LP 337 .N5 Copy 1 j^^ie Academy System of the State of New York By GEORGE FREDERICK MILLER H Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University ALBANY J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS 1922 Lf\331 Ms Gift FE5 17 1S23 % PREFACE Of the several state systems of academies established in the United States during the early national period, the one evolved by the State of New York is usually considered to have been the most judicious and successful. It is the aim of this monograph to present the most important facts, collected from available sources, concerning the academy system of the State of New York from its origin in 1787 to the close of the nineteenth century ; and to organize those facts in a way that will make evident their significance. There seems to have been no very close connection between the secondary schools of colonial New York and the system of academies organized by the State. The schools of the colony, with rare excep- tions, were not supported by the government, and so far as the administrative aspect was concerned the State had to organize its system dc novo. However, in order to show some relation in cur- riculum and aim between the schools of the colonial period and those that developed later, an introductory chapter on the educational situation prior to the organization of the State, based upon the investigations of Brown, Clews, Kemp, and Kilpatrick and others as indicated by the references, has been included. This chapter differs from the rest of the monograph in not having been written from the sources, and in not dealing directly with the academy system. It has been inserted to make the whole more intelligible to readers who may not be familiar with thfe writings upon which it is based and who do not have convenient access to them. The close of the nineteenth century has been chosen as a limit of the treatment of the subject, because by that time the typical old time academies had nearly all disappeared, and even those that were operating under charters of former periods had changed in their plans and purposes. A new type of academy had developed to meet the many and various demands of a more complex society. Public high schools, which had become very numerous and which were giving instruction to nearly eighty-five percent of the secondary pupils in the State had supplanted the academy system. The latter, although not formally abolished, was really extinct by the beginning of the twentieth century. A work by Dr. Walter John Gifford entitled " History of the New York High School System " to be published in the near future [3l 4 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK deals with the academy system from another point of view, and contains information on phases of the history of secondary education in the State not inckided in this monograph. This pubhcation was written in 1915, and was to have been printed as a part of the annual report of the University of the State of New York. But due to the disturbed conditions brought about by the World War the printing of this monograph has been delayed, and it is now published as a reprint of the 132nd annual report of that institution. It IS a pleasure to acknowledge the valuable advice of Professors Paul Monroe and William H. Kilpatrick ; the kind encouragement of Dr. John H. Findley, Dr. Frank P. Graves. Dr. Thomas E. Finegan, and Dr. Henry L. Taylor ; the helpful cooperation of Dr. Walter John Gifford ; and the friendly suggestions of Mr. Tien Toh Liu. CONTENTS Chapter I Page Educational Conditions in New York before the Revolution 7 The academy period in the United States. Political and economic status of the province of New York. Schools and education. Chapter II Legal Status of the Academies of the State of New York 19 The genesis of legal provision for academies. Estabhshment of the Regents of the University of the State of New York. The act of 1784. The act of 1787. Subsequent acts relating to the University. Ordi- nances of Regents. Legislation directly affecting academies. Consti- tutional provisions. Summary. Chapter III Relation of Academies to Other Schools 31 Numerous kinds of schools. Definition of the typical academy. Private, select, and unincorporated schools. Development of a free secondary school. Monitorial high schools. Manual labor schools. Elementary schools; their rivalry with academies. High schools in conflict with academies. Academies regarded as public. Growth of the conception of a " free academy " or high school. Transition of public support from academies to high schools. The law of 1853. Similarity of academies and high schools. Numerical relation of acad- emies and high schools at various periods. Relation of colleges and academies. Chapter IV Development and Support of Incorporated Academies 65 Close relation of support and development. Sources of revenue of academies. State aid to academies in the form of public lands. Loans and state appropriations. Establishment of permanent funds. The Literature Fund. The United States Deposit Fund. Incorporations, admissions, and growth of academies. Proportion of revenues from various sources. General tax law of 1872. The last stand of the old time academy. Support by tuition. Number of academies and attendance in them at various periods. Development of a new type of academy. Data concerning individual academies. Continuity of academies. Statistical summary of academies in the University during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Chapter V Curriculums and Methods loi Authority to prescribe curriculum delegated to Regents by the act of 1787. This authority first exercised in 1817. Modification according to the act of 1827. Early curriculum and entrance requirements. Summary of subjects for entrance and curriculums required by law and ordinance during the nineteenth century. Subjects reported to have been taught by academies. Comparison of early curriculums of academies and those of Latin grammar schools. Relation between the subjects required and those reported to have been taught. Continuity and development of subjects. Tables of the various subjects taught at different periods. Methods of instruction. Aims and psychological theories. Drills. Lectures. Incentives. Rote against reason. Ana- lytical method. Questions. Devices and special methods. Apparatus and equipment. Miscellaneous notions. Daily routine. Conclusions. [5] CONTENTS Chapter VI Page Educating Teachers for the Common Schools 131 Present interest in the problem. Incidental teacher-training during the early period. Experimental period : 1827-1849. The two opposing views. Provisions of 1835. Law of 1838. System abandoned: 1843- 1849. Results accomplished before 1849. Teacher-training in acad- emies permanently established in 1849. Failure of normal schools to meet needs. Modification of the laws. Efficiency of the system as measured by statistical results; as measured by contemporary opinions. Decline of teacher-training work in academies. Conclusion. Chapter VII Comparisons and Conclusions 172 Historical data and facts. The academy period. Educational facil- ities afforded by academies. Significance of instruction given by acad- emies. Innovations introduced in academies. Religious instruction. Con- ditions that contributed to the results of the academy system. Organi- zation: a part of the Universit3^ Slow development of the free school system. Effects of democracy. Population of the State considered. Influence of academies on later educational developments. Bibliography 1 79 The Academy System of the State of New York CHAPTER I Educational Conditions in New York Before the Revolution With the growth of democracy and the rise of a middle class of people after the Revolutionary War, came a type of secondary school, which was better adapted than the Latin grammar school of the colonial period to the new political and economic conditions. Throughout the Nation until after the Civil War, the academy was the chief institution for preparing pupils for college, and for fur- nishing the means of a general cultural education beyond the elemen- tary branches. But in no state of the Union were academies estab- lished in such great numbers and supported so well, in no state did they reach such a high degree of development and continue to domi- nate the field of secondary education so long as in New York. An explanation of the factors that contributed to this result in New York will be attempted in the following chapters. A brief sketch of the educational situation in New Netherland and colonial New York is, however, first required to furnish an adequate under- standing of later developments. The commercial character of the first Dutch control of New Netherland, the activity and influence of the official church, the change to English rule and the resulting division of languages, insti- tutions, and religions were all closely connected with the schools and the educational interests of the times. Political and Economic Status of the Province A charter, which conferred upon the company complete civil power in New Netherland except the right to negotiate international agree- ments, was granted to the Dutch West India Company in 1621. The States-General of the United Netherlands, which granted the privi- lege, had the power to amend the charter in any way, but this right was seldom exercised, and the company enjoyed almost unlimited control until the advent of the English in 1664. The company acted through its lord directors, who in turn chose [7] 8 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OE THE STATE OE NEW YORK a director general and a council as their representatives and local authorities. The latter were given extensive but indefinite political power in the colony. They used their own judgment in all matters not especially determined by their superiors, and became the chief factor in the government of the province. During the Dutch regime, nine villages were incorpo^'ated in what is now the State of New York. Their administration and general local control were placed in the hands of the burgomasters and schepens ; but the powers of these village officials were extremely limited. They were chosen by the director general, who reserved the right to annul almost any measure adopted by them. It is evi- dent that the Dutch government in New Netherland was in no respect democratic, for neither the municipal nor colonial officers were elected by popular vote.^ Under English rule, New York was a royal province ; the gov- ernor was appointed by the king of England, a legislature was chosen by the citizens of the province, and the villages were given more freedom. Although no law was valid unless sanctioned by the king or his representative, the English system of government contained some elements of a democracy, especially in local matters. The economic status of New Netherland and the character of the inhabitants are indicated by the fact that the Dutch West India Com- pany was a commercial enterprise, and was not interested pri- marily in colonization and education. The settlers, however, estab- lished permanent homes, and sought a normal domestic life such as they had been accustomed to in Holland. Since the total number of them, until after the English occupation, was small and they were divided into several communities, there could not have been very many in any one place. In 1623 a number of settlements, each consisting of a few families, were made. Seven years later New Netherland had about 500 inhabitants, and in 1660 the population was estimated at 6000.^ At the close of the century, the number had increased to 25,000, and in 1714 the population was probably about 45,000.^ According to the first census of the United States (1790), the inhabitants of New York numbered 340,121. * Kilpatrick, The Dutch Schools of New Netherland and Colonial New York, chap, i ; chap. 5, p. 78, 79, 80. Clews, Educational Legislation and Administration of the Colonial Governments, p. 198 ff. " Kilpatrick, op. cit., p. 13. ' Kemp, The Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, p. 64. CONDITIONS IN NEW YORK STATE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 9 Schools and Education The charter of the West India Company did not require that schools should be established, but the States-General later probably insisted that schools be maintained. It is certain that after 1638 the company contributed to the support of schools in the province, and thus recognized its obligations. The influence of the Reformed Dutch Church was a prominent factor in promoting education in New Netherland ; in fact, the church and the state were so closely connected in educational affairs that the duties of the two were never clearly differentiated. Except for New Amsterdam and the outlying villages, it was a common practice for the company through its officials to elect the masters of the schools, and to pay a part of their salaries. The church passed upon the religious qualifications of the prospective teachers, and supervised that part of the instruction pertaining to religion. The local civil authorities generally provided the school building as well as a house for the teacher, fuel and other supplies. All patrons except the poorest paid a small fee, which the master received as part of his compensation.* Under English rule government support of Dutch elementary schools was confined to municipal initiative. In most of the Dutch villages public support continued, and took various forms. In Bergen, now in New Jersey, and probably in Kingston, a tax for the support of the schools was assessed. Rents from school lands, pub- lic subscriptions, and other means were common. The practice of charging rate bills was continued practically without exception throughout the colonial period. Although the English provided no state support for elementary schools, and only limited aid to sec- ondary schools, yet governors enforced certain certification require- ments. During the first few years of English rule, licenses to teach were granted by the governor. After 1686, teachers coming from England were required to be licensed by the Archbishop of Canter- bury, or later by the Bishop of London. Governor Cornbury, dur- ing the six years of his administration (1702-8), would permit no Dutch schoolmaster to teach without a license from him. His suc- cessors, however, were more lenient in this respect. The transition from Dutch to English rule, 1664, had a far-reach- ing effect upon educational interests. The Dutch system of schools was adapted to a close cooperation between church and state, and * Kilpatrick, op. cit, p. 228. 10 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NE\V YORK when the change in government took place the schools were left with only the church, except in villages that had been granted special charters, and were not readily modified to meet the new situation. Neither the Dutch church nor school received support from the English government. Furthermore, a conflict in languages and religions arose when the English settlers came. In many cases, the support of a community that had previously been concentrated upon one school and church came, sooner or later, to be divided. In sparsely settled villages this tended toward weakness and inefficiency. The Dutch conservatives could not foresee the inevitable predomi- nance of the English language, and so hampered progress by cling- ing to a waning tongue and decadent customs.^ Evidence of such a condition in New York is to be found in the following : The presence of two languages in New York City must have operated to the injury of the cause of education within the city. . . . Had the system of municipal schools been retained after 1674, giving instruction, however, in both languages, the transition from the Dutch to the English language could have been made with greater ease and with far less hurt to the Dutch church; and New York City would have gained a full hundred years in the development of its school system." It seems that some Dutch schools used English as early as 1708, while others clung to their own language until 1780; so the struggle to perpetuate the Dutch language lasted the greater part of the century.'^ This change was slow and gradual, and it was not until after the middle of the eighteenth century that English was used extensively in these schools. In some instances, however, the conflict in l)eliefs, customs, and languages may have evoked a greater effoit in educational affairs. In 175s the school of the Reformed Dutch Church in New York City secured a teacher from Holland who was, presumably, a more able man for the position than any teacher in the colony, and was paid a much higher salary than was then customary. This effort to improve the school represented an attempt to check the tendency toward the English language. But it was an improvement that was in opposition to the trend of events, and hence soon dwindled and disappeared.^ It seems that the rivalry of religious sects aroused increased activity and interest in at least one school in Albany, in which the representative of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel made a special effort to increase the attendance of his school.^ " Kemp, op. cit., p. 67. * Kilpatrick, op. cit, p. 159. ' Ibid., p. 204, 208. " Ibid., p. 154, 155- *Ibid., p. 203. Kemp, op. cit., p. 198, 199. CONDITIONS In NEW YORK STATE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION II The Dutch probably had no official public school in New Nether- land before 1638. Before that time at least some of the children were very likely taught privately or in a private school. Consider- ing the antecedents of the colonists, it is reasonable to suppose that not all the children were allowed to grow up for fifteen years with- out any instruction in reading and religion.^" During the next twenty-six years of Dutch supremacy, practically every village was supplied with an elementary school, which was under joint control of church and state. The masters were usually also employed by the church as choristers and visitors of the sick. Other occupations through which the teachers often undertook to supplement their meager salaries, were clerk, bell ringer, janitor for the church, sexton, court secretary and messenger. The teacher of the school of the Dutch Reformed Church in New York City in 1755 was paid $350 a year, which was considered a very high salary and which was later reduced." In addition to their regular salaries, house rent and fuel were furnished to the masters. For the most part, what English elementary schools there were in the colony during the eighteenth century were private enterprises, or were maintained by religious organizations. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, an organization within the Church of England, was especially active in supporting schools in New York. Ministers and missionaries of the society supervised the schools, and sometimes taught in them as a means of additional support. The charity school in the city of New York, afterward Trinity School, was the first supported by the society, and was typical of all such schools. The pay of the teachers, always low, was provided in part by the society and partly by the com- munity benefited by the school.^^ The curriculum of these schools, with some rare exceptions, was confined to the three R's and the church catechism. Great emphasis was placed upon religious instruc- tion.^^ In regard to subject matter, the same thing might be said of the Dutch schools ; the three R's and religion were practically all that was taught. It seems that both English and Dutch schools offered ample opportunity for the elementary education of girls as well as boys.** ' Kilpatrick, op. cit., chap. 3. Kilpatrick, op. cit., p. 155, 156. ' Kemp, op. cit., p. 124, 125, 129. ' Ibid., chap. 12. ' Ibid., p. 265, 266. Kilpatrick, op. cit., p. 228. 12 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The number of elementary schools in New York City in 1741 was eight, in 1745, twelve; and by 1762 the number had increased to fifteen. Among the last mentioned there were one Hebrew and two French schools; the maximum number of Dutch schools was^^ three, and in 1761 the English had thirteen.^^ ' There are no statistics showing the number of schools in the whole colony, but Kemp gives the following opinion : " There is a basis for believing that between 1740 and 1775 both the city and the province enjoyed school facil- ities probably comparable with the other provinces, except those of New England." Other schools, both English and Dutch, were conducted by private teachers. Before the advent of the English these were, of course, all Dutch ; but the Dutch gradually disappeared, and at the time of the Revolution most of them were English. These private institu- tions differed in several significant respects from those fostered by the churches. They were free from sectarian limitations and the necessity of teaching a catechism. They were at liberty to modify their curriculums so as to include any subject for which there was a demand. Some of them extended their courses beyond the elemen- tary branches, but as a rule not in a way that made them Latin grammar schools. Needle-work and many other accomplishments were taught the girls ; while courses in navigation, surveying and languages were offered for young men. It was the purpose of the sectarian schools to serve the church by training able leaders and faithful followers ; whereas the private schools were interested in meeting any popular demand for vain or useful learning. The two classes of schools differed in clientele as well as in curriculums. The sectarian schools could teach only those who would tolerate a certain religious doctrine, while the others appealed to people of all creeds and also to those of no particular belief. But the private institutions were not supported by charity, and for this reason were probably more expensive and more select. They were often so small and irregular that they resembled a system of tutoring rather than schools. An advertisement in a newspaper in 1755 indicates a school of the latter kind. It reads: " Writing, Arithmetick, Merchants Accounts, Navigation, Surveying, Mensuration, Guaging, Dialing, and Astronomy, etc. regularly taught by James Bragg, at the foot of Pot-Baker's Hill, in one of Mr. Peck's new houses; where there is a commodious Room for Young Gentlemen, to be * Kemp, op. cit, p. 78. CONDITIONS IN NEW YORK STATE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION I3 instructed in any of the Branches of Mathematics, retired from those that are only taught, Reading, Writing, and Arithmetick. Due attention will be given to Young Gentlemen and Ladies at their Houses if required, Gentlemen Sailors and others, are taught Navigation in a short time and reasonable." " Secondary schools in colonial New York were few and poorly attended, and for the most part depended upon private enterprise. Until the middle of the eighteenth century the Latin grammar school was practically the only kind of secondary school. However, this kind of institution was never established in all parts of the colony by a general law ; for this reason the transition to academies was easy. The change was made by gradually broadening the curricu- lum of the grammar school, and by including in its purpose an educa- tion of immediate value as well as a preparation for college entrance. From 1652 to the time of the English occupation, a period of about twelve years, the Dutch maintained an ofificial Latin school; but it was interrupted for five years, 1654 to 1659, and also from 1661 to 1662. The West India Company exercised about the same degree of control over this school as it did over the schools of elementary grade in New Amsterdam. The master's salary was paid partly by the company, partly by the city, and partly by parents whose children attended it. Three different masters, each serving about two years, were employed for the few years that the school was continued. It seemed to have been in a flourishing condition and to have given promise of developing into a college when the over- throw of the Dutch government brought it to a close. In every respect, it was doubtless a typical Latin grammar school.^'' From 1664 until the establishment of the colonial Latin grammar school by a law passed in 1702, there was no school supported by the government. Meanwhile a number of private Latin schools appeared ; and after a few years passed out of existence. Some of these were sectarian institutions ; all of them were small and weak, and the last one was closed probably in 1688.^^ The province may have been without a Latin school from that time until the one pro- vided for in 1702 was opened in 1704. Under the leadership of Cornbury, who was governor of New York Colony from 1702 to 1708, an act was passed (1702) providing for a Latin grammar school in the city of New York, The dominant influence of the Church of England is indicated by the act repeating " New York Weekly Post Boy, March 31, 1755. Quoted by Kemp, op. cit., p. 264. " Kilpatrick, op. cit., chap. 6. "Brown, The Making of Our Middle Schools, p. 53. Boone, Education in the United States, p. 53, 14 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK the general requirements for teachers in specifying that the master must obtain a license from " the Bishop of London or the Governor or Commander in Chief of this Province." ^^ The school was opened in 1704, and continued for five years or longer. The master received 50 pounds a year from the government and fees from his students, which were about thirty-three in number.^" Incomplete records show the existence of a private grammar school in New York City from 1716 to 1722; some teaching of Latin in New Rochelle for an indefinite period ; and a private grammar school in New York City in 1731. Details concerning the curricu- lums and the pupils of these schools are lacking.^^ In 1732 a school for instruction in Latin, Greek and mathematics was established in New York City by the colonial government, and was made free to twenty boys selected from the various political divisions of the province. It was not continued after 1738, and was the last attempt of the colonial government to support a secondary school.^^ It seems that this was the first instance in the province of pupils being admitted to a secondary school free of all tuition charges. It is stated that from 1741 to 1762 from one to two private gram- mar schools were in operation in the city of New York.^^ Since King's College opened a preparatory school in 1763 to fit students for entrance to the college, evidently the city of New York was supplied with a secondary school of some kind practically all of the eighteenth century. After 1740 Latin schools and other types of secondary schools were opened in a number of villages, and a few of them were continued into the nineteenth century. Some of these places were: Hempstead, where a grammar school was kept from 1742 to 1779; Rye; New Rochelle; Schenectady, where a Latin school, begun in 1771, was later expanded into an academy; Claver- ack ; Salem ; Goshen ; and Kingston, where an academy was founded in 1774.