SH 
 
Qass- 
 Book. 
 
 nl 
 
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
 BUREAU OF nSHERIES 
 
 HUGH M. SMITH, Commissioner 
 
 FISH PONDS ON FARMS 
 
 By Robert $♦ Johnson and M* F, Stapleton 
 
 APPENDIX 11 TO THE REPORT OF THE U. S. COMMISSIONER 
 OF FISHERIES FOR 1915 
 
 B«rea« of Fisheries Doctiment No. 826 
 Third edition, 1 92 1 
 
 PRICE 5 CENTS 
 
 Sold only by the Supermtendent of Documents, Government Printing Office 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 
 1921 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introduction 3 
 
 Value of fish as food 3 
 
 Utilization of waste lands 4 
 
 Water supply — volume, quality, and temperature 5 
 
 Sources of water supply for ponds 6 
 
 Desirable sites for the location of ponds 11 
 
 Pond construction 12 
 
 Aquatic plants and their value in pond-fish culture 17 
 
 Species of fishes suitable for pond culture: 
 
 Smallmouth black bass 19 
 
 Largemouth black bass 20 
 
 Crappie 20 
 
 Calico bass 20 
 
 Rock bass 24 
 
 Warmouth bass 24 
 
 Sunfish 24 
 
 Catfish 24 
 
 Natural and artificial fish foods 25 
 
 Diseases 26 
 
 Stocking ponds with brood fish 26 
 
 Spawning season 28 
 
 Spawning habits 29 
 
 Characteristics of the young fish — their food and growth 30 
 
 Capacity of a pond for the production of fish 31 
 
 Enemies 32 
 
 Methods employed by the Bureau of Fisheries in the distribution of fish 32 
 
 Removing fish from ponds 34 
 
 2 
 
 LIBRARY Of^GpNaRESI 
 QOOuivieNTii -.VISION 
 
 M **.flfc*«s-ve^^-**^ ■■; 
 
t^J^^ 
 
 nSH PONDS ON FARMS. 
 
 By RoBEET S. Johnson and M. F. Staplktow. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The propagation of fish on farms in artificially constructed ponda 
 or in natural ponds of limited area is perfectly feasible; and with 
 proper management such ponds will afford a convenient and economi- 
 cal food supply that will justify the expense of their construction or 
 preparation and maintenance. 
 
 It is the purpose of this report to point out briefly the essential 
 features to be considered in the location of a site, the construction of 
 the pond and its operation, and the care of the fish contained therein. 
 
 This information has reference exclusively to the rearing of the 
 spiny-rayed or warm-water fishes, which are especially adapted to 
 culture in ponds, and which can only be propagated through natural 
 reproduction. 
 
 Data regarding the trouts and other species of the Salmonidse 
 which can be propagated artificially are contained in another publica- 
 tion of the Bureau of Fisheries.'^ 
 
 Federal and State Government have in the past decade done much 
 to improve the conditions of rural life by the development of public 
 resources, the advancement of social intercourse, the dissemination of 
 agricultural knowledge, and demonstrations of a better domestic 
 practice. Up to the present time, however, but little attention has 
 been given to fish culture as an adjunct to farming. 
 
 VALUE OF FISH AS FOOD. 
 
 Mental and physical efficiency, in the last analysis, are dependent 
 upon the character of the food supply, and fish may well constitute 
 a needed ingredient which is usually missing from the farm dietary. 
 
 The requirement of variety in food is unquestioned, if indeter- 
 minate, and the palatability of fish to the average person, in con- 
 junction with its value in protein content, makes it a pleasing and 
 beneficial addition to the daily regimen. 
 
 •Artificial Propagation of the Atlantic Salmon, Rainbow Trout, and Brook Trout. 
 Bureau ot Fisheries. Donoment No. 846. 
 
4 PISH PONDS ON PAEMS. 
 
 The chemically complex substance known as protein is an essen- 
 tial constituent of food, the most important tissues of the body, other 
 than the skeleton, being principally composed of it. Most human 
 beings derive their needed protein from the flesh of animals, and in 
 practically all civilized communities the greater part of it is supplied 
 by meat and poultry. In the United States the main dependence in 
 the past has been on meat — beef, mutton, and pork — which, owing to 
 the large areas available for grazing and the low price of corn, could 
 be raised in quantities great in proportion to the population. 
 
 These ccr.iditions no longer prevail, and shortage of the meat 
 supply, wdth resulting high prices, is now a general condition. As 
 a substitute for meat fish offer many advantages. Pound for pound 
 it contains as much protein as meat, and in some cases more. It there- 
 fore affords the same class and grade of food material as beef, mut- 
 ton, and pork. 
 
 Unfortunately, those actively engaged in farm work rarely have 
 the opportunity to fish in neighboring lakes and streams, and more 
 distant excursions, involving several days' absence from home, are 
 usually beyond consideration. The need is apparent, therefore, for a 
 readily accessible supply of fresh fish that may be drawn upon when 
 desired — a source as dependable as the smokehouse or the poultry 
 yard. 
 
 UTILIZATION OF WASTE LANDS. 
 
 The Bureau aims especially to influence the utilization of the 
 natural and favorable water areas existing on countless farms which 
 at the present time are being put to no use, many of them consti- 
 tuting unsightly waste spaces that detract from the value of the 
 land. The presence of springs, lakes, flowing wells, or adjacent 
 streams are all leading incentives to a fishery project, and suitable 
 sites for the construction of ponds, especially if at present unre- 
 munerative, should make their use to such a purpose desirable to the 
 thrifty husbandman after a full comprehension of their possibilities 
 in a fish-cultural way. 
 
 Ponds intended primarily for the cultivation of fish may be con- 
 veniently located for the watering of stock, or the overflow there- 
 from may be utilized for the irrigation of land. In many sections 
 of the United States artificial ponds on farms are an absolute neces- 
 sity to serve one or both these latter purposes, and by a merely 
 nominal expenditure such water areas may be advantageously utilized 
 for the growing of fish without interfering in any way with the 
 original uses for which they were intended. 
 
 At the outset the main object of the amateur farmer fish-culturist 
 should be the production of a food supply for home consumption. 
 
FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 5 
 
 Tliere are no authentic published records as to the financial returns 
 that may be expected from the pursuit of pond fish culture on a 
 commercial basis. Many theories have been advanced on this point, 
 but, as in other undertakings of importance, the efficiency necessary 
 in order to profitably conduct such a business can only be gained by 
 repeated efforts and actual experience. Furthermore, in order to 
 arrive at an estimate of any value one would have to take into con- 
 sideration such important factors as the topographical features of 
 the site, the character and quantity of the water supply available, the 
 extent of the enterprise, and the location of the plant with reference 
 to market and transportation facilities. 
 
 Taking all these facts into consideration, one can readily see the 
 futility of attempting to forecast in a general treatise the financial 
 returns that may be expected from any given pond area devoted to 
 commercial fish culture. 
 
 All this, however, detracts in no way from the argument favoring 
 the construction of ponds with the view to providing a food supply 
 for private use. The feasibility of pond fish culture on this basis 
 has been fully demonstrated, and ample quantities of fish for home 
 use are to-day being propagated in established ponds on farms, 
 proving the value of such an undertaking for that purpose alone. 
 
 After gaining the required experience and knowledge of the sub- 
 ject as a result of conducting work for several years on a limited 
 scale, the farmer will be well qualified to judge as to the practicabil- 
 ity of extending his operations, and can then, if he so chooses, in- 
 crease his facilities with the view of raising fish for the market. 
 
 Frequent inquiries are received by the Bureau of Fisheries re- 
 garding the use of natural ponds, lakes, and streams, for the raising 
 of fish. With respect to such water areas it may be stated that if 
 drainage is provided for, the pond bed cleared of debris, the site 
 protected against the inflow of surface water — if, in short, complete 
 control is effected, natural water areas will possess many advan- 
 tages over artificial constructions. There is objection, however, to 
 any body of water not under complete control. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY— VOLUME, QUALITY, AND TEMPERATURE. 
 
 In a brood pond, a constant water level should be maintained at 
 all times, especially during the breeding season. The required flow, 
 which will vary with the character of the soil, must be sufficient to 
 replace loss by evaporation and seepage. An amount just short of 
 overflowing the pond is the ideal to be attained, as it is desirable to 
 avoid a current. A surplus of water is preferable to a shortage, as 
 any excess may be easily diverted through waste channels or held as 
 an emergency reserve. 
 
