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ILLUSTRATED 
 
 T 
 
 BEING 
 
 A CLEAR AND CONCISE HISTORY OP 
 
 ALL NATIONS, 
 
 From the Earliest Ages down to Modern Times, includ- 
 ing the Most Recent Important Events in 
 all Parts of the World. 
 
 .A. IFTJLIj HIISTOI^"^- OIF 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 A TABLE OF THE GREAT EVENTS OF 
 
 THE WORLD'S HISTORY, 
 
 IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. 
 
 
 A Table of the Kings and Rulers of the World, 
 
 WITH THE DATES IN WHICH THEY REIGNED. 
 
 AND 
 
 A Peonocncing Dictionary of Historical Proper Names. 
 
 BY ISRAEL SMITH CLARE. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 PUBLISHED BY P. W. ZIEGLER & CO., 
 
 No. 1000 Arch Street. 
 
 1880. 
 
COPYRIGHTED 
 
 BY ISRAEL SMITH CLARE, 
 1880. 
 
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P R E FA CE. 
 
 ' I "'HE author of this work, having, in common with others, felt the want of 
 a book which could truly be called a treatise on universal history, has un- 
 dertaken the task of supplying such want; and, as the result of a great expense of 
 time and labor, this volume is presented to the public. 
 
 For convenience, though somewhat arbitrarily, the work is divided into three 
 parts, each containing the record of an important era in the history of the world. 
 Book First contains an historical account of the ancient world, embracing the period 
 from the Creation of Man to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, A. D. 476. 
 Book Second embraces the history of the Middle Ages, comprising the time from 
 the Fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Discovery of America, inclusive. 
 Book Third comprises a record of the modern period, describing the epoch from 
 the Discovery of America to the present time. 
 
 Great historical events have been arranged logically rather than chronologically, 
 and great care has been taken to detail facts in proportion to their relative impor- 
 tance. The author has also taken great pains to omit what is irrelevant, and he 
 has selected from the great mass of historical matter those events which have exerted 
 a controlling influence upon the destinies of the world. ' 
 
 The greatest prominence is given to the annals of those nations of ancient and 
 modern times which have acted a leading part on the stage of the world's history; 
 and, with this view, Greece and Rome are made to stand out with their due prom- 
 inence among the nations of antiquity, while Germany, France, England, and 
 America are exhibited as the leading actors in the modem drama. 
 
 To enable the reader or student to easily acquire and retain a knowledge of the 
 facts related, and to observe their relation, the subject-matter of this work is arranged 
 in many divisions and subdivisions; and each subject is minutely analyzed, and 
 the outlines of the various subjects furnish appropriate headings for the different 
 paragi-aphs. 
 
 In adciition to a full account of the annals of the nations of the Old World, a 
 Complete history of the United States, up to the present time, is given; also a gen- 
 eral history of the Spanish American Republics, — subjects which are no*^ treated ryf 
 to the same extent in other works of this kind. 
 
iy PREFACE. 
 
 The history of the United States is made to embrace the period of the first cen- 
 tury of our existence as an independent nation; and a separate title-page is given 
 to it. The history of our country is divided into three periods: — ist. The period 
 of the American Revolution; 2d. The period of national development, extending 
 from the time of the adoption of our National Constitution in 1789 to the close of 
 the war with Mexico; 3d. The period of the slavery agitation and the civil w'»r, 
 and recent events. All the leading events of each Administration are narrated, 
 according to their relative importance, or their bearing upon the destinies of om 
 country. 
 
 The Table of Contents embraces a general outline of the book, and is analyti- 
 cal. In the Chronological Index, the great events in the history of the human 
 race are arranged in chronological order, and reference is made to the pages on 
 which the events named, are found. In the Alphabetical Index, all the proper 
 names found in the book are arranged alphabetically, with their pronunciation, and 
 reference is also made to the pages on which they occur. The book, as arranged, 
 is well adapted for general reading, for reference, and for private study. 
 
 With these few introductory remarks, the author submits the volume to the 
 public, with the hope that it may prove of valuable service to the student of histon 
 and to the general reader. I. S. Clare. 
 
 Millersville, Pa., 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK FIRST-ANCIENT HISTORY 
 
 THE EARLIEST AGES, 
 
 1. Antediluvian History, 
 
 2. The Dispersion of Mankind, 
 
 ORIENTAL NATIONS. 
 
 1. China, 
 
 2. India, 
 
 5. Assyria and Babylonia, 
 
 4. Egypt, 
 
 5. Pholnicia, 
 
 6. The Hebrews or Israelites, 
 
 1. The Patriarchs, . 
 
 2. The Hebrews in Egypt, 
 
 3. The Exodus of the Israelites, 
 
 4. The Period of the fudges, 
 
 5. The Reign of Saul, 
 
 6. The Reign of David, 
 
 7. The Reign of Solomon, . 
 
 8. The Kingdom of Israel, 
 
 9. The Kingdom of fudah, 
 
 7. Media and Persia, 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 1 Geography of Ancient Greece, 
 
 2 Grecian Mythology, 
 3. Legendary Period of Greece, 
 
 1 . Early Settlements in Greece, 
 
 2. The Heroic Age, .... 
 
 3. The Amphictyonic Council and the Olympic Festival, 
 
 4. Greek Colonies, .... 
 ( The Period of the Lawgivers, 
 
 1. Lycurgus, the Spartan Lawgiver, 
 
 2. The Messenian Wars, 
 
 (v) 
 
 
 FACE. 
 
 . 
 
 21 
 
 • 
 
 21 
 
 
 22 
 
 • 
 
 • 23 
 
 
 24 
 
 . 
 
 . 25 
 
 
 26 
 
 . 
 
 • 27 
 
 
 27 
 
 • 
 
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 28 
 
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 . 29 
 
 
 30 
 
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 31 
 
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 32 
 
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 35 
 
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 . 
 
 37 
 
 . 
 
 • 37 
 
 • 
 
 37 
 
 ival. 
 
 . 39 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 . 40 
 
 . 
 
 40 
 
 . 
 
 . 4^ 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 3. Draco and Solon, the Lawgivers of Athens , 
 
 4. The Tyrants of Athens, 
 
 5. The Seven Wise Men of Greeee, 
 ^. TitF Flourishing Period ok Grkece, 
 
 1. 77/1? Persian War, .... 
 
 2. Affairs of Athens and Sparta, . . <. 
 
 3. The Peloponnesian War, 
 
 4. Retreat of the Ten Thousand and Peace of Antalcidas. 
 
 5. The Olynthian and Theban Wars, . 
 6 The Macedonian Period, .... 
 
 1. Philip of Macedon, .... 
 
 2. Alexander the Great, .... 
 3 Antipater and Alexander'' s Successors, 
 
 4. The Achaian League and the Fall of Greece, 
 
 5. The Ptolemies, the Seleucidce, and the Maccabees, 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 1. Ancient Italy, ..... 
 
 2. Rome under the Kings, 
 
 1. Romulus, ..... 
 
 2. The Successors of Romulus, . 
 %. The Roman Republic, .... 
 
 1. Wars with the Etruscans and with Porsenna, 
 
 2. Contests between the Patricians and the Plebeians, 
 
 3. Conquest of Veii and the Invasion of the Gauls, 
 
 4. The Laws of Caius Licinius Stolo, 
 
 5. Wars with the Samnites and the Latins, 
 
 6. The War with Pyrrhus, .... 
 
 7. The First Punic War, . . 
 
 8. lllyrian and Gallic Wars, 
 
 9. The Second Punic War, 
 
 10. Macedonian^ Syrian, and Grecian Wars, 
 
 11. The Third Punic War, 
 
 12. Roman Conquest of Spain, 
 
 13. Sedition of the Gracchi, 
 
 14. Age of Caius Marius and Cornelius Sylla, 
 
 15. Civil War of Marius and Sylla, 
 
 1 6. Age of Cnicus Pompey and Julius Casar, 
 17 Civil War of Pompey and Co: sar, 
 
 18. C(tsar''s Dictatorship, • . . . 
 
 19. Mark Antony and Octavius Ctrsar, . 
 
 20. Civil War of Octavius and Antony, 
 4 The Roman Empire, .... 
 
 I. The Reigns of the Ctesars, 
 
 1. The Reign of Augustus, . 
 
 2. Reign of Tiberius, .... 
 
 3. Reign of Caligula, 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 4. Reign of Claudius, . 
 
 5. Reigii of Nero, . 
 
 6. Reign of Galba, 
 
 7. Reign of Otho, . 
 
 8. Reign of Vitellius, . 
 
 9. Reign of Vespasian, 
 
 10. Rt ign of Titus, 
 
 11. Reign of Domitian, 
 
 2 The Five Good Emperors, 
 
 I. Reign of Nerva, , 
 
 2 Reign of Trajan, 
 
 3. Reign of Adrian, 
 
 4. Reign of Antoninus Pius, . 
 
 5. Reign of Marcus Aurelius, 
 
 3 The Period of Military Despotism, 
 
 1 . Reign of Commodus, 
 
 2. Reign of Pertinax, . 
 
 3. Reign of Didius Julianus, 
 
 4. Reign of Septimius Severus, 
 
 5. Reign of Caracalla, 
 
 6. Reign of Macrinus, , 
 
 7. Reign of Heliogabalus, . 
 
 8. Reign of Alexander Severus, 
 
 9. Reign of Maximin, 
 
 10. Reign of Gordian, . . 
 
 11. Reign of Philip, 
 
 12. Reign of Decius, 
 
 13. Reign of Gall us, 
 
 14. Reign of Valerian, . 
 
 15. Reign of Gallienus, 
 
 16. Reign of Flavius Claudius, . 
 
 17. Reign of Aurelian, 
 
 18. Reign of Tacitus, 
 
 19. Reign of Probus, . 
 
 20. Reign of Carus, 
 
 21. Reign of Diocletian, 
 
 22. Reign of Con,stantine the Great, 
 
 23. Reign of Constantius II., 
 
 24. Reign of Julian the Apostate, 
 
 25. Reign of Jovian, 
 4, Barbarian Inroads and Fall of the Western 
 
 1. Reign of Valentinian and Valens 
 
 2. Reign of Theodosius the Great, 
 
 3. Reign of Ilonorius, 
 
 4. Reign of Valentinian III., 
 
 5. Reign of Maximus, 
 
 6. The Last Roman Emperors of the West, 
 
 Roman 
 
 Evipi 
 
VIU 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK SECOND-THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 THE DARK AGES. 
 
 I r.MY AND THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE, 
 
 I. [taiy under the Heruli and the Ostrogoths, 
 2 The Byzantine Empire under Justinian, 
 3. The Lombard Kingdom in Northern Italy, 
 
 T:iE Angles and Saxons in Britain, . 
 
 The Saracen Empire, 
 
 1. Mohammed, .... 
 
 2. Mohammed^ s Successors, 
 
 1. Keign of Abubekir, 
 
 2. Reign of Omar, . . 
 
 3. Reign of Olhman, 
 
 4. Reign of Ah, 
 
 5. Reigns of the Ominiyades, 
 
 6. Reigns of the Abbassides, 
 The Frank Empire, 
 
 1. The Reigns of the Merovingians, 
 
 2. The Reigns of the Carlovingians, 
 
 1. Reign of Pepin the Little, . 
 
 2. Reign of Charlemagne, . 
 
 3. Charlemagne's Successors, . . 
 Bardarian Ravages in Europe, 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 . 117 
 117 
 
 . 117 
 119 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 . 120 
 
 121 
 . 121 
 
 122 
 . 123 
 
 . 123 
 
 124 
 . 125 
 
 . 126 
 126 
 
 . 126 
 129 
 
 . 129 
 
 EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 1. The Feudal System, 
 
 2. Chivalry, 
 
 3. The Papacy and Hierarchy, 
 
 4. MoNACHISM, 
 
 130 
 
 131 
 132 
 
 OJ 
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 The First Crusade, 
 The Second Crusade, . 
 The Third Crusade, 
 The Fourth Crusade. . 
 The Fifth Crusade, 
 The Sixth Crusade, 
 1 HE Seventh Crusade, 
 Consequences of the Crusades, 
 
 LATIN STATES. 
 
 Italian States, 
 
 1. The Papal States of Rome, 
 
 2. The Duchy of Milan, 
 
 f34 
 137 
 137 
 138 
 139 
 139 
 140 
 t40 
 
 142 
 142 
 142 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 J. The Republic of Venice, 
 
 4. The Republic of Genoa, , 
 
 5. The Republic of Florence, 
 
 fj. The Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, 
 3 Kingdom of France, 
 
 1. Carlovingian Kings of France, . 
 
 2. France tinder House of Capet, 
 
 1. Reign of Hugh Capet, 
 
 2. Reign of Robert, 
 
 3 Reign of Henry I., . 
 
 4. Reign of Philip I., 
 
 5. Reign of Louis VI., 
 
 6. Reign of Louis VIL, 
 
 7. Reign of Philip Augustus, . 
 
 8. Reign of Louis VHL, . 
 
 9. Reign of Louis IX., or St. Louis, 
 
 10. Reign of Philip the Hardy, 
 
 11. Reign of Philip the Fair, 
 
 12. Reign of Louis X., 
 
 13. Reign of Philip the Tall, 
 
 14. Reign of Charles the Fair, 
 
 3. France under the House of Valois, 
 
 1. Reign of Philip of Valois, 
 
 2. Reign of John the Good, 
 
 3. Reign of Charles the Wise, 
 
 4. Reign of Charles VI., 
 
 5. Reign of Charles the Victorious, 
 
 6. Reign of Louis XL, 
 
 7. Reign of Charles the Courteous, 
 
 8. Reign of Louis XII., 
 J. Iberian Kingdoms, 
 
 GERMANIC STATES, 
 
 I. The Holy Roman Empire of Germany, . 
 
 1 . Carlovingian Sovereigns of Germany, 
 
 2. Germany under the Saxon attd Frankish Emperors 
 
 1. Reign of Conrad I., of Franconia, 
 
 2. Reign of Henry the Fowler, 
 
 3. Reign of Otho the Great, 
 
 4. Reign of Otho II., . 
 
 5. Reign of Otho III., 
 
 6. Reign of Henry the Saint, . 
 
 7. Reign of Conrad II., 
 
 8. Reign of Henry III., 
 Q. Reign of Henry IV., . 
 
 10. Reign of Henry V., 
 
 11. Reign of Lothaire the Saxon, 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 3. Germany under the Hohenstauffens, 
 I. Reign of Conrad III., . 
 2 Reign of Fretleric Barbarossa, 
 
 3. Reign of Henry VI., 
 
 4. Reign of Olho IV. and Philip of Swabia, 
 
 5. Reign of Frederic II., . 
 4 The hiterrei^iium, 
 t,, Eviperors of Different Houses, 
 
 1. Reign of Rodolph of Hapsburg, 
 
 2. Reign of Adolph of Nassau, 
 
 3. Reign of Albert of Austria, . 
 
 4. Reign of Henry VII., of Lu.xemburg, .. 
 
 5. Reign of Louis the Bavarian and Frederic the Fair 
 
 6. Germany under the House 0/ Luxemburg, 
 
 1. Reign of Charles IV., 
 
 2. Reign of Wenceslaus, 
 
 3. Reign of Rupert of the Palatinate, 
 
 4. Reign of Sigismund, 
 
 7. Germany under the House of Hapsburg 
 
 1. Reign of Albert II., 
 
 2. Reign of Frederic III., . 
 
 3. Reign of Maximilian I., 
 2. The Kingdom of England, 
 
 1 . England under the Saxon and Datiish Kings, 
 
 1. The Reigns of Ihe Anglo-Sa.\on F-ings, 
 
 2. The Danish Kings of England, 
 
 3. The Restored Saxon Dynasty, 
 
 2. England under the A^orman Dynasty, 
 
 1. Reign of William the Conqueror, 
 
 2. Reign of William Rufus, 
 
 3. Reign of Ilenry I., 
 
 4. Reign of Stephen of Blois, . 
 
 3. England under the Plantagenets, 
 
 1. Reign of Ilenry II., 
 
 2. Reign of Richard the Lion-hearted, 
 
 3. Reign of John, 
 
 4. Reign of Henry III., 
 
 5. Reign of Edward L, 
 
 6. Reign of Ivhvard H., . 
 
 7. Reign of Edward HI., 
 
 8. Reign of Rich.wl H., . 
 
 4. England under the House of Lancaster, 
 
 1. Reign of Ilenry IV., 
 
 2. Reign of Henry V., 
 
 3. Reign of Ilenry VI., 
 $. England under the House of York, 
 
 I. Reign of Edward IV.. . 
 
 of Austri 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 2. Reigii of Edward V., . . . 
 
 3. Reign of Richard III., . 
 
 6. England under the House of Tudor, 
 I. Reign of Henry VII., 
 J The Scandinavian Kingdoms, 
 
 SLAVONIC STATES. 
 
 , The Kingdom OF Poland, 
 I. The Russian or Muscovite Empire, 
 
 TARTARIC STATES. 
 
 1. The Kingdom of Hungary, 
 
 2. The Mogul and Ottoman Empires, . 
 
 DISCOVERIES. 
 
 1 Important Inventions, 
 
 2 The Sea- Passage to India, 
 
 3. The Discovery of America, 
 
 1 . Spanish Expeditions and Discoveries, 
 
 2. English and French Expeditions and Discoveries, 
 
 XI 
 
 page. 
 
 184 
 
 . 184 
 
 185 
 
 . 185 
 
 185 
 
 1 8c 
 
 189 
 190 
 
 192 
 193 
 193 
 193 
 195 
 
 BOOK THIRD-MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 \ge of Charles V. and Henry VIII. , 
 
 1 . The German Reformation, 
 
 2. The IVars between Charles V. and Francis I., 
 
 1. Charles V., Francis I., and Henry VIII., 
 
 2. First War between Charles V. and Francis I., 
 
 3. Second War between Charles V. and Francis L, 
 
 4. Wars against the Infidels, 
 
 5. Third War between Charles V. and Francis I., 
 
 6. Fourth War between Charles V. and Francis I., 
 
 7. War between Charles V. and Henry II. of France, 
 
 3. The Religious War in Germany, 
 
 4. The Reformation in England, , 
 
 1. Reign of Henry VIII., . 
 
 2. Reign of Edward VI., 
 
 3. Reign of Mary, . 
 
 5. The Reformation in the Scandinavian Kingdoms, 
 
 6. The Society of yesuits, 
 
 7. Spanish Conquests in America, . 
 
 8. Persia and India, 
 
 199 
 199 
 202 
 202 
 202 
 203 
 204 
 205 
 205 
 206 
 206 
 209 
 209 
 211 
 212 
 
 2n 
 213 
 
 214 
 215 
 
J CONTENTS. 
 
 Age of Philip II. and Elizabeth, . 
 
 1 . Spain and Portugal, 
 
 2. Thi War oj Independence in the Netherlands, 
 
 3. Civil and Religious Wars in France, 
 
 1. Reign of Henry II., 
 
 2. Reign of Francis II., 
 
 3. Reign of Charles IX., 
 
 4. Reign of Henry HI., 
 
 5. House of Bourbon — Reign of Henry IV., 
 
 4. Elizabeth of England and Alary of Scotland, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 215 
 . 215 
 
 216 
 . 218 
 
 218 
 . 218 
 
 219 
 . 220 
 
 221 
 . 222 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. The Thirty Years' War, . 
 
 1. Causes and Origin of the War, ; 
 
 2. Palatine Period of the War, 
 
 3. Danish Period of the War, . 
 
 4. Sxvedish Period of the War, 
 
 5. French Period of the War, . 
 
 2. The English Revolution, . 
 
 1 . England under the House of Stuart, 
 
 1. Reign of James I., . 
 
 2. Reign of Charles I., 
 
 3. The Civil War, 
 
 2. The Commonwealth of England, 
 
 3. The Restored House of Stuart, . . 
 
 1. Reign of Charles II., . , 
 
 2. Reign of James II., . 
 
 3. The Revolution of 1688, 
 
 4. Reign of William and Mary, 
 
 3. The Wars ok Louis XIV., 
 
 1 . France under Richelieu and Mazarin, . 
 
 1. Richelieu's Administration, 
 
 2. Mazarin's Administration, 
 
 2. The Government and Wars of Louis XIV., 
 
 1. Louis XIV., and his War with Spain, 
 
 2. The War with Holland, 
 
 3. Turkish Invasion of Austria, 
 
 4. Persecution of the Huguenots, 
 
 5. The War of the League of Augsburg, 
 t The Anglo-American Colonies, 
 
 1. Virginia, .... 
 
 1. Virginia under the London Company, 
 
 2. Virginia a Royal Province, . 
 
 2. Massachusetts, 
 
 1. The Plymouth Colony, . , 
 
 2. The Massachusetts Bay Colony, 
 
 
 225 
 
 
 . 225 
 
 
 227 
 
 
 227 
 
 . 
 
 229 
 
 
 . 231 
 
 
 232 
 
 
 . 232 
 
 
 232 
 
 
 . 234 
 
 
 235 
 
 
 . 240 
 
 
 244 
 
 
 . 244 
 
 
 246 
 
 
 . 247 
 
 
 248 
 
 
 . 249 
 
 
 249 
 
 
 . 249 
 
 
 249 
 
 
 • 250 
 
 
 250 
 
 
 . 251 
 
 
 252 
 
 
 . 253 
 
 
 254 
 
 
 . 255 
 
 
 255 
 
 
 . 255 
 
 
 256 
 
 . 
 
 . 257 
 
 . . 
 
 257 
 
 . 
 
 . 258 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xiii 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1. New York, ..... 
 
 259 
 
 I . The Dutch Colony of New Netherland, 
 
 . 259 
 
 2. The English Province of New York, 
 
 26c 
 
 4. New Hampshire, ..... 
 
 , . 261 
 
 5. Maryland, ..... 
 
 261 
 
 6. Connecticut, ....«» 
 
 . . 262 
 
 7. Rhode Island, ..... 
 
 263 
 
 8, Delaware, ...... 
 
 . 264 
 
 9. North and South Carolina, . , . 
 
 , . 26.^ 
 
 I, North Carolina, ..... 
 
 . . 264 
 
 2. South Carolina, .... 
 
 265 
 
 10. New yersey, ...... 
 
 . 266 
 
 II. Pennsylvania, ..... 
 
 266 
 
 12. Georgia, ...... 
 
 . 267 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 
 The Age of Peter the Great and Charles VI., 
 
 . 268 
 
 I. The War of the Spanish Succession, 
 
 268 
 
 I. Causes and Origin of the War, . , 
 
 . 268 
 
 2. Events of 1702 and 1703, 
 
 269 
 
 3. Events of 1 704, .... 
 
 . 269 
 
 4. Events of 1 705, .... 
 
 . . 270 
 
 5. Events of 1706, .... 
 
 « . 270 
 
 6. Events of 1707, .... 
 
 271 
 
 7. Events of 1708, .... 
 
 . 271 
 
 8. Events of 1709, .... 
 
 271 
 
 9. Events of 1 7 10, 
 
 . 271 
 
 16. Events of 171 1, . 
 
 272 
 
 II. Events of 1712, 1713, and 1714, 
 
 . 272 
 
 2. The Nortktrn War, .... 
 
 273 
 
 3. General AJfairs of Europe, .... 
 
 . 278 
 
 4. Persia and India, .... 
 
 281 
 
 The Age of Frederic the Great and Catharine II., 
 
 . 281 
 
 I . The War of the Austrian Succession, 
 
 281 
 
 I . Causes and Origin of the War, . . . 
 
 . 281 
 
 2. Events of 1741, .... 
 
 282 
 
 3. Events of 1742, .... 
 
 . 283 
 
 4. Events of 1743, .... 
 
 283 
 
 5. Events of 1744, .... 
 
 . 284 
 
 6. Events of 1745, 1746, 1747, and 1748, 
 
 284 
 
 2. The Seven Years' War, .... 
 
 . 286 
 
 I. Causes and Origin of the War, 
 
 286 
 
 2. Events of 1756, .... 
 
 . 287 
 
 3 Events of 1757, .... 
 
 287 
 
 4. Events of 1758, .... 
 
 . 289 
 
 5. Events of 1759, .... 
 
 290 
 
 6. Events of 1760, . . , , 
 
 . . 291 
 
 7. Events of 1761, 1762, and 1763, ■ . 
 
 29? 
 
XIV 
 
 3- 
 
 4- 
 5- 
 3- The 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 4- 
 S- 
 
 6. 
 4. The 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 
 
 PAGK. 
 
 The Partitions of Poland and Russo- Turkish Wars, 
 
 • 293 
 
 General Affairs of Europe, .... 
 
 296 
 
 Conquests of the English East-India Company, 
 
 298 
 
 Anglo-French Colonial Wars, 
 
 300 
 
 French Settlements in North America, 
 
 . 300 
 
 King William's War, . . . • • 
 
 301 
 
 Queen Anne's War, . . • • • 
 
 . 30> 
 
 King George's War, ..... 
 
 302 
 
 The French and Indian War, 
 
 . 302 
 
 I. Causes and Origin of the War, 
 
 302 
 
 2. Events of 1754, .... 
 
 • 303 
 
 3. Events of 1755, ..... 
 
 303 
 
 4. Events of 1756, .... 
 
 . 304 
 
 5. Events of 1757, ..... 
 
 304 
 
 6. Events of 1758, .... 
 
 . 305 
 
 7. Events of 1759, ..... 
 
 305 
 
 8. Events of 1760, .... 
 
 . 306 
 
 9. Events of 1 761, 1762, 1763, 
 
 306 
 
 The War of the American Revolution, 
 
 • 307 
 
 French Revolution, ..... 
 
 309 
 
 Causes of the Revolution, .... 
 
 . 309 
 
 The Time of the French Nalional Asseynbly, 
 
 312 
 
 I. Events of 1789, .... 
 
 . 312 
 
 2. Events of 1790 and 1 79 1, .... 
 
 315 
 
 The Period of the French Legislative Assembly, 
 
 . 316 
 
 I. Events of 1792, ..... 
 
 316 
 
 The French Republic under the National Convention, 
 
 . 319 
 
 I. Events of 1792, ..... 
 
 319 
 
 2. Events of 1793, .... 
 
 . 320 
 
 3. Events of 1794, ..... 
 
 323 
 
 4. Events of 1795, .... 
 
 . 324 
 
 The French Republic under the Directory, , , 
 
 325 
 
 I. Events of 1796, .... 
 
 . 325 
 
 2, Events of 1797, ..... 
 
 32t> 
 
 3. Events of 1798, .... 
 
 . 327 
 
 4. Events of 1799, . . . . . 
 
 329 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 The Government and Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 
 I, Napoleon, First Consul of the French Republic, 
 
 1. Events of 1800, 
 
 2. Events of iSoi, 
 
 3. Events of 1802, 
 
 4. Events of 1803, 
 
 5. Events of 1804, 
 a. Napoleoti, Emperor of the French, 
 
 I. Events of 1804, . 
 
 NAPARTE, . .33' 
 
 ic, . . 331 
 
 . 33' 
 
 333 
 
 . 333 
 
 334 
 
 . 335 
 
 335 
 
 . 335 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 2. Events of 1805, 
 
 3. Events of 1806, . . 
 
 4. Events of 1807, 
 
 5. Events of 1 808, 
 
 6. Events of 1809, , . 
 
 7. Events of 18 10, 
 
 8. Events of 181 1, . . 
 
 9. Events of 1812, 
 
 10. Events of 1813, 
 
 11. Events of 1814, 
 3. TAe Resttred Bourbons and the Hundred Days, 
 
 2. Political Revolutions in Europe, 
 
 1. Condition of Europe after Bonaparte' s Fall, 
 
 1. The Holy Alliance, 
 
 2. The Royalist Reaction in France, 
 
 3. The Social Struggle in England, 
 
 2. European Revolutions 0/ iSzo and 1 82 1 
 
 1. The Revolution in Spain, 
 
 2. The Revolution in Portugal, 
 
 3. The Revolution in Naples, 
 
 4. The Revolution in Piedmont, 
 
 3. TAe Greek Revolution, 
 
 1. Events of 1821, 
 
 2. Events of 1822, 
 
 3. Events of 1823, . . 
 
 4. Events of 1824 and 1825, 
 
 5. Events of 1826, 
 
 6. Events of 1827, 
 
 7. Events of 1828, 
 
 8. Events of 1829, 
 
 9. Events of 1 83 1, 1832, and 1833, 
 4 European Revolutions of X^Tp and 1 83 1, 
 
 1. The French Revolution of 1830, 
 
 2. The Belgian Revolution, 
 
 3. The Polish Insurrection of 1830 and 1831, 
 
 4. Insurrections in Germany and Italy, 
 
 5. English Reforms, 
 
 6. The Spanish Civil War of 1833-39, 
 
 7. Dissensions in Turko- Egyptian Empire, 
 
 8. Gro7uth of the Anglo-Indian Empire, 
 
 9. European Revolutions of 1848 and 1849, 
 
 1. The French Revolution of 1848, 
 
 2. Revolutions in Germany, Austria, and Prussia, 
 
 3. Revolutions in Italy, 
 
 4. The Hungarian Rebellion of 1848, I 
 j. The Latest Wars and Revolutions, 
 
 I . The Coup d' Etat of Louis Napoleon, 
 
 XV 
 
 PAUE. 
 
 335 
 
 • Zi^ 
 337 
 
 . 339 
 340 
 
 . 34' 
 342 
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 • 34i> 
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II. 
 
 12. 
 
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 >5- 
 16. 
 
 '7- 
 4. TnK 
 I. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Crimean War, ...••• S^o 
 
 The Sepoy Mutiny in British India, .... 389 
 
 The Italian War, . . • • • • • 39' 
 
 The Jta/ian I^ezw/ution 0/1S60 a/td 1861, . . -394 
 
 The Greek Revolution of \8(i2, ..... 394 
 
 Tht Polish Insurrection 0/ 12.62, \?,6z, and lZ6i^, . . 395 
 
 Russian Serf Emancipation, .... 3!,)5 
 
 TheSchleswig-HolsteinWarof\8(ii„ .... 3vf 
 
 TV/f? 5i^^« Weeks' War, . . . . • '397 
 
 English Reforms, ..... .399 
 
 The Spanish Revolution of 1868, ..... 400 
 
 Ihe Franco-German War, ..... 401 
 
 The Italian Revolution of 1870, . . . . .412 
 
 The French Civil War of \%'l I, . . . . 414 
 
 The Spanish Revolution of i%T:i, . . . . .421 
 
 Recent Affairs of European Nations, . . , . 430 
 
 SrAN'isH Amkrican Republics, . ■ . . . . 433 
 
 The Spanish American War of Independettce, . . . 433 
 
 1. Causes of the Spanish American Revolution, . . . 433 
 
 2. The Revolution in Mexico, .... 434 
 
 3. The Revolution in Colombia, ..... 435 
 
 4. The Revolution in La Plata, .... 438 
 
 5. The Revolution in Bolivia, ..... 438 
 
 6. The Revolution in Chili, ..... 439 
 
 7. The Revolution in Peru, ..... 439 
 South America since the Revolution, .... 44° 
 The Republic of the United States of Mexico, . . . 44' 
 
 1. The Administration of General Victoria, . . . 44I 
 
 2. Ailministrations of Guerrera, Bustamente, and Pedraza, . 442 
 
 3. First Presidency and Dictatorship of Santa Anna — The Texan 
 
 Revolution, ..... . 443 
 
 4. Bustamente's Second Administration, .... 444 
 
 5. Santa Anna's Second Presidency and Dictatorship, . . 445 
 
 6. Administrations of Herrera, Paredes, and Santa Anna — The War 
 
 with the United States, ..... 446 
 
 7. Administrations of Herrera, Arista, Santa Anna, Alvarez, Com- 
 
 onfort, and Zuloaga, ..... 447 
 
 8. The Administration of Benito Juarez — The French Invasion and 
 
 the Emperor Maximilian, ..... 448 
 
 mSTORV OF THE FIRST ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICAN 
 INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 riiF Amkrican Revolution, 
 
 1. Causes of the Revolution, . , 
 
 2. The War of American Independence, 
 
 1. Events of 1775, 
 
 2. Events of 1776, 
 
 4S5 
 455 
 46f) 
 460 
 
 <l62 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 J. Events of 1777, 
 
 4. Events of 1778,^ . . 
 
 5. Events of 1779, 
 
 6. Events of 1780, 
 
 7. Events of 1781, 
 
 8. Events of 1782 and 1783, 
 'f. The Constitution of the United States, 
 
 1. Formation of the Constitution, 
 
 2. The Cnastituti(3n, 
 
 3. Acioption of the Constitution, 
 l.^t: Gro\vin(J American Union, 
 
 » . Washington s Administration, . 
 
 2. John Ada>ns''s Administration, 
 
 3. yefferson'' s Administration, , 
 
 4. Madison's Administration, 
 
 1. The War witli Great Britain — Events of i8l2, 
 
 2. Events of 1813, 
 
 3. Events of 1814 and 1S15, 
 
 5. Monroe's Administration, 
 
 6. John Quincy Adams's Administration, 
 
 7. Jackson's Administration, 
 ■ 8. Van Bnrcn' s Administration, 
 
 9. Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations,, 
 10. P ilk' s Administration, 
 
 I. Tha War with Mexico, . 
 St-AVKRY Agitation and the Civil War, . 
 
 1. Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations, 
 
 2. Pierce's Administration, 
 
 3. Buchanan' s Administration, 
 
 4. Lincoln's Administration, 
 
 1. 'J he Civil War — Events of 1S61, 
 
 2. Events of 1862, 
 
 3. Events of 1863, 
 \. Ev^ints of 1864, 
 5. Evi.nts of 1S65, 
 
 5. Johnson s Administration, . . 
 
 6. Grant's ,^dntinist7-ation, . . 
 The New States, , . . . . 
 A Historical RtTROSPECT, 
 
 The Centennial Exhiisition, . . 
 
 CiiRONOLocacAi. Index, . . . . 
 
 Ai I'iiAUETicAL Index and Pronouncing Dictionary, 
 2 
 
 xvii 
 
 Pj^GE. 
 
 468 
 
 . 46v^ 
 47 » 
 
 • 47^ 
 475 
 
 . 475 
 475 
 47f 
 477 
 
 . 47S 
 478 
 
 . 4S0 
 481 
 
 483 
 
 4S4 
 
 „ 485 
 
 488 
 
 • 491 
 493 
 
 495 
 . 496 
 
 497 
 , 498 
 
 500 
 
 • •^00 
 501 
 
 . 502 
 505 
 
 . 505 
 50S 
 
 . 513 
 
 . 520 
 522 
 
 . 524 
 529 
 
 532 
 538 
 
 • 544 
 
 5(X) 
 
ARMS OF THE NATIONS. 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 i^^^ 
 
 m 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 NEW GRANADA. 
 
 JAMAICA. 
 
 CR . BRITAIN 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
ARMS OF THE NATIONS 
 
 IONIAN ISLES. JAPAN 
 
 CHINA . 
 
FLAGS OF THE NATIONS 
 
 9WITXEBLAN0. 
 
 SPAIN, MERCH. 
 
 W 
 
 % 
 
 PARAGUAY, MERCH. 
 
 ITALY, ROY 
 
 PORTUGAL, ROY. 
 
 JAPAN , IMP. 
 
 HAYTl. 
 
 -Mr-' 
 
 URUGUAY. 
 
 I BAN OOMlNOO. MERCH. I MORQCCO.TRIPOLI.TUNIS 
 
 TURKEY, MAN ofWAR. 
 
 U.S. OF COLOMBIA. 
 
 ITALY , MERCH. 
 
 VENEZUELA. MERCH. 
 
 HAWAIIAN ISL ROY. 
 
 m 
 
 CRatCK. MlbRCH. 
 
 TURKEY, MERCH. 
 
 TUNI6 MAN OP WAR. 
 
FLAGS OF THE NATIONS 
 
 ARGENTIN E REP . 
 
 BR All L , IMPEBIAL 
 
 BELGIUM ,MERCH. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 DENMARK. MERCH. 
 
 NORWAY, ROYAL. 
 
 AUSTRIA, IMP. 
 
 ^> 
 
 BRAZIL, ENSIGN. 
 
 NnM€RHN0S,ENSION. 
 
 
 RUSSIA , IMP. 
 
 RUSSIA, MERCH 
 
BOOK I. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY, 
 
THE EARLIEST AGES. 
 
 ANTEDILUVIAN HISTORY. 
 
 The Creation — The Antediluvians. — After God had created the heaven 
 and the earth; had separated the land from the water; and had created the beasts 
 of the field, the fowl of the air, and the fish of the sea; and had clothed the earth 
 with verdure and vegetation, he created man in his own image, and endowed him 
 with the gifts of reason and speech, to be the ruler of the world. The first pair, 
 Adam and Eve, were placed in the beautiful Garden of Eden, on the River 
 Euphrates, in Mesopotamia, where they remained until, contrary to the command 
 of the Creator, they ate of the forbidden fruit, and thus lost their purity and 
 childlike innocence. Their eldest son, Cain, killed his brother Abel, and became 
 "a fugitive and vagabond in the earth." In the course of time, the descendant? 
 of Adam and Eve became very numerous. All that we know of the history of 
 the Antediluvians, or the people who lived before the Deluge, is containeil in tlit 
 first six chapters of the book of Genesis. 
 
 The Deluge. — In the course of many centuries after the Creation, mankind 
 grew so extremely wicked, that the Almighty detennined to destroy, by a great 
 deluge of water, every human being that dwelt on the face of the earth, with the 
 exception of Noah and his wife, and his three sons and their wives, who accord- 
 ingly saved themselves during the Deluge by having gone into the Ark which 
 Noah had built by direction of the Lord. WTien the waters, which after a rain 
 of forty days and forty nights had covered the face of the earth, had subsided, the 
 Ark rested on a lofty mountain in Aj-menia, called Ararat. At length Noah and 
 those that were with him came forth from the Ark, and their descendants multi- 
 plied. 
 
 THE DISPERSION OF MANKIND. 
 
 The Tower of Babel — The Confusion of Tongues. — In the course of 
 more than a century after the Deluge, the descendants of Noah became very 
 numerous, and inhabited a region watered by the Euphrates, and known as the 
 "Land of Shinar." In this country they commenced building a city, and also 
 tlu; great Tower of Babel, whose top, they boasted, shoidd "reach to heaven.' 
 Lut after the tower had been built to a considerable height, the Lord suddenly 
 confounded the language of the presumptuous children of men, whereupon they 
 abandoned their foolish and wicked attempt and dispersed over the face of the 
 earth, dividing into many tribes and nations, each having a language peculiar to 
 itself. This is known as the "Confusion of Tongrtes." 
 
 ( 21 ) 
 
2 2 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Noah and his three sons, Ham, Shem, and Japheth.— After the dis- 
 pci-sion of mankind from the Tower of Babel, Noah is supposed to have traveled 
 ea.-,tward and founded China. Noah's three sons were Ham, Shem, and Japheth. 
 Ham is thought to have journeyed to Africa, which became peopled with his 
 descendants; while Shem remained in Asia, where his descendants for a long time 
 continued to inhabit the Land of Shinar; and Japheth is believed to have peopled 
 Asia Minor and Northern Asia, and thence his descendants spread over Europe. 
 
 ORIENTAL NATIONS. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 Antiquity and Civilization of China. — China ranks as the oldest nation on 
 the face of llie earth. Its aulheiUic history dales back to a period of four thousand 
 years from the present time. It is siqiposed to have been founded by Noah soon 
 after the dispersion of mankind from the Tower of Babel. The Chinese of ancient 
 times had attained to a considerable degree of civilization, but when they had 
 reachetl a certain point they made no further progress, and have remained in 
 nearly the same condition up to the present time. The ancient Chinese knew 
 nothing of Egypt, Greece, Rome, or the great nations of western Asia. 
 
 Confucius. — Chinese annals are very obscure until the time of Confucius, who 
 lived about five hundred years before Christ. Confucius was the most famous 
 character that China has ever produced. His virtues were as great as his talents 
 and learning. For the purpose of reforming the people, he traveled about the 
 country, lecturing to them, and instructing them on the benefit of virtue and 
 morality, and in a short time he had numerous disciples and converts, who followed 
 his precepts. His great works on moral philosophy, which have been held in 
 great reverence jjy the Chinese up to the present time, teach the people to be 
 virtuous and orderly, and to do unto others as they would that others should do 
 unto them, and define the duties of the emperor to his people, and also the duties 
 of the ]ieople to their emperor. 
 
 Building of the Great Wall.— About three centuries after the time of Con- 
 fucius, and about two centuries before Christ, a great warrior, called Chi-hoang-ti 
 was emperor of China. For the purpose of putting a stop to the inroads of the 
 Tartars into the Chinese territories, Chi-hoang-ti caused the Great Wall, fifteen 
 hundred miles in length, to be erected on the northern frontiers of his dominion^ 
 This wall is now mostly in ruins. It is said that after the Great Wall had bcci 
 completed, Chi-hoang-ti entertained the desire of being regarded by future genera 
 lions as the founder of tlie great Chinese monarchy, and that for this pui-pose he 
 ordered all historical and other writings to be destroyed, so that nothing might 
 thereafter be known of Chinese history previous to his time. Some learned men 
 
ORIENTAL NATIONS. 2^ 
 
 were puiiisihed witn death for attempting to hide some valuabls books. Some of 
 the works of Confucius and other eminent writers were, however, concealed, and 
 after the death of the vain-glorious emperor, they were taken from their places ol 
 concealment. Yrom. the time of Chi-hoang-li to the present, many iynastics h.- ve 
 
 ociuipied the throne of China. 
 
 ■ INDIA. 
 
 Antiquity of Hindoo Civilization— Hindoostan and the Deccan. --India 
 11 Hindoostan vas one of the most ancient seats of civilization. India was not 
 like China, united into a single monarchy, but it was divided into numerous petty 
 states, of which but very little is known. The period of the settlement of the 
 nimloos in India is not known. That portion of India north of the Vindylia 
 mountains was called Hindoostan, while that part of the country south of those 
 mountains was named Deccan. 
 
 The Brahmins. — It is su[)posed that the first form of government that existed 
 in India was that of a powerful priesthood, and that the first code of laws was 
 compiled by priests or Brahmins, who were celebrated for their learning, and who 
 were held in great reverence by all classes of Hindoos. Their laws were drawn 
 from the Vedas or sacred writings. 
 
 Hindoo Castes. — According to the Lrahminical code, the Hindoos, or Indians, 
 were divided into four distinct classes or castes. The members of each caste were 
 not allowed to intermarry or associate with those of another caste. This rule has 
 been strictly adhered to by the Hindoos up to the present time. The first caste 
 was that of the priests or Brahmins, who possessed the chief power in political as 
 well as religious affairs, and who were held in greater respect and veneration than 
 the princes. The second caste was the warrior class, to which the princes belonged. 
 The third caste was comp<wed of the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and 
 mechanics. The fourth caste was that of the servants and laborers. Every man 
 was oblij.red to pursue the occupation of his father, and it was considered worse than 
 death to violate any of the rules of caste. 
 
 Hindoo Religion — Brahma and Buddha. — The Hindoos worshiped one 
 supreme deity known as Brahma, whom they regarded as Creator. The two gods, 
 Siva, the Preserver, and Vishnu, the Destroyer, were reverenced as forms of the 
 chiei deily. The Hindoos also made the sun, moon, and stars objects of adoration. 
 The Brahmins taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. 
 The Braliminical religion was reformed by Buddha, who appeafed in India about 
 five centuries before Christ. Budilha labored with great zeal to lessen the fowei 
 of the priesthood, and to abolish the distinctions of caste. 
 
 Hindoo Literature and Art — Productions and Trade. — The Hinloos 
 made great advancement in literature, and many of their works, all ot which aie 
 Ari ten in the sacred and now obsolete Sanscrit language, are about 3,000 years 
 il 1. The ruins of stately temples and grottoes bear witness to the degree of artistic 
 skill poscssed by the Hindoos. The great abundance of the natural and artiliM.xl 
 pioduclions of India has always .\ept that country the grand centre and emporium 
 of the maritime and caravan trade, and has also made it a constant prey to foreign 
 invasion and conquest. 
 
ORIENTAL NATIONS. 
 ■4 
 
 ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA. 
 
 Assyria and Babylonia or Chaldea— Founding of Nineveh. — Among 
 'nc must ancient, the most civilized, and the most powerful nations of the ancicn*. 
 world, were Assyria and Babylonia or Chaldea. Ashur, one of the sons of Shem, 
 IS regarded by many as the founder of the Assyrian empire, and also of its capital, 
 lie famed city of Nineveh. This great and magnificent city, which is supposed ti> 
 aave been situated on the east hank of the river Tigris, was surrounded by a wali 
 lOO feel higii, flanked with 1,500 towers, each 200 feet high. Nineveh is believed 
 to have had, at one lime, a population of about 800,000 souls. 
 
 Founding of Babylon by Nimrod. — The great city of Babylon, which stood 
 on both siik-s of the river Eui^linUes, was the capital of the Babylonian Empire, 
 and it far surpassed Nineveh in size, power, and magnificence. The walls of 
 Babylon were 350 feet high and 87 fee>. 'hick, flanked with high towers, and pierced 
 with 100 gates of brass. Babylon was founded by Nimrod, "the mighty hunter 
 before the Lord," a grandson of Ham. Ttiere are some who also regard Nimrod 
 as the founder of Nineveh. After his death, Nimrod was deified for his great 
 actions, and worshiped as "Belus," or "Baal." 
 
 Reign of Ninus. — Some consider Ninus as the son and successor of Nimrod, 
 Assyria and Babylonia forming one great empire; while others regard Ninus as an 
 Assyrian king, who conquered Chaldea and united it with Assyria more than four 
 centuries after the time of Nimrod. 
 
 Conquests of Queen Semiramis. — Queen Semn-amis, the wife and successor 
 of Ninus, is said to have greatly extended the Assyrian empire by conquest, carrying 
 her victorious arms as far as the borders of India on the east, and to the deserts of 
 Central Africa on the west. This famous queen adorned Babylon with magnificent 
 works, such as the hanging gardens, and she devoted some attention to the internal 
 improvement of her extensive dominions. 
 
 Decline and Fall of the First Assyrian Empire. — The Assyrian empire 
 rapidly declined under the weak successors of Semiramis; and in the year 888 B. C, 
 the governor of the Medes rebelled against the Assyrian king, Sardanapalus. Being 
 besieged in Nineveh by his rebellious subject, and unable to defend his capital with 
 success, Sardanapalus set fire to his palace and perished with it in the flames. Thus 
 fell the first Assyrian empire. (B. C. 888.) 
 
 The Second Assyrian Empire— Destruction of Nineveh. — More than a 
 century after the fall v)f the first Assyrian empire, Ass)Tia again became a powerful 
 and extensive emjiire under such warlike kings as Shalmanezar and Sennacherib, 
 who are celebrated for their wars against the Israelites. The second A.s^yrian 
 empire, like the first, was of short duration. Its overthrow took place in the yeai 
 606 B. C, when the united armies of the Medes and the Chaldeans took and 
 destroyed the great city of Nineveh. 
 
 Rise of the Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar.— The Babyor 
 tiiii empire, which was erected on the ruins of the great AssyTian monarchy, acquirca 
 great power under the warlike Nebuchadnezzar, who conquered T^rusalem and 
 carried the Jews into the seventy years' Babylonian captivity, and who also subjected 
 the rhieniciar. kiiigd.,m of Tyre to the Babylonian dominion. 
 
ASSYRIAN WAR CHARIOT. 
 
 EGYPTIAN WAR CHARIOT. 
 
ORIENTAL NATIONS. 25 
 
 Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great of Persia. — The Babylonian 
 empire was overthrown by the conquering Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, who, in 
 the yeai 538 B. C, took Babylon and caused the last Persian king, Belshazzar, who 
 was at the time feasting with his nobles, to be put to death. The Babylonians weie 
 then subjected to the sway of the Persians. (B. C. 538.) 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Divisions of Ancient Egypt — Misraim or Menes. — The ruins and monu 
 ments of ancient civilization found in Egypt render that countrj' one of the inosl 
 interesting on the globe. The country is kept fertile by the annual inundations of 
 the Nile, occasioned by the heavy rains in the highlands of Abyssinia. Egypt was 
 anciently divided into three great divisions; — namely: Upper Egypt, Middle Egypt, 
 and IvOwer Egypt. Misraim, or Menes, a son of Ham, is regarded by many as the 
 founder of the ancient Egyptian nation, and to have been its first king; while others 
 believe Menes and Misraim to have been different characters, and that Menes 
 nourished about two centuries after the time of Misraim. 
 
 \' The Great Cities of Memphis and Thebes. — The capital of Middle Egypt, 
 or Heptanomis, was Memphis, the City of the Pharaohs, the founding of which is 
 ascribed to the first Egyptian king, Menes. Tliis great city was located on the 
 west bank of the Nile, in the region containing the most splendid of the pyramids, 
 which extend for a distance of seventy miles on the west side of the Nile. Among 
 the ruins of Memphis are those of the Labyrinth, a building consisting of a number 
 of intricate passages communicating with each other. The capital of Upper Egypt, 
 pr the Thebais, was the magnificent city of Thel^es, the founding of which is also 
 Attributed to Menes by some writers, while others think that Thebes was built many 
 Qpnturies later. Thebes is said to have extended over 23 miles, and to have had 
 lt)0 gates. Its immense size and great splendor are still attested by the ruins of 
 niignificent temples, splendid palaces, colossal statues, obelisks, sphinxes, the tombs 
 of kings hewn in the solid rock, and the subterranean catacombs. The ruins oi 
 Thebes extend for seven miles along both banks of the Nile. 
 
 Egyptian Castes, Religion, Manufactures, Commerce, and Arts. — The 
 
 ancitnt Egyptians were a l)rown race, and were divided into seven distinct classes 
 or c^tes. The most respected of these castes were the priests and the warriors; 
 next Ihe tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen, and sailors; while the shepherds, 
 who o^mposed the lowest caste, were greatly despised. The Egyptian religion was 
 a horrible superstition, the lower classes of people worshiping different kinds 
 of anihals and idols. The Egyptians showed much skill and dexterity in the 
 practice of the useful arts, their principal branches of manufacture being the weav 
 ing of otton and linen cloth, and working in copper and brass. Agriculture alsc 
 receii'ed'imuch attention. An extensive commerce was carried on with other coun 
 tries, gad. ivory, ebony, skins, and slaves being brought from Ethiopia, incense 
 from Arabia, and spices from India; and in exchange for these articles, grain and 
 cloth wer^ exported; but as the Egyptians had not attained much skill in the art ol 
 ship-build^g, their trade was carried on principally by the Greelc and Persian 
 merchants.' The Eg\'i')tians also made a great degree of progress in the fine arts, 
 snoh as misic, paining, sculfiture, and architecture. The ruins of magnifici n) 
 
26 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 columns r.nd grand edifices fully testify to the degree of skill attained by this grea! 
 people ill architecture. 
 
 Conquests of King Sesostris.— The most renowned king of Egypt was Sesos- 
 tiis, whc made extensive conquests in Asia and Africa. In the countries which he 
 subdued, Sesostris caused monuments to be erected bearing the inscription, "Sesos- 
 tris, King of Kings, and Lord of Lords, has conquered this territory by the p:>\vct 
 >i his arms." It is not known with certainty at what period this gieat king lived, 
 
 Moeris and Cheops. — The most famous of Egyptian kings after Sesostris w-^re 
 Moeris and Cheops. Mreris caused an immense lake to be constructed to reg'-late 
 the inundations of the Nile. Cheops is noted as the builder of the .argesi of '.he 
 pyramids, which covers eleven acres of ground and is 4S0 feel liigh, and on which 
 100,000 men are said to have been employed for forty years. 
 
 Psammeticus and the Migration to Ethiopia. — Psammeticus, who reigned 
 over Egypt about seven centuries before Christ, invited Greek soldiers and settlers 
 into his kingdom for the purpose of weakening the power of the priesthood and 
 strengthening the authority of the monarch, in consequence of which measure 
 240,000 Egyptians left their country and settled in Ethiopia, now Nubia. 
 
 Necho and Psammenitus — Conquest of Egypt by the Persians. — Necho, 
 who was king of Egypt about 600 years before Christ, is noted as the founder ol 
 the ligyptian naval and maritime power. The last of the Pharaohs, or native kings 
 of Egypt, was Psammenitus, who was defeated in the bloody battle of Pelusium by 
 the victorious Caml:iyses, king of Persia, who treated the Egyjitians with great 
 crucll-y and put their unfortunate monarch to a violent death. (B. C. 525.) The 
 battle of Pelusium was the death-blow to Egyptian independence; and the land of 
 the Pharaohs became a province of the great Persian empire, and so remained unti 
 it was subdued by the famous Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Gre.at. Sinci 
 the loss of its ancient independence, Egyjit has been successively subject to the 
 sway of the Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the Saracens, the Mamelukes, 
 and the Turks, the last of whom still hold the country tributary. 
 
 PHCENICIA. 
 
 Position and Character of the PhcEnician Territory.— Phoenicia wai the 
 name applied to a narrow strip of territory bordered on the east by the niouitains 
 of Lebanon, and on the west by the Mediterranean sea. The surface of the ountry 
 was sandy and hilly, and not adapted to agriculture; but the coasts aboundel with 
 good harbors, and the cedars of Lebanon supplied material in great abundaue for 
 ship-building. The Phoenicians therefore devoted their whole attention to iranufac- 
 lures and commerce; and at a ver)' early period they became the greatest ninufac 
 turing, commercial, and maritime people of anticpiity. 
 
 Phcenician States and Colonies. — The Phoenician people were ml nni'ed 
 inder one government, but each I'ha-nician city, with the territory adjairnl t( it, 
 constituted a small independent state with an hereditary sovereign at its hen 1, tb.j 
 (xililical power Ixiing shared with the priests and the nobles. The I'hirii cian 
 won hip of Moloch was attended with horrible human sacrifices, and tlat of Baal 
 with disgraceful ceremonies. Phcenician colonies were established or the Medi 
 
ORIENTAL NATIONS. 
 
 27 
 
 \erranean islands of Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia, on the southern shores ol 
 Spain, and on tlie northern coast of Africa. The most celeljrated of the Phoenician 
 colonial establishments were Cades, now Cadiz, in Southern Spain, the oldest city 
 in Europe; and Carthage, in Northern Africa, a commercial city which was founded 
 in the year 880 B. C, by the Tyrians, under the conduct of Queen Dido, and the 
 fame of which soon eclipsed that of the mother country. 
 
 PhcEnician Manufactures, Navigation and Commerce. — The Phoenician' 
 noi; some important discoveries, such as glass, the art of dyeing purple, an) 
 ivritmg by means of letters: they were universally noted for their skill in ca.sting 
 metals, weaving, and architecture; and their manufactures of glass and linen, 
 articles of gold, silver, ivory, and bronze, perfumes and purple dye were sources 
 jf great national wealth. Phoenician vessels not only navigated the Mediterranean 
 sea for the purpose of trafficking in their own productions and in those of the 
 remote East, namely spices, frankincense, oil, wine, corn, and slaves; — but they even 
 passed beyond the Pillars of Hercules and procured tin from the mines of Cornwall, 
 in Britain, and traded with the people on the shores of the Baltic sea. The Phoeni- 
 cians also had commercial intercourse with the Arabs and the Hindoos, and it i.s 
 said that under the auspices of Pharaoh Necho, king of EgyjDt, a Phoenician fleet, 
 in a voyage of three years, douljled the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Tyre and Sidon— Decline and Fall of the Phoenician States. — The 
 leading Phoenician cities were Tyre and Sidon. These two kingdoms for a long 
 time defended themselves successfully against the attempts of other nations to 
 subdue them; but in the eighth century before Christ, Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, 
 conquered Sidon, and Tyre also after a long siege, and compelled the Phoenician!- 
 to pay tribute. In the year 587 B. C, the famous Baliylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar, 
 besieged and took Tyre and subdued Phoenicia. When, in the year 538 B. C, 
 Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, extended his sway over Western Asia, both Tyre 
 and Sidon fell into his power, and Phoenicia became a Persian province. About 
 the year 350 B. C, Sidon, heading a rebellion of the Phoenician states, attempted 
 to throw off the yoke of Persian supremacy; and when in consequence of this 
 revolt, the king of Persia ordered the most prominent of the inhabitants of Sidon 
 to be put to death, the Sidonians set fire to their city, and perished with it in the 
 flames. Sidon was afterwards rebuilt. In the year 332 B. C, Tyre was taken and 
 destroyed after a seven months' siege by the illustrious Macedonian conqueron 
 Alexander the Great. With the fall of Tyre and the founding of the great com- 
 mercial city of Alexandria, in Egypt, Phoenician commerce and maritime glory 
 passed away forever. 
 
 THE HEBREWS OR ISRAELITES. 
 
 THE PATRIARCHS. 
 
 Abranam. — Abraham, a Chaldean shepherd, who remained faithful to tLe I orri 
 Rhile nearly the whole of mankind were sunk in idolatry, is regarded as the 
 founder of that chosen race of God, the Hebrews or Israelites'. At the command 
 of Jehovah, Al:)raham left his pasture lands on the Euphrates, and, taking wilh him 
 nis herds, settled wilh his servants and his brother's son. Lot, in the "promised 
 
28 
 
 ORIENTAL NATIONS. 
 
 land" of Canaan (afterwards called Palestine), where they ccntinued theii pastor;\l 
 life, and where they received from the native inhabitants the name " Helircws," 
 meaning, "strangers from the other side." 
 
 Isaac. — Isaac, the son of Abraham and Sarah, continued the chosen race, wliile 
 I..hinael, Abraham's son with Hagar, became the progenitor of the Arabs. Lsaac 
 ti>ok for his wife Rebecca, with whom he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. 
 
 Jacob. — Jacob, the younger son of Isaac, persuaded his brother Esau to soil li.s 
 birlhritjht for a mess of pottage. Jacob also obtained a blessing which his faiiu^ 
 ^\<\ intended to bestow on Esau, and was declared the chief of the Hebrew rait; 
 Jacob had twelve sons, the descendants of each of which formed a distinct 'niie 
 along the Israelites, as the Hebrews were afterwards called, from Jacob's surname, 
 Israel. 
 
 THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT. 
 
 Joseph sold into Egypt — Settlement of Jacob in Egypt. — As Jacob 
 bestowed his chief favor on Joseph, his son with Rachael, his other sons, moved 
 with envy, sold their brother as a bond-slave to some merchants who took him to 
 Egyjn. Joseph remained faithful to God and was finally rewarded for his integrity. 
 He at length obtained the favor of Pharaoh, as the king of Egypt was called, was 
 made ruler over Egypt, and for his instrumentality in saving the land from famine, 
 he was permitted by Pharaoh to invite his father and his brethren into Eg)'jit, 
 Jacob and his family then settled in the "Land of Goshen," as that part of Egypt 
 on the east side of tlie Lower Nile was called. 
 
 The Israelites Oppressed in Egypt — Moses. — After the death of Joseph, 
 other l>gpytian kings "who knew not Joseph," treated the Children of Israel with 
 cruelty and oppression, and held them in bondage for two centuries. At length the 
 king of Egypt gave orders that all the Hebrew male children should be thrown 
 into the Nile the instant that they were born; but one of them was saved by the 
 mercy of the king's daughter, who found the child in an ark of bulrushes by the 
 side of the river, and who nanioil him Moses, because she drew him out of the 
 water, and brought him up as her own son. Attheageof forty years, Moses was 
 obligetl to flee for his life to the deserts of Arabia, for slaying an Egyptian whom he 
 had seen ill-treating a Hebrew. 
 
 THE EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES. 
 
 The Ten Plagues— Destruction of Pharaoh's Host in the Red Sea. — ' 
 
 At length Moses w.xs inspired with the high purpose of delivering his pet)i)le from 
 the Egyjjtian bonilage. Put Pharaoh did not agree to permit the Israelites to 
 depart from EgyjU until struck with fear and terror after the Ten Plagues haJ been 
 inllicied ujion the land. After the Hebrews, led by Moses an I his bmiher Aaron 
 had left the shores of Egypt, Pharaoh endeavored to bring them back by force; bul 
 Uie |- irsuing hosts of the Egyptian king were destroyed in the Red Sea. 
 
 The Wandering in the Wilderness— The Ten Commandments.— I- or 
 forty ye.nrs, tiie discontented Israelites, led by Moses and Aaron, wandered in 
 tlie Wilderness m the northwestern part of Arabia. During this time the Ten 
 ConnnandmeiiLs were delivered lo Moses on Mount Sinai. These and other laws 
 
ORIENTAL NATIONS. 
 
 29 
 
 >ere preserved in the Ark of the Covenant. Accordhig to the arrangement ol 
 Moses, Jeliovah was king, and in His name the elders of the tribes conducted the 
 niivernment. The affairs of religion were watched over by the High Priest and 
 the Levites. The sacrifices and feasts of the Passover, Pentecost, and the Taber- 
 nacles constituted the bond between the Lord and His chosen people. Instead of 
 tlie nomadic hfe, Moses determined upon agriculture as the chief occupation of the 
 Hebrews. 
 
 Death of Moses — ^Joshua and the Settlement in the Promised Land- - 
 Moses did not live to lead his people into the Promised Land. After appoint.tro 
 Joshua as his successor, the great Hebrew lawgiver gazed from Mount Nebo upon 
 the magnificent counliy watered by the River Jordan, and then disappeared from 
 among the living. The Children of Israel were faithful to Jehovah all the days of 
 Joshua, under whose leadership they at last reached the Promised Land of Canaan. 
 After subduing the Amorites and other tribes, a distribution by lot took place, by 
 which the conquered territory was divided aniong the Twelve Tribes of the Hebrew 
 nation. 
 
 THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES. 
 
 The Rule of the Judges — Idolatry of the Israelites. — Durmg the period 
 from the death of Joshua to the accession of Saul as the first king over Israel, the 
 Hebrew nation was ruled by Judges. During this period the Children of Israel 
 frei|uent]y plunged into idolatiy, for which apostasy they suffered heavy punishments 
 by being delivered into power of their enemies; but when they again turned to the 
 God who by His servant Moses had brought them safely out of Egypt, they were 
 delivered from the oppressive yoke of foreign domination by heroic leaders whom 
 the Lord had appointed for the purpose. 
 
 Deliverance of the Israelites by Othniel, Ehud, Deborah and Barak. — 
 First the Israelites were conquered by the king of Mesopotamia, from whose yoke 
 they were delivered by (3thniel, whom the Lord had chosen as their leader. After- 
 wards they were oppressed by the king of Moab, but were at length liberated by 
 ihe valor of Ehud. Again the Children of Israel offended the Lord by their sin- 
 fulness and idolatry and were given into the power of Jabin, king of Canaan, whose 
 tyrannical yoke they had borne for twenty years when the Lord chose the prophetess 
 Deborah and Barak, her general, to liberate them. The Canaanites were routed 
 with heavy loss and their general Sisera was killed by Jael, to whose tent he had 
 fled for safety. 
 
 Overthrow of the Midianites by Gideon. — The Israelites again abandoned 
 f.he worship of Jehovah, and were in consequence duly punished by being subdued 
 and oppressed by the Midianites; but the prophet Gideon, whom the Lord had 
 apjiointed to liberate His people, taking with him a band of three hundred mtn, 
 made a night attack on the immense host of the Midianites, who, struck with 
 tenor and consternation, turned their weapons against each other, and left 120,0cm 
 of their number dead on the field, only 15,000 escaping. 
 
 Liberation of the Israelites by Jephthah and Samson. — The Children oi 
 Israel agam fell into idolatry, for which the Lord delivered them to the Philistines 
 and Ammonites, from whose supremacy they were liberated by the heroism of 
 
jQ ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Jephthah. Aftenvard, the Israelites suffered forty years fro.n oppression by the 
 I'hilistines, and were delivered from iheir yoke by the valor of Samson, who wa.s 
 celebrated for his wonderful strength. 
 
 Administrations of Eli and Samuel— Saul Anointed King over Israel. 
 - -On the death of Samson, Eli became Judge over Israel. The wickedness of the 
 sons of Eli offended the Lord; and 30,000 Israelites perished in battle against the 
 I'hilistines. After Eli's death, the prophet Samuel judged Israel. Samuel ruled 
 irith wisdom and justice; but the tyranny of his sons, with whom he shared his 
 p<<wer, caused the Hebrew people to demand a king, who should reign over thcru 
 like the kings of other nations. After vainly endeavoring to dissuade the people 
 from their desire for kingly rule, the good Samuel anointed Saul, of the tribe of 
 Benjamin, king over Israel. (B. C. 1095.) 
 
 REIGN OF SAUL. 
 
 Defeat of the Ammonites — Divine Displeasure with Saul. — Soon after his 
 accession to the throne of Israel, Saul defeated the Ammonites with great slaughter. 
 Afterwards, while engaged in a war with the Philistines, Saul took upon himself 
 a duty which belonged to the High Priest alone, — that of offering the solemn 
 sacrifice. The Divine displeasure at this action was revealed to Saul by the prophet 
 Samuel ; and the people of Israel became disheartened, and the army of Saul was 
 reduced to 600 men ; but the amiy of the Philistines was at length overUirown by 
 Saul's son, Jonathan. 
 
 Saul's Violation of the Divine Command — David Anointed King. — After 
 Jonathan's victory over the Philistines, Saul conducted successful wars against other 
 nations; and made a prisoner of Agag, king of the Amelekites, and, contrary to the 
 Divine command, spared the life of his captive. Because of Saul's disobedience, 
 the Lord resolved to transfer the royal power to another family, and the shepherd boy, 
 David, of the tribe of Judah, was secretly anointed king by Samuel. (B. C. 1055.) 
 
 David Slays Goliath— Saul's Jealousy of David — Saul's Death. — Soon 
 alter David had been anointed king over Israel, a new war broke out between the 
 Israelites and the Philistines, in which David slew the Giant Goliath of Gath, the 
 champion of the Philistines. Moved by jealousy and resentment, Saul made several 
 ailempls to lake the life of David; and, to seek refuge from the anger of Saul, 
 David was obliged to live much of his time in exile in a Philistine city and in the 
 dens and caves of the mountains of Palestine. At length the Philistines invaded 
 Ihe Hebrew territories, and the Israelites were defeated and several of Saul's sons 
 were slain in battle on Mount Gilboa; and, to avoid falling into the hands of the 
 Philistines, Saul killed himself by falling on his own sword. 
 
 REIGN OF DAVID. 
 
 Civil War Between the Houses of David and Saul.— Even after Saul'? 
 i' atli, David did not obtain undisputed possession of the throne of Israel, for some 
 of the Hebrew tribes adhered to Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, and for a long time the 
 Hebrew nation wa.s rent by a civil war between the Houses of David nnd Saul, 
 until at length Ishbosheth was slain by his own guards, whereupon David wa» 
 acknowledged at Hebron as king by all the tribes of Israel. 
 
ORIENTAL NATIONS. 
 
 31 
 
 David's Conquests — Damascus and Jerusalem.^After David had been 
 
 acknowledged king of Israel by all the Hebrew tribes, he extended his Isingdom 
 in every direction by conquests. Pie conc|uered the Syrian city of Damascus, and 
 humbled the Philistines. lie subdued Jebus, or Jerusalem, the strong city of tlie 
 Jebusites, on Mount Zion, and made it the capital of his kingdom. After the 
 conquest of Jerusalem, David waged successful wai^s against many of the surround 
 ing nations, which he compelled to pay tribute. During the siege of Rabbali, 'he 
 .\mnior te capital, David took to himself the wife of Uriah, caused her husband 
 to he put to death, and by so doing offended the Lord. David was a great poet, at 
 A ell as a successful warrior, as is is fully attested !iy the Psalms, or religious songr, 
 which he composed. 
 
 Rebellion and Death of Absalom — Death of David. — In the latter part of 
 (he reign of David, his son Absalom rebelled against his father, and was put to 
 death by Joab, David's general. Two others of David's sons, Ammon and Adoni- 
 jah, also died violent deaths. David died after a glorious reign of forty years, and 
 was succeeded on the throne of Israel by his son Solomon. (E. C. 1015.) 
 
 REIGN OF SOLOMON. 
 
 Visit of the Queen of Sheba. — Solomon reigned over a mighty and extensive 
 kingdom, and his alliance and friendship were sought by many of the most powerful 
 princes. His fame S]5read into distant lands ; and the Queen of Sheba, who had 
 heard of his wisdom, came to visit him from a far counti"y. The closest friendship 
 existed between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. 
 
 Building of the Temple — Commercial Relations. — For seven and a half 
 years Solomon was occupied in building at Jerusalem a magnificent Temple to the 
 Lord He also erected a splendid palace for himself. Solomon obtained much 
 wealth from commerce, to which he gave great encouragement. His vessels sailed 
 to Ophir, a rich country in Southern Asia; and by means of caravans a trade was 
 carried on with the people of Central Asia. 
 
 Solomon's Idolatry — Rebellion of Jeroboam. — Solomon took to liimsell 
 wives from foreign nations, permitted them the exercise of their idolatrous worship, 
 and even became an idolater himself. Enemies then arose against him on all sides. 
 The opfiressive taxes which were necessary to support his luxury, magnificence, and 
 extravagance, produced a rebellion headed by Jerol^oam. The rebellion was, how- 
 ever, suppressed, and the Hebrew kingdom was preserved from dismembermen' 
 until the following reign. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 
 
 Accession of Rehoboam — "Revolt of the Ten Tribes" — The Two 
 Kingdoms. — On the death of Solomon, his son Rehoboam succee'led to the throne 
 )i lli( Hebrew kingdom, when, in accordance with the prophecy of Ahijah, ten 0I 
 the Tkvelve Tribes of the Children of Israel revolted, and chose Jeroboam, of tl.it 
 tribe of E]ihraim, as their king, thus forming the kingdom of Israel or Ephra.ni, 
 the ca])itals of which were the cities of Shechem and Samaria. The two tribes ol 
 Judah and P>enjamin, wlvich remained faithful to Rehoboam, constituted the king 
 dom of Tudah, of which Jerusalem was the seat of government. This dismember 
 
,, ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ineiU of the Hebrew kingdom look place 975 years before Christ, and is known as 
 "The Revoh of the Ten Tribes." 
 
 Idolatry of Jeroboam and his Successors— The Assyrian Captivity. - 
 The wicked Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, introduced the worship of idols into 
 his kingdom. All his successors were sinful and idolatrous, and brought upon their 
 [K'op'e in consequence the heavy punishments of God. The prophets Elijah, Elisha, 
 ll(»ea, Amos, and Jonah vainly warned them of the consequences of their idolatf)'. 
 \'. length, Shalmanezar, king of Assyria, invaded the kingdom of Israel, tool' 
 a.unaria, its capital, after a siege of three years, and carried Hoshea, the last king of 
 Israel, and the greater portions of his subjects captive to Assyria. (B. C. 721.) 
 With the "Assyrian Captivity," the history of the Ten Tribes ends. The kingdom 
 of Juilah lasted 130 years longer than that of Israel. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 
 
 Idolatry of Rehoboam — Capture of Jerusalem by Shishak of Egypt. — 
 After the Revolt of the Ten Tribes, Rehoboam, who reigned at Jerusalem as king 
 of Judah, and his subjects abandoned the worshrp of Jehovah and fell into idolatry, 
 for which sin they suffered a heavy punishment by an invasion of their countiy by 
 Shishak, king of Egypt, who took Jerusalem and carried away the treasures of the 
 Temple and the palace. 
 
 Reign of Hezekiah — Miraculous Destruction of the Assyrian Host. — 
 At length after the reigns of many wicked kings, the pious Hezekiah was king ot 
 Judah. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, the son of Shalmanezar, resolved to subdue 
 the kingdom of Judah, because Hezelaah, to escape paying tribute to the Assyrian 
 king, had entered into an alliance with the king of Egypt, with whom the Assyrian 
 monarch was then at war. Sennacherib led a mighty army against Jerusalem and 
 laid siege to the city, but the Assyrian host was almost entirely destroyed in a single 
 night by the miraculous interposition of the Lord, and Sennacherib fled from the 
 land ill dismay. 
 
 Idolatry of Judah— Capture of Jerusalem by Pharaoh Necho. — Again 
 the worship of Jehovah was cast aside, ami the people of Judah corrupted with 
 idolatry, when, as was always the case when they forsook the Lord, they were con- 
 quered by their enemies. At one time, Pharaoh Necho, king of Egj-pt, invaded 
 the kingdom of Judah, antl carried the wicked king, Jehoahaz, captive to Egypt? 
 where he died. 
 
 Capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar — The Babylonian Captivity. 
 —\\ length the famous Nelnichadnezzar, king of Babylon, invaded the kingdom 
 of Judah, took Jerusalem, plundered the Temple, carried the king, Jechoniah, and 
 many of his subjects into his own dominions, and opi)ressed those that remained. 
 Among the captives was the prophet Daniel. Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, 
 'esolved to liijcrale his jieople from the Babylonian yoke, whereupon Nebuchadnezzar 
 lee a mighty army against Jerusalem, which he finally carried by storm at midnight 
 after a siege of eighteen months, during which the inhabitants of the city suficntd 
 all Ihe honors of famine. Many of the wretched inhabitants were slaughtered by 
 the victorious Baljylonians. The city and the Temple of- Jerusalem were burned 
 to the groujid. The sons of Zedekiah were killed before their father's eves; :.r.J 
 
ORIENTAL NATIONS. 
 
 33 
 
 after Zsdekiah had Deen deprived of his eyes, he and the greater porticn of his 
 subiects were carried into the seventy years' "Babylonian Captivity." (B. C. 5S8.) 
 Edict of Cyrus and Return of the Jews to their own Country. — After 
 Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, had conquered Babylon, he issued an edict per- 
 ;nitting the Jew^s to return to their own country and to rebuild the city and Temple 
 of Jerusalem. Only a small number, under Zerubbabel, returned at first, and com- 
 menced rebuilding the Temple, but the work was not completed until the ye?r 515 
 B. C. About the year 406 B. C. Ezra and Nehemiah and a large number of thei- 
 countrymen returned to Palestine, rebuilt the Holy City, and reestablished the laATS 
 of Moses. The king of Persia appointed Nehemiah governor of Judea, which was 
 then a province of the Persian Empire. Judea was afterwards joined to the Persian 
 satrapy of Syria. The Jews had been taught that misfortunes and calamities were 
 the consequences of idolatr}'; and from the time of the Babylonian Captivity, they 
 were careful to shun idolatry and to avoid intercourse with idolatrous nations. 
 
 MEDIA AND PERSIA. 
 
 The Median Empire — Dejoces, Phraortes, Cyaxares, and Astyages. — 
 
 The Medes, coming from the East, settled in the region south of the Caspian Sea, 
 and were at first under the Assyrian dominion; but about the year 708 B. C. they 
 established their independence, chose Dejoces as their king, and made Ecbatana the 
 capital of their kingdom. Phraortes, the son and successor of Dejoces, conquere(f 
 the Persians, a people similar to the Medes in race, language, manners, institutions 
 and religion. Under Cyaxares, the third king of Media, the Median Empire 
 acquired great power and territorial extent. His successor, Astyages, was the last 
 of the Median kings. 
 
 Founding of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great. — Cyrus, whose 
 mother was a daughter of Astyages, but whose father was a Persian, aroused the 
 Persians against the ruling Medes, led an army into Media, deposed Astyages, 
 established the independence of the Persians, and in turn subjected the Medes to 
 their sway. Cyrus, surnamed "the Great," thus laid the foundations of the great 
 Persian Empire, which for more than two centuries was the dominant power in 
 Asia. 
 
 Overthrow of Croesus, King of Lydia, by Cyrus. — After Cyrus the Great 
 had founded the Persian kingdom, he became involved in a war with the wealthy 
 Croesus, king of Lydia, a country in the western part of Asia Minor. Cyrus 
 defeated the Lydians in the battle of Thymbra, took and burned Sardis, the capital 
 (if Lydia, and' made Croesus his prisoner. (B. C. 546.) After the conquest of the 
 kingdom of Lydia, the Gn.ek cities of Asia Minor were reduced under the domihior 
 of Persia. 
 
 Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus. — After his conquests in Asia Minor, Cyrus 
 the Great led an army against the proud city ui Babylon, which he besieged a^^3 
 finally took b)- entering the city by the channel of the Euphrates, the waters of whic\ 
 he had turned off through a new channel which he had caused to be dug. Thii 
 was the end of the Babylonian Empire. The last Babylonian king, Belshazrar, 
 who was feasting with his subjects and defiling the sacred vessels of the Jews when 
 the victorious Persians entered the city, was put to death. The fall of Babvlon 
 
 I. 
 
34 
 
 ANCIENT Iii:>l'ORY. 
 
 placed Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia under Persian authority; and Cyrus issued an 
 edict permitting the captive Jews to return to their own country and to rebuild the 
 city and the Temple of Jerusalem. 
 
 Invasion of Scythia by Cyrus — His Defeat and Death. — After the con- 
 quest of Babylon, the triumphant Cyrus invaded the Scythian territories east of 
 the Caspian Sea. Cyrus was at first successful, defeating the Scythians in battle; 
 but he was subsequently defeated and taken prisoner. The Scythian queen, 
 rh-jmyris, in revenge for the death of her son, who had fallen in battle, caused the 
 great Cyrus to be put to death in a most cruel manner, and his severed head to be 
 thrown into a vessel filled with the blood of Persian soldiers. (B. C. 530.) 
 
 Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses — His Losses in Africa. — The mighty 
 Cyrus was succeeded on the Persian throne by his son, the cruel and tyrannical 
 Cambyses. After his accession to the throne of Persia, Cambyses invaded Egypt 
 and defeated the Egyptian king, Psammenitus, in the great battle of Pelusium; 
 and the land of the Pharaohs was reduced under Persian sway. The hard-hearted 
 Cambyses treated the conquered Egyptians with the most barbarous cruelty and 
 tyranny, and put the unfortunate Psammenitus to a violent death. Cambyses next 
 subdued some of the African tribes, and laid the Greek colony of Cyrenaica under 
 tribute; but an army which he had sent to conquer the little oasis of Siwah, in which 
 the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon was the centre of a small independent priestly 
 state, perished in a simoom in the desert; and another army which he had sent 
 against Ethiopia nearly perished from hunger. After a reign of nine years, Camby- 
 ses died from the effects of a wound which he had accidentally inflicted upon 
 himself with his own sword. (B. C. 521.) 
 
 Accession of Darius Hystaspes — Revolt of Babylon. — On the death ol 
 Camliyses, Darius Hystaspes was raised to the throne of Persia. Soon after the 
 accession of Darius Hystaspes, Babylon revolted against Persian rule; but, after a 
 siege of twenty months, Darius reduced the city, and, in consequence of the rebel- 
 lion, he caused 3,000 of the inhabitants to be put to death, and the loo gates of thfe 
 city to be torn down and the walls to be demolished. 
 
 Invasion of Scythia by Darius Hystaspes — His Disgraceful Retreat. 
 — After the suppression of the Babylonian revolt, Darius Hystaspes invaded Scythia, 
 a country northeast of the Euxine or Black Sea. The Scythians retreated before 
 Darius and his amty, and laid waste the country, that the invaders might find no 
 subsistence from it. The consequence of this destructive method of warfare was 
 that the Persians were obliged to abandon their scheme of conquest and to make 
 a disgraceful retreat to avoid perishing from hunger. 
 
 War with Greece — Great Extent of the Persian Empire. — After his 
 unsuccessful expedition into Scythia, Darius Hystaspes returned to Persia and 
 carried his conquering arms in the East to the borders of India. A revolt of the 
 Greek cities of Asia Minor was next suppressed by Darius. A memorable wajr 
 nith Greece then broke out. This war, which through its w'.'.ole course wa.« 
 inglorious for Persia, continued through a period of more that forty years, anc 
 terminated during the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, the second successoi of 
 Dari is Hystaspes. Under Darius Hystaspes and his successors the Persian Empire 
 extended from Greece to India, and from the deserts of Africa to Central Asia. 
 It included portions of Thrace and Macedon in Europe, Eg>'pt and other portions 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 35 
 
 of Africa, and all that part of Asia embraced by modem Turkey, Persia, Beloochis- 
 tan, Afghanistan, and Turkestan. Darius Hystaspes devoted more attention tc 
 the consolidation of his vast empire than to its enlargement. For purpose? of 
 govommei\t he divided his empire into twenty provinces, called satrapies, Ihe 
 governors of which were called satraps. He established as the capitals of Iha 
 Persian Empire, Susa in the spring, Ecbatana in the summer, and Babylon in the 
 w inter. 
 
 Decline and Fall of the Persian Empire. — The extensive empire of Persia, 
 comprising many countries, held together only by military power and not by any 
 harmony of interests, feelings or institutions, rapidly declined after the reign o( 
 Darius Hystaspes. The acquisition of wealth and the enjoyment of luxury for two 
 centuries brought upon the Persians effeminacy, indolence, and the loss of all military 
 virtue. After the Persian Empire had continued little more than two centuries it 
 was invaded and subdued by the conquering Alexander the Great of Macedon. 
 
 Religion of the Medes and the Persians. — The religion of the Medes and 
 the Persians was that founded by the ancient sage Zoroaster and explained in the 
 sacred books of the Zend-Avesta, according to which there are two principles, a 
 good spirit, Ormuzd, and an evil spirit, Ahriman, which shall wage war against 
 each other until the end of the world, when the good spirit shall triumph and the 
 human race be rendered happy. This religion was represented by a powerful 
 priesthood called the Magi ; and the good spirit was worshiped under the form ol 
 the sun and of fire. 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT GREECE. 
 
 Extent of Ancient Greece.— Ancient Greece comprised in addition to Modem 
 Greece, the whole northern part of the peninsula between the Archipelago and the 
 Mediterranean, and some of the territory beyond, which now constitutes a part of 
 the Turkish Empire. Ancient Greece was about 400 miles long, and was divided 
 into three parts, 
 
 Peloponnesus, or Southern Greece.— The southern part of Greece, or the 
 peninsula, anciently called the Peloponnesus, but now styled the Morea, was about 
 140 miles long, and included the states of Laconia, Argolis, Achaia, Arcadia, Ehs, 
 and Messenia. The chief city of this section was Sparta or Lacedaemon, the capiial 
 ;-f Laconia. 
 
 Hellas, or Central Greece.-The central part of Greece, called Hellas, wa* 
 less in extent than the Peloponnesus, and embraced the strUes of Attica, Boeotia, 
 Euboea, Doris, Phocis, Locris, ^tolia, and Acamania. The chief cities of thii 
 section were Athens, the capital of Attica, and Thebes, the capital of Boeotia. 
 
36 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Northern Greece. — The northern part of Ancient Greece, not included in 
 Modem Greece, but forming part of the Turkish Empire, contained the 'itates of 
 Thessaly, Epirus, now called Albania, and Macedonia. In this part of Ancleu' 
 Greece was Mount Olympus, the residence of the gods and goddesses. 
 
 GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 The Celestial Deities. — The Greeks divided their deities into three classes 
 celestial, marine, and infernal. The celestial gods were Jupiter, Apollo, Mart. 
 Mercury, Bacchus, and Vulcan. The celestial goddesses were Juno, Minen'a, 
 Venus, Diana, Ceres, and Vesta. The chief of the celestial deities was Jupiter. 
 
 The Marine and Infernal Deities — Mount Olympus. — Neptune was the 
 chief of the marine deities, and Pluto of the infernal. Mount Olympus, in Thes- 
 saly, was regarded as the heavenly residence of the gods, by whom the affairs of 
 mortals are governed. These gods and goddesses were worshiped by the Romans, 
 as well as by the Greeks. 
 
 Origin of the Gods — The Titans. — According to Grecian mythology, first 
 came Chaos, a shapeless mass ; then Earth, the another of the gods, who produced 
 Uranus, or Heaven. Earth mamed Uranus or Heaven, and from this union sprung 
 the Titans, a race of giants. The Titans made war on their father Uranus anil 
 dethroned him. His son, Saturn, who- reigned in his stead, ordered all his male 
 children to be destroyed as soon as they were born, but his wife, Rhea, concealed 
 from him Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto. The Titans made war on Saturn and 
 dethroned him. His son, Jupiter, restored him to the throne, but afterwards deposed 
 him and reigned in his place. 
 
 Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto. — Jupiter now divided the dominion of the 
 universe with his two brothers, Neptune and Pluto, reserving heaven for himself, 
 and assigning the sea to Neptune, and the infernal regions to Pluto. Jupiter was 
 the chief and father of the gods. 
 
 Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Bacchus, and Vulcan. — Apollo was the god of 
 music, poetry and medicine, and driver of the sun. At Delphi there was a temple 
 to Apollo, unto which people from all parts of Greece came to find out the events 
 of futurity. Mars was the god of war. Mercury was the messenger of the gods, 
 and the patron of travelers, shepherds, merchants, and orators, the inventor of 
 letters, and the god of merchants and of thieves. Bacchus was the god of wine and 
 of drunkards, and a great conqueror, having subdued India and other countries. 
 Vulcan was the god of fire and of blacksmiths, having his forges under Mount Etna, 
 in Sicily. 
 
 Juno, Minerva, Venus, Diana, Ceres, and Vesta. — Juno, the queen of 
 heavcfA, was the wife and sister of Jupiter, with whom she had many disputes, which 
 eaused much confusion in heaven. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, Veir.L' 
 was the goddess of beauty and the queen of laughter, grace, and pleasure. Dia u 
 was the goddess of hunting. There was a famous temple to Diana at Ephesus, ii' 
 Asia Minor. Ceres was the goddess of com and of harvests. Vesta was the virgin 
 goddess who presided over the domestic hearth. 
 
^^^%^^^"" ''wm^' mas 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. -- 
 
 THE LEGENDARY PERIOD OF GREECE. 
 
 EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN GREECE. 
 
 The Pelasgians and the Hellenes.— The first inhabitants of Greece were 
 tke Peiasgia.is, who were mere savages. They lived in caves and fed on roots and 
 !icc«r.s, and clothed themselves with the skins of beasts. At an uncertain period, 
 the Hellenes, an Asiatic people, found their way into Greece, and drove away, or 
 intermingled with, the Pelasgians. The Hellenes were divided into three ui'i,es, 
 the Dorians, the lonians, and the Cohans. 
 
 Inachus, Cecrops, Lelex, Cadmus, Danaus, and Pelops. — The olacst city 
 in Greece was Argos, the capital of Argolis, which was founded in the year 1^56 
 13 C. by Inachus, a Phoenician. In the year 1556 B. C., three hundred years after 
 the founding of Argos, Cecrops, an Egyptian, founded, in Attica, a city which he 
 named Athens, in honor of the goddess Athena, or Minerva. Corinth was founded 
 in the year 1520 B. C. The Egyptian, Lelex, laid the foundation of the celebrated 
 city of Sparta, or Lacedsemon, in Laconia, about the year 1520 B. C. Thebes, the 
 capital of Boeotia, with its famous citadel, the Cadmea, was founded about the year 
 1493 B. C. by the Phoenician Cadmus. In the year 1485 B. C, an Egyptian, named 
 Danaus, is said to have arrived at Argos with fifty daughters, and to have taught 
 the people to dig wells. About the year 1350 B. C, Pelops, a son of a king ol 
 Phrygia, a country in Asia Minor, landed in the peninsula of Southern Greece, 
 which was named in his honor Peloponnesus, or Island of Pelops. 
 
 THE HEROIC AGE. 
 
 Hercules. — A fabulous personage of the period known as the Heroic Age wf.s 
 Hercules, who was celebrated for his wonderful feats of strength. While yet an 
 infant he is said to have crushed to death two huge serpents which the goddess 
 J. mo liad sent to destroy him. He is said to have cleansed the stables of the king 
 of Elis, which had remained uncleansed for thirty years, by turning into them a 
 river which flowed close by. Another of his feats was the killing of the Numean 
 [.ion by putting his arms around its neck. Another of his fabled labors was the 
 destruction of the Hydra of Lema, a nine-headed serpent. At first the heads of 
 this monstrous serpent would grow on again as soon as they had been cut off; but 
 finally, by searing the neck of the serpent with a hot iron, Hercules was enabled 
 to destroy the gigantic reptile. It is also said that Hercules traveled to Spain, where 
 he killed the tyrant Geryon, king of Gades, now Cadiz, who had three heads, sijt 
 legs, and six arms. It is also related that Hercules separated Spain from Africa, 
 and connected the Mediterranean Sea with .the Atlantic Ocean by heaping up a 
 mounlain on each side. These mountains were named the Pillars of Hercules 
 Many other labors and adventures are said to have been performed by Hercules. 
 
 Theseus.— To Theseus, who is said to have been king of Athens, are ascribe<l 
 aiany feats of strengtn similar to those of Hercules. He ruled with wisdom E.nd 
 mildness, and contributed much to the welfare and progress of Athens. In the 
 latter part of his life, Theseus became a predatory adventurer and robber, and 
 commiited many crimes, among which was the carrying off of Helen, the daughtei 
 
38 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 of Tyndurus, king of Sparta. Helen was rescued by her brothers, Castor anix 
 Pollux, who were afterwards deified. 
 
 Argonautic Expedition. — In the time of Hercules, Jason, a prince of Thessaly, 
 went on the celebrated Argonautic Expedition, so-called from the ship Argo in 
 whicn he sailed. The story of the Argonautic Expedition, according to the Gretk 
 poets, was as follows : Phryxus, a Theban prince, and his sister, Helle, being 
 obliged to leave their native country in order to save themselves from the cruelty 
 af their step-mother, mounted on the back of a winged ram with a golden fleece, 
 for the purpose of being carried to Colchis, a country on the eastern bordei of the 
 Euxint or Black Sea, where an uncle of theirs was king. While they were passing 
 over the strait now called the Dardanelles, Helen became giddy, and fell into the 
 water and was drowned. For this reason the strait was named Hellespont, or Sea 
 of Heile. Phryxus arrived safely in Colchis, and sacrificed his winged ram to 
 Jupitei in acknowledgment of Divine protection, and put the golden fleece in that 
 deity's temple. He was afterward murdered by his uncle, who wished to obtain 
 possession of the golden fleece. It was to avenge the death of Phryxus and to 
 secure the golden fleece that Jason undertook the Argonautic Expedition. Jason 
 not only oibt^inod the golden fleece, bnt married Media, a daughter of the king of 
 Colchis. 
 
 The Trojan War. — The most important event of the early period of Grecian 
 history was the famous Trojan War, the knowledge of which we derve chiefly from 
 Homer's Iliad. The beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, was car- 
 cred away by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy or Ilium, in Asia Minor. The 
 Greek princes, indignant at this outrage, and bound by a previous promise, assem- 
 bled their armies, and having appointed Agamemnon, one of their number, com- 
 mander-in-chief, crossed the yEgean Sea and laid siege to Troy (B. C. II94)' Th<; 
 chief of the Greek leaders besides Agamemnon, were Achilles of Thessaly and 
 Ulysses of Ithaca. Dunng the siege of Troy many bold exploits are said to have 
 been performed by both. Of these exploits the most celebrated was the kiiiing 
 of the Trojan Hector by the Grecian Achilles. Finally, after a siege oi ten 
 years, Troy was taken by a stratagem of Ulysses. The Greeks after havir.g con- 
 structed a large wooden horse, filled it with soldiers, and then retiring d short 
 distance, pretended to abandon the siege. The Trojans then brought the wooden 
 horse into the city. During the night the Greek soldiers got out of the wooden 
 horse and opened the gates of the city, which was then entered by tht Grecian 
 army. Troy was reduced to ashes, and its inhabitants were driven away or put to 
 death (B. C. 1184). But the conquerors met with many misfortunes: AcLdles died 
 in Tr jy; Ulysses wandered about for ten years before he was enabled to reach his 
 native shores ; and Agamemnon was murdered by his own faithless wife. 
 
 Return of the Heraclidae. — About eighty years after the fall of Troy (1104 
 r. C), the Dorians, led by the descendants of Hercules, migrated from their 
 mountainous country of Doris to the Peloponnesus, of which they took possession, 
 .lii%-ing away its former inhabitants, or reducing them to slavery. This is known 
 as the "Rjtum of the Heraclidge." Corinth, Argolis, Sycyon, Messenia, and 
 Laconia were gradually subdued, and thus the fate of the whole of the Pelopon- 
 nesus was changed. 
 
 Patriotic Devotion of Codrus — Athens a Republic. — About the year 1068 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 8. C, the Dorians invaded Attica and threatened Athens. The Dorians having 
 consulted the oracle of Delphi, were told that they would conquer Athens if they 
 did not kill Codrus, the Athenian king. When Codrus was infonned of the answer 
 of the Delphic oracle, he determined to sacrifice his life for his country; and going 
 into the Dorian camp disguised in the dress of a peasant, he provoked a quarrel 
 with a Dorian soldier and suffered himself to be killed. WTien the Dorians recog- 
 nized the body as that of Codrus, they retreated from Attica and gave up the 
 contest in despair. Out of respect to the memory of Codrus, the Athenians declaied 
 tiiat no one was worthy of succeeding him as king of Athens; and abolishing the 
 monarchy altogether, established an aristocratic republic, the chief-magistrates of 
 which were called archons. These archons were at first chosen for life from the 
 family of Codrus. Afterwards they were appointed for ten years, and still later a 
 senate of archons was elected annually. 
 
 INSTITUTION OF THE AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL AND 
 THE OLYMPIC FESTIVAL. 
 
 The Temple of Delphi and the Amphictyonic Council. — While the rest 
 of Greece was distracted by intestine wars, Delphi, the chosen spot of Apollo, 
 escaped the ravages of contending armies; and, in order to sufficiently secure the 
 temple of Delphi from being plundered by warlike bands, that famous sanctuary 
 was placed under the special protection of the Amphictyonic Council, so called from 
 its reputed founder, the legendary Amphictyon, who is asserted by some to have been 
 one of the early kings of Attica. This council consisted of two deputies from each of 
 the leading states of Greece; and it assembled twice a year, in the spring at Delphi, 
 and in the autumn at the pass of Thermopylae. The duties of the Amphictyonic 
 Council were to effect a settlement of all religious and political disputes that might 
 arise among the different Grecian states, and to decide upon proposals of peace or 
 war with foreign nations. Each deputy took an oath that he would never subvert 
 or injure any Amphictyonic city, and that he would oppose by force of arms, any 
 such outrage if attempted by others. He also swore that if any party in any way 
 injured the sacred territoiy of Delphi, or formed designs against the temple to 
 Apollo, he would do his utmost to bring the offenders to punishment. The Amphic- 
 tyonic Council was sometimes of great advantage to the Greeks, but it very seldom 
 exercised much influence in preventing domestic dissensions or civil wars among 
 the Grecians. 
 
 Establishment of Grecian Republics and the Olympic Festival.— In 
 the process of time nearly all the states of Greece abolished monarchy and estab- 
 lished republican governments. The division of Greece into as many independent 
 republics as there were Grecian towns, and the almost incessant wars that distracted 
 the Hellenic race, greatly retarded the progress of Grecian civilization. At length, 
 Ephitus, king of Elis, having obtained authority from the Delphic oracle, instituted 
 the Olympic Festival, by which the Greeks, nothwithstanding their almost constanl 
 wars with each other, were enabled to meet on friendly terms once in ever)- fooi 
 years, or Olympiad, as such a period of time was thereafter called, at Olympiu, a 
 town in Elis. The establishment of the Olympic Festival took place in the year 8S4 
 B. C, from which time the Greeks thereafter reckoned time. To this festival all 
 the people of Greece were invited; and in order to enable them to attend, th* 
 
40 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Delphic oracle commanded that a general armistice should take place some time 
 before and after each celebration. The Olympic Festival consisted of religious rites 
 to Jupiter, and of various games, such as w^restling and boxing matches, foot and 
 chariot races, and other contests requiring strength and agility, and of corrifAisitions 
 in poetry and music. The victors in the Olympic Games were crovt^ned with olive 
 wreaths, which was esteemed by the Greeks as a very high h mor. 
 
 GREEK COLONIES 
 
 Greek Colonies in Asia Minor — iEolian and Ionian Confederacies.- • 
 Many of the former inhabitants of the Peloponnesus who had been expelled by tlie 
 Doria is and the Heraclids, crossed the ^-Egean Sea, into Asia Minor, where they 
 established flourishing colonies. Thus the yEolians founded the twelve .(Eolian 
 states, which were afterwards united into the .4Lolian Confederacy; and further south 
 were the Ionian colonies, which, in the course of time, were formed into the Ionian 
 Confederacy. 
 
 Cyprus, Crete, Thrace, and Macedon — Byzantium. — Greek colonies were 
 established in Cyprus, Crete, on the shores of the Euxine (now Black) Sea, the 
 Propontis (now Sea of Marmora), the Hellespont (now Dardanelles), in Thrace and 
 Macedonia. The city of Byzantium (now Constantinople), founded by Byzas in 
 the year 606 B. C, was the most prosperous of the Grecian colonies in this quarter. 
 
 Cyrene — Syracuse and Messana — Magna GrjEcia. — In Northern Africa 
 was the flourishing city of Cyrene, corresponding to the modern Barca. The cities 
 of Syracuse and Messana, in Sicily, were established by the Greeks; while in 
 Southern Italy the number of Grecian settlements was so great that they were 
 together named Magna Grrecia, or Great Greece. Thus in process of time, the 
 Grecian race, language, religion, institutions, and manners, were difi"used over many 
 of the fairest portions of the then known world. 
 
 THE PERIOD OF THE LAWGIVERS. 
 
 LYCURGUS, THE SPARTAN LAWGIVER. 
 
 Travels of Lycurgus — Establishment of his Code. — From the time that 
 the Dorians had established themselves in the Peloponnesus, two kings reigned 
 jointly at LacedLiemon. The kings of Sparta belonged to the race of the Heraclidre. 
 At length, in the ninth century before Christ, on the death of Polydectes, one of 
 the kings, his brother Lycurgus succeeded him, but soon resigned the royal dignity 
 in favor of tlie infant son of Polydectes, and retired from Greece. Lycurgus went 
 to Crete, where he studied the excellent laws of Minos, the Cretan lawgiver. He 
 alsc> obtained wisdom from the priests of Egypt and from the Brahmins of India. 
 On his return to Greece, he directed his attention to the framing of a constitution 
 i :r Lacedremon. He had consulted the Delphic oracle, which told him that the 
 c institution which he should establish would be the most excellent that ever existed. 
 Having secured the support of the most prominent citizens of Sparta, Lvcurgus 
 obtained the enactment of a code of laws by which the system of government, the 
 division of property, and the ed'ication of the people were to be estiiiiUsbed on s 
 new and unchansieable basis. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. ., 
 
 Political Institutions of Lycurgus. — Lycurgus estar.iished a senate of ih rty 
 nembers wlio were to be elected for life. No one could be chosen a senator until 
 ue was sixty years of age. The two kings were members of the senate, and always 
 presided over its deliberations. Besides being presidents of the senate, the kincrs 
 were always the commanders of the armies. There were also assemblies of the 
 people, which had no right to originate any law, but only to approve or reject what 
 had been proposed by the senate. To guard against the exercise of unconstitutional 
 power, five officers, called Ephori, were yearly chosen by the people of Sparta, for 
 the purpose of punishing, by fine or flogging, all who violated the constitution and 
 the laws, not exempting even senators and kings. 
 
 Social Institutions of Lycurgus. — Lycurgus next devoted himself to a refor- 
 mation of the social institutions and manners of the Spartan people. He first 
 divided all the lands of Laconia equally among all the free citizens of Sparta. To 
 prevent the accumulation of wealth, Lycurgus forbade the use of gold and silver 
 for currency, and only allowed iron money to be used, attaching to a great quantity 
 a very small value, so that a Spartan dollar weighed about fifty pounds. Useless 
 arts and foreign commerce were abandoned, and thus was struck the death-blow to 
 luxury. In order to still further prevent luxury and to insure sobriety, all Spartans 
 of whatever age or rank were required to eat at the public tables, which were sup- 
 plied with the plainest and least relishing food, each individual being required to 
 contribute monthly a certain portion of provisions for the public use. Regular 
 •attendance at the public meals was strictly enforced, and no one was permitted to 
 eat at home or in private. Lycurgus took great pains to introduce a short and 
 forcible style of expression among his countrymen, in which he succeeded so well 
 that the Spartans soon became celebrated for the terseness and brevity of their 
 speech. Such a style of expression is called lacotiic, from Laconia, the name of 
 the Spartan territory. Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad, nor were 
 foreigners permitted to spend much lime in Sparta. As soon as an infant was bora 
 it was taken to certain public officers, who examined it; and if it was found to be 
 deformed it was considered as of no use to the state, and was consequently destroyed. 
 At the age of six years all children were taken from their parentsand educated in 
 public. The greatest care was taken to develop their physical nature, while very 
 little attention was paid to their mental culture. To make them abhor drunken- 
 ness the Spartan slaves were made drunk. When the Spartan youth beheld the 
 rediculous and disgraceful conduct of the slaves, they were careful never to reduce 
 themselves to so degrading a condition. The sole objects of Spartan education 
 were to prepare the people of Lacedremon for war, and the aim of Lycurgus was 
 to make the Spartans a warlike race, not, however, to enlarge their territory, as he 
 dreaded the consequences of an extension of the Lacedcemonian territory beyond 
 the borders of Laconia. The Spartan youth were taught to be sober, cunn.ng, per- 
 Eevering, brave, insensible to hardship, patient in suffering, obedient to ±eit 
 superiors, and unyieldmg in their devotion to their country. To make fheui cun 
 cmg in war, they were taught and encouraged to steal provisions; but if the}' •yem 
 detected in the act they were severely whipped, not, however, for stealing, but fci 
 not being careful enough to escape detection. The Spartan slaves, or Helots, as 
 they were called, from the town of Helos, where their ancestors had made an 
 obstinate resistance to the conquering Dorians, were the property of the state; and 
 to them only were assigned the duties of agriculture and the mechanical arts, whue 
 
42 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 the free citizens of Lacedcemon only employed themselves in war and military 
 exercises, in superintending the public schools, in conversation, or in religious 
 service. The principle underlying the whole system and institutions of I.ycurgus 
 was, — the citizen for the state, and not the state for the citizen. 
 
 Death of Lycurgus. — It is said that after Lycurgus had finished his -ode of 
 laws, he went into voluntary exile ; but before leaving Sparta, he made the i^acedae- 
 aionians swear that they would not violate or change any of his laws until hia 
 retuni. But Lycurgus intended never to return. After leaving LacedaamDn, be 
 went to Crete, where he died; and so the Spartans, bound by their oath; \ere 
 obliged to abide by his laws forever. 
 
 THE MESSENIAN WARS. 
 
 The First Messenian War. — About a century after the time of Lycurgus 
 (743 B. C), a war broke out between the Spartans and the Messenians, which 
 lasted twenty years. The Messenians, under their valiant leader, Aristodemus, 
 fought bravely for their freedom, but were at last conquered and compelled to 
 acknowledge the supremacy of the Lacedsemonians. This contest is known as 
 the " First Messenian War." 
 
 The Second Messenian War. — The tyranny of the Spartans led to p revolt 
 of the Messenians about the year 685 B. C, thirty-nine years after the close of the 
 First Messenian War. This was the beginning of the " Second Messenian War.'' 
 The Messenians, under their able general, Aristomenes, successively defeated theii 
 enemies. The Lacedsemonians, desparing of a successful termination of the war, 
 consulted the Delphic oracle, which told them that they must seek a leader among 
 the Athenians if they wished to conquer their enemies. The Athenians, in derision, 
 sent the lame schoolmaster and poet, Tyrtjeus, to lead the Spartan armies. But 
 Tyrtaeus proved himself as good a leader as could have been chosen ; for, by his 
 patriotic appeals, he aroused the martial pride of the Lacedsemonians. After the war 
 had continued seventeen years, it ended in the defeat of the Messenians, who were 
 reduced to slavery. Many of the conquered Messenians, however, abandoned thei»' 
 country and migrated to Sicily, where they founded the city of Messana. 
 
 DRACO AND SOLON, THE LAWGIVERS OF ATHENS. 
 
 Draco's Code. — While Sparta, under the laws of Lycurgus, was advancing in 
 power and prosperity, Athens was greatly distracted and nearly brought to the brink 
 of ruin by the contests of domestic factions. In this situation of affairs, Draco, 
 one of the leading nobles of Athens, framed for the Athenian people a code of 
 laws so severe that it was said that " they were written in blood instead of ink." 
 He punished even the slightest offenses with death, saying that the smallest .rimes 
 destrved death and that he had no severer punishment for the greatest ones. 
 Draco's cruel system, which the Athenian aristocracy intended to use as an instru 
 ment for the oppression of the poorer citizens, was soon abolished. 
 
 Wretched State of Affairs in Athens — Solon Frames a Code. — The 
 dissensions of the three parties in Athens, and the bitter feeling existing between 
 th< rich and the poor, had reduced the state to a deplorable condition. Some of the 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 4- 
 
 citizens had become very wealthy; while others had been reduced to extreme 
 poverty, and were burdened with debts which they could not discharge. What 
 particularly inflamed the poor against the rich was the existence of a law which 
 gave to the creditor the right to make a slave of his debtor. An insurrection of 
 the poor was feared, when the wise, talented, and virtuous Solon, a descendant of 
 Codrus, and one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, was requested by many prom- 
 inent Athenian citizens to make himself king of Athens, so that he might restoie 
 order to the distracted state. This advice Solon declined to follow, but he applied 
 himself to the framing of a code of laws which he thought would restore quiet and 
 prosperity to his country. 
 
 Solon's Reforms. — Solon first ameliorated the condition of the poorer classes 
 by cancelling all their debts, by reducing the rate of interest, and by abolishing 
 imprisonment or enslavement for debt; and he restored to freedom those debtors 
 who had been enslaved by their creditors, and repealed all of Draco's laws except 
 the one which declared murder punishable with death. 
 
 Four Classes of Citizens in Athens. — Solan next divided the citizens of 
 Athens into four classes, according to the sum of their yearly incomes. The two 
 higher or aristocratical classes were required to serve as cavalry in time of war, 
 while citizens of the two lower classes composed the infantry. The highest offices 
 in the state were open only to the highest class, a few of the lowest offices to the 
 second and third classes, while citizens of the lowest class could not be chosen to any 
 office whatever. The largest amount of the taxes were to be paid by the highest 
 class, the remainder by the second and third classes, while the lowest class was 
 exempt from all taxation. Laws were to be originated by a senate or council of four 
 hundred members, afterward increased to five hundred, while a general assembly 
 of the citizens of Athens had the power of approving or rejecting the laws or 
 measures proposed by the senate or council. The senators were to be chosen 
 annually. 
 
 The Court of Areopagus. — The Court of Areopagus, which held its sittings 
 on the eastern side of the Athenian Acropolis, was composed of such individuals 
 as had worthily discharged the duties of archonship; and it possessed paramount 
 jurisdiction in criminal cases. This court also exercised a censorship over the public 
 morals, the affairs of religion, and the education of the people; and it was empow- 
 ered to punish impiety, profligacy, and idleness. It also possessed the power of 
 annulling or changing the decrees of the general assembly of the people. 
 
 Solon's Travels.— When Solon had finished his code of laws, he made the 
 Athenians swear that they would keep them for ten years, after which he traveled 
 abroad, visiting Egypt, Crete, and Lydia, and resumed to his native country at the 
 expiration of ten years. 
 
 THE TYRANTS OF ATHENS 
 
 Usurpation of Pisistratus.— Soon after Solon had established his wise system 
 of laws, tne government of Athens was usurped by Pisistratus, a relative of Solon's 
 and a leader of the democratic party of Athens, who had made himself a great 
 favorite with the poor. Having wounded himself, Pisistratus appeared before the 
 people, in the public square in Athens, and declared that he would leave Athens if 
 he were, not allowed a body-guard to protect himself against his political enemies, 
 
44 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 whom he accused of having attempted to take his life. His partisans immediately 
 voted him a body-guard of fifty men. He afterwards seized the Acropolis, or 
 citadel of Athens, and made himself master of the city; and usurped the whole 
 powei of the government, and made himself sole ruler, or Tyrant of Athens. Pisis- 
 tratus, however, ruled with justice and mildness, and confirmed his power by his 
 generous treatment of the poor. He improved Athens, and encouraged art an i 
 UteratLire. 
 
 Hippias and Hipparchus. — On the death of Pisistratus, his sons, Hippijs and 
 ilippari hus, succeeded him in the government of Athens. Like their father, 
 Hippias and Hipparchus ruled with mildness and wisdom, doing much for the 
 welfare and prosperity of Athens; but from the time that Hipparchus had been 
 assassinated by two young Athenians, Harmodius and Aristogiton, Hippias governed 
 with the most cruel and unmitigated tyranny, until the Athenian people expelled 
 him and his family from Athens (B. C. 510). After his expulsion from Athens, 
 Hippias retired into the Persian dominions in Asia Minor, where he did much 
 to bring about a war between the Greeks and the Persians. 
 
 THE SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE. 
 
 Names of the Seven Wise Men. — The Seven Wise Men of Greece were 
 Thales of Miletus, Solon of Athens, Periander of Corinth, Bias of Priene, Chile 
 of Lacedsemon, Cleobulus of Lyndus, and Pittacus of Mitylene. Ancient writers 
 mention two occasions on which these seven sages met together, — once at Delphi, 
 and a second time at Corinth. 
 
 Maxims of the Seven Wise Men. — The Seven Wise Men endeavored to 
 enlighten and improve their fellow-men by disseminating a number of moral truths 
 and precepts in the form of maxims and proverbs. The following are some of the 
 maxims of the philosopher Thales, a native of Miletus, a city of Ionia, who was 
 regarded as the greatest of the Seven Wise Men : " Never do that which you blame 
 in others;" " It is better to adorn the mind than the face;" "The most difficult 
 thing is to know one's self, the easiest to give advice to others." Some of the pre- 
 cepts of Solon, the great lawgiver of Athens, were: "Reverence God and your 
 parents;" " Mingle not with the wicked." Among the maxims of Bias, who was a 
 great orator of Priene, a city of Ionia, were the following: "Endeavor to gain the 
 good will of all men;" "Speak of the gods with reverence." Some of the proverbs 
 of Chilo, who was one of the Ephori of Sparta, were: "Reverence old age;" 
 " Govern your anger;" " Be not over-hasty;" " Seek not impossibilities." A few of 
 the maxims of Periander, who was ruler or Tyrant of Corinth, were : " Pleasure is 
 fleeting, but honor is immortal;" "The intention of crime is as sinful as the act;" 
 " Prudence can accomplish all things ;" " Perform what you have promised." Of 
 the precepts of Cleobulus, who was king or Tyrant of Lyndus, in the island of 
 Rnodes, the following are a few: "Be more attentive than talkative;" "I>et«t 
 ingratitude;" "Educate your children." The following are a few of the prcverbs 
 of Pittacus, who was for a short time king of Mitylene, in the island of Lesbos: 
 "Whatever you do, do it well;" "Know your opportunity." These and many 
 other prciverbs and rules of life, the Seven Wise Men of Greece sought and 
 improved every opportunity of bringing forward and enforcing. 
 
hISTORY OF GREECE. .- 
 
 iWY FLOURISHING PERIOD OF GREECE. 
 
 THE PERSIAN WAR (B. C. 490-449). 
 
 Revolt o» the Greek Cities of Asia Minor against Persia. — The Greek 
 
 cities of Asia Mino., which had been subdued by King Cyrus the Great of Persia, it 
 length attempted t^^ regain their independence. The Athenians, who were at this 
 dme indignant at the insolence of the Persian king, Darius Hystaspes, who demanded 
 iat they should restore the exiled Tyrant Hippias to power. in Athens if they did 
 aot wish to incur the hostility of Persia, assisted the revolted cities in their efforts to 
 throw oft' the Persian yoke. The Greeks took and burned the city of Sardis, in 
 Lydia, but the i-ebellion wits finally crushed, and the revolted cities were again 
 brought under the dominion rji Persia. 
 
 Commencement of the Fctsian War, — WTien the Persian king heard of the 
 burning of Sardis, he became very much exasperated, and resolved to revenge him- 
 self on the Athenians by invading their territory, and, if possible, conquer all 
 Greece. A large Persian anny, under the command of Mardonius, the son-in-law 
 of Darius Hystaspes, after being dex'eaced in a night attack, finally effected the sub- 
 jugation of Thrace and Macedonia, bui at length returned to Asia on account of the 
 heavy loss sustained by the Persian tieet off Mount Athos. 
 
 Persian Invasion of Greece. — King Darius Hystaspes again assembled large 
 armies for the invasion and conquest of Greece. Heralds were sent to the Greek cities 
 demanding earth and water as symbols ol submission. This demand was complied 
 with by the smaller Grecian states, which feared the consequences of provoking 
 the displeasure of the King of Persia, but Athens and Sparta treated the Persian 
 heralds with the greatest cruelty, throwing them into deep wells and telling them tc 
 "take there their earth and water." In the year 490 B. C., a Persian fleet con 
 veyed an army of 120,000 men, under the command of Datis and Artaphemes, tc 
 the shores of Greece. After conquering several islands of the ^gean Sea, and 
 after having destroyed the city of Eretria, which . had aided the revolted Greek 
 cities of Asia Minor, the Persian army landed in Attica, and advanced to the 
 plain of Marathon, about twenty miles northeast from Athens. 
 
 Battle of Marathon. — The Athenians, greatly alarmed at the formidable 
 invasion of their territory by the Persians, applied to the Spartans for aid, but tha 
 superstitious Lacedaemonians refused to give any assistance before a full moon. 
 The Athenian army of only 10,000 men, assisted by 1,000 Platsans, then marched 
 to Marathon to attack the Persian army of more than 100,000 men. By the advice 
 of Miltiades, the ablest of the ten Athenian generals, was fought the memorable 
 battle of Marathon, in which the Athenians gained a most glorious victory. After 
 naving sufi'ered immense losses, the defeated Persian hosts fled in haste and con 
 fusion from the field and took refuge in their ships. Among the killed on the side 
 ^of the Persians was Hippias, the expelled tyrant of Athens. 
 
 Disgrace and Death of Miltiades.— Miltiades was now regarded as the 
 savioirr of Greece, but his fickle countrymen soon treated him with the bases! 
 ingratitude. For having failed in an attempt to subdue the island of Paros, he was 
 condemned to pay a fine of fifty talents and to be cast into prison, where he died of a 
 wound which he had received at Paros. The fine was finally paid by his son Cimon 
 
46 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Aristides and Themistocles. — After the death of Miltiades, the two most 
 remarkable men of Athens were Aristides and Themistocles, both of whom, though 
 opposed to each other in everything else, labored alike for the greatness and welfare 
 of their country. Aristides was entirely devoid of personal ambition and was 
 anxious only for the public welfare. Themistocles, however, wished to make 
 A ".hens great and powerful in order that he might win for himself an imj-erishable 
 fame Themistocles, who was bold, artful, and unscrupulous, at length procured 
 •jv ostracism the banishment of the more candid and conscientious Aristides, whc 
 va account of his uprightness, had acquired the surname of "the Just." 
 
 Themistocles makes Athens a Great Naval Power, — Having now secureti 
 the chief power in Athens in his own hands, Themistocles devoted all his energies 
 to the glory and welfare of his country. It was owing to his exertions that the 
 Athenian navy was so strengthened and increased that in a short time Athens was 
 mistress of the seas. 
 
 Formidable Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. — Darius Hystaspes died while 
 making preparations for a second invasion of Greece. His plans were, however, 
 executed by his son and successor, Xerxes, who, after suppressing a rebellion 
 against his authority in Egypt, led an army of two millions of fighting men into 
 Greece, in the year 480 B. C., ten years after the battle of Marathon. 
 
 Battle of Thermopylae. — No resistance was made to the advance of the 
 immense hosts of the Persians until they arrived at the pass of Thermopylae, where 
 they found 8,000 Greeks under the command of the Spartan king, Leonidas. 
 Xerxes sent a herald to the Greeks, ordering them to lay down their arms. Leoni- 
 das replied, "Come and take them." When some one said that the Persians were 
 K) numerous that their darts would darken the sun, Diences, a Spartan, replied, 
 "Then we shall fight in the shade." For several days the Persians had vainly 
 endeavored to force their way through the narrow pass of Thermopylae, when, for 
 a large bribe, Epialtes, a traitor from the Grecian army, showed them a secret path 
 over the mountains. When Leonidas heard of this treachery, he sent away all his 
 troops, excepting 300 Spartans and 700 Thespians, with whom he resolved to die 
 rather than flee before the enemy. The little band of Grecians fought with the 
 courage of desperation until every one of their number had been slain. Thus 
 perished Leonidas and his brave band, — winning for themselves an immortal fame. 
 The spot where they fell was afterwards marked by a monument, on which were 
 inscribed these words, " Go, stranger, and tell at Lacedajmon that we died here in 
 obedience to her laws." 
 
 Athens Burned by the Persians. — After the battle of Thermopylae and the 
 fall of Leonidas, the Persians spread devastation through Attica, and took Athens, 
 which they reduced to ashes, after it had been abandoned by its inhabitants. (B. C 
 480.) 
 
 Battle of Salamis. — The Grecian fleet retired to the promontory of Artemi- 
 jium, whither it was pursued by the Persian fleet. Eurybiades, the Spartan admiral, 
 !Fas in favor of sailing to the Corinthian isthmus, to act in conjunc ion with the 
 land forces; but the counsels of the Athenian Themistocles and his fonner rival, 
 Anstides, whom he soon afterward restored to power, who opposed the plan of 
 Eurybiades, finally prevailed, and thus brought about the famous sea-fight of Salamis, 
 in which the Persian fleet was thoroughly annihilated by the Grecian fleet. (480 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. , 
 
 B. C.) King Xerxes, who, from a neighboring height, had watched the progress 
 of the battle, fled with the utmost haste from Greece with a part of his arniv. 
 
 Battle of Plataea. — The king of Persia left an army of 300,000 men, undei 
 the command of Mardonius, in Greece. The followmg year (B. C. 479'), the 
 Persians were defeated and Mardonius was killed in the battle of Platjea, by the 
 Giecians under the Spartan king Pausanias and the Athenian Aristides. Tht 
 niimber of slain on the side of the Persians was 200,000 men. 
 
 Battle of Mycale. — On the very day of the battle of Platrea, tlie Greek flto 
 annihilated the Persian navy in a great battle off the promontory of Mycale, iL 
 Asia Minor, Tigranes, the Persian admiral, and 40,000 of his men were slain. 
 
 Evacuation of Greece by the Persians. — Greece was now completely freed 
 from her foreign invaders, and the dangers which had threatened her indeper dence 
 had passed away. From this time to its close, the war was conducted with vigor 
 on the seas and in the dominions of the Persian Erapire. 
 
 Conquest of Cyprus and Byzantium. — The Greeks, under the Spartan king 
 Pausanias and the Athenian leaders, Aristides, Themistocles, and Cimon, the sojj 
 of Miltiades, continued the war against the Persians with great success. After 
 wresting the island of Cyprus from the Persians, the Grecian fleet under the chief 
 command of Pausanias proceeded against the city of Byzantium (now Constanti- 
 nople), which was taken after a spirited siege. 
 
 Treachery of the Spartan King Pausanias. — After the capture of Byzan 
 tium, the Spartan king Pausanias proved a traitor to the liberties of Greece. Hp 
 agreed to aid the Persian king in subduing Greece, on condition that Xerxes shoulc* 
 give him one of his daughters in marriage and make him governor of Greece 
 which was to be a Persian province. The Lacedcemonians recalled their treacher 
 ous chief, and tried him for treason, but did not find him guilty. Even at Sparta 
 Pausanias carried on a treasonable correspondence with the King of Persia, until he 
 was obliged to flee for his life to the Temple of Minerva, where he perished from 
 hunger. 
 
 Battle of the Eurymedon.— In the year 469 B. C. the Greeks, under the 
 command of the Athenian Cimon, inflicted a crushing defeat on the fleet and 
 army of the Persians, on the river Eurymedon, in Asia Minor. Two hundred of 
 the Persian ships were taken, and the rest destroyed, while the Persian land force 
 was almost entirely cut to pieces. 
 
 Peace with Persia.— The war between Greece and Persia continued twenty 
 years after the battle of Eurymedon, and it was only after the death of Cimon that 
 a treaty of peace was made, by which the King of Persia acknowledged the indc 
 pendence of the Greek cities of Asia Minor. (B. C. 449.) 
 
 AFFAIRS OF ATHENS AND SPARTA 
 
 •Themistocles Causes Athens to be Rebuilt and Fortified.— While the 
 <• u- with Persia continued, Themistocles caused Athens to be rebuilt and surrour.dca 
 Dy a strong wall, and the harbor of Pirteus to be formed, which was afterwardj 
 connected with Athens by a double wall. This fortifying and strengthenmg of 
 Athens aroused the jealousy of the Spartans, who accordingly endeavored to pro 
 cure the fall of Themistocles. 
 
48 ANCIENT ni STORY. 
 
 Banishment and Suicide of Themistocles. — About this time tlie fame of 
 Themistocles had aroused the envy of numerous enemies among his own country- 
 men, who soon afterwards succeeded in having the ambitious statesman banished by 
 ostracism for ten years. Themistocles went to the court of the King of Persia, by 
 whom he was received with great respect and treated with much honor; but when 
 the Great King wanted hiir to aid the Persians in conquering Greece, Thrmiitocles 
 poisoned himself rather than fight against the liberties of his country. 
 
 Athens Under Aristides and Cimon — Supremacy of Athens.— -fter 'rie 
 banishment of Themistocles tiie destines of Athens were controlled by Aristides and 
 Cimon. After tlie death of Aristides, the chief direction of affairs was entrusted tc 
 Cimon alone. Owing to the treachery of Pausanias, Sparta lost the influence which 
 she had exercised in Grecian affairs; and for a considerable period Athens was the 
 leading state of Greece. 
 
 Sparta Destroyed by an Earthquake. — Even before the close of the Persian 
 war, the jealousies of Sparta and Athens were aroused to such a degree that a war 
 had become imminent between those two states, when, in the year 464 B. C, Sparta 
 was destroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 Rebellion of the Spartan Helots and the Messenians. — Following close 
 upon the calamity just related was a rebellion of the Spartan Helots or slaves. 
 (B. C. 463.) The Messenians also attempted to free themselves from the Spartan 
 yoke, and fortified their citidel of Ithome. In this extremity the Spartans invoked 
 the aid of the Athenians. But when the Athenian anny arrived at Sparta it was 
 dismissed. This proceeding, which showed how little the Lacedaemonians trusted 
 the Athenians, so exasperated the latter that they banished Cimon by ostracism, 
 because by his direction the Athenian amiy had been sent to Lacedasmon. He 
 was, however, afterwards recalled and again intrusted with the chief power in 
 Athens. After a war of ten years' duration, the Messenians submitted to the Spar- 
 tans, on condition of being permitted to remove with their families from the Pelo- 
 ponnesus to the seaport town of Naupactus, in the stafe of Locris, on the northern 
 shores of the Corinthian gulf (B. C. 453). 
 
 Athens in the Time of Pericles. — After the death of Cimon, the aflFairs of 
 Athens were conducted by the talented and virtuous Pericles, under whom that city 
 attained the highest pinnacle of wealth, power, splendor, and refinement. The 
 Athenian navy ruled the seas; and island after island in the .(^gean sea was com- 
 pelled to acknowledge the sway of Athens. 
 
 Wars of Athens with Thebes and Sparta. — In the meantime Athens had 
 become involved in wars with several of the minor Grecian cities. For the purpose 
 of weakening the power and influence of Athens, Sparta and Thebes joined hex 
 enemies. The Athenians who marched against the Spartans were defeated in the 
 battle of Zanagra; but they afterwards gained a brilliant victory over the Theban 
 xUies of Sparta, which restored the suoremacy to Athens and closed the contest for 
 
 short time. 
 
 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR (B. C. 431-404). 
 
 War Between Athens and Corinth — The Peloponnesian War. — The 
 general peace which Greece had for a short time enjoyed was soon disturbed by a 
 
HISTOR V OF GREECE. 
 
 49 
 
 war between Athens and Corinth, which at length became a general Grecian war. 
 When Corinth became involved in a war with Corcyra, one of her colonies, Athens 
 assisted Corcyra. Soon afterward Potidaea, a Corinthian colony tributary to Athens, 
 revolted, and was aided by Corinth. The Corinthians, accusing Athens of inter- 
 fenng with them and their colonies, induced most of the Peloponnesian states, with 
 Sparta at their head, to join Corinth in the war against Athens and her allies. This 
 contest, which is known as the Peloponnesian War, devastated Greece for a pcri-x? 
 of twenty-seven years. 
 
 Invasion of Attica — Devastation of the Peloponnesus. — In the year 431 
 li. C, the Lacedaemonian king, Archidamus, with 6,000 Peloponnesian troop', 
 invaded and ravaged Attica, while at the same time the Athenian navy committed 
 terrible devastations on the Peloponnesian coasts. The Spartans were soon recalled 
 to defend their own territory; but in the following year (B. C. 430), they again 
 marched into Attica and laid waste the country. 
 
 Plague at Athens — Death of Pericles.— While Athens was threatened by the 
 Spartans and their allies, a frightful plague broke out in that city, and carried off 
 thousands of the inhabitants. Among those who fell victims to the ravages of this 
 pestilence was the distinguished Pericles, whose skillful statesmanship had raised 
 Athens to the summit of her renown. 
 
 Reduction of Potidsea — Siege and Fall of Plataea. — The war still con- 
 tinued, and the most frightful ravages and cruelties were committed by both parties. 
 PotidiEa had already been reduced by the Athenians, who drove away the inhabi- 
 tants (B. C. 430). Four years after the reduction of Potidsea, Platasa, which was 
 in alliance with Athens, was compelled, after a three years' siege, to surrender to 
 the Spartans, who put the garrison to death and reduced the women and children 
 to slavery (B. C. 427). 
 
 Peace of Nicias — Renewal of the Peloponnesian War. — At length all 
 parties became tired of the contest, and a treaty of peace for fifty years, called the 
 "Peace of Nicias," was concluded in the year 421 B. C. The Peloponnesian War 
 was, however, soon renewed, as the Corinthians and other allies of the Lacedtemo- 
 nians refused to accede to the tenns of the Peace of Nicias, which they regarded as 
 humiliating to them. 
 
 Alcibiades. — Chief among those who were instrumental in increasing the jeal- 
 ousy and hatred which existed between Athens and Sparta was the Athenian Alci- 
 biades, the wealthy and handsome nephew of Pericles. This remarkable person 
 was an eloquent orator, but an ambitious, artful and unprincipled demagogue. For 
 the gratification of his hatred against Sparta, Alcibiades artfully prevented a return 
 irf friendship between that state and Athens. By his advice, the Athenians subdued 
 Itoe island of Melas, an ally of Sparta, and reduced the women and children to 
 slavery. 
 
 Athenian Expedition to Sicily.— The Athenians were induced by Alcibiad.-s 
 to send a land and naval expedition against Sicily, for the purpose of bringing tJia 
 island under the sway of Athens. The expedition sailed under the command of 
 Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus. 
 
 Disgrace of Alcibiades.— Before the Athenian fleet and army had reacled 
 Sicily, Alcibiades, being accused of offenses against religion and designs against the 
 4 
 
50 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 state, was ordered by the Athenian government to return home; but instead of re- 
 turning to Athens, he went to Sparta, where he was honorably received, and his 
 proffered services were accepted by the Lacedoemonians. Alcibiades now gratified 
 his revenge by doing his countrymen all the injury in his power; and by his arti- 
 fices he induced the Spartans to make war on the Athenians, and caused the de- 
 pendencies of Athens to revolt. 
 
 Siege of Syracuse. — When the Athenian fleet and anny had reached Sicily 
 tltey laid siege to the city of Syracuse. Lamachus met with his death during iht 
 siege. The Syracusans were aided by the Spartans, and the whole Athenian fleet 
 was destroyed. The Athenian land force was compelled to surrender; and its gal 
 lant general, Nicias, killed himself when he learned that the Syracusans had deter- 
 mined to put him to death. His troops were shut up in the prisons of Syracuse for 
 seventeeen days, during which time many of them died. Those that survived were 
 sold into slavery. 
 
 Recall of Alcibiades. — The condition of Athens was indeed gloomy when 
 Alcibiades, who had contributed so much to the misfortunes which had befallen 
 his country, quarreled with the Spartans and became reconciled to his countrymen. 
 After annihilating the Lacedaemonian fleet in the battle of Cysicus, Alcibiades en- 
 tered Athens, amid the wildest acclamations of the people. 
 
 Revolutions in Athens — The Council of Four Hundred. — At this time 
 Athens was torn by the dissensions of the aristocratic and democratic parties. A 
 revolution had placed a "Council of Four Hundred" in power by subverting the 
 democratic constitution; but in a short time another revolution restored the former 
 democratic government. 
 
 Second Disgrace and Assassination of Alcibiades. — The Athenians re- 
 warded Alcibiades with a golden crown, and gave him the chief command of the 
 land and naval forces of the Athenian Republic; but he enjoyed the favor of his 
 countrymen only for a short time. When, in the absence of Alcibiades, the Athe- 
 nian fleet was defeated by the Spartan fleet, he was accused of neglect of duty, de- 
 prived of his command, and banished from Athens. He retired first to Thrace, and 
 afterwards to Asia Minor. At length the Lacedicmonians induced the Persian gov- 
 ernor of Asia Minor to procure the assassination of Alcibiades. 
 
 Persian Aid to Sparta — Battle of iffigospotamos. — The able Spartan com- 
 mander, Lysander, at this time received important aid from Cyrus, the son of Da- 
 rius Nolhus, King of Persia, and satrap of the Persian provinces of Asia Minor. 
 Through the negligence of the Athenian commanders, the Athenian fleet was de- 
 feated at jEgospotamos, or Goat's river, by the Spartan fleet under Lysander. 
 
 Capture of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. — After compelling all the 
 Athenians throughout Greece to return to their city, Lysander with the Spartan 
 navy ap]ieared before Athens, while a large Spartan aiTny blockaded the city by 
 land When, on account of the overcrowded condition of the city, the Athenian" 
 h^'l sdffered greatly from famine, Athens was surrendered to the besieging Lacede- 
 monians (B. C. 404). The long walls surrounding the city were torn down; tno 
 Athenians were compelled to restore all their conquests; to surrender all theii 
 /essels but twelve; and to join the Peloponncsian alliance. 
 
 Supremacy of Sparta. — From the time of the fall of the once-powerful and 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. ej 
 
 once-glorious Republic of Athens, Sparta was for a considerable period the leading 
 state of Greece in power and political influence; and she exercised her superiority 
 .n an arrogant and domineering manner toward the other Grecian communities. 
 
 Tne Thirty Tyrants of Athens— The Council of Ten.— When the Spartai, 
 I ysander captured Athens, he subverted the democratic government and placed (he 
 city under the rule of thirty Athenians who were the friends of Sparta. 1 htse 
 thirty aristocratic rulers, on account of their tyranny, rapacity, and cruelty, and 
 oecudon of their opponents of the democratic party, were called the "Thirty 
 Tyrants of Athens." They held their power only eight months. At length a 
 number of Athenian exiles from all parts of Greece collected in Boeotia, and, 
 choosing their patriotic countryman, Thra-sybulus, as their leader, resolved to depose 
 the Thirty Tyrants and restore the democratic constitution. Thrasybulus, at the 
 head of his followers, whose numbers rapidly increased, marched toward Athens, 
 siezed the Pirseus, and defeated a force which the Thirty Tyrants had sent against 
 him. The Thirty Tyrants were then deposed and a "Council of Ten" were sub- 
 stituted in their place. The Council of Ten exercised their authority in the same 
 odious and despotic manner as the Thirty Tyrants had done; and when the Athenian 
 people rose against them, they applied to the Lacedaemonians for assistance in quell- 
 ing the insurrection; but the Spartans, who were divided into two parties at home, 
 finally allowed the Athenians to depose the Council of Ten and re-establish their 
 democratic form of government (B. C. 403). 
 
 Condemnation and Death of Socrates. — During the rule of the restored 
 democracy in Athens, the immortal Socrates, the wisest and most virtuous of the 
 Grecian philosophers, was compelled to drink the cup of poison. He was unjustly 
 accused of perverting and corrupting the morals of the young. His judges declared 
 him guilty and condemned him to suffer death by drinking poison. Socrates dis- 
 dained to save himself by fleeing from the country, as urged by his friends; and, 
 «'hen the fatal moment airived, he drank the poison with the cheerfulness and 
 calmness of a philosopher. (B. C. 399.) 
 
 THE RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND AND THE 
 PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. 
 