^* No evidence is found to indicate that previous to the middle of the eighteenth century any of the secondary schools were very much like an academy. The principal subject matter was Latin, with occasionally Greek and mathematics ; which means that they were generally Latin grammar schools. However, before the Revolution, " Clews, op. cit., p. 235. " Kemp, op. cit., p. 72, 73. " Ibid., p. 73, 74, 161. ^'^ Brown, op. cit., p. 94; Kemp, op. cit., p. 73. ^ Kemp, op. cit., p. 75. ^* References to these are found on pages 17 and 18. CONDITIONS IN NEW YORK STATE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 1$ the conception of a secondary school, giving instruction in a wide range of subjects of immediate practical value, began to find expression. One writer, probably William Livingston, suggested that two grammar schools be maintained in each county ; not only to prepare pupils for college entrance, but to instruct those who could not hope for a college education. ^^ The significant part of that suggestion is that secondary schools should have a broader function than prepa- ration for college, a characteristic of the nineteenth century acad- emies. Another tendency toward the academy is seen in the private and tutorial institutions that extended their curriculums freely to supply all popular demands.^® Later a number of institutions began as grammar or classical schools, and by a change in curriculum and aim were transformed into the academy type. For example, the Latin school at Schenectady opened by the Rev. William Andrews in 1771, and continued by the Rev. John Doty until 1777 was one of the first places where such a change was contemplated. Mr Andrews outlined his plan as follows : I lately took the Liberty of acquainting You, that I had opened a Gram- mar School in this Town, and since that, I have determined on forming it into an Academy, and propose giving Instruction in Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Geography and Histoi-y to those who may be designed to fill the Stations of active Life, exclusive of those who may be taught the Learned Languages — Bookkeeping, and Merchants accounts to fit them for Business, and the Mechanic Arts." We do not know to what extent this plan was carried out. The Rev. J. G. Gebhard's classical school at Claverack, begun in 1776, developed into Washington Seininary 3 years later. Washington Academy at Salem, one of the most prominent secondary schools in the State during the nineteenth century, was the outgrowth of a classical school that dates from 1780. Another important academy of the following century, Farmers' Hall, grew out of Noah Web- ster's classical school at Goshen, which was opened in 1784. It is notable that the earliest academies were an extension and enlargement of the Latin grammar schools in both purpose and curriculum, and not a substitute for them. The academies under- =" The Independent Reflector, November 8, 1753. Quoted by Pratt, Annals of Public School Education in the State of New York. ■' Cf . p. 12 and 13. " Correspondence of the Rev. William Andrews to Sir William Johnson, Documentary History of New York, v. 4, p. 470. Quoted by Kemp, op. cit, p. 203. l6 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK took all the work of the grammar schools and, in addition, gave instruction in many subjects without any reference to college require- ments. There was no conflict resulting in the extermination of the old and the rise of the new, but simply an absorption of the old by the new. A number of factors contributed to the rise of academies, but it is impossible to say which one was the most important. It seems that the laws of 1704 and 1732 could have had no considerable influence in bringing about the change, because the schools created by them were not similar to academies either in support, organization, cur- riculum or aim. But private institutions, free to experiment and to broaden their curriculums to meet popular demands, seem, on the basis of similarity, to have been the forerunners of academies. They were independent; their existence was determined by their popu- larity ; they sought pupils of all grades ; and they undertook to give instruction in any subject for which there was a demand. Certain economic conditions, such as the increase in wealth, population and general prosperity of the country, and the consequent rise of a middle class in society, were fundamental in calling forth a new kind of school. The following resume contains an incomplete list of secondary schools that prevailed during the colonial period, with a few data concerning them. A chronological order is followed as indicated by the dates on the left of the page. 1652 A Latin grammar school was established in New Amsterdam. It was continued not longer than two years. ^^ 1659 -^ Latin school was reopened in New Amsterdam with A. C. Curtius as master. He left the school in 1661.^^ 1662 The last-named school was continued by the Rev. Mr Luyck, who returned to Holland in 1665, when the school proba- bly stopped.^" 1668 A private Latin school was conducted in New York City by Mr David Jamison.^^ 1677 A Latin school was opened in New York City.^^ 1688 The Latin school of Fathers Harvey and Harrison in New York City was closed in 1688.^^ '^ Kilpatrick, op. cit., p. 95-99. ™ Ibid., p. 104. ^'Ibid., p. 107. But the statement is made in Brown, op. cit., p. 52, that this school was closed about 1672. ^ Brown, op. cit., p. 53. " Boone, op. cit., p. 53. "Brown, op. cit, p. 53. CONDITIONS IN NEW YORK STATE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION IJ 1700 New York seems to have been without a grammar school.^* 1702 Legal and financial provisions were made for a grammar schoolmaster.^^ 1704 The school provided for in 1702 was opened.^^ 1709 The last-named school ended about 1709.^^ 1716 The Rev. Robert Jenny kept a private grammar school in New York City, which probably ended in 1722.^^ 1720 Foster at New Rochelle had " some Latin scholars besides his elementary pupils." ^® 1 73 1 Alexander Malcom kept a private grammar school in New York City.^" 1732 A grammar school was established by the Legislature. This school was the supposed germ of King's College.'*^ 1738 The last-named school was ended in 1738.*^ 1 741 From one to two private grammar schools were operated in New York City from 1741 to 1762.*^ 1742 The Rev. Samuel Seabury kept a grammar school in Hemp- stead, which was closed in 1764.** 1747 From 1747 to 1749, T. B. Chandler, a Harvard student, kept a Latin school in Rye.^^ 1763 The grammar school of King's College was opened.*^ 1764 From 1764 to 1767, Timothy Wetmore conducted a Latin school at Rye.*'^ 1 77 1 The Rev. William Andrews kept a Latin school at Schenec- tady, which was continued until 1777 by the Rev. John Doty.^» 1774 Kingston Academy, Ulster county, was begun.*^ '' Ibid., p. 93- '^Ibid., loc. cit. ; Kemp, op. cit., p. 70. ^'Kemp, op. cit., p. 68, 71. ^ Ibid., p. 73. ^*Ibid., p. 74- 'Mbid., p. 161. *' Ibid., p. 72- " Brown, op. cit., p. 94. *^ Kemp, op. cit., p. 72,. *'Ibid., p. 75- *"Ibid., p. 182. *'Ibid., p. 144- ^^ Brown, op. cit., p. 95. *' Kemp, op. cit., p. 144. ■^Ibid., p. 202, 203. ** University of the State of New York, Convocation Proceedings, 1884, P- 63. l8 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 1776 The Rev. Samuel Seabury set up a grammar school at New Rochelle, which was closed about 1777.^° 1776 The Rev. J. G. Gebhard opened a classical school at Claverack, which was reorganized 3 years later as Washington Sem- inary.^^ 1779 The Rev. Leonard Cutting continued the school established by Seabury at Hempstead in 1742, from 1766 to 1779.^^ 1780 Washington Academy, Salem, was begun by the Rev. John Watson in a log house as a classical school.^^ 1784 A classical school was opened by Noah Webster at Goshen, which became Farmer's Hall in 1784.^* 1787 With the incorporation this year by the Regents, of Erasmus Hall at Flatbush and Clinton Academy at West Hampton, began a new period of secondary education in the State, the period of academies. Summary A number of conspicuous changes mark the development of the educational situation in New York during the colonial period. The influences of the churches in directing and governing schools con- tinually grew weaker. Teachers were no longer required to secure their licenses from church officials, nor did the church continue to control curriculums. The schools gradually became secularized.^^ The Dutch language was finally reduced to a minimum, and English came to be used in nearly all the schools. Curriculums were broad- ened, and the religious element was given less time and attention. The Latin grammar schools were nearly extinct by the close of the Revolution, and academies were springing up. The democratic spirit of the age was being felt in educational affairs. Kemp, op. cit., p. 161. University of the State of New York, op. cit., p. 64. ' Kemp, op. cit., p. 182, 183. ' University of the State of New York, op. cit., p. 64. Ibid., loc. cit. Kilpatrick, op. cit., p. 215. LEGAL STATUS OF THE ACADEMIES I9 CHAPTER II Legal Status of the Academies of the State of New York The academies of the State of New York received legal recogni- tion at the first session of the State Legislature in 1784, when pro- visions were made for their establishment as quasi-public institutions. Governor George Clinton in his message on January 21st of that year had called the attention of the Legislature to the need of educa- tion in these words : Neglect of the Education of Youth, is among the Evils consequent on War. Perhaps there is scarce any Thing more worthy your Attention, than the Revival and Encouragement of Seminaries of Learning; and nothing by which we can more satisfactorily express our Gratitude to the supreme Being, for his past Favours ; since Piety and Virtue are generally the Off- spring of an enlightened Understanding.* The Legislature exercised its control over academies in two ways : directly, by means of general and special enactments, and indirectly through the Regents of the University of the State of New York. On account of its peculiar organization and vital connection with the academies, a knowledge of the latter institution is required for an intelligent conception of these secondary schools. Establishment of the Regents of the Umversity of the State of New York A definite, comprehensive plan for the establishment and opera- tion of colleges and academies was provided by the two separate acts of 1784 and 1787. These provisions, with some minor modifica- tions noted below, remained in force throughout the nineteenth century, and determined the type of secondary school, the academy, that was predominant in the State until about 1875. The Act of 1784 The law passed May i, 1784, entitled "An Act for granting cer- tain Privileges to the College heretofore called King's College, for altering the Name and Charter thereof, and erecting an University within this State," was the culmination of a number of events ^ of ^ Senate Jour., 1784, p. 6. * Some of these were : The Governor's message calling attention to the need of education, January 21, 1784; reports of various committees in the Senate and Assembly, and resolutions of these two bodies favoring the estab- lishment of "seminaries of learning," January 23-28; the Senate gave Mr Duane leave to bring in a bill, " for establishing a University within this State, February 19; petition of the Governors of King's College asking for a revision of their charter, March 24; revisions, amendments, and readings 20 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK educational significance. This act marks the beginning of legislative provisions for schools in the State of New York. The chief features of the law so far as academies are concerned were: (i) The crea- tion of a corporation, called the Regents of the University of the State of New York/ whose principal function was to establish and control schools and colleges. (2) Eight ex-officio members (Re- gents) of the corporation and twenty-four designated by name were provided for. In addition to these the churches were given permission to elect a Regent (or perhaps each church was allowed to appoint one Regent, the law not being clear), and any school or college whose endowment produced an annual income of the value of a thousand bushels of wheat was allowed to elect one Regent. (3) "Provided, That nothing in this Act contained, shall be con- strued to deprive any Person or Persons, of the Right to erect such Schools or Colleges as to him or them may seem proper, independent of the said University." * An amendment to this law, passed November 26, 1784, increased the number of Regents, reduced the quorum, provided for an annual meeting, made it clear that each religious denomination might elect a Regent, and made some other minor changes,^ which did not affect the interests of secondary schools. It is evident that the university thus created was not an institution for instructing students directly, but an administrative body for supervising the schools and colleges of the State. In this respect it was like our modern state departments of education. But it was given a more direct control over the management of schools than is exercised by state officials in our country. The Regents were given the power to perform the functions usually delegated to trus- tees, curators, or similar bodies, such as administering the finances and electing members of the faculty. No school under the authority of the University needed a charter, because the latter was a corpora- tion that included all schools of the State recognized by the law. During the three years that the Regents were organized under this act they received no academies into the University. That this neglect was not due to a failure of the Regents to recognize the supervision of these schools as a part of their duty, is shown by the of the bill in the Legislature, March 25 to April 30; the Council of Revision reported favorably and the bill became a law, May i, 1784. (Proceedings of the University Convocation, 1875, P- 197-203.) •This title was later changed to "University of the State of New York," and is often referred to under the name of Regents, or University. * Proceedings of the University Convocation, 1875, P- 208. 'Ibid., p. 221. LEGAL STATUS OF THE ACADEMIES 21 minutes of that body, February 28, 1786 when a committee was appointed to consider " Ways and Means of promoting literature throughout the State." ^ Under the date of February 8, 1787, is this entry : "A Petition of Samuel Buell, Nathaniel Gardiner, and David Mulford, in behalf of themselves and others, Founders of an Acad- emy at East Hampton, in Suffolk county, was read, and committed to Mr L'Hommedieu, Mr Tredwell, Mr Stoutenburgh, and Mr Van- derbilt." ^ However, it was not until the University was reorganized by the act of 1787 that it became effective in developing the academies. The Act of 1787 Since the law of 1787, reorganizing the University, served as a basis upon which the academies were built, its principal features, and especially those pertaining to academies, will be sketched here. One of the important changes brought about by the revised act was the incorporation of colleges and academies under boards of trustees. According to the first plan, the Regents were to act as trustees of all the institutions subject to their authority. The law of 1787 provided that a board of trustees should be selected for each college or academy incorporated, and forbade any such trustee to be at the same time a Regent. The Regents were thus relieved of the task of managing directly all the business affairs of the various incorporated schools. The complete separation of the personnel of Regents and trustees prevented any school from attempting to secure special favors through its trustees on the board of Regents. There was a similar clause governing the relation of faculties and trustees. No one was allowed to be at the same time a teacher and a trustee of the same institution. The Regents were, by this part of the law, made an imperial rather than a federative body. It has ever since been a fundamental principle of educational institutions in our coun- try that the teaching staff shall have no voice in the board of trustees. Sectarian and denominational influence were guarded against by forbidding any incorporated school to require a religious test or oath of its teachers. This law of 1787 was the Magna Charta of academies. It speci- fied in detail the conditions under which academies might be incor- porated; also the powers and duties of their trustees. The chief requirements of an academy applying for incorporation were: ( I ) The petition presented to the Regents should be signed by those •Minutes of the Regents of the University, February 28, 1786. ' Ibid., February 8, 1787. 22 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK who had contributed more than a half of the funds for the support of the school; (2) the trustees, not more than twenty-four or not fewer than twelve, were to be named; (3) the name of the intended corporation should be specified ; (4) its annual revenue should not exceed 4000 bushels of wheat. When the Regents were satisfied that all legal requirements had been met, they could incorporate the academy " if they conceived such Academy calculated for the Pro- motion of Literature." The duties and powers of the trustees of an incorporated academy are fully described. Some of the most important were: (i) The trustees shall constitute a corporate body ; (2) they shall be in charge of the property and revenues of the institution; (3) they shall have power to appoint and discharge teachers, officers and servants ; to fix the tuition rate of pupils ; to fill vacancies in their own body. All subsequent legislation concerning trustees of incorporated academies was in harmony with these principles. Article 17 of this act declared that a student from an academy should, upon examination, be entitled to admission to any college under the visitation of the Regents. Article 19 stated that when " the State of Literature in any Academy is so far advanced, and the funds will permit thereof " the academy might be reorganized into a college. The functions of visitation, examination and reports, which developed so extensively during the nineteenth century and served to systematize the work of the academies, were assigned to the Regents in the following articles : 3 And it is further Enacted by the Authority aforesaid. That it shall and may be lawful to and for the said Regents, and they are hereby authorised and required to visit and inspect all the Colleges, Academies and Schools, which are or may be established in this State; examine into the State and System of Education and Discipline therein, and make a yearly Report thereof to the Legislature; . . . and to make such Bye-Laws and Ordi- nances, not inconsistent with the Constitution and laws of the State, as they may judge most expedient for the Accomplishment of the Trust hereby reposed in them.' 18 . . . That to entitle the Scholars of any such Academy to the Privi- leges aforesaid, the Trustees thereof shall lay before the Regents of the said University, from Time to Time, the Plan or System proposed to be adopted, for the Education of the Students in each of the said Academies respectively, in order that the same may be revised and examined by the said Regents, and by them be altered or amended, or approved and confirmed, as they shall judge proper.* ' Session Acts, chap. 82, art. 3, passed April 13, 1787. •Ibid., art. 18. LEGAL STATUS OF THE ACADEMIES 23 Subsequent Acts Relating to the University As the educational interests of the State grew more extensive and complex during the following century, the Legislature passed laws at various times to define or increase the powers of the Regents. Libraries, museums and extension work were brought under their control. But their relation to the secondary schools remained essen- tially the same as determined by the act of 1787. It is a significant fact that the law of 1892 ^^ contains practically no feature affecting secondary education in academies, that was not included in the laws of 1784-87. The legal status of academies under the Regents has remained unchanged. The corporate existence of the Regents was made independent of the Legislature by the constitution adopted in 1894." Ordinances of Regents The Regents, acting upon the authority " to make such Bye-Laws and Ordinances, not inconsistent with the Constitution and Laws of the State, as they may judge most expedient for the Accomplish- ment of the Trust hereby reposed in them," ^^ which was delegated to them by the act of incorporation, adopted such ordinances from time to time as the needs of the schools under their visitation required for the guidance of the officials of academies. These ordinances were published and distributed from 1834 to 1854 under the title of Regents' Instructions, and since that time under the titles of Uni- versity Manual and official bulletins. The ordinances may be grouped for convenience into three classes: (i) Those specifying the con- ditions that an academy should meet before applying to the Regents for incorporation; (2) ordinances governing the distribution of state aid; (3) those describing how records should be kept, and what forms should be observed in making reports to the Regents. The clause, " if they conceive such an Academy calculated for the promotion of Literature," ^^ gave the Regents discretionary power in incorporating academies. In 1801 they resolved, " That in future " "An act to revise and consolidate the laws relating to the University of the State of New York." Session Acts, 1892, chap. 378. " " The corporation created in the year 1784, under the name of the regents of the university of the state of New York, is hereby continued under the name of the university of the state of New York. It shall be governed and its corporate powers, which may be increased, modified or diminished by the legislature, shall be exercised, by not less than nine regents." Constitution, 1894, art. 9, par. 2. " " Session Acts, 1787, chap. 82, art. 3. " Session Acts, 1787, chap. 82, art. 12. ^4 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK no academy ought to be incorporated, unless it shall be made to appear, by satisfactory evidence, to this Board, that a proper build- ing for that purpose hath been erected, and finished and paid for; and that funds have been obtained and well secured, providing an annual nett income of at least $ioo, (increased in 1815 to $250) ; and further that there be a condition in the charter of incorpora- tion, that the principal or estate producing said income, shall never be diminished or appropriated, and that the said income shall be applied only to the maintenance or salaries of the professors or tutors of the academy." ^* This resolution, which was in effect an ordinance, remained in force until the law of 1838, which provided that an academy should have a plant worth not less than $2500 before it be allowed to receive a share of the income from the United States deposit fund.^^ The Regents passed an ordinance the same year in agreement with this law, and specified further conditions of incorporation.^*^ The requirements for incorporation were revised at different times, and gradually raised. In i'888 they included: ( i) Property valued at $5000 or more "above all incumbrances"; (2) the debts must not exceed one-third of the value of the property; (3) build- ings worth not less than $2000; (4) a library valued at $500 or more; (5) an income sufficient for the support of the academy; (6) twenty-five scholars qualified to pursue secondary subjects." In 1792 the Regents were given 1500 pounds by the Legislature to be apportioned as they saw fit among the academies.^^ This was the first general appropriation made for that purpose, and made it necessary for the Regents to formulate some rules for its distribu- tion. They at once adopted a policy containing the general prin- ciples followed in all future apportionments. They held that pecuniary aid should be given only to supplement teachers' salaries paid by trustees, for the purchase of library books and laboratory apparatus, and for scholarships to needy students.^^ Previous to 1817 the Regents apportioned state aid to academies on the basis of total attendance. That year they adopted a rule to apportion the funds on the basis of pupils pursuing studies " which are usually deemed necessary as preparatory to the admission of students to " Regents Instructions, 1834, p. 26. '' Session Acts, 1838, April 17th. '" Reaents Instructions, 1845, p. 28. " Regents Manual, 1888, p. 49. "Session Acts, 1792, chap. 69. '"Senate Jour., i6th Si;ssion, p. 91. LEGAL STATUS OF THE ACADEMIES 2$ well-regulated colleges." ^° The next year they adopted the rule that " four-fifths of the sum annually distributed among the Academies of the State, be distributed in proportion to the number of students studying in the classics," ^^ which was the same class of students mentioned the previous year, because college preparatory subjects and the classics were then practically identical. After 1864, the apportionment was determined by the number of pupils who had passed the " preliminary examination " of the Regents.^^ This was the rule until 1882, when " a part of the income of the Literature fund not to exceed one-fourth " was distributed in proportion to the number of pupils who had passed the advanced examination of the Regents.-^ The method of payment by results, adopted in 1882, was abandoned at the close of the century. The ordinance making this change, passed December 12, 1900, reads: "Academic students counted for grants shall include only those who have passed all pre- liminary or ' preacademic ' subjects and are enrolled in or are enjoy- ing the facilities of a secondary school in the University." ^* So long as there were only a few academies, and the Regents by committees could visit each one every year, there was no need for annual reports by trustees. Until 1804 only brief and informal reports had been made. That year the Regents required the reports to be written on printed forms. Four years later this system was discontinued, and until 181 8 but little more than the number of pupils attending was reported. That year the Regents instructed the trustees .and principals to distinguish between elementary pupils and those pursuing classical studies, and to report the number of pupils in each group. An ordinance of the Regents passed March 18, 1828 instructed academies to report on the following particulars : ^^ " Value of academy lot and building ; value of its other real estate ; value of its library and philosophical apparatus ; value of its other personal estate ; its tuition money received or accrued, for the year ending on the date of the report ; interest or income of its permanent funds, received or accrued during said year ; amount of its debts remain- ing unpaid ; amount of money received by it from the Regents of '"Minutes of Regents, April 7, 1817. (Hough). "Ibid., March 24, 1818. (Hough). " Regents Ordinance, passed July 27, 1864. ''Regents Instructions, 1882, p. 133, 134. This examination was equivalent to a college entrance examination. ^" Regents Rcp't, 1900, Administrative Dep't, p. r48, r49. "' Regents Instructions, 1834, p. 24. 