6 PISH PONDS ON PAEMS. 
 
 For a l-acre pond, where the sides and bottom are of clay or rich 
 loam, a flow of from 30 to 50 gallons per minute should be sufficient 
 to maintain a proper water level at all times, while sandy or gravel 
 goil untreated may require double that amount. A practical method 
 of measuring the flow of water from any source is as follows : 
 
 Select a stretch on the stream or ditch affording as straight and 
 uniform a course as possible. If the water at any point is carried 
 in a flume, it will be better to measure at that point. Lay off' a dis- 
 tance of, say from 10 to 50 feet; measure the width of flowing wator 
 at about six different places in this distance, and obtain its average 
 width. Likewise at these same points measure the depth of water at 
 three or four places across the stream and obtain its average depth. 
 Then drop a float in the water and note the number of seconds it 
 takes to traverse the given distance. The product obtained by multi- 
 plying the average width in feet by the average depth in feet by the 
 velocity (expressed in number of feet per second) will give the flow 
 of the stream in cubic feet per second. From the figures so obtained 
 it is advisable to deduct about 20 per cent, as the surface velocity of 
 water is in excess of the actual average velocity. 
 
 High temperatures in season are necessary in brood and rearing 
 ponds. If the water is cold at the source, the fault must be corrected 
 by reducing the inflow to the lowest quantity that will maintain a 
 uniform level, thus allowing the maximum absorption of warmth 
 from the sun and air. Water that does not fall below 60° F. in the 
 brood pond during the spawning season is desirable. 
 
 SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY FOR PONDS. 
 
 Springs are the most dependable of all the sources of water sup- 
 ply, requiring the minimum expenditure in preparation and being 
 the least subject to outside influence. The presence of injurious min- 
 eral substances can usually be detected without expert analysis, but 
 the amateur fish-culturist may be surprised to learn that so-called 
 pure water often carries abnormal proportions of oxygen or nitro- 
 gen gases in quantities inimical to fish life. This may be due either 
 to subaeration or superaeration, and the results following the use of 
 such water will be as disastrous in the one case as in the other. 
 
 This contingency and the requisite of high temperature make pre- 
 carious the embodiment of springs and wells within the pond bed. 
 In the absence of thoroughly demonstrated fitness, the more prudent 
 course will be to provide an independent water supply reservoir, ap- 
 portioning its area to the volume of the spring. While being held 
 in this reservoir the gaseous contents of the water will be corrected 
 and its temperature seasonably modified. 
 
 The flow from many springs is so obstructed through the trampling 
 of stock or from other causes that they emit only a small portion of 
 the water available near the surface. In such cases the supply may 
 
PISH PONDS ON FARMS. 7 
 
 usually be materially increased by sinking 2-foot lengths of terra- 
 cotta pipe over the bubble and removing the incased earth. Several 
 such pipes in a promising area will often result in an astonishing in- 
 crease in flow. "Where the cost is not prohibitive, however, the better 
 course will be to excavate the site and wall it in with rock and 
 concrete. 
 
 In profusely watered sections — notably, in the States bordering the 
 Great Lakes — there are many tracts of marshy characteristics, some 
 of them hundreds of acres in extent, promiscuously interlaced with 
 tiny rivulets which combine to form streams of considerable size. 
 Seemingly inexhaustible quantities of water lie close to the surface in 
 many such places, and by driving pipes only a few feet into the 
 ground flowing wells are obtained. 
 
 Where the volume of water is a matter of concern the overflow 
 level of spring reservoirs, sunken tiling or driven pipes should be 
 kept as low as possible, consistent with the object in view, as the flow 
 will naturally decrease with the elevation of the head against which 
 it works. 
 
 A brood pond contiguous to a spring reservoir may be fed through 
 a spillway directly into the stock pond. Where a reservoir is im- 
 practicable, at least partial correction of any abnormal condition of 
 the water may be brought about by conducting it to the pond through 
 open ditches or raceways of wood or concrete, the choice of material 
 being determined by adaptability of the soil and the comparative 
 expenditure involved. 
 
 The chief objection to creek or river water as a supply for fish 
 ponds is the great quantity of mud and debris carried during fresh- 
 ets, and the excessive cost of effective measures to prevent its intro- 
 duction into the ponds. Streams subject to extremely high- water 
 periods are totally impracticable as a source of supply, while those of 
 lesser floods can be utilized only after a considerable initial expendi- 
 ture, and much vigilance will be entailed in their use, as large and 
 continuous deposits of mud in breeding ponds will ruin any eggs 
 present, and invariably kill recently hatched fry. Furthermore, pro- 
 tracted roily water will retard and sometimes prevent growth of 
 the aquatic vegetation so essential to pond fish-cultural operations. 
 It is also imperative that undesirable and predaceous fishes be rigor- 
 ously excluded from the ponds, and it will be impossible to accom- 
 plish this if the water supply is beyond control during certain 
 periods. 
 
 From the foregoing it can readily be seen that if a stream is sub- 
 ject to appreciable changes, as a result of storms or drainage from 
 local watersheds, it will be unwise to establish a pond therein by the 
 construction of dams, as is often contemplated. It will be entirely 
 feasible, however, to conduct water from such a stream to ponds ad- 
 
5 PISH PONDS ON FAKMS. 
 
 jacently located, provided the intake is adequately screened, the 
 supply arranged so that it can be cut off during times of excessive 
 turbidity, and measures are taken to prevent the inundation of the 
 pond site in high-water periods. 
 
 It may be necessary to erect a dam in the channel of the stream, to 
 provide the required head of water for a gravity flow to the pond, in 
 which case it may be of a simple type, designed merely to accomplish 
 the end in view. The intake from the stream should be wide and 
 deep, thus presenting a large screen surface to obviate the complete 
 stoppage of the water supply in the absence of the caretaker. It 
 should be covered by a series of screens graduated in size, the first 
 to consist of coarse hog wire, or wooden racks with like openings, to 
 catch the largest objects. The intermediate screen (of 2-inch mesh) 
 will intercept vegetation, while the inner one must be fine enough to 
 exclude smaller debris and the fry of undesirable fishes. Immedi- 
 ately below the screens, gates should be provided so that the water 
 may be shut oflP at will and diverted into a storm channel when it 
 becomes too roily for use. 
 
 Where the source of supply is a lake the difficulties referred to 
 above are not encountered, lake water seldom being roily and de- 
 manding less attention to screens owing to absence of currents. 
 
 Uncontaminated open waters have many advantages. Their tem- 
 peratures are seasonal; usually there are no abnormal gaseous con- 
 stituents to be corrected; the plankton or pelagic animal and plant 
 life contained therein forms a valuable addition to the natural food 
 supply in the pond, and were it not for the difficulty of control and 
 occasional roilyness, such waters would be preferable to springs and 
 wells as a source of supply to fish ponds. 
 
 Wells, both flowing and power lifted, are successfully used in some 
 sections for the cultivation of fish. Before incurring the expense of 
 constructing ponds to be supplied from such a source, however, it 
 will be advisable to thoroughly test the water in order to demonstrate 
 its fitness for fish culture. This can best be done by fitting up a 
 running-water supply in a retaining reservoir, and holding therein, 
 for an extended period, a number of specimens of the species of fish 
 it is desired to propagate. If they thrive, it may be assumed that 
 the water is free from injurious gases or mineral substances and is 
 adapted to the work it is proposed to undertake. 
 
 Rain water (surface drainage). — Another class of ponds avail- 
 able for the propagation of fish, known as " sl^ ponds," embraces 
 those wholly or partly dependent upon local precipitation for their 
 supply of water. Such ponds are invariably profuse in the produc- 
 tion of fish food, and for this reason would be ideal were there an 
 auxiliary water supply adequate to maintain constant surface levels 
 duiing the critical nesting season, and a fair depth throughout the 
 
FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 
 
 CreeA >ra/er rf^iy/W/7^ a ^aar a/ //re 
 /eiyer eni^ <7 c/e/'/i^c/Zn^ c/rt7/7/7e'/ /or 
 /ffj(-/rrf ^(rre o/'Z/rt;' c/-d-<^A tya/if/; 
 ou//f/^p//3e ///Te" o/7c/ c/ra/rr. 
 
 I 
 
 43665°— 21- 
 
10 
 
 FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 
 
 , Cross Sec//a/T. 
 
 Pond 
 
 Po/rd Ouf/e/. 
 
 P/o/7. 
 