 Cyrus and Artaxerxes Mnemon of Persia— Retreat of the Ten Thou- 
 sand.— On the death of Darius Nothus, King of Persia, the Persian crown 
 fell to his elder son Artaxerxes Mnemon; but Cyrus, the brother of Artaxerxes, 
 aspired to the Persian throne, and a civil war ensued. Cyrus was assisted by 
 the Creek cities of Asia Minor, and with 113,000 men he marched against Arta- 
 xerxes, who had raised an army of 900,000 men to oppose him. A great battle 
 was fought on the plain of Cunaxa, not very far from Babylon, in which Cyrus was 
 killed and his army routed. The Persians offered peace to the Grecian allies of 
 Cyrus; but the Grecian ambassadors who were sent to arrange the terms of the 
 jgreement with the Persians were put to death. The Greeks now saw that ihey 
 mus* either submit to the enemy, or fight their way through a hostile couiury, moie 
 than 1,000 miles from home. Having chosen Xenophon, a young Atheninn, for 
 then leader, 10,000 of their number, after almost incredible difi^cullies, and after » 
 march of .four months, airived at the shores of the Euxine (now Black) sea. Ihis 
 
52 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 is known as the "Retreat of the Ten Thousand." Xenophon, who was one of the 
 most celebrated of ancient historians, wrote an admirable account of this famous 
 retreat. 
 
 War Between Sparta and Persia — The Corinthian War. — The King of 
 Persia, after the fall of his brother, waged a war against the Greek cities of Asia 
 Minor, which were aided by the Spartans, who under their powerful king, AgesilauSj 
 defeatc 1 Tissaphemes, the Persian satrap of Asia Minor, in a great battle fought 
 near Sardis. (B. C. 395.) But Artaxerxes soon gave Agesilaus sufficient employ 
 mont in Greece, by causing Athens, Corinth, and Thebes to make war on Lacedre 
 mon. Conon, an Athenian, was supplied with a fleet with which he defeated the 
 Spartan navy. The walls of Athens were rebuilt through Persian assistance; bul 
 the Athenian army was defeated by the Lacedjemonians in the battle of Coronaja. 
 (B. C. 394.) 
 
 Peace of Antalcidas. — The war between Sparta and Persia, and the general 
 war in Greece, known as the "Corinthian War," were terminated in the year 387 
 B. C. by a treaty of peace arranged between the Persian Artaxerxes and the Spar- 
 tan Antalcidas, therefore denominated the " Peace of Antalcidas." By this treaty, 
 which was readily ratified by all the parties engaged in the war, the Greek cities of 
 Asia Minor and the island of Cyprus were surrendered to Persia, and the inde 
 pendence of the various commonwealths of Greece was guaranteed. 
 
 THE OLYNTHIAN AND THEBAN WARS. 
 
 Reduction of Mantinea — The Olynthian War. — The Spartans, who since 
 the Peloponnesian war had been the most powerful people of Greece, exercised 
 their supremacy in an arrogant and insolent manner toward the smaller Grecian 
 communities. Thus on a slight pretext they made war on the city of Mantinea, in 
 Arcadia, which, after a brave defense, surrendered to a Spartan army. The jealousy 
 of the Lacedcemonians was next aroused against the powerful Macedonian city of 
 Olynthus, which had become the head of a formidable confederacy. The Olynthians 
 gained several great victories over the Spartans; but finally, after a vigorous siege, 
 Olynthus was compelled to surrender to a Lacedaemonian army. 
 
 Seizure of the Cadmaea — Aristocracy in Thebes — The Theban War. — 
 A Spartan army, on its way to attack Olynthus, had seized the Cadmsea, the citadel 
 of Thebes, at a time when peace existed between Thebes and Lacedsemon. By the 
 aid of the Spartans an aristocratic government was established in Thebes, where- 
 upon many of the democratic citizens of that place fled to Athens. After the 
 Theban people had groaned under the tyranny of their aristocratic rulers for four 
 years, they rose in insurrection and put their oppressors to death ; and, with the as 
 sistance of the returned exiles and an Athenian army, the Spartan garrison, which 
 had upheld the government of the aristocracy, was compelled to surrender. A wa^ 
 followed between Sparta and Thebes. Athens at first sided with Thebes, but aftrr 
 vrords took the part of the Lacedcemonians. Through the abilities of such geneiali 
 as Pelopidas and Epaminondas, Thebes became the most powerful state of Greece 
 
 Battle of Leuctra — Invasion of Laconia — Battle of Mantinea. ~Epam 
 inondas, at the head of 6,000 Thebans, defeated 20,000 Spartans in the oattle o\ 
 Leuctra, in which the Spartan king Cieombrotus was killed. (B. C. 381.) Epam 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. ,- 
 
 iriondas afterwards invaded Laconia, and advanced to the very walls of Sparta, 
 where a hostile army had not appeared for five centuries; and at Mantinea the 
 Thebans gained another great victory over the Lacedjemonians, but the valiant 
 Epaminondas was slain in a moment of triumph, and with his death ended the 
 gloiy of Thebes forever. (B. C. 362.) Peace was concluded between Thebes and 
 lyacedasmon soon after the battle of Mantinea. Greece's flourishing period had 
 aow passed away. 
 
 THE MACEDONIAN PERIOD. 
 
 PHILIP OF MACEDON. 
 
 The Phocians and the Amphictyonic Council — The Sacred War. — 
 
 The rheban War had not closed more than four years when the Grecian states be- 
 came involved in another contest known as the " Sacred War." This war origin- 
 ated in the following manner : the Thebans, through motives of revenge, brought 
 before the Amphictyonic Council an accusation of sacrilege against the people of 
 Phocis, who had been guilty of bringing under cultivation a portion of the lands 
 belonging to the sacred temple to Apollo at Delphi; whereupon the Council sen- 
 tenced the Phocians to pay a heavy fine ; but instead of obeying the decree of the 
 Council, the Phocians robbed the Delphic temple of its treasures to obtain the 
 means of carrying on a war against Thebes and the Amphictyonic Council. The 
 Athenians and the Spartans sided with the Phocians; while the Thebans, the 
 Locrians, and the Thessalians united against them, and sustained the Amphictyonic 
 Council. 
 
 Subjugation of the Phocians by King Philip of Macedon. — After th« 
 Sacred War had continued several years, King Philip of Macedon, who had long 
 been wishing for an opportunity of meddling in tlie internal affairs of Greece, was 
 induced to join the coalition against Phocis. The Phocians were subdued by 
 Philip and deprived of their two votes in the Amphictyonic Council, while Mace- 
 don was made an Amphictyonic state. From that time Phocis ceased to exist as an 
 independent state; many of its inhabitants were carried into slavery, or retired into 
 voluntary exile, and those who remained were compelled to pay tribute. 
 
 Charge against the Locrians— Capture of Elatea by Philip.— Kmg Philip 
 of Macedon had already subdued the Greek cities of Amphipolis and Olynthus, in 
 Macedonia. At length, the Locrians, being charged with the same crime which 
 the Phocians had committed, — cultivating the lands of the Delphic temple to 
 Apollo, — were also condemned to pay a heavy fine; and when they refused to con> 
 ply, Philip of Macedon again led his army into Greece; but instead of conquering 
 the Locrians, he seized and strengthened the town of Elatea. 
 
 Battle of Chseronea— End of Grecian Independence.— The Athenians, 
 vho were now aroused, by the eloquence of the orator Demosthenes, to a sense o< 
 he dangers with which the liberties of Greece were threatened, concluded an aili; 
 ince with Thebes against King Philip of Macedon. The combined Athenian ami 
 Theban armies were defeated by the Macedonian king in the decisive battle of Chae- 
 ronea, w hich put an end to the independence of the Grecian Republics. (B. C. 338.) 
 The vanquished Grecians were treated with mildness by their Macedonian con- 
 
54 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 queror, wno was preparing for the g^eat object of all his ambition, — the subjugation 
 of the tottering empire of Persia. 
 
 Grecian Congress at Corinth — Assassination of Philip. — Philip of Mace- 
 don now assembled a congress of the Grecian states at Corinth. By this congress the 
 King of Macedon was invested with the chief command of the Grecian and Mace- 
 donian armies. While making preparations to invade the Persian f mpire, Philip 
 was asbassinated by Pausanias, a Macedonian nobleman, in revenge for some private 
 bjury. (B. C. 336.) 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT (B. C. 336-324). 
 
 Accession of Alexander — Revolts against his Authority — Fall of 
 Thebes. — The murdered Philip was succeeded on the throne of Macedon by his 
 son Alexander, sumamed "the Great," who had received a thorough education at 
 the hands of the celebrated Athenian philosopher Aristotle, and who proved him- 
 self worthy to sit on the throne of his father. No sooner had Alexander ascended 
 the throne, than the Illyrians and other Northern tribes, which had been subdued 
 by Philip, made an irruption into Macedonia, but they were speedily reduced by the 
 arms of Alexander. Some of the Grecian states, with Athens and Thebes at their 
 head, thinking this a favorable opportunity, attempted to shake off the Macedonian 
 yoke; but the sudden appearance of the youthful Alexander in their midst soon put 
 an end to all resistance. Thebes was taken by storm and razed to the ground, only 
 the house of the poet Pindar and several other dwellings being spared; and the 
 inhabitants were sold into slavery. Athens and the other Greek states immdiately 
 submitted, and were generously pardoned by Alexander. 
 
 The Persian Empire. — At this time the vast region of country extending from 
 the shores of the /Egean sea to the banks of the Indus, and from the plains of Central 
 Asia to the deserts of Africa, was embraced in the great Persian Empire. The 
 Great King, Darius Codomannus, who at this time ruled over this extensive empire, 
 was a prince possessed of some vigor, ability, courage, and many praiseworthy quali- 
 ties; but the Persian people, enervated by wealth and luxury, were devoid of the 
 military virtues of their ancestors in the times of the great Cyrus and Cambyses. 
 
 Alexander's Invasion of Asia. — After having quelled the revolts against his 
 authority in Greece, and after being made generalissimo of the Greek and Mace- 
 donian armies, Alexander entrusted the government of Greece and Macedon to 
 Antipater, one of his generals, and proceeded on his career of Eastern conquest. 
 He crossed the Hellespont, in the spring of the year 334, B. C, with an army ot 
 35,000 men, commanded by able officers, such as Clitus, Parmenio, Ptolemy, ana 
 Antigonus. 
 
 Battle of the Granicus. — Of the Macedonian hosts, Alexander himself was 
 tlie first to spring upon the Asiatic continent; and after having visited Troy and 
 tacrificed to the gods there, he advanced to the river Granicus, where he found fl 
 large army of Persians, commanded by Memnon the Rhodian and other fersiar 
 Kifraps of Weslem Asia, drawn up to oppose his further progress. After sonw 
 opposition from the enemy, the Macedonians effected a landing on the opposite side 
 of the river. In the battle which ensued the youthful Macedonian king displayed 
 the courage of the rnoit daring soldier, slaying with his own hands several Persians 
 
NERO. 
 
AAEIANAPDI 
 
 M'lAinnDY 
 
 ivi A |< r A n '\! o Y 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 6«^ 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. e, 
 
 jf high lank. Alexander's reckless daring would have proven fatal had not Clitus, 
 )ne of his ablest ofhcers, struck off the arm of one of the Persian satraps, ;is his 
 scimiter was about to fall on the head of the youthful warrior-king. The battle of 
 the Grauicus ended in a splendid triumph of the Macedonian king over the superior 
 force of the Persians. The loss of the victors was scarcely 200 men. The c<>n- 
 sequence of the battle was the death-blow to Persian authority in Asia Minor, of 
 which Alexander was now virtual master. (B. C. 334.) 
 
 Alexander's Progress in Asia Minor — Cutting of the Gordian Knot. • 
 I ha importan'; cities of Ephesus and Sardis welcomed the young hero-king. Mile 
 tus and Halicarnassus, however, presented closed gates; but both were taken aftei 
 being vigorously besieged. By his generous treatment of the inhabitants of the 
 conquered provinces, and by his wise regard for established customs and institutions, 
 Alexander secured their attachment to his cause. Onward Alexander proceeded, 
 securing the submission of province after province. In the citadel of Gordium there 
 was a very ancient chariot with a knot twisted in the most complicated manner, 
 regarding which an oracle had declared that whoever should loosen this knot should 
 win the empire of Asia. Being unable to unfasten the knot, Alexander, it is asserted 
 by some, cut it with his sword, considering that sufficient to make him lord of Asia. 
 The first campaign of Alexander the Great in Asia closed with the complete con- 
 quest and pacification of all Asia Minor. (B. C. 334.) 
 
 Battle of the Issus. — By the death of Memnon of Rhodes, the King of Persia 
 lost the ablest of his generals. In the spring of the year 333 B. C, after his recov- 
 ery from a severe illness at Tarsus, a city in Cilicia, Alexander advanced into Syria, 
 where he learned, to his surprise and pleasure, that the Persian king, Darius Codo 
 mannus, with an army of 700,000 men, was already on the plain of Issus. Notwith 
 standing the overwhelming numerical superiority of the Persians, the Macedonians 
 advanced to the river Pinarus, on the opposite side of which Darius had drawn up 
 his army. No sooner had Alexander crossed the river than the barbarian forces 
 vhich composed the right and left wings of the Persian army fled in confusion, but 
 tiie Greek mercenaries of the King of Persia for a while gallantly held their ground. 
 After an obstinate contest, the Persians gave way on all sides ; and the battle of the 
 Isf.us ended in another splendid victory for Alexander the Great. The Persians left 
 J vO,ooo men dead on the field, while the total loss of the Macedonians did not ex- 
 c-eed 500 men. King Darius Codomannus fled from the field in the beginning of 
 the battle ; and his wife, daughters, and infant son fell into the hands of Alexander, 
 who, contrary to the ancient custom, treated them with the greatest kindness. The 
 wife of Darius, who was considered the most beautiful woman in Asia, died soon 
 after her capture, and received a most magnificent burial from the King of Macedon. 
 0:i hearing of this, Darius is said to have exclaimed, "If it be the will of Heaven 
 that I am no longer-king of Asia, may Alexander be my successor ! " 
 
 Siege and Capture of Tyre.— Alexander's victory of the Issus made mm 
 taaster of the greater part of Syria and Phoenicia At Damascus a vast amount of 
 ireasure, bcdonging to the King of Persia, fell into his hands. The famous Ph^ni 
 fian sea port of Sidon and other cities submitted to the conqueror; but Tyre, the 
 greatest of them all, relying on the strength of its insular situation, defiantly rejected 
 the summons to surrender, and gallantly withstood a siege of seven months In 
 order to open a passage for his army to the city, Alexander caused a mole with 
 
56 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 towers to be constructed from the main-land to the island on which the city waa 
 built. During the construction of this mole the Macedonians were severely galled 
 by the Tyrians, who retarded the operations of their enemies by ignited darts, vari- 
 ous kinds of projectiles, and fire-ships. The advance of the mole was slow-; and 
 one night a Tyrian hulk filled with combustibles set fire to the mole, and thus suc- 
 ceeded in destroying the result of much labor. Convinced, by this misfortune, of 
 the nee essity of having the aid of vessels in his assault upon the city, Alexander pro- 
 cured <"rom Sidon and other Asiatic maritime cities, numerous war-galleys in addition 
 '-• the squadrons of Cyprus and Rhodes. With these valuable auxiliaries, the King 
 ot Macedon recommenced operations with increased vigor by both land and sea. 
 The mole was reconstructed, breaches were made in the city walls by the battering- 
 rams and other engines of the besiegers, and finally Tyre was caiTied by storm. 
 During the assault, which lasted two days, the Tyrians defended their city with the 
 courage of despair, pouring boiling tar and burning sand on the assailants. The 
 Tyrians suffered a heavy punishment for their obstinate defense of their city, 8,000 
 of them being slain and 30,000 sold into slavery. (B. C. 332.) 
 
 Siege and Capture of Gaza. — After having taken Tyre and obtained the sub- 
 mission of Jerusalem, Alexander directed his course southward and besieged and 
 took the Philistine city of Gaza, which had refused to recognize his sway. The 
 conqueror inflicted a heavy punishment on the captured city, destroying the entire 
 garrison of 1,000 men, and causing Batis, the governor, to be dragged around the 
 city behind his chariot, in barbarous imitation of Achilles, who dragged Hector 
 around the walls of Troy. The fall of Gaza completed the conquest of Palestine 
 by Alexander the Great. (B. C. 332.) 
 
 Alexander in Egypt — Founding of Alexandria . — After the reduction of 
 Gaza, Alexander advanced into Egypt for the purpose of bringing that country 
 under his authority. The Macedonian conqueror was joyfully received by the peo- 
 ple of Egypt, who were tired of Persian oppression, and they gladly submitted to 
 his sway. Alexander won the respect and favor of the Egyptians by participating, 
 at Memphis, in the worship of their bull-deity. Apis. While in Egypt, Alexander 
 founded the celebrated city which was named in his honor — Alexandria. For many 
 succeeding ages, Alexandria continued to be the centre of commerce and civilization. 
 After the founding of Alexandria, the Macedonian king passed over to the little 
 oasis of Siwah, on which was situated the renowned temple of Jupiter Amnion, with 
 the view of consulting the oracle of that deity. After receiving a most favorable 
 reply from the oracle, Alexander returned to Memphis. 
 
 Alexander's Return to Asia — Battle of Arbela and Gaugamela.— In the 
 year 331 B. C, after arranging the government of Egypt, Alexander the Grea,., 
 declaring that "the world no more admitted of two masters than of two suns," and 
 directing his course toward the very heart of the Persian Empire, crossed the Eu- 
 f.hrates and the Tigris, and advanced against Darius Codomannus, who had in the 
 meantime assembled a new army in Assyria, consisting of more than a million of 
 men, gathered from the Eastern provinces of his empire. With onl) ;i 7,000 men 
 Alexander met the immense hosts of the Persian king near the town of Arbela, oK 
 the plain of Gaugamela, east of the Tigris, where was fought the great battle that 
 decided the fate of Asia. The Persians began the battle by a charge of the Scythian 
 cavalry and the war-chariots on the right wing of the Macedonian aniiy, but after a 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 dfsperate contest they were forced back, and Darius ordered his lines to advance. 
 Alexander broke the lines of the enemy by suddenly pushing his columns in between 
 the left wing and the centre of the Persian army. This movement threw the Per 
 sians into disorder, and in a great measure decided the battle in favor of Alexander. 
 The Parthian and Indian horse were routed by the Thassalian cavalry, and Ihe 
 cattle terminated in the utter defeat of the Persians. The loss of the Persians was 
 40,000 men, while that of the Macedonians was only 500. Such was the famous 
 battle of Arbela and Gaugamela, which placed the Persian Empire in the hands of 
 Alexander the Great of Macedon. (B. C. 331.) 
 
 Alexander at Babylon. Susa, and Persepolis,— After the battle of Arbela 
 and Gaugamela, Alexander devoted some time to the consolidation of his power in 
 tlie subjugated provinces. In the opulent city of Babylon the accumulated wealth 
 of the Persian monarchy fell into his hands. At Susa, the capital of Susiana, and 
 like Babylon, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, Alexander secured a still 
 gi-eater accession to his treasury; but at Persepolis, the capital of Persia proper, 
 where Alexander spent several months, still further accessions of wealth came into 
 his possession. During his stay at Persepolis, Alexander, on one occasion, while 
 under the influence of wine, caused the destruction, by fire, of the old palace of the 
 Persian monarchs — an act which afterwards caused him much regret. 
 
 Assassination of King Darius Codomannus. — After the battle of Arbela and 
 Gaugamela, King Darius Codomannus fled to Ecbatana, the capital of Media, and 
 one of the capitals of the Persian Empire. After arranging the governments of the 
 conquered provinces, Alexander left Persepolis for Ecbatana, with the view of 
 obtaining possession of the person of the Persian king. On the approach of the 
 Macedonian conqueror, Darius fled to the mountainous region of Bactriana, whither 
 he was hastily pursued by Alexander. But Darius was murdered in his flight by 
 several of the attendants of the treacherous Bessus, the Persian satrap of Bactriana. 
 Alexander in his pursuit found the dead body of Darius. The generous Macedo- 
 nian king honored the remains of his unfortunate rival with a magnificent burial, 
 and treated the family of Darius with all due respect. The murderers of the Per- 
 sian king afterwards fell into the hands of Alexander, who, with a spirit of the 
 keenest resentment, and in imitation of the customs of the East, punished them with 
 a most cruel death. 
 
 Alexander in Scythia. — The provinces of Bactriana, Ariana, and Sogdi uia, 
 comprising an important part of the vast region of Central Asia, anciently known 
 as Scythia, but now called Tartary and Turkestan, were subdued by Alexander the 
 Great only after great exertions and sacrifices on his part. The gallant Macedonian 
 warriors, who had defied sword and lance on many a sanguinary field, narrowly 
 escaped perishing from hunger and fatigue. Before the close of his Scythian cam- 
 paign, Alexander married Roxana, the " Pearl of the East," a Bactrian princess, 
 whom he had taken prisoner at the capture of a Scythian fortress. Alexanuer's love 
 jf conquest did not deter him from devoting some attention to the civilizaoon ard 
 inrable welfare of the countries which he had subjugated. Four new towns. namaJ 
 Alexandria, in his honor, became the centre of the caravan trade, and diffused d3e 
 (Grecian civilization among the people of Central Asia. On one occasion, in Bac- 
 triana, while heated with wine, Alexander killed, with his own sword, his old 
 companion, Clitus, who had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus, for some 
 
5« 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 sarcastic remark as they were drinking — a crime which caused him much bucei 
 repentance. 
 
 Alexander's Invasion of India — Porus, the Indian King.— Ambitious of 
 further conquests, Alexander the Great, in the year 327 B. C, invaded India with 
 a powerful army composed of European and Asiatic soldiers. Alexander's progress 
 was vigorously opposed by the warlike tribes inhabiting the region drained by the 
 Indus and its tributaries ; nevertheless Alexander pushed forward to the Hydaspes, 
 3ns of the tributaries of the Indus, on the opposite side of which % powerful Indian 
 piince, Porus King of the Punjab, had assembled a considerable army. Alexander 
 succeeded m crossing the Hydaspes, and in a fierce engagement defeated Porus and 
 took him prisoner. When brought into the presence of Alexander, and asked by 
 him how he should like to be treated, Porus replied, " Like a king;" and the con- 
 queror, pleased with the loftiness and majesty of person of his royal captive, and with 
 the good sense displayed by him, not only gave Porus his liberty, but restored to 
 him his dominions, and made him viceroy of all the Macedonian conquests ih India. 
 
 Alexander's Return to Persia. — After having founded two cities on t'ue Hy 
 daspes, NicKa and Bucephala, the former meaning " city of victoiy," and ine latter 
 named in honor of Alexander's celebrated war-horse, Bucephalus, whicn uicd near 
 the spot, the conqueror marched eastward to the Hyphasis, and was preparing to 
 add the fertile region watered by the Ganges to his empire, when his soldiers, see- 
 ing no end to their toils and hardships, positively refused to follow him any further, 
 and Alexander was obliged, with great reluctance, to abandon his career of conquest 
 and to return to Persia. After marching back to the Hydaspes, Alexander resolved 
 upon returning by a new route, along the coasts of the Arabian sea and the Persian 
 gulf, and with this end in view he procured a considerable number of vessels to 
 convey his army down the Indus. The passage of the army down the river occu- 
 pied several months, on account of the opposition from the barbarians on the banks 
 of the stream. Upon reaching the ocean, Alexander is said to have sat upon a rock 
 near the shore, gazing at the wide expanse of waters, and to have wept bitterly that 
 there were no more worlds to conquer. Disembarking his land troops, Alexander 
 marched along the sea-coast with his main force, leaving his admiral, Nearchus, 
 to pursue his way to the Euphrates by sea. The toils and hardships of this march 
 were extremely severe. Three-fourths of the army perished in the deserts of Ged- 
 rosia from hunger, thirst, fatigue, and from the miseries of the climate. Alexander 
 cheered his troops in their march by magnanimously sharing in all their privations. 
 Upon reaching the shores of the Persian gulf the army of Alexander was rejoined 
 by the fleet under Nearchus. The march of Alexander and his army through the 
 fertile district of Carmania, a province of Persia, resembled a triumphal procession; 
 and the soldiers, once more in a friendly country, believed their hardships over and 
 abandoned themselves to enjoyment. 
 
 The Last Actions and Measures of Alexander the Great. — After his re 
 •■•am to Persia, Alexander the Great devoted his attention to the organization jf a 
 permanent government for the extensive empire which he had established. He 
 aimed at uniting the Persians and the Macedonians into one great natiuii possesseo 
 of the institutions and the civilization of Greece ; and after his return to Persej)olis, the 
 Macedonian customs permitting polygamy, Alexander married Statira, daughter of 
 the mui dered Darius Codomannus, and thousands of his officers and soldiers mamed 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Pf-rsian and Median women. Alexander's mild and generous i reatment of the con- 
 quered people made him as much respected and beloved by the Persian nobility 
 End people as if he had been their native, legitimate prince. During the last yeai^ 
 of his life, Alexander's mind was occupied with schemes, which, to his credit, were 
 directed to the durable improvement of the countries which he had subdued: he 
 opened the navigation of the Euphrates, founded many towns, and marked out com- 
 nr.ercial depots to connect the trade of the Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the 
 Ir.dus. 
 
 Illness and Death of Alexander the Great.— While planning schemes foi 
 fresh conquests, Alexander the Great met with a premature de.rth from the effects 
 of his dissolute and intemperate habits. After visiting Susa and Ecbatana, and 
 projecting important improvements in those cities, Alexander proceeded toward 
 Babylon, which city he intended to make the capital of his vast empire. He was 
 reluctant to enter Babylon, on account of various prophecies announcing that spot 
 as destined to prove fatal to him; but grief for the death of Hephsstion, the inti- 
 mate friend of his youth, at Babylon, determined him to visit that city. Upon 
 reaching Babylon, the conqueror was attacked with a sudden illness, caused by his 
 excessive indulgence in strong drink, which carried him to his grave, at the early 
 age of thirty-two years, and after having reigned over Macedon and Greece twelve 
 years. (B. C. 324.) When asked, just before his death, to whom he left his vast 
 empire, Alexander replied, "To the most worthy." The remains of Alexander 
 were conveyed to Alexandria, in Egypt, where they were interred. 
 
 ANTIPATER AND ALEXANDER'S SUCCESSORS 
 
 Lacedaemonian Revolt. — While Alexander the Great was pursuing his con 
 quering career in Asia, some of the Peloponnesian states, with Lacedremon at their 
 head, attempted to shake off the hated yoke of Macedonian supremacy ; but, by the 
 defeat and death of the Spartan king Agis II. in battle against Antipater, the Mace- 
 donian viceroy of Greece put an end to the revolt. 
 
 The Lamian War. — As soon as intelligence of the death of Alexander the 
 Great reached Greece, several of the Grecian states, with Athens at their head, at- 
 tempted to regain their independence of Macedonian supremacy. The Athenian 
 General Leosthenes, marching into Thessaly, at first defeated Antipater and be- 
 sieged the Macedonians in the town of Lamia; but the Macedonian viceroy, aftei 
 being reinforced, defeated the Athenians and compelled them to accept a humiliat- 
 ing peace. Athens was required to abolish her democratic form of government ; 
 Macedonian garrisons were to be placed in her fortresses ; and her leading orators 
 were to be given up. This struggle, the seat of which was the town of Lamia, in 
 Thessalyj is known as the " Lamian War." 
 
 Demosthenes and Phocion. — The great Athenian oratir Demosthenes, a vio 
 lent opponent of Macedonian rule, rather than surrender hmiself to Antipater, 
 poisoned himself. Some time afterward the democratic party in Athens gained the 
 ascendency, and compelled Phocion, the leader of the aristocratic panr one of tne 
 ablest and most virtuous of men, as well as one of the greatest of orators, to dimk 
 the cup of poison. 
 
 Perdiccas, Regent of the Macedonian Empire— Regency of Antipater. 
 
Jo ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 — As Alexander the Great had appointed no successor, the mighty empire which he 
 had founded soon fell to pieces. After many fierce and sanguinary wars among 
 his generals, in which Alexander's whole family and all his relatives perished, the 
 empire was divided into four kingdoms. At first Perdiccas, to whom Alexander 
 had left his signet ring, obtained the regency of the Macedonian Empire, but when 
 he aimed at the undivided sovereignty of all the Alexandrian dominions, the othei 
 leading Macedonian generals, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Craterus, and Antipater, formed 
 a leagui against him. In the war against his rivals Perdiccas was assasinated. 
 whereupon Antipater, the viceroy of Macedon and Greece, was made regent, and 
 •iiC sovereignty of the empire was again divided. 
 
 Polysperchon and Cassander — Demetrius Phalereus. — Antipater, at his 
 death, appointed Polysperchon, the oldest of Alexander's surviving generals, to the 
 government of Macedon and Greece. This appointment produced a civil war 
 between Polysperchon and Cassander, Antipater's son, who wished to occupy his 
 father's place. After defeating Polysperchon in the battle of Megalopolis, Cassan- 
 der usurped the government of Macedon and Greece. In order to further secure 
 his power, Cassander caused all the surviving members of the family of Alexander 
 the Great, including his mother Olympias, his wife Roxana, and her son Alexander, 
 to be put to death. Cassander entrusted the government of Athens to Demetrius 
 Phalereus, whose administration of ten years was so popular that the Athenians 
 "aised 360 brazen statues to his honor; but at length, having lost all his popularity 
 oy his dissipated habits, Demetrius was compelled to retire into Egypt, all his 
 statues but one being thrown down. 
 
 Coalition against Antigonus — Battle of Ipsus — Dismemberment of the 
 Empire. — In the meantime, the regency of the vast Alexandrian empire had been 
 conferred upon Antigonus, who had already overrun all Syria and the greater part 
 of Asia Minor, and who aspired to the undivided sovereignty of the Macedonian 
 empire. Hereupon four of the leading Macedonian generals, Cassander, governor 
 of Macedon and Greece, Lysimachus of Thrace and Bithynia, Seleucus of Syria, 
 and Ptolemy of Egypt, entered into a coalition against him. In the year 301 B. C. 
 was fought the battle of Ipsus, in Asia Minor, in which Antigonus was defeated 
 ind killed. The extensive empire founded by Alexander the Great was then 
 divided into the four following kingdoms: Macedon and Greece; Thrace and 
 Bithynia; The Syrian Empire of the Seleucid^e; and Egypt under the Ptolemies. 
 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes, Pyrrhus, Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy 
 Ceraunus. — After the battle of Ipsus, Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, 
 proceeded to Greece, but the Athenians refused to receive him. After entering into 
 an alliance with Seleucus, King of Syria, Demetrius appeared before Athens, which 
 after a long siege he captured; but instead of punishing the Athenians foi theii 
 obstinate resistance, he treated them with unexpected magnanimity, supplied theii 
 wants, and did all in his power to relieve them from the miseries which the long 
 siege had occasioned. After the death of Cassander, Demetrius siezed the throne 
 Df Macedon and Greece; but seven years afterward, Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, and 
 Lysimachus, King of Thrace, successively possessed themselves jof the kingdom oi 
 Macedon, and Demetrius died in captivity. (B. C. 283.) After Lysimachus had 
 reigned oi ar Macedon six years, a war broke out between liim and Seleucus, King 
 of Syria; and Lysimachus was defeated and slain in bf.ttle near Sardis. Soon 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. g, 
 
 iiflerward, Seleucus was assassinated in Thrace by Ptolemy Ceraunus, son of Ptolemy^ 
 King of Egypt. (B. C. 280.) 
 
 Invasion of Macedon and Greece by the Gauls. — In the year 280 B. C. 
 Macedonia was invaded by an immense horde of barbarians, called Gauls, under 
 their chief, Brennus; and Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had usurped the throne of 
 Macedon, was defeated and slain in battle against them. After frightfully ravagino 
 Macedonia, the Gauls under the leadership of Brennus invaded Greece the nex* 
 year (B. C. 279), and marched into Phocis for the purpose of plundering the temj It 
 to Apollo at Delphi. The Grecians met and defeated the barbarians at the pass of 
 Themiopylte, where their ancestors under the brave Leonidas two centuries before, 
 had made so heroic a defense against the immense Persian hosts of Xerxes; but 
 the Gauls, like the Persians, marched by a secret path over the mountains, revealed 
 to them by a traitor from the Grecian army; and the Greeks were finally obliged to 
 retreat. Finding their way unobstructed, the barbarians then pushed forward to 
 Delphi; but the Phocians soon arose against them and harassed their flank and 
 rear, and at Delphi a very violent storm and earthquake so terrified the superstitious 
 Gauls, and caused such a panic in their ranks, that they fought against each other, 
 and were at last so weakened by mutual slaughter that they retired from Greece, 
 many being slaughtered by the exasperated Greeks without mercy. The Gallic 
 leader, Brennus, who had been severely wounded before Delphi, killed himself in 
 despair. The shattered remnants of the Gauls then passed over into Asia Minor, 
 and settled in the country named after them, Galalia. 
 
 Antigonus I., King of Macedon, and Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. — After 
 the death of Ptolemy Ceraunus, Antigonus I., son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, seized 
 the throne of Macedon and Greece; but he found a powerful rival competitor in the 
 ambitious Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. After having failed in an expedition into 
 Italy against the Romans, Pyrrhus aimed at reducing the whole of Greece and 
 Macedonia under his own dominion, and with this end in view he invaded Mace- 
 donia ; but he was soon obliged to retire into the Peloponnesus, and after being 
 repulsed in an attack on Lacedcemon, he entered Argos, where a terrible conflict 
 ensued, in which Pyrrhus was killed by a huge tile hurled upon him from a house 
 top by an Argive woman, who was enraged at seeing that he was about to slay her 
 son. (B. C. 272.) The death of Pyrrhus put an end to the long struggle for 
 power among Alexander's successors in the West. 
 
 THE ACHAIAN LEAGUE AND THE FALL OF GREECE. 
 
 Rise of the Achaian League under Aratus of Sicyon.— A new power now 
 arose in Greece which soon became a formidable adversary to Macedonian supre- 
 macy in Greece, and which at one time promised fair to revive the former glory 
 and influence of the Hellenic race. This power was the celebrated Achaian 
 ^League, which at first consisted only of twelve towns of Achaia associated together 
 **lor common defense and forming a little confederated republic, all tne towns beinji 
 equally represented in the federal government, which was entrusted with all mat 
 ters concerning the general welfare, while each town retained the right of managing 
 Its o^vn domestic affairs. The Achaian League did not possess much poliHcal in- 
 fluence until about the middle of the third century before Christ, when Aratus, an 
 
62 ANCIENT HISTORY 
 
 exile from Sicyon, with a lew followers, took the city by surprise in the night, and 
 without the cost of a single life, liberated it from the sway of the tyrants who had 
 -ong oppressed it with their despotic rule. (B. C. 251.) Dreading the hostility ot the 
 King of Macedon, Aratus induced Sicyon to join the Achaian League. Aratus 
 soon became the idol of the Achaians, and soon after the accession of Sicyon to the 
 League, he was placed at the head of the Achaian armies. Corinth, which had 
 '.leen seized by a stratagern of King Antigonus L of Macedon, and whose citadel 
 vas oc upied by a Macedonian garrison, was delivered by a gallant enterprise ol 
 Vr.atus of Sicyon, and was also induced to join the Achaian League. Other citit 
 xfterward acceded to the confederacy; but Argos and Corinth, influenced by the 
 Spartans, at length seceded from the League. In wars with the Macedonians, the 
 Achaians triumphed. 
 
 The .ffitolian League and the Spartans — Agis IIL and Cleomenes, — 
 Besides the King of Macedon, the enemies of the Achaian League were the ^Eto- 
 Han League and the Spartans. The .(Etolian League, which was a confederation 
 of the rudest of the Grecian tribes, had by degrees extended its supremacy over 
 Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, and other Grecian states. The valiant Spartan kings, Agis 
 TIL and Cleomenes, endeavored to restore the ancient glory and greatness of Lace- 
 daemon by reviving the long-neglected laws of Lycurgus, the foundation of Sparta's 
 former glory. They met with considerable opposition from the wealthy and aristo- 
 cratic citizens of Lacedcemon, and Agis III. was cruelly murdered in prison; but 
 Cleomenes succeeded in his endeavors by causing the opponents to his schemes to 
 be removed by assassination. The ambitious Cleomenes aimed at the elevation of 
 Sparta to the rank of the first power in Greece; and as the Achaian League was 
 the chief obstacle in the way of his cherished designs, all his energies were directed 
 to efforts for the dissolution of that formidable confederacy. 
 
 Achaian and Macedonian Alliance — Capture of Sparta — Death of 
 Aratus. — Seeing that the liberties of Greece were in greater danger from Spartan 
 than from Macedonian ambition, Aratus of Sicyon, the Achaian chieftain, entered 
 into an alliance with King Antigonus II. of Macedon, the old enemy of the Acha- 
 ian League. Cleomenes was defeated and Lacedsemon captured by the King of 
 Macedon. (B. C. 221.) Afterwards, in a war against the ^tolian League, Aratus 
 formed an alliance with Philip II., the successor of Antigonus II. on the throne of 
 Macedon; but when Aratus displeased Philip by advising him not to enter into an 
 alliance with the Carthaginians in their war against the Romans, the Macedonian 
 king caused the valiant leader of the Achaian League to be poisoned. (B. C. 213.) 
 
 Subjugation of Sparta by Philopoemen, the Successor of Aratus. — The 
 successor of Aratus of Sicyon in the administration of the affairs of the Achaian 
 League was the talented and virtuous Philopoemen, who subdued the Spartans, and 
 compelled them to abolish the laws of I-ycurgus and to join the Achaian League. 
 In a general assembly of the Greeks, Philopoemen was hailed as the restorer ol 
 Grecian liberty. 
 
 Philip II. of Macedon at war with the Romans— Battle of Cynosceph- 
 ulae. — During the second war between Rome and Carthage, King Philip II. of 
 Macedon entered into an alliance with the Carthaginians against the Romans. Tc 
 give Philip sufficient employment in Greece, the Romans induced the ^-Etolians and 
 the Spartans to wage war against the King of Macedon. After the conclusion of 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE. g, 
 
 peace between Rome and Carthage, the Roman general Flaminius, who had been 
 sent into Greece with a large army, defeated King Philip II. in a decisive battle 
 fvjugh' in Thessaly, near a range of low hills, called from their peculiar shape, Cynos- 
 cepha-'je, or dogs' heads. (B. C. 197.) Philip II. was obliged to accept peace and 
 to acknowledge the independence of Greece. At the Isthmian Games, the Roman 
 genera], to gratify the vanity of the Greeks, proclaimed the liberation of Greece from 
 Macedonian oppression; but the Romans were now as intent on extending theii 
 supremacy over Greece as the King of Macedon had been in maintaining his swiy 
 there. 
 
 Subjugation of the yEtolians by the Romans. — Several years after the de- 
 feat of i'hilip II. of Macedon, the ^tolians took up arms against the Romans, and 
 formed an alliance with Antiochus the Great, King of Syria, the enemy of Rome. 
 The iEtolians were completely defeated and deprived of their independence by the 
 Romans; and their ally, the Syrian king, having suffered a disastrous defeat by the 
 Romans in the great battle of Magnesia, in Asia Minor, was compelled to accept a 
 disadvantageous peace. (B. C. 193.) 
 
 Messenian Revolt and Death of Philopcemen. — The Messenians attempt- 
 ing to secede from the Achaian League, Philopcemen was sent to reduce them to 
 submission ; but being taken prisoner, the valiant Achaian leader was compelled to 
 drink the cup of poison. (B.C. 183.) The Achaians, however, conquered Messene 
 the following year, and put the murderers of Philopcemen to death. 
 
 Perseus, King of Macedon, at wrar with Rome — Battle of Pydna. — The 
 wicked Perseus, who on the death of his father, Philip II., had made his way to 
 the throne of Macedon by the bloodiest crimes, was driven by the ambition of the 
 Romans into a war against that people; but he suffered a crushing defeat in the 
 great battle of Pydna by the Roman army under the command of Paulus yEmilius 
 (B. C. 168), and being soon afterward taken prisoner, the unfortunate king was car- 
 ried to Rome to grace the triumph of his conqueror; and Macedonia became a Roman 
 province. One thousand Achaian chiefs, who were accused of having a secret undei- 
 standmg with Perseus, were seized and carried to Rome as hostages. After many 
 of these chiefs had died at Rome, the rest returned to Greece, burning with ven- 
 geance against the Romans. 
 
 Conquest of Greece by the Romans— Destruction of Corinth.— Twenty 
 years after the overthrow of the Macedonian monarchy, the arrogance of the Romans, 
 wno assisted the Spartans in a war against the Achaians, and who demanded that 
 the Achaian League should be reduced to its original limits, induced the Achaians 
 to take up arms in defense of the independence of Greece against Roman encroach- 
 ments. (B. C. 148.) The Achaians were defeated in several bloody battles, and 
 finally the Roman army, commanded by the Consul Mummius, took Corinth by 
 storm and reduced it to ashes. Greece then became a Roman province under the 
 name of Achaia. (B. C. 146.) Thus ends the histoiy of the celebrated and once 
 flourishing Republics of Ancient Greece. We shall next proceed to a brief noticf 
 oi the two most powerful and extensive kingdoms that arose from the disnicinber 
 laent of the vast empire of Alexander the Great. 
 
64 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 THE PTOLEMIES THE SELEUCID^ AND THE MACCA- 
 BEES. 
 
 Egypt under the Ptolemies. — Upon the dismembeiTnent of Alexander's em- 
 pire in the year 301 B. C, Ptolemy, a leading Macedonian general, ascended the 
 throne of Egypt, and became the founder of a dynasty that ruled that country for 
 nearly three centuries. One of the most celebrated of this race of monarchs w is 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, who encouraged commerce and liberally patronized the a; is 
 and learning, and founded the great library in Alexandria. Under the Ptolen ies, 
 Egypt was one of the most powerful kingdoms in the world; and Alexandria, which 
 was at that time the metropolis of the country, became the commercial centre of the 
 world, and the seat of Greek art, literature, civilization, and refinement. The Ptole- 
 mies ceased to rule Egypt in the year 30 B. C, when Augustus Caesar erected that 
 country into a Roman province. 
 
 The Syrian Empire of the Seleucidae. — Upon the dissolution of Alexander's 
 empire (301 B. C), Seleucus, another Macedonian general, became King of Syria, 
 and founded the dynasty of the Seleucidae, which ruled over Syria and other coun- 
 tries of Western Asia for more than two centuries. Seleucus founded the magnifi- 
 cent cities of Seleucia and Antioch. The Syrian Empire of the Seleucidae extended 
 from the shores of the Mediterranean to the banks of the Euphrates. One of the 
 most noted kings of this dynasty was Antiochus the Great, who became involved in 
 an unfortunate contest with the Romans, by which his dominions were greatly 
 reduced in territorial extent. The Parthian Empire, which arose about the middle 
 of the third century before Christ, deprived the Syrian kings of many of their terri- 
 tories in the East. The Romans put an end to t>.e rule of the Seleucida in the 
 year 65 B. C, and Syria became a' Roman province. 
 
 The Jews under the Maccabees or Asmonians. — Ptolemy Soter made 
 Judea an Egyptian province ; but on the accession of Ptolemy Epiphanes to the 
 throne of Egypt, the famous Antiochus the Great annexed the Jewish territories to 
 the Syrian Empire. Antiochus Epiphanes, the second successor of Antiochus the 
 Great on the throne of Syria, plundered the sacred Temple of Jerusalem of its trea- 
 sures, and attempted to thrust aside die worship of Jehovah by introducing the Greek 
 idolatry into Judea; and when the Jews resolutely opposed this project they were 
 violently persecuted. At length, when the tyranny of the Syrian king became intol- 
 erable, the Jews, under the leadership of the heroic family of the Maccabees, or 
 Asmonians, revolted, and made a vigorous resistance. Judas Maccabeus, the eldest 
 of these leaders, after gaining many victories over the Syrians, entered Jerusalem in 
 fclumph and restored the Jewish worship. But the war still continued, and the 
 valiant Judas was slain in battle after many Syrians had fallen beneath his pow- 
 erful arm. His brother, Jonathan Maccabeus, then became sovereign and high- 
 priest; but he was at last treacherously murdered by the King of Syria. Simon 
 Maccabeus, another brother, succeeded to the Jewish throne and high-priesthofd, 
 and the Jewish nation greatly prospered under his administration; but he was at last 
 assassinated by his son-in-law Ptolemy. Simon's sons and successors freed Judea 
 from the Syrian yoke, but the Jewish state was for a long time very much distracted 
 by domestic dissensions and weakened by civil war. About the middle of the 
 first century before Christ Judea became tributary to Rome, and in the first part of 
 the first century of the Christian era the country was erected into a Roman province. 
 
HISTORY OF Rome. g- 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 ANCIENT ITALY. 
 
 Di\ isions of Ancient Italy. — Ancient Italy was divided into three sectioniri 
 t!;;salpiine Gaui, or Gaul this side of the Alps, in the northern part; Italy proper ia 
 the centre; ana Magna Grajcia, or Great Greece, in the south. 
 
 Cisalpine Gaul. — Cisalpine Gaul was divided by the river Padus (now Po) inta 
 two divisions; the one on the north side of that stream being called Gallia Trans- 
 padana, and the one on the south side being named Gallia Cispadana. Venetia 
 was in the northeastern part of Cisalpine Gaul, and Liguria in the southwestern part. 
 
 Italy Proper. — The states of Italy proper, or Central Italy, were Etruria, Latium, 
 Umbria, Picernum, Campania, Samnium, and the Sabine territory. Etruria was 
 early noted for its civilization and progress in the arts and sciences. The Etruscans 
 or inhabitants of Etruria, formed a confederacy of twelve towns, each of which was 
 independent in regard to its own domestic affairs. 
 
 Magna Grsecia. — Magna Grsecia, or Great Greece, embraced the states of Apulia, 
 Calabria, I. ucani a, and Brutium. The chief city of Magna Grsecia was Tarentum, 
 the people of which were famous for their luxury and wealth. Magna Gra^cia was 
 early settled by the Greeks, who brought with them the arts and institutions of theii 
 native country. 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants of Italy— The Pelasgians and the Greeks.— The abor- 
 igines, or earliest known inhabitants of Italy, were, like those of Greece, called Pelas- 
 gians. The Pelasgians of Italy resembled those of Greece in character and man- 
 ners. They were divided into many independent tribes. Their chief occupation 
 was agriculture. They built towns with cyclopean walls of unhammered stone. 
 The chief tri^es of the Italian Pelasgians were the Etruscans, the Sabines, the 
 Latins, the Siculi, the CEnotrians, and the Tyrrhenians. It was about l,ooo years 
 before Christ when the Greeks founded in Southern Italy the colonies which were 
 collectively called Magna Grrecia, or Great Greece. In Sicily the Greeks founded 
 Messana, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Naxus, Catana, and other towns. Grecian colonies 
 were also settled in Corsica and Sardinia. 
 
 ROME UNDER THE KINGS (B. C. 753-510). 
 
 ROMULUS. 
 
 Legend of iEneas.— According to the Roman legend, ^neas, a famous 1 o 
 j,m warrior, left his native country immediately atter the fall of Troy, and male 
 his way to the western shores of Italy, where he founded the city of Lavmium 
 After slaying in battle Latinus, King of Latium, ^neas united the Latins with his owB 
 followers; and thereafter the united people were called Latins. Thirty years after- 
 wards, the latins removed to the Alban Mount, where they built the city of Alba, 
 
 5 
 
66 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Legend of Romulus and Remus.— Several centuries after the events just 
 related, there reigned at Alba a king named Procas, who had two sons, Nuniitoi 
 and Amulius. When Procas died, Numitor was to succeed to the throne of Alba; 
 out Amulius seized the throne and made himself king, and afterwards caused the 
 son of Numitor to be slain, and made his daughter Sylvia become a Vestal Virgin. 
 Srlvia married Mars, the god of war, with whom she had twin sons, Romtilus 
 and Remus. Amulius ordered the two infants to be drowned in the Tiber, out the 
 basket which contained them floated to the foot of the Palatine Hill, where the^ 
 were found by a she-wolf, which carried them to her den and nursed them a'S Lei 
 own oftspring. Some time afterward the two children were taken to the house of 
 a shepherd on the Palatine llill, where they were brought up. At length Remus 
 was taken to Alba and brought before Amulius. Romulus and his friends went to 
 Alba and rescued Remus, killed Amulius, and placed Numitor on the throne of Allja. 
 
 Founding of Rome by Romulus. — Romulus and Remus prepared to return to 
 the Palatine Hill, where they resolved to build a city, and they inquired of the gods 
 by divination which should give his name to the city. They watched the heavens 
 for one day and one night; and at sunrise Remus saw six vultures, and soon after- 
 ward Romulus saw twelve. It was decided that the favor of the gods was on the 
 side of Romulus, who accordingly began to build a city on the Palatine Hill. When 
 Remus, who was mortified and angry, savi' the low wall and the ditch which inclosed 
 the space for the new city, he scornfully leaped over and exclaimed, "Will this keep 
 out an enemy?" Upon this insulting conduct, Remus was slain, either by Romulus 
 or by one of his followers. The city, which was named Rome, in honor of Romulus, 
 is thought to have been founded 753 years before Christ. Rome at fii-st contained 
 a thousand dwellings; and its population was rapidly increased by exiles, criminals, 
 fugitives from justice, and desperate characters of all sorts, who fled to the new city foi 
 refuge. 
 
 Romulus, First King of Rome — Seizure of the Sabine Women. — Rom 
 ulus was chosen the first King of Rome, and a Senate of one hundred members 
 was established. But the Romans, as the inhabitants of the new city were called, 
 were without wives; and as the neighboring people refused to give their daughters in 
 marriage to such desperate characters, Romulus determined upon securing by strat- 
 agem what he could not obtain by force. He therefore aiTanged some games and 
 shows at Rome, and invited the neighboring people to attend. The Sabines and 
 Latins came in great numbers, bringing their wives and daughters with them. 
 \Vhen the shows began, Romulus gave a signal, whereupon the Roman youth rushed 
 upon the unsuspecting strangers, seized the most beautiful maidens, and carried 
 'Jiem off for wives. 
 
 War with the Sabines — Treachery and Death of Tarpeia. — The outrage 
 iust mentioned led to a war between the Romans and Sabines. A large army 
 under Titus Tatius, the Sabine king, laid siege to Rome. The Romans garrisoned 
 lid fortified the Capitoline Hill. Tarj^eia, the daughter of the Roman commander 
 ajjreed to open the gates of the fortress to the Sabines if they would give hei th( 
 golden bracelets which they wore on their arms. She accordingly evened th< 
 orates; but as soon as the Sabines entered the fortress, they killed the traitress with 
 iheir brazen shields. Having gained possession of the Capitoline Hill, the Sabiuei 
 were able to defy the Romans for a long time. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 5- 
 
 The Tc-.mple of Janus. — Many battles were fought between the Romans and 
 ifte Sabines in the valleys which divide the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. At 
 length, when the Sabines advanced near the city, the Romans retired inside the 
 city walls and shut the gates. As the Sabines were about to enter the city the gates 
 flew open : the Romans again shut them; but they opened a second time: a mighty 
 stream of water burst forth from the Temple of Janus, and swept away the Sal ines 
 who had entered the city. Ever afterward the gates of the Temple of Janus st<;od 
 jpen wl~en Rome was at war, that the gods might come out to aid the Romans; 
 yiit in ti.ne of peace the gates were always closed. 
 
 Peace between the Romans and the Sabines — Union of the Two 
 Nations. — The Romans made great efforts to retake the Capitoline Hill. At 
 length, while the two armies were combating, the Sabine wives of the Romans 
 rushed between the contending forces, and, by their earnest entreaties and supplica- 
 tions, induced both parties to suspend hostilities. A treaty of peace followed, by 
 which the Romans and the Sabines were to be united as one nation, and Romulus 
 and Titus Tatius were to reign jointly at Rome. Soon afterward Titus Tatius was 
 killed at Lavinium, and Romulus thereafter reigned alone. 
 
 Death of Romulus. — After a reign of thirty-seven years, Romulus came to his 
 death in an unknown manner. The Roman legend states that, while he was pres- 
 ent at a public meeting in the Field of Mars, there arose a great tempest and whirl- 
 wind, while at the same time the sun was eclipsed, and it was as dark as night. 
 When the storm was over, and, the light of the sun returned, Romulus was not to 
 be found. It was believed by the superstitious Romans that his father. Mars, the 
 god of war, had carried him to heaven in a fiery chariot. The Romans built a 
 temple to Romulus and worshiped him as a god by the name of Quirinus. (B. C. 
 716.) 
 
 THE SUCCESSORS OF ROMULUS. 
 
 Peaceful Reign of Numa Pompilius.— The second King of Rome was the 
 «rise Sabine, Numa Pompilius, who proved to be a good and peaceful monarch. 
 He encouraged agriculture, reformed the calendar, built temples, and regulated 
 religious affairs, professing to have obtained his directions from the goddess Egeria. 
 Numa also divided the Roman territory equally among the people. After a peace- 
 ful and prosperous reign of forty -two years, Numa died at the age of eighty. (B, 
 C. 673.) 
 
 Tullus Hostilius— Fight between the Horatii and the Curiatii.— The 
 peaceful Numa Pompilius was succeeded as King of Rome by the warlike Tullus 
 Hostilius, during whose reign the Romans engaged in a war with the Albans. Just 
 .xs the armies of the Romans and the Albans were about to engage in conflict, they 
 agreed to have the contest decided by a combat to be fought by six champions, 
 three from each side; and the defeated nation was to become subject to the victor- 
 ious one. In the Roman army there were three twin-brothers called Horatii, and 
 in the Alban anny there were three twin-brothers named Curiatii. These, bemg 
 fixed upon as the champions, took their places between the two armies and engaged 
 in combat. After two of the Horatii had fallen, the other Horatius began to flfe; 
 but suddenly turning, he fell upon the three wounded Curiatii, and killed them m 
 successioij, WTian the victorious Horatius returned to Rome, he met his sister 
 
68 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Horatia, -who had been betrothed to one of the Curiatii. Horatia shrieked alcur*., 
 and reproached her brother for his bloody deed, which so enraged lloratius that he 
 plunged a knife into his sister's heart, and she fell dead. For this crime Horatius 
 was condemned to death, but he was afterward pardoned because by his victoiy 
 over the C uriatii he had saved the Romans from slavery. By the terms of the agree 
 ment made just before the combat, the Albans became subject to the Romans. 
 
 Ancus Martius. — The fourth King of Rome was Ancus Martins, a grandson 
 C:f N'jjna Pompilius. Ancus Martius carried on successful wars against the Latins 
 founded the town of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, and added the Aver tine ano 
 Janiculum Hills to Rome. He reigned twenty-four years. 
 
 Tarquin the Elder. — There are different accounts respecting the origin of 
 Tarquinius Priscus, or Tarquin the Elder, the fifth King of Rome. By some his 
 parents are said to have been of Grecian origin: by others he is regarded as of 
 Etruscan extraction. Tarquin the Elder subdued the Latins, the Sabines, and tht- 
 Etruscans ; and improved Rome with many public works, among which were the 
 circus or race-course, the embanking of the Tiber, the sewers for draining the 
 neighboring lakes, the foundations of the walls of the city, which were of hewn 
 stone, and the Forum, or public square. Tarquin the Elder was greatly beloved by 
 his people, and had reigned thirty-eight years when the sons of Ancus Martius 
 caused him to be assassinated. (B. C. 579.) 
 
 Servius Tullius. — The murdered Tarquinius Priscus was succeeded on the 
 throne of Rome by his son-in-law, Servius Tullius, who proved to be a wise and 
 good king. He protected the poor from the oppressions of the rich, abolished 
 enslavement for debt, and lessened the royal power. The wise legislation of Ser- 
 vius Tullius was displeasing to the higher orders among the Romans; and at 
 length his son-in-law, Tarquinius Superbus, son of Tarquin the Elder, caused the 
 good king to be murdered, and made himself King of Rome. (B. C. 535.) The 
 wicked Tullia, daughter of the murdered Servius Tullius, and wife of Tarquin the 
 Proud, in her haste to congratulate her wicked husband, drove her chariot over her 
 father's corpse, which lay in the street. 
 
 Tyrannical Reign of Tarquin the Proud. — Tarquinius Superbus, or Tar- 
 quin the Proud, soon proved to be an unscrupulous tyrant. All classes of Romans 
 felt his severity. The plebeians, or common people, were deprived of their privi- 
 leges; and the patricians, or aristocracy, were plundered of their wealth. Tarquin 
 the Proud conquered the Volscians and other nations. 
 
 Expulsion of Tarquin the Proud and Abolition of Monarchy. — While 
 the Romans were besieging the town of Ardea, Tarquin's sons, Sextus, Titus, and 
 Aruns, and their cousin Collatinus, got into a dispute about the good qualities of 
 their wives, and all agreed to visit their homes by surprise. They found the wives 
 of Sextus, Titus, and Aruns feasting and making merry, while Lucretia, the wife 
 of Collarinus, was found working at her loom. They all agreed that Lucretia was 
 the worthiest lady. Sextus fell into a violent passion for Lucretia, and shortly 
 aftei wards he behaved toward her in such a manner that she committed suic'.r!^.. 
 Lucius Junius Brutus, a relative of the royal family, bound himself by an oata to 
 avenge the wicked act of Sextus. The outrage of Sextus roused the indignation of 
 the Roman people; and Brutus, showing them the bloody corpse of Lucretia and 
 haranguing them, induced them to expel the royal family from the throne of Rome, 
 
HISTORY OF ROAIE. go 
 
 Mid to abolish monarchy altogether. Tarquin the Proud and his family, finding 
 iLemselves abandoned, retired into voluntary exile. (B. C. 510.) 
 
 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (B. C. 510-30). 
 
 WARS WITH THE ETRUSCANS AND 
 WITH PORSENNA. 
 
 Consuls — Conspiracy in Favor of Tarquin the Proud. — The overthrow 
 ol Tarquinius Superbus and the abolition of monarchy in Rome took place in the 
 year 510 B. C. Rome then became a Republic. The Senate continued to sit, and 
 two chief magistrates called Consuls were to be elected every year. The first Con- 
 suls were Brutus and Collatinus. During their administration, a conspiracy was 
 formed for the restoration of Tarquin the Proud to the throne. Among the con- 
 spirators were the sons of Brutus. From feelings of pure patriotism, their father, 
 who acted as judge when they were tried, condemned them both to death, and had 
 (hem executed in his presence. 
 
 War with the Etruscans. — The dethroned Tarquin the Proud received aid 
 from the Etruscans, to whose country he had fled for protection. A large Etruscan 
 force was placed under the command of Tarquin himself and sent against the 
 Romans. Aruns, the son of Tarquin, and Brutus encountered each other. Each 
 ran his spear through his antagonist, and both fell dead. 
 
 War with Porsenna, King of Clusium — Horatius Codes. — Porsenna, 
 King of Clusium, also took the field in favor of the deposed Tarquin the Proud, 
 and advanced against Rome with a large army. The Romans were driven across 
 the Tiber; but the Roman army was saved by the valor of Horatius Codes, who 
 alone defended the wooden bridge that crossed the river until the Romans had all 
 crossed, and who then cut down the bridge while the enemy's darts were flying all 
 around him, and at last plunged into the stream and reached the opposite shore in 
 safety. 
 
 Mutius Scaevola. — At length Porsenna pressed the siege of Rome so closely 
 that the people in the city suffered greatly from famine. But the city was saved by 
 the daring conduct of a young Roman named Mutius Scjevola, who penetrated into 
 the enemy's camp for the purpose of assassinating Porsenna, but who, by mistake, 
 killed one of the attendants of the Clusian king. When threatened with torture 
 unless he made a confession, Mutius Sccevola thrust his right hand into a fire anil 
 kept it there until it was burnt off, to show Porsenna that no torture could induce 
 him to betray -le plans of his countrymen. Porsenna, admiring such patriotisrii a,nd 
 courage, gave Scsevola his liberty; when the heroic young Roman warned the 
 Clusian king to raise the siege of Rome and make peace, as three hundred young 
 Roir ans had sworn to take his life, and that he had been chosen by lot to mal<e the 
 fu-st ittempt. Porsenna, alarmed for his life, immediately made peace with the- 
 Romans and marched home. So says the Roman legend ; but other accounts say 
 diat Porsenna 1 educed Rome, and that the Romans afterwards reccve-ed thew 
 independence. 
 
70 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 CONTESTS OF THE PATRICIANS AND 
 THE PLEBEIANS. 
 
 Tyranny of the Patricians. — As soon as Rome was relieved from the hostility 
 of foreign foes, the city began to be distracted by domestic troubles. The :w6 greai 
 pf.rties into which the Romans were divided were the patricians, or aristocracy, ijid 
 tJ^e plebeians, or common people. The patricians, having all power in their wn 
 handj. now began to exercise the most unmitigated tyranny over the plebeians, vi\^ 
 were rtcluded from all the public offices. Having exempted themselves from thi 
 payment of tithes, the patricians soon became immensely wealthy; while the ple- 
 beians were compelled to pay taxes for the little farms in their possession and to 
 perform militaiy service without pay. In time of war the lands of the plebeians 
 were left untilled and their dwellings were often burned by the enemy. They con- 
 sequently became very poor, and incurred debts with the patricians which it was 
 impossible for them to discharge under the existing state of things. If a plebeian 
 failed to discharge his debts when they became due his estate was seized; and he 
 and his whole family became slaves to his creditor, and were thrown into prison and 
 maltreated. 
 
 Insurrection of the Plebeians. — The evils already related at length resulted 
 in a general insurrection of the plebeians. An old man, covered with rags, palt 
 and famishing, having escaped from his creditor's prison, rushed into the Forum, oi 
 public square of Rome, and implored the aid of the people. He showed them the 
 scars of the wounds which he had received in twenty-eight battles with the enemies 
 of Rome. He was immediately recognized as a brave old captain in the anny. Ht 
 related to them that his house had been burned by the enemy in the Etruscan war, 
 and that his taxes were nevertheless rigorously exacted from him. He had been 
 obliged to borrow money, and finally he had lost all his property; and when it be- 
 came impossible for him to discharge his debts, he and his two sons were enslaved 
 by his creditor. He also showed them the marks of the stripes which had been 
 inflicted upon him by his creditor. The plebeians could not now restrain their rage 
 and indignation. They demanded relief. At this instant, news arrived at Rome 
 that the Volscians had taken up arms against the Romans. The plebeians rejoiced 
 at this intelligence : they refused to enlist in the army, and told the patricians to 
 fight their own battles. As the plebeians could not be compelled to enlist, the 
 Consuls promised them relief, whereupon many of them joined the ranks ; but no 
 sooner were the Volscians defeated than the debtors were ordered back to their 
 prisons. Having been afterwards deceived, the plebeians withdrew from Rome and 
 took post on the Sacred Mount, about three miles from the city, where they resolved 
 to resist the patricians. 
 
 Menenius Agrippa — Tribunes of the People. — -To avoid the horrors of civil 
 fl^ar, the patricians dispatched ten Senators, with Menenius Agrippa at their head, 
 to treat with the plebeians, and to induce them to return to Rome. Agrippa repre- 
 sentpd to them the disadvantages of dissensions in a state, and related to them the 
 fable of the quarrel between the stomach and the members. The members, com- 
 plaining that the stomach remained idle and enjoyed itself, refused to labor for it 
 any longer: the hands refused to put food to the mouth; the mouth refused to open; 
 and the teeth refused to chew: but while they thus attempted to starve tJie sjtomac^ 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. », 
 
 tliey starved themselves, and at last they discovered that the stomach tvas as useful 
 to the body as they were themselves. The plebeians understood the moral of the 
 fable, and they agreed to a treaty with the patricians. By this treaty all existino 
 debts were cancelled, and all persons held in bondage for debt received their free- 
 dom. The insurgent plebeians then returned to Rome. It was also agreed that five 
 magisti ates, called Tribunes, should be elected annually by the plebeians to walch 
 >';ei tlieir interests, and to prevent by the word "veto," meaning "I foibid," any 
 xeasure which endangered the rights and liberties of the Roman people. 
 
 Banishment of Coriolanus — Veturia and Volumnia. — When, during a 
 famine in Rome, a supply of corn arrived from Sicily, the haughty patrician, Caius 
 Marcius Coriolanus, proposed that none should be given ito the plebeians until they 
 consented to have the office of Tribunes abolished. This proposal aroused the in- 
 dignation of the plebeians, and they procured the banishment of Coriolanus. En- 
 raged at this treatment, Coriolanus went to the Volscians ; and afterwards he led a 
 Volscian army against Rome, and laid siege to the city; but he was finally induced 
 to retreat from Rome by the entreaties of his wife, Veturia, and his mother, Volum 
 nia, who had gone out of the city at the head of a deputation of Roman ladies, to 
 persuade Coriolanus not to be the cause of the ruin of his country. Coriolanus, yield- 
 ing to the solicitations of his mother, exclaimed, " Mother, you have saved Rome, but 
 you have ruined your son ! " It is said that the Volscians, enraged at the retreat of 
 Coriolanus from Rome, put him to death; but a tradition states he lived to a great 
 age in exile among the Volscians, and that he was often heard to exclaim, " Huw 
 miserable is the condition of an old man in banishment ! " 
 
 Dictatorship of Cincinnatus — Mount Algidus. — The ^quians, having 
 broken their peace with Rome and having formed a camp on Mount Algidus, lured 
 an army of Romans into a narrow defile, where they must have been taken prisoners 
 had not the patrician Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus, after having been appointed 
 Dictator, come to their relief. The Dictator was an officer superior to the Consuls 
 and the Senate, and he had all power over the laws themselves. When the deputies of 
 the Senate came to inform Cincinnatus that he had been appointed Dictator, they 
 found him ploughing in his field. He immediately left his plough, took command 
 of the army, and marched against the enemy ; and, having surrounded them, com- 
 pelled them to surrender to the Romans. At the end of sixteen days, Cincinnatus 
 resigned the dictatorship and returned to his plough. 
 
 The Dece.nvirs. — The contests between the patricians and the plebeians still 
 continued. At length the number of Tribunes was increased from five to ten; and 
 the Senate was compelled to agrfee to the appointment, for one year, of ten Senators, 
 called Decemvirs, to frame a code of laws for Rome. After much labor, the 
 Decemvirs produced the " Laws of the Twelve Tables." The Decemvirs had dis- 
 charged their duties so well that it was agreed to continue them in office for another 
 year, to enable them to finish their work; but they soon began to make additions to 
 ihe Laws of the Twelve Tables by which the plebeians were greatly oppressed, and 
 became evident that they were laboring altogether in the interest of the patricians; 
 and great discontent ensued in consequence. 
 
 Appius Claudius and Virginia— Privileges of the Plebeians.— A licentious 
 outrage now occuned in Rome which led to the overthrow of the power of the 
 Decemvirs Appius Claudius, a leading Decemvir, had conceived a strong passion 
 
72 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 for the beautiful Virginia, the daughter of the plebeian Virginius. In order to secure 
 possession of the person of Virginia, Appius Claudius bribed one of his adherents 
 to claim her as one of his runaway slaves. She was brought before the judgment 
 seat of Appius himself, who ordered her to be given. up to the claimant. Just 
 at that moment, Virginia's father, to save his daughter from slavery and dis- 
 grace, rushed forward and plunged a knife into her heart. The indignation of the 
 Roman people was aroused by this outrage; and the plelieians, supported by thf 
 army, overthrew the povi-er of the Decemvirs and restored the old government 
 [he affrighted Appius Claudius was thrown into prison, where he put an end to ill 
 own life. Many new privileges were then granted to the plebeians. The ,aw which 
 prohibiterl marriages between persons of the two classes was repealed. Military 
 Tribunes, with the power of Consuls, were chosen from the plebeians; while" two 
 officers, called Censors, were elected from the patricians to take the census once in 
 every five years. 
 
 CONQUEST OF VEII AND INVASION OF THE GAULS. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Veii. — The Etruscan city of Veil had long been one of 
 the most formidable enemies of Rome; and when the people of Veii had slain the 
 Roman ambassadors and refused to give satisfaction for the outrage, the Romans 
 resolved upon the subjugation of the hostile city. After a siege of ten years, Veii 
 surrendered to the Roman army commanded by the patrician Camillus. The cap- 
 tured city was plundered, and its inhabitants were reduced to slavery. Having 
 incurred the hatred of the plebeians by his unequal distribution of the plunder of 
 the conquered city, Camillus was banished from Rome. 
 
 Invasion of Italy by the Gauls. — Rome was now threatened by a more power- 
 ful enemy than she had ever before encountered. This enemy was the Gauls, who 
 had crossed the Alps into Northern Italy, or Cisalpine Gaul. These barbarians were 
 the inhabitants of the countiy then called Gaul (now France). According to tradi- 
 tion, a citizen of the Etruscan city of Clusium, having been refused redress from 
 the magistrates of that city for an injury which he had received from one of the 
 chief men of the city, resolved to have revenge on his countiy. He crossed the 
 Alps into Gaul, taking with him a large quantity of the wines and fruits of Italy. 
 Seeing that the barbarian Gauls were very much pleased with these presents, the 
 injured Clusian invited them to go with him into Italy and take possession of the 
 countiy which produced these delicacies. Immediately an immense horde of 
 Gauls, taking with them their women and children, crossed the Alps into Italy, 
 and inarched to Clusium, to which they laid siege. The people of Clusium 
 applied for aid to the Romans, who thereupon sent ambassadors to induce the 
 Gauls to withdraw from Italy. 
 
 March of the Gauls to Rome. — The Roman ambassadors, having failed ii. 
 the object of their mission, joined the Clusians in an attack on the besieging Gauls, 
 and killed one of the Gallic chiefs. Brennus, the king of the Gauls, demanded 
 latisfaction from the Roman Senate for the conduct of the ambassadors, and when 
 his demand was rejected, he took up his march, with 70,000 of his followers, 
 directly for Rome. 
 
 Battle on the AUia — Rome Taken and Burned by the Gauls. — On the 
 banks of the river AUia, eleven miles from Rome, a great battle was fought, in 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. » 
 
 iirhich the Roman army, consisting of 40,000 men, was hopelessly annihilated. 
 This defeat rendered it impossible to defend the city, but 1,000 Romans garrisoned 
 the Capitol, which they resolved to defend to the last extremity, while the greater 
 number of the inhabitants of Rome fled for refuge to the neighboring towns. 
 About eighty priests and patricians, resolving never to survive the ruin of their city, 
 clothed themsel /es in their long robes and awaited death. "When the Gauls 
 entered Rome they found the city deserted, and a death-like silence prevailed; but 
 ?*rhen they entered the Forum, where sat the aged Senators, they were seized widi 
 S':f>er3lii) iS awe at the sight of those venerable persons, whom they imagined to be 
 divinities. At length one of the Gauls seized hold of the white beard of Marcus 
 Papirius, one of the Senators: the old man, enraged at this insult, struck the inso- 
 lent barbarian with his ivory staff; whereupon the Gauls massacred the Senators, 
 and set fire to Rome, which, with the exception of the Capitol and a few houses on 
 the Palitine Hill, was totally reduced to ashes. 
 
 Defense of the Capitol. — The Gauls vainly attempted to obtain possession of 
 the Capitol. They endeavored to climb up the steep ascent in the night, and 
 would have succeeded had not the noise of the sacred geese in the Temple of Juno 
 awoke Marcus Manlius, who immediately hastened to the spot and hurled down 
 the rocky precipice such of the Gauls as attempted to make their way inside the 
 walls of the Capitol. 
 
 Departure of the Gauls from Rome. — When famine began to prey upon the 
 Romans who garrisoned the Capitol, and sickness was rapidly reducing the numbers 
 of the Gauls, Brennus, the Gallic chief, agreed to abandon Rome and its territory 
 on condition of receiving a thousand pounds of gold. Wlaile the gold was being 
 weighed, the banished patrician Camillus arrived with an army for the relief of the 
 garrison, and ordered the gold to be taken back to the Capitol, saying, " It has ever 
 Deen the custom of us Romans to ransom our countiy, not with gold, but with iron." 
 A battle followed, and the Gauls were driven from Rome. The Gallic leader, 
 Brennus, was soon afterward taken prisoner by the Romans and put to death. So 
 ;ays the Roman legend concerning the retreat of the Gauls from Rome; but accord- 
 ing to a more probable account, the Gauls were recalled by a sudden invasion of 
 their own country by the Venetians. 
 
 Rebuilding of Rome. — As Rome was now a heap of ruins, the Roman people 
 contemplated emigrating to Veii; but the persuasion of Camillus, who appealed to 
 their patriotism and exhorted them not to abandon the spot which had been chosen 
 liy Romulus, and a fortunate omen, induced them to remain and rebuild their city. 
 
 Condemnation and Death of Marcus Manlius.— After the city of Rome 
 had been rebuilt, the patricians again began to oppress the plebeians. The patri- 
 cian Marcus Manlius Capitolinus, the brave defender of the Capitol, came forsvard 
 as the champion of the oppressed plebeians. He paid the debts of helpless credi- 
 tors and did all in his power to alleviate their condition. Having incun-ed the 
 hatred of his fellow-patricians, he was thrown into prison, but was released at the 
 deminds of ihe plebeians. Being afterward accused by the patricians of as} iiin? 
 to the sovereignty of Rome, Manlius was condemned to be thrown headlong fi )» 
 the Tai-peian Rock, the place of his former glory. After the death of Marcus Man 
 lius, the patricians op'jressed the plebeians more rigorously than ever before. 
 
^4 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 THE LAWS OF CAIUS LICINIUS 3T0L0. 
 
 Sextius Laleranus and Licinius Stolo — The Three Laws of Licinius. — • 
 
 Rome was now saved from oligarchical rule by two remarkalJe men, — Lucius Sex- 
 tius Lateranus and Caius Licinius Stolo, — Tribunes of the People. Licinius pro- 
 posed three laws for the guaranty of the rights and liberties of the plebeians ; the 
 first opened the office of Consul to the plebeians ; the second prohibited any r^ireon 
 from holding more than five hundred acres of the public land, the remainder to L« 
 listributed among the plebeians as their own property; the third provided that \\\t 
 interest already paid upon debts should be deducted from the capital sum in aiak ng 
 payment, and the rsmainder to be paid in three years. 
 
 Opposition of the Patricians— Adoption of the Licinian Laws. — Ihe 
 patricians resisted the passage of the Laws of Licinius for five years, and tried every 
 means of violence and fraud to frustrate the noble designs of Licinius Stolo; but 
 when the plebeians took up arms for their rights, and gathered together on the 
 Aventine Hill, the Senate, in order to avoid the horrors of civil war, found itself 
 obliged to sanction the three Licinian Laws, amended only by the provision that the 
 judicial functions, which had before been exercised by the Consuls, should devolve 
 upon an ofhcer called Praetor, to be chosen from the patricians; but in less than 
 half a century, both the proctorship and the dictatorship were opened to the 
 plebeians. 
 
 WARS WITH THE SAMNITES AND LATINS. 
 
 First Samnite War. — The ambition of tlie Romans soon involved them in a 
 war with the Samnites, a powerful Italian nation to the south-east of Rome. The 
 inhabitants of Capua and Campania obtained assistance from the Romans against 
 the Samnites. The Romans defeated the Samnites in two sanguinary engagements. 
 After the war had continued for two years a treaty of peace and alliance was made 
 between the Romans and the Samnites. 
 
 The Latin War — Titus Manlius — Patriotic Devotion of Decius. — The 
 Romans next turned their arms against their former allies, the Latins, who had 
 vainly demanded of the Romans certain privileges. Wlien the Roman and Latin 
 armies faced each other, the Roman general, Manlius, forbade any soldier in his 
 army leaving his ranks ; and when his own son, Titus Manlius, went forward at the 
 challenge of the Latin general, and slew him in single combat, the stern father 
 punished his son with death for disobedience of command. The battle of Vesuvius 
 was decided in favor of the Romans. Before the battle had begun, tiie augurs had 
 foretold that the victory would be on the side of the Romans if the commander of 
 that portion of the Roman army which was hard pressed would sacrifice himself for 
 nis country. The portion commanded by Decius being hard pressed, that com- 
 mander clothed himself in a large robe, plunged into the thickest of the fight, and 
 was slain. The result of this war was that the Latins were conquered, and their 
 territorj-, Latium, was annexed to the Roman territories. 
 
 Second Samnite War — The Caudine Forks. — Jealousies between the Ro 
 mans and the Samnites led to another war between those two nations. The first 
 part of this war was signalized by several Roman victories; but at length the Sam 
 nite general Pontius, after having lured the Roman army, commanded by the two 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. -- 
 
 Consuls, into a iiairow defile called the Caudine Forks, sun-outided them with his 
 troops and obliged them to surrender themselves prisoners of war. After undergo- 
 ing the humiliation of passing under a yoke formed of three spears, and agreeing to 
 a peace by which all the territory which had belonged to the Samnites before the 
 war was restored to them, the defeated Romans were allowed to return home. Pon- 
 tius kept six hundred Roman knights as hostages for the fulfillment of the provisions 
 •jf llie treaty. 
 
 I bird San.nite War. — As soon as intelligence of the humiliating peac(.'*witl 
 Le Samnites reached Rome, the Roman Senate declared the treaty null and void, 
 •jid ordered the two Consuls, who had negotiated the treaty,- to be given up to the 
 Samn te.s as persons who had deceived them. In vain did Pontius ask that thi 
 treaty be faithfully kept, or that the whole Roman army should again be surrenderee 
 to him. The noble Samnite general refused to wreak his vengeance on the two 
 Roman Consuls, and, with unusual magnanimity, he restored the six hundred host- 
 ages. Then began the third war between the Romans and the Samnites. This 
 war lasted thirty years, and ended in the complete subjugation of the Samnites and 
 their allies, the Umbrians, the Etruscans, and the Cisalpine Gauls. The old Sam- 
 nite general, Pontius, was taken prisoner; and, after gracing the triumph of the 
 Roman general, he was put to death by order of the Roman Senate. All of Sam- 
 nium then became a Roman province. (B. C. 291.) 
 
 THE WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 
 
 War with the Tarentines — War with Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. — The 
 ambition of the Romans next involved them in a war with Tarentum, a luxurious 
 and wealthy Grecian city of Southern Italy. The effeminate and cowardly Taren- 
 tines applied for assistance to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. Pyrrhus, who was desirous 
 of being a great conqueror, agreed to protect the Tarentines from Roman aggression, 
 and landed in Southern Italy with an army of 30,000 men and twenty elephants, 
 the first of those animals ever seen in Italy. 
 
 Victories of Pyrrhus. — At length a great battle was fought, in which Pyrrhus 
 was seven times repulsed by the Roman Consul Lasvinus; but when he brought his 
 elephants into the field, the Romans were routed with frightful slaughter, and 
 Pyrrhus obtained the victory. While viewing the sanguinary field the next day, 
 Pyrrhus exclaimed, " Had I such soldiers as the Romans, the world would be mine, 
 or had they such a general as I, the world would be theirs!" Pyrrhus then 
 attempted to make peace, and for this purpose he sent to Rome his friend, Cineas, 
 the orator. Pyrrhus often said that he won more victories by the eloquence of 
 Cineas than by the swords of his soldiers. The Romans refused to make peace: 
 and Cineas returned and informed Pyrrhus that Rome looked like a great temple, 
 and the Senate like an assembly of kings. A second battle was fought, and Pyrrhus 
 was again victorious, but at such a fearful cost that he exclaimed, "Another such 
 victory, and I am undone!" 
 
 Noble Conduct of Fabricius.— While the two armies were preparing for » 
 '.bird battlt, a letter was brought to Fabricius, the Roman general, from the physi- 
 cian of Pyrrhus, off-ering, for a large bribe, to poison the King of Epirus. Fabncms 
 was very indignant at such a proposal, and he informed Pyrrhus of the treacherous 
 
76 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 conduct of his ph3'sician. Amazed at the magnanimity of his enemy, Pyrrhus 
 exclaimed, " It would be easier to turn the sun from his course than Fabricius from 
 the path of honor!" In gratitude for the noble conduct of the Roman general, 
 Pyrrhus immediately released all the Romans whom he had taken prisoners, and 
 <;en: them home rich with presents. 
 
 Defeat of Pyrrhus — Fall of Tarentum — Extent of the Roman Territory, 
 - -l^rrhus now went over into Sicily to assist the Syracusans in their war against 
 ihe Carthaginians; but he returned to Italy three years afterwards, and fought a 
 S^reat battle with the Roman Consul, Curius Dentatus. In this battle Pyrrhus was 
 so thoroughly defeated, and his aniiy was so hopelessly shattered, that he innnedi- 
 ateiy evacuated Italy and retired to his own kingdom of Epirus. Tarentum soon 
 afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans, who soon established their authority 
 over all Italy, from Cisalpine Gaul on the ncwth to the straits of Messana on the 
 south. 
 
 THE FIRST PUNIC WAR B. C. 263-240). 
 
 Carthage. — Rome now became involved in a war with Carthage, a powerful 
 city founded by the Phoenicians in the ninth century before Christ. Carthage was 
 at this time a more powerful republic than Rome. Its colonies and territorial 
 possessions lined the northern coasts of Africa, from the Pillars of Hercules to the 
 borders of Egypt. The Carthaginians were a great commercial and maritime 
 people, and their navy, at this time, ruled the seas. 
 
 Cause of a War Between Rome and Carthage. — In the year 264 B. C, 
 Hiero, King of Syracuse, united with the Carthaginians in a war against the Mam- 
 ertines, a powerful band of Italian mercenaries, who, by fraud and injustice, had 
 seized the city of Messana. The Mamertines, on the other hand, obtained the 
 assistance of the Romans, who had long wished for an opportunity of meddling in 
 the affairs of Sicily. 
 
 Beginning of the First Punic War — Roman Successes in Sicily.— The 
 first war between Rome and Carthage, or the First Punic War, as it is called, com- 
 menced in the year 263 B. C, when a large Roman army under the Consul Claudius 
 landed in Sicily. The Romans soon took possession of Messana, and induced 
 Hiero, King of Syracuse, to desert the Carthaginians and to enter into an alliance with 
 Rome. Being reduced to great exteremities, the Carthaginians fortified the city of 
 Agrigentum, which was soon besieged and captured by the Romans. (B. C. 262.) 
 
 Carthaginian Fleet on the Italian Coast — Creation of the Roman Navy. 
 — While the Romans were making themselves masters of Sicily, a Carthaginian 
 fleet of sixty ships devastated the coasts of Italy. The Romans were now impressed 
 with 'Jie necessity of creating a navy; but they did not know how to build ships. 
 At length a Carthaginian vessel was blown by a storm to the Italian coast ; and this 
 served as a model. A Roman fleet of 160 ships was built in sixty days. As the 
 Romans had no naval experience, they invented a machine for grappling the enemy'i 
 vessels with their own, and thus enable them to board the enemy's ships and fight 
 as on litnd. 
 
 Two Roman Naval Victories. — In the first naval fight the Romans destroyed 
 sixty i:arthaginian vessels without the loss of a single ship of their own. (B. C. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. h- 
 
 260.) Four years later (B. C. 256), a Roman fleet of 360 ships, commanded by 
 the C:onsuls, Regulus and Manlius, defeated the Carthaginian fleet of 350 ships, 
 under the command of Hanno and Hamilcar Barcas, off the coast of Africa; the 
 Romans sinking thirty of their enemies' vessels and capturing sixty. 
 
 Roman Conquests in Africa— Defeat of the Romans— Regulus a Pris- 
 oner.— The Roman army under the Consul Regulus next invaded Africa, and, after 
 Storming Clypea, subduing Tunes, and capturing seventy-five tovi^ns, devastated Xt.t 
 country to the walls of Carthage. The Carthaginians now became alarmed, and 
 sued for peace; but as the conditions which Regulus demanded were too humilia- 
 ting for them, they resolved to continue the war. Fortunatelyfor the Carthaginians 
 at this moment, the Spartan general Xantippus was placed at the head of their 
 army. Xantippus fought a terrible battle with the Romans and destroyed the 
 greater part of their army. Only 2,000 Romans escaped from the field; and Reg- 
 ulus himself was talcen prisoner. (B. C. 255.) 
 
 Two Roman Fleets Destroyed by Storms. — A Roman fleet which was 
 laden with spoils taken from the enemy, while on its return voyage, was destroyed 
 by a storm. Another Roman fleet, consisting of 1 50 ships, shared the same fate ; 
 every vessel being swallowed up by the waves. The Carthaginians again became 
 masters of the seas. 
 
 Battle of Panormus— Embassy of Regulus to Rome. — In Sicily, the Ro- 
 man general Metellus defeated the Carthaginians in a great battle near Panormus 
 (now Palermo) ; 20,000 Carthaginians being killed, and more than 100 of their 
 elephants being captured. (B. C. 250.) Soon after the battle of Panormus, the 
 Carthaginians, weary of the contest with Rome, took Regulus from his prison and 
 sent him on an embassy to Rome for the purpose of bringing about a peace, making 
 him first swear that in case the negotiations for peace should fail he would return to 
 his dungeon in Carthage. The stern Regulus induced the Roman Senate to reject 
 the peace propositions, and to continue the war. Bound by his oath, he went back 
 to his dungeon in Carthage. 
 
 Death of Regulus.^— It is said that after the return of Regulus to Carthage, the 
 Carthaginians, enraged at his conduct in breaking off the negotiations for peace, 
 craelly tortured him to death. After cutting off" his eye-lids and putting him into a 
 dark dungeon, they exposed his naked eyes to the burning sun, and then put him 
 into a cask set all around with sharp spikes, where he died in agony. This story is 
 believed to have been invented by the Romans to fire their soldiers with deadly 
 hatred against the Carthaginians; and there are good reasons for believing that 
 Regulus died a natural death. 
 
 End of the First Punic War. — Several great naval victories -u-tjre afterwards 
 won by the Romans, but several more of their fleets were destroyed by storms. After 
 the First Punic War had continued for a period of twenty-four years, peace W3s 
 made. (B. C. 240.) By the terms of the treaty, the Carthaginians were to evacuate 
 Sicily, to pay 3,200 talents of silver to defray Rome's expenses in the war, and ts; 
 deliver up all prisoners and deserters without ransom. Sicily, Sardinia, and Cors:c.» 
 soon afterward became Roman provinces. 
 
78 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ILLYRIAN AND GALLIC WARS. 
 
 War with the Illyrians.— The Romans next engaged in a war with the piratical 
 Illyrians, on the eastern shores of the Adriatic sea. Roman ambassadors were sent 
 to the Illyrian queen to complain of the piracies committed by her subjects on the 
 Italian coasts. The Illyrian queen refused to put a stop to what she considered the 
 rights of her subjects, and caused the Roman ambassadors to be put to death. The 
 war which ensued ended in the humiliation of the Illyrians; and the greater pai 
 riJ their country became tributar)' to Rome. (B. C. 228.) 
 
 War with the Cisalpine Gauls.— The Romans were obliged next to turn their 
 irms against the Cisalpine Gauls, who had made a sudden irruption into Etruria and 
 advanced as far as Clusium. The war lasted four years, and was ended by a great 
 victoiy gained over the Gauls by the Roman Consul Claudius Marcellus; the Gallic 
 chief, Viridomarus, and 40,000 of his followers being slain. (B. C. 222.) Cisalpine 
 Gaul dien became a Roman province. 
 
 THE SECOND PUNIC WAR (B. C. 218-201). 
 
 Carthaginian Conquests in Spain— Capture of Saguntum.— The Romans 
 next engaged in a second war with Carthage. .After the First Punic War, the Car- 
 thaginians were employed in making conquests in Spain, where they intended to 
 form a province which should compensate for the loss of .Sicily. They established 
 the city of Carthagena, or New Carthage, on the southern coast of Spain. At length 
 the Carthaginian army, under the famous general, Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar 
 Barcas, laid siege to the Greek city of Saguntum, which was in alliance with Rome 
 When only nine years old, Hannibal had been induced by his father to swear eternal 
 hatred against the Romans. He took Saguntum after a siege of eight months. (B 
 C. 219.) ^ 
 
 Demand of the Romans— Commencement of the Second Punic War. 
 —The Roman Senate sent an embassy to Carthage to demand that Hannibal and 
 h.s army should be delivered up for having trespassed on Roman territory, and thus 
 violated the peace; and when this unreasonable demand was not complied with 
 war wa-s declared against the Carthaginians. Thus began the Second Punic War' 
 (B. C. 218.) 
 
 Hannibal's Passage of the Alps and Invasion of Italy.-In the sprinc. of 
 the year 218 B. C, Hannibal crossed the Ebro, and after conquering the wild trLs 
 m that vicmity,he crossed the Pyrenees with 60,000 meii and thirty-seven elephants 
 and marched through Southern Gaul toward the Alps, while his brother Hasdrubal 
 held Spam m subjection to Carthaginian sway. After some resistance from the 
 Gauls, and after forcing a passage through South Gaul and over the Rhone Han 
 nibal began his famous passage of the Alps. Difficulties almost insurmou'ntable 
 were encountered and overcome before the Carthaginian army appeared cr the rich 
 plams of Northern Italy. The savage Gauls attacked the Carthaginian soldier= 
 with fary, and destroyed many of them while ascending the precipitous, snow-capped 
 and cloud-capped mountains. When the Carthaginian soldiers reached the summit 
 of the Alps, a great fall of snow increased their difficulties by shutting up the paths 
 Many of the Carthaginians lost their way, and great numbers fell down the rocky 
 precipices and were killed, finally the Carthadnians found their march ira 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 79 
 
 -ic.led by a large rock, which, by heating and quenching Avith vinegar, they split 
 into fracrments; after which they continued their march, and at length appeared on 
 the Italian plains, south of the mountains. During this dangerous passage of the 
 Alps, which occupied fifteen days, Hannibal lost one-half of his army, from hunger, 
 cold, fatigue, and conflicts with the fierce natives. Many of the elephants and 
 borses had perished. 
 
 Battles of Ticinus, Trebia, and Placentia.— When intelligence of Hanni 
 bal's invasion of Italy reached Rome, the Consul Publius Scipio was sent with ar. 
 iirmy against the invaders. In a battle on the banks of the river Ticinus, Hanni 
 bal defeated the Romans and drove them back with heavy loss. Scipio himself 
 was wounded. Hannibal next defeated another Roman army under the Consul 
 Sempronius, on the banks of the river Trebia. The Romans lost 26,000 men, 
 killed, wounded, or drowned in the Trebia; and only 10,000 survived and suc- 
 ceeded in fighting their way through the ranks of their victorious foe. In a batde 
 fought at Placentia, Hannibal again defeated the Romans. 
 
 Battle of Trasimenus.— After a short rest in Liguria, Hannibal crossed the 
 Apennines and marched southward, devastating the country through which he 
 passed After artfully decoying the Roman army under the Consul Flammius mto 
 an unfavorable position near Lake Trasimenus, and favored by a thick fog, Hanni- 
 bal fell upon the surprised and unexpectant Roma^is, and inflicted upon them a 
 disastrous defeat. Flaminius himself was killed, and 50,000 of his men were ^1^"' 
 or drowned in the lake, and 6,000 were made prisoners. (B. C. 217.) While this 
 great battle was in progress a terrible earthquake took place, which, though it 
 destroyed many cities and towns, overturned mountains, and stopped rivers in their 
 courses, was unnoticed by the combatants. 
 
 Cautious Policy of Fabius Maximns-Stratagem of Hannibal^The 
 Roman disaster of Trasimenus quite overwhelmed the people of Rome; but the 
 Senate, unmoved and resolute, appointed Fabius Maximus D-^'^-^^^;/ P^^ 
 sued a new and cautious policy, and was in consequence called the I^e yen J 
 closely following the enemy, fatiguing and harassing them, by ^--"g ^J^^^ 
 movement of theirs to his own advantage, and by avoiding decisive batdes Fabn^^ 
 so reduced the strength of the Carthaginians that Hannibal only saved his army 
 from total destruction by driving 2,000 oxen, with bundles of lighted brushwood 
 fastened to their horns, up the heights occupied by the Romans, ^^^^^ 
 consternation, fled, thus enabling the Carthaginian general to escape with his weak 
 
 ened amiy. . . , ,,, 
 
 Battle of Canr...-The Roman people, anxious for a great and c^ec-ve ba le 
 were dissatisfied with the slow and cautious mode of ^^-^Telti V "o 
 Maximus. In the year 216 B. C one of the ^^^^^^^ ^^^'^^l^'^^ ^^A 
 with 90,000 men, contrary to the advice of I^-^^- f -^^'"^' \'^;*; .^^ ' 
 
 three bu.hek of rings stripped from therr fingere. The Consa' ra 
 
 was ,.il,ed. The other Consu,, Tere„.ius V-;^";^^ jf „'J ^ rsJ.tion a„a 
 
 trophe, the greatest ever experienced by the Romans, 
 
8o ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 grief at Rome; but the courageous Senate remained as firm and immovable as 
 ever. 
 
 Hannibal at Capua. — Instead of marching directly upon Rome after his great 
 victory at Cannce, Hannibal led his army into winter quarters in the rich and luxu- 
 rious city of Capua, in Campania, where his veteran solders, giving themselves up 
 to pleasure and deljaucheiy, became effeminate and lost all their love for war. 
 
 Fall of Syracuse. — After the battle of Cannse, many of the towns of Southern 
 Italy and Sicily revolted against the Romans. Syracuse, which was for a long time 
 defended by the mechanical skill of the great philosopher and mathematician 
 Archimedes, surrendered to the Roman general Marcellus, in the year 212 B. C. 
 The revenge of the Romans was terrible : the inhabitants of the conquered city 
 were slaughtered; Archimedes was killed at his studies; the works of art were 
 carried to Rome; and the prosperity of Syracuse was forever at an end. 
 
 Reduction of Capua. — Capua, which, like Syracuse, had revolted against the 
 Romans, was besieged by several Roman legions, and Hannibal advanced toward 
 Rome, in the hope of raising the siege of Capua ; but he was forced to retreat, and 
 Capua, reduced by famine, was compelled to surrender to the Romans. Twenty- 
 seven Capuan senators died by their ov/n hands, and fifty-three by the axe of the 
 executioner; and the citizens of Capua were reduced to slavery, and the treasures 
 of the unfortunate city were sent to Rome. (B. C. 211.) 
 
 Fall of Tarentum. — Two years after the fall of Capua (B. C. 209), Tarentum 
 was taken by the Romans under Fabius Maximus, who reduced the citizens to 
 slavery and took possession of the treasures of the captured city. All the towns of 
 Southern Italy and Sicily which had revolted against the Romans soon returned to 
 their allegiance. 
 
 Scipio's Campaign in Spain. — AVhile the war was thus raging in Italy, for- 
 tune was averse to the Romans in Spain, where two large Roman armies had been 
 cut to pieces by the Carthaginians; but after the youthful Cornelius Scipio had been 
 placed in command of the Roman forces in Spain the fortune of the war under- 
 went an entire change ; and the Carthaginians, under the command of Hasdrubal, 
 Hannibal's brother, were reduced to great extremities, and the supremacy of the 
 Romans was reestablished in Spain. On his return to Rome, Cornelius Scipio was 
 made Consul, being then only twenty-nine years old. 
 
 Hasdrubal's March to Italy — Battle of the Metaurus. — Hannibal was at 
 length reduced to such straits in Southern Italy that he found himself obliged to 
 summon his brother Hasdrubal from Spain to his assistance. Hasdrubal succeeded 
 in crossing the Pyrenees and the Alps without much opposition; but on the banks 
 of the river Metaurus his army of more than 60,000 men was defeated and destroyed 
 by the Roman army of 45,000 men, commanded by the Consuls Livius and Claudius 
 Nero. The carnage was frightful. The killed on the side of the Carthaginians 
 numbered 56,000, among whom was Hasdrubal himself. (B. C. 207.) The 
 bloody head of Hasdrubal was thrown into the camp of Hannibal, who thereupon 
 exclaimed, " I see the doom of Carthage !" 
 
 Scipio's Invasion of Africa — Hannibal's Return to Africa. — At length, in 
 the year 202 B. C, the Roman Consul, Cornelius Scipio, the conqueror of Spain, 
 invaded Africa with a large army, whereupon Massinissa, King of Numidia (now 
 Algeria), entered into an alliance with the Romans. Utica was besieged by the 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 3l 
 
 Romans, I'unes opened its gates to the invaders, whereupon the Carthaginian Senate, 
 greatly alarmed for the safety of Carthage itself, recalled Hannibal from Italy for 
 the defen'^.e of his own country. (B. C. 202.) After returning to Africa, Hannibal 
 held a conference with Scipio for the purpose of making peace, but the inflexible 
 Roman general refused to accept anything but unconditional submission on the part 
 of Carthage, and consequently the attempt at reconciliation failed. 
 
 Battle of Zama — Close of the Second Punic War. — In the terrible battle 
 of Zamr., which followed the unsuccessful attempt at peace, Hannibal was defeated 
 with the loss of 20,000 men killed, and as many taken prisoners. Peace was then con- 
 cluded; Carthage being required to give up all her foreign possessions outside o\ 
 Africa, to pay 10,000 talents of silver to Rome in fifty years, to keep no more elephants 
 for 'var in future, and to restore to the King of Numidia all the territory which she 
 had wrested from him. Thus ended the Second Punic War, after a continuance of 
 seventeen years. (B. C. 201.) Scipio, thereafter called Africanus, on his return 
 to Rome, was honored with a most splendid triumph; while Hannibal was forced 
 to retire into exile. 
 
 MACEDONIAN, SYRIAN, AND GRECIAN WARS. ' 
 
 War with Philip II. of Macedon — Battle of Cynoscephalae. — No sooner 
 had the Second Punic War ended than the Athenians applied to the Romans for 
 protection against King Philip II. of Macedon. As Philip had entered into an alli- 
 ance with the Carthaginians against the Romans in the Second Punic War, and as 
 the Romans had long wished for an opportunity of meddling in the affairs of 
 Greece, the request of the Athenians was readily granted. War was declared 
 against the King of Macedon; and in the year 197 B. C, the Roman general 
 Quintus Flaminius, who had been sent into Greece with a large army, inflicted an 
 irretrievable defeat upon the Macedonian king in the battle of Cynoscephalae, in 
 Thessaly. Philip was obliged to accept a peace by which h-e was to pay to the 
 Romans 10,000 talents and to acknowledge the independence of Greece. To 
 gratify the vanity of the Greeks, Flaminius, at the Isthmian Games, procUimed the 
 liberation of Greece from Macedonian oppression ; but the Romans were as anx- 
 ious to extend their supremacy over Greece as the Macedonian king had been to 
 maintain his dominion there. 
 
 War with Antiochus the Great of Syria — Battle of Magnesia. -A few 
 years after the defeat of Philip II. of Macedon, the ^tolians solicited arl from 
 King Antiochus the Great of Syria against the Romans. Antiochus marched into 
 Greece with a powerful army; but was compelled to retreat into Asia Minor, 
 whither he was pursued by the Roman army commanded by Cornelius Sr.ipio 
 Africanus and his brother. After sustaining a frightful defeat in the great battle of 
 Magnesia, near Ephesus, from the Scipios, the King of Syria was forced to accept 
 a peace by which he gave up to the Romans all his territories in Europe antl 2 
 large portion of those in Asia Minor, to pay to the Romans 50,000 Euboean talents 
 (a sum equal to ^15,000,000), and to deliver up Hannibal, who was then living i?J 
 exile at his court. 
 
 Death of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. — To avoid falhng into the hands 
 of the Romans, Hannibal fled to the court of Prusias, King of Bithynia. When Pru 
 6 
 
82 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 
 
 sias, fearing to incur the hostility of the Romans, was about to yield to their demand 
 to surrender Hannibal into their hands, the old Carthaginian general put an end to 
 his own life by swallowing poison. (B. C. 183.) His great rival and conqueror, 
 Scipio Africanus, who, having been treated with ingratitude by his own country- 
 men, spent his last days in voluntary exile, died the samenyear. The valiant Philo 
 poemen, the second chieftain of the Achaian League, was compelled to drink the 
 cup of poison during this same fatal year. 
 
 War with Perseus, King of Macedon — Battle of Pydna. — The wicktd 
 I'.Tseus, the son and successor of Philip H. of Macedon, began a fres? war against 
 the Romans. The Macedonian territories were again invaded; and Persons suf- 
 fered a crushing defeat from the Roman general Paulus .(Emilius in the battle of 
 Pydna. (B. C. 168.) Perseus was afterward taken prisoner and carried to Rome 
 to grace the triumph of his conqueror; and Macedonia became a Roman province. 
 The Achaians were charged with havmg given assistance to Perseus, and 1,000 of 
 their chiefs were taken to Rome to answer for their conduct before a Roman 
 tribunal. 
 
 Conquest of Greece by the Romans — Destruction of Corinth.— Twenty 
 years after the fall of Perseus, the Macedonians revolted; but they were again 
 speedily subdued by the Romans. At the same time the Achaian League took up 
 arms to defend the independence of Greece, which was threatened by the Romans. 
 The Achaians lost several battles; and finally, the Roman Consul Mummius took 
 the city of Corinth by storm and reduced it to ashes. The whole of Greece then 
 became a Roman province under the name of Achaia. (B. C. 146.) Thus ended 
 the independent existence of the celebrated commonwealths of Ancient Greece, — 
 victims to Roman ambition. 
 
 THE THIRD PUNIC WAR (B. C. 149-146). 
 
 Origin of the Third Punic War — Demands of the Romans. — The same 
 year that Greece yielded to Roman sway (B. C. 146), Carthage was destroyed by 
 the Romans. After the Second Punic War, Carthage recovered some of her former 
 prosperity, thus awakening the jealousy of the Romans. Carthage was disposed to 
 remain at peace, but the repeated encroachments on their territory by Massinissa, 
 King of Numidia, induced the Carthaginians at length to take up arms to defend 
 their own possessions. The Roman Senate had long been seeking a pretext for 
 war. The elder Cato had made a practice of concluding all his speeches in the 
 Senate, with the sentence, " Delenda est Carthago," " Carthage must be destroyed." 
 The Senate, pretending to regard the conduct of Carthage in defending her own ter- 
 ritories against Massinissa as a breach of the peace, declared war. The Carthagi- 
 nians were alarmed, and gave up three hundred noble Carthaginian children as 
 hostages, at the demand of the Romans. The Roman army then crossed over into 
 Africa. The Carthaginians were now commanded to give up all their arms and 
 military stores. This command, hard as it was, was promptly obeyed. The crad 
 a 1(1 treacherous Romans next demanded that the Carth.iginians should abandon Jiej 
 c.ty and budd another city without walls or fortifications, not nearer to the sea-sV.ore 
 than ten miles, while Carthage was to be burned to the ground. The Carthaginians 
 gave themselves up to grief and despair at this cruel and insolent demand; but 
 resolved to perish beneath the ruins of their city rather than submit to such humili- 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 «3 
 
 atlon. Ihen began the Third Punic War. (B. C. 149.) The Carthaginians placed 
 Hasdrubal at their head and prepared in earnest to defend their city. T'leir tern 
 pies were turned into workshops ; and men and women were engaged day and 
 night in manufacturmg arms, and the women cut off their long hair to be twisted 
 into bow-strings 
 
 Capture and Destruction of Carthage. — The Romans did not expect suet 
 an exhibition of courage and patriotism on the part of the Carthaginians; and for 
 three years the Roman anny met with some signal repulses. At length, Scipio 
 ^^milianus, the adopied son of the great Scipio Africanus, was placed in commant? 
 of the Roman army ; and after a sanguinary struggle of six days in the streets of 
 Carthage and on the tops of the houses, the city was taken. By order of Scipio, the 
 conquered city was set on fire, and it continued to bum for seventeen days ; and 
 50,000 of the wretched inhabitants of the city were reduced to slaver)^ while the 
 remaining 5,000 threw themselves into the flames and thus perished with their city. 
 The wife of Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian leader, reproached her husband as a coward 
 and a traitor, and then threw herself and her children into the flames of the burning 
 city. The city walls were then razed to the ground ; and the territory of Carthage, 
 under the name of Africa, became a Roman province. (B. C. 146.) Thus perished, 
 after an existence of eight centuries, the once-mighty Republic of Carthage, which 
 had been mistress of the Mediterranean, and whose power had once made Rome 
 tremble for her own existence. 
 
 ROMAN CONQUEST OF SPAIN. 
 
 Viriathus, the Lusitanian Chief. — After the Third Punic War, the Romans 
 had to sustain a hard conflict in Spain with the Lusitanians, a heroic and powerful 
 people, who, under their brave chief, Viriathus, had defeated the Roman armies 
 and frustrated all attempts to reduce them under the Roman yoke. The struggle 
 lasted eight years, and it was only after C?epio, the Roman governor of Spain, had 
 treacherously procured the assassination of Viriathus, that the heroic Lusitanians 
 were subdued. 
 
 Siege and Fall of Numantia. — Although the Lusitanians submitted to Roman 
 sway after the death of their valiant chief, the Romans were not yet in undisputed 
 and quiet possession of Spain ; as the brave people of Numantia still maintained 
 their independence. After two large Roman armies had been annihilated, Scipio 
 .iEmilianus, the conqueror of Carthage, was sent with 60,000 men against the free- 
 dom-loving Numantians. Scipio laid siege to the city of Numantia ; and after the 
 Numantians had suffered greatly from famine, they destroyed all their women md 
 children, and then setting fire to their city, threw themselves into the flames and 
 perished to a man. (B C. 133.) After the destruction of Numantia, Spain became 
 A Roman province. 
 
 Rebellion of the Slaves in Sicily. — Two years before the fall of Numartia 
 f B. C. 131), the slaves in Sicily, who had been treated by their masters with the 
 n\ost unmitigated cruelty, rose in rebellion for the purpose of recovering their free- 
 dom. During this rebellion the jnost frightful cruelties were committed by both 
 parties. After four large Roman armies had been defeated by the rebellious slaves, 
 Eunus, the able leader of the insurrection, was betrayed into the hands of the Ro- 
 
84 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 mans, afler which most of the insurgent slaves were put to death, and'peace was 
 secured. (B. C. 133.) 
 
 SEDITION OF THE GRACCHI. 
 
 Political and Social Condition of the Roman People. — The poHtical and 
 social condition of Rome at this period was such as to endanger the liberties of 
 Roman citizens. The great mass of the Roman population were extremely poor, 
 while the majority of the nobility were immensely rich. All the lands, as well as 
 the lucrative offices, came into the possession of the nobles; and thus the greatest 
 inequality in the distribution of property existed among the Roman people. The 
 large plantations were cultivated by slaves, and thus the peasants, driven from their 
 Lands by unscrupulous and rapacious land-owners, were reduced to the m(>3» extreme 
 state of poverty and social distress. 
 
 Tiberius Gracchus. — In this wretched state of aflEairs at Rome, Tiberius Grac- 
 chus, a Tribune of the People, and son of Cornelia, daughter of the great Scipio 
 Africanus, proposed the enforcement of the long-neglected agrarian law of Licinius 
 Stolo, which prohibited any Roman from holding more than 500 acres of the public 
 land. This proposal of Tiberius Gracchus was violently opposed by the Roman 
 aristocracy, who vainly endeavored to persuade the people that Tiberius was 
 attempting to overthrow the government and disturb the public peace. When the 
 assemblies of the people were about to vote on the Licinian law, the nobles bribed 
 Octavius, another Tribune, to forbid the proceedings; but the people removed him 
 from the tribuneship, and thus secured the passage of the agrarian law. Tiberius 
 next proposed that the treasures which Attalus, King of Pergamus, at his death, by 
 his last will, had left to the Roman people, should be divided equally among the 
 poor. This proposal met with the most vehement resistance from the Roman nobles ; 
 and while a new election for Tribunes was going on, Tiberius was addressing the 
 people at the Capitol, when a false report was carried to the Senate, stating that 
 Tiberius had demanded a crown; whereupon the Senators, headed by Scipio 
 Nasica, and accompanied by their retinue, proceeded to the Capitol, where in a 
 bloody conflict they killed Tiberius Gracchus and three hundred of his adherents. 
 (B C. 132.) 
 
 Caius Gracchus. — Ten years after the death of Tiberius Gracchus, his young 
 and talented brother, Caius Gracchus, advocated the caiLse of the people; and, 
 being elected a Tribune, took measures for enforcing the agrarian law, and com- 
 menced many reforms in the administration of public affairs; but when a new elec- 
 tion for Triburies took place, Caius was deprived of the office by false returns and 
 bribery. Caius Gracchus and his adherents were soon after\vard attacked on the 
 Aventine Hill by the forces of the Senate, with the Consul Opimius at their head. 
 The party of Caius was defeated with the loss of 3,000 men. Caius Gracchus, being 
 feurrounded by his enemies, caused one of his own companions tc kill him with his 
 sword. (B. C. 122.) His head was taken to Opimius, who had offered f-.T it x 
 reward of its weight in gold. 
 
 End of Roman Freedom — Triumph of the Aristocracy. — With the fall of 
 the Gracchi ended the freedom of the Roman people. Thereafter an insolent and 
 co/rupt aiistocracy ruled the Roman Republic. Rome's most glorious period had 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 85 
 
 now passed away; and the Republic had degenerated into a miserable oligarchy, 
 Tht Tribunes, who had before been the protectors and guardians of popular rights, 
 bect_<ning rich themselves, concurred with the nobles in oppressing the people. 
 
 AGE OF CAIUS MARIUS AND CORNELIUS SYLLA. 
 
 The Jugurthine War. — The venality and corruption of the Roman Senate ws-s 
 Uearly made manifest by their conduct in connection with the events which Jed to 
 che Jugurthine War. Micipsa, King of Numidia, son of Massinissa, divided his 
 tmgdom, at his death, among his two sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, and his 
 nephew Jugurtha. But Jugurtha, for the purpose of seizing upon the whole king- 
 dom for himself, caused Hiempsal to be murdered, and compelled Adherbal to seek 
 refuge in Rome. The Roman Senate was at first inclined to punish the usurper; 
 but, being corrupted with his gold, at length decreed that the Numidian kingdom 
 should be divided between Jugurtha and Adherbal. Jugurtha then made war upon 
 his cousin Adherbal, and, after obtaining possession of his person, put him to death. 
 The Roman Senate was still disposed to let Jugurtha go unpunished, but the indig- 
 nation of the Roman people caused the usurper to be brought to Rome in order to 
 convict those Senators who had taken bribes from him. While in Rome, Jugurtha 
 caused his cousin Massiva, who aspired to the throne of Numidia, to be murdered 
 in the street. For this crime, Jugurtha was compelled to leave Rome. As he went 
 out of th6 city, he exclaimed, " Venal city, and soon to perish if a purchaser can be 
 found!" A Roman army which had followed Jugurtha into Africa was defeated, 
 and compelled to pass under the yoke and to evacuate Numidia within ten days. 
 The Roman general Metellus, who had been sent with an army into Africa, drove 
 Jugurtha from his kingdom, whereupon the usurper formed an alliance with his 
 father-in-law, Bocchus, King of Mauritania (now Morocco); but the Roman Consul 
 Caius Marius, a man of rude manners, defeated the united forces of the two kings. 
 Bocchus, in order to obtain peace for himself, betrayed Jugurtha into the hands of 
 the Romans. Jugurtha was carried to Rome to grace the triumph of Marius, after 
 which he was starved to death in prison. 
 
 Invasion of the Cimbrians and the Teutones. — The Jugurthine War had 
 not yet ended when the Cimbrians and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes of bar- 
 barians, menaced Italy with invasion. These people left their homes in Northern 
 Europe with their women and children for the purpose of seeking a habitation in a 
 more hospitable region. In the year 113 B. C, they defeated the Roman army 
 commanded by the Consul Papirius Carbo in a sanguinary battle in Nori'um. 
 They then passed through Rhsetia into Southern Gaul, and in the course of foir. 
 years they completely destroyed four large Roman armies. At length, Marius, 
 whom the Roman people, contrary to law, had elected Consul five times in succes- 
 sion, was invested with the chief command of the Roman army in Gaul. Th* 
 Cimbrians then marched into Italy, leaving the Teutones in Gaul to oppose Marius. 
 After trj'ing in vain to provoke Marius to battle, the Teutones marched past hi? 
 camp and ieeringly asked the Romans if they had any messages to send to their., 
 wives. Marius followed the Teutones, and in a bloody battle of two days at Aquas 
 SextiK the Teutones were hopelessly overthrown, with the loss of 200,oco men 
 killed and taken prisoners. (B. C. 102.) After crossing the Alps and drivmg the 
 Roman arnjy under the Consul Catulus across the Padus (now Po), the Cimbrians 
 
86 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 were annihilated by Marius and Catulus with united forces in a great battle ne. 
 Vercellse. (B. C. loi.) To avoid falling into the hands of the Romans, the Cim- 
 brians lilled themselves. They lost 200,000 slain and taken prisoners. 
 
 The Social War. — Soon after the overthrow of the Cimbrians and the Teutones, 
 the very existence of Rome was endangered by a frightful war, called the " Social 
 War," between the Romans and their Italian allies. The allies, headed by the 
 Samnites and the Marsians, having long been deprived of the rights (if Roman citi- 
 if nship, now took up arms to compel Rome to grant the long-withheid privileges, 
 o: to free themselves from Roman supremacy. They formed a confederation, and 
 made the town of Italica their capital. The Romans were obliged to grant the 
 rights of citizenship to the Latins, the Umbrians, and the Etruscans, to prevent thein 
 from joining the revolted allies. In order to escape total ruin, Rome was at last 
 obliged to confer the rights of citizenship on all who would submit. Thus ended, 
 after a continuance of two years, the famous Social War, in which 300,000 of the 
 population of Italy had perished. (B. C. 88.) 
 
 , First Mithridatic War. — Before the close of the Social War, a war broke out 
 in Asia between the Romans and Mithridates, King of Pontus. • This powerful 
 monarch, who was also a good linguist, had added several Asiatic states to his 
 dominions, thus awakening the jealousy of the Romans, who were now aiming at 
 supreme sovereignty in Asia. Mithridates caused So,ooo Roman subjects to be put 
 to death in one day, defeated two powerful Roman armies which had been sent 
 against him, and obtained possession of all Asia Minor. The Grecian states, with 
 Athens at their head, had placed themselves under the authority of the King of 
 Pontus. 
 
 CIVIL WAR OF MARIUS AND SYLLA. 
 
 Rivalry of Marius and Sylla— Flight and Exile of Marius. — The Roman 
 Senate gave the command of the army sent against Mithridates to Cornelius Sylla, 
 a man of talent and polished manners, but of immoral and dissipated charactei, whc 
 had served under Caius Marius in the Jugurthine War, in the war against the Cim- 
 brians and the Teutones, and in the Social War. But Marius, who was jealous of 
 Sylla's military fame, procured a decree from the Roman people by which the con- 
 duct of the war against Mithridates was transferred from Sylla to himself. Sylla 
 Jed his army from Southern Italy against Rome, entered the city, and outlawed 
 Marius and eleven of his principal adherents. After a series of dangers and roman- 
 tic adventures, Marius escaped to Africa. (B. C. %'&.') 
 
 Civil War of Marius and Sylla — Capture of Rome by Marius. — As soon 
 as Sylla had passed into Greece to conduct the war against Mithridates, Marius was 
 recalled from Africa by his partisans; and a furious civil war ensued, which ravagea 
 Italy with all its horrors. The Senate and the nobility sided with the party ol Sylla. 
 but Rome was besieged bv Marius, who at length compelled the city to surrender. 
 K general massacre of all the partisans of Sylla then commenced, and con.inued fni 
 five days and nights The heads of the murdered Senators and nobles were givers 
 lo the dogs and to the birds of the air. 
 
 Death of Marius — Sylla's Victories over Mithridates. — Having gratified 
 his thirst for vengeance, Marius was chosen Consul for the seventh time, but he 
 died in sixteen days from the effects of intemperance. (B. C. 86.) WTiiie Italy 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 8? 
 
 was a prey to the horrors of civil war, Sylla took Athens by storm, defeated two 
 large armies of Mithridates, and compelled that king to agree to a peace by w hich 
 the Romans not only recovered all their provinces in Asia Minor, but were also 
 indemnified for their expenses in the war. (B. C. 84.) 
 
 Capture of Rome by Sylla — His Dictatorship, Resignation and Death 
 •"-After the ;c.nclusion of the First Mithridatic War, Sylla returned to Italy to tak x 
 vengeance on his enemies. After defeating the partisans of Marius in many battles, 
 Sy^'a obtained possession of Rome. Like Marius, Sylla determined to massacre 
 all his enemies. All Italy was filled with massacre and blood. In Rome ihc: 
 streets were heaped up with the dead bodies of the massacred partisans of Mai i us 
 Having thus glutted his desire for revenge, Sylla caused himself to be appointed 
 Perpetual Dictator, and proclaimed the Cornelian Law, which gave the government 
 into the hands of the aristocracy at Rome. After exercising the supreme authority 
 for more than two years, Sylla, to the surprise of everybody, resigned his power, and 
 retired to his estate, where he soon afterward died of a loathsome disease. (Pi. 
 C. 7S.) 
 
 AGE OF CN^US POMPEY AND JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 Rebellion of Sertorius in Spain. — Sylla's resignation and death did not put 
 an end to the civil war by which the Roraan Republic was distracted. In Spain 
 the partisans of Marius, headed by Sertorius, were still under arms. After Sertorius 
 had gained several victories over the Roman armies which had been sent against 
 them, the youthful Cnasus Pompey was sent into Spain to quell the rebellion, but he 
 too was defeated; and it was only after Sertorius had been assassinated by his own 
 officers that the rebels were subdued and that peace was restored to Spain. (B, 
 C. 70.) 
 
 Rebellion of the Slaves under Spartacus. — While the events just related 
 were occurring in Spain, a dangerous rebellion of the slaves, headed by the gladia- 
 tor Spartacus, broke out in Italy. Spartacus, with other gladiators, escaped from 
 his place of confinement at Capua, and induced many slaves to join his standard 
 and fight for their own freedom. Having been joined by fugitives and desperadoes 
 •f every sort, Spartacus soon had 120,000 men under his command. Spartacus 
 overthrew two large Roman armies commanded by the Consuls, that were sent 
 against him, but at last he was defeated by the Prtetor, M. Crassus. Spartacus 
 fought at the head of his followers until he fell covered with wounds and expired 
 upon a heap of Romans who had fallen beneath his sword. Twelve thousand of 
 his followers were put to the sword, and the remainder were finally subdued by 
 Pompey, the growing rival of the wealthy Crassus. (B. C. 70.) 
 
 War Against the Cilician Pirates. — At this time the Mediterranean sea 
 swarmed with pirates from the mountainous country of Cilicia, in Asia Minor. 
 Tkoje pirates would caoture towns and villages, and cany off the inhabitants and 
 sell trem into slavery. Many Roman nobles and Senators were taken by ihem, 
 and oniy ootamea their freedom by paying a heavy ransom. Commerce was 
 interrupted by these piracies of the Cilicians, and Rome was threatened with famine. 
 In this dangerous state o^ affairs, Pompey was invested with the supreme command 
 over all the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean sea. Powerful Roman fleets 
 
88 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 were sent against the pirates, who were soon driven from the seas and forced to take 
 refuge in their fortresses in Cilicia, where they were subdued by Pomiicy, who distri- 
 buted them as colonists in the various cities and towns of Asia Minor. (B. C. 67.) 
 
 Overthrow of Mithridates and the Seleucidas. — In the year 74 B. C„ the 
 Roman Republic became involved in another war with Mithridates, the powerful 
 b'ing of Pontus. After the Roman general Lucullus had driven the Pontic king 
 m'.D Armenia, Pompey was sent to take the chief command of the Roman armies 
 \Xi. Asia. In the year 66 B. C, Pompey inflicted a crushing defeat upon Mithri 
 dates on the banks of the Euphrates. Three years afterwards, Mithridates, alan 
 Joned by his followers and having lost all his dominions, poisoned himself. The 
 year after his victory over Mithridates (B. C. 65), Pompey subverted the Syriar. 
 Empire of the Seleucidce, and Syria became a Roman province. 
 
 Reduction of Judea. — About this time the throne of Judea was claimed by 
 two brothers, John Hyrcanus and Aristobulus II. Each applied for aid to Pompey, 
 who decided in favor of Hyrcanus. Aristobulus prepared to resist the Romans, 
 and shut himself up in Jerusalem, which was taken by Pompey after a three 
 months' siege. Hyrcanus was seated on the Jewish throne, but was required to 
 pay tribute to Rome. Aristobulus was carried to Rome to grace the triumph of 
 Pompey. 
 
 Conspiracy of Catiline. — While Pompey was conquering in Asia, the Roman 
 Republic was brought to the very verge of ruin by a conspiracy headed by Sergius 
 Catiline, a man of noble birth, but of ruined fortunes and infamous character, 
 Catiline's chief confederates in the plot were mostly young nobles of desper- 
 ate fortunes, who hoped by overthrowing the government and elevating Catiline 
 to the consulship to obtain possession of the public treasures and the property 
 of the citizens. As the great obstacle to the success of the plans of the conspira- 
 tors was the vigilance of the great orator, M. Tullius Cicero, who was at that time 
 one of the Roman Consuls, it was resolved to murder him. But Cicero obtained a 
 Knowledge of the plans of the conspirators from one of their own number whom 
 he had bribed; and the attempt to assassinate the Consul was frustrated. Catiline 
 had the audacity to make his appearance in the Senate House, where Cicero 
 unmasked the designs of the corLspirators ; and Catiline, overwhelmed with terror 
 and confusion, fled into Etruria, where his confederates had collected a large army. 
 The Consul Antonius was sent with an army against the conspirators, who, with 
 Catiline at their head, fought with the most desperate courage until every one of 
 their number was slain. (B. C. 63.) Cicero, whose vigilance and patriotism had 
 saved Rome by defeating this infamous conspiracy, received the glorious title of 
 " Father of his Country." 
 
 The First Triumvirate. — After the conclusion of his wars in Asia, Pompey 
 leturned to Rome and united with Crassus and the youthful Caius Julius Cicsar in 
 a po itical partnership, called the " First Triumvirate," by which these three men 
 look upon themselves the government of the Roman Republic, and practicilly 
 ijsurped the authority of the Senate. (B. C. 60.) The Triumvirs divided the 
 Republic among themselves: Pompey received Spain, Africa, and Italy, Ca;sai 
 obtained Gaul, the complete conquest of which was entrusted to him; and Crassus, 
 the rirhest man in Rome, whose avarice was unbounded, chose Syria, which wa.s 
 fame<l for its wealth. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 89 
 
 Disasters and Death of Crassus in Parthia. — To giatify his avarice, tlie 
 wealthy Crassus, on taking possession of Syria, led an expedition into I'arthia, for 
 the purpose of further enriching himself by plundering that country. When the 
 Parthians sent an embassy to Crassus to complain of his aggressive conduct, he 
 boasted that he would give his answ^er in Seleucia, a suburb of Ctesiphon, the cap- 
 ital of the Parthian Empire. One of the Parthian ambassadors, showing the palm 
 of hi" hand, replied, " Crassus, hairs will grow there before you see Seleucia." 
 Crassus then advanced far into the Parthian territories, but he was finally defeated^ 
 made prisoner, and put to death by the Parthiaus. The greater part of his army 
 perished, and the Roman ensigns fell into the hands of the victorious enemy 11 
 is said that the triumphant Parthians, in reproach of the insatiate avarice of Crassus, 
 poured melted lead down his throat after his head had been cut off. 
 
 Julius Caesar's Wars in Gaul, Germany, and Britain. — In the course of 
 eight years, Julius Caesar subdued Gaul. During this period he twice crossed the 
 Rhine into Germany, and twice passed over into Britain. He first invaded Britain 
 in the year 55 B. C, and after subjecting the Britons to tribute, he returned to 
 Gaul ; but in the year 54 B. C. occurred his second invasion of Britain, which 
 resulted in the second defeat and subjection of the natives, and Caesar returned to 
 Gaul to complete the subjugation of the wild tribes of that countrv'. While in 
 Gaul, Csesar conquered three hundred nations, took eight hundred cities and towns, 
 subdued three millions of people, killed one million, and reduced another million 
 to slavery. All this woe was inflicted to gratify the ambition of one man. 
 
 CIVIL WAR OF POMPEY AND C^SAR. 
 
 Rivalry of Pompey and Caesar. — The death of Crassus left Pompey and 
 Cassar as the only masters of the Roman world. But these two gi^eat generals, 
 being jealous of each other's fame, soon became rivals and enemies. Wlien Cajsar 
 was refused permission to stand as a candidate for the consulship while absent from 
 Rome, after the termination of his wars in Gaul, and was ordered by the Senate to 
 disband his legions and to lay down his office, Caesar's partisans demanded that 
 Pompey should do the same. ' But the Senate threatened to declare Caesar a public 
 enemy unless he unconditionally disbanded his army and resigned his provinces 
 within a specified time. By large bribes, Ccesar had obtained many and powerful 
 friends in Rome, among whom were Mark Antony and Quintu? Cassiu«, Tribunes 
 of the People. 
 
 Civil War — Caesar's March to Rome, and Pompey's Flight to Greece 
 — It was now evident that the rivalry of Pompey and Cassar could only be termin 
 ated on the field of battle. Both parties therefore flew to arms, and the Roman 
 Republic was again involved in all the horrors of civil war. The Tribunes Antony 
 and Cassius fled to Caesar's camp at Ravenna, in Northern Italy, and inflamed the 
 ■age of his army against Pompey and the Senate. Caesar's soldiers declared theii 
 determination to stand by their general to the last. After some hesitation, Cresaj 
 paFsed the Rubicon, or boundary stream between Umbria and Cisalpine Gaul, and 
 marched hastily toward Rome. The Senate and Pompey, greatly alarmed at Cssar's 
 rapid advance, fled across the Adriatic sea into Greece; and Causar entered Rome, 
 and was in possession of all Italy within sixty days. 
 
90 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Pompey and Caesar in Greece — Battle of Pharsalia — Assassination of 
 Pompey. — After going over into Spain and overthrowing Pompey's adherents in 
 that Roman province, and taking by siege the town of Marseilles, in Gaul, Ccesai 
 returned to Rome; and then passed over into Greece to make head against Pom- 
 pey, who had in the meantime collected a large army. The armies of the two rivals 
 met at Pharsalia, in Thessaly, where occurred the battle which decided the fate 
 jf the Roman world. Ca;sar gained the victory, and Pompey fled to Egypt to claim 
 he protection of Ptolemy, the youthful king of that country. (B. C 48,) Ptolemy, 
 who was then at war with his sister, Cleopatra, had in his army a young Roman 
 named Septimius, who persuaded the young king to put Pompey to death in ordei 
 to gain the favor of the victorious Ccesar. As soon as the fallen Pompey, upon 
 arriving at the shores of Egypt, prepared to land, he was assassinated by order of 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 Caesar in Egypt — Overthrow and Death of Ptolemy. — When Cresar arrived 
 at Alexandria, in Eg)'pt, in pursuit of Pompey and his followers, the bloody head 
 and signet ring of Pompey were brought to him. Ca;sar wept bitterly, and turned 
 away in disgust at the sight of these i^elies. He ordered the head of his unfortunate 
 rival to be interred with due honors, and bestowed honors and favors on Pompey's 
 most faithful adherents. Ptolemy was greatly disappointed when Caesar, captivated 
 by the charms of Cleopatra, decided in favor of her claims to the throne of Egypt. 
 Ptolemy's adherents then arose against Caesar, who, having taken only a few troops 
 with him to Alexandria, was soon involved in the greatest dangers. The palace in 
 which Caesar had taken refuge was set on fire by Ptolemy's partisans, and the great 
 library which had been established by King Ptolemy Philadelphus fell a prey to 
 the flames. Csesar succeeded in making his escape from the city, and afterwards 
 overthrew the army of Ptolemy, who, after the battle, was drowned in the Nile. 
 (B.C. 48.) 
 
 Caesar's Victories in Asia, Africa, and Spain. — Caesar next advanced into 
 Asia against Pharnaces, King of Pontus, son of Mithridates, whom he subdued so 
 easily that he announced his victory to th'e Roman Senate in three words, " Veni, 
 vidi, vici," " I came, I saw, I conquered." After returning to Rome, Caesar passed 
 over into Africa, where his enemies, the younger Cato and the sons of Pompey, still 
 had a large army. Csesar gained a victory in the battle of Thapsus; after which 
 Cato, who had shut himself up in Utica, not wishing to survive the Roman Repub- 
 lic, which he saw had virtually approached its end, committed suicide. (B. C. 46.) 
 After his victory in Africa, Csesar returned to Rome; but the civil war was not fully 
 closed until the following year (B. C. 45), for Cneius and Sextus, the sons of Pom- 
 pey, had raised a large army in Spain. Csesar marched against them and gave them 
 a complete overthrow in the battle of Munda. Cneius was slain while fleeing from 
 ie field, but Sextus succeeded in making his escape. 
 
 CESAR'S DICTATORSHIP. 
 
 Dictatorship of Caesar. — Julius Caesar was now made Dictator of the Rcm.ir 
 world for life, with the title of Imperator, and was invested with all the powers of 
 a monarch, although the name and outward form of the Republic were permitted to 
 remain. Caesar's statue had been placed beside that of Jupiter in the Capitol, and 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 91 
 
 on it was marked the inscription, " To Cssar the Demi-god." Ho altered the laws, 
 corrected many abuses, granted the privil<.ges of Roman citizens to whole Roman 
 provinces, sent many citizens into the provinces as colonists, caused the Roman laws 
 to bo digested into a code, and planned many improvements, such as the diggmg of 
 can Us, the opening of harbors, the construction of roads, the collection of public 
 libKiriLs, the erection of a new theatre, and the building of a magnificent temple to 
 Mai-s, the «^od of war. The Dictator entertained the Roman people with magniti- 
 «r t shows" games, and banquets. Twenty thousand tables were placed in the streets 
 :( Rome to feast the people, who had now lost all the republican virtue of then 
 ancestors. 
 
 Conspiracy against Caesar.— Cxsar was soon suspected of a design to assume 
 the title of King. At the feast of the Lupercalia, Mark Antony offered him a crown. 
 It was believed that this was done at the secret instigation of the Dictator, but the 
 popular disapprobation of the act obliged Cresar to refuse the title and emblem of 
 royalty. Still it was thought that the Dictator was aspiring to a kingly dignity, and 
 a conspiracy was formed by about sixty Senators for the assassination of Caesar. At 
 the head of the conspirators were the Pr<etor, M. Cassias, who hated Csesar, and 
 Marcus Junius Brutus, a sincere friend of liberty and a republican of the old stamp, 
 but also a firm friend of Cresar. 
 
 Assassination of Cssar.-The Ides (i5lh) of March was the day fixed upon 
 for the assassination to take place. When Csesar had taken his seat in the Senate 
 House, the conspirators approached him under the pretense of saluting him; and 
 one of them, pretending to make some request, took hold of Qesar's robe as a signal, 
 whereupon the others rushed upon him with their daggers. The Dictator deiended 
 himself vigorously, throwing down such as opposed him, until he saw his dear 
 friend Brutus among the conspirators, and, exclaiming "Et tu Brute!" "Thou too 
 Brutus'" he fell down at the base of Pompey's statue, pierced with twenty-three 
 wounds, and expired. (B. C. 44-) As soon as the bloody work of the conspira- 
 tors was accomplished, Brutus, brandishing his dagger, congratulated the Senate, 
 and Cicero in particular, on the restoration of Roman liberty. The majority of the 
 Senators, seized with fear and astonishment, fled from Rome and hid themselves in 
 their houses. 
 
 Funeral of Caesar— Mark Antony— Flight of Brutus and Casstus.— On 
 the day of Cesar's funeral, Mark Antony appeared before the people in the Forum 
 of Rome to deliver the funeral oration. He began artfully to work up the passions 
 of the multitude by enumerating the brilliant expleits and the noble acts of the mur 
 dered Csesar, and then lifted up his bloody robe and showed them the number of 
 stabs in it. Antony also showed the people an image of wax, representing Csesar's 
 body all covered with wounds. The people, becoming so excited that they could 
 no-longer restrain their indignation against the assassins, stormed the Senate House, 
 tore up the benches to make a funeral pile, and ran through the streets with lighted 
 brands to set fire to the houses of Brutus, Cassius, and the otb«; conspirators. Bru 
 tus and Cassius fled from Rome to the Eastern Roman provinces, where they detei 
 mined to defend themselves and to arrest the rapid decline of the Roman Republic 
 
g2 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 MARK ANTONY AND OCTAVIUS C^SAR. 
 
