious victory was, that Frederic recovered all Saxony except Dresden, and compelled the Russians, Austrians, and Swedes, to evacuate his dominions. The Canadian war was not terminated by the capture of Quebec ; the French had still formidable forces in the country, and they made a vigorous effort to recover that city. They were baffled by the intre- pidity of General Murray ; and General Amherst soon after having ob- tained reinforcements from England, advanced to Montreal, and com- pelled the entire French army to capitulate. The savage tribes of Indians who had been induced by French gold to attack the British settlements, were now severely chastised, and compelled to make the most humiliating submissions. Not less complete was the success of the English arms in India ; Pondicherry and Mahie were reduced by Colonel Coote, the French power in the east completely subverted, and the English rendered mas- ters of the commerce of the vast peninsula of Hindustan. These im- portant acquisitions made the English very impatient of the German war ; they complained of the inactivity of the navy, and asserted tha 822 MODERN HISTOR"i. the French islands in the West Indies, more vahiable to a commercial people than half the German empire, might have been gained with far less risk and loss than attended the protection of the useless electorate of Hanover. In the midst of these disputes, George II. died suddenly, in the seventy-seventh year of his age (October 25). He was succeeded by his grandson, George III., a young prince in his twenty-third year, who had hitherto taken no active part in public life. The death of George II. produced little change in European politics ; but that of the peaceful Spanish monanrch, Ferdinand VI. (a. d. 1759), led to some important results. His successor, Charles III., was king of the Two Sicilies, and by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, it had been agreed, that on his accession to the throne of Spain, his former kingdom should devolve to Don Philip, duke of Parma and Placentia, and that these dutchies should be resigned to the empire. By the me- diation of France with Austria, Charles was enabled to procure the Neapolitan throne for his third son, Ferdinand, while Philip was per- mitted to retain Parma and Placentia. Grateful for such a benefit, Charles signed the family compact, which bound the Bourbon princes to aflbrd each other mutual assistance, and secretly prepared to join France in the war against Great Britain. The haughty conduct of the English diplomatists, which was not unjustly offensive to Spanish pride, greatly contributed to strengthen the resolution of the court of Madrid, especially as the naval superiority of the English menaced the communications of Spain with her American colonies. Negotiations for peace were commenced by the courts of France and Great Britain, soon after the accession of George III., but Avith little sincerity on either side (a. d. 1761). Mr. Pitt was firmly resolved to humble the house of Bourbon ; the duke de Choiseul, the French min- ister, relied on the secret promises of Spanish aid, and thus it was im- possible to arrange preliminaries. The war languished in Germany ; Prince Ferdinand succeeding in protecting Hanover, but he could not prevent the French from ravaging Westphalia and East Friesland. The king of Prussia, exhausted even by his victories, was forced to act on the defensive ; though he lost no battle, he had th.e mortification to see the Russians make themselves masters of Coibei^, and the Austvians surprise Schweidnitz. The possession of these important places ena- bled the Russians to establish their winter-quarters in Pomerania, and the Austrians in Silesia. On sea, the honor of the British flag. was maintained in several actions between single ships and small squad- rons. The island of Belleisle, on the coast of France, was captured by a British armament, but at a very disproportionate cost of blood and treasure. This languid campaign seemed to prove that all parties were weary of the war, and negotiations were resumed In their progress, Mr. Pitt discovered the intimate connexion that had been formed between the courts of Versailles and Madrid ; and he proposed to anticipate the hostile designs of the latter by seizing the plate-fleet, laden with the treasures of Spanish America. But the colleagues of Mr. Pitt, already dissatisfied with his imperious manners, refused to adopt such bold measures, and he instantly resigned the seals of office. The king, anxious to introduce his favorite, the earl of Bute, into the cabinet, MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 623 adop'.ed the opinions of the majority of his council, and accepted th resignation. Fierce political disputes arose, whose effects were felt throughout Europe ; the hopes of the French court were raised, and the German allies of Great Britain were greatly dispirited. But the new ministry showed no want of alacrity in maintaining the honor of the country. One of their earliest measures was a declaration of war against Spain, the conduct of the court of Madrid having amply justilied Mr. Pitt's anticipations of its hostile desig-ns (a. d. 1762). The superiority of the British navy over the combined fleets of France and Spain, hindered these powers from making any attempt at colonial conquests ; but they believed themselves equally superior by land, and therefore resolved to attack Britain through the side of its ancient ally, Portugal. Few kingdoms had sunk into such a state of degradation as Portugal at this period. Trusting to the protection of England, and enriched by the treasures of Brazil, the court of Lisbon reposed in ignorance and indolence ; its fortresses were neglected, its army mouldering away, its subjects destitute of martial spirit. The earthquake that laid Lisbon in ruins was followed by a dangerous conspiracy against the life of Joseph, the reigning sovereign. This monarch, less superstitious than most Portuguese kings, had banished the Jesuits from his court, and had resented with spirit the encroachments of his nobles. Some of the dissatisfied Jesuits and nobles formed a plot to murder the king, and he was dangerously wounded by assassins while on his road from his country-seat to Lisbon. The principal conspirators were arrested and punished by cruel deaths ; and all the Jesuits banished from the kingdom (a. d. 1759). But the nobles continued discontented ; the pope and the clergy resented the expulsion of the Jesuits, while the superstitious Portuguese seemed ready to renounce their allegiance to a sovereign who had incurred the resentment of the church. Such was Joseph's situation, when the ministers of France and Spain pre- sented a joint demand that he should instantly renounce his alliance with Britain, under pain of incurring their resentment, and allowing him only four days to deliberate on his answer. Joseph at once returned a spirited refusal to such an insolent memorial, and the Spanish army crossed the frontiers. An auxiliary British force of eight thousand men was sent to Portugal, together with a large supply of arms and ammu- nition. Joseph intrusted the command of his army to the coun^ de la Lippe, who had already distinguished himself in Germany. The skill of this commander, and the valor of the British oflicers, compelled the Spaniards to evacuate the kingdom with loss and disgrace, before the close of the campaign. The French hoped that the invasion of Portugal would facilitate the progress of their arms in Germany ; but Prince Ferdinand, and the mar- quis of Granby, not only protected Hanover, but recovered the greater part of Hesse. An unexpected event delivered the king of Prussia from the ruin that seemed to threaten him at the close of the last campaign. Elizabeth, emperess of Russia, died, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter HL, who entertained a romantic admiration of Frederic. The new emperor not only put an end to hostilities, but entered into alliance with the Prussian monarch ; and Europe saw with astonishment the 624 MODERN HISTORY. unprecedented spectacle of an array marching off from its former allies to the camp of its enemies. Sweden followed the example of Russia in concluding peace ; and Frederic, taking advantage of these favorable circumstances, recovered Schweidnitz and drove the Austrians from Si- lesia. A new revolution in Russia compelled the Prussian king to halt in his victorious career. The reforms of Peter III. had given offence to a great body of his subjects ; he was dethroned by his wife, who usurped the throne, with the title of Catherine II. Peter died in prison a few days after his deposition, but it has not been ascertained whether he was the victim of disease or violence. Catherine did not renew the war against Prussia, as had been at first expected, but she withdrew her forces, and resolved to observe a strict neutrality. Frederic's vic- tories had in the meantime, so seriously alarmed the Austrians, that they consented to a cessation of hostilities for Silesia and Saxony. This impolitic truce laid Bohemia open to Frederic : one division of his army advanced to the very gates of Prague and destroyed a valuable magazine ; another laid the greater part of Egra in ashes, while de- tachments ravaged Franconia, and even Suabia. The princes of the empire hasted to conclude treaties of neutrality, and the war was left to be decided by the powers of Prussia and Austria, between which the contest had begun. In the meantime the English conquered the chief islands that the French still retained in the West Indies, Martinique, St. Lucie, Gre- nada, and St. Vincent ; while the Spaniards suffered the more severe loss of Havana, the capital of Cuba, and the large fleet that lay in its harbor. Nor was this the least alarming of the consequences that resulted to the court of Madrid from its unwise interference ; an arma- ment from Madras, under the command of Admiral Cornish and General Draper, captured Manilla, and the fall of this city involved the fate of the whole range of the Philippine islands. France and Spain, heartily tired of a war which threatened ruin to the colonies of both, became desirous of peace, and they found the earl of Bute, who now ruled the British cabinet, equally anxious to termi- nate the war. Indeed, so anxious was that minister to avoid a contin- uance of hostilities, that he not only stopped the career of colonial conquest, but consented to sacrifice several acquisitions that Britain had already made. Still the British nation gained by the war the whole of Canada and part of Louisiana, the chief settlements on the western coasts of Africa, and a decided superiority in India ; had the war lasted another year, had even the fair claims of Britain's position been sup- ported by her negotiators, these gains would have been more extensive and more secure. Contrary to all expectation, the preliminaries were sanctioned by a majority of the British parliament, and soon after the definite treaty was signed at Paris (Feb. 10, 1763). The king of Prussia and the emperess of Austria, deserted by their respective allies, agreed to a reconciliation about the same time, on the basis of a resti- tution of conquests and an oblivion of injuries. The result of the continental war was, that Prussia and Austria be- came the principal European powers, France lost her political pre- eminence when united to the empire, and England abandoned her ia- MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. 625 fluence in the European system, maintaining an intimate relation onlj with Portugal and Holland. Britain, by the colonial war, obtained com- plete maritime supremacy ; she commanded the entire commerce of North America and Hindustan, and had a decided superiority in the West Indian trade. But during the seven years' war a question arose which led to very important discussions ; France, unable to maintain a commercial intercourse with her colonies, opened the trade to neutral powers ; England declared this traffic illegal, and relying on her naval superiority, seized neutral vessels and neutral property bound to hostile ports. The return of peace put an end to the dispute for a season, but it became the subject of angry controversy in every future war. The internal condition of England improved rapidly during the contest by the extension of the funding system ; the pecuniary affairs of the gov- ernment became intimately connected with those of the nation ; by far the greatei part of the loans required for the war was raised at home, so the increase of the national debt more closely united the rulers and the people in the bonds of a common interest. This altered state of things scarcely excited notice, though it was the chief source of the permanence and stability displayed by the British government when revolutionary movements threatened to subvert the other dynasties oi Europe. 40 626 MODERN HISTORY CHAPTER IX. THE AGE OF REVOLUTlOiNS. Section I. — Change in the Relations of the Catholic Fivers to the Holy See. Dismeinbenuent of Poland. No country had suffered so severely as France during 'he late war; the finances had long been in confusion, and the proHiyate expenditure of a demoralized court aggravated the indignation ])roduced liy national distress. Louis XV., though not destitute of abilities, was the slave of his sensual appetites ; ruled by his mistresses, and other unworthy fa- vorites, he connived at glaring abuses, and sanctioned the grossest acts of tyranny and rapacity. A spirit of opposition spread through the kingdom, several of the parliaments refused to register the edicts for the continuance of war-taxes, and others remonstrated in a tone of censure to which the French monarchs had been longimaccustomed. This un- usual liberty of the parliaments had been in some degree fostered by the court itself; the king permitted these bodies to set bounds to eccle- siastical tyranny, and to suppress the order of the Jesuits in France (a. d. 1762); and their spirit was further increased by the intrigues of the duke de Choiseul, who persuaded the king to allow the Parisian parliament to pass sentence on Lally, the unfortunate coinniander of the French in India, whose only crime was failure under circii instances that rendered success impossible. Popular discontent was at the same time rapidly spreading in Spain, where the reforms of the prime minister, Squillace, ofrendetl the obsti- nate prejudices of an ignorant and bigoted nation. Charles III. yie'ded to the clamors of his subjects and dismissed the minister, but he firmly resoJ 'ed to take vengeance on the Jesuits, who were supposed to have secretly instigated the insurrection. A refoiuning minister in Portugal maintained his post in spite of opposition ; the marquis of Poinbal ruled the land with iron sway, and confident in the rectitude; of his in- tentions, scorned all opposition. But though he removed all impedi- ments, including the higher order of nobility and the society of Jesuits, his reforms took no root in the land, and the institutions which he es- tablished by force perished when that force was taken away. The enmity of Pombal and Choiseul to the Jesuits was felt in the Spanish cabinet ; the king was indignant at their share in the late dis- turbances, his minister, Count d'Aranda, regarded the order as hostile to all existing governments. Both took their measures with profound secresy (a. d. 1767). The houses of the Jesuits in Madrid were sur- rounded at night, and the inmates commanded to set out instantly for THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 627 the coast. An edict was then issued for the banishment of the regu- lars of that community from Spain and its colonies, and the confiscation of their temporaUties. The Jesuits in Mexico and Peru were similarly seized ; and in Paraguay, where they had established an almost inde pendent empire, they were suddenly deposed and transported to Europe The king of Naples and the duke of Parma followed the example of the court of Spain, in spite of the urgent remonstrances of Pope Clem- ent XIII. ; they also placed new restrictions on the pontiff's jurisdic- tion in their states, and when Clement made a vigorous effort to sup- port the ancient privileges of the holy see, he found himself opposed to all the Italian powers, except the king of Sardinia, to the remon- strances of Spain and Portugal, and the active hostility of France. While these disputes between the catholic powers and the head of their church proved that the supremacy of the papacy no longer exist- ed, but in name, the struggles of a small insular people to maintain their national independence excited general sympathy. The Genoese transferred their nominal claims over the island of Corsica to the crown of France, and Choiseul sent a large army to occupy this new acquisition. But the Corsicans, justly enraged at the transfer of their allegiance without the formality of asking their consent, boldly flew to arms, and under the command of the heroic Paoli, prepared for an ob- stinate resistance. Had the British ministry interfered, the result of the contest would have been very doubtful ; but Paoli could not resist the entire force of France, he was driven by the vast superiority of numbers from post to post, until every strong place had yielded to the invaders, when he cut his way through the enemy, and eml)arked for Leghorn (a. d. 1769). The island sul)mitted to Louis, but many of the Corsicans long continued to harass the French by a guerilla war in their mountain fastnesses. Choiseul, finding his influence with Louis XV. on the decline, sought to strengthen it by cementing the alliance between the courts of Paris and Vienna. He effected a marriage between the king's grandson and heir and Marie Antoinette, daughter of the emperess-dowager. These ill-omened nuptials were celebrated with extraordinary splendor during a season of great public distress : during the festivities a fatal accident cast a shade of melancholy over all parties ; some confusion arose in the crowd of spectators, and nearly two hundred persons lost their lives in the tumult. Choiseul involved the king in a quarrel with the parlia- ments, v/hich precipitated the fall of that able minister ; the king re- luctantly consented to abandon the new forms of jurisdiction which were proposed, and allow the old courts to resume their functions. This unlbriunate and dishonorable proceeding completed the abasement of France ; it was notorious that the duke de Choiseul owed his dis- grace to the intrigues of the king's profligate mistress ;* and whatever may have been the faults of that minister, he would certainly never have permitted the influence of his country to sink so low as it did during the administration of his successor, the duke d'Aguillon. While France was thus declining, the Russian empire was rapidly acquiring a preponderating influence in eastern Europe. The emperess * Madame du Barri. She was subsequently one of the victims of the French f evolution. 628 MODERN HISTORY. Catherine procured the throne of Poland for one of her fa> orites, Stan- islaus Augustus (a. d. 1765), having sent a Russian army to overawe the diet, when it assembled to choose a sovereign. Frederic of Prus- sia, anxious to remedy the calamities which the seven years' war had Drought upon his country, did not venture to oppose the schemes of the ambitious czarina ; on the contrary, he was gained over by some com- mercial concessions to aid her projects with all his influence. The new sovereign of Poland, opposed by a licentious aristocracy and a big- oted people, was unable to remedy the disorders of the state, or control the events that soon furnished a pretext for the interference of his pow- erful neighbors. Poland had long been agitated by religious disputes ; the oppressions of the catholics compelled the dissidents, as the dis- senting sects were called, to seek foreign protection ; those of the Greek church appealed, to the emperess of Russia, while the Lutherans sought aid from the kings of Prussia and Denmark. Catherine, with great promptitude, sent an army to enforce the claims of the dissidents, and paying little regard to the remonstrances of Stanislaus, acted as if Poland had been one of her own provinces. The catholic lords formed a confederacy to maintain the purity of their religion, and the indepen- dence of their country, but they were unable to compete with the over- whelming forces of Russia ; Cracow, where they attempted to make a stand, was taken by storm, the fugitives were pursued beyond the Turk- ish frontiers, and the country that had afforded them refuge was cruelly devastated. Mustapha III. was more peacefully inclined than most of the sultans that have fiUad the throne of Constantinople, but he felt that the power which Russia was acquiring in Poland would be dangerous to the se- curity of his northern provinces ; he was indignant at the A'iolation of his dominions, and he was secretly instigated by the French court. The king of Prussia vainly remonstrated with the sultan ;* Mustapha had formed an extravagant estimate of his military resources, and he is said to have been animated by a personal dislike of Catherine. The war was commenced by the Turks (a. d. 1769) ; their irregular troops entered southern Russia, and committed the most frightful ravages ; but when they hazarded a regular engagement at Choczim, they suffered a severe defeat. Catherine prepared to strike a decisive blow against the Turkish power ; she sent a fleet from the Baltic round to the Med- iterranean, to support an insurrection which her emissaries had exci- ted in Southern Greece (a. d. 1770). The insurgents, aided by a Rus- sian force, at first gained some advantages, but on the first reverse they were abandoned by their allies to the brutal retaliations of their Turkish masters. Soon after, the Turkish fleet of fifteen ships-of-the-line was burned by a Russian squadron in the bay of Chesme, with the excep- tion of a single vessel that was captured. This was followed by the defeat of the grand Ottoman army near the Pruth, the capture of Ben- der, Akerman, and Ismail, and the occupation of the entire province ot Bessarabia. Stanislaus was forced to join in the war against the Turks, though he knew that one of the chief causes of their taking up arms was to • Frederic, who loved to indulge in sarcasm, said that a war between the Rus- lians and the Turlis would be a contest between the one-eyed and the blind. THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 629 •lefeiid the independence of Poland. But Joseph, who had succeeded his father in the German empire (a. d. 1765), began to dread the dan- gerous ambition of Russia ; and even his mother, Maria Theresa, began to court the friendship of her old rival, Frederic, as a counterpoise to the governing power of the czarina. It was obviously the interest of the northern states, Denmark and Sweden, to adopt a similar course of policy ; but the governments of both countries were too deeply en- gaged by their domestic affairs to attend to the state of their foreign relations. Frederick V.,one of the best monarchs that ever occupied the throne of Denmark, was succeeded by Christian V., a prince of weak intellect and dissipated habits (a. d. 1766). Soon after his accession, Christian married Caroline Matilda, one of the sisters of the queen of England, and the engaging manners of this princess won her the favor of the Danish king and people. To maintain her ascendency over iae mind of her husband, Caroline favored the ambition of Struensee a foreign adventurer, who was raised to the office of prime minister, oi rather, sole ruler of Denmark. Struensee's administration was vigorous and useful, but his haughtiness gave great oflence to the Danish nobles ; a conspiracy was formed against him, of which the king's step-mother and her son Frederic were the principal instigators, and it was resolved to involve the unfortunate queen Caroline in his fate. Struensee and his friend Brandt were arrested at midnight, by virtue of an order which had been extorted from the imbecile Christian ; they were insulted with the mockery of a trial, and put to a cruel death. The queen was also arrested and sent a prisoner to Cronenberg castle ; dread ot British ven- geance, however, saved her from personal violence. She was permitted lO retire to Hanover, where the remainder of her life was spent in com- parative obscurity. The queen dowager, having removed her rival, usurped the royal authority ; a young nobleman named Bernstorff was appointed prime minister, and the court of Copenhagen became remark- able for its subserviency to that of St. Petersburgh. Gustavus III., a young prince of great vigor and sagacity, ascended the Swedish throne on the death of his father, Adolphus Frederic (a. d. 1771); he had early formed a project lor removing the restrictions which the senate had imposed on the royal authority after the dea.h of Charles XII., and his efibrts were seconded by the bu'k of the nation, long weary of aristocratic tyranny. The senate, sudd-mly surrou'ided by armed bards, was intimidated into assenting to tin; instnmient of g)vernmeit v^hi ;h Gu>ta>iis ha 1 j ref ir« d, an 1 a n volut on which changed Sweden from one of the most limited into one of the most ab- solute monarchies of Europe, was effected without spilling a drop of blood. Dread of a counter-revolution, and the necessity of providing some remedy for the distress which prevailed in Sweden, prevented Gustavus from interfering in the affairs of Poland, a country that had often occupied the anxious cares of his predecessors. Stanislaus was sincerely anxious lo confer the blessings of tranquil- lity and g(»od governmtjut on Poland ; but all his judicious measures were frustrated by the J-'olish nobles, who clung to their tyrannous and absurd privileges, though they were known to be as pernicious to them- selves as they were ruinous to the country. An attempt on the persona 630 MODERN HISTORY. liberty of the unhappy king gave Catherine a pretext for sending a Rus- sian army into the country, and suggested to the Prussian king a scheme for the dismemberment of Poland. A treaty was concluded between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, for dividing the Polish provinces between them. Their armies instantly occupied their several shares ; and the diet, overawed by the united forces of the three powers, was forced to acquiesce in an arrangement that left Poland a merely nominal exist- ence (a. d. 1773). The unhappy Stanislaus, reproached for calamities which it was not in his power to avert, could not avoid retorting on his accusers, and attributing the national calamities to the bigotry, the fac- tious spirit, and the incessant contentions, of the turbulent nobles. By the intervention of Prussia, a treaty was subsequently concluded be- tween Russia and Turkey, by wtiicli the emperess gained several im- portant fortresses, a large acquisition of territory, and permission for her subjects to navigate the Black sea (a. d. 1774). Great as these gains were, they were less valuable in themselves than as means for obtain- ing other objects of Catherine's secret ambition. Degraded as Louis XV. was, he could not receive, without emotion, intelligence of events which showed the low ebb to which the influence of France was reduced. When informed of the partition of Poland, he could not refrain from exclaiming, " Had Choiseul been still in the cabi- net, this disgraceful transaction might have been averted." The duke d'Aguillon merited this reproach, but he resolved to atone for his negli- gence by gratifying the national hatred against the Jesuits, though he had long been suspected of secretly favoring that order. The death of Clement XIII. favored his projects (a. d. 1769). Ganganelli, who suc- ceeded to the papacy under the title of Clement XIV., felt that the time was for ever gone by when the extravagant claims of the pontiff's could be maintained, and he therefore sought a reconciliation with the catho- lic sovereigns by making reasonable concessions. After a long but not unjustifiable delay, he issued a bull suppressing the order of Jesuits ; and most of the catholic prelates, who had long been jealous of that fraterni- ty, eagerly enforced the papal edict (a. d. 1773). Little opposition was made by the Jesuits to this decree, but the insurrection in Sicily and the deaths of Louis XV. and Pope Ganganelli (a. d. 1774) were at- tiibuted to their secret practices, though not a shadow of proof could be adduced to support such severe accusations. Indeed, it is noumous that Louis died of small-pox, and Ganganelli of a constitutional disease to which he had long been a martyr. Louis XVI., of whom his sub- jects had loiig been taught to Ibriu the most favorable expectations, as- cended the tlrone of France : Angelo Braschi was elected to the papacy, under the title of Pius VI., by the influence of the more bigoted cardi- nal-, who believed that he would be a more zealous supporter of the church than his predecessors. Section II. — History of England from the Peace of Paris to the Commence- ment of the American War. V/hen the British ministry concluded a separate treaty with France, they dissevered their country from its expensive connexion with ttie contment, but at the sime time they diminished its influence in Euro- THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 631 pean politics. Extensive colonies, rapidly increasing commerce, and improving manufactures, afforded the nation ample amends for this loss ; but a spiri of faction began to appear in the national councils, which produced a pernicious influence on the growing prosperity of the nation. While there was any reason to apprehend danger from the house of Stuart, the Brunswick dynasty was necessarily thrown for support on the whigs, for the tories were from principle more or less disposed to favor the claims of the exiled house ; but when all fears from the Pre- tender had disappeared, the zeal which the tories had ever shown for the maintenance of the royal prerogative naturally recommended them to royal favor. Personal friendship induced George III. to introduce the earl of Bute into his cabinet ; his influence excited the jealousy of the whigs, who had long monopolized the favor of the king and the na- tion ; they accused him of an attachment to toryism, of partiality to his Scottish countrymen, and of having sacrificed the interests of the nation at the peace. Unable or unwilling to face popular clamor, the earl of Bute resigned his office, but it was believed he privately retained his in- fluence in the cabinet ; and thus no small portion of his unpopularity was inherited by his successors. John Wilkes, member of parliament for Aylesbury, assailed the min- isters with great bitterness in a paper called the North Briton. The for- ty-fifth number of this periodical contained a fierce attack on the king's speech at the opening of the parliamentary session ; and the ministers, forgetting discretion in their rage, issued a general warrant against the authors, printers, and publishers of the libel. Wilkes was arrested, but was soon liberated, on pleading privilege of parliament. The house of commons, in opposition to the legal aiuhorities, voted that privilege of parliament did not extend to the case of libel ; but it subsequently joined with the lords in voting the illegality of general warrants. Wilkes, in the meantime, quitted the country, and not appearing to take his trial, was outlawed. So much was the nation engrossed by this dispute be- tween the government and an individual, that little attention was ])aid to colonial affairs ; but during this period the East India company acquired sevrral rich districts in Bengal, and displayed a grasping ambition, which threatened the independence of the native powers. A more dangerous prospect v/as opened in the American st;ites. Tht) French being removed, and the Indians ddven into the btckwocds, the colonies began to increase rapidly in we<h, and their prosperity sug- gested to Mr. Grenviile a scheme for making them share in the burden of taxation. The late war had been undertaken principally for the se- curity of the colonists, they had been almost exclusively the gainers by its successful termination, and it was therefore deemed equitable that they should pay a portion of the cost. But the Americans ^vere not represented in the British parliament, and they, together with a large party in Britain, maintained that they could not be constitutionally taxed without their own consent. Mr. Grenviile, supported by his royal mas- ter, disregarded opposition, and an act was passed imposing siamp-diities on a multitude of articles (a. d. 1765). The dispute seemed to be allayed by a change in the British mmis- try ; the marquis of Rockingham, much against the king's v/ill, repealed the obnoxious Stamp Act ; but he was force 1 to assert, in strong terms. 632 MODERN HISTORY. the right of the king and parliament to enact laws, binding the colonies in all cases whatsoever. The marquis of Rockingham was soon obliged to give way to Mr. Pitt, who had been created earl of Chatham ; but the cabi- net constructed by this once-popular minister had no principle of union, and soon fell to pieces. The appointment of Lord North to the chan- cellorship of the exchequer aggravated party animosities (a. d. 1767) ; the new minister was suspected of hostility to the American claims, and had taken a prominent part against Wilkes. That demagogue returned to England ; he was chosen member for the county of Middlesex at the general election, after which he surrendered himself to justice, obtained the reversal of his outlawry, and was sentenced to imprisonment for the libel he had published. When parliament met, it was supposed that Wilkes would take his seat for Middlesex, and a crowd assembled to escort him to the house ; some rioting occurred, the military were called out, and a scuffle ensued, in which some lives were lost. Wilkes stig- matized the employment of the soldiers on this occasion in the most unmeasured terms ; the ministers took advantage of this second libel to procure his expulsion from the house of commons, but the electors of Middlesex re-elected him without any hesitation. The commons re- solved that an expelled member was incapable of sitting in the parlia- ment that had passed such a sentence upon him, and issued a writ for a new election. Once more Wilkes was unanimously chosen, and once more the commons refused to admit him. A new election was held, and Wilkes was returned by a great majority over Colonel Luttrell, the ministerial candidate. The house of commons persevered in its decla- ration of \A'ilkes's incapacity, and resolved that Colonel Luttrell should be th.^ sHtirg member. In their anxiety to crush a worthless individual, the ministers had now involved themselves in a contest on an important point of constitutional law, Math all the constituencies of the nation. A fierce opposition was raised against them in England, and this not a little encouraged the Americans to persevere in their resistance. The resignation of the duke of Grafton, who wished to conciliate the coloni( s, rhe removal of E-arl Camden, who disapproved of the decision lespeciing tie Middlesex ekcticm, and the appointmer. t of Lord North as premier, added to the exasperation of parties (a. d. 1770). The im- position of a hghtduty on tea kept alive the dispute with America, while the concess'o.is made to the court of Spain, in a dispute resj ecting the Falkland i^ia.rids, were represented as a deliberate sacrifice of the honor of the country. The only beneficial residt from these disputes was, the indiieci lit-en-se given to ihe publication of tne pailiauientaiy debates, which had hitherto been deemed a breach of privilege. The commons sent a messenger to arrest some printers and publishers, but the execu- tion of their orders was opposed by the civic magistrates, Crosby, Oli- ver, and Wilkes. The two former were sent to the Tower ; but Wilkes refused to attend, unless permitted to take his seat for Middlesex, and the commons gave up the point by adjourning over the day on which he had been summoned to appear. Since that time the debates have been regularly published in the newspapers. The abuses in the government of the dominions of the East India company having attracted considerable attention, a law was passed for THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 633 bringing the affairs of that commercial association in some degree undei the control of government ; but to reconcile the company to such inter- ference, a loan was granted on favorable terms ; and also permission to export teas without payment of duty. A quantity of tea was shipped for Boston, and Lord North hoped that the low price of the commodity would induce the New Englanders to pay the small duty charged on importation ;.,but when the vessels arrived at Boston, they were boarded during the night by a party of the townsmen, and the cargoes thrown into the sea. This outrage, followed by other acts of defiance, gave such offence in England, that acts were passed for closing the port of Boston, and altering the constitution of the colony of Massachusetts (a. d. 1774). It was hoped that the other colonies would be warned by this example ; but, on the contrary, they encouraged ^he people of Massachusetts in their disobedience, and signed agreements against the importation of British merchandise, until the Boston port bill should be repealed, and the grievances of the colonies redressed. But thougn the colonists acted firmly, they showed the greatest anxiety for reconcilia- tion ; they prepared addresses to the government and their fellow- subjects, and they sent a memorial to the king, couched in terms equally spirited and respectful. The address fro his majesty was not received, as it had emanated from an illegal asuembly ; and the determination evinced by the new parliament, which met in 1775, to support ministe- rial measures, defeated all hopes of an accommodation. The continental powers, jealous of the maritime and commercial pros- perity of England, exulted in the contest thus unwisely provoked. Even the moderate king of France, though severely harassed by the disordered state of his finances, and the embarrassing disputes which had been raised by his grandfather between the court and the parlia- ments, seemed disposed to favor the revolted colonies ; several of his ministers urged him to offer them support, but the opinion of Turgot, the wisest of the French cabinet, prevailed for a season ; he strenuousl}' condemned such interference as impolitic and unjust. Spain, involved in a disastrous war with the piratical states of Barbary, and in a less formidable dispute with Portugal, respecting the boundaries of their South American colonies, was slow to engage in fresh hostilities, and was resolved to imitate the example of France. The king of Prussia, indignant at the desertion of his interests in the peace of 1763, openly rejoiced in the embarrassment of the British ministry ; and Catherine af Russia exulted in the hope of seeing the naval power most likely to oppose her ambitious schemes preparing to destroy what was believed to be th'3 secrtit source of its strength. Undervaluing the power and the fortitude of the provincials, the king and his ministers resolved to force them into obedience, parliament seconded these views, and the great bulk of the people applauded their determination. It is useless to conceal that the American war was popular at its commencement. The vague notion of dominion over an entire continent flattered Eng- lish pride, and the taxes which the ministers demanded, promised some alleviation to the public burdens. The colonial revolt was regarded by many as a rebellion, not against the British government, but the British people, and the contest was generally looked upon in England as an 634 MODERN HISTORY. effort to establish, not the royal authority, but the supremacy of the nation. Skction III. — The American War. Blood having once been shed, it was manifest that the dispute be- tween Britain and her American colonies could only be decided by the sword. Both parties, therefore, prepared for the struggle, but ap- parently with some lingering hope of a restoration of peace. Mutual forbearance was exhibited by the hostile generals, when the English were compelled to evacuate Boston ; Howe, the British commander, made no attempt to injure the town, and Washington permitted the royal army to retire unmolested. But the employment of German mer- cenaries, by the English ministry, completed the alienation of the colonists ; they resolved to separate themselves wholly from the mother- country, and on the 4lh of July, 1776, the congress published the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES. The first campaign, after some important successes gained by the British forces under General Howe, terminated in the entire destruc- tion of the army of the north commanded by General Burgoyne. But this did not abate the confidence of the British ministers or the British people. Conciliatory acts were, indeed, passed by the parliament, but before intelligence of this altered policy could be received in America, France had entered into a treaty recognising the independence of the United States (a. d. 1778). There were already some in Britain who advocated this extreme measure ; the earl of Chatham vehemently op- posed the dismemberment of the empire, but while addressing the lords, he was struck down in a fit, and died within a few days. The nation mourned his loss, but it did not the less prepare vigorously to meet impending dangers. A declaration of war was issued against France, and a respectable fleet, commanded by Admiral Keppel, sent to cruise in the channel. Keppel met and engaged the French fleet off Ushant, but being badly supported by Sir Hugh Palliser, the second in command, he was unable to make any use of the slight advantage he obtained. The peace of the continent was momentarily menaced by the efforts of the emperor Joseph to obtain possession of Bavaria, but the prompt interference of the king of Prussia, the remonstrances of the emperess Catharine, and the unwillingness of France to second the ambitious designs of Austria, compelled Joseph to relinquish his prey when it was almost within his grasp (a. d. 1779). France alone, of the conti- nental powers, had yet interfered in the American contest, but the in- timate connexion between tbat country and Spain, led to a general be- lief that the latter would not long remain neutral. Nor was the expect- ation groundless ; the court of Madrid, after an insincere ofler of media- tion, threw off the mask, and openly prepared for active hostilities. Washington adopted a cautions delensive policy, by which his adversa- ries were more exhausted than by a loss of a battle. The English sub- dued Georgia, and made some progress in the Carolinas ; but the French captured several islands in the West ^ndie:^, and a Spanish THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. ^35 fleet, for a time rode triumphant in the channel, and even insuhed Plymouth. Serious riots in London tended more to lower the character of the English, among foreign nations, than these reverses. Some of the penal laws against the catholics having been repealed, an association was formed by some ignorant fanatics for the protection of the protestant religion ; they stimulated the passions of the mob, and roused an im- mense multitude to acts of outrage. For several days, London was at the mercy of an infuriate populace ; some catholic chapels were burned, and many private houses destroyed. Tranquillity was at length re- stored by the interference of the military, and several of the rioters capitally punished. These disgraceful transactions alienated the court of Madrid at a time when it was disposed to negotiate, and the promise of the French to aid in the reduction of Gibraltar, confirmed the hostile dispositions of the Spaniards. The English had reduced all the French settlements in the East Indies in 1778, and humbled the Mahrattas ; but a new and formidable enemy now appeared. Hyder Ali, a soldier of fortune, raised by chanci -o the throne of Seringapatam, resolved to drive the European intruders from Hindustan, and entered the Carnatic with overwhelming forces. The local government of Madras was unprepared for this event, and the resources at its command were wasted by the obstinacy and incapacity of the council. Owing to this mismanagement, the English forces, commanded by Baillie and Fletcher, were all either slain or tahen by Hyder and his son Tippoo. The maritime glory of England was ably maintained by Sir George Rodney ; he captured four Spanish ships-of-the-line off Cape St. Vin- cent, drove two more on shore, and burned another: thence proceeding to America, he thrice encountered the French fleet, under the ?ount de Guichen, and though he obtained no decisive success, he prevented Washington from receiving naval aid in his meditated attack on New York. But the progress of the war now threatened to involve England in a new contest with all the maritime powers, respecting the trade of neu- tral vessels. The emperess of Russia took the lead in demanding freedom of trade for neutral vessels not laden with the munitions of war, to all ports not actually blockaded ; she proposed that the northern powers should unite to support this right ; a confederacy, called the Armerl Neu- trality, was formed by Russia, Denmark, and Sweden ; Holland promptly acceded to the league ; the courts of Vienna, Berlin, and Naples, adopted its principles ; the republic of Venice, and even Portugal, the oldest ally of England, joined the association. The British ministry temporized, they expected, probably, that the smothered jealousy between Austria and Prussia might lead to a war that would divert the attention of the continental powers, but these hopes were frustrated by the death of Maria Theresa, whose inveterate hatred of the Prussian monarch was not inherited by her successor. The conduct of the Dutch government had long been suspicious ; bul proof was at length obtained of its having concluded a treaty wuh the American congress, and the remonstrances of the British minister were treated with disdain. War was instantly declared, and several of the Dutch colonies in the South American seas were subdued by the Eng- 536 MODERN HISTORY. jish forces. Nor was this the only calamity that befell the Dutch re« public ; no sooner had the emperor .Joseph succeeded to the ample in- heritance of Maria Theresa, than he commanded a series of important re- forms, among which was included the dismantling of the barrier towns in the Netherlands, which had been fortified at a vast expense to save Hol- land from the encroachments of France (a. d. 1781). A Dutch fleet, under Zoutman, was defeated by Admiral Parker, at the Doggers' bank ; but the English had less success in the American seas, where Sir Samuel Hood was reduced to inactivity by the superior force of Count dft Grasse. The defeat of Lord Cornwallis, and the loss of the second British army that had been forced to surrender, led to a general feeling in Eng- land that any further protraction of the contest would be hopeless (a. d. 1782). The ministers, indeed, seemed at first resolved to continue the war, but they could no longer command a parliamentary majority, and were forced to resign. A new ministry, formed by the marquis of Rockingham and Mr. Fox, commenced negotiations for peace, without at all relaxing in their efforts to support the war ; but before the results of the change could be fully developed, the ministry was dissolved by the death of the marquis. But ere this event produced any effect on the political aspect of affairs, two signal triumphs shed lustre on the arms of Britain. Admiral Rodney gained a decisive victory over the French fleet under Count de Grasse, between the islands of Martinique and Guadaloupe ; and General Elliott, who had long been besieged in Gibraltar, defeated the formidable attack of the combined French and Spanish forces on that fortress, and burned, by showers of red-hot balls, the floating batteries, which the besiegers had fondly believed irresisti- ble. In the East Indies, Sir Eyre Coole partly retrieved the fortunes of the company ; he recovered the Carnatic, and totally routed Hyder's army at Porto Novo (a. d. 1781); and again at Pollalore. All the Dutch settlements were captured (a. d. 1782), but this success was interrupted by the defeat of Colonel Brailhwaite, whose forces were surprised, surrounded, and cut to pieces by Tippoo and an auxiliary French force under M. Lally. Several indecisive engagements took place between Suffrein and Hughes, the French and English (dmirals, in the Indian seas ; and the operations of the British by land were im- peded by the jealousies of the civil and military authorities (a. d. 1783). The death of Hyder, and the restoration of peace between France and England, induced Tippoo to listen to terms of accommodation, and the English terminated this most unfortunate and disgraceful war, by sub- mitting to humiliations from the son of Hyder, which greatly diminished the respect that had hitherto been paid to their name in Asia. The changes of ministry in England protracted the negotiations for peace. The earl of Shelburne succeeded the marquis of Rockingham ; but he was forced to yield to the overwhelming parliamentary strength of Lord North and Mr. Fox, who formed an unexpected coalition. The independence of America was recognised by the signature of pre- liminaries at Versailles (November 30, 1782) ; little difficulty was found in arranging terms with France and Spain ; but the English wished to gain some compensation for their losses from Holland, and THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 637 this circumstance occasioned a delay in the final arrangement of the treaty. Section IV. — The British Empire in India. The British empire in India was, as we have already stated, founded on the ruins of the empire of Delhi. The French were the first who aimed at acquiring sovereignty by interfering in the contests of the local governcfs who had established their independence ; they gained a de- cided superiority in the Carnatic and on the Coromandel coast, until the naval supremacy of England, in the seven years' war, intercepted their communications, and enabled their rivals to seize all their settle- ments. It was soon discovered that Coromandel cost more than it was worth, and that the territorial acquisitions most desirable were the coun- trieii round the Ganges. Under the government of Lord Clive, the English obtained the sovereignty of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, on tha condition of paying twelve lacs of rupees annually to the emperor of Delhi. No sooner had the company acquired the sovereignty of this rich and opulent country, than an opposition of interest arose between the directors at home and their officers in India. The former were anxious to augment their commercial dividends by the territorial rev- enues, the latter were as obstinate in applying the surplus income t-o their own advantage. The want of control over the subordinate au- thorities in India led to most calamitous results ; the officers of the company established monopolies in all the principal branches of domes- tic trade, rendered property insecure by arbitrarily changing the tenure of land, and perverted the administration of justice to protect their avarice. The injustice with which the native princes were treated, roused a formidable enemy to the English in Hyder Ali, sultan of My- sore ; and had he been supported by European aid as efl!ectively as he might have been, the company's empire in Hindustan would soon have ended. Some improvements were made in 1774, by concentrating the power of the three presidencies in the governor-general and council of Bengal, and the establishment of a supreme court of judicature. But Warrei. Hastings, the first governor-general, by a series of oppressions and extortions, provoked a second war with Hyder and the Mahratta states, the general results of which have been stated in the preceding chapter. Notwithstanding the fortunate termination of the Mysorean and Mahratta wars, and the extension of the company's territory in Bengal, by the capture of Negapatam from the Dutch, the aspect of affairs was very gloomy and threatening. All the exactions of the company did not enable it to fulfil its engagements with the government ; and its af- fairs were considered as fast approaching bankruptcy. It had also been found very inconvenient to have a mercantile association existing as a state within the state, and all parties agreed that the company ought to be placed more directly under the control of the government. Under the administration of the marquis of Rockingham, Mr. Fox had taken the lead in arranging the affairs of Ireland. That country had been left unprotected during the late war ; the inhabitants, menaced by invasion, armed in their own defence, and the volunteers thus raised, 638 MODERN HISTORY. resolved, while they had the power, to secure the legislative indepen- dence of their country. The prudence of their leaders averted the horrors of a civil war, which would probably have ended in tlie separa- tion of the islands ; but they could not long have restrained the impa- tience of their followers, had not the Rockingham administration showed eaily its desire to comply with their demands. The legislative inde- pendence of Ireland was acknowledged (a. d. 1782), and a federal union of the two governments arranged, which promised to produce permanent advantages to both countries. His success in Ireland in- duced Mr. Fox to prepare a measure for regulating the complicated affairs of India ; and a bill was introduced, on whose success he staked the existence of the coalition ministry. The principle of Mr. Fox's measure was to place the whole civil and military government of India under a board of nine members, chosen for four years, and not remov- able without an address from either house of parliament. Such a board would manifestly be an independent authority in the state ; and it was said that its design was to make the power of a pai.y rival that of the king. When the bill had passed the commons, his majesty, through Earl Temple, intimated to the peers his hostility to the measure, and the lords rejected it by a considerable majority. A new ministry was formed under the auspices of Mr. Pitt, second son to the great earl of Chatham ; and as it was impossible to resist the strength of the coali- lion in the house of commons, the parliament was dissolved at the ear- liest moment that the state of public business would permit (a. d. 1784). The success of this measure surpassed the expectations of the new minister ; the nation had been disgusted by the coalition of parties, that had been so long and so bitterly opposed to each other as those of Mr. Fox and Lord North ; their friends were in most places beaten by the supporters of the new cabinet, and Mr. Pitt found himself firmly estab- lished in the plenitude of power. A new bill was framed for the gov- ernment of India, which transferred to the crown the influence which Mr. Fox had designed to intrust to parliamentary commissioners ; but Bonid share of power, and the whole management of commercial affairs, was allowed to remain with the court of directors. The most important branch of conmierce monopolized by the company was the tea trade with China, •\nd this was thrown completely into their hands by a re- duction of the duty, which removed all temptation to smuggling. This change in the government of India was followed by the mem- orable impeachment of Mr. Hastings, whose trial lasted several years. It ended in the acquittal of that gentleman, at least of intentional error ; but his iurturie and his health were ruined by the protracted prosecu- tion. A wise selection of rulers greatly improved the condition of the British empire in India ; under the administration of Lord Cornwallis, the situation of the natives was greatly ameliorated ; but the seeds of corruption, arising from ancient misgovernment and internal wars, could not be wholly eradicated. The great extension of the British colonies gave a fresh stimulus to the spirit of maritime discovery, and the English penetrated into the remotest seas, stopping only where nature had interposed impenetrable barriers of ice. The three voyages of Captain Cook awakened a spirit of enterprise scarcely inferior to that which had been roused by the THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 639 discoveries of Columbus. The islands of the south Pacific ocean be- came soon as well known as those of the Mediterranean sea, and their natural productions speedily formed articles of trade. Cook himself suggested the expediency of forming a settlement on the coast of New Holland ; in less than half a century this colony has risen into great importance as an agricultural community ; it promises, at no very dis- tant day, to outgrow the fostering care of the mother-country, to afford her a rich reward, and become one of her most flourishing descendants. From the period of Mr. Pitt's accession to power until the commence- ment of the French revolution, there was little beyond the strife of par- ties remarkable in the domestic history of England. The illness of the king (a. d. 1787), gave indeed alarming proof that the federal union of the English and Irish legislatures was by no means sufficient to secure the permanent connexion of the countries ; for, while the British parlia- ment adopted a restricted regency, the Irish offered the entire royal power to the prince of Wales. The speedy recovery of the king avert- ed the evils that might have resulted from so marked a discrepancy, but from that time Mr. Pitt seems to have determined on his plan for uni- ting the two legislatures. The chief parliamentary struggles were for a repeal of the disqualifying laws that affected the dissenters, and the abolition of the infamous slave-trade ; but the success of both these measures was reserved for later times. Section V. — History of Europe, from the end of the American War to the commencement of the French Revolution. During the progress of the American war, a gradual improvement in the science of government began to be manifested in the European states. Many of the German princes began to moderate the stern ex- ercise of their despotic authority, to reform their expenditure and mili- tary establishments, and to adopt new institutions suited to the advanced state of civilization. The emperor Joseph was the most enterprising of the royal reformers ; his measures for regulating the church involved him in a cor.tost with Pope Pius VI., who hated and dreaded innova- tion, and was bigotedly attached to the ancient pretensions of the Romish see. Persuaded that his personal influence would be sufficient to dis- suade Joseph from pursuing his course of change, the pontifl' undertook an expensive journey to Vienna, but the emperor only gave him an abun- dance of compliments, and persevered in his resolutions. His failure covered the pontiff" with ridicule, especially as he had to endure similar disappointments in his negotiations with the courts of Russia and Prus- sia. Joseph was willing to join the emperess Catherine in the dis- memberment of Turkey, and permitted that princess to seize the Crimea ; but the principal western powers still dreaded the aggrandize- ment of Austria, and the threat of their confederacy saved the Ottoman empire. The king of Prussia was foremost in checking the encroach- ments of the emperor ; he secretly instigated the Dutch to refuse the free navigation of the Scheldt to the ships of the Austrian Netherlands, and he planned a confederacy for maintaining the integrity of the Ger- manic states. Frederic died when he had completed the consolidation of a kingdom which his conquests had nearly doubled (a. d. 1786) ; he 640 MODERN HISTORY. was succeeded by his nephew Frederic William, whose attention was early directed to the affairs of Holland. The success of the Americans in establishing a commonwealth, in- duced many of the Dutch to aim at restoring their old republican con- stitution, and abridging or destroying the power of the stadtholder, which had become in all but name monarchical. The French secretly encouraged the opponents of the prince of Orange, hoping to obtain from the popular party an addition to their East Indian colonies, or at least such a union of interests as would counterpoise British ascend- ency in Asia ; but the new king of Prussia, whose sister was married to the stadtholder, resolved to prevent any change, and the English am- bassador vigorously exerted himself to counteract the intrigues of the French. An insult offered to the princess of Orange brought matters to a crisis ; Frederic William immediately sent an army to redress his sister's wrongs ; the republicans, deserted by France, made but a feeble resistance, and the stadtholder was restored to all his former authority. The disordered state of the French finances was the cause of this desertion of their party by the ministers of Louis ; through mere jeal- ousy of England, they had involved their country in the American war, and had thus increased the confusion in which the prodigality of the preceding year had sunk the treasury. Minister after minister had at- tempted to palliate the evil, but M. de Calonne, who owed his eleva- tion to the unwise partiality of the queen, Marie Antoinette, aggravated the disorder by a series of measures formed without prudence, and sup- ported with obstinacy. Opposed by the parliaments, Calonne recom- mended the king to convene an assembly of the notables, or persons selected from the privileged orders (a. d. 1787) ; but these orders had hitherto paid far less than their fair proportion of the imposts, and an equitable system of taxation could not be expected from such an inter- ested body. Necker, a Swiss banker, who had been for a short time the French minister of finance, joined in the opposition to Calonne, and it must be confessed that he demonstrated the total inadequacy of the proposed measures to remedy the decline of public credit. Louis dis- missed Calonne, but he would not gratify his subjects by recalling Necker to the cabinet ; and he dismissed the notables, whose uncom plying disposition rendered all hopes of aid from that assembly fruitless. But the derangement of the finances was not the only evil that the French court suffered from its interference in the American war ; the officers and soldiers who had fought for liberty in one hemisphere be- came dissatisfied with despotism in the other. A general desire for the establishment of a free constitution, like that of England, was difiused through the nation, and some more ardent spirits began to speculate on a republic. The connexion of the court with Austria was the cause of much secret discontent ; the decline of the influence and the power of France was traced to its unfortunate alliance with the court of Vienna during the seven years' war, and the queen, who was naturally inclined to perpetuate this unpopular union, became an object of suspicion and dislike. It was mortifying to find that France no longer held the bal- ance of power on the continent ; that she could not save Turkey from the aggressions of the ambitious Catherine, nor protect the republican party in Holland from punishment for acts done in her service. THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 641 While France was thus disturbed, the progress of reform in other states was unimpeded ; the rulers of Spain and Portugal improved iheir kingdoms by institutions for the protection of trade, and by placing checks on the exorbitant powers of the clergy. They joined in an ef- fort to chastise the piratical powers in the Mediterranean, but the strength of the Algerine capital frustrated the attempt. The emperor Joseph and his brother Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, distinguished themselves by enacting new and salutary codes of law ; they abol- ished the use of torture to extort confessions, and they greatly limited the number of offences to which the penalty was atfixed. Their ex- ample was followed by the emperess Catherine, whose code was the greatest blessing that her glorious reign conferred on Russia ; and even the sultan evinced a desire to improve the institutions of Turkey. But the course of events in France soon inspired all the sovereigns of Europe with a horror of innovation. Aftei the dismissal of the no- iables, M. de Brienne, archbishop of Toulouse, had become minister of finance, and he soon involved himself in a dispute with the parlia- ments, by refusing to produce the accomits, which they insisted on ex- amining before registering any new edicts of taxation. The great ob- ject of the parliament was to maintain the immunities of the privileged orders ; the minister justly recommended a less partial system, when his opponents, yielding to temporary irritation, demanded the convoca- tion of the states-general. The nobles and the clergy joined in the demand, without any expectation of its being granted, but merely to annoy the court ; the people, however, took up the matter in earnest, and determined to enforce compliance. Various schemes were tried by the archbishop to overcome this powerful opposition, but all his plans were disconcerted by the obstinacy of the parliaments, and the king, finding every expedient fail, consented to recall Necker (a. d. 1788). At the same time, a solemn promise was given for the speedy assembly of the states-general, a body that had not been convened since the year 1614. Before thr assembling of this legislative body, it was necessary to determine the number of representatives that should be sent by each of the three orders, the nobles, the clergy, and the people ; the majority of the notables voted that an equal number of deputies should be sent by the respective classes, but it was subsequently determined that the representatives of the third estate should equal in number those of the nobles and clergy conjoined. The king declared that the three estates should form separate chambers, but this very important matter was not so deiiuitely fixed as to prevent future discussion. On the 5th of Maj, 1780, the states-general met at Versailles, and the democratic party, confident in its strength, demanded that the three orders should sit and vote together. After a short struggle, the court was compelled to con- cede this vital point, and the united bodies took the name of the National Assembly. A spirit of insubordination began to appear in Paris, caused in some degree by the pressure of famine ; artful and ambitious men fanned the rising flame, and directed the popular indignation against the king and his family. The arms in the Hospital of Invalids were seized by the mob, and the insurgents immediately proceeded to attack the Bastile, oi 41 642 MODERN HISTORY. State-prison of Paris. After a brief resistance, the governor, having an insufficient garrison, capitulated, but the conditions of the surrender were not observed by the infuriate muUitude ; the governor was torn to pieces, and many of the soldiers inhumanly massacred. Louis, greatly alarmed, tried by every means to conciliate his subjects ; he removed the regidar troops from Paris and Versailles, intrusting the defence of the capita] to a body of civic militia, called the National Guards. The command of tliis new force was intrusted to the marquis de la Fayette, who had acquired great popularity by his liberal sentiments and his services to the cause of freedom in the American war. But all the king's concessions failed to conciliate the democratic, or rather, as we may henceforth call it, the republican party ; relying on the support of the Parisian populace, the leaders of this band resolved that the legis- lature should be removed to the capital, and a mob was secretly insti- gated to make the demand. A crowd of the lowest rabble, accompa- nied by some of the national guards, proceeded to Versailles, the palace was Violently entered, several of its defenders slain, and the king com- pelled instantly to set out for Paris, a prisoner in the hands of a licen- tious crowd, whose insults and indecencies were revolting to human nature. This atrocious outrage may fairly be regarded as the commencement of the French Revolution ; thenceforth the royal authority was an empty name, and all the ancient forms of government set aside ; visionaries indulged in speculations on a new order of things, ardent patriots hoped to establish a constitution more perfect than the world ever yet had witnessed, but the base and the depraved sought to gain their own selfish ends by stimulating popular violence; and the last class was the only one whose expectations were realized. Section VI. — The French Revolution. From the moment that Louis XVL was brought a prisoner to his capita], the ancient constitution of France was overthrown ; the mon- archy continued to exist only in name, and the abolition of feudal rights, the extinction of hereditary titles, and the secularization of ec- clesiastical property, established popular sovereignty on the ruins of the ancient structure. Several German princes, who had possessions in Alsace, protested against these violent changes, but the popular rulers would not listen to any proposal of a compromise, and thus the leaders of the revolution were embroiled with the empire in the very outset of their career. A club, called from its place of meeting, the Jacobin As- sociation, wa? formed by the leading democrats, and from this body de- nunciations were issued against all who were believed favorable to the ancient institutions of the country. Through the machinations of the Jacobins, popular hatred was directed against the court, and violent tu- mults excited in various parts of France. Infinitely more dangerous to the repose of Europe were the emigrations of the nobles, who were dissatisfied with the revolution ; instead of remaining at home and or- ganiziu g a constitutional resistance, they resolved to seek the restora- tion of the old government, with all its abuses, by the intervention of foreign powers. A meeting and conference took place at Filnitz, be- THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 643 tween the emperor of Germany, the king of Prussia, and the electoi of Saxony ; the Count d'Artois, brother to the French monarch, and head of the emigrants, came uninvited, and he engaged the sovereigns to issue a vague declaration in favor of the rights of kings. Louis, wearied by the violence of the Jacobins, the licentiousness of the Par- is! ;iti mob, and the disappointments he was daily forced to meet, re- solvid to escape from the captivity in vv^hich he H^as detained, and seek refuge on the frontiers. He fled from Paris, accompanied by his queen and cliildren, but was unfortunately discovered at Varennes, seized, and brought back a prisoner to his capital. This failure exposed the royal family to suspicions of which the Jacobins took advantage ; but the more moderate of the patriots were for a time sufficiently powerful to restrain their violence ; and after a long deliberation, hey prepared a constitutional code, which was tendered to the king for acceptance. The readiness with which Louis assented to this instrument of govern- ment, and his frank communication of his satisfaction with the arrange- ment to his ambassadors at the different European courts, for a time restored his popularity. The emperor Leopold notified to the other poweis that all danger of war was averted, and the external and inter- nal tranquillity of France seemed to be assured. But the constitution, thus established, could not be permanent ; it was itself defective ; and the minds of the French people, once ani- mated by the desire of change, could not rest satisfied with any fixed form of government. The assembly by which it had been framed was dissolved, and a new legislative body chosen, according to the system recently established, and in this assembly the more violent partisans of democracy had more influence than in the preceding. It was the great object of the revolutionary party to involve the kingdom in foreign war ; and the suspicious proceedings of the emigrants, their intrigues m the German courts, and the avowed determination of the emperor to maintain the feudal rights of the German princes in Alsace, furnished plausible pretexts for the commencement of hostilities. The death of the emperor Leopold accelerated a ru[)ture ; his successor, Francis IL, conlitmed to mak? alarming military preparations, and on his refusal to give any satisfactory explanation, Louis was compelled to declare war against him (a. d. 1792). But the strife of parties in the royal cabinet and the national assembly, led to such confusion in the councils of the French, tiiat their armies, though superior in number, were defeated with loss and disgrace ; while the Jacobins, whose intrigues were the real cause of these misfortunes, ascribed them to royalist treachery, and to the influence that Austrian councils possessed over the court from its connexion with the queen. These malignant slanders, industriously circulated, and generally believed, stimulated the Parisian mob to dis- graceful acts of violence and disorder, against which La Fayette and the friends of rational liberty protested in vain. A new incident gave fresh strength to the Jacobin party ; Frederic William, king of Prussia, engaged to co-operate with the emperor Francis to restore the royal authority in France ; their united forces were placed under the commaid of the duke of Brunswick ; and this prince issued a sanguinary and insulthig manifesto, which had the effect of uniting all the French factions in the defence of their conunon 644 MODERN HISTORY. country. A declaration issued soon after by the emigrant brothern and relatives of Louis, in which the revolution was bitterly condemned proved still more injurious to the unfortunate king ; scarcely did intelli- gence of the publication reach Paris, when the palace was attacked bj an infuriate mob, the Swiss guards ruthlessly massacred, and Louis with his family, forced to seek shelter in the hall of the national assem bly. The deputies protected his person, but they suspended his regal functions, and committed him a prisoner to a building called the Tem- ple, from having been once a monastery of the knights of that order. La Fayette was equally surprised and indignant at these outrages of the Jacobins ; he tried to keep the army firm in its allegiance ; but all his exertions not being sufficient to accomplish this result, he fled into the Netherlands, when he was seized and imprisoned by the Austrians for his former opposition to the royal power. He was suc- ceeded in the command of the army by Dumouriez, who made energetic preparations to resist the coming invasion. Confident in their strength, the allied armies entered France with the proudest anticipations, and their rapid progress in the beginning seemed to promise the most decisive results. To diminish the number of their internal enemies, Robespierre, Marat, and other chiefs of the Jacobins, planned the mas sacre of all the suspected persons confined in the prisons of Paris, and this diabolical plot was executed by the licentious populace. Similar horrors were perpetrated in other parts of France ; a reign of terroi was established, and no man dared to remonstrate against these shock- ing excesses. In the meantime the invaders had met with unexpected reverses ; trusting to the representations of the emigrants, that the rev- olution had been the work of a few agitators, not of the nation, and that there was a general reaction in favor of royalty, the allies had advanced without providing adequate stores, and when they received a check at Valmy, their camp was attacked by famine and disease ; they were soon compelled to retreat, and to piirchase an inglorious security by resigning the fortresses they had occupied. Dumouriez pursued the Austrians into the Netherlands, and gained a decisive victory, which encouraged the Belgians to throw off the imperial yoke ; Flanders and Brabant were soon in possession of the victors, and their arms had made considerable progress in the reduction of Luxemburg. The con- vention, as the national assembly began to be called, having made their own country a republic, resolved to extend the revolution into other states ; they offered their alliance to every nation that desired to recover its liberties, and they ordered the ancient constitutions of all the coun- tries occupied by the French troops to be subverted. As the republican arms had conquered Savoy, and were fast gaining ground in Germany, the adoption of such a decree was virtually a declaration of war against all the kings of Europe. The Jacobins, aided by the Parisian mob, and still more by the cow- ardice and indecision of their opponents, were now masters of the con- vention, and the first use they made of their power was to bring the unfortunate king to trial, on the ridiculous charge of his having engaged in a conspiracy for the subversion of freedom. Louis defended himself with great spirit and energy, but his judges were predetermined on his eonviction: six hundred and eighty-three deputies pronounced him THE AGE OP REVOLUTIONS. 645 guilty of treascm against the sovereignty of the nation, while thera were only thirty-seven who took a more favorable view of his conduct. A motion for an appeal to the people was rejected ; but the sentence of death was passed by a very inconsiderable majority, and this probably induced the Jacobins to hasten the execution. On the twenty-first of January, 1793, the unfortunate Louis was guillotined in his capital city ; and the severity of his fate was aggravated by the insults of his cruel executioners. This judicial murder excited general indignation throughout Europe ; Chauvelin, the French ambassador, was dismissed from the British court, and many persons in England, who had hitherto applauded the efforts of the French people, became vehement opposers of revolu- tionary principles. A similar result was produced in Holland, where the government had been justly alarmed by the progress of the French in the Netherlands. The convention did not wait to be attacked ; a vote was passed that the republic was at war with the king of England and the stadtholder of Holland, by whirli artful phraseology it was intended to draw a marked distinction between the sovereign and the pec^Itr oi both coun- tries. Spain was soon after added to the enemies of France, and the new republic had to contend against a coalition of all the leading powers of Europe. None of the allies threatened more loudly than the em- peress Catherine ; she had just concluded a successful war against Turkey, in which her general, Suwaroff, had won a large addition of erritory for his mistress, and the power of Russia in the Black sea was secured ; she had also triumphed over the king of Sweden, more, however, by the insubordination of her rival's officers, than by the valor of her own troops. Poland was in everything but name subjected to Russia, and the empf Catherine became more manifest ; she issued violent proclamations against the French, but carefully abstained "rom active hostility ; indeed, it was manifestly her purpose to involve uhe continental powers in a war, which would prevent them from watching too jealously the aggrandizement of Russia. The English and Prussians, deeming the defence of Holland a mat- wer of primary importance, combined to check the progress of Dumou- riez, who had overrun Dutch Brabant, with little opposition (a. d. 1793). But the progress of the Austrians, on the side of Germany, stopped the French in their career of conquest. Dumouriez quitted Holland to defend Louvain ; he suffered a complete defeat at Neer-winden, by which his soldiers were so discouraged, that they deserted in great numbers. Dumouriez, finding himself suspected by the two great par- ties which divided the republic, and weary of the disorganized state of ^46 MODERN HISTORY. the French government, entered into negotiations with the ahied gen- erals, and arrested the deputies sent by the convention to vi^atch hia movements. But the army did not share the anti-revolutionary feel- ings of Dumouriez, and he was forced to seek shelter in the Austrian camp. Custine, the successor of Dumouriez, was unable to check the prog- ress of the allied armies ; being reinforced by a British force under the duke of York, they captured the important fortress of Valenciennes, and seemed to have opened a way to Paris. The revolutionary gov- ernment punished Custine's failure by a public execution, and employed the terrors of the guillotine as an incentive to patriotism. But the sep- aration of the allied forces was more serviceable to the cause of the convention than the cruelties of the " Committee of Public Safety," to which the supreme power in France was intrusted. Austria, Prussia, and England, had separate interests, in the pursuit of which the com- mon cause was forgotten ; the imperialists laid siege to Le Quesnoi, while the English and Dutch proceeded to invest Dunkirk. The duke of York attacked Dunkirk with great spirit, but not receiving the sup- port by sea that he had expected, and the Hanoverian force that cov- ered his operations having been routed by Houchard, he was obliged to raise the siege and abandon the greater portion of his artillery and mil itary stores. The Austrians were for a time more successful, but when Hoche, the defender of Dunkirk, was promoted to the command of the republican armies, they were driven from all their conquests in Alsace, and forced to seek shelter within the imperial frontiers. In Italy, the French maintained their hold of Savoy, but they experienced some se- vere reverses on the Spanish frontier. The revolutionary excitement produced the most dreadful effects be- yond the Atlantic ; the colored population in the French division of St. Domingo took arms to force the whites to grant them equal privileges ; their claims were supported by the three deputies sent by the conven- tion to regulate the affairs of the colony, the negroes were seduced, by offers of liberty, to revolt against their masters, and St. Domingo, which had been one of the most flourishing islands in the West Indies, was devastated by a civil war, scarcely to be paralleled for its sanguinary fury and the wanton destruction of life and property. The wars of southern and western Europe permitted Catherine of Russia to accomplish the favorite object of her policy, the dismember- ment of Poland. Austria and Prussia joined in this iniquitous scheme, for the purpose of sharing the plunder, but the Poles made a gallant struggle to maintain their independence. Kosciusko, who had served in America, under Washington, was the chief of the patriots, and his heroic efforts protracted a struggle which from the first was hopeless. Kosciusko, severely wounded, fell into the hands of his enemies, War- saw was stormed by the brutal Suwaroff, and the kingdom of Poland, erased from the list of nations, was divided between the three confed- erates (a. d. 1795). The king of Prussia, more anxious to secure his new acquisitions than to support the objects of the coalition, made peace with the French, and offered to mediate between the republic and Austria. Scarcely had the Austrians been driven from France, when tha THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 647 country was convulsed by civil war (a. d. 1793.) The jacobins hav- ing, by the aid of the Parisian populace, triumphed over the rival faction in the convention, mercilessly proscribed their political adversaries as traitors, and after a mockery of trial, hurried them to execution. Among the victims to their fury was the unfortunate queen of France, Marie Antoinette, but death was to her not a punishment, but a release from suffering. The tyranny of the Jacobins provoked formidable insurrec- tions in the south of France, and encouraged the royalists of La Vendee to take up arms in the cause of their church and their king. Nothing could exceed the fury of the Jacobins when they heard of these revolts ; severe decrees were passed against the cities which had resisted their authority, but no place was so cruelly punished as Lyons, which had continued for four months in a state of insurrection. After having en- dured a furious bombardment, it was forced to surrender at discretion , five deputies, of whom Callot and Fouche were the chief, received a communication from the convention to punish the Lyonese r ^volters by the summary process of military law, and about four thousand victims were shot or guillotined after the mockery of trial before this savage tribunal. But, in the midst of their butcheries, the iacobins did not neglect the military defence of their country ; a decree of the conven- tion declared, that all the French were soldiers, and a levy of the pop- ulation, €11 masse, was ordered. To support such numerous armies, private property was seized and paid for in promissory notes, called assign ats, whose value was speedily depreciated, a circumstance which ruined public credit in France. Toulon having revolted, an English garrison, strengthened by Span- ish and Neapolitan detachments, occupied that important seaport. It was soon besieged by the troops of the convention ; the artillery of the besiegers was directed by a young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, who had risen by his meriis from an inferior station. Owing to his exertions, the English soon found the place untenable ; they evacuated Toulon, without .ijs<. after having destroyed the arsenal and shipping, but they abandoned the inhabitants to the fury of the conquerors, who punished their revolt with indiscriminate severity. In the Netherlands and Germany, the French, under Pichegru and Jourdan, gained many important advantages over the imperialists and their all^f^s; but though many battles were fought, nothing of any con- sequence was effected in the early part of the campaign (a. d. 1794), A more important event was the downfall of the sanguinary faction which had so long deluged France with the blood of its best citizens ; Robespierre's enormities were too numerous and too shocking to be borne, even by many of the Jacobin party; a conspiracy was formed against him ; the convention was induced to resume its authority, and order his arrest, and, after a brief struggle, he and his accomplices were hurried before the revolutionary tribunal, which they had them- selves organized, and sent to the scaffold. This revolution did not pro- duce the beneficial results that had been expected ; Robespierre's suc- cessors were little better than himself, and they were confirmed in their hostility to Britain by the recent defeat of their navy. Lord Howe,, who had been distinguished as a naval commander in the two preceding wars, encountered a French fleet of rather superior force (June 1), and 648 MODERN HISTORY, haAdng broken the enemy's line, took six ships-of-war and sank two This success revived the declining spirits of the English nation, dis- couraged by the ill success of the war in Holland. Corsica was soon after annexed to the dominions of England, but the French were victo- rious on the Spanish frontier, and Holland was completely subdued by Pichegru and Moreau. The prince of Orange and the English forces escaped by sea ; the Dutch abolished the office of stadtholder, and adopted a new form of government, similar to that of the French repub- lic. If there were any in Holland who expected to derive advantage from this revolution, they were grievously disappointed ; the French despised their new confederates, and treated them as a conquered peo- ple, while the English seized the colonies and destroyed the remains of the once unparalleled commerce of Holland. The alarm which the French revolution excited in England, led the government to prosecute some er thusiasiic advocates of reform in par- liament for high treason ; three of them were brought to trial and ac- quitted, upon which the prosecutions of the others were abandoned. There were few in the country anxious to make a change in the estab- lished institutions, the crimes and follies of the French Jacobins had rendered innovation unpopular, and many who had hitherto been ii. opposition to the court, tendered their aid to the minister ; the most remarkable of these converts was the eloquent Burke, whose denuncia- tions of French principles, produced a powerful effect on the national mind. The dismemberment of Poland, and the desertion of the coalition by the king of Prussia, gave great dissatisfaction to the British parliament, and the character of our faithless ally was made the theme of severe and not unmerited censure. He had accepted a large subsidy from England, and employed the money lavishly granted him, against the Polanders instead of the French. But the defection of Prussia did not dishearten the English or the Austrians, who were encouraged to con- tinue the war by the distracted state of France. In Paris, the conven- tion partially succeeded in throwing off the yoke of the Jacobins, but the city was '"requently endangered by their machinations, and the in- surrections of ihe ferocious populace who supported them. The royalist war was renewed in La Vendee, and the south of France continued discontented. But the allies profited little by these commotions. The Spaniards, completely humbled, were forced to make peace with the republicans ; the Austrians barely maintained their ground in Italy, and success was evenly balanced on the side of Germany. Great Britain, however, maintained its supremacy at sea; Admiral Cornwallis com- pelled a fleet of very superior force to retire, and Lord Bridport, with ten sail-of-the-line, attacked twelve of the enemy, three of winch were compelled to strike their colors. The French were deprived of Mar- tinique, Gaudaloupe, and St. Lucie, in the West Indies, and their re- luctant allies, the Dutch, lost their settlements at the Cape of Good Hope, and in the island of Ceylon. The convention, by an attempt to perpetuate its authority, provoked a formidable insurrection in Paris ; Bonaparte had a considerable share in subduing the revolters, more than two thousand of whom were mercilessly slaughtered. Soon afterward, France had a new constitu- THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 649 tion, consisting of a legislative assembly, an upper house, called the council of ancients, and a directory of five members, intrusted with the executive functions of government. The directors soon began to limit the powers of the legislative body, and the new constitution was found to be a delusion. But an approach had been made to regular government, and the war was carried on with fresh vigor by the directory (a. d. 1796). Marshals Jourdan and Moreau made successful irruptions into Ger- many, but they encountered a formidable antagonist in the archduke Charles of Austria. He stopped the invaders in their mid-career of victory, completely routed Jourdan at Kornach, and then suddenly marching against Moreau, he nearly succeeded in surprising and over- whelming that general. Moreau's celebrated retreat was moie honor- able to his abilities than the most brilliant victory ; he led his forces through the black forest, from position to position, often compelled to yield his ground, but never thrown into confusion, until he safely crossed the Rhine with all his artillery and baggage. The campaign in Italy, where the French were commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte, was more eventful. The king of Sardinia, completely routed and cut off from his communications with the Austrians, was forced to purchase a dishonorable peace from the re- public, by the cession of his most important fortresses. Napoleon then led his forces against the Austrians, forced, but with great loss, a pas- sage over the bridge of Lodi, and gained possession of Milan and the principal cities of Lombardy. The victors made a harsh use of their triumph, the unfortunate Lombards were treated with great cruelty, the duke of Tuscany was compelled to exclude the English from the port of Leghorn, and the pope was forced to purchase the forbearance of the republicans by ceding to them Bologna, and several other towns, pay- ing a heavy ransom, and sending three hundred precious manuscripts and pictures to enrich the national museum at Paris. The dukes of Modena and Parma were subjected to similar exactions, but the king of Naples had providently made a truce with the French before they approached his frontiers. Mantua, the last stronghold of the Austrians in Italy, was closely besieged, but the court of Vienna made vigorous preparations for its relief. Marshal Wurmser twice pushed forward against the French, but was each time defeated with great loss, a calamity owing to his unwisely dividing his forces. Alvinzi, who succeeded to the command of the Austrians, committed the same fault, and was compelled to retire ; Mantua, however, was still obstinately defended, but the garrison ceased to entertain sanguine hopes of success. In the meantime, the Corsicans grew weary of their connexion with Great Britain, drove the English from the island, and placed themselves under the protection of France. Ireland was exposed to the horrors of an invasion ; a formidable squadron, having a large body of troops on board, appeared in Bantry Bay. Hoche, who had acquired considerable fame by his suppression of the insurrection in La Vendee, commanded the expedition, and, could he have elTected a landing, the safety of the British empire would have been perilled ; but a violent storm dispersed the ships, most of which were subse- quently either sunk or captured. The death of the emperess Catherine 650 MODERN HISTORY. inspired the English minister with the hope of gaining more effectivo assistance from Russia ; but her successor, tlie emperor Paul, disre- garded all the solicitations addressed to him by the courts of London and Vienna. A new enemy appeared against England ; the Spanish government, always jealous of British naval power, and overawed by the French directory, entered into alliance with the republic, and began to increase its navy (a. d. 1797). At this moment, when the existence of England depended on its sailors, a formidable mutiny broke out in the fleet at Spithead ; the officers were suspended from their authority and dismissed from their ships ; the malcontents blockaded the mouth of the Thames, and committed several acts of depredation. Fortunately the sailors grew alarmed themselves and hastened to return to their allegiance ; a few of the ringleaders were hanged, but the great body of the revolters was conciliated by an act of amnesty. The war in Italy was not discontinued during the winter ; Alvinzi made a desperate effort to retrieve the fortunes of Austria, but he was again defeated, and Mantua soon capitulated. Having very severely punished the pope for his attachment to the imperial interests, Napoleon resolved to carry the war into the hereditary states of Austria. The territory of Friuli was quickly subdued, and a great part of the Tyrol occupied by the French ; the archduke Charles made a bold defence, but the emperor Francis, terrified by the advance of Hoche and Moreau in Germany, sued for peace, in spite of the remonstrances of his English allies. While the terms of pacification were under discussion, Napo- leon subverted the ancient constitution of Genoa and Venice, and made both republics virtually dependant on France. Spain suffered severely in the war she had so rashly commenced. Admiral Jervis encountered a Spanish fleet of very superior force off Cape St. Vincent, and by a dexterous manoeuvre cut off nine of their ships from the line, so that he could engage the rest on more equal terms. Four ships-of-the-line were taken in this brilliant engagement, to the success of which Nelson, who was now commencing his brilliant career, mainlv contributed. The Spaniards lost also the valuable island of Trinidad, but an attack made by the British on Tenerifte was unsuc- cessful. The Dutch, too, were punished for their alliance with France. Three ships-of-the-line and four frigates were taken by the British, after an unsuccessful attempt to recover the cape. But they suffered a more severe loss on their own coast ; an English squadron, commanded by Admiral Duncan, got between their ships and the shore, and took eleven out of fifteen sail-of-the-line. Two of the prizes, however, in con- sequence of the difficulties of the navigation, were abandoned. A new revokition in France invested the directory with supreme power, and their opponents were banished to the unhealthy swamps of Guiana, where they were treated with great rigor. Negotiations for peace were commenced, but those with England were broken ofl' abruptly by the extravagent demands of the French plenipotentiaries. This did not prevent the conclusion of a treaty between the republic and Austria, when the em|)eror was renumerated for the loss of Mantua by the ces- sion of Venice, which he meanly accepted, and the frontiers of France were extended to the Rhine. THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. 651 Great Britain was now the only power at ^ar with France, and the directory prepared a large army for its invasion. This threat pro- duced a noble display of patriotism throughout the country, volunteer associations for defence were formed, and every man was ready to act as a soldier. But while the British navy rode triumphant in the chan- nel, the menace of invasion was an idle boast, and Bonaparte only used it as a pretext to cover his ulterior designs. While the French were modelling, at their pleasure, the governments of Italy, Switzerland, and Holland, Napoleon planned an expedition to Egypt, with the hope of rendering the French influence as predominant in the east as it was in western Europe (a. d. 1798). Convoyed by a fleet, under Admiral Brueys, he sailed first to Malta, which was betrayed by the French knights. A garrison was left to secure the forts of this important island ; the rest of the expedition escaping the vigilance of the English fleet, safety reached Egypt, and having effected a landing, took Alexandria by storm. The Mameluke beys, who were then masters of the country, led their brilliant cavalry to check the progress of the invaders ; but these undisciplied warriors were unable to break the firm squares of the French infantry, and they were almost annihilated in the battle of Embaba. But the hopes inspired by such success were soon dashed by the ruin of the French fleet. After a long search. Admiral Nelson dis- covered Brueys, in the bay of Aboukir, and immediately formed a bold plan of action. He led a part of his fleet between the French and the shore, so as to place his enemies between two fires. The victory was complete, nine sail-of-lhe-line were captured, L'Orient, a ship of uncom- mon size, blew up with the greater part of her crew ; another ship-of- the-line and a frigate were burned by their respective captains. But Great Britain was not equally fortunate in other quarters ; an armament sent against the Belgic coast signally failed, and the island of St. Domingo was evacuated by the British troops. Ireland was dis- tracted by an insurrection, planned by some enthusiastic admirers of French principles, but put into execution by an ignorant peasantry, whose excesses tiieir leaders were unable to control. Many acts of atrocity were committed by the insurgents, and the conduct of the royal army was frequently very disgraceful. The insurrection was finally quelled ; but scarcely was tranquillity restored, when a small party of French landed in Connaught, and through the cowardice of the troops first sent oppose them, penetrated into the heart of the country. Lord Corn- wallis, who had just been appointed lord lieutenant, soon overtook the French, and forced them to surrender. Judiciously tempering severity whh clemency, he conciliated the discontented ; and Sir John Warren, by capturing the greater part of a French fleet, averted the dangers of a future invasion. The victory of Nelson at the Nile produced a powerful effect through- out Europe. The sultan made preparations for a vigorous defence of his dominions ; the Russians sent an armament into the Mediterranean, and captured the Ionian islands, which the French had wrested from the Venetians ; the king of Naples took arms to recover the Roman territories for the pope ; and the emperor of Austria yielded to the suggestions of Mr. Pitt, and commenced hostilities. 