 P/a/T s^onr//rY//re- co/rs/rfc/ya/? a//<i^/7^ o/r 
 //a//a/7i/ si//>/}//ec//r//A jpr/'/ra n'tr/e'r a/re/ re- 
 ^t//r//7ff excaytr//a/T^ e/Tr^a/rA/Tren/sj ou//e^/>//>e 
 /irre a/n/ d^rai/r. 
 
FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 11 
 
 remainder of the year. In the absence of this reserve many such 
 ponds become practically dry during periods of drought or freeze to 
 the bottom in the winter months. Where ponds are subjected to 
 such conditions fish cultural operations are impracticable. 
 
 Ponds dependent entirely upon precipitation and surface drainage 
 for their water supply must necessarily be located at a low elevation, 
 in order that the surface drainage from surrounding lands may be 
 taken advantage of. Land depressions, ravines protected from 
 floods, or swamp lands, are desirable sites for such ponds. 
 
 Catfishes only can be recommended for the best of "sky ponds," 
 strictly speaking, and the results even with them will be very 
 uncertain. 
 
 DESIRABLE SITES FOR THE LOCATION OF PONDS. 
 
 If a gravity flow of water is contemplated, the fish pond must, of 
 course, be located below the level of the source of supply. Porous 
 soils are to be avoided, if possible, not only because of the large 
 volume of water required to replace loss from seepage but because 
 they are usually sterile. Swamp lands, old water courses, and 
 catch basins of years' standing are the best and most productive soils, 
 as they possess the required fertility and contain seeds and spores 
 for the early development of profuse vegetation and animalcula. 
 Ponds located in such soil will maintain their water levels with a 
 minimum inflow. 
 
 Satisfaction may be had from ponds less favorably located, how- 
 ever, if good sense is employed in their preparation and maintenance. 
 Aside from the ideal lands of alluvial deposits, clay loams are a first 
 choice, being most nearly impervious to water and quickly responsive 
 to efforts made to establish their fertility. Sandy loam, being the 
 most prevalent, is probably the most general soil in use for pond 
 construction. While some difficulty may at first be experienced in 
 making it retain water, this is overcome- in time by the accumulation 
 of decayed vegetation. Its fertility is good and, in general, it pro- 
 duces a sufficient supply of natural food. Even clear sand and gravel 
 mixtures may be made to hold water and brought to fair productivity 
 by increased expenditures in construction, and by the application of 
 fertilizers in a manner to be explained later. 
 
 It is very desirable, and also essential for a marked degree of suc- 
 cess, that ponds be so located and constructed that they may be en- 
 tirely emptied of water at certain seasons. To this end there should 
 be accessible a natural dry run or water course lower than the bottom 
 of the proposed pond, to which drain pipes may be conducted. 
 
 Ponds are drained for the purpose of assorting fish, removing ob- 
 jectionable species, reducing the stock, killing out excessive vegeta- 
 tion, etc. Complete drainage can not be effected, of course, unless 
 
12 FISH PONDS ON FAEMS. 
 
 there are adjacent waters to which the fish can be removed during 
 this process. A number of small auxiliary ponds will always be 
 found advantageous in fish-cultural work. 
 
 Where the primary purpose is other than fish culture the selection 
 of the site must depend upon the more important object in view. 
 Fish culture will yield very satisfactory returns as a secondary en- 
 terprise, but the site selected for the work should by all means be 
 the best available consistent with the general scheme of farming 
 operations. 
 
 POND CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The exact mode of construction must depend largely upon local 
 conditions, such as the presence or absence of favorable land contour, 
 the nature of the soil, proximity to storm channels, and the area of 
 the ground to be worked. Even with these features specified lesser 
 local characteristics and the exigencies of individual circumstances 
 will vary the application of any approved general method. Where 
 practicable ponds should be not less than 1 acre in surface area. 
 Those of smaller extent will produce fish and add an interesting 
 feature to farm life, but they will not yield adult food fishes of the 
 larger species in quantities sufficient for the requirement of the aver- 
 age farmer's table. 
 
 Natural draws or ravines involve the least expenditure in their 
 adaptation to fish ponds, as two and frequently three sides are 
 already formed, so that an earthen embankment connecting them 
 will complete the inclosure. Such locations must be surrounded by 
 ditches to divert surface water where that is likely to roil the pond, 
 and effective waste channels should be provided if the site covers 
 the natural course of flood waters. 
 
 If flat land of r.n elevation only slightly lower than that of the 
 source of water supply is selected, it will be necessary to excavate 
 the ponds in whole or in part-to the required depth to insure a water 
 level lower than the supply. Thus the excavations will form solid 
 banks which, if impervious to water and properly sloped, will require 
 no further attention except to bring them to uniform widths and 
 elevation, which can be done with the material excavated in forming 
 the pond proper. The bottom of the pond should be shaped to drain 
 to a central point. 
 
 On swamp lands and depressions which are susceptible to drain- 
 age and are at the same time low enough to insure a gravity flow of 
 water from the source of supply, one or more fish ponds can be con- 
 structed by the erection of longitudinal and cross-section dikes high 
 enough to provide the required depth of water. The construction of 
 such ponds involves only sufficient excavating to give the bottom the 
 proper slope. In other words, the pond should be built up rather than 
 
FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 
 
 13 
 
 Cross Sec//o/7 Jf.-a. 
 
 ^.— 
 
 ,11^ 
 
 .1 
 
 I\i^ 
 
 eL 
 
 r.Vi*.* 
 
 S'^ ','/»' 1 
 
 Cross S^c//o/r Tyrro 
 l.*i— S--9-. 
 
 /?^d'/7 j/<7/r//r^ /^tf" co/rs/rac/f ff/7 o/'c7/)a/7i/ 
 /rr ro////7^ /a/T</,supp//e<:/ m//^ cr<fe/f yy<7/a'r- " " ^f ^ 
 reau/nrrr^ eiccaya/zorr arrc/ e/77Aa/7j^rn<f/7/s, 
 </am yr/Z/r sp/Z/wtry <7^e/ c7prorj /'rr/a^e'^ oa/Ze-^ 
 
 'I 
 
 I 1 
 
 I r 
 
 ^ 
 
 - '/; /<7^e 
 
14 
 
 FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 
 
PISH PONDS ON FARMS. 15 
 
 excavated, and the water level therein will be higher than the sur- 
 rounding land. 
 
 The method of constructing pond embankments is governed by 
 the topography of the land, the character of the soil, and the volume 
 and pressure of the water to be confined. All made embankments 
 should be at least 6 feet wide at the top, and the sides sloped not less 
 than 2 feet to each foot in height. For instance, a 6-foot fill should 
 be 30 feet wide at the base and 6 feet at the top. 
 
 Prepare the foundation by plowing the site of the embankment, 
 after first removing all trees, underbrush, rock and sod, and, as an 
 extra precaution against seepage, dig a trench 12 inches deep along 
 the median line. This will form a break, or set-off, between the 
 original ground and the made construction, which is a point of natu- 
 ral weakness. The filling should progress by layers over the full 
 width and length of the levee as a continuous operation rather than 
 by sections: otherwise the completed work will later develop checks 
 by reason of variations in material and compactness. Rocks are of 
 use as a protecting riprap on the slopes after completion. 
 
 In case the water supply to a pond is taken from a creek, the latter 
 must be dammed and an intake built above the construction provided 
 with screen and dam boards, from which a water conduit must be laid 
 to the pond. The dam should be provided with an ample spillway, 
 which may best be constructed of concrete. 
 
 The shape or outline of the pond is immaterial. Currents of 
 water are undesirable in the propagation of the spiny-rayed fishes. 
 In fact, the best brood and rearing ponds are those which are sup- 
 plied by backwater from other bodies, and if there is reasonable 
 depth and a fair growth of vegetation no stagnation will result. 
 
 Success in pond fish culture is being attained with widely varying 
 forms of construction. To a considerable extent fish will adapt 
 themselves to existing physical conditions. In nature they seek 
 comparatively shoal waters in which to spawn, by reason of the 
 prevailing higher temperatures, and during certain stages of their 
 growth the young choose similar depths, where food is plentiful and 
 beyond the bounds of the customary range of large fish. Relatively 
 deep waters must be accessible to the stock fish during winter months, 
 and what this depth shall be will depend largely upon the latitude 
 of the location ; cold climates where great thickness of ice forms re- 
 quire the deepest pools. 
 
 Experience teaches that breeding ponds should be excavated to 
 hold not less than 12 inches of water at or near the margins; that 
 one-fourth of the pond area should range from 12 to 30 inches in 
 depth; and that one-half its total area should be not over 3 feet 
 deep, the bottom of the remainder to slope from this depth to 6 feet 
 or more at the outlet. Avoid abrupt slopes. Provide complete drain- 
 
16 PISH PONDS ON FARMS. 
 
 age to the deepest point, where a waste pipe controlled by gates or 
 slash boards should lead to outside natural channels. 
 