 The Second Triumvirate. — Mark Antony, with the aid of Lepidus, one of his 
 adherents, aimed at the supreme power in the Roman world, but he found a power- 
 ful rival in the youthful Octavius Czesar, the grandson of the murdered Dictator's 
 sister Julia, and his adopted son and principal heir to the vast Roman territories. 
 The Roman world was threatened with another furious civil war, when the rivals, 
 4.nton« Lepidus, and Octavius, united in a league called the " Second Triumvi- 
 rate,'' and agreed to take upon themselves the government of the Roman Repub- 
 lic for five years. (B. C. 43.) The Triumyirs made a cruel and tyrannical use of 
 thi.ir power by causing all their most powerful opponents to be put to death. 
 Antony sacrificed his uncle, Lepidus yielded his brother, and Octavius, to his eter- 
 nal shame, allowed Cicero to be abandoned to the vengeance of his colleagues. 
 Cicero was murdered by a band of assassins who had been sent after him for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Brutus and Cassius in Greece — Battle of Philippi — Suicide of Brutus 
 and Cassius. — As soon as Octavius and Antony had finished their bloody work in 
 Rome they marched against Brutus and Cassius, who had raised an anny of mAre 
 than 100,000 in the Eastern Roman provinces. At Philippi, in Macedonia, two 
 battles were fought, in both of which Octavius and Antony were victorious. (B. C. 
 4.1.) Both Brutus and Cassius, in despair at their defeat, committed suicide ; and 
 with their death ended the hopes of the Roman Republic forever. After the battle 
 of Philippi, Octavius immediately returned to Rome, while Antony remained in the 
 East. 
 
 Antony and Cleopatra. — Antony passed over into Asia Minor. Wlaile atTar- 
 ;us, a city of Cilicia, the beautiful but wicked Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, came to 
 visit him. Antony was so captivated with the beauty of the Egj'ptian queen that 
 he went with her to Alexandria, where he abandoned himself to indolence, luxury, 
 and vice, equally regardless of the calls of honor, interest, or ambition. 
 
 Rebellion in Italy and new Division of the Roman World. — While An- 
 tony was thus wasting his time in Eg)'pt, a. formidable rebellion, headed by Lucius, 
 the brother, and Fulvia, the wife of Antony, broke out in Italy against Octavius. 
 But it was not until the rebellion had been suppressed and quiet restored that An- 
 tony resolved to return to Italy. On his way, at Athens, he met his wife Fulvia, 
 whom he blamed for having caused the recent disturbances in Italy, and treated her 
 with great contempt. Leaving her on her death-bed, Antony hastened to Italy, and 
 met the army of Octavius at Brundusium. It was expected that there would be a 
 bloody struggle; but a friendly treaty was effected, and, to cement the union, Antony 
 \named Octavia, the sister of Octavius. A new division of the Roman world fol- 
 lowed : to Octavius was assigned the West ; to Antony, the East ; to Lepidus, 
 Africa ; and Sextus Pompey, who was also admitted into the partnei-ship, was allowed 
 to hold the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, together with the Pe.oponnesu-S. 
 
 CIVIL WAR OF OCTAVIUS AND ANTONY. 
 
 Octavius and Antony. — The peace of the Roman world was soon again broken. 
 Octavius quarreled with Sextus Pompey and also with Lepidus, and deprived both 
 of them of their provinces, Pompey fled to the East, where he was slain by one 
 
C/CSAR AUGUSTUS. 
 
Si 
 
 JULIUS C/ESAR. 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 93 
 
 of Antony's lieutenants. Arftony was now the only obstacle in the way of the 
 ambition of Octavius, who was anxious to make himself sole master of the Roman 
 world. Antony had in the meantime led an unsuccessful expedition against the 
 Farthians ; after which he returned to Egypt, where he again plunged mto luxury 
 and dissipation, and allowed himself to be enslaved by the charms of Cleopatra, on 
 whom he bestowed several Roman provinces in Asia. When Antony's wife, Octa- 
 via, veiit to meet her husband, he ordered her to return to Rome, and shortly after 
 ward's he resolved to marry Cleopatra. 
 
 Quarrel of Octavius and Antony — Battle of Actium — Flight of Antony. 
 — Antony's foolish and disgraceful conduct rendered a quarrel between him and 
 Octavius unavoidable. Civil war ensued. The fleets and armies of the two rivals 
 met on opposite shores of the Gulf of Ambracia, near the city of Actium, in Epirus. 
 A battle ensued between the two fleets. The two armies, which were ranged on 
 opposite sides of the gulf, were spectators of the conflict, and encouraged the fleets, 
 by their shouts, to engage. Before the victory was decided, Cleopatra, with her 
 Egyptian squadron, fled from the engagement. Antony, leaving his fleet and army 
 to take care of themselves, immediately followed after the Egyptian queen. The 
 fleet of Octavius obtained the victory, and the land-forces of Antony soon afterward 
 united themselves with the army of Octavius. 
 
 Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra — Egypt a Roman Province. — After first 
 going to Italy and restoring quiet there, the triumphant Octanvius pursued Antony 
 and Cleopatra to Egypt. Antony, finding all his attempts to check the progress of 
 the conqueror useless, and being overcome with ungovernable rage and fury, blamed 
 Cleopatra as the cause of his misfortunes; and being determined never to become 
 a prisoner to his victorious rival, killed himself with his own sword. Cleopatra, 
 who had shut herself up in her palace, finding that Octavius intended to take her 
 to Rome to grace his triumph, put an end to her own life by applying a poisonous 
 reptile to her arm. Egypt immediately submitted to Octavius, and became a Roman 
 province. (B. C. 30.) 
 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. (B. C. 30-A. D. 476.) 
 
 THE REIGNS OF THE C^SARS. 
 
 THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS (B. C. SO— A. D. 14) 
 
 Octavius Sole Master, with the Title of Augustus. — The battle of 
 Actium made Octavius sole master of the Roman world. (B. C. 30,) Roman 
 liberty was now gone forever; and the Roman people, who had lost all the virtues 
 and republican spirit of their ancestors, made no attempt to restore the republican 
 constitution. The most illustrious citizens besought Octavius to take the govern- 
 ment into his own hands; and the people, tired of the oppression of tlie aristocracy 
 ^gladly placed themselves under the sway of a single master. The Senate con 
 ferred upon Octavius all the powers of sovereignty, with the title of .Augustus, o- 
 " The Divine," and of Imperator, or chief governor, for ten years ; and gave his 
 name to the sixth (now eighth) month, as the name of Julius Caesar had been given 
 to the fifth (now seventh) month. He was afterwards made Perpetual Tribune 
 of the People, which rendered his person sacred. A force of 9,000 men 
 
34 ANCIENT HISTOR V. 
 
 calle4 the Praetorian Guards, was stationed in Rome for the protection of the 
 Emperor's person. Augustus, however, used his power moderately, and ruled with 
 mildness and clemency. He restored the authority of the Senate. The cruel and 
 tyrannical Octavius became the mild and merciful Augustus. 
 
 General Peace — Great Extent of the Roman Empire — Birth of the 
 Saviour. — After additional conquests by the Romans, and the annexation of 
 Acjuitania, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Illyria to the Roman dominions, a genera] 
 peace prevailed throughout the Roman Empire, which now extended from tli« 
 Atlantic ocean to the Euphrates, and from the Rhine and the Danube to th 
 African deserts and the falls of the Nile. It was at this time that Jesus Christ, the 
 Saviour of mankind, was born in the little village of Bethlehem, in Judea. 
 
 Rebellion of the Germans — Defeat of Varus — Death of Augustus. — A 
 lew years after the birth of the Saviour, the Germans, who had been subjected to 
 Roman rule, vigorously attempted to recover their independence. The Roman gen- 
 eral, Varus, was enticed into the German forests, where his whole army was cut to 
 pieces. (A. D. 9.) Varus, in despair at this defeat, committed suicide. The loss 
 of this army was a terrible blow to the Emperor Augustus, who, in paroxysms of 
 grief, exclaimed, "Varus! Varus! restore me my legions!" The danger of an 
 incursion of the barbarians into Italy was prevented by Tiberius, the son-in-law of 
 the emperor, who was sent with an army to guard the passes of the Rhine. After 
 a remarkably quiet and prosperous reign of forty-four years, Augustus died in the 
 year 14 after Christ. 
 
 REIGN OF TIBERIUS (A. D. 14-37). 
 
 Cruelty and Tyranny of Tiberius — Crucifixion of the Saviour. — On ths 
 
 death of Augustus, his son-in-law Tiberius succeeded to the throne of the Roman 
 Empire. Tiberius commenced his reign with an appearance of moderation and 
 clemency, but he soon gave way to his cruel, jealous and despotic nature. In the 
 early part of his reign, the noble and virtuous Germanicus, his nephew, gained 
 brilliant victories over the Germans; but the fame of Germanicus excited the jeal- 
 ousy of the unworthy Emperor, who appointed him governor of the Eastern Roman 
 provinces, and afterwards procured his death by poison. It was during the reign 
 of Tiberius that Jesus Christ, the Redeemer of the human race, was crucified on 
 Mount Calvary, under the prsetorship of Pontius Pilate, the Roman Governor of Judea. 
 Crimes of Tiberius and Sejanus — Assassination of Tiberius. — The 
 cruelty of Tiberius increased every day. Many of the nobles died by his orders. 
 His depravity and cruelty were equaled by that of his minister and favorite, Sejanus, 
 who himself secretly aspired to the throne, and who artfully contrived to have the 
 Emperor removed from Rome to the island of Capreas, near Naples, for the pur- 
 pose of freeing him from the cares of government. The emperor soon abandoned 
 himself to every sort of vice and debauchery, while Sejanus was ruling wiLh the 
 utmost cruelty and despotism in Rome, where he caused numbers to be put tc 
 death. At length, becoming acquainted with the ambitious designs of Sejanus, 
 liberiiis had him arrested for treason, and put to death. The friends and relatives 
 of Sejanus met with the same fate. At last Tiberius himself wac; smothered in his 
 bed by one of his own officers, at the instigation of the unworthy Caligula, sod of 
 the worthy Germanicus (A. D. 37.) 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. p^ 
 
 REIGN OF CALIGULA (A. D. 87-41). 
 
 Crimes and Follies of Caligula — Assassination of Caligula. — Caligula 
 oceanic the successoi of Tiberius. His accession was welcomed by the Roman 
 people. Caligula, like his predecessor, commenced his reign with prudence and 
 mildness, but the people soon found him to be a detestable tyrant and a wicked 
 monster- He ordered all the prisoners in Rome and hundreds of old and infirm 
 citizens to be thrown to wild beasts, for the mere pleasure of seeing them tortured 
 icd torn to pieces. He at length claimed divine honors, erected a temple to him 
 jc':f, and instituted a college of priests to superintend the worship of his person. 
 He often invited his favorite horse, Incitatus, to dine at the imperial table, fed him 
 with gilded oats, built him a stable of marble, and his death only prevented him 
 from raising the animal to the dignity of Consul. The foolish emperor often em- 
 ployed inventions to imitate thunder for the purpose of defying Jupiter; and he 
 pretended to converse in whispers with the statue of that divinity, and sometimes 
 pretended to be angry with its answers, and threatened to send it back to Greece. 
 When the Senate appeared reluctant in adulation, he threatened to massacre the 
 whole body. On one occasion, being angry vi'ith the citizens, Caligula wished that 
 the whole Roman people had but one head, that he might cut it off at one blow. 
 The emperor's prodigality and tyranny increased every day. At last a conspiracy 
 was formed against the tyrant, and he was murdered by his own guards. (A. D. 41.) 
 
 REIGN OF CLAUDIUS (A. D. 4,1-54). 
 
 Roman Successes in feritain — Assassination of Claudius. — Claudius, 
 brother of Germanicus and uncle of Caligida, was next proclaimed Emperor by the 
 Prtetorian Guards, and this choice was confirmed by the Senate. Claudius, who 
 was a perfect idiot, was a mere instrument in the hands of his wife and favorites. 
 The Romans now determined to obtain full possession of Britain, and Claudius sent 
 his general, Aulus Plautius, to conquer the Britons. The Emperor Claudius him- 
 self afterwards undertook an expedition to Britain. The Britons were finally defeated, 
 and their chief, Caractacus, was carried a prisoner to Rome. As Caractacus was 
 walking through the streets of Rome, loaded with chains, he exclaimed, " Alas ! is 
 it possible that a people possessed of such magnificence at home should envy my 
 humble cottage in Britain !" At length Claudius put to death his wife Messalini, 
 whose crimes and Cruelties had become intolerable. The emperor then married his 
 niece Agrippina. After having induced Claudius to appoint her son Nero his suc- 
 cessor, Agrippina caused the emperor to be poisoned. (A. D. 54.) 
 
 REIGN OF NERO (A. D. 54-68). 
 
 Crimes of Nero. — Agrippina having secured the commander of the Pnetoriaii 
 Guards to her interest, Nero was proclaimed Emperor by the army, and this choice 
 was confirmed by the Senate. Nero had been nurtured in the midst of crimes an<? 
 the people justly dreaded his accession to the throne. He, however, ruled jvill 
 •Mildness during the first five years of his reign, while under the influence of his in 
 ttructors, Seneca the philosopher, and Burrhus. At length his mother, Agrippina, 
 seeing herself neglected, designed to bestow the crown on Britannicus, the son of 
 Claudius. Becoming aware of this, Nero caused both Agrippina and Britannicus 
 to be put to death. From this time, Nero abandoned himself to cruelty and blood- 
 
ryS ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 shed. Buirhus, his minister, Seneca the philosopher, and Lucan the poet, and 
 many of the most eminent nobles, were put to death by order of the hard-hearted 
 emperor. Nero's first wife, Octavia, was divorced and murdered, and his second 
 wife, Poppsea, was killed by a kick from her husband. The virtuous Corbulo, who 
 'had defeated the Parthians, was rewarded for his victories, by the cruel emperor, 
 with death. During the reign of Nero, the Jews began that rebellion against the 
 Roman power which finally resulted in the destruction of that people as a nation. 
 The Emperor Nero often appeared on the stage as an actor, niiiSiCian, and gladia- 
 tor. He also visited Greece, and often came forth victor in tne Clympic games. 
 
 Burning of Rome and Persecution of the Christians. — In the year 64 A. P., 
 a frightful conflagration of nine days destroyed the greater part of the city of Rome; 
 and it was generally believed that the fire was kindled by the secret orders of Nero. 
 It is said that the emperor stood upon a high tower while the fire was raging, enjoy, 
 ing the scene, and singing to the music of his harp the Destruction of Troy. In 
 order to withdraw the blame of the cause of this calamity from himself, Nero 
 charged it upon the Christians of Rome, thousands of whom were consequently 
 most cruelly tortured and put to death. Many were covered with the skins of wild 
 beasts and devoured by dogs, some were crucified, and others were burned alive. 
 
 Victories of Suetonius Paulinus in Britain. — In Britain, the Romans under 
 Suetonius Paulinus gained l:irilliant victories over the savage tribes of that island. 
 At length the Iceni, under their heroic queen, Boadicea, rose against the Roman 
 power, burned London, and put 70,000 Romans to death. But the Rorrxin general 
 avenged the death of his countrymen in a terrible battle, in which he defeated 
 Boadicea, and in which 80,000 Britons -were killed. In despair at this defeat, 
 Boadicea committed suicide. 
 
 Overthrow and Death of Nero. — Nero's prodigality knew no restraint. The 
 Roman provinces were pillaged to support the emperor's luxurious manner of living. 
 He was popular with the lower classes, to whom he made monthly distributions of 
 com and frequent supplies of wine, and whom he delighted with magnificent shows. 
 At length, Julius Vindex, the Roman governor of Gaul, unfurled the standard of 
 rebellion ; and soon afterward, Galba headed an insurrection in Spain. Vindex 
 was killed in the contest. Galba secured Otho, the commander of the Praetorian 
 Guards, and the Senate to his interest ; and Nero, abandoning all hope, caused him- 
 self to be mortally wounded by one of his own freedmen. (A. D. 68.) Nero was 
 the last emperor of the Julian line of the Ccssars. 
 
 REIGN OF GALBA (A. D. 68-69). 
 
 Overthrown and Death of Galba. — Upon the death of Nero, the virtuous Galba 
 obtained the imperial purple, which, however, he did not wear very long. He 
 allowed himself to be ruled by unworthy favorites; and when Otho, who had been 
 one of his principal adherents, found that the emperor did not name him as his suc- 
 cessor, he induced the Praetorian Guards to revolt. Galba was ir-I^ed in iie street* 
 of Rome during a short struggle, after a reign of seven months. (A. D. 69.) 
 
 REIGN OF OTHO (A. D. 69). 
 
 Overthrow and Death of Otho. — The dissolute and unworthy Otho, who was 
 next invested with tlie purple, was a mere instrument in the hands of the licentious 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 97 
 
 soldiers. He was soon disturbed in the possession of the throne by a revolt of the 
 Roman legions on the German frontier, which proclaimed their viciovis commander^ 
 Vitelliiis, Emperor. Otho marched against Vitellius, but his troops were defeated; 
 and O'ho, in despair, committed suicide, after a reign of but little more than three 
 months. (A. D. 69.) 
 
 REIGN OF VITELLIUS (A. D. 69-70). 
 
 Extravagance and Cruelty of Vitellius. — Upon Otho's death, Vitellius was 
 declared Emperor by the Senate. When Vitellius entered Rome, he caused more 
 than four hundred of the Prsetorian Guards to be put to death. Vitellius entrusted 
 the management of public affairs to the most abandoned and debauched wretches. 
 He won the favor of the Roman ])eople by donations of provisions and by expensive 
 entertainments. Vitellius was noted for his gluttonous and luxurious habits. In 
 less than four months he squandered a sum equal to seven millions sterling on the 
 luxuries of the table and for expensive banquets. Not satisfied with gratifying his 
 appetite, the emperor indulged in acts of the most unrelenting cruelty. Many who 
 ate with him were put to death without mercy. Many of the wealthy Roman citi- 
 zens were deprived of their property, and also of their lives, by this bloated and 
 debauched emperor. He declared that he derived pleasure from tormenting his 
 victims. On one occasion, when a man was condemned to death, he sxecuted his 
 two sons with their father for begging his life. 
 
 Overthrow and Death of Vitellius. — At last the Roman legions in the East 
 engaged in the siege of Jerusalem proclaimed their general, Vespasian, Emperor. 
 Province after province submitted to Vespasian's troops, who marched to Italy and 
 took possession of Rome. A furious and bloody struggle ensued in the city; and 
 Vitellius was seized by his enemies, put to death, and his body thrown into the 
 Tiber, amid the execration of the populace. (A. D. 70.) 
 
 REIGN OF VESPASIAN (A. D. 70-79). 
 
 Wise Reforms of Vespasian. — Upon the ignominious death of Vitellius, Ves- 
 p)asian was hailed as Emperor by the Roman people. This good and virtuous 
 monarch did all in his power for the welfare of his subjects, by whom hie was 
 greatly beloved. He instituted many wise reforms, improved the administration of 
 justice, and restored the discipline of the army and the authority of the Senate. He 
 encouraged the arts and sciences, and beautified Rome with many splendid edifices, 
 of which the Coliseum was the most remarkable. The Emperor Vespasian was 
 Tery generous, as is fully shown by his refusal to punish certain conspirators who 
 had plotted against him. 
 
 Jewish Rebellion — Destruction of Jerusalem and of the Jewish Nation. 
 — The Jews, who had risen in rebellion against the Roman power during the reign 
 of Neio, were subdued during the reign of Vespasian, when they were destroyed 
 as a nation. The rebellion of the Jews was caused by the tyranny of Florus, the 
 Roman governor of Judea. The deluded Jews believed themselves to be able to 
 resist the gigantic power of the whole Roman world. Vespasian had been for three 
 years conducting the war against the Jews when he was called to Rome to receive 
 the imperial purple. When Vespasian left Judea, he assigned the command of his 
 legions to his son Titus, who laid siege to Jerusalem during the Feast of the Pass- 
 7' 
 
98 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 over, wlien people from all parts of Judea were gathered in the Holy City. The 
 Jews defended their city with an army of 600,000 men; but while the Roman 
 armies were battering down the walls of the city, the infatuated Jews were divided 
 into two hostile factions, which waged a fierce civil war against each other in the 
 streets of Jerusalem. Both factions defended the city with the most determined 
 bravery, imtil they were so exhausted by famine and by internal wars that they were 
 i:ompelled to surrender the city to the besieging Romans. But for three months 
 longer the Temple held out against the besiegers. When it was finally taken, 
 Titus, who was anxious to spare this noble edifice, was unable to restrain the savage 
 fury of his enraged soldiers ; and the Holy City and the Temple were reduced to a 
 heap of ruins. (A. D. 70.) Many of the vanquished Jews fell by the swords of 
 their conquerors or died by their own hands, while thousands were sold into slavery. 
 Ever since the destruction of Jerusalem, the Jews, scattered over various parts of the 
 earth, have been outcasts and wanderers. 
 
 Final Conquest of Britain by Julius Agricola. — The reign of Vespasian is 
 also noted for the final conquest of Britain by the Romans. This was effected by 
 Julius Agricola, two years after the fall of Jerusalem. (A. D. 72.) Agricola car- 
 ried the renown of the Roman arms to the borders of Caledonia (now Scotland); 
 but he was unable to subdue the wild Picts and Scots, who inhabited that rugged 
 country. Agricola also taught the Britons the arts of peace, and introduced among 
 them the Roman customs and manners, thus laying the foundations for the civiliza- 
 tion of the conquered Britons. The Emperor Vespasian died after a reign of nine 
 years. (A. D. 79.) 
 
 REIGN OF TITUS (A. D. 79-81). 
 
 Good Character of Titus — Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. — 
 
 rhe noble Vespasian was succeeded as Emperor by his son Titus, the conqueror of 
 Jerusalem. Titus had been very dissipated and vicious in his habits ; but when he 
 assumed the imperial purple, he reformed, and became, like his father, a virtuous, 
 wise, and just sovereign, having the welfare of his subjects at heart. On this 
 account he was called "The Delight of Mankind." During the first year of the 
 reign of Titus (A. D. 79), the most terrible eruption of the volcano of Vesuvius 
 ever known occurred, completely destroying the two great cities, Herculaneum 
 and Pompeii. The Emperor Titus died after a reign of two years. (A. D. 81.) 
 
 REIGN OF DOMITIAN (A. D. 81-96). 
 
 Tyranny and Follies of Domitian. — The good Titus was succeeded as 
 Emperor by his brother Domitian, who at first appeared to be a just and merciful 
 sovereign; but Domitian's character soon changed, and he became a hardhearted 
 tyrant. His favorite amusement was archeiy, and his chief ambition was to enter- 
 tain the Roman people with expensive sports and games. He spent his hours of 
 veclusion in killing flies. This emperor had also a great passion for militaiy glury. 
 Ele undeitook an expedition to Gaul, but as he did not meet with an enemy, ht 
 dressed slaves like Gennans, took them to Rome, and pretended that they were 
 prisoners whom he had taken in battle. 
 
 Assassination of Domitian. — The Emperor Domitian cruelly persecuted the 
 Christians, and siezed the estates of the wealthy to gratify his avarice. At length 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 99 
 
 u eonspiracy was formed against the despot by his own wife, Domitia, whom he had 
 resolved to put to death; and Domitian, the last of the Caesars, was assassinated 
 after some resistance. (A. D. 96.) 
 
 THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. 
 
 REIGN OF NERVA (A. D. 96-98). 
 
 Noble and Generous Conduct of Nerva.— Upon the assassination of 
 Domitian, the talented and virtuous Nerva was chosen Emperor by the Senate. 
 Nerva was liberal and generous to excess. He made good laws, abolished oppress- 
 ive taxes, and even sold his gold and plate that he might be able to bestow gifts on 
 his friends. He allowed no statue to be erected to himself, and no Senator was 
 punished with death during his mild and merciful reign. This good emperor died 
 after a reign of two years. (A. D. 98.) 
 
 REIGN OF TRAJAN (A. D, 98-117). 
 
 Good Character of Trajan. — The next emperor after Nerva was Trajan, who 
 was a mild and merciful monarch as well as a successful warrior. Trajan devoted 
 his attention to the welfare of his empire, and took measures for improving its 
 condition. Notwithstanding his many merits, Trajan was a persecutor of the 
 Christians, 
 
 Conquest of Dacia by Trajan. — Soon after Trajan, became Emperor, the 
 Dacians north of the Danube ravaged the northern frontier of the Roman Empire. 
 The Emperor Trajan led an army against the Dacians, overthrew them in battle, 
 and reduced their country, Dacia, to the condition of a Roman province. When 
 Trajan returned to Rome from his Dacian campaign, a splendid triumph was cele- 
 brated, and the public rejoicing continued for one hundred and twenty days. 
 
 Trajan's Asiatic Campaigns. — The Emperor Trajan afterwards marched into 
 Asia for the purpose of subduing the Parthians and the Armenians, who attempted 
 to regain their independence. Parthia, Syria, and Chaldea were conquered by the 
 Roman Emperor after several campaigns. Trajan made a triumphal entry into 
 Babylon, crossed the Tigris, took Ctesiphon, in Syria, and conquered some of the 
 Persian provinces. The fatigues of war hastened Trajan's death, which took place 
 in Cilicia, after a reign of nineteen years. (A. D. 117.) 
 
 REIGN OF ADRIAN (A. D. 117-133). 
 
 Adrian's Love of Peace. — The good Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, who 
 also belonged to the list of good emperors. Adrian was a great lover of peace, 
 and he abandoned all the countries which had been conquered by Trajan, as he 
 deemed them detrimental, rather than valuable, to the Roman Empire. The 
 Emperor Adrian, with all his many virtues, was a persecutor of the Christians. 
 
 Adrian's Travels. — The Emperor Adrian spent much of his time in travelii.g 
 over Gaul, Spain, Germany, Britain, Greece, and through all his dominions in Asia 
 and Africa. In Britain he greatly improved the city of York, which was the capi- 
 tal of that Roman province. The emperor also caused a wall to be erected from 
 the river Tyne to Solway Frith, in order to prevent the ravages of the Caledonians, 
 
lOO ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 who inhabited the northern part of the island. Adrian iied near Naples, after a 
 quiet and prosperous reign of eighteen years. (A. D. 135.) 
 
 REIGN OF ANTONINUS PIUS (A. D. 133-168). 
 
 Mild and Beneficial Rule of Antoninus Pius — Tranquillity of the Em- 
 pire. — Adrian's successor on the imperial throne was the good and peaceful Titus 
 Antor.inus, who, on account of his mild and merciful reign, was called Anto:ainus 
 Pius. The period of the reign of this emperor was the most happy and prosperous that 
 the Roman Empire ever enjoyed, as peace prevailed throughout the whole Roman 
 world. The virtuous Antoninus suspended the persecution of the Christians, and 
 punished their persecutors. He devoted all his energies to the welfare of his sub- 
 jects, and protected the people of the various Roman provinces from the oppression 
 and avarice of their governors. After a tranquil and prosperous reign of twenty- 
 two years, the good Antoninus Pius died. (A. D. 163). 
 
 RKIGN OF MARCUS AURELIUS (A. D. 16S-180). 
 
 Parthian Expedition of Verus. — Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the successor 
 of Titus Antoninus Pius, also belonged to the class of good emperors. Marcus 
 Aurelius shared his power with his unworthy son-in-law, Lucius Verus, whom, 
 soon after his accession to the throne, he sent with an army against the Parthians. 
 Verus established his residence at Antioch, where he abandoned himself to all sorts 
 of vice, while his officers defeated the Parthians. 
 
 War Against the Marcomanni — The " Thundering Legion." — A fright- 
 ful war next broke out between the Romans and the Marcomanni, a powerful 
 German tribe of barbarians. Both. Aurelius and Verus took the field against the 
 barbarians ; but the intemperate Verus soon died. Marcus Aurelius remained five 
 years in Germany, carrying on the war against the Marcomanni. On one occasion, 
 the Romans were drawn into a narrow defile, where they had almost perished from 
 thirst, when they were relieved by a thunder-storm, which struck into the tents of 
 the barbarians, who, greatly frightened, immediately agreed to a peace with the 
 Romans. It was believed that the storm was sent in answer to the prayers of the 
 Christian soldiers in the Roman army. The emperor immediately named their 
 division "The Thundering Legion." 
 
 Character of the Successors of Marcus Aurelius. — The mild and bene- 
 ficent Marcus Aurelius died at Vienna, after a reign of seventeen years. (A. D. 
 180.) He was the last of a succession of good Roman emperors. With his death 
 the glory of the Roman Empire virtually ended. The greater number of his suc- 
 cessors were detestable and intolerable tyrants, who generally suffered violent deaths. 
 From this time the Roman Empire rapidly verged towards its fall: the barbarians 
 from Northern Europe at length pressed heavily upon its northern frontiers, and 
 finsilly put an end to its existence. 
 
 THE PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM, 
 
 REIGN OF COMMODUS (A. D. 180-192). 
 
 Feats of Commodus — Assassination of Commodus. — Marcas Aurelius 
 was succeeded on the imperial throne by his son Commodus, who, on account of 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. loi 
 
 his vices and cruelties, proved himself unworthy of the imperial dignity. Commo- 
 dus possessed great physical strength; and he often fought with the gladiators in 
 the Amphitheatre, where he conquered seven hundred and fifty times, on which 
 account he styled himself " Conqueror of a Thousand Gladiators." The tyranny 
 of Commodus at length led to plots against his life ; ai^ he was assassinated after 
 a reign of twelve years, and his body was cast into the Tiber. (A. D. 192.) 
 
 REION OF PERTINAX (A. D. 192-193). 
 
 Assassination of Pertinax. — The virtuous Pertinax succeeded the unworthy 
 Commodus on the imperial throne. Pertinax protected the' citizens from the inso- 
 lence of the Praetorian Guards, who, for this reason, rose against the good emperor 
 and put him to death, after a reign of only three months. (A. P. 193.) 
 
 REIGN OF DIDIUS JULIAKUS (A. D. 198). 
 
 Purchase of the Empire by Didius Julianus — His Overthrow and 
 Death. — The insolent Pr^torian Guards now put up the Roman Empire for sale 
 to the highest bidder. The wealthy Senator, Didius Julianus, bid off at a sum 
 equal to ten millions of dollars, and was accordingly raised to the imperial dignity. 
 This disgraceful transaction raised up several rivals against the unworthy Didius 
 Julianus. These were Septimius Severus, who commanded the Roman legions in 
 Pannonia; Pescennius Niger, in Syria; and Clodius Albinus, in Britain. Sep- 
 timius Severus reached Rome before his rivals and was made Emperor; and Didius 
 Julianus was put to death by the executioner. (A. D, 193.) 
 
 REIGN OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (A. D. 193-211). 
 
 Overthrow and Death of Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. — 
 After securing the imperial purple, Septimius Severus took the field against Pescen- 
 nius Niger, who was defeated and killed in battle on the plain of Issus, famous for 
 the great victory gained by Alexander the Great over the Persians five centuries 
 before. Severus next marched against Clodius Albinus in Gaul; and a terrible 
 battle was fought at Lyons, and Albinus, being defeated and taken prisoner, was 
 put to death. 
 
 Campaigns of Septimius Severus in Asia and Britain. — Having overcome 
 his rivals, Septimius Severus next marched against the Parthians, who continued 
 their attacks on the Roman power in Asia. Severus defeated the Parthians, and 
 captured their principal cities, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Babylon. The emperor 
 was afterward called to Britain to repress the incursions of the savage Picts and 
 Scots. After driving back the savages, Severus rebuilt the wall between the Clyde 
 and Forth rivers, for the purpose of keeping the troublesome savages in their own 
 part of the island. The Emperor Sejjtimius Severus died at York, in Britain, after a 
 reigs of nearly eighteen years. (A. D 217.) 
 
 REIGN OF CARACALLA (A. D 211-217) 
 
 Cruelty and Tyranny of Caracalla — Assassination of Caracalla. — Septi- 
 mius Severus left his empire to his two sons, Caracalla and Geta; but Caracalla 
 Killed his brother in his mother's arms, and became sole emperor. Caracalla proved 
 
I02 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 to be a cruel and tyrannical sovereign. His despotic conduct finally caused his as 
 sassination after a reign of six years. (A. D. 217.) 
 
 REIGN OF MACRINUS (A. D. 217-218). 
 
 Overthrow and Death of Macrinus. — Macrinus, captain of the Praitorian 
 Guards, and instigator of the assassination of Caracalla, was next raised to the im- 
 perial dignity; but soon a competitor appeared to contest with him the sovereignty 
 af the Roman Empire. Macrinus was put to death, and his competitor, Ileliog-- 
 oalus, was raised to the imperial throne. (A. D. 218.) 
 
 REIGN OF HELIOGABALUS (A. D. 218-222). 
 
 Vices and Follies of Heliogabalus. — The sensualities, vices, and follies of 
 Heliogabalus soon exhibited themselves. His prodigality knew no bounds. His 
 suppers sometimes cost sixty thousand dollars each. He dressed himself in gold 
 and purple, and wore the same dress only once. He created a senate of women to 
 arrange the fashions of dress, and raised his horse to the office of Consul. 
 
 Assassination of Heliogabalus. — The mother of Heliogabalus, for the pur- 
 pose of restraining the emperor's vicious conduct, proposed his cousin, the virtuous 
 Alexander Severus, as his partner in the empire. The affections of the soldiers 
 were soon bestowed on Alexander; and Heliogabalus was assassinated, and his body 
 was cast into the Tiber. (A. D. 222.) 
 
 REIGN OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS (A. D. 222-28S). 
 
 Beneficent Rule of Alexander Severus. — The good Alexander Severus was 
 universally acknowledged as Emperor upon the assassination of Heliogabalus. 
 Alexander soon proved himself in every respect deserving of his high station. He 
 instituted many wise reforms for the benefit of the Roman people. 
 
 Assassination of Alexander Severus. — The strict military discipline of 
 Alexander Severus inflamed the soldiers against him, and he was murdered by them 
 while engaged in driving away the barbarians who had invaded the northern parts 
 of the Roman Empire. (A. D. 235.) 
 
 REIGN OF MAXIMIN (A. D. 235-238). 
 
 Tyranny and Cruelties of Maximin. — The Thracian Maximin, who had in- 
 stigated the soldiers to the assassination of the worthy Alexander Severus, succeeded 
 to the imperial throne. Maximin soon proved himself to be an intolerable despot. 
 He put rich men to death for the purpose of seizing their estates, and he rigorously 
 persecuted the Christians. 
 
 Overthrow and Death of Maximin. — At length the tyranny and cruelties ol 
 the Emperor Maximin led to a rebellion in Africa, headed by the Pro consul Gor- 
 dian, who was highly esteemed for his virtues. The soldiers of Gordian compelled 
 their general to accept the imperial office. The Senate and people of Rome con- 
 firmed the elevation of Gordian, and declared Maximin, who was then conducting 
 a war against the barbarians in Germany, a public enemy. When Maximin received 
 int elligence of this, he flew into the most ungovernable rage, and resolved to march 
 to Rome and massacre all his opponents. The virtuous Gordian was defeated and 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 i<^3 
 
 slain in battle by Maximin's adherents in Africa. Soon afterward, the iletestable 
 Maxirain was killed by his own troops while on his inarch to attack Rome. (A. 
 D. 238.) 
 
 REIGN OF GORDIAN (A. D. 238-244). 
 
 Short Reign and Assassination of Pupienus and Balbinus — Gordian. 
 
 —Just before the death of the Emperor Maximin, the Roman Senate had appointed 
 Pupienus and Balbinus Emperors; }ealousy and enmity having arisen between 
 th€m, both were soon assassinated by the Praetorian Guards; whereupon the youth- 
 ful Gordian, a grandson of the Gordian who had fallen in Africa, received the 
 imperial purple. 
 
 The Persian Empire of the Sassanidas. — The Roman Empire was at this 
 time greatly harassed on the east by the New Persians, who, after having overthrown 
 the Parthian Empire and established the Persian Empire of the Sassanidse, attempted 
 to overthrow the Roman power in Asia. 
 
 Gordian's Victories over the Persians — Assassination of Gordian. — 
 The Emperor Gordian defeated the Persians under their valiant king, Sapor, drove 
 them out of Syria, and compelled them to abandon Mesopotamia; but he was finally 
 assassinated by Philip the Arabian, commander of the Praetorian Guards, who caused 
 himself to be made Emperor. (A. D. 244.) 
 
 REIGN OF PHILIP THE ARABIAN (A. D. 244-249). 
 
 The loooth Anniversary of Rome. — The Emperor Philip the Arabian soughi 
 to signalize his reign by a magnificent celebration of the one thousandth anniversary 
 of Rome. The Roman people were entertained with the most splendid shows, and 
 two thousand gladiators fought in the Amphitheatre for their amusement. 
 
 Overthrow and Death of Philip the Arabian. — The Emperor Philip sent 
 his general, Decius, with an army, to suppress a rebellion which had broken out in 
 Pannonia. The soldiers of Decius compelled their general to accept the office of 
 Emperor t^ threatening to kill him if he refused. Philip, on hearing of this, marched 
 against Decius, but was defeated and slain near Verona. (A. D. 249..) 
 
 REIGN OF DECIUS (A. D. 249-2S1). 
 
 " Great Persecution of the Christians. — The Emperor Decius was in mmy 
 respects a wise and virtuous sovereign; but he tarnished his character by the most 
 cruel persecutions of the Christians. Thousands of these persons in various parts 
 of the Roman Empire were driven from their homes, subjected to the severest tor- 
 tures, and put to death in the most cruel manner. Many fled for refuge to tlie 
 mountains and deserts. 
 
 Gothic Invasion of the Empire — Defeat and Death of Decius. — Durmg 
 the reign of Decius, occurred a formidable invasion of the Roman Empire by the 
 Goths, a Scandinavian tribe, who crossed the Danube and frightfully devastated 
 Moesia and Thrace. The Emperor Decius marched against the barbarians and 
 gained a great victory over them; but he was at last defeated, and, in despair, he 
 plunged into a marsh and was immediately swallowed up. (A. D. 251.) 
 
104 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 REIGN OF GALLUS (A. D. 2S1-2S3). 
 
 Cowardly Conduct of Gallus — Assassination of Gallus — iEmilianus. — 
 Upon the death of Decius, Gallus was proclaimed Emperor by the army. Gallus 
 made an ignominious peace with the Goths, and renewed the violent persecution 
 of the Christians which Decius had commenced. The cowardly conduct of Gallus 
 arou.'ed universal indignation among his subjects, and the Eoman armies in the 
 East proclaimed ^milianus Emp>eror, whereupon Gallus was killed by his own sol- 
 liers. The Senate refused to recognize ^milianus as Emperor, whereupon he was 
 out Lc death by his own troops, and the virtuous Valerian was proclaimed and 
 acknowledged Emperor. (A. D. 253.) 
 
 REIGN OF VALERIAN (A. D. 2SS-260). 
 
 The Goths and the Scythians — The Persians. — Valerian's shining quali- 
 ties did not appear to much advantage when he became emperor. The Christians 
 were- cruelly persecuted, and the Roman Empire was ravaged on the north by the 
 Goth-> and the Scythians, and on the east by the Persians. 
 
 Captivity of Valerian in Persia — His Brutal Treatment by Sapor. — The 
 Emperor Valerian defeated the Goths; but when he attempted to driva the Persians 
 out of Syria, he was surrounded by the Persian army, taken prisoner, and carried 
 in triu)n.ph to Persia. The Persian king, Sapor, caused the captive emperor to be 
 treated in the most brutal manner, — using his neck as a footstool whenever he 
 mountCil his horse, and after keeping him in captivity for seven years, caused him 
 to be flayed alive, and his skin to be stuffed and dyed in scarlet, and nailed up in a 
 Persian temple as a great national trophy. (A. D. 260.) 
 
 REIGN OF GALLIENUS (A. D. 260-268). 
 
 Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra. — Gallienus, the son of Valerian, succeeded 
 as Emperor, receiving the intelligence of his father's cruel treatment and death 
 with inward satisfaction. The barbarians now pressed upon the Roman Empire 
 on all sides ; and a host of competitors appeared for the thronis, the most powerful 
 of whom was Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra, who inflicted severe defeats upon the 
 Persians. 
 
 Zenobia, Quean of the East — Assassination of Gallienus. — In order to 
 gain the friendship and support of Odenatus, the Emperor Gallienus made him his 
 partner in the Empire, assigning to him the Eastern Roman pravince". But Oden- 
 atus was soon murdered by his own troops, and was succeeded on the throne of 
 Palmyra by his widow, Zenobia, who styled herself " Queen of the East." All the 
 rivals of Gallienus suffered violent deaths; and Gallienus himself wa.s assassinated 
 while he was besieging one of his rivals in Milan. (A. D. 268.) 
 
 REIGN OF FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS (A. D. 26S-270.) 
 
 Defeat of the Goths and Vandals by Flavius Claudius. — Flavins Claudius 
 succeeded Gallienus on the imperial throne. Claudius defeated the Goths and the 
 Vandals with frightful slaughter; after which he marched against Zenobia^ the 
 Queen of the East, but died on his way of a pestilence which had broken out in his 
 army. (A. D. 270.) . 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 1 05 
 
 REIGN OF AURELIAN (A. D. 270-275). 
 
 Quintillius — Defeat of the Germans and Vandals by Aurelian. — Quin- 
 'jllius, the brother and successor of Flavius Claudius, killed himself in despair, after 
 a reign of seventeen days, when he learned that Aurelian had been proclaimed 
 Emperor by the army. (A. D. 270.) Aurelian defeated and drove back the bar- 
 barian Goths and Vandals from the northern frontiers of the Roman Empire. 
 
 Overthrow and Captivity of Zenobia. — After his successes over the barbarians 
 in the North, the Emperior Aurelian passed over into Asia, overthrew the Kingdom 
 of Palmyra, carried Zenobia, the Queen of the East, captive to Rome, and presented 
 her with an estate, where, to all appearances, she passed the remainder of hor life 
 contentedly. 
 
 Assassination of Aurelian. — With some commendable qualities, Aurelian 
 possessed a stern and severe disposition. While marching with an army against 
 the Persians, he was assassinated by some of his own officers. (A. D. 275.) 
 
 REIGN OF TACITUS (A. D. 27S). 
 
 Character of Tacitus. — The enlightened and virtuous Tacitus, a descendant 
 of the historian of that name, was chosen Emperor by the Senate, after Aurelian's 
 assassination. Tacitus distinguished himself as a soldier, and died in Cappadocia, 
 while preparing to carry on a war against Persia, after a reign of seven months. 
 (A. D. 275.) 
 
 REIGN OF PROBUS (A. D. 27S-2S2). 
 
 Florian and Probus. — Florian, a brother of Tacitus, was proclaimed Emperor 
 by one portion of the army, while Probus was chosen by another portion. As 
 Florian was not acknowledged by the Senate, he killed himself in despair, and 
 Probus was left in full possession of the empire. (A. D. 275.) 
 
 Defeat of th.e Barbarians by Probus — Assassination of Probus. — Probus 
 was a successful warrior. He first overthrew the barbarians who had invaded Gaul, 
 killing 100,000 of their number. He next defeated the Goths, the Vandals, and 
 the Sannatians. Having passed his native city, Sirmium, in Pannonia, Probus em- 
 ployed his soldiers in draining a marsh, but they, disliking the work, became enraged 
 and killed their emperor. (A. D. 282.) 
 
 REIGN OF CARUS (A, D. 2S2-283). 
 
 Victories of Carus over the Sarmatians and Persians. — Probus was suc- 
 ceeded on the imperial throne by Carus, commander of the Praetorian Guards, who 
 was proclaimed Emperor by the army. Carus defeated the Sannatians, after which 
 he marched against the Persians, who continued their ravages on the Eastern prov- 
 inces of the Roman Empire. After defeating the Persians in Mesopotamia, Carus 
 was lulled in his tent by lightning. (A. D. 283.) 
 
 REIGN OF DIOCL-ETIAN (A. D. 284-805). 
 
 Short Reign and Assassination of Numerian and Carinus — Diocletian. 
 
 — Numerian and Carinus, the sons of Carus, succeeded to the empire, but Numerian 
 was soon assassinated, whereupon the soldiers proclaimed Diocletian Emperoi 
 
Io6 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 (A. D. 284.) Carinus resolved to dispute the sovereignty with Diocletian, when he 
 was killed by his own troops. (A. D. 284.) 
 
 Origin and Character of Diocletian. — Diocletian was of low origin, his 
 parents having been slaves. He received his name from Dioclea, a town in Dal- 
 matia, where he was born. He had passed through the various gradations of office, 
 being promoted successively to the offices of Provincial Governor, Consul, and 
 Pi-aetorian Prefect. He owed his elevation entirely to his abilities and merits, and 
 H-dS, about forty years of age when he became Emperor. Diocletian possessed 
 many virtues, but he sullied his character by a cruel persecution ^f the CLristiins 
 in all parts of the Roman Empire. 
 
 The "Era of Martyrs." — The commencement of Diocletian's reign is often 
 called the " Era of Martyrs," on account of the dreadful persecutions of which the 
 Christians were the victims. This epoch was long observed in the Christian 
 Church, and is still remembered by the Copts of Egypt, the Abyssinians, and other 
 African Christians. 
 
 Division of the Imperial Authority — Maximian and the Two Caesars. — 
 
 As the cares of the vast Roman Empire were too great for one person, the Emperor 
 Diocletian divided the imperial authority, taking as his partner in the Empire 
 Maximian, a brave and able soldier, but an ignorant and cruel barbarian. Diocle- 
 tian retained for himself the government of the East, while Maximian ruled over 
 the West. Still the troubles of the Empire were so great that Diocletian took 
 Galerius as his subordinate colleague, or Caesar, while Maximian chose Constantius 
 Chlorus as his subordinate, or Caesar ; so that the Roman world was now divided 
 among four sovereigns, of which Diocletian was the chief. Diocletian retained 
 Asia, Galerius ruled over Thrace and Illyricum, Maximian swayed Italy and Africa, 
 and Constantius Chlorus governed Spain, Gaul, and Britain. 
 
 Suppression of Rebellions in Britain and Egypt — Defeat of the Per- 
 sians. — A rebellion which broke out in Britain was suppressed by Constantius 
 Chlorus after a continuance of ten years. A revolt in Egypt was crushed by Dio- 
 cletian himself, who made the rebellious inhabitants feel the effects of his vengeance. 
 The Moors of Northern Africa, who had attacked the Roman dominioins in that 
 quarter, were vanquished by the arms of Maximian. A war which broke out with 
 Persia was brought to a successful conclusion by Galenus after two campaigns with 
 the Persians. 
 
 Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. — After a glorious reign of twenty 
 years, sullied, however, by a violent persecution of the Christians, the Emperor 
 Diocletian abdicated the imperial throne in the presence of a vast multitude of peo- 
 ple, and retired to private life. (A. D. 305.) On the same day, Maximian resigned 
 his authority. Diocletian never regretted this act, which he survived nine years. 
 When requested by Maximian and others to resume the purple, he replied, " If 
 you would see the cabbages I raise in my garden, you would not ask me to tike a 
 throne." 
 
 REIGN OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (A. D. S06-S37). 
 
 Galerius and Constantius — Constantine — Confusion and Civil War.—* 
 
 After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, Galerius and Constantius Chlonia 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Vo'y 
 
 were recognized as Emperors, and each took a subordinate colleague, or Caesar. 
 (A. D. 306.) Constantine died at York, in Britain, and was succeeded by his son 
 Constantine, afterwards surnamed "the Great." A period of great confusion and 
 sanguinary civil wars followed. Galerius and the two Cresars refused to recognize 
 the claims of Constantine, and very soon the Roman Empire was divided vmong 
 six competitors, among whom were Maximian and his son Maxentius; butC-cnstan- 
 tine finally prevailed over all his rivals and became sole Emperor. 
 
 Constantine's Conversion to Christianity. — It was during the progress ol 
 lhej.e civil wars that the Emperor Constantine became a convert to Chrisiiiniiy. 
 While marching against Maxentius, it is said that Constantine saw a luminous cross 
 in the heavens with the inscription, " By this conquer." This produced a great 
 impression upon Constantine and his whole army. Constantine now consulted the 
 principal teachers of Christianity, and publicly avowed the religion of Christ. 
 
 Overthrow and Death of Maxentius and Licinius. — Constantine overthrew 
 Maxentius in a desperate battle at the Milvian Bridge. In attempting to make his 
 escape, Maxentius found his death in the waters of the Tiber, and Constantine en- 
 tered Rome in triumph. Internal peace and domestic tranquillity were only restored 
 to the Roman Empire, when Constantine was left in the undisputed sovereignty of the 
 \rast Roman world, after his brother-in-law and last rival, Licinius, a zealous cham- 
 pion of paganism, had been defeated in several engagements ajid put to death. 
 
 Constantine Sole Emperor — Triumph of Christianity. — Thus after eigh- 
 teen years of confusion and civil war, Constantine the Great became sole master of 
 the Roman world, which extended from the borders of Caledonia to the frontiers 
 of Persia, and from the Red Sea to the Atlas Mountains. The victory of Constan- 
 tine the Great over his pagan rivals marked the complete triumph of Christianity 
 over the paganism of the Roman world. Constantine now devoted himself to the 
 establishment of Christianity on a firm basis. He summoned a Council of the 
 Christian Church at Nice, which was attended by numerous bishops and deacons, 
 over which the emperor presided, and in which the doctrines of Arias, who denied 
 the divine nature of Christ, were condemned as heretical. But Constantine, by 
 some great crimes, which stained his character, and among which were the murder 
 of his noble son Crispus, and of his wife Fausta, showed that the doctrines of the 
 crucified Redeemer had little influence in restraining his savage and ferocious dis- 
 position. 
 
 Constantinople made the Capital of the Roman Empire. — After defeat- 
 ing the Goths and the Sarmatians, the Emperor Constantine returned to Rome, 
 where he was coldly received and insulted by the people for abandoning the religion 
 of his ancestors. Provoked at this treatment, and in order to have his residence 
 nearer the centre of his dominions, Constantine removed the seat of government of 
 the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium, which since that time has been called 
 Constantinople, or City of Constantine, in honor of the great emperor. (A. D. 336.) 
 
 Death of Constantine the Great. — After a memorable and glorious reign of 
 ti;irty-one years, Constantine the Great, the first Roman emperor who professed 
 Qirlstianity, died at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor. (A. D. 337.) 
 
Io8 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 REIGN OF CONSTANTIUS II. (A. D. 887-861). 
 
 The Sons of Constantine — Confusion and Civil War — Constantius II. 
 — After the death of Constantine the Great, the Roman Empire was by his orders 
 divided among his three sons, Constans, Constantine II., and Constantius II., and 
 his two nephews, Dahnatius and Hannibalianus. The consequence of this division 
 was sixteen years of confusion and anarchy, during which the Roman Empire was 
 Jisturljcd by usurpation, insurrections, and civil wars; and internal tranquillity was 
 "»n]y .'estored when Constantius II. became sole master of the Roman world, af:e; 
 oli his rivals and several usurpers had perished. (A. D. 353.) 
 
 Julian's Victories over the Germans in Gaul. — While Constantius II., after 
 obtaining the sole sovereignty of the Roman Empire, was in the East, conducting a 
 war against the Persians, his cousin Julian was winning great renown by his victo- 
 ries over the German tribes who had invaded Gaul. After defeating the Germans 
 near Troyes, at Sens, and at Strasburg, Julian secured peace to Gaul, when his 
 soldiers, elated by victory, proclaimed their general Emperor. The Roman world 
 was only saved from the horrors of another civil war by the death ^f Constantius II., 
 as he was preparing to dispute the sovereignty with Julian. (A. D. 361.) 
 
 REIGN OF JULIAN THE APOSTATE (A. D. 861-868). 
 
 Character of Julian — His Opposition to the Christian Religion. — ^Julian 
 had been educated at Athens, where he had imbibed a fondness for the pagan phi- 
 losophy and religion of the Grecians ; and when he became Emperor he renounced 
 the Christian religion and became a pagan, acquiring from that circumstance the 
 surname of " the Apostate." Julian was, however, a just, wise, and virtuous mon- 
 arch, the only blemish on his character being his renunciation of Christianity and 
 conversion to paganism. He was, however, possessed of an excessive share of 
 vanity; and he seemed more desirous of being considered a philosopher than a 
 sovereign. Julian sought to revive fallen paganism, and labored with great zeal to 
 undo what had been done by the great Constantine. Julian was, however, too good 
 and too wise to engage in a violent persecution of those who professed Christianity, 
 as he allowed all his subjects the same right to opinion which he claimed for him- 
 self; but he attacked the holy religion of the Redeemer in writing, and endeavored 
 to bring it into disrepute by ridicule. Not content, however, with opposing the 
 Christians with the weapons of argument and ridicule, the emperor enacted several 
 disqualifying laws by which he deprived the Christians of wealth, knowledge, and 
 power. He also removed Christians from all civil and military offices, filled their 
 places with pagans, and ordered the Christian schools to be closed. 
 
 Julian's AttempJt to Rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. — For the purpose 
 of disproving the prophecy of Christ, Julian the Apostate attempted to rebuild the 
 Temple of Jerusalem, and to restore the Jewish worship; but this design of the em- 
 peror was frustrated, it is said, by the miraculous explosion of fire from the earth, 
 Hiving away the workmen, and compelling them to abandon their work. 
 
 Julian's Invasion of Persia — His Retreat and Death. — In a war with the 
 Persians, the Emperor Julian advanced victoriously into the very heart of Persia; 
 but the Persians, defeated in the field, laid waste the country, so that the Roman 
 army, exhausted by hunger, was finally forced to retreat. In a skirmish bftween 
 
HISTORY OI' ROME. 
 
 109 
 
 fhe retreating army and the Persian light cavalry, Tulian received a wound, of which 
 he died the same night. (A. D. 363.) 
 
 REIGN OF JOVIAN (A. D. 863-864). 
 
 Dishonorable Peace with Persia. — After the death of Julian the Apostate, 
 the army raised the virtuous Jovian, a Pannonian, to the imperial dignity. Upon 
 his accession to the throne, Jovian concluded a dishonorable peace with Persia, by 
 which a large portion of the Roman possessions in Asia were given up. 
 
 Restoration of Christianity. — The Emperor Jovian, who avowed ChrisdsLnity, 
 restored that holy religion; but he secured the good will of his pagan subjects by 
 allowing them toleration for their worship. The zeal of the people for the Christian 
 religion fully attested how ineffectual were the efforts of the apostate Julian for the 
 restoration of fallen paganism, as the heathen temples were immediately deserted 
 and the heathen priests were left alone at their altars. After a reign of seven months, 
 the good Jovian was accidentally suffocated by the fumes of burning charcoal while 
 sleeping in a damp room. (A. D. 364.) 
 
 BARBARIAN INROADS, AND THE FALL OF THE 
 WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 REIGN OF VALENTINIAN AND VALENS (A. D. 364-S78). 
 
 Division of the Roman Empire. — Valentinian, Jovian's successor on the im- 
 perial throne, divided' the Roman Empire, retaining the Western provinces for him- 
 self, and bestowiiig the Eastern on his brother Valens. From this time the Roman 
 world was divided into the Eastern and Western Empires, although they were after- 
 wards transiently reunited. Valentinian made Milan his capital, while Valens held 
 his court at Constantinople. 
 
 The Barbarian Inroads. — The inroads of the barbarians upon the northern an 
 eastern frontiers of the Roman dominions now became more formidable and dan- 
 gerous than ever before : the Picts and Scots harassed Britain ; the Saxons began 
 their piracies on the Northern seas ; the German tribe of the Allemanni ravaged 
 Gaul; and the Goths crossed the Danube and ravaged Thrace. The Emperor 
 Valentinian, who checked the inroads of the barbarians on all sides, died in the 
 year 375 A. D. 
 
 Defeat of the Goths by the Huns. — After Valentinian's death, the Gothic 
 nations had been almost annihilated by the Hims, a savage tribe from Central Asia. 
 After crossing the Volga and the Don, and driving before them the tribes of Eastern 
 Europe, the Huns fell upon and vanquished the Ostrogoths, and drove them from 
 their country. The Huns then crossed the Dnieper and the Dniester, and defeited 
 the Visigoths and drove them from their lands. '* 
 
 , The Goths in Thrace — Battle of Adrianople — Death of Valensc — The 
 I'iothic tribes, who had so long defied the anns of the Romans, now appeared as 
 juppliants on the banks of the Danube, and asked permission of Valens, the Eastern 
 Emperor, to occupy and cultivate the waste lands of Thrace. This request was 
 granted on condition that the Goths would resign their anns; but the Roman officers 
 who were sent to see the enforcement of this stipulation were bribed. The Goths 
 
1 1 o ANCIENT HISTOR Y. 
 
 retained their weapons; and when they began to suffer from famine, they carriea 
 plunder and desolation through Thrace Macedonia, and Thessaly. The Goths 
 marched toward Constantinople, and defeated the arniy of Valens in the bloody 
 Dattle ot Adrianople. The emperor escaped to a hut, which, during the night, was 
 •et on fue by the Goths, and Valens was bumed to death. (A. D. 378.) 
 
 RiSiGN OF THEODOSIUS THE GREAT (A. D. 87€ 39S). 
 
 Gratian and Theodosius. — After the death of Valentinian (A. D. 375), hs 
 son Gratian became Emperor of the West. WTien the throne of the East becamP 
 vacant by the death of Valens, Gratian assigned it to the Spaniard Theodosius, who 
 Closed the war with the Goths by settling a part of that nation in the region of the 
 Danube, and etilisting another part in the Roman armies as soldiers. 
 
 Persecution of the Pagans by Theodosius. — The Emperor Theodosius, 
 sumamed "the Great," was a cruel persecutor of the pagans, and also of the Arian 
 Christians. The pagans of Alexandria, in Egypt, having attacked the Christians of 
 that city, Theodosius ordered all the pagan temples in the city to be pulled down. 
 He afterwards ordered all the heathen temples throughout his empire to be de- 
 stroyed. The reign of Theodosius the Great is noted for the complete triumph of 
 the religion of the crucified Saviour over the ancient paganism. 
 
 Maximinus, Valentinian II., and Eugenius — Theodosius Sole Emperor. 
 
 — The severity of the Western Emperor, Gratian, to his pagan subjects, produced an 
 insurrection in Gaul and Britain, headed by Maximinus. Gratian was defeated and 
 killed near Paris, and Maximinus became Emperor of the West. (A. D. 383.) 
 Maximinus was defeated and slain by Theodosius, the Eastern Emperor, and 
 Valentinian II. ascended the throne of the West. (A. D. 388.) Valentinian II. 
 was murdered by the Gaul Arbogastes, whereupon the throne of the West was 
 usurped by Eugenius. Theodosius defeated and killed the usurper, and, reuniting 
 the Eastern and Western Empires, became sole master of the Roman world. (A, 
 D. 394.) Four months afterward, Theodosius the Great died at Milan (A. D. 
 395), after appointing his elder son, Arcadius, Emperor of the East, and his younger 
 son, Honorius, Emperor of the West. 
 
 REIGN OF HONORIUS (A. D. 893-423). 
 
 Alaric the Goth's Invasions of Greece and Italy — Defeat by Stilicho — 
 
 Soon after the accession of Arcadius and Honorius, the Goths, under their celebrated 
 king, Alaric, commenced a fresh war against the Romans. After Alaric had 
 ravaged nearly all of Greece, Stilicho, the able general of Honorius, marched to the 
 aid of the Greeks. Alaric then abandoned Greece, directed his course toward 
 Italy, and, crossing the Julian Alps, advanced toward Milan. (A. D. 403.) Hon- 
 orius fled from his capital, but was overtaken by the Goths, and besieged l)y them 
 n Asta. Stilicho hastened to the relief of the emperor, and drfeated the Goths 
 with greai slaughter at Pollentia, in Northern Italy. Instead of abandoning Italy 
 »fter this defeat, Alaric marched directly toward Rome, which was saved by the 
 diligence of Stilicho; but the withdrawal of the Goths from Italy wsf purchased 
 by a heavy ransom. 
 
 Another Barbarian Invasion of Italy — Stilicho's Victory at Florence. 
 
 — The timid Emperor Honorius, greatly alarmed at these barbarian invasions, 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. HI 
 
 .elected the strong fortress of Ravenna as his residence and seat of government, 
 No sooner was Italy freed from the ravages of Alaric and his Gothic followers, 
 than another hostile inundation of barbarian warriors, consisting of Goths, Vandals, 
 Sueves, Alans, and Burgundians, led by the warlike Radagaisus, appeared, and 
 threatened Italy with slaughter and desolation. The barbarians then crossed the 
 Alps, the Po, and the Apennines, and laid siege to Florence. But again Italy was 
 delivered by the valiant Stilicho, who blockaded the besieging barbarians, and 
 irially, after they had greatly suffered from famine, compelled them to surrender sJ 
 discreiion. (A. D. 406.) The barbarian leader, Radagaisus, was put to death, and 
 his followers were sold as slaves. 
 
 Assassination of Stilicho. — Two years after the overthrow of the barbarians 
 at Florence (A. D. 408), Stilicho, whose abilities had delayed the fall of the tottering 
 Roman Empire, was treacherously assassinated by order of the jealous and ungrate- 
 ful Honorius. 
 
 Olympius — Massacre of the Barbarians in Italy. — The place of Stilicho 
 was supplied by the unworthy Olympius, by whose advice the Emperor Honorius 
 ordered the massacre of the families of the barbarians throughout Italy. This 
 horrible order was cruelly executed, and the result of it was that 30,000 Gothic 
 soldiers in the Roman pay revolted, and invited Alaric to come to Italy and avenge 
 the slaughter of his countrymen. 
 
 Alaric's Second Invasion of Italy and Capture of Rome. — At the call of 
 his countrymen, Alaric the Goth again invaded Italy, and marched directly to Rome 
 and laid siege to the city. Rome would have fallen into the hands of the barbarian 
 chief, had not the Emperor Honorius yielded to his demand and purchased the 
 retirement of the besiegers by the payment of a heavy ransom. At first Alaric 
 demanded all the gold and silver in the city, all the rich and precious movables, 
 and all the slaves of barbarian origin. When the Roman ambassadors asked, '* If 
 such, O King, are your terms, what do you intend to leave us ?" the stem chief 
 replied, "Your lives." These severe terms were, however, somewhat modified, 
 and Alaric agreed to abandon the siege of Rome for a large ransom of gold, silver, 
 and various articles of valuable merchandise. Alaric then retired from the city; 
 but as Honorius refused to comply with the stipulations of the treaty which had 
 been concluded between the Gothic chief and the Romans, Alaric again directed 
 his course to Rome and compelled the city to surrender. (A. D. 410.) The cap- 
 tured city was given up to plunder, but the Goths, professing to be Christians, 
 spared the churches. 
 
 Death and Burial of Alaric the Goth. — After Rome had suffered six 
 days from the fury of the conquering Goths, the city was abandoned by them; and 
 Jiey marched into Southern Italy, where Alaric died. The body of the barbarian 
 chief was buried in the bed of a small stream, and the captives who had prepared 
 Iiis grave were murdered that the Romans might never find the place of his sepul 
 chie. (A. D. 410.) 
 
 REIGN OF VALENTINIAN III. (A. D. 423-4SS).! 
 
 The Visigoths in Spain. — Upon the death of Honorius (A. D. 423), hiJ 
 youthful nephew, Valentinian III., became Emperor of the West. The Goths soon 
 
112 ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 withdrew from Italy, and that part of the nation known as Visigoths migrated to 
 Spain, where they founded a kingdom of their own. 
 
 The Vandals in Africa. — The Vandals, another tribe of Northern barbaiians, 
 led by tlieir renowned king, Genseric, passed over from Spain into Africa, con- 
 quered the Roman provinces there, and established a kingdom which lasted more 
 than a century. (A. D. 439.) 
 
 Conquests of Attila, King of the Huns— Battle of Chalons. — About this 
 time Attila, King of the Huns, a powerful Asiatic tribe, was spreading terror and 
 desolation wherever he directed his course. Attila, justly called "the Scourge of 
 God," subdued the Scythian and German tribes, defeated the Eastern Emperor, 
 Theodosius II., in three bloody battles, devastated Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, 
 and at length invaded Gaul, where he was defeated by the united armies of the 
 Romans and the Goths in the sanguinary battle of Chalons, in which 162,000 of 
 the barbarians were slain. (A. D. 451.) 
 
 Hunnic Invasion of Northern Italy — Founding of Venice. — Notwith- 
 standing their defeat at Chalons, the Huns invaded Northern Italy the following 
 year. (A. D. 452.) The fugitives who fled in terror from tjieir homes founded the 
 city and republic of Venice on a number of small islands on the northern shores of 
 the Adriatic sea. Soon after this invasion of Northern Italy, Attila died from the 
 effects of intemperance. (A. D. 452.) 
 
 REIGN OF MAXIMUS (A. D. 4.35). 
 
 Genseric the Vandal's Invasion of Italy and Capture of Rome. — The 
 
 Emperor Valentinian III. was assassinated by Maxiraus, whose wife he had corrupted 
 (A. D. 455.) Maximus then became Emperor of the West; and on the death of 
 his wife, which occurred soon afterward, he compelled Eudoxia, the widow of Val- 
 entinian III., to marry him. In revenge, Eudoxia invited Genseric, the Vandal 
 king of Northern Africa, to invade Italy. Genseric and his Vandal followers ac- 
 cordingly crossed the Mediterranean sea into Italy and besieged Rome. (A. D. 
 455-) The Emperor Maximus was killed in a tumult which arose in the city. 
 Rome soon fell into the hands of the besieging Vandals, who plundered the city of 
 what the Goths had left. After the victorious Vandals had pillaged the city of 
 Romulus fourteen days and nights, they withdrew; but their vessel laden with the 
 plunder of Rome was wrecked on its passage to Africa. 
 
 THE LAST EMPERORS OF THE AATEST (A. D. 4SS-476). 
 
 Avitus, Majorian, Severus, Anthemius, Olybrius, Glycerins, Nepos, 
 and Romulus Augustulus. — During the twenty-one years after the pillage of 
 Rome by the Vandals, eight emperors successively occupied the throne of the West. 
 The first of these was a Gaul named Avitus, who had been raised to the throne 
 through tho instrumentality of Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths. Avitus was de- 
 throned by the Sueve Ricimer, the commander of the barbarian auxiliaries, and 
 Majorian was invested with the imperial purple. Majorian was deposed by the 
 Koldiers, and Severus was elevated to the throne by Ricimer, who retained all the 
 real power in his own hands. Severus was soon deposed, whereupon the Eastern 
 Emperor, Leo, appointed Anthemius Emperor of the West. Anthemius was put tc 
 
HISTORY OF ROME. I13 
 
 death, and Olybrius was raised to the throne. The last three Emperors of the West 
 were Glycerins, Nepos, and Romulus Augustulus. 
 
 Overthrow of the Western Roman Empire.— As the strength of the Ro- 
 mans diminished, the insolence of the barbarians increased; and finally, when the 
 demand of the barbarians for a third part of the lands of Italy was rejected, Odoa- 
 cer, chief of the Heruli, a German tribe, dethroned the Emperor Romulus Angus 
 tulus, in the year 476 A. D., and, abolishing the title and office of Emperor of the 
 West, assumed the title of King of Italy. Thus ended the Western Empire of the 
 Romans: the once-proud city of Romulus was occupied by barbarian warriors, and 
 a barbarian chief was seated on the throne of the Cassars. The Eastern, or Byzan- 
 tine Empire, sometimes called the Greek Empire, continued to flourish for nearly 
 a thousand years longer. 
 i 
 
BOOK II. 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
THE DARK AGES. 
 
 ITALY AND THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 
 ITALY UNDER THE HERULI AND THE OSTROGOTHS. 
 
 Odoacer, King of Italy. — Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, as King of Italy, fixed 
 his capital at Ravenna. He distributed the lands of Italy among his followers, making 
 the peasants who lived upon the lands their slaves. Odoacer, however, allowed the 
 old Roman laws and institutions to remain, and retained the Roman magistrates in 
 their offices. 
 
 Theodoric the Ostrogoth. — In the year 5 88 A. D., after Odoacer had reigned, 
 not without renown, twelve years, Italy w;is invaded by the renowned Theodoric, 
 King of the Ostrogoths. Odoacer was defeated and made a prisoner, and the king- 
 dom of the Heruli in Italy was overthrown. In violation of his plighted word, 
 Theodoric caused the captive Odoacer to be put to death at a riotous banquet. On 
 the overthrow of Odoacer, Theodoric the Ostrogoth became King of Italy, and 
 established his seat of government at Ravenna. Theodoric employed the original 
 mhabitants of Italy in agriculture and commerce, while to his Ostrogothic followei's 
 he assigned the duty of defending the state. Like Odoacer, Theodoric allowed the 
 ancient Roman laws and institutions to remain, encouraged agriculture, manufac- 
 tures, and commerce; and Italy enjoyed great prosperity under his rule. Italy con- 
 tinued prosperous under the successors of Theodoric; but in the year 554 A. D., 
 Belisarius, the illustrious general of the illustrious Justinian, Emperor of the East, 
 invaded Italy, overthrew the Ostrogothic monarchy, and united Italy with the 
 Byzantine Empire. 
 
 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE UNDER JUSTINIAN. 
 
 Accession of Justinian — War with Persia — ^Justinian's Armies. — For 
 
 some time the Eastern Roman, or Greek Empire, often called the Byzantine Em- 
 pire, had been distracted by domestic dissensions, which were only ended when 
 Justinian, a man of humble origin, ascended the throne. During the first five yearb 
 of his reign, Justinian waged an unsuccessful war against the Persians. Justinian's 
 armies were never led by him in person, and were composed of barbarian mercena- 
 "ties, — namely, Scythians, Persians, Heruli, Vandals, Goths, and Thracians, — th 
 inhabitants of the empire having long been forbidden to bear arms. 
 
 Conquest of the Vandal Kingdom in Africa by Belisarius. — The Empe- 
 ror Justinian embraced the determination of conquering the kingdom of the Vandals 
 in Africa, and also that of the Ostrogoths in Italy, and of restoring the vast empire 
 
 C117J 
 
Il8 MIDDLE AGEi>. 
 
 \ 
 
 of tlie great Constantine. Justinian's illustrious general, Belisarius, landed in Africa, 
 in September, 533, at the head of 15,000 soldiers, and was joyfully received by thci 
 Afiicans, who were anxious to shake off the yoke of Vandal supremacy. Gelim^r, 
 the Vandal king, was twice routed in battle, and before the close of November tic 
 monarchy of the Vandals in Africa was overthrown. Gelimer passed the remaii:d« 
 of his days contentedly in Galatia, in Asia Minor; and the dominion of the Gre«k 
 Fmpercr was extended over Africa proper. 
 
 Subversion of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy by Behsanus. — Ir. tie 
 fear 535 A. D., Belisarius landed in Sicily at the head of 7,500 Byzantine soldiers, 
 and subdued that island in one campaign; and in the following year (A. D. 536), he 
 landed in Southern Italy, where he was hailed as a deliverer by the old Roman popu- 
 lation. Belisarius obtained possession of Rome, in which city he was besieged for a 
 year by the valiant Ostrogothic king, Vitiges, who failed to reduce the city; but 
 nearly the entire population of the city perished from famine. Vitiges and his 
 Ostrogoths were themselves next besieged in their own capital, Ravenna, which 
 they were finally compelled to surrender, and Vitiges was carried a prisoner to the 
 Byzantine capital ; but he was treated with remarkable generosity by the Emperor 
 Justinian, who allowed the captive king to pass the remainder of his days in afflu- 
 ence in Constantinople. 
 
 Another War Between the Byzantine and Persian Empires. — In the 
 year 540 A. D., another war broke out between the Byzantine and Persian Empires, 
 and Belisarius was summoned from Italy to take the field against the Persians, 
 For a period of sixteen years (A. D. 540-556), Justinian waged war against the 
 Persian monarch, Khosrou the Great. Hostilities were conducted with the mos' 
 unrelenting obstinacy on both sides. After a fearful destruction of human liff 
 peace was finally made in 556, leaving the frontiers of the two empires nearly tl i 
 same as they were before the war. 
 
 Justinian's Treatment of Belisarius — Final Conquest of Italy by Navses. 
 — Belisarius was at length treated with ingratitude by the Emperor Justinian, in 
 whose service he had conquered two kingdoms. On the recall of Belisarius from 
 Italy to operate against the Persians, the Ostrogoths recovered their supremacy in 
 Italy. Belisarius was sent back to Italy to recover what had been lost, but he was 
 soon recalled by the jealous emperor, and the command of the Byzantine army in 
 Italy was assigned to Narses, who soon and unexpectedly proved himself a great 
 general like Belisarius. After many bloody encounters, and after two valiant Ostro- 
 gothic kings, Totila and Tejas, had been defeated and slain in battle, the Ostro- 
 gothic kingdom in Italy was finally subverted, and the dominions of the Eastern 
 Fhnperor were enlarged by the conquest and annexation of Italy. (A. D. 554.) 
 Narses, as the Byzantine Emperor's lieutenant, governed Italy from Ravenna with 
 the title of Exarch. 
 
 Repulse of the Barbarians by Belisarius — ^Justinian's Ingratitude lo 
 Selisarius. — In his old age Justinian again had recourse to the services of his aged 
 general, Belisarius, to drive away the barbarian Bulgarians . and Slavonians, whd 
 had approached the gates of Constantinople. At the head of a small but valiant 
 band, Belisarius repelled the barbarians, but the applauses which the old hero 
 received from the people again excited the jealousy of Justinian; and the ungrateful 
 emperor, charging his faithful servant with aspiring to the imperial throne, caused 
 
THE DARK AGES. up 
 
 his eyes to be put out and all of his possessions to be confiscated; and the illustrious 
 general who had subdued two kingdoms was often seen blind, and led by a child, 
 begging alms in the streets to support his living. 
 
 "The Pandects and Code of Justinian " — Silk Manufacture — Church 
 of St. Sophia. — The period of Justinian's reign, known as the " Era of Justinian," 
 is one of the most important epochs in the history of the world. The conquests of 
 Jujtinian were not his greatest glory; but what has immortalized his memory was 
 ^is celebrated compilation of the Roman laws, known as the " Pandects and Cods 
 of Justinian," which were arranged by his illustrious minister, Tribonian, who, at 
 the head of a commission of ten eminent lawyers, had been appointed for the pur- 
 pose by the emperor. Justinian obtained silk-worms from China, and introduced 
 the manufacture of silk into Europe. He also built the Church of St. Sophia, at 
 Constantinople; but he stained his character by his persecutions of the pagans and 
 the Arian Christians. 
 
 Death of Justinian — Domestic Dissensions and Decline of the Greek 
 Empire. — The Emperor Justinian died in the year 565 A. D., at the age of eighty- 
 three years. After his death the Eastern Empire was again disturbed by domestic 
 dissensions. The wickedness and depravity of the imperial court at Constantinople 
 soon obscured the lustre that had been shed upon the empire during the reign of 
 Justinian. Emperors ascended the throne by the most revolting crimes. The Greek 
 Empire rapidly declined after the death of Justinian. The Emperor Heraclius, in 
 the beginning of the seventh century, engaged in three great expeditions against 
 the Persians, in which he displayed the greatest military ability, thoroughly defeated 
 Khosron II., the great Persian king, and effectually broke the power of the second 
 great Persian monarchy. 
 
 THE LOMBARD KINGDOM IN NORTHERN ITALY. 
 
 Migration of the Lombards to Northern Italy. — In the year 568 A. D., 
 the Lombards, or Longobards (men with long beards), who had for some time 
 occupied Pannonia (now Hungary), led by their king, Alboin, crossed the Alps and 
 settled themselves in that portion of Northern Italy which received from them the 
 name of Lombardy. They took Pavia by storm after a siege of three years, and 
 made it the capital of the Lombard kingdom. The Lombards were among the 
 rudest and fiercest of the German tribes. 
 
 Treatment of the Conquered People — Assassination of Alboin. — The 
 Lombards treated the conquered people with harshness, and deprived them of their 
 possessions ; but they also commenced to devote themselves to the cultivation of their 
 newly-acquired lands, and began to make some progress in civilization. The warlike 
 Lombard king, Alboin, was assassinated at the instigation of his wife, the beautiful 
 Rosamunda, in revenge for compelling her, during a festival, to drink from the 
 goblet which had been fashioned from the skull of her father, the king of tb.e 
 Gepidoe, whom Alboin had some years before killed in battle. The Lombard king' 
 dom in Northern Italy lasted more than two centuries, when it was subverted by 
 Charlemagne, the great Carlovingian monarch of the Franks. (A. D. 774.) 
 
I20 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 TPIE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN BRITAIN. 
 
 Helplessness of the Britons — The Angles and Saxons Called to Bri- 
 tain, — [Jnder the rule of ^he Romans, the inhabitants of Britain became partial! j 
 civilized and entirely lost their warlike spirit. When, about the middle of the 
 fifth century after Christ, tottering Rome was obliged to withdraw her annies from 
 Britain and her other remote provinces to protect herself against the Northern bar- 
 barians, the peaceful Britons, unable to defend themselves against the savage Picts 
 and Scots of Caledonia (now Scotland), called in the aid of the Angles and 
 Saxons, two German tribes from the region embraced by modern Schleswig and 
 Holstein. Accordingly, in the year 448 A. D., a party of about 300 Saxons, under 
 two leaders, Hengist and Ilorsa, landed in Britain. Hordes of Saxons and Angles 
 continued to pour into Britain, and assisted the Britons in driving the Picts and 
 Scots back into Caledonia. 
 
 Expulsion of the Britons by the Anglo-Saxons. — The Anglo-Saxons soon 
 coveted the beautiful lands of Britain for themselves. They accordingly fell upon 
 the defenseless Britons, whom they killed or drove away. In one of the conflicts 
 between the Saxons and the Britons, the Saxon chief, Horsa, was killed. Many 
 of the unfortunate Britons fled to the mountains of Wales and Cornwall; while 
 others crossed the English Channel and settled in that part of France which is 
 named from them Brittany, or Bretagne. The present inhabitants of Wales, Com 
 wall, and Brittany are the descendants of the ancient Britons. 
 
 The Saxon Heptarchy. — After the Anglo-Saxons had obtained possession of 
 Britain, they established seven small kingdoms collectively designated the " Saxon 
 Heptarchy." The seven kingdoms were Kent; Sussex, or South Saxony; Wessex, 
 or W^est Saxony; Essex, or East Saxony; East Anglia; Mercia, and Northumberland. 
 
 Introduction of Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. — Towards the 
 close of the sixth century of the Christian era, Pope Gregory the Great commis- 
 sioned the Benedictine monk, Augustine, to preach the religion of the crucified 
 Redeemer to the pagan Angles and Saxons in Britain. On Christmas day, 597 
 A. D., ic,ooo Anglo-Saxons were baptized, and Augustine became Archbishop of 
 Canterbury'. The Anglo-Saxons soon abandoned their idols, and embraced the 
 religion of the Cross. In the year 827 A. D., the seven kingdoms of the Saxon 
 Heptarchy were united into one great state called Angle-land or England. 
 
 THE SARACEN EMPIRE. 
 
 MOHAMMED. 
 
 The Arabs and their Ancient Religion. — The Arabs, who are descended 
 
 t'lom Ishmael, "the wikl man of the desert," a son of Abraham, have always been 
 ;is free as the air they breathe. The ancient religion of the Arabs was Sabaism, (A 
 Star-worship. Many of the Arab tribes professed Judaism, some Christianity, and 
 others the Persian religion of Zoroaster. There, in those deserts of Arabia, these 
 wild people have roamed for ages, in proud independence, never bowing to the yoke 
 cf a foreign conqueror. 
 
THE DARK AGES. 121 
 
 Appearance of Mohammed. — About the beginning of the seventh century 
 of the Christian era, a new rehgion began to be preached to the Arabians by an 
 im poster called Mohammed, or Mahomet, a descendant of the priestly tribe of the 
 Koreishites, who claimed to be descended from Koreish, the most distinguished c? 
 Ishmael's twelve sons. In his youth, Mohammed had made journeys as a merchari. 
 through the desert with the caravans, during which he became convinced jf tke 
 superiority oi the Christian and Jewish religions over the Arabian idolatry. Mabf) 
 <ret exhorted his countrymen to abandon their gross idolatrous worship and tfr 
 recognize and reverence the One True God, the Creator and Ruler of the en'irt 
 rniverse. It was believed by his followers that Mohammed was divinely inspired, 
 and that the angel Gabriel was the medium of communication with the Prophet, to 
 whom, during a period of twenty years, occasional revelations are said to have been 
 made. As Mohammed could neither read nor write, the revelations which are 
 said to have been made to him, were committed to wridng by amanuenses; and 
 two years after the Prophet's death they were published as the "Koran," or Moham- 
 medan Bible. 
 
 The Hegira. — At the age of forty, Mohammed proclaimed the cardinal princi- 
 ple of his creed, "There is but one God, and Mohammed is his Prophet." At 
 first no one would believe Mohammed, with the exception of his wife, Ayesha; his 
 father-in-law, Abubekir; and his son-in-law, Ali; and in a tumult at Mecca, in the 
 year 622 A. D., the impostor was com])elled to flee from that city to Medina. The 
 flight of the Prophet from Mecca is called "the Hegira," and is the point from 
 which the Mohammedans reckon time, as the Christians do from the birth of Christ. 
 
 Progress of Islam— Its Establishment in Arabia — Death of Mohammed. 
 — At Medina, Mohammed was received by his converts with demonstrations of joy, 
 and the whole city soon recognized him as its chief and prophet. Mohammed now 
 aeclared that the new religion was to be established by the sword. The number 
 of his disciples increased daily ; and soon they ravaged the country in small bands, 
 and extended the religion of the Prophet by force. After many victories, Moham- 
 med obtained forcible possession of Mecca, and the inhabitants of that city soon 
 acknowledged him as their temporal and spiritual ruler. All Arabia soon adopted 
 the new religion, called Islam. Mohammed was grave and dignified in his manner, 
 and was possessed of simplicity, benevolence, and other domestic virtues. He died 
 in the eleventh year of the Hegira. (A. D. 632.) 
 
 MOHAMMED'S SUCCESSORS. 
 
 REIGN OF ABUBEKIR (A. D. 632-634) 
 
 Ababekir, First Caliph — The Koran — Victories of Kaled, "The Sword 
 of God." — Mohammed was succeeded by his father-in-law, Abubekir, vho was 
 styled the First Caliph. Abubekir was the first convert to the religion of the 
 Prop!" et, and after he became Caliph he collected and arranged the materia Is wh' ch 
 had been prepared by Mohammed while at Medina into a book called "the 
 Koran." The fundamental points of Judaism and Christianity, together 'vrith 
 maxims derived from the fables, legends, and traditions of Arabiai\ and Penian 
 mythology, are among the doctrines taught by the holy book of the Koran. 
 Mohammed required frequent prayers, fasts, giving of alms, and pilgrimages to 
 
122 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Mecca. One great commandment of the Koran was to diffuse Islam by everj 
 means, and to compel all nations to accept it with fire and sword. Those who sac- 
 rificed their lives for the propagation of the new faith were promised a paradise of 
 sensual enjoyments. Abul>ekir's celebrated general, Kaled, called "The Sword of 
 God," subdued in a short time the few Arabian tribes who had abandoned the nr^ 
 (aith, and reestablished the religion of Mohammed over the whole of Arabia. 
 
 Invasion of Syria — Siege and Capture of Damascus — Death of Abube 
 sir.- -After all Araliia had received the Moslem faith, it was resolved to carry tl c 
 •eligi'.n of the Koran beyond the borders of Arabia; and preparations were imme- 
 diately made *;.' invade the Byzantine and Persian Empires, both of v/hich had been 
 reduced to a condition of the most deplorable weakness from the long and deso- 
 lating wa*^ that had raged between them. Kaled invaded Persia with an immense 
 army; bu; he was soon recalled to assist in the conquest of Syria, which had been 
 invaded by several large Saracen armies. The great cities of Palmyra and Bozrah 
 submitted to the invaders. Damascus was besieged by the Saracens, and finally 
 carried by storm. On the very day of the capture of Damascus, Abubekir died. 
 (August 3, 634.) 
 
 REIGN OF OMAR (A. D. 684-644). 
 
 Accession of Omar — Battle of Yermouk — Fall of Jerusalem— Conquest 
 
 of Syria. — Abubekir was succeeded as Caliph by' Omar. After the fall of Damas- 
 cus, Emessa and Baalbec or Heliopolis were also reduced by the Saracen arms. 
 The Greek Emperor Heraclius made great efforts to save Syria to his empire; but 
 his armies suffered an overwhelming defeat from the Saracen forces under Kaled 
 in a great battle on the banks of the Yermouk, where 70,000 Byzantine soldiers 
 laid down their lives. (A. D. 636.) After a siege of four months, Jerusalem sur- 
 rendered to Omar, who caused the ground on which the Temple of Solomon had 
 stood to be cleared of its rubbish and prepared for the erection of a Mohammedan 
 mosque, or temple, which still bears the name of the Caliph. The reduction of the 
 great cities of Aleppo and Antioch, in the year 638 A. D., completed the conquest 
 of Syria by the Saracens. 
 
 Invasion of Persia — Battle of Cadesiah — Conquest of Persia. — ^Vhile the 
 events just related were occurring in Syria, other Saracen generals were engaged 
 in the subjugation of Persia. In the year of the battle of Yermouk (A. D. 636), one 
 of the bloodiest battles recorded in history was fought between the Saracens and the 
 Persians on the plain of Cadesiah, the Arabians losing 7,500 men and the Persians 
 100,000. This great battle broke the power of the Persian monarchy, and five 
 years afterward (A. D. 641), the Persian king, Yesdejird, like Darius Codomannus 
 of old, having fled before his conquerors to the mountains, was assassinated by his 
 own officers. With the death of Yesdejird ended forever the famous dynasty oi 
 the Sassanidse and the second great Persian Empire; and Persia yielded to the 
 Saracen dominion. 
 
 Invasion of Egypt — Capture of Memphis and Alexandria. — In the mean 
 time, Egypt, then a province of the Byzantine or Greek Empire, had been !r, raded 
 by the Saracen forces under Amru. The Copts of Upper Egypt, descendants of the 
 ancient Egyptians, joined the Arabians against the Greeks. Memphis siurendered 
 ■o thi» .S.aracens after a siege of seven months; but Alexandria held out lonper and 
 
THE DARK AGES. 
 
 123 
 
 «nly fell into the hands of the Arabians in the year 640 A. D., after an obstinate 
 defense. When Amru asked Omar how he should dispose of the great library in 
 Alexandria, the Caliph replied, " If these writings agree with the Koran, they are 
 useless and need not be preserved: if they disagree, they are pernicious and should 
 be destroyed." Accordingly that great store of ancient learning was sacrificed to 
 the bigotry and fanaticism of the Saracen monarch. 
 
 Conquest of Egypt — Founding of Cairo — Assassination of Omar.— The 
 fall of Alexandria decided the fate of Egypt, which country then became a province 
 of the Saracen Empire. The Saracens founded in Egypt a new city which they naraeu 
 Cairo. In the year 644 A. D., Omar's life and eventful reign were terminated by 
 the dagger of an assassin. During Omar's reign of ten years, the Saracens reduced 
 36,000 cities and villages, demolished 4,000 Christian churches, and erected 1,500 
 Mohammedan mosques. 
 
 REIGN OF OTHMAN (A. D. 644-6S5). 
 
 Accession of Othman — Conquest of Cyprus and Rhodes — Assassination 
 of Othman. — Omar was succeeded in the Caliphate by Othman, Mohammed's early 
 secretary, who published a new edition of the Koran. During Othman's reign of 
 eleven years, the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes submitted to the Saracen power. 
 Othman was assassinated on his throne in the year 655 A. D., while he covered his 
 lieart with the Koran. 
 
 REIGN OF ALI (A. D. 65S-660). 
 
 Accession of Ali — Civil War among the Saracens — Assassination of All. 
 
 — Upon the assassination of Othman, Ali, Mohammed's son-in-law, became Caliph. 
 During the reign of Ali, the Mohammedan world became divided into two great 
 religious parties, the Sunnites and the Shiites. A civil war now broke out among 
 the Saracens ; and Ali was assassinated, and the throne of the Caliphs was seized by 
 the family of the Ommiyades. (A. D. 660.) 
 
 REIGNS OF THE OMMIYADES (A. D. 660-7S3). 
 
 Damascus made the Saracen Capital — Conquests in India and Tartary. 
 — The first Caliph of the dynasty of the Ommiyades was Moawiyah, who made the 
 beautiful city of Damascus the capital of the Saracen Empire. Under the Ommi- 
 yades, the empire of the Saracens and the religion of the Koran were carried into 
 Northern Hindoostan and also into a great portion of Tartary. 
 
 Unsuccessful Attacks on Constantinople. — Under the Ommiyades, the Sara- 
 cens made several unsuccessful attempts to conquer the Byzantine or Greek Empire. 
 During a period of seven years (A. D. 668-675), Constantinople withstood seven 
 attacks, and was only saved by the newly-invented Greek fire. About forty years 
 afterwards (A. D. 717), the Byzantine capital was again besieged by the Saracens; 
 but after a siege of more than a year, it was relieved by the Bulgarians, who attacked 
 Uie Saracens and inflicted upon them a crushing defeat. 
 
 Siege, Capture, and Destruction of Carthage — Conquest of Northern 
 Africa. — Under the Ommiyades, the Arabs prosecuted with vigor their conquests in 
 Northern Africa. After a heroic resistance of nine years, Carthage was taken by 
 
124 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 storm, and finally and completely destroyed. (A. D. 698.) The Saracens encoun- 
 tered a stubborn resistance from the Moorish and Berber races, whom they finally 
 subdued in the year 709 A. D.; and all Northern Africa became a portion of the 
 vast Saracen Empire. The Moorish tribes, resembling the roving Arabs in their 
 rustoms and manners, adopted the name, language, and religion of their conquerors. 
 
 Saracen Invasion of Spain — Battle of Xerxes de la Fronteia — Conquest 
 of Spain — No sooner had the Saracens completed the conquest of Northern Africa, 
 than they were invited into Spain by Count Julian, a Spanish noble, in revenge foi 
 an injury which he had received from the tyrant Roderick, the Visigothic king of 
 Spain. Accordingly, in the year 711 A. D., Tarik, the Arabian general, with a 
 large army, crossed the strait between Africa and Spain which has ever since been 
 called Gibraltar, meaning Gebel al Tarik, or Hill of Tarik. After landing in Spain, 
 Tarik overthrew Roderick in the great seven days' battle of Xeres de la Fronlera, 
 which terminated the Visigothic monarchy in Spain. (A. D. 712.) Roderick 
 escaped from the battle-field, but found his death in the waters of the Guadalquivir, 
 After a gallant defense, Merida, the Spanish capital, surrendered to the victorious 
 Saracens, whose dominion was then established in the whole of Spain. (A. D. 713.) 
 
 Saracen Invasion of France — Terrible Defeat of the Saracens near 
 Tours. — After the conquest of Spain, the Saracens resolved to push their arms across 
 the Pyrenees, and to extend their dominion and religion over France, and, if possible, 
 over all Europe. The Gallic tribes of Southern France submitted without resistance 
 to the conquering Arabs; and Abdelrahman, the Saracen governor of Spain, entered 
 France at the head of a large Arabian and Moorish army, and marched triumph- 
 antly northward, desolating the country along his route with fire and sword, to the 
 very centre of France, and established his camp between Tours and Poitiers. But 
 now the confederacy of Franks, which had long been torn by dissensions, united to 
 oppose the common enemy of Europe and Christianity. In the year 732 A. D., 
 Charles Martel, " the Hammer," at the head of a powerful army of Franks, met 
 Abdelrahman and his Saracens near Tours; and after a great battle of seven days, 
 during which several hundred thousand Moslems perished, the victory was decided 
 in favor of the Christian Franks. The tide of Mussulman conquest was rolled 
 back, and Europe was saved to the Christian religion. 
 
 RKIGNS OF THE ABBASIDES (A. D. 7S2-1218). 
 
 Overthrow of the Ommiyades by the Abbasides — The Caliphate of 
 Cordova. — The Saracen power had already been greatly weakened by doniestic 
 dissensions and civil wars; and in the year 752 A. D., twenty years after the defeat 
 of the Saracens by the Franks, the dynasty of the Ommiyades was overthrown, and 
 the family of the Abbasides, descendants of Abbas, the uncle of M shammed, 
 seized the throne of the Saracen Caliphate. Abderrahman, the only one of the 
 Ommiyades who escaped destruction, fled to Spain, in which country he founded 
 the independent Caliphate of Cordova, which lasted 250 years. 
 
 Bagdad Founded and Made the Saracen Capital. — Under Ai Mansur, the 
 second Caliph of the Abbaside dynasty, the Saracens built on the banks of the 
 Tigris a new city which they named Bagdad, and which became the capital of the 
 Saracen Empire and the great centre of Arabian civilization, learning, wealth, 
 and refinement. 
 
THE DARK AGES. 1 25 
 
 Civilization of the Arabs. — During the reign of Haroun al Raschid (Aaron 
 the Just) and several of his successors, the Arabs carried science and literature to a 
 very high degree of perfection. Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova became famous a.s 
 the seats of learning, while the greater part of Europe was slumbering in tie dark- 
 ness of barbarism. The Arabs taught the arts, sciences, literature, and poetry 
 wherever they established their dominion and religion. Architecture and music 
 flourished in all the Arabian cities of Asia, Africa, and Spain. Agriculture, industry, 
 and commerce were encouraged. 
 
 Decline and Dissolution of the Saracen Empire. — The extensive Sarace 
 Empire, torn by religious and political dissensions, soon declined in power and 
 importance, and before the close of the ninth century it fell to pieces ; and numer- 
 ous petty Mohammedan kingdoms arose from the fragments of the once-vast empire 
 of the (^aliphs. Although the civil power of the Saracens was thus subverted, the 
 religion oi Mohammed remained in all the countries in which it had been estab- 
 lished. 
 
 Decline and Overthrow of the Saracen Power in Spain. — Under the rule 
 of the Mohammedans, Spain enjoyed a greater degree of prosperity and a higher 
 state of civilization, than at any previous period. But the Saracen power in Spain 
 soon began to decline; and in the year 103 1 A. D., the Caliphate of Cordova was 
 dissolved into a number of small states, which were gradually conquered by the 
 Christians from their mountainous seats of the Asturias, in the northern part of the 
 Spanish peninsula. In the course of time arose the Christian kingdoms of Aragon, 
 Castile, Leon, and Portugal, which waged continual wars against the Mohammedan 
 kingdom of Granada, in the south of Spain. The kingdom of Granada was 
 founded in the year 1238 A. D., and conquered in 1492 by the united power of 
 Aragon and Castile. With the conquest of Granada ended the Mohammedan power 
 m Spain, after it had existed in that countiy eight centuries. 
 
 THE FRANK EMPIRE. 
 
 THE REIGNS OF THE MEROVINGIANS. 
 
 Conquest of Gaul by Clovis, King of the Franks. — In the fifth century oi 
 the Christian era, the Franks, or Freemen, conducted by their warlike king, Clovis, 
 invaded Northern Gaul, subdued the country, and, at Soissons, put to death Syag- 
 rius, the last Roman governor in Gaul. Clovis soon conquered all the country 
 between the Loire and the Seine, and fixed his capital at Soissons, after which he 
 proceeded against the Allemanni on the Rhine, whom he overcame in the battle of 
 Tolbiac. (A. D. 496.) During the battle, Clovis made a vow that if the God 
 worshiped by his wife, who was a Christian princess, would give him the victory 
 he would embrace Christianity. Clovis and 5,000 of his subjects were baotized in 
 the Rhine, on Christmas day, in the year 496 A. D. 
 
 Savage Character of Clovis. — Christianity had little or no influence on the 
 bloodthirsty disposition of Clovis. He put to death all the chiefs or kings who fell 
 into his hands ; and, in order to secure himself against rivals, he caused his nearest 
 relations to be murdered. Clovis, who had already made Paris the capital of his 
 kingdom, died in the year 5 1 1 A. D. 
 
126 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Division of the Frank Kingdom. — After the death of Clevis, his dominions 
 were divided among his sons, and thus were formed the three kingdoms : Austrasia, 
 east of the Rhine; Neustria, between the Rhine and the Loire; and Aquitaine, be- 
 tween the Loire and the Pyrenees. These three kingdoms were afterwards united 
 under one sovereign, and were enlarged by the conquest and annexation of Burgundy. 
 
 Character of the Merovingian Kings. — Clovis and his descendants are called 
 Merovingians, from Merovseus, their supposed ancestor. The reigns of the Mero- 
 vingian kings were a period of crime and continual bloodshed. As soon as a kin^ 
 /eceived his crown he caused his male relatives to be put to death. The conse 
 quence of these murders was that the Merovingian race was reduced to weakness 
 and imbecility ; and finally the ministers of the kings, called Mayors of the Palace, 
 usurped all the powers of sovereignty, leaving to the monarchs nothing more than 
 the empty title of royalty. 
 
 Pepin d' Heristal and Charles MarteL — At length Pepin d' Heristal, Mayor 
 of the Palace, united the three Prankish kingdoms, Austrasia, Neustria, and Bur- 
 gundy, and made the Mayoralty hereditary in his family; from which time the 
 Merovingian kings ruled only in name, while all the sovereign power was exercised 
 by the Mayors of the Palace. Pepin d' Heristal was succeeded in the Mayoralty by 
 his son, the heroic and valiant Charles Martel, who by his great victory over the 
 Saracens proved to be the saviour of Christianity in Europe. 
 
 THE REIGNS OF THE CARLOVINGIANS. 
 
 REIGN OF PEPIN THE LITTLE (A. D. 7S1-768). 
 
 Usurpation of Pepin the Little — Beginning of the Pope's Temporal 
 Power. — On the death of Charles Martel, his son Pepin the Little succeeded to the 
 Mayoralty. Pepin put an end to the nominal reign of the Merovingian dynasty by 
 deposing the imbecile Childeric IIL, and causing himself to be proclaimed "Kmg 
 of the Franks. (A. D. 751.) Pepin the Little and his descendants are called Car- 
 lovingians. The Pope confirmed the dethronement of the Merovingian race, hoping 
 thereby to secure the assistance of Pepin against the Lombards. In return for this 
 favor from the Head of the Church, Pepin endowed the Pope with a large portion 
 of the Adriatic coast of Italy southward from Ravenna. This was the begmning of 
 the temporal power of the Pope. 
 
 Boniface or Winfried — Introduction of Christianity among the Germans- 
 — During the reign of Pepin the Little, Boniface, or Winfried, the active and zeal- 
 ous English missionary, first promulgated the doctrine of a crucified Redeemer to 
 the savage inhabitants of Germany; and through his efforts churches and bishoprics 
 were established in that country. Boniface preached the Gospel of Christ in Hesse, 
 and displayed such zeal that he was surnamed " The Apostle of the Germans." 
 After being made Archbishop of Mayence, Winfried, in his old age, undertook a 
 mission to the pagan Finlanders, who put the noble missionary to a violent death, 
 
 REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE (A. D. 768-814). 
 
 Accession of Charlemagne or Charles the Great. — Pepin the Little died in 
 the year 768 A. D., and left the Frank kingdom to his two sons, Charles and Carlo- 
 
THE DARK AGES. 
 
 127 
 
 mar.. On the death of Carloman, in the year 871, Charles seized upon all the 
 Frankish dominions, and thus became sole sovereign of the vast Frank monarchy. 
 Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, as he is called, was one of the greatest and 
 wisest monarchs of the Middle Ages, as he did much for the establishment of Chris- 
 tianity and the revival of civilization in Europe. 
 
 Charlemagne's First War with the Saxons. — After crushing a revolt of the 
 Aquitanians, Charlemagne led an army against the Saxons of Northern Germany. 
 Charlemagne took the fortress of Eresburg, destroyed the pagan idols, and in the 
 year 772 compelled the Saxons to accept a treaty of peace. But this peace was ol 
 short duration; and for thirty-two years, Charlemagne waged war against the 
 Saxons, for the purpose of punishing them for their repeated aggressions, and 
 extending his empire and the Christian religion. 
 
 Conquest of the Lombard Kingdom in Italy by Charlemagne. — After 
 his first war with the Saxons, Charlemagne became involved in a war with the 
 Lombards of Northern Italy. The Lombard king, Desiderius, had given protection 
 to the widow of Carloman, the deceased brother of Charlemagne; and when Pope 
 Adrian I. refused to anoint her sons Kings of the Franks, Desiderius threatened 
 an invasion of the papal dominions. Upon the Pope's appeal for aid, Charlemagne 
 crossed the Alps into Italy with a large army, and compelled Desiderius to shut 
 himself up in his capital, Pavia, which surrendered to the Franks after a six months* 
 siege. Desiderius was made a prisoner, and spent the remainder of his days in a 
 cloister; and Charlemagne, placing upon his own head the iron crown of the Lom- 
 bards, assumed the title of King of Italy, thus putting an end to the Lombard 
 monarchy which had existed in Northern Italy for two centuries. (A. D. 774.) 
 
 Charlemagne's "Second War with the Saxons. — While Charlemagne was 
 in Italy, the Saxons expelled the Frank garrisons from their territory. But aftei 
 the conquest of the Lombards, Charlemagne again led a large army into the Saxon 
 country, subdued the barbarians a second time, and compelled the Saxon chiefs to 
 agree to the peace of Paderbom. The warlike Saxon duke, Witikind, refusing lo 
 accept the treaty, fled to the Danes. (A. D. 777.) 
 
 Charlemagne's Aid to the Christians of Spain — Battle of Roncesvalles. 
 — In the year 778 A. D., Charlemagne went to the assistance of the Christians of 
 Spain against the Saracens. He dismantled Pampeluna and Saragossa, and united 
 all that portion of Spain between the Ebro and the Pyrenees to the great Frank 
 Empire. As the Frankish monarch was recrossing the Pyrenees into France, his 
 rear-guard, under the command of his nephew Roland, was attacked and cut to 
 pieces in the pass of Roncesvalles. Roland himself was among the slain. The 
 battle of Roncesvalles gave rise to many romances, and was celebrated in the 
 poetry of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Renewal of the War with the Saxons. — While Charlemagne was fightinij 
 against the Mohammedans in Spain, the Saxons again took up arms against the 
 Franks ; but after his return from Spain, Charlemagne again invaded and ravaged 
 '.he territories of the Saxons, and again subjugated those fierce people after a series 
 of desperate encounters. The victorious Frankish king compelled many of the 
 conquered Saxons to join his armies in a wai' against the Slavonians m the East of 
 Europe. , 
 
128 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Conquest of the Saxons by Charlemagne. — On the march against the Slavo- 
 nians, the Saxons in Charlemagne's army fell suddenly upon the Frankish soldiers 
 and massacred many of them. This treachery was terribly avenged by the Prankish 
 monarch, who devastated the Saxon territory and caused 4,500 Saxons whona he had 
 made prisoners to be put to death. The Saxons now renewed the war, but after 
 sustaining a severe defeat on the Hase they were ol)liged to submit; and Saxony 
 became a portion of the Frank Empire. Witikind, the Saxon chief, swore fealty to 
 O.e Frankish monarch, received Christian baptism, and he and his people embraced 
 Christianity. Bishoprics, monasteries, and churches, rapidly sprung up in the Saxon 
 Cuunlrv. 
 
 The Margraviate of Brandenburg^Thassilo, Duke of Bavaria. — In the 
 year 788 A. D., not long after Charlemagne had established the Margraviate of 
 Brandenburg as a check against the destructive inroads of the Slavonians, his nephew, 
 Thassilo, Duke of Bavaria, endeavored to cast off the yoke of Frankish supremacy, 
 with the aid of the wild Avars, who had established themselves in the East of 
 Europe. The treacherous Bavarian duke was defeated, made prisoner, and pun- 
 ished for his faithlessness by perpetual imprisonment in the cloister at Fulda, in 
 Hesse. Charlemagne then incorporated the Dukedom of Bavaria with the great 
 Frank Empire, and established the Eastern Margraviate to check the incursions of 
 the Avars. 
 
 Charlemagne Crowned at Rome Emperor of the West — Division in 
 the Church. — When Charlemagne had become master of all. France, Germany, 
 and Italy, and a large portion of Spain, he proceeded to Rome, where, on Christ- 
 mas day, in the year 800 A. D., as the great Frankish monarch was attending divine 
 service in the Church of St. Peter, Pope Leo III. placed the golden crown of the 
 Roman Empire upon his head, and saluted him with title of " Emperor of the Ro- 
 mans," while the people in the church shouted, "Long life to Charles Augustus, 
 crowned by the hand of God great and pacific Emperor of the Romans." The 
 crowning of Charlemagne at Rome was regarded as a revival of the Roman Empire 
 of the West; and Charlemagne was considered a successor of the Caesars. The 
 capital of Charlemagne's empire was Aix-la-Chapelle. There were now two great 
 empires in Christendom; — that of the East with Constantinople for its capital, and 
 that of the West with Aix-la-Chapelle for its seat of government. The division 
 which had for a long time existed in the Christian Church now ended in a complete 
 separation; and thus arose the Eastern, or Greek Catholic, and the Western, or 
 Roman Catholic Churches. 
 
 Rebellion of the Saxons — Their Final Subjugation by Charlemagne. — 
 Maddened by the oppressive system of military service, and by the payment of 
 tithes to the Church, the Saxons rose in rebellion against the Frank power; but they 
 were finally reduced to submission in the year 840 A. D.; and 10,000 Saxon fami- 
 lies wr;re forced to settle among the Franks, while colonies of Franks were settled 
 \n the Saxon country. 
 
 Charlemagne's Domestic Policy. — Charlemagne, who was extremely fond 
 of learning, received instruction from the Saxon Alciiin, one of the greatest scholars 
 of his time. He made the greatest exertions for the advancement of civilization 
 among his subjects, and established order and improved the administration of justice 
 throughout his vast dominions. He encouraged the arts, agriculture, commerce, 
 
THE DARK AGES. 
 
 129 
 
 and literature , and founded schools and cathedrals for the diffusion of intellectual 
 enlightenment and Christianity. His capital, Aix-la-Chapelle, was splendidly em- 
 bellished with palaces, churches, and works of art. 
 
 Death of Charlemagne. — This great monarch, who did so much to dispel Ihe 
 intellectual darkness which almost universally prevailed in Europe, died In the year 
 814 A. D., leaving his extensive empire to his son, Louis the Debonnaire (ll i 
 Good-natured). 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE'S SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Louis *^he Debonnaire— His Disposition — Civil War — Battle of Fon 
 tenaille. — Charlemagne's successors were unable to keep together the great empire 
 which ke had built up. Louis the Debonnaire, who was a weak prince and unfit 
 for government, was dethroned by his own sons, who had taken up arms against their 
 father. The sons then quarreled, and a fierce civil war followed. A sanguinary 
 battle of three days was fought at Fontenaille, in Burgundy, in the year 841 A. D., 
 where many thousands of the bravest of the Frank nobles and soldiers were slain. 
 
 Partition Treaty of Verdun — Dismemberment of the Frank Empire — 
 — Charles the Fat. — Two years after the battle of Fontenaille (843 A. D.), the 
 partition treaty of Verdun was concluded, by which the sons of Louis the Debon- 
 naire divided the Frank Empire among themselves — Lothaire taking Italy, Bur- 
 gundy, and Lorraine; Louis the German obtaining Germany; and Cliarles the 
 Bald receiving France. By the rapid deaths of most of the Carlovingian princes, 
 the empire of Charlemagne was restored in the year 884 A. D., under the imbecile 
 Charles the Fat; but three years afterward (A. D. 8S7), it was finally dissolved. 
 
 BARBARIAN RAVAGES IN EUROPE. 
 
 The Slavonians or Slaves and the Avars. — The dissolution of the Frank 
 Empire was followed by a time of great confusion, during which Europe was 
 greatly harassed on all sides by the ravages of barbarians. In the East of Europe 
 were the Slavonians, or Slaves, who made the most destructive inroads into the 
 Eastern portions of Germany. The Avars, another fierce tribe, also made very de- 
 structive incursions on the Eastern frontiers of Germany. 
 
 The Hungarians or Magyars. — Germany was a prey to the ravages of a 
 fiercer and more valiant people than either the Slavonians or the Avars, — namely, 
 the Hungarians, or Magyars, a warlike and ferocious tribe of Tartars from Asia, 
 who, after crossing the Ural, under their leader, Arpad, settled in the valleys c» 
 the Theiss and Danube rivers, which region has ever since been called Hungary. 
 Fjr several centuries, Germany was harassed by these fierce barbarians, whose 
 ferocity was only tamed when they embraced Christianity, toward the close of ihe 
 tenth century. 
 
 The Saracens in Italy. — While the barbarian Slavonians, Avars, and Magyars 
 ravaged Central Europe, the Saracens ravaged the coasts of Italy after they had 
 established themselves in Sicily. The armies of the Byzantine Empire for a time 
 defended Southern Italy against the Arabs, whose ravages in Italy were only termi- 
 nated after their defeat by Otho II., Emperor of Germany, in the tenth century, 
 9 
 
130 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 The Northmen or Normans. — A far more daring and formidable race of bar- 
 barians than tlie Slaves, the Avars, or the Hungarians, were the freebooting North- 
 men, or Normans, from the Scandina\'ian peninsula, who kept the coasts of Germany, 
 France, and England in constant alarm. In their light vessels, the No'.-raans rav- 
 ■aged the coasts of the North Sea, sailed up the mouths of rivers, and, after securing 
 a v;ist amount of booty, returned with it to their homes. For two centuries, the 
 Noiir.ans, under the name of Danes, ravaged England. A band of Normans, .led 
 Hy a chief named Rollo, settled in that portion of France named from them, Noi- 
 Ltiandy. Ruric, a Norman Varangian chief, Ijecame the ]irince of the Russians, a 
 Slavonic race to the south of the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. Iceland was di.s 
 covered and peopled by Norwegians, who established in that remote island a Hour- 
 ishing republic. Greenland was discovered and peopled from Icf land. The Nor- 
 mans are said to have visited the North American continent. 
 
 EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 
 Origin of the Feudal System — Division of Lands among the Barba- 
 rians. — We will now proceed to give an account of the Feudal System, or fomi of 
 government which prevailed throughout Euro[)e during the Middle Ages. The 
 barbarians who overthrew the Western Roman Empire divided the conquered lands 
 among themselves. The chief of each of these tribes of barbarians was called a 
 "king." Under him were other chiefs or leaders called " barons." Under each 
 of these barons there were still other chiefs, and under each of these last was a large 
 body of people. The military organization was kept up in the conquered countries. 
 The barbarian conquerors devoted themselves entirely to war, leaving the tilling of 
 the soil to the conquered inhabitants, who became slaves or serfs. The serfs could 
 not be taken from the lands on which they lived, but were bought and sold with 
 them. 
 
 Castles of the Kings and Barons — Allotment of the Lands — Feud,s or 
 Fiefs. — The kings and barons owned large stone castles, to which they retired 
 when attacked by an enemy. All the personal property of the conquered people 
 was divided by lot among the conquerors; but the lands were regarded as the pro- 
 perty of the king, not to retain, however, but to grant to his followers. The kir,^ 
 Itcjit a portion of the lands for his own use. These were called "crowr lands?;" 
 ind the king's power depended upon the extent of his private estates. The remaii: 
 ier of the lands was bestowed on his subordinate chiefs, the barons, to be held by 
 item fo! life. At the death of a chief or baron, his portion of land, called a "feud " 
 )r " fief, " was again taken by the king, who then bestowed it on some other baron. 
 From the term "feud," the word "feudal" is derived; and by the Feudal Systenri 
 Ls meant the system based on the feuds or fiefs. 
 
EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. 131 
 
 Vassals and Lord-paramount — Conditions of the Allotment — Sub- 
 fiefs. — Thi.se to whom the king granted fiefs were called " vassals of the crown," 
 or "liegemen." The giver of the lands was called a " liege-lord," or "lord-para- 
 mount." T>.e king bestowed the lands on his vassals, on condition that they should 
 join hire with a certain number of soldiers whenever he should call them to arms. 
 To this tley bound themselves by a solemn oath, which was called " swearing fealty." 
 The king, who was lord-paramount, or liege-lord, in return, swore to protect 
 ais vassal, and not to continue in arms more than forty days at a time, nor wai 
 against the Church. On the same condition, the vassals of the crown distributed 
 their lands among their followers or vassals. Thus each vassal bestowed fiefs and 
 sub-fiefs on his vassals, each of whom did homage for his lands to his liege-lord. 
 So there were many grades of fiefs and sub-fiefs. 
 
 Fiefs and Titles become Hereditary. — These fiefs, which were at first granted 
 only for life, at length became hereditary in the families of the great vassals of the 
 crown, each of whose estates at his death passed into the possession of his eldest 
 son. In the same manner, great offices and their tides, such as duke, marquis, 
 count, or baron, finally became hereditary also. Out of this state of things origin- 
 ated the exclusive privileges yet enjoyed by the nobility of Europe. 
 
 CHIVALRY. 
 
 Origin of Chivalry — Devotion to the Cause of the Weak and Oppressed. 
 
 — The great oppressions and abuses to which the Feudal System gave rise, led to 
 the establishment of a remarkable institution throughout Europe about the begin- 
 nin<^ of the eleventh century. This peculiar institution, called Chivalry, originated 
 in the piety of some nobles who wished to give to the profession of arms a religious 
 tendency. These nobles devoted their swords to God, and bound themselves by a 
 solemn oath to use them only in the cause of the weak and the oppressed. Those 
 who took upon themselves these vows were called "knights." Very soon every 
 noble aspired to the honor of being a knight; and the result was that much attention 
 was given to the education of the young, for more than physical power was needed 
 before any one could be admitted to the honors of knighthood. 
 
 Virtues Requisite for Knighthood — Education of a Knight. — The aspi- 
 rant to knighthood was required to be brave, courteous, generous, truthful, obedient, 
 and respectful to his superiors in age or rank, and also to the ladies. The result 
 of the development of these virtuous and noble qualities was that the :;andidate for 
 knighthood became kind and affable to all who were below him in rank or fortune. 
 The young noble who aspired to knighthood was placed at a verj' early age under 
 the care of some noble distinguished for his chivalrous qualities, who, in his castlfit 
 initructed the young aspirant to knighthood in all the duties of Chivalry. 
 
 Ceremonies of Admission to Knighthood. — The ceremonies of admissicn 
 Ic the order of knighthood were somewhat singular. The candidate was firsi 
 placed in a bath, to denote that in presenting himself for knighthood, he must pre- 
 sent himself washed from his sins. When he left the bath he was clothed; first in 
 a white tunic, to signify the purity of the life he was vowing to lead; then m a 
 crimson vest, to denote that he was called upon to shed blood ; and lastly in a com- 
 
X32 middle: ages. 
 
 plete suit of black armor, which was an emblem of death, for which he must alwa} ■ 
 be prepared. He toolv an oath to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protec' 
 the distressed, to practice courtesy, to defend the Christian rehgion, to despise th-^ 
 allurements of ease, and to vindicate the honor of his name. 
 
 Dress and Arms of a Knight. — The knight was dressed in a suit of ann"i 
 which protected his whole person. This armor was sometimes made of mail, that 
 is, links of iron forming a kind of net-worlc dress, which a sword or a lance could 
 HDt easily penetrate. Often this armor consisted of plates of iron, which protectol 
 .'he whole body of the knight. The aggressive weapons of a knight were a lance 
 twelve or fifteen feet in length, a large sword, a dagger, and sometimes a battle-axe, 
 or a steel club called " mace-at-arms." The knight's war-horse, like himself, was 
 protected by a covering of mail or iron plale. 
 
 Knights-errant— Tournaments. — Those knights who traveled about from 
 place to place, independent of each other, were called "Knights-errant." f^nne- 
 times a great entertainment, called a " tournament," was given by some king or 
 rich prince, at which a mock combat was held for the knights to display their skill 
 in the use of arms. A vast number of ladies and gentlemen assembled to witness 
 these friendly trials of skill. At the conclusion of the exercises, the judges, who 
 were usually old knights, declared the victors ; and the prizes were presented to the 
 successful knights by the noblest or most beautiful lady present. 
 
 Good Effects of Chivalry on European Civilization.— The good effects of 
 the institution of Chivalry were many. While it protected the defenseless and the 
 downtrodden in that warlike and barliarous period, the Middle Ages, it contributed 
 much to the final overthrow of feudalism and the revival of European civilization, 
 which had disappeared with the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Commerce 
 increased, talent and invention received encouragement, the arts and the sciences 
 began to flourish, and many new towns were built and peopled. 
 
 THE PAPACY AND HIERARCHY. 
 
 The Papal Power — Hildebrand. — The Pope, or Head of the Church, assumed 
 command or luthority over all the princes and kingdoms of Christendom. He 
 regarded the empire of Germany and all other Christian kingdoms as papal fiefs. 
 From the eleventh to the sixteenth century the papal power was at its height. 
 During that period the power of the Pope was so great that the most powerful 
 monarchs of Europe could be subjected to the greatest humiliations by His Holiness, 
 The most powerful and most illustrious, and the ablest of the Popes, and the one 
 who raised the papacy above every other power in Christendom, was Gregory VII. 
 (Hildebrand), who compelled Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, to corte to Italy 
 and stand three days and three nights barefoot in the snow, without tasting a mouth- 
 ful of food. 
 
 Interdict and Excommunication. — The two punishments by the influence ol 
 wrhich the Pope endeavored to maintain his authority were the interdict and L:< 
 excommunication. The papal punishment by the interdict was forbidding or inter- 
 dicting divine ser\'ice to be publicly performed. When a nation was under an 
 interdict, the churches were all closed, the bells were not rung, the dead were thrown 
 info ditches and holes without any funeral ceremonies, diversions of all sorts were 
 
EUROPEAN INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 T-Zl 
 
 lorbidden, and everything presented an appearance of gloom and mourning. An 
 interdict was leveled at a village, a city, a state, or a nation ; but an excommunica 
 lion was directed against individuals. A person excommunicated by the Pope was 
 egarded as unholy and polluted; and every person was forbidden to come neai 
 h'm or render him any friendly assistance. If the sentence of excommunication 
 could be enforced, as in most cases it could, the proudest and most powerful mon- 
 arch could become, by a single decree of the Holy See, a miserable outcast. 
 
 The Power and Influence of the Clergy. — The power and influence of *\.z 
 tiergy during the Middle Ages was almost as great and important as was thai oi 
 tiie nobles and the princes. Besides their ecclesiastical dignities, the superior clergy 
 often held the most imjxjrtant offices of state; and by degrees great numbers of the 
 archbishops, bishops, and abbots acquired extensive possessions, so that tb^y finally 
 became as powerful and influential as most of the princes. The magnificent cathe- 
 drals and abbeys, adorned with all the productions of art, fully attested the greatness 
 of the ecclesiastical residences. 
 
 MONACHISM. 
 
 Origin of Monachism or Monasticism — Life of Solitude and Religious 
 Devotion. — Monachism, or Monasticism, had its birth-place in the East, where a 
 life of solitude and devotion to the contemplation of divine subjects was by degrees 
 adopted by so many, that about the close of the third century of the Christian era, 
 the Egyptian Antonius, who had divested himself of all his vast possessions and 
 selected the desert for his residence, collected the hitherto scattered monks, or mona- 
 chi, as they were called, into enclosed places styled monasteries, cloisters, or con- 
 vents. In these monasteries the monks lived together in fellowship; and Pachomius, 
 the disciple of Antonius, gave the fraternity a rule. 
 
 The Benedictine Monks — The Augustinians and other Monastic Or- 
 ders. — Monasticism soon extended into Western Europe. In the sixch century, 
 Benedict of Nursia established a monastery on Mount Casino, in Souchern Italy, 
 and thus became the founder of the famous order of Benedictine monks, which 
 rapidly spread into all European countries and built many cloisters. Numerous 
 orders of monks arose in the course of time, among which were the Augustinians, 
 so called from their founder, St. Augustine. Other noted monastic orders were the 
 Cistercians, the Premonstrants, and the Carthusians. 
 
 The Franciscan and Dominican Monks. — Two celebrated monkish orders 
 arose in the thirteenth centur)', — the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The order of 
 Franciscans was founded by the pious Francis of Assisi, a wealthy merchant's sor., 
 (^ho, ill 1226, renounced all his possessions, clothed himself in rags, and went frorr. 
 pla:e to place, begging and preaching the Gospel. His wonderful zeal for the sal- 
 vation of souls made for him many disciples, who, following his example, renounceil 
 ilieir worldly possessions, fasted, prayed, and supported themselves by alms ami 
 donations. The order of Franciscans became wide-spread throughout Earope, 
 Aliou*. the same time arose the order of Dominicans, founded by the learned Span- 
 iard, Dominicus. The chief aim of the Dominican monks was the extinction of all 
 heretical doctrines and the preservation of the predominant faith in its original 
 purity. The Dominicans took a vow of absolute poverty, and sought to gain heaven 
 
134 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 by austerity of manner and by a strict religious devotion. The Court of the Inqui- 
 sition, with all its horrible examinations, dungeons, and tortures, was assigned to 
 ihc Dominicans for the extermination of heretics, as all who differed from the estab- 
 lished Church were called. The Franciscan monks, who mingled with the people, 
 were chiefly engaged in the salvation of souls; while the Dominicans, who gave 
 their attention to the sciences, tilled, by degrees, the chairs of the universities. 
 
 Monastic Vows — Nuns and Nunneries — Relations of Monachism to 
 ll/e Papacy. — All monks were obliged to take the three vows of celibacy, personii) 
 poverty, and obedience. Females who took upon themselves the obligations of 
 Monachism were called "nuns," and their cloisters or convents were styled "nun 
 neries." The monastic orders were the strongest support of the power of the Pope, 
 who endowed them with the greatest privileges and removed them from the author- 
 ity of the bishops. 
 
 Beneficial Influence of Monachism on Civilization and the Manners of 
 the Age. — Monachism proved a blessing to humanity during the dark and barba- 
 rous period of the Middle Ages. It preserved the remains of ancient civilization, 
 afforded an asylum or place of refuge for the down-trodden and the oppressed, and 
 diflused morality and intellectual enlightenment, and softened the rude manners of 
 those benighted times by the preaching of the Gospel, and by the establishment of 
 schools for education. 
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 THE FIRST CRUSADE (A. D. 1096-1099) 
 
 Christian Pilgrimages to Jerusalem — Outrages upon the PilgrinjS — 
 
 From the time of the triumph of Christianity over the paganism of the Roman world 
 in the foiirth century, it had been a custom among the people of Christian Europe to 
 make pilgrimages to Jerusalem for the purpose of expiating a sinful life, praying at 
 the Holy Sepulchre, and exhibiting gratitude for heavenly mercies. As long as 
 Syria and Palestine formed a part of the Byzantine, Greek, 'or Eastern Roman Em- 
 pire, access to the Holy City was secured to these pilgrims. While the Holy Land 
 remained under the enlightened dominion of the Saracens or Arabians, the Christian 
 pilgrim was also unmolested in his journey to and from the Holy Sepulchre. But 
 when the Seljuk Turks, a race of fierce barbarians from the plains of Tartary, took 
 Farusalem in 1076, and obtained full possession of the Holy Land in 1 094, the 
 native Christians and the pilgrims from Europe were ill-treated, and nianv cf then' 
 became martyrs to their religion. Those who returned to Europe from tneir pil 
 grimages gave a melancholy account of the cruelties and oppressions suffered by 
 the Christians in Palestine at the hands of the infidel Turks, and thus excited the 
 greatest indignation in Christian Europe. 
 
THE CRUSADES. 
 
 135 
 
 Preaching of Peter the Hermit — Enthusiasir. of the People of Europe. 
 
 — Among others who had been witnesses of the crueL'es and oppressions suffered 
 jy the CI ristians in Palestine was the zealous and fanaf.cal monk, Peter the Hermit, 
 jf Amiens, in the French province of Picardy. On his return to Europe from a 
 pilgrin.age to the Holy Land, Peter the Hermit resolved to arouse the Christian 
 nations of Europe to a gigantic effort to wrest the Holy Land from the hands of t! ■; 
 Jifidels Peter went from town to town, and from castle to castle, preaching of the 
 luly oi Christian Europe to expel the barbarian Turks from the Holy City. W ner 
 CVii h: went, numerous crowds assembled to hear him; and very soon all Franct 
 iiid 1 iuy were aroused to the wildest enthusiasm for an expedition against the intide^ 
 desecralors of the shrine of the Saviour. 
 
 Pope Urban IL and the Council of Clermont. — Pope Urban II., who zeal- 
 ously abetted the design for an expedition for the redemption of the Holy Land, as- 
 sembled a Council of the Church at Clermont, in Southern France. This Council 
 was attended by numerous bishops and an immense concourse of people. Whei. 
 che Pope, addressing the clergy and the multitude, said, "It is the duty of every 
 one to deny himself and take up the cross, that he may win Christ," there arose a 
 simultaneous shout, " It is the will of God!" and great numbers demanded to be 
 enlisted in the sacred army. As the symbol of enlistment in the cause of God was 
 a red cross to be worn on the right shoulder, the expedition was called a "Crusade," 
 ind those who engaged in it were called " Crusaders." All who engaged in the 
 enterprise received from the Church the promise of a remission of sins and an eter- 
 tial heavenly reward after death. 
 
 The First Band of Crusaders under Peter the Hermit and Walter the 
 Penniless — The enthusiasm for the Crusade was so great throughout Christian 
 Europe that many became impatient at what they considered the slowness of the 
 preparations of princes; and accordingly, in 1096, numerous bands, consisting of 
 thousands of the lowest classes of society, set out for the Holy Land without order 
 or discipline. They were led by Peter the Hermit and a French knight called 
 " Walter the Penniless." They proceeded through Germany and Hungary towards 
 Constantinople, but veiy few of them ever reached Asia. Having attempted to 
 obtain the necessaries of life by forcible means in the countries through which they 
 passed, and having carried robbery and desolation through Bulgaria and stormed 
 Belgrade, the inhabitants of those countries rose against them and destroyed nearly 
 the entire band of Crusaders; and Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless had 
 very few followers when they reached Constantinople, where they waited to join 
 the gi eat army of the First Crusade under Godfrey of Bouillon. 
 
 Fate of other Disorderly Bands. — Other disorderly and undisciplined bands, 
 wliich violently persecuted and even murdered Jews ano' others who reiected 
 Chri"t, followed those of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless; tut they 
 were totally destroyed before they reached Constantinople by the people whom 
 "iey had robbed and plundered. 
 
 TiSe Great Army under Godfrey of Bouillon — The other Chief Leaders 
 — Neaily 300,000 of the Crusaders had already perished when the valiant Godfrey 
 of Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, led a powerful and disciplined army toward the 
 Holy Land. The principal leaders of the Crusaders next to Godfrey of Bouillon 
 were Count Hugh ;f Vermandois, brother of Kinjr Philip I. of France; Duke Rohw- 
 
1^6 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror of England ; Count Stephen of Blois, 
 father of King Stephen of England; the chivalrous Count Raymond of Toulouse; 
 Earl Robert of Flanders ; and Bohemond, brother of Robert Guiscard, the Norman 
 prince of Southern Italy. This great army of Crusaders set off for Palestine in six 
 divisions, which took different routes to Constantinople, where all were united be- 
 fore passing over into Asia. When the Crusaders arrived in Asia their anr.y con- 
 ''iriled of 400,000 men, of whom 100,000 were cavaliy. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Antioch by the Crusaders — Their Cruelties. — Thf 
 trusaders captured Nice, in Asia Minor, in 1097, after a siege of two months, and 
 dtfeated the Turks in the battle of Dorylseum. Proceeding in their victorious 
 career, the Christians next laid siege to Antioch. That city was finally taken by the 
 strategy of Prince Bohemond and the treachery of one of the Turks, who left a gate 
 0])en to the besieging Crusaders. The greatest cruelties were perpetrated upon the 
 unfortunate inhabitants of Antioch, by the victorious Christians, after the capture ol 
 the city. 
 
 Great Christian Victory at Antioch. — A few days after the Crusaders had 
 taken Antioch, an army of 300,000 Turks and Persians appeared before that city. 
 The finding of a "holy lance" in the Church of St. Peter raised the courage of the 
 Christians, who sallied out of the city, and, after a desperate battle, totally defeated 
 the infidels and forced them to a precipitate flight. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders — Massacre of Mo- 
 hammedans. — Onward the Crusaders proceeded. When they came in sight of 
 Jerusalem they shouted and wept for joy, and fell down on their knees and offered 
 thanks to God; but their joy was succeeded by rage at beholding the Holy City in 
 the possession of the Mohammedans. The Crusaders therefore laid siege to the 
 city, which they finally took by storm, in July, 1099, after a siege of nearly six 
 months. The streets of the captured city were soon filled with the bodies of 70,000 
 slaughtered Mohammedans. The conquering Christians believed that they were 
 doing God good service by slaughtering all who rejected the Saviour; and both 
 Jews and Mohammedans were massacred. After this most shocking atrocity, the 
 Crusaders proceeded with hymns of praise to the Hill of Calvary, and kissed the 
 stone which had covered the body of the Saviour ; and then offered thanks to the 
 God of Peace for the signal success of their undertaking. 
 
 Founding of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. — After the capture of 
 the Holy City, the Crusaders established the Christian Kingdom 01* Jerusalem, 
 which lasted nearly a century. Their gallant leader, Godfrey of Bouillon, was 
 made ruler of the new state. He was too pious to a.ssume the title of "King;" 
 but called himself "Defender of the Holy Sepulchre," and wore a crown of thorns 
 ins'.ead of one of gold. Godfrey gained a great victory over the Sultan of Egypt, 
 at Ascalon, in August, 1099. He died in the following year (A. D. 1 100), and was 
 succeeded at the head of the new state by his heroic brother Baldwin. 
 
 Founding of the Knights of St. John and the Knights Templars, - 
 Some time after the First Crusade, two celebrated orders of knighthood arf)se .i. 
 Jeiusalem, These were the Knights of St. John, or Hospitallers, and the Knights 
 Templars, or Red Cross Knights. Both these orders became famous for their mili- 
 tar)- exploits against the infidels. 
 
THE CRUSADES. 
 
 'HE SECOND CRUSADE (1147-1148). 
 
 13/ 
 
 Loss of Christian Fortresses in Palestine— Preaching of St. Bernard. 
 — The Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem suffered many attacks from the infidels, 
 and some of the principal Christian fortresses in Palestine were lost. Under these 
 circun .^lances, Christian Europe undertook a Second Crusade. The ])ious and 
 c':>'ja»:it St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, in Burgundy, preached the cioss ir 
 f ranee and Germany. (A. D. 1147.) 
 
 Expeditions under Conrad III., of Germany, and Louis VII., of France. 
 — Powerful expeditions were led toward the Holy Land by Conrad III., Emperor 
 of Germany, and Louis VII., King of France. The army under Conrad marched 
 by way of Constantinople into Asia Minor, where it was decoyed by the treach- 
 erous Greek generals into a waterless desert, where the Turkish cavalry sud- 
 denly attacked and thoroughly annihilated the army of German Crusaders, only a 
 tenth part of whom succeeded in escaping to Constantinople. The French army, 
 led by King Louis VII., marched along the coast, but the greater portion perished 
 from famine and fatigue, and by the swords of the infidels, before reaching Jerusa- 
 lem. The shattered remnants of the immense hosts of French and Germans, led 
 by the two sovereigns, after reaching the Holy Land, engaged in an unsuccessful 
 siege of Damascus, which was the termination of the Second Crusade. 
 
 THE THIRD CRUSADE (A. D. 1189-1192). 
 
 Conquest of Palestine and Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, Sultan 
 of Egypt. — The situation of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem became more 
 and more perilous after the Second Crusade; and at length the valiant Saladin, 
 Sultan of Egy])t, reduced a part of Palestine under his sceptre. The magnanimous 
 Saladin finally granted the Christians of Palestine a truce; but when a Christian 
 knight interrupted the passage of Saladin's mother, seized her treasures, and slew 
 her attendants, the exasperated Sultan of Egypt recommenced hostilities, defeated 
 the Christians in the battle of Tiberias, took Joppa, Sidon, Acre, and other towns, 
 and in 1187 Jerusalem also fell into the possession of the conquering infidel. Sala- 
 din, who surpassed his Christian foes in virtue, generosity, and nobleness of heart, 
 treated the inhabitants of the Holy City with mildness, but caused the crosses to be 
 torn down and the furniture of the Christian churches to be destroyed. 
 
 Expeditions of Frederic Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, and Richard 
 the Lion-hearted. — Upon the arrival of intelligence of the capture of Jerusalem 
 by Saladin, great alarm prevailed throughout the whole West of Europe; and ftoiTi 
 the shores of the Mediterranean to the coasts of the Baltic, armed bands set off fo' 
 the Holy Land. The three most powerful sovereigns of Europe, Frederic Barbai- 
 ossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard the Lion-hearted ot 
 England, led powerful armies against the infidels. (A. D. I1S9.) 
 