652 MODERN HISTORY. The French »vere not daunted by this powerful coalition ; they easily repelled the Neapolitans, but ihey found a more formidable foe in the Russians, who entered Italy under the command of Suwaroff, and being there joined by the Austrians, gained several important advantages in spite of Marshals Moreau and Macdonald. But these successes were so dearly purchased, that the allies resolved to try a new plan of opera- tions. Suwaroff undertook to drive the French from Switzerland ; Kray and Melas were to direct the Piedmontese and Austrian troops in Italy ; while the archduke Charles protected Germany with all the forces of the empire. Victory in general favored the allied powers : the French lost all their posts in Italy except Genoa, and that was closely besieged , Suwaroff made rapid progress in Switzerland ; and in Germany the French arms suffered several but not very important reverses. In the meantime Napoleon invaded Syria ; but being foiled at Acre, chiefly through the heroic exertions of Sir Sydney Smith, he returned to Egypt, and having provided for the security of that country, secretly embarked for France. He escaped the vigilance of the English cruisers, and ar- rived at Paris just as the directory were indulging in extravagant joy for the defeat of the joint invasion of Holland by the English and Rus- sians. It had been confidently asserted that the Dutch were anxious to throw ofT the yoke of France, but these representations were proved to be fallacious ; and the duke of York, who commanded the English forces, was compelled to purchase a safe retreat by restoring eight thousand French prisoners without ransom or exchange. Bonaparte soon perceived that the French people had grown weary of the directory. Trusting to his popularity with the army, he drove the legislative council from their chamber at the point of the bayonet, and formed a new constitution, by which the executive power was in- trusted to three consuls, of whom he was the chief. The first consul, in everything but name a monarch, attempted to commence negotiations ; the English ministers repulsed him rather harshly, and preparations were made for a decisive campaign. An important and necessary change was made in the constitution of the British empire (a. d. 1800). Some difficulties had arisen t"rom the existence of independent legislatures in England and Ireland ; the two parliaments had already divided differently on the important question of ihe regency, and there was reason to fear that some future discrepancy rxiight lead to the dismemberment of the empire. To prevent such an evil, it was resolved that the two legislatures should form on i imperial parliament, and the terms of the union were warmly canvassed in both countries. The measure was very unpopular in Ireland, and when first proposed, was rejected by the parliament ; but, during the recess, the minister found means to increase the number of his supporters, and in the following session the Act of Union was passed by considerable majorities. It was expected that the first consul would attempt the invasion of England or Ireland ; but Napoleon was too well aware of his naval weaki\ess to undertake such a hazardous enterprise. He formed a daring plan of a campaign in Italy, and led his army like Hannibal over the Alps. The Austrians could scarcely have been more surprised if an army had fallen from the clouds, than they were by the appearance THE AGE OF REVOLiJTIONS. ^53 of the French columns descending from Mount St. Bernard ; but, en- couraged by their recent acquisition of Genoa, they prepared to make a vigorous resistance. The battle of Montebello, in which the French had the advantage, was the prelude to the decisive battle of Marengo. The Austrians commenced the fight with unusual spirit ; both wings of their opponents wore beaten, and the centre shaken ; but some fresh divisions arriving to the support of the French at the last moment of the crisis, Napoleon pierced the lines of the imperialists, which were too much extended, and Murat's furious charge completed the rout of the Austrians. So disheartened was the imperial general, Melas, that he purchased a truce by resigning Genoa, and the principal fortiesses in Piedmont and the Milanese, to the conquerors. The influence of the British cabinet, and some slight successes in Germany, induced the emperor Francis to continue the war ; but his rising hopes were crushed by the battle of Hohenlinden, in which the French and Bavarians under Moreau completely defeated the imperial- ists, and opened a passage into Upper Austria. The emperor, alarmed for his hereditary dominions, consented to a truce, and this was soon followed by the treaty of Luneville, which annihilated for a season the Austrian influence in Italy. Scarcely had Great Britain lost one ally, when she was threatened with the active hostility of another. The Russian emperor, Paul, had been chosen patron of the order of St. John of Jerusalem ; and when the English, after having reduced Malta by blockade, refused to restore the island to the degenerate knights., the chivalrous potentate ordered the British ships in the Russian ports to be detained, and prevailed upon Sweden and Denmaik to unite with Lim in an armed neutialily (a. d. 1801). In the meantime Mr. Pitt, who had so long presided over the councils of Great Britain, resigned liis office as premier. When he was urging forward the great measure of the union with Ireland, he had endeavored to conciliate the catholics of that country by a promise of his aid in procuring a repeal of the laws vhich excluded them from parliament and office ; but the king's repug- nance to catholic emancipation was invincible, and Mr. Pitt retired from the cabinet. Mr. Addington, his successor, had scarcely been installed, when the gratifying intelligence was received of a great triumph ob- tained by the British navy in the Baltic. When Mr. Piit received in- telligence of the armed neutrality, he sent a large fleet into the northern seas, under the command of Sir Hyde Parker and Lord Nelson. The latter, with twelve sail-of-the-line and some small vessels, attacked the Duni.vh fleet, moored in a fomiilable positioa boforj their capital, ami after a desperate contest, took or destroyed every Danish ship that had a share in the engagement. The Danes were humbled by this loss but they were still more disheartened by the death of the Russian em peror, Paul, who was the founder and head of the northern confederacy. This potenate's incapacity provoked the indignation of the nobles and the people, and he was murdered by a party of conspirators, who placed his son Alexander upon the throne The young prince concluded a treaty with the British on equitable terms, and the other northern pow- ers imitated his example. A British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, had been sent to drive the Frencl from Egypt, and it succeeded in this object, but with the 654 MODERN HISTORY. loss of its gallant commander. Some naval enterprises were less suc- cessful : and as there was now a stable government in France, the Eng- lish minister consented to commence negotiations for peace. The terms were soon arranged : France retained her acquisitions in Germany and the Netherlands, and her supremacy in Holland, Switzerland, and Italy. England consented to resign Malta to the knights, to make the Ionian islands an independent republic, and to restore all her colonial con- quests except Ceylon and Trinidad. The treaty was signed at Amiens, and for a short time Europe was deceived with a hope of continued tranquillity. During this war the maritime and commercial supremacy of England had been completely established, and her colonial empire in India ex- tended and secured. When the French invaded Egypt, Tippoo, the sukan of Mysore, inheriting his father's hostility to the English, medi- tated an attack on the company's territories, but he was anticipated by the vigor of the earl of Mornington, the governor-general, who, instead of waiting for an attack, invaded Mysore. Seringapatam, Tippoo's cap- ital, was taken by storm, and that unfortunate prince fell in the assault. This conquest made the British power supreme in southern India, and led to the establishment of the company's paramount authority over the whole peninsula of Hindustan. France had gained a vast accession of territory, but the freedom which the French had taken arms to defend was no more. The revo- lution, whose progress had been so strangely marked by savage crime and cruel suffering, was now fast finding its consummation in a miUtary despotism, more arbitrary and crushing than the iron rule even of the feudal monarchs ; but the French, weaiy of the many vicissitudes that their gov.inimeut had undergone, submitted to a change that promised future stability, and consoled themselves with dreams of glory for the los» o* freedom. THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 655 CHAPTER X. THE FRENCH EMPIRE. Section I. — Renewal of the War beiiveen England and France. "When peace was restored, Napoleon directed all his energies to con- solidate the power he had acquired. Permission was granted to those whom the violence of the revolution had driven from their country, to return, on certain conditions. Christianity, abolished in the madness of the preceding convulsions, was restored, and arrangements were made with the pope for the future government of the Galilean church ; and finally, the consular power was conferred upon Napoleon for life, while a representative constitution preserved for the nation a mere shadow of freedom. His interference in foreign states was less honorable : he moulded the Italian and Ligurian republics at his pleasure ; but the Swiss proving more refractory, Marsha] Ney entered their territory with a large army, to enforce submission to the imperious dictat(!S of the first consul. The British ministers remonstrated against this iiitei- ference, but they could not prevent the French from extending their in- fluence in Germany and Italy, as well as the Swiss cantons. Napoleon was less successful in his efforts to recover the island of Hi^pauioia or St. Domingo. A large French army was sent to the island, and the proceedings of its commanders were marked by gross cruelty and treach- ery ; but these abominable means failed to crush the spirit of the insur- gent negroes, and the unfortunate colony was exposed to all the horrors of a servile war. Great Britain did not interfere in this contest; the example of a successful revolt of slaves was deemed of dangerous con- sequence to ou- West Indian islands, and the reduction of St. Domingo was desired ratner thar. deprecated. But the encroachments of France on the independence of the neigh- boring states, and the determination of England to retain the island of Malta, gave rise to angry discussions, which, it was soon obvious, would only terminate in a renewal of hostilities (a. d. 1803). The English commenced the war by issuing letters of marque, author- izing the seizure of French vessels ; Napoleon retaliated, by seizing the persons of all the British whom pleasure or business had induced to visit France during the brief interval of peace. The threats of imasion were renewed, but the English people evinced a spirit of loyalty which quelled all fear of danger. In Ireland an unmeaning insunection was raised by two enthusiasts, Russell and Emmett, but it was suppressed almos'. the instant it exploded, and a few of the leaders were capitally 556 MODERN HISTORY. punished. Hanover, however, was occupied by a French army, and the Dutch republic joined in the war against Britain. On the other hand, the English conquered the French islands of St. Lucie and Tobago, and the Dutch settlements of Demerara and Essequebo. In Asia, the Eng- lish broke the dangerous power of the Mahrattas, who were supposed, at the instigation of the French, to have formed plans for the subversion of the company's power. The earl of Mornington, who had recently been created marquis of Wellesley, disconcerted their schemes by his vigor and promptitude ; and the formidable Scindiah was forced to pur- chase peace by the cession of a large portion of his dominions. The king of Kandi, who had assailed the British power in Ceylon, was also subdued, and the English colonial empire in Asia was at once enlarged and secured. The French colonial power was at the same time nearly annihilated : the island of St. Domingo was wrested from them by the insurgent blacks, and erected into an independent state, under its an- cient Indian name of Hayti. These results might have been reasonably anticipated, for without a navy it was impossible for France to retain its colonies. Mr. Pitt had retired from office just before the conclusion of the peace, his friends became anxious that he should return to the admin- istration on the renewal of war, and Mr. Addington was forced to yield to their superior influence (a. d. 1804). The premier encountered many difficulties in constructing a cabinet, and had to resist a more formidable opposition in parliament than he had been accustomed to meet. While Mr. Pitt was laboring to strengthen his ministry. Napo- leon was n\oro successfully engaged in securing the supriMue power in France. He accused his rivals, Moreau and Pichegru, of having plot- ted his destruction, in conjunction with Georges, a royalist leader, and charged the English ministers with having hired assassins to destroy him. A more atrocious crime was the murder of the most amiable of the Bourbon princes. The young duke D'Enghien was unjustifiably seized in the neutral territory of Baden, hurried to the castle of Vin- cennes, and shot by the sentence of a court-martial, contrary to all forms of law, as well as principles of justice. Immediately after the perpetiation of thi:s ruthless deed, Napoleon obtained the title of em- peror from his servile senate ; the dignity was declared hereditary in his family, and the principal powers of Europe, with the exception of Great Bruain, rccogni.sed the new sovereign. The em pel or of Russia was anxious to avenge the fate of the duke D'Eiigliiei), his remonstrances against the usurpations of Napoleon were very Wirni, bat none of the other continental soveieigus sesjonded hia zeal, aad the storm, which threatened to burst forth, soon subsided Having no ally on the continent, England had no means of employing her military strength, and the operations of the war were confined to a few naval enterprises. Napoleon offered terms of peace ; but the British minister, relying on the probable co-operation of Russia, refused to n(!gotiate (a. d. 1805). At the same time war was commenced against Spain, by sending out a squadron to intercept the Plate fleet, laden with the treasures of Spanish America. This attempt was made before hostilities were formally declared ; but the British minister jus- tified it by referring to the intimate connexion that had been formed be- THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 657 tween the courts of Paris and Madrid. Mr. Pitt's conduct was ap- proved by large parliamentary majorities ; but he received a harsh proof of the decline of his influence, in the impeachment of his friend Lord Melville, for official delinquency. When the charge was made in the house of commons, Mr. Pitt vindicated the conduct of Lord Melville ; but, notwithstanding the minister's exertions, the impeach- ment was carried by the casting vote of the speaker. The premier was more successful in his foreign policy ; the emperor of Russia con- cluded a treaty with England for restraining the ambition of France, and Napoleon's encroachments in Italy induced Austria to accede to the league. Napoleon, at the request of the constituted authorities of the Italian republic, assumed the title of king of Italy ; and in the cathedral of Milan placed upon his head the ancient iron crown of the Lombard monarchs, and with less ceremony, annexed the territories of the Ligu- rian republic to the French empire. The Austrian emperor vainly re- monstrated ; and at length, relying on the aid of the Russians, publish- ed a declaration of war. Unfortunately, Francis commenced hostilities by an action as imjustifiable as any of which he accused Napoleon. The elector of Bavaria, whose son was in the French capital, declared himself neutral, upon which the Austrian troops entered his dominions, treated them as a conquered country, and compelled him to seek refuge in Franconia. Napoleon eagerly seized the opportunity of branding his enemies as the aggressors in the contest, and declaring himself the protector of the liberties of Europe. The naval war was maintained by Great Britain with equal vigor and success. The French and Spanish fleets having formed a junction, sailed for the West Indies, but they were soon pursued by Lord Nel- son, the terror of whose name induced them to return to Europe. Off Ferrol they encountered an inferior squadron, under Sir Robert Calder, and lost two of their ships, but the rest reached the bay of Cadiz, where they were strongly reinforced. Lord Nelson, with twenty-seven sail- of-the-line, appeared off" the coast, and the French admiral Villeneuve, relying on his vast superiority of force, resolved to hazard an engage- ment. Ths allied fleets of France and Spain, amounting to thirty-three ships-of-the-line, besides frigates and corvettes, appeared near Capo Trafalgar, ranged in order of battle ; Nelson gave immediate orders for an attack, and the English fleet, advancing in two divisions, soon broke thro'.'ph the adverse line. In the heat of the engagement, the heroic British commander fell mortally wounded ; but he lived to know that his plans had been crowned with success, twelve of the enemies' ships having struck before he expired. A dreadful storm, which arose just after the battle closed, prevented the English from retaining all the fruits of their victory ; but four prizes reached Gibraltar, fifteen French and Spanish vessels were destroyed or sunk ; out of the fourteen which fled, six were wrecked, and four taken at a later period by Sir Robert Strachan. The joy which so brilliant a victory diffused throughout England was chastened by grief for the loss of the gallant Nelson ; he was honorably interred at the public expense, and monuments were erected to his memory by a grateful nation. Napoleon consoled himself for his losses at sea bv the prospect of 42 658 MODERN HISTORY. gaining some decisive advantage over the Aiistrians before they could be joined by their Russian auxiliaries. lie treated with contempt the threats of Gustavus, king of Sweden ; and it must be confessed that the pompous boasts of that eccentric monarch, combined with his vacilla- ting conduct, did not entitle him to much respect. The French army crossed the Rhine, and disregarding the neutrality of the king of Prus- sia, passed through the Franconian territories of that monarch, and having passed the Danube, began to menace the rear of the Austrians. In spite of the remonstrances of the aix-hduke Charles, the cabinet of Vienna had intrusted the chief command of their armies to General Mack, whose talents and fidelity were both suspicious. Mack in a short time permitted himself to be surrounded by the French at Ulm ; he had amph? means for a protracted defence, having twenty thousand men under his command, but through cowardice or incapacity, he con- sented to a capitulation, by which he and his soldiers became prisoners- of-war. Intelligence of the battle of Trafiilgar came to abate Napoleon's triumph, while the courage of Francis was revived by the arrival of the Russian auxiliaries. The French, pushing forward, made themselves masters of Vienna ; but the Russians, encouraged by the presence of their emperor, though they had been severely harassed in Moravia, showed so much spirit, that the allies resolved to hazard an engage- ment. In the beginning of December, the hostile armies met near the village of Auslerlitz ; Kutuzoff, who directed the movements of the allies, injudiciously extended his lines, with the intention of outflanking the French ; Napoleon at once saw and took advantage of the error, he separated the enemies' central divisions from those of both wings, and pouring his columns through the gaps, overwhelmed his foes in detail. After a desperate resistance, the Russians were forced to retreat ; a large oody attempted to escape over a frozsn lake, but the French artil- lery poured a stonn of shot from a neighboring eminence, which bioke the ice around the fugitives, and the greater part of them perished in the waters. This severe defeat humbled the emperor Francis ; he ac- cepted peace on the terms dictated by the conqueror, but the emperor Alexander rei'used to be a party to the treaty, and returned to his own country. During these transactions, the selfish conduct of the king of Prussia was as inju.-ous to the allies as it was ultimately ruinous to himself. On the violation of his Franconian territories, he had taken arms, and entered into treaties with Great Britain and Russia; but Napoleon, aware that the prompt movement of a third power might disconcert all his plans, contrived to keep awake the ancient jealousy between the sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, and he finally won the tacit appro- bation of the latter power by offering Hanover as a bribe. Thus the Prussian sovereign was induced to favor the alarming extension of French power by a share of the plunder of his own allies. The battle of Austerlitz was a fatal blow to Mr. Pitt ; he had been the chief agent in forming the coalition — he had loudly and boldly prognosticated its success, and had despised the warnings of his politi- cal adversaries ; the failure of all his hopes proved loo much for his shattered constitution, and he died at the commencement of the parlia- mentary session (a. d. 1806). His parhamentary friends procured him THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 659 a splendid funeral, and the payment of his debts at the national cost, and a monument was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey. Section II. — Progress of Napoleon'' s Power. While Napoleon was establishing his supremacy over the continent of Europe, the marquis of Wellesley was further extending and securing the British empire in India, by humbling the Mahratta powers. Jess- wuat Holkar, a formidable chief, made a vigorous resistance, but he soon found that his soldiers could not cope with the disciplined troops of the company, and was forced to beg a peace. He obtained better terms than he could have expected, from the marquis Cornwallis, who succeeded the marquis of Wellesley, for the court of directors had found that conquests were very expensive, and that every new ac- quisition of territory became an additional source of expense. At this time the English nation generally took little interest in the affairs of India ; men's minds were more occupied by the change of ministry consequent on the death of Mr. Pitt. It was generally desired that as large a share of the talent of the country as possible, without re^-rence to party, should be included in the new administration ; and Lord Grenville, to whom the arrangements were confided, overcame the king's reluctance to Mr. Fox, and made that gentleman one of the sec- retaries of state. The first measures of the ministers won them a con- siderable share of public favor ; Lord Henry Petty introduced order into the financial accounts, which were in such a state of confusion as to afford protection to fraud and peculation ; Mr. Fox proposed and carried the abolition of the infamous slave-trade, which had been so long a disgrace to England and to Christianity. The acquittal of Lord Melville by the house of peers was received with some surprise ; but the ministers appear to have acted impartially in avoiding any inter- ference that might influence the result of an official investigation. The war was still prosecuted with great vigor ; the Dutch colony of the Cape was subdued, and a small force imder Sir Home Popham and General Beresford, captured the importiint city of Buenos Ayres in South America. The provincials, however, disappointed in the hope of obtaining freedom and independence by British aid, took up arms, and the conquerors of Buenos Ayres were forced to capitulate, while a British armament was on its way to maintain the supposed conquest. Hastening lo secure the reward of his perfidy, the king of Prussia occupied Hanover, ceding to the French the dutchy of Cleves, and some other districts, as a reward for yielding him the electorate. Gus- tavus of Sweden joined the British court in remonstrating against this proceeding ; but as that monarch's actions were not very consistent with his menaces, the Prussians treated him with contempt. An ally of Britain was about the same time driven from his dominions. During the Austrian war, the king of Naples, encouraged by the withdrawal of the French troops from his territories, and instigated by his queen, an Austrian princess, received an army of Russians and English into his cajjital. Napoleon, provoked by this unexpected war, declared that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign in Naples, and assembled an army to execute his tlireats just as the Russian and English forces 660 MODERN HISTORY. were witlidrawn. The invaders scarcely encountered any resistance except in Calabria, where the peasants made a brief stand. The king of Naples fled to Sicily, and Napoleon conferred the vacant throne on his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. The peasants in Calabria and the Abruzzi, harassed the French by desultory attacks, and they were supported by Sir Sydney Smith, who commanded the British naval force on the Sicilian station. The queen of Naples and Sir Sydney Smith prevailed on Sir John Stuart, the commander of the British force in Sicily, to transport his troops into Calabria ; the natives did not join the invaders in such force as had been expected, and they would have immediately returned, had not an opportunity offered of engaging the French general Regnier. The armies met at Maida, and the French, though greatly superior in number, were completely defeated. But the victory had no result except to raise the character of the British army, which had been for some time depressed. The French poured large bodies of soldiers into Calabria, and in a short time established their authority over the whole of the south of Italy. Having procured the throne of Naples for his brother Joseph, Napo- leon resolved to place his brother Louis on that of Holland. The Dutch submitted to the change without remonstrance, though their country thus became a mere province of France; but they consoled themselves by reflecting on the mild character of their new sovereign, who was sincerely anxious to promote the prosperity of his subjects His eflbrts, were, however, controlled by his imperial brother, who was anxious of becoming the arbiter of Europe, and rendering everything subservient to the military sway of France. Siill Napoleon professed an anxious desire for peace, and made overtures to Mr. Fox, for whose character he professed and probably felt the highest veneration. The negotiations were broken oft' by the refusal of the French to admit the Russians to a share of the treaty, and by Napoleon's perseverance in retaining power inconsistent with the independence of the other Eu- ropean states. While the subject was under discussion, Mr. Fox died, and was succeeded in office by Mr. (afterward Earl) Grey: the con- ferences were continued, but M. Talleyrand, who was the representa- tive of France, insinuated that the change in the British cabinet blighted the hope of restoring tranquillity to Europe. The frustration of this negotiation led to a new war; during the conferences, Napoleon's agents averred that the restoration of Hanover would not be refused ; the king of Prussia was indignant at the readi- ness with which this pretended friend sacrificed his interests ; Hanover had been the reward of subserviency, if not treachery, and he now found that he retained the bribe by a very insecure tenure. A more justifiable ground of indignation was the opposition which Napoleon gave to the efforts of the Prussians, in forming an association which might counterbalance the Confederation of the Rhine, an alliance that transferred to France the supremacy over Germany, that had formerly belonged to the house of Austria ; finally, it was more than suspected that Napoleon had offered to win the favor of the Russian emperor at the expense of his Prussian ally. Frederic William was further stimulated by his queen and his subjects ; the Germans generally were enraged by the military tyranny of the French, especially by the ju- THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 66. dicial minder of two booksellers, who were shot pursuant to the sen- tence of a court-martial for circulating libels against Napoleon. Anger is an evil counsellor to nations as well as individuals ; yield- ing to the suggestions of indignation rather than prudence, the king of Prussia commenced hostilities before his own arrangements were com- plete, or his allies ready to give him effective assistance ; and he in- trusted the command of his army to the duke of Brunswick, who pos- sessed the personal bravery of a soldier, but not the prudence and abil- ities requisite for a general. Louis, the king's cousin, impetuously advancing to seek the French, encountered a vastly superior force ; he was defeated and slain, a calamity that greatly dispirited the Prussian army. This was only the preliminary to the fatal battle of Jena ; the Prussians injudiciously posted, and badly commanded, were routed with great slaughter, and what was even worse than defeat, a dispute arose between them and their Saxon allies, which induced the latter to con- clude a separate peace with Napoleon. The success of the French was uninterrupted, Berlin opened its gates to the conquerors, and the division of the Prussian army, which had been long preserved unbroken by the heroic exertions of Marshal Blucher, was forced to capitulate. The fugitive king still preserved his courage, relying on the approach- ing aid of his Russian ally. Napoleon's forces advanced into Poland, where they were joined by many of the inhabitants, who were taught to hope that the French emperor would restore the independence of their native country ; but he was incapable of such generous policy, and in after-life, he lamented too late that he sacrificed the hopes of a brave and grateful people to tho temoorary gain of selfish ambition. The Russians successfully enpaged the French at Pultusk, but they were unable to retain their advantages, and were forced gradually to retreat. Encouraged by his rap'd success. Napoleon resolved to crush, if possible, the commercial prosperity of Great Britain ; he issued a series of edicts from Berlin, declaring the British islands in a state of block- ade, and excluding British m'viufactures from all the continental ports. Every country that refused ob^.dience to these decrees was threatened with immediate vengeance, and Portugal, so Aong the faithful ally of England, was marked out as the first vjr.tim (a. d. 1807). Great in- dignation was excited throughoi't BrilaixA by the French emperor's ado|,tioi. of this unparalleled system ; but it proved eventually more in- jurious to himself than to his enemies : British manufactures and colonial produce were smuggled to the continenl in various ways, and Napoleon was finally compelled to connive at the illicit traffic. But the menaces of the French had roused the fc,pi.\it of the English people, and complaints were made of the want of vigor and success with which the war was supported. A second expedition against Buenos Ayres, under General Whitelock, disgracefully failed, though it must be con- fessed that the hatred of the Spanish provincials to the English, as strangers and heretics, would probably have prevented any permanent success in South America. An armament sent apainst Constantinople, to gratify our Russian ally by enforcing his demands on Ti'rkey, was equally unsuccessful ; and an attempt to occupy Ep:y\^t, badly contrved, and worse executed, terminated in loss and disgrace Fut the wmis'ers might have overcome the unpopularity occasioned bv 'fv>>K failures, Itnd ^62 MODERN HISTORY. they not displeased the king by introducing a bill for opening the high- est dignities of the army and navy to Roman catholics. His majesty entertained ndigious objections to the measures ; he de.nanded that the cabinet should not only abandon it for the present, but give a promise that it should not be proposed at any future period. The ministers re- fused to give a pledge which they regarded as unconstitutional, and re- signed their offices. A new administration was formed under the auspices of the duke of Portland and Mr. Perceval ; an appeal was made to the country by a dissolution of parliament, and the tide of popular prejudice ran so strong against the preceding cabinet, that many, if not most of its supporters, were rejected by the electors. Russia vigorously maintained the war against Turkey, and gained some important advantages. The Turks, enraged by their losses, directed their vengeance against Sultan Selim, whose attempts to in- troduce European reforms had offended their inveterate prejudices. The Janissaries deposed their unfortunate sovereign, and raised his cousin Mustapha to the throne ; but this revolution did not change the fortune of the war, for the Russians soon after gained a signal naval victory off the island of Tenedos. But the Turkish war did not divert the attention of Alexander from the more important object of checking French ambition. Military operations were renewed during the winter, and a sanguinary battle at Eylau, in which each army lost more than twenty thousand men, led to no decisive result. In some minor engagements the allies had the advantage, but their gains were more than outbalanced by the loss of Dantzic, which, after an obstinate resistance, suiTendered to the French. Napoleon, on the fall of Dantzic, hastened to terminate the war by the decisive battle of Friedland ; the Russians fought with great bravery, but their generals were inferior in ability and experience to those of the enemy, and they were completely defeated. Koningsberg was surrendered immediately after this battle, and the existence of the Prussian monarchy now depended on the discretion or moderation of the conquerors. An armistice having been concluded, Napoleon sought a personal interview with the Russian emperor, and arrangements were soon made for a conference of the two potentates on a raft in the river Niemen. In this and some subsequent interviews, Bonaparte won over the emperor Alexander to his interests, by stimulating that mon- arch's ambition for eastern conquest, and promises of support. Peace was restored by the treaty of Tilsit, all sacrifices were made at ihe expense of the Prussian monarch, by whose distress even his Russian ally did not refuse to profit ; and when Frederic ventured to remonstrate, he was contemptuously informed that he owed the preservation of the miserable remnant of his kingdom to Napoleon's personal friendship for Alexander. The eccentric king of Sweden refused to be included in this pacifica- tion, but he was unable to prevent the French from occupying Stral- sund and the island of Rugen. Terms were arranged for a peace be- tween Russia and Turkey, but so many points remained open for dis- pute, that it was manifest war would be renewed at no distant period The king of Prussia was forced, not only to accede to the Berlin de- crees, and exclude British manufactures and colonial produce from his THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 663 dominions, but had also to receive French garrisons into his principal fortresses, and these troops treated the unfortunate Germans with such arrogance and cruelty, that they were almost reduced to despair. Na poleon's power had now nearly touched the summit of its greatness, and had he been contented with what he had already acquired, it might have been permanent ; but his restless ambition hurried him soon into an unprincipled contest, which terminated in his overthrow. Section III. — The French Invasion of Spain. After the treaty of Tilsit, it was generally believed that Napoleon would endeavor to enforce the Berlin decrees by excluding the British from the navigation of the Sound, and that he would probably avail him- self of the Danish navy to execute his old project of an invasion. To prevent such an enterprise, a powerful armament was sent against Den- mark, which had hitherto remained neutral in the contest. An imperi- ous demand for the instant surrender of the Danish fleet and naval stores, to be retained as a deposite by the English until the conclusion of the war, being peremptorily rejected, the Danes were briskly attacked by land and sea. After Copenhagen had been furiously bombarded for four days, the Danish court was constrained to submit to the demands of the British, and the fleet was removed, while the indignant people could scarcely be prevented from avenging the national insult even by the presence of a superior force. The attack on Denmark furnished the Russian emperor with a pre- text for fulfdling the promises he made to Napoleon at Tilsit, and break- ing oflf his connexion with Great Britain. He complained in strong language of the disregard which England had ever shown for the rights of neutral powers, and the unscrupulous use that had been made of her naval supremacy, and many of the maritime states seconded his remon- strances. A second fleet was saved from the grasp of the French by a less unjustifiable proceeding than the attack on Denmark. Napoleon issued one of his imperious edicts, that " the house of Braganza had ceased to reign," and to enforce it, sent an army to occupy Portugal. The prince-regent of that country, at the instigation of the British, sailed with the Portuguese fleet for Rio Janeiro, where he resolved to hold his court until peace was restored. Asa retaliation for the Berlin de- crees, the British government issued orders in council, restraining the trade of neutrals with France, and all coimtries subservient to its power. Against these regulations the government of the United States of Amer- ica protested loudly, and their remonstrances assumed a very angry character, which threatened speedy hostilities. An attack made on an American frigate, whose captain refused to submit to having his ship searched by an English vessel of inferior force, was resented as a na- tional insult ; a proclamation was issued, excluding all armed British ships from the harbors and waters of the United States ; and an embargo was laid on British commerce. While the policy of the orders in council, and the profl^ered mediation of Austria to effect the restoration of tranquillity, were warmly discussed in the British parliament, events were occurring in Spain which gave the war an entirely new character and direction. 664 MODERN HISTORY. The annals of the world could scarcely supply a parallel to the pic- ture of degradation which the Spanish court presented at this period. Charles, the imbecile king, was the dupe of a faithless wife and an un- principled minister ; this unworthy favorite had been raised, by the queen's partiality, from an humble station to the highest rank ; Godoy, Prince of the Peace, as he was called, had neither abilities for the high office with which he was invested, nor strength of mind to support his elevation ; he excluded Ferdinand, the heir apparent, from all share in the government, and thus provoked the resentment of a prince who was as ambitious of power as he was unfit to possess it. But Ferdinand's evil dispositions were as yet unknown to the Spaniards, and when Go- doy attempted to ruin him by an accusation of treason, the people showed such discontent that Charles was forced to consent to his son's libera- tion. Napoleon won Godoy's support by proposing a 'partition of the peninsula, part of which should be assigned to the royal minion, as an independent sovereignty, and he thus obtained the means of pouring a large body of troops into Spain, and occupying the principal fortresses. Charles, intimidated by these proceedings, meditated flight to Spanish America, but finally resolved to resign his crown to Ferdinand (a. d. 1808). By the intrigues of the French, Charles was induced to disa- vow his abdication, while Ferdinand was led to expect a recognition of his royal title from the emperor Napoleon. Deluded by such represen- tations, he proceeded to Bayonne, where he was contemptuously in- formed that " the Bourbons had ceased to reign ;" and on his refusal to resign his claims for the petty kingdom of Etruria, he was guarded as a prisoner. A fierce riot in Madrid, occasioned by preparations for the removal of the Spanish princes to France, was cruelly punished by Murat, who massacred multitudes of the unarmed populace. Soon after, Charles, accompanied by his queen, proceeded to Bayonne, and formally abdicated his crown in favor of Napoleon. Ferdinand, daunted by in- telligence of the massacre at Madrid, pursued the same course ; and the French emperor summoned his brother Joseph from the throne of Na- ples, to occupy that of Spain. The Neapolitan kingdom was given to Murat, whose eminent services to the French emperor were not over- paid, even by the splendid donation of a crown. Many of the Spanish nobles tamely acquiesced in this arrangement, but the great bulk of the nation rejected the intruding sovereign, and preparations to maintain Spanish independence were made in the principal provinces. Andalusia took thfc lead : Ferdinand VII. was proclaimed in Seville, war declared against Napoleon, and a junta, or council, chosen to direct the affairs of the government. A French squadron, which had been stationed in the bay of Cadiz, w "xs forced to surrender to a Spanish flotilla ; but this would not have happened, if the port had not been at the same time blockaded by the British fleet. In every province not occupied by French troops, the adult popula- tion offered military service to the different juntas ; the English sent large supplies of arms and ammunition, and released all their Spanish prisoners-of-war, a seasonable reinforcement to the patriotic armies. In their first contests with the invaders, the Spaniards obtained considera- ble success ; Marshal Moncey was repulsed from Valencia with great 'oss, and Marshal Dupont, with eight thousand men, was forced to sur- THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 665 render to the patriJt general, Castanos (July 20). On the very day that this unfavorable event occurred, the intrusive monarch made his triumphal entry into Madrid. Joseph Bonaparte, however, had neither the firmness nor courage of his brother Napoleon ; the moment he heard of Dupont's surrender, he plundered the treasury and royal palaces of their most valuable contents, and fled to Burgos. A bold example of Spanish heroism directed the attention of all Eu- rope to the struggle in the peninsula. The citizens of Saragossa, dis- trusting the fidelity of the captain-general of Aragon, deposed him, and chose for their leader Don Joseph Palafox, a nobleman of dauntless courage, though destitute of military experience. Their city was al- most destitute of defences, they had only a mere handful of regidar sol- diers in the garrison, and they had a very limited supply of arms and ammunition. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, they sternly refused to admit the French, and prepared for a desperate resistance. All classes were animated with the same spirit ; the monks mavmfactured gunpow- der and prepared cartridges, the women shared the toil of raising forti- fications — even the children lent their feeble aid in such labor as was not beyond their strength. It is not wonderful that the French soldiers were daunted by such an heroic population. After a long and sangui- nary contest they abandoned the siege, leaving Saragossa in ruins, but immortalized by the patriotic courage that had enabled its undisciplined citizens to triumph over a regular army. The spirit of resistance soon extended to Portugal : the people of Oporto rose in a body, seized and imprisoned all the French they could find, and formed a junta under the superintendence of the bishop. A British force commanded by Sir Arthur VVellesley, stimulated and pro- tected these patriotic exertions. A French division, posted at Roleia to terrify the insurgents, was driven from its position by the allied forces, and the north of Portugal delivered from the invaders. Marshal Junot collected all the forces at his disposal to drive back the English ; he found Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera, and immediately attacked his lines (August 21). After a brief but vigorous struggle, the French were defeated and driven in confusion toward Lisbon. Scarcely had the victory been won, when Sir Arthur Wellesley was superseded by Sir Hugh Dalrymple, who concluded a convention with Junot for the evacuation of Portugal, on terms that were generally regarded as too favorable to the Frei oh after their recent defeat. While Napoleo ' was pursuing his ambitious designs against Spain, Alexander of Russia was engaged in a war with Sweden, undertaken in an equally unjust and aggressive spirit. The English sent an army un- der Sir John Moore to assist their ally, but that general refusing to submit to the dictates of the eccentric, or perhaps the insane Gustavus, soon returned homo. Though the Swedes fought with great courage, they were unable to resist the overwhelming force of the Russians, es- pecially as the limited resources of Sweden were wasted by Gustavus in senseless and impracticable enterprises. At length the Swedes grew weary of a sovereign whose conduct threatened the ruin of their country. He was arrested by some of his oflicers, deposed, and the crown trans- ferred to the duke of Sudermania, who took the title of Charles XHI. (a. d. 1809). The new monarch was forced to purchase peace from 666 MODERN HISTORY. Russia by the cession of Finland, and the exclusion of British vessels from the ports of Sweden. The Spaniards soon found that a central government was necessary to the success of their operations ; the different juntas, therefore, chose deputies who formed a supreme junta for the general conduct of the war. The marquis de la Romana, who had commanded a large body of Span- iards employed by the French in Holstein, was enabled to return home with his troops, by British aid, and take a share in the defence of his country. But the want of concert among the Spanish leaders, and of discipline among the soldiers, rendered them unable to cope with the French ; they were severely defeated at Durango, Reynosa, and Tude- la, and Napoleon soon appeared in Spain at the head of one hundred and fifty thousand men (a. d. 1808). A very exaggerated notion of the capabilities of the Spaniards appears to have been formed by the English ministers. They ordered Sir John Moore to advance with the British forces in Portugal to the aid of the patriot armies, but do not seem to have sufficiently investigated the ob- stacles by which his march was impeded. When Sir John Moore en- tered Spain, he found that the French were everywhere victorious, and that it was hopeless to expect such active co-operation from the Span- iards as would enable him to turn the scale. After some hesitation, finding himself in danger of being surrounded, he retired rather precipi- tately into Gallicia. The English soldiers, in their retreat, displayed great courage whenever they were attacked by the French ; but in other respects, their conduct was so disorderly that it was stigmatized by the general himself as disgraceful. At length a halt was made at Corunna, where th^^ troops remained until the transports prepared for their em- barkation could arrive from Vigo. In this position they were attacked by the French ; but the English soldiers, though dispirited by their late retreat, and worn down by fatigue, compelled the enemy to retire. Sir John Moore was mortally wounded in this battle, and was buried on the field. The embarkation of the army was very feebly resisted, and though the British gained no honor by the campaign, its conclusion im- pressed the enemy with greater respect for English patience and valor than they had previously been accustomed to entertain. At the beginning of the year 1809, the possession of Spain seemed assured to Napoleon, but neither the Spaniards nor the British despaired of final success. The English parliament readily voted the necessary supplies for the defence of Spain and Portugal, and reinforcements were sent to the peninsula. About the same time, his royal highness the duke of York was accused of having connived at some abuses in the command of the army ; he was acquitted by a great majority of the house of commons, but he deemed it prudent to resign his situation, and Sir David Dundas was appointed commander-in-chief. Austria once more resolved to try the hazards of war. The emperor Francis was induced to take this precipitate step by the harsh remon- strances and menaces of Napoleon. Taking advantage of the absence of the large body of French troops employed in Spain, the archduke Charles entered Bavaria and took possession of Munich. But the rapid measures of Bonaparte baffled the Austrian calculations ; he speedily collected a large army and defeated the archduke at Eckrauhl, so se- THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 667 re rely, that he was compelled to cross the Danube. Vienna was thus opened to the conqueror, and Napoleon took possession of that capital. The archduke was still undismayed ; he attacked the French in their positions at Asperne and Essling. The battle was very sanguinary and obstinate ; it terminated to the advantage of the Austrians, but they had suffered such severe loss that they were unable to profit by their victory. The failure of the archduke John, in Italy, more than counterbalanced the success of the Austrians at Asperne, and was the chief cause of their final overthrow at Wagram (July 5). It would be impossible to describe within reasonable limits the various conflicts that terminated in this result ; suffice it to say, that the Austrians were driven from all their positions, forced to retreat in confusion, and only saved from total ruin by an armistice. The Tyrolese and Voralbergers had been transferred to the king of Bavaria by the treaty of Presburg, but their national privileges and im- munities had been guarantied by the articles of pacification. But Maxi- milian Joseph was as regardless of a compact as his master Napoleon ; he violated the Tyrolese constitution without scruple, crushed the peas- ants with severe taxes, and punished remonstrances as seditious. The Tyrolese seized the opportunity of the Austrian war to raise the standard of revolt ; success attended their early operations, and the Bavarians were expelled from the principal towns. A French army entered the country and laid it waste with fire and sword ; but the Tyrolese, ani- mated by an heroic peasant named Hoffer, expelled the invaders once more, and secured a brief interval of tranquillity. When the total de- feat of the Austrians at Wagram compelled the emperor Francis to ac- cept peace on any terms, the Tyrolese were assailed by overwhelming forces ; they made a desperate resistance, but the French and Bavarian columns penetrated their fastnesses, desolated the land with fire and sword, and punished the leading patriots as rebels. Hofl^er was taken prisoner and put to death by the sentence of a court-martial ; Mayer, another gallant chieftain, shared the same fate, and the green hills of Tyroi were again subjected to Bavarian tyranny. Several efforts were made in Germany to shake off" the French yoke. Schill, who commanded a regiment in the Prussian service, collected a considerable force and harassed the French detachments in Saxony and Westjrhalia, but he was defeated and slain by some Dutch and Danish troops, near Stralsund. The duke of Brunswick made a bold effort to recover his hereditary dominions, but after the overthrow of the Aus- trians he despaired of success, and sought refuge in England. The archduke Ferdinand invaded Saxony, while Napoleon's brother Jerome trembled for the security of his Westphalian throne, in consequence of the progress of General Kienmayer. But the success of Napoleon in Austria frustrated ttie exertions of the patriots in the north of Germany, especially as no effort was made to send them support from England. The attention of the British ministry was occupied by an expedition of a very different nature, for which the most ample preparations were made. A fleet of thirty-seven sail-of-the-line, twenty-nine ships of inferior rate, besides small craft, and an army of forty thousand men, were sent to the island of Welcheren, on the coast of Holland. After many delays the fort of Flushing was besieged and taken ; but Antwerp 668 MODERN HISTORY. ' which was the great object of attack, had, in the meantime, been se« cured, and the commanders despaired of success. Soon afterward the pestilential climate of Walcheren spread disease through the British army and navy ; the greater part of the forces returned to England ; the progress of the disease soon rendered the removal of the remainder ne- cessary, and the only result of this costly armament was the destruction of the fortifications of Flushing. Their naval successes in some de- gree consoled the English for this disappointment. Lord Cochrane de- stroyed four vessels, forming part of a French squadron, in Basque- roads, and irreparably injured several others ; Lord Collingwood was similarly successful in the Mediterranean, and the French were deprived of their remaining colonies in the West Indies. Some European islands, especially those called the Ionian, were added to the British dominions, a proceeding which gave some otfence to the new sultan of Turkey, Mahmoud II., who had been elevated to the throne on the deposition of his cousin Selim and his half-brother Mustapha. But the progress of the Russian arms induced Mahmoud .0 court an alliance with Great Britain, and jealousy of the same power inclined the Persian shah to renew his former friendly connexions with England. Though the Russian emperor did not join Napoleon in the war against Austria, he received a share of the provinces which Francis was forced to resign, in order to purchase peace. But though the Aus- trian emperor was compelled to make many great and painful sacrifices, he obtained more favorable conditions than had been anticipated ; and Napoleon received general praise for the moderation with which he used his victory. The secret cause of this affected generosity was subsequently revealed, and proved that it resulted from a plan foi more effectually securing his despotism over Europe. After the retreat of the British from Corunna, the French seemed tc have permanently secured possession of Spain. Though the marquif de la Romana and the duke del Infantado held out against the invaders yet Saragossa was taken, in spite of the heroic resistance of its inhab itants ; and Soult having invaded Portugal, made himself master of Oporto. Victor also advanced toward the same country, and, on his march, overthrew the Spanish army of Estremadura. But Oporto was soon recovered by a British force under Sir Arthur Wellesley, and the removal of a large body of the French to take part in the Austrian war revived the courage of the Spaniards. Sir Arthur Wellesley, believing it possible to strike an important blow before the French grand army could be reinforced, boldly, and perhaps rashly, advanced into Spain. He was attacked at Talavera (July 28), by the united forces of Jour- dan, Victor, and Sebastiani, who were rather the masters tJian the ser- vants of the nominal king, Joseph Bonaparte. British valor has rarely been more nobly displayed than in this engagement ; the French were beaten back at every pomt, and had the Spaniards displayed the same courage and zeal as their allies, the retreat might have been changed into a total rout. The misconduct of the Spaniards, indeed, deprived the Eiiglish of the chief fruits of their victory; they were soon com- pelled to ac*^ only or. the defensive, and to retreat slowly toward the frontiers of Portngal. Nor were the patriots more successful in other THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 669 quarters ; they did not, however, despair, and the supreme junta pub- lished a spirited proclamation, animating the national courage, and con- voking an assembly of the cortes or estates of the realm, to form a fixed constitutional government. The celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the king's accession diffused joy through England. About the same time the death of the duke of Portland, and some dissensions in the cabinet, led to a partial change in the ministry. Mr. Perceval was appointed premier, and sev- eral angry debates ensued in both houses of parliament. The oppo- nents of the ministry failed in procuring a condemnation of the Wal- cheren expedition ; but, during the discussion, party spirit raged with great violence, and Sir Francis Burdett, having assailed the privileges of the house of commons in very unmeasured terms, was ordered to be committed to the Tower. He declared his intention to resist the war- rant, but was arrested and committed to the Tower by a military force. The soldiers, on their return, were assaulted by the mob, and a riot ensued, in which several lives were lost. At the close of the sessio-n, the popular baronet was liberated, as a matter of course ; he brought actions for what he regarded as an illegal arrest, against the speaker and the serjeant-at-arms, but the court of King's Bench disallowed his claims, and supported the privileges of the house of commons. These ebullitions of party violence did not weaken the British cabi- net, though they induced the enemies of England to believe the coun- try on the verge of a convulsion. France was apparently tranquil, and Napoleon revealed the secret of his moderation at Vienna, by procuring a divorce from the emperess Josephine, the faithful com])anion of his former ibrtimes, and offering his hand to the archdutchess Alaria Louisa, daughter of the emperor Francis (a. d. 1810). This marriage, which seenu^d permanently to establish Bonaparte's power, became eventually the principal cause of his ruin, for it alarmed all the northern powers, and especially the Russians, who justly feared that Napoleon, secured by the Austrian alliance, would strive to make himself absolute master of Europe. His arbitrary conduct to Holland justified these suspi- cions ; ho removed his brother from the ihrone of that country, and an- nexed it as a province to France. The disputes respecting the trade of neutrals, between England and America, t)egan to assume a very hostile aspect, and it was feareil that war could not long be delayed. But public attention was diverted from this subject to the struggle in Portugal, where Sir i^rthar Welhsley, who hi'd recently been created Lord Wellington, nobly sustained the honor of the English arms. The French army, strongly reinforced, was placed under the command of Massena, prince of Essling; the fortresses of Astorga, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Almeida, were captured ; Lord Wellington retired slowly before a superior force, and Massena flattered himself that he would soon obtain possession of Lisbon. His presumption was first checked at Busaco, where the British made a stand and inflicted a severe check on their assailants ; but the hopes of the French were completely destroyed when they saw Lord Wel- lingtou take up his position in the formidable lines of Torres Vedras. Not daring to advance, and ashamed to retreat, Massena remained for more than a month watching his cautious adversary, and losing thou- 670 MODERN HISTORY. sands of his men by disease or desertion. He at length retreated to Santarem, but though he received a large reinforcement, he did not venture to resume offensive operations. A desultory war was maintained in Spain ; the patriot armies were usually defeated in regular engagements, but the invaders were severely harassed by the incessant attacks of the guerilla parties ; convoys were intercepted, stragglers cut off, and outposts exposed to constant danger. Cadiz, the residence of the supreme junta and the seat of government, was besieged, but the strength of its works and the ease with M'hich relief was obtained by sea, prevented the French from making any progress in its reduction. The cortes assembled in this city and framed a form of constitutional government, which, however, had many violent opponents among the higher orders of tiie nobi.ity ai d clergy. Most of the French and Dutch colonies in the Indian seas were subdued, under the direction of Lord Minto, the governer-general of India, a nobleman whose judicious administration of affairs in the east, not only extended the British dominions in the east, but suppressed a dangerous mutiny in the presidency of Madras, occasioned by the adop- tion of economical regulations, which curtailed the allowances made to officers in the company's service. In the north of Europe, little of moment, in war, occurred ; the Danes and Russians had some trivial naval engagements with English vessels ; but Sweden was the theatre of a most extraordinary revolu- tion, which, for a time, added her to the enemies of England. The crown prince died suddenly, not without some suspicion of poison, and the Swedish senate tendered the succession to Charles .lohn Ber- nadotte, one of Napoleon's most celebrated marshals, who had won their favor by the leniency and })rudence he displayed some years before in the north of Germany. Bernadotte accepted the offer, to the secret annoyance of Napoleon, who had long been jealous of liis military fame and independent spirit. Civilized Euroj)e might now be said to be arrayed against Great Britain, but the spirit of its inhabitants did not sink. Its sovereign, afilicted by grief for the loss of his favorite daughter, was seized by the disease under which he had formerly suffered, and fell into a state of nirn...l derangement, from which he never afterward recovered (a. d. 1811). The, prince of Wales was appointed regent, under restrictions simibir to those proposed by Mr. Pitt in 1789, but tiiese were subse- quenrly removed when it was found that he intended steadily to pursue his father's system of policy. It was not long before Lord Wellington reaped the fruits of his prudent arrangements for the defence of Portugal. Massena was forced to retreat from Santarem, but before he evacuated the country, ho ravaged it in the most frightful manner, destroying many noble moni'ments of architecture in mere wantonness. The British parlia- ment voted the sum of one hundred thousand pounds for the relief of the Portuguese, and a liberal subscription for the same purpose was formtd by private liberality. Almeida was the only town in Portugal rstained by the French ; it was blockaded by the allies, and Massena's efforts to relieve it led to the battle of Fuentes d'Onor. The engage- roent was severe, but British valor triumphed ; the garrison of Almeida, THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 671 dishearten 3d by the defeat of their countrymen, evacuated the place, and Portugal was delivered from the presence of an enemy. The liberation of Spain was a more difficidt task, and it was ren- dered still more so by the surrender of Badajoz to Marshal Soult, after a very brief and ineffective defence. Lord Wellington sent Sir William Beresford to recover this important place, but the advance of the French from Seville, compelled that general to raise the siege. The united forces of the British and Spanish encountered the French at Albuera, and gained an important victory ; Badajoz was once more invested, but the approach of Soult on one side and Marmont on the other, induced Lord Wellington to retire beyond the Tagus. But in his anxiety to save Badajoz, Soult had so much weakened the force Avhich blockaded Cadiz, that the Spaniards resolved to hazard an expedition against the invading armies in Andalusia. General La Peiia, aided by the British lieutenant-general, Graham, undertook to direct these operations, and great hopes were entertained of success. But though Graham obtained a brilliant victory at Barossa, over Marshal Victor, no efforts were made to follow up his success. In the other Spanish provinces, the patriotic armies were still more unfortunate ; Mina, indeed, from his mountains, threatened and harassed the invaders, but the other Spanish leaders showed themselves ecpially deficient in courage and conduct. Neither did all the expected advantages result from the assembling of the cortes ; they prepared, indeed, a constitutional code, which, however, was scarcely suited to the Spanish people ; but they maintained the onerous restrictions on the colonial trade, and thus gave deep offence to the South American provinces, and drove them to organize plans for self- government. In other quarters the war was more favorable to British interests ; the island of Java was wrested from the Dutch ; several ilotillas were destroyed by English frigates in the Italian seas, and an attempt made by the Danes to recover the island of Anholt, in the Biltic, was defeated by the gallant garrison. Sweden could scarcely be said to be at war with Great Britain ; Bernadotte soon discovered that sub- serviency to France was inconsistent with the interests of his adopted country, and he secretly entered into negotiations with the Ruisian emp(!ror for restoring their mutual indepemdence. But Aleyavdcv was still too deeply engaged in pursuing the favorite policy of the czars, and establishing the supremacy of Russia on both sides of the Black sea, at the expense of Turkey and Persia. His success was far Irom an- swering ins expectations ; the wild tribes of the Caucacus severely harassed the invaders of Asiatic Turkey ; and thou^jh Ki'tusolF was more successful on the European side, his acquisitions were obtained by a very disproportionate expenditure of blood and treasure. Tha dis- organized state of the Turkish provinces prevented the sultan from effec- tively defending his dominions ; in most of them a military aristocracy had usurped the chief power of the state, and in Eg\pt especially, the Mameluke beys acted as independent princes. Mohammed AH, pacha of Egypt, finding that the beys would not submit to his power, and fear- ing the hazards of civil war, invited them to a banquet, where they were all ruthlessly massacred. The sultan applauded this perfidy, but 672 MODERN HISTORY. ere long he found Mohammed Ali a more dangerous subject than tho turbulent lords whom he had removed. The mental disease of George III. showed no symptoms of improve- ment, and as the time approached when the restrictions imposed on the authority of the prince regent would expire, some anxiety was felt about the probable fate of the ministry. But the prince regent had become reconciled to the cabinet, and after a faint effort to gain the support of Lords Grey and Grenville, it was resolved that no change should be made in the government (a. d. 1812). At a later period in the year, negotiations were resumed, in consequence of the murder of Mr. Perceval ; the premier was shot in the lobby of the house of commons, by Bellingham, a merchant, who believed that the ministers had shown indifference to his fancied claims on the Russian government. After some delay, the old cabinet was reconstructed, under the auspices of the earl of Liverpool, and the plans for forming a united administration were abandoned. Lord William Bentinck, the British minister in Sicily, strenuously exerted himself to remedy the evils which the imbecility of the king and the tyranny of the queen had introduced into the government of ".that island. He succeeded in procuring the establishment of a consti- tution similar to that of Britain ; and the island began to enjoy peace and prosperity in a greater degree than had been experienced for several centuries. A change in the Spanish constitution revived the courage of the nation ; a new regency, the promulgation of the constitutional code, and various reforms in the dilferent branches of the administration, gave fresh spirit to the Spaniards, and inspired hopes of final success. Lord Wellington opened the campaign with the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo ; the capture of this important fortress was followed by that of Budajoz, but the victors suffered severe loss of both places. Wel- lington, who had been created an earl for these exploits, next marched against Marmont, and took the important city of Salamanca. Mar- mont, strengthened by large reinforcements, hoped not only to defeat the British, but to intercept their retreat. As he extended his lines for this purpose, Wellington seized the favorable opportunity, and, pouring his whole force on the weakened divisions, gained the most complete victory that the allies had yet won in the peninsula. Indeed if the Spaniards had displayed the same energy as the British and the Portuguese, Marmont's entire army would have been ruined. Still the irnm^diite resuhs of the bat'le of Salamanca were very great ; Madrid was evacuated by the intrusive king Joseph ; the blockade of Cadiz was raised ; and the city of Seville was taken by Colonel Skerret and the Spanish general La Cruz. The failure of the British at the siege of Burgos, the want of con- cert in the Spanish councils, and the great reinforcements received by the French, compelled Wellington to resign the fruits of his victory ; he retired leisurely to the frontiers of Portugal, and firmly waited an oppor- tunity for renewing his efforts. But events in other parts of the globe were producing the most important results in favor of Spanish independ- ence , the South American colonies, alarmed by an earthquake which was superstitiously believed to be a visitation of Providence, returned to THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 673 their allegiance, and the Russian emperor prepared to measure hxa strength with the colossal power of Napoleon. Section IV. — The Russian War. No long time after the conclusion of the peace of Tilsit, Alexander began to doubt the prudence of the compact he had made with the French emperor, and the subsequent marriage of Napoleon to an Austrian princess gave him fresh grounds of alarm. The Austrian emperor, however, was not very sincerely attached to his son-in-law , Napoleon had given his infant son the title of Xing of Rome, a very plain intimation of his design to retain his hold on Italy. The interests of his subjects, many of whom were almost ruined by the suspension of the trade with Great Britain, compelled Alexander to seek for some relaxation of the restrictive system established by the Berlin decrees ; but Napoleon would not abandon his favorite policy, and the discus- sions between the courts of St. Peterburgh and Paris began to assume an angry and even hostile tone. Both parties, however, pro-fessed an anxious desire for peace, and Napoleon even made overtures to the British government, but as he refused to restore Spain to its legitimate sovereign, or to withdraw his troops from Prussia, negotiations were fruitless, and both sides prepared for war. Alexander entered into alliance with Sweden and England : Napo- leon arrayed under his banners the military strength of western and southern Europe. But the selfishness of the French emperor in the very outset deprived him of the best security for success ; to secure the »id of Austria, he refused to restore the independence of Poland, and ihus lost the hearts of a brave and enthusiastic race of warriors, who would have powerfully aided his advance, or effectually covered his retreat. Trusting to the vast number of his victorious legions, Napoleon crossed the Niemen, routed a division of Cossacks at Kowno, and directed his march to the capital of Lithuania. The Russians retired before the French deliberately, wasting the country as they retreated Several sharp battles were fought without any important result ; but the hopes of the Russians were raised by the conclusion of a treaty with the Turks, which enabled them to direct all their energies to repel the invaders. Napoleon with his main body directed his march toward Moscow, while a large division of his forces menaced the road to St. Petersburgh. The Russians repelled the latter, but the main force of the invaders advanced to Smolensko, which was justly regarded as the bulwark of Moscow. A dreadful battle was fought under the walls of Smolensko ; it terminated in favor of the French, but they purchased their victory very dearly, and the Russians made an orderly retreat. Kutusoff now assumed the command of the Russians, and resolved to hazard another battle for the protection of Moscow ; he fixed upon a position near the village of Borodino, and there firmly awaited the enemy. The battle was furious and sanguinary, nearly seventy thou- sand of the combatants fell without giving to either side a decisive victory. The Russians indeed maintained their ground ; but the French having been joined by new reinforcements, Kutusoff was forced to re- treat and abandon Moscow to its fate. This ancient capital of the czars is revered by the Russians, as Jerusalem was by the Jews ; they 43 674 MODERN HISTORY. give it the fond name of Mother Moscow, and regard it as the sanctuary of their nation. But when the invaders approached, the citizens re- solved not onl) to abandon their beloved metropolis, but to consign it to the flames. Napoleon entered Moscow, and took up his residence in the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the czars ; but while he was holding a council, fires broke out in various parts of the city, and though many of the incendiaries were shot, it was found impossible to check the conflagration. When the greater part of the city was destroyed, its stores con- sumed, and all supplies cut ofl^. Napoleon found himself in a very embarrassing position. With great reluctance he gave orders for a retreat, and the French obeyed with so much precipitation, that .they were unable to complete the demolition of Moscow. Before the fugi- tives hid proceeded far on their route, they began to experience the horrors of a Russian winter ; thousands became the victims of ;old and hunger, while their pursuers, taking courage from their calamities, harassed them severely at every step. It had been Napoleon's inten- tion to make a stand at Smolensko, but the magnitude of his losses, the disorganized state of his army, and the increasing want of provisions, rendered such a course impossible. Once more the French had to undertake a perilous march, amid the rigors of the severest winter ever known, pursued by enraged enemies, deprived of food, of clothing, and of shelter. Language fails to describe the horrors of such a retreat • every hour added to the miseries of the sufferers ; they lost the disci- pline of soldiers, and almost the semblance of men. The passage of the Borodino was one of the most terrific scenes recorded in history ; in their eagerness to place the river between themselves and their pur- suers, the French rushed in a disorderly crowd over the bridges, under a heavy fire of artillery from the heights behind them. Eight thousand were killed or drowned in this calamitous passage, and long before all had crossed over. Napoleon ordered the bridges to be set on fire, aban- doning twelve thousand of his followers to the mercy of the irritated Russians. Napoleon at length resolved to provide for his personal security, and fled to Paris, where indeed some revolutionary attempts rendered his presence necessary ; the miserable remnant of his once mighty host found a precarious shelter in Poland. In the meantime Great Britain was engaged in active hostilities with the United States. The Americans twice invaded Canada, but were defeated ; they were more successful at sea, where the superiority of their frigates in size and weight of metal to the British vessels of th« same denomination, secured their victory in some engagements between single ships. But this war attracted comparatively but little attention ; every mind was too deeply occupied with the great struggle on the continent of Europe. The domestic affairs of England, though of importance, did not di- vert attention from the contest with Napoleon. An unfortunate pub- licity was given to the discords between the prince regent and his con- isort ; a bill for emancipating the catholics was rejected, after having passed several stages, in the house of commons, and the charter of the East India company was renewed for twenty years. Notv/ithstanding his recent reverses, Napoleon foand that he still possessed the confi- THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 675 dence of the French nation, a large conscription was ordered to supply the losses of the late campaign ; and the emperor having provided for the internal security of his dominions, hasted to the north of Europe, where he had to encounter the hostility of a new enemy. It was with great reluctance that the king of Prussia sent an army to serve under Napoleon, and the officers and soldiers of the contingent were far from being anxious for the success y)f the cause in which they were engaged. During the retreat, one Prussian corps separated itself from the division to which it was attached, and concluded a convention of neutrality ; as the Russians advanced, the Prussian monarch took courage to assert his independence, and he entered into alliance with Alexander. But notwithstanding his recent losses, Napoleon had as- sembled an army numerically superior to those of his adversaries ; in three sanguinary battles the French gained the advantage, but they were unable to obtain a decided victory ; and Napoleon, alarmed by the magnitude of his losses, and the obstinacy of his enemies, consent- ed to an armistice. During the truce the British government encour- aged the allies by large subsidies, and the aid of Sweden was pur- chased not only by money, but by a promise to aid that power in the acquisition of Norway. But what was of far greater importance, the emperor of Austria Avas induced to abandon the cause of his son-in-law, and take an active part in the confederation for restraining the power of France. Napoleon, establishing his headquarters at Dresden, commenced a series of vigorous operations against his several foes. They were at first successful ; but the tide of fortune turned ; several of his divisions were defeated, the Bavarians joined the allies, and at length the baffled emperor retired to Leipsic. Under the walls of this ancient city the battle was fought which decided the fate of Europe (Oct. 18). While the result of the engagement was yet undecided, the Saxon troops in the French service deserted in a body to the allies, and the position thus abandoned was immediately occupied by the Swedish forces. Napoleon's soldiers, driven from their lines in every direction, were compelled to seek shelter in Leipsic, but, as the city was incapable of defence, a further retreat became necessary. The French emperor gave the requisite orders, but did not wait to see them executed ; the evacuation of the city was not completed when the allies forced an en- trance ; the French, entangled in the streets, suffered very severely, and many were drowned as they crowded over the narrow bridge, which was their only path of safety. The bridge was blown up before the whole of the fugitives could pass, and this obstruction of the retreat swelled the number of the slain and the captives. The battle of Leipsic liberated Germany ; Napoleon fled to France, his followers were severely harassed in their retreat, especially as the Bavarians made a vigorous effort to intercept them at Hanau ; their sufferings were very great, and multitudes were made prisoners by the allied armies, as they advanced to the Rhine. Bernadotte was natu- rally reluctant to join in the meditated invasion of France, but he under- took the task of expelling the enemy from the circle of Lower Saxony. At his approach, the Hanoverians eagerly seized the opportunity ol de- livering themselves from a foreign 3'oke, and returning once racre under 676 MODERN HISTORY. the paternal government of the Guelphs. The flame of independence spread to Holland, and kindled even the cold bosoms of the Dutch. Insurrections broke out in the principal towns, the hereditary claims of the house of Orange were rapturously acknowledged, and when the stadtholder arrived from England, he found the Hollanders eager, not only to acknowledge his former power, but to extend it by conferring on him the title of royalty. While the allies were thus triumphant in Germany, Wellington was now gloriously occupied in the liberation of Spain. Early in the spring, he concentrated his forces near Ciudad Rodrigo, and by a series of able movements, compelled the French not only to abandon their positions on the Douro, but to retire beyond the Ebro. Marshal iour- dan, who exercised the real authority, for Joseph was king only in name, resolved to make one vigorous effort for the maintenance of the French power, and chose a strong position near Vittoria, as the theatre of a decisive engagement. The allied army advanced with an eager- ness that insured success ; the heights that protected the hostile lines were successively stormed, and at length the French were forced to retreat in such disorder, that they abandoned their artillery, baggage, and military chest. In the east of Spain the allies were less success- ful ; Sir John Murray, on the approach of Marshal Suchet, abandoned the siege of Tarragona with unnecessary precipitation ; but the arrival of Lord William Bentinck prevented the enemy from profiting by this partial success. When the news of the battle of Vittoria reached Napoleon, he sent Marshal Soult from Germany to take the command of the army in Spain, where Pampeluna and St. Sebastian had been invested by Wellington, now raised to the dignity of marquis. Soult's operations were vigorous, but unsuccessful ; his forces were unable to make any impression on the British lines, and so severe was their repulse, that they fled to their own frontiers. St. Sebastian was soon after taken by storm, but not without a very severe loss to the conquerors, and the British now prepared to invade France. The allies crossed the Bidassoa, and advanced slowly but steadily toward Bayonne : Soult showed great courage and talent in his arrange- ments, but his efforts were foiled by the superior valor of the British soldiers, and two regiments of Dutch and Germans quitting his lines, went over to the camp of his allies. Spain was now free, but the efforts of the enlightened portion of the cortes to secure its future happiness, by the establishment of a constitutional government, were frustrated by the interested opposition of the clergy, and the ignorant bigotry of the people. The war between Great Britain and the United States continued to be maintained with the obstinacy that characterizes the quarrels be- tween " foes who once were friends ;" but it was not productive of any important event. The Americans were unsuccessful in their repeated invasions of Canada, but they established their naval superiority on the lakes, while the honor of the British flag was nobly maintained in the engagement between the frigates Chesapeake and Shannon. The memorable year 1814 opened with the invasion of France ; the Russian, Prussian, and Austrian armies forced an entrance through the THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 677 eastern frontiers, while Wellington was making an alarming progress on the western side. Never, in the hours of his greatest success, did Napoleon display more promptitude and ability ; but he had beaten his enemies into the art of conquering, and even partial success was inju- rious, because it inspired hopes which prevented him from embracing the proffered opportunities of negotiation. Several furious but indeci- sive battles were fought ; the allied armies had moved at too great a distance from each other, and it was not until they had suffered severely for their error, that they learned the necessity of a combined plan of operations. But in other quarters the success of the allies was more decided ; Bernadotte completed the liberation of the north of Germany, and not only intimidated the Danish court into an abandonment of the French alliance, but enforced its consent to the transfer of Norway ; thence he marched to the Netherlands, where the allies had made con- siderable progress, though General Graham had been baffled, with much loss, in an attempt to surprise Bergen-op-Zoom. But Napoleon was much more alarmed by the progress of Welling- ton in the southwest of France. The English general having driven the French from their posts, crossed the Adour, and invested the cita- del of Bayonne. As he advanced, the old partisans of the Bourbons began to revive, the exiled family was proclaimed, and the white flag hoisted at Bordeaux. More mortifying was the defection of Murat ; eager to secure his crown, the king of Naples entered into a secret treaty with Austria, and lent his aid in the expulsion of the French from Italy. But in the meantime the fate of France was decided ; Napoleon moved his main army eastward, hoping to intimidate the allies into a retreat, by threatening their communications. Blucher and Prince Schwartzenberg immediately decided on marching to Paris, and having defeated the forces of Marmont and Mortier, who guarded the road, soon came in sight of that metropolis. The outworks that defended Paris were stormed, and the intimidated citizens hastened to secure their persons and property by a capitulation. The allied sovereigns, Frederic and Alexander, made a triumphant entry into the city (March 31), and were hailed as liberators by the fickle populace. When Napoleon heard that the Austrians had effected a junction with the Prussians, he hasted back to defend his capital, but before he reached Fontainebleau the capitulation had been signed, and a pro- visional government installed, without any regard to his authority. On the 2d of April he was formally deposed ; and on the 6th of the same month, Louis XVIII. was invited to ascend the throne of his ancestors. A constitutional charter was framed for the protection of the French people, and Napoleon was promised the sovereignty of the island of Elba, and a pension. Before intelligence of these events was received in the south, a sanguinary battle had been fought between the armies of Soult and Wellington at Toulouse, which ended in the complete dis- comfiture of the former ; but the British general sincerely lamented a triumph which had been purchased by a useless expenditure of human life. On the 3d of May, Louis XVIII. returned from his tedious exile, and landed at Calais. The preliminaries of a general peace were sign- 678 MODERN HISTORY. ed at Paris ; and it was arranged that the details and the adjustment of the claims of the different European princes should be referred to a future convocation at Vienna. Section V". — History of Europe from, the dethronement of Napoleon to the Conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna. Before his final overthrow, Napoleon liberated the captive Ferdi- nand, well aware that Spain would have little reason to rejoice in the restoration of such a sovereign. No sooner had he obtained his free- dom than he annulled all the proceedings of the cortes, re-established the old despotism with all its abuses, and even revived the horrors of the inquisition. Several of those who had most strenuously resisted the French invasion were punished by imprisonment or exile, their attachment to constitutional freedom being deemed to outweigh iheir former services. The allies could not be blamed for the perfidy and tyranny of Ferdinand, but they incurred just censure by aiding in the forcible annexation of Norway to Sweden, against the earnest remon- strances of the inhabitants, and they displayed little policy in uniting Belgium to Holland, for the countries were opposed to each other in their religious creeds and commercial interests. The American war was protracted more in a spirit of revenge than sound policy ; a sanguinary but indecisive struggle took place in Cana- da ; an English armament captured Washington, the capital of the United States, and destroyed the public buildings ; but similar attacks on Baltimore and New Orleans were repulsed with great loss. Peace was at length concluded at Ghent, and we may confidently hope that hostilities will never again be renewed between two nations so closely united by the ties of language, religion, and blood. Before this war was terminated, the emperor Alexander, and Frederic, king of Prussia, accompanied by their most distinguished marshals and statesmen, per- sonally visited England, and were received with great enthusiasm. But the convulsion produced in the commercial world by the sudden transition from war to peace, was necessarily followed by numerous bankruptcies and great distress, which threw a shade of gloom over the general joy. The conduct of Louis XVIII. immediately after his accession to the throne, was calculated to win popularity ; but the establishment of a censorship over the press, his anxiety to restore the power and influence of the clergy, and to remunerate the loyal emigrants who had shared the calamities of his exile, gave general offence, and revived the courage of the friends of Napoleon. A secret conspiracy was formed for re- storing the emperor, and he, dreading that the allied powers, whose plenipotentiaries were assembled at Vienna, would remove him from Elba to a place of greater security, resolved to make a bold effort for the recovery of his throne. Accompanied only by eleven hundred men, he landed at Frejus (March 1, 1815), and advanced into the interior of the country. At first he received little encouragement ; but being joined by the garrison of Grenoble, and supported by secret promises of aid from other divisions of the army, he proceeded to Lyons, where he held his court. Louis made a spirited appeal to the loyalty of the THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 679 French nation ; but Marshal Ney having set the example of defection all the soldiery declared in favor of the emperor ; and Louis, compelled to abandon his kingdom, sought safety in Ghent. Though the allied powers had shown a great want of vigilance and caution in not preventing, as they easily might have done, the escape of Napoleon, they were not for a moment undetermined in resolving on the course of action rendered necessary by that event. A proclamation vi^as issued by the congress of Vienna, denouncing him as the common enemy of Europe, and excluding him iiom the pale of civil and social relations. A treaty was concluded, by which each of the four powers, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England, engaged to maintain an army of 150,000 men until they had rendered Napoleon incapable of disturb- ing the tranquillity of Europe ; and the Prussians and the English at once began to assemble their forces on the northern frontiers of France NapoLon, disappointed in his hope of procuring the acquiescence of the allied powers in his usurpation, prepared boldly to meet the danger by which he was menaced. He gratified the vanity of the Parisians by the splendid ceremonial of proclaiming a new constitution in the Champ de Mars, and at the same time he made the most vigc^ous ex- ertions to recruit his armies and supply his military stores. In a shon time, far shorter than had been anticipated, his troops were ready foi action, and instead of waiting for the attack of his enemies, he resolved to become the aggressor. The first brunt of the war fell on the Prus- sians, who w^ere driven from their advanced posts. Blucher immediately concentrated his forces at Ligny ; w^hile the duke of Wellington, with the British and subsidiary troops, occupied a parallel position at Quatre Bras. The main body of the French attacked the Prussian lines, and, after a sanguinary battle, compelled Blucher to abandon Ligny (June 16) ; but his retreat was effected in good order, and in a very few hours his troops were ready to renew the fight. In the meantime the British had defeated the enemy at Quatre Bras, but the retreat of the Prussians rendered a corresponding movement necessary on their part ; and Wellington led his army to the memorable position of Waterloo. Flushed by his recent victory over the Prussians, Napoleon, on the morning of the 18th of June, appeared in front of the English position, and commenced an attack, in full assurance of success. His first effort was directed against Hougoumont, a post which protected the English right ; but after a murderous conflict, the French were baflled, and the place maintained. The emperor's next effort was to turn the left wing so as to intercept the communication with the Prussians, but this still more signally failed ; Sir Thomas Picton's division, though with the loss of their brave commander, repulsed the French infantry, while the Scotch Greys, aided by a corps of dragoons, routed the French cavalry, particularly the cuirassiers, who fondly deemed themselves invincible A third great effort was made against the centre, and at first some advantages were gained. The French seized the farm of La Haye Sainte, which covered the position, and poured masses of cavalry and infantry on the British lines. But Wellington, forming his troops in hollow squares, maintained a steady resistance, and the efforts of the baffled assailants gradually relaxed. At this moment the Prussian troops began to appear on the right flank of the French, and to take a 680 MODERN HISTORY. share in the engagement. Napoleon now mustered his guard for one decisive engagement, but did not, as was expected, place himself at their head. The imperial guard advanced under a perfect storm of ar- tillery and musketry from the British lines, which had been gradually advanced after the defeat of the former attacks. They attempted to deploy, under this formidable fire, but their lines were shaken, and they began to fall into confusion. Wellington seized the decisive moment to charge ; the effect was instantaneous, not a single French soldier remained to cross a bayonet ; and as the British pressed forward, the retreat was soon a perfect rout. As the English were too much fa- tigued to pursue the fugitives, that duty devolved upon the Prussians, and they executed it with the vigor of men who felt that they had the wrongs of their country to avenge. Out of the entire French army not more than forty thousand men could again be imbodied. Napoleon continued his melancholy flight to Paris, where he soon found that his reign was at an end. He abdicated .he crown in favor of his son, but while his resignation was received, the acknowledgment of Napoleon II. was evaded. He lingered so long in the hope of some favorable change, that his opportunities of escape were cut off, and he was forced to seek refuge on board a British man-of-war. After some discussion respecting his destination, it was resolved that he should be imprisoned for life, in the island of St. Helena ; and to this rock, in the Atlantic ocean, he was sent, with a small train of attendants. Murat's fate was still more calamitous ; no sooner had he heard of Napoleon's landing in France, than he renounced his alliance with Austria, and endeavored to unite all the Italians in a league against that power. His efforts completely failed ; his forces were routed at Ferrara, the cowardly Neapolitans could not be induced to make any effective resistance, and finally he fled disguised from his kingdom. His restless ambition induced him, with only thirty followers, to make an effort to recover his dominions ; he landed on the Calabrian coast, but he was made a prisoner, and shot by sentence of a court-martial. After the victory at Waterloo, the Prussians and. the British advanced toward Paris, without encountering any serious opposition. The two legislative chambers were reluctant to restore the king, at least un- conditionally, but their appeal to the nation was disregarded, and on the nearer approach of the allies, a convention was concluded by which Louis was restored. A few of Napoleon's most strenuous supporters were excluded from the act of amnesty ; Ney and Labedoyere were shot, but Lavalette escaped by the aid of his wife and some British ofiicers. The future peace of Europe now depended on the congress of Vienna, but the decrees of this body were guided more by the convenience of sovereigns, than the wishes of nations. The ancient republics of Venice and Genoa were abolished ; the territories of the former were given to Austria, while the latter were assigned to the king of Sardinia ; Poland was annexed to the territories of Russia, and the Prussian do- minions enlarged at the expense of Saxony. When these arrange- ments were completed, the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, entered into a solemn compact called the Holy Alliance ; the professed object of the treaty was to preserve the peace of Europe, on the prin- THK FRENCH EMPIRE. 681 ciples which God, in his revelation, has pointed out as the source of tranquillity and prosperity. But the contracting parties understood by these principles the maintenance of despotic power, and made their en- gagement a pretext for resisting the efforts made subsequently, by several nations to establish constitutional freedom. 682 MODEEN HISTORY CHAPTER XT. • HISTORY OF THE PEACE. Section I. — State of Europe at the Close of the Way When the sanguinary and expensive wars arising out of the French revohition terminated, the different nations of Europe that shared in the contest were so enfeebled and harassed, that they sank at once into inactive repose. But the transition from war to peace made such a complete change in all commercial transactions, that credit was shaken, trade injured, manufactures checked, and thousands suddenly deprived of employment. These evils were more sensibly felt in England than in any other country ; for while the tide of war swept over every other European state, England, protected by her insular situation, en- joyed internal tranquillity, and was enabled to sell with profit, not only her manufactures, but her agricultural produce to less favored countries. Peace permitted the people of the continent to supply themselves with many of the articles which they had previously been forced to import ; and the jealousy with which the continental sovereigns began to regard the commercial prosperity of England, induced them to encourage na- tive manufactures ; hence the demand for British goods and produce suddenly slackened, and distress was felt by every portion of the com- munity. Several serious riots occurred in the agricultural distress ; but still more alarming symptoms of dissatisfaction were displayed in the metropolis, where meetings were held under pretence of procuring a reform in the constitution, but which threatened to end in revolution. Several strong restrictive statutes were passed by parliament, and energetic, if not severe measures adopted by the government ; it was not, however, until the commercial crisis had passed over, and the embarrassments of transition disappeared that the public tranquillity was restored. There were not, however, wanting more cheering occurrences which relieved the gloom ; the piratical states of Algiers were humbled ; Lord Exmouth, with a united squadron of English and Dutch, attacked the city of Algiers, destroyed its fortifications, and compelled the dey to abolish Christian slavery (a. d. 1816). Great joy was also diffused by the marriage of the princess Charlotte, the pride and the hope of Eng- land, to Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg. But the expectations of the nation were fatally disappointed ; the princess died on the 6th of November, 1817, after having been delivered of a dead child. The national sorrow was general and profound, and there never was an occasion in which the British nation showed greater regret for the loss of an individual. But this was only the beginning of a series of deaths HISTORY or THE PEACE. 