26 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK the University since its last annual report, and how the same has been expended ; number and names of its teachers, and the annual salary or compensation allowed to each ; whole number of students, including classical and all others, belonging to the academy on the date of its report ; number of students belonging to the academy on the date of its report, or who belonged to it during part of the year ending on the date of its report, and who are claimed by the trustees to have pursued for four months of said year, or upwards, classical studies, or the higher branches of English education, or both, accord- ing to the true intent and meaning of the foregoing ordinance " ; the age, name and studies of each of the last mentioned students ; the time devoted to each study and the textbook used ; a statement that all classical students had passed an elementary examination, and that composition and declamation were taught ; meteorological reports. Every report was required to be " verified by the oath of the prin- cipal, or one of the trustees of the academy." The Regents instructions of 1834, 1845 and 1849 contain the same ordinance, except a few minor changes. An ordinance passed Octo- ber 20, 1853,-'^ revised and codified all previous instructions con- cerning annual reports of academies. This new ordinance enumer- ated twenty-five items, many of which were included in the ordinance of 1828, on which academies were required to report. The instruc- tions for 1864^^ and 1870'^ contain the twenty-five items with but little change, but in increasing detail. In 1882 ^^ academies were instructed to report on nineteen subjects including the affidavit, but each of these subjects included a number of topics, so the reports were more complete and detailed than in previous years. At the close of the century, an academy report was composed of no less than one hundred four entries,^" which were grouped into seven divisions. Legislation Directly Affecting Academies The Legislature not only governed academies indirectly through the Regents, but reserved the right to pass any special or general act directly affecting these schools. Such laws were often wholly independent of any intermediation on the part of the Regents. '" Ibid., i8^3, p. 66ff. " Ibid., 1864, p. 82ff. =' Ibid., 1870, p. I04ff. '•Ibid., 1882, p. 161 ff. '"Regents Rep't, 1900, High School Department, v. 2, table i. LEGAL STATUS OF THE ACADEMIES 2/ However, there was no conflict between laws of the State and the ordinances of the Regents. The harmonious operation of this system of dual control is illustrated in the granting of charters of corpora- tion. Before the year 1817, the Regents had incorporated forty academies. The Legislature that year incorporated one academy"^ and one special institution,^^ which were probably the first to be incorporated by special acts. By 1854 the Legislature had incorpo- rated 177 institutions classed as academies, while the total number of the same kind of schools incorporated by the Regents up to that time was 137.^' By 1874 the Legislature had incorporated 201, and the Regents 233.'* In some of these acts incorporating academies, the Legislature specified that the school was not to be subject to the visitation of the Regents. These acts of incorporation usually contained a clause, stating that the academy should be received under visitation by the Regents when it had met the conditions required of other schools incorpo- rated by them. In a few cases of a special kind, the act allowed the Regents no choice in the matter, but required them to receive the school into their system.^^ Although the Regents were not given the exclusive power to incorporate academies, they did, except in a few instances, control the admission of such schools into the Uni- versity. It evidently was the intention of the Legislature to supple- ment, not to parallel or oppose the work of the Regents. By numerous special and general grants of land and money to academies, the Legislature established the important principle that pubHc funds might be used for the support of secondary education, a principle not expressed in the fundamental law of 1787. The policy of financial support began with the reservation of lands for churches and schools in 1782. In an act relating to public lands the following occurs : " Provided always that in every such township there shall be laid out one lott containing four hundred acres for the support of the gospel, and two other lotts containing each two hun- dred acres for the use of schools ; and if any number of acres less than the least right shall remain they shall in like manner be appro- ** Clinton Grammar School; Session Acts, 1817, chap. iig. "New York Institute for the Deaf and Dumb; Session Acts, 1817, chap. 264. ^ Regents Instructions, 1853, p. I39ff. '* Ibid., p. 143, 150. "New York Institution for Deaf and Dumb (Session Acts, 1830, chap. 170) and Genesee and Wesleyan Seminary (Session Acts, 1836, chap. 44) are types of this kind. 28 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK priated to the use of schools." ^^ This was supplemented by further acts, 1786," 1790,^^ 1801,^^ and m 1813 *** which resulted in the establishment of a permanent fund, the literature fund, the proceeds of which have since been used for the benefit of secondary schools. In 1838 a part of the income from the United States deposit fund was granted to the support of academies.'*^ Special grants of lands and donations were also common during the early part of the academy period. The Legislature in 1796 granted lot 36 in the village of Johnstown to the Johnstown Acad- emy.^^ A large number of appropriations to individual academies followed during the next fifty years.*^ The Legislature in establishing permanent funds or in making general appropriations, specified, in some cases, under what condi- tions academies were to be allowed to share in the revenue. The funds appropriated in 1792,^* 1801,^^ 1813,*° 1814,*^ and 1816*^ were distributed at the direction of the Regents. The Legislature in 1827 specified how the annual appropriation to academies should be appor- tioned.*^ This act merely defined terms and indorsed practices that the Regents had been following for a decade except that pupils studying higher English branches as well as classical students were counted in apportioning state aid. In 1858, an act ■*' relating to the United States deposit fund fixed the conditions upon which acad- emies would be granted a part of the proceeds. Legislation relating to academies was less frequent during the second half of the century. The union free school law of 1853," IS '"'"An acl for raising troops to complete the line of this State in the service of the United States, and the two regiments to be raised on bounties of unappropriated lands and for the further defence of the frontiers of thi State." Session Acts, 1782, chap. 22, art. 7. ^^ Session Acts, 1786, chap. 67. ^Ibid., 1790, chap. 38. ""Ibid., 1801, chap. 126. ^Mbid., 1813, chap. 187. *^ Ibid., 1838. chap. 237, § 8. *^ Session Acts, 1796, chap. 50. ** Pratt: Annals of Public Education, Convocation Proceedings, 1872, p 207fif. ■" Session Acts, 1792, chap. 69. '^ Session Acts, 1814, chap. 83. ** Session Acts, 1816, chap. 90. " Session Acts, 1827, chap. 228. ■* Session Acts, 1838, chap. 237. '" Session Acts, 1853, chap. 433. LEGAL STATUS OF THE ACADEMIES 29 the stock corporation laws of 185 1 ^"-1857,^^ and the mill tax law of 1872 ^^ will serve as illustrations. The union free school law was primarily a measure to provide for local option in the matter of tax-supported common schools. But the boards of education of union schools were permitted to organize departments for secondary education and to adopt academies exist- ing in their districts. This relation between the union schools and academies is made clear by the following section of the law : " When- ever an union school shall be established under the provisions of this act, and there shall exist within its district an academy, the trustees thereof may, by an unanimous vote, to be attested by their signatures and filed in the office of the clerk of the county, declare their offices vacant ; and thereafter the trustees of such union school, shall become the trustees of the said academy, and be charged with all the duties of the former trustees, and the said academy shall be regarded as the academical department of such union school." ^^ This law marks an important step in the shifting of secondary edu- cation from academies to modern high schools. However, the tran- sition was at first slow. During the second decade after the law was passed, academies more frequently were merged in union schools, and by 1874 there were 64 academies that had been changed into academic departments of union schools.^^ The law of 1851 permitted stock companies that were operating academies to declare dividends. Very little was paid in dividends during the operation of the law. The act of 1857 put an end to the payment of dividends by any company organized and incorpo- rated for the purpose of instruction. An act passed in 1872 provided a tax upon all taxable property for the support of secondary schools. So much opposition to this meas- ure arose that it was repealed two years later. Constitutional Provisions The constitution adopted in 1777, amended in 1801, and the con- stitution of 1821 contain no reference to secondary schools. The constitution adopted in 1846 provides that " the revenues of the said literature-fund shall be applied to the support of academies." ^* The constitution of 1894 repeats the same clause, and contains the fol- lowing new paragraph : *' Session Acts, 1853, chap. 433. °"Ibid., 185 1, chap. 544- " Ibid., 1857, chap. 527. " Ibid., 1872, chap. 736. " C£. table 5. ** Constitution, 1846, art. 9, sec. 30 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Neither the state nor any subdivision thereof, shall use its property or credit or any public money, or authorize or permit either to be used, directly or indirectly, in aid or maintenance, other than for examination or inspection, for any school or institution of learning wholly or in part under the control or direction of any religious denomination, or in which any denominational tenet or doctrine is taught.^' Summary The laws of the State at no time required communities to support academies. All such institutions were established by local initiative. The legislation concerning them had for its purpose the protection of endowments, financial support, and the maintenance of high standards of scholarship in them. The academies were governed by the Legislature acting under the constitution of the State. The Legislature delegated to the Regents the direct management of the incorporated academies, except in some few instances. The board of trustees of each academy was permitted to adopt rules for its school. The Superintendent of Public Instruction, later called Commissioner of Education, exer- cised a limited legislative power over academies in connection with academic classes for the instruction of common school teachers. Constitution, 1894, art. 9, par. 4. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 3I CHAPTER m Relation of Academies to Other Schools The policy of the State of New York, leaving the establishment of schools largely to local and private initiative, and resorting to numerous special acts to aid and control such institutions, produced many kinds and an indefinite variety of schools. It is the purpose of this chapter to explain the reciprocal influence of the more important of those schools, including the Latin grammar schools which preceded them, and the incorporated academies. The types of schools discussed in this connection are: (i) Latin grammar schools, (2) private, unincorporated, and select schools, (3) moni- torial high schools, (4) " manual labor seminaries," (5) high schools in the modern sense, or " academical departments of union schools," ^ and (6) colleges. The incorporated academies of the nineteenth century formed a distinct type ; hut they had characteristics in common with all other schools of the State, both of lower and higher grade. During the second half of the century they were so fused with public high schools that it is difficult during that period to differentiate in every instance, between the two. Academies may be defined in terms of such factors as legal status, source of support, local board of control, curriculum, and rank; the latter measured by the ability to meet Regents' requirements. The first of these factors, legal status, has already been explained and was determined chiefly in the act of incorporation. The typical academy derived its support largely from tuition fees, and was aided by state appropriations and voluntary donations, or endowments ; but no statement can be made in regard to support, or concerning the other factors of control, legal status, curriculum, and rank, that will apply strictly to all academies. There were only occasional instances of tax support.^ The typical academy was administered by a board of trustees, named in the charter and made self-perpetu- ating, or elected by stockholders, appointed by civil officials, or chosen in some similar manner ; but not elected by popular vote. Its curriculum included subjects of a more advanced grade than those taught in elementary schools, but did not exclude elementary ^ For the purposes of this discussion, the term " academical department of union school," which was used in official reports during the last half of the nineteenth century, will be considered synonymous with the term " high school." * Session Acts, 1814, chap. 79; 1835, chap. 169; 1872, chap. 736. ^2 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK subjects. Nearly all subjects offered in colleges were taught in academies. A building and grounds were owned by the corpora- tion in charge of the school, which tended to make it permanent. The relation of academies to the Latin grammar schools which preceded them has been mentioned above. The former were under state supervision and supported in part by the State. These pro- visions were not generally true of the latter. Both depended upon local or private initiative for their establishment. A comparison of the curriculums of the grammar school maintained by the colonial Legislature from 1732 to 1739, and Erasmus Hall (academy) in 1787, will show that the aims and course of instruction in the latter were broader than those of the former. Cuiriculiun of Latin grammar school Curriculum of Erasmus Hall (acad- of 1732-39^ emy), 1787' Latin Latin English Greek Cireek language Mathematics Arithmetic Reading Bookkeeping( ?) Bookkeeping Writing Geography Elocution ^_ "■ ■-■■■•■'■ ^^ LI' History (General) French Private, Select and Unincorporated Schools The law of 1787, establishing the policy of the State in regard to secondary and higher education, provided that nothing in the act should be so construed as to " deprive any person or persons of the right to erect such schools or colleges as to him or them may seem proper, independent of the University." Probably at all times during the nineteenth century, and certainly after 1840, there was a large number of such institutions, which received no legal recognition, were not required to meet the standards set by state officials, and were regulated only by the law of supply and demand. Unincorpo- rated academies, select schools,^' and private schools were terms applied to schools of this class, but they were never differentiated nor their curriculums determined. However, it is certain that the higher grade of them ranked between regular academies and public common schools.^ 'Colonial Documents Relating to the History of New York, v. 4, p. 118; New York Historical Society, Collections, ser. I, v. 5, p. 2. ■* Cf. chapter V, on Curriculum, p. loi. ° The Revised Statutes of 1829 provided for the incoi-poration of select schools, but with practically no results. The two or three that were incor- porated scon were dissolved. Session Acts, 1829, chap. 267. " Evidence that school officials considered them of this grade is found in the State Superintendent's reports as follows: 1843, p. 146, 147, 213, 234, 274; 1844, p. 241, 331 ; 1848, p. 6. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 33 Judging by their numbers and the large attendance in them, it seems that they would have been rivals of the incorporated acad- emies, especially for pupils in elementary subjects. But they came into conflict most directly with common schools. By those most interested in developing the public elementary schools, select and private schools were looKed upon as pernicious and injurious to educational interests. Two charges were brought against them : (i) By attracting pupils who would have otherwise attended common schools and paid rate bills, they deprived those schools of support; (2) they fostered an aristocratic spirit, by appealing to the wealthier class of people, and reduced the common schools to the appearance of charity institutions. '^ The numerical relation of private, unincorporated and select schools to academies, from 1844 to the close of the century, is indi- cated by table i. The statistics on these schools, recorded in the State Superintendent's annual reports, were prepared from data furnished by county superintendents, and are not accurate.* The figures of talile i indicate : ( i ) That the number of private schools remained about the same after 1855 (except for the incon- sistent number given for 1900) ; (2) that the number of pupils attending those schools continued to increase rapidly until 1895, when it was about five times what it was in 1844; (3) both the number of private schools and the attendance in them far exceeded the same numbers for academies at all times. ^ State Superintendent of Schools, Annual Rep'ts, 1843, p. 146, 147, 274, 292; 1844, P- 393, 481, S19; 1848, p. 8. * The State Superintendent in 1848, said that but little confidence could be placed in the reports on private schools, and gives the following figures to show the inconsistencies in the data furnished him : Number of Number of private pupils attending " Name of county schools private schools Allegany 3 i 172 Cattaraugus 12 18 Cortland 8 88 Herkimer 22 24 Montgomery o 2 Schoharie 8 38 Seneca 25 21 Warren 7 78 Yates 21 68 None are reported from New York or Albany while there must be a large number in each." The figures show that in some counties the number of pupils in each school was less than one on the average, and two pupils were reported from Montgomery county where there were no such schools. State Superintendent of Schools, Annual Rep't, 1848, p. 8. 2 34 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Table i Private, Select, and Unincorpor- ated Schools Number Number of of pupils Year schools attending 1844 9S4 34 lOS 1846 I 981 56058 1850 2 277 45 840 I8SS I SOS 43 096 i860 I 275 29 603 i86s I 481 54 345 1870 I S14 127 061 1875 1437 134644 1880 I 176 108 567 i88s I 116 124 8x6 1890 I 988 160 996 189s I 118 165 860 1900 238 II 982 References to Superintendents' reports 1844, table A 1846, table A 1852, p. 5 1857, p. 1861, p. 1866, p. 1871, p 1876, p 1881, p 1886, p 1891, p 1896, p. 1901, p. 92 Academies Year 1844 1846 1850 i8ss i860 1865-6 1870-1 1875-6 1 880-1 1885-6 1890 1895 1900 Number of academies 146 155 163 15s 170 190 132 113 79 74 99 131 9 140 Number of pupils attending 22 782 22 077 27 6S3 36 585 29 061 32 008 21 CIS 15 124 10 371 11 868 15 271 II 220 10 12 722 Note: The figures "for private, select and unincorporated schools" include unincorporated academies, which were not reported separately, except in the census of the State of New York for 1865, from which the following figures were obtained." Number of non-incorporated boarding academies for 1864 no Average attendance in them the same year, males 3 693 females 4 066 7 759 Number owned by stock companies 10 " u u churches and religious bodies " a « individuals IS 85 The years of establishment for some of them were as follows: 1821. 1832. 1834. 1835. 1836. 1837. .one .one .one .one .one .one 1838. 1839. 1840. 1845. 1849. 1850. .two .one .one .one .two .five 1851 three 1852 four 1853 three 1854 one 1855 seven 1856 three I8s8.. 1859.. i860. . 1861.. 1862. . 1863 nine .four .four .four .six .two The Development of a Free Secondary School The growth of democratic sentiment in the first part of the nine- teenth century contained the idea of equal opportunities for all. Philanthropic schemes for elevating the poorer classes were char- acteristic of the times. ^-^ Many realized that the mass of children could not command the means of attending academies, and had no opportunity to learn any more than the three R's which were taught in the elementary schools. ^^ A report of the literature committee of the Assembly in 1831 said: "Our beloved country ought not to be behind in the pleasing employment of giving facilities to the poor and industrious young men of our State, thereby enabling them to obtain situations in life which they otherwise could not do." Assembly Document, 1831, no. 262. '^ Three of these were " special schools." '"Including 2510 pupils in three "special schools." " Census for the State of New York for 1865, p. cxxv. " Assembly Document, 1831, no. 262. Messages from the Governors, vol. 5, p. 381. ^" Messages from the Governors, v. a, p. 350. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 35 John B. Yates, petitioning the Legislature for a loan for a secondary school, said : " The diffusion of instruction in all its branches, among every class of our citizens, is evidently too intimately connected with the duration of our government, the religious and political safety of our institutions " to need any expression of approval. Senate Document, 1830, no. 39, p. 3. With a view to making the poor more prosperous and promoting the welfare of the State, elementary instruction had been provided by the State and by charity organizations. A logical result of that policy, a step further in the same direction, was the notion of bring- ing a better, more complete, and more advanced education within the reach of the masses so as to make them efficient members of society. The academies were not a sufficient means for the realiza- tion of such an aim. Soinething, in addition to them or in the place of them, was necessary. Between 1825 and 1850 three wholly unsuccessful attempts were made to bring secondary education within the reach of all ; in each instance the two elements that finally effected the solution of that problem were not discovered. In 1853 another plan for the accom- plishment of the same purpose, a plan that contained one of the necessary elements, public control, was put into operation; but this was not entirely successful until the other element, public support, was adopted by the laws of 1864 and 1867. The monitorial high school was one of the first attempts to pro- vide a more democratic secondary school than academies were. The plan of the few monitorial high schools, which were confined to the decade following 1825, was to apply the Lancasterian method of instruction to advanced studies. The best type of this kind of insti- tution was the New York (City) High School, established by s stock company in 1825. John Griscom, who had observed similar institutions in Europe, was one of the leaders in the movement. The curriculum ^^ was composed of the same subjects usually taught in other secondary schools of that period. The primary and elemen- tary departments were not unlike the elementary departments of academies.^^ Governor De Witt Clinton was one of the most ardent supporters of the scheme that promised a high school education at low cost,^'' and in his last message to the Legislature recommended " Cf . table 2. "An Address at the Opening of the New York High School, by John Griscom, 1825. " The tuition rates of the New York High School were : Introductory department, $3; junior department, $5; and senior department $7 a quarter respectively, with a few cents of incidental fees for the last two. Ibid., P- 213. 36 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK a law providing a tax for the erection of such a school in every county seat.^^ About ten of these schools were organized in various parts of the State; but this attempt at the solution to the problem of secondary education was abandoned almost entirely before 1835. Another attempt to improve the opportunities for advanced edu- cation was in progress during the same decade. The idea of a " manual labor school," which has since been realized in successful industrial schools, notably Hampton and Tuskegee, was tried in connection with secondary education. The curriculum of academies, with the addition of a little instruction in trades and skilled labor, was adopted by those institutions.^* The labor involved in the scheme was usually considered as simply a means of self-support for the students, the educative value of it was not recognized, and it was not well correlated with the intellectual phase of the school. Agriculture, carpenter work, coopering, printing, bookkeeping, and other forms of industry were employed in the labor institutes. The plan was enthusiastically recommended by legislators,^^ and indorsed by Governor Throop.-° But the " labor institutions " never developed far enough to menace the dominance of academies in the field of secondary education. The few that were established in the decade following 1825 soon passed out of existence, leaving the problem of popular secondary education still unsolved. Elementary Schools Until 1814, incorporated academies were the only institutions, officially recognized by the State, that were giving instruction in elementary subjects; that is except during the five years after the act of 1795 when state aid was given to common schools. During the period before common schools were established by the State, as well as later, the academies instructed a large number of pupils of elementary grade. The academies were never simply " secondary schools " in the sense that that term is usually used in this country ; but they were much Hke the secondary schools of European coun- " Messages from the Governors, 1828, v. 3, p. 212. '* Cf . table 2. '*The literature committee of the Senate in 1830, recommending a loan to one of these schools said : " The plan of the Polytechny, is more pecu- liarly fitted to the condition of our country, and the nature of its political institutions, than that of any other establishment which has come under their observation. ... In what better way can it [the diffusion of infor- mation to the utmost limits of society] be done, than to foster institutions in which the scientific pursuits of the rich, and the laborious operations of the poor are united." Senate Document, 1830, no. 124, p. 5, 6. " Messages from the Governors, 1832, v. 5, p. 381. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 37 tries. They taught pupils of all grades from the age of 6 to about i8 or 20. In 1787, 12 out of the 53 pupils in Qinton Academy were studying advanced subjects, the others elementary subjects.^^ In 1807, about two-thirds of the 1490 pupils in the 19 academies were pursuing elementaiy studies;-^ and in 1818, the proportion in subjects was again about two-thirds. Until late in the century, from one-half to three-fourths of the pupils in academies were enrolled in elementary grades.-^ The curriculum and instruction of academies were extended downward to include all the work gen- erally done in elementary schools, so that the functions of these two schools overlapped to this extent. But a still greater similarity in the curriculums of the two appeared for a decade or more after 1835, when elementary schools began to extend their curriculum upward to include advanced subjects. After the unsuccessful attempts to bring advanced instruction within the reach of all by the monitorial high schools and the " manual labor institutes," the public common schools were looked upon as a means of effecting that object. School officials and legis- lators encouraged the practice of offering advanced instruction in elementary schools, which could be done freely since the law had not prescribed a course of study and textbooks for them.^* The arguments that the county superintendents gave for the advantages of offering advanced instruction in common schools were: (i) That nine-tenths of the pupils do not go beyond the common school ; ^^ (2) that good citizens need a knowledge of such subjects as agricul- ture, physiology, business forms and civics;"® (3) that pupils spend enough time in the lower schools to learn many advanced subjects ; ^^ (4) that common and poorer people should be given the opportun- ities for education which were enjoyed by the rich.^® The State Superintendent also emphasized the importance of extending the " Senate Jour., 1788, February 26th. ^* Assembly Jour., 1808, p. 400. "Regents Rep'ts. ^* Governor De Witt Clinton advanced this idea in 1826. He said that ten years of the child's life are spent in the common school, and that "In two years the elements of instruction may be acquired, and the remaining eight years must either be spent in repetition or in idleness, unless the teachers of common schools are competent to instruct in higher branches of knowl- edge. The outlines of geography, algebra, mineralogy, agricultural chemistry, mechanical philosophy, surveying, geometry, astronomy, political economy, and ethics might be communicated in that period of time by able preceptors." Messages from the Governors, v. 3, p. 116. '' State Sup't Rep't, 1844, p. 167. ^' Ibid., p. 301, 302. " Ibid., p. 169. ^Loc. cit. 38 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK course of study in those schools.-^ This movement began early, but was especially stressed between 1835 and 1850. In 1846 the literature committee of the Assembly reported that a large number of districts were teaching algebra, chemistry, astronomy, vocal music, natural philosophy ; some were offering instruction in physiology, surveying, bookkeeping and higher branches of mathematics ; and that no doubt a sound English education could be obtained in com- mon schools.^'' Table 2 furnishes quantitative information on the extent of advanced studies in elementary schools, from the time the movement gained importance until near its close. Until 1844, the data of the table are based upon the number of towns reporting textbooks in the various subjects, but the number of pupils studying each subject is not specified, which makes the data indefinite. For example, one town in 1833 reported a textbook was used in algebra; this might have been used in only one district and by one pupil, or in ten or twelve districts and by several hundred pupils. The table shows all advanced subjects reported, excepit history, philosophy and rhetoric, all of which appear in less than i per cent of the towns. The pro- portion of pupils enrolled in each study was probably much smaller. The figures indicate that the number of elementary pupils studying history was about i per cent of the total enrolment, and the number studying all other liiglier subjects was much smaller. ^^ The data reported in 1844 ^'^d 1846 are more definite and contain more infor- mation. Six subjects, counting chemistry and astronomy as one, that might be called advanced, were studied by i per cent or more of the whole number of pupils enrolled. One conclusion that the table justifies is that a large number of common schools were attempting to give much of the instruction that had been previously left to academies. It is equally evident that this attempt was not extensive enough to deprive the latter of much support, nor to reach any considerable number who were unable to attend academies. However, it did serve to define the issue between academies and free secondary schools and led to a beginning of the solution of the question of providing equal oppor- tunities for all who desired an education higher than could be obtained in the public common schools. "^ State Sup't Rep't, 1851, p. 125. "Assembly Document, 1846, no. 133. ^ This estimate is based upon the numbers given for the years 1844 and 1&46. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 39 Table 2 The extent of advanced studies in the common schools. The per cent of the number of towns, or for 1844 and 1846 of the number of pupils, when it exceeds i per cent is given in parentheses, in the nearest whole number. NUMBER OF TOWNS REPORTING TEXTBOOKS USED IN THE VARIOUS SUBJECTS 1833 1836 1837 1838 1839 Algebra ... Astronomy . Blair's lectures . Bookkeeping. . . Botany Chemistry Chronology . . Civics Composition . Elocution Evidence of Christianity Geometry Geometry, surveying, and higher mathe- matics Globes and scientific apparatus Greek History, New York . . . . History, United States. History, other kinds . . . Latin Mental or moral philos- ophy Mensuration Natural philosophy. . . . 83 (10%) 174 220 (20%) (25%) 3 244 . (28%) J 24 (3%) Navigation . Philosophy . Physiology Political economy . Rhetoric *• 17 (1%) 27 (3%) 4 17 (1%) 40 (5%) 3 34 (2%) 16 (1%) Surveying. . Vocal music . (1%) 6 3 13 (1%) 7 Number of towns re- porting 811 842 853 864 870 Number of pupils en- rolled 494 595 541 404 532 167 524 188 528 913 NUMBER OF PUPILS RE- PORTED ENROLLED IN THE VARIOUS SUBJECTS 1844 1846 1846 Winter Winter Summer session session session 2 316 3 620 I 706 217 4 S32 '24 372 (1%) 903 922 631 189 Reported with Astronomy in 1846 6 000 20 601 14 357 (4%) 644 906 646 2 342 14 298 14 406 II 139 14 (4%) 161 9 094 (3%) (3%) 558 537 478 4 712 7 106 5 ois 1% (2%) 76 1 395 2 172 10 220 71 890 77 921 (3%) (20%) 36657 782 ... 736 04s Notes: '2 Includes chemistry. " One " book of commerce " was counted as bookkeeping. '■• Textbooks called " expositors " were counted as rhetoric. * This number is the attendance for the year. 40 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK As a result of the extension of the curriculum of academies downward to include all elementary subjects, and the attempt to make elementary schools assume the task of secondary schools, these two classes of schools conflicted. Each accused the other of neglect- ing its proper duties and encroaching upon a field foreign to its function. The case of the academies as presented by the friends of those schools was : ( i ) The common schools in trying to teach the advanced subjects neglected elementary studies; (2) as a result, academies were compelled to enrol many pupils in elementary studies, and so failed to receive the state aid that they would have obtained had they been able to enrol those pupils in higher English or classical studies; (3) a further injury to academies resulted from pupils attending common schools for the study of higher sub- jects, because tuition in the latter was lower. This drew the patron- age from the academies.^'' The advocates of advanced instruction in common schools claimed that academies were aristocratic ; that their benefits were confined to a chosen few ; ^^ and that they should not injure common schools by drawing elementary pupils from them.^^ With the coming of union free schools and their academical depart- ments in the next decade, 1850-60, the burden of popular and inex- pensive secondary education was transferred from the common schools, which had proved wholly inadequate for that purpose, to the academical departments of union schools, which in turn became the rivals of academies. The reconciliation of academies and common schools was expressed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction in 1 861. He said no antagonism could exist between the two when they were correctly organized and administered, and continued, " Each is an indispensable agency in promoting sound and true edu- cation ; the common school in the elementary, and the academy in the higher departments of instruction. It is a mark of progress that the jealousy once existing between them has disappeared." ^^ High Schools in Conflict with Academies Incorporated academies in the State of New York, at their incep- tion and for many years after, were considered the correct solution to the problem of secondary education, and the best means of fur- '° Regents Rep't, 1845, p. 149. ''Regents Rep't, 1844, p. 503; 1845, p. 144, 145, I49- " State Sup't Rep't, 1843. P- 275. Regents Rep't, 1845, p. 54. "Rep't of Sup't of Public Instruction, 1861, p. 35, 36. RELAtlON OF ACAIDEMifiS TO OTHER SCHOOLS 4t nishing the rising generation an education that would fit them for citizenship and the preservation of a republican form of govern- ment. The policy of the State was to contribute support to academies established by voluntary contributions. It was thought best that pupils, who were directly benefited by these schools, should pay a tuition fee; just as pupils in common schools were required to pay tuition. The idea of free schools supported by public taxation had not yet developed. The incorporated academies were looked upon as an integral and essential part of the state system of education, and not as private establishments. Evidence of this attitude is seen in the way they were founded, organized and maintained : ( i ) The State specified how they should be governed, the powers and limitations of their boards of trustees, and also required certain conditions to be met before incorporation; (2) a system of supervision and adminis- tration was provided for academies by the State; (3) the State appropriated large sums of money to academies, not as donations to private individuals, but as an aid to institutions that were rendering an important service to the State ; a policy that placed these institu- tions on the same basis as the common schools which received sup- port in the same way ; (4) an academy, as a rule, was regarded as the common property of the community where it was located. This is apparent from the way communities established and supported them, (o) They were often established by voluntary contributions from local citizens. The subscription list for the establishment of Erasmus Hall contains forty names of persons who gave from 5 to 10 pounds each.^" Clinton Academy was established in a similar way by contributions amounting to £1000.*^ Canton Academy was begun in 1831 after the sum of $1250 had been subscribed by twenty-five citizens of the town.*" (b) The community in some instances was willing to levy a tax for the support of the academy.** (5) By special acts, a number of academies were assigned duties supplementing the work of common schools. Erasmus Hall was given the money appropriated to " Old Town," a part of Flat Bush ; and was required to teach a number of poor pupils of the town free " Strong, Thomas H., History of Flat Bush in King's County, p. 123, 124. Quoted by Boughton, Chronicles of Erasmus Hall, p. 30, 31. It is a matter of passing interest to note that this list contains the names of Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr, each of whom donated £10. ^ ■" Gardiner L. Lyon, East Hampton. Quoted in New York Historical Society, Collections, Publication Fund Series, v. 2, p. 206. " Hough, F. B., History of St Lawrence and Franklin Counties, p. 545. "Assembly Document, 1831, no. 262, p. i. Session Acts, 1835, chap. 169. 42 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK of charge.** This was virtually establishing a common school within the academy. No sharp distinction was made during the early period. The trustees of Farmers' Hall Academy were made by law, upon consent of the voters of the village, the directors of the school dis- trict in the village.*^ The trustees of Oyster Bay Academy were delegated similar powers in their village.**^ The trustees of Mont- gomery Academy and their successors were made trustees of school district 7 of the town of Montgomery.*^ The Schenectady Lyceum and Academy was required to instruct free of charge one pupil, chosen yearly by the county school superintendent from each town in the county.*^ (6) Academies were officially distinguished from private schools.*^ The Regents from the beginning of the Univer- sity considered academies " under the auspices of the public."^" The literature committees of the Senate and Assembly took the same view. It was stated that academies have an intimate connection with common schools, " as a part of the same system of public and popular education." ^^ With the further development of democracy, however, academies, which were more expensive than common schools, were looked upon as exclusive and aristocratic. The fact that they were not accessible to all was recognized by Governor George Clinton. In a message to the Legislature he said : " While it is evident that the general estab- lishment and liberal endowment of academies are highly to be com- mended, and are attended with the most beneficial consequences, yet it can not be denied that they are principally confined to the children of the opulent, and that a great proportion of the community is excluded from their immediate advantages." ^- But this senti- ment gained no prominence until the first quarter of the nineteenth century had passed, and attempts were begun to diffuse education that was not limited to the three R's. It was then seen that as academies were free to fix their tuition rates, the expense of attend- ing them was a barrier to many ; and at the same time no way was seen to control the tuition rates charged. The privilege of deciding " Session Acts, 1814, chap. 79. *' Session Acts, 1822, chap. 197. " Session Acts, 1823, chap. 150. *' Laws of 181 5, p. 93. ** Session Acts, 1837, chap. 95. «Cf. tahle I. ■"Assembly Jour., Dec. 27, 1788; Senate Jour., 1825, p. 580. " Report of the committee on colleges, academies and common schools, Assembly Document, 1838, no. 236, p. 4. " Messages from the Governors, v. 2, p. 350, 1795. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 43 Upon tuition fees was considered indispensable to the officials of academies. Public-spirited individuals then felt that these institu- tions were in the way of progress, and called them obsolete and unadapted to the times.^^ Since monitorial high schools, industrial schools and elementary schools had all proved unsuccessful as a means of advancing the cause of secondary education, the idea of establishing " free acade- mies " supported by public funds was entertained. The issue that arose then was, Is the State or community justified in supporting by a tax upon all a school that only advanced pupils may attend? The negative argument was: (i) It is unjust to grant a superior educa- tion free to a favored few. (2) The weak, unfortunate and desti- tute members of the community have a stronger claim upon the public funds than the intelligent and prosperous, who would be bene- fited by such a school.^''* (3) The State is justified only in provid- ing education as a police measure, and as a means of educating intelligent voters ; both of which are accomplished by the common schools. The State has no right to provide training which will enable an individual to excel his fellows. ^'^ (4) A state-supported school would be at a disadvantage in not being able to ofifer religious instruc- tion, for in it " pupils of all sects and creeds must have equal rights." (5) The State has no right to tax one person in order to educate another, who is able to educate himself.^" On the affirmative side it was argued : ( i ) The principle upon which our government is founded requires a higher education for the voter than was afforded in the common schools. (2) Free secondary schools do not discriminate in favor of the wealthy, because they are open to all who are qualified academically to attend. All do not reach the high school, for the same reason that all men do not reach high offices of honor in the state government. ^'^ (3) Tuition fees in academies make instruction in them inaccessible to a large number of deserving students, so the public money the schools receive is used for the benefit of the few.^* This discussion near the middle of the century accompanied a movement to make secondary education attainable to all deserving ""Regents Rep't, 1845, p. 150. "Horace Greely, in Rep't of State Sup't of Schools, 1851, p. 63, 64. " Regents Rep't, 1877, p. 628, 629. ^' Benedict, E. C, An Address Delivered at the First Anniversary of the Free Academy of the City of New York, June 24, 1850. " Ibid. ^ Report of State Sup't of Schools, 1853, p. 14. 44 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK pupils, by radically modifying academies or substituting a different kind of school for them; but it was not until nearly twenty years later that academies began to disappear rapidly and to be replaced by high schools.^^ The transition from academies to high schools is marked by three laws of the dates 1853, 1864 and 1867, which represent stages in the development of public opinion in favor of high schools. The law of 1853, which permitted a number of adjacent rural districts to combine and establish a high school, and urban communi- ties to maintain similar schools, was preceded by much discussion, many recommendations and suggestions, and a number of special acts granting the privileges provided by that law to certain schools and villages. The Assembly committee on colleges, academies and common schools in 1838 advised that districts be authorized to unite " to form a high school district and to establish a district high school," a plan which they claimed had been tried with success by ■' some towns in the interior of the State.'"^" A few years later a number of county superintendents suggested similar plans of con- solidation and gradation ; the higher grades to form a high school.®^ One of the early special acts to unite districts to afford opportuni- ties for advanced instruction was that of 1834, permitting two dis- tricts in the town of Galen, Wayne county, " to form a permanent school district to be known by the name of The Clyde High School." The trustees of this school were permitted to grant gratuitous tuition to the poor.''- The act did not determine the curriculum. The New York Free Academy, Lockport Union School, and the village of Salem, were some of the places where, by special acts prior to the general law of 1853, schools of secondary rank similar to those con- templated by the law passed that year, were permitted.^^ The first two of these were made free, but Salem was permitted to charge tuition for pupils over 16 years of age, or for those " who shall pursue studies which said board shall deem should not be tuition free." «* ' Cf . table d. ' Assembly Document, 1838, no. 236, p. 13, 14- 'Sup't Rep't, 1843. P- 113; 1844, p. 307, 117. liS. ' Session Acts, 1834, chap. I75- 'Session Acts, 1847, chap. 206; 1850, chap. 77; 1851, chap. 206. 'Session Acts, 1851, chap. 206. par. 112. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 45 The union free school act contained three provisions, among many others not relevant to the present discussion, which were the begin- ning of general local tax support and public control of secondary edu- cation, the two factors that ultimately led to the displacement of academies by high schools. These provisions were : ( i ) The power of the board of education of any union free school to " establish in the same an academical department " ; ( 2 ) when such department was established, it was by this law placed under the visitation of the Regents, with the rank and privileges of an academy; (3) an academy in the district of a union school was permitted to unite with it and become the academical department of the union school.^^ But until 1867, there were only 22 academical departments of union schools and free academies, and a number of those had been organ- ized under special acts.''*' Only 11 of the 22 had been formed by adopting an academy as their advanced department."'^ Tuition fees were generally charged in academical departments, until they were legally abolished by the act of 1864.''* Some reasons for the slow development of high schools under the law of 1853 were given by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, who said : " The act needs revision. Its provisions are in many respects ambiguous, in some contradictory, in others odiously unequal." ^^ He explained further that a two-thirds vote was required to establish a union district, and a vote of the same majority was necessary annually to raise the teachers' salaries and other expenses ; that is, where the district in question was not coextensive with a city or village. In cities and villages, the tax fixed by the school board was required to be assessed without a vote of the citizens. The word "free " in the law was a misnomer, because rate bills were common in schools established under the act.'^° The law of 1864 was an improvement upon the preceding act. It represented an attempt to facilitate the establishment of high schools by abolishing rate bills. It declared : "Any moneys required to pay ** An act to provide for the establishment of union free schools, Session Acts, 1853, chap. 433, par. 11, 16, 17. •* Cf. table 4- "' Cf . table 5. '* Consolidated School Act, 1864, chap. 555, title IX, sec. 11. "Sup't Rep't, 1861, p. 15. '"Ibid., p. 15, 16. 46 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK teachers' wages, in a union free school, or in the academical depart- ment thereof, after the due application of the school moneys thereto, shall be raised by tax, and not by rate bill." ^^ But partly on account of many special acts permitting tuition fees contrary to the general law, this provision had but little effect. Even after the free school law of 1867 was in operation, at least one district was exempted from its provisions in regard to tuition in high schools.^^ In 1874, eight secondary schools supposed to be free were receiving 25 per cent or more of their revenue from tuition fees.^^ They were certainly charging tuition, at least for nonresidents. During the five years from 1866 to 1871 the number of high schools increased from 22 to 59, and the academies decreased at the same time from 190 to 132. It is significant that during the last four of these five years the general free school law of 1867 was opera- tive. The slow growth of high schools and the continued increase in the number of academies until rate bills in public schools were abolished, point clearly to this one conclusion: so long as rate bills were assessed the high schools were poor competitors of academies, because the former under those conditions possessed no financial advantage. But when tuition fees were abolished in the first and retained in the second, academies, rapidly gave way to high schools.'^* The comment of the Regents on this situation was " There is a natural unwillingness to contribute to the support of one school by the payment of tuition, when, at the same time, the law imposes a tax for the support of another." ''^ In curriculums, and probably in the grade of work done, academies and high schools did not differ materially ; but when high schools "^ Consolidated School Act, 1864, chap. 555, title IX, sec. 11. '^ " The board of education of the union school in district number two of the town of Warsaw is hereby authorized to establish rates of tuition in the academical department of said union school, and to collect the same in the same manner as the trustees of other academies in the State." Session Acts, 1868, chap. 222. Similar special acts allowing tuition contrai-y to the law of 1864 were: Phoenix Union Free School, academical department. Session acts, 1865, chap. 458, sec. I, par. 14; Jordan Academy, Session Acts, 1867, chap. 43, sec. i, par. 4. "Cf. table 3. "Cf. table 4- " Regents Rep't, 1878, p. xi. . , RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 47 began rapidly to replace academies, the Regents considered the former inferior in rank, and suggested that they should be schools for giv- ing practical instruction in sciences, bookkeeping, and all subjects related to business, trades and minor professions ; and that they should be made practical to attract pupils who wanted an education for immediate use.'''' Academies, it was claimed, should be used for preparing students for college, as they " stood higher in the educa- tional scale than academical departments which were difficult to hold up to the Regents requirements/'' ""The experiment of free education in subjects above the grade of com- mon school studies is now being made in this State," but attendance in high schools is too low as shown by the following figures, which represent the conditions in 1865 : Number of persons in the high school district Attendance in between 12 the high school and 21 for the year Name of High School years of age Auburn High School i 8ss 132 Buffalo Central School 13 000 154 Elmira Free Academy 2 240 185 Lockport Union School I 991 324 Oswego High School 4 034 1 14 Rochester Free Academy 11255 228 Syracuse High School 7 I33 138 Troy High School 7 935 130 Utica Academy 4 178 143 Totals S3 621 I 548 Per cent of high school population attending, 2.88. This per cent for the whole State was 5.84 Regents Rep't, 1869, P- xvii, xviii. " Regents Rep't, 1878, p. xii ; 1882, p. xiv. 48 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Table 3 (Compiled from the Regents Report of 1875, for the year 1874) Note: This table shows: (i) What per cent of the total revenue of academies and high schools was derived from tuition fees; (2) an estimate of the average tuition fee of each pupil for the year, found by dividing the total amount each school received from tuition during the year by the annual enrolment. The following will explain the abbreviations used: A, Academy I, Institute Ac, Academic S, Seminary F, Female U. A. D., University Academic Department H. S., High School U. S. A. D., Union School, Academic Department ACADEMIES Adelphi A. Albany A . . . Albany F. A . Albion A. Amenia 8. Argyle A . Augusta A . Aurora A . . Brookfield A . Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic I . Buffalo F. A . . . Canandaigua A. Canisteo A. HIGH SCHOOLS Addison U. S. A. D... Aifton u".s. a', b; .'.'!! Albany H.S Alfred ij.'s' A. b.'.' ArcadeU'. S. a'.'d'.! Attica U. S. A. D . Auburn Ac. H. S. Bainbridge U. S. A. D Baldwinsville Free A Batavia U. S. A. D Binghamton Central H. S. Buffalo Central School . Canastota U. S. A. D. Candor Free A Gary Collegiate S. Cayuga Lake A. Oazenovia A . . . Chamberlain I . . Chilis Cincinnatus A. Claverack A. and Hudson River I . Clinton Grammar School F. Dep't. Clinton Liberal I . . Colgate A . Cook A... Coxsackie A Danville A Delaware A Delaware Literary I. Deposit A Canton U. S. A. D. . Carthage U. S. A. D. Castile U. S. A. D. Catskill Free A Champlain U. S. A. D Chester U. S. A. D PER CENT OF TOTAL REVENUE RAISED BY TUITION Clarence School . Classical Union Cobleskill U. S. A. D . Corning Free A . Dryden U. S. A. D Dunkirk U. S. A. D 83 H. S. AVERAGE ANNUAL TUITION RATE PER PUPIL, IN DOLLARS A. 7 71 27 50 SO 13 29 40 7 8 15 10 8 6 19 II 3 7 7 102 SO 19 3 6 10 9 10 9 4 9 18 13 12 16 7 7 6 17 38 46 21 8 19 SS 4 12 10 10 12 8 14 H.S. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 49 ACADEMIES East Bloomfield A . East Hamburgh Friend's I Erasmus Hall A . Evans A Fairfield A Falley S. Fort Covington A Fort Edward Collegi' ate I , Fort Plain S. and F Collegiate I Friend's A Friendship A Genesee and Wyom- ing A Genesee Valley S . . . . Genesee Wesleyan S. . Geneseo A Gilbertsville A. Glens Falls A . , Gouverneur Wesleyan S Greenville A Griffith I . . . Half moon A. Hartwick S . , Hudson A Hungerford Collegiate Ithaca A. IvesS.. . Lansingburgh A . . Lawrenceville A . . Leavenworth I . . . Le Roy Ac. I Liberty Normal I. Low villa A, , Macedon A . HIGH SCHOOLS Egberts H. S Elizabethtown U. S. A. D . Ellington U. S. A. D Elmira Free A Fairport U. S. A. D Forestville Free A Fort Edward U. S. A. D . Franklin A. (Malone) . . . . Franklin A. (Prattsburg) . PER CENT OF TOTAL REVENUE RAISED BY TUITION A. Geneva Classical and Union School Gloversville U. S. A. D Greenwich U. S. A. D. Gr'oton'u. S.'a.D"."..'; Hamburgh U. S. A. D Haverling U. S. A. D Holland Patent U. S. A. D . Holley U. S. A. D Homer U. S. A. D Hoosic Falls U. S. A. D Hornell Free A Huntington U. S. A. D. IlionU. S. A. D Jamestown U. S. A. D. Johnston U. S. A. D. . . Jordan A KeesevilleU. S. A. D.. Kingston A Little Falls U. S. A. D. Lockport U. S. A. D... Lyons U. S. A. D McGrawviilV U. S." A.D. H. S. 60 AVERAGE ANNUAL TUITION RATE PER PUPIL IN DOLLARS H. S. 13 16 12 12 10 4 33 8 27 S 18 23 4 17 2 32 27 17 24 9 II 6 II 28 9 12 2 6 ? 6 8 6 II 9 II 7 16 S 10 6 34 19 21 3 13 8 42 10 24 16 ? 13 6 I 26 7 8 18 II 4 13 (less than l) 50 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK ACADEMIES HIGH SCHOOLS PER CENT OF TOTAL REVENUE RAISED BY TUITION AVERAGE ANNUAL TUITION RATE PER PUPIL IN DOLLARS A. H. S. A. H. S. Marion Collegiate I . . 78 ? 75 24 5 25 29 10 ? 40 20 35 2 6 10 10 2 2 14 8 ? 2 4 ■■"18 30 6 2 '■"28 6 ? 12 ? 7 3 14 6 ? 17 9 7 10 18 6 8 21 6 27 ? 13 49 ""16 67 30 19 3 '"■■16 5 8 8 II ? 37 9 5 8 3 3 8 19 Massena U. S. A. D Mayville U. S. A. D 3 3 Medina Free A 4 57 48 72 93 23 72 55 44 70 ? "77 Middlebury A Montgomery A Munro Collegiate I . . . Moravia U. S. A. D Mount Morris U. S. A. D 5 Newark Union School and A. . 4 New Paltz A New York Conference S Nichols U. S. A. D Norwich U. S. A. D ? 12 Olean U. S. A. D 8 10 Ontario F. S 91 Oswego H. S (less than i) Ovid U. S. A. D 3 2 Oxford A 44 87 Packer Collegiate I . . Palatine Bridge U. S. A. D. . . Palmyra Classical Union 3 (less than i) Peekskill A 26 50 II Penn Yan A Perry A Phelps Union and Classical School I 100 20 Pike S Plattsburg H. S 8 69 33 48 51 94 Pulaski A Port Byron Free School and A . Port Jervis U. S. A. D 5 ? Red Creek Union S . . Rochester F. A 2 Rogersville Union S. . 60 37 ■■■■76 Rural S Rome U. S. A. D I Sauquoit A Rushville U. S. A. D Sandy Creek U. S. A. D Sandy Hill U. S. A. D Saratoga Springs U. S. A. D. . 2 7 5 I Schenectady U. S. A. D Schoharie U. S. A. D Seneca Falls A 7 5 ? Sherman A. Sherburne U. S. A. D 19 27 34 6S 3 Sodus A Sherman U. S. A. D Skaneateles U. S. A. D ? 2 Starkey S 2 Ten Broeck Free A 4 RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 51 AC.VDEMIES HIGH SCHOOLS PER CENT OF TOTAL REVENUE RAISED BY TUITION A. H.S. AVERAGE ANNUAL TUITION RATE PER PUPIL IN DOLLARS H.S. Troy A . Trumansburgh A . . . . Unadilla A Union A of Belleville Warrensburgh A Troy H. S. West Winfield A. Whitestown S . . . Woodhull A. Yates A Utica (Free) A Vernon A Wallkill A Walton U. S. A. D . Warsaw U. S. A. D Warwick I Washington A WaterfordU. S. A. D Waterloo U. S. A. D Watertown H. S WatervilleU. S. A. D Watkins Ac. Union School. Waverly U. S. A. D Weedsport U. S. A. D West Winfield U. S. A. D . West Hebron U. S. A. D. . Westport U. S. A. D Whitehall U. S. A. D . Whitney's Point U. S. A. D. Wilson U. S. A. D Windsor U. S. A. D Yates U. S. A. D.. 96 18 28 The typical academy, supported chiefly by tuition, incorporated by the Legislature or the Regents, and controlled by a board of trustees who were not elected by the people, was distinct from the typical high school, which was supported chiefly by taxation, and controlled by a board of education elected by popular vote; but many institu- tions did not conform strictly to either of these types, thus making it difficult to decide in some instances whether a particular school should be called an academy or a high school. There was a lack of discrimination in the following respects : 1 The name applied to a school was not characteristic of its type. (a) The New York High School of 1825 was an incorporated mon- itorial school, controlled by a stock company offering instruction in all branches, and was not free, (b) The New York Free Academy was in nearly every respect a high school. High schools under the name of academy were not always called " free." 2 The source of support did not differentiate the two kinds of schools. In 1874, eleven high schools were receiving 25 per cent or 5:2 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK more of their support from tuition ; while ten academies were receiving less than 25 per cent of their support from tuition.'* 3 The nature of the local board of control would, as a rule, decide to what class a school belonged ; but there was confusion even in this respect. The board in charge of the Franklin (Free) Academy at Malone in 1867 was composed of five elected trustees, and five trus- tees of Franklin Academy, but it was not made free to all residents of the school district until 1880.''^ It is evident that at the time of transition in the state system of secondary education, there were a number of schools that were neither exactly academies nor high schools. The Regents mentioned this situation in 1875. In case of high schools, " there is much con- fusion in names, produced mainly by many having been organized under special laws," and some academies " though connected with public schools which in other departments are free, are supported by the payment of tuition." ^° Nearly every combination of support and control was tried. Warsaw High School was under a board elected by popular vote, but was supported by tuition. Ten Broeck Free Academy was sup- ported chiefly by endowment, but controlled by a board of trustees who were appointed by the county judge and surrogate, and the supervisors of the towns of Farmersville. Machias, and Franklin- ville, and who served indefinitely.^^ The Regents classified this school as an academy. Table 4, compiled from Regents Reports, shows the numerical relation between academies and high schools during the second half of the nineteenth century.*^ '•' Cf. table 3- " Regents Rep't, 1890, p. 1823. *" Regents Rep't, 1875, P- xii. *^ Session Acts, 1862, chap. 353. Catalog of Ten Broeck Free x\cademy, 1891, last page. *A number of contradictions and evident inaccuracies occur in some of the Regents Reports used in compiling this table. The data have been checked in various w^ays to obtain the most reliable information. For exam- ple, the Regents Report of 1882, p. xiii, gives the number of high schools that were in operation in 1870-71, as 45. The Regents Report of 1869, p. xvi, xvii, contains the names of 23 academies that had been transformed into high schools, and the names of 30 additional and separate schools that were classed as high schools. On page xxi of the same report the name of another high school not included in the other lists is given. This makes a total of 54 high schools that were established before 1869. The Regents Reports of 1870, p. xii; 1871, p. xiii; and 1872, p. viii. contain the names of four high schools admitted as Regents schools by the year 1870-71. With the 54 given in 1869, this makes a total of 58 for the year 1870-71, not including Ten Broeck Free Academy. WHOLE NUMBER OF NUMBER REPORTING PUPILS ENROLLED TO THE REGENTS FOR THE YEAR High ITigh OF THE STATE Academies schools A cademics schools OF NEW YORK 163 3 27 653 I 184 3 097 394 155 9 36 S8s 2 149 3 466 212 170 22 29 061 7 072 3 880 735 167 35 29 423 6 710 3 831 777 115 67 19 717 10 596 4 382 759 97 119 15 932 14 222 4 698 958 82 IS5 12 116 18 983 S 082 871 71 190 12 265 24 778 ? 99 236 IS 271 34 243 5 997 8S3 131 373 II 220 38 717 ? relation of academies to other schools 53 Table 4 The relation between academics and high schools in number of each reporting to the Regents and in number of pupils enrolled in each for the year is shown in this table. Cf. tables i and 2. (Based upon Regents Reports for the corresponding years) YEAR 1850 I8SS i860 i86s 1870 187s 1880 188s 1890 189s 1900 140 s6s 12 722 66 929 7 268 894 Table 4 shows that : ( i ) Academies were the principal secondary schools in the State, judged by the number of institutions and the number of pupils in attendance, until about 1875. In 1875-76, the number of high schools for the first time exceeded the number of academies, and the number of pupils attending the academies at that time was greater than the number attending high schools. (2) The high schools had made nearly all their progress and academies had declined most rapidly during the ten years preceding 1875, which was a period of rapid transition from academies to high schools. (3) The process of transition continued until 1885-86, when the readjustment was apparently complete, and each kind of school had found its place. The rapidity of transition from academies to high schools after conditions were made favorable is explained in part by the merging of academies with union schools in the same district, as authorized by the law of 1853.^^ In communities where the academy was looked upon as one of the public institutions of the locality, which was probably the case in most communities, the reorganization meant only a change in fonn, a different method of support, and a readjust- ment. It was neither depriving the community of any privileges, nor entirely abolishing a cherished institution, and not imposing a Session Acts, 1853, chap. 433, par. 17. 54 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK new burden. The board of trustees of the passing academy and the board of education placed in charge of the new high school were no doubt composed of the same individuals in many instances, so the personnel of the governing body was not changed.®* The teachers of the academy going out of existence were often taken over by the new organization. Out of 64 academies that had merged in high schools before 1874, 15 had retained the principal of the former academy as principal of the high school.*^ Tables 5 and 7 show that l)y the year 1874, 112 academies had disappeared, and high schools had taken their places. Of this number, 64 had been merged in high schools. The other 48 had gone out of existence entirely, but high schools had been organized in the same districts or villages to take their places. Ten other academies had become extinct by that time, 4 of which had been reorganized into normal schools and 6 had expanded into colleges. In addition to the 122 extinct academies accounted for above, a number of others had dis- appeared before 1874, and had not yet been superseded by any other kind of secondary school. Colleges The framers of the fundamental educational law of the State contemplated establishing a close relation between academies and colleges. They considered the former preparatory to the latter, and provided that students from academies should upon examination be admitted to any college under the visitation of the Regents. But it is evident that they intended academies to be more than prepara- tory schools, because it was specified that when " the state of Litera- ture in any academy is so far advanced, and the funds will permit thereof " the academy might be reorganized into a college.®" *' Regents Rep't, rSgo, p. 1823. '' Cf . table S- '"Session Acts, 1787, chap. 82, art. XIX. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 55 Table 5 (Compiled from Regents Reports) This table contains a list of academies that, previous to 1874, were transf-armed into high schools, according to the law of 1853, the law of 1864, or special acts, and the names of the high schools thus formed. The column on the left of the page contains the names of the academies, and the date following each is when it was incorporated or recognized by the Regents. The column on the right contains the names of the high schools, and the date preceding each represents the year the transformation was effected. The abbreviations used are the same as those for table 3. ACADEMIES Academy at Little Falls 1844 Addison A 1849 Ames Academy 1839 Arcade A 1862 Auburn A 1815 Balis 1843 Binghampton A 1842 Cambridge Washington A. . . 1815 Canton A 1840 Champlain A 1842 Chester A 1844 Clarence A 1854 Cortland A 1819 East Genesee Conference S.. . 1864 Ellington A 1853 Elmira A 1840 Fort Covington A 1 83 1 Franklin A (at Malone) 1 831 Franklin A (at Prattsburg) . . . 1824 Gloversville Union S 1855 Groton A 1839 Hamilton A 1824 Holley A 1850 Jamestown A 1839 Jefferson County 1 1846 Johnstown A I794 Jordan A 1842 Keeseville A 1839 Kingston A 1795 Manlius A 1839 Mayville A 1839 Monroe A 1843 Moravia 1 1840 Newburgh A 1 806 New York Central A 1864 Norwich A 1843 Ogdensburg A 1839 Olean A 1853 Onondaga A 1813 Owego A 1828 Plattsburg A 1829 Richburg A 1850 Rushford A 1852 Sag Harbor I 1848 Schoharie A 1839 Seneca Falls A 1839 Sherburne Union A 1840 Spencertown A 1847 Union Village A 1840 Utica A 1814 Vernon A 1839 WallkillA 1842 Walton A 1854 Warwick 1 1854 Washington A (at Salem) 1791 Waterford A 1839 Waterloo A 1842 Watkins A i85o Waverly 1 1858 Westfield A 1839 West Hebron Classical School 1855 Wilson Collegiate 1 1846 Windsor A 1849 Vates Polytechnic I i8S3 SAME PRINCIPAL RETAINED Yes 1873 Yes 1869 Yes 1872 Yes 1867 No 1866 No 1863 No 1861 ? 1873 No 1869 No 1873 Nq 1869 No 1869 No 1873 No 1873 No 1872 Yes 1859 Yes 1853 No 1867 Yes 1870 No 1868 No 1872 ? 1869 No 1868 No 1866 No 1865 No 1870 No 1867 Yes 1873 Yes 1864 ? 1870 No 1868 No 1871 ? 1868 ? i8S3 No 1868 Yes 1873 Yes l8S7 No 1868 No 1866 No 1869 No 1867 No 1873? No 1867 No 1862 No 1873 Yes 1867 ? 1867 Yes 1870 Yes 1868 No I8S3 No 186s No 1868 No 1868 Yes 1868 No i8S3 No 1871? ? 185s Yes 1863 No 1872 No 1868 ? 1858 No 1869 No 1871 No 1868 HIGH SCHOOLS Little Falls U. S. A. D. Addison U. S. A. D. Ames U. S. A. D. Arcade U. S. A. D. (Laws '67, ch. 944) Auburn Ac. H. S. Hoosick Falls U. S. A. D. Binghampton Central H. S., U. S. A. D. Cambridge Washington A, U. S. A. D. Canton A, U. S. A. D. Champlain U. S. A. D. Chester U. S. A. D. Parker Union Free School Homer U. S. A. D. Ovid U. S. A. D. Ellington U. S. A. D. Elmira Free A Fort Covington A, U. S. A. D. Franklin (Free) A, U. S. A. D. Franklin Free A, U. S. A. D. Gloversville U. S. A. D. Groton U. S. A. D. Hamilton U. S. A. D. Holley U. S. A. D. Jamestown Union School and Colle- giate I Watertown H. S. Johnstown U. S. A. D. Jordan (Free) A Keeseville U. S. A. D. Kingston (Free) A Manlius U. S. A. D. Mayville U. S. A. D. East Henrietta U. S. A. D. Moravia U. S. A. D. Newburgh Free School. (at first i common school) McGrawville U. S. A. D. Norwich U. S. A. D. Ogdensburg (Free) Educational I Olean U. S. A. D. Onondaga (Free) A Owego (Free) A Plattsburg H. S., U. S. A. D. Richburg A, U. S. A. D. Rushford A, U. S. A. D. Sag Harbor U. S. A. D. Schoharie U. S. A. D. Seneca Falls (Free) A, U. S. A. D. Sherburne U. S. A. D. Spencertown (Free) A, U. S. A. D. Greenwich U. S. A. D. Utica Free A (first a common school) Vernon U. S. A. D. Middletown U. S. A. D. Walton U. S. A. D. Warwick I, U. S. A. D. Salem U. S. A. D. (also Laws '51, ch. 206) Waterford U. S. A. D. Waterloo U. S. A. D. Watkins U. S. A. D. Waverly U. S. A. D. Westfield U. S. A. D. West Hebron U. S. A. D. Wilson U. S. A. D. Windsor U. S. A. D. Yates U. S. A. D. TIIU ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STAT^ OF NEW YORK Table 6 (Compiled from Regents Reports) This table contains a list of academies that, previous to 1874, had been reorganized into normal schools or colleges. The arrangement of dates and names is the same as for table 5. ACADEMIES Brockport Collegiate 1 1842 Cortlandville A 1843 Fredonia A 1830 St Lawrence A 18 16 Geneva A 1813 Hamilton Oneida A 1793 Ingham Collegiate I 1853 Rutgers F. I 1840 Schenectady A 1793 Wells S. o 1868 NORMAL SCHOOLS 1867 Brockport Normal School 1868 Cortland Normal School 1866 Fredonia Normal School 1868 Potsdam Normal School COLLEGES 1824 Geneva College 1 81 2 Hamilton College 1857 Ingham University 1867 Rutgers Female College 1795 Union College 1870 Wells College o Did not report to Regents Table 7 (Compiled from Regents Reports) This table contains a list of academies that had become extinct before 1874, and which had been replaced by public high schools, which were organized independently either before the academy had passed out of existence or afterward. The dates following the names of the academies show when the institution was incorporated or recognized by the Regents. In case the school was incorporated by the Legislature and never recognized by the Regents, the date of its incorporation is preceded by the letter L. The column on the right contains a list of academic departments of public schools, or high schools, and the date preceding each shows when it was recognized by the Regents. Those acai"»Tiies and high schools that were in the same lace, village or city, appear in the columns opposite each other. The abbreviations of names are the same as those used in table 3. ACADEMIES Albany Female Seminary 1828 1 Albany Pearl Street A L1836 J Auburn Female Seminary 1840 Batavia Female A 1839 \ Catskill A 1804 / Catskill Classical School L1832 \ Catskill Female Seminary L1820 J Clarkson A 1835 Coopertown Female A L1822 1 Coopertown S. and F. CoUgte. I. . 1854 J Cortland Female Seminary L1828 Dunkirk A L1837 Eastern Collegiate I. of New York City L1844 Elmira Collegiate S l8S3 Essex County A 1838 Genesee Seminary L1835 Grammar School of New York Central College 1858 Hobart Hall 1840 Lockport A L1841 Lyons A L1837 1 Lyons A L1840 J Monroe A L1827 New York High School L182S Norwich Union Seminary L1837 Otsega A 1 796 Palmyra A L1842 \ Palmyra High School 1833 J Penn Yan Female A (General Law) 1853 Rhinebeck A 1841 Rochester I of General Education. L1828 1 Rochester I of Practical Education L1832 J Sandy Hill A L1836 Saratoga A and Scientific I L183S Schenectady Lyceum and A 1839 \ Schenectady Young Ladies' S. . . . 1839 / Seward F. S. of Rochester 1840 HIGH SCHOOLS 1873 Albany High School 1866 Auburn Academic High School 1861 Batavia U. S. A. D. 1868 Catskill Free A Li8s9 Clarkson H. S. (Extinct in 1874) 1873 Coopertown U. S. A. D. 1843 Cortlandville A 1871 Dunkirk U. S. A. D. 1849 New York Free A 1863 Elmira Free A 1863 Westport U. S. A. D. 1861 Batavia U. S. A. D. i860 McGrawville U. S. A. D. 1 87 1 Holland Patent U. S. A. D. 1850 Lockport U. S. A. D. i8s7 Lyons U. S. A. D. 1 87 1 East Henrietta U. S. A. D. 1849 New York Free A 1873 Norwich U. S. A. D. 1873 Coopertown U. S. A. D. 1858 Palmyra Classical Union School i860 Penn Yan U. S. A. D. 1874 Rhinebeck U. S. A. D. 1862 Rochester Free A 1871 Sandy Hill U. S. A. D. 1868 Saratoga Springs U. S. A. D. 1854 Schenectady U. S. A. D. 1862 Rochester Free A KELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 57 ACADEMIES HIGH SCHOOLS Skaneateles Seminary L1829 1868 Skaneateles U. S. A. D. Susquehanna Seminary 1854 1861 Binghamton Central H. S. Syracuse A 1830 1862 Syracuse H. S. Troy Episcopal I L1839 1863 Troy High School Washington A (at Warwick) 181 1 1854 Warwick Institute, U. S. A. D. Waterford Female A" L1819 1871 Waterford U. S. A. D. Watertown A L183S 1866 Watertown High School Wayne and Ontario Collegiate I . . i8ss 1863 Newark Union School and S. Weedsport A Li838 1873 Weedsport U. S. A. D. wSaii a:::::::::::: :::::::: ''Si} '«^^ whitehau u. s. a. d. Yates County A and F. S 1830 i860 Penn Yan U. S. A. D. •'Moved to Troy, and continued as Troy Female Seminary. Preparation of pupils for college entrance was not the most impor- tant function of academies at any time before 1875. Evidence of this is seen in the following facts: (i) The curriculums of acad- emies far exceeded college entrance requirements, which were prin- cipally Latin, Greek and mathematics until about 1875.®^ (2) The number of pupils attending academies was far in excess of the num- ber entering or attending colleges of the State.^^ The number of students entering colleges in the State until the middle of the nine- teenth century is indicated in table 8. The number of graduates, those receiving the B. A. degree, for the years when the number of freshmen was not reported, represents approximately the number entering. The per cent of those attending academies who entered college, assuming that all who entered came from academies, is very low. If the number entering college is compared with one-fourth of the attendance in academies, the number that might be supposed to have completed the preparatory course each year, the per cent is some higher.^" The large number of elementary pupils attending academies would tend to make the average number of years spent by a pupil in an academy high, and if this fact were considered, the per cent of pupils completing the academy course of study each year who could possibly have entered colleges in the State would be increased. But there are no available data to determine such facts. However, the data of table 7 afford evidence that during the time specified the academies were not primarily preparatory schools. (3) A number of the more important colleges maintained a preparatory " Cf. table 2. ** Of course, some students from academies in the State of New York entered colleges in other states, but this factor would be counterbalanced by the number entering colleges in New York who were prepared in other states. •" Cf. table 8. 58 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK school of their own, or were affiiHated with one in the same city, until late in the nineteenth century. Columbia College maintained a gram- mar school as a preparatory institution from 1763 to 1864.^^ Union College used Schenectady Academy for the same purpose.^- The University of the City of New York maintained a grammar school for a few years after 1837. It was incorporated by the Regents in 1838 as the Grammar School of the University of the City of New York. Colgate Academy was associated with Madison University as a preparatory school after 1853. Table 8 indicates that the number of pupils whom incorporated academies prepared for college was small in proportion to the whole number attending academies. The data reported before 1805 are so meager and irregular that they are scarcely significant. The proportion prepared for college decreased after 1805, but slowly and to a small extent. Considering the large number of elementary pupils enrolled in academies, it is not surprising that such a small proportion of the whole number attending can be counted among those that probably entered college. When only those students in advanced studies in academies are considered, the per cent of the maximum possible number entering college is much higher. In the second half of the century, some who were conducting academies felt that the few pupils preparing for college received too much attention, and that so much time should not be spent in teaching the Latin and Greek demanded for college entrance. They considered the most important work of academies to consist " not in preparing a few hundred for college, but in educating many thou- sands who never think of college." °^ It is evident that academies prepared many for college, but that many more, who never intended to attend college, were educated in academies. The large number of girls in academies were for the most part in the latter class. A comparison of the curriculums of colleges and academies for the first part of the nineteenth century, shows that academies were offering nearly all the subjects found in college curriculums. It is also apparent that new subjects, such as those in science, history, and Regents Rep't, 1890, p. 543, 544- Session Acts, 1818, chap. 192; 1831, chap. 27;^. 'Regents Rep't, 1867, p. 665, 666, 671. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 59 literature, which appeared in colleges then were readily taken up by the secondary schools. The tendency of academies to aspire to the work of colleges is seen in the fact that by 1870 six institutions that had been organized as academies had been expanded into colleges. Table 8 Relation between the number of students entering or graduating from colleges of the State and the number of pupils enrolled in academies at the date of report, probably about the average number for the year. NUMBER OF FRESHMEN OR SENIORS IN COLLEGES C> H; tei o J5 w pe to z a p o " H to : 1790 7s 1795 265 1800 165 IS I80S 19s 13s I8I0 2gs 275 I8I5 19s 39s 1820 13s 16 182s 21J 62s 1830 195 96s 183s 24s 885 1840 30 31 18 184s 32 32 37 1850 28 9 13 38 30 in « to < a, < H z u u H <2 «i " « w - m S P z H ^ ft. < « ; IflZ < to H z 0. IS isoa 4.66 265 451 5. 