 It will be found a great convenience when draining ponds to 
 have shallow channels 6 inches deep and 15 inches wide, at the head 
 of the drainpipe, radiating to all parts of the pond bottom from a 
 kettle or pit, which may be of wood or concrete. A large percentage 
 of the fish will follow such channels as the water recedes, and may 
 be removed from the kettle with less danger of injury than if picked 
 up promiscuously about the pond. 
 
 Remove all projections from the pond bottom which might inter- 
 fere with the operations of seines, plow the entire bed and level it 
 with harrows before turning in the water or treating further for 
 water-tightness. 
 
 As stated above, ponds located on swamp bottoms or in clay soils 
 are practically impervious to seepage, and there should be no diffi- 
 culty in maintaining their surface levels. Sandy loams are more 
 uncertain; they require time to become thoroughly saturated, but 
 will improve in this respect from year to year, through the accumu- 
 lating deposits of decaying vegetation. It is an excellent practice 
 when first filling newly-constructed ponds with water, whatever the 
 nature of the soil, to follow the advancing water line with a drag or 
 harrow, driving the team knee-deep into the water. The constant 
 roiling and puddling of the ground in this manner is very effective 
 in cementing open cracks and crevices. Very porous soils may require 
 the addition of a layer of clay before they will hold water. From 2 to 
 6 inches of stiff brick clay over the entire bottom and up the sides, 
 well above the water line, the bottom harrowed down as explained 
 above, will hold water over the most open ground likely to be used. 
 The only objection to the presence of clay is its general sterility, but 
 this may be corrected by another layer of rich loam, after the clay 
 has been worked down and proved efficacious. Where this process is 
 to be employed, allowance must be made at the time of excavation 
 for the refill of 12 or more inches. Coarse stable manure, and even 
 clean straw, well trampled into the pond bottom, has been reported 
 as a successful remedy for seepage. 
 
 A good set of native sod or sedge grass around the entire pond at 
 the water line is the best preventive of wave washing and encroach- 
 ments upon new fills. If the location is such that strong currents or 
 eddies are present, piling, rock riprap, or other reinforcement, will 
 be necessary at the points of greatest exposure. 
 
 Landowners desiring to undertake fish propagation may feel that 
 the expenditure necessary to secure completed ponds, as described 
 above, is prohibitive; or they may have waters available for fish 
 culture which it would not be expedient to remodel along the lines 
 indicated. The plans outlined are in accordance with the present- 
 
FISH PONDS ON FAEMS. 17 
 
 day standards. Fish may and are being successfully propagated in 
 far less ideal environments, but more native ingenuity in such cases 
 is required. This, however, is a common attribute of the American 
 farmer, and any one who can mix balanced feeds, practice scientific 
 grain breeding, or master the intricacies of modern farm machinery, 
 need not hesitate for fear of failure to add fish culture to his daily 
 routine. 
 
 Summarizing the construction, these features should be provided 
 for: 
 
 1. Water-tightness, so that a small inflow will be sufficient. This 
 will result in high temperatures during the summer months. 
 
 2. A shallow area, from 18 to 30 inches deep, where the fish may 
 nest. 
 
 3. A deeper area, of 6 feet or more, for winter quarters. This 
 will also be occupied b}'^ the adults in the summer, after nesting is 
 completed. 
 
 4. A fertile bottom for the growth of aquatic plants, upon which 
 fish food depends. 
 
 If these requisites, together with a suitable water supply, are pro- 
 vided the fish will thrive. 
 
 The accompanying drawings explain the types of intake and drain- 
 age devices which have .proved effective. These may be varied to 
 meet the conditions encountered, and be constructed of either wood or 
 concrete. The latter material is shown in the illustrations, and is the 
 most durable, but wood will be equally as satisfactory while it lasts. 
 
 AQUATIC PLANTS AND THEIR VALUE IN POND-FISH CULTURE. 
 
 Frequent reference has been made to the necessity of vegetation in 
 fish ponds. Its advantages are many. It serves as food and a harbor 
 for the lowest forms of minute animal life. Each advance in the 
 scale of life constitutes a food for higher forms, and in the guise of 
 fish the fertility of the ground contributes to the food of the human 
 race. 
 
 Plants play an important part in the purification of water, taking 
 up the carbonic acid gas liberated by decomposition and exhaling the 
 oxygen essential to living creatures. They thus prevent the asphyxia- 
 tion of fish life, and act as a corrective of many abnormal character- 
 istics of individual waters. 
 
 Losses of fish through the depredations of enemies will be greatly 
 lessened where there is an abundant aquatic growth in which they 
 may hide. It furnishes a grateful shade on bright warm days, and 
 the interlacing roots so bind the bottom soil as to prevent turbidity 
 from casual disturbances. 
 
 The aquatic flora of a locality varies greatly with its latitude 
 and is also governed by the chemical ingredients of specific waters. 
 The most desirable species usually thrive best in waters of limestone 
 
 43665°— 21 3 
 
18 
 
 FIHH PONDS ON FARMS. 
 
 Fig. 1. — Spiked water milfoil (Myriophyllum 
 spicatum). Found in deep water. New- 
 foundland to Manitoba and the Northwe.st 
 Territory, south to Florida, Iowa, Utah, 
 and California. Commonly known as fox- 
 
 , tail. Suited to southern ponds of high 
 temperature, and unlike most species will 
 thrive in comparatively soft waters. 
 "Parrot-feather," and introduced species 
 
 . of Myriophyllum will make better growth in 
 sterile ground than the foxtail; otherwise 
 the two have similar characteristics. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Fanwort {Cabomba caroliniana). 
 Found in ponds and slow streams, southern 
 Illinois to North Carolina, south to Florida 
 and Texas. Characteristics similar to Cera- 
 tophyllum. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Horn wort {Ccralophyllum dcmersum). 
 
 " Found in ponds and slow streams through- 
 out North America, except extreme north. 
 This plant is shallow-rooted, deriving most 
 of its sustenance from the water. Will 
 thrive in cold spring water. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Chara fragillis. A common form of 
 chara. There are many varieties of this 
 species and all are classed very high as 
 food producers and oxygenators. Grows 
 profusely in all limestone waters through- 
 out the United States, 
 
FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 19 
 
 origin. Plants of filamentous character are preferable to the large 
 regular-leaved kinds, as they present greater surface expanse for 
 the exchange of gases, and, on account of their shallow rootage, are 
 more readily controlled by the fish-culturist. Pond lilies, cat's-tail, 
 and coarse water grasses or weeds in moderation are beneficial, as 
 they afford shade and shelter. However, they are lower forms of 
 oxygenators than the plants of finer growth, and they make seining 
 operations more difficult; and it is practically impossible to eradicate 
 them after they have obtained a foothold. 
 
 All species herein described which are indigenous to the waters 
 of the locality in question may be advantageously utilized in pond- 
 fish culture. Undoubtedly one or two of the introduced species will 
 eventually drive out the others, but those remaining will be the ones 
 best adapted to the environment. All of these will grow from cut- 
 tings, making it unnecessary to transplant the roots. The plants 
 may simply be raked or pulled out of the open waters and pressed 
 by handfuls into the soft earth in the shallow sections of the new 
 pond, in spaces about 5 feet apart. The bottom must be covered with 
 6 to 12 inches of water during the operation, otherwise the sun and 
 air will soon ruin the sets. In deep water the plants may be started 
 by attaching a weight and sinking them to the bottom of the pond. 
 
 Much time and trouble are often required to bring about a profuse 
 growth of aquatic vegetation," but after a pond is thoroughly stocked 
 even more labor is required to keep it within bounds. Ponds may 
 become literally choked with water mosses, resulting in inconvenience 
 to the owner and a detriment to the fish. They will roll the seines, 
 snag the lines, and smother the fish when an attempt is made to 
 draw down the water. It will usually be necessary to thin the moss 
 out once or twice in the course of a summer, and all growth should be 
 removed when draining the pond. An efficient method of removal 
 is by raking, the worker standing on the embankment and throwing 
 the moss out on land, or wading into the shallow water of the pond 
 drawing it from a circle about him and building cocks of it. The 
 deeper waters will have to be worked from a boat or raft. 
 
 SPECIES OF FISHES SUITABLE FOR POND CULTURE. 
 