683 in the royal family ; Queen Charlotte died during the ensuing year, she was soon followed to the grave by the duke of Kent, and finally, the aged monarch George III., without having enjoyed one lucid interval during his long illness, sank quietly into the tomb. France, much to the surprise of the neighboring states, enjoyed the blessings of tranquillity under the mild and conciliatory government of Louis XVIII. The revolution, and its consequent wars, had given the chief property of the country, and consequently the elements of politi- cal power, to the middle classes of society ; their interests could only be secured by the preservation of peace, and they became 'Zealous roy- alists, because they regarded the monarchy as the surest pledge for the maintenance of public order. Some of them carried their zeal to such extravagant lengths that they provoked resistance, and the king was forced to interfere, to preve^nt the ill consequences that were likely to result from the indiscretion of those who claimed to be his best friends. The united kingdom of the Netherlands, though apparently tranquil, was secretly shaken by the national antipathy between the Belgians and the Dutch. Gratitude induced the sovereign to accede to the holy alli- ance, a circumstance which gave great offence to many of his subjects, especially in Flanders, where a republican spirit, fostered by municipal institutions, had prevailed from the time of the Middle Ages. Great disappointment was felt in Germany, by the delay or refusal of the constitutions, which the several states had been taught to expect during the war of independence. But the principal sovereigns, es- pecially the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia, alarmed by the remembrance of the calamities that political innovations had produced in France, steadily opposed every change in the forms of government, but, at the same time, zealously labored to secure to their subjects the benefit of a just and enlightened administration. Spain was far more unfortunate ; the imbecile Ferdinand ^Vcls the tool of the courtiers and the priests ; at their instigation he revived the ancient principles of despotism and bigotry, punishing with remorseless severity every expression of liberal sentiments in politics or religion. The arbitrary conduct of the court was not the only cause of the mis- ery that prevailed in the Peninsula ; the South American colonies, which had long been regarded as the chief and almost the only source of the small share of commercial prosperity which the Spaniards re- tained, openly revolted, and raised the standard of independence. Fer- dinand made some faint efforts to subdue the insurgents, but he was badly supported by his subjects, and the troops he had assembled refu- sed to embark. Finally, the liberals having gained over a great portion of the army, compelled the king to establish a democratic constitution, by which the royal power was almost annihilated (a. d. 1820). Simi- lar revolutions took place in Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont ; alarm seized the minds of the European sovereigns, and they secretly com- bined to check popular movements. But experience soon proved that those who had framed the Spanish constitution were ignorant of the wants and wishes of the Spanish people. Louis XVIII. alarmed for the safety of France by the revolutionary movements in Spain, sent an army, under the command of the duke of Angouleme, to restore the royal authority ; the invaders encountered no effective opposition ; the 684 MODERN HISTORY. cortes fled before them to Cadiz, and when the French approached that city, they permitted the king to resume his former despotic authority (a. d. 1823). The revolutions of Naples and Piedmont ended similarly ; the liberals laid down their arms on the approach of the Austrian ar mies, and the new constitutions were abolished. The accession of Charles John Bernadotte, to the crown of Sweden, made no change in the politics of the northern nations ; his right of in- heritance had been solemnly recognised by the allied sovereigns, at the congress of Vienna, and his conduct as a crown-prince had taught the Swedes to respect and love the monarch they had chosen. Even the Norwegians became reconciled to their fate, and learned to console themselves for the loss of national independence by the blessings that result from paternal government. No sooner was peace restored between Great Britain and the United States than the old feelings of friendship and kindred revived between the two countries, and the leading statesmen, in both, showed an earn- est desire to have former animosities buried in oblivion. Jut far dif- ferent were the feelings between Spain and her revolted colonies ; the South American states vigorously maintained their struggle for inde- pendence, and finally succeeded. The English government delayed acknowledging these republics until the duke of Angouleme had crossed the Pyrenees, when consuls were sent out to the chief states, and com- mercial treaties formed with their governments. From this rapid sketch, it will be seen that throughout the greater part of the civilized world there was a struggle between the principles of monarchy and democracy, and that even England, though it had long enjoyed the blessings of a free constitution, was not wholly exempt from the agitation. Section II. — History of Europe during the reign of George IF. George IV. had so long wielded the supreme executive power in Vmgland, under the title of regent, that no poUtical change was made or expected when he assumed the royal dignity. A month had not elapsed after his accession, when a plot was discovered for the murder of all his majesty's ministers, and thus facilitating a revolution, which had been planned by a few obscure enthusiasts. The conspirators used to assemble in Cato street, an obscure place near the Edge ware road ; th-ey were arrested in their rendezvous, just as they were preparing to execute their project, all their plans having been betrayed to govern- ment by a spy who had pretended to join in the conspiracy. Such were the insanity and misery of these wretched men, who proposed to subvert a powerful government, that when they were searched, not even a shilling was found among the whole party. The government pitying their delusion, punished only the ringleaders, and this clemency had a beneficial eflect in calming political agitation. Preparations were now made for the king's coronation, when they were suspended by an event which excited more public interest, and stimulated more angry passions than any other which had occurred for several years. This was the return of Queen Caroline to England, and her subsequent trial before the house of lords. Her marriage had been HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 685 unfortunate almost from the commencement ; she was early separated from her husband ; after the lapse of some years, her conduct waa made the subject of official inquiry ; at the commencement of the re- gency she was excluded from court, and these indignities induced her to quit England. She visited the most celebrated spots along the coast of the Mediterranean, and then selected a permanent residence in that part of Italy subject to the Austrian government. Reports injurious to her character were circulated ; commissioners were sent to Milan to investigate them, and the ministers, in consequence of the evidence thus collected, excluded her name from the liturgy, on the king's acces- sion. Irritated at such an insult, she resolved to return to England, though a pension of fifty thousand pounds annually was offered to pur- chase her submission, and though she was informed that her landing would be the signal for the commencement of a prosecution. No sooner had the queen landed, than messages were sent to both houses of pialiament, recommending that her conduct should be inves- tigated. " A Bill of Pains and Penalties" was introduced, to deprive her of royal rights and dignities, and a trial commenced which lasted forty-five days, when the bill was read a second time by a majority of forty-five. On the third reading, however, the ministers could only command a majority of nine, and the bill was abandoned. During these proceedings, the agitation of the public mind knew no bounds ; ad- dresses to the queen poured in from all sides, and when the bill was abandoned, her friends celebrated her escape as an acquittal. The re- mainder of her melancholy history may be briefly told : her popularity sank as rapidly as it had risen ; she Avas refused a share in the ceremo- nial of the coronation ; her appeals to the nation were disregarded , and the sense of disappointment and degradation produced a mortal dis- ease which terminated her unhappy life. Her funeral was marked by a disgraceful riot : the mob determined that her remains should pass through the city of London, and triumphed over the troops that tried to carry the hearse by a different route. Soon after his coronation the king visited Ireland, Scotland, and Hanover ; he was everywhere received with the greatest enthusiasm, but the permanent results expected from these visits were not realized. In Ireland, party spirit blazed more furiously than ever, and the depre- ciation of agricultural produce rendering it difficult for tenants to pay their rents, led to a series of agrarian outrages which could only be checked by severe coercive laws. The distress of the lower classes, which indeed almost exceeded credibility, was relieved by a general and generous subscription in England, which arrested the progress of a pestilential disease, produced by famine and distress. England suffered severely from the financial difficulties produced by the immense expenditure of the late war. While statesmen were en- gaged in devising means to alleviate the pressure of taxation. Napoleon Bonaparte, the cause of so many calamities, died almost unnoticed in his place of exile at St. Helena. During the king's visit to Scotland, Lord Londonderry, who had so long directed the foreign affairs of Eng- land, committed suicide ; his place was supplied by Mr. Canning, who vras supposed to be favorable to what was called a more liberal line of policy than that of his predecessor. 686 MODERN HISTORY. The distracted condition of Spain at this period engaged the atten" tion of Europe. Ferdinand had been compelled to grant his subjecta a free and almost a republican constitution, but the ministers forced upon him by the cortes, showed little wisdom or moderation, and the proceedings of the cortes themselves were unworthy the dignity of a deliberative assembly. In consequence of these errors, a large party was formed in the Peninsula to restore absolute monarchy ; several bodies of insurgents were raised by the monks and friars, who feared that the estates of the monasteries and the church would be confiscated ; they called themselves the " Army of the Faith," and were zealously supported by the lower ranks of the populace. Under these circum- stances, a congress of the European powers was held at Verona, and a resolution was adopted for subverting the Spanish constitution, and re- storing the absolute power of the king. The duke of Wellington, on the part of England, refused to sanction this design, and the execution of it was intrusted to the king of France, who was naturally anxious to check the progress of revolutionary principles, before his own throne was endangered by the contagion. Early in the year 1823, the due d'Angouleme entered S^ ain at the head of a powerful army ; the constitutionalists made but a feeble re- sistance, and the king was restored to absolute authority with little trouble. Ferdinand made a bad use of his power ; he persecuted all whom he suspected of liberal principles with the utmost severity, and revived all the ancient abuses which had so long disgraced the govern- ment of Spain. Though the English ministers maintained a strict neutrality during this contest, they severely censured the conduct of the French government, and as a counterpoise, they recognised the in- dependence of the South American republics, which had withdrawn themselves from their allegiance to Spain. During the Spanish war, which excited little interest, the sympathies of civilized Europe were engaged in the Greek revolution, which, how- ever, was a barbarous and sanguinary struggle, that for many years seemed to promise no decisive result. The principal members of the Holy Alliance viewed the Greek insurrection with secret dislike, for they regarded it as a rebellion against legitimate authority ; but the young and enthusiastic spirits throughout Europe viewed it as a just revolt against Turkish tyranny, and hoped that its success would restore the classical ages of Greece. Among the many volunteers who went to aid the insurgents was the celebrated poet, Lord Byron ; before, however, they could profit by his services, he was attacked by fever, and died prematurely at Missolonghi. Commercial eii.barrassments and political disputes diverted the atten- tion of England from foreign affairs ; a sudden rage for speculation seized the people ; projects and joint-stock companies were multiplied without number, but suddenly the bubbles burst, and a terrible reaction ensued. The panic in the money-market was equal to the overween- ing confidence which had led to these extravagant speculations. But the evil was transitory, and it had perhaps some beneficial influence in limiting attention to those branches of trade best suited to the condition of the country. Political agitation was not so easily cured ; the lead- ers of the Irish catholics formed an association to procure the repeal of HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 687 his fleet ; it seemed, indeed, rather to confirm him in his obstinacy- After many ineffectual efforts to change his resolution, the ambassadors of France, England, and Russia, demanded their passports, and quitted Constantinople, a proceeding which was of course equivalent to a dec laration of war. But the allies were no longer united in their policy : France and England were not unreasonably jealous of Russian ambition ; France limited her exertions to protecting the Morea, the new ministers of England declared the victory of Navarino " an untoward event" — a phrase which led to the belief that they were disposed to look favorably on the pretensions of Turkey. This error precipitated what all wished to avoid, a war between Russia and Turkey. Still more unfortunate, the events of the first European campaign led many European states- men to believe that Turkey could defend herself from her own re- sources ; though the Russians had taken Varna by the treachery of its governor, they were forced to raise the siege of Shumlah, and retire with some precipitation. It was unnoticed or forgotten that this failure was more than compensated by the decisive success of the Russians in the Asiatic provinces, where the real strength of the Turkish empire lies ; they conquered the greater part of ancient Armenia, occupied the fortresses which command the principal lines of march, and thus laid the foundation of decisive success in the next campaign. In consequence of the general misapprehension respecting the posi- tion and resources of the belligerant parties, Turkey narrowly escaped being blotted from the map of Europe. The Russians opened the cam- paign by surprising Sizopoli, and laying siege to Silistria. The grand vizier advanced to the relief of the fortress, but he was surprised on his march by Marshal Diebitsch, and defeated. In this battle the Turks behaved so courageously that the Russians almost despaired of success, and made an attempt to open negotiations. Their offers were rejected ; the vizier, trusting to his impregnable position at Shumlah, remained quietly in his intrenchments, while the Russians pressed forward the siege of Silistria. That city surrendered on the last day of June, but it was the middle of July before Diebitsch could concentrate his forces for the bold enterprise which decided the fortune of the war. Having masked Shumlah with one division of his forces, he forced a passage through the defiles of the Balkan, and took Aidos by storm. The viz- ier, alarmed by this unexpected movement, determined to remove his quarters to Salamno. He was encountered by Diebitsch on his march, and irretrievably defeated. The very soldiers who had so recently fought the Russians for seventeen hours, now scarcely withstood them for as many minutes ; they fled at the first onset, abandoning arms, am- munition, artillery, and baggage. Adrianople, the second city in fne Turkish empire, was captured without firing a shot ; Stamboul itself must have fallen, had not the sultan consented to the terms of peace dictated by the conquerors. He signed a treaty on the 14th of Septem- ber, by which he recognised the independence of Greece, and granted to Russia very considerable advantages, and a guarantee for the pay- ment of the expenses of the war. Greece indeed was already virtually free ; the French expedition had recovered the fortresses of the Morea from the Turks and Egyptians, while the Greeks themselves had gained considerable advantages in the north. It was resolved that the final 44 690 MODERN HISTORY. destinies of the country should be arranged by a congress of the great powers iu London. The crown of Greece was first offered to Prince Leopold, the relict of the late princess Charlotte, but after a long nego- tiation he rejected it, and it was finally bestowed on Prince Otho, the son of the king of Bavaria. A revolution of a very different character took place in Portugal. When Don Pedro resigned the throne of that kingdom in favor of his daughter, Donna INIaria de Gloria, he appointed his brother, Don Miguel regent, reasonably hoping that he might thus secure his daugh- ter's rights, and the constitutional privileges which he had given to the Portuguese. Before quitting Vienna to assume the reins of power, Don Miguel took an oath of fidelity to the charter ; when he visited England, on his way to Portugal, he repeated his protestations of at- tachment to the constitution and the rights of his niece so warmly, that the British statesmen, assured of his fidelity, consented to withdraw their troops from Lisbon. Unfortunately, after his return, he resigned himself to the guidance of the queen-mother, an unprincipled woman, who seemed to think that a bigoted zeal for what she believed to be the cause of religion would atone for every other crime. At her instigation, he induced the fanatic rabble, by means of an artful priesthood, to pro- claim him absolute king, and to denounce the charter as inconsistent with the purity of the Roman faith. The friends of the constitution or- ganized a resistance at Oporto and in the island of Madeira ; but their efforts were badly directed, and worse supported. They were finally defeated and driven into exile, while Don Miguel commenced a bitter persecution against all who had been conspicuous for their advocacy of liberal opinions. The principal powers of Europe manifested their de- testation of such treachery, by withdrawing their ambassadors from the court of Lisbon. France during this period was greatly agitated by political strife. Charles X. was more bitterly opposed to revolutionary principles than his brother, and he yielded to the counsels of the bigoted priests, who persuaded him that it was his duty to restore to the church ail the power which it had possessed in the dark ages. On the other hand, the French people became persuaded that a plot was formed to deprive them of the constitutional privileges which they had gained after so long a struggle ; thus the nation became gradually alienated from the court, and the court from the nation ; while some turbulent spirits endeavored to aggravate this hostility, in the hope of profiting by a future convul- sion. A new ministry was forced upon the king by the popular party ; the members of it professed moderate principles, but they wanted the abilities and the influence necessary for steering a safe course between the extremes of royal prerogative on one side, and popular encroach- ment on the other. They were driven, by the majority of the chambers, to make larger concessions to the demands of the people than they had originally intended, and the reluctance with which they yielded, de- prived them of popular gratitude. Even their sending an armament to aid the Greeks in the Morea, their recalling the French army of occu- pation from Spain, and their acknowledging the independence of the South American republics, failed to conciliate the support of the demo- cratic party, while these measures rendered them perfectly odious to HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 691 he royalisvs. They were suddenly dismissed, and the formation of a cabinet was intrusted to Prince Polignac, whose appointment was studiously represented as a declaration of war by Charles X. against his subjects. Interesting as these events were, they excited little attention in Eng- land, where the public mind was intently fixed on the struggle in par- liament, between those who sought to effect important constitutional changes, and those who were resolved to resist all innovation. The duke of Wellington's cabinet had been placed in oflice mainly by the influence of that portion of the aristocracy which was anxious to check the progress of change, and resist certain proposed measures, which they deemed inconsistent with the supremacy, if not the safety, of the estab- lished church. One of these measures was the repeal cf the Test and Corporation acts, by which dissenters were excluded from office ; it was proposed in the house of commons, and on a division the ministers were left in such a minority, that they not only withdrew further opposition, but adopted the measure as their own, and carried it successfully through both houses of parliament. This event gave fresh vigor to the efforts made by the Irish catholics to procure the concessions which they usually called emancipation. The rejection of a bill for the purpose by the house of lords in 1828, only roused them to greater exertion ; and on the other hand, the par- tisans of protestant ascendency in Ireland began to form clubs for the protection of their peculiar privileges. An unexpected event exaspera- ted the strife of parties, and threatened to bring matters to a dangerous crisis. Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, having accepted office under the duke of Wellington, vacated his seat for the county of Clare, reasonably ex- pecting that there would be no obstacle to his re-election. Mr. O'Con- nell, an Irish catholic, who had been long recognised as the popular leader, offered himself as a candidate for the vacant seat, and in spite of the disqualifying laws, was elected by an overwhelming majority. It was considered disputable whether he might not take his seat, but on all hands it was allowed that he was the legal representative of the county. This was a state of things which could not with safety be permitted to continue ; the ministers felt that they should either increase the se- verity of the exclusive laws, which the temper of the times would harc".'.y have permitted, or that they should remove the iew restrictions which prevented catholics from enjoying the full benefits of the consti- tution. They chose the latter alternative, and after some difficulty in overcoming the king's reluctance, they had the concession of the catholic claims recommended in the royal speech, at the opening of the session of parliament. The bill for giving effect to this recomme ida- tion was strenuously opposed in both houses, but as it was supported by the united strength of the ministers and the party by which they were most commonly resisted, it passed steadily through both houses, and received the royal assent on the 13th of April, 1829. From the time that this important measure was carried, the domestic condition of England presented an aspect of more tranquillity than had been witnessed for many years. Party strife seemed hushed within and without the walls of parliament, as if both parties had been wearied 692 MODERN HISTORY. out by the protracted discussion of the question they had just settled, This cahn was increased by the gloom which the illness of the king diffused over the nation. Early in 1830 the symptoms of the disease became alarming, and for many weeks before its termination, all hopes of a favorable result were abandoned. On the 26th of June, George IV. died at Windsor castle, after having borne the agonies of protracted sickness with great firmness, patience, and resignation. Section III. — History of Europe during the Reign of William IV. Fkw monarchs ever obtained such immediate popularity on their ac- cession as William IV. He had been educated in the navy, always a favorite branch of service with the British people ; he was eminent for the domestic virtues, which are the more readily comprehended by a nation, as their value is felt in every walk of life ; his habits were economical, and his manners familiar ; he exhibited himself to his people, conversed with them, and shared in their tastes and amuse- ments. As he had been intimately connected with some of the leading whigs before his accession to the throne, it was generally believed that the policy by which that party had been jealously excluded from power during the two preceding reigns would be abandoned, and it was hoped that a new cabinet would be formed by the coalition of ministers with their opponents. The parliamentary debates soon put an end to these expectations ; the opposition to the ministry, which had been almost nominal since the settlement of the catholic question, was more thar usually violent in the debate on the address ; the formal business of the house was indeed despatched with all possible expedition, prepar atory to a new election ; but before parliament could be prorogued, the whigs were virtually pledged to irreconcilable war with the ad- ministration. It is now time to turn to the affairs of France, which had for two years been fast hastening to a crisis. Never had a ministry in any country to encounter such a storm of virulence and invective, as that which assailed the cabinet of Prince Polignac ; though he was per- haps justly suspected of arbitrary designs, yet his first measures were dignified and moderate ; some of them even seem to have been framed in a spirit of conciliation. But nothing could purchase the forbearance of his opponents ; they scrupled not to have recourse to downright falsehood, and in some cases accused him of designs so exquisitely ab- surd, that they appeared to have been invented for the express purpose of measuring the extent of popular credulity. Charles X. more than shared the odium thrown on his obnoxious favorite ; his patronage of the Jesuits and monastic orders, his revival of austere and rigid etiquette in his court, and his marked dislike of those who had acquired eminence in the revolution, or under Napoleon, were circumstances which ren- dered him unpopular with the great bulk of the nation so long estranged from the Bourbons and their policy. Polignac defied the storm; but unfortunately, as the contest con- tinued, he departed from the course of caution and prudence, probably because injustice had driven him into anger, and he soon furnished his adversaries with just grounds for continued hostility. When the cham- HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 693 bers assembled, the royal speech was a direct attack on the first prin- ciples of the constitution, concluding with a threat of resuming the con- cessions made by the charter, which was notoriously impotent, and therefore supremely ridiculous. A very uncourtly reply was voted by the chamber of deputies, after a very animated debate, by a majority of forty. The only alternative now left was a dissolution of the chambers, or a change of the ministry ; Charles X. chose the former, trusting that events might turn the popular current, and give him a more manageable chamber at a new election. Charles and his ministers appear to have hoped that their unpopu- larity would be overcome, and their future projects facilitated, by grat- ifying the taste of the French people for military glory. An armameni was therefore prepared with extraordinary care, and sent against Al- giers, under the pretext that the dey had insulted the honor of France. The success of the expedition corresponded with the exertions made to ensure it ; the city of Algiers was taken after a very slight resistance, the dey was sent prisoner to Italy, and his vast treasures remained at the disposal of the conquerors. It was reasonable that the maritime powers should feel jealous at the establishment of French garrisons and colonies in northern Africa ; to allay their suspicions, a promise was made that the occupation of Algiers should be merely temporary ; but the French nation formed such an infatuated attachment to their conquest, that they have kept it ever since, though it causes an annual waste of life and treasure, without conferring any appreciable advan- tage either on Africa or on France. Polignac, relying on the moral effect which the conquest of Algiers would produce, dissolved the chambers, but, with the same infatuation which seems to have directed all his movements, he at the same time dismissed the only two moderate members of his cabinet, and supplied their places by the most unpopular men in France, Such a course, as ought to have been foreseen, more than counterbalanced any benefit which the ministers might have gained from the conquest of Algiers ; the elections left them in a miserable minority, and matters were consequently brought to a crisis. The majority of the commercial classes and landed proprietors in France dreaded the renewal of civil commotions ; they knew that there was an active republican party in the country, which though not very numerous, was very unscrupulous and energetic ; they feared, and not without reason, tha the triumph of this party, which was no unlikely termination of a levolutionary struggle, would lead to the renewal of the horrors perpetrated during the reign of terror, when the Jacobins were in power. But at the same time, these classes were equally hostile to the restoration of the ancient despotism, which they believed to be the object of the king and his ministers. Had Charles X. declared that he would be contented with the prerogatives of a consti- tutional monarch, dismissed his obnoxious ministers, and formed a cabinet of moderate men, the crisis would have passed over without danger ; unfortunately, more arbitrary counsels prevailed ; Polignac and his colleagues resolved to terminate the struggle by subverting the constitution. On the morning of the 26th of July, three ordinances were pub* 694 MODERN HISTORY. lished, which virtually subverted the constitutional privileges granted by the charter. The first dissolved the newly elected chamber of deputies before it assembled : the second changed the law of elections and disfranchised the great body of electors ; and the third subjected the press to new and severe restrictions which would completely have annihilated its liberties. It was late in the day before intelligence of these events was gene- rally circulated through Paris, and the news, at first, seemed to excite astonishment rather than indignation ; the ministers passed the day in quiet at their hotels, receiving the visits of their friends and congratu- lating themselves upon the delusive tranquillity. But their opponents were not inactive ; expresses were sent to summon all the deputies of their party within reach, and those who had already arrived in Paris held a private meeting to concert measures of resistance. The prin- cipal journalists acted with still greater promptitude ; they prepared and published a protest against the restrictions on the prec.s, whose daring language would probably have exposed them to the penalties of treason had the contest terminated differently. On the morning of the 27th, few of the journals appeared, for the publication of those which were not sanctioned by the minister of the interior was prohibited by the police. The printers, thus suddenly deprived of employment, formed a body of vindictive rioters, and their numbers were increased by the closing of several large factories in the suburbs of Paris. The proprietors of two journals printed their papers in defiance of the ordinance, and the first disturbance was occasioned by the police forcing an entrance into their establishments, breaking the presses, scattering the types, and rendering the machinery unserviceable. So little was an insurrection anticipated, that Charles, accompanied by the dauphin, went on a hunting match to Rambouillet ; and his ministers neglected the ordinary precaution of strengthening the garrison of the capital. It was only on the morning of the 27th that Marmont received his appointment as military governor of Paris, and it was not till after four in the afternoon that orders were given to put the troops under arms. Between six and seven o'clock in the evening some detachments of troops were sent to the aid of the police ; this was the signal for com- mencing the contest ; several smart skirmishes took place between the citizens and the soldiers, in which the latter were generally successful, so that Marmont wrote a letter to the king, congratulating him on the suppression of the riot, while the ministers issued their last ordinance, declaring Paris in a state of siege. When night closed in, the citizens destroyed every lamp in the city, thus securing the protection of darkness for their preparations to renew the struggle. On the morning of the 28th. Marmont was astonished to find that the riots which he had deemed suppressed, had assumed the formidable aspect of a revolution. The citizens were ready and organized for a decisive contest ; they were in possession of the arsenal and the powder magazine ; they had procured arms from the shops of the gunsmiths and the police stations ; they had erected barricades across the principal streets, and had selected leaders competent to direct their exertions. Under these circumstances, the marshal hesitated before taking any HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 69* decisive step ; it was noon before he had resolved how to act, and he then determined to clear the streets by military force. He divided his troops into four columns, which he directed to move in different directions, thus unwisely separating his forces, so that they could not act in concert. Every step taken by the columns was marked by a series of murderous conflicts ; they were assailed with musketry from the barricades, from the windows and tops of houses, from the corners of streets, and from the narrow alleys and passages which abound in Paris. When the cavalry attempted to charge, they were overwhelmed with stones and articles of furniture flung from the houses ; their horses stumbled in the unpaved streets, or were checked by the bar- ricades, while the citizens, protected by their dwellings, kept up a heavy fire, which the disheartened horsemen were unable to return. Though the royal guards performed their duty, the troops of the line showed great reluctance to fire on the citizens, and hence the insur- gents were enabled to seize many important posts with little or no opposition. When evening closed the troops had been defeated in every direction ; they returned to their barracks, weary, hungry, and dispirited ; by some inexplicable blunder, no provision was made for their refreshment, while every family in Paris vied in supplying the insurgents with everything they wanted. Marmont was now fully sensible of the perils of his situation ; he wrote to the infatuated king, representing the dangerous condition ot Paris, and soliciting fresh instructions ; the orders he received in reply, urged him to persevere, and indirectly censured his former conduct, by directing him " to act with masses." The contest was renewed on the morning of the third day, the soldiers evincing great feebleness, while the populace seemed animated by a certainty of success. While the issue was yet doubtful, two regiments of the line went over to the insurgents in a body ; the citizens thus strengthened, rushed through the gap which this defection left in the royal line, took the Louvre by assault, and soon compelled the troops that remained faithful to the royal cause, either to lay down their arms or evacuate Paris. The revolution was speedily completed by the installation of a provisional government ; measures were adopted for the speedy convocation of the chambers, and in a few hours the capital had nearly assumed its ordinary aspect of tranquillity. Charles and his ministers appear to have believed that the country would not follow the example of Paris. They were speedily convinced of their error ; the king was abandoned, not only by his courtiers, but even by his household servants ; he was forced to wait helplessly in his country-seat, until he was dismissed to contemptuous exile by the national commissioners. His ministers attempted to escape in disguise, but were most of them arrested, a circumstance which occasioned great perplexity to the new government. In the meantime, the duke of Orleans, far the most popular of the royal family, was chosen lieu tenant-general of the kingdom, and when the chambers met, he waa elected to the throne, with the title of Louis Philippe I., king ol the French. This revolution produced an extraordinary degree of political excitement throughout Europe ; even in England the rick-burninga 696 MODERN HISTORY. and other incendiary acts gave formidable signs of popular discontent but the personal attachment of the nation to the sovereign, and the prudent measures of the government, prevented any attempt at revo lutiot. When parliament assembled, the duke of Wellington took an early opportunity of declaring that he would resist any attempt to make a change in the representative system of the country, and this declar- ation, which was wholly unexpected, or rather, which was contrary to very general expectations, at once deprived the ministers of the popu- larity they had hitherto enjoyed. An event of trifling importance in itself, but very grave in its consequences, proved still more injurious to the Wellington administration. The king had been invited to dine with the lord-mayor of London on the 9th of November, and his ministers were of course expected to accompany him. All the prepar- ations were complete, when a city magistrate, having heard that some persons intended to insult the duke of Wellington, in consequence of his late unpopular speech, wrote to his grace, recommending aim not to come without a military escort. The riots in Paris and Brussels, which had commenced with trifling disturbances, and ended in revo- lutions, were too recent not to alarm the ministers ; they resolved that the king's visit to the city should be postponed to some more favorable conjvmcture. This announcement produced a general panic ; business was sus- pended ; the funds fell four per cent, in a few hours : the city of London continued in the greatest anxiety and alarm, for every one believed that some dreadful conspiracy was discovered at the moment it was about to explode. A day sufficed to show that no substantial grounds for apprehension existed, and people excused their vain terrors by throwing all the blame upon the government. The ministers were overwhelmed with a storm of indignant ridicule, which was scarcely merited, for they could not have anticipated such an extensive and groundless panic, and there could be little doubt of the propriety of removing any pretext for a tumultuous assembly in the long nights of November. This strange occurrence proved fatal to the ministry, which indeed had previously been tottering. On a question of confidence, the ministers were defeated by a majority of twenty-nine in the house of commons, upon which the duke of Wellington and his colleagues immediately resigned their offices. A new ministry was formed under the auspices of Earl Grey, composed of the old whig opposition, and the party commonly called Mr. Canning's friends ; it was recommended to the nation by the premier's early declaration, that the principles of his cabinet should be reform, retrenchment, and peace. But to preserve the peace of Europe was now a task of no ordinary difficulty. The excitement produced by the late French revolution had aroused an insurrectionary spirit in every country where the people had to complain of real or fancied wrongs ; and the continental sovereigns, alarmed for their power, looked with jealousy on every movement that seemed likely to lead to a popular triumph. The emperor of Russia went so far, as to hesitate about acknowledging the title of Louis Philippe to the throne of France, and when he at length yielded to the example and influence of the other European states, his recognition of HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 697 a king elected by the people was so reluctant and ungracious, as to be deemed an insult by the French nation. Nowhere did the insurrectionary spirit thus excited produce more decisive effects than in Belgium, whose compulsory union with Holland was one of the most imwise arrangements of the congress of Vienna, The Dutch and Flemings differed in language, in habits, and in reli- gion ; their commercial interests were opposed, their national antipa- thies were ancient and inveterate. In the midst of these anxieties produced by the events in Paris, the Dutch ministers continued to goad the Belgians by restrictive laws, and at length drove them into open re- volt. On the night of the 25th of August, a formidable riot began in Brussels ; the Dutch authorities and garrison, after having exhibited the most flagrant proofs of incapacity and cowardice, were driven out, and a provisional government installed in the city. The king of Hol- land hesitated between concession and the employment of force ; he adopted a middle course of policy, and sent his sons to redress griev- ances, and an army to enforce the royal authority ; at the same time he convoked the states-general. The Dutch princes were received with such coolness at Brussels, that they returned to the army ; soon after, Prince Frederick, having learned that the patriots were divided among themselves, led the royal troops to Brussels, and at the same time pub- lished an amnesty, but unfortunately, with such sweeping exceptions, that it should rather be called an edict of proscription. For four days the Dutch and Belgians contested the possession of the city with equal want of skill and courage, but with somewhat more of energy on the part of the insurgents. Finally, the Dutch were driven out, and a pro- visional government established. Proposals of mediation were made by the prince of Orange, which were disavowed by his father, the king of Holland, and equally rejected by the Flemings ; thus refused by both parties, he allowed matters to take their course, and Belgium be- came an independent state. Many tedious negotiations and discussions were necessary before this disarrangement of the European powers could be adjusted so as to avert the danger of a general war. At length Leopold, prince of Saxe Coburg, nearly connected with the royal family of England, was elected sovereign of the new kingdom, and to conciliate his subjects and strengthen his throne, he formed a matrimo- nial alliance with the daughter of the king of the French. Germany was not exempt from the perils of popular commotion. In the year 1813, the sovereigns of the principal German states had prom- ised popular constitiuions to their subjects, as a reward for their exer- tions in delivering the continent from the tyranny of Napoleon. These promises had not been fulfilled ; there were many discontented persons anxious to profit by the example of France and Belgium, but fortunately, in the principal states, the personal character of the sovereigns had so endeared them to the people, that no insurrection was attempted. In some of the minor states there were slight revolutions ; the duke of Brunswick was deposed by his subjects, and the thror e transferred to his brother ; the king of Saxony was forced to resign in favor of his nephew ; and the elector of Hesse was compelled to grant a constitu- tional charter. Spain continued to languish under the iron sway of Ferdinand VII. ; 698 MODERN HISTORY. the people generally seemed to have no wish for liberty, and the abor tive efforts to establish the constitution again were easily quelled, and cruelly punished. The condition of Portugal appeared to be similar ; Don Miguel, who had usurped the throne, was so strenuously supported by the priests and monks, that every attempt to effect a change seemed hopeless. Italy shared in the excitement of the time, but the jealous watchfulness of Austria, and the formidable garrisons which that power had established in northern Italy, effectually prevented any outbreak. Insurrectionary movements took place in several of the Swiss cantons, but the disputes were arranged with promptness and equity, so speed- ily as to avert the horrors of civil war. Poland was one of the last countries to catch the flame of insurrec- tion, but there it raged most furiously. Provoked by the cruelties of the archduke Constantine, who governed the country for his brother, the emperor of Russia, the Poles took up arms, at a time when all the statesmen of Europe were intent on maintaining peace, and were there- fore compelled to withhold their sympathies from the gallant struggle. Unaided and unsupported, the Poles for nearly two years maintained an unequal struggle against the gigantic power of Russia ; they were finally crushed, and have ever since been subjected to the yoke of the most cruel despotism. France, which had scattered these elements of discord, was far from enjoying tranquillity itself. The republican party deemed itself be- trayed by the election of a king, and several who had consented to that arrangement were dissatisfied with the limited extension of popular privileges gained by the revolution. A great number of idle and dis- contented young men were anxious to involve Europe in a war of opin- ion, and they denounced the king as a traitor to the principles which had placed him on the throne, because he refused to gratify their insane wishes. The total separation of the church from the state alienated the French clergy ; while the royalists recovered from their first terror, began to entertain hopes of a restoration. Thus surrounded by diffi- culties and dangers, Louis Philippe Avas far from finding his throne a bed of roses ; but he evinced firmness and talent adequate to the occa- sion, and he was zealously supported by the middle classes, who looked upon him as their guarantee for constitutional freedom and assured tran- quillity. His success, however, would have been doubtful but for the efficient support he received from the national guard, whose organization was rapidly completed in Paris and the provinces. This civic body re- pressed the riots of the workmen and artisans, broke up the meetings of revolutionary clubs, and frustrated the attempts of republican fanatics, without incurring the odium which would have been attached to the ex- ertions of the police and military. The severest test to which the stability of the new government in Paris was exposed, arose from the trials of the ministers who had signed the fatal ordinances. Louis Philippe made r o effort to seize these delinquents, and would probably have been rejoiced at their escape ; four of them were, as we have said, arrested by some zealous patriots, at a distance from Paris, as they were endeavoring to escape under the protection of false pass- ports ; the government had no option, but was forced to send them foi HISTOaY OF THE PEACE. 699 trial before the chamber of peers. The partisans of anarchy took ad- vantage of the popular excitement to raise formidable riots, which might have terminated in a new and sanguinary revolution, but for the zeal and firmness of the national guard. After an impartial trial, Polignac and his companions were condemned to perpetual imprisonment and civil death, and were quickly removed from the capital to a distant pris- on. Tranquillity was re-established on the morning of the third day after the trial, and the citizens of Paris demonstrated the extent of their late alarms by the brilliant illuminations with which they celebrated the restoration of order. England was deeply engaged in an attempt to remodel her constitu- tion. Early in 1831, the new premier declared that "ministers had succeeded in framing a measure of reform, which they were persuaded would prove efficient without exceeding the bounds of that wise moder- ation with which such a measure should be accompanied." On the ^st of March the measure was introduced to the house of commons by Lord .John Russell, andfrom that moment to its final success it almost wholly engrossed the attention of the country. The debate on the first reading of the bill lasted the unprecedented number of seven nights ; the discussion on the second reading was shorter, but more animated ; it was carried only by a majority of one. Ministers were subsequently defeated on two divisions, and at their instigation the king hastily dis- solved the parliament. The elections took place amid such popular ex- citement, that ardent supporters of the ministerial measure were re- turned by nearly all the large constituencies, and the success of the reform bill, at least so far as the house of commons was concerned, was secured. The reform bill passed slowly but securely through the house of commons, it was then sent up to the lords, and after a debate of five nights, rejected by a majority of 41. Great was the popular disappoint- ment, but the promptitude with which the house of commons, on the motion of Lord Ebrington, passed a vote of confidence in ministers, and pledged itself to persevere with the measure of reform, calmed the agitation m. the metropolis and the greater part of the country. Some serious riots, however, occurred at Derby and Nottingham, which were not suppressed until considerable mischief was done ; Bristol svf- fered still more severely from the excesses of a licentious mob, whose fury was not checked until many lives were lost, and a great amount of valuable property wantonly destroyed. While the excitement respecting the reform bill was at the highest, a new pestilential disease was imported into the country. It was called the Asiatic cholera, because it first appeared in India, whence it grad- ually extended in a northwestern direction to Europe. Its ravages in Great Britain were not, by any means, so great as they had been in some parts of the continent, yet they were very destructive ; they were met by a bold and generous offer of service from the physicians throughout the empire, and their conduct, while the pestilence pre- vailed, reflected the highest honor on tha character of the medical pro- fession in Great Britain. A new reform bill was introduced into the house of commons im- mediately after the assembling of parliament ; it passed there with lit* 700 MODERN HISTOEY. tie opposition, and was sent up to the house of lords. As no change had been made in the constitution of that body, great anxiety was felt respecting the fate of the measure ; but some peers, who had formerly opposed it, became anxious for a compromise, and the second reading was carried by a majority of nine. But these new allies of the minis- try were resolved to make important alterations in the character of the measure, and when the bill went into committee the ministers found themselves in a minority. Earl Grey proposed to the king the creation of a sufficient number of peers to turn the scale, but his majesty refused to proceed to such extremities, and all the members of the cabinet re- signed. Tfie duke of Wellington received, through Lord Lyndhurst, his majesty's commands to form a new administration, and he under- took the task in the face of the greatest difficulties that it had ever been the fate of a British statesman to encounter. The nation was plunged into an extraordinary and dangerous state of excitement ; the house of commons by a majority of eighty, virtually pledged itself to the support of the late ministry ; addresses to the crown were sent from various popular bodies, which were by no means distinguished by moderation of tone or language ; associations were formed to secure the success of the reform measure, and the country seemed brought to the verge of a revolution. Under such circumstances, the duke of Wellington saw that success was hopeless, he resigned the commission with which he had been intrusted, and advised his majesty to renew his communications with his former advisers. Earl Grey returned to office ; a secret compact was made that no new peers should be created if the reform bill were suffered to pass ; and the measure having been rap- idly hurried through the remaining stages, received the royal assent on the 7th of June. The Irish and Scotch reform bills attracted com- paratively but little notice ; a law for enforcing the collection of tithes in Ireland was more vigorously opposed, and the ignorant peasants of Ireland were encouraged by their advocates to resist the payment of the impost. While England was engrossed by the discussions on the reform bill, the new monarchy established in France was exposed to the most im- minent dangers from the republicans on the one hand, and the partisans 61" the exiled family on the other. The republican party was the more violent and infinitely the more dangerous, because, in the capital at least, there was a much greater mass, to whom its opinions and incen- tives were likely to be agreeable. There was also a spirit of fanaticism in its members, which almost amounted to insanity ; several attempts were made to assassinate the king, and his frequent escapes may be justly regarded as providential. When any of the apostles of sedition we~e brought to trial, they openly maintained their revolutionary doc- trines ; treated the king with scorn and derision ; inveighed against the existing institutions of the country ; entered into bruta^l and violent al- tercations with the public prosecutor ; menaced the juries and insulted the judges. The very extravagance of this evil at length worked out a remedy : the bombast of the republicans was carried to such an excess of absurdity, that it became ridiculous ; the republicans were disarmed when they found that the nonsense of their inflated speeches produced not intimidation, but shouts of laughter. Moderate men took courage 3 HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 701 the middle classes, to whose prosperity, peace abroad and tranquillity at home were essentially necessary, rallied round the monarchy, and the republicans were forced to remain silent, until some new excitement of the public mind would afford an opportunity for disseminating mischiev- ous falsehoods. An insurrection of the Carlists, as the partisans of the exiled family were called, in the south of France, injured the cause it was designed to serve. It was easily suppressed, but the gOA'emment learned that the dutchess de Berri, whose son, the duke of Bourdeaux, was the legit- imate heir to the crown, had made arrangements for landing in La Vendee, and heading the royalists in the province. Such preparations were made, that when the dutchess landed, she found her partisans dis- heartened, and their movements so closely watched, that it was scarce- ly possible for them to assemble in any force. Still she resolved to persevere, but the enterprise degenerated into a series of isolated and insignificant attacks, made by small bodies in a strong country, and the proceedings of the royalists, consequently, resembled those of brigands. The dutchess continued five months in the country, though actively pur- sued by the military and police ; she was at length betrayed by cvne of her associates, and made prisoner. The government of Louis Philippe treated the royal captive with great clemency ; she had not been long in prison when it was discovered that she was pregnant, having been privately married some time before her arrest. This unfortunate cir- cumstance threw such an air of ridicule over the entire enterprise, that the royalists abandoned all further efforts against the government. "While the south of France was thus agitated by the royalists, Paris narrowly escaped the perils of a republican revolution. The funeral of General Lamarque afforded the opportunity for this outbreak, which lasted about five hours, and was attended with great loss of life. The entire body of the military and all the respectable citizens supported the cause of monarchy and good order, or else the consequence would have been a new revolution. The revolt had the effect of strengthening the ministerial influence in the chambers ; when they met, the opposi- tion could not muster more than half the number of votes that supported the cabinet. A treaty had been concluded by the representative of the five great powers, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England, arranging the conditions on which Belgium should be separated from Holland ; to these terms the Belgians had acceded, but they were declined by the Dutch, who still retained the citadel of Antwerp. A French army entered Belgium, and proceeded to besiege this fortress ; it was taken after a sharp siege, and was immediately given up to a Belgian garrison, the French re- tiring within their own frontiers in order to avert the jealousies and suspicions of the European powers. Turkey was exposed to the greatest danger, by the rebellion of its powerful vassal, the pacha of Egypt. Mohammed Ali was anxious to annex Syria to his territories, a dispute with the governor of Acre furnished him a pretext for invading the country ; the sultan command- ed him to desist, and on his refusal treated him as a rebel ; Mohammed Ali was so indignant, that he extended his designs to the whole empire ; his forces routed the Turkish armies in every battle ; Syria and a great 702 MODERN HISTORY. part of Asia Minor were subdued with little difficulty, and Constantino- ple itself would have fallen but for the prompt interference of Russia. The sultan was thus saved from his rebellious vassal, but the independ- ence of his empire was fearfully compromised. The declining health in King Ferdinand directed attention to the law of succession in Spain : his only child was an infant daughter, and the Salic law, introduced by the Bourbon dynasty, excluded females from the throne. Ferdinand had repealed this law, but when he was supposed to be in his mortal agonies, the partisans of his brother, Don Carlos, who was looked upon as the surest support of the priesthood and of arbitrary power, induced him to disinherit his daughter, and recognise Don Carlos as heir to the crown. The very next day Ferdi- nand was restored to consciousness and understanding ; the queen in- stantly brought before him the injustice he had been induced to com- mit, and the king was so indignant that he not only dismissed his min- isters but threw himself into the arms of the liberal party. A general amnesty was published ; those who had been exiled for supporting the constitution were invited home, and the Carlist party was so discouraged that it sank without resistance. Don Carlos himself, his wife, and his wife's sister, the princess of Beira, were compelled to quit Madrid ; they sought and found shelter with Don Miguel, the usurper of Portugal. On the 20th of September, 1833, Ferdinand died: his daughter was proclaimed at Madrid, but Carlist insurrections broke out in several parts of Spain, and have continued, with little interruption, almost ever since. The excitement produced by the French revolution extended beyond the Atlantic. Don Pedro, emperor of Brazil, was compelled by his subjects to abdicate the throne in favor of his infant son ; an event the more singular, as he had some time bet'bre resigned the crown of Por- tugal in favor of his daughter. Donna Maria de Gloria. When Pedro returned to Europe, he resolved to assert his daughter's rights, which had been usurped by Don Miguel ; soldiers were secretly enlisted in France and England, the refugees from Portugal and Brazil were form- ed into regiments, and, after some delay, a respectable armament was collected in the Azores, which had remained faithful to Donna Maria. Pedro resolved to invade the north of Portugal ; he landed near Oporto, and ma le himself master of that city ; but his further operations were cramped by the want of money, and of the munitions of war ; Oporto was invested by Don Miguel, and for several months the contest between the two brothers was confined to the desultory operations of a siege. At length, in the summer of 1833, Don Pedro intrusted the command of his na.^al force to Admiral Napier ; this gallant officer, after having landed a division of the army in the province, sought Don Miguel's fleet ; though superior in number of ships, men, and weight of metal, he attacked it with such energy, that in a short time all the large vessels be- longing to the usurper struck their colors. This brilliant success, fol- lowed by the capture of Lisbon, which yielded to Pedro's forces with little difficulty, and the recognition of the young queen by the principal powers of Europe, proved fatal to Miguel's cause. After some faint attempts at protracted resistance, he abandoned the struggle, and sought shelter in Italy. HISTORY OF THE PEACE. 703 Don Pedro's death, which soon followed his triumph, did little injury to the constitutional cause. His daughter retains the crown ; she was married first to the prince at Leuchtenberg, who did not long survive his nuptials ; her second husband is Prince Ferdinand of Saxe Coburg, nearly allied to the queen of Great Britain- Several disturbances in the papal states gave the French a pretext for seizing the citadel of Ancona, which gave just grounds of offence to Austria. But neither party wished to hazard the perils of war. The pope excommunicated all the liberals in his dominions, but was mortified to find that ecclesiastical censures, once so formidable, were now ridic- ulous. When the French evacuated Ancona, he was obliged to hire a body of Swiss troops for his personal protection, and the pay of these mercenaries almost ruined his treasury. To such a low estate is the papal power now reduced, which was once supreme .'ji Europe, and exercised unlimited sway over the consciences and conduct of potentates and nations. The attention of the first reformed parliament of Great Britain was chiefly engrossed by domestic affairs. In consequence of the con- tinued agrarian disturbances in Ireland, a coercive statute was passed, containing many severe enactments ; but at the same time, the Irish church was forced to make some sacrifices, a tax for ecclesiastical purposes was levied on its revenues, and the number of bishoprics was diminished. But measures of still greater importance soon occupied the attention of parliament ; the charter of the bank of England was renewed, on terms advantageous to the country ; the East India company was deprived of its exclusive commercial privileges, and the trade to Hin- dustan and China thrown open ; but the company was permitted to re- tain its territorial sovereignty. Finally, a plan was adopted for the abolition of West India slavery ; the service of the negro was changed into apprenticeship for a limited period, and a compensation of twenty millions was voted to the planters. There was a very active though not a very large section of the house of commons dissatisfied with the limited extent of change produced by the reform bill ; they demanded much greater innovations, and they succeeded in exciting feelings of dis- content in the lower classes of the community. Popular discontent was not confined to England, it was general throughout Europe, but fortunately no serious efforts were made to disturb the public tran- quillity. The second session of the reformed parliament was rendered memor- able by the passing of an act for altering the administration of the poor laws, which was very fiercely attacked outside the walls of parliament. It was, however, generally supported by the leading men of all parties ; though its enactment greatly weakened the popularity of the ministers. The cabinet was itself divided respecting the policy to be pursued toward Ireland, and the dissensions respecting the regulation of the church, and the renewal of the Coercion bill, in that country, arose to such a height, that several of the ministry resigned. Lord Melbourne succeeded Earl Grey as premier, but it was generally believed that the king was by no means pleased with the change ; and that on the Irish church question, he was far from being satisfied with the line of coa» 704 MODERN HISTORY. duct pursued by his ministers. In the month of November, the death of Earl Spencer removed Lord Althorp, the chancellor of the exchequer, to the house of lords, and rendered some new modifications necessary. The king took advantage of the opportunity to dismiss the ministers, an express was sent to summon Sir Robert Peel from the continent, to assume the office of premier ; and the duke of Wellington, who had administered the government in the interim, was appointed foreign secretary. Parliament was immediately dissolved, and the three king- doms were agitated by a violent explosion of party spirit. A tithe- affray in Ireland, which ended with the loss of life, supplied the oppo- nents of the ministry with a pretext for rousing the passions of the peasantry in that country, and of this they availed themselves so effec- tually, that the ministerial candidates were defeated in almost every election. While the country was anxiously waiting the result of the struggle between the rival political parties, both houses of parliament were burned to the ground. This event at first excited some alarm, but it was soon allayed, for the cause of the fire was clearly proved to be ac- cidental. When parliament met. Sir Robert Peel's cabinet was found to be in a minority in the house of commons. The premier, however, persevered in spite of hostile majorities, until he was defeated on the question of the Irish church, when he and his colleagues resigned. The Melbourne cabinet was restored, with the remarkable exception of Lord Brougham, whose place as chancellor was supplied by Lord Cot- tenham. On the death of his brother, Don Carlos, after a vain attempt to assert his claims, was driven from Spain into Portugal, and so closely pur- sued that he was forced to take refuge on board an English ship-of-war. He came to London, where several abortive efforts were made to in- duce him to abandon his pretensions. But in the meantime his parti- sans in the Biscayan provinces had organized a formidable revolt, under a brave leader, Zumalacarregui, and a priest named Merino. Don Carlos secretly quitted London, passed through France in disguise, and appeared at the head of the insurgents. A quadrupartite treaty was concluded between Spain, Portugal, France, and England, for support- ing the rights of the infant queen. It was agreed that France should guard the frontiers, to prevent the Carlists from receiving any aid by land ; that England should watch the northern coasts ; and that Portu- gal should aid the queen of Spain with a body of auxiliary troops if necessary. Notwithstanding these arrangements, the Carlists were generally successful, and, at length, the court of Madrid applied to England for direct assistance. This was refused ; but permission was given to raise an auxiliary legion of ten thousand men in the United Kingdom, the command of which was intrusted to Colonel Evans. But the effect produced by this force was far inferior to what had been expected ; in the dilapidated state of the Spanish finances, it was found difficult to supply the legion with pay, provisions, and the munitions of war. A revolution at Madrid, which rendered the form of government very democratic, alienated the king of the French from the cause of the Spanish queen, and the war lingered, without any prospect of restored HISTOaV OF THE PEACE. T tranquillity. At the end of its second year of service, the British legion was disbanded, and the Spanish government and its auxiliary force parted with feelings of mutual dissatisfaction. After the departure of the legion, the Carlists, weary of the war, en- tered into negotiations with the queen regent, and returned to their alle- giance. Carlos was again compelled to become an exile ; but defeat could not break his spirit, and he continued to declare himself the rights ful heir to the Spanish crown, though rejected by the people, and dis- avowed by the other sovereigns of Europe. Spain, however, was too disorganized for tranquillity to be easily restored ; the queen regent en- deavored, with more good will than ability, to reconcile contending fac- tions ; but her efforts proved unavailing, and, wearied of her situation, she resigned the regency in the summer of 1840. The people of England generally felt little interest in the affairs of Spain ; public attention was principally directed to the state (,f Ireland and Canada. The great Irish questions discussed in parliament were, the reform of the corporations on the same plan that had been adopted in the reform of the English and Scotch corporations ; the regulation of tithes, and the establishment of a provision for the poor ; but the dif- ferent views taken by the majorities in the houses of commons and lords, prevented the conclusion of any final arrangements. In Canada, the descendants of the old French settlers, for the most part bigoted and ignorant, viewed with great dissatisfaction the superiority to which the English settlers had attained, in consequence of their knowledge, spirit, and enterprise ; they attributed this pre-eminence to the partiality of the government, and, instigated by designing demagogues, clamored for constitutional changes, little short of a recognition of their independence. Their demands were refused, and the deluded Canadians were persua- ded to hazard a revolt. After a brief struggle, the insurgents were re- duced, and since the termination of the revolt. Upper and Lower Cana- da have been united into one province by an act of the British legisla- ture. Great embarrassment was produced in the commercial world by the failure of the American banks, which rendered many leading merchants and traders unable to fulfil their engagements. The crisis was sensi- bly felt in England, where it greatly checked the speculations in rail- roads, which perhaps were beginning to be carried to a perilous ex tent ; the manufacturing districts suffered most severely, but the pres- sure graduiUy abated, and trade began to flow in its accustomed chan- nels. Parties were so nicely balanced in the British parliament, that no measure of importance could be arranged ; a further gloom was thrown over the discussions by the increasing illness of the king, and the certainty that its termination must be fatal. William IV. died on the morning of the 20th of June, 1837, sincerely regretted by every class of his subjects. During the seven years that he swayed the sceptre, England enjoyed tranquillity both at home and abroad ; it was the only reign in British history in which there was no execution fox high treason^ and no foreign war. 45 706 MODERN HISTORY CHAPTER XII. HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. In order to avoid frequent interruptions in the course of the nirrative, il nas been deemed advisable to reserve the account of the principal European colonies for the close of the volume, and thus to bring before the reader one of the most remarkable features in modern history. The discovery of a new world gave an extraordinary impulse to emigration, and produced one of the most striking series of events in the annals of mankind. The subject naturally divides itself into two great parts — the European colonies in the western, and those in the eastern world ; and to the former we shall first direct our attention. Section I. — The Establishment of the Spaniards in Mexico. Immediatklv after the discovery of America, the first Spanish colo- ny was established in Hispaniola, better known by the more modern name of St. Domingo. The queen Isabella had given strict orders to protect the Indians, and had issued a proclamation prohibiting the Spaniards from compelling them to work. The natives, who consid- ered exemption from toil as supreme felicity, resisted every attempt to induce them to labor for hire, and so many Spaniards fell victims to the diseases peculiar to the climate, that hands were wanting to work the mines or till the soil. A system of compulsory labor was therefore adopted almost by necessity, and it was soon extended, until the Indians were reduced to hopeless slavery. The mines of Hispaniola, when first discovered, were exceedingly productive, and the riches acquired by the early adventurers attracted fresh crowds of greedy but enterpri- sing settlers to its shores. The hardships to which the Indians were subjected, rapidly decreased their numbers, and in the same proportion diminished the profits of the adventurers. It was therefore resolved to seek new settlements ; the island of Puerto Rico was annexed to the Spanish dominions, and its unfortunate inhabitants were subjected to the same cruel tyranny as the natives of Hispaniola. The island of Cuba was next conquered ; though it is seven hundred miles in length, and was then densely populated, such was the unwarlike character of the inhabitants, that three hundred Spaniard.s were sufficient for its total subjugation. More important conquests were opened by the intrepidity of Balboa, who had founded a small settlement on the isthmus ol' Darien. At length the Spaniards began to prepare an expedition for establish- ing their empire on the American continent. An armament was organ- HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 707 ized in Cuba, and the command intrusted to Fernando Cortez, a com- mander possessing great skill and bravery, but avaricious and cruel even beyond the general average of his countrymen at that period. On the 2d of April, 1519, this bold adventurer entered the harbor of St. Juan de Uloa, on the coast of Yucatan. By means of a female captive, he was enabled to open communications with the natives ; and they, in- stead of opposing the entrance of these fatal guests into their country, assisted them in all their operations with an alacrity of which they too soon had reason to repent. The Mexicans had attained a pretty high degree of civilization ; they had a regular government, a system of law, and an established priesthood ; they recorded events by a species of picture-writing, not so perfect as the Egyptian system c;f hieroglyphics, but which, nevertheless, admitted more minuteness and particularity than is generally imagined ; their architectural structures were remark- able for their strength and beauty ; they had advanced so far in science as to construct a pretty accurate calendar ; and they possessed consid- erable skill, not only in the useful, but also in the ornamental arts of life. Cortez saw that such a nation must be treated differently from the rude savages in the islands ; he therefore concealed his real inten- tions, and merely demanded to be introduced to the sovereign of the country, the emperor Montezuma. The Indian caziques were unwilling to admit strangers possessed of such formidable weapons as muskets and artillery into the interior of their country; and Montezuma, who was of a weak and cowardly disposition, was still more reluctant to receive a visit from strangers, of whose prowess he had received an exaggerated description. He therefore re- solved to temporize, and sent ambassadors to Cortez with rich presents, declining the proposed interview. But these magnificent gifts served only to increase the rapacity of the Spaniards. Cortez resolved to tem- porize ; he changed his camp into a permanent settlement, which sub- sequently grew into the city of Vera Cruz, and patiently watched from his intrenchments the course of events. He had not long conliiuied in this position, when he received an embassy from the Zempoallans, a tribe which had been long discontented with the government of Monte- zuma. He immediately entered into a close alliance with these disaf- fected subjects, and sent an embassy to Spain to procure a ratification of his powers, and set fire to his fleet, in order that his companions, de- prived of all hope of escape, should look for safety oidy in victory. Hav- ing conqjleted his preparations, he marched through an unknown coun- try to subdue a mighty empire, with a force amounting to five hundred foot, fifteen horsemen, and six pieces of artillery. His first hostile en- counter was with the Tlascalans, the most warlike race in Mexico ; their country was a republic, under the protection of the empire, and they fought with the fury of men animated by a love of freedom. But nothing could resist the superiority which their firearms gave the Spaniards ; the Tlascalans, after several defeats, yielded themselves as vassals to the crown of Spain, and engaged to assist Cortez in all his future operations. Aided by six thousand of these new allies, he advanced to Cholula, a town of great importance, where, by Montezu- ma's order, he was received wiih open professions of friendship, while plans were secretly devised for his destruction. Cortez discovered the 708 MODERN HISTORY. plot, and punished it by the massacre of six thousand of the citizens the rest were so terrified, that, at the command of the Spaniard, they returned to their usual occupations, and treated with the utmost respect the men whose hands were stained with the blood of their countrymen. As a picture of national prosperity long since extinct, we shall here insert the description given by Cortez in his despatches to the Spanish monarch of the ancient city of Tlascala, which still exists, though much decayed : " This city is so extensive, so well worthy of admiration, that although I omit much that I could say of it, I feel assured that the little I shall say will be scarcely credited, since it is larger than Gra- nada, and much stronger, and contains as many fine houses and a much larger population than that city did at the time of its capture ; and it is much better supplied with the products of the earth, such as corn, and with fowls and game, fish from the rivers, various kinds of vegetables, and other excellent articles of food. There is in this city a market, in which every day thirty thousand people are engaged in buying and selling, besides many other merchants who are scattered about the city. The market contains a great variety of articles both of food and clothing, and all kinds of shoes for the feet ; jewels of gold and silver, and pre- cious stones, and ornaments of feathers, all as well arranged as they can possibly be found in any public squares or markets in the world. There is much earthenware of every style and a good quality, equal to the best of Spanish manufacture. Wood, C09.I, edible and medicinal plants, are sold in great quantities. There are houses where they wash and shave the heads as barbers, and also for baths. Finally, there is found among them a well-regulated police ; the people are rational and well disposed, and altogether greatly superior to the most civilized Af- rican nation." From Cholula, Cortez advanced toward the city of Mexico, and had almost reached its gates before the feeble Montezuma had determined whether he should receive him as a friend or as an enemy. After some hesitation, Montezuma went forth to meet Cortez, with all the magnifi- cence of barbarous parade, and granted the Spaniards a lodging in the capital. But notwithstanding his apparent triumph, the situation of Cortez was one of extraordinary danger and perplexity. He Avas in a city sur- Founded by a lake, the bridges and causeways of which might easily be broken ; and his little band, thus cut off from all communication with its allies, must then have fallen victims to superior numbers. To avert this danger, he adopted the bold resolution of seizing Montezuma as a hostage for his safety, and he actually brought him a prisoner to the Spanish quarters. Under pretence of gratifying the monarch's curiosity to see the structure of European vessels, the Spaniards built two brig- antines, and launched them on the lake, thus securing to themselves the means of retreat in case of any reverse of fortune. The ostensible pretext for this act of violence was that a cazique, named Qualpopoca, had slain several Spaniards in the city of Nautecal or Almeira. The account v/hich Cortez gives of the transaction is too singular tob*^ omitted, especially as his despatches are utterly unknown in this country. It will be seen that he never gives Montezuma, or as lie writes his name, Muteczuma the title of king or emperor, but speaks HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 709 of him as if his right to royalty had been sacrificed from the moment that the Spaniards had landed in his country. The offending cazique, Qualpopoca, was brought to the capital, as our readers are probably aware, and, with his followers, was burnt alive. Cortez tells this part of the story with much naivete : " So they were publicly burnt in a square of the city, without creating any disturbance ; and on the day of their execution, as they confessed that Muteczuma had directed them to kill the Spaniards, I caused him to be put in irons, which threw him into great consternation." All this was manifestly done merely from the motives above intimated, namely, " to subserve the interests of your majesty and our own security ;" yet Cortez had some apprehension lest he might offend royal sympathies, and so, in re- spect of his demeanor toward Montezuma, he writes to the emperor : — " Such was the kindness of my treatment toward him, and his own contentment with his situation, that when at different times I tempted him with the offer of his liberty, begging that he would return to his palace, he as often replied that he was well pleased with his present quarters, and did not wish to leave them, as he wanted nothing that he was accustomed to enjoy in his own palace ; and that in case he went away, there would be reason to fear the importunities of the local gov- ernors, his vassals, might lead him to act against his own wishes, and in opposition to your majesty, while he desired in every possible man- ner to promote your majesty's service ; that so far he had informed them what he desired to have done, and was well content to remain where he was ; and should they wish to suggest anything to him, he could answer that he was not at liberty, and thus excuse himself from attending to them." Cortez thus describes the original city of Mexico, which he soon af- terward totally destroyed : " This great city of Temixtitan [Mexico] is situated in this salt lake, and from the main land to the denser parts of it, by whichever route one chooses to enter, the distance is two leagues. There are four avenues or entrances to the city, all of which are formed by artificial causeways, two spears' length in width. The city is as large as Seville or Cordova ; its streets (I speak of the principal ones) are very wide and straight ; some of them, and all the inferior ones, are half land and half water, and are navigated by canoes. * * * This city has many public squares, in which are situated the markets and other places for buying and selling. There is one square twice as large as that of the city of Salamanca, surrounded by porticoes, where are daily assembled more than sixty thousand souls, engaged in buying and selling ; and where are found all kinds of merchandise that the world affords, embracing the necessaries of life, as, for instance, articles of food, as well as jewels of gold and silver, lead, brass, copper, tin, pre- cious stones, bones, shells, snails, and feathers. There are also ex- posed for sale wrought and unwrought stone, bricks burnt and uuburnt, timber hewn and unhewn, of different sorts. * * * Every kind of merchandise is sold in a particular street or quarter assigned to it exclu- sively, and thus the best order is preserved. They sell everything by number or measure ; at least so far we have not observed them to sell anything by v/eight. There is a building in the great square that is used as an audience-house, where ten or twelve persons, who are ma- 710 MODERN HISTORY. gistrates, sit and decide all controversies that arise in the market, and order delinquents to be punished. In the same square there are othei persons who go constantly about among the people, observing what is sold, and the measures used in selling ; and they have been seen to break measures that were not true. This great city contains a large number of temples, or houses for their idols, very handsome edifices, which are situated in the different districts and the suburbs : in the prin- cipal ones religious persons of each particular sect are constantly resi- ding, for whose use beside the houses containing the idols there are other convenient habitations. All these persons dress in black, and never cut or comb their hair from the time they enter the priesthood until they leave it ; and all the sons of the principal inhabitants, both nobles and respectable citizens, are placed in the temples, and wear the same dress from the age of seven or eight years until they are taken out to be married ; which occurs more frequently with the first-born who inherit estates than with the others. The priests are debarred from fe- male society, nor is any woman permitted to enter the religious houses. They also abstain from eating certain kinds of food, more at some sea- sons of the year than others. Among these temples there is one which far surpasses all the rest, whose grandeur of architectural details no human tongue is able to describe ; for within its precincts, surrounded by a lofty wall, there is room enough for a town of five hundred fami- lies. Around the interior of this enclosure there are handsome edifices, containing large halls and corridors, in which the religious persons at- tached to the temple reside. There are full forty towers, which are lofty and well built, the largest of which has fifty steps leading to its main body, and is higher than the tower of the principal church at Seville. The stone and wood of which they are constructed are so well wrought in every part, that nothing could be better done, for the interior of the chapels containing the idols consists of curious imagery, wrought in stone, with plaster ceilings, and woodwork carved in relief, and painted v/ith figures of monsters and other objects. All these tow- ers are the burial-places of the nobles, and every chapel in them is dedicated to a particular idol, to which they pay their devotions." But danger impended over Cortez from an unexpected quarter. The governor of Cuba, anxious to share in the plunder of Mexico, of whose wealth, great as it really was, he had received very exaggerated state- ments, sent a new armament, under the command of Narvaez, to deprive the conqueror of the fruits of his victory. Cortez, leaving a small gar- rison in Mexico, marched against Narvaez, and by a series of prudent operations, not only overcame him, but induced his followers to enlist under his own banners. This reinforcement was particularly valuable at a time when the Mexicans, weary of Spanish cruelty and tyranny, had resolved to make the most desperate eflorts for expelling the inva- ders. Scarcely had Cortez returned to Mexico, when his quarters were attacked with desperate fury ; and though thousands of the assailants were slain, fresh thousands eagerly hurried forward to take their place. At length Cortez brought out Montezuma in his royal robes on the ram- parts, trusting that his influence over his subjects would induce them to suspend hostilities. But the unfortunate emperor was mortally wounded by a missile flung by one of his own subjects ; and Cortez, having done HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 711 everything which prudence and valor could dictate, viras forced to aban- don the capital. The Spaniards suffered severely in this calamitous retreat ; they lost their artillery, ammunition, and baggage, together with the greater part of the treasure for which they had encountered so many perils. A splendid victory at Otumba, over the Mexicans, who attempt- ed to intercept them, restored the confidence of the Spaniards, and they reached the friendly territories of the Tlascalans in safety. Having col- lected some reinforcements, and by judicious arts revived the courage of his men, Cortez once more advanced toward Mexico, and, halting on the borders of the lake, he began to build some brigantines, in order to attack the city by water. While thus engaged, he succeeded in de- taching many of the neighboring cities from their allegiance to the new emperor, Guatimozin ; and having obtained some fresh troops from His- paniola, he prepared for a vigorous siege by launching his brigantines on the lake. Guatimozin made a gallant resistance, and repulsed the Spaniards in an attempt to take the city by storm ; but being enable to resist the slower operations of European tactics, he attempted to escape over the lake, when his canoe was intercepted by a brigantine, and the unfortunate emperor remained a prisoner. As soon as the fate of their sovereign was known, the resistance of the Mexicans ceased, and all the provinces of the empire imitated the example of the capital. Gua- timozin was cruelly tortured to extort a confession of concealed treas- ure, and his unfortunate subjects became the slaves of their rapacious conquerors. Cortez himself was treated with gross ingratitude by his sovereign, whose dominions he had enlarged by the conquest of an empire, and he died in comparative obscurity. The first thought of the conquerors was to propagate the Christian faith in their new dominions, not only from motives of bigotry, but in obedience to the soundest dictates of prudence. Missionaries were in- vited from Europe to aid in the great work of civilization ; between the years 1522 and 1545, numbers of monastics came from various parts of the world to aid in the conversion of Mexico. Many practices unknown to the Roman ritual were admitted and consecrated. It must not be omitted that the missionaries honorably exerted them- selves to protect the Mexicans from the sanguinary cruelty of the Span- ia;ls; Sahagun and Las Casas were particularly famous for their ex- ertions in behalf of the vanquished ; they obtained bulls from the pope, and edicts from the Spanish government, fully recognising the claims of the Indians to the rights of humanity, and though they failed to ob- tain a full measure of justice for the native Mexicans, they saved them from the wretched fate which swept away the native population in almost every other colony of Spain. In consequence of the protection thus accorded them, both by the secular and regular clergy, the attach- ment of the native Mexicans to the Romish religion became more ardent and passionate than that of the Spaniards themselves, and it still continues to be felt, though the country has been restored to in- dependence. The edicts of the Spanish monarchs in favor of the Indians were disregarded ; the population began to decrease rapidly, and a new sys- tem was adopted by which oppression was reduced to an organized ibrm, and ameliorated by being placed under the control of the govern- 712 MODERN HISTORY. ment. It was determined that the native Americans should be regarded as serfs attached to the soil, and distributed into encornicndas, a kind of fiefs or estates established in favor of the Spanish settlers, who took the name of Conquistadores. Slavery, which had previously beeii ar- bitrary, was thus invested with legal forms ; the Indian tribes divided into sections, some of which contained more than a hundred families, were assigned either to the soldiers who had distinguished themselves m the war of invasion, or to the civihans sent from Madrid to adminis- ter the government of the provinces. It was fortunate for the Mexicans that their masters did not erect fortified castles, like the feudal barons of the middle ages ; instead of these they established haciendas, or large farms, which they had the wisdom to govern according to the old forms of the Mexican proprietary. There was no change or interrup- tion m the cultivation of plants indigenous to the soil ; the serf cultiva- ted the soil according to hereditary routine, and so identified himself with his mastef, that he frequently took his name. There are many Indian families of the present day bearing Spanish names, whose blood has never been mingled with that of Europeans. Another fortunate circumstance contributed to the preservation of the native Mexicans ; the Spanish settlers in that country did not enter into any of those mining speculations which led their brethren in Hispaniola and other islands of the Antilles to sacrifice the natives by myriads to their grasp- ing cupidity. The Cojiquistadores had neither the capital nor the in- telligence necessary for such enterprises ; they contented themselves, in imitation of the natives, with washing the earth, silt, and sands, brought down from the mountains by rivers and winter torrents, to ex- tract the grains of gold which they contained. The mines of Mexico, which have spread so much of the precious metals over the surface of the globe, were not discovered until after the conquest, and brought very trifling profits to those who first attempted their exploration. The loss of these speculators was a positive gain to humanity. Up to the eighteenth century the condition of the Mexican peasants was very little different from that of the serfs in Poland or Russia. About that period their condition began to be sensibly ameliorated. Many families «of Conquistadores became extinct, and the encomiendas were not again distributed by the government. The viceroys and the provincial councils, called Audiencias, paid particular attention to the interests of those Indians who were liberated by the breaking up of the enco?niendas ; tbiey abolished every vestige of compulsory labor in the mines, requiring that this employment should be voluntary, and fairly remunerated. Several abuses, however, prevailed in the colonial ad- ministration, fr'om the monopolies established by the agents of the Span- ish governmea ts ; they conferred upon themselves the exclusive priv- ilege of selling those articles most likely to be used by an agricultural population, au'I fixed whatever price they pleased upon these commodi- ties. Having thus, by a system of force and fraud, got the Indians deeply into t heir debt, they established a law by which insolvent debt- .ors became the absolute slaves of their creditors. Many edicts were issued to. cibt 3ck these abuses, but they were not efi'ectually remedied i^ntil after tb e revolution which gave independence to Mexico. We shall now briefly state the circumstances which led to the aa« HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 71 sertion of Mexican independence. On the 8th of July, 1808, a corvette from Cadiz brought intelligence of the dethronement of the Spanish Bourbons, by Napoleon, and the transfer of the monarchy to Joseph Bonaparte. The viceroy at first published the news without a word of comment, but soon recovering from his first surprise, he issued a proclamation declaring his intention to preserve his fidelity to King Ferdinand, and exhorting the Mexican people to maintain the rights of their legitimate sovereign. It was the first time that " the people" had been named in any act of state, emanating from the colonial govern- ment, and this was among the chief causes of the extraordinary enthu- siasm with which the viceroy's appeal was received. It was proposed to establish a provisional government on the model of the juntas, which had been formed by the patriots in Spain. This proposition, favorably received by the viceroy, was rejected by his council as inconsiste:. with the ascendency which had hitherto been enjoyed by all pure Span- iards ; three months were spent in controversy, until at length the council or audiencia took the bold measure of arresting the viceroy, and throwing him into the prisons of the inquisition on a charge of heresy. As, however, there was some danger that the populace might rise in his favor, the audiencia, having first invested itself with the functions of regency, sent the governor a prisoner to Cadiz, where he was long confined in a dungeon. The Creoles and Indians were indignant at this usurpation, and they were still more enraged by the undisguised contempt with which their claims were treated by the Spanish oligarchy. Bataller, one of the leading members of the council, was accustomed to say that " no na- tive American should participate in the government, so long as there was a mule-driver in La Mancha, or a cobbler in Castillo to represent Spanish ascendency." The juntas of Spain, though engaged in a des- perate struggle for their own freedom, were obstinate in their resolu- tion to keep the colonies in dependance, and they sent out Venegas as viceroy, with positive orders to maintain the ascendency of the Span- iards, and keep the Creoles and Indians in their own condition of degradation. A pries of Indian descent, Hidalgo, the curate of Dolores, raised the standard of revolt ; he declared to his congregation that the Eu- ropeans had formed a plot to deliver up the country to the French Ja- cobins ; he exhorted them to take up arms to defend their liberties and their religion, and to march boldly to battle in the name of King Fer- dinand and the blessed Virgin. On the 18th of September, 1810, he made himself master of San FeHpe, and San Miguel el-Grande ; he confiscated the property of all the Europeans, declaring that the soil of Mexico belonged of right to the Mexicans themselves. Several other cities were conquered, and in all of them the Indians and Creoles sac- rificed every European without mercy, their commander seeming to wink at their excesses, which he trusted would prevent terms of peace from being offered or accepted. Venegas, the viceroy, made the most vigorous efforts to check the progress of this rebellion ; he conciliated the Creoles by investing one of their body with high military rank ; he caused Hidalgo to be excom- raunicated by the ecclesiastical authorities, and he paraded an image 714 MODERN HISTORY. of the Virgin, to which superstition attached miraculous powers, through the streets of Mexico. This last expedient caused Hidalgo to stop short in the midst af his victorious career, and at a time when he was joined by several regiments of provincial militia, and by the curate Morelos, whose abilities were equivalent to a host. Hidalgo retired from before the walls of Mexico, which could not have resisted a vigor- ous assault. He was overtaken and defeated by an army of Spaniards and Creoles ; several of the towns which had submitted to him were recaptured, and the victors more than retaliated the sanguinary excesses of the insurgents. The royal army continued to pursue Hidalgo and his half-armed associates ; a second victory completed their ruin ; Hidalgo and two of his principal officers endeavoring to escape to the United States were betrayed to the Spaniards, March 21, 1811, and after a long confinement, in which they were vainly tortured to obtain a confession of the extent of the conspiracy, they were publicly executed. The dispersed army of Hidalgo divided itself into separate bands and maintained a ruinous guerilla warfare against their oppressors Rayon and Morelos resolved to unite them once more in a grand scheme of patriotic warfare. Rayon caused a national junta to be es- tablished in the district where the Spaniards had least power ; and in its name an address was sent to the viceroy requiring him to convoke a national cortes, similar to that which had been assembled in Spain, and insisting on the equality of the American and the European Span- iards in all political rights. The tone of this manifesto was equally firm and respectful, but it gave such offence to the viceroy Venegas, that he ordered it to be burned by the common hangman in the market- place of Mexico. Morelos, who had succeeded to the influence of Hidalgo, prudently initiated his troops to habits of discipline in skirmishes and petty enter- prises before venturing on any decisive engagement with the regular armies of Spain. His defence of Cuantha, where he was besieged by the royalists for several weeks, gave lustre to his very defeat. Yield- ing to famine, he evacuated the town, and led his army to Izucar, with the loss of only seventeen men. The barbarous cruelties perpetrated by the Spanish General Calleja in the town after the garrison had with- drawn, rendered the royalist cause so odious, that many who had hith- erto supported the viceroy passed over to the ranks of the insurgents. It would be tedious to enumerate the battles, skirmishes, and sieges which filled the next two years ; we must limit ourselves to saying that Morelos was continuously successful until the close of the year 1813, when he was decisively defeated by Iturbide. Thenceforward his career was one continued series of misfortunes, until, on the 5th of November, 1815, he was surprised by an overwhelming force, and made prisoner after a desperate resistance. He was carried in chains to Mexico, degraded from his clerical rank, and executed. The Mexi- can junta, or congress, was soon after dissolved, and the revolt became once more a confused series of partial and desultory insurrections which the Spaniards hoped to quell in detail. In 1817 the younger Mina at- tempted to rekindle the flames of insurrection in Mexico ; but, as he refused to ass<^rt the absolute independence of the coun'^'y, he did not HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 715 receive such enthusiastic support as Hidalgo or Morelos. After a bril- hant career, in which he displayed the most extraordinary bravery and resources of genius, he was overthrown, made prisoner, and shot as a traitor. The insurrection in Mexico was virtually at an end, when news ar- rived that the army which had been assembled in Spain to restore the absolute authority of the sovereign in America, had revolted at Cadiz, proclaimed the constitution, and demanded the convocation of the cortes. The viceroy, Apodaca, was a devoted partisan of absolute power ; he formed a plan for inviting Ferdinand to Mexico, and there restoring him to his despotic authority, and he employed as his chief ap-ent Don Augustin Iturbide, who had shown himself a bitter enemy of Mexican liberty during the entire course of the preceding insurrection. Iturbide drew up a very different plan from that which Apodaca had contero- plated ; it asserted the civic equality of all the inhabitants of Mexico, established a constitution, proclaimed the country independent, invited Ferdinand to become its sovereign with the title of emperor, and in case of his refusal declared that the crown should be proffered to some other prince of the blood. The old Spaniards of Mexico, in a storm of mingled rage and fear, deposed Apodaca, and chose Frincisco Novello viceroy in his place. This false step rendered Iturbide irresistible ; the Creoles and Indians flocked to his standard ; several Spanish offi- cers, disliking the new viceroy, joined him with their regiments ; and on the 27th of November, 1821, the royalist army surrendered the cap- ital, and consented to evacuate Mexico. The treaty which the viceroy had concluded with the insurgents was annulled by the cortes of Mad- rid, and the effect of this imprudence was the utter ruin of the party which clung to the hope of seeing a Bourbon prince placed at the head of the new state. The congress which assembled in Mexico seemed disposed to form a federative republic ; but the partisans of Iturbide suddenly proclaimed their favorite emperor, and the deputies were constrained to ratify their choice. He did not retain the sovereignty for an entire year ; he was dethroned, as he had been elevated, by the array ; the congress pro- nounced upon him sentence of perpetual exile, but with laudable gen- erosity granted a considerable pension for his support. Iturbide, after the lapse of rather more than a year, returned to Mexico, July 16th, 1824, in the hopes of reviving his party. He fell into the hands of the republicans, and was immediately put to death. A republic was then established ; soon after the fortress of St. Juan d'Ulloa, the last posses- sion of the government, was surrendered by capitulation, and the stand- ard of Castile, after an ascendency of more than three hundred years, disappeared for ever from the coasts of Mexico. The progress of the Mexican republic since the establishment of its independence has not been prosperous. Conspiracies, insurrections, and civil wars, have kept every part of the territory in misery and con- fusion. Texas, one of the richest provinces, has separated Irom the Mexican union, and established its independence. All European Span- iards have been compelled to quit the territories of the republic, which thus drove away some of the most wealthy, intelligent, and industrious 716 MODERN HISTORY. of its citizens. The Mexican finances have fallen into confusion, and the army seems to be the sole ruling power in the state. Section II. — Tlie Establishment of the Spaniards in Peru. The discovery of a passage round the South American continent into the Pacific ocean, by Magellan, and the establishment of a colony at Panama, soon after Balboa had ascertained the nature of the isthmus, incited the Spanish adventurers to undertake new conquests. Pizarro, one of the most enterprising men that ever visited the Ne"*- World, having with great difficulty prepared a small armament, landed m Peru (a. d. 1531), and though at first disappointed by the barren appearance of the coast, he found so much treasure at Coague as to convince him that the ac» ounts which Balboa had received of the riches of the coun- try were not exaggerated. When the Spaniards first appeared in Peru, the nation was divided by a civil war between the sons of the late inca, or sovereign ; Huascar, the elder, was dethroned by his brother Atahuaipa, and detained in captivity, while his partisans were secretly maturing plans for his restoration. Pizarro advanced into the country with the professed design of acting as mediator, but with the perfidious purpose of seizing Atahuaipa, as Cortes had the unfortunate Montezu- ma. He prepared for the execution of his scheme with the same de- liberation, and with as little compunction, as if he had been engaged in the most honorable transaction. When the Spaniards approached the capital, the inca was easily persuaded to consent to an interview ; and he visited the invaders with a barbarous magnificence, and osten- tatious display of wealth, which inflamed the cupidity of the Spaniards, almost beyond the power of restraint. When Atahuaipa reached the Spanish camp, he was addressed by Valverde, the chaplain to the ex- pedition, in a long, and what must to the inca have appeared an incom- prehensible discourse. The priest, after a brief notice of the mysteries of creation and redemption, proceeded to explain the doctrine of the pope's supremacy. He then dwelt upon the grant which Pope Alex- ander had made to the crown of Spain, and by virtue of it called upon Atahuaipa at once to embrace Christianity, and acknowledge himself a vassal of the Spanish monarch. The inca, completely puzzled, de- manded where Valverde had learned such wonderful things. " In this book," replied the priest, presenting the monarch with his breviary. The inca took the book, turned over the leaves, and then put it to his ear. " This tells me nothing !" he exclaimed, flinging the breviary on the ground. " Blasphemy ! blasphemy !" exclaimed Valverde ; " to arms, to arms, my Christian brethren ! avenge the profanation of God's word by the polluted hands of infidels." This solemn farce appears to have been preconcerted. Ere Val- verde had concluded, the trumpets sounded a charge ; a dreadful fire of artillery and musketry was opened on the defenceless Peruvians ; and, in the midst of their surprise and consternation, they were charged by the cavalry, whose appearance to men who had never before beheld a horse, seemed something supernatural. Atahuaipa was taken pris- oner and conveyed to the Spanish camp, while the invaders satiated themselves with the rich spoils of the field. The unfortunate inca at HISTOllY OF COLONIZATION. 