76 23s 191 12.04 32s 6S3 4.90 S65 I 8196 3 07 S8s 2 887(; 2.00 29 2 230 1.30 835 2 446 3-39 IIS5 4 303 2.67 II2S 5 548 2.00 144 II 477 1.25 164 12 608 1.30 13s IS 477 .87 s Seniors, where the number in the freshman class is not given, freshmen. a For 1788. h For 1812, c For 1 816. The other numbers refer 1 3 6o THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Table 9 Curriculums of six typical institutions, college, academy, monitorial high school, manual labor institute, public high school, and elementary school, between 1825 and 1850 (References are given at the foot of the table) MONITORIAL LABOR PUBLIC COMMON COLLEGE ACADEMY HIGH SCHOOL INSTITUTE Oneida HIGH SCHOOL SCHOOLS New York Institute of All considered Union Erasmus (City) Industry Lockporl but subjects not College Hall High School and Science Union School taught in all 1831 1831 182s 1820 J 8 50 1835 Algebra Algebra Algebra Algebra Anatomy Anatomy Antiquities, Antiquities, Antiquities Roman Roman Arithmetic Arithmetic Arithmetic, advanced Arithmetic Arithmetic Arithmetic Astronomy Astronomy Belles letters Astronomy Astronomy Bookkeeping Bookkeeping Bookkeeping Blackstone Botany, lectures on Botany Calculus, differen- tial and integral Chemistry, lectures ; on Chemistry Chemistry Chemistry and Kames Civics Composition Composition Composition Conic sections Declamation Declamation Electricity, mag- netism, and op- tics, lectures on Elements of criti- cism Elocution Elocution Evidence of Chris- tianity French French French Geography Geography Geology Geometry Geography Geography Geography Geometry, analyt- Geometry Geometry Geometry Geometry Geometry, descrip- t ive Geometry, plane Geometry, solid Grammar Grammar Grammar Grammar (English) (English) (English) Greek Greek Greek Gymnastics Greek Greek Hebrew History, Titter's History History History (general) History (New York) Intellectual philos- History United ophy Kent States, History, other kinds Latin Latin Latin Latin Latin Literature, biblical, lectures on Logic Mapping Logic Mechanics Mensuration Mensuratio n Mineralogy Mineralogy Moral philosophy Moral philos- Natural history Natural history Natural philos- Natural Natural phi- Natural phi- Natural philos- ophy philosophy losophy losophy ophy Natural theology Navigation Orthography Oratory, lectures Penmanship on Physical geog- raphy Philosophy Physiology (climate Physiology Political economy seasons) Pronunciation Reading Rhetoric Rhetoric Rhetoric Rhetoric Rhetoric Rhetoric Surveying Surveying Surveying Surveying Trigonometry, plane Trigonometry, Trigonometry Trigonometry spherical RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 6l References Union College: Assembly Documents, 1832, v. 3, no. 271, table opposite p. 4. Erasmus Hall : Assembly Document, 1832, v. 2, no. J2, table opposite p. 14. New York (City) High School: John Griscom, Address at the Opening of the New York (City) High School, p. 51, 52, 53, 54. Oneida Institute of Industry and Science : Legislative Documents, 1830, no. 216, talble opposite p. 8. Lockport Union School: Regents Report, 1851, p. 172-83. Common schools : Superintendent of Common Schools, Report of 1836, p. 115, 116, 119. Note: The New York (City) High School and the common schools taught all the common elementary subjects in addition to those mentioned in the above table. The extent to which the latter offered advanced subjects is shown in table 2. More definite information concerning the number of pupils enrolled in academies preparing for college and who actually entered college is furnished by the Regents Report after 1885. These data corroborate some of the earlier and less definite information, although they were not reported systematically and ceased entirely before the close of the century. Table 10 Number of pupils enrolled in high schools and academies who were pre- paring for college, and the number of such who entered college in 1894, 1895, 1896. (Compiled from Regents Reports) WHOLE NUMBER NUMBER WHO PER CENT OF ENROLLED FOR WERE PREPARING TOTAL NUMBER THE YEAR FOR COLLEGE ENROLLED PREPAR- YEAR ING FOR COLLEGE 1885 37043 2418 6.53 1887 39523 2964 7.50 1890 49514 4143 8.37 189s 49937 23006 4.6i<^ 1896 ID 272," 850" 8.276 Table 10 shows that during the decade following 1885 the num- ber preparing for college increased about 2 per cent. One would expect the number entering college in one year to be about one- fourth the whole number preparing for college, or the number enter- ing college in two years to be one-half the number preparing. Upon this basis, the number entering college in the two years preceding 1896 would be about 2071 (one-half of 4142), which is very near the actual number, 2300. The difference in these two numbers corre- sponds to the slight increase in the total number enrolled for 1896 over the year 1890. By this means of comparing the numbers pre- a This number is for academies only. & This is the number for academies and high schools that actually entered college in 1894 and 1895 (two years). e The number attending acader.iies only who entered college in the two years 1895 and 1896. d The per cent of the total enrolment that entered college in the two years 1894 and 189s. e Per cent of total enrolment in academies alone that entered college in the two years 1805 and 1896. 62 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK paring with those entering college, it is probable that about 33 per cent of the pupils enrolled in academies in 1896 were preparing for college entrance. The conclusion drawn from this somewhat meager evidence is that academies toward, the close of the nineteenth century were becoming " feeders for colleges," which could not be said of old- time academies. A list of all the subjects in the various curriculums of academies in 181 2, and the curriculum of Columbia College two years before that date, with the dates when the subjects of the latter were first reported taught in any academy, will show how the majority of new subjects first appeared in the college curriculum. Table ii A comparison of college and academy curriculums All subjects taught in academies in 1812 »6 Dates when the subjects in Number Columbia's curriculum of of acad- 1810 or equivalent sub- emies jects first appeared in the offering curriculum of an academy »* Name of subject it Curriculum of Columbia College in 1810 " Algebra Algebra, 1825 Analysis of intellectual powers Intellectual philosophy, 1826 Antiquities, Grecian Grecian antiquities, 1828 Antiquities, Roman Roman antiquities, 1827 Astronomy Astronomy, 1797 Astronomy i Belles letters Belles letters, 1817 Bookkeeping 21 Chronology Chronology, 1826 Composition Composition, 1804 Conic sections Conic sections, 1827 Criticism Criticism, 1826 Declamation Declamation, 1787 Ethics Ethics, 1827 Fluctions Fluctions, 1827 Geography Geography, 1787 French 2 Geometry Geometry, 1825 Geography 3 Grammar (English) Grammar (English), 1787 . Elementary Enghsh (Gram- mar) 21 Greek Greek, 1787 Greek 20 History History, 1787 Latin Latin, 1787 Latin 20 Law of nature ? Logic 5 Mathematics Mathematics, 1787 Mathematics 21 Moral p}iilosophy i Natural philosophy Natural philosophy, 1787 . . Natural philosophy 4 Penmanship 21 Reading Reading, 1787 Reading 21 Rhetoric Rhetoric, i799 Rhetoric S Science of mind, &c Intellectual philosophy, 1826 Trigonometry Trigonometry, 1826 Trigonometry, spherical Trigonometry, spherical, 1831 Of the twenty-seven subjects offered by Columbia in i8ro, only twelve had appeared in the curriculums of academies; and most of the twelve were ordinary subjects such as Latin, Greek and mathe- matics that had been in the curriculums of colleges for centuries. »< History of Columbia University 1754-1904, p. 90, 91. »5 Cf . tables 3 and 4. »« Assembly Jour., 1813, p. 496. The number of academies reporting in 1812 was 21. RELATION OF ACADEMIES TO OTHER SCHOOLS 63 Five subjects were taught in academies in 1812 that did not appear in the curricukim of Cokimbia in 1810. New subjects offered by colleges were soon adopted by academies which, during the second and third quarters of the nineteenth cen- tury, were offering nearly all the subjects in college curriculums of the period.^^ Conclusions 1 Many types and varieties of schools were in operation in New York during the nineteenth century. Complexity of the educational situation was due chiefly to two conditions: (a) Local option in the establishment, support, and control of schools was the rule; (h) spe- cial legislation granted local privileges and in some instances immunity from general laws. 2 Seven fairly well-defined types may be marked out from the various schools that prevailed : (a) Latin grammar schools, which are confined to the eighteenth century, and which are mentioned in this connection merely because they were the schools out of which the academies grew, (b) Pubkc elementary tax-supported schools, which were called common schools, (c) Private, select and unincor- porated schools designate a large group of poorly defined institu- tions that occupied an intern;ediate place between academies and common schools. They were patronized by people who were too aristocratic for the common schools and who could not be accom- modated by an academy. These schools were about ten times as numerous as academies, {d) Monitorial high schools, an attempt to apply the monitorial system of instruction to secondary schools, were transitory and a factor in the development of a free secondary school. Manual labor seminaries, representing an attempt to bring advanced education within the reach of all, differed from the moni- torial high schools only in plan ; the aim of the two was the same. (e) Modern high schools developed in the second half of the cen- tury, after 1850, as the true solution of tke problem of secondary education for all, at least so far as it was solved at all, and replaced the academies as the principal secondary schools. (/) Academies as a rule were not supported by a tax nor controlled by a school board elected by the people. These were the two factors that dif- ferentiated them most clearly from the high schools. Academies •"Cf. table 21. 64 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK dominated the field of secondary education until about 1875. (g) Col- leges were at all times very distinct from the other types of schools. The curriculums and the methods of academies show the influence of the colleges. 3 Academies were not strictly secondary schools in the sense in which the term secondary school is now used in this country. Until after 1875 from one-half to three-fourths of all the pupils enrolled in academies were studying elementary subjects. 4 Until about 1850, academies were considered an integrant part of the public educational system of the State. Later they were looked upon as private institutions and not a necessary part of the educational system. 5 The relation of academies to other schools of the State is revealed most clearly in connection with the development of the modern high school. After elementary schools were established in accord- ance with the principles of democracy, the notion of secondary schools within the reach of all began to grow. Since academies did not meet that demand, other kinds of schools were advocated and tried. The first of these were the monitorial high school and the manual labor seminary, neither of which was successful. Another unsuccessful attempt to solve the problem was made when com- mon elementary schools were encouraged to offer instruction in advanced subjects. This brought the common schools into a mild conflict with academies. It was not until high schools were estab- lished as separate departments of union free schools that the issue of free secondary schools was brought clearly before the public. During the third quarter of the nineteenth century that issue was worked out, and decided in favor of high schools. While the transi- tion was going on, many academies were changed gradually into free secondary schools. But it was only after the acts of 1864 and 1867 made instruction in high schools free that they began to develop rapidly and to replace academies. 6 After high schools replaced the old-time academies a readjust- ment ensued. Popular secondary education was provided for by high schools, and a new type of academy which catered to the wealthy and prepared boys for college arose. By 1885 each type of school had found its field and the conflict between academies and high schools ceased. ■ : DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT OF INCORPORATED ACADEMIES 65 CHAPTER IV Development and Support of Incorporated Academies Establishment and maintenance of incorporated academies in the University of the State of New York, until the latter part of the nineteenth century, was closely related to the state aid granted them. The appropriations made by the State to academies had two import- ant effects. They encouraged the establishment of those schools in parts of the State that could not have otherwise maintained them, and gave the Regents a means of control over them that was pro- vided in no other way. This last effect was of special significance. The policy of the State in leaving secondary education to local and private initiative precluded direct requirements for the regula- tion of academies. Any community or individual could open a school, and conduct it independently, irrespective of established standards. But if an institution wished to secure the advantages and privileges offered by the State through the Regents, it had to observe the laws and ordinances relating to Regents schools. One of the principal advantages of being a Regents school was the oppor- tunity of sharing in the funds appropriated by the State ; and the chief penalty that the Regents could impose upon an academy for negligence of ordinances and laws was to deprive it of its share of state aid. The funds that the State contributed toward the support of academies formed the basis of the authority of the Regents, and provided a means for the growth and development of those schools into a well-defined system under the supervision of the Regents. The most important sources of revenue for academies were state aid and tuition fees, although a considerable part of their support came from voluntary contributions which included endowment funds. Before 1875, about three and one-half million dollars worth of prop- erty had been contributed to academies.^ A number of academies received local tax support, and a general state tax was levied one year only for the benefit of all secondary schools.^ * Proceedings of the University Convocation, 1872, p. 120. ' Session Acts, 1872, chap. 736, 541. 66 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK State Aid to Academies The obligation of the State to support education was recognized before the close of the Revolutionary War. In his message to the Legislature in 1782, Governor George Clinton said: " In the present respite from the more severe distresses and calamities of the war, I can not forbear suggesting to you a work which I conceive ought not to be deferred, as the business of peace, the promotion and encouragement of learning. Besides the general advantages arising to society from liberal science, as restraining those rude passions which lead to vice and disorder, it is the peculiar duty of the government of a free state, where the highest employ- ments are open to citizens of every rank, to endeavor by the estab- lishment of schools and seminaries, to diffuse that degree of litera- ture which is necessary to the due discharge of public trusts. You must be sensible that the war has occasioned a chasm in education, extremely injurious to the rising generation; and this affords an additional consideration for extending our earliest care to their instruction." ^ In the same year, and probably in response to the Governor's sug- gestion, the Legislature passed an act containing a clause which reserved parts of public lands for " gospel and school lots." * Following this precedent, the State provided by both special and general acts grants to academies, principally in the form of appro- priations and lands. Special legislation for the relief and support of particular academies was more often resorted to in the early period before generous permanent funds had been provided for the benefit of all. After the literature fund and the United States deposit fund had been established, special grants were not so numerous. The Legislature early committed itself to the policy of responding to appeals from academies for temporary aid, loans, cancellation of financial obligations, local tax support, and similar assistance, by passing the desired acts. Some of the land grants, which will serve to illustrate the nature of the many similar ones passed, were: In 1796, a half acre which had been previously set aside for a school in the village of Johnstown was vested in the trustees of the lohns- ' Messages from the Governors, v. 2, p. 183. ■* Session Acts, 1782, chap. 22, art. VII. Cf : Cubberley. in Cyclooedia of Education, art., New York. DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT OF INCORPORATED ACADEMIES 6/ town Academy to be used by them in any way they saw fit for the benefit of their academy.^ In 1800, the trustees of Oxford Academy were authorized to select one of the lots that had been reserved for the promotion of literature in the State, to aid them in rebuilding after a fire, and the commissioners of the land office were directed to grant the trustees a title to the lot they would select.'' A lot of 275 acres of land in the township of Scipio was granted to the trustees of Cayuga Academy in 1806, in fee simple, provided the trustees would pay the occupants of the land for the improvements on itJ Lot no. 56 in the town of Potsdam was granted to the trus- tees of St. Lawrence Academy in 1816, but with the restrictions that they should not lease the lot for a term of more than 31 years, and that the proceeds from it should be used only for the payment of teachers' salaries.® In 181 8, a lot of 640 acres was granted to the trustees of Lowville Academy, who were instructed to use only the income of the property, and to apply it to the maintenance of instruction.^ Examples of the appropriation of money to particular institutions are: Lowville Academy in 1836 was given $2000 by the Legislature to be used in rebuilding, after the academy building had been destroyed by fire. It was provided that this amount should be col- lected by taxation on the county of Lewis, and returned to the State at 6 per cent interest.^" A simple donation of $3000, without any obligation on the part of the academy to repay the State, was made by the Legislature to Washington Academy in 181 9, for the purpose of rebuilding after a fire.^^ Many other similar special acts granting aid in some form to individual academies were passed, but after the middle of the nine- teenth century such measures more often took the form of permis- sive local taxation, and showed a tendency toward free secondary schools, or high schools. An instance of this practice is afforded in the case of Gouverneur Wesleyan Seminary. The town of Gouverneur was permitted in 1869 to raise by taxation $20,000 for an academy building.^^ ''Session Acts, 1796, chap. 50. "Session Acis, uSoo, chap. 112. ' Session Acts, 1806, chap. 73. ' Session Acts, 1816, chap. 148. " Session Acts, 1818, chap. 134. " Session Acts, 1836, chap. 63. " Session Acts, 1819, chap. 55. " Session Acts, 1869, chap. 291. 68 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK However, the most substantial and consistent state aid resulted from general legislation and the establishment of permanent funds. The first general act, relating to the support of schools, mentioned above, to the extent that it based school support upon public lands, was typical of many provisions that followed. The second act of the kind appropriated 690 acres of each township of public lands to the support of schools.^^ The act of 1786 was similar to the previous two, and reserved one lot in each township of unappropriated land for the promotion of literature and one for schools and the gospel.^* Four years later, the Regents were authorized to rent certain public lands and tenements and to apply the proceeds to the support of academies,^^ but no immediate funds were provided until the appro- priation bill of 1792 was passed. By that act, £1500 was appro- priated each year for a period of five years, and was ordered to be distributed by the Regents to the academies subject to their visita- tion according to any plan they might adopt. ^^^ The first distribution was made the following year to the ten academies then incorporated. The next general appropriation to academies was from a sum of $12,500 which was raised by lotteries and distributed without restrictions by the Regents." Previous to 181 3, all sums granted to academies were appropriated or raised directly and temporarily, but in that year a permanent fund was set aside, the revenue from which was apportioned annually to academies. The law in accord- ance with which this fund was established directed that, except cer- tain lots, the unappropriated lands in the military tract and in the counties of Broome and Chenango, be sold, the proceeds to be invested by the Regents, and the income to be apportioned to incor- porated academies in any way the Regents might think best.^* The money made available in this way formed the beginning of the litera- ture fund, which was one of the principal sources of state aid to academies the rest of the century. The amount and condition of this fund was reported by the Regents six years after its establish- " Session Acts, 1784, chap. 60. " Session Acts, 1786, chap. 67. It is evident that there is a distinction made here between the terms literature and education in general. The for- mer is used to designate some advanced form of instruction and learning. This distinction was preserved in the expression " literature fund," a fund which was established for the benefit of secondary schools. The term litera- ture is further used with this significance in Assembly Journal, 1819, p. 865. ^^ Session Acts, 1790, chap. 38. "Session Acts, 1792, chap. 69. " Session Acts, 1801, chap. 126. " Session Acts, 1813, chap. 187, 199. DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT OF INCORPORATED ACADEMIES 69 ment, 1819, in compliance with a resolution of the Legislature. An excerpt from the Regents Minutes of March 24, 1818 showed the literature fund to consist of the following : Bonds for the consideration of lands sold $21925 81 Bonds and mortgages taken to secure payment of loans 7 75° 00 Balance of principal in treasury 59 28 Total $29 735 09 And 4759 acres of land reserved for the promotion of literature." Exclusive of the literature fund, there was in charge of the Regents: 579 shares in the N. Y. State Bank, at $100 each $20625'" 100 do in the Albany Insurance Company, $100 each 10 000 Loans to E. C. Genet $6 350 Loans to Gillaspie 500 6 850 Cash in the hands of the Treasurer 8 000 Total amount $45 1 15^ The revenue derived from the above funds was : State Bank stock, at 8 per cent $1 621 20 Albany Insurance Stock, 8 per cent 80000 Interest on loans made by the Regents 479 50 Interest on loans of the Literature Fund $512 50 Interest on Bonds on account of do i 315 54 i 828 74'° Estimate of interest on $8000, to be loaned or funded 560 00 $5 288 74'" Resolved that $4000 be distributed the present year amongst the several academies. The literature fund was further increased by an act of 1819 directing that one-half of the quit rents received into the treasury be added to the Hterature fund and the income apportioned by the Regents to the academies as before.^^ The greatest increase in the literature fund was made in 1827, when $150,000 in the form of mortgages and bonds taken on the sale of lands belonging to the canal fund, was added to it.-^ 'Assembly Jour., 1819, p. 865. ' So printed, but evidently a mistake. Session Acts, 1819, chap. 298. ' Session Acts, 1827, chap. 228. 70 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK A clause in the constitution adopted in 1846 declared that the literature fund should be preserved inviolate, and the revenue from it should be applied to the support of academies.^^ The revenue derived from this fund varied somewhat at different periods, but was close to $18,000 annually for the greater part of the century. In 1838 another fund, composed of the excess revenue apportioned to the State of New York by the United States Congress, was made available for educational purposes; and the income from a part of it was contributed by the State to the support of academies. An act passed in 1838 granted the Regents $28,000 annually from the revenue of this fund, which was known as the United States deposit fund, to be apportioned to the incorporated academies sub- ject to their visitation.^* No further state aid to academies was provided by general law, except for one year by the ill-fated tax measure of 1872, until the increase in annual appropriations in 1887, which raised the whole amount distributed by the Regents to secondary schools on the basis of attendance and examinations to $100,000; two-fifths of which was produced by the literature and the United States deposit funds. The act making the increase contained a provision that the incorpo- rated academies should not receive more than $40,000 of the whole amount distributed in any one year.-^ This provision was useless, because according to the ordinances that governed the distribution of funds, the academies were at that time receiving a relatively small part of the money appropriated, and in 1890 their share of the $100,000 was only $17,802.-'' The laws governing permanent funds and appropriations made no distinction between incorporated academies and high schools, except the ineffective clause mentioned above ; so that all appropriations provided were shared by high schools, which developed after the middle of the nineteenth century. Iiicorponitioiis, Adinissions, and Growth of Academics The number of academies incorporated or received under visita- tion by the Regents increased slowly until the third decade of the nineteenth century. Prior to 1800, only 19 academies had been Constitution of 1846, art. IX. Session Acts, 1838, chap. 237. Session Acts, 1887, chap. 709. Cf. table 14. DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT OF INCORPORATED ACADEMIES "]! incorporated. In 1813, the year in which the Hterature fund was estabhshed, more academies were incorporated than in any previous year ; but there was no marked change in the number admitted to the University until 1828, the year after the Hterature fund had been increased by $150,000. Then within three years, 27 academies were received or incorporated by the Regents, as many as had been admitted during the twenty preceding years. ^^ In the absence of evidence to the contrary, it appears that the increased appropriations provided in 181 3 and 1827, and the more Hberal rules in regard to its distribution in the latter year, were the immediate causes for the rapid development at those particular times. Another period " Cf. table 13. 