 Smallmouth black bass {Micropterus dolomieu). — Indigenous to 
 lakes, rivers, and smaller streams from Lake Champlain to Mani- 
 toba and south to North Carolina and Arkansas. It seeks by prefer- 
 ence the clear cool waters of its range, and in the Southern States is 
 confined to the more rapid streams. The maximum weight is about 
 5 pounds, and the average weight from 1 to 2 pounds. This species 
 should be selected for cultivation only in ponds of 2 or more acres 
 
 •All but one of the cuts published herewith are copied from Brltton & Brown's 
 " Illustrated Flora of North America." The figure of Chara Is taken from the " Text 
 Book of Botany," by Strasburger, Noll, Schenk, and Schlmper. 
 
20 FISH PONDS ON FAEMS. 
 
 in area, where the temperatures and other physical characteristics 
 conform to those of its natural habitat. Rock bass and sunfish will 
 live congenially with the smallmouth black bass, and can be success- 
 fully propagated in the same ponds with them. 
 
 Largemouth black bass {Micropterus saZmoides). — Known lo- 
 cally as straw bass, green bass, bayou bass, Oswego bass, trout, and 
 chub. Its range is from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and from the 
 Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains. The species is prolific in 
 congenial waters, but reaches its greatest size in the warmer lakes 
 and more sluggish streams of the South. Its maximum weight is 
 authentically stated to be from 20 to 25 pounds, though in most lo- 
 calities it does not exceed a weight of 6 pounds, and the average is 
 probably less than 3 pounds. 
 
 Because of their size and cannibalistic tendencies the two species 
 of black bass should be selected only for ponds not less than 2 acres 
 in area. The largemouth species is equally well adapted to cultiva- 
 tion in northern or southern climates, but its cultivation in the former 
 should be restricted to waters attaining maximum temperatures. 
 Crappie, sunfish, and warmouth bass are suitable species to introduce 
 in waters with the largemouth bass. 
 
 The two black basses are frequently confounded, but they have con- 
 trasting marks of distinction, which vary somewhat with their en- 
 vironment. They may be reliably classified by the number of rows of 
 scales on the check, the largemouth possessing 10 and the small- 
 mouth 17 rows. The mouth of the former species extends back of the 
 eye, and that of the smallmouth even with the anterior margin of 
 the eye. 
 
 Crappie (Pomoxis annularis). — Commonly called bachelor, camp- 
 bellite, new light, sac-a-lait, tinmouth, crapet, and chinquapin. Its 
 range is from New York and Vermont westward through the Great 
 Lakes region and the Mississippi Valley to the Dakotas, and south 
 to Texas. It inhabits sluggish muddy water and reaches a length of 
 1 foot in its most southerly range. The crappie is an excellent pan 
 fish and should be generally cultivated where conditions are favor- 
 able. It is an extremely delicate fish to handle, its protruding eyes 
 being easily injured and frequently blinded when constantly exposed 
 to direct sunlight in clear water. In ponds devoted primarily to the 
 propagation of crappie many fish-culturists introduce carp, suckers, 
 or other bottom feeders, as the resulting turbid water seems to be a 
 favorable condition for them. The natural habitat of the crappie 
 suggests its suitability for ponds containing largemouth black bass 
 or catfish, where the water supply is drawn from turbid streams or 
 furnished by surface drainage. 
 
 Calico bass {Pomoxis sparokles). — Also known as strawberry bass, 
 grass bass, and barfish. Is abundant in the Great Lakes region and 
 
FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 
 
 21 
 
 Smallmouth black bass. 
 
 Largemouth black bass. 
 
 Crappie. 
 
22 
 
 FISH PONDS ON TAKMS. 
 
 
 
 <^<isifc^ 
 
 Calico bass. 
 
 4 iv/<^^^._/ 
 
 Rock bass. 
 
FISH PONDS ON FAEMS, 
 
 23 
 
 "^ 
 
 Warmouth bass. 
 
 Bluegill simfish. 
 
24 FISH PONDS ON FAHMS. 
 
 the upper Mississippi Valley, with extreme range east to New Jersey 
 and south to Texas. It very much resembles the crappie, but is 
 hardier in every respect and better adapted to pond culture. It may 
 be distinguished from the crappie by the presence of 7 or 8 spines in 
 the dorsal fin, where the crappie has but 5 or 6. It will thrive in com- 
 pany with any of the pond species that are suited to relatively high 
 temperatures. 
 
 EocK BASS (Amhloplites rupestns). — Colloquially termed red-eye 
 and goggle-eye. This species is found in lakes and streams from 
 New England to Manitoba and south to Louisiana and Texas, being 
 particularly abundant in the cooler lakes and streams of the upper 
 Mississippi Valley. It inhabits by choice only clear, cool waters, and 
 is therefore less thrifty in its southern range. The rock bass has 
 been known to attain a weight of 1^ pounds and a length of 12 inches, 
 but the average specimen probably does not exceed a weight of one- 
 half pound or a length of 7 inches. Fish of this species are well 
 suited for introduction into spring-fed ponds with the smallmouth 
 black bass. 
 
 Warmouth bass {Chcenohryttus gulosus). — Is often confused with 
 the rock bass. It has very much the same range and similar general 
 characteristics, but is better adapted to waters of a high temperature, 
 and is therefore most abundant in the South. The two species may 
 be distinguished by the three oblique dark stripes radiating backward 
 from the eye in the warmouth bass and by the rather indistinct ver- 
 tical stripes on the body of the rock bass. The warmouth bass may 
 be propagated in conjunction with the largemouth black bass or in 
 small ponds with the crappie and sunfish. 
 
 SuNFisH (Lepomis pallidus). — Locally termed bluegill, blue sun- 
 fish, copper-nosed bream, doUardee, and blue bream. Of the many 
 species of sunfishes distributed throughout the United States east of 
 the Rocky Mountains, this is the only one that can be recommended 
 by the Bureau of Fisheries as worthy of artificial propagation, and 
 it is believed to be the finest pond fish available for private culture. 
 It is adapted to practically all conditions, is prolific, and of unsur- 
 passed table qualiti3s. The largest specimens will measure from 12 
 to 14 inches in length and attain a weight of nearly a pound. The 
 bluegill may be propagated in connection with any of the other 
 species listed above. 
 
 Catfish (Ameiurus nebulosus). — ^Locally known as bullhead, 
 horned pout, Schuylldll cat, small yellow cat, and the sub- 
 species Ameiurus nebulosus marmoratus^ known in the South 
 as marble cat. This is the only member of the catfish family 
 that has so far been propagated in ponds. It is distinct from 
 the genus Ictalurus^ which embraces the larger catfishes — blue cat, 
 channel cat, forked-tail cat, and spotted cat. Many attempts have 
 
PISH PONDS ON FARMS. 25 
 
 been made to propagate these latter species, but without success. 
 They seem to require some element not found in still waters. The 
 bullhead is abundant in all ponds, lakes, and sluggish streams of the 
 eastern United States and the Mississippi Valley region. It adapts 
 itself to widely varying conditions and demands less expensive prep- 
 aration for its cultivation than any of the other fishes considered. 
 The bullhead is the most easily domesticated of any of the pond 
 fishes. Its appearance is formidable and repugnant to some, but 
 when propagated in comparatively pure water it is very palatable. 
 It may be cultivated in connection with any of the warm-water spe- 
 cies referred to, and is particularly suited to the changing conditions 
 of drainage- fed ponds. 
 
 NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL FISH FOODS. 
 
 As with all forms of live stock, it is essential that brood fish be 
 kept in a thrifty condition. Good food, proper shelter, ventilation, 
 and exercise — familiar requirements to the farmer — have their equiv- 
 alents in the food, physical characteristics of the pond, composition 
 and aeration of the water, and the amount of space allotted to a 
 given number of fish. Common sense, based upon observation of 
 natural laws, will carry the fish-culturist a long way toward success. 
 
 All the fishes recommended for pond culture are naturally car- 
 nivorous, choosing live food through preference. Their predatory 
 instinct in this respect can not be catered to exclusively where 
 their culture is undertaken on an extensive scale, but the closer 
 it is adhered to the better will be the results. It would be detri- 
 mental to the ultimate object in view to feed them live predaceous 
 species of minnows, for those that were not devoured would prey 
 upon the young of the species being propagated, and eventually, the 
 minnow offspring would monopolize the vital resources of the water. 
 The smaller minnows, with sucker-like mouths, may be advan- 
 tageously liberated in the pond as food ; for this purpose many fish- 
 culturists utilize goldfish, which are herbivorous feeders and scaven- 
 gers, and which, in limited numbers, do not materially lessen the 
 supply of natural food available for the game fishes. Large num- 
 bers of goldfish would work injury through the destruction of 
 aquatic plants, but if held in subjection the young goldfish con- 
 Etitute a superior food, and any that escape this destiny have a com- 
 mercial value in their ornamental colorings. 
 