717 tempted to procure his liberation by the payment of an enormous ran- som, but Pizarro, after receiving the gold, resolved to deprive the credu- lous monarch of life. He was brought to trial under the most iniqui- tous pretences, and sentenced to be burned alive ; but on his consent- ing to receive baptism from Valverde, his sentence was so far mitigated that he was first strangled at the stake. The Spaniards quarrelled among themselves about the division of the spoils ; the Peruvians took advantage of their discord to raise formidable insurrections, and the new kingdom seemed likely to be lost almost as soon as it was gained. Pizarro himself was murdered by Almagro, the son of one of his old companions, whom he had put to death for treason, and but for the arri- val of Vara de Castro, who had been sent as governor from Spain, the confusion produced by this crime would probably have beer without a remedy. De Castro conquered Almagro, and by his judicicas meas- ures restored tranquillity to the distracted province. Fresh disturban- ces were excited by the ambition of Gonzalo Pizarro, and ii was not until more than a quarter of a century after its conquest, that me royal authority was firmly established in Peru. The government established by the Spaniards in Peru was far more iniquitous and oppressive than that of Mexico, because the Peruvian mines were, from the first moment of the conquest, almost the only ob- jects which engaged the attention of the Spanish and the provincial governments. A horrible system of conscription was devised for work- ing these mines ; all the Indians between the ages of eighteen and fifty were enrolled in seven lists, the individuals on each list being obliged to work for six months in the mines, so that this forced labor came on the unfortunate Indians at intervals of three years and a half; four out of every five were supposed to perish annually in these deadly labors, and to add to the misery of the natives, they were not allowed to purchase the necessaries of life except from privileged dealers, who robbed them of their earnings without remorse or scruple. Toward the close of the last century two serious insurrections of the native Peruvians filled the Spaniards with terror ; they were not suppressed until the rebellion had taxed the resources and powder of the provincial government to the utmost, and the sanguinary massacres of all who were suspected of having joined in the revolt, left the country in a state of helplessness and exhaustion from which it had not recovered at the commencement of the revolution. As it was impossible to gratify the rapacious cupidity of all the Spaniards who sought to share in the produce of the Peruvian mines, it became a principle of colonial policy to keep alive the spirit of ad- venture, by sending divisions to wrest new tracts of land from ihe na- tives, without organizing any new system of conquest. It was thus that Chili became finally annexed to "the Spanish dominions ; but the efforts made for its conquest were desultory and separated by long intervals, so that over a great part of the country the sovereignty of Spain was merely nominal. The colonists and natives, however, seem never to have wished for independence, until the desire of nationality was pressed upon them by the irresistible force of circumstances, and in fact their first revolutionary movements were made in the name of loyalty and obedience. 718 MODERN HISTORY. When Joseph Bonaparte was proclaimed king of Spain by Napoleon, all the Spanish colonies of South America resolved to remain faithful to the ancient dynasty. It was suspected that the European Spaniards were disposed to make terms with the French emperor, and therefore native juntas were elected to maintain the rights of Ferdinand. In September, 1810, the Chilians formed a junta in Santiago ; the Spanish general of the district attempted to disperse this body ; a smart skir- mish ensued, and the Chilians, having obtained the victory, became de- sirous to establish a perpetual system of self-government. The strug- gle for independence in Chili and Peru resembled the Mexican war in its general outlines : at first the patriots, after gaining advantages of which they did not know how to make use, were reduc^td to temporary submission. But the Spanish yoke, always heavy, proved intolerable to men who had obtained a brief experience of freedom ; new insurrec- tions were raised in every quarter, the superior discipline which had previously given victory to the royalists was acquired by the revolters ; several European officers joined them, the Spanish government feebly supported its defenders, and the viceroys showed themselves destitute of talent either as generals or statesmen. The independence of the Spanish colonies in South America was nearly completed in the year 1823, but the last Spanish garrison was not surrendered until the 26th of February, 1826, when Rodil, the only royalist leader who had ex- hibited courage, fidelity, and talent, surrendered the citadel of Callao to the patriots. Before the revolution the provinces of upper Peru formed part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres ; but as the manners, habits, and even the language of the Peruvians, differed materially from those of the people on the Rio de la Plata, the latter, after forming themselves into the Argentine republic, left their neighbors free to pursue any course they pleased. A general assembly of the Peruvian provinces solemnly pro- claimed that upper Peru should henceforth form an independent nation, that it should be named Bolivia in honor of Bolivar, the chief agent in its liberation, and that the riglits of person and property should form the basis of its republican constitution. A million of dollars was voted to Bolivar as a tribute of national gratitude, but that chivalrous general refused to receive the money, and requested that it should be expended in J urchasing the freedom of the few negroes who still remained slaves in Bolivia. Tn lower Peru the Bolivian constitution was far from being so popu- lar as it had been in the upper provinces. It was indeed at first ac- cepted, and Bolivar chosen president, but when he went to suppress an insurrection in Columbia, advantage was taken of his absence to set aside the system he had established. Since that period Columbia, Bolivia, and Peru, have suffered severely from intestine wars and civil commotions, which have greatly deteriorated the vast natural resources of these states. Bolivia has indeed regained tranquillity, and its rulers appear desirous to extend its commerce and encourage those brandies of industiy most lik«dy to benefit the community. It is the only one of the new republics in which the finances are in a wholesome con- dition ; its revenues are not only sufficient for the necessary expenses of the state, but there is a considerable surplus, which is wisely ex- HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 719 pended on the maintenance and construction of roads, and on facilita- ting the means of communication internally among the inhabitants them- selves and externally with strangers. Previous to the expeditions of Cortez and Pizarro, Florida had been discovered by Juan Ponce de Leon. Its verdant forests and mag- nificent flowering aloes seemed so inviting, that a colony was formed with little difficulty. But the Indians of Florida were the most warlike of the native races in America, and they severely harassed the settlers. Soto, a companion of Pizarro, led an expedition into the interior, where he discovered the Mississippi. He died on the banks of the river, and his followers, anxious to conceal his death from .he Indians, sank his body in the stream. A plan was formed by the leaders of the French Huguenots for emigrating to Florida, and an exploring party was sent out, but the jealousy of Spain was roused ; the adventurers were closely pursued, made prisoners, and put to death. Florida re- mained subject to Spain until the year 1818, when, in consequence of the depredations of the Indians, which the governors pleaded their in- ability to restrain, the Americans, under General Jackson, entered the province and annexed it to the United Stales. The Spanish govern- ment remonstrated, but had not the means of obtaining redress ; and it finally acceded to the cession (a. d. 1821). Section III. — Portuguese Colonies in South America. Brazil was accidentally discovered by a Portuguese admiral bound to the East Indies, in the year 1501, but he did not ascertain whether it was an island or part of the continent, a subject which long remained a matter of doubt. No efTort was made to colonize the country for nearly half a century ; this apparent neglect arose from the reluctance of the Portuguese to interfere with the pretensions of the court of Spain, for the papal grant of newly-discovered countries to the Spanish mon- arch was held by the court of Madrid to include the whole American continent. At length the king of Portugal, envious of the wealth acquired by the Spaniards, sent out a small body of colonists, Avho founded St. Salvador (a. d. 1549). These settlers reported that the native Brazilians were far lower in the scale of civilization than the Mexicans or Peruvians ; they were divided into a number of petty tribes or states, constantly at war with each other, and the invaders, though few in number, were easily able to subdue the Indian tribes in detail, by fomenting their animosities and cautiously holding the bal- ance between their contending interests. This course of policy was rendered necessary by the personal bravery of the native Brazilians ; though ignorant of discipline and unable to act in masses, they dis- played great individual courage in battle ; they were bkiifui in the use of bows, darts, wooden clubs, and shields, and frequtmtly were victori ous in petty skirmishes. But they were unable to resist European tactics and European policy, and hence they were finally reduced under the yoke, with which they soon appeared to be contented. The facility with which the Portuguese made themselves masters of this rich ter ritory excited the cupidity of other powers, and they were successively attacked by the Spaniards, the French, and the Dutch. The lattei 720 MODERN HISTORY. were the most dangerous enemies, they had just effected their deliver- ance from the iron despotism of Spain, under which the Portuguese themselves groaned at the period, and hence they had such a party in the country that their conquest would have been certain had they not alienated their supporters by attempting to establish odious monopolies. From the time of the expulsion of the Dutch, the Portuguese made it theii object to keep everything connected with Brazil a profound secret, and little was known of the country until it asserted its inde- pendence. For more than three centuries one of the most beautiful and fertile regions of the globe was thus, by the policy of Portugal, restricted from all intercourse and commerce with the other nations of Europe, and even the residence or admission of foreigners was equally pro- hibited. The vessels of the allies of the mother-country were occasion- ally permitted to anchor in its ports, but neither passengers nor crew were allowed to land excepting under the superintendence of a guard of soldiers. Previously to the year 1808, though the viceroy resident in Rio de Janeiro was nominally the highest functionary of the government, yet this personage was, in reality, invested with but little political power except in the province of Rio, where alone he acted as captain-general, the virtual administration of the colony being intrusted chiefly to similar officers, one of whom was appointed to each province. They were nominated for three years only, and received their instructions from the court of Lisbon, to which they were compelled to render an account of their proceedings. They were not only prohibited from marrying within the sphere of their jurisdiction, but also from the transaction of any commercial pursuits, as well as from accepting any present or emolu- ment, in addition to the stipend allotted them by the government. For the management and application of the public finances bodies were ap- pointed denominated " Juntas de Fazenda," Juntas of Finance ; of which the captains-general of the respective provinces were the presi- dents. I'he highest functions of the judicial power were confided to a court of appeal composed of disembargadores, or chief judges, to whom suc- ceeded the onvidores, or itinerant judges, who were under the obliga- tion of making an annual circuit to the districts committed to their charge, for the purpose of passing judgment in criminal cases. For the adju- dication of certain cases, judges termed " Juizes de Fora," who were selected from amorg such as had taken their degree in Coimbra as bachelors of law, were appointed, who, as well as the officers of the higher tribunals, were all nominated by the court of Portugal. In the less populous and inferior districts, " Juizes ordinaries," whh the same attributes as the " Juizes de fora," were also occasionally selected by the votes of individuals denominated " Bous de pivo," the qualification for which title was to have held office in the municipalities. From the sentence of these " Juizes" appeal could be made to the court of disem- bargadores in Rio, and from this again, ultimately, to the " Disembargo do Baco" in Lisbon, Unless, however, the appellant were possessed either of great interest at court, or, in default of it, could bribe higher than his antagonist, these final appeals were seldom of any real utility. HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 721 The statutes on which the decisions of the judicial power were found* ed, was the Portuguese code framed during the reigns of the two Philips, and entitled " Ordnacoens do Reino," to which were appended all the " Cartas de Lei" and decrees issued since the accession of the house of Braganza, forming altogether about nine volumes. Though in ordinary cases the decision of both civil and criminal causes was left exclusively to the judicial authorities, the mandate of the captains general was at any time sufficient either to suspend or set aside the ordinary operation of the law. The municipalities were close corporations, formed on the model of those of Portugal ; where those bodies had formerly ^een intrusted with the nomination of deputies to the supreme cortes : though this as well as many other important privileges, had latterly fallen into desuetude. On occasions of public ceremony the national banner was still car- ried in their processions, and they were still recognised, in appearance at least, as the representatives of the people. In Brazil also their power was once considerable, and instances have occurred of the deposition of the captains general by the municipalities, and of this exercise of authority having been sanctioned by the entire approbation of the government of Lisbon, though toward the end of the last century their powers had been restricted almost exclusively to the improvement of roads, the construction of bridges, the control of the markets, and other objects of minor importance. Their executive officers, who were en- titled " Juizes Almotaceis" were nominated by the municipalities them pelves every three months, and were charged with the power of exacting fines and enforcing imprisonment according to certain established regulations. The regular troops were recruited according to the direction, and placed entirely at the disposition of the captains-general, but the officers were nominated by the court of Lisbon. The militia, or troops of the second line, were enlisted by the officers of each respective corps, and the officers themselves were also appointed in Lisbon, at the proposition of the captains-general. Though serving gratuitously, this latter force was often employed in very laborious and odious services, and its mem- bers as well as the regular troops were amenable to martial law in all matters relative to their military duty. In addition to the preceding were the Ordenangas, or troops of the third line, who by the regulations of their institution ought to have been composed exclusively of such individuals as were incapacitated by physical defects or otherwise from serving in the militia. Thrir duty was to defend the country in cases of emergency, but this service was merely nominal, and, by a perversion of the real objects of the institu- tion, it became customary for all possessed of sufficient patronage to obtain a post in the Ordenan^as for the express object of avoiding enrol- ment in the militia. The fidalgos, or Portuguese noblemen of the first rank, were exempt from personal service altogether. The orders of knighthood were those of Santo lago, San Bento de Aviz, and the order of Christ, of all of which the sovereigns of Portugal were the grand masters and perpetual administrators. Among the privileges appertaining to the office of grand master of the order of Christ, a pontifical bull had conferred that of an entire ecclesiastical 46 722 MODERN HISTORY. jurisdiction over ultra-marine conquests, and by virtue of this title, the crown of Portugal shortly after the discovery of Brazil appropriated to its own use all the tithes levied in the country ; with however a proviso binding the monarch to provide for the celebration of public worship and to pay a stipulated sum for the adequate maintenance of the various clergy. By the same authority the presentation of ecclesiastial bene- fices was also constituted one of the exclusive privileges of royalty, though, at the proposition of the bishops, with an injunction that the natives of the respective captaincies, and more especially the descend- ants of the ancient nobility who were among the first emigrants to Brazil, should on all occasions be preferred, the right of presentati.jr still being restricted to the sovereign. The stipulations made for the maintenance of ilie established religion, and the due support of the clergy, were nevertheless but very imper- fectly complied with. Many priests came to be dependant on the mere fees of their office for subsistence, and the stipend paid to the highest dignitaries of the church was but trifling when compared with what would have accrued to them, had they been allowed to retain possession of their tithes. The revenue of the archbishop of Bahia, the head functionary of the Brazilian church, never amounted to more than ten contos of rees per annum, at par, 2,812/. \0s. sterling ; nor was the bishopric of Rio de Janeiro, embracing within its limits, the provinces of Rio Grande, Espirito Santo, and Santa Catherine, ever worth to its incumbent more than six contos of rees, or, 1,687/. 10^. per annum. These peculiarities in the condition of the clergy are perhaps worthy of more particular note than the circumstances of any other class, since they will be found to have exercised a most important influence during the period of the subsequent revolution. The jealousy of the Portuguese government constantly led them to dread the growth of every power or corporation which might hereafter militate against the exercise of its authority ; and on this account not only were the civil and ecclesiastical functionaries brought more imme- diately under control than in the mother-country, but even the increase of capitalists and large proprietors was systematically prevented. The entailment of landed property could be effected only by virtue of an ex- press permission from the sovereign ; and all manufactures, excepting the preparation of sugar, were most rigidly prohibited. During the year 1769 a conspiracy was formed by a few influential individuals in Villa Rica, not so much, however, with the design of proclaiming an independent republic, as from a desire to ascertain what co-operation they were likely to meet with in case that step should subsequently be adopted. From a diminution in the product of the coal-mines in this district, several of the individuals working them were in considerable arrear for taxes. These arrears the government in Lisbon had ordered to be paid up, with but little regard to the practica- bility of the demand. Much irritation had in consequence been excited, and a military officer of the name of Joaquim Joze daSilva Xavier, commonly termed " Tiradentes," or the Tooth-drawer, was sent off for the purpose of ascertaining the disposition of the inhabitants of Rio Janeiro. Here the imprudence of Tiradentes led to an immediate di** HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 723 covery of the association, tne members of which were forthwith arrested. Altogether, however, their numbers did not amount to forty, yet, though little could be urged in evidence against them, they were all sentenced to death, banishment, or the galleys, according to the different degrees of their supposed guilt. These sentences were nevertheless mitigated in favor of all, except the unfortunate Tiradentes, who, though but an instrument in the hands of others, was, after the lapse of two years, condemned to be hanged, decapitated, and quartered ; by the same sentence it was, among othei ignominious provisions, enacted that his head should be exposed in the public square in Villa Rica, his house razed to the ground, and his children and grandchildren declared infamous. A conspiracy, origi- nating exclusively among the people of color, was aJso organized in Bahia during the year 1801, but like the former, it was discovered before any attempt had been made to put it into execution. The com- munication between the different provinces was neither sufficient to facilitate a general revolt, nor indeed were the free population disposed to it. Their condition, as contrasted with that which is the result of European civilization, was wretched ; yet the tyranny exercised over them was of a negative rather than of a positive character. Their wants were few, and from the almost total absence of nobility, larg-e proprietors, or powerful ecclesiastical dignitaries, there was an equality throughout their entire association which prevented their being sensible of any undue privations. Could they have been exempted from all ex- traneous impulse, ages might have rolled away, and Brazil have been known to Europe, only as t.^ie colossal, yet submissive, and unaspiring dependancy of Portugal. But events were occurring elsewhere, about the close of the eighteenth century, the effects of which were fated to extend their influence to the very ends of the earth. The young re- public of France emerged from amid the storms of the revolution, and the crowned heads of all the surrounding states entered into one mighty coalition to crush the intruder. In this attempt their efforts were par- tially successful, yet their aggressive policy was, ere long, followed up by a fearful and overwhelming counteraction. They raised up a spirit which they afterward in vain attempted to exorcise. They called forth a conqueror who for a while scattered all their armaments before him, and who burst and riveted at will the manacles of many nations. The results of his victories were not bounded by the hemisphere wherein they were achieved. They gave birth to the immediate independence of all the Spanish colonies in South America, and by compelling the royal family of Portugal to seek refuge in Brazil, they created as it were a new era in her history. The royal family of Portugal sailed from Lisbon under the escort of a British squadron, and reached Rio Janeiro on the 7th of March, 1808. As Portugal was occupied by a French army, it would have been absurd to maintain the ancient monopoly of trade, and the ports of Brazil were thrown open to foreigners of every nation by a royal decree. As the dowager-queen of Portugal was in a state of mental imbecility, the government was administered by her son, Don John, with the title of regent; he intniduced several great improvements into the government ; Brazil was no longer treated as a colony it was 724 MODERN HISTORY. raised to the dignity of a nation, and the progress of amelioration in its financial and commercial condition was unusually rapid. The first cause of discontent was the preference which the court naturally showed for ofiicers of Portuguese birth ; and this jealousy was increased by the contempt with which the Europeans treated every one of Brazilian birth. Indeed, a Portuguese general formally pro posed that all Brazilians should be declared incompetent to hold a high- er rank than that of captain, and though no such law was formally enacted, its spirit was acted upon in every department of the adminis- tration. Dissatisfaction was silent, but it was deeply felt and rapidly extending, when in October, 1820, intelligence arrived of the revolt in Portugal in favor of a constitutional government. On the 26th of Feb- ruary, 1821, the king was compelled to proclaim the constitution in Rio de Janeiro, and to promise that he would convoke a Brazilian cortes. In the meantime the cortes at Lisbon began to form projects for so- curing to Portugal its ancient monopoly of Brazilian commerce, and to render its provinces once more colonies dependant on the mother- country. These projects were eagerly supported by the Portuguese in Brazil, who trusted to revive their ancient ascendency over the colo- nists and natives. Violent disputes, frequently ending in bloodshed, arose between the Portuguese and the Brazilians ; Don John, who had assumed the title of king on his mother's death, returned to Lisbon, leaving his son, Don Pedro, at the head of the Brazilian government, which he clearly saw would not long remain dependant on Portugal. The cortes of Lisbon assumed the right of legislating for the colonies without consulting their inclinations ; they abolished the tribunals which had been created in Rio Janeiro, and passed a decree recalling Don Pedro to Europe. These decrees were resisted by the Brazilians, and after some delay they took the decisive step of declaring their in- dependence, and establishing a constitutional monarchy under Don Pe- dro as emperor. We have elsewhere noticed the revolution in which Pedro was de- throned and a regency established in the name of his son. Since that period Brazil has enjoyed more tranquillity than any of the other South American states, and but for the difficulties which arise from the con- tinuance of negro slavery in the country, it would seem to have every fair prospect of advancing rapidly in social prosperity and political im- portance. Paraguay can not with propriety be reckoned among the colonies either of Spain or Portugal, though both governments have claimed it as their own. It was first brought under European control by the Jes- uit missionaries, who professed a nominal obedience to the crown of Spain. Their success in making converts was greater than that of their brethren in any other quarter, of the globe ; they instructed the Indians who embraced Christianity in agriculture and the arts of social life ; the surrounding tribes were not slow in perceiving the advantages which their countrymen had derived from the change, and they came voluntarily to seek instruction. In a very short time the Jesuits became complete masters of the country ; in order to perpetuate their dominion, they carefully excluded all foreigners from Paraguay, and infused into HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 723 the minds of the natives a suspicious jealousy, or rather hatred of for- eigneis, which has never since been eradicated. When the order of the Jesuits was aboHshed, Paraguay was all but teft to itself, and its name was scarcely mentioned in Europe, until it *ook a share in the revolutionary movement which established so many aew states in South America. Doctor Francia headed the revolution of Paraguay, and obtained absolute power for himself, with the title of dictator. He established as rigid a system for excluding foreigners as ihe Jesuits themselves, and his successors appear to continue the same course of policy. Section IV. — The English in America. England had shared in the ardor for discovery which the successful enterprise of Columbus diffused throughout Europe. Newfoundland was visited by Sebastian Cabot, in the reign of Henry VII. ; and two unsuccessful voyages were made to the southern seas, by the same navigator, in the reign of Henry VIII. But the object which long continued to be the favorite one of the English adventurers, was the discovery of a passage through the northern seas to India and China. Sir Hugh Willoughby, and Richard Chancellor, hoped that this might be attained by sailing to the northeast ; the latter reached Archangel, a port then unknown in western Europe, and though he failed in his principal object, he laid the foundation of an active commerce between Great Britain and Russia. The company of Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Edward VI., were indefatigable in their efforts to open new courses of trade, by encouraging maritime and inland discovery ; while their navigators penetrated to Nova Zembla and the river Oby, several of their factors accompanied some Russian caravans into Per- sia, by the route of Astrachan and the Caspian sea ; and the accounts which they published on their return, first gave British merchants ac- curate intelligence concerning the state of the remote regions of the east. These enterprises were renewed under the reign of Elizabeth ; a commercial treaty was concluded with the shah of Persia, and such information obtained respecting India, as greatly increased the national ardor for opening a communication with that country by sea. But every effort to discover a northwest or northeast passage failed ; Mar- tin Frobisher, like every navigator from his days to those of Sir John Ross, found the seas blockaded with fields of ice, through which no opening could be made. This disappointment might have damped the spirit of the English, but for the successful enterprise of Sir Fran- cis Drake, who circumnavigated the globe with a small squadron, and returned home with an account of many important discoveries in the Pacific ocean. War with Spain rendered this information peculiarly important ; and the English resolved to attack their enemies through their colonies, and thus cut off the sources of the wealth which ren- dered Philip II. formidable to Europe. In the sketch of the history of the United States will be found an account of the colonies planted by the English within the limits of that country Canada was the first colony established by the French in Canada 726 MODERN HISTORY. but the early settlers suffered so many misfortunes, th.it the country was several times on the point of being abandoned. It began, however, to prosper after the foundation of Quebec, by Champlain (a. d. 1608), and the formation of a new colony at Montreal. The contests of the French with the Iroquois and the Hurons were less perilous than those of the New Englanders with the Pequods and Narragansets, but they were less ably conducted, and more injurious to the prosperity of the colony. At a much later period, the French colonized Louisiana (a. d. 1686), with the hope of securing the fertile countries watered by the Misissip- pi. The settlement was more valued by the government than Canada, because it was supposed to contain mines of gold, and for the same reason possession of it was equally coveted by the English and the Spaniards. Having two colonies, one at the northern and one at the southern extremity of the British settlements, the French government prepared to connect them by a chain of forts which would have com- pletely hemmed in the English. A furious war ensued between the two nations in the back woods, which ended in the complete overthrow of the French. Canada and Louisiana were ceded to England by the peace of 1763 ; but the latter is now joined to the United States, while the former still continues under British government. In the history of the other British American colonies there is nothing of sufficient im- portance to deserve a place in this summary. The most important of them now form a great republic, which must for the future occupy a conspicuous position in Modern History ; and among the best guides to a correct estimate of their future career, is a knowledge of the cir- cumstances attending their foundation. Section V. — Colonization of the West Indies. We have already mentioned the settlements of the Spaniards in His- paniola, Puerto Rico, and Cuba, and shall now briefly give a sketch of the colonization of the other principal islands. Barbadoes, one of the earliest English settlements, was totally uninhabited when the English took possession of it (a. d. 1623). Its prosperity first began to attract notice when some of the Dutch, who were expelled from Brazil by the Portuguese, introduced the manufacture of sugar, and the cultivation of the cane, from which that useful article is extracted. Negroes were not imported as slaves until about the year 1630 ; previously to which time the planters are said to have been frequently guilty of kidnapping the Caribs. The negroes multiplied so fast, that they frequently con- spired to massacre all the white inhabitants, and take possession of the island, but their plots were discovered and punished with remorseless severity. St. Lucia was first settled by the English (a. d. 1637), but the colo- nists were soon massacred by the Caribs, after which it was seized by the French, who are said to have instigated the revolt of the native tribes. The island frequently changed masters in the wars between France and England, but it now belongs to the latter power. St. Vin- cent and the Grenadine islands were similarly contested, and now beloiig to England. HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 727 Martinico and Guadaloupe were colonized by the French, in the be- ginning of the seventeenth century. Their prosperity received very severe checks in the frequent vv^ars between France and England. At the late treaty of peace they were restored to France. The other Car- ibbee islands are possessed by the Dutch, the Danes, the Swedes, and the English, but the largest share belongs to the English. Antigua is, perhaps, the most flourishing of these islands, but there is nothing re- markable in its history. Tobago was colonized by the Dutch, conjointly with the Courlanders (a. d. 1632). It was wrested from them by the French, who subse- quently ceded it to the English (a. d. 1737). Trinidad is a large and fertile island on the coast of South America, remarkable for a lake of asphaltum, or mineral pitch. It was early colonized by Spain, but was captured by the English in 1'797, and is still retained by them. It is one of the very few of these isls-tids which contains any portion of its ancient population. The Bahama islands, though discovered by Columbus, were com- pletely neglected until they were accidentally visited by an Englishman named Sayle (a. d. 1667), who was driven to seek shelter among them by stress of weather. The account which he gave of their climate and productions, on his return home, induced some spirited adventurers to combine for their colonization. The early settlers suffered very severe- ly from hurricanes and the hostility of the Spaniards, but they sur- mounted these difficulties, and laid the foundation of communities which are now flourishing and prosperous. The Bermudas, or Summer islands, were discovered but never colo- nized by the Spaniards. An Englishman named May was shipwrecked on one of them ; he and his companions built a vessel of the native ce- dar, and returned to Europe, where they published a very exaggerated account of the beauty and fertility of these islands, which gave rise to many poetic fictions. A colony was planted on St. George's island, by the Virginia company, but it narrowly escaped destruction in its infancy from a very singular visitation. Some rats, imported in European ves- sels, multiplied so prodigiously, that they covered the ground and built nests in the trees. Their devastations were continued during five years, when they suddenly disappeared, but from what cause is uncer- tain. Since that period the prosperity of these islands has been unin- te'-rupted ; and of late years vast works for the purpose of establishing hftte a naval arsenal have been in progress, and are now near com- pletion. Jamaica was discovered by Columbus, and soon after colonized by the Spaniards, who massacred the greater part of the native inhabitants. As there were no mines in the island, it was neglected by the Span- iards, and was easily wrested from them by a British armament, under the command of Penn and Venables, during the protectorate of Crom- well. The position of Jamaica afforded many facilities for attacking the Spanish settlements, and it was therefore the great rendezvous of the formidable combination of pirates called the bucaniers. This confraternuy was composed of adventurers from various nations, and the Spanish ships and colonies were their chief objects of attack. They were not, however, very scrupulous in ascertaining to what nation any 728 MODERN HISTORY. richly-laden vessel belonged ; and, to prevent any discovery of theii crimes, they generally massacred the crews. Morgan was their most noted leader ; he conquered Panama, and several other rich towns be- longing to the crown of Spain ; and having by his continued successes gained the command of a large force, appears to have meditated the es- tablishment of an independent sovereignty. Subsequently he abandoned his piracies, submitted to the English government, and received the honor of knighthood. The bucaniers being no longer protected in Jamaica, removed to the French settlement in Hispaniola, and long continued to be the terror of the American seas. Jamaica has often been harassed by negro insurrections, but since the mountains have been opened by roads, the insurgents, deprived of any place of shelter, have found themselves unable to make considerable stand. To the north of the river Amazon, on the eastern coast of South America, lies a vast level tract, known by the general name of Guiana, possessed by the Portuguese, the French, Dutch, and English. The land is exuberantly fertile, but the climate unhealthy. Formerly the Dutch settlements were the most considerable, but the chief of them were captured in 1797 by the English, and are now in their possession. This is the only portion which bears the appearance of regular coloni- zation, the other tracts being either held by the natives, or mainly used by the European rulers as penal settlements. Hispaniola, or St. Domingo, after having been long an object of con- tention between the French, Spaniards, and English, is now an inde- pendent negro state, and has resumed its old native name of Hayti. Section VI. — The Portuguese in India. The colonies we have just described owe their origin to the discov- eries of Columbus ; we must now direct our attention to those in the opposite division of the globe, which were consequent on the discovery of a passage round the Cape of Good Hope, by Vasco de Gama. The first enterprises of the Portuguese, when a way was opened for them to Hindustan, were limited to securing their commerce ; but under the guidance of the illustrious Albuquerque, they procured a grant of ground from one of the native sovereigns, and founded a strong fortress. The Mohammedans, who had hitherto engrossed the entire commerce of India, formed a league to expel the intruders, in which they were en- couraged by the Venetians, who purchased Indian spices and other goods from the Arabs, with which they supplied the principal markets of Europe. This enterprise was defeated, and soon after Don Alphonzo Albuquerque laid the foundation of the future supremacy of the Portu- guese by reducing Goa, which afterward became the seat of govern ment, and was also erected into an archbishop's see by the pope. This was the first commencement of territorial acquisition by European pow- ers in India, a system strongly deprecated by Vasco de Gama, and which it is impossible to defend on any principles of national justice. Albuquerque defended himself by declaring that it would be impossible for Portugal to command the trade unless it shared in the empire of India, a pretext whose obvious weakness it is not necessary to expose. Albuquerque also subdued the city of Malacca, and the island of Ormuz, HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 729 In the Persisn gulf. The efforts of his successors were principally di- rected to the maintenance of Albuquerque's acquisitions, and to check- ing the progress of the Turks, who, after the conquest of Egypt, made several attempts to establish themselves on the coast of Malabar. Had they succeeded, it is probable that the Christians would never have oc- cupied India, for the Mussulmans spread over the peninsula would have inited to support a power equally favorable to their religious prejudices and their temporal interests. In about sixty years the Portuguese had established an empire in the east, whose extent and power were truly wonderful. On one side, their authority extended as far as the utmost limits of the coast of Persia, and over all the islands in the Persian gulf ; some of the Arabian princes were their tributaries, others their allies, and through the whole Arabian peninsula none dared to confess themselves their enemies. In the Red sea, they were the only power that commanded respect, and they had considerable influence over the emperor of Abyssinia and the rulers of eastern Africa. They possessed ihe whole coast of Malabar, from Cape Ramoz to Cape Comorin ; they were masters also of the Coromandel coast, the bay of Bengal, the city, tbrtress, and peninsula of Malacca. The potent islands of Ceylon, Su- matra, and Java, paid them tribute, as did the Moluccas ; and they had jbtained a settlement in China (Macao), and a free trade with the islands jf Japan. The ruin of this empire arose chiefly from the union of Portugal with Spain (a. d. 1580). Immediately after that event, Philip II. issued an edict, prohibiting the Dutch from trading with Lisbon, and thus com- pelled them to seek for the spices and wares of India in other quarters. The enterprising republicans were then hardy and necessitous, and had everything to gain and nothing to lose ; the Portuguese, on the other hand, were divided in their counsels, depraved in their manners, and detested by their subjects and neighbors. The Dutch first established themselves in some distant islands, whence, being joined by new set- tlers from home, partly by force of arms and partly by taking advantage of the errors committed by the Portuguese, they finally supplanted them everywhere, and stripped them of their dominions in far less time than they had acquired them. The most remarkable of the Portuguese settlements was the island of Ormuz. It is nothing more than a salt and barren rock in the Persian gulf, destitute of water, save where rain, which rarely falls, is collected in natural or artificial cavities ; but its commodious situation rendered it the most flourishing commercial mart in the eastern seas. Its road- stead was frequented by shipping from all parts of the Indies, from this coasts of Africa, Egypt, and Arabia, while it possessed an extensive caravan trade with the interior of Asia, through the opposite ports of Persia. The wealth, the splendor, and the concourse of traders at Or- muz, during its flourishing condition, gave the world a memorable exam- ple of the almost omnipotent power of commerce : in the trading seasons, which lasted from January to March, and from the end of August to the beginning of November, not only was there an unparalleled activity of traffic, but a display of luxury and magnificence which seemed to real- ize the extravagances of fiction. The salt dust of the streets was con cealed and kept down by neat mats and rich carpets ; canvass awnings MODt HISTORY. were extended from the roofs of the houses to exchiJe the scorchina rays of the sun ; the rooms next the street were opened like shops, adorned with Indian cabinets and piles of porcelain, intermixed with odoriferous dwarf trees and shrubs, set in gilded vases, elegantly adorned with figures. Camels laden with water-skins stood at the corner of every street, while the richest wines of Persia, the most costly perfumes and the choicest delicacies of Asia, were poured forth in lavish profu- sion. The Portuguese, in the insolence of prosperity, provoked the hostility of Shah Abbas, the most powerful of the Persian monarchs, and quarrelled with the English, just as they were beginning to obtain con- sideration in the east. A league was formed between Shah Abbas and the English ; their united forces assailed Ormuz (a. d. 1622) ; it was taken with little difficulty, and the value of its plunder was estimated at two millions. Thenceforward the trade of Ormuz rapidly declined : its merchants transferred their capital and enterprise to other quarters, the very materials of its splendid edifices were taken away by the Dutch ships as ballast, and it soon relapsed into its original condition of a bar- ren and desolate rock. Scarcely the smallest remains are now left to vindicate the records of history, or to prove that this was once the flourishing capital of extensive commerce, and the principal magazine of the east. Section VII. — The Spaniards in the East Indies. We have before stated that the object of the first voyage of Columbus was to discover a western passage to the East Indies, and this project was not forgotten by the Spaniards, even after a new world had been opened to their ambition. After the discovery of the passage round the extremity of South America by Magellan, they prepared to occupy some of the Moluccas, but were prevented by the papal division of newly- discovered countries between them and the Portuguese. But when Portugal was united to Spain, under Philip II., Lopez de Legaspi re- solved to form a settlement in a valuable cluster of these islands, which he called the Philippines, in honor of his sovereign. The city of Ma- nilla was speedily built and fortified ; scarcely were its defences com- plete, when it was attacked by the native islanders, instigated by the Chinese, who appear to have been, at some remote period, masters of the country. With some difficulty the insurrection was suppressed ; but more formidable rivals soon appeared : the Dutch occupied the most valuable of the Moluccas, and the Spanish court seriously contemplated the abandonment of the Philippine islands. But though these settle- ments have been frequently attacked both by the Dutch and English, they have been preserved to the crown of Spain, and are now ahr.ost the only remnant of the extensive colonial empire once possessed by that monarchy. Section VIII. — The Dutch in the East Indies. It was the intolerable cruelty of the Spanish government that drove ihe Dutch to revolt; and the incurable bigotry of Philip II. prevented HISTOEY OF COLONIZATION. 731 the insuigents from ever seeking an accommodation. But the same sanguinary and short-sighted policy laid the foundation of the future prosperity of Holland, and enabled the Dutch to attain, in a very short period, an unrivalled ascendency in commerce. To check the growling spirit of freedom in the Netherlands, the Spaniards destroyed the trade of Antwerp, discouraged every effort made for its restoration, and thus drove its merchants to increase the establishments and the trade of Am- sterdam. Desirous of humbling the Portuguese, Philip's ministers laid the most vexatious restraints on the commerce of Lisbon, and thus com- pelled the Dutch, whose subsistence almost wholly depended on the carrying-trade, to seek out means for the direct importation of Indian commodities. It was still hoped that a northeast passage to the Indian seas might be discovered, and three fruitless expeditions were sent out on this hopeless inquiry. In the meantime, Cornelius Houtman, who had been made prisoner by the Spaniards at Lisbon, obtained such in- formation from the Portuguese respecting the course of their voyages round the cape of Good Hope, that on his escape to Amsterdam, he in- duced some of the leading merchants to form a company for sending him out with an expedition ; and a fleet, well provided, sailed from the Texel (a d. 1595). The Spaniards first attempted to defeat the enter- prises of the Dutch by main force, but being soon convinced of their inferiority at sea to tho hardy republicans, they sent emissaries to the principal eastern sovereigns, describing the new adventurers as pirates. But the Dutch admiral, Heemskirk, having captured a rich Portuguese vessel, on her way from Macao, treated his prisoners with so much generosity, that letters of thanks were addressed to him from the prin- cipal Spanish authorities in the east ; these letters he produced in every port at which he touched, and thus satisfactorily refuted the calumnies which had been heaped upon his nation. A company was soon incor- porated in Holland for managing the Indian trade ; and the rest of the subjects of the United Provinces were prohibited from trading with Asia, either by the cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn. They first oc- cupied the Moluccas, or Spice islands, from which they were driven by the Spaniards, but soon retrieved their losses. Ere long, the Dutch and English East India companies, excited by mutual jealousy, began to assail each other's possessions. The island of Java was the chief object of their mutual ambition ; after a long struggle, the Dutch pre- vailed, and immediately secured their acquisition by building the city of Balavia. Soon afterward, all the English merchants resident at Am- boyna were massacred, and by this act of treachery the Dutch succeed- ed in securing for a long time the monopoly of the spice trade. They also wrested the Japanese trade from the Portuguese, and continue even now to be the only Europeans admitted to trade with the empire of Japan. The next great object of the Dutch was to gain possession of the island of Ceylon, from which they not only expelled the Portuguese, but reduced the native princes under their dommion, and thus gained the monopoly of the cinnamon trade. They long kept possession of this valuable island, but during the wars of the French revolution it was wrested from them by the English, under whose power it still continues. The influence of the Jesuits at the court of Pekin bafiled all the ef- 732 MODERN HISTORY. forts of the Dutch to open a trade with the Chinese empire ; but they succeeded in establishing a flourishing settlement on the island of For- mosa, which opened to them a lucrative trafiic with the Indo-Chinese nations. But soon after the conquest of China by the Mantchew Tar- tars, the Formosans, joined by a large army from China, besieged the Dutch settlement and compelled the garrison to surrender. Since that period, Formosa has been annexed to the empire of China, and is no longer visited by Europeans. The Dutch adopted a more exclusive system of policy than the Spaniards or Portuguese, and this was the principal cause of the ruin of the empire they had acquired. Their harsh conduct to the natives produced frequent civil wars or insurrections, which greatly weakened their settlements. In Java especially, their dominion was maintained only by an enormous expenditure of blood and treasure ; and as other European nations began gradually to obtain a share in the spice trade, the Dutch East India company found the profits of its monopoly rapidly diminishing. During the wars of the French revolution, most of the Dutch colonies were occupied by the English, but some of them were restored at the general peace. England, however, kept the two of greatest importance, the cape of Good Hope and the island of Ceylon ; but Holland still possesses the island of Java, and the monopoly of the trade with Japan. Section IX. — The Danes in the East Indies. An association was formed at Copenhagen for opening a trade with the East Indies (a. d. 1612), in consequence of the riches which so lucrative a branch of commerce seemed to have brought into the neigh- boring nations. A small expedition was sent out to the Coromandel coast, where the adventurers were hospitably received by the rajah of Tanjore, from whom they received permission to establish a settlement at Tranquebar. Many circumstances contributed to check the pros- perity of the Danish East India company, but none more than the per- tinacious jealousy of the Dutch, who excluded them from the most profitable branches of trade. But though the Danes did no* attain to any remarkable eminence in East Indian commerce, they were honor- ably distinguished by their zeal for the propagation of the Christian religion ; and, notwithstanding their limited means, they have succeed- ed in ditfusing the principles of true religion through a considerable portion of the south of India. Section X. — The French in the East Indies. Maritime affairs were long neglected in France ; and though Fran- cis I. and Henry III. issued edicts, exhorting their subjects to under- take long voyages, yet either a want of enterprise in the people, or the inability of the government to afford pecuniary assistance, prevented any effort being made meriting notice. After some attempts to form an association of merchants, productive of little advantage, an East India company was founded (a. d. 1616), but meeting with some mis- fortunes, the members resolved to abandon the Indian trade, and t^ HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 733 direct their attention to the establishment of a settlement in the island of Madagascar. Toward the close of the seventeenth century, the French purchased the town of Pondicherry from the king of Visapur, and began to form a settlement there with every reasonable prospect of success. It was, however, wrested from them by the Dutch (a. d. 1693), but was subsequently restored by the treaty of Ryswick (a. d. 1697). Thenceforward, the prosperity of the colony progressively in- creased, and the subsequent acquisition from the Dutch of the islands called the isles of France and Bourbon, but previously the Mauritius and the Mascarenhas, led the French to hope that they might acquire an important share in eastern commerce. A new career of ambition was opened to them by the sanguinary struggles which arose between the new states formed out of the fragments of the empire of Delhi ; M. Dupleix, the governor of Pondicherry, hoped by embroiling the natives with each other, to obtain territorial acquisitions as the price of his assistance to some of the combatants. The English adopted the same course of policy, and thus the ancient hostility between the two nations extended its influence to India. The talents of Clive, however, carried the English triumphantly through an arduous struggle, which ended in the almost total expulsion of the French from the peninsula, and the cession of most of their settlements, by the peace of 1763. They afterward intrigued with the native princes, Hyder Ali and Tip- poo Sultan, against their successful rivals, but they have been utterly unable to regain any portion of their former influence. Section XI. — The English in India. A HUNDRED years have not elapsed since the possessions of the British East India company were limited to three settlements of narrow extent, inhabited by a few hundred Europeans, who were scarcely able to defend themselves against pirates and banditti, mu'ch less compete with the power of the native princes. Now this association of mer- chants, from its court in Leadenhall street, rules over an empire con- taining a hundred millions of subjects, raises a tribute of more than three millions annually, possesses an army of more than two hundred thousand rink and file, has princes for its servants, and emperOi-s pen- sioners on its bounty, Calcutta, from a miserable village, has become the metropolis of the east ; Bombay possesses more trade than Tyre, in the days of its glory ; and Madras, in spite of its perilous surf, rivals the commercial prosperity of Carthage. There is no parallel to such a career in the annals of the world ; conquerors, indeed, have acquired a more extensive dominion in a shorter space of time, but they failed to establish a permanent empire ; after a few years, the traces of their tempestuous passage were as completely effaced as the track of a vessel in the waves of the ocean. In the preceding chapters, we have incidentally noticed the progress of the company's empire in its relation to the general politics of Europe, but it is of importance to mark more definitely the successive steps by which such vast acquisitions have been won and secured. The history of the East India company, indeed, has more than ordinary claims on our attention ; it is intimately connected with our national character 734 MODERN HISTORY. and national welfare, and all must desire to know whether our eastern empire has advanced the great cause of civilization, and whether our domination is lili^ely to endure, or to meet at some time or other a pre- cipitate overthrow. The London company for trading with the East Indies was incor- porated by Queen Elizabeth (a. d. 1600), and remained without a rival for nearly a century, when the necessities of the state led to the forma- tion of the English company (a. d. 1698) ; it was soon found that the rivalry between these bodies was prejudicial to the interests of both, and at the recommendation of his majesty King William 111., the two companies agreed to form one association, to be designated " The United Company of Merchants of England, trading to the East Indies ^ The first English settlement of importance was Bantam, ii the island of Java ; but in 1658, they obtained a grant of land on the Coromandel coast, near Madras, where they erected a stronghold, Fort St. George. In 1668, the island of Bombay, ceded by the crown of Portugal to Charles 11., as a part of the dowry of the infanta Catharine, was grant- ed by the king, and appointed the capital of the British settlements in India. Bengal was not at first estimated at its true value, but toward the close of the seventeenth century (a. d. 1698), the Englisli had a settlement at Calcutta, the French at Chandernagore, and the Dutch at Chinsura, all situated on the river Hooghly. An embassy was sent to the court of Delhi with presents ; fortunately one of its members was an eminent physician, and his professional aid was required by the em- peror Ferrokshir. In gratitude for the services of Dr. Hamilton, Fer- rokshir granted valuable Jirfndns, or patents of privileges to the com- pany, which gave them great advantages over their European rivals The viceroy of Bengal, jealous of the privileges granted to the English, advanced against Calcutta, took the town, and confined one hundred and forty-six in a dungeon called the Black Hole, so narrow and confined, that only twenty-three of the captives survived till the morning (a. d. 17.56). Colonel Clive, who had already given proofs of his mihtary talents in the Madras presidency, was sent into Bengal. He soon re- covered Calcutta, and took Chandernagore from the French. Finding that the viceroy of Bengal, Suraj-u-Dowlah, was obstinate in his oppo sition to the company's interest, Clive adopted the bold resolution of deposing him without waiting for, or indeed asking the emperor's sanc- tion, although the company was at peace with the court of Delhi. Act- ing promptly on this determination, Clive attacked the viceroy's troops at Plisscy (June 23, 1757), and gained a decisive victory. Suraj-u- Dowlah was deposed, and his post given by the conquerors to Jaffier Ali Khan. Afier CliAe's return to England, the government of Calcutta was in- trusted to a council, of which Mr. Vansittart was appointed president. The rapidity with which the English had acquired supremacy in Ben- gal, inspired them with feelings of contemptuous superiority, which in- volved them in angry disputes with the new viceroy. At length, the council of Calcutta, induced by a bribe of 200,000/., resolved to depose Jafiier, and confer the viceroyship on Cossim Ali Khan. But Cossira was soon as odious as his predecessor. The servants of the East India company claimed an exemption from all duties on commerce and thus HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 735 ruined the native merchants ; Cossim, after many remonstrances to the council of Calcutta, abolished the transit duties altogether ; and this act of justice to his own subjects, though extorted by necessity, was loudly exclaimed against as an infringement of his engagements with the com- pany, and two agents were sent to demand the repeal of the decree. While negotiations were pending, the English resident seized the cita- del of Patna, and though it was immediately retaken by Cossim Ali, his rage was so excited by what he regarded a deliberate act of treach- er)'-, that he put all the English prisoners to death. War was instantly declared, Cossim Ali was defeated and deposed, and Jaffier Khan was once more declared viceroy of Bengal. It is not known at what price Jaffier purchased his restoration, but he did not long enjoy it ; he died a few months before Clive, who had been recently elevated to the peer- age, returned as governor-general to Calcutta. Lord Clive found the affairs of the presidency in a deplor&tle con- dition : their troops, goaded to madness by the insolence and rapacity of their officers, were in open mutiny ; the fertile province of Bengal was " marred to a wilderness" by the most corrupt of all the corrupt bodies ever intrusted with its destinies ; friendly native powers were estranged by systematic extortion ; hostile princes were confirmed in their enmity by witnessing such excesses of profligacy and peculation ; and, to complete his lordship's difficulties, his proceedings were con- trolled by a subordinate committee, wholly unused to subordination. Clive's zeal in reforming such crying abuses, procured him a host of enemies, whose resistance was encouraged by their friends and patrons in the court of directors at home. The first outbreak of opposition was a general mutiny of the military officers, supported by a large subscrip- tion from the civilians in Calcutta. Through a defect in the mutiny act, the governor-general was not able to sentence any of the criminals to death, not even those who were found guilty of planning his assassi- nation. Sir Robert Fletcher, the general in command of the army, was subsequently proved to be the instigator of the whole plot, and having been convicted by a court-martial, he was cashiered. But it must be added, that this very officer was subsequently appointed commander-in- chief of the army of Madras, where he headed the mutinous opposition by which Lord Pigot was removed from that government. Another of the mutineers, sent home by Clive, on charges that affected his life, obtained a very high appointment in the civil service of Bengal by his party interest in the court of directors. Clive's firmness restored order in Calcutta ; and soon after, the sub- stitution of British rule for the native viceroyalties in Bengal, removed the chief source of intrigue and peculation. But in the meantime, the presidency at Madras was brought to the brink of ruin by the arms of Hyder Ali, whose abilities had raised him from the rank of a private soldier to that of an independent sovereign. After a protracted war, Sir Eyre Coote retrieved all the losses of the English, and, on the death of Hyder (a. d. 1782), concluded a treaty with his son, Tippoo, on terms very advantageous to the company. The charters granted at yarious times to the company, only secured to it the exclusive right of trade ; when, therefore, it began to make territorial acquisitions, it became a serious constitutional question 736 MODERN HISTOEY. whether the British crown did not possess an inherent right to all provinces conquered by its subjects. The ministers, and especially Lord North, already embarrassed by the American war, were unwilling to attempt the decision of a matter encumbered with so many difficulties ; but the right of the British parliament to interfere in the affairs of India, was virtually asserted, by passing various acts of regulation, and the establishment of a custom of time-bargains with the company, which were, in fact, mere expedients to escape from difficulties becom- ing more complicated every hour. The administration of Mr. Warren Hastings greatly extended the company's territories, and rendered its influence paramount in northern India ; but the means which he employed were not always consistent with European notions of equity ; and the disputes which arose between him and his council, fixed the attention of the British parliament and the British nation on the affairs of India. Mr. Fox, who was then in power, introduced a bill for transferring the government of India from the court of directors to a parliamentary committee, but the measure was frustrated by the reluctance of the king, and the dismissal of the ministry. We have already noticed the impeachment of Mr. Hastings and his acquittal, after a trial of unparalleled duration, by the house of lords. At length an important change was made in the government of India, by the establishment of a board of control, according to a plan proposed by Mr. Pitt (a. d. 1784). The principal object of the new measure was to secure the obedience and responsibility of the company's ser- vants to the authorities in England, and to remedy the most glaring abuses of patronage by the court of directors. This measure, though not so stringent as it was originally intended to be, produced very bene- ficial eftects, and introduced a system of subordination, in which the presidencies had long been deficient. Lord CornAvallis was sent out as governor-general, under the new system ; he exerted himself to remedy some of the most flagrant abuses in the administration, and, though opposed by a majority of the supreme court at Calcutta, he partially succeeded. He soon began to look with suspicion on the ambitious projects of Tippoo Sultan, who had inherited his father Hyder's hostility to the English. Tippoo's intrigues were secretly encouraged by the French government, for suf- ficiently obvious reasons. The French had been the first to try the plan of acquiring territorial possessions by interference in native wars, often excited by themselves ; and they had been completely defeated, while the English had as completely succeeded. Anger at this failure, too high an estimate of the injury which the British power had received from the loss of the American colonies, and a confident belief that our empire in the east was as insecure as it had proved in the west, were popular feelings in France, and were just as rife in the court of Versailles as they were at a later period in the jacobin clubs of Paris. The danger which Lord Cornwallis anticipated, seemed more fomiid- able to Mr. Pitt than to the court of directors, and led to a serious dis- pute between the ministry and the company. The premier, through the board of contrc^, insisted on sending regular British troops to India, and compelling the company to pay for their support. This was re- HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 737 garded by the court of directors as an indirect effort on the part of the crown to grasp the patronage of the Indian army, and was, of course, strenuously resisted. Mr. Pitt settled the matter by forcing through parliament, with all the influence at his command, an act of explana- tion ; but he had the mortification to encounter a fierce opposition from many who were generally his stanchest supporters. The war with Tippoo, which rendered the English authority supreme from the river Krishna to Cape Comorin, soon followed. Lord Cornwallis having brought it to a prosperous termination, returned home, and was succeeded by 3ir John Shore, afterward Lord Teignmouth. During Sir John Shore's peaceful administration, the organization of the internal government of India was considerably improved ; but its most remarkable events were the interference of the English, as arbitrators, in the disputed succession to the throne of Oude ; and the commencement of discontents, almost amounting to mutinies, among the officers of the Indian army, in consequence of the reduction of their field allowances by the court of directors. The latter subject soon be- came one of increasing annoyance, and even danger ; but the calamities which it threatened were fortunately averted by judicious measures of conciliation. Lord Mornington, afterward marquis of Wellesley, was next ap- pointed governor-general. His first efforts were directed to lessen the growing influence of the French in Hindustan ; finding Tippoo indisposed to form new engagements with the British govermnent, war was declared against him, which, as we have already stated, ended in the defeat and death of that turbulent monarch. A subsequent war with the Mahratta powers completely established British supremacy in India, and made the company supreme in the Peninsula. But notwithstanding his brilliant services, the marquis of Wellesley was thwarted in many important points of policy by the court of directors. The chief of these were, the employment of India-built ships, the establishment of a college for the education of civil servants at Calcutta, and the patronage of certain appointments, which the court wished to reserve for its favorites. This last difference led to very angry re- monstrances, both from the marquis of Wellesley and Lord Clive, who was governor of Madras. Lord Clive resigned his situation ; and on quitting Madras, addressed a spirited remonstrance to the court of directors, in which the inefficiency, insubordination, and delinquency of many of their servants, were directly traced to the abuse of patron- age, and to the encouragement which the idle and the dissolute, possessing interest with the court, received from authority superior to the local government. Lord Wellesley, supported by the board of control, retained his place in defiance of the court, and, by his success- ful management of the Mahratta war, bore down all opposition. The great extent of country gained in the Mahratta war, gave rise to serious embarrassments after the marquis of Wellesley had returned to Europe ; his successor, Lord Cornwallis, died before completing the requisite arrangements, and Sir George Barlow, who acted as vice- governor, adopted a line of policy directly contrary to that which had received the sanction of his predecessor. This change led to an angry controversy with the English ministers (Lord Grenville and Mr. Fox) 47 738 MODERN HISTORY. respecting the appointment of a successor to the marquis of Cornwallis. The ministers nominated Lord Lauderdale to the vacant office, the court of directors insisted that Sir George Barlow should retain his power. After a very long negotiation, both parties agreed to withdraw the rival candidates, and they finally concurred in selecting Lord Minto as governor-general. When Lord Minto reached Madras, his attention was directed to certain transactions in that presidency, too important to be omitted even in this brief outline of Lidian history. Lord William Bentinck succeeded Lord Clive (afterward earl of Powis) in the government of Madras, and, like his predecessor, was involved in serious disputes with the local council and the subordinate servants of the company. In the midst of these discussions, a dangerous mutiny of the native Indian army at Vellore, furnished a pretext for recalling the obnoxious governor with something like censure. In the Indian army no native could attain the rank of commissioned officer ; many of the sepoys were Mohammedans, and they could not forget how very recently the whole peninsula of India was their own ; the deposed dynasty of Mysore, including Tippoo's family and several of his ministers, were on the spot, to aggravate these feelings of natural discontent ; and the fakirs, or preaching friars of Mohammedanism, lent their aid to fan the flame. A regulation respecting the head-dress of the troops was the pretext for revolt ; though the shape of the sepoy turban had no more connex- ion with the real cause of the mutiny, than the color of the roses with the rival claims of the houses of York and Lancaster. The insurrec- tion was suppressed, but the leniency which Lord William Bentinck was disposed to show toward the mutineers, though sanctioned by Lord Minto, gave such displeasure to many influential persons, that the governor returned home. When Lord Minto reached Calcutta (a. d. 1809), he prepared to adopt a system of policy, which had long been a favorite scheme with the court of directors and indeed with the great majority of the people of England. This was simply to introduce the European principle of a balance of power in India ; — no plan could be more excellent in theory, but it was impossible to reduce it to practice, for no materials existed in the disorganized governments of India, from which such a system could be constructed. The company had ever opposed the colonization of India by Europeans, and had therefore rather occupied than possessed its successive acquisitions ; with the excepiion of its hired servants (and not all of them), there was not a single individual interested in maintaining its sway ; its soldiers were mere mercenaries, its subjects utterly indifferent to the continuance of its rule. In pursuit of this favorite but hopeless project, the establishment of a balance of power. Lord Minto committed many serious errors, but his administra- tion was on the whole very beneficial to England, especially as he was among the first to appreciate the value of the Indian archipelago, with which our commerce is so rapidly increasing, both in extent and im- portance. His prudence terminated a very serious dispute between the civil and military authorities at Madras, which had nearly produced the most calamitous results : he tried the experiment of neutral policy with greater success than could have attended such a system in less able HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 739 hands ; and when he at length perceived that " balance of power" was inapplicable to the state of society in India, he acknowledged the change in his opinions with a manly candor which is too rarely met with among modern statesmen. The earl of Moira, afterward marquis of Hastings, succeeded Lord Minto in the government. He was forced to abandon the neutral line of policy, by which the Goorkas, or wild tribes of the mountains of Nepaul, had been encouraged to encroach upon the territories both of the British and their allies. War was declared ; the Goorkas proved more formidable enemies than the company's troops had yet encoun- tered, but they were finally overcome, and the provinces ceded by the Nepaulese, as the price of peace, brought the English dominions into close contact with the frontiers of the Chinese empire. In the mean- time central India was devastated by ferocious bands of freebooters, known by the name of Pindarries, and extensive combinations were formed for their suppression. The treachery and iuplicity of several of the native powers on this occasion compelled the marquis of Has- tings to demand from them considerable cessions of territory ; and, at the conclusion of the war, the company felt itself bound to retain those acquisitions, not only as essential to its own interests, but to those of the native inhabitants. Of greater importance than all these prov- inces was the establishment of a British settlement at Singapore (a. l. 1819), by which its present share in the lucrative commerce of the Indian archipelago was secured to Great Britain. The earl of Amherst, who had previously been sent on an embassy to China, was the next governor-general (a. d. 1823). In a few months after his arrival, he found himself constrained to adopt active measures for repressing the insults and encroachments of the Burmese. The war was one of more than ordinary difficulty, but it finally terminated to the advantage of the British, who obtained possession of many new and valuable provinces. Scarcely less important was the capture of Bhurt- pore, a fortress which, having been on two former occasions assailed in vain by the British, was fondly believed impregnable by the natives of Hindustan (a. d. 1826) ; its conquest therefore tended not a little to incrc-:se that general sense of British superiority on which the security of our Indian empire mainly depends. Earl Amherst was succeeded by Lord William Bentiiick, whose generally peaceful administration is principally remarkable for a series of financial reforms in every department of the government. But the expiration of the company's charter, and the arrangements for its renewal, led to a total change of system (a. d. 1833). The company was deprived of its exclusive right of trade ; the commerce with India and China was opened freely to all British subjects : the political gov- ernment of Hindustan was continued to the company for twenty years, but all its other rights and possessions were ceded to the nation for an annuity of six hundred and thirty thousand pounds, secured by a guar- antee fund of two millions sterling. The East India company was not the only power that profited by the overthrow of the Mogul empire ; two new kingdoms, that of the Afghans and that of the Sikhs, were founded on the northwest of Hindustan, and both have risen to great importance. The Afghans 740 MODERN HISTORY. were originally subject to Persia, but toward the close of the seven teenth century they revolted against their rulers and nearly conquered the whole Persian empire. Nadir Shah restored the Persian supremacy, but on his death an Afghan leader proclaimed the independence of his country, and while the Persians wasted their strength in civil wars, founded a new kingdom at Cabul. The Afghan monarchy continued to prosper until the commencement of the present century, when it was distracted by the wars arising out of a disputed succession. Three brothers, Zeman, Mahmud, and Sujah, contended for the crown, and each prevailed in turn, according to the will of the chief vizier, who was head of the Baurikzye tribe. At length Zeman was blinded, Sujah driven into exile, and Mahmud placed on the throne. Unfor- tunately he permitted his son Kemran to assassinate the vizier, upon which the Baurikzye brothers revolted, and compelled Mahmud to seek shelter in Herat. Under the Baurikzye brothers, Afghanistan was divided into a num- ber of petty independent states, each governed by one or more chief- tains of this powerful family ; the principal being Dost Mohammed, the ruler of Cabul, whose supremacy was nominally recognised by all the rest. Soon after Lord Auckland had succeeded Lord William Bentinck as governor-general of India, an embassy was sent to Cabul for the purpose of forming a commercial treaty which might open the markets of central Asia to British manufactures. When the Persian court, yielding to Russian suggestions, had determined to advance against Herat, the mission to Cabul was changed from a commercial to a political legation, and a treaty was proposed to Dost Mohammed which it was believed might avert the danger of Russian influence being established on the banks of the Indus. The ruler of Cabul demanded as the price of his adhesion that the territory of Peshawer, recently seized by the king of Lahore, should be restored to the Afghans, and when this was refused he manifested a disposition so hostile to English interests that the envoy was recalled, and a resolution formed to restore Shah Sujah to his throne by the aid of a British army. The army of the Indus having surmounted all the toils and difficui ties of its march through previously untraversed countries, soon arrive* at the capital of Afghanistan, and Shah Sujah was reinstated upon tn* throne of his ancestors. Shah Sujah's government was not popular, and indeed did not de serve to be so ; general dissatisfaction continued to exist, but had not begun to show itself in a dangerous shape when General Elphinstone took the command of the occupying force, in April, 1841. In the fol- lowing November a formidable insurrection unexpectedly exploded in Cabul ; Sir Alexander Burnes, and several other Englishmen, were treacherously massacred, while the most deplorable want of energy and decision was displayed, both by the envoy and the military authorities. The fort in which the provisions for the troops were stored was per- mitted to fall into the hands of the enemy, without an effort being made to relieve its feeble garrison ; and after the means of holding out in Cabul, until relief could be obtained from the other divisions of the army, had been sacrificed, it was resolved to commence a retreat. The only result from this calamitous war, is the occupation of the HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. 74i territories of Scinde, which have been formally annexed to the British dominions. Theoe districts command the navigation of the lower In- dus, and would possess some value and importance if that river could be rendered available for the purposes of commercial navigation, but in the present distracted condition of central Asia, it does not appear probable that the peaceful pursuits of trade will be found lucrative for many years to come, and it is therefore very doubtful whether the ac- cupation of Scinde will produce such a demand for British manufac- tures as to defray the heavy expenses which its retention will neces- sarily involve. 742 MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER XIII. HISTORY OF CHINA. The Chinese, like the ancient Egyptians, lay claim to a most ex- travagant antiquity, but their authentic history does not commence till the age of Confucius, who flourished about five centuries before the Christian era. At the time of his birth, China was divided into a num- ber of independent states, which harassed each other by mutual wars, and his earliest efforts as a reformer were directed to unite them in one great confederation. He collected the old traditions of the country, and from them deduced a series of moral and political lessons, designed to form the basis of good government. His main principle was, that outward decorum is both the emblem and the test of goodness of heart ; ho therefore constructed a ritual strictly regulating every relation of life, both public and private, which was gradually received as a standard authority by the nation. Ching-whang, the founder of the Tsin dynasty, was the first who united all the Chinese under one sovereign ; and it is probable that the name China was adopted from that of his family. He is said to have erected the Great Wall, to restrain the incursions of the Tartars (b. c. 240), but this service was overbalanced by his cruelty and inveterate hostility to men of letters. Under the Han dynasty, which arose b. c. 202, the Huns began to invade China and frequently devastated the country ; they at length were induced to direct their march westward, and burst like a torrent into the Roman empire, while China continued tranquil. Under the Han dynasty, foreigners came to China for the first time ; literature was zealously cultivated, the art of printing invent- ed, and the laws collected into an orderly system. For these reasons the memory of the Hans is still cherished in China ; their dynasty ended a. d. 264. No very important event occurred in the history of China from the extinction of the Han dynasty until the invasion of the empire by the Mongols, under the celebrated Zingis Khan (a. d. 1234). The sover- eign who then ruled was cruel and cowardly ; town after town sub- mitted to the invaders, and at his death the Mongols possessed the greater part of the country, though the conquest was not completed till the year 1279, by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Zingis. Ze-ping, the infant son of the last emperor, sought shelter in the fleet, but the Mon- gols soon prepared a navy and pursued him. The Chinese and Mongol fleets met, and after an engagement which lasted an entire day, the former was totally defeated. When the Chinese admiral saw that escape was impossible, he went to the prince, who stood on the deck, and said, " It is better to die free than to dishonor our ancestors by an HISTORY OF CHINA. 743 inglorious captivity," then, without waiting for a reply, he caught the prince in his arms and jumped into the sea, where they both perished. The Mongols, though foreigners, were wise and beneficent rulers ; Kublai Khan constructed several canals, and made every possible ex- ertion to restore the agricidtural prosperity of China ; his grandson, Timur Khan, extirpated the bands of robbers that infested the country, and both labored to promote commercial intercourse with foreign na- tions. But on the failure of the direct royal line, the Mongols were so weakened by a war of disputed succession, that the Chinese easily drove them from the country, and placed a native dynasty on the throne (a. d. 1388). Choo-quen-chang, the conqueror of the Mongols and founder of the Ming dynasty, was the son of a poor laborer. In early ]ife he was destined for the priesthood, but his martial spirit induced him to enlist as a soldier. He very soon became so distinguished for courage and conduct that he was promoted to high rank ; his marriage to a lady of great wealth strengthened his influence, and he soon began to be re- garded as the leader of a party. So great was the hatred of the Chinese to their barbarian conquerors, that it required only a few months to drive the Mongols beyond the Great Wall ; they were pur- sued in their retreat and slaughtered without mercy. The new em- peror was a wise and prudent ruler ; his early death was a national misfortune, especially as it involved the country in the calamities of a disputed succession. The last of the Ming dynasty was Hwae-tsung. Very soon after his accession the king of the Mantchew Tartars advanced toward the fron- tiers, and issued a proclamation, declaring that he had been divinely summoned to assume the empire of China. There would have been, however, little reason to fear this invasion, had not rebellions in other quarters distracted the attention of the emperor. Bands of robbers in- fested the roads, and uniting themselves together under favorite chiefs, bade defiance to the imperial army. One of these, named Le, gained the favor of the populace by promising a remission of taxes ; (;rowds flocked to his standard, and entire battalions of the imperial army de- serted to him. Le no longer scrupled to declare himself emperor ; ho marched to Pekin, the soldiers intrusted with its defence threw down their arms, and the emperor was abandoned even by his domestic ser- vants. In his despair, he slew his children, and then strangled him- self, leaving behind him a written request that the conqueror would be satisfied with the destruction of the royal family, and not inflict any cru- elty on the people. Woo-san-kivei, a celebrated general, was stationed with a large army on the frontiers of Mantchew Tartary, when he received intelligence of these events. He resolved to avenge his master, and punish the usurp- er ; for this purpose he had not only made peace with the Mantchews, but solicited their active assistance. The Tartars gladly assented to a proposal which opened them a passage into China ; and acting with a rapidity of which their opponents had no idea, their progress was irre- sistible. The usurper Le was defeated in three great battles, but when the general wished to dismiss his allies, they not only refused to return, but took possession of Pekin, and proclaimed a Mantchew prince em- 744 MODERN HISTORY. poror. For many years the Chinese in different provinces sternly re- sisted the domination of the Tartars, but there was no harmony in their councils and no concert in their actions ; they were therefore succes- sively subdued, but not until the entire country had been so devastated that it ahnost became a desert (a. d. 1644). During this calamitous period, a pirate, named Coxinga, kept the entire coast of China in con- stant alarm ; he expelled the Dutch from the island of Formosa, which for a time flourished as an independent kingdom : but after his death, his son submitted to the Mantchews, and this noble island was annexed to the empire of China. Kang-he, the second of the Mantchew emperors, was ve ry anxious to make his subjects acquainted with the art.« and sciences of Europe ; he patronised the Jesuit missionaries who came to his court, and profit- ed so much by their instructions, as to become himself the author of a clever treatise on geometry. All his wishes, however, lo give a new turn to Chinese literature were frustrated ; the native men of letters re- fused to quit the tracks of their ancestors, and nothing new was conse- quently produced. Equally able in the cabinet and in the field, Kang-he was unquestionably, next to Kublai Khan, the greatest prince who ever sat on the throne of China. He revived the empire, distracted by re- peated rebellions, impoverished by long and ruinous wars, and oppressed by vicious administration. When he died (a. d. 1722), peace and tran- quillity pervaded all the provinces, and the unruly barbarians on the fron- tiers had been reduced to obedience. Yung-ching succeeded his father on the throne, but did not pursue the same enlightened policy. He put an effectual stop to improvement, by banishing the missionaries who had spread themselves over all the Chinese provinces, and only retained a few individuals at court, with whose services he could not dispense. It must, however, be confessed, that the intriguing spirit of the Jesuits had given some reasonable grounds for alarm, and that their extravagant assertions of papal supremacy might have infused suspicions of their designing to render the emperor de- pendant on the pope. In other respects Yung-ching was a good sov- ereign ; he preserved peace during his reign, and by prudent precau- tions h.3 averted the horrors of those famines that periodically devastated China. He died a. d. 1735, and was succeeded by his illegitimate son, Keon-lring. 7"he long reign of Keen-lung was almost wholly spent in wars with (he varous barbarous r&ces on the whole western frontier of China. There is no interest in the record of these savage contests, which were for the most part a series of ruthless massacres. He cruelly persecuted the Christians, whom he accused of treasonable designs without a shadow of reason ; and the relentless fury he displayed was eagerly seconded by the mandarins, who had been jealous of the superior intel- ligence of the missionaries. Keen-lung always thought that he had a just cause when he butchered whole tribes. After the defeat and mas- sacre of the Kalmuks, he erected a stone tablet at Ele, with the follow- ing inscription : " The tree which Heaven plants, though man may fell it, can not be unrooted : the tree which Heaven fells, though man may replant it, will never grow." The fame of Keen-lung extended to Europe, and missions from Hoi HISTORY OF CHINA. 745 land, England, and Russia, were sent to his court. These embassies did not produce the good expected from them : the Chinese, with all the conceit of ignorance, believed or pretended to believe themselves the only enlightened nation in the universe, and claimed homage from all others as barbarians. The emperor himself appears to have been free from these prejudices, but all the officers of state were opposed to an in- crease of foreign intercourse, which they feared would be fatal to their privileges. After a reign of sixty years, Keen-lung abdicated the throne in favor of his fifth son, Kia-king (a. d. 1795), and died three years afterward at the age of eighty-eight. His successor had all his \'ices, without any of his redeeming qualities ; his misconduct provoked frequent in- surrections, while his feeble administration encouraged the pirates to renew their depredations in the Chinese seas. Unfortunately the great- est maritime power in the world submitted to receive laws .Tom this feeble government. In 1808, a British squadron commanded by Admi- ral Drury was sent to take possession of the Portuguese settlement of Macao, and prevent it from falling into the hands of the French. The Chinese authorities at Canton became alarmed, and threatened to stop all trade unless the English garrison was withdrawn from Macao ; their demands were granted with a precipitation which closely resembled cowardice, and the Chinese erected a pyramid to commemorate wha* they were pleased to call their victory over the English. It must be ac- knowledged that the concessions then made to their arrogance have been the chief cause of the repeated insults they have since offered to the British flag. Kia-king's bitter hatred of Europeans was supposed by many to have arisen from the misrepresentations of the Canton authorities, and it was therefore resolved to send Lord Amherst as an ambassador to Pekin, for the purpose of establishing amicable relations between England and China. This embassy completely failed ; the officers of the imperial court prevented Lord Amherst from obtaining an audience, and he re- turned to Canton. In the meantime the Chinese had shown a disposi- tion to insult the naval forces that had conveyed the embassy, but a few shots from one of the frigates brought them to their senses, and the mission returned in safety. Kia-king died in 1820, and was succeeded by the reigning emperor, Tao-kwang, who is even more prejudiced against Europeans than his predecessor. Proclamations against the importation of opium were is- sued by the Chinese government, but the prohibited article continued to be largely smuggled into the country. At length Captain Elliot, the English resident at Canton, was compelled by the Chinese authorities to consent to the destruction of several cargoes of opium, and his prot- ests against the restraint to which he was subjected, were disregarded. War was declared against the emperor of China by the English govern- ment, and a large naval and military force sent against Canton. Canton and Ningpo, two of the most important cities in China, were taken by mere handfuls of British troops, and the immense masses collected in the imperial armies were unable to withstand an organized force rarely amounting to the tenth of their numbers. A treaty was at length nego- tiated, in which great concessions were very reluctantly made to tho ' ^ MODET»*- HISTORY. English demands : the island of Hong-kong was ceded to them in per petuity, five ports were freely opened to their trade, and the emperor consented to pay a large sum to defray the expenses of the war, and compensate for the large quantities of opium, the property of the British subjects, which had been destroyed at the commencement of the war. A nation so completely isolated by natural boundaries as the Chinese, having no neighbors but the barbarous tribes of Tartary, is of course disposed to indulge in national vanity. They believe that their country occupies the centre of the globe, and that " the middle kingdom," as they therefore call it, is unequalled on the earth. Their own laws and usages, the origin of which is lost in remote antiquity, appear to them perfect, and every successive government has shown itself a decided foe to innovation. But the Chinese are the only people that have per- severed in treating all foreigners as barbarians, and even when com- pelled to abate their absurd claims for the time, have invariably revived them on a more favorable opportunity. Hence it is impossible to nego- tiate with them according to the rules of European diplomacy, for until intimidated by defeat or terror, they will look upon attempts to form a treaty as signs of submission. It is singular that the Tartar conquerors of China have invariably adopted the institutions and prejudices of the vanquished ; but they have not succeeded in winning the affections of the nation. During the greater part of a century, insurrections have followed each other with frightful rapidity, and the Mantchew domina- tion has been more than once on the point of ruin. Secret societies exist at the present moment, formed to restore the ancient supremacy of the native Chinese, and it is not improbable that any signal humilia- tion of the imperial forces may lead to a revolution. HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 747 CHAPTER XIV. HISTORY OF THE JEWS. Is the " Manual of Ancient History," we sketched the history of the Jews from the days of the patriarchs to the suppression of the revolt of Bar-Cochab (a. d. 136) : it now remains to trace the fortunes of this singular race down to our own times, and briefly to exhibit their condi- tion at the present day. Though the number of Jews who perished in the successive over- throws of their nation was doubtless very great, we are by no means to believe that on any of these occasions the whole body fell into the hands of the victor ; in proof of the contrary, we may refer to the Jewish colo- nies which we early find in places to which their conquerors would not have transported them, and where, consequently, we must look upon them as located by their own choice. Beside other places of less im- portance, we have mention of a flourishing Jewish community in Rome before the Christian era ; and the travels of the apostles furnish evidence that shortly after that period they were to be met with in almost every •part of Asia, Greece, and northern Africa. Though their fathers in their own land had been noted for a proud contempt for all literature but their own, these colonists did not neglect the opportunities of mental culture thus laid open to them, and accordingly we find that many of the most learned philosophers of Alexandria were either Jews, or in tabits of such intimacy with them, as imply that the sciences were pur- sued with equal ardor by both parties. Indeed, it was only under such circumstances that that strange mixture of pagan, Jewish, and Christian dogmas, called Gnosticism, could have originated ; and this we know to have taken its rise in the schools of Alexandria. Though the Jews who spread over the east seem chiefly to have re- sorted to the more polished regions of Egypt or Babylon, circumstances induced many of them to repair to Arabia, and others penetrated even to China, where their reception seems to have been favorable. In the days of Mohammed, great numbers of Jews, wealthy, and possessed of political power, were found settled in the peninsula, whom the impostor endeavored in vain to conciliate. His successors granted them tolera- tion, and both parties being animated by a like hatred of the Christians, we often find them acting in concert, especially during the Saracen con- quest of Africa and Spain. The Abbaside khaliphs, who seized the throne of Islam from the Ommiade dynasty, were generally tolerant of the Jews ; the khaliph Almanzor, indeed, went so far as to restore their academies, and evinced 748 MODERN HISTORY. some taste for Hebrew literature himself. In the beginning of the ninth century, the khaliph Mamun caused the best of the Jewish books to be translated into Arabic, for the purpose of diffusing a taste for literature and science among his subjects. Several eminent men of Jewish race flourished at his court ; they were particularly famous for their skill in as- tronomy and medicine, which had up to this period been very slightly cultivated by the Saracens. The fame of the Jewish physicians was spread over all the Mohammedan countries, so that few of any other race could find employment ; but the wealth acquired by this lucrative profession excited the cupidity of several of the later khaliphs, who availed themselves of religious prejudices to gratify their avarice. Du- ring this season of persecution the Jews were frequently duped by false prophets and pretended messiahs, who induced them to raise partial in surrections, which only served to furnish a pretext for renewed perse- cutions. In the midst of their difficulties the khaliphate was overthrown by the barbarous Mongols, and the Jews were exposed to renewed per- secutions from the Saracens, who attributed to their impiety all the ca- lamities of the empire. From the death of Timur Lenk to the accession of Shah Abbas, the Jews, like the other inhabitants of Media and Persia, had to endure all the calamities arising from a violent war, a rapid conquest, and the long series of sanguinary wars for succession between the conqueror's de- scendants. At the accession of Shah Abbas, Persia was almost unin- habited ; and in order to obtain subjects, that monarch granted large privileges to all strangers willing to settle in his dominions. Numbers of Jews who were oppressed in other eastern countries accepted his offers, but their wealth soon excited suspicions, and the shah issued an edict that they should either embrace Islamism or prepare for death. The remonstrances of the Mohammedan priests prevented the execution of this sanguinaty edict, but legal protection was withdrawn from the persecuted race, and has not been again restored in the provinces sub- ject to Persia. The Jews from Africa crossed into Spain, and thence to Gaul, Ger- many, and even Britain. In Spain they were often subject to persecu- tion und« r the Gothic monarchs, which induced some to dissemble their faith, and others to leave the country. Of these latter, many re- tired to Africa, whence they returned with the Saracens, whom they materially assisted in the conquest of the country. Under the rule of the Spanish Moslems, the condition of the Jews was highly prosperous ; they cultivated science, were intrusted with the highest offices of the state, and enjoyed complete toleration ; indeed to this era belong the names of Rabbi Hasdai, Benjamin of Tudela, Isaac of Cordova, and numerous others, whose works have been preserved, and which prove their proficiency in almost every art or science then known. In more northern countries their state was materially different. Though their industry and abilities rendered them valuable to theii rulers, and some kw are to be found even in the courts of princes, they were as a body subject to the most galling restrictions, being in the eye of the law mere chattels of the superior lord, not human beings. Charlemagne, and his immediate successors, employed many of the Jews as their physicians, or as bankers, and even despatched them on ^ HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 749 important embassies ; but about the year 870, by a decree of the council of Meaux, they were declared incapable of filling any civil offices, and under Philip Augustus (a. d. 1180) they were stripped of their property, and banished from France. They soon returned, but were exposed to the most rigorous and unjust treatment ; Louis IX.. whose right to the title of Saint appears more than questionable, began the career of renewed persecution by forbidding the legal officers to seize the persons or estates of Christians indebted to Jews in default of payment ; catholics were strictly prohibited from employing Jewish physicians ; it was ordained that they should have only one synagogue and burial-ground in each diocese, that they should not exercise any of the higher industrial arts, and that they should wear some distinctive mark on a conspicuous part of their dress. In 1288 the oarliament of Paris fined the Jews for singing too loud in their synagogaes. Philip the Long pronounced sentence of banishment against them, but granted charters of protection to a few who were able to gratify his cupidity by large bribes. A strict search was made for those who dared to remain in the kingdom ; several were burned alive, and, as an additional insult, dogs were thrown on the funeral pile. A great number were slain with less ceremony by the populace, who practised all sorts of cruelty upon the unfortunate sufferers. In 1350 John revoked the edicts of banishment, and the Jews, grateful for his kindness, cheerfully aided him in raising the large ransom with which he purchased his deliver- ance from captivity in England. This tranquillity was disturbed by the renewal of persecution under Charles VI., but the edicts of in- tolerance were found so difficult of execution that they were permitted soon to sink into oblivion. Many of the popes commiserated the sufferings of the Jews, and en- deavored to restrain the fanaticism of their persecutors. Honorius III. issued a bull, forbidding the use of force in converting them to Chris- tianity, and menacing excommunication against those who insulted or injured them on account of their religion. Gregory IX., when a sudden burst of bigotry threatened the extermination of the Jews in every country in which they had settled, not only protected them in his own states, but wrote urgent letters in their behalf to all the monarchs of Europe. When the holy see was transferred to Avignon at the com- mencement of the fourteenth century, the favor shown to the Jews in Italy was continued, and the lot of those in France greatly alleviated. Avignon itself became the chief residence of the wealthy Jews, and their riches contributed not a little to the splendor of the pontifical court. After the popes had returned to Rome, several pontiffs exhibited less wise and humane policy toward the Jewish race. Gregory XIII., who celebrated the atrocious massacre of St. Bartholomew with public thanksgivings, was of course a persecutor of the Jews. He ordained ihat they should be subject to trial before the inquisition, for blasphemy, for ridiculing the ceremonies of the catholic religion, or for reading the Talmud and similar prohibited books. He further enjoined that all the Jews in Rome, above twelve years of age, should be assembled once a week to listen to a sermon in condemnation of their religion. Sixtus V. was a pontiff" of a different character ; on the 22d of October, 1586, 750 MODERN HISTORY. he re-established the Jews in all their municipal privileges, allowed them full right of citizenship in the Roman states, with power to hold houses and lands ; he restored their synagogues and burial-grounds, imposing on them only a very moderate tribute, and promising them exemption for the future from all arbitrary exactions. Subsequent popes revoked the tolerant edicts of Sixtus, but they did not revive the cruel code of Gregory XIII., and in general the Jews have been per- mitted to enjoy greater freedom and to hold their property with greater tranquillity in the papal states, than in most other countries of Christen- dom. Hence while the Spanish Jews generally favored the reformation, those of Italy regarded the progress of protestant opinion with complete indifference, and sometimes with avowed hostility. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, most of the great German cities had among their inhabitants numerous Jews, wealthy, intelligent, and polished in their manners, but their prosperity was at all times at the mercy of their rulers, and it was only by means of their purchased and precarious protection that even their lives were secure. At length arose the crusading spirit, and the Jews in Germany, to the number of many thousands, were its first victims. Again the fanatics who were preparing to march to the third crusade (a. d. 1188), butchered all the Jews they met with in Germany and Italy, and similar bar- barities were exercised in this and other countries, so that the annihila- tion of the devoted race seemed inevitable ; but this, like other storms, passed away. After a while the Jews again arose from the dust, some returned to their ancient habitations, and others pushed forward into the then almost unknown regions of Poland, where they at length be- came, and still continue, a very influential part of the population. At what period the Jews first reached Britain does not distinctly ap- pear ; but in the eighth century we find them reckoned among the property of the Anglo-Saxon kings, who seem to have exercised abso- lute power over both their lives and goods. In this state they re- mained under the Norman princes and the early Plantagenets, as is sufficiently testified by their butchery in the reign of Richard I. ; the conduct of John, who drew out a tooth daily till he obtained a large sum of money from a rich Jew ; the enormous fines levied on them by Henry III. ; and their expulsion by Edward I. (a. d. 1290), after the confiscation of all their property. The conduct of the monarchs was of course imitated by the nobles to the extent of their power, and the hatred of all classes was excited by marvellous stories of the cru- cifixion of Christian children, the profanation of the sacraments, and other improbable outrages, of which they were said, but never proved, to be guilty. As the Arabs lost their hold on Spain the Jews found themselves exposed to all the horrors of persecution. The inquisition was intro- duced, and after great numbers had been burnt, all who refused to be come Christians were expelled the kingdom, being allowed to retain only their moveable property (a. d. 1492) ; their number is said to have exceeded 800,000, and they chiefly took refuge in Africa and Turkey. They were treated in a similar manner in Portugal. But it soon appeared that Judaism, though suppressed, was by no means ex- tinguished in the peninsula, and the severity of the inquisition was HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 751 then exercised upon the nominal Christians ; such was the case also in Italy. Thus persecuted in every country under the influence of the see of Rome, the Jews at the era of the reformation eagerly flocked toward the rising protestant states, where they were at least sure of personal safety. This was more especially the case in Holland, where they were equitably treated, and where they are now exceedingly numerous. Although no repeal of the edict for their banishment had taken place, the Jews entered into some negotiations with Oliver Cromwell for their return to England, but which do not appear to have led to any result. At the time of the restoration they came in, in small num- bers, without exciting any particular notice, and have ever since re- mained unmolested. In 1753, an act was passed to facilitate their naturalization, but it was speedily repealed, and though popular feeling is less strong at present on the subject, the attempt to place them upon the same footing as other British subjects, though several times made, has been unsuccessful. In the course of the last and the present centuries the condition of the Jews in European countries has been greatly ameliorated. Maria Theresa of Austria, and, after her, most of the German states, have granted them equal privileges with Christians ; in France they enjoy every civil right ; in Poland they form the only middle class, and are found engaged in agriculture and manufactures ; in Italy, Spain, and Portugal, they now reside unmolested, and in many of the British colo- nies (as Malta, Gibraltar, and Jamaica), they are among the principal merchants and traders. Indeed, Russia is the only civilized state where they are now subject to anything like their former restrictions, or are looked upon with much of the antipathy of former days. In Moham- medan countries, however, they are still an obnoxious sect, against whom the most improbable charges are readily credited, a circum- stance frequently taken advantage of by the local governors. As might be expected with regard to a people so widely scattered, the most contradictory statements of the number of the Jews have been made, few of them being anything more than mere conjecture. The most probable statement seems to be that of the Weimar Almanac, which gives a total of about 3,200,000, reckoning near 2,000,000 in Europe, 740,000 in Asia, 500,000 in Africa, and 5,000 in America. fSia MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER XV. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Section I. — Colonial History. Several unsuccessful attempts to plant colonies within the limits of the United States were made in the sixteenth century ; but no perma- nent settlement was effected until the beginning of the seventeenth Before the close of that century, however, all the colonies composing the original thirteen states were established except one, that of Georgia In the reign of Elizabeth of England, the whole country between th thirty-fourth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude, received the nam^ of Virginia, in honor of the queen. In the next reign it was granted by royal charter to two companies formed for the purpose of settling it, the southern portion, called South Virginia, to the London company, and the northern, called North Virginia, to the Plymouth company. In 1607, one hundred and fifteen years from the discovery of San Salvador by Columbus, the first permanent settlement was made a) Jamestown under the auspices of the London company : and thus com- menced the planting of the colony of Virginia. In 1613 the settlement of Ncio York was begun by the Dutch, on the island of New York, then called Manhattan. The same year, a naval force from Virginia compelled the Dutch to acknowledge the sovereignty of the king of England : but it was not until 1664 that the colony was finally conquered and occupied by the English. In 1620 the colony of Plymouth was planted by English indepen- dents, who had for some years been settled in Holland. Two unsuc- cessful attempts had been previously made to form settlements in New England, one by the Plymouth company in 1607, at the mouth of the Kennebec river ; the other, a little later by the celebrated Capt. John Smith, the father of the Virginia colony. In 1628 the Massachusetts colony was established by a company under a grant of lands from the Plymouth company. The first settle- ment was at Salem. Shortly after Charlestown, Boston, and the towns adjacent, were settled. In 1692, the Plymouth colony was incorpo- rated with that of Massachusetts. Up to this time it had remained a voluntary association, governed by regulations made by the settlers among themselves. In 1623, the settlement of New Hampshire was begun at the mouth of the Piscataqua river, and subsequently at Dover, Portsmouth, and Exeter. These three settlements continued distinct and independent governments until 1641, when they united in coming under the govern- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 753 ment of Massachusetts. In 1679 New Hampshire was by a royal or« dinance erected into a separate province. New Jersey was first settled by the Danes about the year 1624 ; and shortly after some Dutch families planted themselves in the vicinity of New York. In 1655, Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New York, conquered the country, which was finally occupied by the English on the conquest of New York in 1664. Delaware was first occupied by the Swedes in 1627. The Dutch, however, disputed the possession of it with them, from the first, and in 1655 obtained and held it until it fell into the power of the English along with New York and New Jersey in 1664i. Most of the Swedes, after the Dutch conquest, left the country. Maine was settled in 1639. The first town founded was York. This province was united to Massachusetts in 1652, and so contii ued until 1820. Maryland was settled in 1634 by English Roman catholics, under a patent to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, by whom a colony was planted at the mouth of the Potomac, at a place called St. Mary. The first settlement in Connecticut was begun in 1635 at Hartford and its vicinity, by a company from Massachusetts. In 1638, New Ha- ven was settled, and with the towns around it was called the colony of New Haven ; but in 1662, it was united to the colony of Connecticut. The settlement of Rhode Island dates from 1636, when Roger Wil- liams, banished from Massachusetts on account of his religious princi- ples (which were those of the baptists), established the town of Provi- ience. Rhode Island itself was occupied in 1638, by persons also Iriven from Massachusetts by religious persecution. Roger Williams ffas a man far in advance of his time. To him belongs the eminent jlory of giving the first practical example of religious toleration. The Providence and Rhode Island colonies were politically united in 644. North Carolina was occupied by settlers from Virginia between the years 1640 and 1650. They established themselves on lands north of Albemarle sound. It became a distinct colony in 1729. In 1670 the settlement of South Carolina was begun at Port Royal ; but the colony removed the next year, and founded a town which was called Charleston; but in 1680 this place was abandoned, and the settlement of the present city of Charleston commenced. Pennsylvania was settled in 1682, under a royal grant to William Penn. Thi colony had a more rapid and prosperous growth than any of the other colonies, owing partly to the later date of its settlement when the obstacles to colonization had become less, and partly to the mildness and equity of its laws and administration. Georgia was not colonized till 1733. It was then settled under a patent granted to twenty-one trustees, for the purpose of giving land gratuitously to indigent subjects of Great Britain. Liberal donations were made by benevolent persons to defray the expense of transporting ind providing for the settlers. The first place founded was Savannah. The limits of this sketch will not permit any details in regard to the history of the separate colonies, the dates of whose settlement hav« 48 754 MODERN HISTORY. now been given A few matters of more general interest can only be noted. In 1643, the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven, formed a union by articles of confederation, imder the style of "The United Colonies of New England." To protect themselves against the Indians, and against the claims and encroachments of the Dutch of New Netherlands (as New York was then called), were the motives of this confederation. Rhode Island, refusing to merge her political existence under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, was excluded from the union. The conquest of New York, New Jersey, and Dela- ware, in 1664, brought the whole country, from Maine to Carolina, under the dominion of the English. In 1675 New England was afflicted by a memorable war with the Indians, called King Philip's tvar, from the name of an Indian sachem of great abilities, who combined the Indian tribes against the English. The capture and death of Philip the following year put an end to the war, in which New England suffered the loss of six hundred men, the flower of her strength, twelve or thirteen towns destroyed, and six hundred dwellings consumed. In 1676 a rebellion broke out in Virginia, known as " Bacon's rebel- lion" from the name of the leader, an able and ambitious man, who seized, and for some months maintained, the supreme authority. His death put an end to the civil war. The causes of this rebellion wera oppressive restrictions on comnierce, and heavy taxes imposed bj Governor Berkley. During the reign of James II. the New England colonies were severely oppressed. The king revoked the charters and assumed the government into his own hands, appointing Sir Edmund Andros gov- ernor. Under his arbitrary and tyrannical administration the colonies suffered until the accession of William and Mary in 1689. The news of the abdication of James, and the accession of William and Mary to the English throne was the signal for a revolutioyi in New England. Sir Edmund Andros was deposed and imprisoned. Con- necticut and Rhode Island resumed their charters and were allowed to retain them. Massachusetts obtained a new charter, in some respects preferable to its former one. In New York, where Sir Edmund Andros had formerly been the tyrannical governor, and where his successors had generally followed his example, the discontents of the people led likewise to a revolution, which at length resulted in a constitution ; but the collisions between the colonial assemblies and the royal governors retarded the restoration of peace and prosperity to the colony. It will be proper here to advert to the forms of government vtiich prevailed in the several colonies. These were of three sonts — the charter ; the royal ; and the proprietary. 1. The CHARTER governments. These were confined to New Eng land. By their charters the people of these colonies were expressly entitled to all the privileges of British born subjects ; and invested with the legislative, judicial, and executive powers of government. They chose their governors and legislative bodies, and estaoiished their own HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 755 lourts. Their legislatures were, however, restrained from passing any laws contrary to those of England. The crown claimed the right of revoking the charters ; but this was denied by the colonists, unless they were forfeited for cause. They were sometimes declared forfeited, or forcibly revoked, as we have just seen in the reign of James II. The disputes arising on this subject were one of the causes of the revolution. 2. The ROYAL governments. These were Virginia, New York, and subsequently, North and South Carolina and New Jersey. In these colonies, the people had legislative assemblies of their own choosing ; but the governor and council were appointed by the crown, who had a negative on all proceedings of the popular assemblies, and also the appointment of the judges and most of the administrative officers. The sources of grievance in these colonies were the arbitrary conduct of the governors, and the claim of absolute power by the crown ,o negative the acts of the assemblies. 3. The PROPRIETARY governments. These were Maryland and Penn- sylvania, and, at first, the Carolinas and Jerseys. In these colonies, the proprietors, or individuals to whom the territories had been granted by the crown, were empowered, under certain limitations reserved by the crown, to establish civil governments and to make laws. There were in most cases colonial assemblies, partly summoned by the pro- prietors, and partly chosen by the people. Perpetual quarrels arose be- tween the people and the proprietors, chiefly respecting the prerogative exercised by the latter of repealing or negativing the acts of the as- semblies. At the time of the accession of William III., in 1689, the population of the colonies is estimated to have exceeded two hundred thousand. There was but little trade or commerce except with England, whence the colonists derived all their merchandise, sending thither in return tobacco, poltry, some pork, and fish. Agriculture was the principal employment ; and the manufactures in use were principally limited to the most common articles of necessity and convenience, and these were mostly imported from England. The year 16i^2 is signalized in the annals of New England by the commencement of the trials for witchcraft. This fanatic delusion went on increasing until abevit twenty persons were publicly executed ; one hundred and fifty were in prison, and two hundred more were accused. The phrensy then subsided as suddenly as it had sprung up and spread. The principal theatre of these deplorable scenes was in Salem, Massa- chusetts, and the neighboring towns, though there were some cases in Connecticut. The English revolution, which placed William III. on the throne, while it freed the colonies from the oppressions they endured during the reign of his predecessor, involved them in the calamities of the war between France and England, which lasted from 1690 to the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The French in Canada directed an expedition against the English colonies, instigating the Indians to join them in their hostilities. In return, an armament was fitted out by Massachu- setts for the invasion of the French settlements. Port Royal in Nova 756 MODERN HISTORY Scotia was taken. A second expedition was undertaken by the colo« nies of New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, for the reduction of Montreal and Quebec. It failed in its object, and had the effect of producing dissatisfaction among the Indian tribes in New York, whc were the allies of the English. This war, commonly called King Wil- liam's war, was marked by the most savage atrocities on the part of the French and Indians. Scarcely had the colonies begun to recover from this war, when in 1702 they were plunged into another with the French, Indians, and Spaniards, commonly called Queen Anne's war, arising from disputes about the boundaries, which had been left unsettled at the peace of Ryswick. The colonies of Massachusetts and New Hampshire were the chief sufterers, being most exposed to the devastating and murder- ous incursions of the French and Indians from Canada. Several expe- ditions were sent into Canada ; but the only success that attended the English arms was the taking again of Port Royal, which had been re- stored to the French at the close of the former war. It was now named Annapolis. The peace of Utrecht, in 1713, put an end to the war in the northern colonies ; but South Carolina continued to be an- noyed for some time by the Indians. By the treaty of Utrecht, France ceded Nevvfoundland and Nova Scotia to England. In 1744, England again declared war against France and Spain, which again involved the colonies in hostilities with the enemies of the mother-country and with their Indian allies. The principal event of this war, in America, was the capture of Louisburg from the French by forces from New England. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 again gave peace to the colonies. Prisoners were to be released on both sides without ransom, and all conquests to be mutually restored. This war was extremely disastrous to the colonies. Many lives were lost ; the growth of population was checked ; great losses were sustained in the commercial interests of the country ; and finally a bur- densome debt of several millions had been incurred to defray the ex- penses of the war. With the return of peace, however, commerce revived ; the settlements began to extend, and public credit was restored. But only a brief interval of repose was allowed to the colonies. In 1756, eight years from the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Great Britain again declared war against France, on the ground of the encroachments of the French upon the English territories in America. Some years previous to this war the French had commenced a chain of posts, designed to extend from the head of the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi, with a view to maintain a communication between their northern possessions and Louisiana. In 1750, the English government granted a large tract of land on the Ohio river to a company called the Ohio company, formed for the pur- pose of settling the country, and carrying on a trade in furs wi.h the Indians. The French governor of Canada, apprehending both the loss of the fur-trade and the interruption of his communications with Louis- iana, claimed the whole country between the Ohio and the Alleganies, and prohibited the further encroachments of the English. He also opened a new communication between Lake Erie and the Ohio, and stationed troops at posts along the line. The Ohio company, thus HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 757 threatened in their trade, persuaded Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia, in 1753, to send a remonstrance to the French commandant. George Washington was the bearer. The commandant returned for answer that he had taken possession of the country by order of the governor- general of Canada, whose orders alone he could regard. The British government, on learning the claim set up by the French, directed the Virginians to resist it by force. In 1754, an expedition was conducted against the French by Washington ; but the superior force of the French obliged him to capitulate, with the privilege of re- turning with his troops to Virginia. This was properly the commence- ment of what is commonly styled the French war, although the formal declaration was not yet made. In the meantime, the British government recommended the colonies to unite for their common defence. A convention of delegates from all the northern colonies accordingly met at Albany in 1754, ar.d adopted a plan of union ; but it was rejected, both by the provincial assemblies and by the home government : by the former because it gave too much power to the crown, and by the latter because it gave too little. In the spring of 1755, vigorous preparations were made for carrying on the war. An expedition was sent against Nova Scotia, which met with entire success : the colonial forces, with trifling loss, subdued the French, and gained complete and permanent possession of the whole country. An expedition under General Braddock, directed against the French on the Ohio, was unfortunate. Owing to the arrogance and rashness of the commander, the British troops were surprised and defeated with great loss by a very inferior force of French and Indians. General Braddock was mortally wounded, and the conduct of the retreat de- volved on Washington, who was in command of the colonial militia, and by whom the army was saved from total destruction. The American arms were more successful in the north. The French were signally defeated on the borders of Lake George, and their com- mander, Baron Dieskau, was mortally wounded. The moral effect of this victory, following within a few weeks the discomfiture of Braddock, was very great and salutary in its influence upon the colonies. Thf next year, 1756, war was formally declared between Great Britain and France ; and in Europe began what is called the severt years' war, in which Prussia was united with England against France. In America the campaign of 1756 was very disastrous to the colonists ; they were unable even to attempt gaining possession of Niagara and Crown Point, places of great importance in the hands of the French, and the reduction of which was in the plan of operations. The French, under Montcalm, took Fort Oswego, thus gaining entire command of Lakes Ontario and Erie, besides inflicting upon the English a very se- vere loss, amounting to sixteen hundred men made prisoners, one hun- dred and twenty cannon, with fourteen mortars, two sloops-of-war, and two hundred bateaux. The British government made great preparations for the campaign of 1757. A large force was destined for the reduction of Louisburg ; but the indecision and incapacity of Lord Loudon, the commander-in-chief, caused the expedition to be abandoned. Meantime, Montcalm, the 758 MODERN HISTORY. Frencli commander, besieged and took Fort William Henry, on Lake George, after a most spirited defence by Colonel Mimroe. The Eng- lish troops, after being admitted to honorable capitulation, were treach- erously massacred by the Indians attached to Montcalm's army. The campaign of 1758 was more prosperous. Lord Chatham had now become prime minister, and infused new energy into the prosecu- tion of the war. In answer to a call made by him upon the colonies, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire, united in raising fif- teen thousand men. The tide of success now turned in favor of the English. Three expeditions had been planned : one against Louisburg, another against Ticonderoga, and the third against Fort du Quesne on the Ohio. Louisburg was taken, with great loss to the French in prisoners, ships, and munitions of war. Fort du Quesne was abandoned by the French, taken possession of by the English, and named Pitts- burgh. The expedition against Ticonderoga failed, but the failure was compensated by the capture of Fort Frontinac, an important fortress at the outlet of Lake Ontario. The campaign of 1759 commenced with a nearly simultaneous attack upon all the French strongholds in Canada, namely, Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec. One division of the army, under General Amherst, the commander-in-chief, proceeded against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which were successively taken. Another division, under General Prideaux, advanced and took Niagara. General Wolfe was no less successful in the great enterprise of conquering Quebec. The French, under Montcalm, were defeated on the plains of Abraham, and Quebec fell into the hands of the British. General Wolfe died upon the field of battle. In 1760, the French made an unsuccessful attempt to recover Quebec. In less than a year from the capture of that city, Montreal, Detroit, and all other places in the possession of the French, were surrendered to the British, and the conquest of Canada was completed. By the treaty of peace definitively concluded at Paris in 1763, Nova Scotia, Canada, Cape Breton, and all other islands in the gulf and river St. Lawrence, were ceded to the British crown. Thus it appears that in the seventy-one years from 1689 to 1760, the colonies were involved in four wars, occupying in all twenty-seven years. Yet during this period the population had increased from two hundred thousand to about three millions. The arts and manufactures, being opposed by the mother-country, made but little progress ; but there was a steady advancement in agriculture. Trade and commerce had gone on very greatly increasing — so much, that in the ten years preceding the revolutionary war, the average annual exports to Great Britain and elsewhere amounted to four million pounds sterling, and the imports to three and a half millions. In the meantime, colleges and other superior institutions of learning had been established in nearly all the colonies, and popular instruction provided for, especially in New England ; the country was advancing in intellectual culture ; and more than all, the necessity of uniting for the common defence, and the intercourse between the colonies that grew out of it, had tended to create a national spirit, which the events HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 759 of the twelve years succeeding the peace of Paris still further developed and strengthened. Section II. — Revolutionary History. In 1775, twelve years from the peace of Paris, began the war which terminated in the final separation of the United States from the British empire. We will briefly glance at the causes of this revolution. The colonists, from the first, always cherished a jealous sense of their rights : as early as the middle of the seventeenth century, it was a settled doctrine among them that the authority of parliame li was limited to the regulation of trade, and that taxes could not be imposed upon them without their own consent. Previous, indeed, to the peace of Paris, the home government had never attempted to interfere witn internal taxa- tion. For a century, however, before that event, a variety of restric- tions had from time to time been imposed upon the trade of the colonies, the object of which was to oblige the colonists to buy and sell exclu- sively in the English markets. Colonial manufactures were also in every possible way discouraged. These restrictions produced much discontent and ill-blood. In 1764, the first act avowedly for the purpose of raising a revenue in America was passed in parliament. This was followed the next year (March 22, 1765) by the famous Stamp Acf, making void all bonds, notes, and such like instruments, unless written on stamped paper, upon which a duty to the crown was imposed. These acts excited great dis- pleasure throughout the colonies ; and in October a congress of delegates. from Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jer- sey, Maryland, and South Carolina, met at New York, and passed sev- eral resolutions, acknowledging the rightful authority of parliament, but denouncing the stamp act and other acts, as subversive of the just rights and liberties of the colonists as natural-born English subjects. The proceedings of this body were sanctioned by all the colonies. The public indignation, inflamed by newspapers, pamphlets, and popular meetings, rose to the highest pitch ; combinations were everywhere formed to abstain from using articles of British merchandise, and in every way to oppose the measures of the home government. The offi- cers appointed under the stamp act were in many places insulted, abused, and forced to resign ; and when the first of September, the day for the act to go into operation, arrived, neither stamps nor stamp-officers were to be found. Business of all kinds requiring stamps was for a time suspended ; law proceedings were stayed, the courts shut, and mar- riages ceased to be celebrated. The next year (March 18, 1766) the stamp act was repealed, though the repeal was accompanied by a declaration of the " right of parliament to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." In a few months from this time, a new ministry came into power, and a new plan for taxing Amer- ica was introduced into parliament, namely, by laying a duty on glass, paper, pasteboard, painters' colors, and tea, imported into the colonies. The bill imposing these duties and providing for their collection by a new customV.ouse system, was passed June 29, 1767. A body of troops was soon after sent out and quartered in Boston. These meas- 760 MODERN HISTORY. ures produced great exasperation in the colonies, and led to combinations against using the articles subjected to duty. In 1770, this act was re- pealed, with the exception of the duty on tea. The colonists were only the more decided in renouncing the use of that article. An act of par- liament was passed in 1773, allowing the East India company such a drawback of duties on teas exported to America that they could aflbrd to sell them there cheaper than in England. This was done with the hope of inducing the colonists to return to the use of the article. Large shipments were accordingly made ; but the Americans refused to pay the slight duty upon it ; the cargoes sent to New York and Philadelphia were not suffered to be landed ; in Charleston it was not allowed to be put to sale ; and at Boston it was thrown into the sou by a party of men disguised as Indians. These proceedings excited the fierce displeasure of the British government, especially against Boston ; and in March, \774, the " Bosto7i Port Bill," so called, was passed, prohibiting all commercial intercourse with that town. Another bill subverted the charter government of Massachusetts, vesting the appointment of the council and judges in the crown ; and a third shortly after empowered the governor to send persons indicted for capital offences to another colony or to Great Britain for trial. These violent proceedings awakened the greatest indignation through- out the colonies. All made common cause with Massachusetts. On the 5th of September a general congress met at Philadelphia, and adopted a declaration of rights and grievances, and agreed to an entire suspension of all commercial intercourse with Great Britain until the repeal of the acts of which they complained. They likewise voted an address to the king, another to the people of Great Britain, and a third to the inhabitants of Canada. These peaceful measures for redress proving ineffectual, the feeling of the necessity of resisting by force became quite general in the colonies. Preparations began to be made ; warlike stores were collected, and the citizens began to arm. In Massachusetts Governor Gage had convoked the legislative as- sembly for the 5th of October, 1774, but afterward judged it expedient to countermand the writs. The assembly notwithstanding convened, and the governor not appearing, organized themselves and adopted a plan for the defence of the province. In November they met again and resolved to raise a force of twelve thousand men, and to request the other New England states to increase the number to twenty thousand. Early the next year, 1775, parliament, in spite of the conciliatory counsels of the Earl of Chatham, proceeded to pass a bill restraining still further the trade of New England. Soon after they imposed re- strictions upon the middle and southern colonies, except New York, Delaware, and North Carolina. This exception was made with a view to produce dissension among the colonies : but it failed of its object. This brings us to the commencement of actual hostilities. General Gage, the royal governor of Massachusetts, sent a detachment of eight hundred soldiers to destroy some military stores deposited at Concord. On their way, they arrived at Lexington on the morning of the 19th of April, 1775, where they found a company of provincial militia assem- bled on parade. This company, not instantly obeying an order to throw down their arms and disperse, were fired upon and eight of their HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 761 number killed. The detachment proceeded to Concord and destroyed the stores, though not without opposition and bloodshed. But the spirit of the people was up, and on their return to Boston the British were harassed the whole way, and continually fired upon from behind walls, buildings, and fences. The British loss, in killed, wounded, and missing, amounted to nearly three hundred : the American to less than a hundred. The war was now begun in good earnest. The important fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point were taken by the Americans ; and soon after (June 17, 1775) the memorable battle of Bunker's Hill was fought. The result of this engagement, though the Americans, from failure of ammunition, were obliged to retreat, was in its moral effect equal to a victory. The British loss was wo hundred and twenty-six killed, and eight hundred and twenty-eight wounded. The Americans lost one hundred and thirty-nine killed, and three hundred and fourteen wounded and missing. The second continental congress was at this time in session, having met at Philadelphia on the 10th of May, and resolved to organize c.x\ army. On the 15th of June, George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief. He proceeded at once to the American army amounting to about 14,000 men, posted in the environs of Boston. The British occupied Boston, Bunker's and Breed's hill, and Boston Neck. The first cares of the commander-in-chief were directed to in- troducing discipline, order, and system, into the army. Meantime, an expedition against Canada was planned. St. John's and Montreal were successively taken ; Quebec was unsuccessfully besieged. General Montgomery, the commander of the expedition, fell beneath its walls. The Americans, for want of adequate forces, were obliged to retire from Canada. In March, 1776, General Washington executed a plan for driving the British from Boston, by seizing and fortifying Dorchester heights, and thus getting command of the harbor and British shipping. On the 17th the British forces evacuated the town and sailed for HaliAxx. In the month of June, General Clinton and Sir Peter Parker made an attack on Fort Moultrie, near Charleston, South Carolina ; but were repulsed with considerable loss. Congress meanwhile continued in session, and on the 4th of July adopted the memorable Declaration of Independence. This declaration was received with every demonstration of joyous enthusiasm throughout the colonies. The royal authority had been everywhere entirely sub- verted the year before : the revolution was now in a political sense completed ; but the war for its establishment was yet to be waged. Shortly after the evacuation of Boston by the British, General Wash- ington removed to New York, making that place his headquarters. The American forces in and around the city were about 17,000 men, of whom a part were encamped near Brooklyn, on Long Island, under the command of General Sullivan. In June following, General Howe with the forces from Halifax, arrived near New York, and was shortly after joined by his brother Admiral Lord Howe, with a reinforcement of troops, a strong naval force, and abundant military stores. The Bjrmy under General Howe now amounted to twenty-four thousand. 762 MODEP' HISTORY. On the 27th of August, the Americans on Long Island were attacked and defeated with the loss of upward of a thousand men. Generals Sullivan, Woodhull, and Lord Sterling, were taken prisoners. Genera] Washington crossed over from New York during this enga-gement and witnessed the defeat of his best troops with indescribable anguish. He immediately withdrew the American forces from Long Island and shortly afterward from New York, which was taken possession of by the British. Washington at first took position at Harlem heights, but soon retired to White Plains. Here on the 28th of September a battle was fought, but without any decided advantage to either side. General Washington had adopted the policy of wearing out the enemy by keep- ing them in perpetual pursuit, and avoiding any general engagement for the present, and by engaging in skirmishes whenever he could do so with decided advantage. In pursuance of this policy he withdrew from White Plains, leaving part of his army in a position a few miles from there, crossed the Hudson, and took post near Fort Lee. The British general having been thus far baffled in his attempts to draw on a general engagement, turned his forces against Fort Washington and Fort Lee. The former was first attacked, and after a spirited defence was taken, with between 2,000 and 3,000 men made prisoners. The garrison of Fort Lee abandoned the place and joined Washington, who was now at Newark. The forces with the commander-in-chief were now reduced to three thousand men, and they were destitute of tents, blankets, and even of utensils to cook their provisions. Pursued by the enemy, Washington retreated successively to Brunswick, Princeton, Trenton, and finally across the Delaware into Pennsylvania. So hot was the pursuit that the rear of the American army was often in sight of the van of the enemy. This retreat through New Jersey was the darkest hour of the revolu- tionary struggle. On the same day that Washington was driven across the Delaware, the British took possession of Rhode Island. They were already in possession of New York and New Jersey. The divis- ion of the army with Washington was continually diminishing by the discharge of the militia whose term of service expired, and by desertion of the regulars. The militia of New Jersey and Pennsylvania disre- garded the call made upon them ; and the handful of men that remained with Washington were exposed in an open country, without tools to intrench themselves, suffering the greatest hardships and privations in the midst of a population of whom many were hostile and all disheart- ened. A general gloom and despondency hung over the country. But nothing could shake the constancy of Washington. Being at length reinforced by some militia and by the second division of the regular army that had been left in New York under General Lee, but which (in consequence of that general being surprised and taken prisoner by the British) was then in command of General Sullivan, his forces now amounted to about 7,000 men. Feeling the absolute necessity of doing something to rouse the army and the country from the depression that was weighing down all minds, Washington crossed the Delaware with a detachment of his army, surprised and took prisoners a body of a thousand Hessians, with the loss of but nine men on his own side. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 763 Soon after evading by night the British who were encamped at Tren- ton in the confident expectation of forcil^ him to a general engagement the next day, he marched upon Princeton where a part of the British force had been left, routed and put to flight two regiments which he met on his way, and captured nearly the whole of another. These brilliant afiairs turned the tide. The British immediately evacuated Trenton, and retreated to New Brunswick ; the inhabitants, stung to revenge by the brutalities they had suffered, took courage, and the enemy wei"e driven from every post in New Jersey, except Amboy and New Brunswick ; and Washington went into secure winter quarters at Morristown. Thus closed the campaign of 1776. During the darkest period of this campaign the American congress showed no sign of dismay. They adopted articles of confederation for a perpetual union of the states ; took measures for raising a new army with a larger term of enlistment ; created a paper currency ; and sol- emnly proclaimed that they would listen to no terms of peace short of independence. They sent commissioners to France to treat for the acknowledgment of their independence and for aid in their struggle. The cause of America was popular at the French court ; countenance and assistance- were at once in various ways secretly given. Many French officers became desirous of enlisting in the struggle, among whom was the young Marquis de la Fayette, who arrived in season to take part in the next campaign. The campaign of 1777. In May, Washington broke up his winter encampment at Morristown. His army now amounted to little more than 7,000 men. The British also removed from New Brunswick. No decided movement was made till August, when General Howe, the British commander, sailed for the Chesapeake with 16,000 men. Washington immediately put his army in motion to save Philadelphia from falling into the enemy's hands. The two armies met at Brandy- wina, September 11, and the Americans, after fighting nearly all day, were forced to retire. In this battle La Fayette was wounded in the leg After another ineffectual attempt to save Philadelphia, Washing- ton was obliged to withdraw his force, and General Howe entered .lie city. Congress adjourned to Lancaster. On the 4th of October, Washington attacked a part of the British army posted at Germantoivn, but was repulsed with a loss double that of the enemy. After this the British remained for some time inactive at Philadelphia. But while the southern army under Washington accomplished so little, brilliant success crowned the army of the north. As a part of the plan formed by the British, General Burgoyne invaded the states from the north, with a view to form a communication between Canada and New York, and cut oflf New Eni^and from the more southern states. After various movements — in the course of which Ticonderoga was abandoned by the Americans, and a detachment of the British was defeated at Bennington — the two armies met at Saratoga, where, after two severe engagements, General Burgoyne, finding himself hemmed in without chance of escape, and his provisions reduced to a three days' supply, found himself under the necessity of surrendering to General 764 MODERN HISTORY. Gates, with his whole army, consisting of five thousand and se\en hundred effective men. This event was hailed throughout the country with transports of joy. Its moral effect was every way important. Among its consequences was the acknowledgment of the independence of the United States by France, and the conclusion of a treaty of alliance and commerce be- tween the two nations. The campaign was terminated by the British army going into winter quarters at Philadelphia, and the American at Valley Forge, about fifteen miles distant. The hardships and suffer- ings of the American army this winter, from badness of shelter, destitu- tion of clothing, and scarcity of food, with consequent sickness, were intense. Campaign of 1778. The intelligence of the alliance between Amer- ica and France, determined the British to evacuate Philadclphu . They began their retreat to New York on the 18th of June. General Wash- ington crossed the Delaware in pursuit, and on the 28th an engagement took place at Monmouth, in New Jersey. Night broke off the battle, but the Americans on the whole gained the advantage, passing the night on the field, intending to renew the attack in the morning. But imder cover of the night, the British general made good his retreat. Toward the close of this year, the southern states became the theatre of the operations of the enemy. Savannah was taken, and with it the whole state of Georgia fell into the hands of the English. The campaign of 1779 was marked by nothing memorable or deci- sive. An attempt was made to recover Savannah and Georgia by the combined forces of the Americans, under General Lmcoln, and the French, under Count D'Estaing, who had arrived the year before with twelve ships-of-the-line and six frigates. Several British vessels-of-war were taken, but the attempt to reduce Savannah failed. D'Estaing left the continent. The enemy limited their efforts this year chiefly to predatory expedi- tions, fitted out from New York, with a view to distress and impoverish the country. An expedition of this kind was sent to Virginia ; New Haven, in Connect:jut, was plundered ; and Fairfield, Norwalk, and some other towns in the same state, were wantonly burnt. With the exception of taking Stony Point (July 15), and sending an expedition against the Six Nations of Indians, little was done or at- tempted by the Americans. This is attributable partly to the disappoint- ment of the country with respect to the advantage they expected from the aid of D'Estaing and the French, but still more to the embarrass- ments and difficulties which resulted from the depreciation of the " con- tinental currency," as the bills of credit issued by Congress were called The amount in circulation had now risen to nearly two hundred millions of dollars ; and so great was the depreciation, that it is said " four months' pay of a private would not procure his family a single bushel of wheat, and the pay of a colonel would not purchase oats for his horse." Under circumstances like these, the wisdom and pru- dence of Washington were tasked to the utmost to keep an Army together HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 765 The campaign of 1780 was marked by more important events. Sir Henry Clinton, leaving General Kniphausen in command at New York, conducted a force of between seven and eight thousand men against Charleston, South Carolina. General Lincoln, who was in command of the army of the south, attempted to defend the place, but was obliged to capitulate, and his army, amounting to five thousand men, became prisoners. Sir Henry Clinton soon returned to New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis with four thousand men in South Carolina. General Gates succeeded General Lincoln in command of the Amer- ican army of the south. On the 16th of August, a bloody battle was fought at Camden, in which the Americans were defeated. Meanwhile, at the north, the British continued their system of im- poverishing the country by marauding expeditions sent out from New- York, In July, arrived at Rhode Island a French fleet of seven sail-of~ the-line, five frigates, and five smaller armed vessels, and several trans- ports, with six thousand men, under the command of Count de Rocham- beau. Great was the joy and great were the hopes inspired by this event ; but the British naval force was still the greatest ; and boih the French fleet and army were for some time prevented from aiding the Americans, by being blocked up at Rhode Island. This year is memorable in the annals of the war, for the treachery of General Arnold, and the sad fate of Major Andre. Arnold was in command of the important fortress of West Point, and engaged to betray it into the hands of the enemy. Major Andre was the agent employed by the British general in conducting the negotiation. The plot was discovered : Arnold fled to the British, and Andre was taken and hung as a spy. The campaign of 1781 was opened by an inauspicious event, the re- volt of the Pennsylvania line-of-the-army, occasioned by want of pay, C-Dthing, and provisions. Their grievances were considerately exam- ined and redressed by congress, and the mutiny subsided. Virginia was meanwhile suffering from the marauding incursions of the British, commanded by the traitor Arnold. In the south. General Greene succeeded General Gates. Lord Corn- wallis was preparing to invade North Carolina, but unwilling to leave an enemy in his rear, sent Colonel Tarleton to engage General Morgan, whom Greene had put in command of one division of his army, and s;;a- tioned in the western part of South Carolina. They met at Cowpens, on the 17th of January, and more than one thousand of the choicest veterans of the British army were defeated by scarcely fi\e hundred Americans, chiefly militia. This was the most brilliant affair of the war. Hereupon Lord Cornwallis went in pur^m't of Gresne, wbo ovaied him urtil the 8th of March, when, having received a reinforcement, he marched against the I'r'tish, and a general engagement took place at Guilford Courthouse, which was decided in favor of the enemy. Gen- eral Greene then led his forces to South Carolina, to attack Lord Raw- don at Camden. A battle was fought, March 25, and Greene was obliged to retreat. Meanwhile General Lee, with a detachment des- 766 MODERN HISTORY. patched for that purpose, took possession of a post at Mottes, near the junction of the Santee and Congaree rivers. This led the 13ritish to evacuate Camden and their whole line of posts, except Ninety-six and Charleston. Not long after, Ninety-six was abandoned, and the British encamped at Eutaw Springs, forty miles from Charleston. Here, on the 8th of September following, an indecisive battle was fought. I'he British now retired to Charleston. After the battle of Guilford, Lord Cornvvallis began his march to Vir- ginia, where he arrived on the 20th of May. General Lafayette hast- ened to oppose him, and to cut off the reinforcements which were march- ing to join him. In this he failed. Cornwallis's force now amounted to eight thousand men. Lafayette was obliged by inferiority of num- bers to avoid a battle, and continued to retreat, manceuvring with great prudence and skill. Cornwallis at length retired to Yorktowrij ; ear the mouth of York river, and fortified himself there. The plan of the campaign, as first formed by Washington, had for its main project the siege of New York, in concert with a French fleet under Count de Grasse, expected to arrive in August. Being advised, however, that De Grasse would arrive at the Chesapeake instead of New York, Washington changed his whole plan of operations, and began to move upon Yorktown with a combined force of Americans and French amounting to twelve thousand, while Count de Grasse with his fleet occupied the mouth of York river, and thus cut off the retreat of Cornwallis in that direction. The siege of Yorktown commenced on the 6th of October, and on the 19th Lord Cornwallis was obliged to capitulate, surrendering his whole force, amounting to seven thousand men, and one hundred and sixty pieces of artillery. With so much skill had Washington arranged his measures for with- drawing his army from New York, and combining his forces for the olockade of Yorktown, that Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander- in-chief, then at New York, did not suspect his designs till he was far on his way to Virginia. On the very day that Cornwallis surrendered Clinton left New York with a reinforcement of seven thousand men ; and five days after, arrived off the capes of Virginia. Receiving inteUigence ot the late of Cornwallis, he returned to New York. This great and important victory filled the country with joy and ex- ultation. Congress j)assed resolutions of thanks to the generals, officers, and soldiers, and werf in procession to church to render solemn thanks to Almighty God : and appointed the 30th of December as a festival of national thanksgiving. Thus ended the campaign of 1781, and with it the war was substan- tially ended. The British held a few posts of importance — Nev/ York, Charleston, and Savannah — but the country at large was wrested from their poseession. On the 4th of March, 1782, the British house of commons passed a resolution that " the house would consider as enemies to his majesty and to the country all those who should advise or attempt the further prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North America." The government immediately appointed Sir Guy Carleton commander-in- chief, in place of Sir Henry Clinton. In obedience to his instructions, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 767 Sir Guy made advances for negotiations, but congress refused to nego- tiate except in concert with the French government. Not long after, at the instance of the French court, commissioners were appointed to ne- gotiate a peace. These were John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and Henry Laurens. The commissioners on the part of England were Mr. Fitzherbert and Mr. Oswald. Provisional articles of peace were signed on the 30th of November, 1782. The definitive treaty was not signed until September 30, 1783. A formal proclamation of the cessation of hostilities was made to the army on the 19th of April, 1783. In July, the British evacuated Savannah ; in November, New York ; and in December, Charleston. On the 3d of November, the army of the United States was disband- ed ; and on the 23d of December, Washington appeared in person iU the hall of congress, and resigned his commission as commander-in- chief. The moral grandeur of that act and of that scene is without par- allel in history. Washington concluded his address on that occasion as follows : — " I consider it an indispensable duty to close the last solemn act of my official life by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintend- ence of them to his holy keeping. " Having now finished the work assigned to me, I retire from the great theatre of action ; and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body, under whose orders I have long acted, I here offer my commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life." Mr. Mifflin, president of congress, in behalf of that body, replied to this address, expressing their high sense of his wisdom and ability in the conduct of the war ; concluding in these words : — " We join you in commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, beseeching him to dispose the hearts and minds of its citizens to improve the opportunity afforded them of becoming a happy and respectable nation. " And for you, we address to him our earnest prayer that a life so beloved may be fostered with all his care ; that your days may be as happy as they have been illustrious ; and that he will finally give you that reward w^hich this world can not give." Well for the nation if it always remember the example and the lesson here presented ! During the war, the trade and commerce of the country were nearly destroyed. Agriculture was greatly interrupted and depressed ; but the necessity of providing articles which could no longer be imported, led to a greater progress in manufactures than at any former period. The population of the country at the close of the war was about three mil- lions and a quarter. Section III. — Constitutional History. The return of peace found the country burdened with more than forty millions of dollars of debt, due partly to foreign holders, and partly to the officers and soldiers of the revolutionary war. By the articles of confederation, undei which the general government of the country had 7,68 MODERN HISTORY. been carried on since 1777, congress had exclusive right to declare war, make peace, borrow money, issue bills of credit, and make requisitions upon the states for men and money : but it had no power to discharge the national debt. It could only recommend the states to raise money. Various plans were proposed, to redeem the credit of the country, among which was that of the states granting congress power lo impose a duty oi five per cent, on foreign goods. But this was defeated by the oppo- sition of Rhode Island and New York. The interest of the public debt remained unpaid ; the certificates of it depreciated every day, and many of the poor officers and soldiers who held them were obliged to sell them for almost nothing. Some of the states made attempts to main- ain their credit ; Massachusetts imposed a heavy tax to this end, but it produced an armed insurrection (a. d. 1786), which was with some diffi- culty put down. In this disturbed and distressed condition of affairs, it became obvi- ous that the common danger from foreign war being over, the confedera- tion was an insufficient basis for the government of the country. Ac- cordingly, in the month of May, 1787, a convention of delegates from all the states, except Rhode Island, assembled at I'hiladelpiiia, and after about four months' session, adopted the present constitution of the Uni- ted States, with a resolution that as soon as it shoiild be ratified by nine states, it should be carried into operation by congress. Jaly 14, 1788, ten states having acceded to if, it was declared ratified and adopted by congress. The other states subsequently assented to it : New York, July 26, 1788 ; North Carolina in November, 1789 ; and Rhode Island in May, 1790. George Washington was unanimously elected the first president under the new constitution : John Adams vice-president. The first con- gress assembled at New York, March 4, 1789 ; and on the 30th of April, Washington was inaugurated. The most important affairs pressed upon the attention of congress : the government was to be organized ; the ad- ministrative and judiciary departments to be established ; and a revenue to bo provided. These measures occupied the first session of congress, which terminated on the 29th of September. The second session of the first congress began January 8, ] 790. Agreeably to a plan submitted by Mr. Hamilton, secretary of the treas- ury, congress proceeded to make provision for discharging in full the foreign and domestic debt, and assumed also the debts incurred by the several states in carrying on the war. To this object the proceeds of the pubhc lands lying in the western territory, the surplus revenue from the duties on imports, and a loan of two millions, were appropriated. This mjasjre immediately restored public credit ; certificates of public debt rose to par ; and those who had purchased low, realized immense fortunes. Business of all kinds revived, and the country entered upon a ca/eej- oi piosperous acti/ity and enterprise. At the next session of congress, after a protracted debate, a bill was passed imposing a tax on domestic spirits, for the purpose of paying the interest on the state debts assumed by the Union. A national l)ank was also established, not without opposition, mainly on the ground of its un- constitutionality. The party lines between the federalists and anti- federalists (as they were called), which had begun to appear when the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 769 adoption of the new constitution was under discussion, became this session more broad and clear. A regular opposition to the adniinistrar tion began to be organized. Meantime the hostilities of the Indians northwest of the Ohio made It necessary to send an expedition against them. General Harmar was put in command, but he was defeated with considerable loss in a battle near Chilicothe. General St. Clair, who succeeded in command, was also totally defeated. A bill then passed congress for raising an addi- tional force to the army. The measure was bitterly resisted by the op- position, chiefly on the ground that standing armies were dangerous, and that the proposed increase showed the existence of monarchical designs on the part of the administration. An unsuccessful atjempt was made the next session to reduce the military establishment ; and the opposi tion introduced various resolutions, evincing their hostility to the admin- istration. The public press became also the vehicle of vehement attacks, particularly upon the secretary of the treasury, Mr. Hamilton ; and party spirit, from day to day, grew stronger throughout the country. On the expiration of his first term of office, Washington was never- theless unanimously re-elected president, March, 1793 ; Mr. Adams again vice-president. Beside the still unsettled condition of Indian af- fairs, this term of Washington's administration was embarrassed by new difficulties, growing out of the French revolution. The French republic I dd just declared war against England and Holland ; and so strong in me United States was the hatred of the people to the British, and so l.vely their sympathy with the French, that the opinion was entertained in many quarters that America was bound by every consideration, both of gratitude to an old ally, and sympathy with the cause of republican- ism, to make common cause with France. Immediately on receiving intelligence of the declaration of war, Wash- ington convened a cabinet council, and by their unanimous advice, issued a proclamation, enjoining strict neutrality to be observed on the part of ihe United States toward the belligerant powers, April 22, 1793. The opposit'Dn (anti-federalist) party, through the press, bitterly inveighed Against this proclamation, denouncing it as a high-handed assumption of power on the part of the president, " a royal edict," evincing his mon- archical disposition, and also as dishonorable and ungrateful toward France. In this state of things, Mr. Genet, the new minister appointed by the French republic, arrived in the country, with the object of engaging the co-operation of the United States against England. Misled by the flat- tering reception he met with at Charleston, where he landed, he imme- diately began, even before he had been recognised as minister, to excite the people against the government ; and carried his audacity so far, as to set at defiance the proclamation of neutrality, fitting out expeditions, and giving commissions to American vessels to cruise against the enemies of France, and assuming the power to hold admiralty courts, for the trial and sale of prizes thus made. In these measures he was supported by the opposition, or as it began to be called, the democratic party, which now began, under the influence of the French minister, and in imitation of the affiliated clubs in France, to form democratic societies throughout the country. 49 770 MODERN HISTORY. Washington demanded the recall of Mr. Genet. The French govern- ment complied, and instructed his successor to express its entire disap- proval of Genet's conduct. When congress assembled in December following, the proclamation of neutrality, and the conduct of Washington toward Genet, were ap- proved by that body, as they were finally by the great body of the nation. 1794. Congress this year passed a bill providing for a naval force to protect American commerce against the Algerines. The slave'trade was likewise prohibited. There seemed now reason to apprehend the necessity of another war with England. In addition to severe and unjust commercial restrictions imposed by that government, she had proceeded to capture and condemn neutral vessels having on board French goods, or carrying corn and other supplies to France. In anticipation of a war, congress passed several bills — for imposing an embargo ; for organizing the militia ; and for in- creasing the standing army. Meanwhile information was received that the British government was disposed to redress the grievances com- plained of, and amicably adjust all differences. John Jay was accord- ingly nominated and approved as envoy to Great Britain. All attempts to make peace with the Indians having failed, the wai was renewed. General Wayne was appointed to succeed General St. Clair. On the 20th of August, he gained a decisive victory over a large body of the Miamies, and then proceeded to lay waste their country. This victory prevented a general war with the Six Nations and with the tribes northwest of the Ohio. The " Whiskey Insurrection" in Pennsylvania is one of the events of this year. It grew out of the duty on domestic spirits ; this tax pressed heavily on the inhabitants of the west, and was besides considered un- just in principle. The proclamation of the president being disregarded, a considerable force of militia (fifteen thousand men), under Governor Lee of Maryland, was ordered out. On their approach, the insurgents laid down their arms, and promised submission to the laws. 1795. This year Mr. Jay having concluded a treaty of amity, com- merce, and navigation, with Great Britain, the senate was convoked to consider it. Meanwhile, its contents having been disclosed, the most violent opposition was made to it ; public meetings were held, and peti- tions against it were sent from all quarters of the country. The parti- sans of France and the enemies of England denounced it in the most unmeasured terijvs- The objections to it " were, generally, that it wanted reciprocity ; that it gave up all compensation for negroes carried away contrary to the treaty of peace, and for the detention of the western posts ; that it contravened the French treaty, and sacrificed the interest of our ally to that of Great Britain ; that it gave up in several important instances the law of nations, particularly in relation to free ships making free goods, cases of blockade, and contraband of war ; that it improperly interfered with the legislative powers of congress and that the commercial part gave few advantages to the United States."* The treaty was, however, ratified by the senate, and signed by the president, August 14, 1795. • Pitkin, Civil History of the United States. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 771 In October, after a long negotiation, a treaty was made with Spain, settling some questions of boundary, and acquiring for the United States the right of navigating the Mississippi. Treaties were also concluded with Algiers, and with the Indians in the west. 1796. On the assembling of congress this year, it became necessary to make appropriations and pass resolutions for carrying these treaties into effect. This gave occasion for a new display of hostility to the British treaty ; and it was only after a debate of seven weeks, that the necessary resolutions passed the house of representatives, and then only by a majority of three. Public opinion at length gradually settled in favor of this treaty, as the only means of saving the country from be- coming involved in the wars of the French revolution ; and in th;:* seque' it proved of great advantage to the United States. The close of the second term of Washington's administration was now approaching. Signifying his intention to retire from public life, the Father of his country took occasion to issue a farewell address to his countrymen, replete with maxims of political wisdom, and sentiments of patriotism and virtue. If anything in this incomparable document may be signalized, where all should be profoundly weighed, the conclu- sion may justly claim attention : " Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indis- pensable supports Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and experi- ence both forbid us to expect that nutioiud morality can prevail in exclu- sion of religious principle.'''' This was said, let it be considered, at a time when the infidel spirit, the sneering spirit, of French atheism, was fash- ionable, almost the prevailing spirit, among the higher classes through- out the land. The personal influence of Washington, due alike to his wisdom, his virtues, and his eminent services, was of the utmost importance in the first working of the new government. During the eight years of his administration, all diflerences with foreign nations had been peaceably settled, except those with France ; and at home the Indian tribes had been pacified. " Public and private credit was restored ; ample provis- ion made for the security and ultimate payment of the public debt ; American tonnage had nearly doubled ; the exports had increased from nineteen to more than fifty-six millions of dollars ; the imports in about the sane proportion ; and the amount of revenue from imposts had ex- ceedea .he most sanguine calculations."* The population had increased from three and a half to five millions ; and agriculture and all the indus- trial interests of the country were in a flourishing state. The only drawback to this picture of prosperity were the difiiculties with France. Discontented at the neutral policy of America, the French republic continued to make demands upon the gratitude of the United States, which could be yielded to only by surrendering the right of self- government. Finding all attempts to involve America in its wars with Europe ineffectual, and feeling aggrieved at the treaty with its enemy the French government proceeded to retaliate, by adopting certain reso- lutions injurious to American commerce, under the operation of which, moreover, several hundred American vessels were seized and confie- • Pitkin. "72 MODERN HISTORY. cated. Just before his retirement from office, Washington had recalled Mr. Monroe, and despatched Mr. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney to France, as minister plenipotentiary, to settle the difficulties between the two nations. Such was the state of the country at the close of Washington's ad- ministration. On the 4th of March, 1797, John Adams became president. The French republic refusing to receive Mr. Pinckney ; a subsequent mis- sion extraordinary to that government having also totally failed ; and spoliations upon American commerce continually increasing ; congress began to adopt vigorous measures for defence and retaliation. The treaties with France were declared no longer obligatory on the United States ; an army was raised ; and Washington was appointed comman- der-in-chief. Several engagements at sea took place between French and American vessels. The French government now signified indi- rectly a willingness to treat, and envoys w^ere again sent from the Uni- ted States. Before their arrival, the revolution of the 18th Bnimaire (November 10, 1799) had taken place ; the directorial government was overthrown, and Bonaparte was at the head of affiiirs as first consul. This event changed the policy of the French government ; negotiations were commenced, and a treaty was concluded September 30, 1800. On the 14th of December, 1799, died George Washington, mourned by the nation as no other man was ever mourned by any people. There have been great men superior perhaps to him in particular qualities and endowments ; but in the perfect proportion and harmony of all the quali- ties of his nature, intellectual and moral, in the entireness and unity of his character, he is distinguished above all the great men whom history presents to our contemplation. In this consisted the secret of the re- pose, dignity, and grandeur, that through his whole life made so strong an impression upon all who approached him, and gave him such power over them. Party spirit ran high during Mr. Adams's administration. Its meas- ures were violently assailed by the opposition, particularly the " alien" and " sedition" laws : by the former of which, any alien considered dan- gerous might be ordered to depart from the country ; and by the latter, combinations to oppose the government, libellous publications, &;c., were made penal. The unpopularity of these and some other measures gave great strength to the democratic party, and defeated the re-election of Mr. Adams. On the 4th of March, 1801, Thomas Jefferson succeeded Mr. Ad- ams as president of the United States. At the next session of congress, several of the most important acts of the preceding period were repealed, particularly those imposing inter nal taxes, and reorganizing the United States courts. Among the most important events of this period was the purchase of Louisiana from the French for fifteen millions of dollars. Mr. Jefferson's term of office expiring, he was re-elected, and com- menced a second term, March 4, 1805. The same year a war, which had been carried on lor several years with Tripoli, was brought to a close by a treaty of peace. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 773 The close of the year 1806 is marked by the explosion of Aaron Burros plot for revolutionizing the western and southwestern territor}'. This ambitious and unprincipled man was engaged in the western coun- try ostensibly with the purpose of settling a tract of country on the Washita, in Louisiana ; but tfte nature of his preparations, the character of the men he was collecting, &c., excited suspicions — which the in- discreet disclosures of some of his associates confirmed — that his real object was to seize New Orleans, and establish himself at the head of a new empire in the southwestern territory of the United States ; or, failing that, in Mexico. He was seized and brought to trial the next year, but no overt act being in proof against him, he was discharged. He was, however, generally believed to be guilty ; and under the odium thus incurred, joined with that which attached to him for his murderous duel with General Hamilton in 1804, he sunk to abject contempt and wretchedness. The interests of the United States were now becoming complicated with policy of the belligerant powers of Europe. The peace of Amiens (a. d. 1802) gave but a short repose from war; hostilities were soon renewed between France and England, and all the powers of Europe became involved in them. The United States maintained a strict neu trality, and engaged in an extensive and profitable carrying-trade. But in 1806, the English government, by an order of council, declared the blockade of all the ports and rivers from the Elbe to Brest. Napo- leon retaliated by the famous " Berlin decree," declaring all the British islands in a state of blockade. This was met by another British order of council, prohibiting all coasting-trade with France. While these measures, which were partly in contravention of the law of nations, operated very injuriously upon the commerce of America, and tended to embroil her with both the belligerant powers, an old diffi- culty with England was aggravated by a special outrage. Great Britain had always claimed the right of searching American vessels, and of impressing from them native-born British subjects. They had also im- pressed some thousands of American seamen, under the pretext that they were British born. In this course the English government per- sisted in spite of the remonstrances of the United States. In June, 1807, Commodore Barron, commanding the American frigate Chesapeake, re- fusing to deliver three men claimed by the British, the Chesapeake was attacked by the British frigate Leopard off the capes of Virginia, very much injured and crippled, and the men in question forcibly taken away. The public mind was greatly exasperated by this outrage. The pres- ident, by proclamation, ordered all British armed vessels off the waters of the United States, until satisfaction should be made, which the Amer- ican minister, Mr. Monroe, was instructed to demand forthwith, as well as security against future impressments from American vessels. The British government declined to treat concerning the general question of search and impressment, but sent a special envoy to the United States, to settle the particular injury in the case of the Chesapeake. Mr. Rose was instructed, however, not to treat until the president's proclamation was revoked. This being refused, the matter rested ; and was not finally adjusted until four years later, when satisfactory reparation was made by the British government. 774 MODERN HISTORY. Meantime, on the 17th of December, 1807, Bonaparte, in retaliation for the British order in council, issued " the Milan decree" declaring every vessel denationalized that should submit to search by the British, and ev^ery vessel a good prize taken sailing to or from Great Britain or its colonies, or any place occupied by mitish troops. The embargo failing to compel the belligerant powers to revoke meas- ures so injurious to American commerce, and so subversive of the rights of neutrals, it was repealed on the 1st of March, 1809, and a law passed prohibiting all trade and intercourse with France and England. Mr. Jefferson declining a re-election, was succeeded, March 4, 1809, by James Madison. The state of the country was gloomy. Her commerce was suffering both from foreign and domestic restrictions ; and it seemed that she must indefinitely submit to this condition of things, or make war with the belligerants. In passing the non-intercourse act of March 1, congress had empow- ered the president to repeal it by proclamation in regard to either of the hostile parties revoking their edicts. The British minister at Washing- ton engaged for his government the repeal of the orders of council, so far as the United States were concerned. The president accordingly notified the renewal of commercial intercourse with Great Britain. But the English government disavowed the engagement of its minister, and non-intercourse was again proclaimed. On the 23d of March, 1810, Napoleon retaliated the non-intercourse act of congress by issuing the '" Rambomllet decree''' — ordering all ves- sels arriving in French ports, or the ports of countries occupied by French troops, to be seized and condemned. On the 1st of May, con- gress passed an act excluding British and French armed vessels from the waters of the United States — with a provision for renewing inter course with whichever nation should within a given time cease to violate the commercial rights of neutral nations. In consequence of this act, the French decrees were revoked, and intercourse with France was renewed. It had been made a condition on the part of the French government, in revoking its decrees, that the English orders of council should be also revoked. But England, affecting to question the fact of the actual revocation of the French decrees, continued to enforce its orders, sta- tioning vessels-of-war just out the harbors of the United States, searching, and in many instances capturing and condemning American merchant- vessels. In the period between 1803 and the close of 1811, nine hun- dred American vessels had been thus captured. On the 3d of April, 1812, an act was passed by congress laying an embargo for ninety days on all vessels within the jurisdiction of the United States. And on the 4th of June following, war was declared against Great Britain. The grounds of war alleged were the impress- ment of American seamen, and the violation of neutral rights. The feeling" of the nation was by no means unanimous in favor of the war. It was protested against by a strong minority in congress, as un- necessary, impolitic, and immoral ; and was generally condemned by the federal party throughout the country. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 775 Thus the United States were again at war with England. The con- test lasted for nearly three years. The limhs of this history forbid any- thing but a slight sketch of its events. In the campaign of 1812, nothing of any importance was achieved by land. The invasion of Canada was planned : forces were drawn to the northern frontier of the Union, and naval preparations made upon the lakes. No footing was, however, gained in the British territory ; on the contrary, Detroit and all the forts and ga:rrisons in Michigan fell into the hands of the British, together with a considerable force under the command of General Hull, who surrendered without a battle, August 19 ; and the Americans were repulsed in an attack on Queensluwn, and obliged to surrender, October 13. But on the ocean the American arms were more successful. T/ie series of brilliant naval victories which distinguished the war was com- menced by the capture of the British frigate Guerriere by the Constitu- tion, Captain Isaac Hull, August 10. This was followed (August 13) by the capture of the Alert by the Essex, Captain Porter ; of the Frolic by the Wasp (October 17) ; of the Macedonian by the United States, Commodore Decatur (October 25) ; and of the Java by the Constitution, then commanded by Commodore Bainbridge. On the 4th of March, 1813, Mr. Madison was re-elected presi- dent. The military operations of this year extended along the whole line of the northern frontier. The Americans were signally defeated at Frcnchtown by a body of British and Indians, and five hundred men made prisoners, who were nearly all massacred by the Indians after their surrender. York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, was taken by the Americans, with a large quantity of military stores. On the 1st of June, this year, the American navy suffered a severe loss in the capture of the frigate Chesapeake, Captain Lawrence, by the Britis.x frigate Shannon. In the engagement. Captain Lawrence and several brave officers were killed. This was followed (August 14) by the loss of the Argus. These losses were ccanterbalanced by the capture of the British brig Boxer by the Enterprise, on the 5th of September, and by a brilliant victory gained (September 10) by the fleet on Lake Erie, under the command of Commodore Perry. This made the Americans masters of the lake, and opened the way to Detroit, which was soon after taken ; its fall being preceded by the battle of the Thames, in which the British and Indian forces, under the command of General Proctor, were totally defeated by General Harrison. This victory had the effect of putting an end to the Indian war in the northwest, and of giving security to that frontier. The invasion of Canada was again attempted ; but unexpected cir- cumstances concurred to disarrange the plan of operations, and at length the northern army went into winter-quarters, without having effected anything toward the accomplishment of the object. High expectations had been formed of the success of this campaign, and the public disap- pointment was proportionably great. At the south, the Creek Indians, instigated by the British, had taken up arms against the United States, and a sanguinary war was carried on 776 MODERN HISTORY. in that quarter during the year 1813, and until in the summer of 1814, when General Jackson, having reduced the enemy in several engage- ments, at length inflicted upon them an almost exterminating defeat at Horseshoe Bend. The remnant of the tribe submitted, and the war was at an end. General Jackson was soon after appointed to the command of the forces at New Orleans. In the spring of 1814, the American frigate Essex was captured by a superior British force in the bay of Valparaiso. But about the same time, the British brigs Epervier and Reindeer were captured, the former bv the United States sloop-of-war Peacock, the latter by the sloop Wasp. After some ineffectual movements at the north by General Wilkinson, little was attempted by either nation until midsummer, when the Britisii government, freed from the burden of the European war by the abdica- tion of Napoleon, augmented their armies in America by the addition of fourteen thousand of the veteran troops of Wellington, and at the same time sent a strong naval force to blockade the harbors, and ravage the towns upon the coast. On the 3d of July, General Brown crossed the Niagara river from Buftalo, and took the British fort Erie ; and on the 4th, after an obsti- nate and bloody engagement, gained a victory over the British at Chippe- wa. On the 25th, was fought the battle of Bridgewater, near the falls of Nuigara, one of the most bloody battles of modern times. The Brit- ish Ibrce amounted to nearly five thousand men ; the American was one third less. The loss of the English was eight hundred and seventy- eight ; of the Americans, eight hundred and sixty. The Americans were left in possession of the field. About the middle of August, a large British fleet arrived in the Ches- apeake bay. Six thousand men, under the command of General Ross, landed and proceeded to Washington, burnt the capitol, the president's house, and the buildings of the executive departments ; and then by rapid marches j-etired to the ships, having lost about one thousand men in the expedition. On the r2th of September, an attack was made on Baltimore ; but the place was so gallantly defended by militia and the inhabitants, that tht °nemy abandoned the attempt. General Ross, the commander-in- chief of the British forces, was among the killed. While the English were thus repulsed from Baltimore, signal success attended the American arms at the north. The naval force of the ene- my on Lake Champlain was annihilated by Commodore M'Donough. The engagement took place off' Plattsburgh ; and while it was raging, Sir George Provost, with a force of fourteen thousand men, commenced an assault on the American works at Plattsburgh : but he met with such a destructive fire from the Americans under General Macomb, that he was compelled to retire, with the loss of twenty-five hundred men, aban- doning his military stores, his sick and wounded. The close of the year 1814 is memorable in the annals of the coun itry on account of the celebrated Hartford convention. The federal party, as has been said, was from the first opposed to the war, as unjust and impolitic. The opposition was particularly strong in the New England states. As the war advanced, the opposition became HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 777 Btill more decided, and serious apprehensions were expressed that the measures of the general government would involve the country in ruin. The opposition was aggravated by a misunderstanding between the gov- ernors of those states and the president in relation to the requisitions made by the latter for the militia to be placed under the conmiand of officers of his appointment. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con- necticut, were at this time unprotected by any national troops against the enemy's forces hovering on the coast. In this state of things, a convention of delegates from the New Eng- land states met at Hartford on the 15th of December, 1814 ; and after a session of three weeks, published a statement of grievances, and recom- mendations for redress. "The convention recommended — 1. That the states they represent take measures to protect their citizens from ' forcible drafts, conscriptions, or impressments, not authorized by the constitu- tion of the United States ;' 2. That an earnest application be made to the government of the United States, requesting their consent to some arrangement, whereby the states separately, or in concert, may assume upon themselves the defence of their territory against the enemy, and that a reasonable portion of the taxes collected within the states be ap- propriated to this object ; 3. That the several governors be authorized by law to employ the military force under their command in assisting any state requesting it to repel the invasions of the public enemy ; 4 That several amendments of the constitution of the United States, cal- culated in their view to prevent a recurrence of the evils of which they complain, be proposed by the states they represent for adoption ; 5. Lastly, that if the application of these states to the government of the United States should be unsuccessful, and peace should not be con- cluded, and the defence of these states be still neglected, it would, in their opinion, be expedient for the legislatures of the several states to appoint delegates to another convention, to meet at Boston, in June, with such powers as the exigency of a crisis so momentous may re- quire. " The efTect upon the public mind in the aggrieved states was alike seasonable and salutary served greatly to allay the passions, and to inspire conlii^encu and hope. Nor was the influence of this body upon the national councils less perceptible. Within three weeks after the adjournment of the convention, and the publication of their report, an act passed both houses of the national legislature, and received the signature of the president, authorizing and requiring him to ' receive into the service of the United States any corps of troops vvhich may have been or may be raised, organized, and officered, under the author- ity of any of the states,' to be ' employed in the state raising the same, or an adjoining state, and not elsewhere, except with the consent of the executive of the state raising the same.' Before the commissioners who were sent to confer with the government could reach Washington, a bill passed the senate, providing for the payment of the troops and militia already called into service under the authority of the states. The arri- val of the treaty of peace, at this juncture, arrested all further proceed- ings."* While the Hartford convention was in session, on the 24th of De- • Holmes's Aanals. 778 MODERy HISTORY. cember, a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent. But before its arrival, the last and most memorable battle of the war was fought at Ne.w Or- leans. On the 8th of January, 1815. the American forces, amounting to about six thousand, chiefly militia, under the command of General Jack- son, intrenched before the city, were attacked hy ff teen thousand British troops, commanded by Sir Edward Packenham. After three charges, in which they were swept down with incredible slaughter, the British fled in confusion, leaving their dead and wounded on the field of battle. General Packenham was killed while rallying his troops to the second charge ; General Gibbs, who succeeded in command, fell mortally wounded in the third charge. The loss of the British in killed was seven hundred ; in wounded, fourteen hundred ; in prisoners, five hun- dred : in all, twenty-six hundred. The Americans lost seven killed and six wounded. The joy excited by this victory was merged in the still livelier joy with which the news of the treaty of peace was soon after received. On the 17th of February, the treaty was ratified by the president and senate. This treaty made no allusion to the causes of the war, and set- tled none of the matters in dispute, and for which it was professedly declared. All parties, however, welcomed the return of peace. At a subsequent convention, signed by plenipotentiaries of the two countries appointed for the purpose, various articles for the regulation of com- merce between England and the United States were adopted. Before the expiration of the time, within which, by the treaty, all vessels taken by either party were to be held good prizes, several en- gagements at sea were fought, e:nd several captures made. Among them the American frigate President was captured by a British squad- ron ; and the British ships Cyane, Levant, and Penguin, were taken by the Americans. At the next session of congress, a bill was passed incorporating the "hank of the United States,''^ with a capital of thirty-five millions of dol- lars, 'rhe charter was to continue in force until the 3d of March, 1836. This measure was the subject of a very earnest and protracted debate, both as to its constitutionality, and as to the principles on which the bank should be established. Mr. Madison was succeeded in the office of president by James Monroe, March 4, 1817. The country was now at peace, but its condition was by no means prosperous. Commerce had not yet revived, and the manufactures which had been carried on during the war were entirely broken down by the influx of foreign merchandise. In 1818, a war broke out between the Seminoles and the United States, occasioned by the removal of some Indians from lands ceded to the United States by the Creeks in 1814. The Indians were entirely subdued by General Jackson. In 1819, another convention was made between Great Britain and the United States, granting to American citizens the right to fish on the banks of Newfoundland ; establishing a portion of the northern bounda- ry ; and extending for ten years longer the commercial convention con- cluded four years before. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 779 A treaty was also this year concluded with Spain, by which East and West Florida, with the islands adjacent, were ceded to the United States. On the 4th of March, 1821 Mr. Monroe was unanimously elected to a second term of office. Much less unanimity, however, was displayed in the deliberations of the next congress. Some important commercial acts were passed ; revolutionary soldiers were provided for by pensions ; and the ratio of population and representation fixed at one representa- tive to forty thousand inhabitants. The year 1824 is signalized in the annals of the country by a visit from La Fayette, the friend and companion-in-arms of Washington, to whose services in the dark day of the revolutionary war the nation owed so much. He passed about a year in the country, visiting every part of it, and receiving everywhere the most enthusiastic tokens of homage and gratitude. He returned to his own country in a national frigate prepared for the purpose, and named, in honor of him, the Bran- dywine — the name of the battle in which he was wounded nearly fifty years before. During his visit, congress appropriated two hundred thousand dollars, and a township of land in Florida, as an acknowledg- ment of his eminent services. Mr. Monroe retired from office with the respect and good will of all parties. His administration of affiiirs, both foreign and domestic, had been uninfluenced by party spirit, and characterized by uprightness, prudence, and good sense. The country was everywhere peaceful and prosperous. No choice of a successor to Mr. Monroe having been made by the electors, the choice devolved upon the house of representatives. On the 4th of March, 1825, John Quincy Adams was inaugurated president of the United States. Among the noticeable events during this administration, the first to be mentioned is a controversy between the general government and the executive of Georgia, in relation to certain lands held by the Cherokees and Creeks in that state. The general government had agreed to ex- tinguish, for the benefit of Georgia, the Indian title to those lands — • " whenever it could be peaceably done, upon reasonable terms." But the Creeks, at a national council, refused to alienate their territory. Af- ter the council had broken up, and a majority of the chiefs had departed, a few who remained were induced to make a treaty, ceding the lands in question to the United States. This treaty was repudiated by the Creek nation. But the governor of Georgia determined to act upon it as valid. To prevent a war, the president ordered General Gaines to repair to the Creek country, for the protection of the Indians ; and di- rected Governor Troup of Georgia to suspend his intended measures. Congress approved the course of the president ; and at length a treaty ■was formed with the Creeks, which gave satisfaction to all parties ex- cept the state of Georgia. The fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of 1 idependence (July 4, 1826) was rendered memorable by the death of ex-presidents Adams and Jefferson. The most important among the measures which occupied the first 780 MODERN HISTORY session of the twentieth congress, was the revision of the tariff, with a view to afford protection to American manufactures. The principle of a protective tariff was warmly opposed by the south, and by a large portion of the commercial body at the north ; while the details of the bill which was passed were far from satisfactory to the friends of pro- tection. During the last year of Mr. Adams's administration, the most absorb- ing subject of public interest was the approaching election ; and ne/er before had party spirit displayed itself in such virulent and unjustifiable attacks upon private life and character. Mr. Adams was defeated. Du- ring his administration the prosperity of the United States had increased to an unexampled height. Agricuhure, commerce and manuiactures, were everywhere flourishing. The public debt, which at the close of the war, amounted to nearly one hundred and fifty millions of dollars, was almost extinguished. The annual revenue largely exceeded the demands of government ; and at the close of Mr. Adams's term, there was a surplus of more than five millions in the treasury. On the 4th of March, 1829, Andrew Jackson was inaugurated pres- ident of the United States. The new president signalized his accession to office by a sweeping removal from oflice of the functionaries of the general government ap- pointed by his predecessors. Besides the principal officers of the treas- ury, marshals, district attorneys, revenue and land officers, nearly five hundred postmasters were removed from oflice. During Mr. Adams's administration there were but two removals, both for cause.