72 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK E -^ 'rt S ho 72' O (U.S ox: •^° 0.2 BB °o ^ .2 B O, m i 1- « n XI nl .So! ■M OX! ^■5 i)-^ >j-. a) C pora mg a s so the ■3 fe Si =" S o-g E'o H H H 1 ^ Crt a» +J y] '-3.2 5 aJ 0* eg S " 2 "* 60 'S "2 a .0 <>, ■Ci. e 'r: '^ u 3 u St) ■0 a! 0) CJ OJ cm K ■^ f^ c c c tt! c ■a M x;'*3 X •- .6 n Z Iz m cc cq m m P5 X ~o" ~^ « & 3r T/i •d CO •a ,e 0) il> :3 as 01 ro a: •d X a '3 . Oj c t- a "2 1 a ft 2 a c & x; ■-io 3 a u > 2, 0) c^ a x; 3 rrt 0) >. 3« rt CJ " Mx: l-i R c "3 00 a a ■n i" c a! S & .a IS c 9 +j a 1 "- > miles squ One lot in cept in York, K 0) 3 c c '0 X c H >4-. ca a c-2 3M ci.. CO s ox: So S3 5 3 ^ "!^ 00x173 " 0-- O «-d "« e c o *^ n! *j & O 53 Si- o c z; o ^ S 0-2 &'^-d 3-2^ i.ficQ 8 ol g 8:|3-' I S H C .ss E ni-a ;^ c c m rt-r) x: C 3 rt T) x: E T3 t) t; '♦^ .2 c n H H < <: <: www o o WW DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT OF INCORPORATED ACADEMIES 73 |5o •sll -C I-. rt (U c M-! Q?f5J!S -r o;-" a 0*0 "O cC C li '^ rn cs 2 «i H< i" ° XI 5t; 2 a 60 2H2 S^^-o "O 0) o g N «1 C-g ts > *j aw rt o w S X 'e!!!.-2o: S rt fc. -^ . 3.2 o o ^ rt u C *^ w ' ■ 2 c S ' H^t^Di — • '^ M o cr^ m S'erf <= o c 00 at3 o o g o 3 t, o o o'-3 2 rt m " S " c *^ ts m O E S 55 • o« OOO \0 O >0\0 "^ o^ *+ -rr H- o "^00 ir> > POO -^ o o PO '^ f^ 'On ro O* O t^ "^ 0> "^t POO Ov "^ On rO t^ 't M r~-OooO>ooO'OP^ On OOtncO-^lOrONlO rO O lO fi sO O O » O lOO m f*5 M *-< ' O M ro "^ "-• PO N PO On O POOO OO • PO'30 O fO i~-Mr^Ooo"^wooi O i^i ^ ro • O ro "OO fO t^ PO ^ t^O O C4 PO ( a o p Q g 4) . .. 2 s >._a h o.ti t! 6 3 MS-n (^ ^ ,« b^o i3.S.Eu:;:=.SJ. •ag 2 g 2 & E- •p_-5^ ■ uwuu ■ -- ■ . o O ^ C o o o g MM^ E S E S S-c-2 ^5 5 225225 goooooootaio-C-Sto'SwMm'Sw t; o 0) aj (L cj oj oj cj u (-• o. — -—.«.—.— ■— ■^• — CURRICULUMS AND METHODS 109 . • . tT M 00 •-< • ■ < N • ■ so ■ ■ ■ >C n r- ir r/; ■ 10 o> N -t -^ 1- ».-' • . IV, og N - ■ • ■ -T C 1 - in ..., ^ l~ « C ^i ^ . Of . , ', w 1- <* to • dv W ro CM ■ Ooc Hi • m r» fo r^ . ■ ■ ■ i-oo r~ Ov '-' ^ 10 l-OL r- « ■ - CO noc "^ moo oc-a-u-. M -CO "" - T - 10 -00 T ^ fTi in N ?o 5- ■ • ■ M Oio5 r- ■ ^ 0> l^ cj l^ ro »n ■ ^ 00 -^ ri 0\ MOOOOfO^-'-' -rnO -^w ■ro^O\CC-l\0^ -riOO (N 10 — T ■ 1 ~ ro v"* rO "^ fO ^" f*3 >i r^ NN ■rjf^i'-' inMir^ Ot^:^ ■ (^ ro ro >o -0 T ■ oc ■ . - ro n L*-' " >-■■ r- fO •■/ ' ' Cr. 1 - ■ (^ I - . C^ I - i^ ' - 1 - ■ r • C X 0. oc ■ ■ T ":)cc n -r c- \ri ■ - fs on ■ w -c « Ch T iA ■ w> -c - 'ri >C — 1-- 1-1 - sC -O r*> roO ■ !^ olsC' 00 IM - r, roc« ■ vO c '. '. :.£ >> • -"^ to • • ? « ,„ S : c V "ffl p c "a,— (U £E >. > P.0 K c > p • > E • 11 'C n antiquities graphy ing, principles of lology nometry 3SS v.- 3 ; >>ca o' li^^s «^^ au'S S « ji: Lc Ic j3 ^ j= "o £ "-c q §,«; 3 « (uc ?.ZZOCCL,&((li&* o « K u ca E «^ 5 u •aj3 CO- '" — ^ *^ OJ c ■«oJjS Jfe-o o C 3 no THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK ^H g'^ C.2 - - ClJ ft O o « ^ 6C.2 .-2.2 rt csmo si .-. p/ lO « ft « »2 ft •" ft d'^" a "^ o o « ■MO ^;« o;-" ^^ a o o " .. c2^'— " '^— " ^— ^^" ■" 2 rs ;3^ i^*^ ;3 :3 o c o o^ O^ O Oq *<. Or' o ■^ r- 1 I I I I I t 00 I I CO -^ "^O ' oocooOcooocOcocyDoocooocc 00\ no»r)0»riO»^C>ioo the Regents of the organization of a class, and to make a detailed report within two weeks after the close of the course; (6) the curriculum was not changed, but was described in detail and much more emphasis was placed upon method of teaching.^* It was objected by some principals that the admission standards established at this time were higher than the requirements for a teacher's certificate in many sections of the State, and that many pupils would be deprived of the benefit of the classes on that account.*^ Not many changes were made in the organization and administra- tion of teachers classes during the next seven years, at the end of which time they were transferred to the supervision of the Super- intendent of Public Instruction. Instruction in physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effect of alcoholic drink upon the human system, was added to the curriculum of the teachers classes in 1885, because such subjects had been made a part of the ■" Regents Rep't, 1882, p. xxiii, xxiv. " Session Acts, 1882, chap. 31S. ** Regents Rep't, 1883, p. xxii. " Rcpfents Rep't, 1883, p. 166-80. " Regents Rep't, 1883, p. 403-16. EDUCATING TEACHERS FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS l6l course of study in common schools.*^ Beginning with the same year, each school commissioner was instructed to report, among other items, in what way he gave credit toward a license to teach for work done in teachers classes. The commissioners differed widely in their attitude toward those who held testimonials from the Regents. They were required to specify whether they indorsed the testimonials, if further examination was demanded of the candi- date, if credit was given on the subjects pursued at the academies, or whether some other plan was adopted.'*^ It was the plan of certification in the law of 1882 that was a cause of a lack of harmony between the two administrative systems of the State, and led to the discontinuance of granting testimonials. An attempt was made to improve them by specifying the subjects the bearer had studied and the grades received.*^ But when a uni- form system of certifying teachers was adopted by the Superintend- ent, the testimonials were of no value and were discontinued.*^ At a meeting of the Association of Academic Principals held at Syracuse 1888, the following resolution in regard to the instruction of teachers was adopted by a unanimous vote : Resolved, That as the licensing of teachers has been placed in the hands of the Superintendent of Public Instruction ever since our school sj-stem was organized, and as it is desirable that the teachers classes should be part of a symmetrical system for the training of teachers, which system should include the normal schools, and be in consonance with the uniform examinations, we think that the management of the teachers classes should be transferred to the Department of Public Instruction."" Superintendent Draper gave a nuinber of reasons for approving the change as advocated by the principals,^^ and the Regents adopted the above resolution verbatim. ^^ As a result of these demands, the Legislature passed an act transferring the administration of teachers classes from the Regents to the Superintendent of Public Instruction.^^ *" Ibid., 1885, p. 20. Session Acts, 1884, chap. 30. *' Regents Rep't, 1885, p. 38. '" Ibid., 1S86, p. 33, 34. '* Regents Rep't, 1889, p. 826. '°Sup't Rep't, 1889, p. 42. " Ibid., p. 42, 43, 44, 45, 140, 141. " Regents Rep't, 1890, p. 26. " Session Acts, 1889, chap. 137. For an account of the teacher-training system in secondary schools of New York since 1889 see Giflford, W. J., The History of New York High Schools. l62 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Results Accomplished, Second Period — i84p-i88p a Statistical A somewhat detailed statement of the results of the first year's work in instructing teachers after the law of 1849 reestablished teachers classes in academies, will serve to indicate what was accom- plished during the first part of the period. Reports were received from 42 of the 45 academies that had been appointed. The number of pupil-teachers instructed was 949, males 367, females 582. The males were from 16 to 21 years of age, the females from 15 to 23. All gave the required pledge except the pupils of one school where the principal overlooked the ordinance, but he vouched for the sin- cerity of the pupils and stated that at the time of the report all of them were either teaching or were students of his school. Addi- tional teachers were engaged in 16 academies of the 42 reporting. The principal devoted extra time in nearly all in instructing the class. The term of instruction was continuous for 627 pupils, and otherwise for 289 ; one academy did not report this item. The irregu- larity in the term of instruction is shown in the fact that 17 acad- emies taught 20 or more pupils for 4 months; 13 taught 20 or more pupils for 15 weeks and a smaller number for 16 weeks or longer; the remaining 12 schools were irregular in various ways; the term was too short, the number of pupils was too small, or the term was distributed in two years.^* "Senate Documents, 1851, v. 2, no. 58, p. 4, 5, 6, 7. EDUCATING TEACHERS FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS 163 c o CO bo G B B >! c c h -o^-S 1 ■28 S 8.§a2 *i (U CO !-• W I-.-- > 60 60 60 4) 60 a +; i3 to a> J3 •S g «J fl rt -iSl 1 --a§^ 4) c rt .0 ti H g 4J faOtJ « (3 fl Hi C!j ca ^ X J3 rt J3 00 u y 3 3+^ c*^ 00 (2 t3 :z; ^: !? :z ^ z p > i>- «>. a 4)T3 0) 0^ u,3 on N tS " rt 'i 1 •a 8*^ < c 50 :S sa 0) OJ •g oE § § ■g'rt <« as &?55 ■z 'z :z. :! ^ ^ "z "z "0 iog >."° w 3| isl rtiC g'^a 60 rV 9 K g (U u C S s p^g£ ^"1 60 3 n u (/I a ■4-, M »■ a bi c at 60 C ••2 '§•§'2 S gs -s -s •r, -^ pit til x; 0"o ?1 S.Sft |-g w cu S ^ :z: £ :?: ^ ^ ^ u .<: ■p° "o H •c rt « ft a u 'S. ft C 3 M-< ^ _c CO ^ °'ft 4) ^ « -9 11 1 -s 2 « « T3 ft 60 60 1 .s 4J 60 t. ^ C C fl g- C 2 S ft, c 1 .3 rt XI S ^ ^ H H 'Z Q < W H < a ft" a c ni ■'^ •" .s3 "" 2 ho 0— _,5 ft3 ^ 'Irt . ft^ ft^ 01 .- H •gl rt lu n c t C^Tj „ «J u 3 60 10 ft'S 2 " 2 H nl rtJ3 a mOwOo CCm a XI w> tS w Vt «<» 'Z ■^ fo y ^ b 4> 4) u s 4 -o" 1/ 1 M >0 N 1/^ 00' t^ PO (• 5 M 10 5- « < M Ifl o ■* m g 0, d c 1. d d ft ft ft a rt <« rt rt rt a rt rt •g -3 -f Jl XI J3 J3 Si XJ m 00 u u (A Ch m" ^ r<5 10 tJ f? t^ c^ Tt 10 1/ ■> xn 10 vo r~- r^ 00 00 3 « 00 0( K > (X J 00 OC 164 the academy system of the state of new york Table 32 Statistics of teachers classes in academies, including academic departments of union schools, from 1849 to 1889 ANNUAL ENROLMENT Male Female Total NO. OF CLASSES REPOSTING COST TO THE STATE SCHOOL POPULATION OF THE STATE56 1850 I85I 1852 1853 1854 185s 1856 l8S7 1858 1859 i860 1861 1862 1863 1864 186s 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 187s 1876 1877 1878 1879 18S0 1881 1882 1883 1884 l88s 367 337 533 S08 706 590 524 532 601 711 622 595 494 449 363 297 363 406 463 564 503 S82 592 551 614 572 608 811 880 863 32O 128 553 433 517 711 748 ? 906 883 582 663 051 062 284 213 153 077 096 093 136 117 272 328 323 301 122 039 026 021 991 969 002 IIO 400 133 433 621 551 693 193 187 178 358 635 78S ? 352 624 949 000 584 570 990 803 677 609 697 804 758 712 766 777 686 598 485 445 489 S85 494 551 594 661 014 794 741 244 501 213 019 321 740 611 875 348 536 972 258 507 42 46 82 85 106 87 no 108 90 96 93 93 94 95 93 84 87 90 88 97 92 91 96 102 122 IIS 54 18 102 95 III 143 160 213 195 212 $11 250 11 356 15 100 15 520 17 740 17 850 15 284 12 810 14 160 15 738 15 372 16 740 17 100 16 200 16 346 15 327 14 sio 13 954 13 955 15 280 14 502 15 200 IS 333 15 877 29 338 14 873 16 050 24 592 30 021 17 107 11 64s 3 669 18 706 12 999 15 856 20 571 24 287 35 524 33 opi 31 820 753 047 100 613 150 532 186 709 224 127 214 113 214 771 240 176 238 175 272 486 315 900 338 167 322 823 357 047 307 822 398 759 364 67s 376 982 464 669 463 299 480 761 502 684 521 953 560 820 596 846 583 064 58s 601 586 234 615 256 628 727 641 173 662 122 681 161 685 100 702 965 721 126 735 073 763 IIS 772 958 503 667 Most of the significant fluctuations that occur in the figures given here may be explained by corresponding changes in the laws and ordi- nances governing teachers classes. The increase in attendance, num- ber of classes and appropriations is fairly regular until i860, when the number of males decreased rapidly from 711 to 297 in 1865; this ''' Only the last part of the academic year designated is written column; i. e. 1850 means the school year i'849-50. °° This includes the numbers of persons in the State between the ages of 4 and 21, except the first number, which is the number of persons between the ages of 5 and 16. °' Sup't Rept. 18^8, p. 6. ** Ibid., 1859, p. V " Ibid., 1863, p. S. '"Ibid.. i8r6. p. iQ. EDUCATING TEACHERS FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS 165 then during the next six years it rose again to 582. It appears that the enhstment of young men in the army during the Civil War was the probable cause of the decline.''^ The fact that the number of females enrolled increased more than 200 from 1859 to 1865 leads to the same conclusion. However, the decrease of males from 711 to 622 between 1859 and i860 could scarcely have been due to the approaching war. The decided rise in attendance and funds from the State in 1874 is readily explained by generous payment for the instruction of teachers and by the mill tax. The repeal of those provisions the next year explains the decline in the figures. The eflfect of the law of 1877 is apparent in the numbers given for that year and the two fol- lowing, and the failure of the revenue from the United States deposit fund brought the total enrolment down to 321 in two years time. The increased demands of the Regents in 1883 checked the number of classes and the enrolment for that year only. The apparent decrease in the school population of the State for certain years, for example, 1875, is accounted for by the Superin- tendent. It was due to a poor system of collecting and reporting statistics. While the school population increased about 64 per cent, the number of pupils in teachers classes increased 350 per cent. b Efficiency Apart from the number of pupils enrolled as shown by statistics, there is a question of the real value of the teachers classes in supply- ing the common schools with better teachers, of the quality of instruction in elementary subjects and methods included in the course of study, and of general efficiency. The official reports and records contain evidence that indicates the efifectiveness and excel- lence of the work of teacher-training. However, numerous expres- sions occur that suggest that the work was often formal and of little value; so the question of efficiency can not be answered categorically. It will be sufficient to call attention here to a number of criticisms both unfavorable and favorable, to afford a basis for an intelligent opinion on the question. The Regents expressed their doubts of the wisdom of the teachers classes as organized in 1857, and suggested some radical changes. ^ "And a patriotic impulse compels me to add, that of the one hundred and twenty-five young men of those who had been under my own tuition in the academy, in the ten years previous to 1864, who cheerfully gave them- selves to their country's service in the late rebellion, sixty-seven of them had been good and tried members of the teachers class." Proceedings of University Convocation, 1868, p. 61, 62. l66 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK They say : " With few exceptions these have been taught with the other pupils of the academy, and no additional teacher has been employed for such instruction. In many of the academies some professional instruction has been given, while in others it does not appear that the instruction has, to any important extent, differed from that of the other pupils." ^^ The next year they mention the large number of academies and the small fee paid to each as causes of " very little specific instruc- tion " having been given. "^ In commenting upon the improved con- dition of the classes some years later, the Regents state that in the past the teaching in them had often been " a matter of form, and with an apparent desire, in some instances, principally to secure the sum which the State agrees to pay." ^* The same thought is expressed more emphatically in another place : " Too often in the past has it been a just subject of reproach, that the payments made to the academies for the instruction of teachers classes, were only a species of gratuity, and that in many cases the service was merely a pretense." ^^ The Chancellor of the University in criticizing the teachers classes as they had been conducted previous to 1882 said: " We have felt, and no man has felt it more than I have, that during these forty years in which we have been applying the money of the State to teachers classes, the application has often been very improper, because the service performed was not good." '^^ But despite numerous disparaging expressions, an abundance of evidence pointing to the efficiency of the teacher-training efforts appears in the sources. When the results of the first year of the system adopted in 1849 were known, the literature committee of the Senate, judging from the following passage, thought the work had been successful : " In view of the great benefits which have arisen from the grant of money to such academies as might instruct in the science of common school teaching, during the years 1850 and 185 1, provision (we recommend) be made by law for the continuance of such grant." "^ In the Regents Reports of 1866 and 1867 the following occurs: " It is due to most of the academies to say that they have faithfully performed what the law and ordinances of the Regents have required "Regents Rep't, 1857, p. 27, 28. "Ibid., i8s8, p. 17. "Ibid., 1878, p. xii. "Ibid., 1882, p. xxiii. " Ibid., 1883, p. 416. *' Senate Documents, 1851, v. 2, no. 58, p. 12. EDUCATING TEACHERS FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS 167 of them, and that the effect has been apparent in the improved char- acter of teachers of common schools." *'^ Previous to that time the Regents said, the system of teachers classes " appears to present very prosperous results,"^® and also stated that, " No change has been made during the past year in the pre- scribed course of study, and the Regents are gratified in the evi- dences which are before them of its *aore faithful prosecution, both on the part of teachers and pupils." '^° In 1 881 the Regents asserted that the teachers classes in academies were an effective and economical way of training teachers.'''^ The account that Principal Noah T. Clarke of Canandaigua has written of his personal experience for a period of thirty-one years in the teacher-training work of that academy, affords a close view of the character of instruction given in the teachers departments, or classes. He says : Upon entering Canandaigua Academy, in April 1837, I found the teachers department in full operation. The " teachers class " numbered about thirty young men, and was mainly under the instruction of the principal, the late Mr Henry Howe. The time of the class was about half of it spent in the " teachers " course of study. That course consisted in studies and recitations of the common branches ; a daily drill upon the best methods of teaching; lectures upon the theory of teaching, and also upon geology, natural and mental philosophy, physical geography and history, upon warm- ing and ventilation, the laws of health, teachers associations, schoolhouses and blackboards, also upon the teacher's social habits and duties as a mem- ber of the community in which he might be placed. For three summers, of twenty-two weeks each, I was permitted to enjoy the privileges of that class; and I am free to say that, although I had taught school before, yet I found the instruction of that course of incalcula- ble value ; and if I have ever been able to accomplish anything as an instructor of youth, I owe it, in no small degree, to the exercises of that teachers class. The members of that department were eagerly sought for the best class of winter schools, and at wages from 10 to 33^^ per cent higher than the average of other teachers of the county. This department was maintained under similar circumstances, and with but little interruption, until about 1848. In that year, the trustees of the academy spoke of the teachers department as follows : "A teachers class was first organized in this academy in 1830. Since that time nearly five hundred young men have entered this department." It is true that members of this department were not then, as now, required to pledge themselves 'Regents Rep't, 1866, p. 19; ibid., 1867, p. xxii. 'Ibid., 1853, p. 14. 'Ibid., i860, p. 12; also repeated in the report of 1861. ' Ibid., 1881, p. xiv. l68 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK to teach common schools for any length of time; yet most, if not all of them, did engage in teaching more or less. Upon the resignation of Mr Howe, in 1849, my relation to the academy became more intimate, and since 1853, when I assumed charge of the institution, I have been entirely familiar with this department of instruction, as it has fallen mainly within my own sphere of duty. This department has since that time, as well as before, been a distinct organization. The class has always been under a course of special training, similar, as far as it goes, to that of the state normal school. This course has always consisted, first, of thorough reviews and drills in the elementary studies ; second, of familiar lectures upon the theory of teach- ing and such other subjects as were pertinent to the teacher's work; third, of actual practice in teaching classes, under the eye of the instructor. . . . During the last eighteen years, nearly four hundred young men have been members of this department, making in all some nine hundred young men who, in one academy, by this most wise and judicious provision of the State, have been aided in their preparation for the teacher's work; and it is but simple justice and truth to say that the great majority of them took high positions among the teachers of our common schools, while not a few have proved themselves able and efficient instructors in our high schools and academies." School commissioners often expressed favorable opinions of the work of academies in training teachers. A few are repeated here as illustrations. Our very best teachers are derived from the pupils instructed in the teachers classes in our academies, and I think the wisdom displayed by the Regents in their selection of schools to instruct such classes has been praiseworthy.'^ The teachers classes in Cortlandville and Cincinnatus are rendering val- uable aid in qualifying the teachers of the county.'* The teachers department of this institution, I am pleased to say, is under the control of Prof. Hoose, who has fulfilled the duties of his position to the entire satisfaction of parties interested. I am pleased to say the professor has sent out some of the best teachers ; those who are an honor to the pro- fession, and an honor to the institution that prepared them for their noble work.'' Similar expressions are found on pages 205, 230, 241, 328 and 377 of the twelfth annual report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. But adverse criticism of teachers departments by school commis- sioners was not lacking. The following two examples are typical : In visiting the institution. I had some conversation with the principal in regard to teachers class. Mr Nichols said he thought such a class did not receive the benefit expected by the Regents of the University, and he did not care to have a teachers class in the academy.'* " Proceedings of the University Convocation, 1868, p. 60, 61. '* Sup't Rep't, 1866, p. 120. '-Ibid., p. 148. " Ibid., p. 193- '• Ibid., p. 150. EDUCATING TEACHERS FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS I69 I have taken some jjains to compare the members of the teachers class with other teachers, and I confess I see no difference. I doubt the propriety of spending so large a portion of the public money for such purposes.'" No doubt the teachers classes were neither entirely deficient nor were they highly efficient. It is impossible to say accurately, judg- ing by our present standards, just how successful they were, but the following statement is probably not far from the truth : " In a large number of institutions the work done has always been of the most faithful and intelligent kind. But in others, owing sometimes to a lack of skill on the part of the teachers, and sometimes to care- lessness and unfaithfulness, the instruction was very imperfect." "^ Summary Near the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, about forty years after the academy system was established, the fact that the academies were training a large number of the teachers for the elementary schools was recognized by the leaders in educational affairs. It seems that the need for good teachers in the elementary schools, which the State had established in 1813, drew attention to the academies as the best agencies for meeting the new conditions. Thus the problem of teacher-training courses in secondary schools arose. But as there was no precedent for such a plan of training teachers, a period of experimentation, learning by the trial and success method, ensued. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, an influential number of statesmen and educators thought that normal schools, similar to those of Prussia and other European countries, should be the exclusive means of preparing teachers for the elementary schools. However, a majority favored using the academies, in which the State had invested large sums, for that purpose. Although the latter plan was followed from 1827 until 1843, no well-established policy of administering the nonnal departments in academies prevailed. Prior to 1827 the teacher-training of academies received no legal recognition, and until 1834 remained unorganized and not directly supported by the State. The first plan adopted by the Regents was to limit the number of departments, and to provide a thorough academic and professional education for the prospective teachers. Since the influence of the system conducted upon that plan was not extensive enough, the number of normal departments was increased. The law passed in 1837 which placed the system under the Super- Ibid., p. 246. ' Regents Rept's, 1883, p. xxii. 170 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK intendent of Public Instruction was unfortunate. A year later the situation was confused by requiring all the academies that received $700 or more a year from the State to maintain teachers depart- ments. In 1 841 the number of academies that were especially appointed to instruct pupil-teachers and to receive appropriations for that purpose from the State, was increased from eight to sixteen. Two years later the whole system was abandoned by the State for six years. The financial limitations were always a serious handicap to the success of the plan. With less than $5000 a year, about $6 for each pupil enrolled, for the work, the Regents and the State Superin- tendents vacillated between the alternatives of maintaining a few relatively strong normal departments, or a larger number of weaker ones. The trustees and the principals of the academies concerned could not plan their teachers classes with the assurance that the State would continue its support. These conditions of inadequate financial support and wavering administrative policy contributed to the grow- ing dissatisfaction with the system. The unreasonable demands of many who expected that the pittance expended would give the State thousands of well-trained teachers, was an additional factor that led to dissatisfaction and the abandonment of the teacher depart- ments in academies. After the teacher-training system was reestablished in 1849 under the Regents, its improvement and growth were rapid. The dual administrative organization of public education whereby the Regents were in control of secondary schools and the State Superintendent was in charge of the elementary schools, for a number of years caused no serious difficulty. However, the friction between the two departments led in time to conditions that were unfavorable to the success of the teacher-training work, and at the request of both Regents and Superintendent the normal departments were trans- ferred to the supervision of the State Superintendent in 1889. After this change very few academies continued their teachers classes, and within a few years such classes were conducted entirely by high schools. For this reason, an account of the teacher-training work in academies of the State might well close with this date, 1889. Co }i elusions The evidence brought out in the foregoing account of the teacher- training system in incorporated academies justifies the following conclusions : EDUCATING TEACHERS FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS l"/! 