 Frogs, worms, and flying insects all contribute to the food supply 
 of the brood fish, likewise the larger aquatic insects inhabiting the 
 water. If not overstocked, therefore, the average pond may be 
 managed so that it will furnish all the live food necessary for the 
 adult fish. Where this is insuflScient to properly maintain the stock, 
 
26 
 
 FISH PONDS ON FABMS. 
 
 however, it may be supplemented by meat or, preferaHy, coarse 
 fish, which should be cut in pieces small enough to be readily swal- 
 lowed. Wild stock will refuse to accept this food until near the 
 starvation point. Some will never do it, but the majority show such 
 greediness for the substitute food, after having once tasted it, that 
 they will follow the attendant about the pond whenever he appears. 
 
 Fresh livers and hearts are the materials most commonly used 
 where a meat diet is employed, being the cheapest good materials 
 obtainable; fresh fish is a more natural food, however. If the 
 farmer is located within a reasonable distance of a fish market, ar- 
 rangements can usually be made for regular deliveries of species 
 having little or no commercial value, such as are incidentally taken 
 by the fishermen in seining. If the magnitude of the operations will 
 warrant, it is advisable to devote one pond to the propagation of carp 
 for the sole purpose of producing food for the game fishes. Carp 
 feed on vegetation and large numbers of them may be reared on a 
 farm at little expense. 
 
 The amount of food required must be governed by the appetite 
 of the fish. They should be given all they show eagerness for once 
 a day. During the nesting season and the cold months practically 
 no food is required, but especial care should be taken to feed them 
 well both before and after the spawning period. 
 
 Crappie can rarely be taught to take artificial food, but fortu- 
 nately it is seldom necessary to feed them or the breeders of other 
 small species adapted to pond culture — the sunfishes and the rock 
 bass. Catfish quickly learn the lesson and will consume with avidity 
 raw or cooked meats, vegetables, and even hard grains. 
 
 DISEASES. 
 
 There are no diseases of pond fishes that can be successfully com- 
 bated by artificial means. A well-fed fish is usually a healthy fish, 
 whereas thin specimens are wanting in resistance to their habitual 
 parasites and can not readily recover from external injuries. If they 
 are fed well on as nearly appropriate foods as can be secured and 
 are carried in ponds of natural characteristics, sicloiess will be of 
 rare occurrence. 
 
 STOCKING PONDS WITH BROOD FISH. 
 
 The most successful and the speediest results in pond culture are 
 attainable by the use of adult fish for the original brood stock. These 
 can in most cases be secured from the public waters of the immediate 
 locality during the open season prescribed by the State laws. 
 
 It is such a common failing to want something new and strange 
 that many prospective fish-culturists endeavor to procure some species 
 
• FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 27 
 
 of fish that is foreign to their community with which to begin their 
 operations. To illustrate some of the impractical ideas entertained, 
 the Bureau of Fisheries is often asked to furnish the species of trout 
 indigenous to the Great Lakes for stocking southern waters, or the 
 flounder (a salt-water fish) for introduction into the ponds in the 
 interior. 
 
 In general it may be assumed that the species which is the most 
 prolific in the public waters of the region in question will be the 
 likeliest to produce material results, and by procuring adult fish 
 for breeders the pond in which they are placed should become 
 stocked to its maximum capacity within a year. On the other hand, 
 if State or Federal aid is relied upon only a limited number of 
 fingerling or, at best, yearling fish will be available for beginning 
 operations, and it will require from two to three years for them to 
 mature and stock the ponds through natural reproduction. 
 
 The wisest course, then, will be to choose some native species and 
 to make a persistent eflPort to secure adult specimens. This can best 
 be done in the fall months, when the fish will more quickly recover 
 from slight injuries which, during a period of high temperature, 
 might develop into ugly sores and possibly kill them. 
 
 Fish hooked only in the mouth are in no way harmed for breeders, 
 but the greatest precaution must be taken in holding them and in 
 transporting them to the pond. Loosening or rubbing off of scales 
 induces a fungus growth which will eventually spread over the body 
 and result fatally. As the fish are captured they may be placed in 
 buckets or tubs, which may be darkened by throwing an old blanket or 
 carpet over the top. In changing the water, which should be done as 
 often as the fish seem to require it, care should be taken not to excite 
 them. When the fish are to be held for several days before they can 
 be transferred to the pond, it is advisable to excavate a shallow 
 basin at the margin of the lake or river where the collection is 
 being made and arrange for a moderate flow of water from the main 
 body through its entire length. A pool of running water 6 feet 
 long, 3 feet wide, and from 12 to 18 inches deep will hold two or 
 three dozen large fish with safety. Live boxes should not be used, 
 as fish held in them will bruise themselves beyond recovery. 
 
 In conveying fish a considerable distance by rail or wagon, recep- 
 tacles of such diameter that each specimen may lie at full length on 
 the bottom should be provided. The depth of the water is a matter 
 of less importance, but it should be kept at the proper temperature 
 and well aerated. If necessary, ice may be used to maintain an even 
 temperature corresponding to that from which the fish were taken; 
 but if that be high and the distance to the pond great, it will be 
 found easier to reduce the temperature to 65°, and gradually raise it 
 
28 FISH PONDS ON" FAEMS. 
 
 when nearing the destination to conform to that of the water in 
 which the fish are to be liberated. During conveyance the water in 
 the receptacles will be kept in motion and adequately aerated; but 
 when standing still it must be artificially aerated by dipping out 
 some water and pouring it back into the receptacle from a height. 
 
 The ordinary 10-gallon can is employed by the Bureau of Fisheries 
 for the transportation of small fish, but if the fish are too long for its 
 diameter nothing is better than wash boilers. Any clean receptacle 
 may be used, but those mentioned are the most convenient to handle. 
 
 If the use of artificial food is not contemplated, the number of 
 brood fish allotted to a pond must be apportioned to the natural food 
 available for both the adults and the expected fry and fingerlings. 
 Fifty of either species of black bass or 100 specimens of any of the 
 smaller species are maximum numbers for an acre of water, where the 
 offspring is to remain in the brood pond. These numbers should 
 produce a much larger number of fry than the waters can sustain 
 until mature, but allowance will have to be made for losses through 
 cannibalism and the ordinary vicissitudes of their environment. 
 Promiscuous collections of fish will invariably run about equally as 
 to sex, and the numbers recommended will therefore give 25 and 50 
 pairs, respectively. 
 
 There are no external markings by which the sex of pond fishes 
 can be positively determined, but the female black bass usually pre- 
 sents a more mottled appearance than the male and her colors are 
 brighter. 
 
 SPAWNING SEASON. 
 
 Black bass will nest in the spring when the water temperature 
 rises above 60° F. Ordinarily 63° F. will bring about deposits of 
 eggs, but if the season is a backward one, the fish may spawn at 58° 
 F. On the other hand, an unusually advanced season may not bring 
 results until the temperature exceeds 65° or 68° F. 
 
 Suitable temperatures for spawning prevail in the more southerly 
 States as early as February; in the latitude of Tennessee, in March; 
 in southern Illinois, during April; in Iowa, during May; and in 
 northern Minnesota, in June. The spawning season extends over 
 two or more weeks, and is usually marked by two periods of intense 
 activity, following a rise in temperature after several days of ab- 
 normally cool weather. In the Southern States the nesting season 
 is not so sharply defined, owing to the almost continuously favorable 
 temperatures throughout the year, which cause rapid development 
 of the ova. At the Texas station of the Bureau of Fisheries there 
 regularly occurs a hatching period in February, one in j^.pril, and 
 scattering hatches throughout the summer. The crappies, sunfishes, 
 rock bass, and catfishes will spawn from one to two months later than 
 
PISH PONDS ON FAEMS. 29 
 
 the black bass m the same waters, and the sunfishes and rock bass will 
 continue nesting to some extent until the approach of cool weather 
 in the fall. 
 
 SPAWNING HABITS. 
 