* Among the most important measures which engaged the attention of the twenty-first congress, were, the modification of the tariff; Indian affairs ; internal improvements ; and the renewal of the charter of the United States bank. It was not until 1832 that a memorial came before congress for a re- newal of the charter of the United States bank. A bill to that effect passed both houses of congress ; but on the 10th of July it was returned by ihe president with objections. The poli ",y of making appropriations for internal improvements was adopted during Mr. Jefferson's term of office, and had continued through all the succeeding administrations. To this policy General Jackson was opposed, and accordingly returned, with his veto, several bills ma- king such appropriations. In 1832, the hostility of the south to the protective tariff assumed in South Carolina an attitude dangerous to the peace of the country. A convention of delegates assembled at Columbia, November 24 ; pro- nounced the acts of congress imposing duties for protection unconstitu- tional, and of no binding force in that state ; and that it was the duty of the state legislature to pass laws to prevent the payment or enforcement of such duties. The remedy thus proposed received the name of nulli- jication. President Jackson immediately issued a proclamation, containing an • W.Tshington removed from office nine ; John Adams, ten ; Jeflferson, thirty-nine ; Madison, Jive; Monroe, nine : making, with the two removed by John Q. Adams, seventy -four in all. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 781 admirable exposition of the principles and powers of the general gov- ernment, and expressing a firm determination to maintain the laws. This only increased the exasperation in South Carolina : the governoi of the state, by the authority of the legislature, issued a counter-procla- mation, urging the people to be faithful to their primary allegiance to the state, and to resist the general government in any attempt to enforce the tariff" laws. General orders were also issued to raise volunteers for re- pelling invasion, and supporting the rights of the state. General Jackson hereupon addressed a message to congress, recom- mending such measures as would enable the executive to suppress the spirit of insubordination, and sustain the laws of the United Slates. Everything thus betokened a civil war. But an appeal to South Carolina by the general assembly of Virginia, and the passage of a bill modifying the tariff" (introduced by Henry Clay, and commonly known as the " compromise act"), joined with the manifestation of ffrmness and energy on the part of the executive, served to allay the ferment in South Carolina, and lead to a repeal of the nullifying ordinances. On the 4th of March, 1833, Andrew Jackson entered on a second term of office. The charter of the United States bank being about to expire, the president, who had before expressed to congress his doubts of the ex- pediency of continuing that institution the depositary of the funds of the U;.:ted States, directed the secretary of the treasury, Mr. Duane, to remove the government " deposites" from the bank. This Mr. Duane declined to do. He was immediately removed from office by the presi- dent ; and Mr. Taney was appointed in his place, by whom the depos- ites were removed, and placed in the custody of several state banks. This measure was strongly censured by a resolution which passed the senate, June 9, 1834. The country was now disturbed with serious apprehensions of a col- lision with France. By a treaty, negotiated in 1831, by Mr. Rives, the French government had agreed to make indemnity for spoliations com- mitted on American commerce during the reign of Napoleon ; but it had failed to fulfil its stipulations. In December, 1834, the president rec- ommended reprisals upon French commerce. This was deemed by congress not expedient at present. Happily, however, the danger of hostile collision was removed in the course of the next year by the action of the French government in making provision to fulfil its stipu- lations. The most important act of the first session of the twenty-fourth con- gress, which began December 7, 1835, was a law directing the depos- ite, under certain regulations, of the moneys of the United States in several of the state banks, and distributing the surplus revenue among the several states. In December, 1835, one of the most destructive fires on record oc- curred in the city of New York. The amount of property destroyed is computed not to have fallen much short of twenty millions of dollars, without estimating the injury and loss from suspension and derangement of business. Near the close of this year, the Seminole Indians, refusing to remove 782 MODERN HISTORY from Florida to the lands appropriated for them west of the Mississippi, the country became involved in a war with them ; and it was not until 1842 that they were finally subdued and sent west. On the 11th of July, 1836, the receivers of public money were in- structed, by a circular from the treasury department, to receive nothing but gold and silver in payment for public lands. On the 16th of January, 1837, the " expunging resolution" (so called) introduced by Mr. Benton, passed the senate oy a small majority. By this act, the resolution of the senate passed June 9, 1834 — censuring the president for removing Mr. Duane, and ordering the withdrawal of the United States deposites from the bank of the United States — was expunged from the journal of the senate. Against this proceeding, Mr. Webster, of Massachusetts, in behalf of himself and his colleagues, read a solemn protest. On the 4th of March, 1837, Martin Van Buren became president of the United States. Mr. Van Buren's administration was, in its general policy, a continu- ation of that of his predecessor. Scarcely, however, had he entered upon office, when the country was overwhelmed by one of the most severe commercial revulsions ever known. For several years previous, the wildest spirit of speculation had pre- vailed throughout the country. Vast public works were undertaken by states and chartered companies ; immense importations of foreign goods were made ; and real estate, especially lots in cities and towns, went up a hundred fold, not to say in many cases a thousand fold, beyond its in- trinsic value. The multitude of state banks that had been chartered, after the expiration of the charter of the United States bank, and the consequent excessive expansion of the paper currency, had contributed to increase the spirit of speculation. At length a crisis came ; and the revulsion was proportionably severe. Some idea of it may be formed from the fact that a list of failures in the city of New York (including only the more considerable, and omitting hundreds of less importance) shot- s a total amount of more than sixty millions of dollars. AH credit, all confidence, was at an end. On the 10th of May, all the banks of the city of New York suspend- ed specie payments, and the suspension became general throughout the country. The general government became involved in the universal embarrassment — the banks in which its deposites were placed having stopped in the general suspension. The government still insisted, how- ever, upon all postages and duties being paid in specie or its equivalent, and even refused its own checks and drafts when oflered in payment of customhouse bonds. In this state of things, the president convoked an extra session of congress, which began on the 4th of September. Agreeably to the rec- ommendation of the executive, as measures for the immediate relief of the general government, congress passed a law postponing to the 1st of January, 1839, the payment to the states of the fourth instalment of the surplus revenue ; and authorizing the issue of ten millions of treasury notes, to be receivable in payment of public dues. The president also recommended the " separation of the fiscal operations of the government HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 783 from those of corporations or individuals." A bill in accordance with this recommendation — commonly called the sub-treasury bill, placing the public money in the hands of certain receivers-general, subject to the order and control of the treasurer of the United States — passed the senate, but was lost in the house. Atthenextregularsessionof congress (December, 1837 — July, 1838), a reissue of treasury notes was authorized. The sub-treasury system was again urged upon the attention of congress, but was not adopted. On the 13th of August, 1838, the banks throughout the country gen- erally resumed specie payments : but in October following, the banks of Philadelphia again suspended, and their example was followed by the banks in Pennsylvania, and in all the states south and west. The banks of New York and New England continued to pay specie. The twenty-sixth congress commenced its first session December 2, 1839. Among its acts, two only need be mentioned : one for taking the sixth census of the United States ; the other, " for the collection, safe keeping, transfer, and disbursement, of the public revenue" — being the snh-trrusury system so earnestly recommended by the president. At the second session of this congress, nothing was done of sufficient importance to find a place in this sketch. The administration of Mr. Van Buren was drawing to a close. He was a candidate for re-election ; William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, was the candidate of the opposition. After a contest unprecedented for in- tensity of political excitement, Mr. Van Buren was defeated. On the 4th of March, 1841, William Henry Harrison was inau- gurated president of the United States. Scarcely had the new president entered upon his office, and organ- ized his administration by the appointment of his cabinet, when he was stricken with sickness ; and on the 4tli of April, one month from the day of his inauguration, he expired. " In death, as in life, the happi- ness of his country was uppermost in his thoughts." By the death of General Harrison, John Tyler, of Virginia, the vice- president, becaiE3, according to the constitution, president of the United States. The passage af a general bankrupt law was one of the earliest meas- ures passed by congress. This law was, however, subsequently re- pealed. The tariff was modified with a view to further protection of American industry. To the influence of this measure, the friends of protection mainly attribute the return of the country to a state of pros- perity as great as ever before. It has, however, created great dissatis- faction in some of the southern states, where it is considered an infrac- tion of the compromise act. Among the most memorable events of this administration is the treaty of Washington, concluded in September, 1842, between Great Britain and the United States, by Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster, by which the differences about the boundary line between Maine and Lower Canada, long a matter of dispute and ill-blood, were amicably and satisfactorily adjusted. The disturbances in Rhode Island are a less agreeable subject of 784 MODERN HISTORY. record ; thouoh happily the apprehensions they excited have been dis- pelled. In 1841, a convention of inhabitants of Rhode Island framed a new constitution, giving the right of suffrage (which under the exist- ing government was extremely limited) to all free white inhabitants ; and proceeded to organize a new government under this constitution. They elected a legislative body, and chose Thomas W. Dorr governor of the state. All these proceedings were considered as unlawful and revolutionary by those opposed to them, inasmuch as they had taken place without any legal warrant, and without being in any way initiated by the lawful and actual government. A civil war seemed inevitable. The legal government applied to the president of the United States, who detached several companies of troops to Newport to await events. Dorr mustered a considerable force of armed men, with two pieces of artillery, and made an ineffectual attempt to gain possession of the ar- senal at Providence. Shortly after, he took a position at Chepachet, where his force was increased by volunteers from New York and other states. Upon the approach of a body of the state militia, under General M'Neil, Dorr and his party broke ground and fled, June 25, 1842. His government fell to pieces. After two years. Dorr returned to Rhode Island ; was tried and convicted of treason, and sentenced to the state- prison for life. This sentence, however, the government of the state have signified their readiness to revoke, whenever Dorr shall acknowl- edge his allegiance to the existing government — which now rests upon a new constitution, legally formed and adopted by the people of the state since the commencement of the disturbances, making the right of suffrage as extensive as in that proposed by the revolutionary party, ex cept that two years' residence in the state is required instead of one. During the last session of congress, Mr. Tyler communicated to the senate a treaty formed with the republic of Texas, by which that state was to become a member of the Union. The treaty vras not ratified by the senate. During the summer and autumn of 1844, the election of president was the absorbing subject of public interest. The candidates of the rival parties were Henrv Clay, of Kentucky, for president, and Theo- dore Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey,* for vice-president, on the one side ; and James K. Polk, of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, on the other. Thus have been briefly sketched the leading events, political and civil, of the history of the United States, from the first feeble and scat- tered colonial establishments to the formation of a great and prosperous nation. The great problem of the possibility of a permanent and well- ordered republic, on so extensive a scale, doubtless yet remains to be solved. It depends on the intelligence and virtue of the people, whether it shall be solved as the friends of free institutions desire. Theoretically the most perfect of all forms of human government, it re- quires, beyond any other, the presence of these conditions to preserve it from being practically the worst. May the Almighty Ruler of nations • Mr. Frelinghuysen has for five years past resided in New York, as chancelloj of the university of that city. HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 785 dispose the hearts and minds of the people to such a religious observ- ance of his holy commandments, that the history of the nation in all coming ages may be as glorious as its rise and progress have been wonderful ! " Blessed are the people who have the Lord for their God yea, happy are the people that are in such a case '" 50 786 CONTEMPORARY DYNASTIES, FIFTH Sabmatians. General movement of the Sarrnatiaii tribes toward SouUiernand Western Em ope ; for six centuries their history obscure. Qermans. Movements of the Sax- ons to England : the Franks to Gaul ; the Goths to Italy ; the Lombards to Pan- nonia,and in the next century to Italy ; theAlemanni to the Ro- man provinces on the Rhine, ic. Franks and Gauls. 420 Pharamond. 449 Merovajus. 481 Clovis, who, by the defeat of Syagrius, establislied the pow- er of the Franks in Gaul. 476 End of Western empire. — Odoacer becomes king of Italy. 493 Establishment of the Gotliic kingdom of Italy, by Theodo- ric. SIXTH France. 511 Thierry I. Clotaire I. 534 Theodobert. 661 Canbert. Gontrarn, Sigibert. Chilperic. 593 Cliildel)ert. 596 Theodobert U. Thierry II. Italy. Ostrogoths. 526 Athalaric. 534 Theodobalus. 536 Vitiges. 540 Heldibadus. 541 Elaric. 551 Theia, conquered by Lombards, 568 Alboinus. 573 Clephes. 586 Antharis. 590 Agilulphus. 569 Longinus, Exarch of Ra- venna ; his successors tributary to the Lombards. Spain. Visigoths. 507 Gesalric. 526 Amalaric. 531 Theudis. 548 Theodogesil. 549 Agila. 554 Athanagild. 572 Leovigild. 566 Recared I.; he renounces Arianism and establishes orthodox Christianity. SEVENTH Italy. Spain. England. 614 Clotaire II. 628 Dagobert I. 638 Sigebert II. — Clovis II. 660 Clotaire III. 669 Childeric II. 672 Daeobert II. (Pepin Heristal.) 673 Thierry III. 690 Clovis III. 695 Childebert IL The kingdom frequent- ly divided. Lombards. 61 fi Adai aaldus. 626 Arid 'aldus. 638 Rotnaris. 654 Rodoaldus. 6S9 Aribertu.s. 662 (Jundebertus 672 Garibald 673 Pertharit. 691 Cunibertus. The Exarchate of Ra- venna nominally held by the Eastern Em- pire, but tribute paid by its governors to the Lombards. Visigoths. 603 Witeric. 610 Gondomar. 612 Sisebad. 621 Recared II. — Suintilla I. 631 Sisenaud I. 636 Sisenaud II. 640 Tulca. f42 Chindaswind. 649 Recheswind. 672 Wamba. 680 Ervig. 687 Egiga. Toward the close of the century theMoors begin to threaten the South of Spain. Heptarchy. 617 Rodoald. East Anglia. 624 Edwin. Northumberland. 643 Oswyn unites sev- eral kingdoms. 656 Ceadwalla, Sussex and Wessex. 688 Ina, Wessex. The native Britons seek shelter in Scot- land and Wales from the Saxon invaders 787 FROM A. D. 400, TO a. d. 1840. CENTURY. Spain. Under the Vandals. 438 Rechilda. 448 Rechiarius. 456 Maldias. 41)0 Fumarius. 463 Regismund. Under the Visigoths. 451 riierismond. •J52 Tlieodoric H. 466 Euaric. 484 Alaric. The Vandals conquer- ed by the Visigoths. by 426 Relinquished the Romans. Under the Britons. 445 Vortigern. 454 Vortimer. 465 Ambrosias. 454 Hengist in Kent. 491 Ella in Sussex. Eastern Empire. 408 Theodosiiis in. and Pulcheria. 450 Marcian. 457 Leo I. (Thracian). 474 Leo IL — Zeno. 491 Anastasius I. Rise of the factions of the Circus. Proqbess of Civiu- ZATION. Bells used in Churches. Commencement of the middle or darlt ages. Establishment of the Salic Law. Introduction of Christi- anity into France. CENTURY. ) England. Scotland. Eastern Empire. Progress of Civili- zation. M9 Cerdic, Kingdom of Wes- sex. 527 Erchenwin, Kingdom of Essex. 501 Goran. 535 Eugene IIL 558 Congal II. 569 Kinathal. 570 Aldan. 518 Justin I. 527 Justinian I. (Beli-sarius. Narses). 565 Justin 11. 578 Tiberius II. 582 Maurice. Silk worms brought to Europe. Code of Civil Law formed. 547 Ida, Kingdom of North- umberland. Water-mills erected at Rome. 575 Utfa, Kingdom of East Anglia. The Anglo-Saxons con- verted to Christian- ity. 562 Cndda, Kingdom of Mercia. The Saxons were join- ed by the Angles and Jutes from Germany. CENTURY. Scotland. Eastern Empire. Sakacens. Progress op Civili- zation. 604 Kenneth I. 602 Phocas. 622 Hejira, or Flight of Latin disused as a liv- 605 Eugene IV. 610 Ileraclius I. Mohammed from ing language. 622 Ferchard I. 636 Donald IV. 641 Constantino III. — Heraclius Heracli- Mecca. 632 Abu Bekr. Pens made from quills. 650 Ferchard 11 anus. 634 Omar. Glass manufactured in 6tii5 Maidrum. — Constans 11. 644 Othman. England. 688 Eugene V. 668 Constantine IV. 616 Ali. The Alexandrian Libra- 692 Eugene VI. 685 Justinian II. 660 Hassan. ry destroyed. The Greek fire in- vented. ^ 695 Leontius. 661 Moawiyah, founder 698 Tiberius II. of the Ommiade dynasty. 679 Yezid I. 683 Merwan L 684 Abdalmater. 788 TABLES OP EIGHTH Italy. Spain. 711 Uagobert III. 715 Chilperic II. Charles Martel. 717 Clotaire IV. 720 Thierry IV. 741 Pepin (regent). 742 Childeric III. 752 Pepin (king) 768 Charlemagne. The Merovingian dy- nasty set aside by Pepin, father of Char- lemagne, and foun- der of the Carlovin- gian dynasty. Lombards 700 Luitpertus. 701 Arimbertus. 712 Ausprandus. — Luitprandus. 743 Hildebrand. 744 Rachisius. 750 Astolphus. 756 Desiderius. The dynasty of the Lombards subverted by Charlemagne. Popes. The Popes raised to the rank of temporal princes by Pepin, king of France. 752 Stephen III. 757 Paul I. 768 Steplien IV. 772 Adrian 1. 795 Leo HI. 712 Dynasty of the Visi- goths subverted by the Saracens under Tarik and Musa. 755 Abderrahman, in- dependent khaJiph. The power of his suc- cessors, who reign in Spain until a. d. 1051, is gradually weaken- ed both by internal discords and continu- ed wars with Chiis- tian insurgents. 718 Pelagius founds a petty Christian kingdom in the Asturian mount- ains. NINTH Northern Nations. 762 Regular government established in Russia by Ruric. Denmark formed into a kingdom. Sweden formed into a kingdom. The petty prin- cipalities of Norway formed into a kingdom by Harold Harfager. Austrian. Dominions. 794 The Magyars occupy Hunga- ry, tiie ancient Pannonia. The Moravians become a for- midable nation. Bohemia form- ed into a reg- ular state, and Christianity in- troduced. It was generally governed by dukes tributary to the emperors of Germany. Western Empire. 800 Charlemagne, emperor of the West. 814 Louis the Pious. 843 Empire divided. Gemtany. 843 Louis the German. 876 Carlo- man and Louis III. 881 Charles the Fat. 887Arnulph. 899 Louis the Child. Italy, ifC. 843 Lothaire I. 855 Lothairell. 879 Boson, duke of Bur- gundy. The great feu- datories of the crown as- sume the power of so- vereign prin- ces in various parts of the empire. France. 843 Charles the Bald. 877 Louis the Stammerer. 879 Louis III. Carlornan. 887 Eudes. 898 Charles the Simple. The family of the CJapets begins to u- surp the royal authority. 816 Stephen V. 817 Pascal I. 824 Eugeiiius 11. 827 Valentine. 828 Gregory IV. 844 Sergius II. 847 Leo IV. 855 Benedict III. 858 Nicholas I. 8fi7 Adrian H. 872 John VIH. 882 Martin 11. 884 Adrian IIL 885 Stephen VI. 891 Formosus. 896 Boniface VI. — Stephen VII. 898 Theodore II. — John IX. 900 Benedict IV. TENTH SCANDINAVIiL. Russia and Poland. HUNOART,&C. Germany. France. Popes. 992 Christiani- 975 Wladimir 994 Christiani- 912 Conrad I. 922 Robert. 904 Leo V. ty established the Great ex- ty introduced of Franconia. 923 Rodolph. — Christopher. in Denmark. tends theRus- intoHungary. 919 Henry the 933 Louis 905 Sergius III. 991 Christiani- sian monar- 997 Stephen I. Fowler. Outremer. 913 Anastasius ty established chy, and establishes 936 Otho the 954 Lothaire. 914 Lando [IIL in Norway. 968 Establish. the Hunga- Great. 986 Louis V. 915 John X. es Christiani- rian i.-y>nar. 962 Empire of the Idle. 928 Leo VI. The Scandina- ty. chy. the West re- 987 Hugh Ca- 929 Stephen VHI vian pirates stored and gi- pet, founder 931 John XL formidable to 942 Poland be- 990 Bodeslaus ven to Otho. of a new dy- 936 Leo VII. Southern and comes a king- HI. indepen- 973 Otho H. nasty. 939 Stephen IX. Western Eu- dom. dent in Bohe- 983 Otho HI. 996 Robert the 943 Martin IIL rope, ce'.and and mia. Wise. 946 Agapetus II. Jealousies be- 956 John XII. Greenland The Letti,&c., gin to arise The province 963 Leo VIH. discovered established in between the of Neustria 964 Benedict V. »nd coloniz- Lithuania emperors and assigned to 965 John XIII. ed and Prussia. the popes. the Normans, and thence called Nor- mandy. 972 Benedict VI. 974 Donus H. 975 Benedict VII 982 John XIV. 965 John XV. — John XVL 1 iMtt Gregory V 1999 Sylvostei JL| CENTURY. CONTEMPORARY DYNASTIES. 781 England. The Heptarchy still continues, but the states frequently vary both in number and extent. 717 Ethelbald in Mer- cia. 707 Offa unites East Anglia to Mercia ; but toward the close of the century Wes- sex becomes the pre- dominant state. 702 Amhes Keleth. 704 Eugene VII. 721 Mordach 7.'?0 Elfinius. 701 Eugene VIII. 764 Fergus III. 767 Salva- thus. 787 Achaius. Eastern Empire. 705 Justinian II. re- stored, [nes. 711 Philippicus Barda- 713 Anastasius II. 716 Theodosius III. 718 Leo III. Isauricus. 741 Constantino V. Copronymus. 775 Leo IV. 780 Constantine VI. Porphyrogennetus. (Irene. Nicephorusi). During the greater part of this century the empire is dis- tracted by the Icono- clast controversy. Saracens. Progress d Civilization [III. Yezid 705 Walid I. 714 Suleiman. 717 Omar II. 719 Yezid II. 723 Hashem. 742 Walid II. 743 Merwan 750 Abu I'Abbas, foun- der of the Abasside dynasty. 753 Almanzor. 775 Mohadi. 785 Al Hadi. 786 Ilarun-al-Rashid. The seat of the Kha- liphate fixed at Bag- dad, A. D. 762. Paper made from cot ton. Carpets in- troduced. Schools of learning founded by the Sara- cens. Greek works of science translated intoArabic. CENTURY. Gradual de- cay of tlie Saracenic power. Foundation of the Christian kingdoms of Navarre and Leon. 828 End of the Heptar- chy. Egbert the Great, king of England. 838 Ethel- wolf, [bald. 857 Ethel- 866 Ethelred 872 Alfred the Great. England fre- quently ra- vaged by Danish and Norwegian pirates. 819 Congal in. 824 Dongal. 831 Alpin. 833 Kenneth II. 831 Alpin. 854 Donald V. S58 Constan- tine II. 874 Ethus. 875 Gregory the Great. 892 Donald VI. The Picts subdued and expelled by Kenneth II. Eastern Empire 811 Mi- chael I. 813LeoV 820 Mi- chael II. 829Theo- philus. 841 Ha- run. 842 Mi- chael 111 867 Basi- lius I. 886 Leo VL 809 AI Amin. 814 Al Mamun. 833 Motassem. 846 Motawakkel 861 Montaser. 862 Mostain. Fall and division of the Khaliph- ate. Fatimate dynas- ty founded 768, by Motaz. The seat of the Fatimites transferred in the next centu- ry to Egypt. Progress of Civilization. Streets of Cordova paved. Saxon code of laws formed. (;iocks brought to Western Europe. Oxford uni- versity founded. Agriculture and horti- culture en- couraged in Germany. CENTURY. England. Scotland. Eastern Empire. Saracens. ,. „. . .. Progress of Civilization. 901 Edward I. 903 Constantine 900 Alexander. Tlie Khaliphs in University of the Elder. III. 911 Constantine subjection to Cambridge foun- 925 Athelstan. 943 Malcolm I. VII. Porphyro- their Turkish ded. 941 Ednmnd I. 958 Indulph. gennetus. mercenaries, 946 Edred 9H8 Dulfus. 919 Romanus I. whose chief Figures of arith- 955 Edwy. 972 Cullen. — Constantine 935 Takes the title metic introduced 959 Edgar. '.•77 Kenneth III. VIII. of Emir al Omrah from the Arabs. 975 Edward II. 994 Constantine 959 Romanus II. 997 The Ghazne- the Martyr. IV. 9fi't Nicephorus II. vid dynasty Mining in the 978 Ethelred II. 995 Grimus. 909 .lohn Zimisces 976 Basilius II. founded. Hartz mountains. The Danes ac- and Constantine The Fatimite Kha- Wine presses first quire posses- IX. liphs possess a introduced into sion of a great powerful empire Italy. portion of Eng- The prosperity of in Egypt. land. the empire par- tially restored in consequence of the decline of the Saracenic power. 790 TABLES OF ELEVENTH NOBWAY. Denmark. Sweyn, king of both countries. 14 Canute the Great, king of England. 11 Olavus II. 32 Sueno. 36 iVlagnus Oleron. 47 Harold HI Haardrade. 66 Olavus II. 70 Magnus I. 87 Hacon. 89 Magnus II. 36 Hardica- nute. 42 Magnus. 47 Sweyn Elpisden. 74 Harold VII. 76 Canute the Saint. 85 Olaus II. 95 Eric III. 1 Olaus. 19 Amund I. 35 Edmund II. 40 Hacquin HI. 61 Sturkill. 75 Ingo the Good. The nations of the North abandon their piratical habits, and make great ad- vances in civilization. Russia. Poland. 15 Sva- topole I. 16 Jaro- laus. 54 Isila- us I. 78 Vse- volod I. 93 Sva- topole II Russia scarcely yet emerg- ed from barba- 25 Miesko II. 37 Casimir 1 . Anar- cliy. 41 Casimir recalled. 58 Boles- laus II. the Bold. 77 Bo- leslaus takes the title of king. 81 Wladis laus I. 38 Peter. 41 Expel- led, and succeed- ed by Otto. 44 Peter restored. 47 Anchar I. 61 Bela I. 63 Solo- mon. 4 Giezal. 77 Ladis- laus I. 95 Colo- man. 2 Henry II. 24 Conrad II. of Franco- nia, who 32 Inherits Burgundy. 39 Henry HI 56 Henry IV Wars with the Saxons: and with the Popes on the question of ecclesiasti- cal invest! tures. 31 Hen- ry I. 60 Philip I. the Amo- 95 Commencement of the Crusades, first preached by Peter the Hermit, and then sanctioned by the Popes. TWELFTH nokthern Nations. Norway. 3 Sigurd. 62 Magnus III. Russia. Denmark. 7 Nicholas. 35 Eric IV. 39 Eric V. 47 «;anute V. 55 Sueno IV. 57 Waldemar I. 82 Canute VI. HWlademir H. 25 Motislaus 32 Jaropolik. 38 Vzevolod II. 46 IsialausII 56 Jourje or George I. the found- er of Mos- cow. 57 Andrewl. reigning at Wladimir. 75 Michael I. Sweden. 10 Ingo IV. 29 Ragwald. 40 Suercher II. 60 Eric X. the Holy. 61 Charles VII. 68 Canute. 92 Suercher III. 2 Boleslaus III. Civil dissen- sions and constant wars with the Letti in Lithuania and Prus- sia. 38 Wladis- laus II. 46 Boleslaus IV. 73 Miesko HI. 77 Expelled by Casimir II., the Just 95 Lescho V Hungary 5^ The cultiva-l of the sugar-' cane intro-i duced into I Sicily. Glass windows used in Eng- land. 792 TABLES OP THIRTEENTH northirn Nations. Norway, 7 Hacon II. 63 Magnus IV. 80 Eric II. 99 Hacon III. Denmark 2 Waidemar II. 42 Eric VI. 51 Abel. 52 Christopher. 59 Eric VII. 86 Eric VIII. Sweden. 10 Eric XI. 20 John. 23 Eric XL 50 Waidemar I. 76 Magnus II. 81 Birger II. Russia.. 13 Jourje II Constantine 38 Jarolaus H. 50 Alexanderl. 63 Jarolaus III 71 Vasili I. 75 Demetrius I 94 Andrew at Moscow. 38 Conquered by the Mon- golian horde. Poland. 2 Wladlslaus H. 6 Lesko V. re- stored. 27 BolesIaus'V 79 Lesko VI. 69 Anarchy. 95 Przemisla- us. 96 Wladislaus IV. The conquest of Prussia by the Teutonic knights be- gun 1230,com- pleted 1823. hvnoartand Bohemia. 4 Ladislaus II — Andrew II. 35 Bela IV. 40 Mogul in- vasion. 70 Stephen IV. 72LadislausIII 90 Andrew III. Bohemia. 30 Wencesla- us III. 53 Premislaus Ottoacar II. 78 Anarchy. 84 Wencesla- us IV. Germant. 8 Otho IV. 12 Frederic II. 52 Conrad IV. 54 Wilham, count of Hol- land 56 Richard, earl of Cornwall. — Alphonso of Spain. 73 Rodolph of Hapsburg. 91 Adolphus of Nassau. 98 Albert I. of Austria. France. 23 Louis VIII., the Lion. 26 Louis IX. the Saint. 70 Philip III. the Hardy. 85 Philip IV. the Fair. jT^c Crusades. 68 Capture of Antioch. 91 and of Acre, by the Egypt- ian sultan. End of the Cru- sades. FOURTEENTH Northern Nations. Norway. 15 Magnus V. 26 Hacon III. 28 Magnus VI. 58 Hacon IV. 75 Olaus IV. Denmark. 2IChristopherII 32 Waidemar 111 1 75 Margaret. - Sweden. 26 Magnus HI. 63 Albert of Mecklenburg. 97 Norway,Den- mark, and Sweden, joined by the Union of Calmar. Russia. The country subject to the Mongo- lian horde. Poland. Wences- laus. 25 Casimir the Great. 70 Louis, king of Hungary. 85 Hedwidge and Uladis- laus Jagel- lon. Prussia. Subject to the grand master of the Teuto- nic knights. Hungary and Bohemia. 1 Wencesla- us. 5 Otho of Ba- varia. 13 Charles, Robert. 42 Louis I. 82 Mary and 86 Sigismund. Bohemia. 5 Wencesla- us V. 6 Henry. lOJohn of Lux- emburg. 46 Charles IV. — Joined to the empire. Germany. 8 Henry VII. of Luxem- burg. 13 Louis of Bavaria, «s. Russia. 25Vasalithe Blind. 62 Ivan Va- silievitch I. 74 Tartar Yoke brok- en. Rupert. 10 Jodoohus. 1 1 Sigismond, king also of Hungary and Bohemia. 37 Albert II. 39 Frederic III. 93 Maximilian I. During the greater part of this cen- tury, the dukes of Burgundy ac- quire great politi- cal intiuence. At the close, their possessions pass by marriage into the royal family of Austr.-A. 22 Henry VI., of England. — Charles VII of Valois. 61 Louis XI. 83 CharlesVIIl 98 Louis XII. Rapid increase of the royal power in France dur- ing this cen- tury. Wars in Italy at the close. 4 Innocent VII. 6 Gregory XII. 9 Alexander V. 10 John XXIII. 17 Martin V. 31 Eugenius IV. 39 Felix V. 47 Nicholas V. 55 Calixtus III. 58 Pius II. 64 Paul II. 72 Sixlus IV. 84 Innocent VIII 92 Alexander VI. Sicily and Na- ples lose their political im- portance. Both merge in the kingdom of Spain : the former at tlio beginning, the latter at the close of the century. Poland. 34 Wladis- laus V. 4'' ' dsimir IV. 92 John I. CENTURY. CONTEMPORARY DYNASTIES. 793 Popes. 16 Honorius III. [IX. 27 Gregory 41 Celestine IV. [IV. 43 Innocent 54 Alexan- der IV. 61 Urban IV. 65 Clement IV. [X. 71 Gregory 76Innocentv — Adrian V. — JohnXXI. 77 Nichol.III 81 MartinlV. 85 Honorius IV. 88 Nicho.IV. 94 Celestine V. [VIII. — Boniface Southern Italy. 52 ConradlV (Emperor.) 54 Manfred. 66 Conradin. — Charles of Anjou. 82 Sicily conquered by the king of Aragon. 85 Charles II in Naples. 85 James of Aragon in Sicily. 96 Frederic II. in Sicily. Spain. Aragon, 13 James I. 76 Peter III. 85 Alphonso III, 91 James II. Castile. 14 Henry I. 17 Alphonso X. 26 Ferdinand HI. 52 Alphonso XI., the Wise. 84 Sancho IV. 95 Ferdinand IV. Portugal. 12 Alphonso II., the Fat. 33 Sancho H. 46 Alphonso HI. 79 Dionysius, the father of his country. England & Scotland. England. 16 Henry III 65 House of Commons formed. 72 Edward I. Wales sub- dued. Scotland. 14 Alexan- der II. 49 Alexan- der HI. 85 Anarchy. 92 John Ba- liol. 94 Anarchy (Sir Wm. Wallace.) Eastern Empibe. 1203 Con- Stan ino- ple taken by the Latin Cru- saders, and the empire broken into frag- ments. It was par- tially re- stored in the mid- dle of the century by Michael Paleolo- gus. Turks and Progress of Tartars. Civilization 1298 The dy- nasty of the Ottoman Turks is founded in Bithynia by Othman 1. The Moguls subdue the greater part of Asia and North- eastern Eu- rope, but in the middle of the cen- tury their empire is broken up. Establish- mentofthe Inquisition Magna Charta. Represen- tatives of the Com- mons in parliament Spectacles invented. Glass mir- rors used. Clocks to strike made In Europe. CENTURY. Southern Italy. Spain. England and Scotland. Eastern Empire. Ottoman Empire. Progress of Civilization. | Naples. 9 Robert I. 43 Joan I. 82 Charles III., of Durazzo. Aragon. 27 Alphonso IV. 36 Peter IV. 87 John I. 95 Martin. England. 7 Edward II. 27 Edward IH. Edward claims the crown of France. 75 Death of the Black Prince. 77 Richard 11. 99 Henry IV. of Lancaster. Scotland. 6 Robert Bruce. 29 David 11. 70 Robert H., tha first of the Stuarts. 90 Robert IH. Through- out this century the East- ernempire gradually declines, and at the close be- comes tri- butary to the Turks. 26 The empire of the Turks, established by Othman at Prusi. 25 Orkhan. 58 Amurath I. 89 Bayezid I. Timur Lenk subdues Western and Central Asia, and estab- lishes a migh- ty empire. Mari-ier'g cona-, pass intro-J dured intOj Europe. Paper made' from linen, rags. Gunpowder and cannon used in war. New Test^. ment trans- lated by WickUffe. Pins and play- ing cards in- vented. Sicily. 28 Frederic I. 37 Peter H. 42 Louis. 55 Frederic II 67 Mary. Castile. 12 Alphonso XII. 50 Peter the Cruel. 69 Henry II. 79 John I. 90 Henry IH. Portugal. 25 Alphonso IV. 57 Peter the Cruel. 67 Ferdinand. 85 John I., the Great. CENTURY. Spain. England & Scotland. Eastern & C ttoman Empires, Progress ofCivilizatlon Aragon. 10 Ferdinand. 16 Alphonso V. 58 John H. 74 Ferdinand the Ca- thoUc. Castile. 6 John II. 54 Henry IV. 74 Isabella.who marries Ferdinand of Aragon, and thus unites the two crowns. Portugal. 33 Edward. [African. 38 Alphonso V., the 81 John II. [tunate. 95 Emmanuel the For- England. 13 Henry V. 22 Henry VI. Wars of the Roses. 61 Edward IV. (York.) 83 Edward V., — Richard IH. 85 Henry Vll., the first of the Tudors. Scotland. 6 James I. 37 James II. 60 James HI. 88 James IV. Great civil commotions in Scotland. The Greek empire gra- dually sinks into ruin, being assailed by the Turkish sultans ; 3 Soleiman. 10 Moussa. 13 Mohammed I. 21 Amurath II. 51 Mohammed H., who 53 takes Constantino- Si Bayezid II. [pie. The empire of Timur destroyed by the civil wars of his descend- ants, one of whom, Baber, founds the empire of Delhi, or of the Great Mogul, in India Maritime enterprises encouraged. A ir-gun and musket in vented. The art of printing. Vatican library found- ed. Greek philosophers seek refuge in Italy Algebra borrowed from the Arabs. Discovery of America. Passage round the the Cape of Good Hope discovered. 794 TABLES OF SIXTEENTH Dknmark and Sweden. Denmark. 13 Christian II. 23 Frederic I 34 Christian III. 59 Frederic II. 88 Christian IV. Sweden. 23 Gustavus Vasa establislies the in- dependence of Sweden. 60 Eric XVI. 68 John III. 92 Sigismund, king of Poland. 99 Charles IX. Russia and Poland. Russia. 5 Vasili Ivanovitch. 33 IvanVasiliovitch/I 84 Feodor. 98 Buris Gudonof. GERMANy, *,C. Poland. 1 Alexander. 6 Sigisniund I. 48 Sigismund II. Au- gustus. 73 Henry of Valois. "5 Stephen. 87 Sigismund III. who also became king of Sweden. Evipire. 19 Charles V. king of Spain, &c. 58 Ferdinand I. 64 Maximilian II. 76 Rodolph II. Prussia rises gradu- ally into import- ance. Holland rejects the yoke of Spain, and 84 Maurice, prince of Orange, is chosen Stadtholder of the United Provinces. 15 Francis T. 47 Henry II. 59 Francis II. 60 Charles IX. 74 Henry HI. Wars of the League. 89 Henry IV. of Bourboa Popes. 3 Pius III. — Julius II. 13 Leo X. 22 Adrian VI. 23 Clement VII. 34 Paul III. 50 Julius III. 55 Marcellus HI. — Paul IV. 59 Pius IV. 66 Pius V. 72 Gregory XIII. 85 Sixtus V. 90 Urban VII. — Gregory XIV. 91 Iimocent IX. 92 Clement VIII. 40 Order of Jesu- its established. SEVENTEENTH Denmark and Sweden, Russia and Poland. Germany, &c. France. Denmark. 48 Frederic III. 70 Christian V. 99 Frederic IV. Russia, 5 Demetrius. 6 Vassili Shuiski. 13 Michael Romanof. 45 Alexis. 76 Feodor. 82 Ivan and Peter. 96 Peter alone. Empire. 12 Matthias. 19 Ferdinand II. 37 Ferdinand HI. 58 Leopold I. The Thirty Years'War. The dutchy of Prussia increases in power. Holland takes a promi- nent place among the European States. 10 Louis XIII. 43 Louis XIV. The monarchy of France attains the summit of its great- ness, and the ambi- tion of the king ex- cites the jealousy of the principal Euro- pean states. Sweden. 11 Gustavus Adolphus the Great. 32 Christina. 54 Charles X. 60 Charles XI. 97 Charles XII. Great Northern War. Poland. 32 Wladislaus VI. 48 John Casimir. 69 Michael Coryleat. 74 John Sobieski. 97 Frederic Augustus I. of Saxony. EIGHTEENTH AND Denmark. 30 Christian VI. 46 Frederic V. 66 Christian VII. 84 Regency. 8 Frederic VI. 14 Norway united to Sweden. 39 Christian VIIL 18 Ulrica Leo- nora. 20 Frederic I. of Hesse Cas- sel. 51 Adolphus Frederic of Holstein. 71 Gustavus HI. 92 Gustarn Adolphus II. Russia and Poland. 9 Charles XIII. 10 Bernadotte chosen Crown prince 19 Becomes king, as Charles John. Russia. 21 Peter the Great takes the title of Empe- ror. 25 Catherine I. 27 Peter II. 30 Annelvanofna — Ivan, a minor. 41 Elizabeth. 61 Peter 11. 62 Catherine II. Paul I. Poland. Having been long distracted by civil com- motions, is in 1772 dismem- bered by Rus- sia, Prussia, and Austria. Russia. 1 Alexander. 25 Nicholas. 31 Attempted Polish revolu- tion. Germany, &c. Emjr.re. 5 Josepli I. 11 Charles VI. 42 Charles VII. of Bavaria. 45 Francis I. of l.orrtme. and Maria Theresa. 6b loseph II. 9i Le- >i)lo H. 9'i Francis II. Prussia. 1 Recomes a kingdom. 40 Frederick II. the Great. 8* Fr.'d.Wm. II. 9ti Fred.Wm.IJ. Austria. A Francis 35 Ferdinand 1 Emperor of Austria. Prussia. 40 Fred. Vk^in.IV France. 14 LouisXV. 74 Louis XVI. 92 Republic Sanguinary tumults and civil wars. 9vJNapoleon, Fi St Con- su . Popes. 4 Napoleon Emperor. 14 Louis XVIII. 15 Napoleon restored. — Louis .XVIH. stored. 25 CharlesX 30 L. Fhiln. Cle.Tient XI. 21 Innocent XIII 24 Benedict XIII 30 Clement XII. 40 Benedict XIV 58 Clement XllI 69 Clement XIV 75 Pius VI. 93 Koman repub- lic. Pius VII. 8 Pope deposed 14 restored. 23 Leo XII. 31 Gregory XVI. Holland. re- 1814 W:!liam I i840 Widiamll. on tt.eab.Ucai,ion ol Ins lather. CENTURY. CONTEMPORARY DYNASTIES. 795 Spain. 4 Ferdinand the Cath- olic, alone. — Philip I. of Austria. 16 Charles I., or V., as emperor of Germany. 56 Philip II. 98 Philip III. Portugal. 21 John III. 57 Sebastian. 78 Henry the Cardinal. 80 Portugal is united to Spain. Enoland and Scotland. England. 9 Henry VHI. 47 Edward VI. 53 Jane Grey. — Mary. 58 Elizabeth. Scotland, 13 James V. 42 Mary. 67 James VI. who, at the beginning of the next century, unites the kingdoms of Eng- land and Scotland, which are henceforth called Great Britain. Turks and Persians. Turkey. 12 Selim I. 20 Soleiman II. 66 Selim II. 74 Amurath III. 95 Mohammed III. Progress of Cirili- zation. Persia. 1 The Sufi'avean dy- nasty founded by Is- mael. 25 Shah Taurasp. 77 Mohammed. 64 Abbas the Great. The Reformation. The Copemican sys- tem. Reformation of th« calendar. Stocking-fiame. Newspapers. Telescopes. Toleration legally es- tablished in France by the Edict of Nantes. CENTURY. 5 I.eo XI. — Paul V. 21 Gregory XV. 23 Urban VIII. 44 Innocent X. 55 Alexander Vll. J7 Clement IX. 70 Clement X. 76 Innocent XI. 89 Alexander VIII. 91 Innocent XII. Spain, O 2 o 3 ° ° 3 °-2. ITS _ w CD O n> o O <* — 2 2 " "■ 0! 3 O r»n> 3 o S — S. pi o - a- fti 2 f^ ^ Runjit Sing,rulerof Punjab. 39 Shah Su- jah, restored to the throne of Cabul 40 English murdered in Cabul Shah Sujah slain. Porcelain manu- factured in Eu- rope. Inoculation in- troduced. Chronometers. Cook's voyages. Colonization ol Australia. Spinningjennies Galvanism. Planet Herschel discovered. Air balloons. Telegraphs. Steam-boats dis- covered, but not used until the next century. Steam-vessels. Gas-lights. Lithography. New processes of engravmg. Arctic voyages. Railroads. Locomotive Engines. 796 FAMILY OF THE BOURBONS. -11 •=*ti J^ +- O O) P5 t> O a H P^ O H h-i cq < hJ <1 O o I-:; is ^ E 60 ■; ■§ -§*• ■^ ttOYAL FAMILY OF ENGLAND. 797 2-0 n B « j-S- 12 •-ia i2 s ■5 s rt'W i, 60 ^ "C3 ^-5 5-3 c o fa o — Tyrannical Rule of Sparta. — Third Peloponnesiat. War. 1. How did Lysander treat the confede- rates ? 2. How did the Spartans rule in Athens ? 3. What did they do to cripple the com- merce of the Athenians ? 4. What to break their spirit ? 5 How did the Thebans treat the exile Athenians ? 6. The leader of these exiles ? 7. His movements and success ? 8. How was the ancient constitution of Athens restored? 9. How did the Athenians show their de- generacy ? 10. Character of Socrates ? 11 Hi.- twe mopt famous disanles ? 12. Give an account of tUe expedition of Cyrus and the retreat of the ten thousand? 13. What became of them after their return? 14. Who was Agesilaus, and to whom did ho owe his elevation ? 15. His treatment of Lysander? 16. His success against Persia ? 17. What led to the third Peloponnesian war? 18. The conduct of the Spartans to Thebes? 19. The fate of Lysander and Pausanias? 20. Why was Agesilaus recalled ? 21. How was the Spartan navy annihilated? 22. Conon's use of this success ? 23. What two battles were fought during this war ? 24. The fate of Corinth ? 25. How was Conon treated by Artaxerxes? 26. The base conduct of Sparta ? 27. Its treatment of Olynthus? 28. Its treachery to Thebes ? 29. Who received the Theban patriots ? 30. How, and by whom was Thebes rescued? 31. What conduct of a Spartan general filled Athens with indignation? 32. The course of the war ? 33. What saved Sparta from destruction ? 34. Who now summoned all the Grecian states to Sparta, and for what pur- pose? 35. Who was Epaminondas ? 36. How did he destroy Spartan influence at this conference ? 37. Describe the battle of Leuctra. 38. The consequences of this battle? 39. What powerful ally now joined the The- bans ? 40. What grand scheme had he formed I 41. His death? 42. How were his murderers received in the Grecian republics ? 43. What imminent danger now threatened Sparta ? 44. The progress of the Theban army ? 45. How long had it been since an enemy had appeared in Laconia ? 46. How were the Spartans still more deeply mortified ? 47. Conduct of the Athenians? 48. How were the Theban generals received on their return home ? 49. The dilFerent conduct of Pelopidas and Epaminondas ? 50. The course of events during the six fol- lowing years ? 51. What distinguished hostage did Pelopidas bring with him from Macedon ? 52. How was Pelopidas treated by Alexander of Phera3 ? 53. The effect of his eloquence with the Persian monarch? 54. \N hy did the Gr.'ciau states refuse to accede to this union ? 55. Death of Pelopidas ? 56. Bold attempt of Epaminondas ? 57. What prevented its success 1 ANCIENT HISTORT. 17 a8. Wiat prevented him from capturing Mantinoea? 59 What great victory did he now gain ? 60 The effect of it ? 61. The effect on Thebes of the deaths of Epaminondas and Pelopidas? 62. Terms of the treaty of peace ? 63. Influence on Sparta of Agesilaus ? Sec. 6. — The Second Sacred War. — De- struction of Grecian Freedom. 1. How did the Athenians lose their domi- nion over the maritime states? 2. Who excited them to such conduct ? 3. What states revolted ? 4. What defeat did the Athenians sustain ? 5. Base conduct of Chares ? 6. How did he complete the ruin of the Athenians ? 7. What is said of the Amphictyonic coun- cil? 8. How did it punish the Phocians and Spartans, and why ? 9. How did the Phocians act? 10. How was the war conducted on both sides? 11. The fateof Philomelus? 12. His successor, and his conduct ? 13. To whom did the Thebans apply for aid? 14. His conduct ? 15. Why was he luiwilling to pass the straits of ThermopylcE ? 16. Who renewed the war? 17. How was Philip mortified? 18. Why did the Phocians now desire peace? 19. Why was it refused? 20. How did Philip act ? 21. By what orator was he opposed? 22. Who excited a new sacred war ? 23. In what manner ? 24. Conduct of Philip ? 25. Who opposed him ? 26. Where were they defeated? 27. To what office was Philip now chosen ? CHAPTER XI . THE HISTORY OF MACEDON. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline. 1. What separates Thrace from Macedon ? 2. The ancient name of Macedon ? 3. The boundaries of Macedon in its most flourishing state ? 4. How many nations did it contain ? 5. Where was Epidamnus? 6. The capital of Macedon ? 7. The most important cities of the Chalci- dian pnninsula? 8 The most remarkable mountains of Macedon ? 9. Its principal rivers? 10. Its soil and productions? 11. For what was it celebrated? Sec. 2. — History of the Macedmiian Mo- narchy. 1. How was Macedon settled? 2. How was Edessa taken ? 3. When did the kingdom become tributary to the Persians ? 4. When did it recover its independence? 5. Why did Perdiccas II. unite with the Spartans against the Athenians? 6. Policy of Archelaus, his successor? 7. What philosopher and what poet did he patronize ? 8. His successor? 9. The condition of his kingdom at his ac- cession ? 10. His first movements? 11. What military improvement did he maket 12. What victories did he soon gain? 13. His conduct toward Athens .' 14. How was he rewarded by the Thessa- lians? 15. Whom did he marry? 16. His policy? 17. By whom was he opposed? 18. What personal injury did he sustain at the siege of Methone ? 19. What two disappointments did he soou afterwards experience ? 20. Who spent his life in opposing him ? 21. What city did he take and destroy? 22. How did he disarm the Athenians? 23. Of what further folly were they guilty? 24. How did Philip treat Amphissa? 25. How did he announce his design against the liberties of Greece ? 26. What signal victory did he gain over the Greeks ? 27. His conduct toward the Thebans and Athenians ? 28. To what office was he now elected ? 29. What put an end to all his schemes? 30. His successor ? 31. What enemies did he have to contend against ? 32. His successes? 33. What report was now spread throughout Greece ? 34. Its effect ? 35. How were the Thebans treated by Alex- ander ? 36. What family did he spare ? 37 Who were most active in this destruc- tion, and why? 33. Whht i.gret id A'exa-ider afterwarda express ? 39. The effect of this calamity throug'iout Greece ? 40. To whom did Alexander entrust the government of Greece and ftlacedou ? 18 QUESTIONS ON 41. What empire did he now prepare to in- vade ? 42. The amount of his forces ? 43. Whence did he embark? 44. Tlie prudent advice of Memnon ? 45. His first battle 1 46. His conquests at tlie end of the first cam- paign ? 47. Folly of Darius? 48. His second battle ? 49. What captives and what spoil did Alex- ander take ? 50. The noble conduct of Alexander after this battle ? 51. What city set him at defiance ? 52. Its punishment ? 53. What second city resisted, and shared the same fate ? 54. How did he open his fourth cam- paign ? 55. The third battle of Darius? 56. Describe this battle ? 57. Respective losses of the two armies ? 58. How was this triumph sullied ? 59. Fate of Darius ? 60. Fate of his murderer ? 61. What other country did Alexander now invade? 62. Conduct of the Lacedffimonians at this time ? 63. What proofs of Alexander's respect for the ancient states of Greece are men- tioned ? 64. Why was ^Eschines banished ? 65. By what route did Alexander advance toward India? 66. What reinforcement did he receive ? 67. What enemy did he meet with on the banks of the Hydaspes ? 68. How did he effect a passage ? 69. How far eastward did ho proceed ? 70. Why did he go no further ? 71. By what route did he retmii? 72. Course of Nearchus ? 73. What proof of Alexander's consummate wisdom is given? 74. What cut short his plan ? 75. Th-o place and date of his death ? 76. To whom did he give his ring? Sec. 3. — Dissolution of the Macedonian Empire. 1. What remark is made of Perdiccas? 2. Conduct of the Macedonian nobles? 3. What had well nigh led to a civil war, and how was it averted ? 4. What arrangement was made ? 5. How were Alexander's remains treated? 6. What projected marriage was pre- vented? 7. What storm now burst upon Perdic- cas ? 8. What battle was fought, and with what results ? 9. The fate of Perdiccas? 10. What brief struggle now took place ii. Greece ? 11. Its progress and results? 12. Conduct of Ptolemy ? 13. How was Eumenes treated by the army? 14. Who was made regent ? 15. Whom did Antipater send against Eu- menes ? 16. Who discovered the secret plans of Anti- gonus ? 17. What produced a new revolution in tho empire ? 18. Antipater's successor? 19. Instances of his unstatesman-like con- duct? 20. How was this last edict received at Athens ? 21. Who fell victims there to mob violence? 22. Conduct of Cassander ? 23. Who governed Athens at this time? 24. Movements of Polysperchon ? 25. Conduct of Olympias ? 26. How was she punished ? 27. Whom did Cassander marry? 28. How did this marriage benefit him ? 29. What was Polysperchon doing at thia time ? 30. How was Eumenes treated by his troops, and his death ? 31. How were these troops punished? 32. Grand design of Antigonus? 33. How did he prepare to carry it into effect? 34. What victory did Ptolemy gain, and its consequences? 35. What defeat did he afterwards sus- tain? 3G. How did Demetrius become involved in a conquest with the Arabs? 37. Bold conduct of Seleucus? 38. What new dynasty now arose ? 39. Insincerity of Cassander. 40. What was Ptolemy preparing to do ? 41. What did Lysimachus resolve upon? 42. Whom did all acknowledge as their sovereign ? 43. What murders did Cassander commit ? 44. Movements of Demetrius ? 45. To what office did his father appoint him? 46. What new confederacy was formed against Antigonus? 47. What great battle was fought at Ipsua that decided the fate of an empire ; the parties engaged, and the result ? 48. The consequences of this battle ? 49. How long had the mighty empire of Alexander lasted? 50. The most enduring memorial of his poUcy ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 19 CHAPTER XII. HISTORY OF THE STATES THAT AROSE FROM THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. Sec. 1. — The History of Macedon and Greece from the Battle of Ipsus to the Roman Conquest. 1. Whither did Demetrius flee after the fatal battle of Ipsus ? 2. How was he received ? 3. Where did he establish himself? 4. Whom did he uo w obtain for a son-in-law ? 5. To whom did Cassander leave his king- dom at his decease 1 6 Of what dreadful crime was his son An- tipater guilty ? 7. The consequences of it ? 8. Whose aid did Alexander, the surviving son, seek ? 9. The consequences of inviting Demetrius into Macedon? 10. Wliat mighty plans did Demetrius now form ? 11. Who was excited to invade his do- minions ? 12. The movements and fate of Demetrius ? 13. Crime of Lysimachus ? 14. The consequences of it to himself? 15. By whom was Seleucus murdered? 16. What events took place the same year in which Seleucus fell ? 17. The cause of these revolts in Asia? 18 How did Alexander the Great attempt to Hellenize the East ? 19. The result of this attempt? 20. By whom was Ptolemy Ceraunus, king of Macedon, slain? 21. The progress of the Gauls? 22 Where did they finally settle ? 23. Who now obtained the vacant throne of Macedon ? 24. The confederate cities of the Achaean league? 25. What led to a new revolution m Mace- don ? 26. What led to the death of Pyrrhus ? 27. Who regained the throne of Macedon ? 28. What cities now joined the Achaean league ? 29. What revolution took place in Sparta ? 30. What brought about a counter revolu- tion ? 31. Conduct of Cleomenes ? 32. By whom was he defeated ? 33. What rekindled the flames of war ? 34. Of what imprudence was Aratus guilty ; and its consequences ? 35. Against whom was war now declared by the Achaean league ? 36. What commercial war was going on at the same time ? 37. The project of the exile Cleomenes? 38. How was he treated by the young king of Egypt? 39. Relate the circumstances of his death? 40. What is said of him ? 41. What now inclined all the Greeks to peace? 42. Where was a treaty concluded ? 43. What is said of the Macedonian monarch? 44. With whom did he form an alliance? 45. What great crime did he commit ? 46. How did the Romans find employment for Philip at home ? 47. The parties in the war that ensued ? 48. The successor of Aratus ? 49. Against whom did Philip now declare war? 50. Whose aid did the Athenians solicit? 51. Whither did the Romans next proceed? 52. Where did they figfit with Philip ? 53. Describe the battle. 54. On what terms did Philip obtain peace ? 55. What proclamation did the Romaua make at the Isthmian games ? 56. Describe the scene. 57. How did Flaminius show his insincerity? 58. Who now declared war against the Romans ? 59. By whom was he instigated ? 60. What is said of his campaigns? 61. The result of the war ? 62. How were the ^tolians treated by the Romans ? 63. By whom was Sparta captured ? 64. What loss did the league sustain ? 65. Relate the circumstances of his death. 66. How was his fate avenged ? 67. Philip's cruelty to his son Demetrius ? 68. His death, how occasioned ? 69. The first act of Perseus, his successor ? 70. Where was he defeated by the Romans ? 71. How was he treated? 72. The efliect of the eclipse of the moon on the two armies ? 73. How did the Romans treat the Achaeans? 74. What led to the destruction of Corinth ? 75. What is said of Athens ? Sec. 2. — History of the Kingdom of Syria under the Seleucida. 1. What advantage did Seleucus gain by his victory over the satraps of Media and Persia? 2. What further additions did he make t« his territories in four years? 3. How far did he penetrate India ? 4. What advantages did he gain by his treaty with Sandracottus ? 5. The seat of his government ? 6. Why was this an unfortunate choice 1 7. What cities did he found ? 8. Why did he invade Europe ? s His end? 20 QUESTIONS ON 10. His successor? 11. Mention the several wars in which he was engaged, and their results. 12. Why was his son and successor called Theos ? 13. Wliy did he begin to lose the provinces of Uj)per Asia ? 14. The conditions of his treaty with Pto- lemy? 15. How did he suffer for fulfilling them? 16. Who succeeded him? 17. What war did his mother's crime bring on him? 18. Progress of Ptolemy ? 19. What did he gain by this expedition ? 20. What enemies now rose against Seleucus? 21. The result of these wars ? 22. The fate of Seleucus? 23 To whom was Antiochus the Great in- debted for his crown ? 24. How was he deceived by his prime minister? 25. How did the rebel forces act when An- tiochus marched against them ? 26. The fate of the prime minister and his brothers? 27. In what wars was Antiochus now en- gaged ? 28. In what important expedition did he en- gage, in conjunction with the Bactrian monarch ? 29. Who prevented him from conquering Egypt? 30. On what occasion did the Romans a second time interfere ? 31. By whom was he instigated to treat them with disdain ? 32. What battle laid him prostrate at their feet? 33. Of what countries did they deprive him? 34. His end ; and his successor ? 35. The fate of Seleucus IV. ? 36. What did the Jews say of this event ? 37. His successor, and his siu'names? 38. How did he provoke universal hatred ? 39. The cause of his war with Egypt ? 40. Its progress and results ? 41. What treachery was practised toward him ? 42. Who prevented him from taking his re- venge ? 43. What resolution did he now attempt to carry out? 44. The results of his wild project ? 45. Who succeeded him ? 46. Under what circumstances did he lose his life ? 47. Tlie fate of the usurper Balas >. 48. What withheld Demetrius from march- ing against the usurper, Tryphon? 49. What was his success ? 50. The vicissitudes of fortune he expe- rienced ? 51. Tlie fate of Seleucus, his son ? 52. How was he avenged? 53. How did the Syrians treat the entire family, and why? 54. To whom did they offer their crown ? 55. The fate of Tigranes ? 56. The last of the Seleucidaj, and his fate ? Sec. 3. — Historij of Egypt under the Ptolemies. 1. Who was the wisest statesman among the succ^essors of Alexa^.der ? 2. How did he conduct himself in Egypt? 3. His patronage of literature ? 4. What people flocked to Alexandria ; and why ? 5. What is the Septuagint, and why so called? 6. What works did he erect? 7. Describe the college of philosophy? 8. Its reputation and permanence ? 9. The material for writing previous to pa- pyrus ? 10. What is papyrus? 11. Its influence on literature? 12. Why was not parchment substituted for it? 13. How was Egypt strengthened ? 14. Popularity of the son of Ptolemy Lagus ? 15. His successor, and his administration ? 16. What channels of trade were opened? 17. What pernicious habits did Philadelphus adopt ? 18. What mission did he send to Rome? 19. Of what benefit was this mission to Rome ? 20. Character and deeds of Ptolemy Ever- getes? 91. Character of Ptolemy Philopater? 22. What illustrious persons did he put to death ? 23. His folly at Jerusalem ? 24. Of what crimes was he guilty? 25. What circumstance saved Egypt from being involved in the Syrian war ? 26. Character of Ptolemy Epiphanes ? 27. Character and deeds of Ptolemy Philo. meter? 28. His successor, and whom did he marry ? 29. His character, and deeds ? 30. The history of his sons? 31. What illustrious daughter of Ptolemy Auletes became queen of Egypt? 32. Her fate, and that of her kingdom ? 33. What is said of Alexandria ? Sec. 4. — History of the Minor Kingdoms in Western Asia. 1. The principal kingdoms formed from th« the fragments of the Macedonian mo- narchy in Western Asia? 2. The history of Pergamus, and its kings T 3. What invention do we owe to them ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 21 4. 'W^liat became of their librarj' ? b. The history of Bithynia ? 6. The most illustrious monarch of Pontus ? 7. His character? 8. With whom did he provoke a contest ? 9. Of what act of cruelty was he guilty ? 10. Of what Grecian city did he make him- self master ? 11. What Roman consul frequently defeated him ? 12. Why did Sylla make peace with him? 13. How was he treated by Murtena? 14. His conduct during the civil wars of the Romans ? 15. What young Roman student defeated his lieutenants ? 16. Who was sent against him, and what success ? 17. What re-animated the comitry of Mithri- dates? 18. What forced Lucullus to return home ? 19. Who was now sent against him ? 20. His reverses, and return to his country ? 21. His misfortunes and death? 22. What is said of Cappadocia, and of its inhabitants ? 23. What is said of the two Armenias ? 24. What first gave celebrity to Rhodes? 25. Describe the siege. 26. What was erected in commemoration of this siege? 27. The conduct of the Rhodians in the war between Antiochus and the Romans? 28. How were they afterwards treated by the Romans ? 29. What king attacked them? 30. Their conduct in the civil war between Pompey and Caesar? 31. How were they treated by Cassius? 32. How, by Claudius Caesar, and for what cause ? 33. How, by Vespasian ? Sec. 5. — History of Bactria and Parthin. ' . In what respect did the Bactrian king- aoin dip"'"'- from those described in the preceding sections? 2. Its founder? 3 The extent of the kingdom in the height of its prosperity ? 4 By whom were the Greeks driven from the kingdom, and what became of them ? 5. Are they still existing ? 6. The general limits of the Parthian king- dom? 7. WHiat is said of their monarchs? 8. What circumstance proves that they were foreigners ? 9. Their exclusive policy, and its conse- quences ? 10. What cities were benefited V- .Jie cha»>**' ' 11. Who commenced the war of indepea* dence ? 12. The original government formed by the heads of the Parthian tribes ? 13. What was a remarkable peculiarity of Parthian tactics ? 14. How did the war between the 'Parthiaiia and Syrians terminate ? 15. The first danger to which the Parthians were exposed? 16. Against what formidable power did they next ci..iitend ? 17. The result of the expedition of Crassus? 18. Which side did they favour in the civil wars of Rome ? 19. How did they obtain peace from Augus- tus Csesar ? 20. Their treatment of the Christians ? 21. What native Persian at length drove them from the country ? 22. The etFect of this revolution on Chris- tianity in the East ? 23. The line between ancient and modem history, in Asiatic annals? Sec. 6. — History of Idumea, and its Capital, Petra. 1. From whom were the Edomites de- scended ? 2. The advantages of their situation ? 3. Its capital city, and its situation ? 4. Describe it. 5. The prediction of Jeremiah ? 6. Their ports and commerce ? 7. By whom were they subdued? 8. Tlie Scripture account of Hadad ? 9. With whom were the Edomites fre- quently at war? 10. Who were the Idu means, and the Na- batheans ? 11. The e.xpedition of Atheneeus against them, and its results? 12. How was Demetrius deterred from aveng- ing the fate of his general ? 13. How came the name of Idumean to be- come extinct ? 14. How was Petra ruined? 15. Recite the prophecy of Isaiah ? Sec. 7. — History of the Jews, from their Return out of the Babylonish Captivity to the Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 1. How many Jews returned to their native land, after the decree of Cyrus ? 2. Their governor? 3. The Jewish tradition relative to this re- turn ? 4. Application of the Samaritans ? 5. How did they afterwards treat the Jews ? & What was the conduct of the Jews iu Xerxes' army ? 7. Who was the Ahasuerus of Scripture "> 22 QUESTIONS ON 8. Conduct of Haman, and his end ? 9. Who was Ezra ? 10. What great work did he perform? 11. How do the Jews regard him? 12. His successor ? 13. How did the Jews act toward Alexan- der ? ■ 14. How did Judea suffer after his death ? 15. How did Jerusalem suffer under Ptolemy Soter ? 16. The high-priest at this time, and his cha- racter ? 17. What work was completed under his directions ? 18. What sect arose about this time? 19. Their doctrines ? 20. What version of the Scriptures was made at this time in Egypt ? 21. Who attempted to Hellenizc the Jews ? 22. Conduct of Simon, and of Onias ? 23. How did Onias lose the priesthood? 24. State of the nation under Jason's ad- ministration ? 25. Conduct of Jason ? 26. Of his brother Menelaus ? 27. Cause of Onias' death? 28. Cause of the riot in Jerusalem ? 29. How were the deputies to Antiochus treated ? 30. How did the Syrians show their sense of this atrocity ? 31. Conduct of Jason during the Syrian inva- sion of Egypt ? 32. Antiochus' dreadful cruelty towards the Jews ? 33. His awful profanity ? 34. His edict, and its execution? 35. His cruelty towards the fugitive Jews ? 36. The effect of their noble constancy 37. Brave conduct of Mattathias ? 38. How did the wars of the Maccabees commence ? 39. Whom did Mattathias appoint his suc- cessor ? 40. The origin of the name, " Maccabees." 41. Exploits of Judas Maccabeus? 42. How long had the temple been in the hands of the heathen ? 43. Conduct of the Jewish army as it came in sight of Jerusalem ? 44. The circumstances of the death of Judas? 45. His funeral ? 46. His successor ? 47. What privilege did he obtaui from the Syrian king ? 48. The inscription on one of his coins, which has been preserved ? 49. His death, and successor ? 50. Acts of his administration ? 51. His treatment of the Pharisees ? 52. His successor, and the cause of his death ? 53. History of his successor, Alexander Jan- nsBus ? 54. History of his two sons ? 55. Conduct of Antipater ? 56. To whom was the decision of the crown left? 57. Conduct of Aristobulus 1 58. Conduct of the Jews, after he left Jeru- salem ? 59. How did Pompey treat Jerusalem ? 60. Who was now supreme in Jerusalem ? 61. Conduct of Antipater ? 62. How was he rewarded by Csesar ? 63. The condition of Judea during the civil wars of the Romans after the death of Pompey ? 64. Whom did Antony make king of Judea ? 65. Why were the Jews opposed to him ? 66. Instances of his cruelty ? 67. Age of Herod at his death ? 68. His successor, his history ? 69. Feelings of the Jews on the occasion of Pilate's entering Jerusalem ? 70. How did Pilate provoke a fresh insurrec- tion ? 71. The state of society in Judea during his administration ? 72. What forerunner of Christ now appeared in Judea, and how was he received ? 73. How old was our Lord when he began to preach ? 74. What occurred at his baptism ? 75. Wicked conduct of Herod Antipas ? 76. His conduct toward John the Baptist? 77. For what pretended crime was Jesus crucified ? 78. How long after his resurrection did he continue with his disciples ? 79. How many persons were converted by St. Peter's preaching, on the day of Pentecost? 80. The disinterested conduct of the Chris- tian community ? 81. Who was the first Christian martyr? 82. History of Paul's conversion ? 83. End of Pontius Pilate ? 84. History of Herod Agrippa ? 85. Which of the Apostles did he put to death ? 86. His end ? 87. Condition of Judea after his death 1 88. Who were the Sicarii 1 89. Conduct of Felix ? 90. His treatment of St. Paul? 91. Festus' treatment of St. Paul ? 92. Conduct of Florus, the last governor of Judea ? 93. Conduct of the Jews ? 94. Why did the Christians retire to Pella, at this time ? 95. Who was sent against the Jews ? 96. The three parties ui Jerusalem, and theil dissensions ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 28 97. To what danger was Titus exposed ? 98. The sufferings of the Jews during the siege of Jerusalem ? 99. The fate of Jerusalem ? 100. The number of captives, and of the slain ? 101. How was the victory of Titus celebrated in Rome ? 102. Describe the medal struck, commemo- rative of the event ? CHAPTER XIII. HISTORY OF ANCIENT ITALY. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline. 1. The boundaries of Italy ? 2. Its divisions ? 3. Cisalpine Gaul, why so called 1 4. Why also called Gallia Togata ? 5. The principal subalpine tribes ? 6. The Cottian Alps, why so called ? 7. The chief cities of Liguria ? 8. The Ligurian name of the river Po, and why so called? 9. The principal towns of the Boii ? 10. The limits of Gallia Transpadana? 11. Of Central Italy? 12. What countries did it comprise? 13. The boundaries of Etruria ? 14. How was it divided ? 15. The limits of Latium? 16. In what part of Italy did the Greek colo- nies locate themselves ? 17. For what has Italy ever been celebrated? 18. What has Italy been, and what is it now ? Sec. 2. — Historical Notices of the early In- habitants of Italy. 1. From whom were the earliest inhabitants of Italy descended? 2. Of what two languages is the Latin a compound ? 3. The origin of the name Sicily ? 4. The original name of the Latins ? 5. What proof is given that the serfs were of Palasgic origin, and the warriors of Oscan descent? 6. The gods of the ancient Latins ? 7. What is said of the Sabines ? 8. Explain the " Ver Sacrum?" 9. The history of the Lucanians? 10. For what were the Sabellian tribes dis- tinguished ? 11. What prevented them from becoming predominant in Italy ? 12 To what did the Samnites owe their downfall ? 13. The oiigin of the term " Iniperator ?" 14. What gave the Romans great advantage over the Etruscans ? 15. For what were they remarkable ? 16. Who annihilated their navy? 17. Who finally subdued them ? 18. What is said of their ancient works ? 19. What of their superstition? 20. What is said of the Umbrians ? 21. What of the Messapians ? 22. |What of the Ligurians? 23. Their reputation among the Romans ? Sec. 3. — The Greek Colonies in Italy. 1. The earliest Greek settlement in Italy ? 2. What is said of the city of CumsB ? 3. Its history, and what gave it importance? 4. By whom was Tarentum founded? 5. Its history ? 6. By whom was Croton founded ? 7. What proof of its power is given ? 8. The design of the Pythagorean society T 9. How was Croton ruined ? 10. The cause of the power of Sybaris ? 11. For what did it become proverbial ? 12. What led to a war between it and Cro- ton, and the result of it ? 13. To whom did the Sybarites then apply for aid ? 14. What city did they then found ? 15. What led to a civil war, and the result of it? 16 The subsequent history of Thurium ? 17. What is said of Zaleucus ? 18. Who brought the Locrians to the verge ot ruin ? 19. Its subsequent history ? 20. By whom was Rhegium colonized 1 21. By whom destroyed ? 22. By whom restored? 23. By what treachery was it again destroy- ed ? 24. How were the traitors punished ? CHAPTER XIV. HISTORY OF SICILY. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline. 1. Ancient names of Sicily ? 2. Origin of the name of the city " Rhe- gium ? " 3. For what are the straits of Messina re- markable ? 4. The extent of the city of Syracuse ? 5. Describe the prison Latomia3 ? 6. What is said of the fountain of Are- thnsa ? 7. The origin of the proverb " Remove not Camarina ? " 8. Polybius' account of Agrigentum ? 9. The most remarkable natural object in Sicily ? 10. The fiction of the poets respecting it? 84 QUESTIONS ON Sec. 2. — Historical Notices of the ancient Inhabitants of Sicily. 1. The first inhabitants of Sicily ? 2. The character they bore ? 3. The next in antiquity? 4. Who came next ? 5. Who was ^ohis ? 6. The fate of Deucetius, the most renown- ed king of the Siculi ? /. How were the Siculi treated by the Sy- racusans ? 8. How were they treated by the tyrant Dionysius ? 9. By whom was their independence re- stored ? Sec. 3. — The History of Syracuse. 1. When and by whom was Syracuse founded ? 2. Its original form of government ? 3. Under what circumstances was it chans:- ed7 ^ 4. The consequences of Gelon's wise ad- ministration ? 5. Who applied to him for aid ? 6. What demand did he make ? 7. With what forces did the Carthaginians invade Sicily ? 8. By what stratagem did Gelon entirely overthrow them ? 9. How was he regarded by his subjects after his death ? 10. His successor, and what is said of his administration ? 11. What signal and important naval victory did he gain ? 12. What led to a revolution in the govern- ment ? 13. What was peta.lism, and what were its consequences ? 14. Who invaded Sicily at this time ? 15. What circumstance led to a series of sanguinary wars ? 16. What is said of Dionysius I. ? 17. His death, and his successor? 18. The character and conduct of Dionysius II.? 19. What compelled the Syracusans to ap- ply for aid to their parent city, Co- rinth ? 20. Who was sent to them ? 21. The consequences of his death? 22. What led the Syracusans afterwards to invoke the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epi- riis ? 23. His conduct in Sicily ? 24. To whom was the Syracusan throne finally otFered ? 25. What is said of his administration ? 26. What led to the destruction of Syracuse? 27. Who was Archimedes ? 28. How di J the Romans govern Syracuse ? 89. To what was this owing: ? CHAPTER XV. mSTORY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. Sec. 1. — Traditions respecting the Origin of the Romans. 1. The origin of the Romans according to the ancient legends ? 2. What proves that they were partly of Pelasgic origin? 3. The probable foundation of these ancient legends ? 4. Repeat the substance of them. 5. The story of Numitor and Amulius 7 6. The story of Romulus and Remus ? 7. Cause of the quarrel between them, and its results ? 8. Date of the building of Rome. 9. Its original size, &c. ? Sec. 2. — From the Foundation of the City to the Abolition of Royalty. 1. How did Romulus procure inhabitanta for his new city ? 2. Form of its government ? 3. What is said of the tie of patron and client ? 4. How did Romulus obtain wives for his subjects ? 5. Story of Tarpeia. 6. What led to a peace between Romulus and Tatius, and the terms? 7. What is said of these and other legends? 8. The story of Romulus' death ? 9. His successor and his character? 10. His principal acts ? 11. Successor of Numa, and his character? 12. How was the war betvTeen the Romans and Albans terminated ? 13. Conduct of the surviving Horatius? 14. The fate of Alba and the cause of it? 15. The successor of Tullus ? 16. His principal acts ? 17. The successor of Ancus Martius ? 18. Who was Tarquinius Prisons ? 19. How did he secure the throne? 20. How was his difficulty with Attus NebvIus compromised ? 21. What public works rendered his name illustrious ? 22. How did he console the people under their toils ? 23. The cause and manner of his death ? 24. Who was Servius TuUius, his successor ? 25. What is said of him as a statesman ? 26. Mention some of his acts? 27. How was he regarded by the patricians 1 28. The circumstances of his death, and the conduct of his son-in-law and daughter? 29. Character and acts of Tarquin ths Proud ? 30. Cause of his banishment ? 31. Conduct of Brutus ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 25 Skc. 3. — From the Establishment of the Roman Republic to the Burning of the City by the Gauls, 1. Nature of the government that succeeded the monarchy ? 2. What conspiracy was soon afterwards detected, and by what means ? 3. The conduct of the consul Brutus ? 4. Who were banished, and why ? 5. Popular conduct of Valerius ? 6. With whom did the Romans now make a treaty? 7. The possessions of Rome at this time ? 8. The legend of Horatius Codes? 9. The legend of Mucius Scaavola ? 10. The legend of Clcelia ? 11. What is said of these legends? 12. The cause of the Sabine war that fol- lowed, and its results ? 13. Oppressive conduct of the patricians, and its eUects ? 14. Who was appointed dictator, and his acts? 15. The second dictator? 16. What occasioned still greater discontent ? 17. Conduct of the plebeians? 18. How were the difficulties settled? 19. What facts are manifest from the treaties made about this time with the Latins and Hernicans ? 20. Legend of Coriolanus ? 21. What was the agrarian law proposed by Spurius Cassius ? 22. The fate of Spurius? 23. What remarkable circumstance is men- tioned ? 24. What led to a change of policy on the part of the Fabii ? 25. The fate of the family ? 26. Progress of the Etruscans ? 27. Conjecture of Niebuhr? 28. Conduct of Genuciiis, th« tribune ? 29. Conduct of the patricians 30. What frustrated their plans ? 31 How did Volero Publius destroy the supremacy of the patrician faction ? 32. ' onduct of Appius Claudius? 33 • )f what act of cruel vengeance was he guilty? 34. How did he escape the penalty of his tyranny ? 35. Boldness of Appius Herdonius 1 36 Bad faith of the senate ? 37 On what occasion was Cincinnatus made dictator ? 38. How did he use his office ? 39. What conjecture has been hazarded respecting his dictatorship ? 40. What privilege was obtained for the people through the exertions of Siccius Dentatus ? 41. The history of the twelve tables ? 42. Who were the decemvirs ? 43. What led to their overthrow ? 44. How was the tribunician power in- creased ? 45. Cause and manner of the death of Spurius Mselius ? 46. Cause of the Veientine war ? 47. By whom and in what manner was Veil taken ? 48. What return was made to Camillus for his great services? 49. Cause of the Gallic war? 50. The result of the first battle? 51. What did the Romans do after this? 52. How were the Gauls prevented from taking the citadel ? 53. What ransom was paid for the city ? 54. How do the ordinary legend and Poly- bius agree? Sec. 4. — From the Rebuilding of the City to the first Punic War. 1. The state of Rome after the departure of the Gauls ? 2. The wishes of the citizens, and how were they prevented from carrying them into effect ? 3. The fate of Manlius ? 4. The strength of the patricians at this time, and the probable consequences? 5. The renovators of the Roman constitu- tion ? 6. What three bills were brought forward by Licinius ? 7. How did the patricians endeavour to frustrate his designs? 8. How did they modify his demands ? 9. In what important contest did the Ro- mans now engage ? 10. The cause of the war? 11. What led to a war with the Latins? 12. The decree of Manlius, and the reasoii for it ? 13. The first offender, and how was he treated ? 14. The result of this war ? 15. What confederacy was now foroied against the Romans ? 1 6. The disaster of the Roman army ? 17. The advice of Pontius' father? 18. How were the Romans treated ? 19. The result of the war? 20. Who finally subdued the Samnites ? 21. The conduct of the two Dccii ? 22. Why was war proclaimed against Ta- rentum ? 23. What Grecian king was summoned to Tarentum to defend it? 24. His motives for coming to Italy ? 25. To what circumstance did Pyrrhus owe his first victory ? 26 The results of the first campaign ? 27 Pyrrhus' remark after his second victoryl 28 Whither did he then go ? 26 QUESTIONS ON 29. What brought him back to Italy ? 30. The result of his third battle ? 31. The termuiatioii of the war? Sec. 5. — From the Commencement of the Punic Wars to the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi. 1 Tlie cause of the first Punic war ? 2 Policy of Hiero, king of Syracuse ? 3 EtForts of the Carthaginians ? 4 What strong city did the Romans cap- ture in Sicily? 5 How did they learn the art of ship building ? 6. How did Duilius obtain a naval victory over the Carthaginians? 7. What grand enterprise did the Romans now undertake ? 8. How did they prepare for it? 9. What turned the fortune of war? 10. What successive losses did the Romans sustain? 11. Conduct of Regulus ? 12. What is said of his death? 13. What great naval victory did Catulus gain ? 14. What led to a peace, and the terms of it ? 15. In what important war did the Romans soon afterwards engage? 16. What reputation did they gain by their success ? 17. What led to a second Punic war ? 18. What oath did Hannibal take when a boy ? 19. Hi-i first victory over the Romans ? 20. His second victory, and its results ? 21. His third great victory ? 22. Policy of Fabius ? 23. Hanuibul's fourth and greatest victory ? 24. Tlie eli'ect of his sojourn in Capua? 25. When did success first dawn on the Ro- mans ? 26. W^hat two cities in Sicily did they cap- ture? 27. The fate of Asdrubal ? 28. Policy of Scipio? 29. How did he outwit Syphax ? 30. His successive victories ? 31. Wiiat prevented a peace, on Hannibal's return? 32. Where was the last battle fought ? 33. The result of it ? 34. The terms of peace ? 35. How was Scipio honoured ? 36. The next war in which the Romans were engaged? !37. Success of the consul Flaminius? 38 Who caused a renewal of the wars in Greece ? 39. By whom was he instigated ? 40. Where did the Romans gain a signal victory over the Syrians? 41. Where was he entirely overthrown? 42. On what terms did he obtain peace ? 43. The fate of Hannibal? 44. How were the Scipios treated on their return home? 45. What is said of the Bacchanalians ? 46. What new war now broke out, and its result ? 47. What is said of the triumph of iEmilius Paulus ? 48. Cato's motives in wishing to destroy Carthage ? 49. The pretext f I, J- the war? 50. How did the Carthaginians attempt to avert their fate ? 51. How diJ they afterwards obtain arms? 52. Describe >.he siege ? 53. Scipio's feelings on viewing Carthage in flames ? 54. Story of Asdrubal's wife ? 55. The origin of the war which proved fatal to the independence of Greece ? 56. The fate of Corinth ? 57. What other cities soon afterwards shared the same fate ? 58. What story is told of Mummius? 59. What protracted the war in Spain ? 60. What is said of the valour of the Celtibe- rians and Lusitanians ? 61. What is said of their leader, Viriatus? 62. Conduct of Pompey in Spain ? 63. Policy of Scipio iEmilianus ? 64. His success ? 65. What province in Asia did the Romans now obtain, and in what manner ? 66. The fruits of this acquisition ? Sec. 6. — From the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi to the Downfall of the Republic and Death of Pompey. 1. What gradual change did the govern- ment undergo, during the Punic, Ma- cedonian, and Spanish wars? 2. In v/hat way did the aristocracy acquire so much wealth ? 3. How did Tiberius Gracchus attempt to check the progress of corruption ? 4. What was his first step ? 5. How did the nobles attempt to thwart his purposes ? 6. Tiberius Gracchus' next step? 7. By what proposal was this followed? 8. What led to his death ? 9. Who was his murderer ? 10. His subsequent career ? 11. In what two wars did the Romans now engage, and by what means were they terminated ? 12. Who now determined to follow the ex- ample of Tiberius Gracchus? 13. By whom was he urged on ? 14. How did he commence his career? ANCIENT HISTORY. 27 15. What change did he make in the govern- ment ? 16. How did the senate endeavour to thwart him ? 17. What accident precipitated the struggle? 18. Tlie death of Caius Gracchus, and the conduct of Opimius ? 19. What followed the death of the Gracchi ? 20. How did the senate show their venality in the Jugurthine war? 21. How did Jugurtha act in Rome, and the consequence ? 22. His success, and its effect in Rome ? 23. Who was sent against him ? 24. By whom was he supplanted ? 25. The success of Marius ? 26. The subsequent fate of Jugurtha ? 27. What hordes were now devastating Transalpine Gaul ? 28. By whom were they subdued ? 29. What war had been waged in Sicily ? 30. How were the insurgents punished? 31. What still more dangerous war now broke out ? 32. How many men perished in this war, and how was tranquillity restored ? 33. What new enemy now arose in Asia ? 34. Who was appointed to command in this war ? 35. Between what parties did the first civil war now break out ? 36. Conduct of Marius in Rome ? 37. Sylla's success in Asia? 38. What led to a peace ? 39. Conduct of Sylla in Rome ? 40. What office did he usurp ? 41. Cause of his death ? 42. The conduct and end of the consul l^e- pidiis ? 43. What \t ir now broke out in Spain ? 44. Who was sent against Sertorius ? 45. What l*d to its termination ? 46. Who was Spartacus, and his deeds? 47. By whom was he crushed ? 48. Conduct of Crassus and Pompey ? 49. What was the Manilian law ? 50. What was Pompey's success in Asia ? 51. Who was Catiline, and what was the object of his conspiracy ? 52. By whom, and in what manner, was his conspiracy detected ? 53. The fate of the conspirators ? 54. Who protested against their execution ? 55. What honourable title was conferred on Cicero ? 56. The first triumvirate? 57. By vi^hom were they supported, and from what motives? 58. How did he succeed ? 59. What first disturbed the union of the triumvirs ? 60. By what v/as it broken ? 61. Caesar's military exploits? 69, 72. Pompey's conduct toward him ? How did the contest between tliese two commanders commence ? What bribes had Ceesar paid over to Caius Curio ? How did he embarrass the senate ? The decree of the senate ? Cffisar's conduct on recaiving this intelli- gence ? Conduct of Pompey's party ? How long did it take Caesar to subdue Italy? His subsequent victories? What office was conferred on him oa his return to Rome ? When, and where was fought the great battle that decided tlie fate of th& world ? The fate of Pompey ? The fate of his remains ? 73. 74. Sec. 7. — The Establishment of the Roman Empire. 1. The effect of the news of Pompey's death ? 2. Who renewed the war? 3. How did CsBsar show his disapprobation of Egyptian treachery ? 4. What fresh danger did he incur iui Egypt ? 5. What lamentable catastrsph© oecuired! in Alexandria? 6. Caesar's letter to Rome ? 7. The state of affairs in Eome,, and by what occasioned ? 8. The fate of Cato ? 9. How long was Csesar occupied shont the African war? 10. Adulation of the senate ? 11. To what dangers was Csesar exposed inn Spain ? 12. What vast designs did he now contenk- plate ? 13. How did he offend his countrymea? 14. CcBsar's death ? 15. The conduct of Brutus, anci of the sen- ate, at his address ? 16. Effect of Antony's speech? 17. Conduct of Antony toward the con- spirators ? 18. The second triumvirate ? 19. The fate of Cicero ? 20. The tiieatre of the new civil war, and its results ? 21. Conduct of Antony and Octavius? 22. By whom was Antony completely en- slaved ? 23. Policy of Octavius ? 24. Conduct of Antony toward his wife Ful* via? 25. How was a reconciliation effected be- tween Octavius and Antony ? 26. Further course of Octavius and Antonyl 28 QDESTIONS ON 27. What led to a war ? •28. Where was the decisive battle fought ? and describe it. 29. Conduct of Antony? 30. Intentions of Cleopatra, and how frus- trated ? 31. How did Cleopatra show her energy, and Antony his weakness ? 32. Progress of Octavius ? 33. Wliat led to Antony's death ? 34. What to Cleopatra's? 35. What use did Octavius make of thia treasures of Egypt? 36. What name was now conferred on Oc- tavius by the Roman senate ? 37. The era of the Roman Empire ? 38. What is said of the title Augustus? 39. What was the title after the time of Dio- clesiau ? 40. When was Romaa liberty really des- troyed ' CHAPTER XVI. 'EEOGRAPIIICO. AND POLITICAL CONDITION OF rilE ROMAN EMPIRE. Sec. 1. — European Countries. — Spain. L The boundaries of the Roman Empire ? a. The Gieek name of Spain, and its ■origin ? 3. Its divisons? 4. For wliat were the inhabitants of the Balea-es islands celebrated? Sec. 2. — Transalpine Gaul. 1. The bomdaries of Gaul ? 2. The reigion of its inhabitants ? 3. Describe its rites ? 4. What \i said of the valour of the Gauls ? 5. Their conduct after their subjugation by Caessr ? s6. What jeiTiains of Roman works are found iu Giul ? Sec. 3. — Britain. 1. By what tribes was Britain colonized? "2. For what was the island of Mona cele- brated ? 3. How \7as it attempted to check the in- cursions of the Picts and Scots ? 4. The dimensions of the last wall built by the Emperor Severus ? 5 What progress had the inhabitants of Britain made in civilization, when first visited by the Romans ? 6. Describe their chariots ? 7. Their religion, and government? 8. When was Britain abandoned by the Romans? Cjec. 4. — The Northern Provinces of the Empire. 1. Boundaries of Vindelicia ? I 2. Its principal towns ? 3. Boundaries of Rhcetia ? 4. Character of its inhabitants ? 5. Boundaries of Noricum ? 6. Boundaries of Moesia ? 7. Inhabitants of Dacia, how called by the Greeks, and by the Romans ? 8. What is said of Thrace ? 9. What of lUyricum, and its inhabitants ? Sec. 5. — Asiatic and African Provinces. 1 The Roman provinces in Anatolia ? 2. What is said of them ? 3. What proof is given of private wealth ? 4. The African provinces ? 5. What is said of the Gstulians ? 6. What is said of the attention paid by the Romans to commerce in the East ? 7. The cause of this neglect ? 8. What proof is given of such being the cause ? 9. What is said of the division of the Roman empire ? Sec. 6. — The Principal Nations on the Frontiers of the Empire. 1. What is said of the names Germany, and Sarmatia ? 2. What of the name Scythia ? 3. The meaning of the word Germans ? 4. Origin of the name Dutch! 5. Mention the names of some of the Ger- man tribes. 6. Origin of the name Longobardi ? 7. What is said of the Franks ? 8. What, of the religion of the Germans ? 9. Their notion of future happiness ? 10. Repeat the death-song of Lodbrog. 11. How was the most solemn oath of the Germans taken ? 12. How was India divided ? 13. The ancient name of Malacca, and of the island of Ceylon ? Sec 1. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. . 7. — Topography of the City of Rome. The original form of the city of Rome ? What was the Pomoerium? Origin of this custom ? The form of marking the Pomoerium ? Origin of the term porta, a gate ? How was the comitium consecrated ? The names of the seven hills on which Rome was built ? Who first fortified the city with out- works ? The works of Tarquiuius Priscus? The boast of Augustus Cajsar ? Roman taste for the fine arts at the time of the destruction of Corinth ? Circumference of Rome, and number of its gates ? Its most remarkable buildings ? Its first amphitheatre, how large ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 29 15. The Capitol, why so called ? 16. How often destroyed ; and by whom re- built ? 17. What celebrated books were preserved in the sanctuary ? 18. What curious custom was observed in regard to the capitol ? 19. What were the spolia opima ? 20. Niebuhr's theory ? 21. Where was the forum situated ? 22. What were the basiliccn 1 23. Origin of the phrase, " to mount the ros- trum ? " 24. The legend of the Curtian lake? 25. What is said of the temple of Janus? 26. What was the Palladium? 27. What was the Campus Martins ? 28. How was it ornamented? 29. What was the Pantheon ; and by whom built ? 30. What is said of the Roman aqueducts T 31. How many were erected ? 32. Mention the number of public buildings in Rome ; and what they were. 33. Mention some of the public roads in Italy. 34. The extent of the Appian road. 35. How did Rome compare with Athens ? CHAPTER XVII. mSTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Sec. 1. — The Reigns of the Family of the Casars. 1. Difference between the early and latter character of Augustus ? 2. What is said of his administration ? 3. Origin of the sacra decennalia ? 4. Augustus Caesar's treatment of his sol- diers ? 5. The standing army of the empire ? 6. What were the praetorian bands ? 7. The revenues of the empire ? 8. What new cities did Augustus found ? 9. What ambassadors came to Augustus? 10. How was his person rendered sacred? 11. The effect of this dignity ? 12. What honour paid him was the most gra- tifying of all ? 13. Wliat conquests did he make ? 14. What prevented him from resigning at the end of the second decennalia? 15. What domestic calamity did he have to endure ? 16. What event occurred at the closing of the temple of Janus ? 17. What provoked a rebellion of the Ger- mans ? 18. What great overthrow did the Romans receive in Germany ? 19. Hov/ was Augustus affected at this loss ? The time, place, and manner of his death ? His successor ; and how did he begin his his reign ? How did he treat Germanicus ? The cause of Germanicus' death '' How were the Romans affected when his ashes were brought to the city ? Who was Sejanus, and what was his conduct ? How was ho outwitted by the emperor ? How was he treated? Repeat the passage from Juvenal, on his death. Tiberius' subsequent conduct His successor, and his character? What distinguished person suffered death in Judea, in his reign ? Cause of Caligula's early popularity? How did he begin his reign ? His conduct after his sickness ? Mention some of his follies ? His death ? His successor, and his character ? His favourites, and their conduct ? What expedition did he undertake? The conduct of Messalina, and her pun- ishment ? The conduct of Agrippina ? How did she secure the succession for her son Nero? How old was Nero when he began his reign ? Who was Poppaea Sabina ? What great crime did she instigate Nero to commit ? How did Seneca disgrace himself ? Of what succession of crimes was Nero now guilty ? His treatment of the Christians, and the pretext for it ? How did he exhaust the exchequer ? To what extortion did this lead ? What pretext did he avail himself of to give loose to his sangumary disposition ? Why did not the Roman people revolt ? His conduct in Greece ? What dreadful rebellion broke out at this time? What insurrrection burst forth ic the West? Relate the circumstances of his death. Who rebelled in Britain ? With whom did the family of the Ctesars end ? The consequences of its extinction ? ao QUESTIONS ON 5. Who opposed Otho? 6. Otho's conduct ? 7. The result of the battle, and where was it fought ? 8. Otho's purpose and conduct ? 9. Conduct of Vitellius ? 10. How much money did he spend in the pleasures of the table in four months ? 11. B)' what act did he give scandal to the higher ranks ? 12. Who revolted against him in the East ? 13. What generals headed Vespasian's ar- mies '. 14. Conduct of CoBcina? 15. What city was taken and destroyed by Primus ? 16. What caused Vitellius to be abandoned by his troops ? 17. What calamity happened to the city at this time? 18. The manner of Vitellius' death. 19. Conduct of Primus and Domitian ? 20. Vespasian's first care ? 21. His second step ? 22. His next reform ? •23. His only fault? 24. What ancient city was destroyed by his son Titus ? :15. The condition of the Jews since that period ? 26. What monument of their destruction still remains ? 27. What great general was, at this time, distinguishing himself in Britain? 28. His policy? 29. What discovery did he make ? 30. What brought on Vespasian's last sick- ness ? 31. What is said of him ? 32. By what Indicrous circumstance was the solemnity of his obsequies disturbed ? 33. Titus' first act aiic>.' his accession ? 34. What other instances of his complai- sance are mentioned ? 35. What dreadful calamity happened in his reign ? 36. What cities were overwhelmed ? 37. How did he gain the title of " Benefactor of the human race ? " 38. What occasioned his death ? 39. How was the news of it received? 40. What is said of Domitian, his successor? 41. His first acts? 42. His expedition against the Catti ? 43. His treatment of Agricola ? 44. His subsequent conduct ? 45. His disgraceful treaty with Decebalus ? 46. How was his cruelty stimulated ? 47. What edict did he issue against learn- ing ? 48. Why had he no fear of rebellion? 49. His"treat7iicnt of the Christians? 50. What led to his assassination ? 51. Who WEis Apollonius Tyaneus? 52. The fate of his system? Sec. 3. — From the Extinction of the first Flavian Family, to the last of the Antonines. 1. By whom was Domitian succeeded ? 2. His native countrj', and his character? 3. What indignity was put on him by hia soldiers ? 4. What good effect did this produce ? 5. What occasioned his death ? 6. Trajan's country and family ? 7. What services did he render the people ? 8. What war did he soon engage in, and his conduct ? 9. What great work did he construct ? 10. His success in the Dacian war ? 11. What made him ambitious of conquest? 12. What countries did he subdue ? 13. How were the Jews treated ? 14. How long did Trajan reign, and when and where did he die ? 15. With what blot is his character stained? 16. His successor, and how was he chosen ? 17. His first steps? 18. What tour did he enter upon ? 19. His work in Britain? 20. His terrible treatment of the Jews ? 21. What was the edictuin perpetuuml 22. His munificence towards Athens? 23. The inscription on the medal struck to his honour ? 24. His conduct in his latter days ? 25. Whom did he adopt as his successor, and on what condition? 26. The conduct of the senate after his death? 27. What is said of the administration of Antoninus ? 28. The effect of his reign on the provinces ? 29. What proves the prosperity of his reign ? 30. What circumstance shows the venera- tion attached to his memory ? 31. His successor ? 32. The conduct of Verus ? 33. What interrupted the tranquillity of Rome ? 34. How was the plague Introduced m.ji Europe ? 35. What defeat did the Roman army sus- tain? 36. How were the losses repaired? 37. Aurelius' plan for carrying on the war? 38. How did a departure from it on one oc» casion nearly prove his ruin ? 39. How was he delivered ? 40. Who rebelled against him in the East ? 41. Who suffered martyrdom in this 'eign ? 42. What is said of his apologies foi Chris- tianity? 43. What made Aurelius more tolerant to- ward the close of his reign ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 31 44. What led to a renewal of war along the Rhine and Danube? 45. When and where did he die ? 46. What expired with him? 47. What is said of his meditations ? 48. What remark is made of Commodus? 49. Who had spoiled him ? 50. His character and conduct ? 51. What made him suspicious of the senate ? 52. What new danger arose ? 53. The design of the conspirators? 54. What produced an alarming insurrection of the Roman populace ? 55. Wliat led to his death? 56. The decrees of the senate at his death ? Sec. 4. — Foreign Commerce of the Romans in the Age of the Antonines. 1. For what is the age of the Antouines celebrated ? 2. What is said of Palmyra ? 3. What led great numbers of Syrian mer- chants to settle in Rome ? 4. What is said of Byzantium ? 5. The great caravan route across Asia? 6. The two caravan routes from Bactra ? 7. What new route did the Emperor Anto- ninus attempt to open ? 8. What improvement in navigation did Harpalus make ? 9. How was he honoured? 10. The route of the Egyptian trade under the Romans? 11. The imports from India? 12. The principal exports ? 13. The attention of Commodus to com- merce? 14. What is said of the trade of the Black Sea? 15. What facts show that the Romans were not a commercial people ? Sec. 5. — From the Extinction of the Fla- vinn Family to the Establishment of Military Despotism, after the Murder of Alexander Severus. 1. What is said of the accession o' IPertinax to the crown ? 2. What reforms did he effect ? 3. The cause and circumstances of his death ? 4. How did Didius obtain the crown ? 5. How was he treated by the Roman popu- lace? 6. What competitors for the crown ap- peared ? 7. Relate the circumstances of the death of Didius ? 8. First step of Severus ? 9. By whom was he opposed ? 10. The fate of Byzantium ? 11. What second contest for empire did Se- verus engage in ? 12. His conduct at Rome? 13. What recalled him to Asia ? 14. Who was his premier, and what was hif character ? 15. The circumstances of his death? 16. Severus' exploits in Britain? 17. What is said of him and his administra- tion ? 18. Wicked conduct of Caracalla? 19. By what means did he support his authority ? 20. How did he lower the pride of the Ro- mans ? 21. His treatment of Alexandria, and the reason for it ? 22. His death? 23. By whom was he succeeded ? 24. How was Caracalla regarded by tne sol- diers ? 25. What led to the death of Macrinus ? 96. Why was Heliogabalus made emperor? 27. His age at his accession? 28. His character ? 29. His conduct at Rome^ 30. What is said of the Roman ladies ? 31. What led to the death of Heliogabalus ? 32. How was his body treated ? 33. What is said of Alexander Severus, his successor ? 34. What important revolution took place in the east during his reign ? 35. The standard of Artaxerxes? 36. What was one great effect of this revo- lution ? 37. The great aim of the Sassanid dynasty? 38. What is said of the public buildings erected by this dynasty ? 39. What did Ardeshir attempt to do ? 40. The success of Alexander Severus against him? 41. The cause and circumstances of his death 7 42. What is said of him ? Sec. 6. — Fro7n the Murder of Alexander ti the Captivity of Valerian and the Usur' pation of the Thirty Tyrants. 1. Who succeeded Alexander Severus ? 2. Instances of his great strength ? 3. His success against the Germans ? 4. How did he provoke a civil war ? 5. Who was proclaimed emperor ? 6. Conduct of the senate thereupon ? 7. What led to the death of Maximin ? 8. His successor, and his age ? 9. What led him to Syria? 10. Conduct and character of Misitheus? 11. Circumstances of Gordian's death? 12. His successor, and his administration 13. What rendered his reign remarkable? 14. Circumstances of his death ? 15 How did Decius commence his reign ? 16 What Christian bishop suffered martyr- dom? S2 QUESTIONS ON 17. Who was Paul the hermit? 18. Death of the emperor ? 19. His successor ? 20. How did he provoke universal resent- ment? 21. His death, and successor ? 22. What is said of Valerian? 23. Wliat enemies were now attacking the 24. empire Wliat is said of the scale armour of the Sarinatians? 25. The fate of Valerian ? 26. How was he treated by Sapor, and by his own son ? Sec. 7. — From the Captivity of Valerian to the Resignation of Dioclesian. 1. What is said of Gallienus ? 2. How many competitors for the throne appeared ? 3. Who was Odenatus ? 4. Wlio was Zenobia, and what is said of her ? « 5. Who succeedecySallienus? 6. What is said off^urelian? 7. How did he secure the tranquillity of Europe ? 8. How did Zenobia precipitate her ruin ? 9. The fate of Palmyra? 10. What other provinces did Aurelian re- cover to the empire ? IJ. How did he treat Zenobia? 12. By what circamstance was an insurrec- tion caused at Rome ? 13. The lossof the imperial troops in attempt- ing to quell the riot ? 14 What led Aurelian to quit Rome? 15. How were his virtues sullied? 16. What led to his death ? 17. How did the soldiers avenge his death? 18. Who was elected emperor by the Syrian army ? 19. His victories? 20. The cause of his death ? 21. His successor, and his deeds ? 22. Who was Dioclesian ? 23. Why does the date of his accession de- serve to be remembered ? 24. By whom is the " era of Dioclesian" still observed ? 25. Whom did Dioclesian choose as his col- league ? 26. What is said of Maximian ? 27. What further division of authority was made ? 28 How was the empire divided ? 29. Tlie effect of this division ? 30. Success of Constantius in Britain ? 31. Disaster of Galerius ? 32. His subsequent success ? 33. What prize did he take? 34. Folly of a soldier? 