 Frederic Barbarossa's Victory at Iconium — His Accidental Death. - 
 The Emperor Frederic Barbarbossa with the German army marched by land to 
 Asia Minor, and defeated the Sultan of Iconium in a great battle near the walls of 
 his chief (iity; but the noble-hearted German Emperor lost his life in a stream 
 
ijS MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 which he had attempted to cross. His second son, Frederic, with a part of tne 
 ex]3edition, proceeded to Palestine, and took part in the siege of Acre. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Acre by Richard the Lion-hearted and Philip 
 Augustus. — Kings Richard the Lion-hearted and Philip Augustus, with the Eng- 
 lish and PYench armies, after reaching the Holy Land by sea, laid siege to Acre, 
 H'hich fell into their hands in 1192, after a siege of nearly two yeare, during w'lich 
 aine great battles were fought before the city. Richard the Lion-hearted was 
 lo'.ed for his energy, ability, and valor, as well as for his pride, severity, 1:1 J 
 :i ielty. 
 
 An igance and Cruelty of Richard the Lion-hearted. — By the orders of 
 Richard the Lion-hearted, the German bannei', which Duke J^eopold of Aubtna 
 had caused to be erected on the battlements of Acre, was torn down and trampled 
 under foot by the English. When the infidels failed to fulfil the stipulations for 
 the payment of a ransom for the captive Saracens, 3,500 of them fell victims to the 
 fiery temper of the English king. Richard's courage made him feared and 
 respected by the infidels ; but notwithstanding his military skill and braveiy, his 
 efforts for the recapture of Jerusalem were unavailing. 
 
 Quarrel of the Kings of England and France — Richard's Captivity in 
 German}'. — The King of France was jealous of the superior military ability of the 
 King of England. The two monarchs soon quarreled, and Philip Augustus returned 
 to Fi-ance. After gaining a great victoiy over Sultan Saladin near Ascalon, Richard 
 the Lion-hearted set out on his return, by sea, to his kingdom. (A. D. 1192.) His 
 vessel, having been driven by a storm to the coast of Italy, Richard proceeded on 
 his way to England, by land, through Germany; but he was seized and imprisoned 
 in the castle of Trifels, by order of the Emperor Henry VL of Gennany, in revenge 
 for the insult to the German flag after the capture of Acre, and only obtained his 
 release upon the payment of a heavy ransom by the English people. 
 
 THE FOURTH CRUSADE (A. D. -1202-1203). 
 
 Expedition of French and Italian Knights under Count Baldwin ol 
 Flanders.— In the year 1202 A. D.,the Fourth Crusade was undertaken by French 
 and Italian knights, under Count Baldwin of Flanders, at the instigation of Pope Inno- 
 cent III. After assembling at Venice for the purpose of being conveyed to Pales- 
 tine, the Crusaders captured Zara, in Dalmatia, for the Venetians; but instead of 
 sailing to the Holy Land, they proceeded against Constantinople for the purpose of 
 restoring to the throne of the Byzantine Empire, Isaac Angelus, who had been de- 
 throned and imprisoned by his own brother. 
 
 Storming of Constantinople by the Crusaders. — Pleaded by the blind old 
 Dandolo, Doge of Venice, the Crusaders appeared before Constantinople, took the 
 city, and restored Isaac Angelus to the Greek throne; but when the Fiench Crusa- 
 dfrs demanded the rewards which had been promised to them, the inhabitants of 
 Constantinople raised an insurrection in which the Emperor Isaac Angelus and his 
 son Alexius perished. Thereupon the French Crusaders stormed and took iLe 
 Byzantine capital, plundered the churches, palaces, and dwellings, destroyed many 
 valuable monuments of art, and filled die whole city with terror and desolation. 
 
RICHARD, THE LION-HEARTED 
 
THE CRUSADES. 
 
 ^39 
 
 Temporary Subversion of the Greek Empire — A New Roman or Latin 
 
 Empiie. — Afler plundering Constantinople, the P'rench Crusaders subverted the 
 Byzantine or Greek Empire, and established in its stead a new Roman or Latin 
 Empire, with Constantinople for its capital, and Comit Baldwin of Flanders for its 
 fover^ign. This Latin kingdom lasted fifty-six years, after which it was overthrown, 
 and the old Byzantine dynasty was restored to the throne of Constantinople in tlie 
 prrsort of Michael Pala;ologus, 
 
 THE FIFTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1228-1229). 
 
 separate Bands of Crusaders — The Child's Crusade — Expedition of 
 Andrew II. of Hungary.— The Fourth Crusade was without results, concerning 
 Jeiusalem; and at times after its conclusion separate bands of Crusaders, without 
 chiefs or without discipline, made journeys to the Holy Land, and ventured upon 
 the hazardous undertakings of restoring the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem and 
 defending the Latin kingdom of Constantinople. On one occasion, 20,000 children 
 left their homes in Europe on a journey to the Holy Sepulchre, but they perished 
 from hunger and fatigue, or were sold into slavery. In 1218, King Andrew II. of 
 Hungar}' began the Fifth Crusade; but his expedition to Egypt had a disastrous 
 result. 
 
 Expedition of Frederic II. of Germany to Palestine — Treaty with Melek 
 Kamel. — In 1228, the excommunicated Frederic II., Emperor of Germany, led an 
 expedition into Palestine, at a time when the Sultan of Egypt was at war with the 
 governor of Damascus respecting the possession of Syria and Palestine. The Pope 
 forbade all Christian warriors from joining the expedition until the Emperer Fred- 
 eric II. should be relieved from the curse of the Church. In 1229, Frederick II. 
 concluded a treaty with Sultan Melek Kamel of Egypt, by which Jerusalem aud 
 the greater part of the Holy Land were surrendered to the Christians ; but the Pope 
 excommunicated the Holy City, and P'rederick II. was crowned at Jerusalem with- 
 out being consecrated by the Church. The abandoned Emperor soon returned to 
 Germany. 
 
 THE SIXTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1250-1251). 
 
 Ravages of the Corasmins in Palestine — Capture and Massacre of 
 Jerusalem. — In the year 1243 A. D., fourteen years after the Fifth Crusade, the 
 (Jorasmins, a fierce tribe of barbarians from the plains of Tartary, oveiTan Pales- 
 tine, carrying slaughter and desolation wherever they appeared, took Jerusalem, 
 massacred its inhabitants, destroyed the Holy Sepulchre, and wasted the flower ot 
 the Christian chivaliy in a desperate battle at Gaza; but they were finally lefeated 
 by the Christian and Turkish armies, which, for the moment, united against the 
 fommon enemy. 
 
 Expedition of St. Louis to Egypt — Captivity and Release of St. Louis. 
 — The horrible deeds of the Corasmins in Palestine led to the Sixth Crusade, which 
 was conducted by the French king, Louis IX., or St. Louis, who, in 1250, accom- 
 panied by anany of his nobles, sailed at the head of a powerful expedition to Egypt. 
 
t4o 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 After laking the town of Damietta, the French fleet was destroyed in the Nile by 
 means of Greek fire; and St. Louis was taken prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, and 
 only obtained his freedom by the payment of a heavy ransom. (A. D. 1250.) Ai 
 lengtli the Mamelukes, a race of Circassians who had been held as slaves in Kgypt, 
 obtained control of the government of that countiy. 
 
 THE SEVENTH CRUSADE (A. D. 1270-1271) 
 
 Expedition of St. Louis to Tunis — Siege of Tunis — Death of St. Louis 
 — In 1270, St. Louis undertook the Seventh Crusade — the last of those great expe- 
 ditions of the Christians against the infidels. The French fleet, having been driven 
 by a storm upon the coast of Sardinia, St. Louis resolved to attack the piratical 
 Moors of Northern Africa. The valiant French monarch landed near Tunis, and 
 besieged that city; but soon a pestilential disease carried St. Louis and the greater 
 number of his followers to their graves. The surviving French leaders concluded 
 a treaty of peace with the Moors, and returned to France. 
 
 Exploits of Prince Edward of England in the Holy Land. — Prince Ed- 
 ward of England (afterward King Edward L), who participated in the Seventh 
 Crusade, went to the Holy Land, where he performed many gallant exploits, and 
 struck such terror into the hearts of the Saracens that they hired an assassin to mur- 
 der him. Prince Edward wrenched a poisoned dagger from the hand of the assas- 
 sin; ])ut in the scuffle, the prince received a wound in the arm which might have 
 proved fatal had not his affectionate wife, Eleanor, who had accompanied him to 
 Palestine, sucked the poison from the wound. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Acre by the Turks — Loss of the Holy Land to 
 the Christians. — The infidels gradually recovered their lost power in Palestine; 
 and, in 1291, a Turkish army of 200,000 men appeared before Acre, and, after 3 
 vigorous siege, took the city by storm. The remaining Christians voluntarily retired 
 from Syria, which for two centuries had been drenched with the blood of millions 
 of Christian and Mohammedan warriors. 
 
 CONSEQUENCES OF THE CRUSADES. 
 
 Influence of the Crusades on Chivalry. — The Crusades ennobled the 
 knightly class by furnishing a higher aim to their efforts, and gave rise to the estab- 
 lishment of new orders, which presented a model of Chivalry and were presumed to 
 possess all the knightly virtues. Of these new orders were the Knights of St. John, 
 llie Knights Templars, and the Teutonic Knights, which combined the spirit of the 
 knight and the monk, their vows being chastity, poverty, obedience, and war against 
 tb.e infidels. 
 
 The Knights of St. John. — After the re-conquest of the Holy Land tiy the 
 r\uks, the Knights of St. John established themselves in the Island of Rhwies, 
 which was finally wrested from them by the Ottoman Turks, in 1522, wnen th:y 
 received the island of Malta from the celebrated Charles V., Emperor of Ciermany 
 and King of Spain. 
 
 The Knights Templars. — The Knights-Templars acquired great wealth by 
 
THE CRUSADES. 
 
 141 
 
 donations and legacies. After the loss of their possessions in Palestine, the greater 
 number of them returned to France, where they abandoned themselves to infidelity 
 and corruption, the consequence of which was the final dissolution of their order. 
 
 The Teutonic Knights. — The Teutonic Knights were celebrated for their 
 services in the ■ civilization of the countries on the shores of the Baltic sea. They 
 defended Christianity, against the heathen Prussians in the region of the Vistula 
 and converted the inhabitants of the territory between the Vistula and the Niemct 
 to ( .'hristianity, and established there the German language, customs, and civil '/a 
 ion. The cities of Culm, Thorn, Elbing, Konigsburg, and, others arose; bishop 
 rics and monasteries sprung up; and German industry and civilization produced a 
 complete change. 
 
 Influence of the Crusades on the Feudal System. — The Crusades gave 
 rise to a free peasantry and tended to break up the Feudal System, as by their 
 means great numbers of serfs received their freedom, and extended the power and 
 influence of the burgher class and of the towns. The rich barons were compelled 
 to sell their possessions, for the purpose of raising money to equip troops and to 
 transport them to the Holy Land. 
 
 Diffusion of Knowledge. — The Crusades promoted the diffusion of knowledge 
 and the advancement of science and literature. Those who engaged in them were 
 at first deplorably ignorant and illiterate; but when they came in contact with the 
 Greek and Arabian civilization, they acquired a fondness for science and literature, 
 and after returning to Europe they imparted the same spirit to their countrymen. 
 
 Development of Commerce. — The Crusades gave great encouragement to 
 commerce, as by their means different countries were brought into communication 
 and more intimate commercial relations with each other; and the advantage of a 
 mutual exchange of products was soon perceived. In consequetice, great progress 
 was made in the arts of navigation and ship-building; and many flourishing cities, 
 such as Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, acquired immense wealth and attained to vast 
 commercial importance. 
 
 I Influence of the Crusaders on the Church — Crusade against the Albi 
 genses. — The Crusades gave greater power and influence to the clergy, and multi 
 plied the riches of the Church. They also tended to exalt the religious enthusiasm 
 produced by them into a spirit of fanatical intolerance.! This intolerance was soon 
 manifested in a crusade against the Albigenses, a new religious sect which arose in 
 the South of France, Pope Innocent III. ordered the cross to be preached against 
 the Albigenses and their protector, Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse; whereupon 
 bands of fanatical warriors overran the fertile region inhabited by the new sect, and 
 spread death and desolation wherever they appeared, destroying cities, towns, and 
 Tillages, massacring the inhabitants, and converting that beautiful region into a 
 vaft wilderness. Finally, in 1228, King Louis VIII. of France undertook a bloody 
 MJnpaign against the heretics; and after a desolating war. Count Raymond was 
 'sir feated and subdued, and the unfortunate creed of the Albigenses was extinguish d 
 k blood. 
 
 The Assassins and The Old Man of the Mountain. — About the tmie of 
 d*'. First Crusade, the Mohammedan prophet, Hassan, founded the fanatical sect 
 Oi the "^ssassins," who dwelt in the mountains of Syria, and who became ll'ic 
 
142 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 terror alike of Christians, Jews, and Turlcs. These Assassins were blindly devoted 
 to their chief, "The Old Man of the Mountain," and paid the most implicit obedi- 
 ence to his commands; and they believed that if they sacrificed their lives for his 
 sake, they would certainly be rewarded with the highest joys of paradise. When- 
 ever the Old Man of the Mountain considered himself injured by any one, he dis- 
 pat(. bed some of his Assassins secretely to murder the aggressor. Thus was derived 
 the rommon name of "assassin," which has ever since been applied to a secrd 
 c ardf r<^r. 
 
 LATIN STATES. 
 
 ITALIAN STATES. 
 
 THE PAPAL STATE OF ROME. 
 
 Rome under the Popes. — From the time that Pepin the Little, King of the 
 franks, endowed the Pope with a large tract of territory in Middle Italy, the city 
 of Rome, with its neighboring territory, had been under the dominion of the Popes, 
 who, in uninterrupted succession, have filled the Chair of St. Peter. 
 
 Feuds at Rome — Rise of Cola di Rienzi— His Fall and Assassination. 
 — Duiing the seventy years that the Pope resided at Avignon, in France, Rome was 
 a prey to internal dissensions, and suffered greatly from the lawlessness of the 
 nobles. Out of these intestine disorders and quarrels of the familes of Orsini and 
 Colonna arose Cola di Rienzi, called the "Last of the Tribunes," who was imbued 
 with the spirit of the ancient Roman republicans, and who endeavored to restore 
 Rome to its former glory and preeminence. Having gained the support of the 
 Roman people by his fiery addresses, Rienzi was made a Tribune of the People ; 
 and he seized the supreme power in Rome in 1347, and expelled the lawless nobles; 
 but his impolicy in loading' the Roman people with the most oppressive taxes, soon 
 made him unpopular, and, after a brief existence of seven months, his government 
 was overthrown, and he was driven into exile. Rienzi afterwards returned to Rome, 
 and was assassinated during a tumult in the city, in 1354. 
 
 THE DUCHY OF MILAN. 
 
 Northern Italy under the Emperor of Germany. — After the fall of the 
 Carlovingian dynasty in Northern Italy, that country was a prey to confusion 
 at<d anarchy, until it passed under the sway of the Emperor of Germany, m the ten'h 
 century. In the course of time, Milan and other towns emerged into imjxjrtance. 
 
 The Lombard League — Peace of Constance — Guelphs and Ghibellines. 
 •:~In 1 177, Milan and other towns of Lombardy formed the Lombard League against 
 the German emperor, and by the Peace of Constance, in 1183, the Lombard cities 
 secured their independence; but Italy was distracted for centuries by the civil wars 
 
LATIN STATES. 
 
 143 
 
 oetween the Giielphs, or supporters of the Pope, and the Ghibellines, or adherents 
 of the Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Milan under the Families of Visconti and Sforza. — Milan, which was 
 ruled by the family i>f Visconti, in the process of time acquired nearly the whole of 
 Loml)ardy. The ruler of Milan and its territory received the title of Duke from the 
 Emperor of Germany. On the death of the last Milanese duke of the family of 
 v'ijconti, in 1450, the government of the duchy was bestowed on Francisco Sfoiz.i. 
 
 Milan under the French and the Spaniards. — In 1500, the Duchy of Milan 
 was subdued by Louis XII., King of France, and the Milanese duke, Louis riforo, 
 was kept a prisoner for ten years; but the French were finally driven away and 
 Moro was restored to his dukedom. In 15 15, the French again took possession of 
 Milan, after their king, Francis I., had defeated the Milanese and their allies, the 
 Swiss, in the battle of Marignano, or "the Battle of the Giants." In 1525, Milan 
 was conquered by the Spaniards, who retained the duchy for almost two centuries. 
 
 REPUBLIC OF VENICE. 
 
 Italian Republics — Origin of Venice. — During the Middle Ages, a numbei 
 of small republics arose in Italy, the most prominent of which were Venice, Genoa, 
 Pisa, and Florence, which were greatly renowned for their extensive commerce and 
 maritime power. The most famous of these Italian republics was Venice, which 
 was founded in the year 452 A. D., by the Veneti, a people of Northern Italy, who 
 fled in terror from their homes during the frightful ravages in Italy by Attila and 
 his Hunnic followers. The fugitive Veneti took refuge among the small islands at 
 the head of the Adriatic sea, and there founded a settlement called Venezia, or 
 Venice. 
 
 The First Doge, or Duke of Venice— The Rialto.— For more than two cen- 
 turies, Venice was a simple repulilic; but in the year 697 A. D., its form of govern- 
 ment was changed by the election of a Doge, or Duke, who was vested with almost 
 absolute power. In the beginning of the ninth century, the central island, Rialto, 
 was connected with the other islands by bridges, and this city of bridges and canals, 
 instead of streets, became a great commercial power. 
 
 St. Mark — Venetian Aid to the Crusaders. — In the twelfth century, the 
 Venetians adopted St. Mark as their patron saint, having brought, as it is said, his 
 body from Alexandria, in Egypt, to Venice. (A. D. 829.) During the seventh, 
 eighth, and ninth centuries, Venice greatly increased in wealth, commerce, and 
 naval power; and its territories were enlarged by the annexation of Dalmatia and 
 other provinces. In the First Crusade, the Venetians aided Godfrey of Bouillon 
 with a fleet of 200 vessels; and during the whole period of those Holy Wars, 
 Venice was the great commercial centre and the emporium of the trade between 
 the nations of Europe and those of the East. 
 
 Ceremony of "Wedding the Adriatic." — In the twelfth century, the ceie- 
 mony of " wedding the Adriatic " was instituted, the Pope presenting the Doge of 
 Venice with a ring for the purpose. The ceremony was performed with gieal 
 pjtnp, and consisted in casting a ring into the Adriatic, to indicate that the sev\ was 
 sxd)ject .to Venice as a bride is to her husband. 
 
144 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Acquisitions of Venice — Domestic Dissensions — Council of Ten, — 
 
 Venice acquired possession of many rich towns in Lombardy, and also of Crete, 
 Cyprus, the Peloponnesus, and the islands of the Archipelago (the ancient ^gean 
 sea). Venice, like all the other Italian republics, was torn by the contests of 
 domestic factions. In the fourteenth century, the democratic system in Venice was 
 overthrown, and a government of the aristocracy was erected in its stead. A 
 "Council of Ten" was appointed to prevent any attempt at the reestablishmcn* of 
 •Jemocracy. 
 
 Height of Venetian Glory — Check Against the Turkish Nava* Pov*«i 
 — At the commencement of the lifteenth century, Venice attained the highest pitch 
 of greatness and prosperity, and was for more than a century the chief commercial 
 and maritime power of the world. Venice did very important service to all Chris- 
 tian Europe by checking the naval power of the Ottoman Turks in the Mediterra- 
 nean sea; but her long maritime wars linally exhausted her resources, and her gov- 
 ernment gi-ew despotic and corrupt. 
 
 Decline of Venetian Commerce and Maritime Power. — The discovery of 
 a sea-passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope sealed the fate of Venice, 
 and her commercial and maritime gloi"y, in a great measure, departed from her; 
 but for several centuries longer Venice continued formidable, and her fleets con- 
 tended succesefully against the Ottoman Turks, who endeavored to secure the 
 control of the Mediterranean sea. 
 
 League of Cambray Against Venice. — When, at the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century, Venice attempted to extend her territorial possesions' in Italy, the 
 powerful "League of Cambray" was formed against her by Pope Julius II., King 
 Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, King Louis XII. of France, and the Emperor 
 Maximilian I. of Germany. (A. D. 1508.) The Venetians soon succeeded in 
 winning the Pope and the King of Spain to their interest, and so contrived to dis- 
 solve the league; and the French, who had threatened the independence of Venice, 
 were soon expelled from Italy. 
 
 REPUBLIC OF GENOA. 
 
 Genoa's Naval Wars with Venice — Domestic Dissensions. — The Repub- 
 lic of Genoa, the great commercial rival of Venice, was often engaged in naval 
 wars with that powerful maritime republic. In these wars, Venice was generally 
 successful. Genoa was greatly weakened by dissensions between the democracy 
 and the aristocracy, or Guelphs and Ghibellines. 
 
 Acquisition of Genoa by the French — Its Liberation by Andrea Doria. 
 — In the latter part of the fifteenth century, Genoa came into the possession of the 
 French, and afterwards of the Duchy of Milan. In 152S, Andrea Doria, the great 
 Genoese admiral, liberated Genoa from the sway of the French, and reestah'jshed 
 the republican government, thus winning for himself the title of " Father cf o\s 
 ■ountry and Restorer of its Liberities." 
 
 REPUBLIC OF FLORENCE 
 
 Conquest of Pisa by Florence — Domestic Dissensions.— The commercial 
 city of Pisa was the first town of any importance in Tuscany; but in a war with 
 
LATIN STATES. 
 
 145 
 
 Genoa ils power was greatly weakened, and finally Pisa was conquered by the 
 Republic of Florence and became a dependency of that powerful state. Florence, 
 which was also distinguished for her commerce and manufactures, was likewise 
 piC'itly weakened by the (juarrel between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines; and 
 I'le state was alternately governed by the aristocracy and the democracy. 
 
 Wise Rule of Cosmo de Medici and Lorenzo the Magnificent. — ^In 1428, 
 Cosmo de Medici assumed the government of Florence and ruled with aimocit dic- 
 tatorial power; but he used his power wisely, thus earning the glorious title of 
 "Father of his Countiy." Under the rule of Cosmo de Medici, and that of hij 
 distinguished grandson, Lorenzo "the Magnificent," Florence enjoyed the gieatest 
 prosperity; and the arts, sciences, and literature flourished in the state. After the 
 death of Lorenzo the Magnificent, the democratic government was reestablished in 
 Florence; but in 1530 the republican constitution was again overthrown, and the 
 House of Medici was restored to the government of Florence, through the interfer- 
 ence of Pope Clement VI L and the Emperor Charles V. of Germany. 
 
 THE KINGDOM OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 
 
 Expulsion of the Saracens from Southern Italy by the Norroans. — In 
 
 the ninth century. Southern Italy was invaded by the Saracens, against whom that 
 country was defended by the armies of the Byzantine and German Empires; but the 
 Saracens retained possession of many places in Southern Italy, until they were ex- 
 pelled by the Normans, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Hordes of Normans 
 from Normandy poured into Southern Italy and took possession of the country. 
 
 Robert Guiscard, the Norman Duke of Southern Italy. — In 1060, Robert 
 Guiscard, a Norman chieftain, led a band of his countrymen into Southern Italy ; and 
 was acknowledged by the Pope, Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and other territories 
 in Italy and Sicily which he might wrest from the Greeks and the Saracens. The 
 Norman duke, who was the greatest soldier of his age, extended his conquests 
 throughout Southern Italy, and put an end to the dominion of the Eastern Emperors 
 in Italy. He afterwards led a large army, officered by Norman knights, into the 
 other territories of the Greek Empire, and captured Durazzo after a seven months' 
 siege; and then marching eastward, he threatened Constantinople. He was, how- 
 ever, recalled by Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), to defend the Head of the 
 Church against his inveterate enemy, Henry IV., Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Kingdom of Naples and Sicily — Royal Houses of Hohenstauffen and 
 Anjou. — Roger I., the brother of Robert Guiscard, wrested Sicily from the Sara 
 cens after a war of several years; and his son, Roger II., ruled over the Norman 
 territories in Italy and Sicily, and founded the kingdom of Naples and Sicily; but 
 with the death of William II., the grandson of Roger II., the Norman dynasty in 
 Italy became extinct ; and Southern Italy passed under the sway of the German 
 House of Hohenstauffen, and thus remained until the reign of Manfred, who, in 
 1266, was defeated in the battle of Benevento, by Charles of Anjou, whc thus ob- 
 tained the throne of the kingdom of Naples and .Sicily, and retained it .r.ilil thi 
 bloody massacre of the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. 
 
 Naples and Sicily under the Spaniards.— By the massacre of the Sicilian 
 Vespers, Charles of Anjou lost Sicily, but he and his posterity ruled over Naples 
 10 
 
146 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 uritiJ 1435, when Naples passed under the domuiion of the kings of Aragon, wno 
 nad ruled over Sicily from the time of the Sicilian Vespers. The French kings 
 endeavored to wrest Naples from the kings of Aragon ; but in 1504, Ferdinand the 
 Catholic, King of Spain, effected the final subjugation of Naples and united it with 
 Sicily. Tlie kingdom of Naples and Sicily belonged to Spain for more than tW'O 
 centuries. 
 
 KINGDOM OF FRANCE 
 
 CARLOVINGIAN KINGS OF FRANCE. 
 
 France under the Carlovingian Dynasty — Charles the Simple. — Under 
 Jie Carlovingian dynasty, France was divided into a number of principalities vir- 
 tually independent of the central p>ower of the monarchy. The royal power was 
 reduced to mere shadow, and France suffered greatly from the predatory inroads of 
 the Normans from Scandinavia. Under Charles the Simple (89S— 922), so called 
 because of his imbecility, the royal authority in France fell into contempt, the inso- 
 lent nobles possessed all the power, and the king was closely confined by Count 
 Hugh of Paris. 
 
 Duke Rollo and the Normans — Usurpation of the throne by Hugh 
 Capet. — In the year 911 A. D., a horde of Normans, led by Duke Rollo, made 
 their appearance in France; and King Charles the Simple, unable to resist their 
 progress, offered Rollo his daughter in marriage and to cede to him a large tract of 
 territory between the Seine and the English Channel, on condition that he should 
 embrace Christianity and acknowledge the King of France as his feudal sovereign. 
 Rollo accepted these propositions, and he and his followers settled in that part of 
 Northern France called from them, Normandy. The Normans immediately aban- 
 doned their former predatory habits, and became peaceful citizens, cultivating the 
 soil, practicing the arts of civilized life, and adopting the religion, the language, 
 and the customs and manners of the French. On the death of Louis V., the last 
 Carlovingian monarch of France, Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, usurped the French 
 throne. At this period, the P'rench kingdom consisted of only a small territory 
 about Rheims and Paris. 
 
 FRANCE UNDER THE HOUSE OF CAPET. 
 
 REIGN OF HUGH CAPET (A. D. 987-996). 
 
 Accession of Hugh Capet — \A^eakness of the Royal Power- -Hugh 
 
 Capet gained the French clergy to his interest by renouncing the rich abbeys which 
 he had inherited from his father. In an assembly at Noyons, Hugh was fonnnlly 
 elected King of France, and was immediately consecrated at Rheims. (A. I). 9S7.' 
 Thij was the commencement of the Capetian dynas-ty, which occupied the thru'" 
 .)f France for three and a half centuries. The reign of Hugh Capet was diitml)^.^' 
 by the restlessness and ambition of the French nobles. There were at (his tinu' 
 eight powerful principalities in France, each independent of the French crown; — 
 namely. Burgundy, Aquitaine, Normandy, Bretagne, Gascony, Flanders, Cham- 
 pagne, and Toulouse; and the royal authority was most insignificant. 
 
LATIN STATES. 1 47 
 
 REKIN OF ROBERT THE PIOUS (A. D 996-1031). 
 
 Supposed Approach of the End of the World — Excommunication of 
 t>.ng Robert. — Hugh Capet died in 996, and was succeeded on the French 
 thione by his son, Robert the Pious. It was generally believed that the world was 
 only to las' 1,000 years after the birth of Christ; and on the approach of the yeai 
 1 000 A. D a general gloom and dread prevailed. The more sericas and pious 
 |)eople employed themselves in acts of religious devotion. King Robert was 
 excommunicated and his kingdom laid under an interdict by .Pope Gregory V., and 
 the king was obliged to divorce his beloved wife. Bertha, beause she was his 
 fourth cousin. Robert then married Constance of Provence, a proud and indolent 
 princess. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY I. (A. D. 1031-1060). 
 
 Project of Queen Constance — Weakness of the Royal Authority. — On 
 
 the death of King Robert the Pious, in 103 1, his son, Heniy I. ascended the 
 throne of France ; but Robert's widow, Constance, endeavored to place her favor- 
 ite son on the throne. With the assistance of Duke Robert the Magnificent of 
 Normandy, the father of King William the Conqueror of England, King Henry I. 
 defeated the project of Constance, who ended her life in prison. So little was the 
 authority of Henry I. respected that the leading French nobles, such as the Counts 
 of Toulouse, Flanders, and Champagne, eclipsed the king in power. 
 
 REIGN OF PHILIP I. (A. D. 1060-1108). 
 
 King Philip I. and Count Baldwin of Flanders. — King Henry I. died in 
 /060, leaving the crown of France to his son, Philip I.; and the wise and virtuous 
 Count Baldwin of Flanders was appointed the young king's guardian. King 
 Philip I. became a slave to his vices. 
 
 Duke William of Normandy and his son Robert. — One of King Philip's 
 most powerful vassals, Duke William of Normandy, conquered England and seated 
 himself on the throne of that kingdon*. This aroused the jealousy of Philip, who 
 excited Ronert, Duke William's son, to rebellion against his father. William 
 besieged his rebellious son in a castle in Normandy; and Robert sallied forth, and 
 encountered a knight, whom he threw down, horse and man, but when he sud- 
 denly discovcied that he was about to slay his own father he assisted him to rise 
 and implored nis pardon. 
 
 The First Crusade. — During the reign of Philip I., the First Crusade was 
 utidcrtaken by Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless. Hundreds of thous- 
 ands of Crusaders left Europe for the redemption of the Holy Land, and great 
 numbers of them perished. Antioch and Jerusalem were, however, wrested from 
 tl e infidels, aiiJ a new Kingdom of Jerusalem was established, which continued 
 for nearly a century. 
 
 Wretched Condition of France Under Philip I. — "The Truce of God 
 •—The condition of France under King Philip 1. was most wretched indeed. Trie 
 lawless nobles and knights erected castles in the vicinity of Paris, and committed 
 the grossest outjuges upon the unoffending inhabitants; but the insolent nobles were 
 chartised by tti^ king's son, Louis. In order to check the violence which at this 
 
148 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 time so universally prevailed, the bishops published what was called "The Truce 
 of God," which enacted that no act of violence should be committed from Wed- 
 nesday evening to Monday morning. 
 
 REIGN OF LOUIS VI. (A. D. 1108-11S7). 
 
 Good Character of Louis the Fat. — King Philip I. died in iioS, leaving he 
 iTOwn of France to his son, Louis VI., who, on accoont of his corpulence, wai 
 surnamed "the Fat." Louis VL was possessed of a good heart, an inflexible 
 iove of justice, a friendly disposition, and a gay and cheerful terppcr, although he 
 had no taste for learning and no political talents. He was Israve and active, and his 
 magnanimity in sharing with his soldiers their hardships and dangers won for him 
 their attachment and esteem. Louis the Fat acquired great popularity by humbling 
 the lawless nobles and knights, who had perpetrated the greatest outrages upon the 
 defenseless people. 
 
 Formation of Communes. — With the view of humbling the French nobles, 
 King Louis VL granted to the inhabitants of cities and towns charters for forming 
 themselves into associations for mutual defense, called Communes, which freed the 
 citizens from feudal servitude, pemiitted them to nominate their own magistrates, 
 •nd required them to take the field only at the command of their sovereign. 
 
 REIGN OF LOUIS VII. (A. D. 11S7-1180). 
 
 Annexation of Aquitaine — Count Thibault of Champagne — Second 
 'Crusade. — King Louis VL died in II37, and was succeeded on the French 
 •hrone by his son, Louis VII., surnamed " the Young," to distinguish him from 
 bis father. Louis VII. had previously married Eleanor, the sole heiress of Aqui- 
 taine, thus uniting that extensive territory to the FVench crown. Count Thibault 
 of Champagne had rebelled against the king, but had been reduced to submis- 
 sion and pardoned. But Thibault took up arms a second time; and Louis VII., 
 exasperated at his conduct, attacked his castle of Vitiy, and set it on fire, but the 
 flames spread to a village close by and destroyed a church and many of its inmates. 
 Shocked at this accident, the king made peace with Count Thibault; and, as an 
 atonement for the dreadful accident, Louis VII., in connection with Conrad III., 
 Emperor of Germany, engaged in the Second Crusade; but both monarchs were 
 unfortunate in that imdertaking, and after losing all but a few of their followers 
 they returned to Europe. 
 
 Loss of Aquitaine — War between Louis VII. and Henry Plantagenet. 
 ■ — King Louis VII. quarreled with his wife Eleanor, and obtained a divorce 
 from her, thus losing all the vast dower which he had received with her. Elear.oi 
 soon afterward married Henry Plantagenet, Duke of Normandy, afterward King 
 Henry II. of England, and thus her extensive possessions were annexed to the 
 English crown. F"or twenty years Louis and Henry were engaged in almost con- 
 tinual war, as the French king claimed the right of feudal superiority over the English 
 monarch. During his war with the Duke of Normandy, Louis besieged Rouen 
 and after granting the citizens of the beleaguered town a truce, he perfidiously as- 
 saulted the city, ])ut was justly punished by a vigorous repulse. 
 
LATIN STATES. 14^ 
 
 REIGN OF PHILIP AUGUSTUS (A. D. 118C-122&-. 
 
 Remarkable Increase of the Royal Power — Improvement of Paris. — 
 Iving Louis VII. died in 1 180, and left the crown of France to his son, Philip 
 II., surnamed Augustus, under whom the political condition of France underwent 
 an entire change. Before this period, the King of France had been merely ths 
 feudal chief of a confederacy of princes, but now he became an absolute monarch. 
 Phi'ip Augustus greatly improved Paris and enclosed the city with a strong wall, 
 in:" built the famous palace of the Louvre. Eager for war with King Henry 
 il. jf England, one of the most powerful monarchs of that age, Philip Angus- 
 rjj induced that king's sons, Richard and John, to take up arms against their father. 
 
 Third Crusade — Quarrel between Philip and Richard the Lion-hearted. 
 — King Philip Augustus, in conjunction with King Richard the Lion-hearted of 
 England and the Emperor Frederic Barl^arossa of Germany, undertook the Third 
 Crusade. After taking Acre, the Kings of England and France quarreled; and 
 Philip Augustus returned to P>ance, and his ungenerous heart was filled with joy 
 when Richard tlie Lion-hearted, while on his return to England, was imprisoned in 
 Germany. 
 
 Conquest of Normandy and the other English Possessions in France 
 by Philip. — Upon the death of Richard the Lion-hearted, in 11 89, his brother 
 John usurped the throne of England, and murdered his nephew, Prince Arthur of 
 Bretagne, the rightful heir. Philip Augustus, desirous of the acquisition of Nor- 
 mandy, summoned John, as Duke of Normandy, to Paris, to answer for his conduct; 
 and upon John's refusal to comply, the French king seized on all the English pos- 
 sessions in France, — namely, Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou. 
 
 Coalition of England, Germany, and Flanders against France — Battle 
 of Bouvines.— A powerful coalition was now formed against the King of France 
 by the King of England, the Emperor of Germany, and the Count of Flanders. 
 France was invaded, but King Philip Augustus defeated the united English, Ger- 
 man, and Flemish forces, numbering 50,000 men, in the battle of Bouvines, near 
 Tournay, on the 27th of August, 12 14. 
 
 Fourth Crusade — Crusade against the Albigenses. — In the meantime, the 
 Fourth Crusade, undertaken by French and Italian knights, resulted in the tempor- 
 aiy subversion of the Greek Empire, and the substitution, in its stead, of a new Latin 
 Empire, with Count Baldwin of Flandeis on the throne of Constantinople. The 
 Crusade now undertaken against the new religious sect of the Albigenses, in iSouth- 
 ern France, resulted in the defeat of Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse, the chief ot 
 the sect, and the sacrifice of thousands of Albigenses to the fanaticism of their 
 conquerors. 
 
 French Invasion of England. — The English barons, having risen in rebellion 
 against King John, invited Prince Louis, a son of Philip Augustus, to come to Eng- 
 land and be their king. Prince Louis accepted the invitation gladly, landed in 
 Engbnd with a French military force, and had almost completed the conquest of 
 tha. kingdom, when King John died, in 121 6. Thereupon the English barons 
 abandoned Prince I^ouis and refused to recognize him as their sovereign ; and the 
 prince was .obliged ■y return to France. 
 
I go MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 REIGN OF LOUIS VIII. (A. D. 1223-1226). 
 
 Successful War against Henry III. of England. — On the death cf King 
 Philip Augustus, in 1223, his son, Louis VIII., became King of France. Louis 
 V'lIL, surnamed "the Lion," was a weak monarch; but the wise policy of his 
 father had given such an impulse to the affairs of France that the French contin- 
 \ially triumphed < ver the English, whose king, Henry III., had repeatedly attacked 
 tne French dominions. 
 
 Conquest of the Albigenses. — Under the authority of the Pope, Louis tlu 
 Lion undertook a campaign against the Albigenses ; and with a powerful army he 
 besieged Avignon, but only obtained possession of the town after a heroic defense 
 on the part of its inhabitants, and after 20,000 of his troops had miserably perished 
 from disease and famine. 
 
 REIGN OF SAINT LOUIS (A. D. 1226-1270). 
 
 Character of Louis IX. or St. Louis — Regency of Queen Blanche. — King 
 Louis VIII. died in 1226, a short time after the fall of Avignon, and left Uie 
 crown of France to his eldest son, Louis IX., commonly called Saint Louis, on 
 account of his piety. Saint Louis possessed a mild, upright, benevolent, and for- 
 giving disposition. During the minority of Saint Louis, his mother, Queen Blanche, 
 governed the French kingdom as regent. 
 
 Sixth and Seventh Crusades — Captivity and Death of St. Louis. — Saint 
 Louis undertook the Sixth Crusade against the infidels. Instead of leading an 
 expedition to the Holy Land, Saint Louis invaded Egypt ; and after taking Dami- 
 etta, he was made a prisoner by the Sultan of Egypt, but was released on the pay- 
 ment of a heavy ransom. In the Seventh Crusade, twenty years later (A. D. 
 1270), Saint Louis sailed to Africa and besieged Tunis; but a plague which broke 
 out in the French camp carried Saint Louis and many of his soldiers to their graves. 
 
 REIGN OF PHILIP THE HARDY (A. D. 1270-1285). 
 
 Reduction of the King of Tunis. — St. Louis was succeeded on the throne ot 
 France by his son, Philip III., surnamed "the Hardy," who continued the wai 
 against the Moors of Africa, and with his uncle, Charles of Anjou, King of Naples 
 and Sicily, reduced the King of Tunis to submission. 
 
 Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers.— Charles of Anjou greatly oppressed his 
 Sicilian subjects, who, in revenge, massacred 8,000 French in Palermo when the 
 chuich bell sounded for vespers, on Easter day, 1282. This is known as the Mas- 
 sacre cf the Sicilian Vespers. Charles of Anjou then lost Sicily, and that island 
 passed under the dominion of Peter the Cruel, King of Aragon. 
 
 REIGN OF PHILIP THE FAIR (A. D. 1283-1S14). 
 
 War with Edward I. of England — Revolt of the Flemings. — King Philip 
 .'he Hardy died in 1285, and was succeeded on the French throne by nis srii;, 
 Philip IV., surnamed "the Fair." For seven yeare, Philip the Fair waged an 
 unsuccessful war against King Edward I. of England for the acquisition of Gai- 
 enne. Philip the Fair acquired Flanders, which he governed so oppressively tha) 
 the Flemings rose in rebellion, massacred 3,000 French in Flanders, and success- 
 
LATIN STATES. 
 
 151 
 
 fillly resisied all the efforts of the French king to compel them tc submission. The 
 Flemings were at this time celebrated for their skill in weaving and in other indus- 
 bial arts 
 
 Quarrel Between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII. — A fierce 
 quarrel arose between King Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII., through the 
 attempt of Boniface to prevent the taxation of the clergy in France. The French 
 .niinarch treated with contempt every bull of excommunication issued by the Pope, 
 md after the death of Boniface, Philip the Fair placed the Archbishop of Bordeaux 
 I! the papal chair, with the title of Clement V., and transferred the resident e of the 
 f u] e froir. Rome to Avignon, in the South of France, where it remained for seventy 
 years. 
 
 Dissolution of the Order of Knights Templars — The Third Estate. — 
 King Philip the Fair also caused the celebrated order of Knights Temjjlars to be 
 condemned and abolished, for alleged corruption and immorality; and the Grand 
 Master and many other members of the order were burned alive, while the rest 
 were treated with the most barbarous cruelty. During the reign of Philip the Fair, 
 the representatives of the Third Estate, or the Communes, were called to meet with 
 the nobility and the clergy in the grand council of the French kingdom, in order to 
 give their consent to the levy of taxes. (A. D. 1302.) 
 
 REIGN OF LOUIS X. (A. D. 1314-1316). 
 
 Tumultuous Conduct of the Nobles — Enfranchisement of the Serfs. — ■ 
 
 On the death of King Philip the Fair, in 1314, the crown of France fell to his eldest 
 son, Louis X., surnamed " Hutin," meaning disorder or tumult, from the tumultous 
 conduct of the French nobles and clergy, who com]:ielled Louis to restore to them 
 most of the privileges of which they had been deprived by Philip the Fair. Louis 
 X. issued an order enfranchising all the French serfs within the royal domains. 
 Louis X. was under the influence of his uncle, Charles of Valois, who caused 
 DeMarigny, the illustrious prime minister of Philip the P'air, to be executed on the 
 absurd charge of sorcery. 
 
 REIGN OF PHILIP THE TALL (A. D. 1316-1321). 
 
 The States-General — The Salic Law — Persecution of the Jews. — On 
 
 the death of King Louis X., in 1316, the throne of France fell to his brother, 
 Philip v., surnamed "the Tall," who assembled the States-General, or the grand 
 assembly of the French nation, to pronounce upon his right to the French throne, 
 which was disputed by the daughter of Louis X. The States-General issued a 
 decree declaring females incapable of inheriting the crown of France. This decree 
 was based on the barbarous code of the Salian Franks, and is therefore called the 
 "Salic Law." The reign of Philip the Tall is remarkable for a terrible persecution 
 cf the Jews in France, and many of them were barbarously massacred in Touraine 
 
 REIGN OF CHARLES THE FAIR (A. D. 1321-1328) 
 
 Accession of Charles the Fair — End of the Direct Line of Capet.— 
 Philip the Tall died in 1321, and as he only left daughters and no sons, his brother, 
 Charles IV., surnamed "the Fair," became King of France by the operation of the 
 
152 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Salic Law. On the death of Charles the Fair, without heirs, in 1328, the direct 
 line of the House of Capet became extinct; and the crown of France fell to Philip 
 of Valoii, a nephew of Philip the Fair. 
 
 FRANCE UNDER THE HOUSE OF VALOIS 
 
 REIGN OF PHILIP OF VAl^OIS(A. D. 1829-1851)). 
 
 Claims of Edward III. of England — His Invasion of France— Battle 
 
 )f Crecy. — Philip of Valois, or Philip VI., the first French king of the House 
 of Valois, soon had a competitor to contend with, in the person of King Edward 
 HI. of England, who claimed the crown of France as a direct descendam 
 t irough his mother, of Philip the Fair; but the French considered this claim invalia 
 Lecause, by the Salic Law, Isabella, Edward's mother, had no right to the French 
 throne, and therefore Edward could inherit no claims from her. But the King of 
 England, resolving to make his claim good by force of arms, invaded France with 
 a powerful army; and on the 25th of August, 1346, he defeated an immense French 
 army under King Philip VI., in the famous battle of Crecy, in which the French 
 lost 40,000 men, among whom was the blind old King John of Bohemia. In the 
 battle of Crecy, the English had several pieces of cannon, which was the first 
 instance of those weapons of warfare being used. Among those who distinguished 
 themselves by their bravery at Crecy was the English monarch's son, Edward the 
 Black Prince. 
 
 Defense of Calais — Its Surrender — Story of Eustace St. Pierre. — Aftei 
 the battle of Crecy, King Edward HI. laid siege to Calais, the gate to France. The 
 inhabitants had made an obstinate defense for nearly a year, when, threatened with 
 all the horrors of famine, they were finally forced to surrender to the victorious in- 
 vaders. It is said (though the story is now generally discredited) that the King of 
 England, exasperated at the stubborn resistance of the citizens of Calais, agreed to 
 spare the inhabitants, if six of the principal citizens were brought to him, with halters 
 about their necks, ready'for hanging; whereupon Eustace St. Pierre, a wealthy mer- 
 chant of Calais, offered himself as the first victim, and five other leading cidzens 
 followed his noble example. When the six citizens appeared before Edward III., 
 the stem monarch ordered them to execution, and their lives were only spared 
 through the earnest entreaties of the English nobles, of King Edward's heroic son. 
 the Black Prince, and of his noble-hearted queen, Philippa, who fell on her knees 
 before her husband and exiiorted him not to violate the laws of religion and honoi 
 by so inhuman an act. King Edward HI. expelled the French inhabitants of Calais 
 and peopled the city with English; and for two centuries that important town 
 lemained in the possession of the English. 
 
 Acquisition of Dauphiny — The First Dauphin— The Black Plague.- 
 Neai the close of the reign of Philip of Valois, the province of Dauphiny was an 
 ■iex-=d to the tcmtories of the French crown, on condition that the French king's 
 ■ilili'ft son should thereafter be called "The Dauphin," as the eldest son of tlis 
 Brilish monarch is styled " the Prince of Wales." During the years 1348 and 1349. 
 die Black Plague raged throughout France, and in Paris alone 50,000 persons fell 
 victims to its ravages. 
 
LATIN STATES. 
 REIGN OF JOHN THE GOOD (A. D. 1830-1864) 
 
 153 
 
 English Invasion of France — Battle of Poitiers — King John a Prisoner. 
 
 — King Philip VI. died in 1350, and was succeeded on the P'rench throne by his son, 
 John the Good. During this reign an English army of 12,000 men, under Edward 
 the Black Prince, landed in the province of Guienne, and advanced into the very 
 centre of France, where it was confronted by an army of 60,000 Frenchmen under 
 King John. The Black Prince hereupon offered to surrender the conquered terri 
 to:y and give up the war, if he were permitted to retreat unmolested; but the obsli 
 nacy of the French, monarch, who insisted on terms of unconditional submission 
 brought on the celebrated battle of Poitiers, which was fought on the 19th of Sep- 
 tember, 1356, and in which the French were most disastrously defeated, and King 
 John was taken prisoner. 
 
 King John's Captivity in London — The Dauphin made Regent of 
 France. — King John was carried a captive to London by the victorious Black 
 Prince, who treated the unfortunate monarch with the utmost generosity; and 
 during the four years of his captivity in the English capital, John was treated by 
 King Edward III. more like a guest than a prisoner. During King John's captivity 
 in London, his son Charles, the Dauphin, was made regent of France. 
 
 The States- General — Marcel's Insurrection. — During the regency in 
 France, the Parisian populace, under the leadership of Marcel, the chief of the 
 municipality of Paris, endeavored to restrict the despotic power of the sovereign and 
 to obtain a share in the government of I'^rance. The States-General were assembled 
 and conceded the privileges demanded by the people of Paris; but these privileges 
 were afterwards annulled, in consequence of which a frightful insurrection broke 
 out and continued for some time, but it was finally ended by the death of Marcel 
 and the defeat of the cause of popular liljerty. 
 
 Insurrection of the Jacquerie. — At this time a sanguinary insurrection of the 
 French peasantry burst forth, in consequence of the miserable condition of serfdom 
 in which the peasants had so long been kept by the despotic nobility. This great 
 popular revolt is known as the "Insurrection of the Jacquerie," from Jacques Bon- 
 homme, the name given in derision to a P>ench peasant. The insurgent peasants 
 •■acked the feudal castles, and put to death their inmates, without respect to age or 
 sex. After the peasants had been repulsed in an attack upon one of the towns, they 
 were hunted down like wild beasts, and thousands of them were brutally massacred; 
 and many of the rural districts were almost depopulated, and presented a sad picture 
 of ruin and desolation. 
 
 Another Invasion of France by Edward III. — Honorable Conduct of 
 King John. — In the meantime King John, still a captive in England, agreed to 
 surreiuler tc the English monarch a large portion of the French dominions, in order 
 to obtain his release ; but the States-General of France refused to ratify so humili- 
 ■ating a treaty ; and King Edward III. of England again invaded France, but finally 
 made peac-e, agreeing to release the French monarch on more reasonable conditions. 
 After a four years' captivity in England, King John the Good returned to his king- 
 dom, and was received with almost universal demonstrations of joy by his subjects; 
 but when his son, Louis, who had been delivered to the King of England as a 
 hostage for<the fvlfillment of the treaty, escaped, the conscientious King John vol- 
 
»54 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 untarily returned to captivity in England, and died soon after his arrival there 
 (A. D. 1364.) 
 
 Beginning of the Ducal House of Burgundy. — In 1363, the year previous 
 to his death, King John the Good assigned to his son, Philip the Good, the Duchy 
 of Burgundy, as a reward for his gallantry in the battle of Poiders. This was the 
 beginning of that celebrated Ducal House of Burgundy, which lasted more Ihaii a 
 .-entuiy, and which is so celebrated in French history. 
 
 REIGN OF CHARLES THE WISE (A. D. 1364-1S80). 
 
 Character of King Charles the Wise. — John the Good was succeeded on 
 .ne throne of France by his son, Charles V., surnamed "the Wise," who was of a 
 peaceful dispos.ticui, and whose wise measures contributed much to restore pros- 
 perity to the French kingdom. Charles the Wise was fond of study, and possessed 
 talents for statesmanship. He founded the Royal Library in Paris, and liberally 
 patronized literature and art. 
 
 DuGuesclin — Battle of Navaretta — Loss of English Possessions in 
 France. — King Charles the Wise appointed the great general, DuGuesclin, to the 
 position of Fligh Constal^le of France. DuGuesclin was defeated and taken pris- 
 oner by the English under the Black Prince in the battle of Navaretta; but after 
 the death of that great English warrior, the Constable conducted the war against 
 the English with great success, depriving them of most of their territories in France. 
 
 REIGN OF CHARLES VI. (A. D. 13S'0-1422). 
 
 Regency of the Duke of Anjou— Popular Insurrection in Paris. — On 
 
 the death of King Charles the Wise, in 13S0, the crown of France fell to his son, 
 Charles VI., who wa.s then only twelve years old. During the minority of Charles 
 VI., his uncle, the Duke of Anjou, acted as Regent of France. The unjust and 
 oppressive taxes imposed upon the French people occasioned a formidable popular 
 insurrection in Paris, and order was restored with great difficulty. 
 
 Revolt of the Flemings — Battle of Rosbecque. — The Flemings having 
 revolted against their ruler, Count Louis of Flanders, a French army was sent to 
 subdue them. In the battle of Rosbecque, in which the King of France himself 
 was present, the Flemish leader, Philip Von Artevelde, and 25,000 of his followers, 
 were defeated and slain by the French commanded by Oliver Clissons, High Con- 
 stable of France. (A. D. 13S2.) 
 
 Increase of the Royal Power — Execution of Popular Leaders. — The 
 
 gi-eat victory at Rosbecque strengthened the royal power in France. All the French 
 towns which had resisted the tyrannical exactions of the monarch were obliged to 
 yield, and all their citizens who had taken a conspicuous part in the popular move- 
 ment were mercilessly put to death, 3,000 being led to the scaffold in Paris alone. 
 (A. D. 13S2.) 
 
 Invasion of France by Henry V. of England — Battle of A^incourt — 
 Treaty of Troyes. — King Charles VI. at length became a victim to insanity; 
 and while in consequence France was distracted by domestic dissensions respecting 
 the Regency, King Henry V. of England invaded the French kingdom, took Har- 
 lieur, and on the 14th of October, 141 5, with only S,ooo men, he defeated a F-fnch 
 
LATIN STATES. 
 
 ^l\ 
 
 auny of 50,000 men, in the great battle of Azincourt, and conqiu-red Normandy, 
 after taking its capital, Rouen. In 1422, the Treaty of Troyes was concluded, by 
 which ilenry V. of England was to become King of France on the death of King 
 Charlc.= VI., in exclusion of the rights of the Dauphin. Although the RUites-Gen- 
 eral of France ratified this treaty, it was never carried into elfect, Charles VI. 
 CuUiving Heni-y V. several months. (A. D. 1422.) 
 
 FEICJN OF CHARLES THE VICTORIOUS (A. D. 1422-1461/ 
 
 Charles VII. and Henry VI. of England Crowned Kings of Fiance — 
 On the death of the imbecile Charles VI., in 1422, his son, the Dauphin, was 
 crowned at Poitiers, King of France, with the title of Charles VII.; but, in accord- 
 ance with the Treaty of Troyes, the infant Henry VI of England had already 
 been crowned at Paris, King of England and France. The army of Cha'les VII. 
 had been disastrously defeated by the Duke of Bedford, the English legent in 
 France (1424); and town after town fell into the hands of the English, until, in 
 1428, Orleans was the only stronghold remaining in the possession of the French, 
 and even that city was besieged by the victorious invaders. 
 
 Siege of Orleans — Appearance of Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans. — 
 The English pushed the siege of Orleans with vigor. A sally was made by the 
 French, but they were repulsed after a short engagement known as " the Battle of 
 the Herrings," so called because an attack had been made on an English escort 
 which was conveying a supply of herrings to the camp of the besiegers. Orleans 
 was on the point of suiTender, when the beleaguered city was relieved, and the 
 deliverance of Charles VII. was effected by one of the most extraordinarj' circum- 
 stances recorded in history. ]oan of Arc, a poor peasant girl of Dom Remy, in Lor- 
 raine, aged nineteen years, had been told by a prophecy that France could only be 
 delivered from its English invaders by a virgin, and her mind became impressed with 
 the belief that she herself was divinely commissioned to effect this great object. 
 She soon induced others, among them King Charles VII. and his officers, to l)e- 
 lieve in the truth of her divine mission. Charles VII. gave her the command of 
 his army, and she was admitted into Orleans, arrayed in armor and provided with 
 a train of attendants. Under her leadership, the French, influenced by superstition, 
 seemed inspired with fresh courage and hopes, and they soon compelled the Eng- 
 lish to raise the siege of Orleans. (A. D. 1429.) 
 
 Coronation of Charles VII. at Rheims — Capture and Death of the 
 Maid of Orleans. — Joan of Arc, now called the Maid of Orleans, next urged 
 King Charles VII. to proceed to Rheims, in order to be there crowned and conse- 
 jrated King of France; and after several more victories, under the leadership of the 
 faliant Maid, Rheims was wrested from the English, and Charles VII. was crowned 
 m the great cathedral of that city. (A. D. 1429.) Joan then declared lier mission 
 firi'aed, and wished to retire from the army; but as the French king insisted ipjn 
 bei remaining with the army until the expulsion of the English invaders from 
 I ranee, she complied with his wishes. As a reward for the heroine's servicts, 
 diaries VII. ennobled her family. The English lost town after town and suffered 
 defeat after defeat. At length, the French officers, jealous of the fame of Joan of 
 Arc, allowed the Duke of Burgundy, the ally of the English, to make hei a pnsonei 
 in a sally from the town of Compeigne. The Duke of Burgundy sold her to the 
 
156 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Duke of Bedford, the English regent in France, who caused the heroic Maid oJ 
 Orleans to be burned alive, on the charge of sorcery, in the market-place of Rouen, 
 (A. D. 1431.) 
 
 Expulsion of the English from France— Wicked Conduct of the Dau- 
 phin. —Although the French were no longer led by the Maid of Orleans, still they 
 were victorious; and finally, in 1453, the city of Calais was the only place in all 
 Frame remaining in the hands of the English. Duke Philip the Good of Bui- 
 gandy had become reconciled to the trench monarch. In 1436, King Charles 
 VII., now surnamed "the Victorious," because of his triumph ever the English, 
 entered Paris, and reigned in peace. Although Charles the Victorious was re- 
 lieved of the English invaders, the wickedness of his son Louis, the Dauphin, pre- 
 vented him from enjoying quiet. Louis excited a rebellion against his father, who 
 forgave him, but was soon obliged to banish him to Dauphiny, where he so op- 
 pressed the people that they compelled him to flee to Burgundy, where he excited 
 dissatisfaction again.st Duke Philip the Good. The wicked Dauphin sought to 
 procure his father's death by poison, and the unhappy king was so afraid to taste 
 food that he died from starvation. (A. D. 1461.) 
 
 REIGN OF LOUIS XI. (A. D. 1461-1488). 
 
 King Louis XI. and "The League of the Public Good." — The good 
 Charles the Victorious was succeeded as King of France by his wicked son, Louis 
 XL, who, immediately upon his accession, proceeded to measures so extreme to 
 degi-ade the French nobles that they formed a defensive league, known as "The 
 League of the Public Good." At the head of this formidable confederacy were the 
 Dukes of Berri, Bretagne, and Bourbon, and Count Charles of Charolois. The 
 league collected a large army, which advanced to Paris, but after some fighting 
 without much result, the crafty king, by the most liberal promises, which he never 
 intended to fulfill, contrived to dissolve the league. 
 
 The Dukedom of Burgundy — Louis XL a Prisoner to Charles the Bold 
 — At this period the Dukedom of Burgundy was the mpst prosperous country in 
 Europe; and the cities of Antwerp, Bruges, Ghent, and Arras were widely cele- 
 brated for their manufactures and commerce. The Duke of Burgundy, though a 
 vassal of the French crown, was more powerful than most kings, and his court 
 was the most splendid in Europe. In 1468, King Louis XI. went to meet Duke 
 Charles the Bold of Burgundy, at Peronne; and when Charles discovered that the 
 artful Louis had treacherously excited the Duke's subjects to rebellion, he seized 
 the perfidious monarch and kept him a prisoner for some time. The Fiench king 
 obtained his release only on the most humiliating conditions: he was obliged to 
 surrender several counties to the Duke of Burgundy, and to accompany the Duke 
 to Liege and assist in quelling the revolt which he himself had excited. The two 
 p-rinces vented their anger and disappointment on the unfortunate inhabitants, wLc 
 were slaughtered without mercy. 
 
 Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England — Disasters to Charle? 
 the Bold. — In 1475, ^^"S Edward IV. of England invaded P"rance with a pow- 
 erful army. Louis XL, recollecting the terrible days of Crecy, Poitiers, and Azm- 
 court, was exceedingly alarmed at this English invasion; but he succeeded by large 
 bribes in inducing the English monarch to consent to a treaty of peace. In 1476, 
 
, LATIN STATES. I^y 
 
 C!barles the Bold, the mighty Duke of Burgundy, made war on the Swiss, by whom 
 he was defeated in the great battles of Granson, Murten, and Nancy, in the last of 
 which he was slain. _ (A. D. I477). 
 
 Reannexation of Burgundy — Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian of 
 Austria. — Upon the death of Duke Charles the Bold, King Louis XI. seized on 
 Burgundy proper and reannexed that territoiy to the possessions of the French 
 crown ; but he was frustrated in his attempts to obtain possession of the other teri- 
 tories of the late Duke, as Mary of Burgundy, the daughter of Charles the Bc^jd, 
 disgusted with the treachery of the French king, married the Archduke Maximiliap 
 of Austria, afterwards Emperor of Germany, who obliged Louis XL to resign his 
 pretensions. Th-e result of this marriage was a rivalry of more than two centuries 
 l)etween France and Germany. After the death of Mary, the King of France 
 incited the Netherland towns to rebellion against Maximilian, but tlie insurgents 
 were soon reduced to submission. 
 
 Last Days and Death of King Louis XL — By secret treachery or open 
 violence, King Louis XL had greatly enlarged the French dominions. His consti- 
 tution was broken down and his mind was approaching imbecility. So suspicious 
 was he that his oppressed subjects would revenge themselves by assassinating him, 
 that he shut himself up closely in his castle of Plessis, which he strongly fortified, 
 and no one was permitted to visit him without his invitation. In this gloomy cas- 
 tle, Louis' diverted himself with various amusements, one of which was rat-hunting. 
 Louis XL was delivered from his miserable existence by a slcnv disease, of which 
 he died in August, 1483. 
 
 REIGN OF CHARLES VIII. (A. D. 1488-1498). 
 
 Charles the Courteous and the Acquisition of Brittany. — The wicked 
 Louis XL left the French crown to his son, Charles VIIL, who, on account of his 
 kindness of manner and his amiable qualities, was surnamed "the Courteous." 
 During his minority, Charles VIIL was under the guardianship of his aunt, the 
 Duchess Anne of Beaujeu. Charles resolving upon the conquest of Brittany, or 
 Bretagne, the only fief in France that yet remained independent of the French 
 crown, a war ensued; and the Bretons were defeated by the French army in the 
 battle of St. Aubin, on the 2Sth of July, 1488. The Duke of Bretagne died soon 
 afterward; and his daughter Anne, sole heiress of the Duchy of Brittany, married 
 King Charles VIIL in 1491, thus uniting the whole of France under one sovereign. 
 
 Conquests of Charles VIII. in Italy — Battle of Fornova — Loss of 
 Naples. — France was now at the highest pitch of power; and King Charles Jie 
 Courteous resolved upon enforcing some claims which he had upon the kingdom 
 of Naples, and for this purpose he invaded Italy with an amay of 18,000 men; and 
 after receiving the submission of many Italian cities, he entered Rome and Naples 
 in triumph. But when the King of F'rance considered his Italian cpnque.sts sec 'ire, 
 -ii po%verful coalition was formed against him by the Italian princes, the Emperoi 
 tiaximilian I. of Germany, and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The allies at 
 tempted to cut off Charles's retreat to France, but he defeated their uniten forces in 
 the battle of Fornova, and reached his kingdom in safely ; but all his conquests in 
 Italy were lost to him. The whole kingdom of Naples was soon recovered from 
 li.e French by the able Spanish general, Gonsalvo de Cordova, " the Great Captain,' 
 
158 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 REIGN OF LOUIS XII. (A. D. 1498-1S15). 
 
 Character of Louis XII., " The Father of his People." — On the death of 
 
 Charles the Courteous, in 1498, without children, his third cousin, the Duke of 
 Orleans, ascended the throne of France with the title of Louis XII., and proved to 
 be one of the best kings that ever wore a crown. He was so solicitous to promote 
 the welfare and happiness of his subjects, and was so dearly beloved by them in 
 te:urn, that he was called " The Father of his People." Louis XII. took great pains 
 :o lessen the taxes and improve the administration of justice. He retained Brittany 
 by marrj'ing Anne, the widow of Charles VIII. 
 
 French Conquests in Italy — League of Cambray — Battle of Ravenna. 
 — In 1499, •'■^''ig Louis XII. s>ent an army into Italy to enforce his hereditaiy claims 
 upon Milan. The French concjuered Milan and Genoa, and Louis XII. and King 
 Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain wrested Naples from its king, Frederic; but a 
 quarrel arose between the robbers, and the Spanish king forced the French monarch 
 to yield his claim upon Naples. In 1508, Pope Julius II., the Emperor Maximilian 
 I. of Germany, King Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, and King Louis XII. of 
 France formed the powerful League of Cambray against the Republic of Venice; 
 but the Pope and Louis soon quarreled and open war ensued, and the Venetians 
 secured the alliance of the Pope and the King of Spain. The French defeated the 
 combined forces of their enemies in the great battle of Ravenna, on the nth of 
 April, 1512. In the following year (1513), King Henry VIII. of England invaded 
 France and won the battle of the Spurs, near Tournay. Louis XII. died in 15 15, 
 and was succeeded by his cousin Francis I. 
 
 IBERIAN KINGDOMS. 
 
 Christian Kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal — Battle of To- 
 losa.— During the Middle Ages, the Christian kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, and 
 Portugal arose in tlie Iberian or Spanish peninsula. These kingdoms waged con- 
 stant wars against the Moors in the Southern portion of the peninsula. In 121 2, 
 the united armies of Aragon and Castile achieved a great victory over the Moors at 
 Tolosa, in the Sien-a Morena, after which Saracen power in Spain rapidly declined. 
 
 Aragon's Foreign Possessions — Alphonso the Wise and Alphonso 
 XI. of Castile. — Aragon conquered the Spanish provinces of Valencia, Murcia, 
 and Catalonia; and also the Mediterranean islands of Majorca, Minorca, Sardinia, 
 and Sicily ; the latter during the reign of Peter III., and the kingdom of Naples in 
 the time of Alphonso V. Castile wrested much of the Southern portion of Spain from 
 the Moors, thus obtaining the towns of Seville, Cadiz, and Cordova. The most cele- 
 brated kings of Castile were Alphonso the Wise, noted for his fondness for learning, 
 particularly astronomy, and Alphonso XL, famous for his victories over the Moors. 
 
 Rise of Portugal. — Alphonso VI., King of Castile, bestowed the Earldom of 
 Portugal on his chivalrous son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, who was to rule in fief 
 The Earl Alphonso I., having gained a great victory over the Moors in 1 139, was 
 crowned the first King of Portugal, which he liberated from Castilian su} remacy. 
 King Alphonso III. extended Portugal to its present limits by the annexation of 
 Algarve, the most southern province, which he had conquered from the Moors. 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 
 
 IS9 
 
 Union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella — The In- 
 t^isition. — In 1474, Isabella ascended the throne of Castile, and in 1479, Ferdi- 
 nand the Catholic became King of Aragon. The two kingdoms were united into 
 one, called Spain, by the marriage of Isabella with Ferdinand. The horrible Court 
 of Inqiusition, which condemned Mohammedans, Jews, and others charged with 
 heresy, to tortures, imprisonment, and death itself, was established in Spain by 
 Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 fall of Granada and End of the Saracen Power in Spain — Conquest ?t 
 Navarre. — In 1481, Ferdinand and Isabella began a war against the Moonsh 
 kingdom of Granada, in the South of Spain, and their armies took the city of Gran- 
 ada, with its famous fortress, the Alhambra, in 1492, after a siege of ten years, thus 
 putting an end to the Saracen power in Spain, after it had existed in that country a 
 period of about eight centuries. In 15 12, the whole of Spain was united under one 
 scepter by the conquest and annexation of the kingdom of Navarre, on the south 
 tide of the Pyrenees. 
 
 GERMANIC STATES. 
 
 THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE OF GERMANY. 
 
 THE CARLOVINGIAN SOVEREIGNS OF GERMANY. 
 
 Germany under the Carlovingian Dynasty — Charles the Fat and Ar- 
 nolph. — The existence of the Holy Roman Empire of Germany began with the 
 Partition Treaty of Verdun, in the year 843 A. D. Under the Carlovingian sover- 
 eigns, Gennany was in a most deplorable condition. Charles the Fat was deposed 
 by the German nobles, for making a humiliating peace with the free-booting Nor- 
 mans, and his valiant nephew, Amolph, was elevated to the imperial throne of 
 Germany. Amolph defeated the savage Avars and Slavonians, and called in the 
 aid of the wild Magyars, or Hungarians, from the region of the Ural; but the Mag- 
 yars soon proved to be a more dangerous enemy than either the Avars or the Sla- 
 vonians. 
 
 GERMANY UNDER THE SAXON AND PRANKISH 
 EMPERORS. 
 
 REIGN OF CONRAD I. OF FRANCONIA (A. D, 911-919). 
 
 Germany an Elective Empire. — On the death of Louis IV., the last of the 
 Carlovingian sovereigns of Germany, in 911, the Dukes of Franconia, Saxony, 
 Swabia, Bavaria, Thuringia, and Lorraine elected Duke Conrad of Franconia Em 
 perot of Germany. From that time until 1806, Germajiy continued to be an elec- 
 tive empire. The Emperor Conrad I. spent the whole of his reign of seven years 
 In repelling the invasions of the Hungarians. 
 
l6o MIDDLE AGES 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY THE FOWLER (A. D. 919-936). 
 
 Defeat of the Hungarians at Merseberg. — On the death of the Emperor 
 Conrad I., in 919, the German princes elected Duke Henry the Fowler of Saxony 
 to the German imperial throne. Henry I. extended the German Empire in all 
 directions, and defeated the Hungarians in the battle of Merseberg, in 933. 
 
 REIGN OF OTHO THE GREAT (A. D. 986-973). 
 
 Italy Annexed to the German Empire — Otho Crowned at Milan and 
 Rome. — On the death of Henry the Fowler, in 936, his son Otho I., surnamed 
 "the Great," was elected Emperor of Germany. Italy was now annexed to the 
 German Empire; and Otho the Great was crowned at Milan with the iron crown 
 of Lombardy, and at Rome with the golden crown of the Empire. 
 
 Otho's Protectorship over the Pope — Defeat of the Magyars at Lech- 
 feld. — The Emperor Otho the Great made himself protector of the Pope, and in- 
 duced the Roman people to swear that they would recognize no Pope without the 
 coneurrence of the German Emperor. Otho the Great defeated the Magyars in 
 the battle of Lechfeld, in 973, the year of his death. 
 
 REIGN OF OTHO II. (A. D. 973-983). 
 
 War with the Greeks in Italy — Otho's Defeat at Bassantello. — On the 
 death of Otho the Great, his son, Otho H., was elected Emperor of Germany. 
 While Otho H. was in Italy, the Greeks disputed his claims to possessions in that 
 country; and the Emperor was defeated by the Greeks and the Saracens in the 
 battle of Bassantello, and only escaped capture by his skill in swimming. 
 
 REIGN OF OTHO III. (A. D. 98S-1002.) 
 
 Character of Otho III. — Defeat of the Slavonians. — Otho II. died in 983, 
 and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Germany by his son, Otho III., who 
 was more learned and refined than most princes of his time. Otho III. defeated 
 the Slavonians, who had waged long wars against the German Empire, and com- 
 pelled their leader, Micislaus, Duke of Poland, to do homage. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY THE SAINT (A. D. 1002-1024.) 
 
 Character of Henry II. — End of the Saxon Line of Emperors. — On the 
 death of Otho III., in 1002, Henry II. of Bavaria, a relative of the Othos, was 
 chosen Emperor of Germany by the Electoral Princes. Henry II. had a great 
 fondness for the clergy; and on account of his piety he was surnamed "the Saint." 
 The line of Saxon Emperors ended with the death of Henry, in 1024. 
 
 REIGN OF CONRAD II. (A. D. 1024-1039). 
 
 Burgundy Annexed to the German Empire — Founding of the Cathedra! 
 Kt Spire. — On the death of Henry the Saint, Duke Conrad of Franconia was elected 
 Emperor of Germany, with the title of Conrad II. Conrad received the iron ore ivr 
 of Lombardy at Milan and the imperial crown at Rome. Conrad II. united the 
 Duchy of Burgundy with the German Empire. His son-in-law, Ernest of Swabia. 
 claime-l. the imperial throne of Germany, and raised an insurrection, which was 
 
GERMANIC STATES. l6i 
 
 jjppressed after a severe struggle. Conrad II. founded the Cathedral of Spire, 
 where he and succeeding Emperors of Germany were buried. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRV III. (A. D. 10S9-10S6). 
 
 Designs of Henry III. against the German Princes and the Pope. — 
 
 The Emperor Conrad II. died in 1039, and his son, Henry III., was chosen Jits 
 successor on the imperial throne of Germany. Henry HI. endeavored to dimin-il'. 
 the power of the German princes, make himself an absolute monarch, and change 
 Germany from an elective to an hereditary empire. This emperor also tried .0 raise 
 himself above the Roman pontiff. Three Popes were ruling at this time, and Henrj 
 
 III. intended to depose them and put German bishops in their places. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY IV. (A. D. 1056-1106). 
 
 Rebellion in Saxony against the Emperor Henry IV. — Henry III. died 
 in 1056, and was succeeded as Emperor of Germany by his son, Henry IV., who 
 so oppressed the nobility and people of Saxony, that they rose in rebellion against 
 him, and compelled him to leave the Saxon territory, where he had established his 
 court. After a fierce struggle, Henry IV. conquered the Saxon insurgents by a de- 
 cisive victory which he gained over them on the Unstruth, in 1075. 
 
 Quarrel of Henry IV. with Pope Gregory VII. — The Emperor Henry 
 
 IV. had a violent quarrel with Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand), who endeavored 
 to raise himself above all the princes of Christendom, whom he claimed to be his 
 vassals. Henry was summoned to appear before Gregory, to answer for his conduct 
 in Saxony, but refused obedience to the Pope's command, and caused the Council 
 of Worms to proclaim the deposition of Hildebrand. The Emperor and his parti- 
 sans were in consequence excommunicated by the Pope. About this time, Henry 
 IV. lost the respect of his subjects by a quan-el with his wife; and he was threat- 
 ened with dethronement by the German Princes, unless he would free himself from 
 his excommunication by Hildebrand. In this desperate situation, the Emperor went 
 to Italy, but was refused admission into the Pope's presence, until he had stood three 
 days barefoot in the snow, without tasting any food. After Henry had undergone 
 this humiliation, he was released from the excommunication. 
 
 Civil War between Henry IV. and Rudolph of Swabia. — While the Em- 
 peror Heni-y IV. was in Italy, Rudolph of Swabia was invested with the dignity of 
 Emperor of Germany. The consequence of this was a civil war, in which 
 Henry was victorious; and Rudolph died from the loss of a hand in the battle of 
 Elster. 
 
 Deposition of Hildebrand by Henry IV.— In 1081, the Emperor Henry IV. 
 led an army into Italy, deposed Pope Gregorj' VII., who had again excommunicated 
 liim, and placed Clement HI. in the papal chair. The deposed Hildebrand retired 
 to Naples, where he was protected by Robert Guiscard, the Norman king of thai 
 t nmtry. 
 
 Henr5 's Quarrel with Pope Clement III. — Rebellion of Henry's Sons 
 —Henry IV. was at length excommunicated by Pope Clement HI., and the impe- 
 rial crown of Germany was claimed by two rivals. The Emperor's own sons rebelled 
 against their father One of them, Henry, was elected Emperor, and took his fathei 
 II 
 
1 62 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 prisoner. The Emperor made his escape, and died at Liege, in Flanders, in the 
 year i io6 A. D. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY V. (A. D. 1106-1125). 
 
 Disagreement Between Henry V. and Pope Clement III. — Upon the 
 death of Henry IV., his son, Henry V.,who had so long warred against his father, 
 obtained undisputed possession of the German imperial throne. Pope Clement 
 II! , -vho had lieen his ally against his father, now quaiTeled with him. Henry V. 
 was excommunicn'ed jjy the Pope for seizing the cardinals; but he succeeded, by 
 the '^^oncordat of Worms, in having the power of investing the bishops and abbots 
 wilh their privileges bestowed on the emperor, while they were to be chosen to their 
 offices by the Pope. 
 
 REIGN OF L-OTHAIRE THE SAXON (A. D. 1125-1138). 
 
 The Hohenstauffens and Duke Henry the Proud of Bavaria. — On the 
 death of Henry V., the last German emperor of the House of Franconia, Lothaire 
 of Saxony received the imperial crown of Germany. As the Hohenstauffens refused 
 to recognize Lothaire a.s Emperor, the latter strengthened himself by conferring 
 Savony on Duke Henry the Proud of Bavaria and forming a marriage alliance with 
 the House of Bavaria. The Hohenstauffens, unable to withstand so powerful a 
 combination, found themselves obliged to recognize Lothaire and to accomjiany him 
 on his expedition to Italy. 
 
 GERMANY UNDER THE HOHENSTAUFFENS. 
 
 REIGN OF CONRAD III. (A. D. 1138-1152). 
 
 Rebellion of Henry the Proud — Guelphs and Ghibellines. — On the death 
 of the Emperor Lothaire, in 1 138, Conrad HI., of the House of Hohenstauffen or 
 Swabia, obtained the imperial crown of Germany from the Electoral Princes in the 
 Diet of Coblentz. Henry the Proud of Bavaria, Lothaire's son-in-law, who aspired 
 to the imperial dignity, rose in rebellion against Conrad HI. A civil war was the 
 consequence. It was during this civil war, at the siege of Weinsberg, that the 
 cries of "Hurrah for Welf!" "Hurrah for Waibling!" from which arose the party 
 designations of Welf and Waibling, or Guelph and Ghibelline, were first heard. 
 The fortress of Weinsberg was compelled to surrender to the Emperor Conrad HI. 
 The Welfs, or Guelphs, were the partisans of the Pope, and the Waiblings, or Ghi- 
 bellines, were the supporters of the Emperor of Germany. The contests of these 
 two parties distracted Germany and Italy for three centuries. The death of Henry 
 the Proud only put an end to the struggle between himself and the Emperor 
 Conrad III. Conrad engaged in the Second Crusade, but he was unfortunate in 
 that undertaking. 
 
 RHIGN OF FREDERIC BARBAROSSA (A D. 1152-tl90). 
 
 Frederic Barbarossa's Expeditions to Italy. — Conrad III. died m 11 5 i, 
 and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Germany by his nephew, the chivalrous 
 Frederic Barbarossa, who ruled with firmness and wisdom, and made the German 
 Empire respected abroad. Frederic Barbarossa led six military expeditions to Italy, 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 1 63 
 
 t. / the purpose of subduing the rebellious Italians, who were founding independent 
 republics, and openly setting the authority of the German emperor at defiance. 
 
 Milanese Rebellion — Siege and Destruction of Milan. — The pcwerful 
 city of Milan refu=;ed to do homage to the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, who 
 received the crown of I.ombardy at Pavia and the crown of the Empire at Rome 
 After Frederic's return to GeiTnany, the Milanese destroyed the city of Lodi, which 
 was loyal to the Emperoi Frederic proceeded to Italy a second time, and over- 
 .:zs>& the Milanese in a b.oody war. Milan fell into the Emperor's hands, after a 
 ;iege of nearly four years, when the walls and buildings of the proud and rebellicas 
 ciry were destroyed. 
 
 Second Milanese Revolt — Battle of Lignano — Peace of Constance. — 
 
 TTie Emperor Frederic Barbarossa at length quarreled with Pope Alexander III., 
 who excommunicated the Emperor and allied himself with the Lombards, who, led 
 by the Milanese, who had rebuilt their city, had again revolted against the imperial 
 authority, and built the city of Alexandria, which was named in honor of the Pope. 
 Frederic Barbarossa left Italy, but soon returned with a powerful army and laid 
 siege to Alexandria; but Henry the Lion of Brunswick refusing to aid the Emperor, 
 the German army was disastrously defeated by the gallant Milanese in the battle of 
 Lignano, in I176. Frederic Barbarossa himself was missing for several days. 
 The heroism displayed by the chivalrous Emperor won the respect of the Lombard 
 confederates and of the Pope; and a truce of six years was agreed upon, which 
 was the forerunner of the Peace of Constance, which was concluded in 1 183, and 
 which was honorable to all parties. At the conclusion of this Lombard war, 
 Frederic Barbarossa returned to Germany. 
 
 Rise and Fall of Henry the Lion of Brunswick. — Henry the Lion of 
 Brunswick, the enemy of Frederic Barbarossa, had in the meantime conquered the 
 Slavonic provinces of Mecklenburg and Pomerania and other small states, and an- 
 nexed them to his dominions. He also founded the flourishing cities of Munich 
 and Lubec. Henry the Lion was hated by all the other princes of the German 
 Empire, as well as by the Emperor, so that the latter was enabled to take posses- 
 sion of Henry's dukedoms of Saxony and Bavaria. Frederic gave Saxony to 
 Albert of Bernhard and other princes of the House of Hohenstaffen, and Bavaria 
 to the House of Wittelsbach. But the Lion successfully defended himself with the 
 {xjwer of his arms for several years; but was finally compelled to submit to the 
 Emperor, when, being obliged to leave Germany, he retired to England. 
 
 Frederic Barbarossa as a Crusader. — Having overcome all his foes m his 
 own dominions, the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa went with King Richard the 
 Lion hearted of England and King Philip Augustus of France on the Third Cru- 
 sade, in which the Emperor defeated the infidel Turks at Iconium, bu* he soon 
 ftfte'wards lost his life while crossing a stream. (A. D. 1190.) 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY VI. (A. D. 1190-1197). 
 
 Conq.aest of Naples and Sicily by Henry VI. — P'rederic Barbarossa s suc- 
 cessor on the imperial throne of Germany was his son, Henry VI. This tyrannical 
 sovereign spent most of his time in Italy. He desired to obtain the crown of the 
 Kingdom, of Naples and Sicily for his family; but the Neapolitan nobles placed 
 
1 
 
 l6i. MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 one of their own number, Tancred, on the throne of Naples and Sicily, on the 
 death of the last Norman king. A war followed, in which the Emperor Henry Vi. 
 succeeded, with the aid of the German Crusaders, in subduing the Neapolitans, and 
 iu securing the crown of Naples and Sicily for the Hohenstauffen family. The 
 cruel victors treated the vanquished with the harshest severity, putting out the 
 eyes of many of the captive Neapolitan nobles, burning some, and burying othei-s 
 ilive. 
 
 REi:;.N OF OTHO IV. AND PHILIP OF SWABIA (A. D. 1197-i2'.8.' 
 
 Civil War Between the Rival Emperors. — On the death of Ilenr}' VI., a 
 civil war arose respecting the succession to the imperial throne of Germany. Some 
 of the German princes chose Otho IV., brother of Henry VI., while others pro- 
 claimed Philip of Swabia Emperor. This civil war Listed ten years, during which 
 many cathedrals and churches were destroyed. 
 
 Assassination of Philip — Otho's Quarrel with the Pope. — Philip of Swa- 
 bia was assassinated, in 120S, by Prince Otho of Wittelsbach, from motives of pri- 
 vate revenge; but a dispute now arose between the Emperor Otho IV. and Pope 
 Innocent III. This Pope, who was ambitious, asserted that, as he was the Head 
 of the Church, he was superior to all the princes of Christendom, who were his 
 vassals; but Otho resolved not to yield to the Pope, and was consequently excom- 
 municated. 
 
 Frederic II. — Renewal of the Civil War. — The Pope sent Frederic of 
 Hohenstauffen to claim the imperial crown of Germany ; and a civil war followed 
 Detween the Guelphs, or adherents of the Pope, and the Ghibeilines, or supporters 
 of the Emperor Otho IV. 
 
 REIGN OF FREDERIC II. (A. D. 1218-1280). 
 
 Difficulties between Frederic II. and Pope Gregory IX. — When Otho IV. 
 died, in 1218, the right of Frederic II. to the imperial throne of Germany was 
 undisputed. The free-thinking and accomplished Frederic II. was engaged in a 
 continual struggle with the Roman pontiff, who, fearing the loss of his temporal 
 possessions and his power as Head of the Church, endeavored to separate Naples 
 and Sicily from the dominion of the House of Hohenstauffen. As Frederic II. de- 
 layed going on a promised crusade against the infidels, he was excommunicated by 
 Pope Gregory IX. The following year (A. D. 1228), the Emperor went to Pales- 
 tine on the Fifth Crusade, without having the excommunication removed. Frederic 
 defeated the infidel Turks, and obtained Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem from 
 them by treaty; but the Pope now forbade all Christian warriors from joining the 
 standard of the Emperor, who was crowned King of Jerusalem without beli.g con- 
 secrated by the Church. Frederic II. soon returned to Europe, and proceeded to 
 Italy to ] rotect his Neapolitan possessions, which had been invaded by Papal troops 
 The Emperor drove the invaders from Naples and marched toward Rome, »her 
 Uu' Pjpe made peace with Frederic and freed him from the excommunication. 
 
 Subjugation of the Lombards by Frederic II. — Frederic II. now returned 
 to Germany and devoted his attention to the internal affairs of his empire, but his 
 determination to enforce the stipulations of the Peace of Constance involved him in 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 165 
 
 a lurious wat with the Lombard towns, which refused to recognize the regalian 
 rights which the Emperor claimed over them. Frederic, assisted by the Ghiliellines 
 and by the Saracens whom he had settled in Italy, subdued the Lombards after a 
 sanguinary contest. 
 
 Quarrel between Frederic H. and the Pope. — When Frederic IL threatened 
 Milan with the same fate which it had experienced from Frederic Barbarcssa, and 
 Cf^ated his son Enzio King of Sardinia, he was again excommunicated by I'opc 
 Gregory IX., who accused the free-thinking Emperor of being an enemy to the 
 Christian religion and a secret Mohammedan. The Emperor repelled all the Pope's 
 charges against him, but as public opinion was on the side of the Church, the Pope 
 got the better in the quarrel. Gregory IX. died in 1241. His second successor in 
 the papal chair, Innocent IV., summoned a Council of the Church at Lyons, in 
 France, and excommunicated the Emperor Frederic II., whom he considered false 
 to the Church and a believer in Mohammedanism. 
 
 Civil War — Henry Raspe of Thuringia and William of Holland. — 
 Anotlier fierce civil war now broke out in Germany and Italy between the Guelphs 
 and the Ghibellines. The Guelphic party in Germany chose Henry Raspe of 
 Thuringia as Emperor, in 1246. After the battle of Ulm, in Swabia, Henry died, 
 whereupon Count William of Holland was chosen to succeed him. The civil war 
 w-as carried on with great cruelty in Italy by both parties. 
 
 THE INTERREGNUM (A. D. 1250-1273). 
 
 Conrad IV. and the Fall of the House of Hohenstauffen. — The Emperor 
 Frederic II. died in 1250, and was succeeded in the imperial dignity by his son, 
 Conrad IV., who, with his half-brother, Manfred, King of Naples, was excommu- 
 nicated liy Pope Innocent IV., who declared Naples and Sicily to be papal fiefs. 
 The Emperor Conrad IV. soon died; and Pope Urban IV., the second successor 
 of Innocent IV., bestowed Naples and Sicily as papal fiefs on Duke Charles of 
 Anjou, brother of Saint Louis, King of France. Manfred was defeated and killed 
 m the battle of Benevento, in 1266; and with the defeat and execution of his son 
 Conradine ended the power of the Ghibellines and the House of Hohenstauffen in 
 Naples. 
 
 Deplorable Condition of Germany — Charles of Cornwall and Alphonso 
 of Castile. — After the death of the Emperor Frederic II., in 1250, Germany was 
 reduced to a most deplorable condition. Lawlessness and robbery prevailed to an 
 alarming extent in every part of the Empire. The Princes of the Empire were 
 constantly at war with each other. Foreign princes were elected Emperors of 
 Germany. Charles of Cornwall, brother of King Henry III. of England, was 
 chosrn by one faction, and Alphonso the Wise, King of Castile, by another. This 
 inten-ognum in Germany lasted about tv/enty-three years. (A. D. 1250-1273.) 
 
 The Hanseatic League — The Confederation of the Rhine. — In Northern 
 Gennany, the leading towns, such as Hamburg, Luhec, Bremen, Stralsund, Riga, 
 3.nd others, united themselves in a confederation well known in history as the 
 " li mseatic League." The objects of this confederacy of cities were the advanc^e- 
 ment of commerce, the suppression of piracy and lawlessness, and the restoration 
 and preservation of public order. In Western Germany, the towns of Worms, 
 
1 66 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Spire, Mayence, Strasburg, Basle, and otherb, formed the " Conlederalion of thf 
 Rhiiif,'' also in the interest of social order. 
 
 EMPERORS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. 
 
 REIGN OF RODOLPH OF HAPSBURG (A. D. 1270-129)) 
 
 Overthrow and Death of Ottocar, King of Bohemia. — In 1273, the Eke 
 iTiTsil Piinces of the German Empire chose the energetic, chivalrous, and pu.ui 
 Count Rodolph of Hapsburg to the imperial throne of Germany. King (niocai 
 of Bohemia refused to recognize Rodolph, and the Emperor consequently waged 
 war agaiu.^t the Bohemian king and overthrew him in the bloody and decisive battle 
 of Marchfeld, in 127S. Ottocar himself was among the slaii-u 
 
 Founding of the Royal Austrian House of Hapsburg. — The Emperor 
 Rodolph left Wenceslaus, Ottocar's son, in possession of only Bohemia and Mora- 
 via. Ottocar's other territorial possessions — namely, Austria, Styria, and Carniola — 
 Rodolph bestowed on his own sons, and thus became the founder of the RoyU 
 Austrian House of Hapsburg, which has ever since occupied the Austrian throne. 
 
 Restoration of Order in Germany. — By his energy, firmness, and justice, 
 Rodolph succeeded in restoring law and order throughout the Empire. The chiv- 
 alrous Emperor traversed Germany, and reduced the lawless nobles and robber 
 knights to submission, and razed their castles and strongholds to the ground. Th<? 
 illustrious Rodolph died in 129 1, and was buried in the Cathedral of Spire. 
 
 REIGN OF ADOLPH OF NASSAU (A. D. 1291-1298). 
 
 Purchase of Thuringia by Adolph — War with Frederic "With the Bit- 
 ten Cheek." — On the death of Rodolph of Hapsburg, in 1291, the German Elec- 
 toral Princes chose Count Adolph of Nassau to the imperial throne. Adolph 
 purchased a portion of the Thuringian territories from Duke Albert the Uncourteous, 
 — a sjep which involved the Emperor in a war with Albert's sons, Frederic "with 
 the bitten cheek" and Dietzman, who were heirs to their father's territorial posses- 
 sions. 
 
 Dethronement of Adolph and Election of Albert of Austria. — The dis- 
 graceful and dishonest means which the Emperor Adolph employed for the aggran- 
 dizement of his family rendered him exceedingly unpopular with the Gennan 
 j/eople, and disgusted the Electoral Princes to such a degree that they deposed him 
 in 1298, and elected Albert of Austria, son of Rodolph of Hapsburg, Emperor in his 
 stead. Adolph resolved upon a struggle to preserve his crown, but was defeated 
 and killed at Worms by Albert. 
 
 REIGN OF ALBERT OF AUSTRIA (A. D. 1^98-1808). 
 
 Austrian Tyranny over the Swiss. — Helvetia was a component part of liie 
 ijcimin Empire. When the Hapsburgs, whose territorial possessions lay to the 
 north of the Swiss Cantons, came into possession of the hereditary Austrian states, 
 they endeavored to annex Switzerland to the hereditary Austrian dominions, and 
 the Emperor Albert's governors were instructed to exercise the greatest tyranny 
 over th'' sturdy Swiss moantaineers. 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 
 
 167 
 
 League of Ruth — Legend of William Tell — Assassination of Albert. — 
 The tyranny of the Austrian governors in Switzerland led to the formation of the 
 League of Rutli by three Swiss Cantons, — Uri, Schwytz, and Untei-w-ilder. ; — and 
 the tyrannical governors were expelled by the Swiss. One of these governors, 
 Gesler, according to a well-known legend, was killed by William Tell, whom the 
 tyrant had compelled to shoot an apple from his son's head, for refusing to bow to 
 the ducal caf of Austria, which the governor had placed upon a pole in a conspic- 
 lous place. The assassination of the Emperor Albert, in the year 130S, by hif 
 nipbew, John of Swabia, only saved the Swiss from his vengeance. 
 
 l^EIGN OF HENRY VII., OF LUXEMBURG (A. D. 1308-1318). 
 
 Henry's Expedition to Italy. — Upon the assassination of Albert of Austria, 
 the Electoral Princes of Germany invested Henry VII., of the House of Luxem 
 burg, with the imperial dignity. Henry VII. led a military expedition into Italy, 
 where he was well received by the Ghibellines; but the Giielphs rose against the 
 Emperor. Henry marched to attack Florence, a Guelphic city; but he died on the 
 way, and was buried in the Ghibelline city of Pisa. (A. D. 1313.) 
 
 REIGN OF LOUIS THE BAVARIAN AND FREDERIC THE FAIR 
 OF AUSTRIA (A. D. 1313-134©). 
 
 Civil War Between the Rival Emperors — Honorable Conduct of Fred- 
 eric. — On the death of Henry VII., another civil war arose in Germany concern- 
 ing the succession to the imperial throne. Some of the German Electoral Princes 
 chose Louis of Bavaria, while others declared for Frederic the Fair of Austria. 
 Frederic was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Muhldorf; but Duke 
 Leopold of Austria, Frederic's biolher, refused to accept peace, and Pope John 
 XXII., who sided with Leopold, excommunicated Louis the Bavarian. Frederic 
 the Fair was at length restored to freedom, on condition of persuading his brother 
 Leopold and the Pope to agree to a peace ; but as neither Duke Leopold, nor the 
 Head of the Church, would listen to any proposals of peace, the honest Frgderic 
 voluntarily returned to captivity; which conduct led to the closest friendship be- 
 tween Frederic and Louis, and the latter was willing to allow his rival a share in 
 the Empire, but the Electoral Princes would not agree to such an arrangement. 
 
 The Swiss Confederation — Battle of Morgarten. — Upon the assassination 
 of the Emperor Albert I., in X308, his brother Leopold succeeded him in the sove- 
 reignty of the hereditary Austrian territories. Duke Leopold marched against the 
 Swiss Confederates, but he was thoroughly defeated by them in the narrow pass of 
 llorgarten, in 1315, and only saved himself by a disgraceful flight from the scene 
 of action. The three revolted cantons, Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalden, were soon 
 joined by the towns of Lucerne, Berne, Zug, and Zurich. 
 
 Quarrel between the Emperor Louis and Pope John XXII. — Soon alter 
 Frederic the Fair had returned to captivity, his brother, Duke Leopold of Austria, 
 died; and as' Pope John XXII. still obstinately refused peace, the Emperor Louis 
 appointed Frederic the Fair regent of the Empire, and led an army into Italy to 
 humble the stubborn pontiff. Louis caused another Pope to be elected; and before 
 his return to Germany, Frederic the Fair had died. In consequence of the obsti- 
 nacy with which Pope John XXII. and his successor, Benedict XII., retained the 
 
1 68 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 excommunication against the Emperor Louis, the German Pr.nces declared in the 
 Electoral Diet that in future the confirmation by the Pope should be unnecessary to 
 tl.e validity of the election of Emperors. 
 
 Charier- IV., of Luxemburg. — The ambition of the Emperor Lotiis finally 
 made him unpopular, and the Electoral Princes raised Charles IV., soi 'A King 
 John of Bohemia, of the House of Luxemburg, to the imperial dignity; \i^. Charles 
 oras-" not fully acknowledged Emperor' until Louis the Bavarian had 3een killed ir 
 1 hear hunt near Munich. 
 
 GERMANY UNDER THE HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG. 
 
 REIGN OF CHARLES IV. (A. D. 1849-1378.) 
 
 Founding of the University of Prague — The Golden Bull. — The Emperor 
 Charles IV. was an ambitious and avaricious monarch; but he did much for the 
 welfare and prosperity of Germany. In 1348, he founded the University of Prague, 
 which was attended by over 5,000 students. Charles IV. also established the code 
 of laws known as " The Golden Bull," by which the election of Emperors was left 
 exclusively to the seven leading Princes of Germany. 
 
 REIGN OF WENCESLAUS (A. D. 1378-14.00). 
 
 Lawlessness and Confusion — The Faust-recht. — On the death of Charles 
 IV., in 1378, his son, the dissolute and hard-hearted Wenceslaus, was chosen Em- 
 peror of Germany. During the reign of Wenceslaus great confusion and lawlessness 
 prevailed throughout the Empire. The only law which prevailed over all others was 
 the Faust-recht, or club-law, which called upon every man to take care of himself. 
 
 ^A^ars between the Cities and the Knights. — To put an end to the prevail- 
 ing disorder and confusion, the towns of Southern and Western Germany formed 
 confederations against the lawless nobles and knights. To oppose these confeder- 
 ations of towns, the knights also united themselves in leagues. Destructive wars 
 ensued between the cities and the knights, and the people of South Gennany were 
 reduced to great distress. 
 
 The Swiss — Battle of Sempach — Patriotic Devotion of Arnold Winkel- 
 ried. — Duke Leopold of Austria was at this time engaged in a war with the Swiss 
 Confederates. In 13S6, the Swiss gained a victory over Leopold and his Austrian 
 and German chivalry in the battle of Sempach, famous for the self-devotion of 
 Arnold Winkelried, a gallant knight of Unterwalden, who plunged into the midst 
 of the enemy, tearing their spears from their hands and burying them in his body, 
 and opened a way for his countrymen, who rushed upon the Austrians and killed 
 or routed their whole force. Duke Leopold and 656 of his nobles were among tht 
 slain. 
 
 REIGN OF RUPERT OF THE PALATINATE (A. D. 1400-14<0) 
 
 Deposition of ^A^enceslaus and Election of Rupert of the Palatinate. — 
 
 Disorder, robbeiy, and lawlessness prevailed to such an extent in Germar v that the 
 Klectoral Princes deposed Wenceslaus from the imperial throne, in the year 1400, 
 and chose Rupert of the Palatinate in his stead. Rupert, however, did not sm:ceed 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 
 
 169 
 
 Si restoring f)rder and tranquillity to the German Empire. He also failed in his 
 endeavors t() heal the dissensions in the Church. 
 
 REIGN OF SIGISMUND (A. D. 1410-14S7). 
 
 Council of Constance (1414-1418). — The Emperor Rupert died in 1410, and 
 Slgi^^Iiund, King of Hungary, hroihcr of Wenceslaus, received the imperial dignity 
 from the Electoral Princes of Germany. In order to heal the dissensions ,n u.e 
 Chuich, the Emperor Sigismund induced Pope John XXIII. to summon a grej..' 
 Council of the Church at Constance. For seventy years, the Popes had ; esided a' 
 Avignon, in France. The Italians and Germans, not succeeding in having the 
 papal residence reestablished in Rome, elected another Pope: so there were now 
 two Popes, one at Avignon and another at Rome. A Council of the Church 
 which had convened at I'isa proclaimed the deposition of the two Popes, and chose 
 another in theii stead ; but as the two Popes would not resign their dignities, there 
 were now three Popes reigning at the same time. To remove this scandal, and to 
 purge the Church of its many abuses and corruptions, the grand Council of Ccn- 
 stance was called. The clergy and Church dignitaries from all Western and Central 
 Europe hastened to Constance at the appointed time, and 150,000 men are said to 
 have been assembled there. The first business of the Council was the deposition 
 of the three Popes and the elevation of Martin V. to the pontifical chair. 
 
 Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, — The Council of Con- 
 stance, without effecting any reformation in the Church, devoted itself earnestly to 
 the consideration of doctrines and opinions differing from those of the Church, and 
 condemned the writings of John Wickliffe, the great English reformer, to be burned. 
 The Council also summoned the learned and pious John Huss, a professor in the 
 University of Prague, who had adopted the opinions of Wickliffe, and preached 
 against the power of the Pope and condemned many of the practices of the Church, 
 to appear and answer for his conduct. Being provided by the Emperor Sigismund 
 with a safe-conduct, Huss went to Constance, but as soon as he arrived there he 
 was imprisoned for preaching heretical doctrines. Having refused to recant, Huss 
 was burned alive, in 1415, by order of the Council of Constance, notwithstanding 
 the Emperor's promise that he should safely return to Prague, the Council being 
 of the opinion that promises made to heretics were not binding. The following 
 year (1416), Jerome of Prague, a Bohemian nobleman, the associate and disciple of 
 IIuss, also perished at the stake. 
 
 Hussite War. — -The horrible deed just mentioned, aroused the adherents of 
 Huss in Bohemia to a furious religious war of sixteen years' duration, in which 
 they took a terrible revenge on the Empire and the Church for the death of the 
 gi-eat reformer. In vain did the Pope issue interdict after interdict against the 
 Hussite>. They stormed the town-house at Prague and murdered the counsellors, 
 which act so ei. raged the aged ex-Emperor Wenceslaus that he died of apoplexy. 
 Under the leadership of the valiant John Ziska, the Hussite Bohemians defeated 
 iiie armies of the Emperor Sigismund in many bloody battles. They burned ch'orches 
 »n(3 convenes in Bohemia and Saxony, and compelled Brandenburg and Bavaria to 
 pay "ribute. By the death of Wenceslaus, his Bohemian crown fell to his brother, 
 the Empeior Sigismund, but the latter was unable to obtain possession of the king- 
 dom, until a reconciliation was brought about ijetween the Church and the moile''%te 
 
170 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Bohemians, or Ca'.ixtines, and until the radical Hussites, or Taborites, suffered a 
 defeat near Prague. Some of the Hussites afterwards withdrew from the Church, 
 and foniied the sect since known as "The Bohemian and Moravian Brethre)i." 
 
 GERMANY UNDER THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG. 
 
 REIGN OF ALBERT II. (A. D. 1488-1489.) 
 
 The Hapsburg-Austrian Dynasty. — -After the death of Sigismund, in 1437, 
 his son-in-law, Albert H., of the House of Austria, or Hapsburg, was chosen Em- 
 peror of Germany, from which time until the dissolution of the German Empire, in 
 1S06, the throne of Germany was occupied, with little intermission, by princes of 
 the Hapsburg-Austrian dynasty. 
 
 REIGN OF FREDERIC III. (A. D. 1440-1498). 
 
 The Council of Basle (A. D. 1431-1449). — The Emperor Albert H. died 
 in 1439, and his nephew, the weak and imbecile Frederic HI., was elected his 
 successor on the imperial throne of Germany. Another great Council of the Church 
 had been assembled at Basle, in 143 1, during the reign of Sigismund, for the pur- 
 pose of effecting the removal from the Church of all the abuses and corruptions 
 which disgraced it. The Council of Basle continued in session until 1449, a period 
 of nearly eighteen years, during which it endeavored to diminish the power of the 
 Pope. To frustrate the designs of the Council, the Pope ordered it to be removed 
 to P'errara, and afterwards to Florence ; but the members of the Council refused to 
 obey the order of the Father of the Church, and elected another Pope in his stead. 
 Having secured the support of the Emperor Frederic HI., the lawful Pope, Euge- 
 nius IV., finally triumphed; and the Church was left in her corruption. After 
 having acknowledged Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius IV., as Pope, the 
 Council of Basle dissolved itself (1449). 
 
 Imbecility of Frederic III. — The Emperor Frederic III. possessed no talents 
 for government. He looked on with seeming indifference when the Ottoman 
 Turks were threatening his hereditary Austrian estates with plunder and desolation, 
 and when the mighty Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy was extending his do- 
 minions to the banks of the Rhine, while at home the imperial authority fell into 
 contempt. 
 
 Feuds of the Princes, Nobles, and Cities. — The German Empire was again 
 a theatre of the greatest lawlessness. The Gennan princes claimed the right of 
 carrying on war against each other, and made themselves independent of the au- 
 iJiority of the Emperor. A bloody war was waged by the Swabian League against 
 the Margrave Albert of Brandenburg, the Achilles of Germany, — a war in which 
 nine battles were fought and two hundred towns and villages laid in ashes. In 
 Western Germany raged the war of the Palatinate, in which Ulric of Wurtemberg, 
 the Margrave of Baden, and the Bishop of Metz were defeated and made prisoners 
 by the Count Palatine, Frederic the Victorious, near Seckenheim, in 1461. N,>t 
 withstanding his success, P'rederic the Victorious could not prevent the depositios 
 of his ally, the Archbishop of Mayence, in whose cause he hac taken up amis. 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 
 
 REIGN OF MAXIMILIAN I. (A. D. 1493-1319). 
 
 I'/l 
 
 The Land-friede. — The weak and imbecile Frederic III. died in 1493, and 
 »vas succeeded in the imperial dignity by his son, Maximilian I., who succeeded 
 in secin-ing the establishment, by the Diet of Worms, of the Land-friede, or Land- 
 I'leace, which put an end to the prevailing lawlessness and private warfare in Ger- 
 many. The Land-friede forbade any private redress of injuries by arms under tne 
 penalty of outlawiy; and an Imperial Chamber was established to settle disputes 
 among the Princes, and the German Empire was divided into ten Circles. 
 
 Defeat of the Emperor Maximilian by the Swiss— Peace of Basle. — 
 
 The Swiss having refused to recognize the Imperial Chamber, the Emperor Ms-xi- 
 niilian marched against them with an army, but he was defeated and compexlea to 
 retreat, and in the Peace of Basle, in 1499, to acknowledge the independence of 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Importance of the Reign of Maximilian I. — -The reign of Maximilian I. was 
 an important epoch in the history of Europe; as it was the transition period between 
 the Middle Ages and Modern Times, — the period when the night of barbarism was 
 passing away and the light of civilization was again dawning upon Europe ; when 
 tlie Feudal System was giving way to more enlightened usages; and when Chivalry 
 was in its decay. Maximilian died in 15 19, and was succeeded as Emperor by his 
 grandson, Charles V. 
 
 KINGDOM OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXON AND DANISH KINGS. 
 
 REIGNS OF THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS (A. D. 827-1017J. 
 
 Founding of the Kingdom of England — Egbert, First King. — In the 
 
 year S27 A. D., the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy in Britain were united, 
 under the government of Egbert, King of Wessex, into one great kingdom, called 
 Angle-land, or England. Egbert had been educated at the court of Charlemagne, 
 and was an enlightened and accomplished prince. 
 
 Predatory Incursions of the Danes into England. — Daring the reigns of 
 Egbert and hi-s successors of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty the Danes, a daring Scan- 
 dinavian tribe, were continually making irruptions into England and securing a 
 vast amount of booty, which they carried off to their own countn.'. 
 
 King Alfred the Great and the Danes — Institutions of Alfred. — During 
 tlie reign of the good and illustrious Alfred the Great, who ascended the throne of 
 England in 871 A. D., the Danes obtained possession of the greater part of the 
 English kingdom; and Alfred became a fugitive among his Anglo-Saxon subjects. 
 On one occasion, King Alfred went into the camp of the Danes, disguised as 2 
 harper; and after having obtained the knowledge he wanted, returned to his awe 
 tubjects and led them against the Danes, whom he conquered after a seveie struggle. 
 The Danes whom Alfred had made prisoners, and among whom was their chief. 
 Guthrum, were allowed to remain in England, on condition of becoming Christians, 
 King Alfred the Great had a great fondness for learning, and he gave great encour- 
 agement to the arts, sciences, and literature. He founded the University of Oxford, 
 
172 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 improved London, reformed the Saxon division of the kingdom into counties or 
 shires, instituted trial by juiy, and laid the foundations of the English navy. Alfred 
 the Great, who was himself the most learned man in his kingdom, and who was as 
 virtuous as he was learned, died in the year 901 A. D., and was succeeded on tlie 
 throne of England by his son, Edward the Elder. 
 
 Renewal of the Incursions of the Danes — Massacre of the Danes in 
 England. — After the death of Alfred the Great the Danes again ravaged England; 
 ai.C in the reign of King Ethelred II., who ascended the English throne in 9784 
 Ihey obtained possession of the greater portion of the country, and King Ethelred 
 several times Dribed them to leave the kingdom. When the Danes again returned 
 to England, in the year 1002 A. D., and committed their former ravages, King 
 Ethelred II. caused all the Danes in England to be massacred. To avenge their 
 death, Sweyn, King of Denmark, with a large army of Danes and Norwegians, 
 invaded England, which he soon subdued. King Ethelred . II. fled to Normandy, 
 but soon afterward returned to England. 
 
 THE DANISH KINGS OF ENGLAND (A. D. 1017-1041). 
 
 Reign of Canute the Great. — King Ethelred II., at his death, was succeeded 
 on the English throne by his son, Edmund Ironside. Sweyn's son, Canute the 
 Great, King of Denmark, invaded England in 1016; and on the death of Edmund 
 Ironside, the next year, became sole King of England. At first Canute the Dane 
 treated his Anglo-Saxon subjects with great severity, but he soon embraced 
 Christianity, and thereafter governed with. mildness and wisdom. Canute the Great 
 was one of the most powerful monarchs of his time; and before his death, he wore 
 the crowns of four kingdoms, having been King of Denmark since his father's 
 death, in 1013, and having conquered England in 1016, Sweden in 1025, and 
 Norway in 1027. 
 
 Short Reigns of Harold Harefoot and Hardicanute. — On the death of 
 Canute the Great, in 1035, his son Harold, surnamed "'Harefoot," on account of 
 his swiftness in running, became King of England. Harold Harefoot died in 1039, 
 and was succeeded on the throne of England by his brother Hardicanute, who died 
 ater a tyrannical reign of two years. (A. D. 1041.) 
 
 THE RESTORED SAXON DYNASTY (A. D. 1041- 1066). 
 
 Reigns of Edward the Confessor and Harold. — Upon the death of Har- 
 dicanute, in 1041, the Saxon dynasty was restored to the chrone of England, ni the 
 person of Edward the Cont"essor. On Edward's death, in 1066, the English crown 
 was usurped by his wife's brother, Harold. Tostig, Harold's brother, claimed the 
 English throne, and, with the aid of the Kings of Scotland and Norway, he raised 
 ti large army, but was defeated by Harold in a great battle on the river Tyne, in 
 llie North of England, on the 25th of September of the same year. (A. D. 1066.) 
 
 Invasion of England by Duke William o-f Normandy — Battle of Has- 
 tings. — A few days after Harold's victory over his brother, Duke William of Nor 
 man'ly. to whom Edward the Confessor had bequeathed the English kingdom, and 
 whose pretensions were sanctioned by the Pope, landed on the Southern coast of 
 England, at the head of 60,000 men. In the great battle of Hastings, which was 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 
 
 173 
 
 fought on the 14th of October, 1066, Harold was killed, and the Duke of Nor- 
 Tjandy gained a victoiy which changed the whole fate of England. 
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE NORMAN DYNASTY. 
 
 REIGN OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR (A. D. 1066-10n7i 
 
 "The Norman Conquest" of England. — The battle of Hastings made tuc 
 Duke of Normandy King of England. From this time he was called " William 
 the Conqueror," and his subjugation of England is styled "The Norman Conquest." 
 The immediate result of the battle of Hastings gave William only about one-fourth 
 af England, and it was only after a war of seven years that the Conqueror com- 
 pleted the subjugation of the entire kingdom. 
 
 Introduction of the Feudal System into England — Domes-day Book. 
 — William the Conqueror introduced the Feudal System into England by dividing 
 ;he lands of the conquered kingdom among his Nomian favorites, thus depriving 
 ■ie Anglo-Saxon nobility of their rights, and reducing the English peasants to a 
 :ondition of serfdom. The account of the survey of the lands then made was 
 written in Domes-day Book, or "Book of Judgment," which is preserved in the 
 Tower of London to this day. 
 
 REIGN OF WILLIAM RUFUS (A. D. 1087-1100). 
 
 Quarrel Between King William Rufus and His Brothers. — William the 
 Conqueror died in 1087, and was succeeded as King of England by his second 
 son, William Rufus, or " the Red," so called from the color of his hair; while his 
 eldest son, Robert, became Duke of Normandy. King William Rufus was 
 fnvolved in quarrels with his brothers, Robert and Henry. He also waged war 
 against Malcolm, King of Scotland. In order to obtain money to join in the Plrsi 
 Crusade, Robert sold his duchy of Normandy to William Rufus, who obtained 
 money to pay for it by forced levies upon his English subjects. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY I. (A. D. 1100-11S5). 
 
 Quarrel Between King Henry I. and His Brother Robert. — King William 
 Rufus was accidentally killed by one of his companions while hunting, in the year 
 1 100 A. D., and was succeeded on the throne of England by his younger brother, 
 Henry; his elder brother, Robert, being absent in the Holy Land. King Henry 
 L was surnamed Beauclerc, or " Good Scholar." After his return from Palestine, 
 Robert recovered Normandy; but a war arose between him and Henry I., and 
 Robert was made prisoner and ended his days in a castle in Wales. 
 
 REIGN OF STEPHEN OF BLOIS (A. D. 11S5-11S4), 
 
 Stephen's Usurpation — Civil War — Matilda's Triumph and Fall.— ^.>n 
 the death of King Henry L, in 1 135, the English throne was usurped by ZfjrJ 
 Stephen of Blois, the rightful claimant being Henry's daughter, Matilda, the wife 
 of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou. The result of Stephen's usurpation wa.s a 
 civil war, which ended in the triumph of Matilda, and she was declared Queen of 
 England; but her tyranny and arrogance disgusted her English friends, and she was 
 finally compelled to flee from the kingdom; and Stephen was restored to the throne. 
 
174 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE PLANTAGENETS. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRV II. (A. D. 1154-1189). 
 
 Usurpations of the Clergy — Constitutions of Clarendon — Assassination 
 of Becket. — Upon the death of King Stephen, in 1154, the I'lantagenet dynasty 
 ascended the throne of England, in the person of Henry II., of Anjou, Matildn'i 
 son. Henry II. was one of the greatest monarchs of the Middle Ages, and his 
 teigr was cotemjwrary with that of Frederic Barbarossa in Germany. In order 1 9 
 check the usurpations of the clergy in England, King Heniy II. assembled the 
 English nobles and priests at Clarendon, in 1164; and by the " Constitutions of 
 Clarendon," which were framed by this assembly, the privileges of the English 
 clergy were restricted. But Pope Alexander III. and Thomas a Becket, Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, rejected the Constitutions of Clarendon ; and a long and bitter 
 quarrel ensued between the King and the Archbishop. At last, Henry exclaimed 
 in a fit of anger, " Will no one rid me of this troublesome priest!" whereupon four 
 of the King's servants went to Canterbury and killed Becket. The consequence 
 of this assassination was the final triumph of the Church ; the assassins were pun- 
 ished, the Constitutions of Clarendon were abolished, and the murdered Becket 
 was canonized by the Pope. Thousands of pilgrims visited Becket's altar, and 
 King Henry II. at length went to the tomb of the murdered Archbishop, and there 
 did penance for the crime by allowing the priests to assault him with rods. 
 
 Conquest of Ireland by the English. — At this time Ireland was divided into 
 five separate kingdoms. In 1 1 7 1 , the Earl of Pembroke, sumamed Strongbow, 
 went over into Ireland to assist Derraot Macmorrogh, King of Leinster, who had 
 been driven from his dominions by the other Irish princes. Dermot soon recov- 
 ered his kingdom, which, at his death, the following year (1172), he left to Earl 
 Strongbow, who had married his daughter. Strongbow immediately resigned his 
 kingdom to King Henry II., who immediately invaded Ireland and subdued the 
 whole island. (A. D. I172.) Ever since this event the Emerald Isle has been 
 subject to the English crown. 
 
 Rebellions of King Henry's Sons. — The Sons of King Henry II. were sev- 
 eral times induced by their wicked mother, Eleanor, to take up arms against their 
 father, and were assisted in their rebellion by the Kings of Scotland and France, 
 and also by the English barons. King William of Scotland was taken prisoner by 
 a band of English knights, but was aftenvards released, on condition that he and his 
 successors should do homage to the English monarchs for their crown. King 
 Henr}' II. died in 1189, of grief and anxiety caused by the rebellion of his two 
 wns, Richard and John, who were aided by King Philip Augustus of France. 
 
 REIGN OF RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED (A. D. 1189-1199). 
 
 Richard's Deeds in Palestine — His Imprisonment in Germany.-— Henry 
 II. was succeeded on the English throne by his elder son, the chivalrous Richard 
 tl e Li'">n-heartetl, who was renowned for his deeds in Palestme as a Crusader. Oe 
 nis return home from the Holy Land in 1192, Richard was imprisoned in Ger- 
 manv, by order of the Duke of Austria <-nd the Emperor Henry VI. of Germany, in 
 revenge for an insult to the German flag in Palestine after the capture of Acre. 
 The English, people only obtained Richard's release by paying a ransom of a mil- 
 
GERMANIC STATES. I 7 1, 
 
 lion dollars. King Richard the Lion-hearted was killed in 1199, while l>esieging 
 a castle in Normandy. 
 
 REIGN OF JOHN (A. D. 1199-1216) 
 
 Accession of John Lackland. — Richard the Lion-hearted was succeeded on 
 the throne of England by his dissolute brother, John, surnamed "Lackland,'' be 
 cause he lost Normandy and the other territories which the English monarch? had 
 possessed in France, to the French king, Philip Augustus, after a long contest. 
 
 King John's Quarrel with Pope Innocent III. — King John quarreled witi. 
 ?ope Innocent III. about the appointment of an Archbishop of Canterbury. The 
 Pope laid the English kingdom under an interdict, and afterwards excommunicated 
 King John, and called upon King Philip Augustus of France to invade England, 
 Jethrone John, and take possession of his kingdom. In order to release himself 
 from the excommunication, King John was compelled to surrender his crown and 
 kin<Tdom to the Pope, and to acknowledge himself the Pope's vassal, whereupon 
 John received his kingdom back as a papal fief. The King of France was then 
 forliidden to make war on England, which country the Pope now considered as 
 one of. the territories of the Church. 
 
 Rebellion of the English Barons — Magna Charta Signed by King John. 
 — Disgusted with the dissipation and tyranny of King John, the English barons rose 
 in rebellion against him; and on the 19th of June, 1215, at Runnymede, on the 
 Thames, near Windsor, they compelled the king to sign Magna Charta, or Greai 
 Charter of rights and liberties. Among the important articles of this great docu- 
 ment were the following: "No delay should take place in doing justice to every 
 one; and no freeman should be taken or imprisoned, dispossessed of his free tene- 
 ment, outlawed or banished, unless by the legal judgment of his peers." Magna 
 Charta has ever since been considered the foundation of the free constitution of 
 England. 
 
 Civil War in England. — Irritated at the English barons, the Pope excommu- 
 nicated them, and also absolved King John from the oath he had taken. Jolan 
 collected an army of foreign mercenaries, and made war on his barons, who offered 
 the crown of England to the French monarch's son, Louis, who imrtiediately landed 
 in England with an army, and prepared to contend with King John for the posses- 
 sion of the English throne; but when John dieil, in 1216, Louis was suddenly aban- 
 doned by the English barons. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY III (A. D. 1216-1272). 
 
 Civil War between Henry III. and his Barons — Simon de Montfort.— 
 
 The dissolute King John was succeeded in the royal dignity by his son, Henry III , 
 who was a weak and profligate prince, and profuse to his favorites, who were gen- 
 eially 'mworthy persons. King Henry III. was engaged in a continual struggle 
 ivith tie English barons, who were endeavoring to secure their own rights and the 
 liberties of the English people. The whole kingdom was rent by anarchy and civil 
 war. The chief among the rebellious barons was Simon de Montfort, who, dis 
 gusted with the vicious conduct and tyranny of the King, called a Parliament, in 
 1258, which deprived Henry III. of his authority; and a council of twenty-foui 
 barons was appointed to govern the English kingdom. 
 
176 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Origin of the House of Commons — Civil War — Battles of Lewes and 
 Evesham. — In 1265, Simon de Montfort, who had risen to the dignity of Earl of 
 Leicester, called another Parliament, in which not only the English nobles, but also 
 the cities and boroughs of England were represented. This was the origin of tlie 
 House of Commons, which, as the popular branch of the English Parliament, h.v- 
 2ver been the chief guardian of the rights and liberties of the people of Englanvl. 
 An attempt of King Henry IIL to recover his lost authority involved him in anothei 
 i:i\i] war with his barons. In the battle of Lewes, in 1264, the king was deftated 
 pnd ma.le a prisoner by the Earl of Leicester; but Henry afterwards oljtainci his 
 freedom by the great victory which his son, Prince Edward, gained in the batt.e O' 
 Evesham, in which the Earl of Leicester and his son were slain. The wretched 
 life and miserable reign of Henry HI. terminated with his death, in 1272. 
 
 REIGN OF EDWARD I. (A. D. 1272-1S07.) 
 
 Edward I. in Palestine — Banishment of the Jews from England. — The 
 chivalrous son of Henry HI., Edward I., who was at the time in Palestine as a 
 Crusader, became King of England at his father's death ; but he did not return to 
 England until two years afterward. King Edward I. had a great hatred for the 
 Jews, and, as soon as he arrived in England from the Holy Land, he confiscated 
 the property of Jews, and banished 13,000 of them from his kingdom. 
 
 Conquest of Wales by Edward I. — The First Prince of Wales. — Unlike 
 his father, Edward I. was an able monarch. He humbled the English barons and 
 restored order throughout his kingdom. His mind was occupied with the thought ol 
 uniting the whole island of Great Britain under one government. When I-lewellyn 
 Prince of Wales, refused to do the customary homage to the English king, Edward I. 
 marched against him with an army ; and Llewellyn was defeated and slain in battle, 
 and the principality of Wales was annexed to the English dominions. (A. D. 1282.) 
 Imtated at the determined resistance of the Welsh, King Edward I. caused Llewel- 
 lyn's brother, David, and the Welsh bards to be massacred; and then presented his 
 own son, Edward of Caernarvon, to the Welsh people as their prince, since which 
 time the eldest son of the British sovereign has been styled " Prince of Wales." 
 
 The Scottish Succession— The Maid of Norway — ^John Baliol and 
 Robert Bruce. — King Edward I. next attempted to subdue Scotland. When 
 King Alexander III. of Scotland died, in 1286, the Scottish crown fell to his 
 granddaughter Margaret, the daughter of the King of Norway, and the niece of the 
 King cf England. Edward secured the marriage of the princess, known as the 
 "Maid of Norway," with his son, the Prince of Wales. On her voyage from Nor- 
 way to Scotland, the princess died; and thus the plan for uniting England and 
 Scotland under one sovereign was, for a time, frustrated. Among the Scots, many 
 rival competitors now appeared for the crown of Scotland, the leading ones of 
 winm were John Baliol and Robert Bruce, who consented to let Edward I. decide 
 ipon their respective claims. The decision of Edward was in favor of Baliol, with 
 the understanding that he should do homage to the King of England for his ci nvn 
 (A. D. 1293.) 
 
 War between England and Scotland — Battle of Dunbar. — ^Vhen Edwatc 
 I, became involved in a war with King Philip the Fair of France, Baliol formeii 
 an alliance with the French monarch. The result of this step of the Scotch king 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 
 
 17; 
 
 vr:)5 a furious war between England and Scotland. Edward I. led an army into 
 Scotland, and defeated Baliol in the battle of Dunbar, in 1292. The victorious 
 Edward soon compelled Baliol to surrender his crown, and carried to London the 
 Scotch crown, sceptre, and the sacred chair at Scone, on which the Scottish kings 
 fit when they were crowned. (A. D. 1296.) 
 
 Sir William Wallace — Battles of Stirling and Falkirk — Robert Bruce. 
 — The Scots revolted on Edward's return to England, and, being led by the goi- 
 lant patriot. Sir William Wallace, a man of obscure origin, gained a victopy nvri 
 ihe English at Stirling, and regained their independence. Edward I. again in 
 vaded Scotland, and defeated the Scots under Wallace at Falkirk, in 1298. Wal- 
 lace was betrayed to Edward, who carried the valiant patriot to London, and caused 
 him to be e.xecuted. (A. D. 1305 ) The Scots again revolted, and were led by 
 Robert Bruce, a grandson of that Robert Bruce who had been a rival candidate 
 with Baliol for the Scotch crown in 1292. In 1306, Bruce was crowned King of 
 Scotland, at Scone. King Edward I. again marched toward Scotland with a 
 powerful army, but died at Carlisle. (A. D. 1307.) On his death bed he ex- 
 horted his son Edward to lead the expedition into Scotland, and not to give up the 
 war until the Scots were entirely subjugated. 
 
 REIGN OF EDWARD II. (A. D. 1307-1S27). 
 
 The War with Scotland — Battle of Bannockburn — Independence of 
 Sctoland. — King Edward L was succeeded on the throne of England by his son, 
 Edward IL, who disobeyed his father's dying injunction, and disbanded the aimy 
 which had been raised for the subjugation of Scotland. For seven years, the Scots, 
 uHvier the leadership of their king, Robert Bruce, carried on the war against the Eng- 
 X\<\\. Finally, in 1314, King Edward IL led an army of 100,000 men into Scotland 
 iml on the 24th of June (1314), he fought with Robert Bruce, who had only 30,000 
 men, the famous battle of Bannockburn, in which the Scots gained a glorious vic- 
 to-y and secured the independence of their country. In 1315, Edward Bruce, 
 Robert's brother, went over into Ireland, and the Irish proclaimed him their king; 
 hilt he was totally defeated by the English in the battle of Dundalk. 
 
 Edward's Favorites — Rebellion of the Barons and the Queen— Murder 
 of Edward II. — Edward II. was a weak and profligate sovereign, and he sur- 
 rounded himself with the most unworthy favorites, the chief of whom was a 
 Frenchman named Gaveston, who treated the English barons with such insolence 
 that they openly rebelled, took Gaveston prisoner, and put him to death. Gaves- 
 ton's place in the king's favor was supplied by the dissolute Hugh Spenser, a 
 Welshman, who was as much hated by the English barons as Gaveston had been. 
 Ihe barons, with the Earl of Lancaster at their head, again rebelled against the 
 king, and were joined in their rebellion by the king's wife, Isabella, a daughter of 
 King Philip the Fair of France. Edward II. was dethroned and imprisoned; and 
 in 132^, he was brutally murdered, at the instigation of his queen and her unwonhy 
 favorite, Roger Mortimer. 
 
 REIGN OF EDWARD III. (A. D. 1327-1377). 
 
 War with Scotland— Battle of Halidon Hill— Flight of David Bruce. 
 
 — The imbecile and dissolute Edward II. was succeeiled as King of England by 
 12 
 
.78 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 nis son, the biave and chivalrous Edward III., who was a very able sovereign. 
 Edward III., upon his accession to the throne, caused Roger Mortimer to be put to 
 dea.h, and his mother, Isabella, to be imprisoned, on account of her conduct toward 
 his father. The attempt of King Edward III. to dethrone David Bruce, the reign- 
 ing King of Scotland, led to a war between England and Scotland. Edward 
 invaded Scotland, and gained a victory at Halidon Hill, which placed Scotland wK 
 Ihe mercy o' die English monarch. King David Bruce being obliged tcseek refuor 
 :.' i "ranee. 
 
 Invasion of France by Edward III. — Battle of Crecy — Cannon Fiifti 
 Used. — By the death of King Charles the Fair of France, the last of the dire.;t line 
 of the House of Capet, in 132S, the crown of France passed to his cousin, Philip of 
 Valois, the nephew of Philip the Fair. But Edward III. of England claimed to be 
 the proper heir to the French throne, because his mother, Isabella, was a daughter 
 of, Philiji the Fair; but by the Salic Law, which has always prevailed in France, 
 females are excluded from the throne, and therefore the French denied the validity 
 of Edward's pretensions. To enforce his claims, the King of England led an army 
 into France; and inflicted upon the French army, far superior to his own in numer- 
 ical strength, a complete overthrow in the battle of Crecy, fought on the 25th of 
 August, 1346. The French lost over 40,000 men, among whom was the blind old 
 King John of Bohemia. King Edward and his son Edward, the Black Prince, so 
 called from the color of his armor, greatly distinguished themselves in the battle of 
 Crecy for their bravery. In the battle of Crecy, cannon, but of a rude construction, 
 were first used, the English having several pieces. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Calais by Edward III. — Eustace St. Pierre. — 
 
 After his great victory at Crecy, Edward III. laid siege to Calais, the key to France. 
 The city was stubbornly defended by the Franch for nearly a year, when, reduced 
 by famine, Calais was obliged to surrender. It is said that the English king agreed 
 to spare the inhabitants of Calais, whose long resistance exasperated him, if six of 
 the leading citizens should be sent to him, with ropes about their necks, ready for 
 hanging. The unfortunate inhabitants gave way to despair at these hard conditions; 
 but Eustace St. Pierre, a wealthy merchant of Calais, ofrere<l himself as one of the 
 victims. Inspired by his noble example, five others followed him. The entreaties 
 of the English nobles, of Edward's queen, Philippa, and of his heroic son, Edward 
 the Black Prince, finally prevailed over the king's obstinate temper and saved the 
 lives of the six noble-hearted citizens. This story is very generally doubted. After 
 the surrender of Calais, Edward III. expelled its French inhabitants, and peopled 
 the city with English; and for two centuries, that important town remained in the 
 possession of the English. 
 
 Scottish Invasion of England — Battle of Nevil's Cross — David Bruce 
 a Prisoner. — While the King of England was thus employed in France, the S' ots 
 nad again raised David Bruce to the throne of their country. Upon his restoration 
 .(,■ the '■'c tch throne, David Bruce invaded England; but in the battle of NenTf 
 Cross, near Durham, fought on the loth of October, 1346, the King of the St ad 
 v\'as defeated and made a prisoner by Philippa, the v.'ife of Edward III. 
 
 Invasion of France by the Black Prince — Battle of Poitiers — King John 
 a Prisoner. — Afler a truce of several years. King Edward 111. again resolved tc 
 attack France ; and for this purpose, he sent the Black Prince with an army to 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 
 
 179 
 
 Guienne, one of the Western provinces of France. The Black Prince advanced 
 into the heart of France with only 12,000 men; but at Poitiers he found nimself 
 confronted by a French army of 60,000 men, under King John the Good, the suc- 
 cessor of Philip of Valois on the throne of France. Desiring to retreat, the Black 
 Priace offered to restore all his conquests in France and make peace; but the French 
 king rejecting all terms but unconditional submission on the part of the invaders, 
 a battle ensued, which, owing to the bravery and skill of the Black Prince, ended 
 in the total defeat of the French, King John himself being taken prisoner. Thii 
 memorable conflict, known as the battle of Poitiers, occurred on the 17th of Sep 
 tcmber, 1346. 
 
 Captivity of King John of France in London— English Possessions in 
 France. — Edward the Black Prince took King John of France a prisoner to Lon- 
 don. Both the Black Prince and his father treated the captive monarch with the 
 greatest generosity; and during the whole period of his captivity in England, the 
 French king was treated more as a guest than as a captive. The English now had 
 possession of the whole West of France, and the Black Prince and his wife, "the 
 Fair Maid of Kent," established their court at Bordeaux. 
 
 Honorable Conduct of King John — Renewal of the War with France. 
 — Edward III. novs' had two kings in his posses.sion. The King of the Scots was 
 soon ransomed by his subjects. In 1360, a treaty of peace was made between 
 France and England, by which King John was to be released on the payment of a 
 heavy ransom. One of the hostages delivered to the English king having escaped, 
 the French monarch voluntarily returned to captivity in London, where he died in 
 1364. The war between England and France was renewed in 1368. Edward the 
 Black Prince, who had been highly esteemed for his generosity and moderation, 
 died in 1376; and his father's death occurred the following year. 
 
 REIGN OF RICHARD II. (A. D. 1S77-1S99). 
 
 Wat Tyler's Insurrection. — On the death of King Edward III., in 1377, the 
 son of the Black Prince ascended the throne of England, at the age of eleven 
 years, with the title of Richard II. The lower orders of the English people were 
 discontented with the condition of serfdom in which they were kept, and with the 
 oppressions which they suffered from the privileged classes; and in 1381, a dan- 
 gerous insurrection of the lower classes was occasioned by the indignity which the 
 daughter of Wat Tyler, a blacksmith, at Deptford, in Essex, suffered at the hands 
 of the brutal tax-gatherers. Enraged at the conduct of the tax-gatherers, the black- 
 smith killed the tax-officer with his hammer; and rousing the people to insurrection, 
 placed himself at their head as leader. The insurgents, 100,000 in number, after 
 assembling at Blackheath, uuc!er the leadership of Wat Tyler and Jack Straw,, 
 broke into London, burned the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered the 
 warehouses, and killed the Chancellor and the Archbishop of Canterbury. King 
 Richard II. went to meet the insurgents, accompanied by a few attendants. Wal 
 Tyler treated the king with such insolence that William Walworth, Lord Mayor ,)f 
 London, struck him to the ground, whereupon the blacksmith was slain by others 
 of the king's retinue. The enraged insurgents threatened to overwhelm the king's 
 party, but this was averted by the presence of mind of Richard II., who kindly 
 addressed the malcontents, and induced them to return to their homes by promising 
 
x8o MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 them a release from some of the degrading conditions of serfdom. As soon as 
 ordei- was restored, the government broke its plighted faith by revoking the certifi- 
 cates of freedom which had been granted to the peasants. The consequence ol 
 this action was that Richard II. lost the favor of the lower orders. 
 
 A Regency of Nobles. — The prodigality and dissipation of King Richard II , 
 and his profusion to his unworthy favorites, such as Michael de la Pole, induce i 
 the king's uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, to compel Richard to resign his authi^rity 
 to a regency of nobles. After several years, the king recovered his lost power, an i 
 caused his uncle to be put to death. 
 
 Banishment of Henry of Lancaster — His Usurpation of the Crown. — 
 Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, openly charged Richard II. with the mur- 
 der of the Duke of Gloucester. The king's cousin, Henry of Lancaster, surnamed 
 Bolingbroke, defended Richard against the charge. At length a personal combat 
 was about to take place between Bolingbroke and Mowbray, but the king banished 
 the two noblemen from the kingdom. At last, in 1399, when the king seized on 
 the estates of Henry of Lancaster, that nobleman returned to England, and was 
 soon at the head of an army of 60,000 men. Henry dethroned his cousin, and 
 caused himself to be crowned King of England, with the title of Henry IV. The 
 fallen Richard ended his life in prison. 
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 
 
 REIGN OF HEl^RY IV. (A. D. 1399-1418). 
 