 Ordinarily ponds will require no special preparation for the 
 spawning season. Some of the species choose the roots of water 
 plants on which to spawn, while others seek out gravel spots and 
 find them, however much they may be hidden by deposits of mud. 
 Catfish burrow into embankments and under rocks and logs, and it 
 is well to provide substitutes for such shelters where this species is 
 being propagated, for which purpose heavy planks weighted to the 
 bottom of the pond will be suitable and will offer the least impedi- 
 ment to seining operations later on. 
 
 With the right material at hand the male will prepare the nest to 
 his precise taste and after its completion will seek a partner. There 
 are many ups and downs in the domestic life of fishes, especially in 
 the case of such pugnacious species as the black basses. The battles 
 of the males for favorite females are liable to cause injuries result- 
 ing in death ; or after being won, a consort may prove not sufficiently 
 advanced in maturity, in which case the fish separate and the male 
 continues his search for a more congenial mate. 
 
 Actual spawning will extend over several hours, the eggs being 
 emitted and fertilized at varying intervals. 
 
 All the eggs carried by a female may not be ripe at one time, and 
 the male will repeatedly seek new mates until the nest has been 
 stocked to his satisfaction, driving each companion away when she 
 ceases to perform the function for which she was obtained. The eggs 
 are adhesive, and attach themselves to gravel, roots, or other material 
 on the beds. The male remains on the nest during the entire period 
 of incubation, fanning the eggs clean of sediment with a gentle 
 motion of his fins and watchfully guarding against the encroach- 
 ment of other fishes on his domain. He is the personification of 
 valor at this time, and all other creatures in the pond apparently 
 have the greatest respect for him. Nothing but the loss or death 
 of the eggs from low temperatures, heavy deposits of sediment, or 
 other adverse conditions will cause him to abandon his nest. Not- 
 withstanding their ferocity, black bass will nest in close proximity 
 to one another and attend to their respective parental duties in entire 
 amity, whereas the approach of a strange fish will be resented. 
 
 Sunfish are decidedly gregarious during the spawning season and 
 will locate their nests very closely together. With them all is har- 
 mony, the sole thought of each appearing to be centered upon his 
 own particular business. 
 
30 
 
 FISH PONDS ON FAEMS. 
 
 The crappies spawn in comparatively deep water on isolated nests. 
 Owing to their color, the depth of the water, and its usual turbidity, 
 but few observations have been made of their peculiar character- 
 istics at this period. 
 
 Eock bass and warmouth bass deposit their eggs on gravel beds of 
 greatly varying diameters, and their spawning instincts are some- 
 what similar to those of the black bass, though in a less marked 
 degree. 
 
 By reason of their intrepidity at the time, all of the species referred 
 to appear to be very tame while guarding their nests, but this instinct 
 should not be presumed upon by permitting unnecessary disturb- 
 ances about the beds. 
 
 The incubation period of eggs of the various pond fishes ranges 
 from a few days to two weeks or more, depending upon the mean 
 water temperature. A drop below 55° F. is invariably fatal, while 
 the percentage of hatch below 58° F. is greatly reduced. 
 
 Under uniformly favorable conditions healthy eggs will hatch 
 without any loss to speak of, but the average hatch of domesticated 
 stock is not over 50 per cent. This, however, is a sufficiently large 
 percentage to make pond-fish culture profitable. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE YOUNG FISH— THEIR FOOD AND 
 
 GROWTH. 
 
 When first hatched the fry of most of these species are colorless, 
 and because of their tendency to collect among the roots and in the 
 crevices of the spawning beds are difficult to find. They become 
 darker in a few days, however, and are easily distinguished. In a 
 short time they rise a few inches off the bed during the day and re- 
 turn to the bottom at night, increasing the distance each day until 
 they eventually reach the surface. During all this time the parent 
 fish has given them the same sedulous attention as when they were 
 in the egg stage. Gradually the school enlarges in circumference to 
 such an extent that he has difficulty in keeping his brood together. 
 He crowds them into shoal water — their natural feeding ground — and 
 patrols the shore in an effort to ward off enemies, but they finally 
 separate into small bands, escape the vigilance of their guardian, and 
 become free lances in the strife for survival. 
 
 The largemouth black bass and catfish fry school much longer 
 than the other species mentioned; in fact, catfish fry retain this 
 gregarious tendency throughout the first year, while young black 
 bass remain together until 2 inches or more in length. 
 
 Young sunfish and catfish are easily taught to take artificial food, 
 when the natural food of the pond is insufficient for their nourish- 
 ment. As with the adult fish, animal tissue is the most readily ac- 
 
PISH PONDS ON FARMS. 31 
 
 cepted, and will produce the strongest growth, though cooked cereals 
 or vegetables will answer, and are even relished by young catfish 
 when given in the raw state. 
 
 The food should be scattered along the natural feeding grounds, 
 starting with a small amount and increasing the quantity to what the 
 fish will daily consume. Care should be taken to prevent the pollu- 
 tion of the pond through the decomposition of excess food. 
 
 The young basses and crappies can not be successfully fed, and 
 must depend entirely upon the insect life in the pond for their 
 sustenance. For this reason no more young fish of these species 
 should be carried in a pond than the natural food supply contained 
 therein will support. 
 
 When such food is inadequate for the number of fish in a pond the 
 only alternative will be the provision of additional ponds, to which 
 a portion of the fry may be transferred for rearing. A public- 
 spirited course would be to plant the surplus stock in neighboring 
 public waters, taking care not to introduce them into streams and 
 lakes which should be reserved to trout or salmon, as their presence 
 would be detrimental to the latter species. Such a policy pursued 
 by several fish-culturists in a given vicinity would maintain good 
 public fishing, without diminishing to any appreciable extent the 
 quantity of edible fish in the waters under private control. Ordi- 
 narily well-constructed ponds are capable of producing from two to 
 ten times the number of fry that can be reared therein. The surplus 
 is of some value as food for the stronger specimens, but would be of 
 much greater value if liberated in adjacent lakes or streams. 
 
 CAPACITY OF A POND FOR THE PRODUCTION OF FISH. 
 
 It is difficult to estimate the capacity of ponds for the various 
 stages in the growth of fish. It depends for the most part upon the 
 amount of appropriate food available. A 2-acre pond producing 
 10,000 one-year-old black bass from 4 to 6 inches long would be a 
 remarkably successful enterprise, and 20,000 one and one-half to two 
 inch yearling crappie or sunfish to an acre of water would be like- 
 wise notable. These numbers have been realized and in some in- 
 stances exceeded, but the average results are doubtless much smaller. 
 
 The stock will be decreased through cannibalism at least 50 per 
 cent by the end of the second year, and the yearlings held over will 
 consume a large percentage of the fry hatched during the second 
 and succeeding years of operations. Enough should survive, how- 
 ever, to maintain the adult stock at the maximum number that the 
 pond will support. 
 
 In waters of high temperature those species adapted to culture in 
 ponds will attain maturity and reproduce at the age of 2 years. In 
 
32 FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 
 
 cool waters reproduction may be delayed until the fourth year, or 
 in case the species is very poorly adapted to the temperature condi- 
 tions the fish may remain small, stunted specimens throughout life 
 and never reproduce. 
 
 ENEMIES. • 
 
 There are many enemies of fish, especially of fry and fiingerlings, 
 against which the fish culturist must wage continual warfare. The 
 heaviest losses will be from cannibalism, and these will be gauged 
 by the balance of the food and fish in the pond. Some species are 
 more predaceous than others. For this reason black basses, the scourge 
 of restricted waters, are recommended only for large areas of the 
 highest fertility. Such species as pike and pickerel should never be 
 selected for culture in ponds, as they are the most piratical and 
 devastating fishes inhabiting fresh waters. 
 
 It is necessary to guard closely against the inadvertent establish- 
 ment in a pond of any undesirable species of fish or animal. Turtles 
 and snakes will consume large numbers of fry and fingerlings in the 
 course of a season and should be barred from the waters as strictly 
 as possible. Kingfishers, herons, ducks, mudhens, fish hawks, etc., 
 Boon locate a pond and prove most persistent poachers. Powder and 
 shot is their most effective deterrent. If inroads on the stock are 
 made by mink, they should be trapped in season — at a time when they 
 will, at least in part, make reimbursement for their board. Musk- 
 rats, while not fish destroyers, work havoc with pond embankments 
 and should be exterminated. 
 
 METHODS EMPLOYED BY THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES IN THE 
 DISTRIBUTION OF FISH. 
 