35. Generosity of Galerius ? 36. What great province was gained to th« Romans by this battle ? 37. How were these triumphs sullied? 38. What is said of the numbers of martyraT 39. Of the triumphs of Christianity ? 40. What strange revolt happened in Syria? 41. Dioclesian's base conduct to the people of Antioch, and its effect on them ? 42. What is said of his triumph at Rome ? 43. Why did he quit the city ? 44. His resignation, how occasioned ? 45. How U (g did he survive it? 46. His letter to Maximian ? 47. What embittered his last days? Sec. 8. — From the Abdication of Dioclesian to the Death of Constantine the Great. 1. How was the empire again divided ? 2. To what dangers was Constantine ex- posed ? 3. Under what circumstances was he pro- claimed emperor ? 4. Conduct of Maxentius ? 5. How did Constantine show his prudence? 6. Between what six sovereigns was the empire now shared ? 7. Treachery of Maximian, and how was it punished? 8. What occasioned the death of Galerius? 9. How did Maxentius provoke a war, and with whom? 10. Where and how was he destroyed? 11. What vision did Constantine see? 12. The testimony for and against this ac- count? 13. What great reforms did Constantine effect in Rome? 14. Conduct of Maximin, and his death? 15. Cruelty of Licinins? 16. What civil war now ensued? 17. The result of it? 18. What renewed the war ? 19. What is said of tt'>' battle of the He- brus? 20. The result of the war ? 21. What celebrated council was now con- voked ? 22. What doctrines were established by it ? 23. How was Constantine received at Rome? 24. What effect did this have on him ? 25 What horrid crime did he commit? 26. How did he avenge himself on the em- press ? 27. What led him to make Byzantium ihe capital of the empire ? 28. Describe the position of this city ? 29. Its advantages ? 30. What is said of Constantino's adminis- tration ? 31. The effect of the removal of the seat of government ? 32. Into what three classes were the magis- trates divided ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 33 33. Who were the magistrates of the first class 1 34. How were the Roman divisions divided ? 35. The power and duties of the prastorian prefects ? 36. The great officers of the state and court ? 37. Their several duties ? 38. The salaries of the duces and comites ? 39. What proofs of the decay of military spirit among the Romans are men- tioned ? 40. The etiect of the changes in thft jonsti- tutiou of the civil and military admhi- istration of the government ? 41 What advantage of arbitrary government is mentioned ? 42. The meaning of the term indiction ? 43. What was the aurum lustrale ? 44. What the aurum coronale ? 45. What is said of Constantiue's innova- tions ? 46. The established religion under Constan- tine ? 47. How did he support the church ? Sec. 9. — From the Death of Constantine to the Reunion of the Empire under Theo- dosius the Great. 1. Constantino's successors ? 2. What is said of them, and of their edu- cation ? 3. Of what horrid conduct was Constantius guilty ? 4. What new division of the empire was made? 5. The early history of Shah-pur, the Per- sian monarch ? 6. How many indecisive but sanguinary engagements did he fight with the Ro- mans? 7 Where did he overthrow them? 8 What led to a peace ? 9. What led to a civil war, and its result ? 10. Administration of Constans? 11. The circumstances of his death? 12. How was Vetranio forced to assume the purple ? 13. The conduct of Constantina ? 14. Movements of Constantius ? 15. The fate of Vetranio ? 16. Describe the battle of Mursa ? 17. What has been said of this battle ? 18. The fate of Magnentius ? 19. The causes and manner of the death of Gallus ? 20. What saved Julian, his brother ? 31. What city did Constantius now visit, and what was his reception ? 32. What dangerous enemy again attacked the empire? S3. The conduct of Julian in Gaul ? 24. How was a civil war between him and Constantius averted ? 25. What heresy distracted the church in this reign ? 26. Which party did Constantius favour ? 27. What celebrated bishop opposed it ? 28. How was Julian received in Constanti- nople ? 29. His first measure ? 30. What is said of his reforms of the court ? 31. The great object of his ambition ? 32. How did he attempt to accomplish it ? 33. What attempt did he make to disprove the inspiration of the scriptures ? 34. How was he forced to abandon it ? 35. In what war did he engage ? 36. The circumstances of his death ? 37. What dishonourable peace did Jovian conclude ? 38. His treatment of Christians and Pagans I 39. The manner of his death ? 40. Who was chosen to succeed him ? 41. What division of the empire did bo make ? 42. The capital of the western empire ? 43. What war did Valentinian engage in ? 44. What circumstance filled him with alarm ? 45. His first care after his recovery from sickness 1 46. Whose piracies began now to attract at- tention ? 47. Who preserved Britain to the empire ? 48. How was he rewarded ? 49. Conduct of Count Romanus ? 50. How did he escape punishment ? 51. To what did his conduct lead ? 52. By whom was the rebellion suppressed? 53. Cause of Valentinian's death .' 54. His character and administration ? 55. What was Valens doing in the east ? 56. Wliat war did he engage in, and with what success ? 57. His conduct to the opposers of Arianism? 58. By whom was Valentinian succeeded? 59. Of what great crime was Gratian guilty? 60. What laws did he make favourable to the interests of the church ? 61. Who were the Huns? 62. What is said of their personal appearance? 63. Their food, and how was it dressed ? 64. Their manners and peculiarities? 65. To what did they force the Goths 7 66. How did they treat their prisoners ? 67. How did the Gothic monarch fortify him- self? 68. What did the Gothic nation do in their extremity ? 69. The deeds of Ulphilas their bishop ? 70. Base conduct of the officers of Valens ? 71. Treachery of Lupicinus ? 72. How did the Goths take revenge? 73. What is said of the battle fought between the Goths and the Romans near Adrianople ? 34 QUESTIONS ON 74. Whom did Gratian now thooae as his associate ? 75. Conducft of Theodosius and its effects? 76. The fate of Gratian ? 77. Boldness of St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan '! 78. By whom was the usurper defeated ? 79. Wliat hastened his death ? 80. The fate of Valentinian II. ? 81. Under whom was the Roman empire once more united? Sec. 10. — The Overthrow of the Western Empire. 1. To whom did Theodosius assign the eastern, and to whom the western empire ? 2. Who was Rufinus, and his character ? 3. How did he aim to secure his power ? 4. Whom did Arcadius marry ? 5. Of what pretext die Stihcho avail him- self to put down Rufinus ? 6. What led him to return to Italy? 7. The fate of Rufinus ? 8. How was Stilicho treated by the court of Constantinople ? 9. How was the African revolt suppressed ? 10. The fateof Gildo and Mascezei? 11. Who now invaded the empire? 12. Of what consummate folly was Arcadius guilty ? 13. Whither did Alaric then go? 14. How was he induced to quit Italy ? 15. What city did Honorius make his capital ? 16. Who next invaded Italy? 17. Who was proclaimed emperor, and why? 18. Of what crime and folly was Honorius guilty? 19. What impolitic and monstrous edict did Olympus, his minister^ issue ? 20. The consequences of it ? 21. How was Alaric induced to quit Rome? 22. How did Honorius again show his folly ? 23. When was Rome captured? 24. How many days was it pillaged ? 25. Death and burial of Alaric? 26. What tribes now established themselves in .Spain and Gaul? 27. What became of the Britons ? 28. Origin of the term " England ? " 29. How was the reign of Arcadius, in the east, dishonoured? 30. What illustrious bishop of Constantinople fell a victim to the cruelty of the empress ? 31. By whom was Arcadius succeeded ? 32. Who usurped the administration ? 33. How did she govern ? 34. What other woman became ruler of the western empire ? 35 How did she treat Count Boniface ? 36. By what means was Genseric induced to invade Africa ? 37. The fate of Count Boniface ? 38. How was the double treachery of jEtius punished? 39. Who was Attila ? 40. How was he induced to refrain from at tacking the Byzantine empire ? 41. What led him to turn his arms agains* the Western empire ? 42. Baseness of Honoria ? 43. By whom was Attila at first defeated ? 44. What delayed the ruin of the empire ? 45. The fate of .-Etius ? 46. The fate of Valentinian, and who suc- ceeded him ? 47. How, and why wzis Maximus put to death ? 48. By whom was Rome again pillaged ? 49. How were the inhabitants treated ? 50. Who redeemed many of them, and by what means ? 51. What succession of emperors now sat on the throne of the Western empire ? 52. Who was Count Ricimer ? 53. Who was the last Roman emperor ? 54. When was Italy conquered by the Ostro- goths ? 55. What is said of the Gnostics CHAPTER XVIII, 1. What is said of the inhabitants of India, when Alexander first invaded it ? 2. What inference is drawn from this fact ? 3. How far back does the civilization of India probably reach ? 4. What is said of the castes of India? 5. Remark of Major Bevan ? 6. The cradle of the Hindoo race? 7. Testimony of the ancient records ? 8. What is said of the Brahmins ? 9. The story of the drama of the " Toy Cart." 10. The two great dynasties m India proper? 11. What is said of the war between the Pandoos and Kooroos ? 12. The result of it ? 13. Who occupied tha throne of India after Alexander's retreat ? 14. What is said of Mahapadma-Nanda ? 15. How di'i he provoke the hostility of the Brahmins ? 16. Who was Chandra-Gupta ? 17. To whom did he owe his elevation to the throne ? 18. By whom was he attacked ? 19. What treaty did he make with Seleucufl Nicator ? 20. Who is the next sovereign of India of ANOIEMf HISTORT. 35 whom w© know any thing, and what is said of him ? 21. By whom was he conquered ? 22. What do the Hindoo accounts say of him ? 23. What is said of India from this pe- riod ? 24. How did the priesthood obtain a mono- poly of knowledge ? 25. What were some of the prerogatives of the Brahmins? 26. What is said of the warrior caste ? 27. The consequence of this ? 28. The Vaisya caste, what ? 29. The Sudras, what ? 30 Who was Buddha? 3 1 Repeat the Buddhist hynu 32. When were the Buddhists expelled from India? 33. The effect of this persecution ? 34. Where did they find refuge ? 35. How many persons profess Buddhism ? 36. To what is its success owiug ? 37. Who were the Jains ? 38. What is said of the India trade ? 39. How did the Persians procure their goods from India ? 40. What discovery brought India nearer to the rest of the world ? 41. The effect of this discovery ? 42. What is said of Ceylon ? 43. What circumstance shows that the civi lization of India belongs to an age cf Tery remote antiquity ? QTJESTIOIS ON MODERN HISTORY. TO ACCOMPANy A MANUAL OF MODERN HISTORY, BY W. C. TAYLOR. COMPILED BY REV. L. L. SMITH, NEW-YOEK: D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 1851. Entered, accordingf to Act o.' Congress, in the year 1844, By D. APPLETON & COMPANY, It the Cleric's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of New York. QUESTIONS ON MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER I. CCN8EQUENCES OF THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. Ser. 1. — The Gothic Kingdom of Italy. 1. "Wliat is said of the Visigoths in Spain? 2. Wiiat, of the Ostrogoths ? 3. What tribes came from the German Forests ? 4. What is said of them 1 5. What tribes were still more barbarous? 6. For what were the Germanic tribes re- markable ? 7. From what part of Europe did the Scla- vonic tribes come ? 8. How did they resemble the Tartars ? 9. Their form of government ? 10. How long did the court of Constantino- ple remain in obscurity ? 11. Who restored its supremacy? 12. How was Zeno made emperor? 13. Who excited a revolt against him ? 14. Who restored him to the throne ? 15. What excitedhostilities between him and Theodoric? 16. How was peace obtained by Zeno? 17. What is said of the march of Theodoric? 18. Who opposed him ? 19. What city sustained a long siege ? 20. What became of Odoacer? 21. How did Theodoric secure his conquest? 22. What were the limits of hi., empire ? 23. What heresy did he embrace ? 24. The consequence of this? 25. What crimes did he commit ? 26. How did he die ? and at what age ? Sec. 2. — Reign of Justinian. 1. Who was Justin ? 2. What office did he hold ? 3. How did ho secure the throne ? 4. Whom did he make his associate ? 5. Whom did Justinian marry ? 6. Her character ? (. Mention a singular folly of the Eastern Empire. 8. What result followed Justinian's partiaj* ity to one of the factions ? 9. How did this happen ? 10. How did Justinian restore order? 11. How many of the rioters were killed ? 12. What war did Justinian now engage in t 13. His commander ? 14. What was done before the armament set sail? 15. What happened to Gelimer? 16. How did he console himself? 17. What afforded Belisarius a pretext for at tacking Italy? 18. How did Theodotus act? 19. How did his subjects treat him ? 20. How did Vitiges commence his reign ? 21. His course afterwards? 22. How did the bishop of Rome act ? 23. How was he punished ? 24. Who succeeded him, and by what means ? 25. The success of Belisarius ? 26. What prevented him from taking Ra- venna ? 27. Who was Theodobert? and his exploits? 28. The fate of Belisarius ? 29. The Lombards, why so called? 30. What protected the empire for forty years ? 31. Who were the Avars? 32. Their actions, &c. ? 33. By whom conquered ? 34. Their origin and original condition ? 35. For what celebrated? 36. The rival of Justinian, who? 37. How did he secure the tranquillity of Persia ? 38. His favourite project ? 39. Who first checked his career ? 40. What happened to the provinces of It^ly and Africa? 41. Why was Belisarius less successful than formerly ? 42. How did ho disgrace himself? 43. Who succeeded him in the command? 44. His success ? 45. How was Italy governed after this I QUESTIONS ON 46. How long did Narsos govern it ? 47. How was Belisarius employed il the mean time? 48. How was he treated by Justinian ? 49. What hastened his death ? 50. The character of Justinian ? Sec. 3. — The Estahlishment of the Civil Law. 1. What project did Justinian form? 2. What fed him to do this ? 3. What lawyer was appointed to prepare the code .' 4. His qualifications for this duty ? 5. The instructions given to the commis- sion ? 6. How long were they employed in this Herculean undertaking? 7. What more difficult work yet remained to be performed ? 8. To whom was it entrusted, and what powers were given him ? 9. The recommendation of the emperor ? 10. How many books did the code contain ? 11. How many, the Digest, or Pandects? 12. Why so called ? 13. How many years did it occupy ? 14. How many laws did it contain ? 15. How many volumes was it necessary to examine, in order to prepare it ? 16. State the substance of the emperor's de- cree. 17. With what other works was Tribonian charged ? 18. What is said of it? 19. Were these works perfect? 20. What were the Novels ? 21. How many of them were there ? 22. How long were these law volumes lost ? 23. When, how, and by whom, discovered? 24. The use that has been made of them ? Sec. 4. — History of the Silk Trade. 1. How was silk first obtained in Europe? 2. What nations had the first monopoly of it? 3. What were silk robes first called ? 4. Whence did the silk first come 1 5. How is this known ? 6. Show the difficulties of its importation from China ? 7. What is mentioned as a proof of Julius C-aesar's magnificent spectacles ? 8. The price of silk at Rome ? 9. What law was made in the reign of Ti- berius ? 10. What curious circumstance is mentioned, in the history of silk ? 11. The decision of the Sonnite Doctors? 12. Who was the first Roman emperor, that wore a silk garment ? 13. What had diminished the price of silk by this time ? 14. Whose successors did the Persian sore* reigns consider themselves ? 15. And whose, did the Byzantine emperors consider themselves ? 16. What is said of the Red Sea? 17. Of the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb ? 18. The common proverb with Eastern sai- lors, respecting the Yam Suph ? 19. What advantage did the Persians take of their local position, with respect to the silk trade ? 20. How did Justinian attempt to obviate this inconvenience ? 21. What unforeseen event secured to him his great object? 22. What unnoticed fact in natural theolo- gy is mentioned ? 23. How did these monks carry the silk- worms' eggs to Constantinople ? 24. What singular circumstance shows the success of the Greeks in the manufac- ture of silk ? 25. How was the Sogdian trade annihilated? 26. How long did the Greeks monopolize the silk trade ? 27. How was the manufacture of it extend- ed in Europe ? 28. To whom is France indebted for her pre- sent superiority in this trade ? 29. Who endeavoured to introduce it mto England ? Sec. 5. — The Monarchy of the Franks under the Merovingian Dynasty. 1 Who was the first king of the Franks? 2. What were his descendants called? 3. Who was his successor ? 4. What cost him his throne ? 5. Who succeeded Hilderik ? 6. The modern name of Clovis ? 7. Whom did he marry ? 8. What benefit did she confer on him ? 9. What fee did he give the bishop that baptized him ? 10. What anecdote is related, illustrative ol the little rqal authority enjoyed by the Frank kings ? 11. The extent of the kingdom of Clovis ? 12. By whom was he succeeded ? 13. Relate the story of the death of Chlodo- mer's infant children ? 14. Who succeeded Theodoric ? 15. His character and exploits ? 16. Under whom was all France again united ? 17. Who succeeded him? 18. The state of the kingdom, during their reign ? 19. Under whom was France once more united ? 20. How did he punish Brunilda? 21. Who succeeded him ? 22. His character, &c., and why canonized ' MODERN HISTORY. 23. Who were the real sovereigns of Franco, during the reign of his successors ? 24. Who was the greatest of these nominal ministers ? 25. Who was Charles Martel ? 26. What rendered his name illustrious? 27. For what victory is he still more justly celebrated ? 28. His successor ? 29. The name of the dynasty, that suc- ceeded the Merovingian ? Sec. 6. — The Lombard Monarchy. 1. By whom, and why, were the Lombards encouraged to settle on the frontiers of the empire? 2. Who became head of the Lombards? 3. In what war did he engage ? 4. How did he treat Cunimund ? 5. The real object of Alboin's ambition ? 6. What led to this enterprise ? 7. On what condition did the Lombards re- sign their lands to the Avars ? 8. What imprudent act did the Empress Sophia commit? 9. The consequence of it ? 10. What city alone resisted Alboin? 11. Why was it spared? 12. The end of Alboin ? 13. Who succeeded him ? 14. His character and end? 15. The nature of the government estab- lished by his successor ? 16. What tended to reconcile the Italians to the supremacy of the Lombards ? 17. What ambitious design did Luitprand conceive 1 18. Of what did he take advantage? 19. Who instigated the Venetians against him? 20. How was the pope treated by the Em- peror Leo? 21. Who saved him from this fate? 22 Why did the Italians revolt against Leo ? 23. 1 ' whom did the pope have recourse in his extremities ? 24. Under what king did tjj Lombards reach the summit of their greatness ? 25. By whom was Astulphus subdued ? 26. Who finally destroyed the power of the Lombards ? 27. How was their king treated ? 28. Who received the iron crown of Lom- bardy ? Sec. 7. — The Anglo-Saxons. 1. What befell the Britons when they were finally deserted by the Romans ? 2. What imprudent advice did they adopt ? 3. Whom did they invite over? 4. Who were the Saxons and Angles? 5 Their two chiefs ? 6. Where did they land ? 7. How many followers did they bring with them? 8. What induced them to send for more ? 9. How did they treat the Britons ? 10. Where are their descendants now? 11. How long did the struggle last? 12. What was the Saxon heptarchy? 13. In which of these kingdoms was tho Christian religion first established? 14. Mention the circumstance that induced Gregory to send missionaries into Eng- land. 15. Who was the head of the mission? 16. Who founded the monastery of St. Al- ban's ? 17. Whom did he send to iii^lruct Oharle- magne ? 18. For what is France indebted to AlcuinT 19. What universities did he found? 20. Who was the first king of all England ? 21. In what year did this great event occur? 22. How long after the first arrival of the Anglo-Saxons m Britain ? CHAPTER IL THE RISE AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SARACENIC POWER. Sec. 1. — Political and Social Condition oj the East at the coming of Mohammed. 1. Who succeeded Justinian? 2. For what was his reign remarkable ? 3. Who succeeded Justin II. ? 4. His character ? 5. Tiberius' successor? 6. His character ? 7. The condition of Persia at this time? 8. How did the Emperor Maurice act to- ward the royal fugitive ? 9. How did Khosru evince his gratitude ? 10. Against whom did the emperor then turn his arms ? 11. What led to a mutiny of his soldiers? 12. Who was Phocas ? 13. How did he commence his reign? 14. What noble act did Maurice perform? 1 5. Who sanctioned the usurpation of Phocas ? 16. What title did he receive from him in consequence ? 17. What was the end of Phocas? 18. Who succeeded him ? 19. How did Khosrii, king of Persia, act when he heard of the death of Mau- rice, his benefactor ? 20. What supplied him with allies in every province ? 21. What enterprise did his successes now encourage him to undertake ? 22. How did the Jews act in Jerusalem ? 23. The fate of Egypt \ 24. How long was Khosrii's camp in sight of Constantinople ? QUESTIONS ON 25. What letter did he now receive ? 26. Who was the writer ? 27. How was the letter treated 1 28. Mohammed's remark when he heard of this treatment ? 29 How were the Avars employed at this time? 30. What purpose did the emperor form ? 31. Who dissuaded him from executing it? 32. On what condition did Khosrti promise peace to the empire ? 33. How was the emperor affected by this insult ? 34. His first step ? 35. What bold enterprise did he form? 36. Show what was his success. 37. How did Khosrii act during this desola- tion of his kingdom ? 38. The consequences to himself of such conduct ? 39. What excuse did his son offer for his un- natural conduct ? 40. What trophy did Heraclius bring with him from Jerusalem ? 41. The fate of Persia? 42. What flame was now beginnuig to spread ? 43. How was victory fatal to Herachus ? 44. His conduct ? 4o- What new enemies appeared on the confines of Persia ? 46. The fate of the empire during the last eight years of the reign of Heraclius? Sec. 2. — State of Arabia at the coming of Mohammed. 1. The geographical position of Arabia? 2. Its dimensions ? 3. The soil and climate, &c.? 4. Character and position of Arabia Felix ? 5. Character and position of Arabia Pe- traea ? 6. What once gave it importance and wealth ? 7. From whom are the Arabs descended ? 8. What is their boast ? 9. Why has their country never been con- quered ? 10. What parts have been conquered? 11. The physical and intellectual constitu- tion of the Arab ? 12. What is said of the camel? 13. Of the Arab horse ? 14. The ancient religion of the Arabs ? 15. Their religious condition before the com- ing of Mohammed? 16. What did an ancient father say of Ara- bia? 17. In what province were tho principal cities, in remote ages ? 18. The chief cities now I 19. What has always given Mecca import- ance ? 20. How has their temple of Mecca been always regarded ? 21. What tribe had the custody of it? 22. What consequence did this givo them 7 23. What gave a check to Christianity jn Arabia ? 24. In what year did this happen ? 25. How is Mecca situated? 26. Its soil and water, &.c. ? 27. How far have its inhabitants to send for good fruit ? 28. By whom was Mecca fomided ? 29. By whom was its temple erected? 30. To whom is its early prosperity ascribed ? 31. Why did Ishmael make it his residence? 32. What proves it to be an ancient city? 33. The ancient name of Medina ? 34. How does it compare with Mecca? 35. Why did its citizens espouse the cause of Mohammed? 36. The literature of the Arabs ? 37. How was a literary spirit kept up ? 38. What was done with their best poems? 39. The title of their seven best poems ? 40. How were they written ? 41. Where kept? 42. Their history, what? 43. Their astronomy ? 44. Their mechanical arts? 45. What four peculiarities has God given them? Sec. 3. — The Preaching of Mohammed. 1. Where was Mohammed bom? 2. Who was his father ? 3. His mother ? 4. The religion of both ? 5. His uncles, who ? 6. Where did he become an orphan ? 7. Whither did he go at the age of thir teen? 8. His course from this time ? 9. The consequence of his mer.cantile tal- ent? 10. Whom did he marry? 11. What consideration did this give him? 12. What use did he immediately make of his good fortune ? 13. What did he do for his family ? 14. What was he doing for the next fifteen years ? 15. His yearly practice? 16. What made him acquainted with the principal forms of religion then pre- vailing ? 17. The names of some of these sects? 18. What led him to think himself a prophet? 19. To whom did he first announce his mis« sion ? 20. Did she recognize his claims ? 21. Who followed her example? 22. What led them to believe in him m readily ? MODERN HISTORY. 23 \Vliat ivere these converts called ? 24. The meaning of the word ? 25. What confirmed their faith ? 26. Why did he communicate them orally? 27. Is it probable so eminent a merchant did not know how to read and write ? 28. Why did he then pretend ignorance ? 29. In what book were these revelations preserved ? 30. The meaning of the term ? 31. How soon did he publicly proclaim him- self a prophet ? 32. How was he received? 33. Under what circumstances did he make the avowal ? 34. How did Ali act ? 35. Where did Mohammed begin to preach ? 36. Why did the guardians of the city oppose him ? 37. How were some of his most zealous fol- lowers treated ? 38. Was he alarmed by these demonstra- tions ? 39. What did he say, when requested to sus- pend his preaching ? 40. On what great occasion did he preach ? 41. What rendered the inhabitants of Medi- na that were present peculiarly atten- tive ? 42. W^hat was Mahommed's first step in imposture ? 43. What was he all along an impostor or an enthusiast? 44. What doctrine did he now preach in op- position to his former doctrines ? 45. What personal interview did the angel Gabriel afFord him ? 46. How did the Meccan chiefs act after this? 47. Whither did he flee ? 48. What is his flight called ? 49. How old was he at this time ? 50. How was he received in Medina? 51. The meaning of the term " Medina"? 52. How did his converts act ? 53. What attracted warriors to his standard? 54. What occurred near the well Bcdr? 55. How did he now extend his religion? 56. What sublime orientalifem was long the war cry of his followers ? 57. Who were the special objects of his hatred ? 58. Why were they so ? 59. What effect did a defeat at Ohod have on him ? 60 To what did he ascribe it ? 61. What character did the war now as- sume ? 62. How did the Meccans suffer ? 63. What did they do ? 64. What did Mohammed say ? 65. What did Mohammed become ? 36. His character ? 67. Did he take Mecca ? To whom did he send ambassadors? 69. The king of Persia's treatment of the letter sent him ? 0. How did Heraclius treat it ? 71. What sowed the seeds of disease in hia constitution ? 72. How did he enter Mecca? 73. How did he show homage to the na- tional faith ? 74. The effect produced by his presence ? 75. In what war did he now engage ? 76. The consequence of his success ? 77. How did he treat the Kaaba? What emblem was permitted to remain? 79. What was the black stone ? 80. The consequence of the capture of Mecca ? 81. What two great objects did he t.ius ef- fect ? 82. How many warriors did he now have 1 83. What led to his death ? 84. At what age and in what year ? 85. His dying words ? 86. His favourite wife ? 87. Why did he make no will ? 88. Who was Fatima ? Sec. 4. — Early Progress of the Saracens. 1. What shook the fabric of Islamism t* its foundation ? 2. Who had the best hereditary claims ? 3. What rendered him unpopular ? 4. How was the controversy decided ? 5. What surname did he assume ? 6. The meaning of it? 7. His first exploit? 8. What purpose did he then form ? 9. The success of his army ? 10. Its general, who? 1 1. Why did he wish to take Jerusalem? 12. His instructions to his army ? 13. What renders them so remarkable ? 14. Quote Rev. 9. 4. 15. What other city did he wish to take 16. Did Heraclius succour it ? 17. How often was his army routed ? 18. What dispute arose between the Saracen generals ? 19. Why was the memory of the Khaliph Abii Bekr venerated ? 20. His character ? 21. His successor? 22. How did he evince his jealousy of Kha- led? 23. What empire fell next ? 24. The result of the battle of Kadesia? 25. Describe the standard of Persia ? 26. What was done with it? 27. What foolish act did an Arabian soldier perform ? 2S. Where was the final battle fought, which decided the fate of Persia ? QUESTIONS ON 29 The fate of the Persian king ? 30. What dynasty ended with him ? 31. What country fell next? 32. The equipage of the khaliph as he came to the surrender of Jerusalem ? What did he do when he reached his camp ; 33, 34. What proofs of his moderation are given ? 35. Whore did he build his mosque ? 36. What cities were next taken ? 37. How many years did the conquest of Syria occupy ? 38. What country fell next? 39. The fate of the famoua library at Alex- andria ? 40. The fate of Omar ? 41. The results of his reign often years? 42. By whom is his memory venerated ? 43. By whom execrated ? 44. His habits? 45. For what are the Arabs indebted to him? 46. What customs, &c., did he introduce ? 47. His successor ? 48. What exploits were performed in his reign ? 49. The fate of the Colossus of Rhodes? 50. How many camel-loads did it contain ? 51. The fate of Othman? 52. His successor? 53. Who revolted, and her fate ? 54. How was the diiiiculty with Moawiydh settled ? Relate the circumstances. 55. Who thus became khaliph ? 56. All's character ? 57. What tradition is mentioned ? 58. The fate of his posterity? 59. Whose martyrdom is yearly celebrated in Persia ? 60. The conquests of the Saracens ? 61. What country in Europe did they sub- due? 62. How long did they hold it ? 63. What plans did they design to accom- plish ? 64. Who rescued Europe from their yoke? 65. In what battle ? 66. How long did it last ? 67. What led to the dismemberment of their empire ? 68. The three standards ? 69. What did Abiil Abbas do ? 70. Relate the circumstances of the assassi- nation of the Ommiade family. 71. Who escaped, and his subsequent for- tune ? 72. The capital of the Abbasside dynasty ? 73. The hero of the Arabian Nights' Enter- *ainment ? 74. The literary character of the Saia.- cens? f5. The end of the matter? CHAPTER III. RESTORATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRB. Sec. 1. — The Life of Charlemagne. 1. What circumstances conspired to givt power and authority to the pope ? 2. Why did the Italians desire to have the pope recognised as the head of the Christian church ? 3 What favour did the pope show Pepin ? 4. How was it returned ? 5. Who commanded the French armies iu Italy? 6. To whom did Pepin leave' his kingdom? 7. What circumstance made Charlemagne sole monarch ? 8. What were the grounds of hostility, be- tween Charlemagne and the king of the Lombards ? 9. What induced Charlemagne to declare war against the Saxons? What lead him into Italy ? What exploits did he perform there ? What led him into Spain ? What recalled him home, before ho had conquered the Saracens? Describe the battle of Roncesvalles. What is said of the song of Roland ? Relate the legend of Roncesvalles. The anecdote of John, king of France. What is said of the devastation of the Saxons, at this time ? Who was their leader? His fate ? How did Charlemagne employ the inter- vals of tranquillity ? By whom was he assisted? What circumstance proves the renown of Charlemagne ? What presents were sent him ? AVhat new enemy now appeared? How was Charlemagne affected by their appearance ? How did these Normans act in England? What led Charlemagne again into Italy? What title did the pope confer on him ? What project was now formed? How was it defeated? Who succeeded Charlemagne ? How long did Charlemagne live ? The character of Louis ? 10. 11, 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Sec. 2. — Decline and Fall of the Carlovir^ gian Dynasty. 1. The boundaries of the Western empire? 2. What crimes did Louis commit, at the instigation of his wife ? 3. The consequences of them ? 4. How did ho show his remorse ? 5. What led to a civil war? 6. What civil war ensued after his death ? 7. Who may be considered the founder of the French monarchy 1 MODERN HISTORY. 8. What kingdoms and states were fonned out of the fragments of the Western empire ? 9. To what did they owe their origin? 10. How did Charlemagne endeavour to remedy this evil ? 11. What nullified his wise policy? 12. What principle was the foundation of the feudal system ? 13. Of what great race were the Normans a branch ? 14. What exasperated them against the Franks ? 15. What was their character as sailors ? 16. How did they find the land when they were far out at sea ? 17. What title did their- leaders assume? 18. How did these sea-kings get followers ? 19. Their usual conduct, &,c. ? 20. Why were they specially hostile to the clergy, &.c. ? 21. Thierry's description of a sea-king? 22. From what ballads do we obtam all our information of these sea-kings ? 23. Recite the enactments of an ancient law among them. 24. Who were the Kempe ? 25. Howdid Hiorolf act? 26. His success ? 27. How did Half act? 28. What was necessary in order to obtain admission into this number ? 29. What were they forbidden to do ? 30 What circumstance proved the devotion of his crew to Half? 31 W^ho were the berseker ? 32. How did Sivald's sons act, when they were in this state ? 33. Their fate? 34. What other exploits did Halfdan per- form? 35. How did the sons of Amgrim act, during their berserk madnesf ? 36. How di -' *lie sea-kings procure wives for themselves ? 37. Show how Moalda was treated. 38. What sufferings did these phates inflict on France ? 39. How did the Franks defend themselves ? 40. The consequences of such folly ? 41. By whom was the Russian monarchy founded ? 42. What foothold did they obtain in other countries ? 43. The story of Charles and Rollo ? 44. How did Rollo afterwards act? 45. What incident is mentioned, eis showing the security of property ? 46 What new enemy appeared at this time ? 47 Who saved England for a time ? 48 The last of the Carlovingian dynasty? 49 The founder of the present race of French \ kings? 50. The state of France at this period 1 Sec. 3. — The Foundation of the Germanie Empire. 1. What oath were the German emperoi* obliged to take? 2. Where did the custom of electing empe- rors commence ? 3. How long did it continue ? 4. What emperor raised Germany to the highest rank among European states ? 5. From what disgraceful tribute did he free his kingdom ? 6. How did the Germans show their sense of the importance of this victory ? 7 What incident shows the character of this age? 8 How did Otho become king of Italy ? 9. Why did the pope acknowledge him as Roman emperor and supreme head of the church ? 10 Why did ho afterwards oppose him? 11 How did Otho resent this conduct? 12 What hastened the death of Otho II. 13 How was Otho III. killed ? 14. What anecdote is related of Conrad's generosity ? 15. What proofs of energy did Henry III. give? 16 In whose reign did the great struggle between the papal and imperial power begin ? 17 The condition of affairs in England favourable to the pope ? 18. The condition of affairs in Spain ? 19. The condition of eiffairs in Northern Europe ? 20. Whom did Edward the Confessor nomi- nate as his successor? 21. Whom did the English prefer? 22. What oath did Harold take ? 23. Under what circumstances? 24. What artifice was employed to give sanctity to it ? 25. Did he adhere to it ? 26. What induced William to invade Eng- land? 27. What battle decided the contest ? 28. How did William treat the English ? 29. How did some Normans lay the founda- tion of the kingdom of the two Sicilies t 30. How did all these events strengthen the pope? Sec. 4. — State of the East from the Estab- lishment to the Overthrou) of the Khaliphate. 1. What is said of the history of the Byzan- tine empire during the middle ages ? 2. Its condition, &c. ? 3 Whence did the Turks and Tartars come? 4. When was their country invaded and by whom '^ 10 QUESTIONS ON 5. 'What dangerous i racticc did the KhaUph Al Moutassem introduce ? 6. The consequence of it ? 7. How was the revohition completed? 8. What new horde now appeared ? 9. Their victories ? 10. The extent of the dominions of Malek Shah 1 11. What little circumstance now occurred, which led to mighty consequences? 12. The conduct of the assassins ? 13. What shows the extent of the evil ? 14. How was the kingdom of Malek Shah divided ? 15. Of what benefit to the Christians was this division ? CHAPTER IV. GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. Sec. 1. — The Origin of the Papacy. 1. What is remarkable in the clerical or- ganization of Christianity ? 2. What statement is made on this subject ? 3. What two great principles were fully re- cognized at a very early period ? 4. The opinion of infidels on this point ? 5. The general outline of the apostolic model. 6. To what two different lines of tempta- tion were the clergy exposed ? 7. Show how they tended to the same re- sult ? 8. The only bond that held nations to- gether? 9. What led to the persecution of the pagans? ■ 0. How did this tend to increase the power of the clergy ? 11. How was the discipline of the church injured ? 12. How were the doctrines of Christianity corrupted ? 13. What miserable practices were thus in- troduced ? 14 What bodies have always been prominent in introducing and supporting supersti- tions, &c. ? 15. Was the charge of idolatry urged against the Christians true ? 16. What proves it to be so ? 17. Who were the Iconoclasts? 18. The decrees of the synod of Constanti- nople ? 19. How did the pope act? 20. Who made the pope a temporal prince ? 21. When does the proper history of the papacy begin ? 22. What three transactions combined to give it form ? 93. What naturally led to the temporal sov- ereignity of the pope ? 24. What is said of the pope's confirmatioa of Pepin as king of France ? 25. On what is popery founded ? 2G. Separate the two parts ? 27. Wiiat happened ere one generation had passed away ? Sec. 2. — The early Development of the Political System of the Papacy. 1. The important links between ancient and modern history ? 2. Was the French monarchy originally elective or hereditary ? 3. Why did Pepin then wish to bo recog- nized by the pope ? 4. What is said of the measures of the pope ' 5. What ceremony did they re\"ve ? 6. How did Pepin regard it ? 7. How did the pope regard it 1 8. Its effect ? 9. How did the Frank nobles regard .t ? 10. What new act did pope Stephen per- form ? 11. Its effect? 12. What return did the Carlovingians make to Stephen ? 13. What fraud did the holy father commit in order to secure these acquisitions? 14. Its effect ? 15. Is it now acknowledged to have been a fraud ? 16. What pontiff first combined the elements of the papacy into a system ? 17. What difficulty met him at the outset? 18. How did the pope attempt to ward off the danger ? 19. How did Leo III. act ? 20. How has his act been interpreted ? 21. What is said of it? 22. What benefits did Leo experience from this moderation ? 23. How did he show his gratitude ? 24. The dangers and benefits to the papal see, of the re-establishment of the empire ? 25. What is said of the struggles between the bishops of Rome and of Constanti- nople ? 26. The effect on the papacy of the death of Charlemagne? 27. What is said of the usurpations of the church during the wars between the successors of Charlemagne ? 28. What shameful acknowledgment did Charles the Bald make ? 29. What canon did the bishops make ? 30. How did king and people regard it ? 31. What right did the pope assume? 32. Why did he depose the archbishop of Ravenna ? 33. How did he treat King Lothaire ? 34. What acknowledgment did the pope ox- act of the king of France ? MODERN HISTORY. 11 35. How was he recognized as emperor ? 36. What letter did the pope write to the king ? 37. How did the feudal lords treat the pon- tiffs? 38. To what are the vices of this period at- tributable? 39. The great error of the pontiffs ? 40 What rendered popery, as a system, in- operative ? Sec. 3. — The Struggle for Supremacy be- tween the Popes and Emperors. 1. For what services was Otho rewarded with the iron crown of Lombardy and the title of emperor of the West? 2. How did Otho show his jealousy of the . designs of the pope against him, even in his coronation ? 3. How did the pope treat Otho ? 4. Otho's conduct in return? 5. The character of Pope John ? 6. Who was elected in his room 1 7. What bull did he issue ? 8. What did the bishops think and say of it? 9. What led to John's restoration ? 10. His subsequent conduct ? 11. His end? 12. What did the people think of his death ? 13. Who succeeded him? 14. The condition of the papacy at this time ? 15. To what did the papacy owe its first success ? 16. What now gave it strength for a new struggle ? 17. How was Pope John treated? 18. His successors, and who prevailed ? 19. What traitorous act did Boniface VH. commit ? 20. The death of Boniface ? 21. The death of his rival? 22. What shov/s how low the papacy had now sunk ? 23. How did Sylvester act ? 24. How did Benedict VIII. treat the Em- peror Henry ? 25. The state of the popedom soon after this ? 26. How old was Benedict IX. when raised to the popedom ? 27. Who induced him to resign, and by what means? 28. Who was Hildebrand? 29. What became of him? 30. fjis character ? S^lc. 4. — Revival of the Papal Power. 1. What led to the success of the papal usurpation ? 2. How did it endeavour to secure its ac- quisitions ? 3. What is said of the nobles of Italy ? 4. What opinion was the papacy during this time generating 1 5. Under what pressure was its organiza- tion completed ? 6. How did it link itself with every class of the community? 7. How was the clerical identified with the popular cause ? 8. Who was the first that clearly perceived the tendency and strength of this cur- rent? 9. What is said of his personal chsiracter t 10. Of his measures? 11. His design? 12. What is said of Leo IX.? 13. Hildebrand's first interview with him? 14. What had the pontiff" dreaded ? 15. What service did Hildebrand render him ? 16. How was he rewarded? 17. Why were the clergy and people of Rome pleased at these things ? 18. Leo's conduct ? 19. His fate? 20. Whatledfohisiieatn? 21. Who succeeded him ? 22. Hildebrand's views and conduct ? 23. How did the new pope treat him ? 24. How did he conduct himself in France? 25. How did the people act on the death of Pope Stephen ? 26. How did Hildebrand ? 27. Why did the emperor aid Nicholas? 28. How did Nicholas act ? 29. How did he act towards the Normans ia the south of Italy ? 30. How did they serve him in turn ? 31. The effect of this? 32. What is said of the church of Milan ? 33. Peter Damian's boldness? 34. The result of it ? 35. How was Nicholas' successor chosen ? 36. Who was the real governor of the church ? 37. How did he treat the Milanese ? 38. How did it happen that two archbisb-ops of Milan were chosen ? 39. The contest that ensued? 40. How had Hildebrand oeen preparing for the contest? 41. How did he contribute to the Norman conquest of England ? 42. How did he act towards William 1 43. What did he send him ? 44. How did he act towards Matilda ? 45. What daring act threw all these poUti< cal struggles into the shade ? 46. The real author of all these acts ? Sec. 5. — Pontificate of Gregory VII. 1. What is said of the accession of Hilde- brand to the papacy ? 2. How did ho obtain the emperor's ratifi»- cation of his irregular election ? 3. What favourite plan of his did he begin at once to put in execution ? 12 QUESTIONS ON 4 For what purposes did he send a legate to Spain ? 5. What effect did his energy produce on the emperor ? 5. What were the two great objects of the pope ? 7. What were the arguments for the ceH- bacy of the clergy? 8. What against it ? 9. What were lay-investitures? 10. The objections to them ? 11. What seemed to make it necessary that these appointmeuts in the church should be independent of the state ? 12. What blasphemous claim did the pope put forth ? 13. What canon was passed on this subject in a general council held at Rome ? 14. What is said of the letters of the pope in which he communicated these de- crees to the European sovereigns? 15. Mention some of his actions correspond- ing to bis words. 16. How did the emperor relish these things? ] 7. What conspiracy was formed in Rome against the pope ? 18. What daring act was perpetrated by the prefect of the city ? 19. The consequences of it? 20. How did the pope treat the emperor? 21. How did the emperor act in return ? 22. What did the pope then do ? 23. Mriition the most important of the reso- lutions that he passed. 24. Wliat reply did he make when advised not to excommunicate the emperor ? 25. What did both parties now prepare to do ? 26. What circumstance happened, at this time, verj' opportunely for the pope ? 27 How was Henry situated ? 2fc What hardships did he endure in crossing the Alr.s ? 29. How did he act when he reached Lom- bardy ? 30. To what indignities was he subjected by the pope ? 31. Their effect on his mind? 32. What led him to repent of his degrada- tion ? 33. How did he renew the war ? 34. How was he treated at home ? 35. Why did this disconcert the pope? 36. How did he act, &,c. ? 37. Wliat is the doctrine of transubstantia- tion ? .38. Why were the clergy zealous in the sup- port of it ? .'39 What remark was made to a discon- tented nobleman of the queen of Spain by her confessor ? 40. who assailed the doctrine vigorously in the eleventh century? 41. What induced the pope to depart from his neutrality between Henry and Ro« dolph? 42 How did Henry act thereupon ? 43. How did he act after Rodolph was de- feated and slain ? 44. What did Gregory do after his departure from Rome ? 45. How did he view his conduct on his death -bed ? 46. His frequent remark 1 47. Of what may he be regarded as the founder ? 48. How has he been fpoken of by historians ? 49. Of what may he be called the represen- tative ? 50. How was he regarded by the soldiers, the people, and the clergy ? 51. What is said of his faults ? 52. How did he act with reference to crimi- nals whom he sentenced to death ? 53. Give a summary of his history and cha- racter. Sec. 6. — The War of Investitures. 1. How did Urban II. commence his pon- tificate ? 2. Whom did Matilda now marry ? 3. Of what illustrious family Eire they tha ancestors ? 4. What domestic trouble now afflicted thi Emperor Henry ? 5. To what threatening danger was the at« tention of the Christian world now directed ? 6. Whose eloquence led to the first crusade ? 7. What new oath did the clergy take in A.D. 1104? 8. What grievous misfortune now befel Henry ? 9. How did the bishop of Liege act, and how was he treated in consequence ? 10. Did Henry V. yield to the pope, in the matter of investitures ? 11. How did he treat Pope Paschal? 12. How was the matter finally compro- mised ? 13. What schism now took place in the church ? 14. Owing to whose exertions was Pope Anacletus stigmatized as an antipope ? 15. How many bishops assembled at the general council in Rome A.D. 1139 ? 16. Who was Abelard, and by whom op- posed ? 17. Of what was this controversy the first symptom ? 18. The doctrines of Arnold ? 19. What struggle now commenced in Italy i 20. Why did it so speedily cease ? Sec 7. — The Crusades. 1. When did pilgrimages to Jerusalem begin MODERN HISTORY. IS S. When die they begin to multiply and why? 3. How did the Saracens treat the pilgrims, whilst they possessed Jerusalem ? 4. How did the Turks treat them ? 5. Who first proposed a general crusade against the Turks? 6. Who actually excited the first crusade ? 7. How did he do it ? 8. Who were the first crusaders? 9. Why were they so called ? 10. How did they act on their march ? 11. The consequences to themselves? 12. Their treatment of the Jews ? 13. Who commanded the first regular army against the Turks ? I'i. What noblemen joined his standard ? 15. How were they received and treated by the Greek emperor ? 16. Their career in Asia? 17. When was Jerusalem taken ? 18. How was it defended by the Mohamme- medans ? 19. By what stratagem did Godfrey excite his troops to deeds of valour ? 20. How was their triumph sullied ? 21. What boast did the knights make ? 22. How long did the massacre last ? 23. What suddenly put a stop to it ? 24. Their conduct thereupon ? 25. Who was chosen king of Jerusalem ? 26. What noble declaration did he make ? 27. How long did this new kingdom last ? 28. How many crusades were there ? 29. How long did they last ? 30. Give the history of the second crusade. 31. Through whose influence had it been undertaken ? 32. His conduct under the storm of public indignation that burst upon him ? 33. What kings joined in a new crusade on the news of the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin ? 34. What prevented their success ? 35. What led king Philip to return home? 36. What, king Richard ? 37. What befel Richard on his return ? 38. At whose instigation was the fourth cru- sade undertaken ? 39. Their first departure from their orig':aal design ? 40. Their second ? 41. How did they act toward Constantinople ? 42. By whom was the fifth crusade under- taken ? 43. The history of it ? 44. How did Frederick II. of Germany act T 45. Why was he twice excommunicated by the pope ? 46. His success ? 47. What caused him to return home ? 48. Why was he a third time excommuni- cated ? 49. How did he act on his return ? 50. Who led the ninth crusade ? 51. What led to the ruin of this crusade T 52. The pope's address to the clergy of Sicily, on hearing of the death of the emperor ? 53. The fate of Louis ? 54. When was Acre, the last stronghold o/ the Christians in Palestine, taken ? Sec. 8. — The Crusade against the Alhi- genses. 1. What is a general council ? 2. Who were the Albigenses ? 3. What decree had been pronounced against them ? 4. Why were the feudal lords unwilling to execute it ? 5. Why did some persons maintain that the Old Testament was written by the Spirit of Evil ? 6. Against what Romish doctrines die the Albigenses protest ? 7. The moral character of the Albigenses ? 8. What relation did they wish to hold to the Romish church ? 9. Explain this. 10. Innocent III.'s first step in his endeavours to crush them ? 11. What is said of his emissaries ? 12. HowdidCastelnau, the papal legate, act ? 13. His conduct to Raymond, on his refusal to treat with him ? 14. What inflamed the Pope against Ray- mond? 15. How was he treated ? 16. How did Philip Augustus, the ki^ of France, act ? 17. What promises did the monks make to the crusaders ? What new monastic order was instituted by the Pope, Innocent III ? Their special object ? By what dreaded name is this institutioH best known ? How did Raymond act at the approach of danger ? 22. How did his nephew act ? 23. Raymond's conduct at the approach of the hostile army of the crusaders ? 24. The conduct of the crusaders towards their prisoners ? 25. The barbarous answer of the abbot of Citeaux, when asked by the army, how they should distinguish catholics from heretics ? 26. How did the army act ? 27. Who interfered in behalf of young Ray- mond ? 28. His advice to him ? 29. His fate, and that of the townsmen ? 30. What had the country been made by these crusaders ' 18. 21. 14 QUESTIONS ON 31 How were the Albigenses still treated ? 32. How much better were the monks of Citeaiix than robbers ? 33 Simon de Montfort's conduct ? 34. What did Raymond do ? 35. How was he treated in Rome ? 36. What was Montfort doing m the mean- time ? 37. How did the king of Aragon attempt to secure his friendship ? 38. Why was not peace made ? 39. The fate of the defenders of the strong- hold of Raymond — the castle of La- vaiir ? 40. What now interrupted the friendship be- tween the monks of Citeaux and the crusaders ? 41. How did Arnold, the papal legate, act ? 42. How was the pope set at defiance by his creatures ? 43. The fate of the king of Aragon and the citizens of Toulouse ? 44. The cause of the quarrel between the legate and Montfort ? 45. What more formidable enemy now ap- peared ? 46. How did Montfort lose Toulouse ? 47. Hisfato? 48. The subsequent fate of Toulouse 1 49. What institution was now established in this country ? 50. The effects of these wars ? Sec. 9. — Consequences of the Crusades. 1. What advantages did the popes derive from the crusades ? 2. What effect had the increase of the papal power on that of the kings of Europe ? 3 What peculiar circumstances led to a contrary result in France ? 4. How did the kings of Spain profit by the fanaticism of the age ? 5. The effects of the crusades on chivalry ? 6. Describe the Hospitallers, or knights of St. John, or knights of Malta. 7. Tlie knights Templars. 8. The Teutonic Order. 9. The Order of St. Lazarus. 10. The effects of the crusade on the Italian cities ; 11. What laid the foundation of the present Hanseatic league ? 12. What led to the establishment of mu- nicipal institutions ? 13. How did the royal authority gain by the extension of municipal freedom ? 14. What followed as a necessary conse- quence of this freedom ? 15 The state of Germany at this period ? 16. What brave emperor restored tranquillity? 17. To whom did the pope give the kingdom of Naples ? 18 The effect of his cruelties ? 19 The fate of Conradin ? 20. The eflect of the severance of Italy from the German empire ? 21, What proved a more formidable foe to the Romish church than the sovereigns of Germany ? Se(7. 10. — Formation and Constitutional History of the Spanish Monarchy. 1. The condition of Spain for several hun- dred years after the invasion of the Saracens ? 2. In what four statis were they com- prised after the fourteenth century ? 3. What is said of the kingdom of GranadaT 4. What is said of Navarre? 5. What is said of Aragon ? 6. What is said of Castile ? 7. How did they begin to secure their con- quests ? 8. What is said of their dissensions ? 9. The complaint of the soldiers of Fomaa Gonzales ? 10. How long did it take the Spaniards to reach the Douro? 11. How long to reach the Tagus? 12. To what circumstances should be im- puted the liberal charters of commmii- ties in Castile and Leon ? 13. Some of their enactments ? 14. The date of popular representation lu Castile ? 15. How much sooner than the first convo- cation of the English house of com- mons? 16. What powerful check on the operations of the crown did they fail to avail them- selves of? 17. What important principle of the constitu- tion was recognised? 18. What prerogative long survived the wreck of their liberties ? 19. What anomalous institution was peculiar to Castile? 20. Describe it. 21. What were these associations called? 22. The state of the cities of Castile ? 23. The state of the nobles, &c.? 24. How did the over-weening confidence of the nobles prove their ruin ? 25. The eff(3cts of the long minorities in Castile ? Sec. 11. — Survey of the Constitution of Aragon. 1. What first raised Aragon to political im- portance? 2. Where were the seeds of liberty planted and brought to maturitj ? 3. Which of the maritime repuWcs was eminently conspicuous ? 4. What is said of its navy 1 MODERN HISTORY. 15 5. What countries did it conquer ? 6. What city did it conquer ? 7. What is said of the authority of their nionarchs ? 8. How were they chosen ? 9. What did they swear to do before assum- lag the sceptre? 10. Some of the privileges of the nobles? 11. What is said of the commons of Aragon? 12. What of the triennial Cortes ? 13. What of the committee of interim? 14. The privileges and functions of the cortes ? 15. What is said of Barcelona ? 16. How was its wealth exhibited ? 17. Its peculiar glory ? 18. Its government and privileges ? 19. The influence of these democratic insti- tutions on the character of the Cata- lonians ? 20. What did the Venetian ambassador say of them in the sixteenth century ? 21. The policy of the kings of Spain when Castile and Aragon were united? 22. What did Ferdinand say of the nobles of Aragon ? 23. How did they lose their privileges ? 24. What is said of the connexion between freedom of trade and freedom of insti- tutions ? 25. Of what great truth is Spain a memo- rable and sad example ? 26. With whom did the Austrian line of Spanish monarchs begin ? Sec. 12. — State of Western Europe at the commencement of the Fourteenth Century. 1. Rodolph of Hapsburg's first step after becoming emperor of Germany ? 2. Who founded the imperial house of Austria ? 3. How and when was Venice founded ? 4. When did it first rise into importance ? 5. Who conferred on them the sovereignty of the Adriatic ? 6. What ceremony thence arose ? 7. How did the crusades extend their power ? 8. What change of government did the in- creasing wealth of Venice occasion ? 9. What led to the terrible council of ten ? 10. To what did Genoa owe its prosperity ? 11. How were they rewarded by the Greek emperors for the help afforded by them ? 12. What led to the war between them and the Pisans, and its result ? 13. Why was Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, hated ? 14. What led to the Sicilian vespers ? 15. Who were massacred, and who spared ? 16. Who protected the islanders ? 17. The pope's doings in consequence ? 18. How did Peter, king of Aragon, outwit Charles ? 19. Did the Catalonians regard the pope's fulminations ? 20. What naval victory did Peter's admiral gain ? 21. The end of Charies ? 22. What saved the Mohammedans at this time from Alphonzo, king of Castile ? 23. To what new kingdom in Europe did the crusade in Spain lead ? 24. How was this result produced ? 25. The policy of the French kings after Hugh Capet'", usurpation ? 26. What error did Philip I. commit ? 27. How was this danger increased ? 28. Who was the founder of the greatness of the French monarchy ? 29. What is said of the Plantagenets ? 30. Of Richard I. ? 31. Of John ? 32. The battle of Bouvines ? 33. Of the papacy after the dea'ijj of Nicho- las? 34. How did the doctrine of infallibility in- jure it ? 35. How long was the holy see vacant? 36. Whom did the cardinals elect ? 37. What is said of him ? 38. How did he show his pride? 39. Who forced him to resign, and how ? 40. His successor ? 41. How did he act ? Sec. 13. — Pontificate of Boniface. 1. What is said of the manner in which Boniface obtained the resignation of Celestine ? 2. What declaration did Celestine make of him ? See p. 446. 3. How did he treat Celestine ? 4. His character and designs ? 5. His letters to Philip, Edward, and Adol- phus ? 6. The conduct of James of Aragon ? 7. How did the Sicilians view this conduct in their sovereign ? 8. How was Philip of France acting at this time ? 9. The pope's command to him ? 10. What did the pope do, when Philip re- fused to obey him ? 11. How was this bull received in Europe ? 12. How did Edward of England act ? 13. How did Philip ? 14. The effect of their conduct ? 15. Arbitration of Boniface, and how was his decision treated ? 16. His treatment of the Colonnas? 17. How did he endeavour to lull the king'ia vigilance ? IS. How did Philip treat his proposal ? 19. How did Boniface induce persons to come to Rome to attend the celebra- tion of the jubilee ? 16 QUESTIONS ON 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. Sec. 14. — State of England and the Nor- thern Kingdoms at the Commencement of the Fourteenth Century. 1. How did William the Conqueror treat the Saxou population of England ? 2. Who was the first of the Plantagenet dynasty ? 3. Tiie situation of Ireland at this time ? 4. What suggested to William the idea of conquering Ireland ? 5. Who was the only English pope ? 6. On what condition did he permit Henry to invade Ireland ? / What right had ho over Ireland or the Irish church ? 8. What led Henry to invade Ireland ? 9. What is said of the great charter ? 10. How did the pope treat John ? 11. What saved England from becoming a French province ? 12. Character of Henry III. ? 13. What laid the basis of the house of com- mons ? 14. The chief object of Edwai'd's ambition ? 15. Why is the eldest son of the king of England called prince of Wales ? 1 6. What gave Edward a pretence to invade Scotland ? 17. The three competitors? 18. Who was chosen, and on what condition ? The secret object of the jubilee ? Who was the pope's messenger to Philip, after the jubilee was over ? How did the king treat him ? Boniface's subsequent proceedings ? Peter Flotte's summary of the bull, Ausculta fill ? Philip's treatment of it ? His letter ? Repeat it. The substance of the manifestoes of the three orders ? Boniface's command to Edward of Eng- land ? Edward's reply ? Conduct of some of the French clergy, and Philip's proceedings thereupon ? Demands of Boniface on Philip? Philip's retaliation ? Boniface's violent proceeding ? Philip's retaliation ? What did Boniface then proceed to do ? How was his purpose of vengeance thwarted ? MHiat alone saved him from being car- ried a prisoner to France ? His end ? The effect of his Teign on the papal power ? Show how this was produced ? What change was occasioned, &c., by the death of Boniface ? How did Benedict XI. act ? 19. His end? 20. What Scottish hero arose to siistam hia country ? 21. Who finally secured the crown? 22. What produced innumerable civil wars in the north of Europe ? 23. Who subdued Prussia and Livonia ? Sec. 15. — Revolutions in the East in con- sequence of the Mongolian Invasion. 1. What is said of the MougoUan empire? 2. Of Jenghiz Khan ? 3. His early history ? 4. His first expedition? 5. His conquests? 6. His maxim ? 7. The conquests of his successors 1 8. Who were the Mamelukes ? 9. Their career ? 1 0. How long did their dominion over Egj'pt last? 1 1 . When did they finally expel the Christiaiis from Syria and Palestine ? CHAPTER V. THE REVIVAL. OF LITERATQRE ; THE PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION AND INVENTION. Sec. 1. — Decline of the Papal Poioer. — The great Schism of the West. 1. Where did Clement V fix his residence, and why, &c. ? 2. What further did Philip require of him ? 3. How did he act on the occasion ? 4. What sacrifice was he forced to make to gratify Philip ? 5. How were these knights treated ? 6. What was their only crime ? 7. What inspired Philip with the hope of obtaining the empire for his brother ? 8. Did the pope aid him ? 9. How did he act, and why ? 10. How did the new emperor begin his reign ? 11. For what purpose had the council of Vienne been summoned ? 12. What was proved ? 13. Why was Clement unwilling that Boni- face should be condemned ? 14. The sentence of the council ? 15. The decrees of the council ? 16. What had nearly brought on a war be- tween the emperor and the king of France ? 17. Henry's death, how occasioned? 18. What important personages died about this time ? 19. The consequences, &c. ? 20. How long were the cardinals in electing a pope ? 21. What happened at their first meeting? MODERN HISTORY. 17 ?2. How were they forced to come to a de- cision ? 23. Who was elected, and by what means ? 24. The state of Europe at this time ? 25. How did the pope act ? 26. What did the emperor Louis do ? 27. What excited the indignation of the Germans against the pope ? 28. How did Louis treat him ? 29. Wiiat prevented the destruction of the pope ■' 30. Tlie fate of the antipope ? 3L By what rehgious dispute was the church now disturbed ? 32. Who compelled the pope to retract his doctrines ? 33. (Could the pope then be infallible ?) 34 What is said of the pope's wealth ? 35. What was the pope's sojourn at Avignon called, and why ? 36. To what did the successor of John owe his election ? 37. How was he regarded by the kings of Europe 7 38. How did Philip, king of France, treat him ? 39. Who was chosen his successor ? 40. What deputation was sent him ? 4L How did he treat Naples ? 42. How the emperor Louis V. ? 43. How the church of England 1 44. How did Louis V. act ? 45. The effect of his humiliations ? 46. What events now took place in Italy ? 47. How did Jane conciliate the pontitF? 48. What did the king of Hungary do ? 49. What did the pope do to avert the danger ? 50. The hii^tory of Rienzi ? 51. The doings of the king of Hungary ? 52. How did Clement avail himself of the opportunity? 53. How did he act towards the archbishop of Milan? 54. His decision with regard to the dispute between the king of Hungary and the queen of Naples ? 55. Why is the eldest son of the king of France called the dauphin ? 56. What is said of the power of the papacy at this time ? 57. How did the pope endeavour to recover the ancient patrimony of St. Peter ? 58. The end of Rienzi ? 59. Anions of Charles IV. ? 60. Wl.ut events were now taking place in I' ranee ? 61. How did John, the king of France, re- plenish his coffers ? 62. Give some account of the origin and doings of the Free Companies ? 63. How did the pope keep them from plun- dering Avignon 7 64. How did his successor Urban V. keop them away ? 65. How did the emperor Charles demean himself toward the pope ? 66. What was thought of his conduct ? 67. Why was the pope unwilling to live ia Rome? 68. W^hat had he gained by gohig thither ? 69. Gregory's great object 7 70. By what infamous means did he endeav- our to gain over the Florentines ? 7L The consequence of this conduct? 72. How did Gregory retaliate 73. The reply of the papal legate to the Bolognese when they sued for pardon ? 74. What reformer now arose in England ? 75. How did Gregory order him to be treated ? 76. Who protected him ? 77. His doctrines 7 78. Why was Gregory so enragvjd with him ? 79. Why did he think of returning to Avignon ? 80. What prevented him ? 81. Of what was the death of Gregorj' XI. a new era ? 82. What attached the Romans to the pa- pacy ? 83 Who succeeded Gregory ? 84. By what means was he elected 7 85. What expectations had been formed of Urban's conduct .' 86. Were they realized ? 87. How did he act ? 68. How did the cardinals act ? 89. How was the fate of the church now to be determined 7 90. How did Urban treat the count of Fondi 7 91. The consequence ? 92. Whom did the cardinals think of choos- ing as antipope ? 93. Whom did they choose 7 94. Why was he hated by the Italians 7 85. For whom did the emperor declare ? 96. For whom the queen of Naples 7 97. What became of Clement? 98. Whom did the king of Franco favour and why ? 99. How did Urban treat the queen of Na- ples? 100. How did the two popes treat one an- other ? 101. What states favoured each ? 102. How did France suffer in the contest ? 103 How did Jane, queen of Naples, suffer for the part she took in the contest ? 104. Who undertook to avenge her? 105. His fate, and that of his barons ? 106. How did Urban treat the king of Nu- pies? 107. How did the king act thereupon? 108. What conspiracy was now detected? 109. How were the cardinals treated? 110. How did he treat Durazzo 7 18 QUESTIONS ON 111. How did Durazzo rotort? 112. Whither did he escape ? 113. His conduct during his flight ? 4. 114. How was Clement VII., the antipope, 5, acting all this while ? 6. 115. What kingdom suffered most from the schism ? 1 7. 116. How was it treated ? [ 8. 117. What doctrinal dispute was now added j 9. to the schism ? 10 118. What became of Mon9on? 119. How did the pope resolve the question ? 11. 120. Who undertook to decide it? 121. Bull of Clement VII. on the sub- 12. ject? 122. How was Urban VI. now actmg ? 13. 123. His end ? 14. 124. The conduct of his successor? 15. 125. How did Clement propose to strengthen 16. himself ? 126. How did the doctors of the Sorbonne 17. propose to terminate the schism? 18. 127. The effect on Clement? 19. 128. Letter of the French ministers to the 20. cardinals ? 129. How did they act ? 21. 130. The decision of the French court there- 22. upon ? 131. Benedict's obstinacy ? 23. 132. The state of the Western governments ? 133. What advantage did Boniface take of these circumstances ? 134. How did the cardinals attempt to put 1. an end to the schism ? 135. Who recognised the several popes ? 2. 136. The effect of these disputes ? 3. 137. Who, in Germany, advocated Wickliffe's doctrine ? 4. 138. Alexander's successor? 5. 139. His qualifications? 140. How was the schism now to be termi- 6. nated ? 7. 141. John's remark on Constance? 142. Sigismond's infamous treatment of John 8. Huss? 143. How was Pope John treated ? 9. 144. How were Huss and Jerome treated? 145. What hero sustained the cause of the 10. Hussites, in Germany? 146. The result of the deliberations of the 11. council ? 147. What council succeeded that of Con- 12. stance ? 148. The resiJt of it ? 13. 149. The good effects of these councils ? 150. What enemy, still more formidable than 14. councils, was now arising ? 15. 8kc. 2. — First Revival of Literature, and ig' Inventions in Science. 1. Who first employed literary talent against the church ? 17. 2. The founder of Italian literature ? The first reviver of exporimeiitnl sci- ence ? His great merit, what ? What was thought of his discoveries ? Who followed Dante in reviving litera- ture ? What new inventions were noM made ? What was used before paper ? What did the Arabs find in Bokhara ? What answered instead of cotton for pa- per? The first manufactory of linen paper, when and where ? What is said of the invention of oil paint- ing? What of the invention of printing ? The first printing-press, where ? How did Faustus treat Gutenberg? What is said of the invention of gun- powder ? The first account of it, in what year ? Who first used powder in mines, &c. ? Cannon, how first made ? The discoverer of the polarity of tho needle ? Of the compass ? How did the old Danish sailors direct their course ? To whom are we indebted for tho im- provement of the compass ? Sec. 3. — Progress of Commerce. Who engrossed the commerce of Europe from A.D. 1300 to 1450 ? W^ho the trade of the Levant ? What led to the wars between the Italian cities ? Who finally became supreme ? Where was the largest silk manufac- tory? With what did Venice supply Europe ? What made them the chief bankers and money-lenders every where ? The origin of the three balls, exhibited over pawnbrokers' shops ? What led to dissensions, &c., among the Italian republics ? What houses became chief in the seve- ral cities ? The last war between Venice and Ge- noa, called what ; and its effects ? What else contributed to the decline of Genoa ? How long did it remain a dependency of the duLchy of Milan ? What saved Venice from internal con- vulsions ? What secured and fostered its trade ? The greatest advantage gained by Ve- nice over its commercial rivals arose from what ? Of what advantage was this treaty to them ? MODERN HISTORY. 19 18. What is said of the territorial acquisi- tions of Venice ? 19. What is said of its power and conduct ? 20. What is said of the Hanseatic confede- ration ? 21. What cities joined the confederacy ? 22. At what city did the representatives regularly meet, and how often ? 23. How many cities sent delegates in the fifteenth century ? 24. Were these all that belonged to the con- federacy ? 2.'5. What rights did they exercise ? 26. The principal marts ? 27. What misfortune befel Novogorod ? and when ? 28. What became of its merchants ? 29. What took place annually at Bruges ? 30. To what did this intercourse, &.C., natu- rally lead ? 31. What gave commerce a new direc- tion ? 32. What else injured the confederation 1 33. What led the northern sovereigns to as- sail the confederation ? 34. The result of this ? 35. What cities finally remained united ? 36. On what was commercial prosperity based in Flanders ? 37. In what did they trade ? 38. What is said of the earls of Flanders ? 39. With whom did Edward I. of England seek an alliance ? 40. What is said of Fhilippa ? 41. How did Philip, the Fair, treat her and her father? 42. How did Guy, the earl, act after his escape ? 43. Of what was this the commencement ? 44. What is said of the burgesses of Flan- ders ? 45. How did the nobles view their progress ? 46. At what were they grieved ? 47. What brought on war ? 48. Who directed the mercantile Flemings ? 49. The results of the war ? 50. What powerful rival appeared ? 51. What manufacture flourished there ? 52. What proportion of the exports of the kingdom did it constitute ? 53. How did Edward I. obtain workmen from Flanders ? 54. How were they regarded ? 55. Of what did the petitions complain ? 56. What was the conduct of the land- owners ? 57. The law passed on the subject ? 58. The effect of it ? 59. What is said of the woolen manufac- tures in the reign of Henry VI. ? 60. Tlie reciprocity law ? 61. What foolLsh attempt was made to limit the supply of labour ? 62. The besetting error of legielatoia at this period ? 63. The real use of money ? 64. The essence of all commerce ? 65. What laws did the ignorance of tho legislators lead them to pass ? 66. What check to industry did Henry VII. remove ? 67. What proved the necessity of legislative interference ? 68. What other law did he make ? 69. What was thought of it at the time ? 70. What kept the parliaments from trou- bling commerce, &c., in Henry Vlll.'a time ? 71. What circumstance deserves to be men- tioned in connection with the woolen trade ? 72. The effect of hostilities between England and Flanders in 1528 ? 73. How did Wolsey act ? 74. The true remedy ? 75. What act was passed under Edward V 1. 1 76. The effect of it ? 77 The effect of the persecutions in Franco and Flanders ? 78. What is said in the remonstrance of the Hanse towns concerning the exports of England ? 79. What did the English begin to do in this reign ? 80. What is said of their success ? 81. What is said of Elizabeth's monopolies ? 82. What right did the company of merchant adventurers possess ? 83. How did they secure their patent ? 84. The trade in woolen goods in the reign of James I ? 85. In what state was the cloth exported ? 86. How much did the Dutch gain by dress- ing it ? 87. How did James endeavour to prevent this? 88. How did the Germans and Dutch meet this piece of legislation ? 89. The consequence ? 90. The recommendation to the commis- sioners ? 91. Why did English commerce increase under the commonwealth ? 92. The effect of the restoration ? 93. Report of the merchant adventurers ? 94. What is said of the Walloons ? 95. What evils are illustrated in the history of manufactures so far ? 96. Was this folly peculiar to England ? 97. When did the system of protection be- gin? 98. From what did it derive its support ? 99. When did England enter into the spuit of maritime discovery ? 100. Why was the progress of commerce BO slow 1 20 QUESTIONS ON Sec 4. — Revolutions of Gerinany, France, and Spain. 1. From what period did the German em- pire begin to be consolidated ? 2. Under whose government did an impor- tant change take place in Switzer- land? 3. How was the revolution effected ? 4. Where did the Austrians suffer a ruinous defeat ? 5. The results of it ? G. The successor of Albert and his cha- racter ? 7. What led the German princes to form written constitutions ? 8. What led to the Golden Bull ? 9. What did it fix ? 10. How was the crown given? 11. To whom was the right of voting re- stricted ? 12. Who administered the empire during an interregnum ? 13. How did the electors show their authority in the next reign ? 14. Who succeeded Sigismond? 15. (What breach of faith did Sigismond once commit ?) 16. Who succeeded Albert ? 17. What is said of Frederic's posterity ? 18. The policy of Philip Augustus of France ? 19. Who pursued it with the most vigour? 20. Oil what did Edward found his claims to the crown of France ? 21. The success of Edward's invasion ? 22. ^Vhat terrible calamities visited France at this period ? Mention seven. 23. Conduct of Edward, the Black Prince, in his French dominions ? 24. The result of his wars ? 25. What saved the English from being ex- pelled from all their continental pos- sessions ? 26. Between whom was the battle of Agin- court fought ? 27. The terms of the treaty ? 28. Who overthrew the power of England ? 29. How did she manage it ? 30. What alone remained of England's pos- sessions ? 31. Tlie consequences of the destruction of the French nobility ? 32. What change was made in ecclesiastical affairs ? 33. What was the Pragmatic Sanction ? 34. The state of Spain at this period? 35. What Custilian monarch defeated the Moors ? 36. How was the power of Castile weak- ened ? 37. What madfj Aragon almost equally im- ponant with Casti'e ? 38. What kingdom did vhe Aragonese mon- archs acquire ? 39. What fortunate event united the tw« crowns of Aragon and Castile ? Sec 5. — The State of England and the Northern Kingdoms in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. 1. One benefit of the inglorious reign of Edward II. 2. To what was he forced by his barons ? 3. What clause was added to the great charter ? 4. Who succeeded ? 5. What made his name illustrious ? 6. What three fundamental principles of government were established in this reign ? 7. How did his parliament treat him when in the midst of victory ? 8. How when the tide was turned ? 9. What great poet flourished in England in this reign? 10. In what language were the laws now written ? 11. In what language had they been written up to this time ? 12. Edward's successor ? 13. By what was the early part of his reign troubled ? 14. What dangerous insurrection occurred ? 15. What reformer in the church now ap- peared ? 16. The success of his doctrines? 1 7. What misfortune now befell Richard ? 18. Who succeeded hun ? 19. Who was the rightful heir? 20. Why then was Henry chosen ? 21. What discovery did Henry IV. make? 22. Why did the Percies take up arms ? 23. Who maintained a stout resistance for several years ? 24. Who succeeded Henry IV. ? 25. His character both before and after hia accession ? 26. What alienated the nation from the house of Lancaster ? 27. What led Richard, duke of York, to take up arms against Henry VI. ? 23. The cognizance of the Yorkites ? 29. Of the Lancastrians ? 30. The successor of Henry VI. ? 31. His character ? 32. Who usurped the crown after his death ? 33. How did he endeavour to secure it ? 34. Who now revived the claims of the Lan- castrian family ? 35. What extinguished the hostility between the tv.'o families ? 36. How were the wars excited by disputed succession terminated in Scotland ? 37. (Who was the first of the Stuart family that sat on the throne of England?) 38. What was Queen Margaret of Denmark called ? MODERN HISTORY. 21 39. What kingdoms did she unite under one government ? 40. Why did the Swedes separate from it ? 41. In what family has the Danish crown continued ? 42. The state of Russia in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ? 43. How did the Teutonic knights add to their dominions at this tune ? 44. Could they retain these provinces 7 45. What revolution proved fatal to Poland ? 46. How was it occasioned ? 47. P "rom what family were the Polish kings chosen ? 48. When did this family become extinct ? Sec. 6. — Rise and Progress of the Ottoman Empire. 1. What is said of the Byzantine empire under the administration of the Palaeo- logi? 2. What would have ruined the state, even had the Mohammedans left it to itself? 3. What delayed the triumph of the Mo- hammedans ? 4. Where did the power of the Ottoman Turks commence ? 5. What caused a small wandering tribe of the Turks to settle in Armenia ? 6. How long did they stay there ? 7. What occurred ou their return to their own country ? 8. Who returned back into Asia Minor ? 9. What motive induced him to do so ? 10. What occurred on his return? 11. Tlie reward of his services ? 12. The founder of the Turkish empire ? 13. When born ? 14. Who instructed him how to govern ? 15. What family descended from this rene- gade ? 16. His exploits ? 17. What military force did Othman's son establish ? 18. Exploits of Soliman ? 19. Who captured Adrianople ? 20. Where did he fall ? 21. Exploits of Bayezid ? 22. The limits of the empire of Constantino- ple ? 23. How long besieged ? 24. What saved it ? 25. Who was Tamerlane ? 26 What is said of him ? 27. Why was he called Timiir the Tartar ? 28. His descendants, called what? 29. Extent of his empire ? 30. How did he treat Sebaste ? 31 How, Damascus ? 32. Fate of Bayezid ? 33. End of Timiir? 34. fate of his empire after his death ? 35. Baber's empire, where established, and its name and duration ? 36. Bayezid's successor ■? 37. The greater part of his reign, how spent ? 38. Exploits of Amurath II. ? 39. What two Christian heroes arrested his progress ? 40. Who was Hunniades ? 41. Who was Scanderbeg ? 42. Moliammed II.'s great aim ? 43. Army and navy, how large? 44. The last of the Greek emperors ? 45. Who assisted him? 46. Duration of the siege of Constantinople? 47. When was it taken ? 48. Fate of its inhabitants ? 49. How was Europe atfected, &c. ? 50. Mohanuned's treatment of his Christina subjects ? CHAPTER VI. THE REFORMATION, AND COMMENCEMF.NT OP THE STATES-SYSTEM IN EUROPE. Sec. 1. — Progress of Maritime Discovery. 1. The scene of the earliest navigation ? 2. Its location in the opinion of the an- cients ? 3. How long did it take the ancients to ex- plore this sea ? 4. What discovery was made by them, which assisted their navigation ? 5. Who first availed himself of these winds ? 6. How much did they shorten voyages? 7. The fruit of this discovery ? 8. How was the navigation to the Indies changed under the emperor Claudius ? 9. What advantages did the Arabians see could be derived from a port on the Euphrates ? 10. What city did they build? 11. In what year ? 12. The enterprise of the Arabian mer- chants ? 13. The author of the Christian Topography ? 14. The design of the work? 15. Its doctrines ? 16. Who discovered the Feroe Islands? 17. Who, Iceland? 18. What proved that Iceland had been known before ? 19. The first discoverers of it? 20. What do the Icelandic chronicles relate? 21. When was Greenland discovered? 22. The income of the pope from Greenland ? 23. How many years were occupied in a voyage from Greenland to Iceland and Norway, and back again ? 24. How long was news sometimes on its way from Greenland to Norway ? 25. (How long would it take us now to carry news between the two countries ?) 22 QUESTIONS ON 26. Early name of Greenlanc ? 27. Why so called ? 28. Tlie opinion of some on tliis point ? 29. What is said of thi.s, &.C.? 30. The effect of the fall of Constantinople on the learning of Europe ? 31. Hou' was this effect produced ? 32. What old belief existed with respect to the globe ? 33. What have Augustine and Lactantius written on the subject, and why ? 34. The first discovery that followed the in- troduction of the mariner's compass? 35. ( 'huractor of Prince Henry, of Portugal 1 3(j. What seaport town did he found ? 37. What did he do there ? 38. To what point did he direct his chief at- tention ? 39. How much did he accomplish ? 40. The southernmost cape of Africa known in those days? 41. Why so named ? 42. What cape was found beyond it? 43. What is said of it ? 44. What did the sailors say of it ? 45. What river was next discovered ? 46. What islands ? 47. When did Prince Henry die ? 48. What grant did the pope make hun ? 49. Who revived the passion for discovery after his death ? 50. Wliat error of the ancients was now discovered ? 51. What common belief did the Portuguese practically refute ? 52. What ambassadors did the king send out? 53. What is said of the rituals and ceremo- nies of Buddhism ? 54. Wl>ut reports were prevalent in the thirteenth century ? 55. The "apposed name of this king ? 56. (Of what was " Prester" a contraction?) 57. What Venetian visited Pekin? 58. What Englishman followed? 59. What discovery did Bartholomew Diaz make in 1483 ? 60. What did he name the cape? 61. Wliat did King John name it? 62. Wliat letters were received from the monks ? 63. Wiiat diverted men's minds at this time from the voyage around Africa ? 64. Who first rounded the Cape of Good Hope ? 65. How many years after its discovery did he do this ? 66. In what harbour did he anchor? 67. What distinguished Genoese joined the Portuguese ? 'C"S. What led him to think he might reach India by going west? 69. From whom did he obtain his armament ? 70. When did he set sail ? 71. From what port, and with how many ships ? 72. Why were the West India Islands sa named? 73. How was Columbus received on his re- turn ? 74. How wa: the world divided by the pope ? 75. What has always been a characteristic of the Spaniards? 76. To what did they devote themselves in America ? 77. When did they begin to pay some atten- tion to agriculture ? 78. What is said of the commercial and colonial policy of the Spaniards? 79. The cause of the low state of civiliza- tion in Spain and her colonies ? 80. What Englishman made new discoveries in America? 81. Who first attempted to circumnavigate the world? 82. What followed this exploit ? Sec. 2. — Origin of the Reformation. 1. What first excited a repugnance to ec- clesiastical supremacy ? 2. What increased it ? 3. What compelled men to exercise the right of private opinion ? 4. What spread the disrespect for the Ro- man See stiil further? 5. What convinced the people that there was a power superior to that of the pope's ? 6. The efiect of their feeble efforts to cor- rect abuses? 7. Character of Alexander VI.? 8. (Story of his death ? Caesar Borgia, his son's ring ?) See Ranke's history. 9. His successor ? His character? 10. What was thought of papal pretensions at this time ? 11. Character of Romish ecclesiastics? 12. Who had exhausted the treasury of the church ? 13. How did Leo X. propose to replenish it? 14. The origin of indulgences? 15. Doctrine of indulgences ? 16. When first issued, and to whom? 17. Subsequently to whom ? 18. Finally to whom ? 19. To whom was the monopoly of indid- gences granted ? 20. Tlie chief agent in retailing them ? 21. How did he execute his commission? 22. How was his conduct viewed ? 23. The author of the reformation ? 21. To what order of monks did ho belong? 25. How had he prepared his mind for the noble career on which he entered ? 26. ( How did he get a Bible ?) 27. His first move ? 28. What is said of Luther 7 MODERN HISTORf. 28 29. What excuse is made for his violence ? 30. His character ? 31. Who commenced the reformation before Luther ? 32. Who prepared the way for both ? 33. Leo's bull ? 34. How did Luther treat it ? 35. How did he treat the volumes ci the canon law 1 3G. How did he engage the princes on his side ? 37. The first among his great converts ? 38. For what purpose were corruptions in doctrine introduced into the Roman church ? 39. Illustrate. 40. What French reformer appeared, a fol- lower of Zuinglius ? 4L His native place ? 42. The year in which he commenced pub- lishing ? 43. Title of his followers ? 44. In what Swiss city did he establish him- self? 45. Of what system was he the author? 46. What is said of the conduct of the ec- clesiastical courts ? 47. Who was burned for his opinions ? 48. What is said of the differences between the Calvinists and Lutherans? 49. Decree of the diet of Spires ? 50. What is said of the confession of Augs- burgli ? 51. What countries adopted the reformed doctrines ? 52. What the Romish ? 53. What council was assembled to decide diiferences ? 54. How many years did it sit ? 55. What Roman Catholic country rejected its decrees? Sec. 3. — History of the Negotiations and Wars Respecting Italy. 1. What is meant by the balance of power? 2. Where did the theory have its origin? 3. Its chief members in Italy? 4 How did Rene, the last monarch of the house of Anjou, act ? 5. To whom did Provence revert on the death of Rene ? 6. Prudent conduct of Louis XL ? 7. Folly of his son Charles VIII. ? 8. What induced him to act thus ? 9. His success at first ? 10. What caused his hasty retreat? 1 1 The parties to the league ? 12. The fate of his men left behind in Italy? 13. How did Louis XII. prepare for a subse- quent invasion of Italy? 14. His success ? 15. Ferdinand's intention ? 16 The name of the great captain? 17. Who now formed a design against Venice ? 18. Who aided him? 19. What averted the danger? 20. What left it defenceless ? 21. How did Julius treat the Venetians? 22. How did Ferdinand? 23. What saved them ? 24. How did the Venetians appease the pope and Ferdinand ? 25. What design had the pope formed ? 26. What confederacy was formed against France out of the fragments of the league of Cambray ? What part was assigned to Henry VIIL? One master-stroke of the pope's pcjlcy. What is said of their infantry ? Louis' conduct? What relieved Louis ? . How did the war terminate? 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. Sec. 4. — The History of Burgundy unc^r the Princes of the House of Valois. 1. What is said of Burgundy? 2. Why is its history an episode ? 3. To whom did King John give it? 4. Whom did he marry ? 5. How did he bring about a peace between the nobles and merchants of Flanders? 6. Message of the ambassadors of Hun- gary ? 7. Sultan Bayezid's boast ? 8. What crusade was proclaimed ? 9. Its commander? 10. How did Sigismund relish his allies? 11. The count of Nevers' imprudence? 12. Proof of his carelessness? 13. How did the knights act in the firs< alarm ? 14. Advice of the Hungarians? 15. Why was it not taken? 16. How had Bayezid arranged his army? 17. With what object? 18. The success of his plan ? 19. How did Sigismund act ? 20. What is said of the valour of the French knights on the day of the battle? 21. The object of Bayezid in taking pri- soners ? 22. Who was set at liberty, and why ? 23. The duty assigned him ? 24 Fate of the rest ? 25. How was the money raised to pay th« ransom ? 26. What increased the difficulty ? 27. How was it obviated ? 28. Who were the Prisons? 29. Who now attacked them ? 30. The success of the enterprise ? 31. What is said of Philip's administration of the government of France ? 32. His great fault ? 33. Why was his death regretted ? 24 QUESTIONS ON !?EC. 5. — The History of Burgundy (^con- tinued). 1. Who succeeded Philip ? 2. His first step ? 3. By wliom opposed? 4. John's treachery? 5. How WHS a party arrayed against him ? 6. His fate ? 7. Why regretted by his Flemish subjects ? 8. His successor? 9. His first step? 10. What changed the aspect of affairs? 11. Who delivered France? 12. What order of knighthood did Philip the Good institute ? 13. What is said of the brilliancy of his court ? 14. Why did Philip encourage this taste for display among his subjects ? 15. How were the Swiss now engaged? 16. What league was now formed against them ? 17. Why? 18. How was an army raised? 19. Result of the first battle? 20. How was the war terminated? 21. How was the duke of Burgundy engaged at this time ? 22. The result? 23. Why did the dauphin flee from his father's court ? 24. With whom did he take refuge ? 25. His gratitude ? 26. How did Charolais endeavour to avenge himself? 27. What is said of Philip the Good's reign ? 28. Why was he the more lamented ? Sec. 6. — The History of Burgundy (con- cluded). 1. What disturbance took place immediately on the installation of Charles the Bold I 2. What secret vow did he make? 3. What increased his indignation ? 4. How did the citizens of Liege act ? 5. How did Charles avenge himself on the king of France ? 6. What did Louis XL do thereupon? 7. V/hat advantage did Louis have over Charles in this kind of warfare ? 8. What memorable piece of folly did Louis commit ? 9. How did Charles profit by it ? 10. Tiie most mortifying condition of his liberation ? 11. How was the city of Liege treated? 12. What saved it from utter ruin ? 13. How did Louis avenge the indignities put on him ? 14. How did Charles alienate from him the chivalry of Burgundy ? 15. How did he change the Mwiss from being his friends into foes ? 16. Charles' design against them' 17. Size and condition of his army? 18. His baseness to the governor, &c. of Granson ? 19. The vengeance of the Swiss? 20. Their war-cry and the meaning of it ? 21. What was now heard iu the distance? 22. What were they ? 23. Fate of Charles and his army ? 24. The booty taken ? 25. Distribution of the three diamonds ? 26. Effect of the defeat on Charles? 27. His measures for renewing the war ? 28. How were the Swiss employed ? 29. Account of the siege of Morat ? 30. Folly of Charles? 31. Fate of his army ? 32. Describe the battle ? 33. What proverb took its origin in this battle ? 34. What further disasters befel Charles ? 35. Who had sold him to his enemies? 36. How did he treat him in time of battle 1 37. The end of Charles? 38. His successor ? 39. The designs of Louis XL 40. Conduct of the Flemings ? 41. Whom did Mary marry ? 42. Who conquered Burgundy ? 43. To what hostilities did this lead ? Sec. 7.— The Age of Charles V. 1. What caused the political idea of thfl balance of power to spread in Europe ? 2. What had Maximilian added to his do- ■ minions by marriage ? 3. Whom did his son marry ? 4. Their sons ? 5. Inheritance of Charles ? 6. What other good fortune befell him ? 7. His power ? 8. To whom did he resign his German do- minions ? 9. When did Ferdinand's dynasty end? 10. When that of Charles v.? 11. Whom did Ferdinand marry? 12. Whom Charles V. ? 13. What two monarchs deteniiined to resist the house of Austria? 14. What is said of Henry VIIL? 15. His prime minister ? 16. Character of Francis I.? 17. His conduct soon after his accession to the throne ? 18. What aggravated the mutual jealousies of Charles and Francis ? 19. Their power, how balanced ? 20. Their allies ? 21. Where did the war begin? 22. What led to the loss of Milan ? 23. What other calamities befel Francis f 24. What other evil did the queen-motnet do him ? MODERN HISTORY. 25 25. Plan of Charles to invade France? 26. How and by whom defeated ? 27. Francis' plan and its success ? 28. What misfortune befell him ? 29. What led to his capture? 30. The battle of Pavia — describe. 3L What led to the defeat of Francis? 32. Describe his capture. 33. Describe his surrender of his sword. 34. How was he treated ? 35. Francis' expectations? 36. How did Charles receive the news ? 37. His first demand? 38. How did Francis receive these proposals? 39. What step did he then take? 40. How was he treated in Spain ? 41. The effect of this triumph? 42. Conduct of Henry VIII. ? 4Jl. Effect of imprisonment on Francis ? 44- The cbief obstacle to a treaty between him and Charles? 45 What resolution did he take ? 46. Its effect on Charles ? 47. Francis' insincerity ? 48. How did Charles manifest his suspicion of Francis' insincerity ? 49. Describe his departure. 50. How was the river crossed ? 51. Francis' actions on reaching France? 52. How long had he been a prisoner? 53. First violation of the treaty ? 54. How did Francis excuse himself? 55. Who absolved him of his oath ? 56. What dreadful insurrection afflicted Ger- many at this time ? 57. The leader of it ? 58. Had the reformation any thing to do with it ? 59. How had Luther diminished his influ- ence ? 60. What league did Francis organize against Charles ? 61. Why called "Holy?" 62. Who joined it ? 63. How was Rome treated by Charles ? 64. How did Charles receive the news ? 65. What prayers were offered in all the Spanish churches? 6G. Francis' success? 67. His reverses, and the cause of them ? 68 Who was Andrew Doria ? 69. The treaty of Cambray, by whom ne- gotiated ? 70. League of Smalkald, by whom made? 71. Cause of Charles' concessions ? 72. How had Francis secured the friendship of the pope ? 73. What led Henry VIII. to break off from the league? 74. What acts were passed in England? '3. What now employed men's minds for a season ? 'G. What crowned the emperor with glory ? 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101, 102. 103, 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117 118 119 120 Challenge of Charles ? What other folly was committed ? What brought about a truce ? What now filled Charles with anxiety! What added to it ? What foolish expedition did he now un- dertake ? The consequence of his failure ? Francis' designs ? What gave him a pretext to take up arms? Francis' plan of operations ? What opened the way for an alliance between Charles and Henry ? What marriage excited jealousy and alarm in England ? The fruit of this marriage? How were Henry's plans chxnged by the birth of Mary ? What alliances were now formed ? What aid did the sultan afford Francis ? Who now invaded France ? Charles' projects? What favoured them ? Who first seized on church ; joperty ? What compelled the Protestants to renew the league of Smalkald ? Who deserted the league ? Why did he act so basely ? Conduct of the pope ? , What was the " Interim," and why so called ? What city refused it ? , Maurice's designs? His actions ? The result of them ? . What offended the pope ? , His conduct ? What surprising event astonished Eu- rope? What is said of him and his career ? , What was calculated to make him re- gretted ? , In whose reign was the protestant reli- gion established in England ? Who succeeded Edward VI. ? Whom did she marry ? (Their relationship ?) , Her successor ? , Of what folly were the Lutherans guilty ? , To whom did Charles give his several dominions ? . AViiither did he retire ? . How long afterwards did he die ? , Wliat society was now established for the purpose of sustaining the cause of 121 122. 123! 124. 125. popery What made it formidable ? When suppressed, and why? (When re-established?) The condition of Venice at this time t What had exhausted their resources? 26 QUESTIONS ON 126. How were thoy injured by the discovery of the new route to India? 127. Wliat endeavours did they make to avert the danger? 128. Success of the Portuguese ? 129. What city became the staple for the commodities of the East ? 130. What befell the Venetians? 131. What proved no less fatal to the infe- rior branches of their commerce ? 132. When did Venice cease to be one of the principal powers of Europe ? 133. What still caused it to be considered and respected ? 134. AVho became the head of Florence ? 135. Who established his supreme authority over it, and under what title ? The extent of his dominions ? 136. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 11 12 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22 23 2, 25. 2G. 27. 28. Sec. 8. — The Age of Elizabeth. The crisis of the reformation in England? How did Elizabeth strengthen herself ? Who assimied the arms and title of England? What prevented any hostile attempt against England? The champion of the Protestants in Europe ? The champion of the Roman Catholics ? Of what importance to England was the ancient rivalry between France and Spain ? Relationship of Mary, queen of Scots to Elizabeth ? Mary's husband who ? What reasons had she to hope for success in establishing herself on the throne of England ? What induced Philip of Spain to ac- knowledge Elizabeth's title ? The great object of the alliance between Spain and France ? To what did it lead, and how did it end ? What compelled Mary to return to Scot- land ? Was she willing to go ? What bad she to endure at home ? What prevented an immediate outbreak ? What led to the first open breach be- tween her and her subjects ? What aroused her husband's jealousy ? His conduct towards her ? What reconciled Ihem ? How was the hollowness of this recon- ciliation proved ? How was Darnley murdered ? V'hat confirmed the suspicions that his wife was the author of the deed ? The result ? What constraint was put on Mary ? Whither did she escape ? What befell her there ? 29. What made it necessary for Elizabeth to keep her in close confinement ? 30. What is said of Francis II. of France ? 31. The leading object of the Guises ? 32. Who was trying to do the same thing ia the Netherlands ? 33. The object of Philip's ambition ? 34. How did he aim to attain it ? 35. His fatal error ? 36. What proud title did it give the reformed ? 37. What precipitated the civil war ia France ? 38. What conspiracy was formed ? 39. What confirmed opposition to the Guises 7 40. What showed the power of the Hugue- nots ? 41 . What synod was talked of ? 42. How was it prevented ? 43. What sentence was passed oa .he princo of Coiide ? 44. What saved him ? 45. Of what insincerity -«-as she guilty ? 46. Her fatal error, and its effect ? 47. Policy of the duke of Guise 'i 48. His aims and plans ? 49. What were the bisho-ps doing at Trent ? 50. Whom alone did it terrify ? 51. How did Maximilian act toward the pope? 52. What plans were concocting at the council of Trent ? 53. What letter was read from Mary ? 54. What did the cardinal declare of her in- tentions ? 55. How were the Italians engaged ? 56. Philip's opinion of Protestants ? 57. How long had this council sat ? 58. Its results? 59. The last acts of the council ? 60. What great change in the papacy did this council produce ? 61. What remark is made of European sov- ereigns favourable tr, despotism ? 62. What !.aw was established in relation to priests ? 63. The effect of this law on the papacy ? 64. What were made articles of faith ? 65. How did the pope excite disturbances in Europe ? 66. On what points was the pope inflexiW \f and why ? 67. What general suspicion was diffused through Europe soon after the rising of the council ? 68. Was it groundless ? 69. Design of Pius IV. ? 70. What interview did he urge ? 71. The designs contemplated? 72. How were the days and nights spent ? 73. In what did they agree, and in what did they differ? 74. Alva's plans? 75. Why did the queen oppose them ? MODERN HISTORY. 27 76 On what did she rely to retain her power? 77 Why did she hate the Huguenots ? 78. Of what was she more afraid than of the progress of heretical opinions ? 79. What interfered with the spread of pro- testantism in France ? 80. How did Philip begin to e.xecute his part of the plan ? 6/. His lord lieutenant, who ? 82. The consequence? 83. Effects of this on England ? 84. Alva's conduct ? 85. Was it liked at Rome? 86. Who undertook to protect the Flemings? 87. Where, and by whom, were they de- feated ? 88. Design of Pius V. against the Turks ? 89. Why did Philip refuse to come into the scheme ? 90. Conduct of this pontiff? 91. His successor ? 92. What conspiracy was detected in France in A. D. 1560 ? 93. What ensued ? 94. When was it terminated ? 