 Conspiracies and Rebellions Against Henry IV. — Battle of Shrews- 
 bury — Owen Glendower. — Henry IV., surnamed Bolingbroke, was the first 
 English king of the Lancaster branch of the Plantagenet dynasty. He had no 
 legal right to the crown, for the ttue heir was Edmund Mortimer. No sooner had 
 Henry IV. ascended the throne than a dangerous conspiracy was fonned against 
 him. At length, the Earl of Northumberland, and his brother, the Earl of West- 
 moreland, the two richest noblemen in England, and who had been chiefly instru- 
 mental in raising Henry to the throne, raised the standard of rebellion against the 
 king. These nobles had gained a victory at Homildon Hill, over the Scotch Earl 
 Douglas, whom they took prisoner; and an order from King Henry forbidding 
 them to admit any of their prisoners to ransom, provoked their resentment. Henry 
 took the field against the rebellious barons, and defeated them in the great battle of 
 Shrewsbury, on the 2ist of July, 1403. Henry Percy, surnamed " Hotspur," the 
 son of the Earl of Northumberland, was killed in the battle. This rebellion was 
 now quelled, but another immediately broke out, headed by Scrope, Archbishop of 
 Vork, and Thomas Mowbray, Earl-Marshal of England. This rebellion was also 
 suppressed, and Scrope was beheaded. King Henry IV. had more difficulty in 
 subduing the Welsh, who, under the leadership of the valiant Owen Glendower, 
 ;hom they proclaimed Prince of Wales, fought seven years for the'r independence 
 Captivity of the Young Prince of Scotland in England. — One of the 
 most cruel acts of King Henry IV. was the seizure of the young prince James, son 
 of King Robert III. of Scotland. This prince had been sent by his father to be 
 ed ucated in France ; but he was seized on his voyage from Scotland to France, by 
 order of the English monarch, who kept the prince a prisoner for eighteen years, 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 1 81 
 
 when ht was finally ransomed by the Scotch people, and became King James I. of 
 
 bcotlanrl. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY V. (A. D. 1418-1422). 
 
 Reformation in the Character of Henry V. — Persecution of the Lol- 
 lards. — King Heniy IV. died of a broken heart, in 1413, whereupon his sun, Henry 
 v., became King of England. Henry V. had been veiy wicked in his youth, asso- 
 rialing with persons of the greatest vices; and on one occasion he was committed 
 •-O prison by Chief-Justice Gascoigne, for striking the judge, who had sentenced one 
 of the young prince's dissolute companions to prison for highway robbery; but when 
 Henry ascended the throne, he immediately reformed, and became one of the most 
 N'irtuous persons of his time. Henry V. was a great persecutor of the Lollards, as 
 the followers of John Wickliffe, sometimes called "Th^ Morning Star of the Refor- 
 mation," were called. Lord Cobham, and many others of the most prominent 
 Lollards, were condemned and executed. 
 
 Invasion of France by Henry V. — Battle of Azincourt — Treaty of 
 Troyes. — As France was at this time torn by internal dissensions. King Henry V. 
 considered this a good opportunity to invade that kingdom and claim its crown. In 
 1415, Henry landed on the Northern coast of France with 30,000 men, and took 
 Harfleur; and, after his army had been reduced by sickness to 11,000 men, he de- 
 feated the French army of 50,000 men, in the famous battle of Azincourt, on the 
 24th of October, 141 5, on which occasion 10,000 Frenchmen were killed, and 14,000 
 were made prisoners, while the English lost only forty men. Henry V. again in- 
 vaded France in 1417, and in 1422, he concluded with the P'rench king, Charles 
 V'l., the Treaty of Troyes, by which the English king was declared to be the suc- 
 cessor to the crown of France. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY VI. (A. D. 1422-1461). 
 
 Coronation of Henry VI. at Paris — The Dauphin, afterward King 
 Charles VII. — King Henry V. died in 1422, and was succeeded on the English 
 throne by his son, Henry VI., who was then only nine months old. King Charles 
 VI. of France died the same year, and the infant Henry VI. was crowned in Paris, 
 King of England and France. Charles's son, the Dauphin, afterwards King Charles 
 VII., resolved to expel the English from France, and secure the French crown, 
 which of right belonged to him. 
 
 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans — Expulsion of the English from 
 France. — The English were now in possession, of almost the whole of France. 
 Town after town submitted to them, until Orleans was the only place that remained 
 in the possesion of the French, and even that city was besieged by the English. / 1 
 length, the famous Joan of Arc, a poor peasant girl of Dom Remy in Lorraine, de- 
 clared that she had received a mission from Heaven to drive the English invaders 
 from the soil of France and restore her country's independence. The Dauphm, 
 aaving faith in the truth of her mission, gave her command of the army defendina,, 
 1 )rleans ; and the English, excited by superstitious fears, soon relinquished the siege 
 of Orleans. (A. D. 1429.) The French next recovered Rheims from rhe English; 
 and the Dauphin was crowned in that city as King of France, with the title of 
 Charles VII. Joan's family was ennobled, and she was thereafter called the "Maid 
 
l82 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 of Orleans." The French officers finally became jealous of the fame )f the heroine, 
 and allowed her to be taken prisoner by the Duke of Burgundy, who sold h ?r to 
 the Duke of Bedford, the English regent in France. The Duke of Bedford stained 
 hi? hitherto irreproachable character by causing the valiant Joan of Arc to be burned 
 alive as a sorceress, in the market-place of Rouen. (A. D. 1431.) Although the 
 French were no longer led by the Maid of Orleans, still they were victorious- and 
 Snall-y, in 1453, the English were completely driven out of France, Calais on'y 
 r**maining in their possession, and Charles VII. was left in full possession of hii 
 kingdom. 
 
 Jack Cade's Insurrection.— England was now distracted by domesitic troubles. 
 f I ;nry VI. was a weak and idiotic prince, and unfit for the difficult station of king. 
 In 1455, an insurrection of the lower classes broke out in Kent, tlie leader of which 
 was Jack Cade. London was taken possession of by the insurgents, but the rebel- 
 lion was soon suppressed, and Jack Cade was afterwards killed in a garden in 
 Sussex. 
 
 The Duke of York Claims the Crown — " Wars of the Roses" — Battle 
 of St. Albans. — The reigning family of England had long been unpopular with 
 the English people, on account of the imbecility of the king and the loss of the 
 English conquests in France. This afforded Richard, Duke of York, a good oppor- 
 tunity to claim the crown of England, which had been unlawfully wrested from his 
 ancestors by Heniy of Lancaster in 1399. The Duke of York accordingly laid 
 claim to the English crown, for the possession of which he began a war against 
 King Henry VI., in 1455. On the 3d of May of that year, was fought the first 
 battle of St. Albans, in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner by the Duke 
 of York. The civil war which now commenced in England lasted thirty years, and 
 is called " The Wars of the Roses," the badge of the adherents of the House of 
 York being a white rose, and that of the partisans of the House of Lancaster a red 
 rose. In this long civil war eighty princes of the blood-royal perished, and the 
 ancient nobility of England was nearly annihilated. 
 
 The Earl of 'Warwick — Death of the Duke of York — Dethronement of 
 Henry VI. — The greatest general in the Vv'ars of the Roses was the Duke of 
 York's wife's brother, Nevil, Earl of Warwick, who was the richest nobleman in 
 England, and who maintained on his different estates about 30,000 persons. In the 
 battle of Northampton, in 1460, Henry VI. was defeated and taken prisoner by the 
 Earl of Warwick. Duke Richard of York might now have obtained the royal 
 crown without any difficulty, had not many of the English nobility and King 
 Henrj's queen, Margaret of Anjou, a woman of masculine qualities, risen in sup- 
 port ol the reigning sovereign; but the Parliament declared the Duke of York to 
 be the lawful successor of Henry VI., thus excluding Prince Edward, the son of 
 Henry VI. and Margaret of Anjou, from the English throne. In 1460, Margaret 
 defeated the Yorkists in the battle of Wakefield, in which Duke Richard of York 
 himself was slain. The sanguinary Margaret caused the fallen Duke's head to be 
 cut off and placed upon a pole upon the gates of York with a paper crown, in 
 derision of his claim. Shortly afterward, Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick 
 in the second battle of St. Albans, and regained possession of the king's person; 
 hut Edward, son of the late unfortunate Duke of York, uniting his forces with 
 those of the Earl of Warwick, compelled Margaret to retreat, and entered London; 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 183 
 
 whejeupon the helpless Henry VI. was dethroned, through the agency of Jie Ear) 
 of Warwick, who caused the young Duke of York to be proclaimed King of Eng. 
 land, with the title of Edward IV. 
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF YORK. 
 
 REIGN OF ED^^^ARD IV. (A. D. 1461-14.83). 
 
 Continuation of the Wars of the Roses— Battle of Towton.-Eowai.i 
 
 I \^. was the first English king of the York branch of the Plantagenet dynasty. The 
 dethronement of Henry VI. did not put an end to the Wars of the Roses; and in 
 1461, was fought the sanguinary battle of Towton, in which Margaret was de 
 feated by King^Edward IV. and the Earl of Warwick, and in which 36,000 Lan- 
 castrians were'slain. Margaret and her husband fled to Scotland, but afterwards 
 returned; and, in 1464, Margaret was again defeated, after which she found refuge 
 in France, and the poor, helpless Henry fell into the hands of Edward IV., who 
 lodged him in the Tov/er of London. 
 
 Marriage of Edward IV.— Warwick the King-maker's Alliance with 
 Margaret.— Although the Earl of Warwick had been chiefly instrumental in 
 elevating Edward IV. to the throne of England, that powerful nobleman soon be- 
 came th^'e young king's most inveterate enemy. The Earl of Warwick desired 
 Edward IV. to marry some foreign princess, and was so ofl'ended when the king 
 married Lady Elizabeth Grey, an English lady, that he joined the Lancastrians 
 and formed an alliance with Margaret; and Edward was obliged to flee from the 
 kingdom, whereupon the Earl of Warwick dragged poor Henry from his pri'ion, 
 and' restored him to the throne. As the Earl of Warwick was so powerful m rais- 
 mg princes to the throne and deposing them again, he was called " the King 
 maker." 
 
 Battle of Barnet and Death of Warwick— Battle of Tewksbuiy— Fate 
 of Henry's Family.— Edward IV. soon returned to England, and, deposing 
 Henry VI., regained possession of the royal throne. Edward next marched against 
 the Earl of Warwick, who had taken a position at Barnet, near Loiidon. The 
 treachery of the King-maker's rvephew, the Duke of Clarence, who deserted with 
 a part of the Lancastrian army to his brother, King Edward IV., brought about the 
 victory of the Yorkists in the battle of Barnet, in which the Earl of Warwick was 
 .slain, while bravely fighting for the Lancastrians. (A. D. 1471-) A few werks 
 later the cause of Margaret was ruined, and she and her son Edw-ard were taken 
 prisoners by Edward IV., in the decisive battle of Tewksbury. Prince Edward 
 was murdered by the Dtikes of Clarence and Gloucester, the brothers of King 
 Edward IV. ; and a few days afterward Henry VI. was found dead in the Tower, 
 suppos.;d to have been murdered by the Duke of Gloucester. Margaret was im- 
 prisoned in the Tower for five years, after which she was ransomed by the Kmg 
 )f France, in which country she then found refuge and died in 1480. 
 
 Character of Edward IV.— His Disgraceful Treaties v/ith Louis XI.- 
 Kincr Edward IV. wa.s now securely on the throne of England. He was a cruel, 
 tyrannical, and profligate monarch. His brother, George, Dtike of Clarence, hav- 
 ing incurred the displeasure of the king, was put to death at the instigation of his 
 other brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester. In 14S0, Edward IV. invaded 
 
1 84 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 France with a powerful army, but was bribed to leturn to England by the crafty 
 Louis XL, King of I'Yance, who thinking of the days of Crecy, Poitiers, and Azin- 
 court, trembled at the very thought of an English army in France. Edward IV 
 ■wa5 outwitted in another treaty with the artful Louis XL; and the vexation which 
 th.o circumstance caused the English king, hastened him to his grave. He died in 
 I4S3 leaving the crown of England to his eldest son, Edward V. 
 
 REIGN OF EDWARD V. (A. D. 1483). 
 
 Crimea of Richard Duke of Gloucester — Murder of Edward V. ai J 
 His Brother. — Edward V. was only thirteen years old wlien he ascended the 
 throne of England. The young king's wicked uncle, Richard, Duke of Glouces- 
 ter, who had secured for himself the appointment of Protector during the minority 
 of Edward V., aspired to the English crown. After causing the young king's 
 maternal relatives, Lords Rivers and Grey, to be beheaded in prison, the Duke of 
 Gloucester summoned a council, in the presence of which he caused Lord Hastings, 
 another of the young king's relatives, to be beheaded. The wicked Duke of 
 (iloucester then caused himself to be proclaimed King of England, with the title of 
 Richard HL; and at his instigation, Edward V. and his brother, the young Duke 
 of York, were smothered to death in the Tower. 
 
 REIGN OF RICHARD III. (A. D. 1483-148S). 
 
 Plot of the Duke of Buckingham — Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. 
 
 — The usurping Richard HL was not permitted to enjoy quietly the fruits of his 
 crimes; and his I'eign was soon disturbed by a plot against his power, headed by 
 the Duke of Buckingham, who had largely contributed to Richard's elevation to 
 the throne; but the conspiracy was frustrated, and the Duke of Buckingham 
 was executed. There was still remaining one heir of the House of Lancaster. 
 This was Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, whom Richard HL several times 
 attempted to get into his power, but failed, and who saved himself by fleeing to 
 Fi-ance. 
 
 Tudor's Rise — Battle of Bosworth Field and Death of Richard HL — 
 In 1485, the Earl of Richmond landed on the Southern coast of England, with a 
 small army, composed of English exiles and some French troops, and marched 
 northward to the very centre of England, his army continually increasing in 
 numerical strength. On the 14th of August, 1485, was fought the celebrated battle 
 of Bosworth F"ield, which, through the defection of Lord Stanley, who deserted to 
 the Earl of Richmond with a part of the king's army, ended in the total overthrow 
 of Richard HI. \\\ the courage of despair, Richard plunged into the thickest ol 
 tb.e fight, crying "Treason! treason!" and fell covered with wounds and expired. 
 The royal crown was taken from the head of the fallen Richard, and placed on the 
 head of the Earl of Richmond, who was crowned, by Sir William Stanley, on llie 
 latl.e- field, and hailed as King of England, with the title of Henry VH. Thin 
 jtJvrd the 1 lantagenet dynasty. 
 
GERMANIC STATES. 1 85 
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY VII. (A. D. 1488-1S09). 
 
 Marriage of King Henry VII. — His Character. — Hemy VII., the first 
 English king of the House of Tudor, married the Princess Elizabeth, daughter oi 
 Edward IV., and heiress of the House of York, — thus uniting the claims of the 
 Houses ol York and Lancaster, and putting an end to the civil wars which foi 
 Ihirly years had deluged England with the blood of her own people. Hen-y VII. 
 was an unambitious monarch, preferring peace to war, and consecjuently he did nf( 
 involve his kingdom in foreign wars ; but he was exceedingly avaricious, ano 
 accumulated an enormous amount of money. 
 
 The Impostors, Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck. — In the early 
 part of the reign of Henry VII., Lambert Simnel, the son of a baker at Oxford, 
 attempted to personate the young Earl of Warwick, nephew of Edward IV., and 
 made pretensions to the English crown; but the impostor was defeated, taken pris- 
 oner, and made a menial in the king's household. (A. D. 1487.) Several years 
 afterward, Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Flemish butcher, attempted to counterfeit 
 the person of the young Duke of York, one of Edward IV. 's sons, who was reported 
 to be still alive, and also raised claims to the English throne; but being obliged to 
 surrender himself to the king, this second impostor was imprisoned in the Tower, 
 and having afterward attempted to escape, he was hanged at Tyburn. (A. D. 1490.) 
 
 Avarice of King Kenry VII. — King Henry VII. was noted for his unbounded 
 avarice. By means of the most arbitrary and vexatious laws, for the violation of 
 which heavy fines were exacted, and by taxes, confiscation of the property of those 
 who had engaged in various conspiracies against the king, and benevolences, or 
 voluntary contributions to the king's service, this royal raiser accumulated immense 
 wealth in money, plate, and jewel-s. 
 
 Importance of the Reign of Henry VII. — Decay of Feudalism in Eng- 
 land. — The reign of Henry VII. was an important era in English history; although 
 there arose one instrument of oppression, — namely, the arbitrary court of the Star 
 Chamber, in which the king presided as judge. Feudalism, which came into Eng- 
 land with the Normal Conquest, disappeared with the extinction of the Plantagenet 
 dynasty. The power of the English aristocracy was rapidly waning, while the royal 
 authority was fast approaching absolutism ; and the institutions of the Middle Ages 
 were giving place to more enlightened forms and usages. King Henry VII. died 
 in 1509, after a peaceful reign of twenty-four years, and was succeeded on the Eng- 
 lish throne by his son, Henry VIII. 
 
 THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS. 
 
 Founding of the Kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. — Aftei 
 tlie bold sea-expeditions of the .Scandmavians, or Normans and Danes, had ceased^ 
 several of the Scandinavian princes founded kingdoms, — as Harold Fairhaii in Nor- 
 way, the Ynglians in Sweden, and Gorm the Old in Denmark; — but some cf the 
 Scandinavian chiefs would not submit to the authority of their kings, and the wan 
 that arose in consequence continued for several centuries, and retarded the intro- 
 ductioL of Christianity into the Scandinavian kingdoms. 
 
l86 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Introduction of Christianity into the Scandinavian Kingdon»s. — An; gar, 
 •' the Aposile of the North," introduced the Gospel into Scandinavia in the ninth 
 century; and the kings, Harold Bhietooth of Denmark and Olaf Skotkonung of 
 Sweden, embraced Christianity, but their subjects still held fast to the pagan wor 
 ship of Odin. In Denmark, Harold's grandson, Canute the Great, the conqueror 
 of England, and in Norway, Olaf the Saint, succeeded in Christianizing their su]> 
 jeds in the eleventh century; and in Sweden, Eric the Pious established the religion 
 )f die ('ross in the twelfth century. The Benedictine monks did much toward tit 
 Civilization of the three Scandinavian kingdoms. 
 
 Denmark under Waldemar the Conqueror — Ivlargaret and the Union 
 of Calmar. — In the first part of the thirteenth century, Denmark, with which Nor- 
 way was then united, became a powerful kingdom, under Waldemar the Conqueior, 
 who subdued the Germanic and Slavonic countries on the south and east sides of the 
 Baltic sea, — namely, Holstein, Lauenburg, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Prussia, Cour- 
 land, Livonia, and Esthonia; — but when Waldemar fell a prisoner into the hands 
 of Count Henry of Schwerin, his vassals rose in rebellion, and his vast empire fell 
 to pieces, the conquered German states returning to the government of their emperor. 
 In 1397, Queen Margareta of Denmark, the " Semiramis of the North," united the 
 three Scandinavian kingdoms under one sceptre by the celebrated Union of Calmar. 
 
 Christian I. and Christian II. of Denmark — Liberation of Sweden. — 
 The present House of Oldenburg ascended the throne of Demark in 1448, in the 
 person of Christian I. The cruel massacre of ninety-four Swedish nobles at Stock- 
 holm, in 1520, by order of the hard-hearted and tyrannical King Christian II. of 
 Denmark, produced a revolt of the Swedes, who, under the leadership of the valiant 
 Gustavus Vasa, threw off the oppressive yoke of the Danish king. 
 
 SLAVONIC STATES 
 
 KINGDOM OF POLAND. 
 
 The Poles or Slavonians of the Plain — Introduction of Christianity. — 
 
 The lands of the Vistula and the Oder were inhabited by tribes of the Slavonic 
 race, known as Poles, or Slavonians of the Plain. In the yeai 840 A. D., a simple 
 peasant, named Piast, was chosen duke of the Polish teiTitories. About the middle 
 of the tenth century, the Poles embraced Christianity, after the conversion of theii 
 duke, Micislaus, by German missionaries. 
 
 Establishment of the Kingdom of Poland by Boleslaus I. — The numer 
 O'ls Polish principalities were first united into one kingdom under Bijleslaus I., who 
 VHOS crowned King of Poland, in 1025 ; but the Polish kingdom was subsequently 
 subdivided am^ng the family of the Piasts; and Poland was claimed as a fief of 
 the Gerniaji Empire, until during the reign of the Emperor Frederic II. of Germany 
 
SLAVONIC STATES. 
 
 187 
 
 111 the fiist half of the thirteenth century, when it secured its complete national 
 independence. 
 
 Poland under Vladislaus IV., Casimir the Great, and Louis the 
 Great. — Poland first rose to consideration in the fourteenth century, when King 
 Viadislaus IV. united Great Poland with Little Poland, and was crowned in Cra- 
 cow. The son and successor of Vladislaus IV., Casimir the Great, who obtained 
 die Polish crown in 1333, added Galicia and Red Russia to the Polish dominions, 
 fovnled the University of Cracow, and showed himself to be a wise legislatoi.; 
 but his effprts to diminish the power of the Polish nobility, and to estalilisih a 
 powerful citizen and burgher class, proved futile, and the Polish peasants, or serfs, 
 continu'id to live in the most abject servitude. King Casimir the Great died in 
 1370; and, as he was the last of the male line of Piast, the Polish nobles, or voi- 
 wodes, bestowed the crovifn of Poland on King Louis the Great of Hungaiy, who 
 proved to be a wise and able monarch. 
 
 The Jagellos — Casimir IV. — Ascendency of the Voiwodes. — After the 
 death of Louis the Great, in 1385, the crown of Poland fell to his son-in-law, 
 Jagello, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who thus became the founder of the dynasty 
 ot the Jagellos, which occupied the Polish throne for nearly two centuries. With 
 the accession of Jagello, Lithuania was united with Poland. Casimir IV., who 
 reigned from 1447 to 1492, subdued the Teutonic Knights, who had for a long 
 time warred against the Poles; but he was obliged to make many concessions to 
 the voiwodes, thus diminishing the royal power. It was the Polish aristocracy, 
 who alone were represented in the Polish Diet, who had a voice in legislation, the 
 raising of taxes, and the levying of troops. The nobles, or voiwodes, only were 
 regarded as citizens in Poland. 
 
 Height of Poland's Power and Greatness — Kings Sigismund I. and 
 Sigismund II. — In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the kingdom of Poland 
 was one of the most powerful and extensive monarchies in Europe, stretching from 
 the Baltic to the Euxine, or Black Sea, along the whole frontier of European civili- 
 zation, thus forming an effectual barrier to Germany and the states of Western 
 Europe against barbarian invasion. Sigismund I. and Sigismund II. were great 
 monarchs. Under the former, Lithuania was finally united to Poland; and the 
 Dukedom of Prussia was placed under the feudal supremacy of the Polish kingdom, 
 during the reign of the latter. 
 
 Poland an Elective Monarchy — Henry of Valois — Poland's Decay.— 
 The family of the Jagellos became extinct in 1572, whereuixin Poland became an 
 elective monarchy, the king being thenceforth chosen by the Polish Diet ; and there 
 after Poland was not called a kingdom, but a republic, though the head of the state 
 was still called a king. The first elective King of Poland was Henry of Valois, 
 afterward King Henry III. of France, who voluntarily resigned his Polish crown 
 after cue year's reign. From that period Poland declined. Owing to the weakness 
 of the royal power, domestic dissensions, and frecjuent contests with Sweden, Rus- 
 sia, anl Turkey, Poland gradually decayed, until toward the close of the eighteenih 
 centuiy, when its national existence was extinguished. 
 
1 88 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 THE RUSSIAN OR MUSCOVITE EMPIRE. 
 
 Ruric, the Scandinavian Prince, and the Grand-Duchy of Great Rus- 
 sia — In the latter half of the ninth centuiy, Ruric, a Scandinavian Vaiangian 
 chieftain, at the invitation of the people of Novgorod, became prince of the Slavonic 
 trib«,'s to the east of the Baltic sea, who thenceforth were called Russians, because 
 iieir leadei, Ruric, belonged to the Norman family of Russ. Ruric founded the 
 "irar.d-Duchy of Great Russia, the capital of which he established at Novgorod. 
 
 Vladimir the Great — The Greek Christian Church in Great Russia. — 
 Ruric's great-grandson, Vladimir the Great, married a daughter of the Greek 
 Emperor in 988; and Vladimir and his subjects embraced Christianity, and the 
 Greek Christian Church was established in the Russian dominions, which then 
 extended from the Dnieper to the Dwina, and vv'hose capital was then the flour- 
 ishing city of Kiev. 
 
 Division of the Russian Dominions — Russia Tributary to the Golden 
 Horde.— The successors of Vladimir the Great divided the Russian dominions among 
 different heirs; and the consequences were many desolating wars and the gradual 
 decline of the Russian empire. The Lithuanians and Poles conquered portions of 
 the Russian territory on the West; while the Moguls, or Tartars, subdued all the 
 country from the Dnieper to the Vistula; and for nearly two centuries, Russia 
 groaned under the oppression of the Tartar chieftain, the Great Khan of the Golden 
 Horde of Kaptschak, who exacted a heavy tribute from the Russian princes and 
 their subjects. 
 
 Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of Moscow. — Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of 
 Moscow, who reigned from 1462 to 1505, freed his country from the despotic yoke 
 of the Golden Horde, and greatly enlarged his dominions by conquests in all 
 directions. He abolished the ruinous system of dividing the Russian territories 
 among successive heirs, and thus raised the Muscovite kingdom to the rank of one 
 of the rising powers of Europe. He invited artisans from the other European 
 countries to Russia, and endeavored in various ways to civilize his barbarous people. 
 He also built the Kremlin, or citadel^ for the protection of his capital, Moscow. 
 
 Ivan the Terrible of Moscow. — The grandson of Ivan the Great, Ivan the 
 Terrible, who occupied the grand-ducal throne of Moscow from 1533 to 1588, was 
 the first Muscovite prince who styled himself Czar, or Caesar. This prince con- 
 quered the two Tartar kingdoms of Kasan and Astracan, and extended his empire 
 to the Caucasus. He laid the foundation of a standing army by the organization 
 of a body of troops called Strelitzes. During his reign, Siberia was discovered, 
 iiul its conquest by the Russians begun. Feodor, the son of Ivan the Terrible, was 
 the last of the male line of Ruric. 
 
TARTARIC STATES. 
 
 TARTARIC STATES. 
 
 KINGDOM OF HUNGARY. 
 
 The Magyars or Hungarians — Introduction of Christianity. — The Tax- 
 taric tribe of Magyars, or Hungarians, who had settled in the valleys of the Thciss 
 and the Danube, in the beginning of the tenth century, and who made plundering 
 incursions into Germany, were ruled by a number of princes, the chief of whom 
 was Duke Arpad, whose descendants subsequently became the only rulers ol Hun 
 gary. Duke Geisa I., who ruled Hungary in the latter half of the tenth century, 
 received the doctrines of Christianity, and employed German missionaries to teach 
 the gospel of a crucified Saviour to his savage people. At the same time, t\ie Mag 
 yars abandoned their nomadic habits, and applied themselves to agriculture. 
 
 Founding of the Kingdom of Hungary by Stephen the Pious. — Geisa's 
 son, Stephen the Pious, who assumed the title and dignity of King of Hungary, in the 
 year looo A. D., conquered Transylvania, repressed the insolence of the Hungarian 
 nobility, defended Uie royal power against all enchroachments, and reigiied with 
 vigor and wisdom. King Stephen founded monasteries and invited Benedictine 
 monks into Hungary. He was the founder of the jwlitical institutions of Hungary, 
 and did much to civilize his barbarous subjects, and to accustom them to the arts of 
 peace; but the progress of Christianity and civilization in Hungary was retaided by 
 civil wars among the Magyars after Stephen's death. 
 
 Geisa II. and Settlement of Flemings and Saxons in Transyivania. — 
 During the reign of Geisa II., in the twelfth century, Flemings from Flanders and 
 Saxons from Germany migrated to, and settled in, Transylvania, and their descend- 
 ants still retain the manners and customs of their ancestors. The Flemings and 
 Saxons in Transylvania built many towns, and converted a desert land into a bloom- 
 ing region. 
 
 King Andrew II. and the " Golden Privilege." — In the year 1234 A. D., 
 the Magy.\r nobles, or magnates, compelled their king, Andrew II., to grant a 
 charter called the " Golden Privilege," which conceded great privileges to the nobil- 
 ity and the clergy, and was the foundation of the free constitution of Hungary. 
 Any encroachment by the king on the rights secured to the magnates by the Golden 
 Privilege, justified the Hungarian nobles in armed rebellion against their sovereign. 
 The magnates in Hungary, as the voiwodes in Poland, became the actual rulina 
 class, whde the Hungarian peasants, or serfs, pined in a condition little better than 
 abject slavery. 
 
 Andrew III. and Louis the Great. — Andrew III. was the last king of ihe 
 race of Arpad, and at his death, in 1 341, Hungary became an elective kingdvmi, 
 with Louis the Great, of the Anjou-Neapolitan dynasty, as the first elective ling. 
 Under Louis the Great, Hungary attained its highest point of power and prosperity. 
 Louis received the crown of Poland in 1370, extended the Hungarian kingdom to 
 the Lower Danube, and made Venice tributary. He also protected the peasant class 
 
iqo MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 of Hungary from the tyranny of tlie magnates, improved the administration of justice, 
 and established schools of education throughout the Hungarian kingdom. He also 
 conducted many wars in Italy. 
 
 Emperor Sigismund of Germany, King of Hungary— Victory of Hun- 
 niyades at Belgrade.— After the death of Louis the Great, in 13S4, disputes and 
 contests for the Hungarian crown arose, which for many years distracted the Hun- 
 ^arian kingdom, and tranquillity was only restored when the Emperor Sigismund of 
 (iermany united Hungary with his other possessions. The valiant John Hunniya ies 
 of Transylvania saved Hungary from the dominion of the Ottoman Turks by his 
 pTeat victor)- at Belgrade. 
 
 Reign of Matthias Corvinus Hunniyades.— In gratitude to the memory of 
 Tohn Hunniyades, the Hungarian Diet U;stowed the crown of Hungary on his son, 
 Matthias Corvinus Hunniyades, who proved to be oi.e of the greatest and best of 
 Hungarian sovereigns. He successfully defended his kingdom against the Ottoman 
 Turks, and extended its frontiers on the side of Austria an^:l Germany. He estab- 
 ished a university and a library at Buda, and invited learned men, artists, mechanics, 
 md agriculturists, into Hungary, to advance the civilization of his subjects. 
 
 Ascendency of the Magnates— Hungary under the House of Hapsburg. 
 -After the death of King Matthias, in 1490, Hungary rapidly declined. The king- 
 -lom was invaded by the Ottoman Turks, and the royal power was diminished by 
 'he nobility, who made the raising of taxes, the declaring of war, and the making 
 of peace, privileges of the Hungarian Diet. Finally the nobles, or magnates, 
 usurped the whole royal authority. When King Louis II. of Hungary wa.s de- 
 feated and killed by the Turks in the battle of Mohacz, in 1536, a dtspute for the 
 Hungarian crown arose, which was finally settled by leaving Transylvania and 
 East Hungary in the possession of the mighty Turkish Sultan, Solyman the Mag- 
 nificent, while West Hungary reverted to the sovereignty of the Archduke Ferdi- 
 nand I. of Austria. Long and bloody wars between the Austrians and the Turks 
 resulted in favor of the House of Hapsburg; and ever since that period, the sove- 
 reign prince of Austria has borne the title and dignity of King of Hungary. 
 
 THE MOGUL AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES. 
 
 The Mogul Empire of Zingis-Khan and His Successors.— In the early 
 part of the thirteenth century (A. D. 1227), Zingis-Khan, prince of a warlike no- 
 madic Tartar tribe called Moguls, set out on his career of conquest; first subduing 
 China, alter which he marched toward the West with 700,000 warriors, conquer^ 
 ing Hindoostan, Persia, and the Corasmin Empire to the east of the Caspian Sea. 
 The cities of Bokhara and Samarcand were reduced to ashes. After the death of 
 Zingis-Khan, his successors carried out his plans of conquest, subduing Russia, 
 Poland, and Hungary, and burning the cities of Kiev, Moscow, and Cracow; after 
 jv'hich they crossed the Oder and invaded Silesia, laid its capital, Breslaii, in rshes, 
 md defeated and killed Duke Henry of Lower Silesia, in a terrible battle near 
 Liegnitz. The Occidental nations were greatly alarmed, but the conquering 
 Oriental hordes soon turned to the South and overthrew the Caliphate of Bagdad. 
 The last Caliph and 200,000 Mussulmen were slain. Syria was conquered, and its 
 
TARTARIC STATES. 
 
 191 
 
 groat cities, Aleppo and Damascus, were destroyed. This vast and unwieldy 
 Mogul Empire soon fell to pieces. 
 
 Rise of the Ottoman Empire under Othman, Amurath I., and Bajazet. 
 
 —Near the close of the thirteenth century, the Ottoman Turks, a fierce Tiirtai 
 trihe professing the doctrines of the Koran, left their seats east of the Caspian seaj 
 and turning to the West, and led by Othman, conquered Asia Minor. The suc- 
 ceeding Ottomar princes formed the Christians whom they took prisoners into a 
 .■)ody of infantry called Janissaries. The great Sultan, Amurath I., after fully sub- 
 luing Asia Minor, crossed the Hellespont, or Dardanelles, into Europe, conquered 
 rhrace and Macedon, and made Adrianople the capital of the rising Ottoman Em- 
 pire. In 1390, Amurath I. defeated an army of 500,000 Christians at Cassavo, in 
 Servia, but the warrior Sultan was slain in the battle. Amurath's successor, Baja- 
 zet, "the Lightning," as he was called on account of his successes, subdued Thes- 
 saly and Epirus, and defeated a Qiristian army of 100,000 men, in the bloody battle 
 of Nicopolis; and he had already laid siege to Constantinople, when he was over- 
 thrown by a greater conqueror than himself. 
 
 The Mogul Empire of Timour or Tamerlane — Battle of Angora. — In 
 the latter part of the fourteenth centuiy (A. I). 1370), Timour the Lame, or Tamer- 
 lane, a descendant of the great Zingis-Khan, set about the reestablishment of the 
 great Mogid empire; and after leaving his ca])ital, Samarcand, to conciuer every 
 nation from Orient to Occident, he subdued India and Persia, destroyed the cities 
 of Bagdad and Damascus, and desolated Asia Minor, filling the whole land with 
 corpses, and reducing many flourishing cities to ashes. Sultan Bajazet now relin- 
 quished the siege of Constantinople, and marched against Tamerlane, lint the .Sultan 
 was defeated and taken prisoner by the Mogul conqueror, in the great battle of 
 Angora, in Asia Minor, in 1402, and died of grief the following year. The Mogul 
 empire of Tamerlane was soon broken into fragments. 
 
 Recovery of the Ottoman Empire under Amurath II. — The Ottoman or 
 Turkish Empire soon recovered from the blow inflicted upon it by Tamerlane, under 
 Sultan Amurath II., Bajazet's grandson, who left nothing to the Greek Emperor but 
 his capital, Constantinople; but the rapid conquests of <he Turks now alarmed 
 Christian Europe, and a powerful Christian army marched to the assistance of the 
 Eastern Emperor; but this army was disastrously defeated liy the infidels, in the 
 bloody battle of Varna, in 1444. 
 
 Conquest of Constantinople by Mohammed II. — End of the Greek Em- 
 pire. — Sultan Amurath II. died in 145 1, and was succeeded on the Turkish throne 
 by his hard-hearted son, Mohammed II., who, with an army of 400,000 men, besieged 
 Constantinople, and finally took that celebrated city by storm, on the 2gth of May, 
 14^3. The last Byzantine or Greek Emperor, Constantine Palosologus, was slain 
 w^iiile gallantly defending his capital. The inhabitants of the fallen city were made 
 slaves, and Constantinople became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Thus ended 
 Jie Eastern Empire of the Romans; the last remnants of Roman and Greek civili 
 nation m the East were now extinguished; the Greek Christian church of St, Sophia 
 necame a Mohammedan mosque ; the crescent supj^lanted the cross ir ;he city of 
 Constantine; and an infidel barbarian monarch occupied the throne ")f tne first 
 Christian' Roman Emperor. 
 
192 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 Turkish Conquest of Greece — Conquest of Egypt by Sultan Selim I. — 
 
 After the fall of Constantinople and the subversion of the Byzantine Empire, tne 
 Ottoman Turks continued to extend their conquests in Europe. The Morea, or 
 Peloponnesus, was next subdued ; but Hungary's independence was preserved by 
 the great victory of the valiant Transylvanian prince, John Hunniyades, at Belgrade, 
 [n the year 15 17, the Turkish Empire was further enlarged by the conquest of 
 Egypt, by Sultan Selim I., who caused a sanguinary massacre of the Mamf liK-e?, 
 v\\o had ruled Egypt since 1270. 
 
 Great Power and Extent of the Ottoman Empire under Solyman th 
 Magnificent. — The Ottoman Empire attamed its highest pinnacle of power and 
 glory during the reign of Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, who ascended the Turkish 
 throne 15 20; and for more than a century thereafter, the Ottoman arms maintained 
 their ascendency over those of Christendom. Solyman the Magnificent wrested the 
 island of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John. He also invaded Hungary, and 
 made hill and dale reverberate with the bugle-blast of victory. Solyman's gi-eat 
 victory in the battle of Mohacz, in 1526, gave him possession of the Eastern half 
 of Hungary ; and in 1529 he appeared before Vienna, and made the Hapsburgs 
 tremble in their own capital. The Ottoman Empire now stretched from Germany 
 to Persia, and in Africa it included Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers. Solyman 
 the Magnificent died in 1566, while besieging Szigeth, in Hungary. 
 
 Sultan Selim II. — Battle of Lepanto — Turkey's Decay. — Sultan Selim H., 
 the successor of Solyman the Magnificent, was also a noted monarch; and during 
 his reign the Turks ruled the Mediterranean sea, but their navy was defeated in the 
 battle of Lepanto, in 1571, by the united fleets of Spain and Venice. The decay 
 of military virtue among the Turks, as well as domestic rebellions and exhaustive 
 struggles with Persia, Russia, Poland, Germany, and Venice, led to the rapid decline 
 of the Ottoman Empire, before the end of the seventeenth century. 
 
 DISCOVERIES. 
 
 IMPORTANT INVENTIONS. 
 
 Invention of the Art of Printing. — Many useful inventions, during the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries, aided vastly in the return of European civilization, at 
 the close of the fifteenth century. The most important of these inventions wa.i 
 that of the art of printing, about the year 1440 A. D., by John Guttenberg, of May 
 ence, in Germany, and his assistants, Faust and Schoeffer. The result of this u£i? 
 ful invention was a great increase in the number of books, which now for the fir;'. 
 time were attainable by all classes of society. 
 
 Invention of Gunpowder and the Mariner's Compass. — The invention or 
 gunpowder, by the German monk, Berthold Schwartz, prepared the way for the 
 
DISCO VERIES. 
 
 «93 
 
 downfall of Chivalry, by the substitution of fire-arms for the old weapons of warfare. 
 The invention of the Mariner's Compas:^ liy the Italian, Flavio Gioja, gave a fresh 
 impulse to navigation; and very soon the gallant Portuguese navigators ventured 
 out farther and farther from the coast than had been hitherto attempted by any 
 mariner 
 
 THE SEA-PASSAGE TO INDIA. 
 
 Portuguese Discoveries. — The Portuguese now became renowned for tl.eii 
 Commercial enterprise, and their zeal for navigation and discovery. The Madeiia, 
 tlie Azores, and the Cape de Verd Islands were discovered and taken possession 
 of by the Portuguese. 
 
 Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz. — In i486, 
 Bartholomew Diaz, a daring Portuguese navigator, discovered the southern point 
 of Africa, which was named the "Cape of Storms;" but the name of this headland 
 was soon changed to that of the "Cape of Good Hope," because there was now 
 good hope that a sea-passage from Europe to India could easily be found. 
 
 Vasco de Gama's Voyage to India and Founding of Calicut. — In 1497, 
 during the reign of King Emmanuel the Great of Portugal, Vasco de Gama, 
 another bold Portuguese navigator, sailed round the Cape of Good Hope to India, 
 thus discovering the sea-passage to the East Indies. Vasco de Gama landed at 
 Calicut, on the western coast of Hindoostan, where was planted a Portuguese 
 colony, — the first European settlement in the East Indies. 
 
 Cabral, Almeida, and Albuquerque — Portugal's Asiatic Empire. — In 
 the year 1500 A. D., the Portuguese navigator, Cabral, while on his voyage to In- 
 dia, discovered the coast of Brazil, in South America, and took possession of that 
 extensive region in the name of his sovereign, the King of Portugal. The Portu- 
 guese Empire in India was extended by the gallant Almeida, who was killed liy 
 by the savage Hottentots of Southern Africa, while on his return to Portugal. 
 Albuquerque, Almeida's successor as viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in 
 Southern Asia, conquered the cities of Ormuz and Goa, the latter of which he 
 made the capital of the Portuguese Empire in the East. The illustrious Albu 
 querque finally died of grief at the ungrateful treatment which he had received 
 from his master. King Emmanuel of Portugal. A few years later, the Portuguese 
 established settlements on the island of Ceylon, and conquered the Molucca or 
 Spice Islands. At this period, Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, was the centre of 
 the world's commerce. 
 
 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 SPANISH EXPEDITIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 
 
 Christopher Columbus. — Among others who were attracted to" Lisbor wa* 
 tJhrist"pher Columbus, a Genoese sailor. Columbus lielieved the eajth to be ro.ind. 
 and tl It India could be reached sooner by sailing westward than by making the 
 long voyage around Africa. He vainly endeavoreti to procure aid, first from his 
 native city, Genoa, and afterwards from the Kings of Portugal and England. Aftei 
 \x 
 
194 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 waiting Uix .^ome time, Columbus finally obtained assistance from that nolile- 
 hearted queen, Isabella of Castile, who fitted out several vessels for him, and ap- 
 p<jinle(l hiin admiral and viceroy of all the lands that he might discover. 
 
 The Great Discovery of Columbus. — On the 3d of August, 1492, Christo 
 pher Columbus, with three Spanish vessels, left the harbor of Palos, in south-western 
 S])ain ; and after a voyage of seventy days, he discovered, on the 12th of October 
 (14.92J, Guanahani, or Cat Island, which he named San Salvador, or Holy Saviour, 
 ml of which he look possession in the name of I'erdinand and Isabella, the joini 
 iONcieign^. ol Spain. Columbus found the inhabitants of the island to be of a cop 
 per color and of savage manners; and, supposing that he had only discovered tlie 
 coast of India, he called the people Indians, — z. name which has since been very 
 inappropriately applied to all the aboriginal inhabitants of the Western Continei\t. 
 When Columbus returned to Spain he was treated with great honors by the rulintr 
 sovereigns of tliat country. 
 
 The other Voyages of Columbus— His Death.— Columbus made three other 
 voyages across the stormy Atlantic. In 1493, he discovered the large and import- 
 ant island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, and founded the town of St. Domin<TO, — the 
 first European settlement in the New World. Several other large islands were dis- 
 covered, and Columbus named the whole group " West Indies." On his third 
 voyage, in 1498, Columbus discovered the great continent of South America, at the 
 mouth of the great river Orinoco. On his fourth and last voyage, during which he 
 discovered Central America (A. D. 1501), his enemies caused him to be sent back 
 to Spain in irons. Christopher Columbus died at Valladolid, in Spain, in 1506; 
 and his remains were afterwards conveyed to Havana, in Cuba, where they still 
 remain. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci— The Nev/ Continent Named in His Honor. — Colum- 
 bus did not know that he discovered a new continent, but thought that he had only 
 reached the Eastern shores of Asia. This secret was revealed to Amerigo Vespucci, 
 a Florentine navigator, who explored the Eastern coast of South America and pub- 
 lished a glowing description of that vast continent, claiming to be its true discoverer. 
 In honor of this explorer, the New World was unjustly named "America." 
 
 Discovery of Florida by John Ponce de Leon. — In the year 15 12 A. D., 
 John Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard, sailed from Porto Rico, in search of a " fountain 
 of youth," which was said to exist on the neighboring continent. This fountain was 
 said to restore youth and to perpetuate it. On the 27th of March (15 12), Ponce de 
 Leon reached the North American continent at the great peninsula between the 
 Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and named the domain "Florida," because 
 its banks were laden with flowers, and because the discovery was made on Pasquas 
 Je Flores, or Easter Sunday, when the Spanish churches were decorated with flowers 
 Ponce de Leon was afterwards killed in a contest with the natives of Florida. 
 
 Discovery of the Pacific Ocean or South Sea by Balboa. — In 1513, the 
 Sp.miard Ralboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien, or Panama, and discovered the 
 lacilic Ocean, which he called "South Sea." He waded into its waters in full 
 c .siume, and took possession of sea and land in the name of his sovereign, the 
 King of Spain. Balboa was put to death by order of the Spanish governor of 
 D.iricn. 
 
;H^IST0PHER COLUMBUS. 
 
The Bronze Door In che Capitol Commemorating the events in the 
 Life of Christopher Columbus. 
 
DISCOVERIES 1 55 
 
 Ferdinand Magellan's Circumnavigation of the Globe. — Tho name "Paci- 
 fic Ocean" was given to the South Sea by Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, 
 who, in the service of the King of Spain, sailed through the straits, in the southern 
 part of South America, which bear his name, in 1520; and who, several years aftei 
 wards, was killed on the Philippine Islands by the natives, and whose followers 
 returned to Spain by way of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, thus completing tl.e 
 list circumnavigation of the globe. 
 
 Discovery of the Mississippi River by Ferdinand De Soto. — In 153.) 
 Ferdinand De Soto, then the Spanish governor of Cuba, landed in Florida, aiul, 
 proceeding westward, discovered the great river Mississippi, and explored the con 
 tinent as far west as the Rocky Mountains. De Soto died on the banks of the 
 Mississippi river, in 1541 ; and the remnant of his followers, having suffered terriljly, 
 found their way to a Spanish settlement in Mexico. 
 
 ENGLISH AND FRENCH EXPEDITIONS AND DIS- 
 COVERIES. 
 
 Sebastian Cabot's Voyages, Discoveries, and Explorations. — In 149b, 
 John Cabot, a native of Venice, but at that time a merchant of Bristol, in England, 
 villained the aid of King Henry VII. of England in fitting out an expedition for 
 ;.he discovery of a North-west passage to India. The next year (A. D. 1497), the 
 expedition under the command of John Cabot's son, Sebastian, sailed westward, 
 and discovered the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland. Thus Sebastian Cabot 
 was the discoverer of the continent of North America. In 1498, Sebastian Cabot 
 i^ain sailed westward, and explored the greater part of the Atlantic coast of the 
 present United States. In 15 1 7, Sebasliar. Cabot was again sent to find a North- 
 west passage to India; and in 1526, while in the service of the King of Spain, 
 he discovered the great river La Plata, in South America. 
 
 Expeditions and Explorations of John Verrazzani and James Cartier. 
 — In 1524, Francis I., King of France, employed John Verrazzani, a Florentine, 
 to make discoveries in the New World. Verrazzani explored the Atlantic coast of 
 North America, from the mouth of the Cape Fear River to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 and named the region "New France." In 1534, the French king sent James 
 Cartier, a Frenchman, on an expedition to New France. Cartier discovered the 
 mouth of the great river which he named St. Lawrence. In 1535, Cartier sailed 
 up the St. Lawrence, exploring the country to Montreal. 
 
BOOK [II. 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 AGE OF HENRY VIII. AND CHARLES V. 
 
 THE GERMAN REFORMATION. 
 
 Corruption of the Church — Dr. Martin Luther. — In different ages, as we 
 have seen, there had been men who pi'otested against the assumptions of the Holy 
 See, and the immorality and licentiousness of the clergy; but every attempt at a 
 reformation of the Church had failed. The abuses and corruptions of the Church 
 increased. The majority of the clergy were ignorant and immoral. There were 
 many who were dissatisfied with the existing corrupt state of the Church, and who 
 only waited for an opportunity to unite themselves in a powerful opposition to tlie 
 Roman Pontiff. The opportunity was at length given by Pope Leo X., as we sliall 
 presently see; and in 15 17, the assumptions of the Holy See were openly opposed 
 by Dr. Martin Luther, a pious Augustinian monk, who was born at Eisleben, in 
 Saxony, on the loth of November, 14S3. Luther early exhibited great capacities 
 for learning; and he had studied jurisprudence four years, when, in 1506, he entered 
 an Augustinian monastery, where he found a neglected copy of the Bible, to the 
 study of which he then diligently devoted himself. He soon became convinced ol 
 the errors of the existing Romish Church, and his fame for learning and piety 
 procured for him the appointment of Professor in the University of Wittenberg, on 
 the Elbe. 
 
 Pope Leo X. and the Sale of Indulgences. — In 15 13, John de Medicis, ol 
 the illustrious ruling family of Florence, was elected Pope with the title of Leo X. 
 In order to defray the expenses of the building of the great Church of St. Peter, in 
 Rome, which had been begun by his predecessor, Julius III., Leo X. offered the sale 
 of indulgences, or licenses to sin, by which not only past sins, but those that might 
 afterwards be committed, could be pardoned. Agents were sent into ditterent 
 Eurojiean countries to sell these indulgences, and the Pope obtained a great prolii 
 (tom their sale. 
 
 Martin Luther and His Ninety-five Theses. — In 1517, the Augustinian 
 monk, Martin l.uther, then a professor of theology in the University of \Vitlenbcrg, 
 jn the Elbe, read in pulilic his famous ninety-five theses, in which he boldly denitii 
 die right of the Pope to offer pardon to any but the penitent. This was the begin 
 ning of tlie great religious " Reformation," which convulsed Europe during the 
 sixteenth centuiy. Luther found many adherents. The Elector of Saxony, who 
 had adopted his views, effectually protected him from all the attempts of the ex:vs- 
 peraied Papists to secure him. The Reformation made rapid progress from this 
 
 (199) 
 
200 MODERN HIS TOR V. 
 
 lime. Luther separated hiniself more and more from the Romish Church; and 
 the art of printing enabled him to make known his opinions in all Christian coun- 
 tries. 
 
 Luther's Disputation with Eckius at Leipsic. — In 15 19, Dr. Luther had a 
 disputation, at Leipsic, with Dr. Eckius, the papal theologian and professor in Ingol- 
 stadt. Luther there asserted that the Bishop of Rome had not been Pope by the 
 3r lination of Christ, and expressed doubts of the Pope's infallibility, or incapability 
 oj ew". Ir order to prove that the Papacy was a divine institution, Eckius composed 
 a work in which he endeavored to show that it was derived from Christ through 
 St. Peter. 
 
 Condemiaation of Luther's Writings — Burning of the Bull of Condem- 
 nation. — In 1520, the Pope condemned Luther's writings as heretical and ordered 
 them to be burned, and threatened the great Reformer with excommunication, 
 unless he recanted within sixty days. Luther was still active in exposing the errors 
 and corruptions of the Romish Church; and, on the loth of December, 1520, 
 in the midst of a vast concourse of people, in the public square of Wittenberg, the 
 great Reformer cast the volumes of the canon-law of the Romish Church, together 
 with the papal bull of condemnation, into the flames. 
 
 The Emperor Charles V. and the Diet of Worms. — In 1519, the grandson 
 of the Emperor Maximilian I., Charles I. of Spam and Burgundy, was elected Em- 
 pei^or of Germany with the title of Charles V. The new Emperor, whose first 
 attention was directed to a unity of the Church, called a Diet of the German Em- 
 pire at Worms, in 1520, at which the Reformer of Wittenberg was to appear, to 
 answer for his conduct. Provided with a safe-conduct from the Emperor, Luther 
 went to Worms, and presented himself before the assembled Diet. He avowed 
 himself the author of the writings that were produced ; and boldly and firmly vindi- 
 cated his opinions, and rejected the invitation to recant without being convinced 
 from the scriptures of the errors of his views. Through the honorable conduct of 
 the Emperor, Dr. Luther was allowed to return unmolested to Wittenberg. Then 
 the Diet pronounced the ban of the Empire against Luther and his adherents and 
 defenders, and sentenced his writings to the flames. 
 
 Luther's Confinement in the Wartburg Castle. — After his return to Wit- 
 tenberg, Luther was placed in confinement for protection in the castle of Wartburg, 
 by the Elector Frederic of Saxony. Here the great Reformer commenced his 
 translation of the Bible, which appeared completed in 1534. In 1522, Luther left 
 the Wartburg castle and returned to Wittenberg, for the purpose of checking the 
 hasty innovations of Dr. Carlstadt and the new fanatical sect of the Anabaptists. 
 
 Rapid Progress of the Reformation. — The Reformation soon spread beyond 
 the borders of Saxony. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse was a believer in the 
 doctrines of the Reformers. In 1524, the Pope entered into the "Alliance of Re- 
 geuhburg" with Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and the Duke of Bavaria, for the 
 purpose of preventing the establishment of the new faith in their own territories. 
 
 The Peasant War. — An insurrection, known as the " Peasant War," now broke 
 out in different parts of Germany. The peasants, led by such religious fanatics as 
 Thomas Munzer, Hans Miller, and George Metzler, rose in arms against the Ger- 
 man princes and nobles, Thomas Munzer was defeated by the Elector of Saxony 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 201 
 
 and the Landgrave Philip of Ilesse, and captured and executed , and the insurrec- 
 tion was soon suppressed in all parts of the Cierman Empire. 
 
 Marriage of Luther — Philip Melancthon. — In 1524, Luther left the cloistei 
 and married Catharine of Bora, who had formerly been a nun. This aroused the 
 raire of his opponents to a still greater degree. The Reformation was still making 
 npid pi ogress in Northern Germany; and Luther had now a co-laborer in the Re- 
 f I'niation, in the mild and peaceable, and learned Philip Melancthon. 
 
 Tuet of Spire — The Protestation. — The Emperor Charles V., determinea to 
 ii •'esi the progress of the Reformation, assembled a Diet of the Gerriian Empire at 
 S]ine, in 1529. In this Diet it was resolved by the Catholic German princes thai 
 no further innovations should be made in the Romish religion ; and that the progress 
 of the new faith should be checked. The princes who favored the Reformation, 
 entered a ))rotest against this decree of the Imperial Diet, on which account they 
 were called Protestants, — a name now applied to all Christians, who do not recog- 
 nize the authority of the Heads of the Romish and Greek Churches, and who differ 
 in doctrine and practice from those churches. 
 
 Diet of Augsburg — The Augsburg Confession. — The German Emperor 
 called another Diet of his Empire at Augsburg, in 1530, to heal the dissensions in 
 the Church and effect a reconciliation of opinions. In this Diet, Melancthon pre- 
 sented the articles of faith of the Reformers, known as tlie " Augsburg Confession." 
 In this confession the abuses in the Romish Church were enumerated. The Cath 
 olic members of the Diet endeavored to defend the usages of their Church; and no 
 reconciliation of opposing opinions took place, as neither party would make any 
 concessions. After the protesting princes had withdrawn from the Diet, that assem- 
 l)ly left Augsburg and threatened the Protestants with being put under the ban of 
 the Empire, if they refused to renounce their innovations. 
 
 Ulric Zwingle — Religious War in Switzerland — Battle of Kappel.- 
 The Protestants were already divided into two great parlies. Some were the fol- 
 lowers of Luther, while others were the disciples of the learned priest, Ulric 
 Zwingle, who was born in Switzerland in 14S4. Zwingle, who had opposed the 
 sale of indulgences and the corruptions of the Church with all his might, endeavored 
 to improve the morals of the people. He differed from Luther with respect to the 
 Lord's Supper. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse, who endeavored to uniie all the 
 opponents of the Church of Rome into one powerful party, induced Luther to have 
 a disputation with Zwingle, at Marliurg. Zwingle construed the words, " This is 
 my body," to mean "This represents my body;" while Luther contended that the 
 b(<dy of the Lord was present in the bread and wine. Zwingle offered Luther his 
 hand with tears in his eyes, and asked to be received as a brother; but Luther de- 
 clined the offer, and thrust back his own hand. Luther also refused to recognize 
 those who had adopted Zwingle's doctrines as Christians. A religious war brcike 
 out between the Catholics and Zwinglians in Switzerland, in 1530. The Zwinglians 
 were defeated in the battle of Kappel, in 1531 ; and the noble-hearted Zwingle wai 
 jlain, and his body was burned by the victorious Catholics. 
 
£02 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 WARS BETWEEN CHARLES V. OF GERMANY AND 
 FRANCIS I. OF FRANCE. 
 
 CHARLES v., FRANCIS I., AND HENRY VIII. 
 
 The Possessions of Charles V. — -The dominions over which Charles V, 
 /"uiod were the most extensive, at that time, in Christendom. Charles V., was the 
 Ijixr.iison of Maximilian of Austria and Maiy of Burgundy, and also of Ferdinaii'i 
 ;J Aragon and Isabella of Castile. While yet a youth, Charles wis lord of the 
 Netherlands; and on the death of Ferdinand of Aragon, in 1516, he obtained tht 
 kingdom of Spain, with Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with the Spar.ish 
 possessions in America. Shortly afterward, the succession to the sovereignty of the 
 hereditary Austrian territories devolved upon him from his grandfather, the Emperor 
 Maximilian I.; and \\\ 1519, he was chosen Emperor of Germany, by the German 
 Electoral Princes. Charles V. soon bestowed his hereditary Austrian estates on his 
 brother Ferdinand, who also added the kingdom of Bohemia and a large portion 
 of Hungary to the possessions of the House of Hapsburg. 
 
 Francis I. of France. — The great rival of the Emperor Charles V. was the 
 chivalrous Duke Francis of Aiigouleme, who, on the death of Louis XII., in 15 15, 
 ascended the throne of P'rance, with the title of Francis I. ; and who was also a 
 candidate for the imperial throne of Germany, and on the election of Charles V. 
 became his rival enemy. Four wars arose between these two monarchs, caused by 
 the claims of each to the other's possessions in Italy, Navarre, and the Netherlands. 
 
 Henry VIII. of England. — Charles V. and Francis I. each wished to secure 
 the favor of the vain and capricious Henry VIII. of England. Charles visited 
 Henry in England, and Francis met him at Calais, at the splendid festival, known, 
 on account of its magnificence, as the "Field of the Cloth of Gold." The Empe- 
 ror, however, succeeded in winning the favor of the English monarch, by bribing 
 and flattering Henry's celebrated Prime Minister, Cardinal Wolsey. 
 
 FIRST WAR BETNA^EEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. 
 
 The Allies of Charles V. and Francis I. — Besides securing the aid of the 
 King of England, the Emperor of Germany also obtained the alliance of Pope Leo 
 X., while the King of France received the assistance of the Swiss, the Genoese, 
 and the Venetians. 
 
 German Invasion of Italy — Loss of Milan to the French. — Since the 
 famous battle of Marignano, in 15 15, in which Francis I. had defeated the Milan- 
 ese, the Duchy of Milan had remained in the possession of the French king; but 
 Chailes V. claimed the duchy as a fief of the German Empire, and marched a 
 powerful army of German peasants into Italy, against the French and the r Swiss 
 allies. The French soon lost Milan, and an attempt to recover the duchy hioughl 
 jii the battle of Bicocca, in which the French were completely defeated. l'( ])e 
 L*o X., died of joy caused by these events. Pope Adrian VI., Leo's 5UCoesf.'i, 
 .nuuced Florence and Genoa to enter into an alliance with Chailes V. 
 
 French Invasion of Italy — Defection of the Constable de Bourbon.— 
 Charles V. and Henry VIII. invaded France at the same time, but their forces \v(. le 
 driven back. Encouraged by this partial success, Francis I. again attempted llie 
 
FRANCIS I. 
 
CHARLES V OF GERMANY. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 2^>3 
 
 /ecoveiy of Milan; and in 1523, he sent another army into Italy for that purpose, 
 but his undertaking failed, in a great measure, through the conduct of his wicked 
 mother, Louisa of Savoy, whose injustice to the Constable de Bourbon made that 
 powerful French nobleman the most bitter enemy of the French court, and caused 
 ann to enter into the service of the German Emperor against his own sovereign. 
 
 French Retreat from Italy — Death of the Chevalier Bayard — The French 
 ■irniy which had been sent to attempt the recovery of Milan was also unsuccessful, 
 ird was finally compelled to retreat across the Alps, pursued by the German ini 
 fciial army under the Constable de Bourbon. During this retreat, the Chevahej 
 'Jayard, "the Knight without fear and without reproach," who commanded the 
 French rear, received a wound of which he shortly afterward died. 
 
 Bourbon's Invasion of France — Reconquest of Milan by Francis I. — 
 In 1524, the imperial German forces under the Constable de Bourbon invaded 
 Southern Fiance, and laid siege to Marseilles; but on the approach of Francis I. 
 with a powerful army, Bourbon raised the siege and beat a precipitate retreat. 
 The King of France pursued Bourbon's retreating forces into Italy and recon- 
 quered Milan. 
 
 Battle of Pavia and Captivity of Francis I. — With characteristic impru- 
 dence, Francis I. laid siege to the strongly fortified town of Pavia, which was de- 
 fended by a numerous garrison, under the command of Antonio de Leyva, an able 
 general. The imperial generals, the most energetic of whom was the Constable de 
 Bourbon, made the greatest efforts to collect a numerous army for the relief of the 
 garrison of Pavia. The inactivity and indiscretion of the French king, who weak- 
 ened his army by sending detachments against Naples and Savona, operated in 
 favor of the imperialists. Bourbon accordingly resolved to attack the French in 
 their intrenchments; and on the 2d of February, 1525, Bourbon's army stonned 
 the French camp, while at the same time the garrison of Pavia made a furious sally, 
 thus placing the French between two fires. After a most sanguinary conflict, the 
 P'rench army was almost totally destroyed. Twelve thousand brave warriors were 
 either killed in the encounter, or drowned in the waters of the Ticino. The chiv- 
 alrous Francis himself, after a gallant defense, was compelled to surrender, and 
 conveyed a prisoner to Madrid. In a single line, the captive Francis conveyed the 
 intelligence of the sad event to his mother, " Madame, all is lost but honor." 
 
 Peace of Madrid and Release of Francis I. — After a year's captivity in the 
 Spanish capital, the King of France concluded with his triumphant rival the Peace 
 of Madrid. (1526.) In this treaty, Francis I. renounced his claims to Milan, sur- 
 'endered the Dukedom of Burgundy to Charles V., and delivered up his two sons 
 lo i.he Emperor as hostages for the fulfillment of the stipulations. 
 
 SECOND WAR BET\A^EEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I 
 
 The Holy League Against Charles V. — No soonei had Francis I., after hi* 
 ittlease, returned to his own kingdom, upon delivering up his two sons as hostages 
 lor the fulfillment of the stipulations of the Peace of Madrid, than he openly denied 
 the validity of a treaty that had been extorted from him while a prisoner; and the 
 ro]ie absolved him from his obligations to the Emperor Charles V. The increasing 
 power of Charles now e.\cited the jealousy of the other princes of Europe; and the 
 
204 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Kings of France and England, the Italian princes, and the Pope entered into an 
 alliance called "the Holy League," to compel the Emperor of Germany to liberate 
 the sons of the French monarch and to restore the Duchy of Milan to the fanaly 
 of Sforza. 
 
 Capture and F'iilage of Rome— Captivity of the Pope.— Irritated at the 
 F pe's alliance with the enemies of Charles V., the Constable de Bourbon, who 
 imrranded the German and Spanish forces in Italy, marched upon Rome; and or 
 Le 6lh of May, 1527, the Eternal City was taken by storm and plundered by Ihe 
 ■ioiiiers of a Catholic prince. The Constable de Bourbon was among ±e slain 
 The pillage of Rome by the Germans on this occasion, equaled that of the Gothi 
 and the Vandals, more than a thousand years before. Convents, churches, and 
 dwelling-houses were plundered; and nearly 8,000 Romans were massacred on the 
 day of the capture of the city. Pope Clement VII. was besieged in his castle of 
 St. Angelo, and soon obliged to surrender himself a prisoner. Charles V. affected 
 great sorrow and displeasure at the insults suffered by the Flead of the Church, but 
 was inwardly pleased at the Pope's humiliation; and instead of ordering the release 
 of the Holy Father, the hypocritical Emperor commanded prayers for the liberation 
 of thg Pontiff to be offered in all the churches in his dominions. 
 
 Successful Career of Francis I. i-n Italy — Andrea Doria. — The pillage of 
 Rome and the captivity of the Pope excited the indignation of the allies of Charles 
 V. to such a degree that Francis I. was enabled again to invade Italy and to advance 
 to the very walls of Naples ; but the French monarch, by his impolicy and arro- 
 gance, lost his most faithful allies. The Genoese admiral, Andrea Doria, now 
 supported the Emperor of Germany, and restored the Republic of Genoa and earned 
 for himself the glorious title of " Father of his Country and the Restorer of its 
 Liberties. 
 
 The "Ladies' Peace" of Cambray. — Both the rival monarchs had now 
 become anxious for peace; and the second war between Charles V. and Francis 1. 
 was closed in 1529, by the "Ladies' Peace" of Cambray, so called because it was 
 negotiated by the aunt of Charles and the mother of Francis. By this treaty the 
 King of France relinquished his pretentions to the Duchy of Milan, and paid two 
 million crowns for the ransom of his two sons held as hostages by Uie German 
 Emperor; but retained possession of the Dukedom of Burgundy. 
 
 WARS AGAINST THE INFIDELS. 
 
 Turkish Invasion of Hungary and Austria — Siege of Vienna. — In tJie 
 
 meantime, the mighty Sultan of Turkey, Solyman the Magnificent, led an army of 
 300,000 men into Hungary, and after gaining the battle of Mohacz, advaiiced to the 
 very walls of Vienna, and laid siege to that proud capital, but the infidels were soon 
 defeated and driven back. (1529.) 
 
 First Expedition of Charles V. to Africa — Capture of Tunis, -Aftei 
 i3a\ing driven the Turks from the Austrian territories, the Emperor Charles V , ir 
 J 535, led an expedition of 30,000 men to Africa, attacked and captured Tunis, and 
 compelled the Mohammedan prince, Hayraddin Barbarossa, the terror of all Chris- 
 -i.tns, to abandon his piracies, and to set at liberty 22,000 Christian captives, whom 
 the piratical Moors had reduced to slavery. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 THIRD WAR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. 
 
 205 
 
 Invasion of Italy by Francis I. — On his return to Europe, Charles V. found 
 himself obliged to engage for a third time in hostilities with the King of I'rance, 
 wLo had formed an alliance with Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, and who, during 
 the Emperor's absence in Africa, had invaded Italy, and, as a preliminary step to 
 the reconquest of Milan, seized Savoy and Piedmont, the Duke of which was '.n 
 jUiance with Charles V. 
 
 Invasion of France by Charles V. — His Retreat.^In 1536, Charles V 
 after driving the French from Italy, invaded Southern France with a powerful anny 
 but the French conmiander, the Constable de Montmorenci, laid waste the country 
 between the Rhone and the Alps, and the Emperor was in consequence obliged to 
 make a disgraceful retreat after considerable loss. 
 
 Ten Years' Truce of Nice. — All Christendom was shocked at the alliance of 
 the King of France with the Sultan of Turkey; and in 1538, Pope Paul III. suc- 
 ceeded in inducing Francis I. and Charles V. to conclude the Ten Years' Truce of 
 Nice, which suspended hostilities between the rival monarchs. 
 
 Second African Expedition of Charles V. — Its Unfortunate End, — In 
 1 541, the Emperor Charles V. led another expedition to Africa, for the purpose of 
 thoroughly annihilating the power of the piratical Mohammedans of Algiers. But 
 this expedition was a total failure. The fleet of Charles was destroyed by a terrible 
 storm, and many of his followers died of a pestilential, disease ; and the Emperor, 
 who had magnanimously shared all the sufferings of the humblest of his followers, 
 was obliged to reembark and return to Europe, without effecting his object. 
 
 FOURTH WAR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. 
 
 Coalition against Charles V. and Henry VIII. — In 1542, a fourth war 
 broke out between Francis I. and Charles V.; the Sultan of Turkey, the Kings cf 
 Scotland, Denmark, and Sweden, and the Protestant princes of Germany uniting 
 with the King of France ; and the King of England taking sides with the Em- 
 peror of Germany. 
 
 Bombardment of Nice — Disgraceful Spectacle. — The allied French and 
 Turkish fleets vainly boml:)arded the castle of Nice, in north-western Italy; and, for 
 the first time, the Christian world beheld, with astonishment and shame, the dis- 
 graceful spectacle of Christians and Mohammedans united in hostilities against the 
 leading prince of Christendom. 
 
 Progress of the War — Battle of Cerisoles. — The war was prosecuted with 
 various success in Spain, in France, in Italy, and in the Netherlands; but the only 
 battle of any consequence was that fought at Cerisoles, in north-western Italy, in 
 which the French gained a most brilliant victory. 
 
 Invasion of France by Charles V. and Henry VIII. — Peace of Ciepy 
 [n 1 544, France was invaded on the side of Lorraine, by a powerful German army 
 unJer the Emperor Charles V., and by way of Calais by a considerable Englifl; 
 force under King Henry VIII. The English king captured Boulogne, and tht 
 German emperor advanced so rapidly toward Paris that the French monarch became 
 alarmed, and hastily concluded the Peace of Crepy with his powerful rival. By this 
 peace, the t'Ovo rival monarchs agreed to restore all the conquests which they had 
 
2o6 MODERN HISTOR Y. 
 
 made during the war, to unite against the Turks, and to suppress the Reformed 
 religion in their respective dominions. P>om this time, for several centuries, 
 Italy was under the undisputed possession of the House of Hapsburg. hK. 
 length a treaty of peace was also concluded between the Kings of France and 
 England. Both Francis I. and Henry VIII. died in 1547; and Charles V. directed 
 (lis whole energy to the suppression of the religious Reformation in the Jerniar 
 I'lmpiie. 
 
 WAR BETWEEN CHARLES V. AND HENRY II. OF FRANCE 
 
 Alliance of Henry II. of France with the Protestant Princes of Ger- 
 many. — King Henry II. of P'rance, the son and successor of Francis I., engaged 
 in hostilities with the Emperor Charles V., and formed an alliance with the Protest- 
 ant princes of Germany, while in his own dominions he endeavored to arrest the 
 progress of the Reformed doctrines by the most sanguinary persecutions. 
 
 Siege of Metz. — Henry II. led an army into the German Dukedom of Lor 
 raiiie, and captured the strong fortresses of Toul, Verdun, and Metz. These con- 
 quests Charles V. resolved to wrest from the young French monarch. In 1552, 
 Charles laid siege to Metz, which was so gallantly and suocessfully defended by the 
 Freiich garrison, under the command of the valiant Francis of Lorraine, Duke of 
 Guise, that the German Emperor, after a siege of little more than two months, was 
 obliged to retire and to beat a disgraceful retreat, having lost in all, during the siege, 
 about 40,000 men. 
 
 Capture and Destruction of Tourenne — Peace of Chateau-Cambresis. 
 — In 1554, Charles V., after a vigorous siege, took the town of Tourenne by assault, 
 destroyed it, and put the entire garrison to the sword. The war was continued 
 between Henry II. and Charles's son, Philip II. of .Spain, until 1559, when the 
 Peace of Chateau-Cambresis put an end to the long contest between the Houses of 
 Valois and Hapsburg. 
 
 THE RELIGIOUS WAR IN GERMANY. 
 
 The League of Schmalkald. — As the Emperor Charles V., after the Peace 
 .)f Cambray, in 1529, seemed determined to suppress the religious Reformation in 
 his dominions, the Protestant princes of Germany, with the Elector of Saxony and 
 the Landgrave of Hesse at their head, united, in 1530, for their own protection, and 
 formed an alliance, known as "the League of Schmalkald," which was joined by 
 tlie Kings of England, France, Denmark, and .Sweden. 
 
 Effect of the Turkish Invasions of Austria on the Reformation. — The 
 Emperor of Germany was obhged to avoid hostilities with his Protestant subjects at 
 tliis time, in conset|uence of the formidable invasions of the Austrian territories by 
 l)\e Turks, who were then the most powerful people in Europe. Thus these con^ 
 stant Turkish invasions were highly favorable to the cause of the Reformaticn, as 
 die Protestants of Germany refuse<l to assist the Emjieror in driving back the intiilr..'-;, 
 as long as the sword of Catholic vengeance was raised over their heads. The j.lan; 
 of Clufles V. for the extennination of heresy were thus frustrated, and he fuund 
 himself obliged to conclude with the League of Schmalkald the Peace of Nureml)urg, 
 m 1532. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTUR V. 
 
 207 
 
 f rogress ot the Reformation in Germany — The Anabaptists. — The Re 
 t>..nnation still conlinued to make rapid progress throughout Germany; and the 
 Keformed religion was at length introduced into the Duchy of Wurtemberg, the 
 March of Brandenburg, the Palatinate, Baden, and Cologne. In Munster, a fanati 
 cal sect, known as " Anabaptists", became numerous. A few decades later, the 
 Anabaptists experienced a salutary reformation of their doctrines, from Menno, in 
 A Iii h condition, under the name of Mennonites, they have contmued to the prescn' 
 iiiie 
 
 The Council of Trent Summoned — Death of Luther.— Impc>rtuned bj 
 the Emperor Charles V., Pope Paul III. summoned a Council of the Churoh to 
 meet at Trent, in the Tyrol, for the purjwse of ejecting a reconciliation of oppxsmg 
 opuiions and restoring the unity of the Church. The Protestants, foreseeing that 
 their doctrines would be condemned in a Council held under the auspices of the 
 Pope, rejected it as partial, and demanded, in its stead, a general synod of the 
 Church of Germany. The Council, however, assembled at Trent, in December. 
 1545. Dr. Martin Luther died in his native city, Eisleben, in Saxony, on the i8lh 
 of February, 1546. 
 
 The Religious War of Schmalkald — Perfidy of Duke Maurice of Sax- 
 ony. — The very first decision of the Council of Trent rendered a reconciliation 
 of opposing opinions hopeless; and the Emperor, having concluded a disgraceful 
 peace with Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, now determined to crush the Reforma- 
 tion by force of arms, and, in the year 1547, the Religious War of Schmalkald 
 broke out between Charles V. and his Protestant Gennan subjects. The Protest- 
 ant princes of Germany seemed to be well prepared for the contest, but all their 
 efforts were rendered fruitless by the perfidy of one of their own number, — Duke 
 Maurice of Saxony, — who deserted the League of Schmalkald, and allied himself 
 with the Emperor. The Schmalkald forces were soon broken up, and the Protestant 
 towns of Germany were obliged to submit to the Emj)eror. 
 
 Defeat of Maurice — Battle of Muhlberg — Captivity of Protestant 
 Princes. — Maurice's cousin, the Elector John Frederic of Saxony, still held out 
 against the Emperor, and defeated Maurice and recovered Saxony. The Emperor 
 marched to the assistance of the perfidious Maurice, and in the decisive battle of 
 Muhlberg, John Frederic was defeated, wounded, and made prisoner by the Emperor, 
 who bestowed the Electorate of Saxony on Maurice. Shortly after the defeat and 
 capture of John Frederic, another leading Protestant prince, the Landgrave Philip 
 of Hesse, was treacherously made a prisoner by the Duke of Alva. 
 
 The Council of Trent. — The Council of Trent assembled on the I3lh of 
 December, 1545. The division in the Church was made greater than before; and 
 the Pope, suspecting the Emperor of Germany of a design to limit the papal power, 
 removed the Council to Bologna, in Italy; but Charles V. forbade the clergy tn 
 l*ave Trent, and a small number of them remained. 
 
 The Augsburg Interim — The Leipsic Interim. — For the purpose ef brini* 
 iig about a restoration of the unity of the Church, the Emperor Charles V. j/uh 
 lished an edict, which set forth how matters should l)e conducted until the lennin 
 alion of the Council of Trent; and the "Augslmrg Interim" of Charles V., which was 
 strictly conformable to the tenets of the Romish Church, and the "Leipsic Interim," 
 which had. been framed by Melancthon, were not favorably received by the Pro 
 
2o8 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 lestant princes and towns, and were utterly r-ejected in Northern Germany. The 
 Council of the Church resumed its sittings at Trent. 
 
 Maurice of Saxony Makes War on the Emperor Charles V. — When the 
 Emperor Charles V. seemed to have attained the object of his desires; when every- 
 thincr seemed to insure his elevation to the position of temporal head of all Chris- 
 tenriom; and when the Council of the Church had reassembled at Trent, Duke 
 Maurice of Saxony, the prince to whom Charles V. was indebted for the ovei'hi v 
 nf the League of Schnialkald, seeing to what dangers the civil and religieus Xv^i 
 tics of Germany were ex]x)sed by the ambitious schemes of the Emperor, suddenly 
 formed a secret alliance with King Henry II. of France, but concealed his des'.gi s 
 until the most favorable time arrived for their execution. Maurice immediate .y 
 granted freedom of religion to the Protestant city of Magdeburg, which he had 
 been for some time besieging; and then, suddenly throwing off the mask, he 
 marched toward Iniispruck, in the Tyrol, to make the Emjxiror a prisoner. The 
 Council of Trent was broken up in confusion; and Charles V., who was then 
 afflicted with the gout, escaped with difficulty, in the night, into Carinthia, and 
 released the Elector John Frederic of Saxony, whom he had kept a prisoner smce 
 the battle of Muhlberg. At the same time, Henry II. of France invaded the 
 German Dukedom of Lorraine, and seized the strong towns of Toul, Verdun, and 
 Metz. 
 
 Religious Peace of Passau.— Alarmed at the rapid advance of Maurice, the 
 Emperor's brother, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, immediately concluded with 
 the Protestant princes the Religious Peace of Passau, by which the Protestants of 
 Germany were allowed perfect religious freedom; the Landgi-ave Philip of Hesse 
 was set at liberty; and a ]iermanent peace and amnesty was decided upon. This 
 was the first victory of the Reformation. 
 
 Death of Maurice.— The triumphant Maurice next marched against the Mar- 
 grave Albert of Brandenburg, who refused to accept the treaty of Passau and still 
 continued the war. Maurice was victorious in the battle of Sivershausen, but re- 
 ceived a wound of which he died a few days afterward. 
 
 Religious Peace of Augsburg. — Li 1555, the Religious Peace of Augsburg 
 was concluded between Charles V. and his Protestant German subjects, by which 
 the Protestants were allowed perfect lilDerty of conscience and full toleration for 
 their religion, as well as equal civil and political rights with the Catholics. 
 
 Abdication and Retirement of Charles V. — Ferdinand I., Emperor.— 
 The failure of the attempts of Charles V. to restore the unity of the Church made 
 the Em[)eror lose all interest in the affairs of the world; and in 1556,10 the astonish- 
 ment of the whole world, he abdicated all his thrones and retired to the monastery 
 of St. Just, in the West of Spain. He bestowed Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, and 
 Spanish America on his son, Philip II. ; and the Austrian territories on his brother 
 Feidinand, who was chosen by the German Electoral Princes to succeed him or 
 the imperial throne of Germany, with the title of Ferdinand I. Charles spent the 
 lomaining two years cf his life in religious devotion and mechanical inventions 
 Having failed in repeated attempts to make two watches run exactly alike, he is 
 said to have exclaimed, " I cannot make two watches run alike, and yet, foci that 
 I was, I thought of governing so many nations of different language?: and religions, 
 
■I 15^ -. '--"^ V/' >V. 
 
 HENRY VIII. 
 
CARDINAL THOMAS WOLSEY. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 2C9 
 
 diid living in different climes!" Two days before his death he went througli the 
 certiuonies of his burial. He died in 1558. 
 
 THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY VIII. (A. D. 1509-1547) 
 
 Accession of Henry VIII. — The avaricious Henry VII., at his death, in ipg, 
 Aas succeeded on the throne of England by his son, Henry VIII,, who prove c ti 
 )e one of the most passionate, capricious, and tyrannical sovereigns that ever ocu- 
 pied a throne Henry VIII., who was only eighteen years of age when he bt;aine 
 monarch, was one of the most learned princes of his time. He aa„ended the throne 
 under very happy circumstances : the kingdom was prosperous and at peace; and 
 the claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster were united in the young king's 
 person. 
 
 Cardinal Wolsey. — As the Earl of Surrey encouraged the lavishness of the 
 youthful monarch. Bishop Fox of Winchester introduced at Court the shrewd and 
 dexterous Thomas Wolsey, who was immediately taken into the service of the 
 king, who at length made him Prime-Minister. For a considerable period, Wolsey 
 acted a more conspicuous part in the affairs oi England than his sovereign. In 
 15 18, Wolsey was made a cardinal by the Pope. Cardinal Wolsey had a train of 
 eight hundred servants, and he excelled all churchmen in dignity. He encouraged 
 learning, and invited the learned Erasmus of Rotterdam to come to Oxford to 
 teach Greek. Wolsey's inordinate ambition finally caused his own fall. 
 
 Invasion of France by Henry VIII. — "Battle of the Spurs" — Battle 
 of Flodden Field. — In 15 13, King Henry VIII. invaded France and defeated 
 the French at Tournay, in an action known as "the Battle of the Spurs," so called 
 because the French army fled at the first onset. After his victory, Heniy VIII. 
 immediately returned to England. On the very day of the Battle of the Spurs 
 (September 10, 15 13), an Entrlish army under Lord Surrey defeated and killed 
 King James IV. of Scotland, in the celebrated " Battle of Flodden Field," in the 
 north-eastern corner of England. 
 
 Visit of the Emperor Charles V. to Henry VIII.—" Field of the Cloth 
 of Gold." — The favor of Hemy VIII., as we have already seen, was coirted by 
 each of the two rival monarchs, Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France. 
 Charles flattered the vanity of Henry by paying him a visit in England, in 1520; 
 afler which the English monarch went to Calais to meet the French king. The 
 ir'jeting of Henry and Francis, which took place in June, 1520, in a plain neai 
 Calais, lasted a fortnight, and because of the magnificence there displayed the 
 meeting is known as " the Field of the Cloth of Gold." 
 
 Henry VIII. writes a Volume against Luther. — In 1521, King Hemy 
 VIII. wrote a Latin volume against Dr. Luther and the Reformation, for which i e 
 was loudly praised by Pope Leo X., who conferred upon the royal author the title 
 nf "Defender of the Faith," and sent the king a letter, praising his learnnig, zeal, 
 ability, and wisdom. 
 
 Henry VIII. Divorced from Catharine of Aragon and Married to Anne 
 Boleyn. — Henry VIII. had been married to Catharine of Aragon, dauizhlei ->[ 
 14 
 
2IO MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 P'erdinand and Isabella of Spain, in 1502. He now applied to Pope Clement VII. 
 for a divorce from Catharine, that he might marry the beautiful Anne Boleyn, one 
 of the ladies of his court. The Pope, fearing the displeasure of the Emperot 
 Charles V., who was Catharine's nephew, refused to grant the request of the Eng- 
 lish king; but Henry, supported by the opinions of learned men, such as the young 
 and virtuous Thomas Cranmer, whom the king made Archbishop of Canterbury, in 
 1 533, olitained a divorce from Catharine, and then married Anne Boleyn 
 
 Disgrace and Death of Cardinal Wolsey. — Cardinal Wolsey, who was be 
 lieved to be opposed to the divorce of Henry VIII. from Catharine, soon began t( 
 lose the king's favor; antl at lengh the ambitious cardinal was banished from court, 
 and all his estates were seized by the king. A charge of treason was also preferred 
 against Wolsey. At V'ork, Wolsey was attacked with a violent fever, occasioned 
 by anxiety and grief at his fall. In this dangerous condition, the fallen Minister 
 set out for London, but died on his way, at Leicester Abbey, on the 29th of Novem- 
 ber, 1530. On his death-bed, he uttered these affecting words, "Had I served my 
 God with half the diligence that I served my king, he would not have given me 
 over in my gray hairs." 
 
 Henry VIII. and the Pope — Henry VIII. created Head of the Church 
 in England. — The Pope was greatly exasperated at Henry VIIL, because of his 
 divorce from his first wife; and in consequence, the English monarch separated 
 himself from the Romish Church, and caused an act to be jiassed by his I'arl la- 
 ment, in 1534, transferring the supremacy of the Church in England from the Pope 
 of Rome to the King of England. The English monasteries and nunneries were 
 dissolved, and their possessions were bestowed on the crown. The learned Sir 
 Thomas More, the author of " Utopia," and Bishop Fisher of Rochester, declined 
 to approve of the act which made the king Head of the English Church, and both 
 were consequently beheaded. The king violently persecuted both Lutherans and 
 Roman Catholics. The Pope at length excommunicated Henry VIIL, who re- 
 sented the anger of the Holy Father by causing those who had prej)ared the excom- 
 munication to be put to death. 
 
 Execution of Anne Boleyn — The King's Marriage with Jane Seymour. 
 — Henry V^III. soon became displeased with Anne Boleyn; and in 1536, he caused 
 her to be beheaded on a false accusation. The veiy next day after the execu- 
 tion of Anne Boleyn, the king married Jane Seymour, who died the following year. 
 (1537.) 
 
 Henry's Last Three Wives, Anne of Cleves, Catharine Howard, and 
 Catharine Parr. — By the advice of his minister. Sir Thomas Cromwell, who had 
 been one of Wolsey's favorite servants, Henry VFIL, in 1540, married Anne of 
 Cleves, a German princess, of whom he had seen a portrait which had been taken 
 by Hans Holbein, the great Swiss painter; but the king soon obtained a divorce 
 frv)m Anne, and beheaded Cromwell, who had advised the marriage. Henry V^III. 
 Hex: married Cath-^rine Howard, niece of the Duke of Norfolk; but in 1542, 
 te caused ner to be beheaded, and then married Catharine Parr, who outlived 
 f'iin. 
 
 The King's Zeal Against Lutherans and Roman Catholics. — As vre 
 have already said, Henn,' VIIL vehemently [lersecuted both Lutherans and Roman 
 Catholics in his own dominions, — the former as heretics, and the latter for refusing 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 2H 
 
 to recognize him as Head of the Church in England; and many .vere Dumed at the 
 stake. The king was fond of theological discussions, but woe to such as had the 
 hardihood to differ from him. On one occasion, his last wife, Catharine Parr, who 
 was a Protestant, narrowly escaped being sacrificed to his anger, for expressing bet 
 religious opinions rather too freely. 
 
 Cranmer's Translation of the Bible. — The pious Cranmer, Archbishop of 
 C.<nt';rhury, who was a zealous friend of the Reformation, was greatly resj'ected by 
 King Honry VIII., whose permission the Archbishop at length obtained \r. hare 
 "ho Ten Commardments and the Lord's Prayer translated into English ; ani finally, 
 v/i'.h (he consent of the king, Cranmer prepared a new translation of the Bible, 
 Wickiiffe's translation being too faulty in many particulars. 
 
 War Between England and Scotland— Battle of Solway Moss. — In 1541, 
 Henry VIII. commenced a war against Scotland. The English army defeated the 
 Scots in the battle of Solway Moss, which so disheartened the Scotch king, James 
 v., that he died a few months afterward (December, 1542), and the crown of Scot- 
 land fell to his daughter Mary, then a mere child. Peace was made between Eng- 
 land and Scotland in 1546. In 1544, Henry VIII., while at war with France, as 
 an ally of the Emperor Charles V., invaded France and captured Boulogne. 
 
 Execution of the Earl of Surrey — Death of Henry VIII. — The tyranny 
 of Henrj" VIII. increased as he advanced in years; and in 1547, he caused the 
 Duke of Norfolk, and his son, the Earl of Surrey, the leading English noblemen, 
 to be arrested. Surrey was executed on a false charge of treason. Henry VIII. 
 died soon afterward. Just before his death, the king signed a warrant for the exe- 
 cution of the Duke of Norfolk, but happily the warrant was not cairied into exe- 
 cution. 
 
 REIGN OF EDWARD VI. (A. D. 1S47-15S3). 
 
 Accession of Edward VI. — The Duke of Somerset Protector. — TTie 
 son of Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour, succeeded Henry VIII. on the throne of 
 England, with the title of Edward VI. As the new king, at the time of his acces- 
 sion, was only nine years old, the government of the kingdom was entrusted to his 
 uncle, the Duke of Somerset, with the title of Protector. Edward VI. was edu- 
 cated a Protestant by his uncle, who appointed the virtuous Latimer the young 
 king's preacher. Edward's greatest delight was in studying theology and in listen- 
 ing to sermons; and he gave great promise of becoming a good monarch. 
 
 Establishment of the Church of England. — The Protector soon set about 
 establishing the Protestant religion in England; and Archbishop Cranmer and 
 Bishop Ridley of London were appointed to prepare a book of prayer. The Psalms 
 «KTc translated into English; and the Thirty-Nine Articles were drawn np bf 
 Cranmer. These articles are the confession of faith of the Church of England. 
 In order to insure a religious conformity of faith, many of the Catholic prayen 
 ^■■'.^re retained. This was the establishment of the Anglican Church. 
 
 The Protector's Invasion of Scotland — Battle of Pinkie. — The Protectoi 
 Sfiught to carry out the wi>h of Henry N'lII. for a marriage of Edward VI. with 
 the young Mary, Queen of Scots. As the Protector did not succeed in accomplish- 
 ing that object Vjy treaty, he led an army into .Scotland and defeate<l the Scottish 
 army in the battle of Pinkie, on the loth of September, 1547. This event exasper- 
 
212 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ated the Scots to such a degree that they sent Mary to France, where she was 
 married to the Dauphin, afterward King Francis II. of France. 
 
 Execution of Seymour and the Protector — Death of Edward VI. — The 
 wicked Dudley, Earl of Warwick, caused Seymour, the brother of the Duke of 
 Somerset, to attempt to raise himself to the Protectorship, and then induced the 
 Frotectcr to have him executed for high treason. Warwick's next act was the over- 
 throw and execution of the Protector for high treason. Warwick, who was cieateJ 
 Earl of Northumberland, now ruled the kingdom. The pious King Edwfird V'l 
 died in 1553, at the early age of fifteen years. 
 
 REIGN OF MARY (A. D. 15S3-15S8). 
 
 Lady Jane Grey — Accession of Mary — Restoration of Catholicism. — 
 The unscrupulous and usurping Earl of Northumberland had procured the appoint- 
 ment of his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, as the successor of Edward VI. to 
 the English throne; but Lady Jane was obliged to yield the throne to Edward's 
 half-sister, Mary, the daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragon. Mary, 
 who was a bigoted Roman Catholic, soon forgot her promises of toleration to her 
 Protestant subjects, and restored the popish religion in her kingdom. 
 
 Mary's Marriage with Philip II. of Spain — Insurrections. — In 1554, 
 Queen Mary of England married Philip, son of the Emperor Charles V., and after- 
 wards King Philip II. of Spain, who was also an unrelenting Catholic. The con- 
 sequence of this marriage was an insuiTection in England, agamst the authority of 
 Queen Mary, whom the insurgents intended to depose. The revolt was suppressed, 
 and many of the leading insurgents were executed. Lady Jane Grey, whom the 
 malcontents intended to elevate to the English throne, and who was falsely accused 
 of countenancing their design, also died on the scaffold. 
 
 Religious Persecution — Martyrdom of Ridley, Latimer, Hooper, and 
 Cranmer. — We have already said that Queen Mary restored the Roman Catholic 
 religion in England. She also proceeded to a vigorous persecution of her Protest- 
 ant subjects; and many pious bishops and ministers were burned alive for adhering 
 to the Protestant faith. Among those who thus perished at the stake were Bishop 
 Ridley of London, Bishop Hooper of Gloucester, the pious Latimer, and the good 
 Archbishop Cranmer. The bigoted queen had allowed Cranmer an opportunity to 
 recant ; and the Archbishop, in a moment of weakness, signed a paper avowing his 
 belief in popery ; but when his strength returned, he again avowed his full belief in 
 Protestant doctrines ; and when he was brought to the stake, he first put the hand 
 with which he signed the paper avowing his belief in Roman Catholicism, into the 
 fire, and held it there until it was burnt off, saying, " This is the am> that has 
 ofiTended," 
 
 War with France — Battle of St. Quentin — Loss of Calais — Death of 
 Mary. — In 1556, Queen Mary's husband became King of Spain, with the title of 
 Philip II.; an 1 at the same time, he induced her to join him in a war against 
 France. In 1557, the combined English and Spanish forces defeated the French 
 in the battle of St. Quentin, in Northern France; but in 1558, the important town 
 of Calais, which had belonged to England for two centuries, was taken by the 
 French army under the command of the valiant Francis of Lorraine, Duke of 
 Juise. Queen Mary was so overwhelmed at this loss that she died a few months 
 
MARY I. THE BLOODY. 
 
GUSTAVUS I. OF SWEDEN. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 21, 
 
 afterward (November, 1558), saying a short time before her death that the word 
 " Calais" would be engraven on her heart. Mary was succeeded as Queen of 
 England by her half-sister, Elizabeth. 
 
 THE REFORMATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN KING 
 
 DOMS. 
 
 Sweden's Liberation from Denmark by Gustavus Vasa. — The lyranny 
 irai cruelty of King Christian II., of Denmark, who caused ninety-four Swedisl 
 aobies to be foully massacred in Stockholm, in 1520. induced the valiant and patii- 
 olic Gustavus Vasa, the son of one of these massacred nobles, to attempt the liber- 
 ation of Sweden from the yoke of the King of Denmark. In the disguise of a 
 l^easant, Gustavus Vasa found refuge m &e mountainous region of Dalecarlia, 
 whase brave inhabitants flocked to his standard. Gustavus repulsed the Danish 
 rroops that had been sent against him, took Upsala, drove the Danish invaders 
 from Swedish soil, and secured his country's independence. In gratitude, the 
 Sv/edes chose the heroic Gustavus Vasa as their king, and made the Swedish crown 
 hereditary in hLs family. 
 
 Establishment of the Lutheran Religion in Sweden.— Under Gustavus Vasa, 
 who died in 1560, the Lutheran -■^.ligion was established in Sweden. Eric XIV., 
 the son and successor of Gustavus Vasa, became insane, and was imprisoned by 
 his brothers. Eric's successors, John III. and Sigismund, the latter of whom was 
 Sigismund III. of Poland, vainly attempted to restore the popish religion in Sweden ; 
 and Sigismund was deposed from his Swedish throne by his uncle, the Duke of 
 Sudermania, who assumed the crown of Sweden, with the title of Charles IX. 
 (1600.) The latter king, and his son and successor, Gustavus Adolphus, warred 
 against Poland. 
 
 Adoption of Lutheranism in Denmark and Norway. — The tyrannical 
 Christian 11. irritated his Danish subjects to such a degree that they dethroned him, 
 and bestowed the crown of Denmark on Frederic II., who established the Lutheran 
 faith in Denmark. The deposed Christian II., who became a Catholic to obtain the 
 aid of the Pope and the Emperor of Germany in his efforts to recover his lost crownj 
 was seized and kept a prisoner for sixteen years. The final and perfect establish- 
 ment of Lutheranism in Denmark was accomplished during the reign of Frederic's 
 son, Christian III. (I534-I5S9-) The Lutheran religion was also adopted in 
 Norway. 
 
 THE SOCIETY OF JESUITS. 
 
 Ignatius Loyola and Establishment of the Society of Jesus.— Th« 
 efToits of the Popes to suppress the Reformation, or to arrest its progress, found 
 their chief support in the Order of Jesuits, which was founded in the year 1540, 
 l>y the excitable and enthusiastic Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish nobleman. Aftey 
 renouncing the military profession, Ignatius made a pilgrimage to the Holy Scjiul- 
 chre at Jerusalem; and, after his return to Spain, he acquired in Salamanca and Paris 
 Ihe education which he needed, and then he and six associates took upon themselves 
 the three monastic vows of poverity, chastity, and obedience, and swore upon the 
 host to allow the objects of their aspirations and desires to be decided upon by the 
 
il4 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 P^pe, and then to yield an unconditional submission to his decision. Shortly 
 afterward, Ignatius and his companions prostrated themselves at the feet of the 
 Holy Father, who confirmned the new Order, which was named "the Society of 
 Jesus." Ignatius Loyola became the chief of the Order, and his successoi, the Span- 
 iard Lainez, framed a constitution for the government of this Society, the members 
 of which were endowed by the Pope with great privileges. 
 
 Objects of the Society of Jesuits. — The Jesuits were obliged to disconnect 
 iKemselves with the rest of the world. Their chief object was to oppose IVotes 
 U;itism and to suppress the spirit of inquiry awakened by the Reformation. Thej 
 endeavored, by persecution and seducement, to win Protestants over to Catholicism j 
 and, by getting the education of youth into their hands, they endeavored to bring 
 up the young in the doctrines of the Romish Church. 
 
 Spread and Influence of the Order of Jesuits. — The Society of Jesus ac- 
 quired immense wealth by presents and legacies, and was thus enabled to establish 
 schools of education, which attracted the necessitous by imparting instruction gra- 
 tuitously. The Order of Jesuits soon spread over Catholic Europe, and many of 
 its members were engaged, in remote quarters of the globe, in proclaiming the 
 Gospel to heathen. Jesuit missionaries converted many of the American Indians 
 to Christianity, while Jesuitical missions were established in China and Japan. 
 
 SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA. 
 
 Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortez. — In 1517, the Spaniard Cordova 
 discovered Mexico, the seat of the flourishing empire of the Aztecs, a partially 
 civilized race of American Indians, who had built large cities and established a 
 regular government. In 15 19, Fernando Cortez, a Spanish soldier and adventurer, 
 invaded Mexico with 1,500 men ; and being joined by some of the natives, he was 
 enabled to take possession of the city of Mexico, and succeeded by treachery in 
 making the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, a prisoner. The Aztecs rose against the 
 invaders, and killed many of them. The ill-fated Montezuma, having tried to in- 
 duce his people to submit to the strangers, was also put to death by them. Cortez 
 and his followers finally succeeded in conquering the country in 1521 ; and for 
 three hundred years, Mexico, under the name of New Spain, was a Spanish prov- 
 ince. Cortez, notwithstanding all his services to the Spanish monarch, was treated 
 with ingratitude by his master. 
 
 Conqoest of Peru by Francisco Pizarro. — In 1529, the brave but cruel 
 Spaniard, Francisco Pizarro, with little more than 300 men, invaded the Iwautiful 
 Coui.try oi Peru, which was inhabited by a highly civilized American Indian race, 
 vhose monarchs were called " Incas." Like the Aztecs of Mexico, the Peruvians 
 had large cities and a regular government. By treachery, Pizarro made the reign- 
 ing Inca a prisoner; and notwithstanding his promise to give the Inca his liboity. 
 in letum for an enormous amount of gold, Pizarro caused his unfortunate captive 
 '.0 l>e j5ui: to death. Pizarro completed the conquest of the country in 1532; and 
 for nearly three centuries, Peru was a province of Spain. About this time. Alma- 
 gro, I'izarro's comrade, discovered Chili. Pizarro and Almagro soon quarjeleil, 
 and the latter was put to death ; but Almagro's son, in revenge, caused Pizarro to 
 be murdered. Nearly the whole of the South American coast came into the pos- 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 2^5 
 
 session o\ Spain, during the sixteenth century. The precious metals which Spain 
 obtained irom her American possessions made her for a time the leading powoi of 
 Europe, but finally led to her rapid decline. 
 
 PERSIA AND INDIA. 
 
 Rise of the Persian Empire under Ismael — Shah Abbas the Great.-- 
 
 A powerful Mohammedan dynasty arose in Persia, at the beginning of the sixteen'^' 
 cenUiry, in the person of the warlike Ismael. The dynasty founded by Isniael 
 was called the Suft'eean dynasty, from the holy shiek Sufiee. Ismael was a gieat 
 cor (uc-ror, but he was once defeated by Sultan Selim I. of Turkey. Ismael was 
 succeeded on the Persian throne by his son Tamasp, under whom Persia prospered. 
 In 1582, Shah Abbas the Great, the grandson of Tamasp, ascended the throne of 
 Persia. This celebrated monarch gained many victories over the Turks; and in 
 1622, he deprived the Portuguese of the city of Ormuz, on the Persian Gulf. The 
 arts of peace and internal improvements received great encouragement from Shah. 
 Abbas ; and the city of Ispahan, which was at that time the capital of Persia, was 
 one of the most splendid and important cities in Asia. The treatment of Shah 
 Abbas toward his children and his relatives was most cruel and inhuman. He 
 caused his oldest son to te put to death, and the eyes of the others to be put out. 
 The Persian Empire rapidly declined under the successors of Shah Abbas. 
 
 Establishment of the Mogul Empire in India by Baber — Aurungzebe. 
 — In 1525, Baber, a descendant of the great Mogul conqueror, Tamerlane, invaded 
 Hindoostan, overthrew the Afghan dynasty that had ruled in that country for three 
 centuries, and became the founder of a dynasty of Mogul princes which ruled Hin- 
 doostan for more than two centuries. The religion of the Moguls was Mohamme- 
 dan, and their capital was the city of Delhi, in Northern Hindoostan. The most 
 loted of the Mogul princes who occupied the throne of Delhi were Humayan, 
 Jehanghir, Akbar, and Aurungzebe; the last of whom mounted the throne in 1659, 
 by murdering his father and other relatives. Aurungzebe, however, governed with 
 wisdom and mildness ; and the Mogul Empire was very prosperous during his 
 long reign. After the death of Aurungzebe, in 1707, the Mogul Empire in India 
 rapidly declined, and soon fell to pieces. 
 
 AGE OF PHILIP II. AND ELIZABETH. 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 Philip II. of Spain — The Inquisition — Expulsion of the Moors.— Unaei 
 
 the bigoted, tyrannical, and cruel Philip II., the horrible Inquisition, with all its 
 frightful work, was in full operation in Spain and Naples. Philip's own son, Don 
 Carlos, died in its dungeons. His half-brother, Don Juan, the victor over the 
 Hnks in the great sea-fight of Lepanto, in 1571, died of grief at the treatment wnich 
 he leceived from Philip. The Duke of Alva was a cruel instrument for the execu- 
 tion of Philip's tyrannical orders. Philip's tyranny in the Netherlands finally resuhed 
 in the loss of those fair provinces to Spain. After the death of Philip II., in 1598, 
 Spain rapidly declined in power and importer ce. Under his son and successor, 
 
2i6 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Philip III., the Moors of Spain, who for more than a century had sufTered the mosi 
 cruel persecutions, formed a conspiracy for the overthrow of the Spanish power ; 
 hut the plot was discovered, anrl the Moors were banished from Spain in i''io. 
 Thus 600,000 Mohammedans were cruelly driven from their homes. 
 
 The Sixty Years' Union of Spain and Portugal. — On the death of King 
 Henry of Portugal, in 1580, Philip II. of Spain claimed the Portuguese crown, and 
 sent an army under the Duke of Alva to enforce his pretensions. Tlie Portuguese 
 wi:; obliged to submit, the rival claimant, Antonio, being defeated; and Poitug.d 
 Ras united with Spain for sixty years. Finally, in 1640, .Spanish tyranny produced 
 a rebellion of the Portuguese, who, after a brief struggle, regained their independ- 
 erice, and elected the Duke of Braganza for their king, with the title of John IV. 
 
 WAR OF INDEPENDENCE IN THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 Attempted Introduction of the Inquisition into the Netherlands by 
 Philip II. — King Philip II. of Spain bestowed the vice-regency of the Netherlands 
 on his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, and caused the laws against heresy to be 
 made very severe. At the same time, the Spanish king endeavored to cslal)lish the 
 Inquisition, with all its horrible tortures and dungeons, iu the Netherlands; and 
 Cardinal Granvella was made Grand Inquisitor. Spanish troops were also sent into 
 the Nellierlands to uphold Philip's tyranny. 
 
 Vain Efforts of Prince William of Orange and Count Egmont for 
 Toleration. — Vain endeavors were made by Prince William of Orange and Count 
 Egmont, to induce the bigoted King of Spain to grant toleration for the Protestant 
 religion in the Netherlands. The Inquisition was opposed liy Catholics, as well as 
 by Protestants; and four hundred Roman Catholic nobles jietitioned Philip II. for 
 a discontinuance of the horrible institution in llie Netherlands; but the bigoted 
 sovereign obstinately refused their request. 
 
 Violence of Mobs— The Duke of Alva Governor — Death of Count 
 Egmont. — Spanish tyranny at length led to the collection of mobs in Brussels, Ant- 
 werp, and other towns of the Netherlands. These mobs perpetrated many outrages, 
 such as the destruction of crucifixes and images of the saints. In 1567, the infam- 
 ous and bloodthirsty Duke of Alva was sent into the Netherlands with an army by 
 Philip II. Upon Alva's arrival, many of the Netherlanders, among whom was 
 Prince William of Orange, fled to Holland. Count Egmont remained, aiul was 
 treacherously put to death by order of the Duke of Alva. 
 
 The Bloody Council — Tyranny of the Duke of Alva— Margaret's Re- 
 signation. — Soon after his arrival in Brussels, with unlimited power, the Duke of 
 Alva established a council, called by the Netherlands, " The Bloody Council," which 
 inflicted the most severe and cruel punishments upon the Protestants, and also upon 
 ihe Roman Catholics who opposed his tyranny and that of his master, the King of 
 apain. Disgusted with the condition of affairs, Margaret of Parma resigned the 
 irice-regency of the Netherlands, and retired to Italy, followed by the respect of the 
 Netherlanlers. 
 
 Prince William of Orange Stadtholder — ^Adoption of Calvinism. — The 
 Northern Provinces ^f the Netherlands, in 1572, recognized Prince William of 
 Orange at their ruler, with the title of Stadtholder; and the Synod of Dort, in 1573 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 21 7 
 
 r^cogn'u.ed Calvinism as the established religion of the Netherlands, and erected a 
 Frolestant university at Leydeii, as a reward for the gallant defense of the inhabi- 
 tants of that town against a besieging Spanish army. 
 
 The Duke of Alva's Successors, Louis of Zuniga and Don Juan. — 
 After exercising the most cruel and unmitigated despotism in the Netherlands foi 
 six years, the Duke of Alva was finally recalled by the Spanish Court, in 1573, and 
 waj succeeded by Louis of Zuniga, who abolished the Bloody Council and adopted 
 aioderate measures ; but the Netherlanders, however, continued to resist Spanisl 
 authority. Louis of Zuniga died in 1576, and was succeeded by Don Juan, tht 
 victor of Lepanto, and the half-brother of the Spanish monarch. 
 
 The Pacification of Ghent — Alexander Farnese of Parma — Union of 
 Utrecht. — In 1576, Prince William of Orange succeeded in uniting all the prov- 
 inces of the Netherlands in a confederacy, known as "the Pacification of 
 Ghent," for the ]5urpose of expelling the Spanish troops, and securing the inde- 
 pendence of the Netherlands. In 1578, Don Juan was recalled by the Court of 
 Madrid, and Alexander Farnese of Parma, the son of Margaret, was appointed his 
 successor. As Alexander endeavored to create a hatred between the Northern and 
 Southern Provinces, for the purpose of preserving the latter to the Spanish crown, 
 Prince William of Orange induced the Northern Provinces to unite, in 1579, in a 
 close league, known as "the Union of Utrecht." 
 
 Assassination of Prince William of Orange. — King Philip II. had long 
 offered a reward and a title of nobility, to any one who would hand over to him 
 Prince William of Orange, dead or alive. This promise led to some attempts to 
 Eeize or kill the prince, which, however, failed; but in 1581, William was assas- 
 sinated in the royal banqueting-hall at Delft, by the fanatical Gerhard of Franche- - 
 Comte. The assassin was, however, seized, and put to a most cruel death. 
 
 Prince Maurice of Orange Stadtholder — English Aid to the Nether- 
 landers. — Upon the assassination of Prince William of Orange, the Netherlanders 
 chose his son, Prince Maurice of Orange, for their Stadtholder. Queen Elizabeth 
 of England, the enemy of Philip II. of Spain, sent an army under the Earl of 
 Leicester to the Netherlands, to prevent the Spaniards from suppressing the rebel- 
 lion. This conduct of the English Queen, together with the execution of the 
 Queen of Scots, induced the Spanish monarch to send a gigantic fleet, known as 
 "the Invincible Armada," for the conquest cf England. The destruction of the 
 Armada, by storms and English war-vessels, gave great moral support to the strug- 
 gling Netherlanders. 
 
 Achievement and Acknowledgment of the Independence of Holland.- - 
 The vvar between the Spanish government and the rebellious Netherlanders con 
 rinued until 1609, when, through the mediation of the good King Henry IV. of 
 France, the Northern Provinces of the Netherlands, or "the United States of Hol- 
 land," secured their independence. The Southern Provinces, or Belgium, undet 
 •Jie n ime of "the Spanish Netherlands," continued to belong to the Spanish crown 
 until 1714, when, by the Treaty of Rastadt, they were ceded to the House Crf 
 Austria, under the name of "the Austrian Netherlands." The independence of 
 Holland was formally acknowledged by .Spain in 1648, by the Treaty of Weslpha 
 lia, which closed the great Thirty Years' War in Germany. 
 
2i8 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Government of Holland — Religious Dissensions — Synod of Dort, — 
 The legislative power of the Republic of the United States of Holland was vested 
 in an assembly called the States-General ; and the executive power was exercised 
 by a High Council, at the head of which was a Stadtholder. No sooner was the 
 independence of Holland secured, in 1609, than a religious dispute about the Cal- 
 vinistic doctrhie of predestination divided the Dutch people into two parties, — the 
 G.iiniaiists, with Prince Maurice of Orange at their head, and the Aiininians, at 
 the head of whom was Van Olden Barnveldt, the anthor of the constituti( n of the 
 Dutch Republic. The Synod of Dort, in 161S, decided in favor of the GLiniaiiSts 
 ttnd Van Olden Barnveldt was executed. 
 
 Commerce, Colonies, and Maritime Power of Holland. — Holland emerged 
 from her long struggle for independence strong and prosperous. The Dutch East 
 India Company was formed in 1602, and many of the Portuguese possessions in the 
 East Indies were taken possession of by the Dutch. The Dutch colony of Batavia, 
 in the island of Java, was founded in 1619. The Dutch navy was the largest in 
 Europe; and for almost two centuries, Holland was the most powerful commercial 
 ajid maritime rival of England. 
 
 CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY II. (A. D. 1S47-1S59). 
 
 Accession of Henry II. — Persecution of the Calvinists or Huguenots. 
 
 — The warlike Francis I., known as "the Father and Restorer of Letters," died in 
 1547, and was succeeded on the throne of France l)y his son, Henry II., who, like 
 his father, was a zealous persecutor of the Huguenots, as the French Protestants 
 were called. The Protestants of France, as well as those of Holland, Scotland, 
 and many in England, were believers in the doctrines of John Calvin, the French 
 Reformer, who had adopted the doctrines of Ulric Zwingle. The Calvinists of 
 France were called Huguenots; those of Scotland, Presbyterians; and those of 
 England, Puritans. 
 
 War with Spain and England — Battle of St. Quentin — Recovery of 
 Calais. — Henry II. of France, as an ally of the Pope, engaged in a war against 
 Philip H. of Spain and his wife. Queen Mary of England. The French were de- 
 feated by the united English and Spanish forces in the battle of St. Quentin, in 
 Northern France, in 1557; but in the following year (1558), Francis of Lorraine, 
 Duke of Guise, with a French army, wrested Calais from the English, who had 
 possessed that key of France for two centuries. In 1559, the Peace of Chateau- 
 Cambresis was made between the Kings of France and Spain. Queen Mary of 
 England, the wife of Philip II., having died, the Spanish king married the daugliter 
 of Henry II.; while the French monarch married Catharine de Medicis, of the 
 illustrious family of Florence. 
 
 REIGN OF FRANCIS II. (A, D. 1359-1560). 
 
 Accession of Francis II. — The Guises — The Prince of Conde and Ad- 
 miral Coligni. — On the death of King Henry II., in 1559, from the effects of a 
 wound which he received at a tournament, his son, Francis II., who had marriea 
 tlie beautiful young Queen Mary of Scotland, ascended the throne of France. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 219 
 
 Mary's uncles, the GuLses, who were zealous Roman Catholics, gained great infla- 
 ence at the French court; and endeavored to crush the Prostestant party in France, 
 headed by the Prince of Cond6 and Admiral Coligni. King Francis II. died in 
 1560, when the Guises retired from court, and Queen Mai") sailed for her kingdom 
 of Scotland. 
 
 REIGN OF CHARLES IX. (A. D 1560-137-1) 
 
 Charles IX. and Catharine ie Medicis — Toleration to the Huguenots 
 - Religious War. — Francis II. was succeeded on the throne of France by hii 
 yuuihf il half-brother, Charles IX., during whose minority the Government of France 
 was conducted by his mother, Catharine de Medicis, as queen-regent. Catharine 
 granted toleration to the Huguenots in 1562. The Guises were indignant at this; 
 and as Duke Francis of Guise and his followers were passing the town of Vassy, 
 they fell upon and slaughtered a number of Huguenots engaged in prayer. This 
 outrage was the signal for a bloody religious war, in which the most shocking cruel- 
 ties were perpetrated by both parlies. The Catholics were assisted by Philip II. of 
 Spain and by the Pope, while the Huguenots received aid from Queen Elizabeth 
 of England. 
 
 Battle of Dreux — Assassination of Duke Francis of Guise — Peace of 
 Amboise. — The Prince of Conde took the chief command of the Huguenots, while 
 the Duke of Guise placed himself at the head of the Catholics. After the indeci- 
 sive battle of Dreux, the Duke of Guise laid siege to Orleans. The assassination 
 of Duke Francis of Guise by a Protestant saved Orleans to the Huguenots; and 
 during the same year (1564), the Peace of Amboise was made, by which the Cal- 
 vinists were assured of toleration for their religion. 
 
 Renewal of the War — Assassination of the Prince of Conde — Peace 
 of St. Germain. — The promises of toleration to the Huguenots ^ere soon forgot- 
 ten; and in 1567, the religious war was renewed with all its hoiio-j. The Catholics 
 were victorious in the battle of St. Denis, but their leader, the Constable Montmo- 
 renci, was among the slain. After a few more sanguinary engagements, in which 
 the Huguenots were defeated, and after their leader, the Prince of Conde, had been 
 assassinated by a Catholic, the Peace of St. Germain was concluded, by which the 
 Protestants were again promised religious toleration. 
 
 The Massacre of St, Bartholomew. — The le.>-flers of the Protestants now 
 were Admiral Coligni and Prince Henry of Beam. tn_ Prince of Conde's nephew. 
 On the death of his mother, Henry of Beam became King of Navarre. For the 
 purpose of reconciling the two parties, the young King of France, Charles IX., 
 proposed that his sister Margaret should be married to King Henry of Navarre. 
 The French Catholics, with the Guises and the queen-mother, Catharme de Mcdi 
 cis, at their head, had planned secretly to massacre all the Huguenots who should 
 come to Paris for the celebration of the nuptials. Accordingly, at two o'clock ir 
 the morning of St. Bartholomew's day, August 24, 1572, when the alarum bed of St 
 Germain 1' Auxerrois gave a signal, bands of armed assassins rushed upon the de 
 fenseless and unsuspecting Huguenots, and slaughtered them without mercy. The 
 massacre continued for three days; and about 5,000 Protestants were killed in Paiis, 
 among whom was the aged Admiral Coligni. The king himself shot at the poor 
 victims, from the windows of his palace. The young Prinje of Cond6 and Kmg 
 
220 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Ilenrj' of Navarre were spared only on the condition of bectiniing Roman Catho 
 lies; but no sooner were they secure from the power of the papists than they again 
 avowed their old faith. The orders of King Charles IX., for the exfensii)n eif the 
 massacre to other parts of France, were so well obeyed that 50,000 Protestants weio 
 sacrificed to the cruelly and fanaticism of their Catholic enemies. Some of the 
 Catholic commanders, however, refused to obey the orders of the km| , and one of 
 them wrote to the court that he commanded soldiers, not assassins. The Frenct 
 f jiirt was congratulated by Philip II. of Spain; and Pope Gregory XIII. offeree! 
 I hanks to Heaven for "this signal mercy." This horrible atrocity is known as " The 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew." 
 
 Consequences of the Massacre.— JThe consequences of the Massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew were quite different from what the French Court had expected. 
 Many of the Roman Catholics renounced their religion and became Huguenots, 
 from a feeling of horror and shame; and the civil and religious war again burst 
 forth with all its former fury. I 
 
 Remorse and Sufferings of King Charles IX. — His Death. — Charles IX. 
 at one time endeavored to put the whole responsibility for the great crime on the 
 Guises; and the next moment he confessed the part he had taken, and expressed 
 joy at what he considered a blow at heresy; but, from the time of the massacre, he 
 was troubled with remorse and grief, at his participation in the horrible crime. He 
 frequently imagined that he saw the bloody forms of the massacred Protestants 
 before his eyes; he had no rest night or day; and he was often known to sigh and 
 to bemoan himself with tears. His health rapidly declined, and his miserabH life 
 was tenninated on the 30th of May, 1574. 
 
 REIGN OF HENRY III. (A. D. 1S74-1B89). 
 
 Accession of Henry III. — Duke Henry of Guise and the Catholic 
 League. — Charles IX. was succeeded as King of France by his brother, Henry 
 HI., who had been, but a year previous, elected King of Poland, which countr}' he 
 now abandoned, to go to Paris, to take possession of a more delightful kingdom. 
 Heniy III. was an imbecile and a dissolute monarch. He made peace with the 
 Huguenots, by granting them religious toleration and the same privileges enjoyed 
 by the Catholics. This exasperated the Catholic party, at the head of which was 
 Duke Henry of Guise, who, with other French Catholic nobles, concluded "The 
 C.itholic League," for the purpose of upholding the popish religion in France. 
 
 King Henry III. and the Catholic League — Exclusion of Henry of 
 Navarre.— King Henry HI. soon declared himself the head of the Catholic League, 
 and renounced his peace with the Huguenots. In 1584, the king's brother, the 
 Duke oi Anjou, the heir to the French throne, died, and the Protestant King 
 Henry of Navarre became the nearest heir; but the Catholic party in PVance 
 a'tem])ted to exclude him from the throne, on account of his religion ; md IL;»iry 
 !H. found himself obliged to revoke all his concessions to the Calvinisms. 
 
 Plot of Henry of Guise — Conflict in Paris — Assassination of the 
 Guises. — Duke Ileniy of Guise at first only aimed at the suppression of the Re- 
 formed religion in P'rance, but he at length entertained the design of dethroning 
 L^'iury HI. and placing himself on the throne of France. The king now became 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 221 
 
 alarmed, and ordered some Swiss troops into Paris, in May, 1588, to prevent the 
 Guisps from entering the city. The Parisians, however, adhered to the Guises, and 
 began a terrible conflict with the king's troops. The king fled to Chartres, but soon 
 returned to Paris, and jirocured the assassination of Duke Henrj' of Guise and his 
 brother, Cardinal Louis of Guise. 
 
 Another Civil War — Siege of Paris by Henry III. — Assassination of 
 Henry III. — The assassination of the Guises roused the indignation of the French 
 Roman Catholics against King Henry III., and the Pope excommunicated h:'ni 
 The king found himself obliged to leave Paris ; whereupon he threw himself intt 
 ie arms of the Huguenots, and received assistance from King Henry of Navarre. 
 A terrible civil war again broke out, and the two King Henrys appeared before 
 Paris with their armies, and laid siege to the city. The capital was only saved from 
 destruction by the assassination of Henry HI., in August, 1589, by James Clement, 
 a fanatical monk. 
 
 HOUSE OF BOURBON.— REIGN OF HENRY IV. (1S89-1610). 
 
 Accession of Henry IV. — Siege of Paris by Henry IV. — Spanish 
 
 Relief.— Henry III. was the last French king of the House of Valois; and just 
 before his death he appointed as his successor King Henry of Navarre, who was 
 the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon. The Duke of Maine, a brother 
 of the murdered Guises, became the head of the Catholic League; and supported 
 by Philip II. of Spain, he resisted King Henry IV. In 1 590, Henry IV. laid 
 siege to Paris; and the Parisians were almost reduced by starvation, when a 
 Spanish army under Alexander of Parma marched to their relief from the Nether, 
 lands. 
 
 Conversion of Henry IV. to Catholicism and Its Happy Consequences. 
 — On the approach of the Spanish army of relief, King Henry IV. relinquished 
 the siege of Paris; but he continued the war against the Catholic League until 
 1593, when, for the sake of bringing peace to his subjects, he renounced Calvinism, 
 and made a putjlic profession of Roman Catholicism, in the Church of St. Denis, in 
 Paris. The Parisians now hailed him with joy, the F"rench nobles tendered him 
 their submission, the Pope recalled the excommunication against him, and Philip 
 II. of Spain made ])eace with him. 
 
 Edict of Nantes — The Duke of Sully — Character of Henry — In 1598 
 King Henry IV. issued, at Nantes, an edict which secured to the Huguenots free- 
 dom of conscience, and equal rights and privileges with the Catholics. lienr}' 
 IV. encouraged agriculture and commerce ; and his faithful friend, the Duke of 
 Sully, whom he appointed as his Prime-Minister, arranged the economy of the state. 
 Henry IV. was greatly beloved by his subjects. His mild and forgiving spirit made 
 his worst enemies his best friends, and he proved to be one of the best kings tha* 
 ever occupied a throne. 
 
 Henry's Project for a Christian Union — Assassination of Henry IV 
 — Henry IV. was desirous of hai'mg all Christian nations united in a sort of unior. 
 with equal freedom for all Christian confessions. On the 14th of May, 1610, this 
 good king was assassinated in his carriage, in the streets of P.aris, by the fanatical 
 Rnvaillac, a Jesuit. The consternation and the public grief were universal through- 
 
222 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 out France, and never was the death of a king so lamented by his subjects. Henry's 
 son, Louis XIII., became his successor. 
 
 ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND AND MARY OF SCOT]. AND. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth of England — Restoration of the Anglican Church. — 
 On the death of the bigoted Catholic queen Mary, in 1555, the crown of England 
 fe]l tc her half-sister, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Brleyn. Eliz- 
 ^t till was a Protestant ; and upon her accession to the throne, she restoresj the 
 Anglican Church, which had been overthrown by her Catholic predecessor. Eliz- 
 abeth was regarded as the head of the Protestant party in Europe, while Philip II. 
 ^f Spain was considered the champion of Ronian Catholicism. Queen Elizabeth 
 had an exalted idea of the royal prerogative, and she allowed the Parliament but 
 very few privileges. She was vain and capricious, but these faults were overlooked 
 by her gayety and cheerfulness. The English kingdom was very prosperous during 
 her long reign ; agriculture, commerce, and navigation were encouraged ; and Eng- 
 land never had a sovereign who swayed the sceptre with more ability than did 
 this mighty queen. 
 
 Mary, Queen of Scots. — Queen Elizabeth's vanity, and her jealousy of the 
 superior c]ualities of others, led her to commit an act which has left an ineffaceable 
 stain upon her character, — the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary, as we 
 have already seen, had been sent to France, at quite an early age, and maiTied 
 to the Dauphin, afterward King Francis II. of France. On the death of her hus- 
 band, in 1560, Mary, although harshly treated by her mother-in-law, the wicked 
 Catharine de Medicis, still for a time remained in France, which land she most 
 dearly loved. 
 
 Mary's Return to Scotland — Calvinism in Scotland — ^John Knox. — 
 Finally the clamors of her Scotch subjects induced Mary to leave the delightful 
 France, and to return, with great reluctance, to the wild country of the Scots, which 
 she was then to govern. When Mary returned to Scotland, she found the Roman 
 Catholic religion overthown in that country, and Calvinism adopted in its stead. 
 Mary was a strict Roman Catholic, and this was very distasteful to the Scotch 
 Reformers, at the head of whom was the celebrated John Knox. 
 
 Mary's Marriage with Lord Darnley — Murder of David Rizzio. — In 
 1565, Queen Mary, contrary to the advice of the Queen of England, married Henry 
 Stuart, Lord Darnley, who was a rigid Roman Catholic. This marriage was veiy 
 displeasing to John Knox and the other Scotch Reformers. As Mary was soon 
 treate<l with neglect by her fickle husband, she bestowed her favor on her private 
 secretary, David Rizzio, an Italian singer. This offended Darnley to such a degree 
 that he formed a plot with some of the Scotch nobles; and the conspirators mur- 
 dered Rizzio in the queen's presence. (1566.) 
 
 Murder of Lord Darnley — Mary's Marriage with the Earl of Bothwell. 
 — -The Scotch queen now burned with hatred against her husliand, but she ptid 
 kim .T visit when he was taken sick. One night after this visit (February XO, 
 1567), the people of Edinburgh were awakened by a terrible explosion. Darnlcy's 
 house had been blown up by gunpowder, and his lifeless body was found at a di" 
 tance. The Scotch people tixed upon the Earl of I'otliwell as the perpetrator o' 
 
ELIZABETH. 
 
MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. 
 
SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y. 
 
 223 
 
 the hoiTible murder; and as Queen Maiy married Bothwell three months after- 
 ward, she wa-s believed to have been an accomplice in the crime. 
 
 Rebellion of the Scotch People against Queen Mary — Bothwell's Fate. 
 —Queen Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothwell roused the indignation of the 
 5<:otch people, who in consequence rose in rebellion against her. Bothwell fled 
 from Scotland, and lived by piracy, until he was thrown into prison in Denmark, 
 where he became msane, in which wretched condition he remained the last ten 
 years of his life. 
 
 Imprisonment and Dethronement of Mary — Regency of the Earl of 
 Murray. — Queen Mary was seized and imjiiisoned in a lonely castle in the island 
 of Lochlevin, by her rebellious subjects, who compelled her to resign her crown to 
 her infant son, James VI., while her half-brother, the Earl of Murray, was ap- 
 pointed regent during the minority of her son. 
 
 Mary's Escape from Prison — Her Defeat and Flight to England. — In 
 1568, Mary escaped from her prison, and raised an army to recover her lost author- 
 ity; but after being defeated by the Earl of Miuray, in a battle at Langside, she fled 
 to England to seek the protection of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Elizabeth's Refusal to receive Mary — Retention of Mary in England. 
 — Elizabeth, who was envious of the superior beauty and gracefulness of the Scotch 
 queen, and who feared that she would make pretensions to the English crown, de- 
 clined to receive Mary until she should have cleared herself of the accusation of 
 having been an accomplice in the murder of her second husband. Lord Damley. 
 As Mary, as an independent sovereign, would not submit to a trial by an English 
 tribunal, she was retained as a prisoner in England by order of Elizabeth. 
 
 Plots in Favor of Mary — Execution of the Duke of Norfolk. — The reten- 
 t tion of Mary in England soon endangered the safety of Elizabeth's throne and life. 
 I Conspiracies for dethroning Elizabeth and placing Mary on the throne of England, 
 i were undertaken jjy the English Roman Catholic-s, of whom there were yet many 
 I in the northern part of the kingdom. The Duke of Norfolk, the leading Catholic 
 j nobleman in England, was detected in such a plot, and was beheaded in conse- 
 i quence, a few years afterward. (1572.) 
 
 |l Unsuccessful Rebellion of the English Roman Catholics. — In 1569, a 
 
 'K rebellion of the English Roman Catholics, headed by the Earls of Northumberland 
 
 I and Westmoreland, broke out against Elizabeth. The objects of the insurgents were 
 
 the liberation of the Queen of Scots, and the restoration of the popish religion in 
 
 England. The efforts of the rebels were unsuccessful, and their leaders were tried, 
 
 condemned, and punished with death. 
 
 Trial and Execution of Mary by Order of Elizabeth. — In 15S6, a conspii' 
 acy was formed, by English Roman Catholics, to assassinate Elizabeth, and plac-i 
 Mary on the English throne. The leading conspirators were tried and execulerl 
 I\Iary was tried for being an accomplice in the plot, and was found guilty. Eliza 
 bcth appeared reluctant to consent to the execution of the unfortunate Mny al 
 Uxiugh she had long wished for her death. After waiting several ir mths, Jw 
 E.nglish queen signed the death-warrant, and her Prime-Minister, Lord Burle'gh, 
 .laving obtained it from her private secretary, had it hastily executed; and the un- 
 fortunate Mary, Queen of Scots, was beheaded on the 7th of Februarj', 15S7, ;iftet 
 
2-24 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 having l)e<in kept a prisoner in England for nineteen years. She died with firm- 
 ness. In order to put the responsibihty for Mary's execution on her servants, Queen 
 Elizab'^th affected great dissatisfaction at the haste with which the deatli-warrant 
 had been carried into effect; and imprisoned her private secretary, Daviscn, for 
 having handeil the warrant to her Prime-Minister. 
 
 Philip II. of Spain and his "Invincible Armada." — The execution of th:? 
 Queen of Scots aroused the indignation of the Roman Catholics throughout Europe; 
 and Philip II. of Spain fitted out a lleet of 130 vessels, for the subjugation of Er^ 
 lund, France, and the Netherlands, at one blow, and for the establishment of a power- 
 ful Roman Catholic emjiire in Western Europe. This gigantic Spanish fleet was 
 named " the Invincible Armada" by the Catholics, who were confident of its success. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth's Preparations for Defense. — Elizabeth, undismayed by 
 the coming storm, made extensive preparations for defense. She called out an 
 army of 40,ocx) men, and placed it under the command of the Earl of Leicester, 
 her favorite general; and the English fleets were placed under the command of 
 Lord Howard of Effingham. Elizabeth, who displayed great firmness, appeared 
 on horseback before her trooj)s, and made them a short speech, which greatly raised 
 their courage and zeal. Among other things she said, " I know I have the body of 
 a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart of a king, and of a king of Eng- 
 land too, and think proud scorn that Parma, or Spain, or any prince of Europe, 
 should dare to invade the borders of my realms, for which, rather than any dis- 
 honor come upon me, I will take up arms myself." 
 
 Destruction of the Spanish Armada. — The Invincible Armada, under the 
 ';ommand of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, sailed from Lisbon for the English 
 Channel, in May, 1588. The English fleet under Effmgham had just got out of 
 Dort, when it beheld the Armada approach, in the form u{ a crescent, extending a 
 distance of seven miles. The English sent a number of lire-ships into the midst of 
 the Armada, destroying many vessels and disabling the whole fleet. The Spanish 
 admiral then resolved to return home; and as the wind blew from the south, he 
 was obliged to sail northward along the Eastern shores of England, around Scot- 
 land, and down along the Western coast of Ireland. But motst of the Spanish 
 vessels which escaped the destructive effects of the English fire-ships, were wrecked 
 off the coasts of Scotland, by a succession of the most furious storms, and very few 
 of them returned to the shores of Spain. 
 
 Consequences of the Destruction of the Armada. — The moral conse- 
 quences of the destruction of the Invincible Armada were very great : it virtually 
 secured the independence of Holland; it inspired the Huguenots in France with 
 hope; and it raised the courage of the Protestants throughout Europe. From this 
 time Spain rapidly declined in power and national greatness, and her naval superi- 
 ority was broken ; while England took her place as a great maritime power. 
 
 Elizabeth's Favorites. — The wise Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was Elizal>eth's 
 Prime- Minister during the first forty years of her reign. Queen Elizabeth was 
 lever married. Her first chief favorite was Robert Dudley, whom she created 
 Earl of Leicester. At a later period, the accomp'ished Sir Walter Rale.gh was 
 received into the queen's favor. The Earl of Essex. Leicester's son-in-iaw, was 
 Elizabeth's last favorite. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 22$ 
 
 Catholic Rebellion in Ireland. — When Elizabeth attempted to firmiy establish 
 the religious laws of England in Ireland, a formidable rebellion of the Irish peo- 
 ple, who were mostly papists, broke out, under the leadership of the Earl of 
 Tyrone. The rebels were aided by the Pope and by Philip II. of Spain. The 
 English queen appointed her favorite, the Earl of Essex, Lord Lieutenant of Ire- 
 land; but instead of quelling the revolt, Essex made a treaiy with the Earl of 
 Tyrone. 
 