1 In 1834 New York provided a definite system of academic and professional education for teachers in elementary schools, and was the first state in this country to provide a systematic preparation for that purpose. 2 The fact that the incorporated academies were used as a means of providing trained teachers for the elementary schools, strength- ened the bond between those academies and the State, and was an important factor in their continuance as the principal secondary schools until the beginning of the third quarter of the nineteenth century. 3 Available statistical records show that many thousands of teachers for elementary schools, after 1850 about one-fourth of the number employed, were educated in the normal departments of academies. But the number of such teachers prepared by academies and not officially reported was even larger at certain periods than the number in the statistical report. Before 1849 the majority of the academies were not appointed to conduct teachers classes, and made no report of the number of their students who received instruction in pedagogy or who taught after they left the academy. It is probable that three-fourths of the elementary school teachers were prepared for their work in the secondary schools. 4 It is impossible to measure accurately the efficiency of the normal departments that were conducted in the academies. Typical contemporary expressions, some complimentary and some disparag- ing, are quoted above. Some of the latter may be accounted for by the fact that the whole academy system was under criticism, which might have extended to the teacher-training departments irrespec- tive of their value. It is also significant that most of the adverse criticism came from officials of the elementary school system, who were probably prejudiced. Judging by the demand for the teachers trained in the normal departments and the higher salaries paid them by school directors, it is evident that they were superior to the other elementary teachers. On the whole, it seems that the acad- emies sent out the best teachers available for the elementary schools. 172 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK CHAPTER VII General Conclusions For convenience, the general conclusions drawn from the preced- ing chapters may be grouped under three heads : ( i ) A statement of the more important historical facts; (2) an explanation of those facts in terms of certain related conditions, the causes corresponding to the facts mentioned; (3) the influence of the academy system upon later development of secondary education. The first of these three may be verified by reference to definite data ; but the other two are to some extent, a matter of inference and less certain. Conclusions Based upon a Summary of Historical Data and Facts a TIic Academy Period Academies were incorporated in greatest numbers in New York during the decade following 1835, and more were incorporated the first five years of that period than in any other five years. Although academies had reached their maximum rate of growth at that time, they had not yet developed to their full extent. The largest number of academies, excluding high schools, that reported to the Regents was reached about i860, but the maximum attendance in academies occurred about 1855. It is evident that, judged by numbers, acad- emies in the State of New York were at their height between 1855 and i860. They were, however, the principal secondary schools of the State until 1875, when they were outnumbered by high schools, although the attendance in the academies was still greater than in the latter. Table 33 A comparison of the number of academies incorporated at different periods in Massachusetts and New York 1780-85.. 1786-90. . , 1791-95.- 1 796-1 800 1801-05.. 1806-10. . , 1811-1S... 1816-20... 1821-25... 1826-30. . . M.\SS.\- NEW CHL'SETTS YORK S I 4 7 II 4 4 7 4 4 4 2 10 6 7 4 2 28 29 1831-35... 1836-10... 1841-45... l8.:6-so... 1851-55... 1856-60... 1861-65... 1 866-70. .. 1871-75... Totals M.\SSA- CHUSETTS 169 NEW YORK 61 40 29 47 23 15 IS GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 1/3 In Massachusetts, academies had ceased to dominate secondary education about the middle of the century,^ a condition which did not occur until twenty-five years later in New York. It seems that the academy period in all states ended between those two dates. According to Dexter, the academy " from the time of the Revolu- tion, until the middle of the nineteenth century was the undisputed leader in secondary education." ^ Brown says the academy was the dominant institution of secondary education for a century after the Revolution.^ b Educational Facilities Afforded by Academics The opportunities for an advanced education provided by acad- emies in New York is seen by a comparison of the number of academies and the number of children in the State of school age. Academies were numerous enough to provide secondary education for all who desired it, especially near the middle of the nineteenth century. However, a number of conditions that rendered academies less accessible than indicated by their numbers, prevailed. The small tuition fee was doubtless a barrier to many. Many large vil- lages, and even some cities, were not provided with incorporated academies. This made it necessary for a large proportion of the pupils to live away from home while attending school. The distribution of academies in urban and rural communities is illustrated by the situation in 1855. That year, 92 of the 155 acad- emies reporting to the Regents were located in villages of less than 1000 population or in nonurban communities. About 15 of the other 63 were in cities of over 8000 inhabitants. Of the 13 cities in the State, 2 (Oswego and Syracuse) were without a Regents academy; and 1 01 incorporated villages of over 1000 population had no academy.* This relative isolation of academies limited their usefulness. c Significance of Instruction Gii'cn in Academies Academies served as preparatory schools for the greater number of those entering college, but this was a comparatively small part of the function of those schools. The proportion of those enrolled in academies who intended to enter college was always small, until near the close of the nineteenth century. ' Inglis, The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts, p. 150. ^ Boone, Edu-ration in the United States, p. go. ^ Brown, The Alaking of Our Middle Schools, p. 228. * Census for the State of New York for 1855, P- i-i5 and 18-23. Regents Rep't, 1856, p. 212-18. 174 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The most important work of academies was the education of many- thousands who depended upon the academy alone to prepare them for the duties of life. The records do not show the number of academy students who achieved success or distinction in life; but nO' doubt the greater number of the men and women who were promi- nent in the State during the past generation were educated wholly or in part in an academy. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, except the few who entered college, all who sought an education beyond the rudiments turned toward the academies. The service of academies in educating teachers for common schools was undoubtedly of great importance. For a half century before the State had established a normal school, academies were supplying teachers with an academic education and for a part of that time with a professional training. Even after normal schools were in operation, academies continued to furnish the greater number of common school teachers.^ A body of professional secondary school teachers was also inci- dentally trained and developed by experience in the service of acad- emies. The average number of teachers in an academy was less- than three in 1827, but by 1883 had increased to about six. In 1830,. the total number of teachers in Regents academies was 160, in 1840,. 571, and in 185 1, about 730.^ In 1857, al~)0ut 70 per cent of the academy teachers reported that they intended to make teaching a profession. From that time, the proportion of professional teachers increased, and in 1885 nearly all had adopted teaching as a perma- nent vocation. The academic training of those teachers can not be readily determ.ined ; the State required no definite preparation of them, but the records show that nearly two-thirds of the principals of academies were college graduates.'^ d Innovations A number of innovations in secondary education, most of which- have already been mentioned, may be traced to academies, (i) The extension of the purpose of secondary schools to provide a general ' It was said in 1898, that since 1844 the teachers classes in academies " have ceased to occupy so prominent a part in the training of teachers." This seems to be a misconception. In the ten years from 1834 to 1844, 3389 pupil-teachers were instructed in such classes ; while in the ten years from 1850 to i860, 17,195 pupil-teachers were enrolled in teacher-training classes in academies. Measured by results achieved, academies have been many times more prominent in educating teachers ; but they have not attracted so^ much attention in that work since 1844 as they did when the teacher-training classes were a novelty, and in this sense it is true that they have been less prominent. Cf. Hillis, A. P., " The Oswego Normal School," p. 8. " Historical and Statistical Record of the University of the State of New York, p. 504. ' Ibid., p. 504, 576 flF. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 175 and immediately practical education for those not intending to enter college, was an idea that first found extensive application in acad- emies. (2) The introduction of much new subject matter into the curriculum, until nearly all subjects were offered, led to a more liberal and rational course of study than was found in Latin gram- mar schools. (3) The higher education of girls was not provided for in any schools preceding academies. Girls attended the latter schools even before the close of the eighteenth century.^ The num- ber of boys attending academies in the State of New York was somewhat greater than the number of girls until 1847, when there were 7007 boys and 7275 girls enrolled. Except for the four years beginning with 1857 and the year 1895, when there were a few more boys than girls, the girls remained in the majority until the close of the century. In 1900, there were 1280 more girls than bo}s enrolled in academies.^ In view of these facts, it is surprising to find the statement, that " the academies had been for the most part for boys alone, while the public demanded equal secondary school privileges for boys and girls." ^° The records show that more girls than boys attended academies from 1842, when the numbers of boys and girls were first reported separately, to the close of the century. (4) Teacher-training classes. The professional training of teachers in secondary schools for elementary schools was first attempted on an extensive and systematic plan in the incorporated academies of the State of New York. This innovation was adopted by a number of states, and is at the present time more depended upon than ever before. e Religious Instruction in Academics Religious instruction was made a definite aim of practically all academies. One of the topics that received much emphasis by those in control of academies was the religious training of the pupils. Scarcely any prospectus or catalog of an academy failed to specify religious education as a part of the daily program. Bible reading, church attendance, attendance at the religious services of the school, and similar practices were often required. ^^ * These three features were probably characteristic of academies generally throughout the United States. Cf. Inglis, op. cit., p. 150. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, "A Student's History of Education," p. 414. * Hough, _ op. cit., p. 503, 504; Education Dep't, Annual Rep't, 1914, p. 857. " Education Dep't, Annual Rep't, 1905, p. 52. "References on this point to a few catalogs of academies are inserted here; many more of a similar kind are available: Catalog of Mount Pleasant Academy, 1837, p. 8; Catalog of Irving Institute, 1840, p. 4; Catalog of Rhinebeck Academy, 1849, p. 14; Third Report of the Trustees of the Oneida Institute of Science and Industry, 1831, p. 6, 7. 1/6 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Although rehgious instruction prevailed generally in academies, all sectarian teachings were excluded from every school in the Uni- versity, and only a very few of them, until after 1890, were con- trolled by religious organizations. Conditions that Contributed to the Results of the Academy System \ a Organization: a Part of the University ^ The principal element of strength in the academy system of New York was its organization under the Regents of the University. This provided for the supervision and wise direction of the incorpo- rated academies and gave them a legal status, prestige and other advantages. Some of the ways in which the Regents strengthened the system were: (i) A high and continually advancing standard of scholarship was required of all schools in the University; (2) guarding against the establishment of transient and temporary schools, by demand- ing a liberal endowment fund and adequate property usually was effective; (3) the annual reports published and distributed kept the local authorities informed of the requirements of the Regents, and furnished a stimulus to good work by comparing the records of individual schools ; (4) the state funds distributed annually relieved the financial condition of academies, and encouraged them to comply with the laws and ordinances; (5) visitation by appointed officers or committees, so far as it was practised, brought academies into closer relation with the Regents; (6) since the establishment of academies was voluntary, they were usually founded only in those communities where public sentiment was strong enough to insure loyal support. h Slow Dcz'clopment of the Free School System The slow development of the free school system favored the growth and continuation of schools supported by tuition. Acade- mies of the old type could not thrive after rate bills were finally abolished. Had free public schools been realized in 1850, the transi- tion from academies to public high schools would probably have occurred much earlier and more rapidly. c Effects of Democracy The growth of democratic sentiment in the last part of the eighteenth century is often assigned as a cause of the advent of academies. It seems that the further realization of the implications GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 1/7 of the same principle was a fundamental cause of the transition from academies to high schools. Equal educational opportunities for poor and rich were thought to be an essential part of democratic government, and the extension of this idea to secondary education meant a change in the system of secondary schools. Further development of the same tendency that gave rise to academies led to their overthrow. d Population of the State New York is conspicuous among other states for the large num- ber of academies established. After the first part of the century, none of the other states approached her in this respect; and after 1 841, more academies were established in New York than in all the other six states combined.^^ That this condition was not due entirely to the superior system under which the New York system of academies was organized and maintained, is indicated by a consideration of the population of the several states. From 1830 to 1890, the population of New York was about three times that of Massachusetts, and from about two- thirds to five-sixths that of all the other states combined.^^ One would expect a greater number of schools in New York on account of the excess population. But after making allowance for this factor, the comparison is still favorable to New York. Influence of Academies on Later Development Academies prepared the way for high schools. Methods, curri- culums, practices, organization and support of secondary education that prevail at the present time in high schools, had their beginnings in the academy system. All the innovations mentioned above, coedu- cation, provision for practical life, a liberal curriculum, and the " It is necessary to remember in this connection that the data are incom- plete, and the relations might be changed by the complete figures for all the states. For example, Kilpatrick in an unpublished study gives the following data for the state of Georgia : Academies incorporated 1780-1789, 5 probable 1 790-1799, 5 probable 1800-1809, 4 at least 1809-1819, 17 at least 1820-1829, 107* at least 1830-1839, 256* at least " Census Rep'ts, Twelfth Census of the United States, Taken in the Year 1900, V. I, p. xxii, xxiii. ♦Not all strictly academies. 178 THE ACADEMY SYSTEM OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK training of teachers for elementary schools, which were first realized in academies, have been continued in some degree in high schools. The support of advanced schools by taxation was the culmination of a number of steps toward that end. Public opinion had to be convinced of the value of advanced education, of the necessity of secondary schools, and of public support for such institutions. The principle that public wealth might be used to support advanced edu- cation was recognized by the Legislature in the eighteenth century, but its extensive application was a result of later growth. Generous voluntary support and local taxation were made customary by the academy system; and those practices helped to lead the public to the establishment of tax-supported high schools. Conservative influences tended to continue academies long after conditions were favorable for high schools, and in that way to obstruct the growth of the latter. Had all state academies been abolished in 1850, free secondary education as it exists today might have been accomplished earlier. Inertia of custom and conservatism tend to preserve institutions that have lost their usefulness. The academy system after the middle of the nineteenth century was prob- ably not an unqualified advantage to the educational interests of the State. An attempt was made to establish normal schools in the State a quarter of a century before the first one was opened at Albany in 1844. As a majority had thought that academies afforded a suffi- cient means for training teachers, normals were delayed.^* The academy system was well adapted to the social, political and economic conditions of the times in which it thrived. It served the purpose for which it was established, and led to a more effective system. Cf. Graves, op. cit., p. 260. BIBLIOGRAPHY I Sources (a) Documents and Contemporary Writings Benedict, E. C. An address at the First Anniversary of the Free Academy of New York, New York, 1850. Brooklyn. Annual report of the Superintendent of Schools 1857. Griscom, John. Address at the Opening of the New York High School, New York 1825. Lincoln, Charles Z. Messages from the Governors, Albany 1919. (Found also in the Journals of the Senate and the Assembly of the State of New York.) New York (State). Documents of the Senate and the Assembly, Albany — 1830- 1900. New York (State) . Journals of the Senate and the Assembly — Albany — 1 784- 1900. New York (State). Session Acts, Albanv, 1 778-1900. New York (State). Superintendent of Common Schools, Annual Reports. Albany, 1814-1854- — (Secretary of State ex-officio 1822-1854). New York (State). Superintendent of Public Instruction, Annual Reports, Alban}^ i 855-1904. New York (State). Education Department, Annual Reports, Albanv, 1905- 1914. New York District School Journal (The.) Published by authority of the Legis- lature of the State of New York, Albany, 1 840-1 850. New York Historial Society, Collection, Series I, Vol. V, New York, 1830. O'Callaghan, Edmund Bailey. The Documentary^ History of the State of New York, Albany, 1849-1851. Pratt, Daniel J. Annals of Public Education in the State of New York, Albany, 1869-1870-1873-1874-1876-1883 (In the Annual Reports of the Regents). Rodenbeck, Adolph J. The Statutory Record of Unconsolidated Laws, Albany, 1911. University of the State of New York. Annual Reports, Albany, 1 788-1904. (Referred to as Regents' Reports.) University of the State of New York. Regents' Instructions, Albany, 1834-1853. University of the State of New York. Regents' (University) Manual, Albany, 1864-1888. (A continuation of Regents' Instructions'!. University of the State of New York. Proceedings of the University Convoca- tion. Albanv, 1864 (After 1865, printed in the Regents' Reports). University of the State of New York. Regents' Minutes, Albany, 1784- 1900. United States Commissioner of Education. Anniial Report for 1903-1904 — Washington, 1905. (b) Official Contemporary Literature of Individual Schools. Albany Female Academy. Circular and Catalogues of the, Albany, 1 843-1 855. Berkeley School (New York City.) Register for 1899-1900 — No place — No date. Brooklyn Female Academy. Circular and Catalogue of the. New York, 1849. Genesee Wesleyan Seminary. Catalogue of the Officers and Students of the, Rochester, 1840. Irving Institute. Catalogue of, New York, 1840. Mount Pleasant Academy. Annual Catalogue of the Officers and Students with an Exposition of Mount Pleasant Academy for the year 1836 — Mount Pleasant, 1837. North Granville Ladies' Seminary. Fourth Annual Catalogue of the Officers, Instructors, Patrons, and Pupils, North Granville, 1859. Oneida Institute of Science and Industry'. Third Report of the Trustees of the, Utica, 1 83 1. Rhinebeck Academy. Catalogue of, Rhinebeck, 1849. St. Thomas' Hall. Circular of , Flushing, L. I., 1841. [179] I So BIBLIOGRAPHY Van Doren's (Messers.) Collegiate Institute for Young Ladies, Brooklyn Heights, 1829. Note : — The catalogs of Berkeley school and Oneida Institute of Science and Industry' mentioned above are in the New York City Library, Fifth Avenue and 42d Street; all the others are in Bryson Library, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York Cit3^ II. Writings Other Than Sources Albany Academy. Celebration of the Semi-centennial Anniversary, Albany, 1863. Boone, Richard G. Education in the United States, New York, 1893. Broome, Edwin C. A Historical and Critical Discussion of College Admission Requirements, New York, 1903. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth. The Making of our Middle Schools, New York, 1902. Butler, Nicholas Murray. Monographs on Education in the United ^States, Vol. I, No. 4, (Secondary Education, by Elmer Ellsworth Brown), Albany, 1900. The Celebration of the Centennial Anniversary of the Founding of the Albany Academy, Albany, 1914. Clews, Elsie W. Educational Legislation and Administration of the Colonial Governments, New York, 1899. Fairbanks, Mrs. A. W. Troy Female Seminary, New York, 1898. Fitzpatrick, Edward A. The Educational Views and Influence of De Witt Clinton, New York, 191 1. Graves, Frank Pierrepont. A Student's History of Education, New York, 1915. Hartwick Seminary, The Semi-centennial Anniversary, Albany, 1866. Heydrick, B. A. Academies in the United States, 1907. (Manuscript in the Bryson Library, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.) Hough, Franklin B. Historical and Statistical Record of the University of the State of New York during the Century from 1784 to 1884, Albany, 1885. Hough, Franklin B. History of St. Lawrence and Franklin Counties, Albany, 1853- Inglis, Alexander James. The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts, New York, 1911. Kemp, W. W. The Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, New York, 1913. Kilpatrick, William Heard. The Dutch School of the New Netherlands and Colonial New York, Washington, 191 2. Lowville Academy, Semi-centennial Anniversary. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education, New York, 1911-1913. Articles: Academy; Grammar School; New York, State of. Monroe, Paul. Principles of Secondary Education, New York, 191 4. Sherwood, Sidney. University of the State of New York. History of Higher Education in the State of New York, Albany, 1893. Strong, Thomas H. The History of the Flat Bush in Kings County, New York, 1842. Wickersham, James Pyle. History of Education in Pennsylvania, Lancaster, Pa., 1886. VITA The author of this monograph, George Frederick Miller, was born near Farmington, Missouri, May lo, 1880. He attended a rural school from 1887 until 1896, and then attended Carleton College, Farmington, Missouri, until 1903. He attended Cape Girardeau, Missouri, State Normal School one year, 1904-05, and the University of Missouri part time from 1907 until 1912, when he received the B. S. degree from the latter institution. He taught rural schools in Missouri for three years, and in high schools in Missouri, Kentucky, and Illinois five years. He attended Teachers College, Columbia University two years, 1913-15. [181] I TBRARY OF CONGRESS ■Iff 022 115 331 b OF CONGRESS LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 022 115 331 5 HoUinger Corp. pH 8.5