95. What marriage was proposed ? 96. How was the proposal received ? 97. Who were among the invited guests ? 98. What is said of the populace of Paris at this period ? 99. What feelings did the presence of Coligni in.spire in them ? 100. Who fostered it ? 101. What alone restrained them? 102. Who was the nominal king of France? 103. Who possessed the authority ? 104. What led to Coligni's assassination ? 105. How was the author discovered ? 106. Of what imprudence were the protes- tants guilty ? 107. Catherine's scheme to defeat their ven- geance ? 108. How numerous were the conspirators ? 109. From whom was the secret kept ? 110 Catherine's story to the king ? 111. Its effect on him? 112. His conduct ? 113. When did the work begin? 114. How wore most of the Huguenots killed? 115. Charles' conduct ? 116. How long did the massacre last ? 117. On whom was it attempted to throw the blame ? 118. How many Huguenots survived ? 119. The effect of it? 120. How was the news received at Rome and at Madrid ? 121. What was thought of the deed in the north of Europe ? 122. The head of the revolters in the Netherlands ? 123. What were they styled? 124. What city captured gave them a naval station ? 125. The effect of the massacre of St. Bar- tholomew on them ? 126. Who succeeded Alva? 127. What decisive battle did he gain ? 128. What distinguished persons fell in this battle ? 129. What prevented its proving fatal to the Netherlanders? 130. What excited the indignation of both Catholics and Protestants ? 131. What confederacy was formed? 132. What caused it to fall through ? 133. How only could freedom be secured? 134 Who organized the confederacy of Utrecht? 135. Of what commonwealth was it the basis ? 136. What had well nigh ruined the prefects of the prince of Orange ? 137. What defection from the confederacy took place, and WTiy ? 138. How did the Hollanders act? 139. Whom did they choose as their sove- reign? 140. Why did they not elect the prince of Orange ? 141. Who was elected after the duke of Anjou deserted them? 142. What important city did they lose? 143. Did they despair ? 144. To whom did they offer the sovereignty? 145. How did she assist them ? 146. What gave them a decided advantage by sea and land? 147. When was their independence secured and recognised? 148. Who succeeded Charles IX. ? 149. His course ? 150. His conduct? 151. The head of the Catholic party? 152. Advantages of the duke of Guise ? 153. What encouraged him to raise the cry of religion ? 154. Object of the Holy league ? 155. By whom drawn up ? 156. By whom signed? 157. Its head ? 158. Its protectors ? 159. The consequence of it ? 160. Whose fate did it precipitate? 161. What led to her death ? 162. Relate the circumstances? 163. What assassinations took place in France ? 164. The consequence of this crime ? 165. Philip's great undertaking ? 166. Size of his army, and its general ? 167. Name of the armament? 168. How did Elizabeth prepare to meet it i 169. Her only ally ? 170. When did the armada sail ? 28 QUESTIONS ON 171 When did it reach the English channel? 172 What disaiipointment awaited the ad- miral there ? 173. How was his fleet assailed? 174. The result? 175. How assailed in the harbour ? 176. How did ho attempt to return home ? 177. What befell him? 178. How many ships reach home in safety ? 1 79. How was this glorious success regarded ? 180. Its effect ? 181. Its effect on the Spanish state and people ? 182. End of Henry III. of France? 183. What house became extinct by his death ? 184. What house succeeded ? 185. From whom descended ? 186. Its representative ? 187. His character? 188. What did he find it necessary to do in order to secure his crown ? 189. How did he atone to the Huguenots for this desertion ? 190. Who aided him ? 191. What clouded the close of Elizabeth's reign ? 192. What war did she still maintain? 193. What gave Philip command of the India trade ? 194. What ruined his commerce ? 195. When did the English first reach India ? 196. When was the East India Company founded ? 197. Of what did the Hanseatic league com- plain ? 198. By what measures did they destroy their own power ? 199. The state of England during Elizabeth's reign ? 200. What proves that this was owing to her energy and wisdom ? Skc. 9. — The Age of Gustavus Adolphus. 1. The object of Rudolph's anxiety ? 2. What prevented ? 3. What new league was formed, and why ? 4. What to oppose it ? 5. What came near involving Europe in a general war ? 6. The prime minister of Henry IV. ? 7. His administration? 8. Henry's grand scheme ? 9. His more immediate object ? 10. What gave him a pretext for interfering in the affairs of Germany ? 11. Wluit alliances did he form ? 12. What put an end to all his schemes ? 13. What contributed to avert a general war ? 14. Fate of Rudolph ? 15. His end? l& Matthias' conduct towards the Protes- tants I 17. Ferdinand's treatment of his protestant subjects ? 18. Matthias' successor ? 19. The effect of the union of Spain and Portugal ? 20. Its popularity in Portugal ? 21. The influence of Philip's reign on the peninsula ? 22. Fatal error of Philip III. ? 23. Power of Spain at his death ? 24. Who completed its ruin ? 25. What revolutions took place ? 26. The ruling house of Portugal ? 27. Frederick the elector-palatine's misfor- tune ? 28. Conduct of James I., his father-in-law ? 29. What led to it ? 30. His reputation in Europe ? 31. What had occurred to change his neu- tral policy? 32. What inflamed the nation against the papists ? 33. The object of this plot ? 34. (How was it discovered ?) 35. Of what was James now conviivot^ ? 36. The head of the new protestant union? 37. The imperial generals and their success ? 38. On what terms did the king of Denmark purchase peace ? 39. Wallenstein elevation ? 40. What kept England aloof from this con- test ? 41. The principal causes of this? 42. The head of the French administration? 43. The effect of his administration ? 44. His first operations ? 45. What strong city of the Huguenots did he capture ? 46. What war ensued ? 47. Effect of the treaty of Chierasio ? 48. What war was renewed in Germany ? 49. Edict of the Emperor Ferdinand ? 50. To whom was the execution of the de- cree committed ? 51. His conduct? 52. The effect of the clamour against him? 53. Who declared war against the emperor? 54. When did he land in Germany ? 55. What alliances did he form ? 56. Who afterwards joined them ? 57. What prevented Gustavus' decisive suc- cess ? 58. Fate of Magdeburg ? 59. What remained of it ? 60. The effect of this cruelty ? 61. Conduct of the elector of Saxony? 62. Battle of Leipsic ? 63. Where was Count Tilly killed ? 64. To whom did the emperor again havei©- course ? 65. Battle of Nuremburg ? 66. Battle of Lutzen and its results? 67. Who succeeded Gustavus? MODERN HISTORY. 29 68. To whom was the management of the German war entrusted ? 69. His character? 70. His success? 71. What added to the confidence of the evangelical union ? 72. How was Wallenstein treated ? 73. Who succeeded him ? 74. Battle of Nordhngen? 75. How did the emperor improve it ? 76. On whom now was the whole weight of the war thrown? Sec. 10. — Administration of the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarine. 1. Richelieu's popularity 1 2. What prevented him from cordially co- operating with Gustavus ? 3 How was he induced to take an active part in the war ? 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34, Hi: energy ; Success of the confederates? Death of Saxe Weimar ? Battle of Leipsic, between whom ? What, for a time, inclined the Swedes to peace ? What gave them new courage? The result of the war ? Peace of Westphalia, what of it ? What was now going on in England ? What had caused discontent there ? What of the petition of right ? Charles I.'s folly ? What aggravated political animosities? The head of the church in England ? Object of the high commission court ? Opinions of many in England concern- ing the reformation there ? Their wishes ? What were these reformers called ? What more serious cause of complaint did they have ? What new sect now started up ? What gave them power and influence? What return did they make for Charles' favours to them ? How did parliament regard these doc- trines, and why ? Charles' two ministers ? Their character ? Their measures ? What produced an outbreak in Scotland? The design of the solemn league and covenant ? Richelieu's measures in Scotland ? Effect of the treaty at Berwick ? What did Charles do in order to obtain a grant to carry on the war against Scot- land ? , The doings of Parliament? , Charles' conduct thereupon ? , Measures of the Scots ? , What did Charles then do ? 39. How did Parliament manifest its disposi* tion ? 40. Their first step? 41. How were the Scots described? 49. Fate of Strafford ? 43. The next bill passed by the commons ? 44. Conduct of the bishops ? 45. Tne consequence of this step ? 46. Charles' next step ? 47. What change, fatal to his interests, was now produced, and how ? 48. The Norman settlers in Ireland, their conduct ? 49. What prevented the Tudor monarchs from breaking the povverof the aris- tocracy 'i 50. How did Elizabeth treat the nobles ? 51. How did James I. treat the province of Ulster •/ 52. What rendered property insecure ? 53. Strafford's conduct ? 54. What means did he use to expel tho Irish from their property ? 55. Why did the English nation countenance this injustice ? 56. Who were the new settlers ? 57. How were the papists treated ? 58. How did Charles treat them ? 59. Strafford's plan in Ireland ? 60. What induced the Irish to rebel? 61. What hastened the rebellion ? 62. How were the Irish regarded in England? 63. How their efforts to right themselves ? 64. What report was studiously circu- lated ? 65. How did he refute this suspicion ? 66. What resolution did parliament pass ? 67. The history of the civil war ? 68. What foolish attempt did Charles now make? 69. The result ? 70. Why was not a treaty formed between Charles and his parliament ? 71. When did the civil war commence? 72. What alliance did parliament make ? 73. The parliamentary leader ? 74. What city did he besiege ? 75. The royalist leader ? 76. (His relationship to Charles ?) 77. Where was the great battle fought ? 78. Whose skill secured the victoiy ? 79. What prevented the immediate submis- sion of Charles ? 80. What caused dissensions in the ranks of his adversaries ? 81. How did the Presbyterians act ? 82. Where did they have the majority ? 83. Where the Independents? 84. The Self-denying ordinance ? 85. Who gained the battle of Naseby ? 86. Its results ? 87. Charles' next step? 88. How tvas he treated by them ? 80 QUESTIONS ON 89. Object of the anxiety of the Presbyterians and Independents? 90. Who succeeded ? 91. What alarmed them ? 92. Who stimulated the soldiers to disobey the parliament ? 93 What bold measure did he take? 94 Croinwell's measures and the result ? 95. Charles' injudicious course? 96. How did Cromwell become master of his fato I 97. Who then took up arms in his favour, and with what success ? 98. How did the parliament act, and why ? 99. Charles" folly ? 100. How was the parliament treated? 10 1. What proposals were then made? 102. What resolution was adopted ? 103. Charles' spirit? 104. His sentence ? 105. When and where executed ? 106. What followed his death ? 107. His government ? Sec. 11. — Formation of the States- System in the Northern Kingdoms of Europe. 1. Who kept Sweden in continual agita- tion? 2. Whom did they choose as administrators of the kingdom ? 3. Who undertook to destroy Swedish inde- pendence ? 4. His base and treacherous conduct ? 5. Of what was this massacre the signal ? 6. Who headed it? 7. The reward of his heroism ? 8. The fate of Christian II. ? 9. For how long a time did the Danish kings attempt to recover Sweden ? 10. The state of Denmark at this time? 11. In whose reign was the Reformation established in Denmark ? 12. Who completed it ? 13. What became of the domains of the bishops ? 14. Fate of Norway about this time ? liV By what was Christian IV. distinguished among the sovereigns of northern Europe ? 16. What commercial establishment was founded in his reign ? 17. What caused the failure of his wars against Austria and Sweden ? 18. Prosperity of Sweden ? 19. To whom was it owing ? 20. What did Vasa substitute in the place of the aristocratic senate ? 21. What religion did he introduce? 22. What did he establish ? 23. Who raised Sweden to the summit of greatness 7 24. To what distinction was he raised ? 25. In what battle did he fall 1 26. What advantages did Sweden gain by the peace of Bromsebro ? 27 What elector of Brandenburg was the true founder of the greatness of his house ? 28. The first king of Prussia ? 29. Who achieved the independence of Russia ? 30. To whom was it in subjection? 31. By what khan was Iwan III. attacked? 32. His conduct? 33. His success ? 34. Attempts of Iwan IV. ? 35. What country did he discover and annex to his dominions ? 36. Who founded the city of Tobolsk? 37. Who succeeded Fedor? 38. How did he obtain peace from Swede)' and Poland ? 39. During whose reigns was Poland a flour- ishing country ? 40. What prevented the Reformation from taking deep root in Poland ? 41. How was the sovereign chosen in Poland? 42. By what were these elections marked ? 43. The condition of Poland under its con- stitution ? 44. Which of its monarchs distinguished him- self by foreign conquests ? Sec. 12. — Progress of the Turkish Power tw Europe. 1. The policy of the successors of Moham- med II. ? 2. Fate of Bayezid II. ? 3. How was Selim obliged to maintain his throne ? 4. What country did he conquer ? 5. What people did he next subdue ? 6. What country did he then invade and conquer ? 7. Give an account of the invasion. 8. The fate of Tuman, the sultan ? 9. The object of Soleyman's ambition? 10. What kingdom did he invade? 11. What signal victory did he gain ? 12. How did he treat the country? 13. What still greater triumph did he gain during this war ? 14. What is said of the siege? 15. When was it taken ? 16. What country did Soleyman then invade, and with what success ? 17. Who attempted to form a confederation against the Turks ? 18. What prevented ? 19. What opportunity did Charles V. avail himself of to take Tunis ? 20. How did Soleyman determine to avenge himself? 21. What turned his wrath on Venice ? 22. What conquests did he make in the East m the meantime ? MODERN HISTORY. 31 23 Who commanded the allied navies against him ? "24. What became of the knights of St. John after their expulsion from Rhodes ? 25. Soleyman's attempt against them ? 26. His success ? 27. What revenge did he try to take ? 28. When and where did he die ? 29. What island did his successor take from the Venetians? 30. The fate of the Turkish fleet? 31. The results of the diet'of Presburg ? CHAPTER VII. THE AUGUSTAN AGES OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE. Sec. 1. — State of the Continental Kingdoms after the peace of Westphalia. 1. The prime mover in the civil broils of France at this time ? 2. His object ? 3. What were the parliaments of France ? 4. Its conduct on this occasion ? 5. The conduct of the queen-regent 1 6. The result of it ? 7. To what condition was the queen soon reduced ? 8. To what did such intrigues lead ? 9. Mazarine's movements ? 10. His success? 11. Movements of Conde ? 12. Proclamation of the parliament of Paris? 13. How was the danger, with which the mon- archy was now threatened, averted? 14. Louis' conduct ? 15. What were the Spaniards doing at this time ? 16. What French general excelled Conde in military skill ? 17. How did MazL.'ne engage England to take a share in the contest ? 18. Their movements ? 19. To whom was Dunkirk given ? 20. Mazarine's favourite policy ? 21. Who was chosen Emperor of Germany, and why ? 22. His first measure ? 23. Character of Christina ? 24. Whom did her senate wish her to marry 7 25. Why did she refuse ? 26. How did she act ? 27. Her conduct during the remainder of her life? 28. Against whom did Charles X. declare war? 29. His success? 30. What excited indignation against the Swedes ? 31. What powers united against them ? 32. What city did he besiege ? 33. What disposed him to peace ? 34. What made the Swedes desirous of peace? Sec. 2. — History of England under the Commonwealth. 1. The consequence of the execution of Charles I. ? 2. The feelings of the nation thereupon? 3. What restrained them from evincing their dissatisfaction ? 4. In whom was vested the supreme au- thority '' 5. What sooa claimed the attention of the new government ? 6. How was Ireland regarded in England ? 7. Who was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland ? 8. Why did he covet the appointment ? 9. What circumstances rendered the con- quest of Ireland easy ? 10. Whom had Charles I. appointed ..'fd- lieutenant ? 11. His doings ? 12. The grounds of the dissatisfaction c^ the different parties with the treaty he con- cluded? 13. Who induced them to reject it ? 14. What step, fatal to the royal authcr*ty, did he take ? 15. How was the nuncio treated, and why ? 16. Who then resumed the authority? 1 7. His first step ? 18. Cromwell's first success ? 19. His cruelty? 20. Its effect ? 21. What soon distressed him? 22. How was he relieved ? 23. By what means did he conquer the country ? 24. How many catholics went into voluntary exile ? 25. Movements of Charles II. ? 26. To what terms did he submit ? 27. The fate of Montrose, and who was he? 28. Who was sent for to oppose him ? 29. What general headed his troops ? 30. What saved Cromwell ? 31. The results of the battle ? 32. Why was not this defeat disagreeable to Charles ? 33. His resolute conduct ? 34. Its success ? 35. Where defeated ? 36. What became of the prisoners ? 37. Charles' movements ? 38. Fate of the presbyterian clergy ? 39. In what foreign war was England now engaged ? 40. How had their ambassador been treated at the Hague ? 41. The terms of the celebrated navigation act? 42. How did it affect the Dutch ? 43. How did the war commence ? 44. The number on each side 7 32 QUESTIONS ON 45. The result of tho battle, and of the war? 46. Who was now tho ruler of England ? 47. What had brought the long parliament into disrepute ? 48. How did Cromwell treat it ? 49. How was his conduct viewed by the people ? 50. His next step, and the reason of it ? 51. The title of this parliament? 52. Cromwell's treatment of it ? 53. The nature of the new constitution ? 54. Spirit of the new parliament? 55. Cromwell's treatment of it? 56. How did he at length secure a pliant parliament ? 57. How did they gratify Cromwell's ambi- tion ? 58. What restrained him from assuming the title ? 59. How did he endeavour to divert the at- tention of the naticu from domestic affairs ? 60. What decided him to attack Spain in- stead of France ? 61. His demands of the Spanish ambassador, and why made? 62. The ambassador's reply ? 63. Tho effect of the demand on the English nation ? 64. Admiral Blake's first step ? 65. His next step ? 66. His treatment of Tunis ? 67. Success of Penn and Venables ? 68. Their treatment on their return ? 69. Blake's further success ? 70. Blake's political principles? 71. Feelings of the nation respecting Crom- well's usurpation ' 72. Cromwell's treatment of parliament? 73. What experiment did he determine to hazard ? 74. By whom was he opposed ? 75. What sobered him for life ? 76. His fears, how manifested ? 77. When did ho die ? 78. How did the populace evince their feel- ings ? 79. Evelyn's report of the funeral ? 80. His successor ? 81. His difficulties ? 82. What parliament was now re-assembled ? 83. How was it fettered ? 84. Richard's conduct ? 85. The state of the nation at this time ? 86. Who resolved to act a decided part ? 87. What letter did Cromwell once write to him ? 88. What declaration did he make that caused the re-assembling of the long parliament ? 89. What was it called? 90. Its doings ? 91. When did Monk commence his march to London, and with what force ? 92. How was he received ? 93. How did he first show his intentions? 94. His subsequent conduct ? 95. When did the long parliament conolud* its sittings ? 96. When did a new house of commona meet ? 97. Who attempted to raise an army against it? 98. What became of him ? 99. The question to be decided, and hrw waa it decided ? 100. Vv'hen did Charles H. enter Londcn? 101. How was he received ? 102. His age? Sec. 3. — History of England, from the Re- storation to the Revolution ; and Risi? of the Power of Louis XIV. 1. What is said of Charles? 2. His first measures? 3. By what was the harmony of the nation disturbed ? 4. What act was passed ? 5. How many of the clergy rejected these conditions ? 6. How were they treated ? 7. By what three measures did Charles ren- der himself very unpopular ? 8. What province did Charles take from the Dutch in America? 9. The head of the Dutch at that time ? 10. Why did he seek the alliance of France? 11. What naval victory was gained by the English ? 12. What dreadful calamity now afflicted London ? 13. How many died in one year? 14. De Witt's eff'orts ? 15. What second calamity afflicted London? 16. Describe it. 17. The effect of the treatment of the non- conformists ? 18. The state of Ireland at this time ? 19. What unwise act was passed relating to it? 20. De Witt's movements ? 21. Why did the treaty of peace increase the discontent of the people ? 22. What is said of Louis XIV. ? 23. What country did he claim, and on what ground ? 24. His success ? 25. Why were the Dutch alarmed ? 26. From what unexpected quarter did they receive assistance ? 27. The effect of this alliance ? 28. What other mortification did he have to endure ? 29. How did Louis win over Charles ? 30. The terms of the agreement ? MODERN HISTORY. 38 31. By what atrocious acts was the war com- menced ? 32. Louis' career ? 33. On whom did the Dutch vent their rage, and how ? 34. Who was chosen stadtholder ? 35. Noble resolution of the Dutch ? 36. Noble reply of the stadtholder to those that tried to corrupt him ? 37. The effects of this stubborn spirit ? 38. How did Charles now act, and why ? 39. Effect of Tiurenne's cruelty iu the Pala- tinate ? 40 Why did Louis bribe Charles? 41. The efforts of parliament, and the cause of their failure ? 42. Louis' success ? 43 How did Charles attempt to conciliate the nation ? 44. What spread a gloom over England ? 45. Tale of Titus Gates? 46. Was there really a plot formed to restore the Romish religion ? 47. What completed the delusion? 48. What law was passed by the parliament? 49. How did the Covenanters act ? 50. How were they punished ? 51. State of Ireland at this time ? 52. What was the title of the supporters of the court ? 53. What was the title of the leaders of the opposition ? 54. What bill passed the house of commons? 55. How did Charles treat the parliament ? 56. And the new one also ? 57. How did he obtain the support of the clergy ? 58. How did he treat London ? 59. Who were executed ? 60. The death of Charles ? 61. How was Louis XIV. acting at this time? 62. Conduct of the Emperor Leopold ? 63. The head of the insurgents? 64. Who aided Leopold against the Turks? 65. The progress of the Turks ? 66. How was Vienna saved? 67. Leopold's conduct to his deliverers ? 68. Why did Louis raise the siege of Luxem- burg at this time ? 69. His successes ? 70. How did he weaken his kingdom 71. What edict did he first issue? 72. The effect of this ? 73. The next step? 74 The crowning act of cruelty ? 75. How many abandoned their country ? 76. The consequences of this treatment of them ? 77. What countries united against France ? 78. Who conspired against James II. ? 79. The fate of Argyle ? 30. The fate of Monmouth ? 31. MaiLuer of his death ? 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100, 101, 102, 103, 104 105, 106, 107, 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120. 121, 122. 123. 124 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, The effect of Judge Jeffries' cruelty 7 James' conduct with respect to the Catholics ? His folly ? His first step ? What kept the nation quiel ? His daughters, and to whom married ? What edict did James now issue ? His design in so doing ? How was it received by the dissenters themselves ? Its folly ? Conduct of the bishops ? Their treatment ? What event now took place ? What report was circulated ? How was he treated by his daughter ? What trial now took place ? The question at issue ? Tlie verdict ? How received ? . James' remark ? State of things throughcuit England on the receipt of the news ? What project was now formed ? The object of the whig party ? How had the lower orders been ahen- ated from the Presbyterians ? Another reason for this ? How did they excuse themselves for eo doing ? How were matters in Scotland ? How did James view Scotland? What far more powerful party ex- isted ? Their rallying cry ? In what awkward position did the to- ries find themselves on James' acces- sion ? The crisis of their loyalty ? How was it regarded ? Why were the first movements of the tories slow and unsteady ? The most they looked for ? The state of Europe at this time ? Why wa.? t.he reign of James odious to the princes of Germany ? Why to the pope, also ''. Why, particularly so, t) the Dutch ? Why did William mak.) so vigorous ef- forts to take advantage of the crisis in England ? What now excited universal alarm and indignation in Europe? The consequence ? What is said of William's landing ? James' conduct ? The conduct of William ? The motive that led James to leave his kingdom ? The cause of his ruin ? What three proposals were made to the convention ? 34 QUESTIONS ON 130. To whom was the first proposal most agreeable ? 131 "Why was it not adopted? 132. What proverb was current ? 133. The difficulties of the second proposal ? 134. Were William and Mary heartily elect- ed ? 135. What completed the ruin of James' cause ? 136. The effect of Louis' efforts in his be- half? 137. Who, in after times, committed the same folly ? Sec. 4. — General History of Europe, from the League of Augsburg to the Formation of the Grand Alliance. 1. Demand of the Scottish convention ? 2. Hopes of the dissenters ? 3. State of Ireland ? 4. Conduct of the Irish Protestants ? 5. Movements and acts of James ? 6. His party in Scotland ? 7. Siege of Londonderry ? 8. Battle of Boyne, describe. 9. Conduct of the Irish after the desertion of their monarch ? 10. Final success of William ? 11. Terms of the treaty ? 12. How many Irish joined James ? 13. What act brought great odium on Wil- liam's government ? 14. Relate the circumstances. 15. What hopes did Louis found on it ? 16. His attempt, and its fate ? 17. James' remark on witnessing the burn- ing of the French ships ? 18. What was the title of the partizans of the Stuarts ? 19. Their plan ? 20. The effect of the attempt ? 21. How was the act of succession changed ? 22. Who was Sophia ? 23. Character of the Emperor Leopold ? 24. His conduct to the Hungarians ? 25. Horrible conduct of Louis XIV. ? 26. Did it benefit his cause ? 27. His subsequent success ? 28. What kept the emperor quiet ? 29. The probable consequence, had he long remained so ? 30. The success of Louis m Flanders? 31. His success at sea ? 32 The state of things in France ? 33. What effect did a knowledge of these things have on the allies ? 34. With what success ? 35 What led to a peace ? 36. What is said of it ? 37. Conduct of the emperor? 38. The name of his distinguished general ? 39. Describe the great battle of Zenta. 40 The teniis of the peace of Carlowitz. 41. The three candidates for the throne of Spain ? 42. Conduct of William and Louia, kings of England and France ? 43. Conduct of the king of Spain in conse- quence ? 44. How were the affections of the Scotch alienated from William ? 45. Who was proclaimed king of Spain ? 46. Conduct of Louis ? 47. How was it received? 48. Conduct of the emperor ? 49. What alliance was formed 'i 50. Its avowed objects ? 51. Great imprudence of Louis? 52. Death of William, how occasioned ? 53. Effect of it on the allies ? 54. How were their fears quieted ? Sec. 5. — The War of the Spanish Suc- cession. 1. How was Anne's accession received ? 2. Why was William disliked? 3. Why did both whigs and tories dislike him ? 4. What suspicion was circulated of him ? 5. What interest had England in the war against Louis ? 6. Why did she engage in it ? 7. What discovery did they subsequently make ? 8. The commander-in-chief of the English army ? 9. Where and when was war declared against France ? 10. Which of the generals of the allied armies obtained success 1 11. Who hampered his movements? 12. Splendid action of Rooke and Onnond ? 13. Their trophies ? 14. The battle of Hochstet, between whom fought, and the result ? 15. Doings of the emperor ? 16. Movements of the allies in the next cam- paign ? 17. Battle of Blenheim, describe. 18. The consequences of this victory ? 1 9. What signal conquest did Rooke make ? 20. What victory did he gain? 21. What prevented the ruin of Louis ? 22. Louis' success in Italy ? 23. Success of the allies in Spain ? 24. The effect of these variations of success ? 25. Describe the battle of RamiUies ? 26. The results of this victory ? 27. How were its effects felt in Italy ? 28. The deliberations of the French mar- shals? 29. The consequences ? 30. The results of the battle ? 31. To what was the ill success of the alli«i in Spain attributable ? 32. The movements of the different armies MODERN HISTORY. 3ft What losses were sustained by Louis in the Mediterranean Sea? What prevented peace ? What important treaty was made in England ? What advantage did Louis derive from his recent misfortunes? What victory did the duke of Berwick gain ? What success did the Frencli obtain in Germany ? What naval enterprise did the allies undertake ? What evils did the French suffer from the invasion ? Feelings of the nation toward Godolphin and Marlborough? What did he do in order to regain his popularity ? What city did he take ? What island did the English take ? The effect of these victories on the allied powers ? The effect on Louis ? Why was peace not obtained ? What viclory was obtained ? The effect of the capture of Mons ? Conduct of the Archduke Charles? The success of Louis in Spain ? What revolution in the English cabinet was of great service to Louis ? Give an account of the manner in which it was brought about. What cry did the tories raise ? Conduct of the whigs ? Give an account of Dr. Sacheverell's sermon and the proceedings thereupon. The consequence of his persecution ? Doings of the new parliament ? What unexpected event changed entirely the aspect of affairs ? Tlie result of it ] What was Philip forced to do, and why? Who continued the war ? When and where was the final treaty made ? How was it relished in England ? Why? By what means did the whigs regain much of their lost popularity ? What disappointed the hopes of the Pre- tender ? Who succeeded Anne ? 7. Conduct of Christian V. ? 8. What title has been given to Chsirlw XIL? 9. How did Peter the Great commence hie reign ? 10. Magnificent plans of Peter ? 11. His wisdom, how displayed? 12. The first place he visited ? 13. His conduct there ? 14. Whither then did he go ? 15. What present was made him? 16. How long had he been absent from home? 17. What alliance did he form, and with what object ? 18. Who commenced the war, and how' 19. What arrested their progress ? 20. Charles' measures? 21. Their success ? 22. The battle of Narva, describe 1 23. Peter's remark ? 24. Charles' next movements ? 25. What project did he form ? 26. What victory did he gain ? 27. The result of the battle of Pultusk lo Augustus ? 28. Who was elected king of Poland? 29. What was Peter doing in the meantime ? 30. Under what circumstances was St. Petersburgh founded? 31. What new scheme was formed between Augustus and Peter ? 32. Their success ? 33. His boldness to the emperor ? 34. Joseph's facetious remark when informed of the pope's displeasure ? 35. How did the allies feel at the departure of Charles ? 36. The duke of Marlborough's politic course toward Charles ? 37. The haughty reply of Charles to Peter's ambassador ? 38. The answer of Peter ? 39. How did Peter prevent his advance ? 40. Charles' folly ? 41. His disappointment ? 42. What still greater misfortune befell him ? 43. The severity of the winter ? 44. What city did Charles besiege ? 45. What news reached him there ? 46. What terrible misfortune overtook him ? 47. The spoils that Peter took ? 48. Whither did Charles escape ? 49. Repeat Campbell's description of this catastrophe ? 50. The results of this victory ? 51. What became of the prisoners ? 52. What saved Sweden ? 53. What new plan did Charles form in Turkey ? 54. What frustrated it for a time ? 55. How did Charles thereupon act i 56. What new war now broke out ? 57. Into what danger was Peter now placed t 36 QUESTIONS ON 58. Who saved him, aud how ? 59. Disappointment of Charles ? 60. His foolhardiness ? 61. His folly? oz. Victory of Steenbock ? 63. How sallied ? 64. His disaster ? 65. What great victory did Peter gain ? 66. How did he celebrate it ? 67. What carried Charles home? 68. How did he travel ? 69. His enemies ? 70. His misfortune ? 71. His next step ? 72. Plan of his minister ? 73. Charles' death, how and where? 74. How regarded by the Swedish senate ? 75. Fate of his minister ? 76. His successor ? 77. What oath was exacted of the sovereigns? 78. When was peace made, and on what conditions ? CHAPTER VIII. GROWTH OF THE MERCANTILE AND COLONIAL SYSTEM. Sec. 1. — Estahlishment of the Hanoverian Succession, in England. 1. What system had been established in England during the wars with Louis XIV.? When was the bank of England founded? The effect of it ? Its internal effect ? When did the mercantile system begin to manifest its strength ? In what manner ? What is said of the effects of the treaty of Utrecht? Of what did it contain the germs ? What was the first commercial state in Europe at the commencement of the eighteenth century ? What change was made in the English administration at the accession of George I. ? How did the whigs use their power ? What favourable opportunity was thus afforded ? Whv did not Louis XIV. avail himself of it? Course of the regent of France ? Imprudence of the Pretender ? What were his supporters called ? V/tiat took place in the north of Eng- land ? The treatment of the leaders ? Course of the Pretender? What title did Peter assume aft6> his peace with Sweden ? How did he extend his dominions 'i 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 11). 20. 2L How did he treat his eldest son, ano why ? Peter's successor ? Doings of the Turks ? By whom opposed, and with what ie« suit? The results of the next campaign ? The fruits of the peace of Passarowitz ? What interests depended on the preser- vation of the terms of the treaty cdl Utrecht ? Who was opposed to them, and why ? The grand scheme of Alberoni ? How frustrated ? How was the pope mortified ? What society began now to be suspected ? What is said of the doctrmes of tho other secret societies ? What new war now arose ? The result of it ? Law's scheme ? His success ? Its result? The object of the Souit Sea scheme ? Its progress and the results ? What new effort was made, and its re- sults ? What now preserved the peace of Europe, and for how long a time ? Why did Walpole lose his popidarity ? How did he contend against the opposi- tion ? Course of the Emperor Charles, in order to secure the throne to his daughter, Maria Theresa? What was this law called ? How was the guarantee of France ob- tained ? What brought on the war ? What led to a second war? What involved Europe in new conten- tions ? What forced Walpole to commence hos- tilities against Spain ? The consequence of Vernon's success ? The results, and their causes ? Anson's success ? Enemies of Maria Theresa? Who commenced the war? What offer did he make the queen, and how was it received ? Her conduct, and its results? What kingdom aided her ? Conduct of tho new ministers of Eng- land ? Revolution in Russia? Conduct of Elizabeth? Course of affairs in Germany ? Repeat Dr. Johnson's description of the fate of the Bavarian prince? Exploit of the count of Bellisle? Why did Maria Theresa refuse to make peace with France ? MODERN HISTOnr. 37 68. Fato of the elector of Bavaria ? 69. Battle of Dettingen, and the results ? 70. Effect of the haughtiness and ambition of Maria Theresa? 71. Object of the family compact? 72. Plan of the monarchs of Spain and France ? 73. His success ? 74. Naval fight, and the cause of the defeat of the English ? 75. Consequences to the admirals ? 76. What should have put an end to the war? 77. What parties continued to fight? 78. What battle was fought, and with what results ? 79. What now terminated the war ? 80. Give an account of the young Pretender? 81. What victory did he gain? 82. His misconduct ? 83. His subsequent movemeiats ? 84. What mistake did he commit ? 85. His movements in Scotland ? 86. What victory did he gain ? 87. A second mistake ? 88. Where was his cause ruined ? 89. What saved his life ? 90. The conduct of the royalists after the the battle ? 91. Fate of the young Pretender ? 92. Success of Marshal Saxe ? 93. Movements in Italy ? 94. Results of the animosity between the French and English ? 95 What paralyzed the exertions of the allies? 96. Fruit of the popular revolt in Holland? 97. Describe the battle of Val. 98. What strong fortress did the French take >. 99. The advantage it gave them ? 100. Wliat naval engagement took place, and the fruits of it ? 101. What second loss at sea did the French sustain ? 102. A third loss ? 103. The result ? 104. Where was ■'he treaty signed? 105. The basis of .ae treaty ? 106. What did it leave unsettled ? 107. The only advantage of the war to England? 108. What folly had England committed? 109. Wliose policy had led to it? 110. The fruits of the folly? Sec. 2. — The Colonial Struggle between France and Great Britain. 1 What is said of the peace of Aix-la-Cha- pelle ? 2. What two causes tended to produce a new and fiercer struggle ? 3. What injury had the court of Austria to complain of? 4. What prevented Frederick from gaining any permanent friend ? 5. Of what two powerful personages was he the personal enemy ? 6. What prevented Austria from declaring war against Prussia? 7. Who was the real guide of the court ot Vienna at this time ? 8. What grand project did he form ? 9. What is said of Louis XV. ? 10. Why was England jealous of France ? 11. What were the chief subjects contested between them ? 12. How did the partiality of George II. for Hanover affect his policy ? 13. What state of things in India led both the French and English to enlarge their territories in that country ? 14. Who was the French governor in India? 15. What afforded him an of jv rtunity of in- terfering in the politics of India? 16. What effect did his doings have on the English ? 17. Who was the English jeader in India ? 18. How was Dupleix treated by the French? 19. What treaty did his successor make with the English authorities ? 20. By what means, and for what purpose, did the British ministry endeavour to secure Nova Scotia? 21. How did the French view these mea- sures ? 22. What object did the French have in view in the interior of N. America? 23. By what means was it necessary to effect this object ? 24. Who commenced hostilities ? 25. What caused the defeat of the expedi- tion against the French forts on the Ohio? 26. What remark is made of the Virginia troops under Washington ? 27. What other expeditions were undertaken, and their success ? 28. What successes did the English obtain at sea ? 29. What excited the jealousy of the provin- cial governors of India against the English ? 30. What enraged Suraja Dowla against them ? 31. The conduct of the English ? 32. How were the captives among them treated ? 33. Who recovered Calcutta ? 34. Describe the battle of Plassy. 35. The fate of Suraja Dowla? 36. The consequences of this victory of the English ? Sec. 3.— The Seven Years' War. 1. The actions of the French government when intelligence was received of the 88 QUESTIONS ON events that had taken place in India 45. and America ? 46. 2. How did the British view these prepara- tions ? 47. 3. What honourable act did the British 48. govcrnmeut perform at this time ? 49. 4. Object of the French in menacing an 50. invasion of England ? 51. 5. Conduct of Admiral Byng? 6. What aggravated the popular discontent? 52. 7. Movements of the king of Prussia ? 53. 8. His treatment of King Augustus and Saxony ? 54. 9. The fate of Admiral Byng ? 10. What attempt was made against the life 55. of Louis ? 56. 11. The treatment of the assassin? 57. 12. Conduct of George II. ? 58. 13. The condition of Prussia at the com- 59. mencement of the campaign ? 14. Skilful movements of Frederic? 60. 15. Describe the battle of Prague. 16. The consequence of his delay before the 61. walls of the city? 62. 17. How was he now situated ? 63. 18. How was Berlin treated ? 64. 19. What plans of, Pitt were defeated, and the cause? 65. 20. Why did this fail to destroy the ministry ? 21. Tlie good effect of the failure? 66. 22. What brilliant exploit did Frederic per- form ? 67. 23. What other exploit did he perform? 24. What third one, a week afterwards? 68. 25. Frederic's subsequent movements? 26. The successes of the British ? 69. 27. Tiieir effect on the nation ? 70. 28. Wiiat three expeditions did General 71. Abcrcrombie plan in America? 29. Describe the battle of Minden? 72. 30. What fault was committed in this battle, and by whom? 73. 31. By what defeat was this victory counter- 74. balanced ? 32. What rendered even the Austrian vie- 75. tories useless ? 33. The effect of this indecisive campaign? 76. 34. What place was justly considered the 77. key of Canada ? 35. What had prepared the colonists in Can- 78. ada to submit to a cliange of masters? 79. 36. What places were captured by General 80. Amherst and Sir William Johnson? 81. 37. The object of Wolfe's expedition? 82. 38. What daring plan did he adopt ? 39. Describe the battle. 83. 40. Describe Wolfe's death. 84. 41. Montcalm's, the French general 85. 42. The fruit of this battle ? 43. What is said of the success of the Eng- 86. lish in the East Indies? 87. 44. Who were the generals on each side ? and compare them. What defeats did the French sustain ? What is said of the Dutch armamenia and of Clive's promptness? Threat of the French court ? Exploit of Admiral Boscawen ? Of Sir Edward Hawke ? Doings of Commodore Thurot ? What beautiful incident occurred during the attack on Carrickfergus ? The fate of himself and his fleet ? The conduct of the people of Franco to their sovereign ? What untoward event caused the failure of the campaign ? The movements of Frederic ? What deranged his plans ? How did he out-manoeuvre Count Daun? The disaster of Berlin ? Describe the battle of Torgau and its results. Wliat efforts were made by the French to recover Canada ? By whom baffled ? The successes of the English in India ? The complaints of the English ? The age of George III. at his accession to the throne ? To what results did the death of the king of Spain lead ? What contributed to the hostility ot. Spain to England ? The doings of the combatants on th« continent ? How did Pitt propose to anticipate the hostile designs of Spain ? What led to his resignation ? The consequences ? How did the allies propose to attack Bri- tain ? What was the state of Portugal at this period ? How had the king offended the Jesuits ? Their attempt against him, and its con- sequences ? What demand was made of him, and under what circumstances ? The consequence of his refusal ? What unexpected event delivered the king of Pru.ssia from ruin ? Conduct of the emperor of Russia ? His subsequent fate ? Conduct of his successor? Movements of Frederic? Movements of the English in the West Indies? In the East Indies ? What did they gain by the war ? On what basis was peace made between Prussia and Austria? The result of the continental war ? What had Britain gained by the colo- nial war? What question arose duruig the sevei MODERN HISTORY. 39 years' war that led frc important dis- cussions ? 89. By what system was the internal condi- tion of England greatly improved ? 90. The efFect of the increase of the national debt? CHAPTER IX. THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS. Sec. 1. — Change in the Relations of the Catholic Powers to the Holy See. — Dis- memberment of Poland. 1. What is said of the sufferings of France during the late war ? 2. Character and conduct of Louis XV. ? 3. Conduct of the parliaments ? 4. What ecclesiastical order was suppressed in France, A.D. 1762? 5. What occasioned popular discontent in Spain ? 6. Conduct of Charles III. ? 7. Of the marquis of Pombal in Portugal ? 8. What is said of his reforms ? 9. How were the Jesuits treated in Spain ? 10. In Mexico, Peru, and Paraguay ? 11. Where else were they treated in the same way? 12. Who tried to protect them? 13. What island did the French get posses- sion of in the Mediterranean ? 14. Who endeavoured to maintain its inde- pendence ? 15. How did the French minister attempt to strengthen his influence with Louis XV.? 16. What accident interrupted the festivities of the occasion ? 17. To what did Choiseul owe his disgrace ? 18. What empire was now rapidly rising in Europe f 19. How did Catherine treat Poland? 20. The king of Prussia's conduct ? 21. Between whom did a war now break out? 22. Frederic's remark on it ? 23. Catherine's plans ? 24. Her treatment of the Greek-.? 25. What great naval defeat did the Turks sustain ? 26. Who was forced to join in the war against them ? 27. Who now became jealous of the Rus- sians ? 28. Whom did the king of Denmark marry? 29. Her subsequent fate ? 30. Who usurped the royal authority? 31. For what did the Danish court become remarkable ? 32. What bloodless revolution was now ef- fected in Sweden ? 33. How was it effected ? 34. How were the efforts of the king of Po- land thwarted? 35. What gave Catherine a right to interfere 1 36. What base act was now perpetrated on Poland, and by what powers ? 37. What did Russia gain by the war with Turkey ? 38. The exclamation of Louis XV. when he heard of the partition of Poland ? 39. How did D'Aquillon endeavour to atono for his negligence ? 40. When was the order of Jesuits finally suppressed ? 41. What crimes were subsequently charged on them ? Sec. 2. — History of England from the Peace of Paris to the Commencement of the American War. 1. Why did the Brunswick dynasty at first rely on the whigs for support ? 2. Why were the tories afterwards more favoured ? 3. What led to the resignation of the primo minister ? 4. Who assailed the English ministry with bitterness in a periodical ? 5. Their conduct thereupon ? 6. What became of Wilkes ? 7. Conduct of the East India Company at this time ? 8. Why was it now proposed to tax Ame- rica? 9. On what ground was the tax resisted ? 10. Whose appointment aggravated party animosities ? 11. Conduct of Wilkes? 12. Conduct of the house of commons ? 13. What gave importance to this contest? 14. What circumstances added to the exas- peration of parties ? 15. What kept alive the dispute with Ame- rica ? 16. The only beneficial results of these dis- putes ? 1 7. Conduct of the Bostonians ? 18. Retaliation of the English government? 19. Acts of the colonists ? 20. What defeated all hopes of an accom- modation ? 21. Feelings of the continental powers with reference to this contest? 22. Who prevented France from interfering? 23. What kept Spain quiet ? 24. Why was Frederic of Prussia rejoiced at the contest ? 25. Why, Catherine of Russia? 26. How was the colonial revolt regarded in England ? Sec 3. — The American War. 1. What completed the alienation of the colonies ? 2. When did they declare their iudepeu- deuce ? 10 QUESTIONS ON 3. How did tlie first campaign terminate ? 4. What nation first recognized the inde- pendence of the United States ? 5. What, for a time, menaced the peace of the continent ? 6. What compelled Joseph to relinquish his prey ? 7. The policy of Washington ? 8. What lowered the character of the Eng- lish among foreign nations? 9. The effect of them ? 10. What formidable enemy now appeared in Hindostan ? 11. His successes? 12. Exploits of Sir Charles Rodney ? 13. What dispute now arose between Eng- land and all the European maritime powers ? 14. What nations united against England ? 15. Against whom, aud why, did England declare war? 16. Disasters of the Dutch ? 17. What led the English ministry to despair of conquering America ? 18. What two signal triumphs shed lustre on the British arms ? 19. What successes attended them in the East Indies? 20. When was the independence of America recognized ? Sec. 4. — The British Empire in India. 1. On what was the British empire in India founded ? 2. Who were the first to interfere iu the East ? 3. Under whose government did the Eng- lish obtain a preponderating influence in the East ? 4. What disputes arose between the direc- tors at home and the officers in India? 5. What roused Hyder Ali against the English ? 6. Conduct of Warren Hastings ? 7. Condition of affairs *n Ireland ? 8 What averted a civil war? 9. Mr. Fox's plan for the government of India? 10. His design in this plan ? 11. What defeated it? 12. Under whose auspices was a new min- istry formed ? 13. The now bill for the government of India ? 14. What branch of commerce did the East India company monopolize ? 15. What governor-general of India was now impeached ? 16. The result of the trial? 17. Wliat is said of Capt. Cook's three voy- ages ? 18 What suggestion of Cook was acted upon ? 19. What dangers did the illness of the king disclose ? 20. What did Mr. Pitt determme upon in consequence ? Sec. 5. — History of Europe, from the end of the American War to the commencement of the French Revolution. 1. What took place in Europe during the progress of the American war ? 2. Who was the most enterprising of the royal reformers? 3. With whom did his measures involve him in a contest ? 4. How did the pope act? 5. What now prevented the dismember- ment of Turkey ? 6. The measures of Frederic ? 7. The effect of the success of the Ameri- cans on the Dutch ? 8. Who encouraged them, and why? 9. What brought matters to a crisis? 10. The consequence of Frederic William's interference ? 11. The condition of France? 12. Who aggravated the disorder, and how? 13. What measures did he recommend ? 14. Who demonstrated their inadequacy ? 15. Conduct of Louis ? 16. Feelings of the French soldiers that had fought for American independence ? 17. How did the connexion of the court oi France with Austria cause discon- tent? 18. Who, in consequence, became unpo- pular? 19. What mortified the French? 20. The progress of reform in other states ? 21. How did the French minister of finance olTend the parliaments ? 22. Their great object ? 23. Their demand? 24. Who took up the matter in earnest ? 25. Who superseded the archbishop as min- ister ? 26. How many years had elapsed since the last assembly of the states-general ? 27. When and where did they now meet ? 28. What demand did the democratic party make ? 29. What excited a spirit of insubordination in Paris? 30. Against whom was the popular indigna- tion directed ? 31. What act of violence was now com- mitted ? 32. How did Louis endeavour to conciliate his subjects? 33. The commander of the National Guards? 34. The treatment of Louis? 35. Of what was this outrage the commence- ment ? MODERN HISTORY. 41 Sec. 6. — The French Revolution. 1. What measures established popular sove- reignty ? 2. What club was formed ? 3. Conduct of the nobility ? 4. What conference took place at Pilnitz ? 5. What attempt did Louis now make? 6. What, for a time, restored his popularity ? 7. Conduct of the Emperor Leopold ? 8. The great object of the revolutionary party ? 9. What proceedings furnished them a plausible pretext for hostilities ? 10. What forced Louis to declare war? 1 L Effect of the defeat of his armies in Paris ? 12. What new incident gave fresh strength to the Jacobin party ? 13. What declaration proved still more in- jurious to Louis ? 14 Its effect in Paris ? 13 Conduct of La Fayette ? 16. His successor? 17. What diabolical plot was executed in Paris, and by whom ? 18. Success of the allies? 19. Success of Dumouriez ? 20. What decree of the convention was a virtual declaration of war against all the kings of Europe ? 21. The fate of Louis? 22. The date of his execution ? 23. The effect of this act on the other powers ? 24. Who united against France ? 25. Catherine's policy ? 26. Conduct of Dumouriez ? 27. The fate of his successor ? 28. Movements of the allies ? 29. The effect of this revolutionary excite- ment in St. Domingo ? 30. What was Catherine doing at this time? 31. Who joined in the iniquitous scheme? 32. What Polish patriot attempted to avert the fate of his country ? 33. In what year was Poland blotted from the list of nations ? 34. The fate of Marie Antoinette ? 35. What civil war broke out in France 1 36. The fate of the Lyonese revolters ? 37. What were assignats ? , 38. What city in southern France revolted ? 39. Who directed the artillery of the be- siegers ? 40. How were the inhabitants of Toulon punished ? U. Whose enormities in Paris became now insupportable ? 42. His fate ? "3. What revived the spirits of the English ? ,4. The fate of the Dutch? '5. What is said of Burke ? 6. IIow had the king of Prussia treated the English ? 47. The condition of France ? 48. What colonies did the Dutch lose ? 49. Who subdued a formidable insurrectiou in Paris ? 50. Who was now entrusted with the execu- tive functions of government ? 51. What French general made a celebrated retreat in Germany? 52. Where was Bonaparte commanding? 53. On what terms did he force the king of Sardinia to purchase peace ? 54. How was the pope treated? 55. Conduct of the Corsicans 1 56. Condition of Ireland ? 57. What new enemy now appeared against England ? 58. What formidable mutiny broke out in the fleet ? 59. The end of it ? 60. Napoleon's progress in Italy ? 61. His treatment of Genoa and Venice ? 62. What naval victory did the English gain. over the Spaniards ? 63. What Spanish island did they take ? 64. What loss did the Dutch sustain ? 65. What new revolution broke out in France ? 66. With whom was peace made ? 67. What threat alarmed Great Britain ? 68. What expedition did Napoleon plan ? 69. His success there ? 70. What brilliant naval victory did Lord Nelson achieve ? 71. Condition of Ireland ? 72. Who was now lord-lieutenant of Ireland ? 73. The results of the victory of Lord Nel- son ? 74. The movements of the allies in Italy ? 75. What was Napoleon doing ? 76. Under what circumstance did he an'ive in Paris? 77. How had the duke of York been com- pelled to purchase a safe retreat from Holland ? 78. Bonaparte's conduct in Paris ? 79. His exaltation ? 80. What important change was made in the constitution of the British empire ? 81. In what year? 82. What daring plan did Napoleon form ? 83. What two great victories did he gain ? 84. What induced the emperor to continue the war ? 85. What defeat dashed his hopes ? 86. With what new enemy was Great Bri- tain threatened ? 87. Conduct of the Russian emperor ? 88. What induced Mr. Pitt to retire from the cabinet ? 89. Naval victory of the British in the Baltic? 90. Fate of the Russian emperor. 91. Expedition of Abercrombie ? 42 QUESTIONS OK 92. Terms of the treaty of Amiens ? 93. Doing.s of the English in India ? 94. Condition of France 1 CHAPTER X. THE FRENCH EMPIRE. Sec. 1. — Renewal of the War between England and France. 1. To what did Napoleon now direct his attention ? 2. What power was conferred on him ? 3. Wliy did not Great Britain interfere to protect St. Domingo? 4. What gave rise to angry discussions ? 5. Who renewed the war, and how ? 6 How did Napoleon retaliate? 7. The leaders of the insurrection in Ire- land ? 8. The first movements of the hostile powers ? 9. Doings of the English in India ? 10. Condition of St. Domingo ? 11. Who was made prime minister of Eng- land ? 12. Of what base attempt were the English ministers guilty ? 13. What crime did Napoleon commit in re- taliation? 14. What new dignity was conferred on Bonaparte ? 15. What power refused to recognise him ? IG. Who was anxious to avenge the death of the Duke D'Enghien ? 17. How was war commenced against Spain ? 18. How did Pitt attempt to justify his conduct ? 19. What powers united against Napoleon ? 20. What new title did Napoleon assume ? 21. How did Austria commence the war ? 22. What signal victory was gained by Lord Nelson ? 23. \Miat success did Napoleon meet with in Austria? 24. Wiiat revived the courage of Franc'«? 25. What capital did Napoleon capture ? 26. Where did he gain a brilliant victory ? 27. How were a large body of Russians de- stroyed ? 28. How did Napoleon keep the king of Prussia quiet ? 29. What hastened the death of Pitt? 30. What honours were paid him ? Sec. 2. — Progress of Napoleon s Power. 1. What British general was distinguishing himself in India ! 2. Who succeeded him? 3. What great measure did Mr. Fox carry ? 4. Movements of the British hi South Ame- 5. What king did Napoleon dethrone 1 6. On whom did he confer the vacan throne ? 7. Whom did ho make king of Holland? 8. His character? 9. Why was pe-ace refused by the English? 10. What circumstances exasperated the king of Prussia against Napoleon ? 11. What enraged the Germans? 12. Folly of Frederic, and its fruits? 13. What fatal defeat did he sustain ? 14. What was worse than this defeat? 15. Fate of Berlin ? 16. The Berlin decrees? 17. What three successive Jefeats did the British sustain ? 18. How did the ministers di please the king? 19. How did the Turks tre£.t their sultan ? 20. What sanguinary battle was fought be- tween the French and Russians ? . 21. What important city was taken by Na- poleon ? 22. How did the two emperors meet ? 23. What treaty was made, and at whoso expense ? 24. What reply was made to the remon- strances of Frederic ? 25. How was he treated ? Sec. 3. — The French Invasion of Spain. 1. How were the Danes treated by the English ? 2. The effect of this base conduct on the maritime powers? 3. What imperious edict did Napoleon issue respecting the reigning family of Por- tugal? 4. How did the British government retaliate on France for the Berlin decrees ? 5. How did it embroil itself with America ? 6. What proclamation did the American government issue ? 7. The condition of Spain ? 8. How did Godoy treat Ferdinand ? 9. How did Napoleon win Godoy 's support? 10. How did he treat Ferdinand? 11. How did Murat act in Madrid? 12. What new kings did Napoleon make? 13. How did the Spanish people relish these • measures ? 14. How did England avail herself of this altered state of things ? 15. The fate of Marshal Dupont? 16. How did Joseph Bonaparte act when he heard of it? 17. Noble conduct of the citizens of Sara- gossa ? 18. Sir Arthur Welleslcy's success in Portu- gal? 19. The conduct of King Gustavus? 20. How was he treated by his subjects? 21. What three defeats did the Spaniard* sustain ? MODERN HESTORY. 43 22. With what forces did Napoleon invade Spain ? 23. Conduct of the English under Sir John Moore ? 24. Of what misconduct was the duke of York accused ? 25. Who succeeded him as commander-in- chief? 26. What new enemy now appeared against France ? 27. What led Francis to take this step , 28. What haffled his calculations ? 29. Success of Napoleon against him ? 30. The result of the campaign ? 31. Fate of the Tyrolese ? 32. Sentence of their chieftains ? 33. What efforts were made to shake off the French yoke in Germany? 34 What expedition was planned by the British ministry? 35. The result of it? 36. How did England offend the sultan of Turkey ? 37. What, notwithstanding, induced him to court an alliance with England ? 38. On what other power did the same mo- tive operate ? 39. How was Austria treated by Napo- leon ? 40. Why was he so moderate ? 41. Who was now the English commander in Spain ? 42. What great battle did he fight ? 43. The offence of Sir Francis Burdett ? 44. How was it punished ? 45. The effect of Napoleon's marriage? 46. Who was his wife ? 47. Movements of the hostile powers in Por- tugal? 48. What prevented the French from taking Cadiz? 49. What extraordinary revolution now took place in Sweden ? 50. Calamity of George III. ? 51. Massena's conduct in Portugal? 52. Movements of Wellington and Soult in Spain? 53 How did Spain offend her South Ameri- can colonies ? 54. What important island was wrested from the Dutch ? 55. Policy of Bemadotte ? 56. What was Alexander of Russia engaged in doing? 57 Condition of Turkey ? 58. Treachery of Mohammed Ali, pacha of Egypt ? 59. Condition of Sicily ? 60. What victories did Wellington gain in Spain? 61. The results of the bottle of Salamanca? 62. What led the South American colonies to return to their allegiance ? 63. What formidable enemy was now arm- ing against Napoleon 1 Sec. 4. — The Russian War. 1. What act of Napoleon alarmed Alexan- der? 2. What alarmed the Austrian emperor ? 3. What system did Alexander wish re- laxed ? 4. Why was not peace made ? 5. What mistake did Napoleon commit with reference to Poland ? 6. Why did he refuse the independence of Poland ? 7. To what capital did he first advance? 8. How did the Russians act ? 9. To what capital did he then direct his march ? 10. What dreadful battle did ho gain ? 11. Near what village was a still more .'jread- ful battle fought ? 12. How many of the combatants were killed? 13. How did the Russians regard Moscow? 14. How did they destroy the hopes of Na- poleon ? 15. What was he now compelled to do? 16. What sufferings did his army experience in their retreat ? 17. Describe the passage of the Borodino. 18. Napoleon's course. 19. In what war was Great Britain engaged? 20. What country did the Americans invade? 21. What victories did they gain? 22. What domestic transactions took place in England? 23. What new enemy did Napoleon have to encounter? 24. Who abandoned his cause ? 25. What great battle liberate .' Germany ? 26. Describe it. 27. Conduct of Bemadotte. 28. Of the Hanoverians. 29. Of the Dutch. 30. Where was Wellington, and what waa he doing ? 3 1 . Who exercised the real authority in Spain ? 32. What is said of Joseph Bonaparte ? 33. What marshal was sent to Spain to aid the French ? 34. What country was now about to be in- vaded ? 35. Conduct of Soult ? 36. What prevented Spain from reaping th» benefits of her freedom ? 37. Progress of the war in America ? 38. What powers invaded France ? 39. Conduct of Napoleon ? 40. Progress of Bemadotte ? 41. What general alarmed Bonaparte moett 42. What friend forsook him? 43. When was Paris taken ? 44. When was Bonaparte deposed ? 44 QUESTIONS ON 45. Who was made king ? 46. When did he reach France? 47. What provision was made for Bonaparte? Sec. 5. — History of Europe from the De- thronement of Napoleon to the Conclusion of the Treaty of Vicnrui. 1. First proceedings of Ferdinand in Spain? 2. Mistakes of the allies ? 3. Wliat battles were fought in America ? 4. What distinguished personages visited England ? 5. What threw a shade of gloom over the general joy ? 6. How did Louis XVIII. give offence ? 7. Resolution of Bonaparte? 8. When did he land in France ? 9. With how many men ? 10. His progress ? 11. Course of Louis ? 12. Proclamation of the congiess of Vienna? 13. Terms of the treaty between the four allied powers ? 14. Conduct of Napoleon? 15. The first battle ? 16. Describe the battle of Waterloo. 17. Whither did Napoleon flee ? 18. His fate? 19. Conduct and end of Murat? 20. Fate of Ney and Labedoyfere ? 21. Terms of the treaty of Vienna ? 22. Avowed object of the holy alliance ? 23. Its real object ? CHAPTER XI. HISTORY OF THE PEACE. Sec. 1. — State of Europe at the Close of the War. I. 2. 3. 4 5. 6. Immediate results of peace ? What country felt them most sensibly ? Why so? What states were humbled? Whose marriage diffused joy in England? How was the nation affected at her death ? 7. What other deaths occurred ? 8. Condition of France ? 9. Of the Netherlands ? 10. Of Germany ? 11. Of Spain? 12. Who revolted from the Spanish do- minion ? 13. What change took place in the Spanish Constitution ? 14. In what other places did similar revolu- tions take place ? 15. Effect of these changes on the monarchs of Europe ? 16. Conduct of Louis XVIII. ? 17. Of the Austrian emperor? 18. Condition of Sweden ? 19. Between what principles was a struggle going on in the civilized world ? Sec. 2. — History of Europe during the Reign of George IV. 1. What conspiracy was detected in Eng- land ? 2. Character of the conspirators ? 3. How were they treated ? 4. What suspended the preparations for the king's coronation ? 5. Where had she been ? 6. Why did she return to England ? 7. What inducement was offered her to stay away ? 8. Describe her trial. 9. Her melancholy end ? 10. Condition of Ireland? 11. When and whei-e> did Bonaparte die? 12. Distracted condition of Spain? 13. Who composed the insurgents ? 14. Resolution of the congress of Verona ? 15. Who opposed it ? 16. Who undertook to carry it into execu- tion, and why ? 17. Conduct of Ferdinand ? 18. Course of the English ministers ? 19. What struggle was going on in the south-east of Europe ? 20. How was it viewed by the Holy Alliance ? 21. What celebrated poet went to their aid? 22. Commercial embarrassments in Eng- land? 23. What association was formed in Ireland? 24. Whst event now excited attention in Europe ? 25. The conduct of the British government ? 26. Through whose influence was Donna Maria established on her throne ? 27. What British nobleman died in A. D 1827? 28. Conduct of the cabinet on Canning's ap- pointment as premier ? 29. Why did they resign ? 30. Why did the European powers interfere in the struggle of the Greeks for free- dom? 31. Why did Austria keep aloof? 32. How did the emperor act on the occa- sion ? 33. Movements of the combined fleet. 34. When, and where, and why was the Turkish navy annihilated? 35. The effjct of this victory ? 36. How was it regarded in France and Russia ? 37. How in England ? 38. Conduct of the sultan? 39. Doings of the allies ? 40. Movements of Russia ? 41. Describe their second campaign. 42. Terms of the treaty ? MODERN HISTORY. 45 43. To whom was the crown of Greece offered ? 44. Who finally accepted it ? 45. What revolution now took place in Por- tugal ? 4G. Treachery of Don Miguel ? 47. Conduct of Charles X. of France? 48. Conduct of hi.s ministry ? 49. What made them rnpopnlar? 50 How was the appointment of Prince Polignac to office regarded ? 51. What contest was going on in England? 52. Who resisted all change? 53. Object of the emancipation bill ? 54. What brought matters to a crisis ? 55. When did the bill receive the royal assent ? 56. When did George IV. die ? Sec. 3. — History of Europe during the Reign of William IV. 1. Who succeeded George IV.? 2. Causes of his popularity ? 3. Which of the two great parties, whig or tory, did he favour ? 4. Condition of France ? 5. What rendered Charles X. exceedingly unpopular? 6. Conduct of Polignac? 7. What threat did the royal speech con- tain ? 8. Character of the reply ? 9. Conduct of (^-harles thereupon ? 10. How did he hope to overcome his un- popularity ? 11. Success of the expedition ? 12. Conduct of Polignac thereupon? 13. Consequences of it ? 14. Why did the commercial classes dread the renewal of civil commotion? 15. How might Charles have averted the storm ? 16. His course ? 17 The three ordinances of July? 18. How wcL- the intelligence received in Paris ? 19. Doings of the opponents of the ministry ? 20. Of the principal journalists ? 21. By what act was the first disturbance occasioned ? 22. What proved that no insurrection was anticipated ? 23. Events of the 27th of July ? 24. Conduct of the citizens at night ? 25. Appearance of things on the morning of the 28th? 26. Conduct of the marshal ? 27. Events of the day ? 28. Situation of the troops in the evening? 29. Orders of the king ? JO. What defection took place on the 29th ? 31. The effect of it ? 32. Fate of Charles? 33. Who was chosen lieutenant-general of the kingdom ? 34. To what dignity was he elected by the chambers ? 35. The effect of this revolution in Europe ? 36. Declaration of the duke of Wellington? 37. Its effect ? 38. What event proved still more injurious to the Wellington administration? 39. Its results ? 40. How did the people excuse their vain terrors ? 41. Principles of the new administration? 42. Views of the European sovereigns ? 43. Conduct of the emperor of Russia ? 44. In what country did this revolutionary spirit produce the more decisive effects? 45. When and why did the revolution broak out there ? 46 Policy of the king of Holland ? 47. Course of Prince Frederick? 48. The result of the revolution ? 49. Who was elected king ? 50. Whom did he marry? 51. What changes took place in Germany? 52. Condition of Spain ? 53. Of Portugal? 54. Of Italy and Switzerland ? 55. Where did the flame of insurrection rago most furiously ? 56. Whose cruelties had provoked them ? 57. The continuance and result of the strug- gle? 58. Explain the state of parties in France. 59. What body sustained the king ? 60. What severely tested the stability of the government ? 61. The sentence of the late ministers? 62. State of things in England? 63. How long did the debate on the first reading of the bill last? 64. Character of the members of the new parliament ? 65. Fate of the reform bill in the house of lords ? 66. What calmed the excitement in London ? 67. What dreadful scourge now made its appearance ? 68. Fate of the new reform bill in the house of lords ? 69. How did the premier propose to carry if* 70. Consequence of his refusal ? 71. The new premier ? 72. State of the country ? 73. Conduct of Wellington ? 74. What secret compact was made ? 75. When was the bill carried ? 76. To what dangers was the new French monarchy exposed ? 77. Conduct of the republican party? 78. What insurrection took place in the south of France ? 79. Who was taken captive ? 46 QUESTIONS ON 80. What revolt took place in Paris ? 81. Itseftect? 82. What transactions now took place in Belgium ? 83. What exposed Turkey to great danger ? 84. Proceedings of the pacha of Egypt ? 85. What saved Constantinople ? 86. VVliat events were taking place in Spain ? 87. Conduct of Ferdinand on discovering how he had been treated ? 88. Fate of Don Carlos ? 89. What revolution broke out in Brazil? 90. Pedro's measures thereupon ? 91. His success ? 92. Whom did his daughter marry ? 93. What disturbances took place in the pa- pal states ? 94. State of the papal power ? 95. What measures occupied the attention of the British parliament ? 96. What rendered the second session of this body memorable? 97. What changes took place in the cabinet ? 98. Why was Peel soon forced to resign ? 99. Who was left out of the Melbourne cabi- net? 100. Course of Don Carlos ? 101. Wlio organized a revolt in his favour? 102. What were the terms of the treaty be- tween the four powers ? 103. What was the court of Madrid forced to do? 104. What aid was granted ? 105. What alienated the king of the French from the cause of the Spanish queen ? 106. Course of the Carlists ? 107. Of Don Carlos? 108. Of tlie queen-regent? 109. Course of events in Canada ? 110. What produced embarrassment in the commercial world ? 111. When did William IV. die? 112. What is said of his reign ? 113. Who succeeded him ? CHAPTER XII. HISTORY OF COLONIZATION. Sec. ]. — The Establishment of the Span- iards in Mexico. 1. Where was the first Spanish colony established ? 2. The orders of Isabella? 3. Tlie consequence of them ? 4. The ettects of slavery on the Indians ? 5. The second island occupied? 6. The third one ? 7. Its extent and populousness ? 8w How many Spaniards were sufficient to conquer it ? 9. By whose intrepidity were more impor- tant conquests made ? 10. Under whose command was an expedl* tion fitted out against the continent 7 11. When and where did he land? 12. How was he received ? 13. To what degree of civilization had the Mexicans attained ? 14. Cortez' first step ? 15. How was his demand received? 16. The effect of these gifts? 1 7. His next step ? 18. What city grew up from his encamp- ment? 19. What did he do in order to inspire hia men with courage? 20. His forces ? 21 With whom was his first encounter ? 22. >_ ■ what cruelty was he guilty ? 23. The effect of .. ? 24. His description of ^he ancient city of Tlascala? 25. How did Montezuma receive him ? 26. The perils of his situation ? 27. What bold resolution did he adopt? 28. What did he do to secure his retreat if necessary ? 29. His ostensible pretext for seizing Monte- zuma? 30. The treatment of Qualpopoca ? 31. His letter to the emperor ? 32. His description of the city of Mexico ? 33. What danger impended over him ? 34. His prudent measures ? 35. What dangers surrounded him on his re- turn to Mexico? 36. Fate of the emperor ? 37. Losses of the Spaniards during their re- treat ? 38. What victory restored their confidence ? 39. Conduct of Guatimozin ? 40. His cruel fate ? 41. Result of his capture ? 42. How was Cortez treated by his sove- reign ? 43. The first thought of the conquerors ? 44. Conduct of Sahagun and Las Casas ? 45. The results of theLr protection of the Mexicans ? 46. Who were the conquistadorcs 1 47. What were haciendas 7 48. What fortunate circumstance contributed to the preservation of the Indians ? 49. Why did not the conquistadorcs enter into mining speculations ? 50. What were audiencias 1 5L What abuses grew up ? 52. How long did they continue ? 53. What first led to the assertion of Mexi- can independence ? 54. Conduct of the viceroy ? 55. The cause of the enthusiasm with which his proclamation was received ? 56. What proposition was made ? 57. Why rejected ? MODERN HISTORY. 47 58 Conduct of the audiencia ? 59. Foelinors of the Creoles and Indians at tliis usurpation ? 60 Common remark of Dataller, one of the members of the council ? 61. Decrees of the juntas of Spain ? 6'2. VVlio raised the standard of revolt ? 63. VVIiat declaration did he make to his congregation ? G4. His progress and conduct ? G5. Acts of the Viceroy Venegas ? 66. What stopped the career of Hidalgo ? 67. His furtiior career and end ? 68. Conduct of his dispersed army ? 69. Manifesto of Rayon ? 70. The treatment it received? 71. VVlio succeeded to the influence of Hidalgo ? 72. His prudent course ? 73. VV hat rendered the royalist cause odious? 74. By whom was Morelos finally defeated ? 75. His end ? 76. Exploits of Mina and his end ? 77. Conduct of the Viceroy Apodaca ? 78. Whom did he employ to draw up his plan ? 79. Substance of his draft of a constitution ? 80. How was it received by the old Span- iards ? 81. Their conduct thereupon ? 82. Eiiects of this false step ' 83. Success of Iturbide ? 84. Conduct of the cortes of Ma Irid ? 85. EtFects of it ? 86. Elevation of Iturbide ? 87. How long did he reigi I 88. His end? 89. When did Me.Yico become iiidependent ? 90. Its progress since ? Sec. 2. — The Establishment of the Span- iards in Peru. 1. Who discovered' the passage around Son 111 America? 2. Who conquered Peru? 3. When did he land there ? 4. The civil condition of the country when the Spaniards first appeared in it ? 5. Who was the reigning inca ? 6. How was he treated by Pizarro ? 7. Ho>v did he receive the Spaniards? 8. Subject of the priest's discourse to him at their first interview ? 9. Relate the circumstances of the inter- view. 10. Cruel and treacherous conduct of the Spaniards. 11 Fate of the inca. 12. Fate of Pizarro. 13 How long after the first conquest was it before the royal authority was estab- lished ? 14. Treatment of the Peruvians ? 15. What proportion of the labourers perished annually ? 16. How else were they oppressed ? 17. What is said of the insurrections at the close of the last century ? 18. How did Chili become annexed to the Spanish dominions ? 19. Loyalty of the Spanish colonies when Joseph Bonaparte was proclaimed king t,f Spain ? 20. Describe the struggle for independence in Chili and Peru. 21. When did the last Spanish garrison sur render ? 22. To what province was Upper Peru at- tached previous to the revolution ? 23. What name did it then assume ? 24. What tribute of national gratitude was paid to Bolivar? 25. His noble conduct ? 26. Condition of Bolivia ? 27. By whom was Florida discovered? 28. Who discovered the Mississippi ? 29. Plan of the French Huguenots ? 30. When and why was Florida annexed to the United States ? 31. The date of its cession ? Sec. 3. — Portuguese Colonies in South Ame- rica. 1. How was Brazil discovered? 2. How long was it neglected ? 3. Condition and character of the natives? 4. Why were the Portuguese in Brazil at- tacked, and by whom? 5. The policy of the Portuguese? 6. How long did tliis policy continue ? 7. How was Brazil governed ? 8. Resti-iction on the chief officers? 9. Judicial power of the captains-generai ? 10. How were the regular troops recruited? I 11. How officered? 12. Who were the ordenan9as ? 13. Their duty? 14. Who were the fidalgos ? 15. The orders of knighthood ? 16. The privileges of the grand master of th© order of Christ ? 17. Salaries of the clergy ? 18. Why so small? 19. How did this jealousy of the Portuguess government show itself? 20. Describe the conspiracy of 1769. 21. The fate of Tiradentas. 22. What conspiracy was organized in A.D. 1801? 23. What created a new era in the history of Brazil ? 24. How did Don Jolm govern, the country ? 25. The progress under his government ? 26. The first cause of discontent ? 27. What formal proposition was made by 6 Portuguese general ? 48 QUESTIONS ON 28. When was the constitution proclaimed in Rio Janeiro ? 29. Wliiit projects were the Portuguese form- ing witli reference to Brazil ' 30. How were they received >. 31. What led to Brazilian independence? 32. What is said of Paraguay "^ 33. How did the Jesuits rule it? 34. ^VIlo headed the revolution in it? 35. His policy ? Sec. 4. — The English in America. 1 The great object of the English adven- turers ? 2. How did they seek to accomplish it? 3. What port in Russia did Chancellor dis- cover ? 4. What was accomplished by the com- pany of merchant adventurers ? 5 With what Asiatic power did Queen Elizabeth conclude a commercial treaty ? 6. How were the English navigators dis- appointed ? 7. What successful enterprise encouraged them ? 8. What gave importance to the informa- tion obtained by Sir Francis Drake ? 9. How did the English avail themselves of it ? 10 By wliom was Canada first settled ? 11. Wliat is said of the early progress of the colony ? 12. What of the contests of the French with the Indians ? 13. When was Louisiana settled, and by whom ? 14. Why was it more valued than Canada ? 15. How did the French propose to connect ("vnada and Louisiana? 16. Tlie consequence of the attempt ? 17. The subsequent fate of the two colonies? 18. What do the British colonies in America now form ? Sec. 5. — Colonization of the West Indies. 1. What is said of Barbadoes when the English first took possession of it ? 2. When were negroes first imported as slaves ? 3. What is said of their increase ? 4. What is said of the settlement of St. Lucia? 5. Of Martinico and Guadaloupe ? 6. Of Tobago? 7. Of Trinidad? 8. Of the Bahama islands? 9. Of the Bermuda islands? 10. What little animal came near destroying the colony ? 11. What use do the English make of these islands ? 12. What is said of Jamaica ? 13. Why was it made the great rendezvotu of the bncaniers ? 14. The conduct of these men ? 15. What is said of Morgan, their most noted leader ? 1 6. From what has Jamaica suffered ? 17. What is said of Guiana? 18. What of Hispaniola ? Sec. 6. — The Portuguese in India. 1. Who discovered the passage around the Cape of Good Hope ? 2 Po.icy of the Portuguese under Albu- querque ? 3. Conduct of the Mohammedans ? 4. By whom v/ere they assisted ? 5. What city became the seat of the Portu- guese government ? 6. What system was strongly depiecated by Vasco de Gaina ? 7. How did Albuquerque defend himself? 8. What other places did he subdue '. 9. What people attempted to establish themselves on the coasts of Malabar ? 10. What would have been the consequence of their success ? 11. What progress did the Portuguese make in sixty years ? 12. What occasioned the ruin of this mighty empire ? 13. E.^plain the cause ? 14. The most remarkable of their posses- sions ? 15. Describe it? IG. What gave it importance ? 17. Of what did it give the world a memo- rable example? 18. Describe it, as it was during the busy seasons? 19. What led to its destruction ? 20. What is it now ? Sec. 7. — The Spaniards in the East Indie's. 1. The object of the first voyage of Co- lumbus ? 2. What prevented the Spaniards from oc- cupying the Moluccas ? 3. Who settled the Philippine islands ? 4. Why so named ? 5. What city did he build ? 6. By whom was it attacked? 7. What rivals soon appeared ? 8. Who now owns these islands? Sec 8. — The Dutch in the East Indies. 1. What drove the Dutch to revolt from Spain ? 2. What laid the foundation of their com- mercial prosperity ? 3. How did the Spaniards seek to checK the growing spirit of freedom in th» Netherlands ? 4. Tlie consequence ? MODERN HISTORY. 49 5. How did they seek to humble the Por- tuguose ? 6. The consequence ? 7. Whut fruitless expeditions were made ? 8. The story of Cornelius Houtman ? 9. How did the Spaniards first attempt to defeat the enterprise he started? 10. Their next attempt ? 11. How was their calumny refuted ? 12. The first islands occupied by the Dutch ? 13. For what island did they and the Eng- lish contend ? 14. Which succeeded ? 15. What city did they build ? 16. What trade did they wrest from the Por- tuguese ? 17. The next island they obtained possession of? 18. Of what trade did this give them the monopoly 1 19. To whom docs Ceylon now belong ? 20. \\'hat baffled their etForts to open a trade with the Chinese ? 21. On what island did they establish a flourishing settlement ? 22. How did they lose this island ? 2.3. To whom does it now belong? 24. What caused the riiiu of the Dutch em- pire in the East ? 25. How was their dominion maintained in Java ? 26. What trade do they still monopolize ? Sec. 9. — The Danes in the East Indies. 1. What led to the Danish association for trade in the East Indies? 2. Where was an establishment made ? 3. What checked the prosperity of the com- pany ? 4. For what did the Danes distinguish themselves ? Sec. 10. — The French in the East Indies. 1 When was the French East India com- pany foi'med ? 2. Why was the India trade abandoned? 3. In what island did the French attempt a settlement ■' 4. What town did they purchase? 5. V/hat islands did they subsequently ac- quire ? 6. What opened to them ■ a new career of ambiLion ? 7 The designs of M. Dupleix ? 8. By whom were they completely baffled ? 9. Their subsequent attempts ? Sec. 11. — The English in India. 1. The settlements of the English in India a hundred years ago ? 2. The uiunber of British subjects there now ? 3. The annual revenue obtained from them? 4. The army maintained by tiie Englisn company ? 5. What is said of Calcutta, Bombay, Ma- dras ? 6. When was the liOndon company incor- porated ? 7. When was the English company incor- porated ? 8. Why, and when, and under what nam« were the two companies united ? 9. The first settlement of any importance? 10. What grant of land did they obtain in A.D. 1658 ? 11. How did they secure it? 12. What island did they obtain in 1668? 13. When was a settlement made at Cal- cutta? 14. What fortunate circumstL.>2ce secured them valuable privileges over other Europeans ? 15. Conduct of the viceroy of Bengal ' 16. By whom was Calcutta retaken? 17. Bold resolution of Clive? 18. To whom did he give the viceroy's post? 19. To whom was the government of Cal- cutta afterwards entrusted ? 20. To what was the council bribed ? 21. What claim did the servants of the East India company make ■* 22. The effect of granting it ' 23. How did Cossim act ? 24. What rash act did he commit ? 25. Its consequcnc'js .' 26. Who was his successor ? 27. Who was now made governor-general ? 28. The condition of the affairs of the presi- dency ! 29. The consequence of his zeal in reforming abuses ? 30. Who first rose against him ? 31. By whom was the plot instigated? 32. How was he treated ? 33. How was another of the mutineers re- warded by the council ? 34. Effect of Ciive's firmue.-s? 35. What removed the chief source of in- trigue ? 36. Who nearlj' ruined the presidency of Madras ? 37. Who retrieved the losses of the English ? 38. What serious constitutional question arose ? 39. How was the right of the British Parlia- ment virtually asserted ? 40. Whose administration greatly extended the territories of the company ? 41. What is said of the means he employed for this purpose ? 42. Proposition of Mr. Fox, and how de- feated ? 43 What important change was made in the government of India by Mr. Pitt ' 44. The object of the new mesrare ' so QUESTIONS ON 45. The first governor-general under the n»w system ? 46. Whose ambitious projects excited his sus- picions ? 47. By whom instigated ? 48. What led to their interference? 49. What dispute arose between Mr. Pitt and the court of directors? 50. The result of the war with Tippoo Saib ? 51. The most remarkable events of Sir John Shore's administration ? 52. The third governor-general ? 53. The object of his first efforts? 54. Against whom did he declare war, and with what result ? 55. In what points of policy was he thwarted by the home government? 56. Conduct of Lord Clive ? 57. Of Lord Wellesley ? 58. What gave rise to serious embarrass- ments ? 59. What led to an angry controversy with the English ministry ? 60. What compromise was effected ? 6L The cause of the mutiny of the native Indian army ? 62. Who aggravated their feelings of natural discontent ? 63. The pretext for revolt ? 64. Lord Bentinck's conduct towards the mutineers ? 65. What system of policy did Lord Miuto propose to introduce ? 66. Why was his success impossible ? 67. What is said of his administration ? 68. What war broke out under his successor? 69. Condition of central India ? 70. What important settlement was made in A.U. 1819? 71. \V'ho succeeded the marquis of Hastings? 72. In what war did he engage ? 73. What strong fortress did lie take? 74. Earl Amherst's successor ? 75. For what was his administration remark- able ? 76. What important change was made in the government of India, A.D. 1833? 77. What two new kingdoms were founded on the ruins of the Mogul empire ? 78. What is said of the Afghans? 79. Who restored the Persian supremacy ? 80. How long did the Afghan monarchy continue? 81. By what was it then distracted? 82. Its condition under the Baurikzye bro- thers ? 83. For what purpose was an embassy sent to Cabul? 84 Why was it changed to a political lega- tion? 85 Demand of the ruler of Cabul ? 86 What resolution did the British Indian government then adopt ? 87. What is 5aid of Shah Sujah's gotem ment ? 88. Result of the insurrection in Cabul in 1841? 89. The result of the war that ensued ? 90. What is said of the importance of this annexation ? CHAPTER XIIL HISTORY OF CHINA. 1. When does the authentic history of fha Chinese commence? 2. When did Confucius floui.^vi ? 3. Condition of China in his time >. 4. What use did he make of the old tradi- tions of the country? 5. His main princi;)le ? 6. What is said of his ritual ? , 7. Who first united all the Chinese under one sovereign ? 8. What great work did he perform ? 9. Its object ? 10. How was this service overbalanced ? 11. Who invaded China under the Han dynasty ? 12. Why is the memory of the Hans stili cherished in China? 13. W^hen did the Mongols invade China? 14. When was the conquest completed ? 15. Describe the naval fight between the Mongols and the Chinese. 16. Conduct of the Chinese admiral ? 17. Government of the Mongols? 18. When v/ere they driven from the countrj'? 19. Who was the conqueror of the Mongols? 20. Describe his rise from rank to rank. 21 Character of his government. 22. The last of his dynasty? 23. Who invaded the empire in his reign ? 24. His end and dying request? 25. Who avenged his death, and by whose assistance ? 26. Conduct of the Tartars? 27. How did they treat the country? 28. Who was Coxinga, and his actions? 29. Character and acts of Kang-he, the second of the Tartar emperors ? 30. Conduct of his successor? 31. Conduct of Keen-lung his successor? 32. What inscription did he engrave on the stone tablet of Ele ? 33. What is said of his fame ? 34. How long did he reign ? 35. Character of his successor? 36. Conduct of the British squadron ! 37. Object of the British embassy ? 38. Who is the reigning emperor? 39. The cause of the late war between China and England? 40. What is said of Chinese military prowess T 41. Terms of the treaty? MODERN HISTORT. »1 42. Opinions oi the Chinese respecting them- selves ? 43. How are the Tartar conquerors regarded by the natives? 44. What secret societies nowf exist through- out China? CHAPTER XIV HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 1. What is said of Jewish colonies? 2. Of Jewish philosophers at Alexandria? 3. What was Gnosticism? 4. In what distant countries did the Jews settle themselves ? 5. What is said of the Jews of Arabia, in the time of Mohammed ? 6. Why did they ever act in concert with Mohammedans ? 7. Haw were they treated by the Abbaside khaliphs ? 8. By Almanzor, and Mamun? 9. For what were they noted ? 10. How were they treated under the Mon- gols ? 11. Condition of Persia at the accession of Shah Abbas? 12. What led the Jews to his country ? 13. How did he treat them ? 14. What saved them from ruin ? 15. How were they treated in Spain ? IG. How by the Spanish Moslems? i7. What distinguished Jews belong to this era ? 18. How were they treated in the more northern countries ? 19. How by Charlemagne and his immediate successors ? 20. Decree of the council of Meaux ? 21. Conduct toward them of Philip Augus- tus, in A.D. 1180? 22. Of St. Louis IX.? 23. Of the parliament of Paris in 1288? 24. Of Philip the Long? 25. Of King John in i350 ? 26. Of Pope Honorius IlL? 27. Of Pope Gregory IX.? 28. The condition of the Jews at Avignon ? 29. Conduct towards them of Gregory XIII.? 30. Of Sixtus v.? 31. Their sufferings during the crusades? 32 Their condition in England? 33. What circumstances confirm this? 34. When were they expelled from Spain ? 35. How many left the country? 36. What toak place at the era of the Re- fot mation ? 37. Their condition in England at the pre- sent time ? 38 Conduct towards them of Maria Theresa of Austria ? 39 Their condition in France ? 40. In Russia ? 41. In Mohammedan countrieB'? 42 Their number? 43 How many in Europe ^ 44 In Asia ? 45. In Africa ? 46. In America? CHAPTER XV. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Sec. 1. — Colonial History. 1. When was the first permanent attempt made to plant a colony within tho limits of the United States? 2. The last colony planted? 3. The dimensions of Virginia, in the reigu of Elizabeth ? 4. Why so named ? 5. How was it afterwards divided ? 6. In what year was Jamestown settled ? 7. When and where, and by whom was the settlement of New-York begun? 8. When was it occupied by the English ? 9. When, and by whom was the colony of Plymouth planted? 10. What attempts had been previously made to form settlements in New England? 11. When was the Massachusetts colony established? 12. The first settlement 13. When was the Plymouth colony incor- porated with that of Massachusetts? 14. When, and where was the settlement of New Hampshire begun? 15. What three other settlements weje made? 16. Under the government of what colony were they at first ? 17. When was New Hampshire formed into a separate province ? 18. When, and by whom was New Jersey settled ? 19. By whom was it first conquered? 20. When did the English occupy it? 21. When, and by whom was Delaware firs* occupied ? 22. Who afterwards seized it? 23. When was Maine settled? 24. The first town built in it ? 25. How long did it remain a part of Massa- chusetts ? 26. When, and by whom was Maryland settled ? 27. Where did Lord Baltimore first plant his colony ? 28. When, and by whom was Connecticut settled? 29. When New Haven ? 30 When was it united to the colony of Connecticut ? 31 When, and by whom was Rhode Island settled ? 62 QUESTIONS ON 32. 33. 34. 35 36 37 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 4.5. 46. 47. 4a. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 6b. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. Under what circumstances? What credit is due to him? When, and by whom was North Caro- Hna settled? When did it become a distinct colony? When was South Carohna settled ? When was the city of Charleston com- menced? When, and by whom was Pennsylvania settled? Why was its growth more ra])id than that of the other colonies ? When was Georgia colonized? The first place founded? What union was formed in 1643? The motives of this confederation ? Why was Rhode Island excluded ? What war broke out in 1675? The loss sustained by New England in it ? Tlie causes of Bacon's rebellion ? The condition of the New England colo- nics during the reign of James II. ? Their governor ? What finally became of him ? What three kinds of government pre- vailed in the colonies ? Where did the charter governments pre- vail ? Describe them ? The royal governments ? The .sources of grievance in these colo- nies? The proprietary governments ? The causes of tho quarrels in them ? The population of the colonies in 1689? Their trade with whom ? Their chief employment ? For what is the year 1692 signalized ? How many were the sutFerers ? The principal theatre of the delusion? The effect ou the colonies of the revolu- tion of 1688? What is said of King Williain^s war ? Of Queen Annc^s war ? The result of the peace of Utrecht in 1713? The principal event of the war com- menced 1744? The eifect of this war on tht colonies ? The cause of the war that followed soon aftcu- ? Tlie fate of the first expedition against the French ? Its commander? The singular fate of the " Plan of Union," adopted in 1754? What is said of Braddock's expedition? What victory made amends for this de- feat ? The parties in the seven years' war 1 T je campaign of 1756 in America? Of 17.37? Of 1758? 84. Of 1759? Of 1760? The terms of the treaty of 1763 "^ How many wars, occupying how mar.y years, were the colonies engaged in, daring the seventy years terminating A.D. 1760? The increa.'^e in population during this time ? In trade and commerce ? How had a national spirit been created' Sec. 2. — Revolutionary History. In what year did the revolutionary war commence ? What doctrine was established among the colonists so early as the middle of the seventeenth century? What restrictions had been imposed upon them ? When was America first taxed by Great Britain for the purpose of raising a revenue ? The object of the stamp act ? How was it received in the colonies ? The proceedings of the colonists ? By what declaration was the repeal of the act accompanied ? What new act was passed? How were the cargoes of tea treated in the diflerent ports to which they were sent? The Boston port bill ? Its effect ? • The first proceedings of the colonies? What did they next do ? The proceedings of the government of Great Britain thereupon ? The first hostile proceedings, when where, and how occasioned ? What fortresses wore taken, and what memorable battle was fought? Who was now appointed the American commander-in-chief ? Size of the American army ? What expedition was next planned, and its success? How were the British driven from Bos- ton? When was American independence de- clared ? Washington's head-quarters, and size of his army ? British army, how large ? What victory did Lord Howe gain? Policy of Wadiington ? What fort was taken by the enemy ? What is said of Washington's retreat? Haw was his army diminished ? Number of his troops? What succession of victories did he gain 7 The effect of them ? Conduct of the American congress dur MODERN HISTORY. 53 ing the darkest period of the revolu- tionary struggle ? 34 ^Vhat French nobleman embarked in the struggle '! 35 What battle was fought for the purpose of protecting Philadelphia, and the re- sult ? 36. What other battle was fought nearly a month later, and the result? 37 Objects of Burgoyue's invasion? 38. Fate of his army ? 3!). Consequences of the surrender? 40. Describe the battle of Monmouth ? 41. What was doing in the South? 42. Describe the campaign of 177D. 43. Object of the enemy ? 44. What were the causes of the inactivity of the Americans? 45. What is said of the depreciation of the currency? 46. What American general capitulated in 1780? 47. What defeat did the Americans sustain? 48. What foreign help arrived this year? 49. For what was this year memorable ? 50. Fate of Arnold and of Andre ? 51. By what inauspicious event was the cam- paign of 1781 opened? 52. From what was Virginia sufFering ? 53. Wliat signal victory was achieved by the Americans in South Carolina? 54. What two battles were subsequently fought by General Greene? 55. What on the September following? 56. Whither did Cornwallis retire, and with what forces ? 57. What was Washington's original plan of tiie campaign? 58. How and why did he change it? 59. Wlien did '.he siege commence, and when and how did it terminate ? 60. Clinton's movements? 61. Action of congress? 62. Siibsc^quent resolution of the British house of commons? 63. What commissioners were appointed to negotiate a peace ? 64. When was the treaty signed ? 65. The conclusion of Washington's farewell address ? 66. Elicct of the war on the trade, com- merce, agriculture, and manufactures of the country ? Sec 3. — Constitutional History. 1. Debt of the country at the return of peace ? 2 Powers of the confederation? 3 What plan to redeem the credit of the coun- try was defeated, and by what states ? 4 Conduct of Massachusetts ? 5. When was the constitution ratified ai>d adopted ? 6. Our first President ? 7. Where did the first congress assemble? 8. Wliat measures occupied its attention? 9. What measure did Hamilton propose iu order to restore public credit ? 10. What "tax was imposed at the second session of congress ? 11. What institution was established? 12. The two parties in the country ? 13. Where did Indian hostilities break out? 14. What generals were defeated by the Indians? 15. On what ground was the bill for adding to the army resisted? 16. By what difficulties was Washington's second term embarrassed ? 17. Proclamation of Washington ? 18. How was it received by the anti-federal- ists ? 19. Conduct of Genet ? 20. Of the democratic party ? 21. What b.ll passed in 1794? 22. Conduct of Great Britain ? 23. Who subdued the Indians ? 24. Cause of the " Whiskey insurrection?" 25. How was it put down ? 26. Objections to Jay's treaty ? 27. What treaty was made with Spain? 28. What is said of Jay's treaty? 29. Concluding remarks of Washington's farewell address? 30. Results of Washington's administration 7 31. Conduct of the French governmeni? 32. Our second president? 33. Opposition to France, how manifested? 34. Its effect ? 35. Date of Washington's death ? 36. His character? 37. What laws killed the federalist party? 38. Our third president? 39. The most important event of this period? 40. Object of Burr's conspiracy ? 41. His subsequent history? 42. How were the interests of the United States becoming complicated with the policy of the belligerent powers of Europe ? 43. What right had Great Britain always claimed and exercised? 44. What special outrage was committed ? 45. Action of the American government thereupon ? 46. Of the British government? 47. The Milan decree ? 48. Our fourth president ? 49. The state of the country? 50. Object of the non-intercourse act? 51. Napoleon's RamhouiUet decree? 52. Act of May 1st of the American cou- gress ? 53. Conduct of the Briti-sh government ? 54. How many American vessels had boe» thus o-^ Kured ? 54 QUESTIONS ON MODERN HISTORY. 55. When was war declared against Great 86. Britain ? 87. 56. The grounds of the war ? 57. Was it popular with ail parties? 88. 58. How long did it last ? 89. 59. The campaign of 1812? SO. Wliat brilliant naval victories were 90. gained I 61. Military and naval operations of 1813 ? 82. Wiiat victory put an end to the Indian 91. war in the northwest? 92. 63. Jackson's victory over the Indians, in the south ? 93. 64. Naviil operations in 1814? 94. 65. What forces did the British send over in 95. 1814? 66. Wliat battles were fought in the north? 96. 67. Actions of the British fleet in the Chesa- peake ? , 97. 68. Attempt on Baltimore ? I 69. Engagement on Lake Champlain ? 98. 70. Battle of Plattsburgh ? 99. 71. Object of the Hartford convention? t 12. Its; statement of grievances ? | 100. 73. Describe the battle of New Orleans? I 101. 74. When was the United States bank in- ; 102. corporated? 103. 75. Our fifth president ? 104, 76. Condition of the country ? 105. 77. What Indian war broke out in 1818? 106. 78. Terms of the convention made with | 107. Great Britain in 1819? I 108. 79. Treaty with Spain ? 80. What distinguished foreigner visited the i 109. United States in 1824? 110. 81. How was he sent home? 82. Our sixth president? 111. 83. Relate the affair of the Indians and the 112. state of Georgia- 1 13 84. What ex-presidents died July 4, 1826 ? i 114 85. What important bill was passet" by the i 115 twentieth congress ? 1116 Mr. Adams' administration ? What is said of party spirit during the election ? Our seventh president? How did he signalize his accession to otfice ? What important measures engaged the attention of the twenty-first con- gress ? What bills did Jackson veto? When and where did nullification com- mence ? Jackson's proclamation ? Conduct of South Carolina ? What led to a repeal of the nullifying ordinances ? How were the " deposites " removed from the United States bank ? With what country was a ".var threat- ened? How was it prevented? How was the city of New-York afflicted in the winter of 1835? Value of the property destroyed ? What Indian war now broke out? Benton's " expunging resolution ? '' Our eighth president ? State of the country ? What occasioned it? Amount of failures in New-York? Conduct of the banks? How did congress endeavour to remedy the ditRculty? Our ninth president? How long did he sui-vive his inaugura- tion ? His successor ? T/ie treaty of Wasbinn^ton ? . The difficulties in Rhode Island? , How were they settled ? The fate of Dnrr ? , The presmii president ? 67b «i .^ 'Cl ■A * ■ N » ■ V'' •v.. ' » 1 * " ^^^' , , - C' \' ^ V " " '\ '' V^ V "^ ' -e.. ,A/ "C^. '■- V ^^'■% •. ,■ ^>^ ■V ^ <^-. o ^y- V^^ v^ o^. '■ ^' ' '.^ o^ "'^/> ,^^"^' ..s^^. 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