 Plot and Rebellion of the Earl of Essex — His Execution — Death of 
 ■^ueen Elizabeth. — Displeased with the conduct of her favorite, Elizabeth recallud 
 nim. Provoked at this, the Earl of Essex formed a plot with James VI. of Scot- 
 land to dethrone Elizabeth, and raised an insurrection against the queon. When 
 the insurrection was suppressed, Essex was tried and executed. Elizabeth's grief 
 for the death of her favorite, and the conviction that she had lost the affections of 
 her subjects, caused her to bewail herself with tears, during the last moments of her 
 life. She died in 1603, after appointing James VI. of Scotland, son of the ill- 
 fated Mary, her successor. 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 THE THIRTY YEARS' V/AR (A. D. 1618-1648) 
 
 CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. 
 
 Violation of the Rights of the German Protestants. — During the mild 
 and equitable reigns of the Emperors Ferdinand I. (i 556-1 564) and Maximilian 
 II. (1564-1576), the articles of the religious treaties of Passau and Augsburg were 
 obser\'ed, and the German Protestants enjoyed perfect religious toleration; but 
 when the careless and incompetent Rodolph II. occupied the imperial throne (1576 
 -1612), the Catholic princes of Germany, such as the Archduke Ferdinand of Styria 
 and the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, violated the religious rights and privileges 
 of their Protestant subjects in various ways; while the complaints of the Protestants 
 were unheeded by the weak and negligent Emperor. 
 
 The Protestant Union and the Catholic League. — In order to secure their 
 religious privileges against the encroachment of the Catholic power, the Protestant 
 princes of Germany concluded an alliance known as " the Protestant Union." To 
 oppose this Union, the Catholic German princes entered into a compact called "the 
 ' Ath jlic League." Thus Germany was divided into two hostile religious paities. 
 The Protestant Union secured the aid of Henry IV. of France, and the Dutch Re- 
 public, while the Catholic League obtained the assistance of Philip HI. of Spain. 
 The first occasion for hostilities between the two parties, was a dispute between the 
 Elector of Brandenburg and the Count Palatine of Neuburg, for the hereditary pos- 
 
 »5 
 
J 26 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 sessions of the deceased Duke of Cleves and Berg. After a bloody war of several 
 years, it was agreed that the Elector of Brandenburg should have Cleves, while the 
 ('ount of Neuhurg should receive Berg and Dusseldorf. 
 
 The Emperor Rodolph II. Deprived of His Hereditary Dominions. — 
 In consequence of the weakness and negligence of the Emperor Rodolph II., his 
 4elati.es compelled him to relinquish Austria and Hungary to his brother Mat 
 ihias. For a while Rodolph secured to himself the respect and support of tin 
 Bohemians, bygrantirg them letters-patent which accorded great religious priviiiges 
 to tl.e Protestants; but at length he was also compelled to surrender the crown ol 
 Bohemia to Matthias, so that the only crown which he still possessed was that «jf 
 the German Enijiire. The miseral)le existence and imbecile reign of Rodolph were 
 ended by his death, in 1612; and his brother Matthias succeeded him on the imperial 
 throne of Germany. 
 
 Ferdinand, King of Bohemia — Closing of Protestant Churches — Bohe- 
 mian Revolt. — Nc sooner had Matthias become Emperor of Germany, than he 
 showed himself as incapable of governing as Rodolph, and he soon convinced the 
 German Protestants that they could not e.xpect much favor from him. The Protest- 
 ants of Bohemia were greatly alarmed for the security of their religious liberties 
 when the Emperor Matthias caused his cousin, Duke Ferdinand of Carinthia, to be 
 invested with the crown of Bohemia. At length, in accordance with an imperial 
 decree, a Protestant church which had been erected in the small town of Chxster- 
 grab was destroyed, and another which had been built in the territory of the Abbot 
 of Brannau was closed. The Protestant states of Germany, regarding this as an 
 infraction of the letters-patent, held a meeting in Prague, and presented a remon- 
 strance to the Emperor, who, in his reply, sharply reproved those who had made 
 the complaint, and confirmed the decree prohibiting the building of Protestant 
 churches on ecclesiastical territory. Enraged at this, the Protestant deputies armed 
 themselves, and, with Count Thurn at their head, proceeded "to the council-house 
 of Prague with the design of attacking the imperial council, whom they blamed for 
 issuing the harsh decree. After a short dispute, the two Catholic councilors, Mar- 
 tinitz and Slawata, were seized and thrown out of the castle window, more than fifty- 
 six feet, by the enraged Protestant deputies. Notwithstanding the height of their 
 fall, and the shots that were fired after them, both councilors escaped with their 
 lives. The Bohemians established a council of thirty noblemen to govern them, 
 and raised an army, at the head of which they placed Count Thurn. With the aid 
 of the heroic Ernest von Mansfeh!, Count Thurn defeated the imperial troops in 
 liohemia, after which he appeared with his army before Vienna, and made Matthias 
 tremble in his capital. 
 
 Death of Matthias — Ferdinand II. Emperor — Frederic V. of the Pala- 
 tinate. — In 1619, the Emperor Matthias died, and his bigoted cousin, Ferdinand 
 of Carinthia, was chosen Emperor of Germany, by the Electoral Princes at Frankfort; 
 bit the Bohemians refused to acknowledge him as Emperor, and chose as King 
 of Bohemia in his stead the Elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate, the head of thi 
 I'lotestant Union, and son-in-law of King James I. of England. Frederic, woali 
 a-.id incompetent, proved himself unfitted for so momentous a crisis. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 227 
 
 PALATINE PERIOD OF THE WAR. 
 
 Alliance of Ferdinand II. with Maximilian of Bavaria — Battle of 
 Weissenberg. — The energv,-tic Emperor Ferdinand 11. concluded an alliance vith 
 the powerful Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of the Catholic League 
 Maximilian's great general, Tilly the Netherlander, marched into Bohemia aiin 
 defeated Frederic of the Palatinate in the battle of Weissenberg, near Prague 
 Frcdeiic, after his defeat, fled in the utmost consternation into the Netherlands, 
 liuing outlawed and deprived of his hereditary dominions; and Bohemia and 
 Moravia soon submitted to the power of Austria. 
 
 Dreadful Punishment of the Bohemians. — The unfortunate Bohemians 
 were now cruelly punished for their rebellion. Twenty-seven of the Bohemian 
 nobles were executed; the property of the others was confiscated and bestowed on 
 the Jesuits and other Catholic orders ; the Protestant clergymen were gradually 
 banished from Bohemia; and finally it was declared that no subject who would not 
 conform to the Catholic creed would be tolerated, in consequence of which harsh 
 measure, 30,000 Protestant families left their homes in Bohemia, and took up their 
 abode in the Protestant states of Saxony, Hanover, and Brandenburg. 
 
 The War on the Rhine— Battles of Wiesloch and Wimpfen. — Ernest 
 von Mansfeld, Duke Christian of Brunswick, and the Margrave George Frederic of 
 Baden-Durlach, took the field in the cause of the outlawed Frederic of the Palati- 
 nate, and of the Protestant religion. Mansfeld plundered Alsace and desolated the 
 Catholic bishoprics and monasteries on the Rhine, and, in conjunction with George 
 Frederic of Baden-Durlach, gained the battle of Wiesloch, in April, 1622, over the 
 Bavarian general, Tilly, who had been sent into the Palatinate of the Rhine, for 
 the purpose of subduing the chief of the Protestant Union; but George Frederic 
 was soon afterward defeated by Tilly, in the battle of Wimpfen (May 8, 1622); 
 and, on the 20th of June of the same year. Christian of Brunswick was also de- 
 feated by Tilly. Mansfeld and Christian then marched into the Netherlands, to 
 procure assistance from England, while Tilly took Manheim and Heidelberg by 
 Sturm, and committed the most frightful ravages. 
 
 Duke Maximilian of Bavaria crowned Elector-Palatinate. — In 1623, 
 the Electorship of the Palatinate was bestowed on Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, 
 through the influence of his ally, the Emperor Ferdinand II. This proceeding, 
 and the evident intention of Ferdinand to attempt the suppression of Protestantism, 
 lilasted the hopes for a speedy termination of the destructive civil and religious war, 
 
 DANISH PERIOD OF THE WAR. 
 
 Foreign Aid to the German Protestants — Rise of Lower Saxony. -Eng 
 land. Holland, and Denmark now lent their assistance to the Protestant cause in 
 Germany; and the Protestant towns of Lower Saxony took up arms in defense 0I 
 their religion, and formed an alliance with King Christian IV. of Denmark, whom 
 *hey invested with the chief command of their armies. Those valiant Protestant 
 leaders, Ernest von Mansfeld, Christian of Brunswick, and George Frederic ol 
 Baden-Durlach, again appeared in the field. 
 
 Albert of Wallenstein. — Thus far the war against the Germr 1 Protestants had 
 
2 28 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 been earned on almost entirely by the Catholic League; but as the struggle had 
 assumed greater proportions, the League demanded supplies of troops from the Em- 
 peror. Ferdinand himself, who was jealous of the power and influence of Maxi- 
 milian of Bavaria, resolved to raise an army of his own. Albert of Wallenstcir, a 
 Boht mian nobleman, offered to furnish and support an army of 50,000 men, at his 
 own expense, for the Emperor, on condition of being allowed the unlimited coic- 
 mand of them. Ferdinand accepted the off^er of the daring adventurer, made 
 him governor of P'riedland, elevated him to the dignity of an Elector of ue 
 German Empire, and afterward created him Duke of Friedland. 
 
 Defeats of the Protestants in Northern Germany. — Northern Germany 
 now became the chief theatre of the war, and the army of the Catholic League 
 under Tilly, and that of the Emperor under Wallenstein, soon broke the power of 
 the Protestants in that quarter. Mansfeld, after being defeated by Wallenstein at 
 the bridge of Dessau, marched into Hungary, and died in Bosnia, while attempt- 
 ing to make his way to the Netherlands. (1626.) Christian of Brunswick died 
 the same year; and King Christian IV., of Denmark, having been defeated by 
 Tilly, at the castle of Lutter, near Barenberg, in Hanover, on the 27th of August, 
 1626, was compelled to retreat into his own dominions; and the Duke of Meck- 
 lenburg was driven from his territories, which were immediately seized by Wallen- 
 stein. 
 
 Subjugation of Denmark and Northern Germany. — In 1627, Schleswig, 
 Molstein, and the peninsula of Jutland were conquered and frightfully ravaged, bv 
 the Catholic armies of Germany under Tilly and Wallenstein; and the King of 
 Denmark was obliged to seek refuge in his islands. The Protestant German States 
 of Pomerania and Brandenburg also submitted to the Catholic power ; and the 
 whole North of Germany lay prostrate before the power of the Emperor and tht 
 Catholic League. 
 
 Defense of Stralsund. — The heroic inhabitants of the city of Stralsund, in 
 Pomerania, however, refused to submit, and resolved to resist the imperial army to 
 the last extremity. Wallenstein marched against the city, and swore that he would 
 take it if it were bound to heaven with chains ; but all his assaults were gallantly 
 repulsed by the inhabitants; and after a siege of ten weeks, during which he lost 
 i 2,000 men, Wallenstein was obliged to relinquish the siege and to retire. 
 
 Peace of Lubec. — The failure of Wallenstein to take Stralsund induced the 
 Emperor of Germany to conclude a treaty of peace with the King of Denmark. 
 By the Peace of Lubec, concluded in 1629, Christian IV. recovered the territories 
 which had been conquered from him; but he was required to abandon the cause ol 
 he German Protestants. 
 
 Edict of Restitution. — The Emperor Ferdinand II. and the Catholic paity. 
 tncouraged by their recent triumph, now resolved upon the suppression of llie 
 1 rotestant religion, and the full reestablishment of Roman Catholicism throughoiU 
 'jermany ; and, instigated by the Society of the Jesuits, the Emperor is?ued an " Edic' 
 of Restitution," which required the Protestants to restore all ecclesiastical propcitj' 
 which had been taken from the Catholics since the Peace of Passau. The execu 
 tion of this edict would deprive many of the Protestant German princes of their 
 wealth and was therefore violently resisted; and the Emperor found himself 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 229 
 
 obliged to employ military force to carry out his designs, but his army was no 
 /onger commanded by Wallenstein. 
 
 Removal of Wallenstein. — Wallenstein's barbarous conduct in spreading rum 
 and desolation wherever he appeared, aroused the indignation of both Catholics and 
 ProtCs'ants, and the whole body of the German princes, with Duke Maximilian of 
 Bavaria at their head, demanded the removal of Wallenstein from the chief com- 
 mand of the imperial army. The Emperor yielded to the unanimous voice of the 
 (irinces and people of Germany, and removed Wallenstein and appointed Tilly to 
 the chief command of his army. Wallenstein retired to his Duchy of P"riedland, 
 where he lived in the enjoyment of immense wealth, until he should again be called 
 upon to assume the chief command of the imperial army. 
 
 King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. — The unfortunate Protestants of 
 Germany were now compelled to yield before the superior power of Austria and 
 Bavaria; but they soon found a deliverer in the valiant Gustavus Adolphus, King 
 of Sweden, whom the intriguing and unprincipled French Prime-Minister, Cardinal 
 Richelieu, the enemy of the House of Hapsburg, had induced to assist the German 
 Protestants in their war against their Emperor. 
 
 SWEDISH PERIOD OF THE WAR. 
 
 Appearance of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. — On the 24th of June, 
 1630, Gustavus Adolphus, with only 6,000 men, landed on the coast of Pomerania. 
 The Swedish soldiers, who assembled around their chaplains twice a day, were not 
 permitted by their pious king to devastate any of the territory through which they 
 marched. Many of the Protestant princes of Germany, fearing the vengeance of 
 their Emperor, and jealous of the foreign monarch who had espoused their cause, 
 at first refused to cooperate with the King of Sweden ; but their fear and jealousy 
 were soon overcome, and in their distress they concluded alliances with Gustavus. 
 
 Destruction of Magdeburg. — On the i6th of May, 1631, the Protestant city 
 of Magdeburg, which had opposed the Edict of Restitution, fell into the hands of 
 the imperial army under Tilly, after a siege of six weeks, during which many fierce 
 assaults had been gallantly repulsed. The devoted city was fearfully punished. 
 The greater part of it was burned to the ground; and 30,000 of its inhabitants 
 were brutally massacred to gratify the victorious Tilly's thirst for revenge. 
 
 Battle of Breitenfeld and Leipsic. — Aftei the barbarous destruction of 
 MagJeburg, Tilly, with the imperial army, marched against the Elector of Saxony, 
 who, in his distress, concluded an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus. The King 
 of S»veden marched to meet Tilly; and on the 7th of September, 1631, at the vil- 
 lage of Breitenfeld, near Leipsic, was fought a sanguinary battle, in which tht 
 united forces of the Swedes and the Saxons gained a most brilliant victory. 
 
 Victorious March of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany — Death of Tilly. 
 — After his great victory at Breitenfeld, Gustavus Adolphus marched victoriously 
 t.j the Rhine ; and the whole North and West of Germany were soon in the pos- 
 session of the Swedes and their Protestant German allies. In the spring of 1632^ 
 the King of Sweden turned eastward, for the purpose of invading Bavaria, and chas- 
 tising the powerful Elector Maximilian. Tilly, who was at the head of a powerful 
 
=3° 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 iiiipeiial army, had strongly intrenched himself on the river Lech, for the puipose 
 of disputing the passage of that stream by the Swedes. The Swedes stormed the 
 iiitrenchments of the imperialists, and forced a passage across the river. Tilly was 
 so severely wounded by a cannon ball that he died at Ingolstadt, several weeks 
 afterwanl. This old war-worn hero directed militaiy affairs until the moment of 
 Lis death. 
 
 Restoration of Wallenstein. — After occupying Augsburg, where the Protest- 
 lilt form of worship was again established, Gustavus Adolphus advanced 'iitL 
 Bavaria and entered Munich, which had been abandoned by Maximilian, a' th( 
 fxpproach of the Swedish monarch. In this moment of peril, the Emperor Ferili 
 nand II. again nad recourse to the services of Wallenstein, who agreed to raise i> 
 new army, on condition of being allowed the unlimited command of it. 
 
 Blockade of Nuremburg. — Wallenstein was soon at the head- of 40,000 men; 
 and after driving the Saxons out of Bohemia, he marched against the victorious 
 Gustavus Adolphus, who had strongly intrenched himself near Nuremburg. Wal- 
 lenstein, at the head of 60,000 imperialists, fortified himself opposite the position 
 of the Swedes, and for several months the two armies were watching each other. 
 During this blockade of Nuremburg, both armies suffered dreadfully from hunger. 
 At length Gustavus Adolphus stormed the camp of Wallenstein, but was repulsed 
 with heavy loss. 
 
 Battle of Loitzen, and Death of Gustavus Adolphus. — From Nuremburg, 
 the German imperial army under Wallenstein marched into Saxony, whither it was 
 followed by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus. The two armies met at Lutzen, 
 where, on the i6th of November, 1632, a memorable battle was fought. The 
 Swedes gained a glorious victory, but this was dearly purchased with the death of 
 the heroic and valiant Gustavus Adolphus. Pappenheim, the leader of the imperial 
 German cavalry, was also mortally wounded, and Wallenstein f^ed in dismay into 
 Bohemia, with his defeated and shattered army. The Swedes sent the body ot 
 their illustrious king, which was frightfully disfigured by the hoofs of horses, to hir. 
 native land for interment. 
 
 Alliance of Heilborn — Destructive Character of the War. — After the 
 death of Gustavus Adolphus, the Swedish Chancellor, Axel Oxenstiern, resolved to 
 continue the war in Germany with vigor, and concluded the alliance of Heilborn 
 with the Protestant princes of Germany. After the death of their valiant king, the 
 Swedes committed the most savage devastations, while Wallenstein was frightfully 
 ravaging Bohemia. 
 
 Assassination of ^A^allenstein. — Wallenstein was now accused by his enemies 
 of treason to the Emperor and the Catholic religion. He was charged with the 
 design of forming an alliance with the Swedes and the German Protestants, and cf 
 making himself king of Bohemia. When the Emperor had secured the persons 3f 
 ihe adiierents of the powerful general, and declared his depo<;ition, Wallensttin 
 'mmediately took up his march to join the Swedes; but before he could un'te his 
 forces wilh the Swedish army, he was murdered by a band of assassins, with '\a 
 Irishman Butler at their head, sent for that purpose by the Emperor Ferdinand II. 
 Wallenstein's faithful adherents and confederates, Illo, Terska, and Kinsky, were 
 also assassinated. The assassins wpre rewarded with honors, dignities, and wealt}> 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 231 
 
 Battle of Nordlingen — Peace of Prague — French Interference.- .Soon 
 
 dftcr the assassination of Wallenstein, the German imperial army advanced into 
 Bavaria, and defeated Bernhard of Weimar in the battle of Nortllingen. (Septem- 
 ber, 1634.) In May, the following year (1635), several of the Protestant fiermaii 
 princes concluded the Peace of Prague with the Emperor P'erdinand II.; bu' still 
 the bloody war continued, and Cardinal Richelieu, who at that time wielded the 
 destinies of P'rance, thinking the opportunity favorable for humbling the jtuuc 
 lIc-iL-p of Austria, and extending the Eastern frontier of France to the Rhii e, nc'i* 
 licgan to take an active part in the struggle, and sent French armies into Geirnauy, 
 to aid Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedes. 
 
 FRENCH PERIOD OF THE WAR. 
 
 Death of Ferdinand II. — Accession of Ferdinand III. — Baner, lors- 
 tenson and Wrangel. —The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, without seemg 
 the end of the civil and religious war in which he had been engaged Irom the 
 commencement of his reign; and was succeeded on the imperial throne of Ger- 
 many by his son, Ferdinand III. Bernhard of Weimar, after making important 
 conquests on the Rhine, and the Swedish general Baner, after ravaging Bohemia, 
 did not long survive Ferdinand II. On the death of Baner, the command of the 
 Swedish army in Germany was assigned to Torstenson, who gained brilliant \nc- 
 tories over the imperial . forces at Leipsic and the hill Tabor, and even threatened 
 Vienna with a siege; but, on account of illness from the gout, Torstenson was 
 finally obliged to relinquish his command to Wrangel, an able general. WVangel 
 and the French general Turenne marched into Bavaria, and compelled the Elector 
 Maximilian to flee from his dominions; but while they were preparing to invade 
 Bohemia, they received intelligence of the Peace of Westphalia; and hostilities 
 were suspended. 
 
 Peace of Westphalia. — After five years of negotiation at Munster and Osna- 
 burg, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded in October, 1648, to the great joy ol 
 the German people, who had long clamored for the termination of the war. By 
 this treaty a part of the German territory on the Rhine was ceded to France; the 
 island of Rugen and a portion of Pomerania were surrendered to Sweden; another 
 portion of Pomerania was given up to the Great Elector Frederick William of 
 Brandenburg; Lusatia was allotted to the Elector of Saxony; the Upper Palatin 
 ate was bestowed on the Elector of Bavaria; and Switzerland and Holland were 
 acknowledged as independent republics, the former by Germany, and the latter by 
 Spain. The religious treaties of Passau and Augsburg were confirmed; and the 
 jrivileges of free religious worship, and equal civil rights with the Catholics, were 
 iecured to the Protestants of Germany. 
 
 Condition of Germany at the Close of the Thirty Years' War. — During 
 the continuance of the Thirty Years' W^ar, two-thirds of the German population 
 Derished by the sword, famine, pestilence, and other causes. The resources d 
 fiern.imy were exhausted, and her territory at the close of the war appeared almost 
 like a desert waste. Cities, towns, and villages had been laid in ashes; agriculture, 
 manufactures, and commerce had been neglected ; and much of the former pros- 
 perity of Germany had passed away. Peace therefore came none too soon for the 
 unfortunate land. 
 
232 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Sweden After the Thirty Years' War, — Gustavus Adolphus was succeeded 
 on the tlirone of Sweden by his daughter Christina, during whose uiinority the 
 goverjiment was conducted by a senate. Christina, wlio assumed the government 
 in 1644, surrounded herself with the society of literary men; and her taste for art 
 and her love for science induced her to abdicate her throne ten years after attaiainsj 
 her majority. She then embraced Roman Catholicism, and passed the remaindei 
 )f her life in Rome. Christina's successor on the Swedish throne, Charles X.. 
 ,'ifj54i66o), was a great warrior, and famous for his victories over the Poles anO 
 tne Danes. Charles XI. (1660- 1697) broke the power of the Swedish aristocracy. 
 
 THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION. 
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE HOUSE OF STUART. 
 
 REIGN OF JAMES I. (A. D. ie03-162S). 
 
 Accession of James I. — Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland. 
 
 — On the death of Queen Elizabeth, in 1603, James Stuart, King of Scotland, son 
 of the unfortunate Mary, ascended the thron-e of England. From the time of his 
 oiother's fall, he had reigned over Scotland, with the title of James VI., but now he 
 became James I. of England. Thenceforth the crowns of England and Scotlanvl 
 were united, but each kingdom had its own parliament until 1707, when a legisla- 
 tive union took place. During the reign of James I. the English colonies of James- 
 town and Plymouth, in North America, were planted. 
 
 Vanity and Bigotry of James I. — His Theological Learning. — James I. 
 was a vain, bigoted, and pedantic prince. He was in the possession of much theo- 
 logical learning, and delighted to engage in controversies on religious subjects. He 
 loved to make a display of his wisdom and knowledge in lengthy harangues. James 
 was also ambitious of the reputation of being a great author; and he wrote many 
 oooks. 
 
 Peaceful Disposition of James I. — His Lavishness to His Favorites. 
 — James I. lacked the shrewdness and decision essential in a sovereign. He was 
 so extreme a lover of peace as to sacrifice the honor and dignity of his kingdom, for 
 the sake of living on friendly terms with foreign governments. One of the faults 
 of James was his lavishness of favors to unworthy persons. Of these, George Vi!- 
 liers, Duke of Buckingham, had the greatest influence. 
 
 James's Idea of " the Divine Right of Kings." — James I. was a firm be- 
 liever in " the divine right of kings." He believed that his authority was directly 
 derived from God, and that his power was unlimited. For this reason he hated 
 'Xe Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which made the king only a common membei 
 of the congregation ; but he was zealously attached to the Episcopal Church of 
 England, in which the monarch was considered the head and origin of all spiritual 
 power; and the great object of James was the suppression of Puritanism in England 
 •rind Presbyterianism in Scotland, and the full establishment of Episcopacy, as the 
 only form of religion throughout his dominions. 
 
 Conspiracy in Favor of Lady Arabella Stuart — Execution of Sir W. 
 Raleigh. — The quiet of King James' reign was soon disturbed by a conspiracy fr 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 233 
 
 place Lady Arabella Stuart, his first cousin, on the throne of England; but the de- 
 sign of the conspirators was easily frustrated. Sir Walter Raleigh, who was accused 
 of complicity in the plot in favor of Lady Arabella, was held in imprisonment fci 
 thirteen years, during which he wrote his " History of the World." After his re 
 lease, Raleigh conducted an English gold-searching expedition to South America 
 Raleigh attacked and captured a small Spanish town, although a state of peace 
 existed between England and Spain. In order to appease the clamors of tJu 
 Sj finish Government, King James resolved to sacrifice Raleigh; and on the 291b 
 if October, 1618, that distinguished personage was beheaded. This cruel act if 
 an indelible stain upon the ■ character of James I.; and at the time made mm 
 exceedingly unpo])uIar. 
 
 The Gunpowder Plot. — No sooner was James I. seated on fhe English throne, 
 tlian he forgot his promises of toleration to the English Roman Catholics, and fol 
 lowed the example of Queen Elizabeth in making them pay an oppressive capita 
 tion tax, that he might enrich his favorites, and defray the expenses of his court 
 festivals. This aroused the indignation of the Catholics, some of whom resolved 
 upon a conspiracy to blow up the Parliament House with gunpowder, at a time 
 when the King, the Lords, and the Commons would be assembled there, and thus 
 destroy the whole government of England. At length the plot was discovered, and 
 the leading conspirator, Guy Fawkes, was detected in a cellar in which thirty-six 
 barrels of gunpowder were concealed. Guy Fawkes was seized and executed, and 
 his fellow-conspirators perished in an insurrection which they had excited. This 
 conspiracy took place in 1605, and is known as "The Gunpowder Plot." In conse- 
 quence of it, the English Catholics were heavily fined, and compelled to take an 
 oath of fidelity to the monarch. 
 
 Nuptial Expedition of Prince Charles into Spain. — James I. was anxious 
 that his son Charles, heir to the throne, should marry a daughter of the King of 
 Spain. The English people were opposed to such a marriage ; but the Duke of 
 Buckingham warmly advocated it. Buckingham and Prince Charles undertook a 
 romantic journey into Spain to see the princess. When they arrived at Madrid, 
 they were treated with respect by the Spanish king, Philip III.; but Buckingham's 
 insolent conduct offended the haughty Spaniards, and thus prevented the marriage. 
 Prince Charles afterwards married Henrietta Maria, daughter of the murdered 
 Henry IV. of France. 
 
 Disputes between King James I. and his Parliament. — Jam»*s I., as we 
 have already said, was a firm believer in the divine right of kings. He was ex- 
 tremely jealous of any encroachments on the royal prerogative. During thr reigns 
 of the sovereigns of the House of Tudor, the English Parliament posses.sed but 
 little liberty, and the monarch wielded almost absolute power. This unlimited 
 power, James I. was resolved to preserve and extend; and he was consequently 
 involved in a continual contest with the Parliament, which was determined to as 
 (en :is own rights, and to uphold the liberties of the English people. Parliament? 
 «rerc repK;atedly dissolved, but the next were always sure to be more olistinate than 
 (heir predecessors. At length, when the king declared that what the Parliament 
 regarded its its rights were but privileges for the enjoyment of which tl.ey were in- 
 debted to his majesty's favor, the Commons registered a protest, in whicn they as 
 S'jrted that ll^e t;nactment of laws, the assent to taxes, and the rights and privileges 
 
234 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 )( l'a.riiament,were inherent rights of every Englishman. Exasperated at this l)old 
 Jcclaration, tl:e king tore with his own hand from the record the leaf on which was 
 ivritten the protest, dissolved tJie Parliament, and ordered the imprisonment of sev- 
 eral of the members; but the Parliament displayed a bolder attitude undei hi; suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 REIGN OF CHARLES I. (A. D. 1625-16-*©). 
 
 Difficulties between King Charles I. and the Parliament. — James 1 .;'?d 
 in 1625, and was succeeded on the English throne by his son, Charles I. Nc 
 soimer was Charles I. seated on the throne, than a vehement dispute arose l>2tweeri 
 nim and the Parliament, and that body was consequently dissolved during the first 
 and second years of his reign. The assistance given to the Elector Frederic V. of 
 the Palatinate and the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War, and a useless 
 war with France, brought about by the Duke of Buckingham, still Prime-Ministei 
 of England, produced heavy expenses ; and the king was irritated that the Parlia- 
 ment refused to vote supplies as he freely as he desired. 
 
 Petition of Right. — ^When the war with France resulted unfavorably for the 
 English, the third Parliament summoned by Charles I. was disposed to impeach 
 the Duke of Buckingham. In order to save his favorite minister, Charles found 
 himself obUged to acknowledge the validity of " the Petition of Right," presented 
 to his majesty by both Houses of Parliament, and consequently to restore to the 
 Parliament its former privileges, and freedom of speech and inviolability of person 
 and property of its members. 
 
 Thomas Wentv/orth, Earl of Strafford, Prime-Minister. — Soon after the 
 presentation of the Petition of Right, the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated, 
 whereupon the king appointed Thomas Wentworth, one of the leaders of the popular 
 party, to the head of the Ministry, and created him Earl of Strafford and governor 
 of Ireland. From this time forward, Wentworth was an avowed opponent of the 
 principles of liberty which he had formerly advocated ; and, with the view of in- 
 creasing the royal power, he advised the king to govern for some time \\ ithout a 
 Parliament. 
 
 Illegal Measures of the King to Obtain Money — Ship-money. — For the 
 purpose of obtaining money to defray the expenses of the Government, the king 
 now had recourse to the most arbitrary and unjust expedients. Heavy fines were 
 imposed for the most trifling offenses, and heavy duties were levied upon various 
 articles. Charles I. also imposed a tax called "ship-money," because it was used 
 for the support of the navy. These illegal measures of the king aroused the indig- 
 nation of the English people. 
 
 Arbitrary Measures of Archbishop Laud. — Charles I. also attempted to 
 establish the Episcopal Church on a firmer basis, and to suppress Puritanism .'n 
 England and Presbyterianism in Scotland, with the view of checking the raj:id 
 growth of republican principles among the English people. For the purpose ot 
 iccon^plishing this end, the king appointed the zealous Bishop Laud, of LondvW, 
 Ar:'hSishop of Canterbury. Laud caused the Cathedral of St. Paul's, in London, 
 to be ':"'nsecrated anew, and the churches to be supplied with numerous images and 
 cimaments, and hnposed upon the Puritans ceremonies and observances hitherto 
 ttnpracticed by the Church of England. The new Archbishop also removed the 
 
'SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 235 
 
 Puritan pieachers from their offices, and invested arbitrary tribunals, such as the 
 Courts of the Star Chamber and High Commission, witli the authority of pronoun- 
 cing severe punishments against those who manifested any opposition to established 
 institutions. Thus Prynne, a Puritan, was sentenced to lose both his ears, and to be 
 imprisoned for life, for writing a volume against dancing, masks, theatrical plays, 
 and other amusements in which the coirrt delighted. 
 
 Trial of John Hampden. — The proceedings just mentioned endangered ovil 
 «nd religious liberty in England, and threw the whole kingdom into a fermtr.t 
 iht resolute John Hampden refused to pay any ship-money, and was conscquer.ily 
 tried in the Exchequer-Chamber, in the presence of all the Judges of England. The 
 fudges decided in favor of the crown, but Hampden was more than compensated 
 for the loss of his cause by the applause of his countrymen. 
 
 The Puritan Preachers. — The Puritan preachers who had lost their offices 
 traveled through the country, denouncing the arbitrary measures of Laud as pre- 
 liminary steps to the reestablishment of popery in England; and by their passionate 
 appeals, they excited the- people against the king, the archbishop, and the clergy. 
 The Scotch Covenant — Scotch Rebellion. — While the royal assumptions 
 were thus violently opposed in England, the attempts of the king to establish the 
 Episcopal form of worship in Scotland produced a formidable rebellion in that 
 country, in 1637. The first attempt to worship according to the Episcopal form in 
 the Cathedral of Edinburgh caused a violent tumult. The Episcopal ])riest was 
 driven from the cathedral, amid the cries of " Pope !" " Antichrist!"" " Stone him !" 
 The Scotch people immediately entered into a solemn league, or " Covenant," for 
 the protection of their Presbyterian form of worship, drove away the Episcopal 
 bishops, and took up arms. The king, resolving to crush all opposition by force, 
 sent an army against the Scotch insurgents ; but his troops were overcome by the 
 zealous Scots, who went forth to battle with prayer. The victorious Scots marched 
 into England, and the king found himself obliged to summon another Parliament, 
 after an interval of eleven years, to solicit aid against the Scotch rebels. 
 
 The Long Parliament. — The Parliament just summoned, instead of voting 
 supplies against the rel:)eliious Scots, began to attack the unlawful assumptions of 
 the king, and to discuss the grievances of the English people. In a fit of exaspera- 
 tion, Charles I. dissolved this Parliament; but his necessities obliged him to call 
 another. The Parliament which now assembled is known as "The Long Parlia- 
 ment," on account of the extraordinary length of its existence. Its leading mem- 
 bers were Sir Arthur Haslerip^. John Hampden, John Pym, and Oliver Cromwell, 
 "ivho were opposed to absolute monarchical power and Episcopal church government, 
 j and who were strong advocates of republican principles. 
 
 Trial and Execution '^f Strafford — Fate of Archbishop Laud.— Instea.i 
 of affording the king '\ny Dssistance against the Scotch insurgents, the Long Parlia- 
 T^nt formed a .secret }'?3g;u'» with them. The Parliament next impeached theEarl o< 
 3 raffcud for high tria-on. The king vainly endeavored to save his favorite minister 
 The Z 'mmons we-.e rprolved upon his destruction. After a trial of seventy layi. 
 and a dignified and /^'.onuent defense, Strafford was de,.clared guilty and condtrnned 
 to death. In a mom?rt of weakness, the king signed the death-warrant, and the 
 unfortunate Strafford '^as beheaded. He died with firmness and refolutira 
 
236 MODERN HISTOR V. 
 
 A.rdil)ishop Laud was also impeached and tried, for endeavoring to destroy the 
 liberities of the people of England. He was declared guilty, imprisoned, and 
 three yeais afterwards beheaded. The Courts of High Commission and the Star 
 Chamber were now dissolved, and the Episcopal bishops were excluded from 
 their seats in the House of Lords. 
 
 Iiish Rebellion. — A dangerous rebellion broke out in Ireland In 1641. arid the 
 ProU-Uant settlers in that country were massacred by the Catholic «rish. The Tar- 
 liam':nt accused the court, and particularly the queen, of instigating the rel)el!io2 
 and the massacre, and declared that the Catholic and Episcopal bishops and tht 
 coui' had entered into a plot for the destruction of religion and liberty in England. 
 
 Rash Act of the King. — At length, Charles L, exasperated at the increasing 
 demands of the Parliament, ordered five of its lx)ldest speakers, — Haslerig, Hollis, 
 Hampden, Pym, and Strode, — to be arrested, and went in person to the hall of 
 the House of Commons to seize them. For this rash act, the king afterwards 
 found himself obliged to apologize in a humiliating message to the Parliament. 
 
 Parliamentary Encroachments on the Royal Prerogative. — From this 
 time the Parliament encroached more and more on the royal prerogative, until 
 scarcely a vestige of monarchical power remained. The Commons now demanded 
 that the appointment of ministers of state, and of military and naval commanders, 
 should depend upon their approval. The Commons also required that the Tower 
 of London, several of the sea-ports, and the management of the navy, should also 
 oe given into their possession. When the Parliament demanded that the king should 
 relinquish the command of the army for a certain period, his majesty angrily re- 
 plied, " No, not for one hour!" This refusal dispelled all hopes for a peaceful settle- 
 ment of difficulties, and both parties resolved upon an appeal to arms. 
 
 Presbyterians and Independents. — The opponents of the king were divided 
 into several parties. The Independents, who were Puritans in religious belief and 
 republicans in political faith, aimed at the overthrow of the monarchy; while the 
 Presbyterians, or moderate party, merely wished to put an end to the abuses of the 
 royal power, but not to deprive the king of his crown. 
 
 CIVIL WAR (1642-1649). 
 
 The King's Withdrawal from London — Commencement of th» Civil 
 War.— The breach between King Charles I. and the Parliament continually widened; 
 and in 1642, the king withdrew from London and retired to York, wl ere he 
 declared war against the Parliament. On the 25th of August, 1642, Charles '-rected 
 the royal standard at Nottingham, but it was soon blown down by the viole»ice ol 
 the wiiuL A civil war of six years now commenced, in which England was 
 drenched with the blood of her own people. 
 
 " Cavaliers " and " Roundheads." — On the side of the king weie the nobility^ 
 the Roman Catholic and Episcopal clergy, and all the advocates of the establishci 
 Church, and of absolute monarchy. The whole of the king's party were calevi 
 "Cavaliers." On the side of the Parliament were the Puritans, all who advoca'Ci-. 
 i reform in Church and State, and all believers in republican principles. All the 
 adherents of the Parliament received from their enemies the nickname of " Round- 
 heads," because their hair was cropped close to their heads. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 237 
 
 Battle of Edge Hill. — During the first and second years of the war, the king's 
 forces, commanded by his nephew, Prince Rupert of the Palatinate, and the Mar- 
 quis of Newcastle, were victorious in almost every encounter with the undiscil^• 
 lined forces of the Parliament, commanded by Lord Fairfax and the Earl of Essex, 
 the la^'er of whom was the son of Queen Elizabeth's favorite. The first gieat bat 
 tie of the civil war was fought at Edge Hill, in Warwickshire, on the 3d of 
 October, 1642. The king's army was commanded by Prince Rupert, and the 
 Parliamentary forces by the Earl of Essex. Both sides lost about 5,000 me'- 
 IciUed, and neither gained the victory. 
 
 Royalist Victories in 1643 — Death of John Hampden. — The campaign 
 of 1643 wa:s favorable to tlie royal cause. The Parliamentary forces were defeated 
 at Stratton Hill, in Cornwall; at Roundway Down; and at Chalgrave Field. 
 Bristol was besieged and taken by the Royalists, who also gained a victory in the 
 oattle of Newbury. During the year 1643, the Parliamentary party experienced a 
 severe loss in the death of the brave, illustrious, and upright John Hampden, who 
 was killed in a skirmish with Prince Rupert. The Royalists now secured the aid 
 -A some Irish Roman Catholics, while the Parliament entered into a solemn league, 
 ar " Covenant," with the Scotch Presbyterians, who sent an army of 14,000 men 
 into the field against King Charles I. 
 
 Appearance of Oliver Cromwell. — The tide of success was now turning in 
 favor of the Parliamentary side, whose troops had been greatly benefited by the 
 exi>erience of the first two years of the war. The resolute and enthusiastic Puritan, 
 Oliver Cromwell, now began to take a conspicuous part in the contest. At the 
 head of a hardy and pious squadron of cavalry which he had organized, he took 
 the field in the cause of God and lil>erty. 
 
 Battle of Marston Moor. — The first great Parliamentary victory was gained 
 at Marston Moor, about nine miles from York, on the 3d of July, 1644, by Crom 
 well and his " Ironsides," as the sturdy squadron of cavalry which he commanded 
 was called. The defeat of the royal army was partly due to the impetuosity of 
 Prince Rupert. The whole of Rupert's artillery fell into the hands of Cromwell's 
 I'ictorious troops. The consequence of the battle of Marston Moor was that the 
 whole North of England fell into the possession of the Parliamentarians. Soon after- 
 ward occurred the second battle of Newbury, in which neither party was victorious. 
 
 Presbyterians and Independents. — The Puritans now banished the Book of 
 Common Prayer from religious worship, and substituted the Calvinistic fonn of 
 worship and church government for the Episcopal. They also caused images and or- 
 naments to be taken from the churches, and forbade festivities. But the Puritans were 
 divided into two great parties, — the Presbyterians and the Independents, — betweer 
 whom the greatest animosity already prevailed. The Presbyterians, or moderate 
 Puritans, inclined toward the support of monarchical and aristocratic institutions. 
 and lorged for the establishment of their Church, to the exclusion of all others, and 
 (•(/posei 'oleration. The Independents, or radical Puritans, held democratic 01 
 Etpublican views in regard to civil government, and desired toleration foi ill 
 Christian faiths. 
 
 The Self-denying Ordinance. — Oliver Cromwell belonged to the Independ- 
 ents; while tjie Earl of Essex, who held the chief command of the Parliamentary 
 
^38 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 forces, belonged to the Presbyterians. The Independents caused the enactment, by 
 ParHament, of the Self-denying Ordinance, which allowed no member of Parliament 
 to hold ?. command in the army. The Earl of Essex was therefore compelled to 
 resign ; and Lord Fairfax, an able general, was appointed to the chief command of 
 the army of the Parliament. Cromwell, who had been one of the raost enthusiastic 
 supporters of the Self-denying Ordinance, hastened to resign his command; but 
 '.hiough the influence of Fairfax, who felt that Cromwell's services in the army >^ eit- 
 icuessary to insure the overthrow of the Royal party, the Parliament dispensed w i;b 
 ihe Self-denying Ordinance in Cromwell's case, and he was permitted tc -etain n » 
 id'sition. 
 
 Renewal of the Civil War — Battle of Naseby. — Some efforts ar p«ace 
 having failed, the civil war again burst forth with all its fury. The army ol King 
 Charles I. was completely overthrown, and his cause was utterly ruined, in the 
 desperate battle of Naseby, in Northamptonshire, on the 14th of June, 1645. The 
 Parliamentary forces were commanded by Fairfax, Skippon, Cromwell, and Ireton; 
 and the Royalists by the king. Prince Rupert, Lord Astley, and Sir Marmaduke 
 Langdale. The defeat of the Roya! army was caused, in a great measure, by the 
 rashness and impatience of Prince Rupert, who overruled the more prudent judg- 
 ment of the king. Rupert, with the right wing of the Royal cavalry, dashed with 
 the most fiery impetuosity upon the Farliamentaiy left wing, commanded by Gen- 
 eral Ireton, Cromwell's son-in-law. At the same time Cromwell, with the Parlia- 
 mentary right wing, assailed the Royal left wing; while the centres of the two 
 armies, led respectively by Fairfax and the king, were struggling desperately. The 
 Parliamentary left was thoroughly annihilated, and Ireton was made a prisoner; 
 but Rupert lost precious time in an unnecesary pursuit of Ireton's broken forces, 
 when he should have gone to the aid of the king. In the meantime Cromwell with 
 his "Ironsides" defeated the Royal cavalry, after which he flew to the aid of the 
 Parliamentary centre, which was beginning to give way before the Royalists. Crom- 
 well and his Ironsides, who insured victory wherever they appeared, soon put the 
 king's infantry to a total rout ; and Charles I., seeing that the day was lost to his 
 cause, retired with his forces, leaving the field, all his baggage and cannon, and 
 50,000 prisoners, in the hands of the victorious Parliamentarians. 
 
 The King in the Hands of the Scots. — By their victory at Naseby, the Par- 
 liamentarians obtamed possession of all the strong cities in the kingdom, such as 
 Bristol, Bridgewater, Bath, and Chester. Exeter wa^ besieged and taken by Fair- 
 fax, whereupon the king and his broken hosts retreated to Oxford, which Fairfax 
 and Cromwell were preparing to besiege. Rather than be taken prisoner by his 
 enemies, Charles I. fled into Scotland, hoping to find respect and kind treatment 
 among his Scotch subjects. He went into the camp of an army of Scots that was 
 engaged in the service of the Parliament; but instead of treating him as their king, 
 the Sccjts placed a guard around him and kept him as a prisoner. The fanatical 
 •icotch preachers, unable to restrain their zeal, insulted him to his face, and, ir 
 icrmons {)reached in his presence, bitterly reproached him as a wicked ty.-pnt. 
 
 The King in the Power of the Parliament. — \Vhen the Parliament \ws, in 
 formed that the king was in the hands of the Scots, it began to negotiate with them 
 for Ihe possession of his person. The Scots surrendered Charles I. into the iinnds 
 of commission »rs appointed by the Parliament, upon receiving 400,000 pourds 
 
CROMWELL. 
 

 CHARLES 1. OF ENGLAND. 
 
SE VENTEENTH CENTVR Y. 
 
 239 
 
 sterling. The Scots were ever aftei-wards ashamed of the reproach of having sold 
 their sovereign to his inveterate foes. 
 
 Presbyterians and Independents. — As we have already seen, the kj:,^'s 
 enemies were divided into the Presbyterian and Independent parties. The most 
 inveterate animosity now existed between these two factions. The Presbyterians 
 had a m;-'iority in the Parliament, while the Independents had a majurily in th^ 
 umy. 
 
 The King in the Power of Cromw^ell. — The Presbyterians, in conjunctioa 
 with the Royalists, now endeavored to restore to the king his authority; but in this 
 they we:e opposed by the Independents, the most rigid of Puritans, and republicans 
 m principle. The leader of the Independent party was Oliver Cromwell, who 
 took King Charles I. from the commissioners of the Parliament, and placed him in the 
 charge of the army. The Parliament now proposed to disband the army; but the 
 officers and troops, instigated by Cromwell, resolved to remain together. 
 
 Aribitrary Proceedings of Cromwell. — Cromwell now marched to London, 
 and subjected the city and the Parliament to his authority. The king in the mean- 
 time escaped to the Isle of Wight. The Parliament now desired an accommodation 
 with the king; but Charles relied upon foreign aid. Cromwell having discovered 
 the insincerity of the king, resolved upon his destruction. The Parliament was 
 thrown into the greatest consternation upon the reception of intelligence that the 
 king had again been seized and placed in the power of the army, by the secret 
 orders of Cromwell. 
 
 Colonel Pride's Purge. — The Parliament now endeavored to destroy Croiu 
 well; but, anticipating their design, he resolved to annihilate their power by 
 decisive blow. He therefore sent to London a body of troops under Colonel Pridt. 
 who surrounded the Parliament-house and excluded all the Presbyterian memljei 
 from their seats. (December, 1648.) This violent proceeding is known as " Col 
 onel Pride's Purge." 
 
 Trial and Execution of Charles I. — Oliver Cromwell was now virtual dicta 
 tor of England, and the Parliament, which now consisted of Independents, and 
 which was called " The Rump Parliament," was entirely under his control. Crom-' 
 well now caused articles of impeachment to be preferred against the king, or Charles 
 Stuart, as he was now called, charging him with high treason, in levying war against 
 his Parliament. A High Court of Justice was organized, and held in Westminster 
 Hall, for the juirpose of trying the king; but Charles persistently denied the juris 
 diclion of the court. The trial commenced on the 20th of January, 1649. As the 
 king was on his way to the court-room, he was insulted by the soldieiy and the 
 mob, who uttered all sorts of unfeeling cries. After a trial of seven days, Chailes 
 I. -vas declared guilty, and was condemned to death as a traitor and a murderer, 
 Or. his way from the court-room, he was again insulted by the soldiers an I the rab- 
 ble, who cried out, "Justice!" "Execution!" and some even went so far as to spi( 
 in his face. Charles bore all their insolence with patience, saying, " Poor rouLs 
 they would treat their generals the same way for a six-]ieiice." On the 30th -^f 
 January, 1649, the king was led to the place of execution, in front of the palace 1 
 Whitehall. He ascended the scaffold with a firm step. Addressing those around 
 him, he declared himself innocent toward his people, and forgave his enemies. 
 
240 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Turning to Bishop Juxon, he said, " I go from a corruptible to an incorruptible 
 crown, where no disturbance can take place." "You exchange," said the bishop, 
 "a temporal for an eternal crown ; a good exchange." The king then laid his head 
 upon the block, saying to Bishop Juxon, " Remember." One of the executioners 
 then struck off the king's head; and another, holding it aloft, extlaimed, "This, is 
 Ihe head of a traitor!" Many of the spectators wept at the horrid spectac'le. 
 
 THE COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND, 
 
 (FEBRUARY 1, 1649— MAY 29, 1660.) 
 
 Abolition of Monarchy—England a Commonwealth.— A few days after 
 the execution of Charles I., the House of Lords and the monarchical form of gov- 
 ernment were abolished by the Commons; and the "Rump Parliament," as it was 
 called, upheld by Oliver Cromwell and the army, governed the countiy. The so- 
 called rei)ublic was styled " The Commonwealth of England." 
 
 Reduction of the Irish Royalists.— The Royalists were still active in Ireland. 
 After arranging affairs in England, Cromwell and his army passed over into Ireland, 
 where the Royalists, headed by the Duke of Ormond, were still in arms against the' 
 republican Parliament. After defeating the Royalists in many encounters, and 
 taking numerous towns, Cromwell reduced Ireland to subjection, treating the van- 
 quished with the greatest severity. Those garrisons which obstin.ately resisted his 
 assaults were put to the sword, after falling into his hands. After returning to 
 England, Cromwell received the thanks of the Parliament for reducing Ireland to 
 submission. 
 
 Rise of the Scotch Covenanters in Favor of Prince Charles.— In the 
 meantime, the Scotch Covenanters, who bitterly repented of their conduct toward 
 their late unfortunate king, took up arms in favor of his son, Prince Charles, whom 
 they acknowledged as king, by the title of Charles II. The terms upon which the 
 Scots agreed to recognize Prince Charles as king, were that he should sign "the 
 Covenant," enter the Presbyterian Church, and accept a limited royal prerogative. 
 After some hesitation, the prince agreed to these conditions, left Holland, and made 
 his appearance in Scotland. 
 
 Battle of Dunbar.— At the head of 1 6,ooo troops, Cromwell marched against 
 the Scotch Covenanters, but many of his troops died from hunger and sickness on 
 the way. At Dunbar, Cromwell, with only 12,000 men, was opposed by 27,000 
 Scotch Covenanters, who considered victory certain. The Scotch preachers endeav- 
 ored to prove from the Old Testament that the Covenanters would conquer, and 
 urged an attack upon Cromwell's army. When Cromwell saw the Scots advancing 
 he exclaimed, " The Lord has delivered them into our hands!" A furious battle 
 ensued, on the 3d of September, 1650, and Cromwell gained a glorious victory. 
 The Scotch troops threw down their arms and fled in every direction, after lo».ir,a- 
 (,<XX) killed and wounded, and 10,000 prisoners. *^ 
 
 Battle of Worcester.- While Cromwell was still in Scotland, Prince Chailes, 
 with a body of Scotch troops, marched into England, and was joined by a consider- 
 able number of English Royalists. Cromwell at length advanced against the prince; 
 and, on the 3d of September, 1651, exactly one year after the battle of Dunbar! 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. i^j 
 
 was fought the battle of Worcester, in which Cromwell gained another hrilli.iiil 
 victory. The Royal army was hopelessly annihilated. Prince Charles fled fr;ni 
 :he field, and, after a series of narrow escapes, arrived safely in france. Scotland 
 R'as soon subdued by General Monk, whom Cromwell had left in command in lluit 
 ;ouiv ry. 
 
 Success of the English in a Naval War with Holland. — In f^'ii^Ao., 
 (651, the English Parliament passed the famous Navigation Act, which prolrnac ' 
 l.teigners from bringing into England in their own ships anything but thei/ ow j 
 jiiductions. This measure operated injuriously against Holland, then the leadir.^ 
 commercial nation of the world; and in May, 1652, a furious naval war broke out 
 between England and Holland. The English navy, under the command of ths 
 gallant Admiral Blake and General Monk, the latter of whom proved to be as abla 
 a commander on sea as on land, gained splendid victories over the Dutch fleet:;, 
 commanded by Van Tromp and De Ruyter. Peace was made in April, 1654, on 
 tenns humiliating to the Dutch. 
 
 Cromwell's Dissolution of the Long Parliament. — In the meantir.e, while 
 the war with Holland was raging, a quarrel had arisen between Oliver Cromwell 
 and the Long Parliament, as to which should have the supreme power. Secure in 
 the attachment of his army, Cromwell resolved upon a decisive blow. He per- 
 suaded the officers of the army to present a petition to the Parliament for the pay- 
 ment of arrears and for a redress of grievances, which he knew would l>e rejected 
 with scorn. In this petition, the officers, after demanding the payment of arrears, 
 asked the Parliament to consider how long it had sat, and what professions it had 
 once made of establishing liberty on the widest basis. The Parliament was so ex- 
 asperated at this haughty presumption of the army, that it appointed a committee 
 to report an act declaring that all persons presenting such petitions in future should 
 be considered guilty of high treason. This action was followed by a remonstrance 
 of the army officers, to which an angry reply was returned by the Parliament. The 
 quarrel became warmer and warmer; and when Cromwell was informed of thf 
 subject upon which the Parliament was deliberating, he left the council of oflicers, 
 and, appearing very angry, hastened to the Parliament House with 300 soldiers. 
 Leaving the soldiers outside at the door, Cromwell entered the house and sat dowTi. 
 After sitting for some time, he suddenly started up, exclaiming, "This is the time, 
 — I must do It." and stamping his foot upon the floor as a signal, the house was 
 immediately Sllj-i with soldiers. Then addressing the members, he said, "For 
 shame, get you gone. Give place to honester men, — to men who will more faith- 
 fully discharge their duties. You are no longer a Parliament: I tell you, you are 
 r.o onger a Parliament. The Lord has done with you." Sir Henry Vane crying 
 u\A against this conduct, Cromwell exclaimed, "Sir Henry Vane! O Sir Henrv 
 V,ine! the Lord deliver me from Sir Henry Vane !" Cromwell then repioached 
 the members for their vices, and said, "It is you who have forced me to do this, 
 1 have sought the Lord, night and day, that he would slay me rather than put mf 
 upon this work." Colonel Harrison then led the speaker from the chair, and tlic 
 jther members rushed out of the door. After the hall had been cleared, Cromwol) 
 ordered the doors to be locked, and, putting the keys into his pocket, he returned 
 to Whitehall. Cromwell's dissolution of the Long Parliament occurred on Ihit 
 20th of A]iril, 1653. 
 
2 42 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 " Praise-God" Barebone's Parliament. — Oliver Cromwell was now virtu- 
 ally sole ruler of England, with more real power than any of the ancient kings. 
 To keep up the appearance of a Commonwealth, he summoned another Parlia- 
 ment, which was composed of the most ignorant religious fanatics. One of the 
 principal orators of this Parliament was the leather-seller, Barebone, and the Par- 
 liament was known as " Barebone's Parliament." The members of this Parlia 
 nient, to show their religious zeal, adopted new names, consisting of several wonlr, 
 ind scrn-rtimes of whole sentences. Barebone himself was named " Praise-G-:>d.' 
 Other ridiculous names adopted were, " Stand-fast-on-high '' Stringer, " Fight .lie 
 good fight-of-faith " White, " More-fruit " Fowler, " Good-reward " Smart. Hare 
 bone had a i)r )ther who was named, " If-Christ-had-not-died-for-you-you-had-becn- 
 damned" Barebone. This being too lengthy to say every time his name was 
 mentioned, he was generally called " Damned " Barebone. The whole conduct 
 of Barebone's Parliament was most absurd ; and at length, in December, 1653, the 
 members agreeing that they had sat long enough, went, with Rouse, their speaker, 
 at their head, to Cromwell, and voluntarily resigned their power into his hands. 
 Cromwell, who was ashamed of their ridiculous proceedings, gladly accepted their 
 resignations; and being told that some of the memlx^rs had determined to remain, 
 he sent Colonel White with a body of troops to drive them from the house. The 
 colonel, entering the hall, asked the refractory members what they were doing 
 there. One Mover, whom they had placed in the chair, replied, " We are seeking 
 the Lord." "Then," said White, "you may go elsewhere; for, to my certain 
 knowledge, the Lord has not been here these many years." The members then 
 withdrew from the hall, and Cromwell's authority was undisputed. 
 
 Cromwell " Lord- Protector of the Commonwrealth of England." — A 
 new constitution, called " The Instrument of Government," projected by General 
 Lambert, was now adopted, by which Oliver Cromwell was entrusted with the 
 supreme power, with the title of " Lord- Protector of the Commonwealth of Eng- 
 land, .Scotland, and Ireland." Cromwell shared the government with a Council 
 and a Parliament ; but he was in all but in name a monarch. As Lord- Protector, 
 Cromwell governed vigorously and successfully, and made himself respected at 
 home and abroad ; and England was never more prosperous than under his firm rule. 
 
 Royalist Conspiracy — War with Spain — Conquest of Jamaica. — Several 
 subsequent Parliaments were successively dissolved by Cromwell. The Parlia- 
 ment of 1656 offered Cromwell a crown, but he declined the offer. In 1655, a 
 dangerous conspiracy of the Royalists was discovered, and many of the conspira- 
 tors were punished. During the same year, the shrewd Cardinal Mazarin, who 
 then wielded the destinies of France, by flattering Cromwell, induced England to 
 take part with France in a war against Spain. Admiral Blake defeated the Span- 
 ish fleets in the Mediterranean sea, and Admirals Penn and Venables conquered 
 the island of Jamaica, in the West Indies, from the Spaniards. Jamaica has evei 
 ince remained in the possession of England. An English force of 6,000 men 
 |<iiriod 'he I'Vench in the Netherlands; and the fortress of Dunkirk, which the 
 French took from the Spaniards, was given to England, as a reward for her a.ssisi 
 ar.ce to France in the war. 
 
 Conspiracies against Cromwell — His Fear of Assassination — His 
 D^ath. — Cromwell's situation was not an enviable one. He was now equally 
 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 243 
 
 ftated by the Royalists and the Republicans; and many plots were formed against 
 his power and his life. His eldest daughter, Mrs. Fleetwood, was so violent a 
 Republican that she dreaded to see her father invested with supreme power. His 
 favorite daughter, Mrs. Claypole, was a staunch Royalist; and on her death-bed, 
 she reproached her father for overturning the monarchy. His other daughters, 
 Lady Franconberg and Lady Rich, were also zealous Royalists. Conspiracy after 
 conspiracy embittered the last days of Cromwell's life. The Lord-Protector was 
 in constant fear of assassination. He wore armor under his clothes, and alway; 
 tarried pisUjls in his pockets. His countenance was gloomy, and he trusted no one. 
 When he traveled out, he was attended by a numerous guard. He never re- 
 turned by the same road which he went; and he did not sleep more than three 
 nights in the same '■oom. Cromwell was delivered from his miserable existence 
 by a Slow tevei, of wnich he died on the 3d of September, 1658, — the anniversary 
 of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester, and a day which he had always 
 regarded as the most fortunate of his life. Thus died the greatest man that Eng- 
 land ever produced, — a great general, statesman, and ruler. 
 
 Richard Cromwell Lord-Protector — His Resignation. — Richard Crom- 
 well, Oliver's son, was proclaimed Lord- Protector of the Commonwealth of Eng- 
 land, upon his father's death; but Richard, who had no executive abilities or firm- 
 ness whatever, and who was of a quiet and unambitious nature, quietly resigned 
 the Lord- Protectorship, after holding it a few months, and retired to private life. 
 
 Restoration of Monarchy. — After the resignation of Richard Cromwell, Eng- 
 land was virtually without any government, and each party endeavored to obtain 
 the supremacy. The Rump Parliament, which Oliver Cromwell had so violently 
 dissolved in April, 1653, reassembled, and assumed the direction of national af- 
 fairs. But this Parliament did not possess the confidence of any party, and it was 
 dissolved by the army commanded by General Lambert, who then undertook the 
 control of public affaias. It was now the settled conviction of many that nothing 
 but the restoration of monarchy would free England from a state of anarchy. Gen- 
 eral Monk, who commanded the army in Scotland, and who had long hated Gen- 
 eral Lambert, secretly formed the design of restoring the monarchy, in the person 
 of Prince Charles, the eldest son of the late unfortunate monarch; and at once 
 entered into a correspondence with the prince, who was then living in Holhind. 
 So well did General Monk conceal his design, that no one knew with which party 
 he was acting, and he was enabled to march unopposed from Scotland to London. 
 Lambert had in the meantime been imprisoned in the Tower, by his own troops, 
 who now joined Monk. On the ist of May, 1660, Monk threw off the mask, by 
 pi-oposing to a new Parliament, which had just been assembled, the restoration of 
 tlie monarchy. This proposal was hailed with joy by the English people, whtl 
 were tired of the condition of anarchy which had prevailed since the death of 
 Oliver Cromwell. The House of Lords hastened to reinstate itself in its former 
 dijT;nity. On the 8th of May (1660), Prince Charles was proclaimed King of Fng- 
 and, Scotlana and Ireland, with the title of Charles II.; and on the 29ih of 'lit 
 ssme manth,- -which was his birthday, — he made his triumphal entry into London 
 "md everything was restored to its ancient footing. 
 
244 MODERN nISTORY. 
 
 THE RESTORED HOUSE OF STUART. 
 
 RKIGN OF CHARLES II. (A. D. 1660-168S). 
 
 Cbaiacter of Charles II. — Charles II. was thirty years old when he found 
 himself so une.xpectedly seated on the throne of England. He had an agreeable 
 pt-rson, a polished address, and a cheerful and engaging demeanor. His whole 
 dijportment tended to secure favor and popularity. His excessive indolence and 
 love of pleasure made him hate business, and leave the affairs of governmen* 't 
 olliers. All that the new sovereign cared for was to live idly and jovially. 
 
 First Measures and Actions of Charles II. — The first measures of the new 
 monarch gave general satisfaction to the English nation. The Earl of Clarendon, 
 who was highly esteemed for his virtues, was placed at the head of the Ministry ; 
 and by his uprightness and prudence, the government was conducted for some time 
 with justice and moderation. A general amnesty was granted to all who had taken 
 sides against the king during the civil wars, excepting those who had been chiefly 
 concerned in procuring the death of Charles I. Of the sixty persons who had been 
 concerned in that act, many were dead, and others had left the country. Of those 
 brought to trial, ten were executed as regicides. Among the number was Sir Heniy 
 Vane. They all died with firmness. Oliver Cromwell, though dead, was regarded 
 a^ a proper object of revenge. His body was torn from the grave and hung on a 
 gibbet. The Protestant Episcopal Church was reestablished, and the Presbyterian 
 clergy were again deprived of their offices. 
 
 Marriage of Charles II. — War with Holland — Peace of Breda. — The 
 English people were dissatisfied with the marriage of Charles II., in 1662, with 
 Catharine of Braganza, a daughter of the King of Portugal, and with the sale of 
 Dunkirk to France; but still a greater degree of discontent was manifested when 
 the king, in 1663, involved England in a naval war with Holland. The chief naval 
 commanders of the English in this war were Prince Rupert and General Monk, 
 the latter of whom had been created Duke of Albemarle, as a reward for his services 
 in the restoration of the monarchy. The discontent of the English people and Par- 
 liament, who were opposed to the war, obliged the king to conclude with Holland 
 the Peace of Breda, in August, 1667, by which the Dutch colony of New Nether- 
 land, in North America, was ceded to England, under the name of New York. 
 
 Great Plague and Fire in London. — In the fall of 1665, a violent plague 
 Ijroke out in London, and about 90,000 persons fell victims to its ravages. In Sep- 
 temlier, 1666, a great fire, which raged for three days and three nights, reduced 
 two-thirds of the city to ashes. Eighty-nine churches, and over 13,000 hoases were 
 destroyed. These awful calamities had no influence on King Charles II., who had 
 already given himself up to all sorts of luxury, extravagance, and vice. His favor- 
 ••es and courtiers were the most profligate and unworthy characters. 
 
 Disgrace and Banishment of Clarendon — "The Cabal" Ministry. — In 
 
 1667, the Earl of Clarendon, whose virtues and integrity had made him hated by 
 I he king's licentious favorites, fell into disgrace ; and, after a trial on various fr'vo 
 lous pietenses, he \vns declared guilty of neglect of duty, and sentenced to banish 
 ment. He retired to France, where he spent the remainder of his life in writing 
 his "History of the Rebellion." After the disgrace of Clarendon, Charles II.. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 245- 
 
 whose profligacy and debaucherj' increased daily, committed a series of tyrannical 
 and violent acts. In 1667, the king entrusted the government to five of the most 
 unprincipled men in the kingdom. These were Clitfurd, Ashlej . Buckingham, 
 Arlington, and Lauderdale, who were together called " The Cabal," from the initial 
 let' crs of their names. "The Cabal" Ministry carried on the government entirely 
 in accordance with the wishes of the king, regardless of the rights and liberties of 
 he Deo:;le of England. 
 
 Another War with Holland — Charles II. a Pensioner of Louis XIV, 
 
 — Ir. 1672, Charles II., in utter disregard of the wishes of his subjects, began a fresL 
 war against Holland, as an ally of Louis XIV. of France. The English king, whose 
 pleasures were very expensive, was bribed by the French monarch to take part in 
 the war. A secret treaty was concluded between the two sovereigns, by which 
 Charles was to receive a secret pension from Louis. The war was carried on on the 
 sea. The English naval commanders were Prince Rupert, Lord Sandwich, and 
 the Duke of York, the brother of King Charles II. After the Cabal Ministry had 
 been broken up, in 1674, by the death o^'' Clifford and the disgrace of Ashley, men 
 more worthy were placed at the head of affiiirs in England; and the great opposi- 
 tion of the English people and Parliament forced Charles II. to renounce his alliance 
 with the King of France and to make peace with Holland. 
 
 Character of the English People During the Reign of Charles II. — 
 Venality and corruption were now honorable among the higher classes in England. 
 The example of the king had a most pernicious influence upon the nation. The 
 people emulated the vices of their sovereign ; and the literature of that period which 
 obtained any popularity was contaminated with the same vicious spirit by which 
 English society was corrupted. Under the rigid rule of the Puritans and Cromwell, 
 during the period of the Commonwealth, vice and immorality were checked; but 
 during the reign of Charles II., England was sunk in the lowest depths of dissipation 
 and licentiousness. 
 
 Contests Between King Charles II. and the Parliament. — King Charles 
 II., unwarned by the fate of his father, strove for absolute power; and from the 
 beginning to the end of his reign, there was a continual contest between the king 
 and the Parliament. The efforts of Charles II. for the establishment of absolute 
 royal power were firmly resisted by the Parliament, which was resolved upon up- 
 holding its own privileges, and the rights and liberties of the people of England. 
 Although Charles II. outwardly conformed to the Episcopal Church, he was believed 
 to be a Roman Catholic at heart ; and his brother, James, Duke of York, was an 
 avowed Catholic. The more the Stuarts favored Roman Catholicism, the more 
 firmly did the English people and Parliament adhere to Protestantism. 
 
 The Test Act. — After a long struggle, the Parliament finally passed "the les( 
 A.ct," which ^-equired that none but members of the Church of England and con- 
 fessors of the Protestant faith should be admitted to seats in Parliament, or to tiohl 
 na.'litar}- or civil offi;es. The Parliament, which had assembled in 1660, was dis- 
 solved by tiic king in 1668, and a new one summoned; but the new Parliameit 
 A'as no more subservient to the wishes of the king than its predecessor. A new 
 .Vlinistiy, headed by the Earl of Shaftesbury, who had joined the popular party, no-A' 
 came into "power. 
 
246 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act. — In 1769, the Parliament passed the celebrated Habeas 
 Corpus Act, which protected freedom of person against arbitrary arrests. According 
 to the provisions of this act, no person could be lawfully detained in prison, unless 
 he were accused of some specified offense for which he was legally subject to pun- 
 ishment; and within three days the prisoner was to be brought before the judge, 
 aaid reasons were to be shown why he was not set at liberty. 
 
 The Whigs and the Tories. — During the contests between Charles II ar 1 
 ^ha Parliament originated two parties, which, with some change of princ.'ples, liav! 
 vontinued to exist to the present day. These parties were called respectively 
 "Whig" and "Tory," names which have ever since been borne by the two greal 
 political parties in England. The Tories denied the right of resistance to royal 
 authority, under any circumstances whatever; while the Whigs recognized the right 
 to resist any infringement of the liberties of the people on the part of the king. 
 
 Titus Oates. — Titus Oates, an infamous impostor, pretended to have discovered 
 a plot, formed by the Catholics, to assassinate Charles II., bum London, massacre 
 the Protestants, and place the Duke of York on the throne. Upon the testimony 
 of Oates, and another miscreant named Bedloe, many innocent Catholics were 
 punished with death (1678). 
 
 "The Rye-House Plot'" — In 1683, a conspiracy called "The Rye-House 
 Plot," because the conspirators planned their schemes in a rye-house, contrived by 
 some worthless characters, for the assassination of the king and the Duke of York.was 
 taken advantage of by the court for the destruction of the leaders of the Whig party. 
 Lord William Russell and Algernon Sydney, two of the most worthy and respecta- 
 ble men of the age, were falsely charged with being concerned in the plot, and 
 were arrested, tried, and executed. The Earl of Shaftesbury fled to Holland, the 
 Parliament was dissolved, and from that time until his death, two years later (16JS5), 
 Charles II. was as absolute a monarch as any in Europe. 
 
 REIGN OF JAMES II. (A. D. 168S-1688). 
 
 Accession of James II. — Monmouth's Rebellion. — On the death of Kini;; 
 Charles II., in 1685, his brother, the Duke of York, ascended the throne of Eng- 
 land, with the title of James II. The new sovereign was a bigoted Roman Catho- 
 lic; and, from the moment of his coronation, he thought of little but the restoration 
 of popery and the establishment of absolute royal power in England. Soon aftei 
 the accession of James II., the Duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., 
 headed a rebellion against his uncle, with the view of obtaining the crown of Eng- 
 land for himself. The rebellion was speedily quelled, and the unfortunate Mon- 
 mouth was beheaded. The Duke of Argyle, who had attempted an insurrection 
 in Scotland in favor of Monmouth, was executed in Edinburgh. The adherents of 
 Monmouth were also punished with death. The chief judge, Jeffries, passed through 
 fbe country with a band of executioners, practicing the greatest cruelties. 
 
 Attempts of James II. for the Restoration of Popery in England. — 
 Having struck terror into the hearts of the English people by the prompt and bloody 
 sujipres.sun of Monmouth's rebellion. King James II. fancied the way (>pen for th< 
 teestablishment of popery in England. The cruel judge Jeffries was made Chan- 
 cellor, and many of the offices were filled with Roman Catholics, in defiance of the 
 Test A.ct. On one occasion, the tyrannical monarch sent six bishops to the Tower, 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 247 
 
 ifor Mildly protesting against his measures. Taxes were levied without the consent 
 of I'arliament; and the king, having failed by corrupt means to induce the Parlia- 
 mei-t to give its approval to an edict of toleration, declared that the crown possessed 
 the 1 ight of granting a suspension of the Test Act. By so arbitrary an exercise of 
 power, the king could have set all laws at naught. So blindly and recklessly did 
 James II. pursue his foolish attempts to bring England under the Pope, that his 
 ( atl :?lic friends became alarmed. Even the Pope warned the bigoted monarch not 
 Ic dc anything rashly. 
 
 THK REVOLUTION OF 1688. 
 
 Prince William of Orange — Flight of James II. to France. — The Eng 
 lish people for some time bore the conduct of James II. patiently, as he was old, 
 ■md his two daughters, Anne and Mary, had been educated in the (,'hurch of Eng 
 land and were married to Protestant princes, the former to a Danish prince, and 
 the latter to Prince William of Orange, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic; 
 but when the hopes of the people for a release from the yoke of popery were dis- 
 pelled by the birth of a Prince of Wales, in June, 1688, the people resolved upon 
 the dethronement of James II., and many of the most prominent men in England 
 entered into a negotiation with his son-in-law, the Prince of Orange. James, re- 
 ceiving intimation of an intended invasion from Holland, became alarmed for the 
 safety of his throne, when too late ; and granted many concessions. The people 
 of England had already resolved that James II. should no longer reign ; and a 
 declaration from the Prince of Orange, that he was coming to England, to defend 
 liberty and Protestantism, was received with joy throughout the kingdom. On the 
 5th of November, 1688, William of Orange landed in England, at the head of 14,000 
 Dutch troops, and was everywhere welcomed by the people. The English army 
 soon joined the invaders ; the English nobility and the whole nation abandoned 
 James II. and turned their eyes toward the Prince of Orange ; and even the courtiers 
 abandoned the king in his distress. When James was informed that the Princess 
 Anne, his own daughter, had declared against him, he burst into tears and exclaimed, 
 " God help me, my own children have forsaken me !" The unhappy monarch now 
 hearkened to the advice of the queen and the priests, and resolved upon leaving the 
 kingdom. After sending his wife and infant son to France, James left London, on 
 the 1 2th of December, 1688; but he was stopped at Feversham and brought back 
 by the people, much to the dissatisfaction of the Prince of Orange, who had prom- 
 ised his wife that her father should receive no personal injury; and James, by the 
 assistance of William of Orange, was enable<l to escape to France. The fugitive 
 king landed in France on the 25th of December, 1688, and proceeded to St. Ger- 
 main, near Paris, where he was honorably received by Louis XIV., King of France, 
 from whom, thenceforth until his death, the exiled monarch received a pen sir n. 
 
 Enthronement of William and Mary — " The Bill of Rights." — The P.ir- 
 iament which now assembled declared that the king's flight was abdication, and 
 Jscreed that the Catholic line of the House of Stuart should be forever excluded 
 iiom the thi jne of England. The Prince of Orange and his wife were then pio- 
 claimed joint-sovereigns, with the title of William and Mary. The new so»ereig7is 
 received the English crown upon certain conditions, which were set forth in a " bill 
 wf Rights," in which the rights and liberties of the English people and the po^ve« 
 
a 48 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of the. monarch were dellned. The following were the most important provisions 
 of the Bill of Rights: the king can not suspend a law or withhold its execution; 
 he can not levy money without the consent of Parliament; the subjects have a right 
 to petition the king; no standing army can be kept in time of peace without the 
 consent of Parliament; elections and Parliamentary debates must be free; iiid 
 Parliament must be frequently assembled. The flight and deposition of James il , 
 and the election of William and Mary to the throne of England, is lesignated " thf 
 Glorious Revolution of i6S8." The long struggle for freedom against the ;■!■ 
 croachments; of the king, was now terminated in the triumph of the cause ot tlii 
 people, and ever since that time England has been essentially a free governn.eiil_ 
 
 REIGN OF ^A/'ILLIAM AND MARY (A. D. 1689-1702)- 
 
 Rise of the Scotch Highlanders in favor of James II. — Massacre of 
 Glencoe. — The Englisii peojiie were almost unanimous in support of William and 
 Mary; but some of the Highland clans of Scotland refused to acknowledge the 
 new sovereigns, and took up arms for the dethroned James II. The Viscount 
 Dundee (Graham of Claverhouse), the leader of the rebellious Highlanders, de- 
 feated the forces of William and Mary in the battle of Killicrankie,in 16S9, but he 
 was killed in the moment of victory. The Plighlanders, on account of the loss of 
 their chieftain, were soon reduced to submission, and were required to take an oath 
 of allegiance to the new sovereigns. The clan of Macdonald, having failed to 
 take the oath within the specified time, were cruelly massacred at Glencoe, by the 
 clan of the Campbells, headed by the Earl of Breadalbane. 
 
 Rise of the Irish in favor of James II. — Battle of the Boyne.— The 
 Catholic Irish also arose agiunst the new King and Queen of England, and 
 drew their swords for the fallen James II. The French monarch, Louis XIV., 
 who had espoused the cause of the deposed James II., sent troops to Ireland to as- 
 sist the Irish insurgents. James was conveyed to the Irish coast by a French fleet. 
 James unsuccessfully besieged the Protestant town of Londonderry, in the north of 
 Ireland, and was opposed by King William, who came over into Ireland at the 
 head of a large English army. On the nth of July, 1690, James was completely 
 defeated by William in the decisive battle of the Boyne. After this misfortune, 
 James fled to France, without making another effort to recover his lost crown. 
 The war in Ireland was terminated in 1691, by the defeat and death of the Irish 
 general St. Ruth, in the battle of Aughrim, and the submission of the Irish to the 
 government of William and Mary. 
 
 War with France — Peace of Ryswrick. — The conduct of Louis XIV., in 
 affording assistance to the dethroned James II., led to a war between England and 
 France in 1689. The Peace of Ryswick ended this war in 1697; and since that 
 time England has been the leading commercial and maritime power of the world. 
 
 Death of Mary and William — Queen Anne — Attempts of the Stuarts. 
 - Oueen Mary died in 1693; and King William III., in 1702, bom the effects of 
 I fall from his horse, and was succeeded on the throne of England by Anne, the 
 younger daughter of James II. In 1707, a legislative union took place between 
 England and Scotland, since which time the Parliaments of the two nations have 
 been united When Queen Anne died, in 1714, the Elector of Hanover ascendel 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 249 
 
 the Ihrone of England, with the title of George I. During the reigns of George I. 
 (1714-1727) and George II. ( 1 727-1760), two futile attempts were made to re- 
 store the Stuarts to the throne. 
 
 WARS OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 FRANCE UNDER RICHELIEU AND MAZARIN. 
 
 HICHELIEU'S ADMINISTRATION (1624-1642). 
 
 I.ouis XIII. — Mary de Medicis. — The murdered Henry IV. was succeeded 
 on the throne of France by his son, Louis XIII., during whose minority the queen- 
 mother, Mary de Medicis, conducted the government as regent. As Mary reposed 
 her confidence in her Italian favorites, who enriched themselves at the expense of 
 the French nation, the French nobility rose in rebellion, and filled the kingdom 
 with confusion and anarchy. 
 
 Cardinal Richelieu — Civil and Religious Wars — Capture of Rochelle. 
 — When Louis XIII. arrived at majority, he indeed agreed to have the favorites 
 of his neither put to death, and to have his mother removed from court ; Inu he 
 bestowed his favor upon others, who were as unpopular as their predecessors had 
 been, and the French nol)Ies again tool< up arms. These disturbances were only 
 quelled when the talented, energetic, and ambitious Cardinal Richelieu was placed 
 It tne head of the state as Prime-Minister. This great statesman governed France 
 tor eighteen years with the most absolute power. (1624-1642.) For the purpose 
 of extending the French territory to the Rhine, and humbling the proud House of 
 Auscria, Richelieu leagued with the German Protestants in the Thirty Years' War. 
 He defeated the Huguenots in three wars, and destroyed their fortresses. The 
 most celebrated event of these wars was the siege and capture of Rochelle, the 
 pimcipal stronghold of the Huguenots. The place was obstinately defended until 
 compelled by famine to surrender, when the Huguenots received toleration for 
 their worship, by the Edict of Nismes. 
 
 Humbling of the French Nobles — Death of Richelieu and Louis XIIL 
 — After the defeat of the Huguenots, the rebellious French nobles were subdued, 
 and forced to lay down their arms. The boldest of them were banished or exe 
 cuted; and the queen-mother, and her son, the Duke of Orleans, who had attempted 
 to oveithrow Richelieu, were obliged to leave the kingdom, and Duke Henry of 
 Montmorenci was executed at Toulouse. The Cinq Mars and De Thou were also 
 put to death for conspiring against Richelieu's power. The mighty cardinal died 
 in December, 1642; and King Louis XIIL, who was not possessed of any great 
 abilities, survived only a few months longer. 
 
 MAZARIN'S ADMINISTRATION (1643-1661). 
 
 Accession of Louis XIV. — Anne of Austria — Cardinal Mazarin.— L ui^ 
 XIIL was succeeded on the French throne by his son, Louis XIV., under whom 
 France become the most powerful nation in the world. During the minoiity of 
 Louis XIV., who reigned seventy-two years, the government was conducted Ijy the 
 queen-mother, Anne of Austria, as regent. As Anne reposed her favor on f.be 
 
250 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Italian Cardinal Mazarin, whose principles and aims were the same as those of 
 Richelieu, and appointed him Prime-Minister, the French nobility violently opposed 
 her, and endeavored to regain their lost power and influence. 
 
 " The Wars of the Fronde." — At the head of the discontented party was 
 Cardinal de Retz, who gained the French people to the side of the nobility, and 
 jfave occasion to a four-years' civil war, known as "The Wars of the Fronde." In 
 1648; the citizens of Paris resisted the execution of the oppressive measures of 
 Mazarin which was the commencement of this civil strife. Mazarin was obliged 
 :o leave the country for awhile ; but he governed the French kingdom almost aJ 
 absolutely from Cologne as he had before done from Paris. After the insurgents, 
 under the great Conde, had been overthrown by the royal army under Marshal 
 Turenne, in the suburb of St. Antoine, in Paris, Mazarin was enabled to return to 
 Paris and to govern with as despotic power as before. Cardinal de Retz, after being 
 liberated from prison, was compelled to leave the country ; and Conde lived among 
 the Spaniards for six years, after which he was pardoned by the king, and again 
 received into the royal favor. 
 
 War with Spain — Treaty of the Pyrenees — Death of Mazarin. — During 
 the period of Mazarin's administration, Franoe was engaged in a war with Spain. 
 The seat of this war was the Spanish Netherlands. The banished Cond6, who led 
 the Spanish armies, gained brilliant victories'; but he found an able rival in Marshal 
 Turenne, who commanded the French forces. Mazarin induced England, then 
 under the iron rule of Oliver Cromwell, to take part in the war as an ally of France; 
 and Dunkirk, which the French had taken from the Spaniards, was given to Eng- 
 land, as a reward for an English army of 6,000 men which had reinforced the 
 French in the Spanish Netherlands. At length both Spain and France grew tired 
 of the war; and in November, 1659, was concluded the Treaty of the Pyrenees, by 
 which the infanta, Maria Theresa, daughter of King Philip IV. of Spain, was given 
 in marriage to Louis XIV., who on his part renounced all claims to the Spanish 
 throne for himself and his children, and pardoned Conde and again received him 
 into favor. The despotic rule of Mazarin ended with the death of that great states- 
 man, on the 9th of March, 1 66 1. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND WARS OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 LOUIS XIV. AND HIS WAR WITH SPAIN. 
 
 Louis XIV. and His Generals and Ministers. — Upon Mazarin's death, 
 Ivouis XIV. appointed no prime-minister, but took the government into his own 
 hands. For fifty-four years this celebrated monarch reigned with the most absolute 
 power, which he wielded in a very despotic manner. His Ministers were but passive 
 instruments for the execution of his will. Louis XIV. was the greatest monarch of 
 his age. His great generals, Conde, Turenne, and Luxembourg, and the engineei 
 Vauban, surpassed in skill the generals of all other countries. His Minister of 
 Finance, Colbert, managed the finances of the kingdom with the greatest sltill, anil 
 •ncouraged all kinds of manufactures. It was owing to the economy of Colbert 
 that the building of the Louvre, the Palace of Versailles, the Hotel des Invalides, 
 and the construction r - the Canal of Languedoc, were commenced. Louvois, Mini- 
 ster of War, also possessed abilities necessary for the direction of great exploits. 
 

 ;SE VENTEENTII CENTUR Y. 
 
 25 1 
 
 War with Spain — Triple Alliance— Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. — Louis 
 XIV. was ambitious of mililary glory, and desirous for the extension of his kingdom. 
 We have seen that, by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in 1659, Louis renounced all 
 claims to any portion of the Spanish dominions. This solemn renunciation he set 
 aside; and on the death of Philp IV. of Spain, he laid claim to the whole of the 
 Spanish Netherlands, as the husband of Philip's daughter. In 1667, a French army 
 was senf rnto the Spanish Netherlands, which were subdued in two campaigns 
 ITie olhir powers of Europe became alarmed; and England, Holland, and Sweden, 
 entered into a "Triple Alliance," for the purpose of defending the Spanish mon 
 archy. Threatened by this formidable coalition, the French monarch found himselt 
 obliged to conclude the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which he was require i tc 
 restore much of the territory which he had conquered. 
 
 ^A/■AR WITH HOLLA.ND (1672-1679). 
 
 French Invasion of Holland. — Burning with revenge toward Holland, the 
 originator of the Triple Alliance, Louis resolved upon the subjugation of that coun- 
 try. After purchasing the alliance of Charles II. of England and the neutrality of 
 Sweden, Louis XIV. took the field against Holland, at the head of an army of 
 100,000 men, and advanced triumphantly almost to the gates of Amsterdam. 
 
 Desperate Situation of Holland. — The situation of Holland was now most 
 desperate, and it appeared that the unfortunate republic must lose her independence. 
 Many of the inhabitants prepared to embark on their fleet, and sail to their East 
 India possessions. The republic implored peace, but the haughty French monarch 
 absolutely refused. When the Grand- Pensionary of Holland, Cornelius DeWitt, 
 proposed to surrender his country to the conquering French, he was assassinated in 
 the streets of Amsterdam, by his enraged countrymen, and Prince William of 
 Orange (afterwards King William HI. of England) was placed at the head of the 
 Dutch Republic, with the title of Stadtholder. Amsterdam had been secured 
 against the French by opening the dykes, thus laying the surrounding country 
 under water. 
 
 Alliance of Spain and Germany with Holland. — Frederic William, the 
 Great Elector of Brandenburg, came to the rescue of Holland in her critical situa- 
 tion; and the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany and King Charles II. of Spain 
 joined in the war against France, and sent troops to the aid of the imperiled repub- 
 lic; while Charles II. of England was forced by the clamors of his subjects and 
 his Parliament to make peace with the Dutch. {1674.) 
 
 The War in the Spanish Netherlands and on the Rhine. — Louis XIV. 
 was now obliged to abandon Holland; but in the Spanish Netherlands, his great 
 generals, Condd and Turenne, fought successively against the allied Dutch, Span- 
 ish, and German armies, under Prince William of Orange and the imperial general 
 Montecuculi. For the purpose of punishing the Elector Palatine, who had joined 
 *Jie enemies of France, the French ravaged the beautiful country of the Palatinate 
 of the Rhine with fire and sword. The Elector Palatine beheld, at one time, from 
 his castle windows al Manheim, two cities and twenty-five villages on fire. 
 
 Swedish Invasion of Brandenburg — Battle of Fehrbellin. — For the pur 
 pose of 'separating the Great Elector, Frederic William, from the German impenai 
 
252 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 army on the Rhine, the French monarch induced the Swedes, his allies, to invade 
 the March of Brandenburg. Frederic William marched against the Swedish inva- 
 ders 01 hia dominions; and on the 28th of June, 1675, he severely defeated them 
 m the battle of Fehrbellin, which laid the foundation of the future kingdom of 
 Prussia. Soon afterward, Marshal Turenne was killed by a cannon ball in ti c 
 battle of Salzbach. 
 
 Peace of Nimeguen. — At length all the belligerents, mutually exhausted, 
 .'coame anxious for peace; and in 1678, a treaty of peace was concluded at Nime- 
 fuen, m Holland, by which Holland remained in possession of everything she had 
 before the war, but Spain surrendered F"ranche-Comte and French Flanders to the 
 King of France. 
 
 Encroachments of Louis XIV. — Bombardment of Algiers and Genoa. 
 — Having dictated the Peace of Nimeguen, and encouraged by his triumph, Louis 
 KIV. committed many acts of violence and aggression, and so aroused the hostility 
 of the greater part of Europe. He seized on many of the neighboring dependen- 
 cies of the German Empire, and even took possession of the free city of Strasburg, 
 in September, 1681. Spain, Austria, and the German Empire, instead of attempt- 
 ing to defend their possessions, concluded the treaty of Regensburg with the inso- 
 lent Louis, by which he was allowed to retain what he had already taken. In 
 1683, a French fleet bombarded Algiers and compelled the pirates to beg for mercy; 
 and in 1684, Genoa suffered a similar punishment, for refusing to permit the French 
 monarch to establish a depot within its territory. 
 
 TURKISH INVASION OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 Efforts of Louis XIV. to weaken the House of Austria— Hungarian 
 Rebellion. — Louis XIV. tried in every possible manner to weaken the power of the 
 House of Austria. He induced the Turks to renew their invasions of the Austrian 
 territories, and encouraged and aided the Hungarians in their insurrections against 
 the Austrian power. The tyranny of the Emperor Leopold I. over the Protestants 
 of Hungary produced a formidable rebellion against his authority on the part of 
 the IIungai"ian people, who were led by Emmerik Tokeli, a patriotic magnate. 
 The Austrian armies were soon driven out of Hungary by the insurgents, who 'e- 
 ceived effective assistance from the French and the Turks. 
 
 Turkish Invasion of Austria — Siege of Vienna — ^John Sobieski. — En- 
 couraged by the Hungarian rebellion, a Turkish army of 300,000 men under Kara 
 Mustapha invaded the Austrian ten-itories, and devastated the country to the walls 
 of Vienna, ir 16S3. The Emperor Leopold I. fled in consternation to Lintz, and 
 the Ottoman forces laid siege to the Austrian capital. It appeared that Vienrs 
 must soon fall, but the inhabitants of the city, assisted by a small force under P.udi 
 jfei von Stahremberg, defended the city for two months, when the heroii; John 
 Sobieski, King of Poland, who had become famous for his victories over the FurkS; 
 Hastened with his army, at the earnest solicitations of the Emperor of Gennr.ny, If 
 •icjel the besieging infidels. The German imperial army, under Prince Chailes if 
 I-orraine, joined the forces of John Sobieski. The united Polish and German 
 troops numbered only 70,000, while the Turks numbered almost 300,000. 
 
 Terrible Defeat and Rout of the Turks at Vienna by John Sobieski.— 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 253 
 
 Al five o'clock in the evening of Sunday, the 12th of September, 16S3, under the 
 direction of the Polish king, a furious attack was made on the Ottoman lines be- 
 fore Vienna; and in the space of an hour, the whole Turkish host was compelled 
 to dee in the wildest dismay. An eclipse of the moon added to the consternation 
 of the superstitious Turks. The Grand Vizier, observing the eclipse, exclaimed, 
 •'Look at the sky! See if God is not against us!" The Moslems in their flight 
 abandoned all their camels, artillery, baggage, and camp equipage to the victorious 
 Poles and Germans. Thi? memorable and decisive victory of civilization and 
 Ch istianity over barbarism and Mohammedanism marks the era of the decline of 
 ^le Ottoman Empire. The intelligence of this great victory produced unbounded 
 joy throughout Christendom, but to Louis XIV., who had been the cause of this 
 Turkish invasion, it was unwelcome news. The Emperor of Germany, who was 
 envious of the favor and applause with which his subjects everywhere greeted the 
 King of Poland, treated him with the meanest ingratitude. The valiant John 
 Sobieski died in 1696, and with his death ended the glory of Poland. 
 
 Hungary Made an Hereditary Kingdom. — After the defeat of the Turks at 
 Vienna, the Austrians reconquered Hungary, and compelled Emmerik Tokeli, the 
 insurgent Hungarian chieftain, to flee from the country. The Emperor Leopold I. 
 then caused the Hungarian elective constitution to be abolished, and made Hun- 
 gaiy one of the hereditary possessions of the House of HaiMburg. 
 
 Coalition Against the Ottoman Porte — German Victories. — After the 
 siege of Vienna had been raised, Germany, Poland, Russia, and Venice formed an 
 alliance against the Ottoman Porte. Bloody battles were fought between the Ger- 
 man and Ottoman forces, on the Danube, in the vicinity of Belgrade; and the 
 German imperial forces, under those famous generals, Prince Charles of Lorraine, 
 Prince Louis of Baden, and Prince Eugene of Savoy, gained brilliant victories over 
 the Turks. The Austrians gained a great victory at Mohacz, on the I2th of August, 
 1687; Louis of Baden defeated the Turks at Salankemen, on the 19th of August, 
 1691; and Prince Eugene, on the iith of September, 1697, gained the battle of 
 Zenta, in which the Turks lost 30,000 men. 
 
 Peace of Karlowitz. — Finally, in 1699, the Peace of Karlowitz terminated this 
 war gloriously for Germany and her allies. Hungary and Transylvania were left 
 to Austria ; Podolia and the Ukraine were ceded to Poland ; Azov was surrendered 
 to Russia ; and the Morea, or Southern Greece, was given up to Venice. 
 
 PERSECUTION OF THE HUGUENOTS. 
 
 Marriage of Louis XIV. with Madame de Maintenon — " The Dragon- 
 nade." — The first wife of Louis XIV. having died in 1683, that monarch privately 
 married the widow of the poet Scarron, in 1685, and conferred upon her the title 
 of Madame de Maintenon. Colbert, who had protected the Huguenots from persecu- 
 tion, was now dead; and Louis XIV., who was a bigoted Roman Catholic, listened 
 to the counsels of such men as Louvois, and his father, LeTellier, and commenced 
 a rigorous persecution of the Huguenots. Troops were sent into the districts in 
 habited by Protestants; and Louvois declaretl that " it was the desire of the king 
 that iJl who did not conform to the religion of his majesty should be treated with 
 the gi eatest severity." The troops who were sent to enforce this decree being princi- 
 
254 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 pally cavalry, the persecution was called a " Dragonnade." The unfortunate Pro- 
 testants were treated in the most cruel manner by the troops quartered amongst 
 them. Many were atrociously massacred ; and at length the ports and frontiers of 
 France we:e closed against the Huguenots, and such as attempted to escape weie 
 sent to the galleys. 
 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes — Migration of the Huguenots. — 
 Finally, in 1685, Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of Nantes, by which tlie good 
 Henry IV. had secured toleration to the Calvinists. The Huguenot churches wctc 
 destroyed ; and orders were given to take Protestant children from their parents, 
 that they might be instructed in the Catholic faith. There was now no safety for 
 the unfortunate victims of persecution, but in flight from their native land. Not- 
 withstanding all the precautions taken to prevent their escape, about half a million 
 Huguenots succeeded in reaching Protestant countries, carrying with them, not only 
 their wealth, but also their skill in manufactures and their habits of industry. The 
 fugitives were welcomed in England, Holland, and Germany, which countries were 
 benefitted by their knowledge of the manufactures which had hitherto been con- 
 fined to France. This cruel measure of Louis XIV. gave a severer blow to the 
 prosperity of France than all his long and expensive wars against the combined 
 powers of Europe. 
 
 A/VAR OF THE LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG (1689-1697). 
 
 The League of Augsburg. — Through the efforts of Prince William of Orange, 
 the deadly enemy of Lous XIV., an alliance, known as "The League of Augsburg," 
 was formed by the German Empire, Spain, and Holland, in 1686, to check the ag- 
 gressions of the King of France. Savoy, Denmark, and Sweden, joined the league ; 
 and the Revolution in England, in 168S, by which William of Orange ascended 
 the English throne, placed England at the head of the coalition against France. 
 
 Desolation of the Palatinate. — The French king did not wait to be attacked; 
 but resolving to anticipate the purposes of his enemies, he sent an aiTny of 100,000 
 men, under his son, the Dauphin, to invade Germany, in 1688. The beautiful dis- 
 trict of the Palatinate of the Rhine suffered a desolation far more terrible than in 
 the Dutch ws**. More than forty cities, and hundreds of flourishing villages were 
 reduced to rvihes; and the unfortunate inhabitants were driven out into the fields 
 in the middle of winter. The important cities of Manheim, Heidelberg, Spire, 
 Worms, and Mayence were partly burned. 
 
 French Invasions — Battleof the Boyne.— French armies were sent into Spain, 
 Italy, pnd the Spanish Netherlands. A French force of 6,000 men was also sent 
 into Ireland, to assist the deposed James II. in his attempts to recover the throne of 
 England; but this force was utterly defeated by King William III., in the decisive 
 tjattle of the Boyne, on the nth of July, 1690. 
 
 Success of the French Arms — Battle of LaHogue. — The Freii h arms 
 trium[)hed everywhere on the continent of Europe. In 1692, King Willian HI , 
 Rt the head of the English and Dutch forces, was defeated in the Spanish Netbc! 
 lands, by the French army under Marshal Luxembourg. In consequence of Lnii 
 event, the strongly fortified town of Namur fell into the hands of the French ; and 
 in 1693, King William was defeated in the battle of Neerwindtn, with the loss of 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 25! 
 
 30,000 men. In Italy, the French army under Marshal Catinat defeated the Ger- 
 man imperial forces under Prince Eugene of Savoy. In Spain and Germany also, 
 the French had the advantage; but the French fleet under Admiral Tourville was 
 annihilated by the English navy, off Cape Laliogue, on the 9th of May, 169*. 
 This battle blasted the hopes of James II. being restored to the English throne, 
 I'ld gave to England the future supremacy of the seas. 
 
 Peace of Ryswick. — At length all parties grew tired of the war; and in 1697 
 & treaty of Peace was signed at Ryswick, in Holland. Notwithstanding all w>£ 
 victories of the French arms, the terms of this peace were, humiliating to l^^ lis 
 XIV., who was required to restore all his conquests from Spain and Germany 
 except Strasburg, and to acknowledge the title of William III. to the throne of 
 England. The possession of Strasburg extended the French dominions to the 
 Rhine. The reason why Louis consented to so unfavorable a peace, was because 
 he saw the necessity of peace to carry out his designs at the approaching vacancy 
 of the Spanish throne. 
 
 ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES. 
 
 VIRGINIA (A. D. 1607-1776). 
 
 VIRGINIA UNDER THE LONDON COMPANY (I607-1624) 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh's Unsuccessful Colonization Efforts — Virginia 
 Named. — In 15S4, the distinguished Sir Walter Raleigh, one of Queen Eliza- 
 beth's favorites, sent two vess(>ls undei Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow to make 
 discoveries in America. The;i' landed on the coast of the present State of North 
 Carolma, but soon returned to England, where they gave a very glowing descrip- 
 tion of the country which they had discovered ; and Queen Elizabeth, in considera- 
 tion ol her unmarried state, named the territory "Virginia." In 15S5 and 1586, 
 Raleigh made unsuccessful efforts to plant colonies in Virginia. 
 
 The London and Plymouth Companies — South and North Virginia. — 
 In 1606, King James I. of England granted the territory between the Potomac ana 
 Cape Fear rivers, under the name of South Virginia, to an association in London, 
 known as the London Company. At the same time, the king granted the territory 
 now known as New England, under the name of North Virginia, to a company in 
 the W^est of England, called the Plymouth Company. 
 
 Settlement of Jamestown. — In 1607, one-hundred and five English emigrants, 
 under Captain Christopher Newport, sailed up the beautiful river which they named 
 "James," in honor of their king; and on the bank of that stream they began a settle- 
 ment which they named " Jamestown." This was the first permanent English 
 settlemertt in America. The settlers suffered greatly from cold, hunger, and the 
 t.ostilities of the natives, until the famous Captain John .Smith assumed the dirci 
 ion of affairs, and, Ijy his skillful management, restored confidence. 
 
 The Legend of Smith and Pocahontas. — Captain Smith explored flit 
 country northward to the interior of the present Pennsylvania. According to a 
 wellknjwn story now generally discredited. Smith was taken prisoner by the 
 Indians,' whor>e emperor, Powhatan, determined to put him to death.; but Poca- 
 
256 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 liontas, the daughter of Powhatan, interceded for the prisoner, and saved his life 
 whereupon Smith was released, and permitted to return to Jamestown. 
 
 The "Starving Time" — Lord Delaware's Arrival — Marriage of Poca- 
 hontas. — When Captain Smith returned to England, in 1609, the colony at 
 Jamestown ceased to prosper, and was soon reduced by famine from five -hundred 
 persons to sixty. The winter and spring of iGiowas long known as "The Starving 
 rims." The remaining settlers were about to leave Virginia, when, in 1611, Lce-o 
 ileln^ate, who had been appointed governor of the colony, arrived from EnuJauo. 
 wi'.h cm grants and provisions, and the colonists resolved to remain In 1613, th« 
 Iiulian maiden, Pocahontas, was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfc:. 
 She was then taken to England and presented at Court. 
 
 F rst Legislative Assembly in America — Introduction of Negro-Sla- 
 very — In 1619, representative government was established in Virginia; and, on 
 the 28th of June of that year, the first legislative assembly in America convened 
 at Jamestown. In 1620, one-hundred and fifty white women were brought to 
 Jamestown, and sold to the planters for wives, at the cost of their passage. During 
 the same year (1620), a Dutch vessel loaded with negroes, ascended the James 
 river, and sold twenty of them for slaves to the planters at Jamestown. This was 
 the beginning of negro-slavery within the domain of the present United States. 
 
 Virginia Constitution— House of Burgesses — Indian War of 1622. — 
 Sir Francis Wyatt, who became governor of the colony in 1621, gave the Virgin- 
 ians a written constitution which allowed them a popular legislative assembly. 
 This was the beginning of the celebrated Virginia " House of Burgesses." The 
 constitution vested the appointment of governor and council in the London Com 
 pany. In 1622, the Indians, under the leadership of Opechancanough, Powhatan's 
 i>rother and successor, massacred 350 of the Virginia colonists, and reduced eighty 
 plantations to eight. The whites began a terrible war of revenge against the sav- 
 ages, slaughtered many of them most unmercifully, and drove the remainder into 
 the wilderness. 
 
 VIRGINIA A ROYAL PROVINCE (1624-1776). 
 
 Dissolution of the London Company — Sir William Berkeley— -Indian 
 War of 1644. — In 1624, King James I., by an act of high-handed usurpation, dis- 
 solved the London Company, and, taking away its charter, made Virginia a royal 
 province, but he wisely abstained from interference with the House of Burgesses. 
 In 1641, the staunch royalist, Sir William Berkeley, was appointed governor of 
 Virginia, by King Charles I., and during his administration of nearly forty years, 
 the colony rapidly adv.anced in prosperity. In 1644, another war broke out with 
 the Indians, still governed by Opechancanough; and, after a struggle of two years, 
 the pov/er of the savages was broken, and they ceded large tracts of land to the 
 Virginians. 
 
 Govemor Berkeley's Tyranny — Bacon's Rebellion — Destruction of 
 Jamestown. — The Virginians, although democratic, sympathized with the king 
 during the civil war in England. When monarchy was restored in England, in 
 1660, full power was given to Governor Berkeley to restrict the liberties of the. 
 Virginians. Berkeley's tyranny produced a popular rebellion, in 1676, headed by 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 257 
 
 the siaunch republican, Nathaniel Bacon, \v}io assumed command of 500 mtn 
 witho^it the permission of Berkeley, who proclaimed the popular leader a traitor. 
 Bacon drove Berkeley from Jamestown, and set the place on fire, and the lirst town 
 founded liy the English m America was reduced to ashes. Soon afterward Bacon 
 died, and with his death ended the rebellion. The rebels were severely punished; 
 and fdies, imprisonments, and confiscations of property disgraced the remainder ot 
 Berkeley's administration. From the time of the English Revolution of 16S8, Vir- 
 ginia was a prosperous and flourishing colony. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS (A. D. 1620-1776.) 
 
 PLYMOUTH COLONY (1607-1692). 
 
 Bartholomew Gosnold's Discoveries — Captain John Smith in New 
 England. — In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold, Raleigh's friend, explored the coast 
 of Massachusetts bay, and discovered and named Cape Cod. He also discovered 
 the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and a group which he named the 
 Elizabeth Islands, in honor of his queen. In 1603 and i6o6, Martin Pring visited 
 the coast of North Virginia. In 1614, the intrepid Captain John Smith explored 
 the country between Cape Cod and the Penobscot, and named the region " N-iW 
 England." 
 
 The Council of Plymouth — Emigration of English Puritans to Hol- 
 land. — In 1616, the Plymouth Company was dissolved, and a new company was 
 formed, which was called "The Council of Plymouth," and to which was granted 
 the territory called New England. A few years previous to this, a company of 
 English Puritans, who had suffered persecution in their native land, because they 
 did not conform to the established Anglican Church, settled in Holland. They 
 were led by the Reverend John Robinson. Failing to become reconciled to the 
 customs and habits of the Dutch, these humble Puritans, who felt that they were 
 only pilgrims in this world, resolved to emigrate to the wilds of America, where 
 they might worship God in their own way. 
 
 The Puritan Settlement of Plymouth in New England. — These Puritan? 
 in Holland formed a partnership with some London merchants, who furnished them 
 with capital for their, enterprise. They returned to England; and in September, 
 1620, one-hundred and one of these pious men and women sailed for New England 
 in a vessel called "the Mayflower." These "Pilgrim Fathers," as they are called, 
 landed on a rock on the coast of Massachusetts bay, on the 21st of December, 1620. 
 They named the place of landing "Plymouth;" and the town which they founded 
 is the oldest in New England. In the cabin of the Mayflower, just before landincr. 
 they had adopted a written constitution of government, and chosen John C9>"ver 
 for their governor. Several months after their landing (March 21, 1621), Governor 
 Carver made a treaty of friendship with Massasoit, the sachem of the Wampan- no 
 Indians. A few days after this treaty, Governor Carver died, and William FiiiJ- 
 ford became governor of the colony. Many of the settlers had died during the 
 M'inter. Othur emigrants came. In 1627, the Plymouth colonists purchased the 
 mlerests of the London merchants, and became the sole proprietors of the countiy m 
 which they had established themselves; and in 1634, they abolished their pure 
 democracy, and adopted the n->rn-o convenient form of representative government. 
 17 
 
2^S MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY (1628-1776). 
 
 Founding of the Puritan Colony of Massachusetts Bay — ^John Endi- 
 
 cott. — In 1628, John Endicott and one hundred Puritan emigrants founded Salem. 
 They had been sent from England by a company which the following year (1629) 
 was incorporated " The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New Eng- 
 land." In the same year the Company assigned the charter and government to the 
 colonists. During 1629, other immigrants arrived, and settled Charlestown. 
 
 Arrival of John Winthrop — Founding of Boston and other Towns ~ 
 In 1630, a large number of Puritans from England arrived at Salem, with John 
 Winthrop as governor. Some of them made settlements at Dorchester, Roxbury, 
 Wateitown, Cambridge, and Lynn; while Winthrop and others settled Boston, 
 which became the capital of the Massachusetts Bay colony and the future metrop- 
 olis of New England. In 1634, representative government was established in the 
 colony of Massachusetts Bay. 
 
 Puritan Intolerance — Banishment of Roger Williams and Ann Hutch- 
 inson — The Puritans, who had just suffered so much persecution in England for 
 their religious opinions, were no sooner settled in New England than they became 
 persecutors themselves, and allowed no toleration for difference of opinion in reli- 
 gious or civil matters. In 1635, Roger Williams, a Puritan minister of the gospel, 
 was banished from the Massachusetts Bay colony, because he advocated toleration 
 for all religious beliefs. Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island the next 
 year. (1636.) Religious dissensions still disturbed the Massachusetts Bay colony; 
 an'd in 1637, Mrs. Ann Hutchinson and the Reverend John Wheelwright, supporters 
 of Williams, were banished. 
 
 "The United Colonies of New England." — In 1643, the New England 
 colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven, united in 
 a confederacy for mutual protection against the French, the Dutch, and the Indians. 
 This union, called " The United Colonies of New England," lasted more than forty 
 years, when mutual jealousies caused its dissolution. 
 
 Persecution of Quakers. — The year 1656 is noted in the history of the Massa 
 chusetts Bay colony for a most cruel persecution of Quakers who sought an asylum 
 in that colony. Some were whi]iped, others were imprisoned, and many were put 
 to death. Finally a milder spirit prevailed, and persecution ceased. 
 
 Popular Resistance to Royal Oppression, — The New Englanders, unlike 
 the Virginians, sympathized with the enemies of the king during the civil war in 
 England. When monarchy was restored in the mother country, in 1660, an at- 
 tempt was made to restrict the liberties of the people of New England ; and a royal 
 commission was appointed to govern the colony of Massachusetts Bay; but this 
 attempt at usurpation encountered so much popular resistance that it was relin- 
 quished, and republicanism was triumphant. 
 
 King Philip's War. — In 1675, the Wampanoag prince, Metacomet, commonly 
 known as "King Philip," the son and successor of the good Massasoit, commerced 
 a wai of extermination against the white people of New England. Philip's first 
 attack w:is made at Swanzey, on Sunday, July 4th, 1675, and many of the whites 
 were massacred. The whites were soon aroused, and seized their arms, while the 
 savages desolalei. the English settlements on the Connecticut river. King Philip 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 259 
 
 WJfc repulsol in an attack upon Hatfield, in October, 1675; after which he was 
 shei ired by the Narragansets of Rhode Island. A force of i ,500 New Englanders 
 resei.ced the hostile conduct of the Narragansets by applying the torch to their wig 
 warns; and hundreds of Indian men, women, and children perished in the flames, 
 and a thousand of their warriors were killed or captured. The following yeai 
 (1676), the Indians were subjugated, and their great leader, King Philip, was shot 
 by an Indian who was friendly to the whites. 
 
 New England Charters Annulled — Tyrannical Rule of Sir Edmund 
 Andros — After James II. became King of England, in 1685, he annulled the 
 charter of the Massachusetts Bay colony, and appointed the infamous Sir Edmund 
 Andros to rule all New England as Governor-General. Andros governed tyran- 
 nically for two years; but when, in 1689, news reached Boston of the Revolution 
 in England which drove King James II. from the throne, the Bostonians seized 
 and imprisoned Andros, and sent him to England on a just charge of maladminis- 
 tration in office ; and the New England colonies resumed their charters. 
 
 "Salem Witchcraft." — In 1692, the people of Massachusetts Bay were af- 
 flicted with a great delusion, known as " The Salem Witchcraft." A general belief 
 *.n sorcery prevailed ; many unfortunate persons were accused of practicing witch- 
 craft; and, during a period of six months, about twenty persons were put to death, 
 and many others were imprisoned. This frightful delusion passed away as sud- 
 denly as it had appeared. 
 
 Union of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay as One Royal Province. 
 —In 1692, King William III. of England united the colonies of Plymouth, Massa- 
 chusetts Bay, and the English settlements in Maine and New Brunswick, as one 
 royal province, under the name of Massachusetts ; and appointed Sir William 
 Phipps governor. 
 
 NEW YORK (A. D. 1623-1776). 
 
 DUTCH COLONY OF NE^Ar NETHERLAND (1623-1664). 
 
 Henry Hudson's Discoveries and Explorations. — In 1609, Henry Hudson, 
 an English navigator, then in the service of the Dutch East India Company, ex- 
 plored the American coast from Chesapeake bay to Long Island Sound, and sailed 
 up the beautiful river which bears his name, as far as the site of Albany. On this 
 account, the Dutch claimed the territory drained by this stream. On a subsequent 
 voyage, Hudson discovered the large bay which bears his name, in British America, 
 and, while on his home voyage, his crew became mutinous and sent Hudson and 
 his s»n in a boat adrift on the ice, and they were no more heard of. 
 
 The Dutch West-India Company and the New Netherland Grant, — 
 In 1614, the Dutch erected huts on Manhattan Island; and in the same yt-ai, the 
 Dutch built a fort near the site of Albany. In 1621, the States-General of Hol- 
 land granted great privileges of colonization to a company of Amsterdam merchants 
 who were incorporated the Dutch West India Company. This company claimed 
 the territory between Cape Henlopen and the Connecticut river; and named it 
 "New Netherland." 
 
 Founding of New Amsterdam and Fort Orange — Minuit and Van 
 
26o MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Twiller. — In 1623, permanent Dutch settlements were made at New Amsterdam 
 on Manhattan Island, and at Fort Orange, on the site of Albany. Immigrants froin 
 Holland came over into the colony in large numbers. The first governor of New 
 Netherland was Peter Minuit (1626-1633), and the second was Wouter Van 'fwil' 
 Ier(i633-i638). 
 
 Turbulent Administration of William Kieft — War with the Indians. - 
 The third governor of New Netherland was the haughty, rapacious, and despotic 
 Sir William Kieft, who vainly tried to suppress the growth of democracy among 
 the New Netherlanders, and whose turbulent spirit soon involved him in trouble 
 with the Swedes on the Delaware, the English on the Connecticut, the Indians all 
 around him, and the colonists at his door. With cruel treacheiy, Kieft attacked 
 the Indians at Hoboken, and hostilities were carried on with the greatest ferocity 
 for two years, when the Indians were subdued, and their power and spirit was 
 broken. In 1647, the quarrelsome Kieft was recalled; and on his way to Europe, 
 his vessel was wrecked, and the infamous governor perished. 
 
 Energetic Administration of Peter Stuyvesant — Conquest of New 
 Sweden. — The fourth and last governor of New Netherland was the firm and 
 energetic Peter Stuyvesant, who endeavored, as much as prudence would permit, 
 to check the growing spirit of republicanism among the New Netherland people, 
 who grew bolder by degrees, and who finally denied the right of taxation without 
 representation, and showed an inclination to bear English rule for the sake of 
 enjoying English liberty. In 1655, Governor Stuyvesant conquered the Swedish 
 settlements on the Delaware, and annexed New Sweden to New Netherland. 
 
 Conquest of New Netherland by the English. — In 1664, King Charles 
 IT. of England granted to his brother, James, Duke of York and Albany, all the ter- 
 ritoiy embraced by the Dutch colony of New Netherland. The Duke sent a small 
 naval force under Colonel Richard Nicolls to take possession of New Netherland, 
 which was done in September of the same year. (1664.) The people of New 
 Amsterdam, tired of Stuyvesant's rigor, and hoping to enjoy greater political free- 
 dom under English rule, made no resistance, and Stuyvesant was obliged to surren- 
 der the place to Nicolls. The name " New York " was given to New Amsterdam, 
 as well as to the province of New Netherland; and Fort Orange was named 
 " Albany." 
 
 ENGLISH PROVINCE OF NEW YORK (1664-1776). 
 
 English Tyranny — Dutch Capture of New York — Its Restoration to 
 the English. — Colonel Nicolls was the first governor of the English province of 
 New York. The Dutch colonists were disappointed in their hopes of enjoying 
 greater political liberty under English rule, as Nicolls, and his successor, Francis 
 Lovelace, governed most despotically. In 1673, during a war between England 
 and Holland, a Dutch squadron captured the city of New York, but it was restored 
 I) the English by a treaty of peace the next year (1674), and Andros becarae 
 oo/t:inor. 
 
 Charter of Liberties — Execution of Leisler and Milborne. — In 1683, 
 the Duke of York granted the jieople of New York a " Charter of Liberties," allow- 
 ing them a popular assembly ; but when he became King of England, in 1685, with 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 261 
 
 the title of James II., he revoked the privileges which he had granted, and made 
 the tyi-ant Andros governor of New York a second time. When news reached New 
 Y vrk cif the dethronement of James II. in England and the imprisonment of Andros 
 ill Boston, Jacob Leisler, a leading merchant, with the sanction of the people rA 
 New York, assumed the office of governor, until the arrival of Colonel Henry Sloug ti- 
 ter, the new royal governor, in 1691 ; when Leisler, and his son-in-law, Milbonie, 
 wcje tried and executed for high-treason. 
 
 Growth of Republicanism — Vindication of the Freedom of the Press. 
 
 — From the time of Leisler's death, the people of New York resisted the o) pressiijr 
 of the royal governors sent to rule them, and republicanism constantly gained 
 strength. In 1734, William Cosby, then governor of the province, caused John 
 Peter Zenger, the editor of the democratic newspaper in New York, to be arrested 
 on a charge of libel. Zenger was tried and acquitted by a jui7,and the magistrates 
 of New York city made a present to his counsel, Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, 
 for his noble vindication of the freedom of the press. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE (A. D. 1629-1776). 
 
 The Grant to Gorges and Mason — Founding of Portsmouth, Dover, 
 and Exeter. — In 1622, the territory between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers 
 was granted to Sir Ferdinand Gorges ^nd John Mason, under the name of " Laco- 
 nia." The proprietors sent out emigrants to settle in Laconia; and as early as 
 1622, fishing stations were established on the sites of Portsmouth and Dover. In 
 1629, the Reverend John Wheelwright and others founded the town of Exciei. 
 
 The New Hampshire Grant— New Hampshire and Massachusetts. — 
 In 1629, John Mason became sole proprietor of Laconia, and named the region 
 "New Hampshire," after Hampshire county in England. Mason settled at Ports- 
 mouth; and other settlements were made as far as Machias, in Maine. In 1641, 
 New Hampshire was united with the Massachusetts Bay colony, but the two colo- 
 nies were again separated in 1679, when New Hampshire became a royal province. 
 In 1699, New Hampshire was reunited with Massachusetts under the same governor; 
 but a final separation took place in 1 74 1. 
 
 MARYLAND CA. D. 1634-1776). 
 
 Lord Baltimore and the Maryland Grant — Settlement of St. Mary's. — 
 
 In 1622, William Clayborne erected a trading-house on Kent Island. King Charles 
 1. of England granted the territory on both sides of Chesapeake bay, under the 
 name of " Maryland,"' to Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, an English Roman Cath- 
 ■jiic nobleman, who desired to find a refuge in America for persecuted Pomar 
 Catholics. In 1634, nearly 200 English Roman Catholics, with Leonard Calvert. 
 Cecil's brother, as their governor, formed a settlement at St. Mary's, near the mouth 
 p\ the Potomac river. The assembly met at St. Mary's, in 1635, and adopted a 
 liberal form of government for the Maryland colony. 
 
 Clayborne's Two Rebellions. — In 1635, William Clayborne, who refused to 
 recognize Lord Baltimore's authority, commenced a rebellion against the governor 
 of MAiyiand, but he was defeated and compelled to flee from the province. In 
 
262 MODERN HISTOR Y. 
 
 1645, Claybome retun>ed and began another rebellion ; and for a time the rebels held 
 the reins of power, and Governor Calvert was obliged to flee to Virginia; but the 
 rebellion was suppressed in 1646, and the governor returned to Maryland and 
 resumed his authority. 
 
 Toleration Act — Influx of Protestants — Disfranchisement of Catholics 
 — Civil War. — In 1649, the Maryland assembly passed "The Toleration Act," 
 which granted religious freedom for all sects in Maryland; and this induced many 
 liotestants who were persecuted elsewhere to settle in this Roman Catholic province 
 \; !eng*h the influx of Protestants was so great that they outnumbered the Catholi(j, 
 and after obtaining a majority in the assembly, they questioned the rights of the 
 pri^prietor, and, with the meanest ingratitude, they disfranchised the Catholics and 
 declared them not entitled to the protection of the laws. This outrageous proceed- 
 ing led to a civil war in Maryland between the Catholics and the Protestants, which 
 ended in the defeat of the Catholics and the overthrow of the proprietary govern- 
 ment; but when monarchy was restored in England, in 1660., Lord Baltimore 
 '•ecovered his rights. 
 
 Maryland a Royal Province — Restoration of Proprietary Government. 
 
 — The Maryland colony now prospered until 16S9, when a Protestant insurrection 
 overthrew the proprietary government; and in 1691, King William III. of Eng- 
 land deprived Lord Baltimore of his rights, made Maryland a royal province, and 
 established the Church of England in the colony; and Roman Catholics were dis 
 franchised in a province which they had founded. In 1716, Maryland was re- 
 stored to the heirs of Lord Baltimore, and it remained a proprietary province until 
 the Revolution of 1775. 
 
 CONNECTICUT (A. D. 1635-1776). 
 
 Discovery of the Connecticut River by Adrian Block — The Connecticut 
 Grant. — In 1614, Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator, discovered the Connecticut 
 river, and sailed up that stream as far as the site of Hartford. In 1630, the Coun- 
 cil of Plymouth granted the soil of Connecticut to the Earl of Warwick, who, the 
 following year, granted it to Lord Say and Seal, Lord Brooke, and others. 
 
 Founding of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield — Settlement ot 
 Saybrook. — In 1633, the Dutch erected a fort at the site of Hartford, and in the 
 same year the English under Captain Holmes established a trading-house at the 
 site of Windsor. In 1635, emigrants from Boston settled Windsor and Wethers- 
 field; and in 1636, other emigrants from the colony of Massachusetts Bay, led by 
 the Reverend Thomas Hooker, founded Hartford. In 1635, John Winthrop, son 
 of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay colony, led a company of emigrants to 
 the mouth of the Connecticut river, where they formed a settlement, which, in 
 honor of Lord Say and Seal and Lord Brooke, they named "Saybrook." 
 
 I'equod War — Founding of New Haven. — In 1637, a frightful war biDke 
 /at between the Connecticut settlers and the Pequod Indians, the Mohegan and 
 Narraganset tribes uniting with the whites; and in a furious battle at the Mystic 
 river, the savages were defeated by Captain John Mason, after their fort had been 
 set on fire, and the tribe of the Pequods was exterminated, and their chief, Sassa- 
 cus, fled to the Mohawks, who put him to death. In 1638, New Haven was 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 263 
 
 fou ided oy enii^ants from England, led by the Reverend John Davenport and 
 Theophiius Eaton; and they resolved to be governed in civil matters according 
 to the rules and principles of the Bible. 
 
 Connecticut Constitution — Union of Connecticut, Saybrook, and New 
 Haven. — In 1639, the settlers at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield adopted a 
 liberal constitution of government for the Connecticut colony. In 1644, the Say- 
 "Mook settlement was united with Connecticut; and in 1665, the Connecticut and 
 New Haven colonies were united into one colony, called " Connecticut," under a 
 charter granted to the colonists by King Charles II., three years before. 
 
 Resistance to Governor Andros. — In 1675, Sir Edmund Andros, then gov 
 emor of New York, attempted to extend his authority over Connecticut; and fur 
 this purpose he went to Saybrook with a small naval force; but he was so firmly 
 resisted that he relinquished the attempt. 
 
 Andros and the Connecticut Charter. — In 1687, Andros, as Governor 
 General of all New England, succeeded in depriving all the New England colonies, 
 excepting Connecticut, of their charters. He went to Hartford to seize the Con- 
 necticut charter; and while the assembly was in session in the evening, the charter 
 was laid on the table; but just as Andros attempted to take it, the lights were sud- 
 denly extinguished, and Captain Wadsworth carried away the charter and hid it in 
 the hollow of an oak tree, which thenceforth was called "the Charter Oak." 
 Andros, however, governed Connecticut, until he was imprisoned in Boston, in 
 1689, when the Connecticut charter was taken from its hiding-place. 
 
 Governor Fletcher and Captain Wadsworth. — In 1693, Governor Fletcher 
 of New York attempted to bring Connecticut under his jurisdiction, and for that 
 purpose he went to Hartford, where he assembled the Connecticut militia. When 
 Fletcher proceeded to read his commission, Captain Wadsworth, the commander of 
 the militia, commanded the drums to be beaten. "Silence," shouted Fletcher, 
 whereupon Wadsworth stepped up and said, "Sir! if they are interrupted again, I 
 will make the sun shine through you in a moment !" Fletcher returned to New 
 York in great anger. From this time Cormecticut was a prosperous colony. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND (A. D. 1636-1776). 
 
 Founding of Providence by Roger Williams. — The first settlement in Rhode 
 Island was made on the Pawtucket river, by William Blackstone, a Puritan minister. 
 When Roger Williams w^as banished from the colony of Massachusetts Bay, in 
 1635, he traveled through the wilderness, in the midst of winter; and in 1636, he 
 fimnded a settlement on Narraganset bay, which, with pious feelings, he named 
 " Providence." This was the beginning of the Rhode Island colony, which became 
 an asylum for persecuted Christians of all sects. 
 
 Settlement of Portsmouth and Newport. — In 1638, William Coddington, 
 a nonconformist minister, and others who were banished from the colony of Mas- 
 •achuietts Bay, founded Portsmouth, on the island which they named Rhode Island; 
 and in the folio ving year (1639), the settlement of Newport was commenced. 
 
 First Charier of the Providence and Rhode Island Plantations — 
 Religious Freedom. — In 1644, Roger Williams, who had gone to England foi 
 
264 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 that purpose, obtained from tlie Long Parliament a liberal charter, under whict 
 "I'he Providence and Rhode Island Plantations" were united as one province; and 
 in 1647, a colonial convention, assembled at Portsmouth, adopted a democratic 
 form of government and established the principles of perfect religious freedom in 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 Second Rhode Island Charter. — In 1663, King Charles II. of England 
 granted to the Rhode Island and Providence Plantations a charter which left th/» 
 colonists in the full enjoyment of perfect civil and religious freedom. This char 
 'er was suspended by the tyrant Andros in 1687, but when he was imprisoned in 
 Boston, in 1689, it was resumed, and remained in full force as the instrument of 
 government of the Commonwealth until 1842, when a State constitution wa.s 
 adopted. 
 
 DELAWARE (A. D. 1638-1776). 
 
 Settlement of New Sweden— Swedish Settlements on the Delaware 
 
 — Under the auspices of the Swedish West India Company, a company of .Swedish 
 emigrants, under Perter Minuit, the first governor of New Netherland, made a set- 
 tlement on Christiana Creek, near the site of Wilmington, in the present State of 
 Delaware, in 1638, and named the territory "New Sweden." Swedish settlements 
 were also made on the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, in the present Pennsylvania. 
 Conquest of New Sweden by the Dutch — Delaware and Pennsylvania. 
 — The Dutch at New Amsterdam claimed the territory of New Sweden; and in 
 1655, Governor Stuyvesant of New Netherland conquered the Swedish settlements 
 on the Delaware, and annexed New Sweden to New Netherland. The domain 
 of New Sweden was granted to William Penn in 1682, and it became a part of 
 Pennsylvania. The territory now known as Delaware became a separate province 
 in 1702, with a legislature of its own, but it was united with Pennsylvania under 
 one governor until 1776, when Delaware became an independent State. 
 
 NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA (A. D. 1663-1776). 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA (1668-1776). 
 
 The Carolina Grant. — Between the years 1640 and 1650, emigrants from Vir- 
 ginia settled near the mouth of the Chowan river. In 1663, King Charles II. of 
 England granted to the Earl of Clarendon and seven associates the extensive region 
 between Virginia and Florida, under the general name of "Carolina." 
 
 The Albemarle and Clarendon Colonies. — In 1663, a number of emigrants 
 from Virginia, with William Drummond as governor, founded Edenton, on the 
 Chowan river. This settlement was called " The Albemarle County Colony." A 
 representative government was adopted; and the first legislative assembly in Caro- 
 lina convened at Edenton, in 1668. In 1665, some planters from the Baibadoes 
 Islands, with Sir John Yeamans as governor, established, on the Cape Fear River, 
 a .settlemant known as "The Clarendon County Colony." This colony was broken 
 up several years afterward. 
 
 The Fundamental Constitutions. — Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, and 
 the philosopher John Locke prepared a constitution of government for the Caroli- 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 265 
 
 nas. This instrument, known as "The Fundamental Constitutions," 01 "The 
 Grand Model," was extremely aristocratic in spirit, and utterly repugnant to the 
 wishes of the freedom-loving settlers of the Carolinas. It could never be enforced, 
 as every attempt to do so produced a rebellion; and after a struggle of a quarter of 
 a century, between the colonists and the proprietors, this absurd scheme of govern 
 nient was finally abandoned by the proprietors, in 1695; and the cause of reprbli- 
 canisin was triumphant in Carolina. 
 
 Rebellion m North Carolina — Administrations of Seth Sothel and Join 
 Archdale. — The attempt to enforce the Fundamental Constitutions in the Albe 
 marie Colony (North Carolina) produced a rebellion, which resulted in the impri 
 sonment of the governor, and the temporary subversion of the proprietary government. 
 In 1683, Seth Sothel, one of the proprietors, became governor of North Carolina; 
 but, after a tyrannical and corrupt administration of five years, he was banished from 
 the colony. In 1695, the good Quaker, John Archdale, became governor of both 
 the Carolinas, and under his administration both colonies greatly prospered. 
 
 Emigration to North Carolina — War with the Tuscarora Indians. — 
 Quakers, Huguenots, and German Protestants settled in North Carolina. In 1711, 
 a frightful war broke out between the North Carolina settlers and the Tuscarora 
 Indians. The Indians massacred many of the German settlers; but the Tuscaroras 
 were finally subdued: 1,200 of them were captured, and the remainder joined the 
 Five Nations in New York thus forming the league of " The Six Nations." 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA (-1670-17761 
 
 The Carteret Colony — Founding of Charleston — In 1670, a company of 
 emigrants from England, with William Sayle as their governor, settled Old Charles 
 ton, on the Ashley river. This is known as " The Carteret County Colony," so 
 called in honor of Sir George Carteret, one of the proprietors of the Carolinas. In 
 1680, the inhabitants of Old Charle-;ton removed to a point between the Ashley and 
 Cooper rivers, where they laid the foundations of the present city of Charleston. A 
 representative government was established ; and the first legislative assembly in the 
 Carteret Colony convened at Charleston in 1682. 
 
 Emigration to South Carolina — Rebellion— Sothel's and Archdale's 
 Administrations. — Dutch emigrants, Puritans, and Huguenots settled in the Car- 
 teret Colony (South Carolina). An effort to enforce the Fundamental Constitutions 
 led to a rebellion in South Carolina, which resulted in the banishment of the gov 
 ernor, James Colleton. In 1690, the infamous Seth Sothel came to South Carolina, 
 of which colony he became governor; but, after oppressing and plundering the 
 tolonists for two years, he was banished. Under the wise administration of John 
 Archdale prosperity attended the colony. 
 
 War with the Spaniards of Florida — War with the Yamasee Indians, 
 ■— Ir. 1702, hostilities commenced between the South Carolinians and the Spaniards 
 of n jrida. South Carolina sent an unsuccessful expedition against the Spaniards; 
 D'.it the Apalachian Indians, the allies of the Spaniards, were subjugated ; 800 of 
 tt:e Apalachians being captured, and their country taken possession of. In 1706, 
 a combined French and Spanish fleet failed in an attack upon Charleston. In 1715, 
 the Soutb Carolina colonists became involved in a dangerous war with the Yamasee 
 
266 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Indians. Governor Craven with 1,200 men subdued the Yamasees, and drovt them 
 into Florida. 
 
 North and South Carolina, Royal Provinces. — In 17 19, the people of 
 South Carolina rebelled against the proprietary government; and in 1729, tiie pro- 
 prietors, wearied of the perpetual opposition, surrendered their claims to the crown, 
 whereupon North and South Carolina became distinct royal provinces, and so 
 
 eniained until the great Revolution of 1775, which swept away feudalism and 
 
 oytlty 
 
 NEW JERSEY (A. D. 1664-1776). 
 
 The New Jersey Grant — Puritan Settlement of Elizabethtown. — The 
 Dutch established a trading post at Bergen, in 161 8, and another at Fort Nassau, 
 below the site of Camden, in 1623. The Swedes and Finns also made settlements 
 on the Delaware. In 1664, when New Netherland was conquered by the Eng- 
 lish, King Charles II. of England granted the territory between the Hudson and 
 Delaware rivers to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, and named the province 
 "New Jersey;" and in the same year (1664), some English Puritans settled Eliza- 
 bethtown. Philip Carteret, a brother of Sir George, was made governor, and repre- 
 sentative government was established. When, in 1670, the proprietors of New 
 Jersey demanded the payment of quit-rents, the colonists rose in rebellion, and drove 
 the governor from the colony. 
 
 Division into East and West Jersey — Purchase of New Jersey by 
 Quakers. — In 1674, Lord Berkeley sold his interest in New Jersey to some Quakers, 
 who founded Salem; and in 1676, the province was divided, the Quakers obtaining 
 West Jersey, and Carteret receiving East Jersey. In 1682, William Penn and other 
 Quakers purchased East Jersey from Carteret's heirs, and made Robert Barclay 
 governor. 
 
 New Jersey a Royal Province — New Jersey and New York. — In 1688, 
 King James II. made the tyrant Andros governor of the Jerseys, from which time 
 great confusion prevailed until 1702, when East and West Jersey were united as 
 one royal province, and placed under the governor of New York, but having its 
 own legislature. In 1738, New Jersey was entirely separated from New York, 
 and Lewis Morris became governor. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA (A. D. 1682-1776). 
 
 William Penn and the Pennsylvania Grant — Settlement of Quakers in 
 Pennsylvania. — In 1643, the Swedes made a settlement on Tinicum Island, below 
 the site of Philadelphia. In 1677, Swedish settlements were made on the Dela- 
 ware and Schuylkill rivers. In 1681, King Charles II. of England granted an 
 immense territory west of the Delaware river to William Penn, a Quaker, who de- 
 sired to secure an asylum for the persecuted sect to which he belonged. The prov- 
 ince was named "Pennsylvania," which signifies "Penn's woods." In 1682, the 
 tenitory of the present State of Delaware was added to Penn's grant. In 1682, a 
 large company of Quakers from England arrived in Pennsylvania, founded the town 
 of Chester, the oldest English settlement in the colony, and organized a libera] 
 form of government. 
 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 267 
 
 William Penn in Pennsylvania — Penn's Treaty with the Indians. — In 
 the fall of 1682, William Penn arrived in Pennsylvania, and was joyfully received 
 by the Swedes and the English Quakers. He met the Assembly of Pennsylvania 
 at Chester, when he esta])lished a permanent government for the colony. Under a 
 large elm tree, on the site of Philadelphia, Penn made a treaty of friendship with 
 the Indians, who were treated with the greatest kindness by the Quakers. 'ITie 
 Indians who were present exclaimed, "We will live in peace with William Penn 
 at 1 his children as long as the sun and the moon shall endure!" They were true 
 to their word. Not a drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian. This 
 ti eaty was never sworn to and never broken. 
 