 The Bureau of Fisheries will undertake to furnish fish to indi- 
 viduals for stocking public and private waters. Blanks upon which 
 to submit formal application will be supplied on request. Assign- 
 ments of fish are made large enough to form the nucleus for a brood 
 stock for a given area of water, and are delivered at the applicant's 
 railroad station free of charge. From the information given in these 
 applications the Bureau decides as to the suitability of the waters 
 for the fish asked for and reserves the right to substitute other species 
 if in its judgment the applicant's selection is ill chosen or it is im- 
 possible, with its limited facilities, to supply the species specified 
 within a reasonable length of time. 
 
 None of the pond fishes recommended in the foregoing pages will 
 be furnished by the Bureau for stocking lakes or streams in Washing- 
 ton, Oregon, California, Idaho, Nevada, or the western portions of 
 Wyoming or Montana, as it is believed their introduction into suoh 
 
FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 33 
 
 waters might prove detrimental to the important salmon and trout 
 fisheries of the Pacific coast. 
 
 Basses, crappie, and sunfishes are propagated at 13 of the Bureau's 
 stations, ranging in location from Vermont to South Carolina and 
 from Texas to Iowa. However, the facilities at these stations are 
 entirely inadequate to fill the rapidly growing demands, and the 
 Bureau has for some years supplemented its supplies by collecting 
 young fish of the species named from the overflow waters of certain 
 rivers in the Mississippi Valley, where they are indigenous. 
 
 No source of supply can be relied upon. A sudden change in tem- 
 perature during the spawning season may cause a year's failure at an 
 important pond-culture station, and, unfortunately, this critical 
 period occurs at a time when sudden climatic changes are natural. 
 The success attained in collecting young fish from overflow waters 
 depends upon favorable water stages, not only at spawning time but 
 throughout the collecting season ; as widely varying water stages are 
 encountered from week to week and from year to year, the results 
 of a season's work can not be foretold with any degree of certainty. 
 
 It is the policy of the Bureau to fill applications, so far as practi- 
 cable, in the order of their receipt, and the allotments are as liberal 
 as circumstances will permit. Aside from the uncertainty as to the 
 stock of fish available for distribution, there are other factors govern- 
 ing the size of allotments and the time of delivery that are not gen- 
 erally understood. 
 
 On account of the greater value of fingerlings than fry for stock- 
 ing purposes and the proportionate difficulty and expense of produc- 
 ing the larger fish, it is of course impossible to supply them except in 
 comparatively limited numbers. It has been estimated that 350 fish 
 1 inch long are of more value than 1,000 fry, and that 25 fish 6 inches 
 long are the equivalent of 100 only half as long. This is approxi- 
 mately the ratio of decrease experienced in rearing fingerling fish at 
 the Bureau's stations, and allotments to applicants are governed 
 accordingly. 
 
 The distribution operations of the Bureau of Fisheries close with 
 the fiscal year ending June 30. At the opening of the new fiscal year 
 all applications on hand are listed and arrangements are made to 
 supply the fish assigned thereon before the following winter so far as 
 the stock available will permit. Applications received after the 
 opening of the fiscal year can not be filled in the same calendar year. 
 unless there happens to be a surplus stock after deliveries have been 
 made on all listed applications. 
 
 There are two distinct periods of distribution — one of fry m 
 the late spring months, the shipments being forwarded in charge of 
 messengers direct from the stations where the fish are propagated, 
 and the other by the Bureau's cars, which extends from early in July 
 
34 FISH PONDS ON FAKMS. 
 
 until late in the fall. The later distribution is of fingerling fish, 
 their size increasing as the work progresses. 
 
 The distributions are arranged to cover the country by States or 
 groups of States, and individual trips are routed in such a way as to 
 most effectively and economically supply all applicants of a particu- 
 lar section of a State. The Bureau does not carry at all times a 
 supply of fish that can be delivered on demand. Fish reproduce 
 only once a year, and when the supply for any one year is exhausted 
 it is necessary to wait another year, or until the next breeding season, 
 before another supply can be obtained. Rarely is a second trip made 
 over a route in the course of a year, and if for any reason an appli- 
 cant fails to meet the Bureau's messenger and receive his consign- 
 ment, the application is held for another attempt the following year. 
 Only in extraordinarily good seasons can the entire area of the 
 United States be covered. Each section is supplied in turn, so far 
 as practicable, priority being given to the older applications on file. 
 
 Applicants are notified from 30 to 60 days in advance of the con- 
 templated shipments of their fish, and a second notice, specifying the 
 exact time of arrival, is sent by the messenger while en route. Every 
 precaution is taken by the Bureau to avoid misunderstandings, and 
 it is essential that applicants follow all the instructions they may 
 
 receive. 
 
 REMOVING FISH FROM PONDS. 
 
 In removing fish from a pond at any time the same care should be 
 exercised as in handling stock, due precaution being taken to reserve 
 the best specimens for breeders, and to retain a sufficient number for 
 future reproduction. Their number and size must be left to the 
 judgment of the proprietor of the pond, as it will vary greatly with 
 the character of the water, size of the pond, climatic conditions, and 
 geographical location. 
 
 In southern latitudes pond fishes commence nest building in March, 
 while farther north, in Iowa and Illinois, reproduction does not occur 
 imtil May or June. Young fish recently hatched are very tender and 
 should not be molested for at least 30 days. 
 
 Care should be taken in removing adult fish from a pond, espe- 
 cially during the spring and summer months. In making the selec- 
 tion the larger fish should be preferred to the medium-sized ones, as 
 the larger specimens are very destructive to the smaller fish. They 
 are not as prolific as those of average weight, and have usually at- 
 tained their size through cannibalism. 
 
 If a few fish for table use are desired, and one has the time, they 
 can probably best be taken with hook and line. A fyke net might 
 be used imder certain conditions, or a few may be taken in a trap 
 constructed of light wooden framing, covered with netting or galvan- 
 ized wire cloth of about 1-inch-square mesh. The trap should have 
 a cone-shaped entrance for the fish, and the interior should contain a 
 few minnows in a wire cage which are used as bait. 
 
FISH PONDS ON FARMS. 35 
 
 Where many fish are to be removed from a pond a seine should be 
 emploj^ed. To use it to the greatest advantage about one-third of 
 the water should be drawn off; this will cause the adult fish to 
 congregate in the deeper waters, where they may be more readily 
 secured. The water should be drawn off slowly in order to give the 
 small fish a chance to follow it down. 
 
 Before drawing the pond the vegetation should be removed from 
 the lower portion of the pond where the seine is to be hauled. It 
 may either be clit or raked out with a long-handled garden rake from 
 the bank. Wading in the pond is to be avoided, as it makes the 
 water roily and leaves deep holes in the bottom, in which the young 
 fish are apt to be caught. 
 
 In lowering the water, vegetation of a rank and dense growth is 
 very apt to settle down and smother the young fish. It should be 
 moved as soon as observed, but cat's-tail and other plants having 
 stems of sufficient strength to support them in an upright position 
 need not be removed, unless this is necessary in order to haul the 
 seine. 
 
 In many instances it might not be necessary to draw off the water 
 if the vegetation were removed from a portion of the pond and the 
 fish fed regularly in the cleared space, for, with care, a seine could 
 be passed around them and a large number secured. 
 
 It is inadvisable to draw a pond during the warm summer months 
 unless one has the supply of water available to refill it at once. 
 Better results are attained by drawing off the water in the cool fall 
 months, but even then one should be sure of being able to refill the 
 pond before freezing weather. For this reason it is believed that 
 seining with a large net in the clearing where the fish have been 
 accustomed to feed would give the best results. 
 
 'Wlien the proper amount of water has been drawn off the seine 
 should be laid out from a boat and hauled toward the bank at the 
 deeper end of the pond. In case the deepest place is near the middle 
 of the pond, it will be necessary to work the seine around the fish 
 and haul it toward the nearest bank. 
 
 Should more fish be removed from the pond than are desired for 
 immediate use, the surplus can be placed in a floating live box 
 anchored near the outlet or where the water is deep. This box may 
 be made of wooden slats placed far enough apart to permit a free 
 circulation of water and yet retain the fish. The slats should be 
 nailed to a small frame of 2 by 2 inch material, forming a box 16 
 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, and provided with a hinged 
 cover. 
 
 If preferred, a small inclosure in the pond fenced with galvanized 
 wire might be provided for holding surplus fish, removing them when 
 required with a large hand dip net or a small seine. The advantage 
 of the inclosure over the live box is that it will not crowd the fish, 
 and they are thus held under more natural conditions. 
 
 O 
 
Caylord Bros. 
 
 Makers 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 PAT. JAN. 21, 1908 
 
 i 
 
 m