 Founding of Philadelphia — Charter of Liberties. — The same year (168?), 
 Penn laid out a capital for his new province between the Delaware and Schuylkill 
 rivers; and named the place "Philadelphia," which means "city of brotherly love." 
 Within a year, a hundred houses were built. In 1683, the colonial assembly met 
 at Philadelphia, and adopted a " Charter of Liberties." 
 
 Penn's Return to England — His Second Visit to Pennsylvania. — In 
 1684, William Penn returned to England; and in 1689, he was deprived of his 
 province by King William III., who suspected Penn of being disloyal to his gov- 
 ernment. Penn's province was restored to him in 1694; and in 1699, he visited 
 Pennsylvania a second time. He granted the colonies greater privileges, and 
 allowed Delaware to have a separate legislature. Both colonies had the same 
 governor until the American Revolution. William Penn died m London in 1718; 
 and in 1776, the Pennsylvanians purchased the claims of his heirs, and the prov- 
 ince became an independent commonwealth. 
 
 Mason's and Dixon's Line. — The boundary line between Pennsylvania and 
 Maryland, which had long been a subject of dispute, was settled as at present, in 
 1 761, by George Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, surveyors appointed for the purpose 
 by the King of England; and the line established by them is still called "Mason's 
 and Dixon's Line." 
 
 GEORGIA (A. D. 1733-1776). 
 
 Benevolent Design — Founding of Savannah — Oglethorpe's Treaty 
 with the Indians. — In 1743, King George II. of England granted to the philan- 
 thropic James Edward Oglethorpe, a member of the English Parliament, and other 
 benevolent individuals, "in trust for the poor," all the territory between '-he Sa- 
 vannah and Altamaha rivers. Oglethorpe's plan was to offer an asylum in America 
 to virtuous persons imprisoned for debt, and to other poor. Near the close of 1 732, 
 one-hundred and twenty of these unfortunate persons sailed from England, with 
 Oglethorpe as their governor; and in February, 1733, they arrived in America, and 
 founded the city of Savannah. Oglethorpe met fifty Indian chiefs, with the Creek 
 iachem, Tomochichi, at their head, and concluded a friendly treaty with them, 
 obtaining a large tract of territory, which was named " Georgia," in honor of King 
 George II. 
 
 War with the Spaniards of Florida — Georgia a Royal Province. — Id 
 1739, a war broke out between England and Spain; and in 1740, Oglethorpe, with 
 2,000 Georgians, invaded the Spanish province of Florida; but after an unsuccessfu' 
 
268 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 siege of St. Augustine, l,e returned to Georgia In 1742, the Spaniards invaded 
 Georgia; but they were defeated and driven back. Oglethorpe left Georgia forevei 
 in 1743; and in 1752, the trustees of the colony, wearied of their troublesome 
 chaige, sold their interests to the crown ; and Georgia became a royal province, and 
 so continued until 1776, when it became an independent State. 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 AGE OF PETER THE GREAT AND 
 CHARLES VI. 
 
 Vv AR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (A. D. 1702-1714) 
 
 CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. 
 
 Will Of Charles II. of Spain— Archduke Charles of Austria and Duke 
 Philip of Anjou.-After the Peace of Ryswick, in 1697, the question which chiefly 
 engaged the attention of Europe was whom the childless Charles II. of Spain, the 
 last Spanish king of the House of Hapsburg, and then on the brink of the grave, 
 should .appoint as his heir to the vast dominions of Spain. His nearest rektives 
 were King Louis XIV. of France and the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany. Both 
 of these powerful monarchs were the first cousins, and both were the sons-in-law, 
 of the Spanish sovereign; but Louis XIV. had renounced all claims to the crown 
 of Spain by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in 1659. Exasperated at the conduct of the 
 Kings of France and England, in arranging a partition of the Spanish dominions 
 between the sons of the claimants before his death, Charles II. appointed the young 
 Elector of Bavaria as his heir. But this prince soon afterward died, and Kings 
 Louis XIV. and William III. signed a new partition treaty. Greatly in'itated It 
 the French monarch, the King of Spain acknowledged the Archduke Charles of 
 Austria, son of the Emperor Leopold I., as his successor; but the Spanish nobles, 
 corrupted by the gold of Louis XIV., induced Charles II. to make a new will, by 
 which Duke Philip of Anjou, grandson of the King of France, was appointed Suc- 
 cessor to the Spanish throne. Charles II. died in 1700; and after some hesitation 
 Louis XIV. adopted the last will. When the Duke of Anjou started for Madrid! 
 to .tak ■ possession of the throne of Spain, with the title of Philip V., Louis said to 
 him, "There are no more Pyrenees." 
 
 Coalition of Germany, England, and Holland Against France and 
 Spain.— The Emperor Leopold I. of Germany opposed the last will of Charles II., 
 and sent into Italy a large army under his great general, Prince Eugene of Savoy,' 
 a Frenchman by birth, but who had gained great renown in the services of thJ 
 Emperor, in the wars of the German Empire against the Ottoman Porte. In 1701, 
 Prince Eugene drove the French forces under Marshals Velleroi and Catinat out of 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 269 
 
 Italy. Wflile this petty war between France and Germany was in progress, Louis 
 XIV., by one imprudent act, provoked a powerful combination against himself. 
 On the death of the exiled James II., in 1701, Louis recognzed his son as Kinj of 
 England, with the title of James III., after having promised not to do so. Inis 
 act of the French king was regarded by England as a national insult, and Kirg 
 William III. found his Parliament and people, who before had been averse to 
 England's participation in a continental war, ready to second all his views The. 
 most earnest preparations for war were now made by England. The death (A 
 William III., in 1702, produced no change in this respect, as his successor, Anne, 
 declared her determination to adhere to the policy adopted by her predecessor. Ai\ 
 alliance against France was immediately formed by the German Empire, England, 
 and Holland. The Elector of Bavaria entered into an alliance with the King of 
 France. Spain was divided: Aragon siding with the Archduke Charles, and Cas- 
 tile with Philip of Anjou. Thus England, Holland, and the German Empire were 
 united against France and Bavaria. Thus began " The War of the Spanish Succes- 
 sion," which for twelve years convulsed Southern and Western Europe. In his 
 former wars, Louis XIV. had generally triumphed over his enemies; but during 
 the whole course of " The War of the Spanish Succession " he suffered a continua- 
 tion of the most calamitous defeats. He no longer displayed the vigor and energy 
 for which he had been before noted. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1702 AND 1703. 
 
 The War in Italy and in the Spanish Netherlands. — In Italy, during 
 the year 1702, a French force under the Duke of Vendome gained the battle of 
 Luzara over the Austrians. At this time, a powerful English army, under John 
 Churchhill, Duke of Marlborough, who proved to be one of England's greatest 
 generals, appeared in the Spanish Netherlands, and defeated the French forces 
 commanded by the Duke of Burgundy and Marshal Boufflers. 
 
 Events in Spain and Germany. — During the year 1702, the united fleets 
 of England and Holland were repulsed in attack upon the Spanish port of Cadiz, 
 but they succeeded in destroying, in the harbor of Vigo, a combined French and 
 Spanish fleet laden with the treasures of Spanish America. In the following year 
 (1703), a French army under Marshal Villars passetl the Rhine into Germany, and 
 ilefeated the German imperial army commanded by Prince Louis of Baden, in the 
 battles of Friedlingen and Ilochstett. 
 
 Protestant Insurrection in France — Protestant Rebellion in Hungary. 
 
 — In 1703, the Protestants in the region of the Cevennes, maddened by religious 
 persecution, rose against their bigoted and tyrannical king, and Louis XIV. sup- 
 pressed the insurrection with great difficulty. The tyranny of the Emperor Leopold 
 I. of Germany produced a rebellion of his Protestant Hungarian subjects, who, led 
 by the valiant Count Ragotzky, resisted the Austrians until 171 1, when Hungary 
 was reduced to submission. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1704. 
 
 Capture of Gibraltar. — On the 4th of August, 1704, the strong rocky forhess 
 cf Gibraltar, in Southern Spain, was taken by a few English sailors under Sir George 
 Rooke. " This achievement was by far the most important to England of any during 
 
270 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the War of the Spanish Succession, as Gibraltar has ever since remained in her 
 possession, and has given her the key to the Mediterranean sea. ^ 
 
 Battle of Blenheim. — The forces of Austria and the German Empire were at 
 this time hard pressed by the French and the Bavarians. For the purpose of re- 
 lieving them, the Duke of Marlborough, with the English army, forced his way into 
 Bavaria, and succeeded in forming a junction with the Austrians u!»uci Prince 
 E'lgene, who had advanced from Italy. The united forces, numbering Bo,oooraen, 
 wen a brilliant victory, on the 13th of August (1704), near the small villi.ges of 
 Hochstett and Blenheim, over 80,000 F"rench and Bavarians, under Marshals 1 £ liar 
 and Marsin and the Elector of Bavaria. The victorious English and Germans lost 
 13,000 men, while their defeated enemies lost 30,000. Marsin was made a j risonei, 
 and all the French artillery, baggage, and camp-equipage fell into the hands of the 
 victors. The disastrous issue of this battle compelled the French to evacuate Bavaria, 
 and to fall back to the west side of the Rhine. The Elector of Bavaria, thus aban- 
 doned and placed under the ban of the German Empire, was obliged to retire fron: 
 his dominions, and France was deprived of all aid. 
 
 Portugal Joins the Allies — An English Army in Spain. — During the year 
 1704, Portugal joined the coalition against France, and the Archduke Charles, with 
 the assistance of an English army under the IL-irl of Peterborough, landed in Spain. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1705. 
 
 Operations in Italy and Spain — ^Joseph I., Emperor of Germany. — In 
 
 Italy, in 1705, the French, underthe skillful Duke of Vendome, gained many advan- 
 tages over the Austrians, and finally inflicted a severe defeat upon Prince Eugene, 
 at Cassano. In Spain, the English under the Earl of Peterborough took Barcelona. 
 During the same year, the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany died, and was suc- 
 ceeded on the imperial throne by his son, Joseph I. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1706. 
 
 Battle of Ramillies. — The campaign of 1706 was a glorious one for the Allies, 
 who acquired the supremacy in the Netherlands, in Italy, and in Spain. A French 
 army of 80,000 men under Marshal Villeroi, having advanced into the Spanish 
 Netherlands, was disastrously defeated by the English under the Duke of Marl- 
 borough, in the decisive battle of Ramillies, on the 23d of May,'i7o6. The con- 
 sequences of this battle were that the French king lost most of his acquisitions in 
 the Spanish Netherlands. 
 
 Battle of Turin. — The French, who thus far had been generally victorious in 
 Italy, laid siege to Turin ; but Prince Eugene, with the German imperial army, 
 advanced to the relief of the city; and on the 7th of September, 1706, he defeated 
 the French so disastrously before the walls of the city that they were obliged tc 
 raise ihe siege and evacuate Italy. Thus the fruits of all former French victories 
 in Italy were lost by the result of a single battle. In Spain, during 1706, the allied 
 English, Dutch, and Portuguese forces, under the command of L(jrd Galway, toi-l; 
 possession of Madrid. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 271 
 
 EVENTS OF 1707. 
 
 Battle of Altnanza. — The campaign of 1707 in a measure revived the hopes 
 Df Louis XIV. In Spain, the allied English, Dutch, and Portuguese armies, com- 
 manded by Lord Galway, were almost annihilated in the battle of Almanza, on the 
 25th cf April (1707,) by the French army under the Duke of Berwick, a natural 
 jon of the ill-fated James 11. of England. During the same year Prince Eix^Jie 
 K;ade an unsuccessful effort to take Toulon by siege. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1708. 
 
 Battle of Oudenarde. — The Allies still maintained their supremacy in the 
 Spanish Netherlands. On the nth of July, 1708, the allied English and (jerman 
 armies, under the Duke of Marlborough, and Prince Eugene, severely defeated a 
 large French army under the Dukes of Vendome and Burgundy, at the village of 
 Oudenarde, on the Scheldt. Soon afterward the victors took Lille by siege, and 
 the way to Paris stood open. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1709. 
 
 Louis XIV. asks for Peace. — France was now threatened with the horrois 
 of famine. This danger, together with the exhausted state of the French finances, 
 made Louis XIV. anxious for peace. He solicited peace with Holland, but the 
 Dutch, remembering the insults which they had suffered from him, rejected all his 
 proposals with disdain, and Louis found himself to continue the war, or to submit 
 to the most humiliating conditions. 
 
 Battle of Malplaquet. — The French received another severe blow in the 
 Spanish Netherlands. In the bloody battle of Malplaquet, on the nth of Septem 
 ber, 1709, Marlborough and Eugene with their united armies defeated the French 
 army of 80,000 men commanded by Marshals Villars and Boufflers. The French 
 escaped from the field with the loss of 10,000 men, while the victorious English 
 and Germans lost 20,000. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1710. 
 
 Haughty and Insulting Demands of the Allies. — In 1710, Louis XIV. 
 again solicited peace, offering to make great concessions to the Allies. He even 
 offered to recognize the Archduke Charles as King of Spain, to furnish no more 
 assistance to his grandson Philip, and even to supply the Allies with money to 
 prosecute the war against him. But the allied powers demanded that Louis him- 
 self should send an army into Spain to assist in driving out his grandson. This 
 msulting demand Louis rejected with scorn, saying, "If I must continue the war, 
 I should rather fight against my enemies than, against my own grandson." The 
 French jieople, who had clamored for peace, shared the indignation of their non 
 aich, .and were resolved not to submit to any such degrading conditions. 
 
 I'lench Victories in Spain. — Louis was somewhat encouraged by the sn*; 
 teases of his arms in Spain during the year 1710. The campaign opened with the 
 victories of the Austrians under Count Stahremberg, in the battles of Saragossa and 
 Almenara; but afterwards the entire English corps under Stanhope was ca])tured 
 by the Dnke of Vendome, after a severe battle at Brihuega. On the loth of Decern- 
 
272 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 her (1710), Vendome defeated Stahremberg at Villaviciossa, after a bloody battle 
 of two day*. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1711. 
 
 Consequences of the Death of the Emperor Joseph I. of Germany. — 
 Early in 1 711, an event occurred which changed the situation of all parties. This 
 was the death of the Emperor Joseph I. of Germany and the succession of Hs 
 brotlier, the Archduke Charles, the competitor of Philip of Anjou, to the thrones ai 
 Austria and the German Empire. The union of the crowns of Spain and Ger- 
 many, in the person of a prince of the House of Hapsburg, w;vs as alarming to the 
 other powers of Europe as the union of the crowns of Spain and France, under a 
 prince of the House of Bourbon. 
 
 Change in the English Ministry. — A change of opinion with regard to the 
 war had taken place in England, which resulted in the expulsion of the Wigs from 
 office and the accession to power of the Tories, who opposed the war. The Tory 
 Ministry, at the head of which stood Lords Oxford and Bolingbroke, removed the 
 avaricious Marlborough, who had been the most influential of the Whigs, from the 
 chief command of the English army, and appointed in his stead the Duke of Or- 
 mond, who had secret orders not to fight. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1712, '13, '14. 
 
 Peace of Utrecht — Peace of Rastadt. — As early as January, 1712, through 
 the influence of England, conferences for peace were opened at Utrecht, in Hol- 
 land ; but, owing to the opposition of the Dutch and German ambassadors, negotia- 
 tionfe progressed very slowly. Finally, on the llth of April, 1713, a treaty of 
 peace was agreed to by the ambassadors of France and England. Holland and 
 Germany, however, obstinately resolved to continue the war; but the decisive defeat 
 of the German imperial army under Prince Eugene, by the French under Marshal 
 Viriars, in the the battle of Denain, on the 24th of July, 17 13, alanned the Dutch 
 so much that they also agreed to a treaty of peace with France. By the Peace of 
 Utrecht, England received Gibraltar from Spain, and Nova Scotia and the Hudson's 
 Bay Territory from France. The succession of Anne to the throne of England 
 was acknowledged by France; while Philip of Anjou was recognized by England 
 as King of Spain, on condition that the crowns of France and Spain should never 
 be united. The war between France and the German Empire continued until the 
 7th of March, 1714, when the Peace of Rastadt was concluded, by which the 
 House of Austria received the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sicily, 
 which were thus separated from the dominion of Spain ; the Emperor of 
 Germany recognized Philip of Anjou as King of Spain ; the exiled Elector of 
 Bavaria was to be restored to his dominions; and the new kingdom of Prussia, 
 which had been established in 1701, was recognized. Thus after a war which had 
 een, on the whole, disastrous to Louis XIV., that monarch obtained honoral;lc 
 terms of peace; and the Allied Powers were punished for their former unreasons.! i? 
 and insolent demands. 
 
 Condition of France— Death of Louis XIV. — Louis XV. — Pc.-ace came 
 none too soon for France, whose condition, in consequence of the long sjid expen- 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 213 
 
 sive wars occasioned by the ambition of her warlike monarch, was at this time 
 most deplorable. The public debt was enormous, the nation was almost financially 
 'ruined, and the resources of the kingdom were almost exhausted; and nothing but a 
 long period of peace would enable the country to recuperate. Louis XIV. sank into 
 his grave in September, 1715, after a reign of seventy-two years, fifty-four from the 
 expiration of the regency. As all the children and grand-children of Louis XIV. 
 had died before him, his great-grandson was invested with the crown of France, with 
 the title of Louis XV. During the minority of Louis XV., the talented but profli 
 gate Duke of Orleans acted as regent of the French kingdom. The young king 
 was instructed in all sorts of vice; and when he assumed the government, on 
 the expiration of the regency, in 1723, his moral depravity was equal to that of 
 the unworthy regent. 
 
 THE NORTHERN WAR (A. D. 1700-1718). 
 
 Russia Under the House of Romanoff — Peter the Great. — Under the 
 wise, peaceable, and virtuous Michael Romanoff, who ascended the throne of Rus- 
 sia in 1613, that country enjoyed a period of prosperity. During the reign of 
 Michael's son Alexis (1645-1676), the Russian Empire was extended in every 
 direction. In 1689, Peter I., surnamed "the Great," became sole sovereign of 
 the Russian Empire. Well did this prince deserve the title of "the Great," as he 
 did more for the civilization and advancement of Russia than all of his predecessors 
 and successors. Before his time Russia was a nation of barbarians, and more of an 
 Asiatic empire than a European one. Peter the Great was one of the very few 
 monarchs who have labored for the welfare of their subjects. Having, by extensive 
 travels through Europe, early seen the practical advantages of civilization, he en- 
 couraged foreign mariners, artisans, and officers to emigrate to Russia. In 1697, 
 Peter left his dominions as a private individual, and went on a travel to other parts 
 of Europe, where he studied such arts as he thought would be useful to his subjects. 
 For the purpose ot better acquiring a knowledge of the art of ship-building, Petei 
 worked as a common ship-carpenter in Holland and in England. Although Petei 
 civilized his subjects, he could not civilize himself, and he remained a cruel barba- 
 rian all his life. He often said that he corrected the faults of the Russian people, 
 but not his own. He had some great vices, and was guilty of some shocking 
 crimes, but still his name stands deservedly among the first of those sovereigns who 
 have labored for the good of their subjects. 
 
 Alliance of Russia, Poland, and Denmark, against Sweden. — Wien, 
 M 1697, Charles XII., a youth eighteen years of age, became King of Sweden, the 
 sovereigns of Russia, Poland, and Denmark considered the time favorable for wiest- 
 ing from Sweden the provinces which she had formally conquered. Peter the 
 Groat of Russia was desirous of the possession of some of the Swedish provinces 
 on the east side of the Baltic; Frederic Augustus, King of Poland and Elector of 
 Saxony, resolved upon seizing Livonia; and King Frederic IV. of Denmark deter 
 mined to appropriate unto himself Schleswig, which belonged to the Duke of Hoi 
 ."Jtein, a brother-in-law of the young King of Sweden. An alliance against Sweden 
 was accordingly concluded between the Czar of Russia and the Kings of Poland 
 and Denmark, for the purpose of obtaining the coveted provinces by force. Ahtrist 
 18 
 
274 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 at the same time, in the year 1700, the King of Denmark carried war into the 
 dominions of the Duke of Holstein, the King of Poland marched into Livonia and 
 fell upon Riga, and the Czar of Russia, with 80,000 men, invaded Esthonia, and 
 laid siege to Narva. 
 
 Charles XII. of Sweden — Denmark Humbled — Peace of Travendal.— 
 Tj the astonishment of all Europe, the young King of Sweden suddenly exhibited 
 gieat military abilities. Indignant at the aggressive conduct of his enemies, and 
 tiatii g determined upon carrying the war into Denmark, Charles XII. landed with 
 an anny on the island of Zealand, and laid siege to Copenhagen. The iiihaliilantJ 
 of the Danish capital saved their city from their horrors of a bombardmtiit by the 
 payment of a large sum of money. Having invaded Holstein, the King of Den- 
 mark was at this time completely hemmed in, and found that nothing but a disad- 
 vantageous peace would save his kingdom from falling into the power of the Swedes, 
 The Peace of Travendal was accordingly concluded between the Kings of Sweden 
 ami Denmark, by which Frederic IV. renounced his alliance with Russia and Po- 
 land, and agreed to indemnify the Duke of Holstein. 
 
 Battle of Narva. — After humbling the King of Denmark, Charles XII., at the 
 head of 8,000 Swedish troops, marched against the Czar of Russia, who, with 80,000 
 men, was then besieging Narva. Although the Swedish king had but one-tenth as 
 many men as his antagonist, he did not hesitate to attack the army of Peter the 
 Great. Having broken the Russian intrenchments by a heavy cannonade, Charles, 
 on the 30th of November, 1700, ordered a bayonet charge, and, under cover of a 
 severe storm of snow which was driving into the faces of the Russians by the wind, 
 he assailed the enemy. The Russians were unable to stand their ground, and, after 
 a terrible battle of three hours, their works were forced on all sides. The Russian 
 loss was 8,000 killed and 30,000 made prisoners. Many were drowned in the Neva 
 by the breaking of the bridge. The Russians also lost all their baggage, stores, and 
 cannon. Charles entered Neva as a conqueror, thinking that this great blow had 
 completely broken the power of Peter the Great. The Czar, however, was not dis- 
 couraged. He said, " I knew that the Swedes would beat us ; but in time they 
 will teach us to become their conquerors." After his defeat, Peter evacuated the 
 Swedish provinces, and devoted his attention to disciplining his army. 
 
 Victories of Charles XII. over the King of Poland. — Instead of following 
 up his victory over Peter the Great, the Swedish king, after wintering at Narva, 
 marched against King Augustus II. of Poland, who had unsuccessfully besieged 
 Riga the previous year. After defeating the Polish king in the bloody battle of 
 Duna, in July, 1 70 1, and obtaining full possession of the provinces of Livonia and 
 Coudand, Charles XII. marched into Poland. The Swedish monarch entered 
 Warsaw on the 14th of May, 1702, and soon afterward declared that he would not 
 l^rant a peace to Poland, unUl the Polish Diet had dethroned Augustus II. and 
 elected another king in his place. On the 9th of July, 1702, Augustus was defeated 
 with heavy loss by Charles, in a desperate engagement near Gliessaw, in a large 
 ;)!iin between Warsaw and Cracow. The camp, baggage, artillery, and mililajj 
 'U.est of Augustus fell into the hands of Charles, who soon afterwards took possessic s 
 ol Warsaw. 
 
 Peter's Conquests on the Baltic — Founding of St. Petersburg. — While 
 Charles XII. of Sweden was conquering in Poland, his most powerful enemy, Peter 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 275 
 
 u-e Grea of Russia, was reducing the Swedish provinces on the east side of the 
 Imltic, and annexing them to the Russian Empire. Peter took Narvs. by storm, 
 built tht fortresses of Schlusselburg and Cronstadt, and caused the islands at the 
 mouth ol'the Neva to be drained by serfs; and there he laid the foundations of a 
 city which he named St. Petersburg, and which he intended should be the capital 
 of the Rusiian Empire. In 1703, Peter compelled 300,000 people from Moscow 
 ard other Russian cities to settle at St. Petersburg. He also encouraged *"oreigners 
 to emigrate thither. Famine and disease soon carried 200,000 of the settlers of 
 the new city to their graves. Yet Peter was not discouraged, but he persevered 
 in his enterprise, and, by his liberal and enlightened policy, foreign artisans and 
 merchants were induced to emigrate to St. Petersburg. 
 
 Dethronement of Augustus II. of Poland — Successes of Charles XII. in 
 Poland. — In 1703, Charles XII. again defeated Augustus II. of Poland, and com- 
 pelled him to retreat into Saxony, his hereditary dominions. Through the influence 
 of the King of Sweden, Augustus was dethroned by the Polish Diet, in July, 1704, 
 and Stanislaus Leczinski, voiwode of Posen, a creature of Charles XII., was elected 
 to the throne of Poland, by a Diet surrounded by .Swedish soldiers. Resolving to 
 recover the Polish crown, Augustus returned to Poland with an army of Saxons, 
 and took Warsaw, but was at length forced to retire. Augustus afterwards received 
 Ihe assistance of 5o,ooo Russians, whom Peter the Great had sent to expel the 
 Swedes from Poland ; but Charles routed the different Russian divisions in succes- 
 sion, and struck such terror into their ranks, by the rapidity of his movements, that 
 the Russians retired into their own territories. (1706.) 
 
 Invasion of Saxony by Charles XII. — Peace of Altranstadt. — In the 
 
 meantime, a victory gained by the Swedes over the forces of Augustus opened to 
 the Swedish monarch the way into Saxony, Accordingly, Charles XII. invaded 
 ihe Saxon dominions of Augustus, without asking permission from the Emperor of 
 Germany, whose attention was too much engrossed by the War of the Spanish Suc- 
 cession to give any heed to the movements of the King of Sweden. Notwithstand- 
 ing the strict discipline of the Swedes, they frightfully ravaged the Saxon territories. 
 Augustus had now no other alternative than to consent to such terms of peace as 
 the conquering King of Sweden chose to dictate. Under these circumstances, the 
 Peace of Altranstadt was concluded, on the 24th of September, 1706, on terms most 
 humiliating to Augustus, who was required to renounce the crown of Poland for 
 himself and his posterity, to dissolve his alliance with the Czar of Russia, and to sur- 
 render the Livonian Patkul to the Swedish monarch, who put him to a cruel death. 
 
 Invasion of Russia by Charles XII. — In September, 1707, Charles XII., at 
 '.ne head of 40,000 troops, reentered Poland, where Peter the Great had been 
 rndeavorins^ to retrieve the affairs of Augustus. As the King of Sweden advanced, 
 the Czar -etired into his own dominions. Charles resolved to m.irch upun Mos 
 cow; and Peter, becoming alarmed at this bold movement of his antagonist, 
 solicited peace; but Charles, who had determined to complet- ly subdue his great 
 rival, haughtily replied, "I will treat at Moscow." Charles now advanced intr 
 Russia, and directed his course toward Moscow. Peter destroyed the roads and Jles- 
 olated the country between Poland and Moscow, so that hunger, fatigue, and coa^tanl 
 partial actions would so weaken the Swedish army that it could not reach Moscow. 
 
 Mazeppa, the Cossack Chief. — The plan of the Czar succeeded. Charles, 
 
176 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 whiise ainiy was completely exhausted, now resolved to march southward into the 
 Ukraine, whither he had been invited by Mazeppa, chief of the Cossacks, who had 
 resolved to throw off his allegiance to the Czar. Peter discovered the plans of ttie 
 lebellious :hief and thwarted them by the execution of his associates; and Mazeppa 
 appeared in the Swedish camp as a fugitive, rather than as a powerful ally. 
 
 Swedish Misfortunes. — Charles XII. had ordered a large army from Sweden, 
 inder General Lewenhaupt, to reinfore him. While on his march to join Charles, 
 I .ewenhaupt was defeated by the Russians in three battles, with the loss of a I hii 
 ajtillery, baggage, and provisions; and he only succeeded in reaching the camp oj 
 Charles with a small force. The severity of the winter of 1708, 9, reduced the 
 Swedish army to 20,000 men. At one time, 2,000 were frozen to death before the 
 eyes of the hard-hearted Charles. 
 
 Battle of Pultowa. — Notwithstanding the misfortunes and sufferings of his 
 army, the ambitious King of Sweden was still obstinately resolved upon the con- 
 quest of Russia. At length, Charles laid siege to the strong town of Pultowa, on 
 the frontiers of the Ukraine. When the Czar approached, with 70,000 men, for the 
 relief of the garrison, Charles hastened with the greater portion of his army to give 
 battle to Peter, leaving the remainder to press the siege with vigor. On the 8th of 
 July, 1709, was fought the great battle of Pultowa, which ended forever the splen- 
 did career of Charles XII. of Sweden. In this battle, Peter the Great and his 
 .subjects fully proved that they had profited by the lessons of their enemies. The 
 Swedes charged with such impetuosity that the Russian cavalry were forced back, 
 but the Russian infantry held their ground until the cavalry had rallied and again 
 gone mto the fight. In the meaptime, the Russiaan artillery had made frightful 
 havoc in the Swedish ranks. Having lett nis ncavy cannon in the morasses, 
 Charles could not contend successfully against his antagonist; and, after a terrible 
 battle of two hours, the Swedish army was hopelessly annihilated. Having been 
 wounded during the siege of Pultowa, Charles was carried about the field in a litter, 
 which was shattered to pieces by a cannon-ball while the battle was raging. The 
 Czar's hat was pierced by a musket-ball, and his favorite general, Menzikoff, had 
 three horses shot under him. Eight-thousand Swedish troops lay dead on the san- 
 guinary field, and 6,000 were made prisoners by the victorious Russians; and aftei 
 retreating to the Dnieper, 12,000 were compelled to surrender to the pursuing Rus- 
 sians, and the once-splendid army of Charles XII. was totally destroyed. The 
 .Swedish soldiers who were made prisoners by the Russians were dispersed ovei 
 the vast Russian Empire, and not one of them ever returned to his native land. 
 Many perished in the wilds of Siberia. 
 
 Flight of Charles XII. to Turkey — New Coalition Against Sweden. — 
 The once-conquering Charles XII. now became a helpless fugitive; and, with 300 
 of hi> guards, he fled to the Turkish town of Bender, having lost in one day all 
 wiiit he had gained during nine years of war. The dethroned Augustus now 
 .•fv5nt<;red Poland, and wrested the Polish crown from Stanislaus Leczinski; and 
 Denmark, Poland, and Russia renewed their alliance against Sweden. The King 
 of Prussia laid claim to certain Swedish possessions in Germany, and joined the 
 coalition against Sweden. Peter the Great invaded the Swedish provinces on the 
 east side of the Baltic, the King of Denmark fell upon Schleswig, and the Prus- 
 tians seized upon Swedish Pomerania. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 277 
 
 Charles XII. Incites the Turks to a War on Russia — Russo-Turkish 
 Treaty. — The Swedish monarch met with an honorable reception at the hands o| 
 the Turks. He lived at Bender in royal splendor as the guest of the Sultan. He 
 did not entertain a single thought of returning to his kingdom without having first 
 conciuered Russia. Charles made use of all the means at his command to induce 
 the Turks to make war on Russia, and at length he succeeded. A Turkish ..rmy 
 ■j\ 200,000 men marched to the Prulh, where it was met by a Russian army undei 
 die Czar Peter. After four days of hard fighting, in July, 171 1, Peter and his who'- 
 army would have been killed or made prisoners had not Peter's wife. Cat! arre 
 corrupted the Turks with Russian gold, and thus brought about an honorable peace. 
 Charles could not repress his rage at finding all his hopes for the overthrow of his 
 great rival thus blasted. 
 
 Resistance of Charles XII. to the Turkish Government. — The obstinate 
 Charles XH. still determined to remain in Turkey, even after the Sultan had 
 ordered him to leave the Ottoman dominions; and the Porte found it necessary to 
 employ forcible means to send him away. Arming his immediate attendants, about 
 300 in number, Charles defied a Turkish army of 26,000 men. After a fierce re- 
 sistance, in which m.any of his attendants were killed, and the house in which he 
 defended himself had been set on fire, Charles was made a prisoner. The Swedish 
 monarch remained a captive in Turkey ten months longer, wasting his time in use- 
 less obstinacy. 
 
 Swedish Disasters. — In the meantime, the Swedish army under General 
 Steinbock had defeated the Danes and the Saxons at Galesbrusch, in Mecklenburg, 
 and burned the defenseless town of Altona, but were afterwards compelled to 
 surrender as prisoners of war to the Czar of Russia. The Russian arms were 
 making rapid progress in the Swedish province of Finland, and the Russian fleet 
 gained a great victory over the Swedish navy, near the island of Aland, in the Bal- 
 tic sea. 
 
 Return of Charles XII. to Sweden. — When Charles XII. learned that the 
 Council which governed Sweden in his absence was about to appoint his sister 
 regent of the kingdom, and make peace with Russia and Denmark, he resolvet' to 
 return to Sweden. The Swedish king left the Ottoman territories in October, 17 14; 
 and, after having travelled through Hungary and Germany, in the disguise of a 
 peasant, he unexpectedly arrived at Stralsund, in Swedish Pomerania. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Stralsund. — At length, the allied Danish, Saxon, and 
 Prussian armies laid siege to Stralsund. After a heroic defense on the part of the 
 Swedes for over a year, Stralsund was surrendered to the besieging enemy, in 
 December, 1715, whereupon the whole of Pomerania, and the island of Rugen, 
 were taken possession of by the Prussians. Charles escaped tc Sweden m a boaU 
 and still obstinately refused to consent to a peace. 
 
 Invasion of Norway by Charles XII. — Scheme of Baron Gortz.— In 
 1716, Charles XII. invaded Norway, for the purpose of humbling the King of 
 D«"nmark for violating the Peace of Travendal. Charles soon returned to Sweden .. 
 and his attention was now occupied with the bold political schemes of his Prime 
 Minister, Baron von Gortz, who was negotiating with Peter the Great for an alliance 
 be«tween Russia and Sweden by which these two powers might dictate law to 
 Europe. 
 
278 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Siege of Fredickshall and Death of Charles XII. — In 171S, the Swedish 
 monarch invaded Norway a second time, and laid siege to the fortress of Freder- 
 ickshall. Here the great warrior-king found his death. While reconnoitering the 
 works, during a terrific fire from the Danish batteries, on the night of the 30th of 
 November, 1718, Charles XII. was killed, whether by the bullet of an ass.istin, 01 
 Ly a grape-shot from the enemy, is a disputed point in history. 
 
 Ulrica Eleanora — Peace of Nystadt. — After greatly restricting the royi' 
 power, th; Swedish Senate placed Ulrica Eleanora, sister to Charles XII , on tb-. 
 Hirone of Sweden; and, in 1 7 19, Baron von Gortz was barbarously executed. Ir 
 1 72 1, the Peace of Nystadt was concluded, by which Sweden surrendered most of 
 her foreign possessions, in return for an indemnification in money. The Baltic 
 provinces of Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia were ceded to Russia ; the greater part 
 of Pomerania to Prussia; and Schleswig and Holstem to Denmark. 
 
 Russia after the Northern War. — While Sweden was almost ruined by the 
 mad ambition of Charles XII., Russia, under the illustrious Peter the Great, w.is 
 taking her place as a leading European power. Agriculture, manufactures, and 
 commerce were encouraged, and many useful reforms were adopted. Learning 
 that his son Alexis intended to restore the old order of things after his father's death, 
 Peter compelled the young prince to renounce his right to the succession to the 
 throne, and threw him into prison, where he died. Peter the Great died in 1725. 
 and was succeeded on the Russian throne by his wife, Catharine I. Russia made 
 rapid strides during the reigns of Catharine I., Peter II., Anna, and Elizabeth. 
 
 GENERAL AFFAIRS OF EUROPE. 
 
 England and Scotland — House of Brunswick — Scotch Rebellion of 
 1715. — Although the crowns of England and Scotland had been united in 1603, 
 each of the two kingdoms had its own Parliament until 1707, when it was agreed 
 that one Parliament for both kingdoms should thenceforth meet in London ; and 
 England, Scotland, and Wales have ever since been known by the common desig- 
 nation of "Great Britain." Queen Anne died in 1714, whereupon, in accordance 
 with "The Act of Succession," passed by the English Parliament in 1689, the 
 Elector George of Hanover became King of Great Britain, with the title of George 
 I.; and ever since that time, the House of Hanover, or Brunswick, has occupied the 
 British throne. The Tories were antagonistic to the House of Brunswick ; and in 
 171 5, some of their number in Scotland, headed by the Earl of Mar, took up arms 
 for the restoration of the deposed House of Stuart to the throne. The Duke of 
 Argyle, who espoused the cause of King George I., defeated the Scotch insurgents 
 !n the battle of Sheriff-Muir, near Dumblain, in 1716. The Earl of Derwentwater, 
 Mr. Foster, and Lords Kinmuir and Nithsdale, who had excited a Tory, or Jacobite, 
 insurrection in the north of England, were also defeated and made prisoner.^. The 
 leaders of this rebellion suffered the penalty of death, with the exception of Lord 
 Nithsdale, who effected his escape from the country in a very romantic manner. 
 The insurrection was soon suppressed both in England and Scotland. King Gtiorge 
 1. died in 1727, whereupon his son, George II., ascended the British throne. 
 
 War of Venice and Austria against Turkey — Peace of Passarovitz.— 
 In 1714, the Ottoman Porte began a war against the Republic of Venice, for the 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 279 
 
 purjiose of regaining possession of the Morea. In 1716, Austria joined Venice in 
 the war; and the Austrian army, under the great Prince Eugene, defeated the im- 
 m,°nse hosts of the Turivs at Peterwardein, in 1716, and at Belgrade, in 1717. By 
 Uie Peace of Passarovitz, in 17 18, the Porte surrendered Belgrade to Austria, bui 
 Venice ceded the Morea to the Sultan. 
 
 War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain. — The intriguing efforts of 
 !he able, but unprincipled, Cardinal Alberoni, the Prime-Minister of Philip V. of 
 5paia, for placing the Pretender, son of James II., on the throne of England; foi 
 ol)ta ning the regency and succession to the throne of France for the King of Spain 
 zxii\ for wresting Sinly from the House of Austria, to which that island had been 
 assigned by the treaty of Rastadt, produced, in 1717, a "Quadruple Alliance" of 
 England, France, Holland, and Germany, for the purpose of compelling Spain to 
 observe the stipulations of the treaty of Utrecht. The Spanish fleet in the Mediter- 
 ranean sea was defeated and destroyed by a British squadron under Admiral Byng; 
 She Spanish troops in Sicily were defeated by the Austrians ; while a French force 
 invaded Northern Spain and gained some successes. These events alarmed the 
 weak and imbecile monarch of Spain, who consequently dismissed and banished 
 his ambitious Minister and made peace, in 17 18. 
 
 The Mississippi Scheme. — The wars occasioned by the ambition of Louis 
 XIV. had reduced the finances of France to a most deplorable condition, and an 
 effort undertaken to remedy the evil only hastened their entire ruin. (1720.) This 
 remedy was the famous " Mississippi Scheme," projected by the Scotchman, John 
 Law. The regent adopted the plan proposed by Law, who assured him that it 
 would add enormously to the wealth and prosperity of France ; and a commercial 
 association, called " The Mississippi Company," was organized, the profits of whose 
 extensive trade with the French province of Louisiana, in North America, were to 
 liquidate the whole national debt of France. Measures were taken to depreciate 
 the value of the gold .-xnd silver coin, and the success of Law's project at first ex- 
 ceeded all expectations. The people throughout France, with one impulse of avarice, 
 exchanged their gold and silver for paper money ; and the notes that were issued 
 soon arose to eighty per cent, of the value of the current coin. But the bank finally 
 failed; the gold and silver had all disappeared; the worthless paper money only 
 remained ; and thousands of families were reduced to poverty. The popular indig- 
 nation finally compelled Law to leave France. 
 
 The South-Sea Scheme. — A project similar to the Mississippi Scheme was 
 undertaken in England about the same time. (1720.) This project was the cele- 
 brnted "South-Sea Scheme," proposed by Sir George Blount. The plan projected 
 by Blount was the buying-up of the entire national debt of Great Britain by a com- 
 mercial association, styled •" The South-Sea Company," because it had been origi- 
 nally formed to trade to the Pacific Ocean, or South Sea. This debt, which had been 
 contracted chiefly by King William HI. in carrying on his wars against France, 
 already amounted to an enormous sum. The Ministry readily adopted the plan 
 pr ijected by Blount, who gave every assurance that it would be to the advantage 
 of the nation, as well as to the South-Sea Company ; and the people throughout 
 England, seized with an insatiable avarice, exchanged their entire fortunes for stock 
 in the South-Sea Company. The scheme was at first successful, and the stock of 
 the Com'pany arose to ten times the value for which it was subscribed; but finally 
 
28o MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the hublile burst, and thousands of families were involved in utter financial ruin. A 
 storm of jjopular indignation manifested itself against the unprincipled contrivers 
 of the scheme, and many of them were justly punished by the Parliament, with the 
 forfeiture of all the wealth and estates which they had so dishonorably acquired. 
 
 War of the Polish Succession. — On the death of Augustus II. of Pol.and, 
 in 1733 the Polish Diet chose the deposed Stanislaus Leczinski to the thione orf 
 PoLand; but Stanislaus was expelled from the country by the military power of 
 'iermc.ny and Russia, and the son of Augustus II. was elevated to the Polis) 
 uironc, with the title of Augustus III. Louis XV. of France, who had marrieil a 
 daughter of Stanislaus, opposed the action of Germany and Russia, and thus brought 
 about "The War of the Polish Succession." Spain and Sardinia formed alliances 
 with France. In Northern Italy, the combined French and Sardinian armies de- 
 feated the Austrians- in two bloody campaigns; while the Spanish troops under 
 Don Carlos expelled the Austrians from the Kingdom of Naples. The German 
 imperial forces, under Prince Eugene, were everywhere defeated on the Rhine, and 
 forced to retire before the advance of the French. In 1735, a treaty of peace was 
 signed, by which Stanislaus renounced his claims to the throne of Poland, and 
 received in lieu the German Dukedom of Lorraine; while Francis Stephen, Duke 
 of Lorraine, son-in law of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, was to receive 
 the Italian Duchy of Tuscany, (m the approachhig extinction of the famous House 
 of Medici. On the death of Stanislaus, Lorraine was to be forever united with the 
 French monarchy. Spain obtained the Kingdom of Naples for Don Carlos, and 
 the leading powers confirmetl the Pragmatic Sanction, which the Emperor Charles 
 VI. had framed for the purpose of securing the peacable succession to his here- 
 ditary Austrian estates to his daughter Maria Theresa. 
 
 War of Russia and Austria against Turkey — Peace of Belgrade. — In 
 
 1736, the Empress Anna of Russia began a war against the Turks, In 1737, Aus- 
 tria took part in the war, as an ally of Russia. The Russians conquered the 
 Crimea from the Turks, but the Austrians were defeated on the Danube, and forced 
 to a disgraceful retreat. In 1739, the Peace of Belgrade put an end to hostilities 
 between Austria and Turkey, Austria surrendering Belgrade to the Turks. Peace 
 was also soon made between Russia and the Porte. 
 
 War between England and Spain. — The general tranquility which Western 
 and Southern Europe had enjoyed since the Peace of Utrecht was owing to the 
 efforts of the Prime-Ministers of England and France, Sir Robert Walpole and Car- 
 dinal Fleury; but commercial difficulties between England and Spain led to a war 
 between those two powers in 1739. An English naval expedition under Admiral 
 Veinon captured the rich Spanish town of Porto Bello, on the northern coast of 
 South America; but in the following year (1740), Vernon's fleet, in conjunction 
 with an English land force under General Wentworth, was repulsed in an attack 
 upon Carthagena, another Spanish American town. At the same time, a British 
 icet inder Commodore Anson sailed to the South American waters, and afterwards 
 crossed the Pacific to China, in search of a rich Spanish galleon, which was finally 
 captured, after which Anson completed his voyage around the globe. This Anglo 
 Spanish war was soon merged in that general European contest known as the War 
 of the Austrian Succession, and was ended by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapel'e, ic 
 October, 1748. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 28 1 
 
 War between Russia and Sweden — Peace of Abo. — In 1741, Sweden, 
 whose king, Frederic, was controlled by a selfish aristocracy, began a war against 
 the Empress Elizabeth of Russia. After the war had continued two years, and 
 §evei il of the Swedish provinces on the east side of the Baltic had been conquered 
 by the Russians, the Peace of Abo was concluded, on terms not very honoiable to 
 Sweden (I743-) 
 
 PERSIA AND INDIA. 
 
 Afghan Invasion of Persia — Reign of Kouli Khan or Nadir Snah - 
 After the death of the Great Shah Abbas, in 1624, Persia rapidly declined in nati<; ral 
 greatness; and, in 1722, the country was invaded and desolated by the Afghans, 
 who held Persia for seven wretched years, during which they destroyed a million of 
 its population. In 1736, Kouli Khan, who had once been a camel driver, and who 
 had risen rapidly, step by step, usurped the throne of Persia, and assumed the title 
 of Nadir Shah. This monarch was famous for his cruelties, as well as for his vic- 
 tories. He soon reconquered several provinces which Peter the Great of Russia 
 had wrested from Persia, and compelled the Turkish Sultan to cede Armenia and 
 Georgia to him. In 1739, Nadir Shah invaded the Mogul Empire in India, took 
 Delhi, its capital, and caused 100,000 of the inhabitants of that city to be brutally 
 massacred. In 1747, this bloody monster and tyrant was assassinated by one of 
 his own guards, after which Persia again declined in importance. 
 
 Decline and Fall of the Mogul Empire in India — Battle of Panniput. — 
 The Mogul Empire in India, under its great sovereign, Aurungzel>e, who held the 
 crown from 1659 to 1707, had attained the zenith of its greatness and power. After 
 the death of Aurungzebe, in 1707, the empire rapidly verged toward its fall, and 
 soon crumbled to pieces. While the Mogul power declined, the Mahratta states 
 were becoming the leading power in Hindoostan, while the Afghans had estab- 
 lished a powerful monarchy west of the Indus. The Afghans at length marched 
 against the Mahrattas, who had advanced into the Mogul territories; and on the 
 7th of January, 1 761, was fought the great battle of Panniput, near Delhi. Each 
 anny numbered 200,000 men. The Mahratta army was almost totally destroyed, 
 and the victorious Afghans returned home. The power of the Mogul emperor 
 was now at an end. 
 
 AGE OF FREDERIC THE GREAT AND 
 CATHARINE II. 
 
 WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION (A. D. 1741-1748.' 
 
 CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE ^ArAR. 
 
 The New Kingdom of Prussia — Frederic the Great. — The Great Fleet 01 
 of Brandenburg, Frederic William, who reigned from 1640 to 1688, enlarged hu 
 dominions on all sides by conquest, freed Prussia from the supremacy of Poland, 
 encouraged agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and laid the foundations of a 
 great kingdom. On the death of the Great Elector, in 1688, his son Frederic suc- 
 ceeded to the electoral throne of Brandenburg; and at Konigsburg, in 1 701, with 
 
282 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the consent of the Emperor Leopold I. of Germany, he was crowned the first King 
 of Prussia, with the title of Frederic I. The new kingdom was recognized hy the 
 Eur )pean powers in the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, in 17 13 and 17 14. P'red- 
 eric I. died in 1713, whereupon his son, the brutal and tyrannical Frederic William 
 I., leceived tl e crown of Prussia. Frederic William I. died in 1740, and was suc- 
 ceeded on the Prussian throne by his son, the illustrious Frederic II., surnamed 
 •'tne (jreat." who, by his abilities as a general and a statesman, raised Prussia to a 
 Iront lank in the list of nations. Frederic II., on his accession to the throne, re 
 feived a well-provided treasury, and a powerful, well-organized, and strictly-disci- 
 plined army. 
 
 Death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany — The Pragmatic 
 Sanction. — The Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, who had been the competitor 
 of Philip of Anjou for the throne of Spain, died in 1740. Having no male heirs, 
 he had, a short time before his death, obtained, by great concessions, among which 
 was the cession of the German Dukedom of Lorraine to France, the agreement of all 
 the leading European powers to the famous " Pragmatic Sanction," by which he 
 left the succession to his hereditary Austrian dominions to his only daughter, Maria 
 Theresa, Queen of Hungary, wife of Duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine. 
 
 Coalition against Maria Theresa. — No sooner had the Emperor Charles 
 VI. descended to his grave, than a host of claimants appeared for various portions 
 of the hereditary Austrian estates, and endeavored to make good their pretensions 
 by force of arms. The Elector of Bavaria, Charles Albert, laid claim to the heredi- 
 tary States of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, as a descendant of the eldest daugh- 
 ter of the Emperor Ferdinand I.; Augustus III., Elector of Saxony and King of 
 Poland, raised claims to Moravia; Frederic II., the young King of Prussia, revived 
 some old pretensions of the House of Hohenzollem to Silesia; Spain cast a longing 
 eye on some of the Italian possessions of the House of Austria; and France, 
 regarding the opportunitiy auspicious for the humiliation of the proud House of 
 Hapsburg, readily violated the Pragmatic Sanction, by supporting the claims of the 
 Elector of Bavaria to the Austrian succession. England alone at first espoused 
 the cause of Maria Theresa, furnishing her with large subsidies, and afterwards 
 offering her military aid ; and Holland and Sardinia finally took up arms in her 
 favor. This contest, which convulsed Europe for seven years, is known as " The 
 War of the Austrian Succesion." 
 
 EVENTS OF 1741. 
 
 First Silesian War — Battle of Molvitz. — Soon after the death of the Em- 
 peror Charles VI., Frederic II. of Prussia made a sudden irruption into Silesia, at 
 the head of 30,000 men. Frederic speedily conquered Silesia, and offered to enter 
 into an alliance with Maria Theresa, if she confirmed him in the possession of his 
 new conquest; but the young Queen of Austria and Hungary declared her deter- 
 mination to uphold the integrity of her hereditary dominions, and thus gave occa- 
 »\on to "The First Silesian War." On the loth of April, 1741 hostilities were 
 commenced by the battle of Molvitz, in which the King of Prussia, Dy the skih and 
 bravery of his two leading generals. Prince Leopold of Dessau and Marshal Schwe 
 rin, gained a complete victory over the Austrians; and was thus enabled to hoi'' 
 possession of Silesia. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 
 
 283 
 
 Ptench and Bavarian Invasion of Austria and Bohemia. — France having 
 determined to support the cause of the Elector of Bavaria, a powerful French army 
 under Marshal Belleisle marched into Germany, and, after having been joined by 
 ihc Bavarians and the Saxons, invaded the Archduchy of Austria, captured Lmtz, 
 menaced Vienna, compelled Maria Theresa to flee from her capital, and tlien 
 marched into Bohemia and took possession of Prague. 
 
 Charles VII. Emperor of Germany. — The Elector Charles Albert of Ba aria 
 ;ifas crowned at Lintz as Archduke of Austria, and at Prague as King of Bohemia; 
 and, through the influence of France and Prussia, the German Electoral Princes, 
 ir the Diet at Frankfort-on-the-Main, elected him to the imperial throne of Ger- 
 many, with the title of Charles VII. 
 
 Maria Theresa and the Hungarians. — With her infant son Joseph in her 
 arms, Maria Theresa appeared in the Diet of the Hungarian nobles at Presburg, 
 and sympathetically appealed to them to aid her in her distressed condition. The 
 hearts of the Hungarians were touched, and they unanimously exclaimed, " Mori- 
 amur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa!" "We will die for our sovereign, Maria 
 Theresa!" 
 
 EVENTS OF 174,2. 
 
 Austrian Invasion of Bavaria. — Troops of Croats, Pandours, and Slaves, 
 wild and warlike races of Southeran Hungary, under the conduct of Khevenhuller, 
 and Barenklau, now flocked to the standard of Maria Theresa, and, after driving 
 the French and the Bavarians out of the Austrian territories, entered Bavaria, and 
 took possession of Munich on the very day that the Elector of Bavaria was crowned 
 Emperor at Frankfort. The new Emperor was obliged to live in retirement from 
 his hereditary Bavarian dominions, which were frightfully plundered and devastated 
 by the Austrians and the Hungarians. 
 
 Frederic's Invasion of Bohemia — Battle of Czaslau— Peace of Breslau. 
 
 — In tlie meantime, the King of Prussia had invaded Bohemia with a powerful 
 army; and on the i6th of May, 1742, he was fiercely attacked near Czaslau, by the 
 Austrians under Prince Charles of Lorraine and Field-Marshal Konigseg. By the 
 irresistible impetuosity of the Prussian cavalry, under Field- Marshal Buddenbrock, 
 and a dashing charge by the Prussian infantry, headed by Frederic in person, the 
 Austrians were repulsed with heavy loss. This victory gave Frederic full possession 
 of Silesia. On the 28th of July, 1742, Frederic concluded with Maria Theresa 
 the Peace of Breslau, by which he was left in possession of Silesia. 
 
 Bohemia Recovered from the French — Belleisle's Retreat Through 
 Germany. — After the Peace of Breslau with the King of Prussia, the Austrians 
 recovered the greater part of Bohemia from the French. The French army nrdei 
 Marshal Belleisle was besieged in Prague, and at length compelled to evacuate that 
 city and retreat in the midst of winter to Eger, and thence through Germany t.. the 
 Rhine, after immense losses, only 13.000 men of Belleisle's once-splendid army 
 Burriving. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1743. 
 
 Alliance of England with Maria Theresa — Battle of Dettingen. — In 
 1743, Epgland began to take an active part in the war against France, as an ally 
 
284 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of Maria Tfteresa. An English army of 40,000 men, nnder King George II. and 
 the Eari of Stair, having advanced into Germany, was attacked by a French army 
 of 60,000 men, under Marshal de Noailles, at the village of Dettingen, near Aschaf- 
 fenburg. Brought by the excellent arrangements of the French marshal into 3 
 perilous position, where advance or retreat was impossible, without being exposed 
 to attack at the greatest disadvantage, the whole English army with the king would 
 have become prisoners to the French but for the impetuosity of one of the French 
 commanders, who attacked the English through a narrow defile, where his tmopi;, 
 becoming entangled, were fiercely assailed by the Earl of Stair, and all the plan.' 
 of Noailles were disconcerted. A general engagement ensued, and the P'tench 
 were disastrously defeated and compelled to retreat. The English, howevei, ne- 
 glected to follow up their victory. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1744. 
 
 Invasion of the Netherlands by Louis XV. — Austrian Invasion of 
 Alsace. — In 1744, a French army, commanded by King Louis XV. in person, 
 invaded the Austrian Netherlands and captured several towns; but in the midst 
 of his victorious career, the King of France was obliged to return, to defend his 
 own dominions against the Austrians, who, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, 
 crossed the Rhine and conquered the greater portion of Alsace. The Austrians 
 were, however, soon recalled to operate against the King of Prussia, who had 
 again taken up arms against Maria Theresa. 
 
 Second Silesian War — Frederic's Second Invasion of Bohemia. — Fear- 
 ing that Maria Theresa, encouraged by her successes against the French and the 
 Bavarians, would make an attempt to reconquer Silesia, Frederic II. of Prussia 
 commenced "The Second Silesian War" by invading Bohemia with 70,000 troops. 
 In September (1744), Frederic laid siege to Prague, which was soon compelled to 
 surrender, with its garrison of 18,000 Austrian troops. Frederic was, however, 
 soon compelled to retreat, with the loss of 20,000 men, as the promised diversion 
 of the French on the side of the Rhine was prevented by the illness of Louis XV 
 at Metz. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1745, '46, '47, '48. 
 
 Death of the Emperor Charles VII. — Francis I. Emperor of Gerniany. 
 
 — The Emperor Charles V^II. of Germany died on the 2oth of January, 1745; and 
 his son, Maximilian Joseph, who succeeded him as Elector of Bavaria, made peace 
 with Maria Theresa, renouncing all claims to the Austrian dominions. Maria 
 Theresa's husband, Francis of Lorraine, was elected Emperor of Germany, with the 
 title of Francis I. Although the original cause of the war was now removed, the 
 national hatred which animated England and France prevented the restoration of 
 a geneial peace. 
 
 Battles of Hohenfriedberg, Sorr, and Kesselsdorf — Peace of Dresden, 
 •--In the meantime, the Austrians, under the able Field-Marshal Traun, had recon- 
 ijuered Silesia from the Prussians. But the Prussians soon regained ihe supremacy 
 by some splendid triumphs: on the 3d of June, 1745, Frederic II. won a brill. ant 
 victory jver the Austrians among the hills of Hohenfriedberg; a Prussian force 
 under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick gained a victory at Sorr; and Prince Leo- 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 285 
 
 pold of Dessau, with Prussian troops, defeated the Saxons, who were now the allies 
 of the Austrians, in a bloody engagement at Kesselsdorf; and the King of Prussia 
 entered Dresden, the Saxon capital, in triumph. The Second Silesian War was 
 ended by the Peace of Dresden, by which Maria Theresa consented to leave Silesia 
 in the possession of Frederic, who in turn recognized her husband as Emperor. 
 
 The War in the Austrian Netherlands — Battles of Fontenoy, Raucoux, 
 and Laffeld- — The Austrian Netherlands were now the theatre of some seveie 
 struggles on the part of the French against the united armies of England, Hoi .and, 
 ^nd Austria. On the 30th of April, 1745, was fought the great battle of Frntenoy, 
 in which the combined English, Dutch, and Austrian forces, commanded by the 
 Duke of Cumberland, son of George II. of England, were thoroughly defeated, with 
 the loss of 7,000 men, by the French army, numbering 50,000 men, under the com- 
 mand of Marshal Saxe, a natural son of Augustus III. of Poland. The French 
 were also victorious in the battle of Raucoux, in 1 746, and in the battle of Laffeld, 
 in 1 747 ; and the campaign there terminated with the expulsion of the Austrians, 
 and their Dutch and English allies, from tne Austrian Netherlands. 
 
 Campaign in Italy — Expulsion of the French and the Spaniards. — 
 While the military events just related were oc-curring in Germany and in the Austrian 
 Netherlands, bloody conflicts were taking place in Italy, between the armies of 
 France, Spain, and Naples, on the one side, and the forces of Austria and Sardinia 
 on the other. In 1746, the Austrians and Sardinians won the battle of Piacenza 
 over the French and the Spaniards, who, after a bloody campaign the following 
 year, were entirely driven from Italy. 
 
 Scotch Rebellion of 1745 — Battles of Preston-Pans, Falkirk, and Cul- 
 loden Moor. — In 1745, Prince Charles Edward, "The Young Pretender," grand- 
 son of James II., encouraged by the defeat of the English at Fontenoy, resolved to 
 attempt the restoration of his family to the throne of Great Britain. He sailed from 
 France in a French vessel, and, after landing in Scotland, was joined by some of 
 the Highland clans. The Pretender took possession of Edinburgh, on the l6th 
 of September; and, on the 2ii>t of the same month, he defeated the Government 
 forces under Sir John Cope in the battle of Preston- Pans, and proclaimed his fathei 
 King of Scotland, with the title of James VIII. Elated by success, the Pretendei 
 marched into England, took the town of Carlisle, and advanced to within a hundred 
 miles of London, creating the greatest consternation throughout the kingdom ; but 
 he was soon obliged to retreat into Scotland. The Pretender was again victorious 
 over the Royal forces under General Hawley, at Falkirk, on the 13th of January, 
 1746; but in the memorable battle of Culloden Moor, near Inverness, on the i6th 
 of April, 1746, the Pretender was hopelessly defeated by the Royal army undei 
 the Duke of Cumberland, and there his cause and that of the Stuart family received 
 Its death-blow. The English tarnished the glory of their victory by acL« of cruelty 
 and by a savage desolation of the country around Culloden. After a series of ro- 
 mantic adventures and narrow escapes. Prince Charles Edward reached France in 
 safety. Many of his adherents were punished with death, and hundreds were 
 banished to America. 
 
 The War in America — Capture of Louisburg. — The war between England 
 and France extended to America. On the 28th of June, 1745, after a siege of one 
 
286 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 month, the strong French fortress of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton, was 
 surrendered to a British fleet under Admiral Warren and an English colonial land 
 force under General William Pepperell. 
 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. — The War of the Austrian Succession was closed 
 by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in October, 1748, on the basis of a mutual resti- 
 tution of all conquests made during the war. France recognized the succession of 
 the House of Brunswick to the throne of Great Britain ; and Maria Theresa wai 
 armfinned in the sovereignty of all the hereditary Austrian territories, except Silesia, 
 ^ tich remained with the King of Prussia. 
 
 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR (A. D. 1756-1763). 
 
 CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. 
 
 Disputes Between France and England — Colonies in North America. 
 - -The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle proved to be nothiTig more than a hollow truce. 
 Many of the questions at issue between France and England were left unsettled, 
 and thus grounds were furnished for a renewal of hostilities. The limits of the 
 English colony of Nova Scotia, in North America, the right claimed by the French 
 to connect their settlements in Louisiana and Canada by a line of forts in the rear 
 of the English colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America, and the desire of 
 both nations to obtain a political preponderance in India, all led to protracted dis- 
 putes which soon resulted in another war. In 1754, hostilities broke out between 
 the English and French colonists in North America, although the two mother- 
 countries did not formally declare war against each other until May, 1756. In 
 1755, an English force under General Monckton reduced the French forts in 
 Nova Scotia, but the English general Braddock was defeated and killed in an ex- 
 pedition against Fort DuQuesne, and his army was only saved from total destruction 
 by the valor and prudence of Colonel George Washington, who commanded the 
 English colonial forces. 
 
 Relations of Austria and Prussia — The Province of Silesia. — It was 
 very evident that Austria and Prussia could not long remain at peace, as the Empress 
 Maria Theresa, who could not forget the loss of Silesia, was determined to recover 
 that province. She spent the eight years after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 
 forming alliances with the other courts of Europe against the great Frederic II. ol 
 Prussia, for the purpose of realizing her determination. 
 
 Coalition against Frederic the Great. — The two causes of dispute already 
 mentioned had no direct connection with each other, yet mutual interests led to the 
 fonnalion of alliances. The strangest feature of all was the alliance of Austria 
 and France, nations that had been enemies for two centuries; and the coalition of 
 Prussia and England, nations that had hitherto appeared extremely jealous of each 
 other. This change of policy on the part of France was brought about by Madame 
 Pompadour, the favorite mistress of the dissolute monarch, Louis XV., who, capti- 
 vated by a flattering letter from the Empress Maria Theresa, and angry at the sai 
 casjn which the King of Prussia had uttered against her, was easily won to the side 
 of the .Austrian empress. The jirofligate empress, Elizabeth of Russia, affronted at 
 the sarcastic manner in which Frederic spoke of her, was easily induced by her 
 prime-minister, Bestucheff, to conclude an alliance with Maria Theresa against 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 287 
 
 Prussia. Augustus III., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, who w.is also 
 offended at Frederic's sarcasm, formed an alliance with the Austrian empress- 
 queen. Sweden, through the influence of the French court, joined the coalition 
 against the Prussian monarch. Thus Austria, France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden 
 were united against Prussia and England. The English carried on a successful war 
 against the French on the ocean, in North America, and in the East and West Indies; 
 out they could give little effective aid to the Prussian king against the powerful ene 
 m.es who threatened to wrest from him a large portion of his dominions, and reduce 
 him tc the condition of an Elector of Brandenburg. But the great military ability 
 of Frederic, and the splendid discipline of the Prussian army, enabled Prussia ti, 
 come forth from the gigantic struggle powerful and victorious. 
 
 EVENTS OF 17S6. 
 
 Frederic's Invasion of Saxony — Battle of Lowositz — Surrender of the 
 Saxons. — The King of Prussia did not wait to be attacked ; but, resolving to sur- 
 prise his enemies by an unexpected blow, he was first in the field. In August, 
 1756, he suddenly burst into Saxony, with an army of 70,000 men, took possession 
 of Leipsic, Wittenberg, and Dresden, and blockaded the Saxon army, which had 
 established a strongly-fortified camp at Pirna, on the Elbe. At the head of only 
 25,000 men, Frederic the Great, in the battle of Lowositz, defeated 50,000 Austrians 
 under General Brown, who were marching to the relief of the Saxons; after which 
 he compelled the Saxon forces, re-duced by hunger to 14,000 men, to surrender 
 themselves prisoners of war, and forced them into the Prussian service. The 
 Elector Augustus III. now abandoned Saxony, and retired into Poland, where he 
 remained until the end of the war. Thus Frederic the Great conquered Saxony 
 in his first campaign in the Seven Years' War. 
 
 Disasters to the English. — While the Prussians were thus victorious in the 
 campaign of 1756, their allies, the English, were not so fortunate. The island of 
 Minorca, in the Mediterranean sea, wa.s captured by a French force, after a gallant 
 defense on the part of the English; and in North America, the French general 
 Montcalm crossed Lake Ontario from Canada, and captured the English fort and 
 garrison at Oswego. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1757. 
 
 The Immense Armies of Frederic's Enemies. — The enemies of Frederic 
 the Great assembled immense armies for the campaign of 1757; a Russian army 
 of 130,000 men entered Prussia on the east; a Swedish force of 20,000 men was 
 preparing to march into the Prussian province of Pomerania; 80,000 French ti Dops 
 were advancing from the west; and 180,000 Austrians were in the field. 
 
 Battle of Prague. — After sonie maneuvering by which he completely deceived 
 the Austrians, the King of Prussia began the campaign of 1757 by invading Bohe- 
 mia. On the 6th of May, at the head of 70,000 men, Frederic attacked 75,000 
 Austrians at Prague. The assaults of the Prussians were at first repulsed, and the 
 o'd Prussian marshal Schwerin fell fighting at the head of his regiment; but tte 
 fall of the brave Austrian marshal Brown finally decided the battle, which ended in 
 a glorious victory for the Prussians. Frederic, however, purchased his triumph at a 
 heavy cost, as 12,500 of his brave troops lay dead or wounded on the field of battle. 
 
288 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Battle of Kolin. — Seeking to follow up his victory at Prague, Frederic the 
 Great, on the i8th of June (1757), attacked the Austrians under Count Daun, who 
 oCi.:upied a strong position at Kolin. After a bloody battle, in which the Austrians 
 at first gave way, the Prussian king was so badly defeated that he was obliged to 
 raise the siege of Prague, and evacuate Bohemia as speedily as possible. 
 
 Desperate Situation of Frederic the Great. — The disastrous result of the 
 battle of Kolin deprived Frederic the Great of the fruits of his former vi'-f-.-ries, 
 mi it seemed as though he must fall before the overwhelming power of his numer- 
 ous enemies, who now threatened him on all sides. His English and Hanoverian 
 allies, under the Duke of Cumberland, after having been defeated by the Frencli al 
 Hastenbach, were compelled, by the disgraceful convention of Closterseven, to lay 
 down their arms, thus leaving the French at liberty to operate against Frederic in 
 Saxony. A Russian army of 100,000 men, under Apraxin, invaded Prussia on the 
 east, defeated 24,000 Prussians under Lehwald, and advanced against Frederic; 
 20,000 Swedish troops entered Pomerania, and advanced toward the Prussian 
 capital; and an Austrian army invaded Silesia and besieged .Schweidnitz, while 
 another Austrian force made its way through Lusatia, and laid Berlin under contri- 
 bution. 
 
 Battle of Rosbach. — In his desperate situation Frederic the Great saw that 
 he must strike a decisive blow in order to save himself from utter ruin. He accord- 
 ingly marched into Saxony, for the purpose of expelling the French from that coun- 
 try. With only 25,000 men, Frederic occupied a height at the little village of 
 Rosbach, where he was soon confronted by 70,000 French and Austrian troops, 
 under the Prince of Soubise, a favorite of Madame Pompadour. The object of the 
 French and their Austrian allies was to see whether the King of Prussia would 
 venture to attack them. They resolved to surround Frederic, take him and his 
 whole army prisoners, and thus put an end to the war at once. Al length, at two 
 o'clock in the afternoon of the 5th of November (1757), Frederic gave his orders 
 to attack, and immediately his troops fell so suddenly and irresistibly, and with 
 such rapidity of movement, upon the enemy that in less than half an hour the French 
 and their allies fled from the field in dismay; and Frederic won a glorious victory. 
 Some of the French troops fled into the middle of Germany, while many did not 
 stop in their flight until they had crossed the Rhine. On this memorable field 
 Frederic lost only 515 men in killed and wounded. He took 7,000 prisoners, 
 among whom were eleven generals. He invited the most distinguished of his 
 prisoners to sup with him, and, after expressing his regret at not being able to afford 
 them a better entertainment, he said, " Gentlemen, I did not expect you soon, nor 
 in such large numbers." 
 
 Battle of Leuthen. — By his victory at Rosbach, Frederic the Great recovered 
 the whole of Saxony. He next marched into Silesia, which province had been 
 taken possession of by a large Austrian anny under Prince Charles of Lorraine. 
 On tlie 5th of December, 1757, exactly one month after the battle of Rosbach, 
 Frederic, with only 30,000 men, met 90,000 Austrians under Charles of Lorraine, 
 at Leuthen. Frederic immediately took possession of some heights near by, wl.ich 
 masked the movements of his troops; and then deceiving the Austrians by a false 
 attack upon their right wing, he suddenly turned and attacked their left so fiercely 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 289 
 
 that It was routed before the righ' could render it any assistance ; and, after a con- 
 flict of three hours, PVederic won one of the most brilliant victories of modern times. 
 The entire Prussian loss was only 5,000 men, while the Austrian loss was over 
 28,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
 
 English Assistance to Frederic the Great. — The brilliant achievements of 
 Frederic the Great at Rosbach and Leulhen created the greatest enthusiasm in 
 iMigland for the King of Prussia and his army; and the English Government, tlien 
 under the direction of the great statesman, the elder William Pitt, agreed ivi fi_rriis>i 
 liberal s'lhsidies to Frederic, and to send another army into Germany. Whiie tf.", 
 war was thus raging fiercely in Europe, the English experienced another jnisfortane 
 in Norm America, the French general Montcalm having captured Fort William 
 Hemy in the province of New York. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1758. 
 
 Movements of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. — The campaign of 1758 
 was commenced by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, who, through the influence of 
 the King of Prussia, was appointed 'to the command of the English and Hanoverian 
 army. With only 30,000 men, Ferdinand drove the French army of 90,000 men 
 across the Rhine, early in the spring, and routed them at Crefeld with h( ^vy loss. 
 
 Battle of Zorndorf. — After some important movements against the Austrians 
 in Silesia and Moravia, Frederic the Great marchod against the Russians, who were 
 perpetrating the most barbarous atrocities in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, 
 sparing neither age nor se.x. On the 24th of August (175S), Frederic, at the head 
 of 30,000 men, met 60,000 Russians under P'ermor, near the village of Zorndorf, 
 not far from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Here was fought one of the bloodiest battles 
 of the Seven Years' War. It began at nine o'clock in the morning, and ended at 
 ten in the evening, when 19,000 Russians and 1 1,000 Prussians lay dead or wounded 
 on the sanguinary field. P'rederic was victorious, and the Russians were oblige<i 
 to evacuate the Prussian dominions and retreat into Poland. 
 
 Battle of Hochkirchen. — After the battle of Zorndorf, Frederic the Great 
 marched into Saxony, to the assistance of his brother Henry, who was hard pressed 
 by the Austrians. On the 14th of October, Frederic was surprised and disastrously 
 defeated at Hochkirchen, by the Austrians under Count Daun. In this bloody 
 engagement Frederic lost all his artillery and baggage. 
 
 Frederic in Silesia and Saxony. — The King of Prussia was not discouraged 
 by his disaster at Hochkirchen. Daun was foiled in all attempts to follow up his 
 victory; and Frederic again expelletl the Austrians from Silesia, and then returned 
 to Saxony, and, after compelling Daun to raise the sieges of Dresden and Leipsic, 
 drove him into Bohemia. 
 
 English Successes in North America. — In 175S, success gleamed upon the 
 English arms in North America, where three important posts were wrested fif)m 
 llie Fiench. After a siege of more than a month, the French fortress of Louisbuig, 
 on the island of Cape Breton, surrendered to the English under General Amherst, 
 on the 26th of July ; Fort Du Quesne was evacuated by its French garrison, on ihe 
 approach of an English force under General John Forbes ; and Fort Frontenac, at 
 the foot of L,ake Ontario, in Canada, was captured by an English force under Colo 
 
 19 
 
I<)0 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 nel Brad.-Jtreet ; but the English general Abercrombie was repulsed in an attack 
 upon the fortress of Ticonderoga, on the western border of Lake Champlain. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1739. 
 
 Battle of Kunersdorf. — At tlie comniencement of the campaign of 1759, the 
 Aiistr'an" overran Saxony and threatened Berlin; the Russians ime er Soltikofl 
 liefjate-: the Prussian detachments on the Oder, menaced Silesia, and at length 
 iilec'.ad a junction with the Austrians under Laudon. Frederic the Great was in ii 
 most per.Ious situation. In tiie midst of these accumulating dangers, he resolved 
 Ujon striking an effective blow. He at length set his army in motion; and, on the 
 U'th of August, 1759, with only 50,000 men, he attacked the united Austrian and 
 Russian armies under I^audon and Soltikoff, numbering together 100,000 men, at 
 Kunersdorf, not far from Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Frederic was at first successful, 
 and the enemy were driven frcim the hehl; but the stubborn Russians rallied and 
 renewed the fight; and a terrific charge of tlie Austrian cavalry, headed by Laudon 
 in person, put the entire Prussian army to rout. This disaster was a grievous blow 
 to Frederic the Great. The Prussian los.s was more than 18,000 men, and the 
 total Austrian and Russian loss amounted to almost 16,000 men. Berlin was in 
 danger of falling into the hands of the enemy, and Frederic's cause seemed ruined; 
 but, instead of following up their victory, the Austrian and Russian generals, who 
 were jealous of each other, spent so much time in quarreling that the King of 
 Prussia was enabled to collect another army ; and Berlin was again safe. 
 
 Disasters to Prussian Detachments. — At this unfortunate period of his 
 military career, Frederic the Great was constantly receiving intelligence of defeats 
 sustained by his detachments ; and his situation was extremely dangerous. One of 
 ihe Prussian generals was defeated at Maxen ; and another at Meissen; and Dresden 
 fell into the hands of the Austrians. 
 
 Operations of Prince Ferdinand of Brunsv/ick — Battle of Minden.— 
 While Frederic the Great was so unfortunate during the year 1759, his English and 
 Hanoverian allies, under their able commander. Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, 
 were conducting a successful campaign against the French. Altough Ferdinand 
 was beaten, on 'the 13th of April, in the battle of Bergen, near Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main, he defeated the French so badly in a sanguinary battle at Minden, on the 1st 
 of August, that they were obliged to abandon Hanover and Westphalia, and make a 
 hasty retreat across the Rhine. In the battle of Minden the French lost 8,000 
 men. 
 
 English Conquests in North America — Capture of Quebec. — While the 
 war was thus raging in Europe in 1759, conquest shone upon the British arms in 
 North America, where the power of the French was irreparably brt)ken. Forts 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point, on the western coast of Lake Champlain, were evac- 
 u.^ted by their French garrisons, on the approach of an iMiglish force under Geneiai 
 Amherst, in July; after a siege of more than a month. Fort Niagara was cajjliiied 
 b)' in English force under General William Johnson ; and finally, on the ijih cl 
 September, the English under (ieneral Wolfe, who had besieged (Quebec for severaJ 
 month:;, scaled the Heights of Abraham, near that city, attacked the French army 
 under Mc.'iiu-alm, and, after a desperate battle, in which both Wolfe and Montcalm 
 
EFGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 291 
 
 ;yere mortally wounded, the French were hopelessly defeated ; and on the i8th 
 /September, 1759), the city of Quebec was surrendered to the victorious English. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1760. 
 
 Plussian Disasters. — The campaign of 1760 opened most disastrously foi ".he 
 King o*" Prussia. His general, Fouquet, after gallantly maintaining himself for 
 ^cine time in Silesia against a superior Austrian force under Laudon, was defeated 
 n, tiie 24th of June, at Landshut, with the loss of 8,000 men, either slain or made 
 prisoners. Frederic himself afterwards besieged Dresden, but he was obliged to 
 retire, on the approach of Laudon, with a strong Austrian force, for the relief of the 
 garrison. Laudon, however, failed to wrest Breslau from the Prussians by siege. 
 Battle of Liegnitz. — Frederic now marched into Silesia, to recover that prov- 
 ince from the Austrians. While the Austrians and Russians, in number l8o,0(X), 
 were preparing to surround the King of Prussia, and his complete overthrow ap- 
 peared certain, he suddenly and furiously assailed the astonished Laudon, at the 
 head of the Austrian detachment, at Liegnitz, on the l6th of August. Laudon's 
 force was terribly defeated, with the loss of 10,000 men in killed and wounded, 
 before the reinforcement under Daun could come to the scene of action. Both 
 I-audon and Daun fled to the Katzbach, and Frederic the Great was again master 
 of Silesia; but Berlin was taken possession of by Austrian and Russian troops, and 
 the hereditary dominions of Frederic were plundered and devastated. 
 
 Battle of Torgau. — Frederic next marched into Saxony, with the view of 
 expelling the Austrians from that country. On the 3d of November, he fiercely 
 attacked the intrenched position of the Austrians ur.der Daun, at Torgau. After a 
 day of the most frightful carnage, Frederic gained a complete victory, but at the 
 cost of 14,000 of his gallant troops, who lay dead on the field of battle. The con- 
 sequence of this battle was that all of Saxony, except Dresden, was again in the 
 hands of the King of Prussia; and the Austrian, Russian, and Swedish forces were 
 obliged to evacuate the Prussian dominions. 
 
 The War in North America — Conquest of Canada by the English. — 
 The year 1760 was signalized by the total subversion of French power in North 
 America. In April of that year, the French made an attempt to recover Quebec, 
 and totally defeated the English in the battle of Sillery, near that city, on the 28th 
 of April; but the attempt to recover the city failed; and on the 8th of September 
 (1760), Montrexil, the last stronghold of the French in North America, surrendered 
 to the English general Murray, and, with the fall of that post, the conquest of Canada 
 by the English was complete. 
 
 " Family Compact " of the Bourbons. — Ferdinand VI. (if Spain died in 
 1759, and was succeeded by his son, Charles III., wlio de[)arted from the jieaceful 
 policy of h's predecessor by signing with the French court the famous " hamily 
 Compact," which bound the two reigning branches of the House of HuU'-biin t<. 
 issist each other against the gigantic power of Great Britain. The resuh ol ihi; 
 alliance was to subject Spain to a series of disasters similar to those suffered b) 
 France. 
 
292 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1761, '62, '63. 
 
 Campaign of 1761 — Peaceful Disposition of England, — The campaign of 
 1761, which was distinguished by no important battle, was disastrous to Frederic 
 the Great. The Austrians under Laudon captured .Schweidnitz, and regained p<js. 
 session of Silesia, while the Russians overpowered the Prussian detachments in 
 Ponier nia. While the King of Prussia was struggling against the united power of 
 Austria, France, Russia, and Sweden on the Continent of Europe, his powerful 
 ally, Great Britain, was triumphant over the French and the Spaniards on the ocean, 
 and in the East and West Indies. Belleisle, on the veiy coast of France, was cap 
 tured by the British navy; and Pondicherry, the capital of the French possessions 
 in India, surrendered to the English. Cuba and the Philippine Islands were taken 
 from the Spaniards by powerful British naval armaments. The English people 
 had now grown extremely tired of the war in Germany; and after the accession of 
 George III. to the British throne, in October, 1760, the English Government, under 
 the direction of the Earl of Bute, had shown itself ardently anxious for peace, even 
 at the cost of abandoning the cause of the King of Prussia. 
 
 Death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia — Alliance of Russia and 
 Prussia. — It now appeared that Frederic the Great must fall before the over- 
 whelming power of Austria and Russia; but in January, 17^2, the Empress Eliza- 
 beth of Russia, Frederic's implacable enemy, died, and was succeeded by Peter III., 
 who ardently admired the talents and courage of Frederic, and who immediately 
 concluded a treaty of peace and alliance with the Prussian warrior-king, and sent 
 Russian troops to the assistance of the Prussians. 
 
 Successes of Frederic the Great in 1762 — Neutrality of Catharfne II. of 
 Russia. — Encouraged by the happy circumstances in which he so suddenly and 
 unexpectedly found himself, the King of Prussia made the Austrians feel the effects 
 of his vengeance by reentering Silesia, defeating Daun at Buckersdorf, and recap- 
 turing Schweidnitz, which again gave him possession of Silesia. Frederic next 
 invaded Bohemia, destroyed the Austrian magazines at Prague, burned the city of 
 Eger, and terribly ravaged the country. A Spanish army invaded Portugal, the 
 ally of England; but was driven back by an English force which had been sent to 
 the assistance of the Portuguese. The Czar Peter III. had l)een deposed in 
 January, 1762, by his wicked wife, who then made herself sole sovereign of Russia, 
 with the title of Catharine II. The unfortunate Peter soon afterward died in prison, 
 supposed to have been assassinated at the instigation of Catharine. The new Em- 
 press immediately renounced the alliance with Frederic the Great, declared herself 
 neutral with respect to the war in Germany, and recalled the Russian armies from 
 Prussia. Sweden had already made peace with Prussia. 
 
 Peace of Paris — Peace of Hubertsburg. — On the loth of Februar), 1763, 
 England, France, Sjiain, and Portugal concluded treaties of peace at Paris, by which 
 they agreed to observe neutrality with regard to the war between Austria and 
 P.-ussia. The terms of the Peace of Paris were most humiliating to France. Nova 
 Scotia, Canada, and other French possessions in North America were surrendered 
 to Great Britain. Louisiana was ceded to Spain, in consideration of the losses sus- 
 tained by that power in the war. Spain ceded Florida to England, in exchange 
 for Cuba, which had been captured by the British navy. Austria and Prussia, thus 
 
FREDERIC THE GREAT. 
 
CATHARINE II. OF RUSSIA. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 293 
 
 l.rt lo continue the war themselves, soon agreed to a treaty of peace, which was 
 sij^ned at Hubertsburg, on the 21st of February, 1763, leaving the province of 
 Silesia, for which so much blood had been shed, in the possession of Fredeiic the 
 Great. Thus England and Prussia came forth victorious from a long struggle 
 against the combined Powers of Europe. 
 
 Result of the War — Decay of the German Empire — Elevation of 
 Prussia. — By the result of this war, France, weakened and exhausted, had Siirk 
 fai heliw the commanding position which she had formerly occupied, and her pies 
 lige was gone; while Great Britain took her place as the leading commercial and 
 naval power of the world. The German Empire had long been a rotten structure, 
 and the Peace of Hubertsburg made its weakness cl&arly manifest. About three- 
 hundred and fifty states, of which the Empire was composed, exercised the rights 
 of sovereignty, and were almost independent of the Emperor, whose authority over 
 the different Princes of the Empire was little more than nominal. While the 
 German Empire was thus in a decaying condition, the young Kingdom of Prussia, 
 under its illustrious sovereign, Frederic the Great, had already taken its place as 
 one of the leading Powers of Europe. During the twenty-four years of Frederic's 
 reign after the Seven Years' War, Prussia enjoyed the greatest prosperity. 
 
 PARTITIONS OF POLAND AND RUSSO-TURKISH 
 WARS (A D. 1768-1795). 
 
 The Empress Catharine II. of Russia. — While France, under her profligate 
 ri'onarch, Louis XV., was declining in national power and greatness, and while 
 Prussia, under the illustrious Frederic the Great, had attained a leading position 
 among the great powers of the earth, Russia, under her great Empress, Catharine 
 II., exercised a preponderant influence in Eastern Europe. The two great objects 
 of Catharine's ambition were the tottering Republic of Poland and the declining 
 Ottoman Empire; and her whole political policy was one of aggression and terri- 
 torial aggrandizement. Catharine II. devoted considerable attention to measures 
 for the civilization of her subjects, and founded many schools and academies. In 
 her private character the Empress was dissolute and immoral ; she left the govern- 
 ment of her Empire to her favorites, the chief of whom was Potemkin the Taurian; 
 and the court of St. Petersburg was as much distinguished for its luxury, immorality, 
 and debauchery as was that of Versailles. 
 
 Decline of Poland — Stanislaus Poniatowski. — The Republic of Poland 
 was becoming weaker and weaker ever}' day. The decline of this nation was 
 attributable to its internal dissensions, in consequence of its elective constitution. 
 Every election for King was a scene of the greatest contention and the most vio- 
 lent proceedings. On the death of Augustus III., in 1764, the Polish nobles, 
 through the influence, and at the dictation, of Russia's great Empress elected S'ari' 
 islaus Poniatowski King of Poland. 
 
 The Polish Dissidents. — It was about this time that the Dissidf nts, as all i'o! 
 ish Protestants and adherents of the Greek Church were called, petitioned the. 
 Polish Diet for the restoration of the civil and religious privileges of which they 
 had been deprived by the Diets of 1717 and 1733. The Roman Catholic majority 
 in the Di'Ct, through the influence of the Polish clergy, rejected the petition, where 
 
294 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 upon the Dissidents formed a league known as "The Confederation ot Radovi," 
 and, wi'.h the aid of Russia, they determined to obtain the desired privileges by 
 force. 
 
 Civil War in Poland. — The Diet of Poland was compelled by Russian troops 
 to concede to the Dissidents the rights which they demanded; whereupon the 
 Polish Catholics formed " The Confederation of Bar," in opposition to that of 
 Radovi, for the purpose of again depriving the Dissidents of their c'.vil and religious 
 •ights, and liberating Poland from Russian supremacy. A bloody civil war ensued 
 ijetween the two Confederations. With the assistance of a Russian army, ll e 
 Confederation of Radovi came forth triumphant. Bar and Cracow, the strongholds 
 (;f t^lie Bar confederates, were carried by assault. The defeated forces fled into the 
 Turkish territories, closely pursued by the victorious Russians. (1768.) 
 
 War Between Russia and Turkey. — The violation of Turkish territory by 
 the Russians, in the pursuit of the defeated and retreating Poles, caused the Ottoman 
 Porte to declare war against Russia; and for six years (1768-1774), a sanguinary 
 land and naval war raged between the Turks and the Russians. After achieving 
 two great victories, the Russians under RomanzofT conquered the Turkish provinces 
 of Moldavia and Wallachia; and in 1770, the Turkish town of Bender was taken 
 by storm. Bloody battles were fought between the Russians and the Turks in the 
 Morea, or Southern Greece, on the coast of which a Turkish fleet was destroyed by 
 fire. (1771). 
 
 First Partition of Poland. — Convinced of the weakness of Poland, and anxious 
 for an increase of their own respective territories, the neighboring powers resolved to 
 divide a portion of the Polish Republic among themselves. After a personal inter- 
 view between Joseph II. of Austria and Frederic the Great of Prussia, and a visit of 
 Prince Henry of Prussia to St. Petersburg, a treaty of partition was agreed upon by 
 Austria, Prussia, and Russia (August 5, 1772), by which these three powers seized 
 those portions of Poland adjoining their own dominions. The Polish Diet pro- 
 tested before the whole world against this iniquitous scheme, — this most audacious 
 violation of the rights of nations. Surrounded and threatened by Russian troops, 
 the Diet at length yielded to force, and consented to the dismemberment of Poland. 
 Thus the Polish provinces watered by the Vistula were taken by Prussia; Galicia 
 was seized by Austria; and the territories of the Dnieper were absorbed by Russia. 
 
 Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche. — The war between Russia and Turkey 
 was terminated in 1774, by the Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche, by the terms of 
 which the right of passage through the Dardanelles was conceded to Russia, and the 
 Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under Russian protection. 
 
 Pugatscheff's Rebellion — Migration of the Kalmuck Tartars. — In 1774, 
 a formidal)le rebellion against the Empress Catharine II., headed by Pugatscheff, 
 a Don Cossack, broke out in the region of the Volga ; but the revolt was speedily 
 suppressed, and Pugatscheff was beheaded in Moscow, in 1775. In 1782, the Kal- 
 muck Tartars, 500,000 in number, affronted at the Rus-sian Empress, abandoned 
 Iheir homes in European Russia, and, wandering eastward several thousand miles, 
 settled themselves in the dominions of the Emperor of China. 
 
 Russian Conquest of the Crimea. — Russian ambition was not satisfied with 
 the defeat of the Turks. In 17S3, the Russian forces under Potemkin conquer* ' 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 295 
 
 the Nogai Tartars of the Crimea, and annexed that country, with other ten-ituries 
 on the Black Sea, under the name of Tauris, to Russia. 
 
 War of Russia and Austria against Turkey. — The evident design of the 
 Emjiress Catharine II. of expelling the Turks from Europe, and founding a new 
 Christian empire, with Constantinople for its capital, and a member of the imperial 
 Ilcuse of Romanoff for its prince, and the aggressive conduct of Russia in the 
 region of the Black Sea, alarmed the Ottoman Porte-; and another bloody land and 
 laval war broke out between Russia and Turkey in 1787, and lasted five years 
 Jvsoph II. of Austria participated in the war, as an ally of the Russian Eni)iress 
 The Austrian forces under Laudon defeated the Turks on the Danube, and sub 
 dued portions of Servia and Wallachia; while, at the same time, conquest shone 
 upon the Russian arms. In December, 178S, the Russians under Potemkiu took 
 the strong city of Oczakow, after a furious assault, in which many lives were sacri- 
 ficed; and in December, 1790, a Russian army under the cruel Suwarrow carried 
 by storm the fortress of Ismail, and causetl 20.000 Turks to be put to the sword. 
 
 War between Sweden and Russia. — England and Prussia assumed a me- 
 nacing atttitude toward Russia, in consequence of her aggressive policy, and the 
 success of her arms against the Turks; and in 1788, King Gustavus III. of Sweden 
 formed an alliance with the Sultan, and began a land and naval war against Russia. 
 After sustaining several defeats, the Swedes gained a great naval victory in the 
 Baltic sea; but Catharine II. succeeded in making an equitable peace with Sweden, 
 in 1790. The able Gustavus III. had aroused the discontents of his sulijects by 
 his war with Russia; and in 1792, he was assassinated at a masquerade, by Ankar- 
 strom, one of his former guard-officers. 
 
 Peace of Jassy. — The Empress of Russia closed her second war with the 
 Turks by the Peace of Jassy, in January, 1792, by which the Porte ceded the terri- 
 tories of the Dniester to Russia. Peace had previously been made between Aus- 
 tria and Turkey. 
 
 New Polish Constitution. — Poland was at this time endeavoring to free her- 
 self from Russian domination. With the support of Prussia, the Poles dissolved 
 " The Perpetual Council," which the Russians had established at Warsaw to rule 
 the Polish Republic. In 1791, a new constitution was adopted, by which Poland 
 was changed from an elective kingdom to an hereditary monarchy with two legis- 
 lative chambers. The Polish king took an oath to observe and defend this con- 
 stitution, which was applauded by all Europe, with the exception of Russia. 
 
 War of the Poles against Russia — Defeat of Kosciuszko. — A party of 
 Pi lish nobles, who were dissatisfied with the new constitution, formed " The (Con- 
 federation of Targowicz," for the purpose of restoring the old elective constitution. 
 This party received the aid of the Russian Empress, who immediately sent an 
 anny into Poland. Prussia, which had just been in alliance with the Polish 
 patriots, now sided with Russia in the contest, on the ground that the principles u/ 
 French republicanrsm were embodied in the new Polish constitution. The illns 
 hious Thaddeus Kosciuszko, who had nobly fought for freedom in America, 
 became the chief of the patriot party, and led the Polish army against the Russians, 
 by whom he was defeated at Dubienka, on the 17th of July, 1792. The Polish 
 king, now becoming alarmed, renounced hostilities against Russia, and joined th< 
 
zg6 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Confederation of Targowicz. The gallant Polish patriots, whose efToruj were para^ 
 lyzed l)y the cowardice and irresolution of their king, fled from their country, burn- 
 ing wiih wrath against their Russian oppressors. 
 
 Secc»nd Partition of Poland. — In 1793, Russia and Prussia determined upcr. 
 a seconc partition of Poland, assigning as a reason that the principles of the Fri^n- (\ 
 revolutii nists were fast gaining ground in that country. The Polish Diet, which 
 ;'eso'.uiely, but vainly, opposed itself to the new treaty of partition, was surrounded 1 j 
 S^y.-^sian troops, who violently carried off the boldest speakers. A second di\/si;.-i 
 if the Polish Republic then followed, between Russia and Prussia. The Easterr 
 Polish provinces of Volhynia, Podolia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Little Poland were 
 taken by Russia: Great Poland and Dantzic went to Prussia. 
 
 War of the Poles Against Russia and Prussia — Defeat of Kosciuszko. 
 — The stolen provinces were immediately occupied by Russian and Prussian troops. 
 Iglestrom, the Russian ambassador at Warsaw, was the virtual ruler of Poland. A 
 coiispiracy was formed, in the spring of 1794, by the Polish patriots, for the. purpose 
 of reconquering the lost teiTitories, and restoring the constitutional government. 
 Kosciuszko and the emigrant Poles returned to their country, and placed themselves 
 at the head of the patriot party. Iglestrom's palace at Warsaw was burned to the 
 gi-ound, the Russian troops who occupied Warsaw were made prisoners or put to 
 death, and four of the Polish supporters of Russian supremacy perished on the 
 scaffold. The Prussian forces which had advanced against Warsaw were driven 
 back by the Poles under Kosciuszko, Dombrowski, and Joseph Poniatowski, the 
 king's nephew. The Empress Catharine IL was determined to crush the Polish 
 rising, and a large Russian army under Suwarrow soon appeared in Poland. In a 
 sanguinary engagement at Macziewice, on the loth of October, 1794, Kosciuszko 
 was defeated by the Russians, and, falling wounded from his horse, with the excla- 
 mation, " The end of Poland !'' was made a prisoner. Pi-aga was taken by stoiTn 
 by Suwarrow, on the 4th of November, 1794, and 12,000 det'enseless persons were 
 killed, or drowned in the Vistula. Warsaw was forced to surrender to the victorious 
 Russians, and King Stanislaus Poniatowski was compelled to abdicate the throne 
 of Poland. He took up his residence in St. Petersburg, where he was supported 
 by a pension from the Russian government, until his death, which occured in 179S. 
 
 Third Partition of Poland. — A partition of what remained of the Republic 
 of Poland, between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, took place in 1795. Austria 
 obtained the Southern part of the Republic with Cracow ; Prussia took the territory 
 west of the Vistula with Warsaw ; and Russia seized the remainder. Thus the 
 once-powerful Polajid ceased to exist, as an independent power, — a victim to its 
 (iwn internal disse>isions, and to the rapacity of its neighbors. Kosciuszko was re- 
 lease-d by the Emijeror Paul, Catharine's successor, and he died in Switzerland in 
 1817. Jlis reiv^ins were conveyed to Cracow. 
 
 GENERAL AFFAIRS IN EUROPE. 
 
 Party Coofssts in England — ^John Wilkes. — The Seven Years' War left 
 Kngland oppressed with a heavy debt, and consequently burdened the English pef> 
 pie wrth 'he most oppressive taxes. Party spirit was extremely violent, and the king- 
 dom, Jt one time, appeared to be on the verge of civil war. King George II. died 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 297 
 
 in Octolier, 1760, and was succeeded on the British throne by his grandson, George 
 [II., who dismissed the Whigs from office, ard placed the government of the 
 Urilish Empire in the hands of the Tories, with the Earl of Bute as Prime-Minis 
 •.er. Heavy duties on certain articles of home manufacture created a universal 
 ferment throughout Great Britain, which resulted in the resignation of the Earl 
 of Bute, and the elevation of George Grenville, also a Tory, to the head of the 
 British Government. But Mr. (irenville was as unpopular as his predecessor har 
 licen, and one of the first acts of his administration was the arrest and prose cut id; 
 of John Wilkes, editor of " The North Briton," and a member of the House z\ 
 Commons, for asserting in his journal that the King's speech to the Parliament con- 
 tained a falsehood. The judges of the Court of Common Pleas decided that the 
 conniiitmenl o\ Mi. Wilkes was illegal, and that his privileges as a member ol 
 Parliament had been infringed. Wilkes was afterwards outlawed by the House ol 
 Commons, for failing to appear to answer the charges against him; but subsequently 
 this sentence of outlawry was reversed, and Wilkes was four times chosen to Par- 
 liament, by the Electors of the County of Middlesex, but the House of Commons 
 as often rejected him. 
 
 Conquest of Corsica by France. — The island of Corsica, which belonged to 
 the Republic of Genoa, had tor many years been engaged in a war for its independ- 
 ence. The insurgent Corsicans, led by the gallant Paschal Paoli, defeated eveiy 
 attempt of the Genoese to reduce them to submission. When the Genoese became 
 convinced that they could not restore their authority in the revolted island they sold 
 Corsica to France. Paoli bravely resisted the French, and, after being forced to 
 yield, he retired to England ; and Corsica came into the possession of France in 
 1769. 
 
 War of the Bavarian Succession. — The attempt of the Emperor Joseph H. 
 of Germany, upon the death of the Elector Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, in 1777, 
 to enlarge the hereditary Austrian dominions by the acquisition of a large portion 
 of Bavaria and the Palatinate, aroused the jealousy of Frederic the Great, who sent 
 an army into Bohemia, and the result was a short contest between Austria and 
 Prussia known as "The War of the Bavarian Succession." After a few slight skir- 
 mishes, peace was concluded, Joseph H. relinquishing his ambitious designs. (1779.) 
 
 The Gordon or " No-Popery" Riots in London. — Several laws passed i)y 
 the British Parliament in 1780, removing political disabilities on Catholics, produced 
 the most shameful riots in some of the leading cities of Great Britain, particularly 
 in Edinburgh and London. In June, 1780, an immense mob, aroused by the fana- 
 tical Lord George Goixlon, assembled in St. George's Fields, London, and held 
 control of the city for several days, during which the greatest outrages were perpe- 
 tiated, and Roman Catholic chapels, the prisons of Newgate, the king's bench, and 
 the fleet were burned. The riot was only suppressed when the military were calhd 
 out, and after 250 of the mob had been killed or wounded. 
 
 Alliance of German Princes. — After the death of his mother, Maria Thei e.sa, 
 .n 17S0, Joseph II. made another attempt to acquire Bavaria and the Palatinate; 
 Init the King of Prussia frustrated the designs of the Emperor by establishing an 
 "Alliance of German Princes." Before this princely alliance could produce any 
 important result, Frederic the Great died at Potsdam in May, 1786, and was sue 
 ceeded by his son, Frederic William II. 
 
298 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Rebellion in Holland. — In 1784, a democratic insurrection broke out in Hol- 
 land against the Stadtiiolder's authority. The rebellion continued for several years, 
 and Older was only restored in 1787, by an army which had been sent to the 
 Stadtiiolder's assistance by King Frederic William II. of Prussia, brother to the 
 Stadtholder's wife. 
 
 Reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. — Joseph II., who upon the death of 
 bi* father, Francis I., in 1765, became Emperor of Germany, and upon that oi lui- 
 X"ther, Maria Theresa, in 1780, became sovereign of the hereditary Austrian torn 
 Allies, undertook various reforms in ecclesiastical, civil, and political matters. lie 
 granted religious toleration, allowing the Protestants the free exercise of their wor 
 ship, and giving them equal civil and political rights with the Catholics. He limitea 
 the number of convents, and applied the property of the Church to the improvemeni 
 of schools and to beneficent purposes. 
 
 Rebellions in the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary.— The attempts of 
 Joseph II. to introduce his reforms into the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium) 
 produced a formidable rebellion in that country against Austrian authority. The 
 attempted introduction of Joseph's reforms into Hungary led to a general insurrection 
 in that country also. Grief and irritation at these events hurried the noble-hearted 
 Emperor, whose health had been seriously injured while warring with the Turks 
 in the region of the Danube, to his grave. He died in 1790; and his brother, 
 Leopold II., who then succeeded to the thrones of Austria and Germany, restored 
 quiet in the Austrian Netherlands, and in Hungary, by abolishing most of the ob- 
 noxious reforms of his well-meaning predecessor. Leopold II. died in 1792, and 
 Francis II. succeeded to the sovereignty of the hereditary Austrian territories, and 
 to the imperial throne of (Germany. 
 
 Impeachment and Trial of Warren Hastings. — In 1787, Warren Hast- 
 ings, Governor-General of British India, was impeached by the British House of 
 Commons, for misgovernment and oppression of the people of India. The trial of 
 Mr. Hastings by the House of Lords lasted a perio<l of eight years, and ended in 
 the acquittal of the accused. During this celebrated trial, the great statesmen, 
 Burke, Fox, and Sheridan, distinguished themselves by their oratory. 
 
 Irish Rebellions — Parliamentary Union of England and Ireland. — In 
 179S, a rebellion against British power commenced in Ireland. After some battles 
 and frightful massacres by both parties, the authority of the British Government 
 was fully restored. On the 1st of January, iSdi, a legislative union took place 
 between England and Ireland. In 1803, an insurrection, headed by a young enthu- 
 siast, Robert Emmett, broke out in Dublin. The insurgents were easily overcome, 
 and Emmett was tried and hanged for treason. 
 
 CONQUESTS OF THE ENGLISH EAST-INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 The English East-India Company. — In the year 1600, an associ.ation of 
 Knglish merchants received a charter from Queen Elizabeth, and were incorpor.ated 
 the English East-India Company. Under the auspices of this corporation, English 
 traciing-jKjsts and settlements were established in Hindoostan during the seventeenth 
 century. In 1639, the important city of Madras was granted to the Company 
 by its native prince; in 1661, Bombay was purchased from the Portuguese; and 
 
 \ 
 
ElGHrEENril CENTUR Y. 
 
 299 
 
 in 1699, an P^nglish seltlemenl was made at Calcutta, where Fort Willi.im was 
 elected. 
 
 War with Surajah Dowlah — " The Black Hole of Calcutta." — From the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century, the English East-India Company hatl meddled 
 m 'he disjiuies and wars between the native princes of Hindoostan, with the view 
 of iiltin'ately establi^ihing its supremacy in that quarter of the globe. In ivfri. 
 Suiijih Dowlah, a native prince, declared war against the Comjiany, and, iller j 
 vig rous siege, took Calcutta, with its garrison of 146 English troops. No sione? 
 had the garrison surrendered, than they were crowded into a narrow prison, eigh- 
 teen feet square, called " The Black Hole of Calcutta," where all but twenty died 
 before the following morning. 
 
 Colonel Cliye — Battle of Plassey. — Calcutta was recaptured in 1757, by ar 
 English force, under Colonel Clive, who had rapidly risen, by the force of his own 
 talents, from the humble position of clerk of the Company, to the position of com- 
 mander-in-chief of its forces. The rich city of Iloogly was captured and plun- 
 dered by an expedition sent by Clive. The power of Surajah Dowlah was thoroughly 
 broken by Colonel Clive, in the celebrated battle of Plassey, fought on the 23d of 
 June, 1757, and the East-India Company gained the ascendancy in Southern India. 
 
 First War with Hyder Ali. — In 1767, the East-India Company became in- 
 volved i;i a war with Hyder Ali, who had raised himself, by his al)ilities, from an 
 obscure condition, to the throne of Mysore, a powerful kingdom in Southern Hin- 
 doostan, which he had enlarged by conquests in all directions. The Company was 
 obliged to consent to a peace in 1769. 
 
 Second War with Hyder Ali — Battle of Cuddalore.— In 17S0, Hyder 
 Ali renewed hostilities against the East-India Company, and spread desolation 
 through a large portion of their territories. An English force was entirely cut to 
 pieces by Tippoo Saib, the valiant son of Hyder Ali ; but afterwards, Hyder Ali, 
 himself, was completely' defeated by a body of English troops under Sir Eyre 
 Coote, at Cuddalore. In 1782, Hyder Ali died, and was succeeded on the throne 
 of Mysore, by his son, Tippoo Saib, who continued the war against the Company 
 until 17S4, when a treaty of peace was made. 
 
 War with Tippoo Saib — Capture of Bangalore — Battle at Seringapa- 
 tam. — In 1790, another war broke out between Tippoo Saib and the East-India 
 Company. In 1 79 1, Lord Cornwallis, then Governor-General of British India, laid 
 siege to Bangalore, which he finally took by storm. In 1792, Lord Cornwallis 
 thoroughly defeated Tippoo Saib in front of Seringapatam, the capital of his kingdom. 
 Soon afterward, a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the East-India Company 
 obtained a large increase of territory. 
 
 Last War with Tippoo Saib — Fall of Seringapatam and Death of Tip- 
 poo Saib. — In the early part of 1799, Tippoo Saib renewed the war against the 
 Company, for the purpose of expelling the English from India. The English forcet 
 laid siege to Seringapatam, which they carried by assault, on the 4th of May, 1799 
 The valiant Tippoo .Saib was slain in the conflict, and his kingdom was annexed to 
 .he territories of the East-India Company. 
 
 War with the Mahrattas — Battle of Assayfe. — In 1803, the Company was 
 inralved'in a wai with the Mahrattas. The English, under Sir Arthur Wellesley 
 
JOO 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 afterward the great Duke of Wellington, defeated the Mahrattas in the battle ol 
 Assaye. Delhi and Agra were carried by storm, and the war ended in the pros- 
 tration of the Mahratta power before the supremacy ot the English East- India 
 Company. 
 
 ANGLO-FRENCH COLONIAL WARS 
 
 FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN NORTH AMERICA 
 
 P'rench Explorations in North America — Founding of Acadia by De 
 Monts. — While the English were colonizing the Atlantic coast of North America, 
 from New England to Georgia, the French were exploring and settling the valley 
 of the St. Lawrence, the shores of the Great Lakes, and the valley of the 
 Mississippi. In 1605, the Huguenot De Monts founded the first permanent French 
 settlement in North America, at Port Royal (now Aimapolis), in Nova Scotia, 
 giving the territory, now known as Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the name 
 "Acadia." 
 
 Founding of Quebec by Samuel Champlain — The Hurons and Al- 
 gonquins. — In 1608, Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, founded the city of 
 Quebec, on the St. Lawrence river; and in the following year (1609), he discovered 
 the beautiful lake, between the present States of Vermont and New York, which 
 bears his name. Champlain and his followers allied themselves with the Huron 
 and Algonquin Indians, and defeated their foes, the Five Nations of New York. 
 Thenceforth the Five Nations were the firm friends of the English and the bitter 
 enemies of the French. 
 
 Explorations of the Mississippi by James Marquette and Louis Joliet 
 — By LaSalle. — In 1679, James Marquette, a French Jesuit, and Louis Joliet, a 
 F'rench Canadian, entered the Mississippi river from the Wisconsin, and, in two 
 birch-bark canoes, sailed down the great river to a point below the mouth of the 
 Arkansas. In 1682, Robert de La.Salle, a French Canadian officer, after exploring 
 the shores of the Great Lakes, entered the Mississippi from the Illinois, and sailed 
 up the mighty stream almost to its source, and then down to its mouth, and naming 
 the entire Mississippi valley, " Louisiana," in honor of his king, Louis XIV., claimed 
 that extensive region for France. 
 
 French Settlements in the Mississippi Valley. — In the latter part of the 
 seventeenth centui^, and in the beginning of the eighteenth, the P"rench made 
 settlements on the banks of the Mississippi river, on the shores of the Great Lakes, 
 and on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Kaskaskia, in the present State of Illinois, 
 was founded in 1683; Detroit, in Michigan, in 1701; and Vincennes, in Indiana, in 
 1705. In 1699, a company of French colonists, headed by Lemoine d' Iberville, a 
 French Canadian, settled Biloxi, in the present State of Mississippi; and in 1702. 
 rn )St of the settlers of Biloxi founded the city of Mobile, in the present Alabama 
 
 Louisiana under Anthony Crozat — Under the Mississippi Company.-- ■ 
 ivi 1712, Louisiana was leased, for a stated period, to Anthony Crozat, a wealUiy 
 French merchant, under whose auspices was built Fort Rosalie, — the beginning of 
 the present city of Natchez, in Mississippi. In 1717, Crozat relinquished his lease; 
 and Louisiana was for fifteen years under the control of the Mississippi Company, 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 30 i 
 
 which the Scolchman, John Law, had organized in Fiance. Bienville, the governoi 
 sent to Louisiana by this Company, founded New Orleans, in 17 18. 
 
 War with the Natchez Indians — War with the Chickasaws. — In 1729, 
 the Natchez Indians, exasperated at the threatened encroachments of the French, 
 fell upon the French settlement at Fort Rosalie, massacred the men, and carried 
 the women into c.iptivity. In revenge for this outrage, a body of French tr&:.ps 
 iloiost exterminated the Natchez, the following year. (1730.) A few years later, 
 ■he French made two unsuccessful attempts to subjugate the warlike Chickasaws, 
 ino*her powerful Indian tribe. The French built a chain of forts between Mont- 
 real and New Orleans, the most important of which were Detroit, erected in 1701; 
 Niagara, in 1726; and Crown Point, in 1730. 
 
 KING WILLIAM'S WAR (A. D. 1689-1C97). 
 
 Both Parties Aided by the Indians, — The war that broke out between Eng- 
 land and France in 16S9, extended to the English and French colonies in North 
 America, and is known in American history as " King William's War," because it 
 occurred during the reign of William III. in England. The Indians of Canada 
 and Acadia aided the French, while the Five Nations, of New York, assisted the 
 English. 
 
 Attack on Dover — Destruction of Schenectady. — In July, 1690, the town 
 of Dover, in New Hampshire, was attacked by the French and their Indian allies; 
 and in February, 1690, Schenectady, in New York, was burned, and sixty of its 
 inhabitants were massacred, by the French and the Indians. 
 
 New England Expeditions against the French — Peace of Ryswick.— 
 In May, 1690, the New England colonies sent a naval expedition, under Sir Wil- 
 liam Phipps, which plundered the French colony of Acadia. The same year, a 
 land expedition, under a son of Governor Winthrop. of Connecticut, proceeded'to 
 attack Montreal, while a naval force, under Sir William Phipps, was sent against 
 Quebec. Both expeditions were failures. The people of New England suffered 
 terribly from the attacks of the French and their savage allies, until the Peace of 
 Ryswick was concluded between England and France, in 1697. 
 
 QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (A. D. 1702-1713). 
 
 Desolation of English Settlements — Deerfield Burned. — In 1702, a wai 
 
 broke out between England and P'rance, which extended to the colonies of those 
 nations in North America. This war, called in Europe "The War of the Spanish 
 Succession," is known in American history as "Queen Anne's War," so called 
 because it happened during the reign of Queen Anne in England. The French 
 and Indians again spread desolation among the English settlements. Deerfield, ip. 
 Massachusetts, was burned, and its inhabitants were massacred by the savages aiid 
 tlieir I/ench allies. 
 
 Conquest of Acadia — Expeditions against Quebec — Peace of Utrecht. 
 
 — In 1 7 10, a fleet from England, aided by a land force from New England, cap- 
 tured Port Royal, in Acadia. Port Royal was named Annapolis, and Acadia be- 
 came an' English province, under the name of Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. In 
 
502 
 
 MODERN HISTOR Y. 
 
 171 1, a fleet and army from England, under Sir Hovenden Walker, assisted by 
 New Englanders, the whole expedition consisting of 5,000 men, proceeded against 
 Quebec. The vessels were wrecked at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and 1,000 
 men perished. The expedition was abandoned, and the Peace of Utrecht was con- 
 cluded between Englantl and France, in 1713. 
 
 KING GEORGE'S WAR (A. D. 1744-1748). 
 
 Siege and Capture of Louisburg. — In 1744, another war began between 
 Eiit:;land and France, known in Europe as " The War of the Austrian Succession,'' 
 but in American history as "King George's War," because it took place while 
 George II. was King of Great Britain. The princi])al event of this war in America 
 was the capture of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. In April, 1745, Gov 
 ernor Shirley, of Massachusetts, sent an army, under General William Pepperell, 
 against this fortress, on account of its strength called "The Gibraltar of America." 
 The army, in conjunction with a British fleet under Admiral Warren, laid siege to 
 the fortress late in May, and on the 28th of June (1745), Louisburg and the island 
 of Cape Breton were surrendered to the English. 
 
 D'Anville's Attempt to Recover Louisburg — Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 — In 1746, the French sent a powerful tleet, under the Duke il'Anville, to retake 
 Louisburg. The greater part of this fleet was destroyed by storms, and the enter- 
 prise was abandoned. The Peace oS. Aix-la-Chapelle, concluded between England 
 and France in 1748, put an end to the war. 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (A. D. 1754-1763). 
 
 CAUSES AND ORIGIN OF THE WAR. * 
 
 English and French Colonial Possessions in North America. — The 
 Jiree wars between the English and the P'rench in North America, the accounts of 
 which we have just considered, had their origin in the European disputes of France 
 and England. The foui^th and last war, and the one which ended in the overthrow 
 of the French power in North America, originated in disputes about the bounda- 
 ries between the French and English colonial possessions. After the Peace of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, the French built forts in the rear of the English colonies, 
 for the purpose of confining the English to the country east of the Alleghany 
 mountains. 
 
 The Ohio Company. — In 1749, the King of Great Britain granted 600,001 
 acres of land on the south side of the Ohio river to an association of English and 
 Virginia speculators, called "The Ohif) Company." The surveyors and traders 
 sent out by the Cumpany were made piisdncrs by the French. This aggressive 
 conduct led to open hostilities. 
 
 Washington's Mission. — The I'rench under .St. Pierre built three forts ir 
 North-western Pennsylvania: one at Presque Isle, now Erie; another at La Bnul 
 now Walerford ; and a third at the site of the present town of Franklin. Governo; 
 Dinwiddle, of Virginia, sent George Washington, a young Virginian, twenty one 
 years of age, with a remonstrance to St. Pierre, the French commander. St. Pierre, 
 who said that he acted under the orders of Du Quesne, Governor of Canada, refused 
 
Bronze 
 
 Door in the National Capltoi Commemorating the Events of the 
 Life of George Washington. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 
 
 }fiZ 
 
 CO withdraw his troops from the domain of the Ohio Company, as requested by 
 Dinwiddie. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1754. 
 
 Battle of the Great Meadows. — When it was known in Virginia that St. Pien': 
 ref'^Tcd to withdraw his troops from the territory granted to the Ohio Comppny, a 
 '.lody of Virginians under Major George Washington was sent to expel the invaders 
 V\ Islington moved toward the Ohio, and in the present Fayette county, in Penn 
 ;y:vania, he built Fort Necessity. On the 28th of May, 1754, he defeated tht 
 French and killed their leader, Jxunonville, in the battle of the Great Meadows 
 This was the first bloodshed in the long anrl distressing French and Indian War. 
 
 Capitulation of Fort Necessity. — Already the French had seized a fort which 
 the English had i)een engaged in building at the junction of the Alleghany and 
 Monongahela rivers, and named it " Fort Du Quesne," in honor of the Governor 
 of Canada. Washington was at length besieged by the French at Fort Necessity 
 On the 4th of July, 1754, he surrendered to the French, who allowed him and all 
 his troops to march back to Virginia. 
 
 Colonial Congress at Albany, — On the day of the ca]-)ituIation of Fori 
 Necessity (July 4, 1754), a congress composed of delegates from six of the Anglo- 
 American colonies, convened at Albany, in the province of New York, for' the 
 purpose of devising measures for protection against the encroachments of the French. 
 A plan of union drawn up by Dr. Benjamin Franklin was rejected both by the home 
 government and the colonial assemblies. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1755. 
 
 Braddock, Commander-in-Chief — Plan of the Campaign. — In 175'., 
 Edward Braddock, a distinguished Irish officer, was sent to America as commander- 
 m-chief of the English forces there. Three exjjeditions against the French wei 
 projected: one was to proceed against the French forts in Nova Scotia; anothe 
 under Braddock was to drive the French from Fort Du Quesne; and a third unde 
 Governor Shirley of Massachusetts was to move against Fort Niagara. 
 
 Capture of French Forts in Nova Scotia. — An English force of 3,000 men, 
 under (jeneral Winslow, landed at the head of the Bay of Fundy, in June, 1755, 
 where they were joined by 300 regulars, under Colonel Monckton, who assumed 
 the chief command. The expedition took Fort Beausejour from the French, on 
 the 1 6th of June, and Fort Gaspereau on the 17th. The English disgraced them- 
 selves by their cruel treatment of the Acadians, many of whom they sent away and 
 listributed among the English colonists. 
 
 Defeat and Death of Braddock. — In June, 1755, General Braddock, with 
 2,000 men, marched againsi the French at Fort Du Quesne. On the 9th of July, 
 when within twelve miles of Fort Du Quesne, the English were attacked by the 
 I'rench and the Indians. Braddock was killed, and his troops were comp'ctclj 
 defeated. Of all the mounted officers on the side of the English, Major Wa.'-h.ng- 
 ton alone remained unhurt. After the fall of Braddock, Washington assumed the 
 command of the English troops, and conducted them back to Virginia. Thus, the 
 expedition agahist Fort Du Quesne was a total failure. 
 
304 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Failure of Shirley's Expedition. — The expedition under Shirley against 
 Fort Niagara was also a complete failure. The expedition went only as far as 
 Oswego, where Shirley built a new fort ; and storms, sickness, and desertions of 
 his Indian allies, caused him to abandon the object of the expedition. 
 
 Johnson's Expedition — Battle of Lake George.— In August, 1755, an 
 English army under Sir William Johnson marched agahist Forts Ticonderoga and 
 Crown Point, which the French had erected on the Western shores of Lake Cham- 
 plain. A piUt of Johnson's force, under Colonel Williams, was defeated, on the 8tb 
 of September, by the French under Baron Dieskau. After this fight, in wliicb 
 Williams was killed, Dieskau moved forward and fought with Johnson the battle 
 of Lake George. In this battle, Dieskau was defeated, wounded, and taken pris- 
 oner. After the battle, Johnson built Fort William Henry, and garrisoned it, as 
 well as Fort Edward, with some of his troops, after which he returned to Albany, 
 and dispersed his army. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1756. 
 
 Declaration of War — Lord Loudon Commander-in-chief. — In May, 
 1756, England declared war against France, and formed an alliance with Frederic 
 the Great of Prussia, in his war with France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony; 
 and thus arose the great " Seven Years' War." The inefficient Lord Loudon was 
 sent to America to take the chief command of the English forces there. 
 
 Montcalm's Capture of Oswego — Battle of Kittanning.— In August, 
 1756, the Marquis de Montcalm, with a liody of French and Indians, crossed Lake 
 Ontario from Canada, and captured the English forts at Oswego, with 1,400 pris- 
 oners. The only thing accomplished by the English in 1756, was the chastisement 
 of the Indians in W^estern Pennsylvania. On the 8th of September, Colonel John 
 Armstrong fell upon the savages at Kittanning, their chief town on the Alleghany 
 river, killed their principal chiefs, and destroyed the village. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1757. 
 
 Surrender of Fort William Henry to Montcalm. — In Northern New 
 York, a force of French and Indians, under Montcalm, marched against Fort Wil- 
 liam Henry, in August, 1757. Colonel Monro, who commanded the small English 
 force which garrisoned the fort, called upon General Webb, the English commander 
 at Fort Edward, for assistance. The cowardly Webb refused any aid, and the gal- 
 lant Monro was compelled to surrender, after a brave defense. After their surrender, 
 the English troops were allowed to march out with the honors of war, but no 
 sooner had they left the fort, under a promise of protection, than despite the effc rts 
 of Montcalm to prevent it, many of them were massacred by the Indians m the 
 French army. Montcalm expres-sed great sorrow at this sad occurence. 
 
 William Pitt, Prime-Minister of England — General Abercromrle. — 
 
 In the summer of 1757, William Pitt, the ablest staleman in Engl.inu, was ; Inced 
 at the head of the British Government. Energy and forecast marked every move- 
 ment of Mr. Pitt's administration, and from this time until its close, the war w as 
 favorable to the English, who, after a series of brilliant successes, were finally 
 enabled to effect the permanent conquest of the French American possessions. In 
 
ElGHl^EENTH CENTURY. 
 
 305 
 
 17^7, General Abercrombie was sent to America, to lake the chief commanQ of tlic 
 English forces there. 
 
 EVENTS OF 17S8. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Louisburg. — Early in July, 1758, Generals Amherst 
 iiid Wolfe, with English troops, and Admiral Boscawen, with a British squarlren, 
 Liid siege to Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. After a \ igorous siegi 
 IjOU^sbirg, and the island of Cape Breton, were surrendered to the English, on ihi 
 sot; of July. (1758.) 
 
 Unsuccessful Attack on Ticonderoga — Capture of Fort Frontena;.— 
 At the beginning of July, 1758, an English force of 15,000 men, under Genera! 
 Abercrombie, moved against Ticonderoga. On the 6th, a part of this force, under 
 Lord Howe, defeated the French, but Lord Howe was among the slain. Aber- 
 crombie continued his advance, and attacked Ticonderoga on the 8th of July, but 
 met with a disastrous repulse. He then fell back, and abandoned the object of the 
 expedition. On the 27th of August (1758), Fort Frontenac, on the site of the pres- 
 ent city of Kingston, in Canada, was captured by Colonel Bradstreet, at the head 
 of an English force, which had been sent out for that purpose by Abercrombie. 
 
 Capture of Fort DuQuesne. — In 1758, an English force, under General 
 John Forbes, proceeded against Fort Du Quesne. When within fifty miles of the 
 fort, a council of war decided to abandon the enterprise; but when prisoners, who 
 were brought in at this moment, gave every assurance that the garrison of Fort Du 
 Quesne was weak, it was resolved to move forward. A part of the expedition, 
 under Major Grant, had been defeated by the P>ench and Indians, on the 2isl of 
 September. Washington and his Virginians led the advance against Fort Du 
 Quesne. The French evacuated the fort on the approach of the English, and fled 
 down the Ohio in boats; and late in November, the English, flag waved over Fort 
 Du Quesne, the name of which was changed to Fort Pitt, in honor of the great 
 English statesman. The flourishing city of Pittsburg now occupies the site of the 
 fort. 
 
 EVENTS OF 17S9. 
 
 Plan of the Campaign. — The English planned three expeditions for the cam 
 paign of 1759: one, under Generals Prideaux and Johnson, was to attempt the 
 capture of Fort Niagara; another, under Lord Amherst, was to take possession of 
 Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and a third, under General James Wolfe, 
 was designed for the reduction of Quebec, the strongest French fortress in America. 
 
 Capture of Fort Niagara. — In July, 1759, the English, under Generals Pri 
 Jeaux and Johnson, commenced the siege of Fort Niagara. On the ISth, Prideaux 
 was killed by the bursting of a mortar; and the command of the English army 
 devolved upon Johnson, who continued the siege until the 25th, when the Fren. 1 
 firrendered the fort. 
 
 Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. — On the approach of the Hnj; 
 lish ^■•t•^y under Lord Amherst, in July (1759), Forts Ticonderoga and Ciowri 
 I'oint *ere evacuated by their P'rench garrisons, and those strong pasts were imme 
 diatel) raken possession of by the English. 
 20 
 
3o6 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Wolfe's Expedition — Battle of Quebec — Surrender of Quebec. — In June, 
 1759, an English forct' of 8,000 men, under General Wolfe, arrived before Quebec. 
 For two months, the English besieged the city, and destroyed a large part of it by 
 means of hot shot. On the 31st of July, in the mid.t of a terrific thunder storm, a 
 [loilion of the English army, under Colonel Monckton, fought with the French the 
 l)attle of Montmorenci. At length, a council of war was held by the English ofh- 
 :er;. 'a\v. it v-as resolved to storm the F'rench camp. Accordingly, on the nigi.t of 
 he i_'5h of .Septemlxir (1759), the English army, led by Wolfe in person, scaled 
 .he He gnts of Abraham, in the rear of Quebec; and on the morning of the Ijlh; 
 a furious battle ensued. The commanders of both armies, Wolfe and Montcalm, 
 weie slain; and in the city of Quebec stands a fine monument to their memory. 
 The French were completely defeated; and on the i8th (September, 1759), Quebec 
 was surrendered to the English. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1760. 
 
 Attempt of the French to Recover Quebec — Battle of Sillery. — In the 
 spring of 1760, a French force under M. Levi, Montcalm's successor, attempted to 
 recover Quebec, and defeated the English army commanded by General Murray, in 
 the bloody battle of Sillery, three miles below Quebec, on the 28th of April (1760). 
 The English fell back to Quebec, where they were besieged; but the French, be- 
 coming alarmed at the supposed approach of a large English fleet, hastily abandoned 
 the siege and retired. 
 
 Surrender of Montreal — Conquest of Canada by the English. — On the 
 8th of September, 1760, Montreal, the last stronghold of the French in America, 
 surrendered to the English army under General Murray, who had collected 18,000 
 men for the reduction of the city. With the fall of Montreal, the conquest ol 
 Canada by the English was completed. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1761, '62, '63. 
 
 Peace of Paris — North America under the Anglo-Saxon Race. — On 
 
 che loth of February, 1763, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, between Eng- 
 land, France, and Spain. France surrendered to Great Britain all her possessions 
 in North America east of the Alleghany mountains and north of the latitude of 
 Iberville river. Spain ceded the Floridas to Great Britain. Thus closed a most 
 important w.ar, — a war which assigned North American forever to the Anglo-Saxon 
 race. 
 
 War with the Cherokee Indians — Pontiac's War. — In 1759, the Chero- 
 kee Indians in Georgia began a war against the white people of Georgia and the 
 Carolinas. After a war of two years, the Indians were subdued by Colonel Grant. 
 In 1763, Pontiac, a famous Ottowa chief, secretly formed a confederacy of Indian 
 j-ilies, to expel the English from the country west of the Alleghany mountains, 
 Within a fortnight, this sagacious chief seized all the English posts west of the Alle 
 ghanies, except Detroit, Niagara, and Fort Pitt. The Indians were soon subdniet? 
 »hd, in 1765, Pnntiac was killed, by an Illinois Indian, on the Mississippi rivet. 
 
CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 
 
 POCAHONTAS RFSCUING CAPTAIN SMITH. 
 
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 
 
 MARQUIS DE LA FAYETTE. 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. ^07 
 
 WAR OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775 1783) 
 
 Causes of the American Revolution — Tyranny of Great Britain — liy 
 tiie P'rench and Indian War, England, as we have .seen, had secured a vast tm]iiie 
 fn North America. The fairest Dortion of this colonial empire she was dciiimd 
 K>or to lose, on account of her stnpid folly and her ungenerous treatment of \\■.^ colo 
 uisil subjects. The French and Indian War had oppressed England with an en.n 
 tioas debt, and to relieve her subjects at home, her Ministry and Parliament undci 
 took the scheme of taxing; her North American colonies. The colonists denied tit 
 light of Parliament to tax them, as they were not represented in that body; but thr 
 Ministry and Parliament foolishly and obstinately persisted in their schemes. !n 
 1765, the famous Stamp Act was passed, but it met with such violent opposition in 
 English America that it was repealed in the following year; but other equally 
 obnoxious measures were passed by Parliament, and the military were called into 
 requisition to enforce the submission of the colonists. Taxes were lexied on various 
 articles imported into the colonies, and the Americans burned with indignation 
 against their oppressors. The democratic spirit which had always prevailed among 
 the Anglo-Americans made them impatient with every appearance of political 
 oppression. 
 
 Rebellion of the Americans — Lexington and Bunker's Hill — Invasion 
 of Canada. — The Americans, exasperated at the oppressive measures of the Britisli 
 Ministry and Parliament, finally rose in armed rebellion against the authority of 
 the mother country, and resolved to defend their liberties at all hazards. The first 
 blood in the War of the American Revolution was shed at Lexington and Con- 
 cord, Massachusetts, April 19th, 1775, when the British troops made an attack 
 upon the Minute-men, as they were called. The battle of Bunker's Hill, June 
 17th, of the same year, opened the war in dead earnest. The royal governors of 
 the various colonies were expelled by the colonists, and all royal authority was re- 
 pudiated. The Americans seized Ticonderoga, May loth, 1775, invaded Canada 
 in September, and seized Montreal ; but were disastrously defeated in an .assault 
 upon Quebec, on the last day of the year 1775 ; and in the following year, were 
 entirely driven out of Canada. 
 
 Declaration of American Independence — England's Foreign Relations. 
 — As Great Britain was making gigantic efforts to crush the rebellion against her 
 authority in North America, having hired 17,000 Hessians from Germany to con- 
 quer the Americans, and having passed new opjiressive measures, sentiments of 
 political independence spread among the Americans; and on the 4th of July, 1776, 
 tlie American Congress declared the Anglo-American colonies free and independent 
 States, under the name of "The United States of America." We will now [ roceei 
 to give an account of the part which European nations bore in the wai, and :i\ jiO 
 repetition by referring the reader to another portion of the book fo! a (li'iail.d 
 account of the American events of the war. The French naticMi, still sniiHtine 
 ander tlie defeats and humiliations which she had suffered in the prece lint' « i,' 
 Wiite". for a favorable opportunity to assist the Americans in their struggle Inr us 
 deper ;ence. From the beginning, the French people had sympathized auIi \\a 
 revolted cclonists, and prominent individuals in France, such as the young Maniuis 
 de Lafayt tte, volunteered in the cause of American liberty. The other niilions of 
 
3o8 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Eur><]je, jealous of England's maritime power, secretly wished for the success of 
 I he colonists. 
 
 War between England and France.^The surrender of the "Jritish army 
 under General Burgoyne to the American army under General Gates, on the lytb 
 of October, 1777, encouraged the French court to espouse the cause of the strug- 
 gling patriots; and accordingly, on the 6th of February, 1778, France formed an 
 alliance with the United States, and recognized their independence. War betwec.'' 
 England and France ensued; and hostilities were prosecuted with "vigor, ors *Jv 
 »cean, and in the East and West Indies. 
 
 War between England and Spain. — In June, 1779, thinking the opportunity 
 (avorable for recovering the fortress of Gibraltar from the English, Spain declared 
 war against England ; and a united French and Spanish fleet laid siege to Gibral- 
 tar, while another combined French and Spanish armament attempted an invasion 
 of England. The war between the English and the Spaniards was conducted 
 vigorously, on the ocean, and in the East and West Indies. 
 
 War between England and Holland, — On the 20th of December, 17S0, 
 England declared war against Holland, on learning that a secret treaty had been 
 concluded between the Dutch Republic and the United States. The war between 
 the English and the Dutch was also carried on with great vigor, on the ocean, and 
 in the West and East Indies. 
 
 Armed Neutrality against England.-— In 17S0, the Empress Catharine II. 
 of Russia, induced the Governments of Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia to unite 
 with her in a maritime league, called, " The Armed Neutrality," to guard against 
 encroachments on the commerce of neutral powers by British armed vessels. 
 
 The War on the Ocean and in the East and West Indies. — After the 
 opening of the war between France and England, hostilities were prosecuted with 
 energy by the English against the French in India. Pondicherry, the capital of 
 the French possessions in India, was immediately besieged by the English and 
 their Hindoo allies, and, after a spirited defense, was compelled to surrender 
 Severe fighting also occurred in the West Indies, where powerful fleets were en 
 gaged in conquering or defending the possessions of the various contending nations. 
 On the ocean, numerous engagements occurred between the naval forces of Great 
 Britain on one side, and those of France, Spain, and Holland, on the other. The 
 British fleets, under Admirals Rodney, Keppel, Graves, Parker, and others, main 
 tained the honor of England on the seas, against the attacks of her combine" i 
 enemies. 
 
 Surrender of Cornwallis — British Evacuation of America. — In the mean- 
 ;ime, the war had been carried on with various success, for nearly seven years, ot 
 American soil, ]:>etween the British and the Americans. The Americans, led by the 
 imxaortal Washington and other valiant leaders, had baffled every attempt of the 
 »i06t powerful nation in the world to subdue them; and finally, on the igtl of 
 •X-tober, 17S1, the British army under Lord Cornwallis was compelled to surrendes 
 !o the allied Ameaican and French forces at Yorktown, Virginia, after a vigoroi/i 
 siege. This great event closed hostilities in America, and the British forces soor 
 evacuated the American shores. 
 
 The Wai between England and her European Enemies — Siege of 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 309 
 
 Gibraltar. — Although military operations were thus ended in North America, 
 hostilities were now prosecuted with the greatest animosity between England and 
 liar European enemies. For several years, the war had been conducted with vari- 
 ./tis success by the English, against the French, the Spaniards, and the Dutc i, on 
 ihe ocean, and in the East and West Indies. In June, 1781, a bloody, but indo 
 cisive battle was fought on the Dogger Bank, in the North Sea, between 'he Eng- 
 U.sb fleet under Admiral Parker, and the Dutcli fleet under Admiral Zoutman. Of 
 'ie 1 2th of April, 1782, the British fleet under Admiral Rodney defeated '.he 
 F/t-.i;h fleet under the Count de Grasse, in the West Indies, the English lo.^i'g 
 only 1,100 men, while the French lost 11,000 in killed, wounded, and prisouers 
 the Count de Grasse being among the prisoners. In 1782, the Spaniards con- 
 quered the island of Minorca, after a vigorous defense on the part of the English. 
 The attention of all Europe was attracted to the siege of Gibraltar by the united 
 armies and navies of France and Spain. The fortress had been besieged since 
 1779, but the besiegers had made no progress in the way of its reduction. The 
 garrison in the fortress consisted of about 7,000 English troops under General 
 Elliot. In November, 1781, the garrison made a successful sally from the fortress, 
 utterly demolishing the enemy's works. After immense preparations, the combined 
 French and Spanish fleets and armies besieging Gibraltar were increased to about 
 100,000 men; and, on the 13th of September, 1782, a grand attack was opened 
 upon the fortress ; but, after the most terrific fighting, the garrison, assisted by the 
 English gunboats, repulsed the attacks of the besiegers. At night, while the fight 
 was still raging fiercely, the Spanish fleet caught fire, and the groans of the Span- 
 iards on board the burning .ships were pitiful beyond description. Hereupon the 
 English seamen, with characteristic humanity, forgetting that the Spaniards were 
 their enemies, and thinking of them only as suffering fellow-men, hastened to their 
 rescue, and saved hundreds of them from the perils by which they were surrounded. 
 During the night, the garrison of Gibraltar was relieved by Lord Howe's fleet from 
 England, and the French and the Spaniards relinquished the siege of the impreg- 
 nable fortress. 
 
 Peace of Paris^Independence of the United States. — On the 30th of 
 November, 1782, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, between Great 
 Britain and the United States, by which the former acknowledged the independence 
 of the latter. On the 20th of January, 1783, preliminary treaties were signed be- 
 tween England, France, Spain, and Holland. On the 3d of September, 1783, 
 definitive treaties of peace were signed at Paris, between all the belligerent powers, 
 and the United States took its place among the nations of the earth as an independent 
 . power, and commenced its glorious career. 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (A. D. 1789-1799). 
 
 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Piofligacy and Debauchery of Louis XV. — Louis XV. had at first secured 
 UiC esteem of the French people to such an extent that he was surnamed " The 
 Well-beloved." When he was taken seriously ill at Metz, in 1744, the whole 
 kingdom was filled with sorrow; and his recovery was hailed with transports of joy. 
 
iio 
 
 MODERN HISTOR Y. 
 
 But Louis soon lost the affections of his subjects when he plunged into the most 
 excessive vices and riotous debauchery, and left the government of his kingdom to 
 the mo.st profligate and licentious favorites. Of these favorites, Madame Pompa- 
 dour possessed the greatest influence at court. For twenty years, she controlled the 
 affairs of France, procured the appointment of her favorites to the most responsible 
 offices, used the public revenues for her own private purposes, and determinned 
 vhen the r.zt:;n should be at peace or war. The favorites of the king encouraged 
 Jis del aachery, so that he would leave the affairs of state entirely in their :.iinds 
 .AS the king grew older his licentiousness increased, so that at length he lost al 
 res]5ect and was regarded with contempt. 
 
 Taxation, Tithes, and Feudal Dues. — The voluptuousness and extravagance 
 of the French court, and the unnecessary and expensive wars with the other Euro- 
 pean states, exhausted the French treasury, increased the public debt, and bur- 
 dened the French people with the most oppressive taxes. The taxes were all paid 
 by the middle and lower classes, while the nobility and the clergy were exempt 
 from all taxation. In addition to the land and property tax, capitation tax, house 
 tax, and duties upon certain articles, the lower classes had to pay tithes, labor dues, 
 and other feudal taxes to the aristocracy. 
 
 Disputes between the King and the Parliaments. — All laws and decrees 
 respecting taxation, in order to be valid, required registration by the parliament of 
 Paris. Whenever the parliament refused to register or sanction the tax laws and 
 decrees, it became involved in a vehement dispute with the court, which generally 
 ended in a "Bed of Justice," by which the king overcame all opposition and 
 carried his point. 
 
 Lettres de Cachet. — Another cause of strife between the court and the parlia- 
 ment were "the lettres de cachet," written orders beaiing the seal of the king, ban- 
 ishing the person to whom they were addressed, or ordering him to be confined in 
 prison. This power was greatly abused. Any person hating another, could easily 
 gratify his malice by obtaining, for a certain sum of money, a " lettre de cachet," 
 from the ruling favorite of the king, consigning the innocent victim to a lonely dun- 
 geon, from which death, in the majority of cases, was the only release. The only 
 check on the absolute power of the king was the parliament of Paris. After a ten 
 year's contention with the parliament, Louis put an end to the matter by causing 
 the most refractoiy members to be arrested, and, by a series of edicts, deprived the 
 parliaments of all their privileges. 
 
 Louis XVL and his Queen, Marie Antoinette. — The profligate Louis XV. 
 died ir 1774, and was succeeded on the throne of France by his grandson, Louis 
 XVL, who was then only twenty years of age. Louis XVL was a pious prince, 
 and sincerely anxious for the good of the people over whom he reigned; but he 
 lacked thi; ability and firmness necessary for the circumstances by which he was 
 furrounded. The extravagance and wickedness of the court of Louis XV had 
 'educed France to a most deplorable condition. The finances of the kingdom kgxv. 
 in a disordered state, the public credit was gone, and the great body of t:.e French 
 people were groaning under the most oppressive taxation. The weak king per 
 nitted the extravagance and frivolousness of his brothers, the Count of Provence 
 (sJ'terward Louis XVIII.) and the Count of Artois (afterward Charle? X.). He 
 also allowed his wife, Marie Antoinette, the daughter of the great Austrian empress, 
 
ETGHTEENTH CENTUK V. 
 
 311 
 
 Mai i;i Theresa, to exercise great influence upon the court and goi'ernment of France. 
 The pride and the haughty conduct of the queen provoked the dislike of the French 
 peo])ie, who. attributed every unpopular measure to her influence in the aflairs of 
 ?tate. 
 
 Disordered State of the French Finances — Turgot's Ministry. — The 
 
 prei'alent scarcity of money, and the disordered state of the public finance? of 
 France, could only be remedied by wise reforms, such as were proposed by Tui^ot, 
 ahom the young king first entrusted with the charge of the finances. But TurgMt'f 
 3A-asuies of economy were bitterly opposed by the extravagant courtiers, and tt.s 
 able minister of finance was obliged to resign his office. 
 
 Necker's First Ministry. — Necker, a wealthy Swiss banker, was next appomted 
 to take charge of the French finances. By pursuing- the same course which his 
 predecessor had adopted, and exposing the financial state of France in a pamphlet, 
 Necker made himself so obnoxious to the French court and aristocracy that he also 
 was obliged to retire from his post (17S1). 
 
 Republican Spirit Imbibed in the American Struggle for Liberty. — 
 About this time, the War of the American Revolution, in which France took part 
 as ally of the Americans, increased the public debt of France, and excited senti- 
 ments of freedom and republicanism among the French people. Such of the French 
 soldiers who served in America carried to France the republican spirit which they 
 had imbibed from their American allies, and imparted to their countrymen the les- 
 sons of freedom which they had learned. Many writers in France, especially 
 Rousseau, had advocated republican principles with the greatest eloquence. 
 
 Calonne, Minister of Finance. — The vain and extravagant Calonne, who, 
 through the influence of the queen, was now appointed minister of finance, adopted 
 a policy just the reverse of that which had been pursued by the economical Necker. 
 He continued the system of loans long after the termination of the American war, 
 and delighted the queen and the courtiers by giving the most extravagant enter- 
 tainments; but his resources were at length exhausted, and he saw no other remedy 
 than the taxation of the nobility and the clergy of France. For the purpose of 
 securing the adoption of this course, he called an Assembly of Notables at Ver- 
 sailles, in 1787. After a long struggle, the project of universal taxation was de- 
 feated ; and Calonne, threatened with impeachment, resigned his office, and retired 
 from the country. 
 
 Brienne, Financial Minister. — Calonne's successor as minister of finance was 
 Brienne, who found himself obliged to follow the Usual method of raising loans 
 and increasing the taxes, in order to cover the deficit in the revenue ; but in this 
 he met with the most determined opposition from the parliament of Paris, which 
 rel jsed to register his edicts. The government then arrested the boldest speakers 
 of the parliament, and banished them to Troyes. This proceeding aroused .-uch a 
 stoni! of indignation among the French people that the government efiected a com- 
 promise with the banished members, who were again recalled, and the parliamena 
 mere again sanctioned. 
 
 Spirit of the French People. — The French people now openly manifested 
 their opposition to the court party. The parliament of Paris was surrounded by 
 noisy multitudes, which denounced the court party, and showed their approval 0/ 
 
312 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 tht course of the opposition members. Brienne, who had incurred the hatred of 
 the people, was daily burned in effigy, and in many towns in the kingdom alarm- 
 ing riots occurred. The people demanded the convocation of the States-Generah 
 The government made an effort to put an end to all opposition by changing the 
 parliament into a "cour pleniere" (plenary court) and several subordinate courts- 
 Uut the effort to overcome the opposition of the people was useless; and Brierne 
 fi>i::id himself obliged to resign his situation at a time when the French tnrasurr 
 *",is destitute uf funds, and the French government appeared on the eve of b.ui* 
 'Uptcy. 
 
 Necker's Second Ministry — The States- General Summoned.- Tha! 
 tjrent idol of the French people, Necker, was now recalled to the management of 
 die finances of P'rance. His restoration was hailed with acclamations of joy, and 
 confidence was again restored. Necker procured the repeal of the edicts against 
 the parliament of Paris, and then made arrangements for the assembling of the 
 Stater General, an assembly composed of representatives- chosen by the Three Es- 
 tates, the nobility, the clergy, and the people, which had not met since 1614. A 
 Convention of Notables was first assembled to decide on the preliminaries necessary 
 to the convocation of the States-General. Tlie people demanded, and Necker 
 maintained, that the representatives of the people, or Third Estate, in the coming 
 meeting of the States-General, should equal the number of representatives of the 
 other two Estates taken together. This double representation, after much deliber- 
 ation, was conceded; and the king fixed the number of representatives at 300 for 
 the nobles, 300 for the clergy, and 600 for the people. The king appointed the 
 ensuing May as the time for the meeting of the States-General. 
 
 HE TIME OF THE FRENCH NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. 
 (MAY 5, 1789-SEPTEMBER 30, 1791.) 
 
 EVENTS OF 1789. 
 
 Difficulty at the Opening of the States-General. — The States-General 
 
 assembled at Versailles on the 5th of May, 17S9. Some of the ablest and most dis- 
 Imguished men of France were among its members. At the opening of this great 
 assembly, a difficulty arose as to how the representatives of the Three Estates should 
 vote. The clergy and the nobility demanded that the three orders should meet in 
 three separate bodies; while the people insisted that the Three Estates should meet 
 in one body. If they met in separate bodies, ever)' measure, in order to become a 
 law, must receive the approval of two of the Estates voting separately. It would, 
 therefore, be an easy matter for the clergy and the nobles, whose interests were 
 almost identical, to unite for the purpose of defeating measures for the elevation of 
 the people. On the other hand, if they met in one body, the people, on account of 
 liicir double representation, would be able to manage everything their own way. 
 
 The States-General Declares Itself a National Assembly. — After wait 
 it.jT some weeks for the nobility and the clergy to join them, the deputies of tin 
 Thud Estate, on tht 17th ot June, 1789, declared themselves the National Assembly 
 of France, bemg, as they maintained, the representatives of the great body of tho 
 French people. Its ablest members were the Count de Mirabeau and the abW 
 Si eyes. The astionomct Badly, the representative of Paris, and a great advocate 
 
EIGHTEI.NTH CENTUR V. 313 
 
 cf popular trcedom, was chosen president of the Assembly, which was then 'omed 
 bv a part of the representation of the clergy and the nobles. 
 
 A Royal Session Held — Bold Address of Count Mirabeau.— The National 
 A-'.senibly iiTn\etliately voted tiiat the jiresent levy of taxes should only continue s<' 
 long as th' Estates remained undissolved, and that they should cease entirely i'A 
 case 0/ a dissolution of the Estates. This boldness of the Assembly alarmed Uie 
 coin', under whose influence the king appointed a " Royal Session," and closed 
 tkt rudl of the Assembly for several days. When, on the 20th of June (1789), th< 
 oaeinbt.Ts of llie Assembly found the halls closed, they proceeded to the Tennis Court 
 T'here they made a solemn vow not to separate until they had framed a constitution 
 for the French nation. When, on the 22d of June, the court caused the Tennis 
 Court to be closed, the members of the Assembly proceeded to the church of St. 
 Louis, where they held their meeting. The Royal Session took place on the 23d 
 of June. The king granted some concessions, but threatened vengeance upon the 
 National Assembly, unless the Three Estates met in three distinct bodies. After the 
 close of the Royal Session, the king dissolved the Assembly. The nobility and 
 the clergy obeyed, and immediately withdrew from the hall, but the deputies of 
 the people kept their seats; and when the king's officer ordered them to withdraw, 
 Count de Mirabeau arose from his seat and exclaimed, " You, sir, have no seat, 
 nor a right to open your lips here. You are not to remind us of the king's desire. 
 Go, tell your master that we sit here by the power of the people of France, and 
 tliat we will only be driven away at the point of the bayonet." The weak monarch 
 did not attempt to force the refractory deputies to obey, but a few days afterward he 
 tidvised the nobles and the clergy to unite with the representatives of the people. 
 
 Excited State of the Parisian Populace.— While the National Assembly 
 was engaged in forming a constitution for the French kingdom, the populace of 
 Paris were kept in a constant state of excitement, by licentious journals, pamphlets, 
 and inflammatory speeches. Unprincipled demagogues delivered violent discourses 
 upon the rights of man, in the streets, in taverns, and particularly in the Palais 
 Royal, the residence of the dissolute Duke of Orleans, the cousin of the king. 
 The people were encouraged to obtain their rights by violence. Among the popu- 
 lar orators, was the young enthusiast for popular liberty, Camille Desmoulins. The 
 military in the capital joined the popular side, and became members of the National 
 Guard, a new body of militia, which the people had just organized. The city 
 government of Paris was placed in the hands of the democrats, with Bailly as Mayor. 
 
 Revolutionary Condition of the Capital. — The French court, becoming 
 alarmed at the excited state of the populace of Paris, retired to Versailles, with a 
 small guard composed of German and Swiss troops. The leaders of the people, 
 thinking that the king intended some act of violence, took advantage of the removal 
 of the court to inflame the people of Paris still more. The irresolute king now 
 listened tc the indiscreet counsels of his courtiers and nobles; and a large army 
 snder Ma shal Broglio was collected between Versailles and the cap'tal. This,. 
 ns;ead of intimidating the people, only inflamed their rage. At the same *jme, 
 Ne-ckei, whom the people greatly esteemed, was dismissed from the ministry 7 )r.f 
 (K-( nl;;ce of Paris, thinking thia preliminary to an intended act of violence on the 
 Dart of the court, rose as one man. Crowds of the lowest rabble, wearing the newly- 
 adopled national cockade, or tricolor, consisting of red, white, and blue ribbon; 
 
314 MODERN HIS TOR V. 
 
 marched through the streets of the city; the alarum bell was sounded, the gun 
 smiths' shops were broken open and plundered, and the whole city was filled will- 
 riot and confusion. 
 
 Storming and Capture of the Bastile. — On the 14th of July, 17S9, the 
 populace of Paris, after obtaining 30,000 stand of arms and some cannon from the 
 Hospital of Invalides, proceeded against the Bastile, an old castle used as a Stats 
 xison. The governor, Delaunay, was induced by the garrison in the Bastile to 
 runove the cannon from the fortress, as they only served to increase the fury of Ihe. 
 (^pulace. Soon afterwards, a deputation from the commune of Paris, headed li^ 
 the popular leaders, appeared, and demanded an entrance into the Bastile, for the 
 puipL'Se of conferring with the governor. The drawbridge was lowered for the 
 ad nission of the deputation; but when the mob rushed forward and demanded 
 .arms, the drawbridge was closed, and the garrison, by order of the governor, fiied 
 upon the multitude. The cries of the wounded and the dying filled the people 
 with ungovernable rage, and they commenced storming the Bastile with fury. The 
 garrison still resisted the advance of their assailants, who, being soon joined by a 
 body of grenadiers, redoubled the vigor of the assault. The governor and the 
 garrison, in despair, at length surrendered, and the populace were completely trium- 
 phant. The governor was torn in pieces by the enraged mob, while on his way to 
 the Hotel de Ville, and his head was carried on a pole through the streets of Paris. 
 
 Necker Recalled — Lafayette, Commander of the National Guard. — 
 The storming and capture of the Bastile by the mob of Paris struck the king and the 
 aristocrats with consternation. I'he banished Necker was immediately recalled to 
 the ministry, and was received wiih enthusiastic joy by the people. The kinpr 
 returned to Paris, gave orders for the lemoval of the troops, appeared before the 
 people with the tri-colored cockade in nis hat, and declared himself united with the 
 nation. Lafayette, who had fought so nobly for freedom in America, was appointed 
 commander of the National Guard. 
 
 The Emigrants. — Many thousands of the French nobles, with the Count of 
 Artois and the Prince of Conde at their head, now left the country. For this reason 
 they were called "Emigrants." They gathered at Tuiin, and afterwards at Cob- 
 lentz, and tried evei"y effort to induce foreign governments to make war on Frailce. 
 and to suppress the Revolution by the power of their armies. 
 
 Insubordination Throughout France. — The conseanence« of the capture of 
 the Bastile were that the authority of the government and the laws throughout FranctJ 
 was at an end. All power was in the hands of the people. The peasants of the 
 provinces no longer paid their dues to the clergy and the nobility, but they took a 
 terrible levenge for the tyranny which they and their ancestors liad suffered for 
 centuries. Many of the nobles were murdered or driven away, and their chateaux 
 were reduced to ashes. 
 
 Abolition of Aristocratic Privileges and Titles. — When informed of the pr<* 
 teedings in .he provinces, the National Assembly declared that the aristocracy shonlJ 
 ibow by their conduct that they were ready to ameliorate the condition of the masse? of 
 di^ French people, and, with this view, renounce all their exclusive privilegesand titles 
 In one sudden burst of enthusiasm, the nobles and the clergy consented to surrendei 
 all their privileges and titles. Each of the privileged classes seemed to vie with th« 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 315 
 
 n I" er in showing iheir willingness to make the greatest sacrifices fur the welfare of the 
 poople. In one excited session, in the evening of the 4th of August, 17S9, the 
 National Assembly abolished all tithes, labor dues, all exclusive privileges, and all 
 titles and distinctions of rank in France; and declared the equality of all classes 
 before the law and with respect to taxation. All remnants of the Feudal System 
 of the Middle Ages were now swept away; religimis freedom was established; the 
 church M as deprived of her possessions; and the whole political condition of France 
 was changed. 
 
 Imprudent Conduct of the King and the Queen. — The hesitation oi tf.< 
 ktiig in promulgating the resolutions of the Assembly as laws, produced suspicions 
 among the French people of his sincerity. These suspicions gained ground when 
 the Flemish regiment was summoned to Versailles, and the king, the queen, and 
 the dauphin, were imprudent enough to appear at a dinner given by the soldiers 
 of the body-guard to the ofilicers of the regiment, when several royalist toasts were 
 drunk, and many of the officers, mostly young nobles, under the influence of wine, 
 made imprudent speeches against the privileges and liberties which had just been 
 acquired by the people. An exaggerated account of these proceedings was spread 
 through Paris, and the people feared that an attempt would be made to restore the 
 former despotism. 
 
 The King Brought to Paris by a Mob. — In the meantime, the popular leaders 
 were instigating the populace of Paris to demand that the king and the National 
 A.ssembly should remove from Versailles to the capital; and, on the 5th of October 
 '1789), a multitude of the lowest refuse of the people, mostly women, armed with 
 pikes, clubs, and forks, left Paris and proceeded to Versailles. The mob demanded 
 that the king and the Assembly should return to Paris, and cried for a relief from 
 the scarcity of bread. Durng the night, the mob stormed the palace, and massacred 
 many of the king's guards who defended it; and had it not been for the timely 
 arrival of Lafayette with the National Guard, the whole royal family would have 
 been sacrificed to the fury of the mob. On the following day, the king and his 
 family were obliged to accompany the mob to Paris, and to take up their abode in 
 the Tuileries, which henceforth remained their palace and prison. Soon after- 
 wards the National Assembly transferred its sittings from Versailles to the capital. 
 
 The Jacobin Club. — The lower classes in France gradually acquired mcjre 
 power, and were kept in a constant state of excitement against the royal family 
 and the aristocrats, by inflammatory speeches from unprincipled demagogues. The 
 infamous Marat, in his licentious journal, "The Friend of the People," encouraged 
 the people to acts of violence. The Revolution was also aided by the demor;-atic 
 clubs, which increased every day in extent and influence. Of these, the Jacoliii. 
 iv lb, which had branches in every town in France, was the most celebrated and 
 the most powerful. The members of this club were satisfied with nothing less than 
 a re^riublic, with liberty and equality for all classes. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1790 AND 1791. 
 
 The Ceremony of Federation. — On the 14th of July, 1790, the anniversary 
 of the capture of the Bastile, a grand " Ceremony of Federation" was held in the 
 Champ de Mars. This was a very imposing spectacle. Lafayette, in the name of 
 
3 1 6 MODERN HIS TOR Y. 
 
 the National Guard, the president of the National Assembly, and the king, made 
 solemn vows to support the coming constitution. The utmost enthusiasm and good 
 feeling was manifested on this occasion by all classes and all parties. 
 
 Death of Count Mirabeau. — Necker had already retired to Switzerland, and 
 Count Mirabeau, who had at first been one of the most enthusiastic supporters of 
 the Revolution, now joined the cause of the king, believing a constitutional monar- 
 ';hy, and not a republic, to be the best form of government for France. He now 
 :xertel himself to his utmost to prevent any further encroachments on the auth<-ri!) 
 »f the king; but, unfortunately for Louis XVI., Mirabeau died in April, I79i,ar.d 
 the timid and irresolute king was no longer able to resist the increasing influence 
 of the Jacobins. A short time before his death, Mirabeau said, " Before long, 
 neither the king nor the National Assembly will rule, but a vile faction will over- 
 spread the land with its horrors." 
 
 Flight of the Royal Family to Varennes. — The refusal of the king to 
 declare the Emigrants traitors led to a prevalent belief among the French people 
 that he was not a true supporter of the constitution then framing. This belief ex- 
 cited the fears of the king, and he resolved upon leaving the country. Leaving 
 behind him a letter, in which he protested against all the measures which had been 
 forced from him since October, 1789, he fled with his family from Paris in a large 
 carriage, in June, 1 791; but did not succeed in escaping from the kingdom. Im- 
 prudently putting his head out of the window of the carriage, Louis was recognized 
 by Drouet, the postmaster of St. Menehould, who immediately rode off to Varennes, 
 to give the alarm. When the royal family arrived at Varennes, the road was 
 barricaded, and the carriage was soon surrounded by a tumultuous mob. At this 
 moment, a party of soldiers rode up to the carriage, and asked Louis if they should 
 force a passage for him through the crowd. The king asked if it would cost many 
 lives, and being told that it probably would, forbade the attempt, and surrendered 
 himself a prisoner. The royal family were conducted in triumph to Paris by an 
 insolent mob, and again compelled to resume their residence in the palace of the 
 Tuileries. 
 
 Adoption of the Constitution — End of the National Assembly. — The 
 National Assembly, in obedience to the demands of the French people, temporarily 
 suspended the royal authority, until the king should swear to the new constitution, 
 which was now almost completed. On the 14th of September, 1789, Louis XVI. 
 took an oath to defend the constitution against internal and external enemies, and 
 to enforce its provisions to the best of his ability. After the adoption of the con- 
 stitution, tlie National Assembly passed an ordinance declaring that none of its 
 inembeis should be elected to the next assembly, and then declared itself dissolved 
 
 PERIOD OF THE FRENCH LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY. 
 (OCTOBER 1, 1791-SEPTEMBER 20, 1792.) 
 
 EVENTS OF 1792. 
 
 Jacobins and Girondists. — The elections for representatives in the new assem- 
 ) ly. called "The Legislative Assembly," had resulted in the complete success of 
 the Repu))licans. The Royalists had exercised no influence in the elections what- 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 317 
 
 tver. The Assembly was thoroughly democratic. The Republicans in the Assem- 
 bly were, however, divided into two great parties. The party of the most radical 
 democratic views was known as " The Jacobin" or " Mountain" party. Its mem- 
 bers belonged to the Jacobin club. It was called the Mountain party, because its 
 menibers in the Assembly occupied seats above the others. This party was ij-^ideil 
 by such bloodthirsty Revolutionists as Robespierre, Marat, Danton, Camille Des- 
 m ;ulins, St. Just, Couthon, Duke Philip of Orleans, and others. The more moderate 
 party were called "Girondists," because their chief leaders were from the department 
 of the Gironde. The principal leaders of the Girondist party were Brissot, Roland, 
 £arbarou.x, Condorcet, Vergniaud, Dumourier, and others. This party was opposed 
 Co unnecessary bloodshed, and in favor of a federal republic, like the United States. 
 
 Doings of the French Legislative Assembly. — The first measures of the 
 French Legislative Assembly were directed against the priests who refused to take 
 the Revolutionary oath, and against the Emigrants, who had gathered at Coblentz, 
 and were making every effort to stir up foreign powers to make war on France, 
 for the purpose of effecting the restoration of the former despotism. The Assem- 
 bly took measures for the arrest of the unsworn priests, and declared the Emigrants 
 to be traitors and conspirators, and endeavored to effect the confiscation of their 
 estates. These measures were vetoed by the king, and their execution was thus 
 prevented. This excited the indignation of the French people, who believed that 
 the royal family were plotting with the Emigrants, and with the Emperor of Austria, 
 the brother of the queen, for the overthrow of the new system, and for the reestab- 
 lishment of the old state of things in France. 
 
 War Declared against Austria and Prussia. — It was now evident that a 
 foreign war must soon break out. The Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia, 
 who were at this time making extensive preparations for war, demanded that the 
 French should reform their government upon the plan proposed by their king in 
 June, 1789. The French people were exasperated at this dictation from foreign 
 monarchs, nnd resolved never to submit to such insolence. The King of France 
 yielded very reluctantly his assent to a declaration of war against Austria and 
 Prussia by the Assembly, on the 20th of April, 1792. 
 
 Insurrection of June. — To secure the Legislative Assembly against any attack, 
 it was determined to call 20,000 of the federates, from the Northern provinces of 
 France, to Paris, with the professed object of celebrating the capture of the Bastile, 
 and to entrust the defense of Paris to them. But Louis XVI. refused his approval 
 of this measure, whereupon the Girondist ministers, with Roland at their head, 
 resigned their offices, and Madame Roland severely censured the king in a letter. 
 These proceedings excited the frenzy of the French people, and enabled the Revo- 
 lutionists to bring about an insurrection. On the 20th of June, the anniversary d( 
 the Tennis Court, a furious mob, armed with pikes, and headed by the brewer 
 SanleiTC and the butcher Legendre, entered the Tuileries, for the purpose of com- 
 ]--elling the king to approve of the decrees against the unsworn priests and for call- 
 ing out the National Guard. For several hours, the king bore the insults of :l;e 
 mob, who even went so far as to take off his diadem, and put the red cap of the 
 Jacobins on his head, until the appearance of the National Guard under Pet ion 
 freed him from danger. 
 
Jl; 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Austrian and Prussian Invasion of France. — Near the close of July, 1792, 
 5 combined Austrian and Prussian army, of 140,000 men, under the command ot 
 Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, the celebrated commander of the English and Hano- 
 verian forces in the Seven Years' War, passed the Eastern frontier of France, and 
 man hed into Lorraine. Before advancing into France, the Duke of Brunswick, 
 ac the proposal of one of the Emigrants, had issued a proclamation, which only 
 'ended to inflame the mad fury of the Revolutionists in Paris. He threatened 
 r.iiitaiy execution against all who supported the Revolution, and demanded tie 
 lestoralion of the old despotism in France, under the penalty of giving up f ai a 
 to plunder, and punishing as rebels all who resisted. The insolent tone of thjs 
 proclamation excited, in the French people, the fiercest rage against the Emigrants 
 and their foreign allies. 
 
 The 10th of August. — In consequence of the proclamation of the Duke of 
 Brunswick, the French Legislative Assembly declared the country in danger; and 
 such Jacobin leaders as Robespierre, Marat, Danton, and Camille Desmoulins 
 harangued the Parisian populace, and inflamed their rage. These demagogues, 
 called to Paris from Marseilles, Brest, and other French maritime towns, the very 
 dregs of society, and resolved upon a general insurrection in the capital. After mid- 
 night, on the loth of August (1792), a frantic mob, led by Danton, appeared before the 
 Tuileries, which was defended by 900 Swiss guards and the Parisian National Guard. 
 The mob pointed their cannon toward the palace, and the National Guard, unwill- 
 ing to fire upon the multitude, dispersed. The mob, gradually becoming bolder, 
 finally demanded the dethronement of the king. Hereupon the king and his family 
 fled to the hall of the Assembly, where they remained for thirty-six hours. No 
 sooner had the king left the Tuileries, than the mob pressed forward and endeav- 
 ored to force an entrance into the palace, whereupon the Swiss guards fired upon 
 the multitude, who were driven back with a loss of 200 men. The indignant 
 Assembly, hearing the fire of musketry, required the king to order his guards 
 to cease firing upon the people. No sooner was the order carried into execution, 
 than the infuriated mob stormed the palace, massacred, without mercy, all whom 
 they found in it, and destroyed the furniture. About 5,000 persons, 700 of whom 
 were Swiss guards, fell victims to the rage of the mob. 
 
 Fall of the Monarchy in France. — The bloody event of the loth of August 
 was the death-blow to the monarchy in France. In the meantime, the Legislative 
 Assemljly, at the proposal of Vergniaud, the president of that body, suspended the 
 royal authority, and issued a call for the assembling of a National Convention on 
 the 22d of September, 1792. Soon afterward, the king and his family were im- 
 prisoned in the Temple, a gloomy old l)uilding, which had once belonged to the 
 Knights-Templars. After the king had been deprived of his authority, the AssciX' 
 bly appointed a new ministry, with the Girondist Roland at its head. The frightfui 
 DaiUon held the office of Minister of Justice. The ministry and the Common 
 G^uncil of Paris, yi'hich appointed pikemen to the police of the capital, Tcnag?*' 
 i^veryth'ng their own way. 
 
 Flight and Imprisonment of Lafayette. — Lafayette, who had hastened if: 
 P.iris after the insurrection of June, for the purpose of saving the king, if possible, 
 was now ordered to appear before the Assembly, to answer for his conduct. K 'gl'tiy 
 Relieving that the Jacobins wer<. resolved upon his destruction, Lafayette fled intc 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 31c, 
 
 the Austrian Netherlands, with the intention of escaping to America; bnt he was 
 seized by the Austrians, who kept him a prisoner for five years, in the dungeons of 
 Magdeburg and Olmutz. Talleyrand fled to England, and thence to America, 
 wliere he remained until t!;e sanguinary period of the Revolution was over, when 
 he returned to his native country. 
 
 Massacre of the Prisons. — By the advice of Danton, a court was instituted 
 f. r lh<^ trial of all such persons as were suspected of being hostile to the Revolu- 
 ion; . nd it was resolved to crush all opposition from within and from without, by 
 ilriki)g terror into the Royalists at home. The prisons were speedily filled witl. 
 aristocrats and suspected persons. When intelligence reached Paris of the ca])lure 
 of Verdun by the Prussians, the Parisian populace were aroused to the greatest 
 fuiy ; and at three o'clock in the morning of the 2d of Septemljcr (1792), a band of 
 300 hired assassins broke open the prisons in Paris, and commenced a frightful 
 massacre of the unfortunate persons just arrested. During the massacres, the assas- 
 sins established courts for the trial of their victims, and in a few minutes the fate 
 of each was decided. The massacres continued until the 7th of September. 
 During these six bloody days in Paris, more than 5,000 persons perished in the 
 different prisons. Among the murdered was the Princess de Lamballe, the friend 
 of the queen, Marie Antoinette. A band of pikemen held the head of the mur- 
 dered princess upon a pole before the window of the queen, who fell into fright- 
 ful convulsions at the horrid spectacle. The monarchy in France was now com- 
 pletely overthrown, and the French Legislative Assembly ended its sittings on the 
 20th of September, 1792. 
 
 THE FRENCH REPUBLIC UNDER THE NATIONAL 
 CONVENTION (SEPT. 22, 1792-OCT. 26, 1795). 
 
 EVENTS OF 1792. 
 
 First Measures of the French National Convention. — The French Legis 
 lative Assembly was succeeded by a National Convention, which assembled at 
 Paris on the 22d of September, 1792. On the very first day of its meeting, the 
 Convention decreed that royalty was abolished in France, and a Republic was pro- 
 claimed. The Convention also enacted that time, instead of being reckoned from 
 the birth of the Saviour, should thereafter be reckoned from the 22d of September, 
 1792, the birthday of the French Republic, 
 
 Retreat of the Austrians and the Prussians — Battle of Jemappes. — On 
 the 20th of Septeml)er, 1792, the Prussian army, which had advanced into Cham 
 pagne, was defeated by the French, under Dumourier and Kellerman, in the battle 
 of Valmy. After this battle, the Prussians agreed to evacuate the French terri- 
 lones, and retreated to the Rhine. The French army under Custine then advanced 
 ij to the Prussian territories, and captured the strong fortress of Mayence, and uthei 
 ('laces along the Rhine. The Austrians, who had invaded France from the \\\i 
 tiian Netherlands, were also obliged to retreat, and were pursued by the Fiendu 
 army under Dumourier, across the frontier, into the Austrian Netherlands. On Jie 
 6th of November, 1792, Dumourier won a decisive victory over the Austrians, in the 
 battle of Jemappes, which gave the French possession of the Austrian Netherlands. 
 
3io MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1798. 
 
 Trial and Execution of Louis XVI. — One great objecl of the Jacobins was to 
 lake away the hfe of the king, or, as he was now called, "Louis Capet." They 
 accused him of treason and conspiracy against the French Republic. On the 26th 
 of December, 1793, Louis XVL was brought to the bar of the National Convention 
 as a criminal. The Girondists vainly endeavored to have the question of the king's 
 guilt referred to the French people. The Jacobins prevented it, and caused a reso- 
 lution to be passed declaring that a bare majority, and not a two-thirds vote, should 
 lie necessary for the condemnation of the king. After a trial of twenty days, dur- 
 ing which the king's advocates, Deseze, Tronchet, and the venerable Malesherl)es, 
 displayed the greatest zeal and ability, the unfortunate monarch was declared guilty, 
 and condemned to death by a majority of five votes, out of seven hundred and 
 twenty-one. Among those who voted for the death of the king was his own cousin, 
 Philip Egalite, Duke of Orleans. On the 21st of January, 1793, the king was 
 taken to the place of execution, in the Square of the Revolution. He ascended the 
 scaffold with a firm step. Looking around at the vast multitude, he exclaimed, 
 "Frenchmen, I die innocent! I forgive my enemies." He was prevented from 
 saying more by the noise of the drums which the brewer Santerre ordered to be 
 beaten for the purpose of drowning his voice. The abbe Edgeworth pronounced 
 aloud, "Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven." Three executioners then seized hold 
 of the king and tied his hands. Down came the axe of the guillotine, and the head 
 that had worn a crown was severed from the body. A few of the multitude cried, 
 "Viva la Nation!" "Vive la Republique!" but the greater part of them wept 
 at the sad spectacle. The body, without being laid in a coffin, was thrown into 
 a plain grave, and quicklime was spread over it to hasten the decomposition. Thus 
 perished one of the most virtuous and pious monarchs that ever sat on a throne, — 
 a monarch who feared God and dearly loved his people. The memory of his in- 
 famous murderers will ever be held in detestation. 
 
 War Declared Against England, Spain, and Holland. — The execution of 
 Louis XVL, and a proclamation by the French National Convention, offering the 
 aid of France to all nations that would overthrow their monarchical govemments, 
 and establish republican forms in their stead, led to a coalition of almost all the 
 crowned heads of Europe against the French Republic. The Convention, how- 
 ever, did not wait to be attacked, but, resolving to anticipate the designs of the 
 enemies of the Republic by taking the first step, declared war against the Kings 
 of England and Spain, and the Stadtholder of Holland. Portugal and the Italian 
 and German states joined the coalition against the French Republic. England, 
 imder the direction of her illustrious Prime-Minister, the younger William Pitt, 
 furnished her continental allies with large subsidies, and prosecuted the war with 
 vigor. 
 
 Battle of Neerwinden — Defection of Dumourier.^The Austrians again 
 appeared in force in the Austrian Netherlands; and on the iSth of March, 1793, 
 the Austrian army, under the Prince of Coburg, defeated the French army undc" 
 Dumourier, in the battle of Neerwinden. Dumourier ascribed the cause of thiis 
 defeat to the Jacobins, whom he accused of having corrupted the army. Disgustet' 
 with the condition of affairs. Dumourier determined to attempt the reestablishment 
 
LOUIS XVI 
 
ROBESPIERRE, 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 321 
 
 of monarchy in France. When the National Convention heard of .his, that body 
 determined upon the destruction of the general; but Dumourier seized the com- 
 missioners of the Convention, who had been sent to bring him to Paris, and sent 
 them, as prisoners, to the Austrians; and then went over to the enemy with a part 
 of his army. , 
 
 Fall of the Girondists. — For the purpose of putting a stop to the violence of 
 the mob in Paris, and destroying the domination of the capital, the Girondist.-; en 
 deavored to erect France into a federal republic. The Jacobins, seeing tl a thi; 
 scheme, carried into effect, woidd weaken their power, violently opposed the pro- 
 ject, and determined to prevent it by the destruction of the Girondist leaders. The 
 mob were excited to acts of violence against the Girondists; and finally, the great 
 insurrection of the 31st of Maly and the 1st of June brol<e out, which had been 
 brought about by Hebert and the leading Jacobin leaders of the National Con- 
 vention, Marat, Danton, and Robespierre, and which deprived the Convention of 
 its freedom. Headed by the infamous Henriot, the mob surrounded the Tuileries, 
 where the Convention was sitting, and demanded, with menaces, the exclusion of 
 the Girondists, and the abolition of the Commission of Twelve, the appointment of 
 which the Girondists had obtained for the detection and punishment of those who 
 had excited the riots. The Girondists made vain efforts to prevent the Convention 
 from complying with the demands of the raging mob. When the majority of the 
 Convention, seeing themselves deprived of the freedom of their deliberations, 
 attempted to retire from the hall, they were forced back by the mob, and compelled 
 to exclude the Girondist deputies. Thirty-four of the Girondists were seized and 
 imprisoned; twenty of them escaped to Normandy and Brittany, where they 
 aroused their supporters to insiUTection against the Convention; and the others 
 were afterwards guillotined. Shortly afterwards, the bloodthirsty Marat was assas- 
 sinated by the heroine, Charlotte Corday. Petion, Roland, and other Girondists 
 committed suicide; Madame Roland was brought to the guillotine; and seventy- 
 three partisans of the Girondists were expelled from the Convention, which was 
 then entirely controlled by the sanguinary Jacobins, with Robesiperre and Danton 
 at their head, and nothing was for a time able to withstand their violence. 
 
 The Reign of Terror. — France now felt the terrible consequences of the victory 
 of the Jacobins. The Committee of Public Safety in Paris, a formidable Revolu- 
 tionary Tribunal, under the control of such bloodhounds as Robespierre, Couthon, 
 St. Just, Collot d' Herbois, Barrere, and others, fdled the country with blood and 
 tenor. The law against the suspected was rigorously executed. In consequence 
 of this, and other laws, the prisons were filled with those who were obnoxious to 
 the populace and the Convention, and large parties were daily sent to the guillotini-. 
 Wealthy and refined persons were in constant danger of falling victims to the san 
 guinary fury and madness of the day. The populace of the capital were formed 
 into democratic clubs, which had the power of disposing of the lives of all who 
 were opposed to the Revolution. Agriculture was neglected, public credit w;« 
 destroyed and famine was added to the horrors from which the unhappy countiy 
 was suffering. Among the distinguished persons who died on the guillotine -H'eie 
 Bailly, Barnave, the queen Marie Antoinette, the infamous Duke of Orleans, and 
 Generals Houchard, Biron, Custine, and Beauharnais. The tombs of the French 
 kings were destroyed, in order that the people might forget every vestige of royalty 
 
322 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 The ch irches were plundered, the Sabbath was abandoned, and finally, on the lOth 
 of Nos'cmber, 1793, the Convention decreed the abolition of the Christian religion 
 in France, and sulMtituted the worship of " Reason" in its stead. The ralendar, 
 and the namesof the months, had already been changed, and the year madi to com 
 mence on the 22d of September, the birth-day of the French Republic. The rule 
 of the populace ol Paris, and the bloody monsters of the Convention, is knowr ?s 
 " rh"? Keigr of Terror." During its continuance more than one million of PrenK,n 
 4*tr. periihed. 
 
 Itisurrection of La Vendee. — While the most shockmg excesses were p'^rpc 
 tiiited by the French Republicans, and while the armies of almost all of the othei 
 European nations were on the French frontiers, France was distracted by a bloody 
 civil war. The seat of this war was the beautiful district of La Vended, in the 
 West of France. The inhabitants of La Vendee, who had always been firmly 
 attached to their king and their landlords, had opposed the Revolution from the 
 beginning. Enraged at the murder of their king and their unsworn priests, the 
 peasants of La Vendee flew to arms against the National Convention, and under 
 5uch brave leaders as Charette, Stofflet, Cathelineau, Laroche-Jaquelein, and others, 
 they gained several brilliant victories, and drove the Republican armies out of their 
 territory. The Convention again sent 200,000 troops, under such bloodthirsty com- 
 manders as Ronsin, Rossignol, and Westermann, against the rebellious Vendeans. 
 The Republican troops, to their eternal shame, ravaged the fertile district of La 
 Vendee with fire and sword. The Vendeans fought with the most determined valor 
 to the last, and only submitted when they were perfectly exhausted, and after more 
 than 200,000 of their number had perished in the insurrection. 
 
 Insurrection in Brittany and Normandy. — The troops of the National Con- 
 vention were also engaged in suppressing other frightful insurrections against the 
 Reign of Terror. The inhabitants of Brittany and Normandy had arisen in support 
 of the unfortunate Girondist leaders, but were soon subdued by the Republicans led 
 by Freron, who filled that beautiful region with slaughter and desolation. 
 
 Insurrection of Lyons, Marseilles, and Toulon. — When the wealthy peo 
 pie of Lyons, indignant at the conduct of the Jacobin Chalier, who endeavored to 
 excite the people of that city to acts of violence, caused that demagogue to be exe- 
 cuted, the enraged Convention surrounded Lyons wrth a powerful army. The 
 inhabitants of the city rose in insurrection, and obstinately defended their city to 
 the last extremity. After a vigorous siege of four months, Lyons surrendered to 
 the Republican troops, who destroyed a great part of the city, and put to death and 
 exiled thousands of the rebellious inhabitants. A formidable insurrection which 
 had broken out in Marseilles was also suppressed, and many of the inhabitants ot 
 tliat city fled to Toulon, which had also revolted. The inhabitants of Toulon 
 surrendered their city to an English squadron which they had called upon for assist- 
 ance. The city was soon besieged by the Republican army, whose artilleiy wa.s 
 directed by the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, who now for the first tinK 
 exhibited his great military talents. After a spirited resistance, the English set fiixr 
 to their ships, leaving the unfortunate inhabitants to the mercy of their Rcpulilican 
 enemies, who out many of them to death. 
 
 Success of the French Arms in the Campaign of 1793. — While the Frencli 
 National Convention was engaged in suppressing numerous insurrections agains' 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 323 
 
 its authority, dur'ng the year 1793, the armies of almost all the nations of tCurope 
 vere in the field against the French Republic. The English, Dutch, Hanoverians, 
 flessians, Prussians, and Austrians, were on the northern and eastern frontiers of 
 France. The Sardinians were on the south-east, and the Spaniards had passed the 
 J yrenees on the south-west. In the beginning of the year, the allies gained some 
 successes. Th a English, under the Duke of York, captured Valenciennes, but were 
 aftoi"wards compelled by the French, under General Houchard, to raise the sieg? o* 
 Dunkirk. The Convention caused its generals who were so unfortunate as to h< 
 lefeated to suffer death in consequence. Thus General Custine, who w as com 
 pellcd to retreat from the Rhine by the Austrians and the Prussiajis, and General 
 Beauh.arnais, who failed to prevent the recapture of Mayence by the Prussians, 
 were guillotined. Houchard met with the same fate, for retreating before the supe- 
 rior force of the enemy. Before the end of the year, the French arms were every- 
 where triumphant. The invasion on all sides was defeated, and the numerous 
 insun-ections against the Convention were suppressed. The army of the French 
 Republic amounted to more than a million of men, and was inspired with the 
 gi-eatest enthusiasm. 
 
 KVENTS OF 1794. 
 
 Fall of the Dantonists. — The atrocities which disgraced the French Republic 
 at length excited the disgust of Danton and Camille Desmoulins, who endeavored 
 to arrest the Reign of Terror, and to stop the unnecessary shedding of blood. 
 Robespierre and his partisans in the National Convention accordingly determined 
 upon the destruction of the whole party of Danton, whom they accused of corrup- 
 tion. On the nth of March, 1794, eleven of the ultra-revolutionists, among whom 
 were Hebert, Chaumette, Clootz, Momoro, and Ronsin, were led to the guillotine. 
 Danton and Camille Desmoulins, and their partisans in the Convention, were next 
 brought before the Committee of Public Safety. Supported by a frantic mob, Dan- 
 ton and Desmoulins loudly demanded that their accusers should appear before 
 them. For three days, the violent and tumultuous conduct of the mob, and the 
 vehemence of Danton before the Revolutionary Tribunal, prevented the condemna- 
 tion of the accused. At length, the Convention gave the Tribunal the power of 
 condemning, without any further hearing, Danton, Desmoulins, and their partisans, 
 who were trying to overthrow the Revolutionary power by means of an insurrection. 
 Danton, Desmoulins, and their partisans were then brought to the guillotine and 
 beheaded, in the presence of a vast multitude. On being led to death, Danton 
 exclaimed, "Robespierre follows me!" 
 
 Fall of Robespierre. — After the fall of the Dantonists, the Committee of Pul)lit 
 Safety, entirely controlled by Robespierre and his two chief confederates, St. Ju?< 
 and Couthon, ruled with almost unrestrained power, and the revolutionary excesses 
 everywhere increased. In Paris, the aged marshal De Noailles, the venerable 
 Malesherbes and his family, and the Madame Elizabeth, sister to Louis XVL, werj 
 guillotined. At length, several of the Jacobins, headed by Tallien, Legendie. 
 Freron, Fotiche, Barrere, Collot d' Herbois, Billaud-Varennes, and others, whom 
 Robespierre had resolved to send to the guillotine, determined to destroy that 
 vile monster, and bring the Reign of Terror to a close. On the 9th of Thcrmidor 
 (27th of July), when Robespierre entered the hall of the Convention, with the 
 
324 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 purpose 'f procuring the condemnation of Tallien and his partisans, a stormy scene 
 ensued, Robespierre was not allowed to speak. His words were drowned in the 
 cries of "Down with the tyrant!" and the noise of the president's bell. The en- 
 raged monster, after vainly attempting to maice himself heard, cried out, " President 
 of assassins, will you not allow me to speak!" Tallien, denouncing him Li i 
 usurper and a tyrant, threatened to thrust a poniard into his heart. Robespicn^e 
 ran from one seat to another, raving and foaming like a maniac. After a slonrij 
 tse, Robespierre and his partisans, St. Just, Couthon, and Ilenriot, were denounce! 
 wid sent as prisoners to the Luxembourg palace. They were released or. the waj 
 by a furious mob, and Henriot caused the National Guard to surround the Convcn 
 tion, while Robespierre, St. Just, and Couthon sought refuge in the Hotel de Ville, 
 ^Vhen the Corvention outlawed Henriot, his troops dispersed, and an armed force 
 under Barras lallied to the support of the Convention. Henriot fled to the Hotel 
 de Ville, where the accused were again secured. Robespierre attempted to commit 
 suicide by shooting himself, but only succeeded in breaking his lower jaw, and was 
 taken, horribly disfigured, before the Revolutionary Tribunal, amid the curses of 
 the populace; and on the following day, loth Thermidor, he was guillotined, amid 
 the shouts and exultation of the people. St. Just, Couthon, and Henriot shared his 
 fate. On the two following days, seventy-two Jacobins were guillotined, and with 
 their death ended the Reign of Terror. 
 
 Campaign of 1794 — Evacuation of Belgium. — The campaign of 1794, like 
 that of 1793, was glorious for the French. On the 26th of June, the French army 
 under Jourdain, in the Austrian Netherlands, gained the battle of Fleurus over the 
 Austrians. The result of this battle was that the French obtained possession of the 
 /Austrian Netherlands, from which their enemies were compelled to retire. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1795. 
 
 End of Jacobin Rule. — The assemblies of the people were limited by degrees, 
 and the populace were deprived of their weapons. At the call of Freron, who 
 now became an aristocrat, many of the young men, called from their clothing "the 
 gilded youth," attacked the Jacobins in the streets, and at their clubs. The cloister 
 of the Jacobins was at length taken, and its doors were closed, after a desperate 
 struggle. The National Convention now recalled the expelled members, and such 
 of the Girondists as still remained, rescinded the decrees against the nobles and the 
 priests, restored pulilic worship, and sentenced the remaining Terrorists in the Con- 
 vention, Lebon, Carrier, Fouquier Tinville, and others, to be executed. When four 
 members of the Committee of Public Safety, Barrere, Vadier, Collot d'Herbois, 
 and Billaud-Varennes, were condemned, the Jacobins resolved upon a struggle for 
 their existence, and drove the people of Paris to an insurrection against the f 'on 
 vention. The mob surrounded the Convention, and made menacing demands foi 
 the release of the accused, and a return to the Reign of Terror. Thf mob wai 
 dispersed by General Pichegru, who had hastened to the aid of the distressed f on- 
 mention. 
 
 Insurrection of the ist Prairial. — The formidable insurrection of the ist 
 Prairial (May 20th), when the mob, numbering 30,000 persons, held the Convention 
 sunoimded for about eighteen hours, was also suppressed, with the aid of some 
 battdions of the Sections, and some of the leaders of the tumult, and six Jacobins, 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 325 
 
 were condemned to death; and the power of the Jacobins and the Paiisian popu- 
 lace terminated. Many of the Jacobins destroyed themselves; others were guillo- 
 tined, imprisoned, or banished. 
 
 New Constitution. — A new constiiution was now formed, by which the execu- 
 tive power of the French Republic was vested in a Directory of five persons. 
 'J h: legislative power was divided between a Council of Five Hundred, which 
 lac the power of originating laws, and a Council of Ancients, which had the 
 lowcr of approving or rejecting these laws. The members of the Councils wert 
 ippoint ;d by delegates, elected for that purpose, by the French people. The meni' 
 Ders of the Directory were to be named by the Council of Five Hundred, and con- 
 firmed by the Council of Ancients. 
 
 Insurrection of the Sections. — The Republicans of the National Convention, 
 fearing that the reaction in favor of monarchical principles would deprive them of 
 political power, decreed that two-thirds of the members of the Legislative Coun- 
 cils should be chosen from the members of the Convention. The Royalists, after 
 vainly objecting to the decree of the Convention, which limited the freedom of 
 election, brought about "The Insurrection of the Sections," on the nth Vende- 
 miaire. (3d of October.) The distressed Convention assembled for its defense a 
 force of 5,000 troops, under General Barras, who intrusted the arrangements for the 
 suppression of the insurrection to his second in command, the young Corsican, 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself as an artillery commander at 
 the siege of Toulon. Bonaparte set about energetically in making preparations for 
 the overthrow of the revolt. The armed insurgents of the Sections, 40,000 in 
 number, surrounded the Convention and attacked Bonaparte, who replied by a 
 heavy discharge of cannon loaded with grape-shot. The insurgents were subdued 
 in a few hours, and quiet was again restored in Paris. The suppression of the in- 
 surrection took place on the 13th Vendemiaire; and resulted in giving the suprem- 
 acy to the Republicans of the Convention. Bonaparte, who had just married 
 Josephine, the widow of General Beauharnais, was rewarded, for his success against 
 the insurgents, with the command of the French army in Italy. The Convention 
 now closed its sessions, and the new government was organized. 
 
 Holland Erected into the Batavian Republic — Peace of Basle. — Early in 
 the year 1795, a French anny under General Pichegru subdued Holland, and com- 
 pelled the hereditary Stadlholder of that republic to flee to England. The con- 
 quered country was then erected into " The Batavian Republic," in alliance with 
 France. On the 5th of April, 1795, Prussia concluded the Peace of Basle with the 
 French Republic. The example of Prussia was followed by Spain and the German 
 Slates; and England and Austria were the only considerable powers that continued 
 the vs':*r against revolutionary France. 
 
 THE FRENCH REPUBLIC UNDER THE DIRECTORY 
 (OCTOBER 27, 1795-NOVEMBER 9, 1799.) 
 
 EVENTS OF 1796. 
 
 French Invasion of Germany — Moreau's Masterly Retreat. — Two 
 French armies, commanded respectively by Moreau and Jourdain, advanced into 
 
226 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Germany, in 1796. The Austrians, under the command of the Archduke Charles, 
 an able general, defeated Jourdain at Wurzburg, on the 3d of September; and 
 Moreau only saved his army from total ruin by a masterly retreat, through the Black 
 Forest, and across the Rhine. 
 
 Bonaparte in Italy — Battles of Montenotte and Milessimo. — While 
 Jourdain and Moreau were so unfortunate in Germany, the French army in Italy, 
 under Bonaparte, was winning imperishable renown. In April, 1796, Napole«.'*i 
 •legaR nis victorious career in Italy by defeating the Austrians under Beaulieu, in 
 •.Uf battles of Montenotte and Milessimo. The King of Sardinia, now gre^ y 
 aiarmed, agreed to a humiliating peace with the French, who obtained the cession 
 -A Savoy and Nice, and the right to march anriies, at any time, through the Sardinian 
 territories. 
 
 Terrible Passage of the Bridge of Lodi. — In May, Bonaparte crossed the 
 Po with his army, and advanced to attack the Austrians. The bridge of Lodi, 
 across the river Adda, was strongly guarded by an Austrian force, which opened a 
 tremendous discharge of grape-shot upon the French troops when they attempted 
 to cross. The advance was checked for a moment, when the French grenadiers 
 rushed forward with irresistible impetuosity, drove back the Austrians, and thus 
 forced a passage over the bridge. This victory, known as the battle of Lodi, oc- 
 curred on the loth of May, 1796, and it gave the French possession of Milan and 
 the Lombard towns. 
 
 Passage over the Bridge of Areola. — Beaulieu was superseded in the com- 
 mand of the Austrian army in Italy by Wurmser, who immediately threw himself 
 into Mantua. An army of 50,000 Hungarians under Alvinzi was sent to reinforce 
 Wurmser, and the French were in danger of being overwhelmed by the superior 
 numerical strength of the Austrians. In November, Bonaparte marched to attack 
 Alvinzi, at the village of Areola. The narrow causeways leading to the village were 
 closely guarded by the Austrians. The French column that attempted to cross the 
 bridge of Areola was driven back with terrific slaughter, whereupon Bonaparte, 
 seizing a standard, rushed on the bridge and urged on his grenadiers, but they were 
 repulsed; and Napoleon was in extreme danger of being made a prisoner, when 
 his grenadiers suddenly rushed forward with the cry of " Save the General!" and, 
 with resistless fury, forced a passage over the bridge. This first battle of Areola 
 occurred on the 15th of November, 1796. The following day, another battle was 
 fought at Areola, and on the 17th, Alvinzi was again defeated, and obliged to retreat 
 to Montebello. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1797. 
 
 The War in Italy — Battles of Rivoli and Lafavorita — Fall of Mantua. — 
 
 The Austrian army, under Alvinzi, in Italy, was defeated by Bonaparte, in the battle 
 3i Ritoli, on the 14th of January, 1797. In the following month, Alvinzi was 
 *gain defeated, at Lafavorita. These events compelled Wurmser to sui render 
 Mantua to Bonaparte, en the 19th of February (1797), after a siege of fc ar mt)nths, 
 Poj'je Pius VI., greatly frightened, concluded with the French the Peace o< Tolen 
 tino, in which he made great sacrifices. 
 
 Bonaparte's Invasion of Austria — Preliminary Peace of Leoben. — The 
 Archduke Charles was finally placed in command of the Austrian army in Italy, 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 22- 
 
 fiut he was also defeated, and finally compelled to retreat toward Vienna, and was 
 pursued into the hereditary Austrian States by Bonaparte. The Emperor of Aus- 
 tna became alarmed for the safety of his capital, and hastily concluded with the 
 victoriou-. French general the Preliminary Peace of Leoben, on the iSth of April 
 1797 
 
 Fall of the Venetian Republic. — After the treaty of Leoben, Bonaparte made 
 '\x. Venetians feel the effects of his vengeance, for turning their arms against the 
 Fierc.h. The Venetian Senate, after humbly imploring the clemency of tne con 
 qiering general, quietly submitted when the French entered Venice, and, aftei 
 htving lasted for more than a thousand years, the Venetian Republic ceased tc 
 exist as an independent power. 
 
 Definitive Peace of Campo Formio — The Cisalpine and Ligurian 
 Republics. — On the 17th of October, 1797, the Definitive Peace of Campo Formio 
 was concluded between France and Austria. By this peace, a great part of North- 
 ern Italy was formed into " The Cisalpine Republic," and virtually became a 
 dependency of France. Venice and Dalmatia were bestowed on the House of 
 Austria, in exchange for the Austrian Netherlands, which were ceded to France. 
 A short time afterward, Genoa was erected into "The Ligurian Republic," and was 
 virtually under the control of France. 
 
 The Eighteenth Fructidor. — France was at this time distracted by the con- 
 tests of parties. So great a reaction had taken place among the French people that 
 the advocates of monarchy secured the election of their candidates to the Legisla- 
 tive Councils by large majorities, in May, 1797. The Councils immediately de- 
 nounced the policy of the Directory, and manifested a disposition to overthrow the 
 republican constitution and reestablish monarchy. The Republicans in the Direc- 
 tory became alarmed for the security of their power, and applied for assistance to 
 Bonaparte, who accordingly sent 12,000 troops under Augereau to Paris. On the 
 18th Fructidor (4th of September), Augereau surrounded the Tuileries with his 
 troops, and gave orders for the arrest of the Royalist members of the Councils; 
 whereupon eleven members of the Council of Ancients, and forty-two of the Coun- 
 cil of Five Hundred, among whom was Pichegru, and two of the Directors, Carnot 
 and Berthelemy, were sentenced to banishment. The Royalist elections were then 
 annulled, the returned Emigrants were banished, and many newspapers were sup- 
 pressed. Thus the expressed will of the French people was set aside by military 
 usurpation. This is known as " The Revolution of the Eighteenth Fructidor." 
 
 EVENTS OF 1798. 
 
 Establishment of the Roman and Parthenopeian Republics. — Luring 
 the suppression of a Republican riot in Rome by the papal troops, the French gen- 
 eral I )uphot was killed. The French Government, seizing upon this as a pretext, 
 ?ent 3 force under General Berthier to Rome. The Pope was deprived of his tern 
 jioral power, and a Roman Republic was established, in February, 1798. Ferdi 
 nand., King of Naples, persuaded by his wife, Caroline, sent an army vndei tne 
 Ausliiau general Mack to Rome, and the French were expelled from that city; but 
 a few days afterward, led by General Championnet, they returned, and, after dnv- 
 ing the Neapolitan troops out of Rome, they marched into Naples. The frightened 
 
J28 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Ferdinand and his court fled to Sicily; and, in January, 1799, Naples was converted 
 into " The Parthenopcian Republic," after a three days' slaughter of the lazzaroni, 
 who had resisted the French. 
 
 Switzerland Converted into the Helvetic Republic. — The French inter- 
 fered in the dissensions in Switzerland, in 1798. The people of Vaud, who had 
 .aker up arms for the purpose of liberating themselves from the domination of the 
 ccrnese, called upon the French for assistance, whereupon General B^urc, wiib 
 French troops, marched into Berne. Canton after canton was forced lo y.eld tc 
 iiC French; and Switzerland, under the name of "The Helvetic Kepublic," wa* 
 tfirtually placed under the supremacy of France. 
 
 Threatened Invasion of England. — In the beginning of 1798, the Fumch 
 Itirectory threatened an invasion of England, the only country theri at war with 
 France. An army of 1 50,000 men, under the name of "The Army of England," 
 under the command of Bonaparte, the youthful conqueror of Italy, was assembled 
 along the French side of the English Channel. 
 
 Bonaparte's Expedition to Egypt. — The invasion of England was not at- 
 tempted, but an expedition was fitted out for the conquest of Egypt, a province of 
 the Ottoman Empire, notwithstanding a state of peace existed between France and 
 Turkey. The command of this expedition was given to Bonaparte, who intended 
 to strike at the British possessions in India, after effecting the conquest of Egypt. 
 Bonaparte, with the expedition, consisting of 40,000 land troops and 10,000 seamen, 
 sailed from Toulon on the 19th of May, 1798; and, after taking the island of Malta 
 by treachery from the Knights of St. John, the French landed before Alexandria, 
 on the 1st of July. That city was carried by storm and given up to plunder. 
 
 Battle of the Pyramids. — On the 6lh of July, Bonaparte left Alexandria, and 
 with 30,000 of his troops he advanced toward Cairo, greatly annoyed on the way 
 by the Mameluke horsemen. On the 21st (July, 1798), he arrived before the in- 
 trenched camp of 20,000 Mamelukes under Mourad Bey, near the famous Pyramids. 
 Eight thousand Mameluke horsemen advanced to attack the French troops, when 
 Bonaparte exclaimed, " Soldiers, from yonder Pyramids, forty centuries look down 
 upon you !" and the conflict commenced. The French, who were formed into 
 squares, easily repulsed the impetuous assaults of the Mamelukes, who rode up to 
 the bayonets of their enemies, and threw their pistols at the heads of the French 
 grenadiers. When the Mameluke cavali-y were driven back, the French took by 
 storm the camp of their enemy, with all their baggage and cannon ; and the battle 
 of the Pyramids ended in a complete victory for Bonaparte, who had lost less than 
 200 men in the engagement. Hundreds of the enemy perished in the Nile; Mourad 
 Hey, and a small remnant of his Mamelukes, fled into Upper Egypt ; Cairo surren- 
 dered ; and the conquest of Lower Egypt was accomplished. 
 
 Battle of the Nile. — In the meantime, a powerful English fleet, under Admiral 
 Nelson, had been cruising in the Mediterranean sea, in search of the French fleet. 
 3n the 1st of August (1798), Nelson discovered the French fleet, under Admiral 
 Hiueyes, anchored in the bay of Aboukir. At about sunset, Nelson attacked tne 
 I'rench ships. A fierce battle ensued, which continued until dawn the next morn- 
 ing. The thunders of the explosion of the French ship L'Orient, of 120 guns, which 
 occuiujd about midnight, shook every vessel in both fleets, and for a moment there 
 
EIGHTEENTH CENTUR Y. 
 
 329 
 
 was a pause in the deadly conflict. The French admiral perished with the explo- 
 sion. The battle of the Nile, as this engagement is called, was one of the most 
 teirific naval engagements on record, and it resulted in a complete victory for the 
 English. Only a few of the French vessels escaped, the rest all being destroyed 
 or taken by the English. By this disaster, Napoleon and his army were cut off 
 from all resources from France. A formidable insurrection in Cairo against the 
 French, on the 2isl of October, was suppressed, after 6,000 Mohammedans bad lost 
 ihtir lives. 
 
 Sscond Coalition against the French Republic. — The French R'-putjiic 
 by her victories over her enemies, had established six sister republics. These were 
 the Batavian, Helvetic, Cisalpine, Ligurian, Roman, and Parthenopeian Republics, 
 — all established with forms of government similar to that of France. The aggres- 
 sive conduct of the French in Switzerland, Rome, and Naples, induced Austria and 
 Russia to unite with England in a coalition against the French Republic. Turkey, 
 exasperated at the unprincipled occupation of Egypt, also declared war against 
 PVance. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1799. 
 
 Success of the Austrians in Germany. — The coalition commenced hostil- 
 ities against the French simultaneously, in the spring of 1799, in Italy, Switzerland, 
 Germany, and the Netherlands. In Germany, fortune was averse to the French. 
 On the 25th of March, the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, defeated the French 
 army at Stockach. On the 28th of April, the French ambassadors, after leaving 
 the congress of Rastadt, were attacked and murdered by Austrian hussars. The 
 PYench Directory took advantage of this barbarous deed to excite the French 
 people to vengeance, and a new French army of 200,000 men was raised. 
 
 Success of the Austrians and Russians in Italy. — In Italy also, the French 
 were unsuccessful. The Russians, under the veteran marshal Suwarrow, defeated 
 Moreau at Cassano, and Macdonald at Trebia, celebrated as the place of one of 
 Hannibal's victories. Finally Suwarrow, by the defeat and. death of Joubert in the 
 three days' bloody battle of Novi, effected the conquest of the Cisalpine Republic. 
 The disasters to the French in Northern Italy were followed by the overthrow of 
 the Parthenopeian and Roman Republics. After the French had evacuated Naples, 
 Cardinal Ruffo, at the head of the enraged lazzaroni, took the city by storm; and 
 King Ferdinand and his court returned from Sicily, and resumed their authority in 
 Naples. The Republicans of Naples suffered a frightful punishment. Hundreds 
 were massacred by the lazzaroni, and many were imprisoned. The Roman Republ.c 
 was also subverted, and Pope Pius VI. was restored to his former power. 
 
 The Russians in Switzerland — Battle of Zurich. — After completmg the 
 conquest i/f Italy, Suwarrow crossed the Alps, in the midst of almost insurmount- 
 able difficulties, into Switzerland, for the purpose of expelling the French from 
 diat oountiy; but, the Austrians failing to properly support their allies, the Russian"} 
 K'ore defeated by the French, under Massena, at Zurich, on the 26th of September 
 iJ;ei a bloody battle of two days. Zurich was taken by the French; and Suwar- 
 row, and the lemnant of the defeated Russian army, retired across the icy Grisons, 
 and returned to their own country, where the aged marshal soon afterward died. 
 
 Defeat of the English in Holland. — The attempt of the English to drive the 
 
S3° 
 
 MODERN HISTOR Y. 
 
 French from Hollaud, and restore to the Stadthokler his authority, resulted in a 
 disastrous failure. The incompetent English general, the Duke of York, liaving 
 been defeated by the French, under General Brune, at Berghen, concluded with 
 the French a disgraceful convention, by which he was allowed to retire with his 
 army, leaving the Russians alone to oppose the French. The selfish conduct ol 
 the Fnglish and the Austrians, so exasperated the Emperor Paul of Russia, that lie 
 withdrew from the coalition, made peace, with France, and became the bitter enetpj 
 '1 Creat Britain. 
 
 Bonaparte's Syrian Expedition. — Although cut off from his resoui>.c3 o-j 
 the loss of his fleet, Bonaparte still resolved to pursue his conquests in the E.ist. 
 Upper Egypt was conquered by a French division under General Desaix, who 
 marched beyond the ruins of Thebes. Leaving 1 6,000 men to hold that country 
 in subjugation, Bonaparte, with 14,000 men, in February, 1 799, proceeded to Syria^ 
 where the Turks were assembling a large army to oppose him. On the 6th of 
 March, Jaffa, the ancient Joppa, was taken by Napoleon, after a furious assault, and 
 4,000 of its defenders were put to death after they had surrendered. This cruel 
 act is an inerasable stain upon the character of the youthful conqueror of Italy and 
 EgA'pt. 
 
 Siege of Acre. — On the i6th of March (1799), Bonaparte appeared before 
 Acre, which was garrisoned by a strong Turkish force, under the Pacha of Syria, 
 who was aided in the defense of the city by an English squadron, under Sir Sydney 
 Smith. After a siege of two months, during which seventeen desperate attempts 
 to take the town by storm were defeated, Bonaparte abandoned the siege, and left 
 f.ie town in the possession of its defenders. 
 
 Battle of Mount Tabor. — In the meantime, while the siege of Acre was in 
 progress, the Turks were assembling immense hosts for the purpose of overwhelm- 
 ing the French. While General Kleber, with a small French force, was on his 
 march to attack the enemy's camp on the Jordan, he was met by 30,000 Turks at 
 Mount Tabor. Kleber, who had formed his little band into squares, successfully 
 held out against the overwhelming numljers of the enemy for six hours, and when 
 Bonaparte appeared with his troops for the relief of his subordinate, the Turks tied 
 in dismay, and dispersed, leaving their camp and all their baggage and stores in 
 the hands of the victorious French. Another Turkish force was defeated and dis- 
 persed at Nazareth, by a French force under Junot. 
 
 Napoleon's Return to Egypt — Battle of Aboukir. — Napoleon reached 
 Egyi)t, on his return from Syria, on the 1st of June, 1799. On the nth of July, a 
 Turkish army of 18,000 men, landed at Aboukir bay, whither it had been conveyed 
 by an English squadron, commanded by Sir Sydney Smith. Napoleon, on hearing 
 of this, left Cairo, and on the 25th of July, he attacked and completely destroyed 
 !he 1 urkish army, which had already established a strongly-fortified camp at Aboukir, 
 Tht greater portion of the Turkish troops were killed, wounded, droA'ned in tc 
 Day of Aboukir, or made prisoners. 
 
 Napoleon's Return to France. — Shortly after his brilliant victory at A.b( ukir, 
 Napoleon received intelligence, through some newspapers, of the disasters :o the 
 French arms in Italy, and he resolved upon immediately setting out on his return 
 CO France. Leaving his army in Egypt under the command of Kleber, he secretly 
 
 I 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 ZIT^ 
 
 embarked for France. After a long voyage, in which he was in constant danger 
 of being captured by British cruisers, Bonaparte arrived at Frejus, on the Suuthein 
 coast of France, on the 9th of October; and on the i8th, he reached Paris, where 
 he met with a most enthusiastic reception. 
 
 The Eighteenth Brumaire. — No sooner had Bonaparte arriveil in Paris, than 
 he entered into a scheme with Sieyes, one of the Directors, and others, for he 
 jverthrow of the Directory, which had fallen into contempt. He first secured bs 
 HX\'^>x\ of the officers and troops in Paris, and obtained from the Council of Ancientf 
 'iie command of the National Guard and all the troops in Paris, and a decree fos 
 the transfer of the sittings of the two Legislative Councils to St. Cloud. I'ic 
 Directors and the Council of Ancients were easily induced to resign their authority. 
 On the i8th Brumaire (9th of November), Napoleon entered the hall of the Coun- 
 cil of Five Hundred, and endeavored to secure the consent of the members of that 
 body to his plans, but finding himself threatened and reproached by the members, 
 who, seeing the grenadiers at the doors with fixed bayonets, cried, "Outlaw him! 
 ] )own with the Dictator!" he retired from the hall, where the greatest tumult was 
 raging. Napoleon and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, who was president of the 
 Council of Five Hundred, harangued the troops; and Joachim Murat, by order of 
 Napoleon, entered the hall with his grenadiers, and compelled the members to flee 
 out of the doors and windows. Thus the constitution was overthrown, and military 
 usurpation triumphant. This is known as "The Revolution of the i8th Brumaire." 
 Napoleon Bonaparte now took the government of France into his own hands. 
 
 I 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND WARS OF NAPOLEON 
 BONAPARTE (A. D. 1799-1815). 
 
 NAPOLEON FIRST CONSUL OF THE FRENCH RE- 
 PUBLIC (DEC. 13, 1799-DEC. 2, 1804), 
 
 EVENTS OF 1800. 
 
 The Consular Constitution. — We have seen that, by the overthrow of the 
 I'lrectcry, ou the iSth Brumaire, Napoleon Bonaparte took the government of 
 France into his own hands. On the 13th of December, 1799, a new constitution 
 was proclaimed for France, by which the executive power was vested in three con- 
 sals, who were to be elected for ten years. "The First Consul," as Napnleon waf 
 callea, possessed all the powers of a monarch. The other two consuls, I.ehrun nnc 
 Caml)acetes, were the advisers of the First Consul. Talleyrand was appointed 
 Minister- of the Interior, and Fouche Minister of Police. There was a Senate, 
 whose duty was to select persons for the Legislature. The legislative power was 
 
332 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 entrusted to a Tribunate of one hundred members, who were to discuss llie pro 
 
 posals of the Government, and the Legislative Bodies, which had the right only of 
 
 approving or rejecting these proposals. 
 
 Peace Propositions. — Bonaparte, after securing the chief authority in I ranee, 
 
 proj. 55<;d peace to England and Austria, the only nations then at war with France 
 
 Both powers refused to treat until the Bourbons should be restored to the throne of 
 Tiince, and the most energetic preparations were made on both sides for a v-^^or 
 
 iiis prosecution of the war. 
 Events in Germany and Italy. — A French army of 130,000 men, unna 
 
 Moreau, advanced into Germany, gained several victories, and compelled the A us 
 trians to a hasty retreat. Another French army in Italy, under Massena, was com- 
 pelled to surrender to the Austrians at Genoa. 
 
 Bonaparte's Passage Over the Great St, Bernard. — On hearing of the 
 surrender of Messena, Bonaparte started for Italy, at the head of 50,000 troops. 
 He crossed the Alps at the difficult pass of Great St. Bernard. Difficulties almost 
 insurmountable presented themselves. Precipices, ravines, and eternal snows, 
 seemed to forbid a passage; but the army followed a narrow path, known to no 
 living creature but the chamois and the hunter. The artillery was taken apart, and 
 the pieces were placed in the hollow trunks of trees, which were drawn across the 
 mountains by the soldiers. The troops were encouraged by the music of the bands, 
 and where the ascent was most difficult the drums beat a charge. The Austrians 
 were completely surprised when Napoleon's army suddenly appeared on the Italian 
 plains. 
 
 Battles of Montebello and Marengo. — On the 9th of June, 1800, a part of 
 the French army, under General Lannes, defeated, the Austrians at Montebello; 
 and on the 14th (June, 1800), Napoleon, at the head of 20,000 men, encountered 
 30,000 Austrians, under General Melas, at the village of Marengo. The French 
 were at first driven back, but the obstinate resistance of Desaix, who had just 
 arrived from Egypt, and the charge of the brave Kellerman, changed the result, 
 and the battle ended in the complete overthrow of the Austrian army. Among the 
 killed on the side of the French was the heroic General Desaix. The result of 
 the French victory was that hostilities were suspended. 
 
 Macdonald's Passage of the Splugen. — In November, 1800, Marshal 
 Macdonald, with 15,000 French troops, crossed the Alps into Italy, at the difficult 
 pass of the Splugen, thus increasing the French forces in Italy to 100,000 men. 
 
 Battle of Hohenlinden. — When the negotiations for peace between France 
 and England failed, the armistice between France and Austria terminated, and an 
 Austrian army of 80,000 men, under the Archduke John, which had advanced into 
 Bf-varia, was defeated by the French army under Moreau, in the celebratiid battle 
 of Hohenlinden, on the night of the 3d of December, 1800, and driven toward 
 V'enna. On the 25th, an armistice was concluded. 
 
 Attempted Assassination of Bonaparte. — Plots for the assassination of 
 Bona|iarte were undertaken, both by the Republicans and by the Royalists. Or tlie 
 25th of December, 1800, while he was crossing a narrow street in Paris, a cask, 
 tilled with powder, called "The Infernal Machine," exploded, and killed several 
 pereons, but the First Consul escaped unhurt. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 33^ 
 
 EVENTS OF 1801. 
 
 Peace of Luneville. — The battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden completely 
 bn)ke the power of Austria, so that nothing remained for the Emperor but to accept 
 such tenns as France chose to dictate; and on the 9th of February, 1801, a treaty 
 of peace, signed at Luneville, put an end to the war between France and A'.istria; 
 and England was the only country that remained at war with France. 
 
 Maritime League against England. — Through the influence of Napoleon, 
 [)enmark, Sweden, Russia, and Prussia, had been induced, late in the year iSoo, 
 to enter into a league against the maritime power of England. The Emperor Fa il 
 of Russia, the bitter enemy of England, was the head and soul of this league. PeuI 
 had already laid an embargo on British vessels in Russian ports, while the Danish 
 Government had ordered its vessels to resist " the right of search" claimed by the 
 English. 
 
 Battle of Copenhagen. — After unsuccessful attempts at negotiation with the 
 hostile powers which formed the league, the English Government sent a powerful 
 naval expedition, under Lord Nelson and Sir Hyde Parker, to the Baltic. On the 
 2d of April, 1801, the British fleet appeared before Copenhagen, when it was furi- 
 ously attacked by the Danish fleet. A bloody naval battle of four hours ensued, 
 resulting in the defeat of the Danes, with the loss of 6,000 men, while the English 
 lost only 1,200. In speaking of this battle. Nelson said, "I have been in one hun- 
 dred and one engagements, but the battle of Copenhagen was the most terrible of 
 them all." 
 
 Dissolution of the Maritime League. — Nelson was preparing to attack the 
 Russian fleet, when he received intelligence that the Emperor Paul had been assas- 
 sinated at St. Petersburg, on the night of the 24th of March, 1801, by a band of 
 Russian nobles, who had entered into a conspiracy for the purpose. Paul's son, 
 Alexander L, who was immediately proclaimed Emperor, declared himself the 
 friend of Great Britain, and abandoned the hostile league. Prussia, Denmark, and 
 Sweden, followed the example of Russia, and thus the league fell to pieces. 
 
 Threatened Invasion of England. — Bonaparte now threatened an invasion 
 of England from Boulogne. Large bodies of troops were moved to this point, with 
 the ostensible object of being transported to the English coast. The British Gov- 
 erimient made energetic preparations to resist the threatened invasion. Lord Nelson 
 was sent with a powerful tleet against Boulogne. Bonaparte, convinced of the 
 hopelessness of success, abandoned the enterprise. 
 
 Expulsion of the French from Egypt. — General Kleber, whom Napoleon 
 had left in command of the French army in Egj'pt, was assassinated by a fanatical 
 Mohammedan, and his army was defeated, on the 2ist of March, 1801, by the Eng- 
 lish force under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who lost his life in the moment of victory. 
 1 he French surrendered on condition of being allowed to return home, and liei* 
 nbole force was conveyed to France in English vessels. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1802. 
 
 Peace of Amiens. — As the French were now driven out of Egypt, and the 
 island of Malta had been recaptured by a British squadron, nothing remained to 
 contend for between England and France; and, to the great joy of both n.ations, a 
 
334 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 treaty of peace was signed at Amiens, on the 27th of March, 1802. By the terms 
 of this treaty, England was required to restore Malta to the Knights of St. John, 
 and the Cape of Good Hope to the Dutch. 
 
 Bonaparte's Reforms — The Concordat — The Legion of Honor, — AiJ 
 Europe now enjoyed a short interval of peace, and Napoleon directed hi? attention 
 to the establishment of order and the security of his authority in France. On the 
 iSth of September, 1801, he had made a treaty, called "The Concordat," with the 
 Pope, for the reestablishment of religion in France. He established a Polytechnic 
 School, for the education of young men in the sciences. He summoned the mos^ 
 eminent lawyers in France to arrange the Code Napoleon. The construction of 
 roads, bridges, and canals, was commenced, and the Emigrants were invited to 
 return to their native land. In 1802, Napoleon was elected First Consul of the 
 French Republic for life. A new order of nobility, founded on individual merit, 
 and known as "The Legion of Honor," was instituted. 
 
 Bonaparte's Conduct toward Holland and Switzerland. — The conduct 
 of Napoleon tov\'aril the weaker powers of Europe was extremely arbitrary ana 
 unjust. The Batavian and Helvetic Republics were entirely under his control. 
 He effected a political change in the Helvetic Republic, and when the Swiss peo- 
 ple opposed his usurpation, he sent Ney with an army of 20,000 men against them, 
 and all resistance was soon at an end. England vainly remonstrated against this 
 outrage. 
 
 Revolt of St. Domingo. — The island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, the largest 
 and most important of the French possessions in the West Indies, was in a state of 
 rebellion. The negroes, headed by Toussaint Louverture, had taken up arms 
 against their white masters, massacred many of them, and established the independ- 
 ence of the island. Bonaparte sent his brother-in-law, Leclerc, with an army of 
 35,000 men, to restore the French authority in the island. Toussaint Louverture 
 was treacherously seized, and carried a prisoner to France, where he died. The 
 insurrection was then quelled, but when the French attempted to reestablish slavery, 
 the negroes again rebelled, killed nearly all the French troops, and established 
 themselves as an independent nation, adopting a republican form of government. 
 France acknowledged the independence of St. Df)mingo in 1S25. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1803. 
 
 Renewal of the War between England and France. — The Peace of 
 Amiens proved to be nothing more than a mere suspension of arms. The arbitrary 
 conduct of Bonaparte toward Holland, Switzerland, and Italy, aroused the jealousy 
 of the English, who accordingly refused to give up Malta, Egypt, and the Cape of 
 Good Hope, as stipulated by the treaty of Amiens. The violent denunciations of 
 Bonaparte by the English press, and the insulting treatment of Lord Whitwortb 
 che British ambassador at Paris, widened the breach between England and France 
 {nMay, 1803, the English cabinet issued letters of marque, and decreed an emhargt 
 on all French vessels in British ports. Napoleon retaliated by ordering a'.l British 
 subjects then in France, between the ages of sixteen and sixty years, to be seized and 
 imprisoned. 
 
 Conquest of Hanover. — A French force under Mortier soon overran and 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 335 
 
 ^oiiqiiered Hanover, the hereditary possession of the King of Great Britain ; and, 
 in utter disregard of neutral rights, all Northern Germany was occupied by French 
 Iroops. A P'rei'ich army was also sent against the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 Threatened Invasion of England. — Napoleon was again making imr ense 
 preparations for an invasion of England. The French, Dutch, and Sjianish fleet* 
 Wujre to assist in the project; and large bodies of land troops were again aasembled 
 at Boiilos;ne, for the ostensible purpose of making a descent upon the English coasi 
 /fifter considerable boasting, the project entertained was abandoned. 
 
 KVENTS OF 1804. 
 
 Conspiracies against Bonaparte — Execution of the Duke d' Enghieii. 
 — In the early part of 1S04, a conspiracy against the authority of Bona})arte, ir» 
 which Generals Moreau and Pichegru, and George Cadoudal, a Vendean chief, 
 were implicated, was discovered. Moreau was allowed to retire into voiuntaiy 
 exile in America; Pichegru died a violent death in prison; and George Cadoudal 
 was guillotined. Napoleon, suspecting that the young Duke d' Enghien, a kinsman 
 of the late royal family of France, was engaged in a plot for his assassination, caused 
 the young prince, who was then living in the neutral territory of Baden, to be 
 arrested and brought to Vincennes. After a trial by a court-martial, in which all 
 the forms, of justice were disregarded, the Duke was sentenced to death in the night, 
 and immediately shot in the ditches of the castle-yard of Vincennes. This horrible 
 crime is the greatest blot upon the character of Bonaparte. 
 
 War between England and Spain. — The British Government, believing 
 that Spain had secretly united with France, in hostility to England, caused several 
 of the Spanish treasure ships, while on their home voyage from South America, to 
 be seized, in the fall of 1804, without a previous declaration of war. The Spanish 
 Government, upon hearing of this hasty and unjustifiable act, was so exasperated 
 that it immediately declared war against England, and entered into a close alliance 
 with France. (December, 1804.) 
 
 NAPOLEON, EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH. 
 (DECEMBER 2, 1804— APRIL 6, 1814.) 
 
 EVENTS OF 1804. 
 
 Napoleon, "Emperor of the French." — On the i8th of May, 1804, the 
 servile French Senate created Napoleon "Emperor of the French;" and on the 2d 
 of December of the same year, he was crowned in the Church of Notre Dame, in 
 Paris, by Pope Pius VII., who had been induced to come to the French capital foi 
 that purjjose. 
 
 EVENTS OF 180S. 
 
 Napoleon, King of Italy. — On the 26th of May, 1805, Napoleon was crc wneJ 
 King of Italy at Milan. The iron crown of Charlemagne was brought foiM'urd foi 
 the occasion; and Napoleon, placing it on his head, uttered the words, " God has 
 given it to me; beware of touching it." Eugene Beauharnais, Napoleon's step-son, 
 was appointed viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy. 
 
336 
 
 MODERN HISTOR Y. 
 
 New Coalition Against France. — The alann created by the usurpations of 
 Napoleon in Germany, Holland, Italy, and Switzerland, and the influence of Eng- 
 lish gold, induced Austria, Russia, and Sweden, to unite in a coalition with England 
 against France. 
 
 Capitulation of Ulm. — With the greatest promptitude, Napoleon assembled 
 as irry on the Rhine, marched eastward for the purpose of driving the Austr.'ans 
 out of Bavaria, which they had invaded in utter disregard of neutral rights. Oc 
 the 20th of October (1805), he compelled General Mack and 35,000 Austrian 
 lioops, who composed the garrison of Ulm, to lay down their arms. Mack was 
 afterwards court-martialed, and deprived of his command, by order of the Austrian 
 Government. 
 
 Battle of Trafalgar. — On the day after Mack's disgraceful capitulation at Ulm 
 (October 21, 1805), a bloody naval battle occurred off Cape Trafalgar, on the 
 South-western coast of Spain, in which the combined French and Spanish fleets, 
 under Villeneuve and Gravina, were annihilated by the English fleet, under Lord 
 Nelson and Admiral Collingwood. Most of the French and Spanish vessels were 
 captured by the English. The victory of the English was dearly purchased, as the 
 heroic Lord Nelson, their greatest naval commander, was slain in the engagement. 
 
 Battles of Dirnstein and Austerlitz. — Proceeding in his victorious career, 
 Napoleon defeated the Russians, under Kutusoff and Bagration, at Dirnstein, on the 
 nth of November, and on the 13th he entered Vienna. He then pursued the 
 Austrian forces into the province of Moravia; and on the 2d of December, he 
 defeated the combined Austrian and Russian armies, in the celebrated battle of 
 Austerlitz. This was the most brilliant of all Napoleon's victories. The Austrian 
 and Russian Emperors, who had witnessed the battle from a neighboring eminence, 
 fled in consternation when they saw that their armies were beaten. 
 
 Peace of Presburg. — Nothing now remained for the Emperor of Austria but 
 to accept such terms of peace as Napoleon chose to dictate ; and on the 26th of 
 December, 1805, the Peace of Presburg was signed, by which the war between 
 France and Austria was terminated. The Emperor of Russia immediately retired 
 with his army to his own dominions. Hanover was bestowed on the King of 
 Prussia, as a reward for his neutrality in the war. The failure of the coalition against 
 France j^roduced such efTect upon the mind of Mr. Pitt, the English Prime-Minister, 
 as to hurry him to an early grave. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1806. 
 
 Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples, and Louis, King of Holland. — In 
 February, 1806, Napoleon sent an army to take possession of Naples, because the 
 Neapolitan king, Ferdinand, and his queen, Caroline, had received a force of Eng- 
 lish and Russians in their capital. Ferdinand anrl his court fled to Sicily, z.wi 
 Napoleon conferred the crown of Naples on his brother, Josei)h Bonaparte. Louir 
 6oi\aparte, another of Napoleon's brothers, was made King of Holland. 
 
 The Confederation of the Rhine — End of the German Empire. — Napo 
 leon formed various territories in Germany into dukedoms, which he bestowed oi> 
 his leading marshals ; and fourteen princes in Southern and Western Germany 
 formed " The Confederation of the Rhine," and acknowledged Napoleon as their 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 3^7 
 
 head, with the title of "Protector." Francis II. now renounced the title of Emperor 
 of Germany, and assumed the title of Emperor of Austria. This was the end of the 
 Gemian Empire, which had existed for 1006 years. 
 
 War with Prussia. — Causes were now at work which soon ripened into a war 
 I elween France and Prussia. The Prussian king was exasperated at the viol; tion 
 of Prussian territory by the French during their war with Au'5tria, and was deeply 
 mortified when Napoleon prevented the forming of a North German Confederalitja 
 in opposition to the Confederation of the Rhine. When Napoleon, who v\as ;xf 'hii 
 time negotiating for peace with Great Britain, proposed to restore Hanover t :Li 
 King of that country, the indignation of the Prussian cabinet was aroused tosurha 
 degree that war with France was resolved upon immediately. (August, 1806 ) 
 
 Battles of Saalfeld, Jena, and Auerstadt. — The Prussians soon poured into 
 Saxony. Napoleon, with his usual promptitude, marched against the Prussians 
 with a gigantic force. The first engagement occurred at Saalfeld, where Prince 
 Louis of Prussia was defeated and killed, on the loth of Octolj>er (1806). On the 
 I4lh of the same month (October, 1S06), Napoleon, with 100,000 men, annihilated 
 100,000 Prussians in the great battle of Jena. On the same day, a French for:e, 
 under Marshal Davoust, wasted a Prussian force in the battle of Auerstadt. In 
 these two battles, the French lost 20,000 men, and the Prussians 40,000. The 
 gallant Duke of Brunswick, the Prussian commander, was mortally wounded at 
 Auerstadt. 
 
 Surrender of Prussian Fortresses. — The battles of Jena and Auerstadt 
 placed the Prussian monarchy prostrate before the power of Napoleon. On the 
 25th of October, 1806, Marshal Davoust, with a portion of the French army, entered 
 Berlin, the Prussian capital, in triumph. The Prussian fortresses quickly fell into 
 the hands of the French. The Prince of Hohenlohe, with 17,000 men, surre^dered 
 to the French at Pren/dow. King Frederic William III. fled to Konigsburg, whence 
 he vainly endeavored to obtain peace. 
 
 " The Continental System." — In November, 1806, Napoleon issued a series 
 of decrees at Berlin, declaring all the ports of the British Islands to be in a stati of 
 blockade, and excluding British manufactures from the ports of Continental EuT'jpe; 
 thus establishing what was known as " The Continental System." 
 
 Movements against the Russians — Battle of Pultusk. — The Kirg of 
 Prussia in his distress solicited the aid of the Emperor Alexander of Russia, who 
 sent a powerful army under Benningsen to unite with the Prussians. The :egion 
 of the Vistula and Oder was deluged with blood; and the Russians were driven 
 ir.co Poland by the French, who occupied Warsaw on the 30th of November; but 
 t^ie Russians had tlie advantage in the battle of Pultusk, on the 26th of December. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1807. 
 
 Battle of Eylau. — On the Sth of February, 1807, a sanguinary, but indeci.siAC 
 battle was fouglit at Eylau, in East Prussia, between 100,000 French troops under 
 Napoleon, and the same number of Russians under Benningsen. Each army lost 
 20,000 men, and both were so weakened that military operations were suspended 
 for several,months. 
 
 Fall of Dantzic. — On the 24th of May (1807), the strongly-fortified Prussian 
 22 
 
338 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 town of Dantzic, on the Baltic coast, was surrendered, with its garrison of 17,000 
 men under Kalkreuth, and 900 cannon, to the French under Marshal Lefebvre, after 
 a vigorous siege. 
 
 Battles of Hielsberg and Friedland. — At length the campaign betweon the 
 main armies ojienetl; and on the 5th of June, 30,000 French troops were disas- 
 '.ro'.iily repjlsed in an attack u[)on the strong Russian position at Hielsberg. On 
 '.ho 1 4.th of June, the anniversary of the battle of Marengo, the Russian army under 
 Benningsen was severely defeated by Napoleon, in the great battle of FriedLan! 
 ind compelled to retreat to the banks of the Niemen. 
 
 Peace of Tilsit.— Hostilities were now suspended, and the French ana Russian 
 Emperors met on a raft in the middle of the Niemen, where negotiations were 
 opened, which ended in the Peace of Tilsit, signed on the 7th of July, 1807. Prussia 
 was j^artitioned : the Eastern portion, which had once fonned a part of the kingdon. 
 of Poland, was erected into the Grand- Duchy of Warsaw, and bestowed on the 
 Elect(jr of Saxony, who was in alliance with Napoleon; out of the Western portion 
 was formed the Kingdom of Westphalia, which was conferred on Jerome Bonaparte, 
 Napoleon's brother. The King of Prussia was left in possession of scarcely half 
 his dominions, and even these would have been taken from him had it not been for 
 the generous intercession of the Emperor Alexander in his behalf. The Emperor 
 of Russia agreed to aitl Napoleon in his designs for the destruction of the com- 
 merce of Great Britain, by the exclusion of British manufactures from the Russian 
 dominions. 
 
 The Swedish War. — Although Russia and Prussia concluded peace with 
 France, the eccentric Gustavus IV., King of Sweden, obstinately continued the 
 war, and held fast to his alliance with Great Britain. Russia, which by the Peace 
 of Tilsit became the ally of France, now declared war against Sweden; and a 
 Russian army invaded the Swedish province of Finland, and captured the towns of 
 Helsingfors and Sweaborg, while the French captured Stralsund and the island 
 of Rugen. This war continued for several years. 
 
 England and Denmark — Bombardment of Copenhagen. — England, 
 alarmed at the united efforts of France and Russia against her commerce, and fear- 
 ing that Napoleon would compel Denmark to aid in shutting up the Baltic against 
 British vessels, sent a powerful fleet under Admiral Lord Gambler, conveying 20,000 
 land troops, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, to Copenhagen, for the purpose of obtain- 
 ing possession of the Danish fleet as a pledge until the close of the war. As the 
 Danish Government refused to surrender its fleet, a four days' ])ombardment of 
 Copenhagen by the British army and navy followed (September 2-5, 1S07), re- 
 ilucing a great part of the town to ashes, when the Danish fleet was surrendered. 
 This outrageous and unprovoked attack of a strong power upon a weaker one ex- 
 cited universal indignation throughout Europe. Denmark, greatly exasperated, 
 firmed an alliance with Russia and France, and declared war against Engl.-»nd and 
 w ;den . 
 
 Usurpation of the Throne of Portugal. — Napoleon was now deternined tc 
 Icprive England of her commerce with Portugal, and, for the accomplishment 
 of this object, he negotiated with the weak and disssolute court of Spain. The 
 ignorant and wicked Godoy, who was the Prime-Minister of Spain, and who had 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 33y 
 
 received the title of "Prince of Peace," was promised a principality in Portugal, as 
 liis reward for his aid in the unprincipled scheme of the French Emperor. When 
 Ihe Prince-Regent of Portugal refused to renounce his alliance with England and 
 cloF.e the Portuguese ports against British vessels. Napoleon published a decre<! 
 declaring that "the House of Braganza had ceased to reign;" and a French army 
 under Junot was sent to take possession of Portugal. The cowardly royal family 
 jf Portugal, instead of offering any resistance to the invaders of their duniinions, 
 *Je 1 in English vessels to Rio Janiero, the capital of the Portuguese colony of Brazil 
 /n S>juth America. On the 30th of November (1807), three days after the Por 
 tuguese court had left the shores of their European dominions, the French army 
 occupied Lisbon, the Portuguese capital, without resistance. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1808. 
 
 Dethronement of the King of Spain. — The wretched condition of Spain 
 under the weak monarch, Charles IV., and his wicked queen and her unprincipled 
 and ignorant favorite, Godoy, " The Prince of Peace," had made that kingdom con- 
 temptible in the eyes of all nations. Godoy, as well as the king and the queen, 
 was unpopular with the Spanish people, and when he proposed to remove the royal 
 family to South America, a violent msurrection broke out, which deprived Godoy 
 of his power, and compelled Charles IV. to abdicate his throne in favor of his son 
 Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias, who was immediately hailed as king by the Spanish 
 people. The weak Charles invoked the aid of the French Emperor in his behalf, 
 and declared that his abdication was an involuntary act. By a series of intrigues, 
 Napoleon induced Charles and Ferdinand to refer their disputes to his decision, 
 and enticed them along with Godoy and the queen to Bayonne. Napoleon having 
 the whole royal family of Spain in his power, kept them close prisoners, compelled 
 both Charles and Ferdinand to abdicate, and declared that the dynasty of the Bour- 
 bons should no longer reign in Spain. Napoleon named his brother, Joseph Bona- 
 parte, King of Spain, while Joachim Murat, his brother-in-law, received the crown 
 of the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 Beginning of the Peninsular ^A^a^. — The Spanish people arose almost unani- 
 I lously against the usurpation of Napoleon, and resolved that none but their lawful 
 sovereign should reign over them. A fierce insurrection against the French broke 
 out in Madrid, and 600 of Murat's troops were put to death. Murat succeeded in 
 quelling the insurrection, but disgraced his name by a bloody massacre of the insur- 
 gents. Provisional juntas were formed in many of the chief cities of the Spanish 
 kingdom, for the purpose of conducting affairs; armies were raised for the defense 
 of the country; anil a fierce guerrilla war was commenced against the French 
 invaders. 
 
 Spanish Successes — Dupont's Capitulation of Baylen. — The Spani-.l 
 patriots were at first victorious in their struggle against the usurpers of their goA-c- :i 
 men': A French fleet at Cadiz, blockaded by a Brtiish fleet, was compelled \' 
 surrender. Marshal Moncey, with 8,000 French troops, was repulsed in an assaul: 
 upon Valencia; Saragossa was bravely defended by a Spanish force under the ga;- 
 lant Palafox; and finally, on the 20th of July (1808), the French general Dupon' 
 and 20,000 men were compelled to lay down their arms at Baylen, to the Spaniards 
 under the brave Castanos; and Joseph Bonaparte, who had entered Madrid On that 
 
240 MODERN HISTOR V. 
 
 very day, was soon obliged to flee, and the French were driven across the Ebro, 
 into the North-eastern part of the Spanish peninsula. 
 
 Events in Portugal — Battle of Vimiera — Convention of Cintra. — The 
 P.)rt uguese people also rose in insurrection against the French invaders of their co'in- 
 tty and a I'rovisional Junta was established at Oporto. An English army, undei 
 Si Arthur Wellesley, which had been sent to assist the Portuguese, defeated the 
 French army under Junot at Vimiera, on the 2ist of August, 1808. On the f< Uow- 
 inj. day (August 22, 1808), the Convention of Cintra was concluded between ^"und 
 anc" the English general Dalrymple, by which the French agreed to evacuate Por- 
 tugal, on condition of being conveyed to France in English vessels. 
 
 Napoleon in Spain — Defeats of the Spaniards. — The many reverses of the 
 French arms in the Spanish peninsula induced Napoleon to cross the Pyrenees at 
 the head o( 180,000 men, in the early part of November, 1808, to recover what had 
 been lost. The Spanish patriots now suffered several disasters: at Reynosa, the 
 French under Marshal Victor defeated the Spaniards under Blake ; at Burgos, 
 Marshal Soult, with French troops, overthrew the Spanish Count de Belvedere ; and 
 at Tudela, Marshal Laimes, with another French force, beat the Spaniards under 
 Palafox and Castanos. On the 4th of December, Napoleon entered Madrid in 
 triumph. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1809. 
 
 Battle of Corunna. — A British army, under Sir John Moore, which was marck- 
 mg to the aid of the Spaniards, was compelled to make a hasty retreat to Corunna, 
 on the North-eastern coast of Spain, where, while preparing to embark, it was 
 attacked, on the i6th of January, 1809, by the French under Marshal Soult. The 
 French were repulsed and compelled to retreat; but the gallant Sir John Moore 
 fell mortally wounded by a cannon-ball from the enemy while animating his troops. 
 He soon expired, and was buried by torchlight, on the ramparts of Corunna. 
 
 Fall of Saragossa — Battle of Talavera. — On the 20th of February (1809), 
 the city of Saragossa, almost reduced to a heap of ruins, fell into the hands of the 
 French, and Palafox, the heroic commander of the Spanish force which had garri- 
 soned the city, was conveyed a prisoner to France. At length, the English army 
 under Sir Arthur Wellesley, after driving the French from Portugal, advanced into 
 Spain, and, on the 26th of July, gained a glorious victory over the French, in the 
 battle of Talavera. Seville was taken by the French, but Cadiz, the seat of the 
 Grand National Junta, was successfully defended against every attack. 
 
 War with Austria — Battles of Eckmuhl and Aspern. — The Emperor of 
 Austria, subsidized by British gold, and encouraged by the military ardor of his 
 subjects, began a war against France in the beginning of April, 1809. Large 
 bodits of Austrian troops, which were marched into Bavaria and Italy, threatened 
 to overwhelm the scattered detachments of Napoleon's army. Napoleon suddenly 
 app^'-ired in Bavaria, on the 17th of April, and assumed the command of the French 
 I Drees assembled there. On the 22d of April (1809), after four days of sanguinary 
 encounters at Abensberg and Eckmuhl, Napoleon totally annihilated the Austrian 
 army under the Archduke Charles. Napoleon entered Vienna on the 13th of May, 
 but he was repulsed in the battles of Aspern and Eslingen, on the 2 1st and 22d of 
 of May (1809.) During these two days the French lost 12,000 men in killed and 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^41 
 
 wounded. Among the mortally wounded on the side of the French was the brave 
 Marshal Lannes, who had both legs shot off. 
 
 Battle of Wagram — Peace of Vienna. — On the 5th of July (1809), Na])o- 
 ieon gained a victory in the battle of Wagram, not far from Vienna, which plared 
 the Austrian Empire at his mercy. The truce of Znaym soon followed; and or. 
 the 14th of October (1809), the Peace of Vienna was concluded, at the palace jf 
 & hoer.brunn, by which Austria was obliged to relinquish territory conta.ninp 
 j,C)00,ooo inhabitants. 
 
 Tyiolese Revolt. — While the war between the French and the Austrians, of 
 which we have just spoken, was in progress, the brave mhabitants of the mountain- 
 ous country called the Tyrol, rose in insurrection against the King of Bavaria, 
 under whose dominion their country had been placed by the Peace of Presburg, in 
 1805. The Tyrolese mountaineers, headed by Andreas Hofer, resisted the Bavar- 
 ians successfully; and it was only after two large French armies had been sent 
 against the insurgents that the revolt was suppressed, and the Tyrol again brought 
 under the authority of Bavaria. The gallant Hofer was afterwards shot in Mantua, 
 for attempting to excite a second revolt. 
 
 Napoleon's Quarrel with Pope Pius VII. — A quarrel now arose between 
 Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. When the Pope refused to lay an embargo on British 
 vessels in the ports of the States of the Church, and form an alliance with France, 
 Napoleon annexed a part of the papal territory to the French Empire. When, during 
 the last war between France and Austria, the Pope sided with the Austrians, Napo- 
 leon declared the Pope's temporal power at an end. The Holy Father, intensely 
 exasperated, fulminated an excommunication against the French Emperor, where- 
 upon he was seized and carried to France, where he remained a prisoner until the 
 beginning of 1814. 
 
 Revolution in Sweden. — In the North of Europe, the Swedish war still con- 
 tinued, and the forces of Denmark, France, and Russia, reduced the Swedish king- 
 dom to great distress. The Swedish people were anxious for peace, and as their 
 eccentric king, Gustavus IV., obstinately persisted in his determination to continue 
 the war, he was dethroned by the Swedish Diet, and his uncle, the Duke of Suder- 
 mania, was raised to the Swedish throne, with the title of Charles XIII. The 
 Peace of Frederickshamn was then concluded, by which Sweden ceded the province 
 of Finland to Russia. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1810. 
 
 Napoleon Marries Maria Louisa. — For reasons of state. Napoleon was now 
 to ally himself with one of the oldest and most illustrious of the royal families of 
 Europe. After having, on the 15th of December, 1809, obtained a divorce front 
 Josephini, lo whom he was tenderly attached, he married the Archduchess Marii 
 Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis of Austria, early in 1810. The nuptial? 
 vere celebrated,with great pomp, on the 22d of April, 1810. Napoleon's marriage 
 ivitl; MiU"ia Louisa seemed to strengthen his power, but it was really the cause of 
 hb fall, as the other powers of Europe feared that, secured by the Austrian alliance,'" 
 he would attempt to bring all Europe under his svi'ay. 
 
 Holland Annexed to the French Empire. — When Louis Bonaparte, King 
 of Holland, relaxed the severity of the blockade of the ports of his dominions, and 
 
342 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 permitted the importation of English goods, he was deprived of his crown by his 
 brother, the Empero'', and his kingdom, together with the greater part of Northern 
 Germany, was annexed to the French Empire. 
 
 Bernadotte Elected Crown Prince of Sweden. — The Prince of Augusten- 
 burg, the heir of Charles XIII. of Sweden, suddenly died, whereupon the Swedish 
 Diet chore Charles John Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals, CrovA'n Prince of 
 Sweden, and successor of Charles XIII. to the Swedish throne. Napnleon \ecy 
 '!:U)crinily yielded his consent to this choice. On the death of Charles XIII., in 
 :8i8 Bernadotte ascended the throne of Sweden, which he held until his death, \\. 
 the year 1844. 
 
 The War in the Spanish Peninsula — Retreat to Torres Vedras.— The 
 war was still raging in the Spanish peninsula, and Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had 
 just been created Lord Wellington, was in chief command of the English, Spanish, 
 and Portuguese armies. On the loth of July, 1810, the Spaniards were compelled 
 to surrender the strong fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo to the French army under Mar- 
 shal Massena; but the English under Wellington repulsed an attack by Massenaat 
 Busaco, on the 27th of September (1810). Wellington, acting on the defensive, 
 then retreated to the strong lines of Torres Vedras, which covered Lisbon. Mas- 
 sena, wasting some time in useless assaults upon these impregnable lines, was at 
 length obliged to retrace his steps. (November, 1810.) 
 
 EVENTS OF 1811. 
 
 The Peninsular War — Spanish Guerrilla Parties. — The Peninsular vVar 
 was continued with vigor on both sides throughout the year 1811, and the French 
 forces were greatly harassed by the Spanish guerrilla parties. On the loth of March 
 (1811), the strong Spanish fortress of Badajoz surrendered to the French u^uler 
 Marshal Soult; but on the l6th of May, Soult was defeated in the battle of Albuera, 
 by the allied English, Spanish, and Portuguese forces, under the command oi Mar- 
 shal Beresford. The future of Napoleon's great empire seemed to be secured by 
 the birth, in March, 181 1, of a son, who received the title of " King of Rorue." 
 
 EVE^fTS OF 1812. 
 
 The Peninsular ^A7a^ — Battle of Salamanca — W^ellington's Retreat. — 
 The events in the Spanish peninsula during the year 1812 were generally unfavor- 
 able to the French arms. The last important French victory in the penini^ula was 
 the capture of the city of Valencia by Marshal Suchet, on the 9th of Januaiy, 1S12. 
 The English army under Wellington captured Ciudad Rodrigo and BadajOZ, early 
 in the year. At length, on the 22d of June (181 2), was fought the important battle 
 of Salamanca, in which the English, commanded by Wellington, gained a brilliant 
 victory over the French army under Marshal Marmont ; and Joseph Bonaparte fled 
 from Madrid, which was thei. occupied by the British anny ; but when the trench 
 forces in the peninsuia were concentrated, Wellington again retreated to Portugal, 
 fthcie he remained until the following year. 
 
 Causes which Led to a War with Russia. — We have already seen that, ny 
 the Peice of Tilsit, in 1807, the French and Russian Emperors became iriends and 
 allies, and that they united in the maritime war against England. It soon became 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 343 
 
 evident chat this friendship could not be permanent, and the unconcern which 
 Alexander exhibited in the war against Austria, in 1S09, increased the growing 
 coldness between him and Napoleon. From the moment of Napoleon's alliance 
 with the House of Austria, Alexander perceived that it would be impossible lo 
 avo'd hostilities with Napoleon; and in 181 1, the diplomacy between the French 
 and Russian cabinets began to assume a most angry character. The measures of 
 N'aj'ileon foi destroying the trade of Great Britain, and the closing of the Russian 
 j'Orts igainst British vessels, had inflicted great injury upon Russian coinmeice, 
 ] he ^ompjaints of the Russian merchants induced Alexander to open the p. iris 0I 
 his (Umuiilons to British vessels upon certain conditions and a heavy tariff was 
 laid upon French goods. These proceedings provoked the anger of the French 
 Emperor. The aggrandizement of Napoleon in Central Europe, and the annexa- 
 tion of the possessions of the Duke of Oldenburg, a near relative of Alexander, to 
 the P'rench Empire, destroyed the last tie of friendship between the two Emperors, 
 and, in the spring of 1812, both began to prepare earnestly for war. 
 
 Preparations of Russia. — The Russian Emperor formed alliances with Eng- 
 land and Sweden, and, through the mediation of the British Government, he con 
 eluded the Peace of Bucharest with the Turks, with whom the Russians had been 
 at war almost constantly since the year 1806. The Russian forces, under Barclay 
 de Tolly, Prince Bagration, and other generals, which were assembled in Poland 
 and the Western Russian provinces, amounted to 300,000 men; but the mighty 
 army which Napoleon assembled for the subjugation of the Russian Empire was 
 almost twice as large. 
 
 Princely Assemblage at Dresden — Napoleon's " Grand Army." — On the 
 i6th of May, 1812, Napoleon held a meeting with the Emperor of Austria, the 
 Kings of Prussia, Naples, Westphalia, and Wurtemburg, and the Princes of the 
 Confederation of the Rhine, at Dresden. After this grand assemblage of princes 
 had lasted ten days, Napoleon went to assume the command of "The Grand Army," 
 which he had assembled in Poland for the invasion of Russia. Napoleon had 
 concluded a treaty with Austria, by which that power agreed to furnish him with 
 30,000 men, under the command of Prince Schwartzenberg, and Prussia, by a sim- 
 ilar treaty, agreed to furnish him with 20,000 men. "The Grand Army" now 
 numbered more than 500,000 men, and was composed of French, Austrians, Prus- 
 sians, Germans, Italians, and Poles. Of this immense host, 80,000 were cavaliy. 
 The whole number of horses belonging to the army amounted to almost 190,000. 
 
 Invasion pf Russia. — On the 22d of June, 1812, Napoleon issued a declara 
 Won of war against Russia; and on the 24th, he crossed the Niemen, and in\aded 
 '.he Russian dominions. The Russians, in accordance with the plan of their j'en- 
 I rals, avoided battles, retreated before the advancing French forces, and laid waste 
 Jie country through which they passed, so that the French army might find no sub- 
 sistence from it. Napoleon, with the main body of the Grand Army, pursued the 
 cetreating Russians, and reached Wilna on the 28th, where he remained until the 
 .niddlc of August, when he continued his advance toward Moscow, in pursuit ol 
 the retreating Russians. Already the effects of the destructive policy of the Rus 
 siars began to be felt in the French army, as 25,000 sick and dying men filled the 
 hospitals, and 10,000 dead horses strewed the road to Wilna, and 125 pieces ol 
 artillery had been abandoned. 
 
344 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Battle of Smolensko. — At Smolensko, on the 17th of August, 30,000 Russians 
 made a stand ajrainst the French. Three furious assaults upon this strongly-forti- 
 fied town were repulsed by the Russians; but during the night, the inhabitants set 
 fire to the town, which was soon reduced to ashes, and fled with the army. 
 
 Barclay de Tolly and Kutusoff. — The Russians continued to retreat toward 
 M>>scow, [■ arsued by the French. The mode of warfare pursued by the Russian 
 general, J3arclay de Tolly, was not approved by his soldiers, who were anxiou» loi 
 I ba'tle with the invaders of their country. For this reason, the Emjteror Alexairh: 
 "?;m )ved Barclay de Tolly, and appointed General Kutusoff, who had distingaisheo 
 himself in the war with Turkey which had just closed, to the chief command of the 
 Russian army. 
 
 Battle of Borodino. — On the 7th of September, Kutusoff risked a batlle with 
 Napoleon at Borodino, on the Moskwa, in the hope of saving Moscow. In the 
 morning when this sanguinary engagement began, each army numbered 130,000 
 men. The battle had commenced at six o'clock in the morning, and when night 
 put an end to its horrors, 90,000 men lay dead and wounded on the field. The 
 result of the battle was that the Russians were obliged to resume their retreat, and 
 the French were enabled to continue their advance in the direction of Moscow. 
 
 Napoleon's Entry into Moscow^. — At length, on the 14th of September 
 (181 2), the French army came in sight of the great city of Moscow, and beheld its 
 lofty steeples and copper domes glittering in the sun. When the city burst upon 
 his gaze. Napoleon exclaimed, " Behold ! yonder is the celebrated city of the Czars !" 
 The French troops rushed forward, and entered Moscow on the same day, but they 
 were astonished to find it deserted by its 300,000 inhabitants. Only a few of the 
 rabble remained in the city. Napoleon took up his residence in the Kremlin, or 
 ancient palace of the Czars. 
 
 Burning of Moscow. — Before Moscow had been abandoned by its inhabitants. 
 Count Rostopschin, the Russian governor, had taken measures to burn the city after 
 the French should enter. Accordingly, on the night of the i6th (September, 1812), 
 a vast fire was seen to emanate from the eastern part of the city. Fires soon broke 
 out in all quarters of the city ; and in a few hours the holy city of the Russians was 
 wrapt in flames. The city had been set on fire by the 20,000 convicts whom Ros- 
 topschin, before leaving the city, had liberated for the purpose. No means were at 
 hand for extinguishing the fire, as the fountains had been destroyed, the fire-engines 
 earned off, and the water-pipes cut, before the inhabitants had left the city. Fo) 
 four days, the fire continued to rage unabated, reducing the greater part of the city 
 to ashes. When the fire had reached the Kremlin, Napoleon abandoned that edifice, 
 and took up his abode in the imperial castle of Petrowski, three miles from the city. 
 He returned on the 19th, and took up his quarters in that part of the Kremlin which 
 f.ad escaped the ravages of the fire. 
 
 Napoleon's Evacuation of Moscow — Destruction of the Kremlin.— 
 
 The destruction of Moscow deprived the French army of winter-quarters ; the Rus- 
 sian armies, which were now vastly superior to the French, threatened to cut ofl 
 all communication with France; and the Russian Emperor rejec'ed all Napoleon's 
 proposals for peace. In this critical situation. Napoleon found himself obliged to 
 order a retreat to Poland; and on the 19th of October (181 2), Mosrow was evacu- 
 
NINE TE EN TH CENTUR Y. 
 
 345 
 
 <ttd bj' the Frencn army. Napoleon, however, left a division of 8,000 men under 
 Vlarslial Mortier to superintend the evacuation of the city. For several days, Mor- 
 tier and his brave little banii defended themselves in the Kremlin against their 
 Russian assailants, when, on the 22d, they abandoned the city to join Napoleon. 
 Before leaving Moscow, barrels ul gunpowder liad been placed under various parti 
 • of the Kremlin, which were lighted by means of a fuse. No sooner had the Ras- 
 $Laii3 entered the Kremlin, than that venerable edifice was blown into the air, and 
 ©itx'cs of timber, rocks, broken weapons, pieces of cannon, and mutilated liodie; 
 irere thrown in every direction. The thunders of the explosion avvnke N'apoleoi 
 and his troops, thirty miles distant. Mortier and his little band reached the main 
 army in safety. 
 
 Battle of Malo-Yaraslevetz. — On the 24th of October, a portion of the 
 French army, under Murat, after a succession of stubborn engagements, defeated 
 the Russians at Malo-Yaraslevetz, and remained masters of the town. This was a 
 useless victory for the French, w^ho soon found themselves obliged to retreat as 
 rapidly as possible, by the very route which their advance had exhausted. 
 
 Disastrous Retreat of the French Army. — The horrors of this retreat ot 
 the French army exceeded anything recorded in the annals of war. The Russians 
 sent out their Cossacks, under Platoff, who greatly annoyed the French rear, and 
 cut off French straggling parties, while the main divisions of the Russian army 
 pursued the retreating P'rench troops, and forced them to contest every inch of 
 ground. The French army was encumbered with its sick and dying. On the 6th 
 of November, an enemy far more terrible than the bullets of the Russians, 
 or the lances of the Cossacks, made its appearance. This enemy was a Russian 
 winter of unusual severity. The thermometer sank to eighteen degrees below 
 zero, and the cold wind howled furiously over the vast steppes. The French 
 army was becoming weaker and weaker by the casualities of battle, and by fatigue, 
 hunger, and cold. The roads were strewed with dead and dying men and horses. 
 The starving troops fell upon the dead and dying horses, and devoured their flesh 
 like famished dogs; and many who had remained with the dying embers of the 
 bivouac fire, fell asleep to wake no more. All discipline was gone, and all the heavy 
 'Artillery was abandoned to the pursuing Russians. 
 
 The Pursuing Russian Armies. — The main Russian army, under Kutusofl, 
 numbering 100,000 men, advanced by a route parallel to that of the French army, 
 while another army, under Wittgenstein, pressed upon the French rear, and Platoff 's 
 Cossacks harrassed the retreating troops, and cut off such as were so unfortunate as 
 to stray from their ranks. On the glh of November, Napoleon and his wearied 
 troops reached Smolensko, where they rested until the 15th, when the disastrous 
 retreat was renewed. The French rear-guard, under Marshal Ney, was alwiosl 
 totally destroyed. 
 
 Battles of Krasnoi — Ney's Passage of the Dnieper. — In the battles )1 
 Iviasncii, on *lie i6th, 17th, and i8th of November, the French los* 30,000 men 11 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners. Ney's fortunate, but dangerous passage of lh< 
 frozen Dnieper, was one of the most daring feats recorded in history. The troop 
 crossed the thin ice in safety, but the wagons containing the sick and wourde*! saiikj 
 amid the shrieks of the unfortunate sufferers. 
 
346 MODERN HISTOR Y. 
 
 The Terrible Passage of the Beresina. — The most horrible of \his series 
 of horrors was the passage of the Beresina. Wliile the French were pas^sing over 
 the bridges, the enemy under Wittgenstein and Platoff appeared, and opened a 
 heavy -Utack upon them. One of the bridges, unable to bear the weight of the 
 crowd upon it, broke, thus precipitating into the stream thousands, whose dy ng 
 slirieks were heard loud above the roar of the Russian cannon and the cheer.s of ihe 
 Cossacks. Many who attempted to cross over the other bridge were swept off y 
 he Russian artilieiy, or thrown over in the confusion by their comiades. 'A.t 
 "(lUjwing spring, when the ice melted, 36,000 dead bodies were found in the cnan 
 ntl of the Beresina. 
 
 Destruction of the Grand Army. — The mournful disaster just related com- 
 pleted the destruction of Napoleon's Grand Army. When the remnants of the 
 French army reached the Niemen, the rear guard, under Marshal Ney, was reduced 
 to thirty men. The veteran marshal, bearing a musket, and pointing it at the pur- 
 suing enemy, was the last of the Grand Army that left the Russian territory. Napo- 
 leon had already left the army on the 5th of December, and started in a sledge for 
 Paris, where he arrived on the i8th. In this disastrous campaign, the losses of 
 Napoleon were as follows: 125,000 men killed in battle; 132,000 died from cold, 
 hunger, and fatigue; and 193,000 made prisoners by the Russians. The total loss 
 was 450,000 men. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1818. 
 
 The Peninsular War — Battle of Vittoria — Expulsion of the French. — 
 
 Late in May, 1813, Lord Wellington reentered Spain, and, on the 21st of June, 
 he annihilated the French forces, under Marshal Jourdain and Joseph Bonaparte, in 
 the decisive battle of Vittoria. The result of this battle was that the French were 
 compelled to evacuate the entire Spanish peninsula, and to retire into their ovv'U 
 territories, before the close of the year. After reducing the strong fortresses of St. 
 Sebastian and Pampeluna, Wellington pursued the retreating French across the 
 Pyrenees, into their own territory; and on the loth of November (18 13), he de- 
 feated the French forces, commanded by Marshal Soult, on the Nivelle. 
 
 Moral Effect of the Russian Disaster. — The moral effect of the Russian 
 disaster was a far more serious misfortune to Napoleon than the loss of his great 
 army; as it destroyed the belief in his invincibility, and consequently encouraged 
 the subject nations to throw off the supremacy before which they had been com- 
 pelled to bow, and to assert their former dignity and independence. It proved to 
 be, as Talleyrand called it, "The beginning of the end." 
 
 War Spirit of Prussia — Alliance of Prussia, Russia, and Sweden. — 
 Prussia was the first of the powers which had suffered from the insolence of the 
 great conqueror, to take advantage of the great misfortune which had befallen him. 
 As eaily as December, 181 2, the Prussian general Yorck, who had commande-i 
 jnder the Frencn marshal Macdonald in the Russian campaign, had entered ir..o 
 in agreement witn the Russian marshal Diebitsch to cease from hostilit.es against 
 Russia. Although the conduct of Yorck was at first disapproved by the Prussian 
 Government, the patriotic war spirit of the Prussian people was every day becoming 
 more manifest. At length, on the 3d of February, 1813, Prussia concluded an 
 alliance with Russia and Sweden, and declared war against the French Emperor 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 347 
 
 The greatest entkusiasm pervaded all classes of the Prussian peojle on this action 
 of their government, and noble and peasant offered their services in the cause of 
 their country's liberation from foreign domination. 
 
 Invasion of Germ iny by Napoleon. — \\\ the meantime, Napoleon had raised 
 a new army of 350,000 men, and in the month of April, 1813, he marched this 
 immense force into Germany. P>ederic Augustus, King of Saxony, through fear 
 •A the French Emperor, held fast to his alliance with France, and Sa.xonv became 
 .he ibcatre of hostilities. 
 
 Battles of Lutzen and Bautzen. — On the 2d of May, 18 13, Napcieon gained 
 ii victoi7 over the allied Russian and Prussian armies at Lutzen, after a terrific con- 
 Diet, in which the Prussian general Scharnhorst, and the P>ench marshal Bessieres, 
 were slain. After a desperate engagement at Bautzen, on the 20lh (May, 1S13), 
 Napoleon was again victorious, but the brave French marshal Duroc was killed. 
 
 Congress at Prague — Austria Joins the Allies. — Through the mediation of 
 Austria, an armistice was soon agreed upon between the belligerent parlies, and a 
 Congress composed of ambassadors of the several powers was convened at Prague, 
 to consider terms of peace. As Napoleon absolutely refused to restore the inde- 
 pendence of Germany, the armistice terminated on the loth of August, when the 
 Emperor of Austria jomed the allies, and declared war against his son-in-law. 
 
 Battle of Dresden. — Hostilities were now resumed with vigor; and on the 
 26th and 27th of August, Napoleon defeated the combined Austrian, Russian, and 
 Prussian forces in the battle of Dresden. In this battle. General Moreau, who had 
 been called from America by the Emperor of Russia, was mortally wounded. 
 
 Battles of Katzbach, Culm, Gros-Beeren, and Dennewitz. — The advan 
 tages which Napoleon might have secured by his victory at Dresden were lost by 
 the defeats sustained by his generals at other points. On the 26th of August, the 
 Prussians under Blucher defeated Macdonald on the Katzbach, in Silesia. On the 
 30th of the same month, Vandamme, with 10,000 French troops, finding himself 
 surrounded by the allied Austrian, Russian and Prussian armies, was compelled to 
 surrender at Culm, in North-western Bohemia, after a bloody battle of two days. 
 On the 23d of August, a French division, under General Oudinot, was defeated at 
 Gros-Beeren, near Berlin, by the Prussians and Swedes under the command of the 
 Crown Prince of Sweden. On the 6th of September, Marshal Ney was badly beaten 
 at Dennewitz, not far from Wittenberg, by the Prussian and Swedish forces. 
 
 . Concentration of the Allied Armies. — Bavaria now concluded the Treaty ot 
 Ried with Austria, and the princes of the Confederation of the Rhine were begin- 
 ning to join the allies. In the beginning of October, the Russians under Barclay 
 de Tolly and Benningsen, the Prussians under Blucher, the Swedes under Berna 
 dot.te, and the Austrians under Prince Schwartzenberg, were concentrated in the 
 vicinity of Leipsic. The allied armies, thus united, numbered 300,000 men, and 
 were all placed under the command of the Austrian general, Prince Schwartzen 
 -lerg. To oppose this immense host. Napoleon had only 200,000 troops. 
 
 Battle of Leipsic. — On the i6th, 17th and iSthof October, 1813, was fougLf the 
 teirible battle of Leipsic, in which half a million of men were engaged in the w jik 
 of death. The carnage was frightful. The French troops resisted the assaults of 
 the enemy with great bravery, but the superiority of the allies in numerical st~ength 
 
348 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 prevailed, and Napoleon was in the end defeated with heavy loss. Napoleon was 
 obliged to order a retreat; and on the morning of the 19th, the French army aban- 
 doned Leipsii;, which was then taken possession of by the allies. The Saxon troops 
 now turned their artillery against the retreating French army, and joined the allies. 
 The order for the destruction of the Elster bridge, over the Elbe, at Leipsic, had 
 beeii executed so hastily that 30,000 French troops, unable to cross, were con^pel!ed 
 to SI rrender to the enemy. The brave Pole, Poniatowski, whc had fought bravely 
 >n the French army, was drowned while attempting to cross. 
 
 Hasty Retreat of the French to the Rhine. — The French now made a 
 nasty retreat toward the Rhine. The Austro-Bavarian army under General Wrede, 
 attempting to intercept the retreat of the French army, met with a defeat at Hanau; 
 but the retreat now became a rapid flight, and it was with great difficulty that 
 Napoleon was enabled to cross the Rhine with his shattered army. 
 
 Consequences of Napoleon's Defeat. — The consequences of the battle of 
 Leipsic, and the defeat of Napoleon, were the dissolution of the Confederation of 
 the Rhine, the restoration of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, and the Dukes of Bruns- 
 wick and Oldenburg to their governments, and the downfall of the Kingdom of 
 Westphalia, — events which followed in rapid succession. Baden and Wurtemburg 
 entered into treaties with Austria, and joined their forces to those of the allies. 
 Holland also revolted against the French Emperor, and reestablished its independ- 
 ence. The King of Denmark, who had firmly adhered to his alliance with Napo- 
 leon, was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden by the Peace of Kiel, early in 
 January, 1 814. 
 
 Misfortunes to the French in Italy. — Fortune v^ras also averse to the French 
 in Italy, where the viceroy, Eugene Beauharnais, was defeated by the Auslrians 
 under General Hiller. Murat, King of Naples, and brother-in-law to Napoleon, 
 entered into a secret alliance with Austria, early in 1814, for the expulsion of the 
 French from Italy. Early in 1814, Pope Pius VII. was restored to his authority in 
 Rome. 
 
 KVENTS OF 1814. 
 
 Invasion of France by the Allies. — As Napoleon refused to agree to a peace 
 by surrendering any of the countries which he had conquered, and had raised a new 
 army of 300,000 men, the allied monarchs determined upon his dethronement, and 
 with this view they ordered their armies to cross the Rhine. France was now to 
 be invaded on all sides, and the evils and humiliations which she had inflicted upon 
 other nations were to be retaliated upon herself. On the 1st of January, 1S14, 
 Biucher, with the Silesian army, consisting of Prussians and Russians, crossed the 
 Rhine, between Manheim and Coblentz; while Prince Schwartzenberg, with the 
 Allied Grand Army of 100,000 men, composed chiefly of Austrians, advanced inlc 
 Fiance through Switzerland. Another army, consisting of Prussians under Bulow, 
 and Russians under Winzengerode, invaded Finance by way of Holland, and soon 
 united with the Silesian army. Wellington, with the English army, after driving 
 the French from the Spanish peninsula, pursued them across the Pyrenees, int 3 tr.( i) 
 own territories, captured Bayonne, and a portion of his forces under Marshal Brres 
 ford took Bordeaux, where the Bourbons were proclaimed by the people. 
 
 Battles of Brienne and La Rothiere — Victories of Napoleon.—Bluchei 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 3^y 
 
 and Schwartzenberg united their armies in Champagne, and, after fighting with 
 Napoleon the indecisive battle of Brienne, on the 27th of January, 1814, gained a 
 i^ictory in the battle of La Rothiere, on the 1st of February. But the allied armies 
 again separated; and the French Emperor, whose great military talents again shone 
 foith in all their brilliancy, inflicted severe defeats upon Blucher at Champauberti 
 Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry, and Vauchamps. He then suddenly fell upon and 
 defeated Schwartzenberg at Montereau; and on the night of the 23d of Febiuary, 
 'A c PYench 'lombarded Troyes, and compelled the Allies to evacuate the town 
 N<ij)0 eon afterwards unsuccessfully attacked Soissons. Blucher fought with the 
 French the battle of Craonne, on the 7th of March, and the battle of Laon, on the 
 9tt of the same month. Napoleon afterwards attacked Rheims, which he com- 
 pelled the Russians to evacuate. The F"rench were defeated in the battle of Arcis, 
 on the 20th of March. 
 
 Unsuccessful Negotiations for Peace. — Flushed with his successes. Napo- 
 leon suddenly broke off the negotiations for peace, which had just been opened ar 
 Chatillon, and thus hastened his speedy ruin. Had he listened to the reasonable 
 terms offered by the allied powers, he might have remained on the throne of 
 France. 
 
 Capture of Paris by the Allies. — For the purpose of frightening the allies 
 into a retreat into Germany, Napoleon, by a bold march, placed his army in their 
 rear. The allies, seeing the way to Paris open, marched upon the city and took 
 the heights of Montniartre, which covered the capital. Joseph Bonaparte, to whom 
 Napoleon had entrusted the defense of the capital, retired with the Empress Maria 
 Louisa and the regency to Blois; and on the 31st of March, 1814, Marshals Mor- 
 tier and Marmont, perceiving the folly of any further resistance, surrendered Paris 
 to the enemy; and on the same day, the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia 
 entered that proud capital. A provisional government was now formed, at the head 
 of which was Talleyrand, who had deserted the cause of Napoleon, and who now 
 devoted himself to the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of P>ance. 
 
 Abdication of Napoleon — Battle of Toulouse. — On the 2d of April, 1814, 
 Napoleon was formally deposed by the French Senate, and, after vainly endeavor- 
 ing to secure the crown of France to his son, he signed, on the 6th of April, 1814, 
 the unconditional abdication of the thrones of France and Italy. On the loth of 
 April, 1814, a few days after the abdication of Napoleon, the English army, under 
 Wellington, won a brilliant victory at Toulouse, over the French army commanded 
 by Marshal Soult. A few days after the battle, news of the capture of Paris and 
 tie fall of Napoleon reached both armies, and hostilities were suspended. 
 
 Napoleon sent to Elba. — On the nth of April, 1814, Napoleon agreed to a 
 tteaty with the allies at Fontainbleau, by which he received the sovereignty of the 
 little island of Elba, in the Mediterranean sea, and an income of 2,000,000 francs. 
 ■Jn the 20th of April (1814), Napoleon ordered the Imperial Guard to be assem- 
 'oleii in the court-yard of Fontainbleau, and, amid the tears of the gallant veterans, 
 he look leave of them with a sad heart. He then started for Elba, where he 
 arrived on the 4th of May, 1814. 
 
 Louis XVIII. — First Peace of Paris. — The Count of Provence, brother of 
 Louis XVI. returning from his long exile, entered Paris on the 3d of May, l8l4i 
 
35° 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 and was received with demonstrations of joy by the inhabitants. He was now 
 seated on the throne of France, with the title of Louis XVIII. He was required 
 to govern according to a constitution, called "The Charter," by which the powers 
 of the king were limited, and the rights of the French people defined and secured. 
 On the 30th of May, 1814, a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, between 
 F"iance and the allied powers, by which the boundai'ies of France were restric'^ed 
 Ui what they had been in 1792; and the general tranquillity of Europe appeared ic 
 ■jc secured. 
 
 THE RESTORED BOURBONS AND THE HUNDRED 
 DAYS (1814-1815). 
 
 Impolitic Conduct of the Bourbons. — The Bourbons were no sooner restored 
 fo the throne of France, than they endeavored to reestablish the state of things which 
 existed before the Revolution, and their imprudent and impolitic conduct excited 
 the Bonapartists and the Republicans against them. The tri-colored cockade was 
 displaced by the white ensign of the Bourbons, and the memory of the Republic 
 and of the Empire was, as much as possible, obliterated. The stipulated pension 
 which was to be paid to Napoleon was also withheld. These and other causes led 
 to the formation of plots for the restoration of Napoleon to power. The majority 
 of the French people felt deeply the humiliation of living under a king forced upon 
 them by foreign bayonets, and longed for that Emperor under whose banners their 
 armies had so often been led to battle and to victory. 
 
 Congress at Vienna. — A Congress composed of ambassadors of the allied 
 powers had assembled at Vienna, on the 25th of September, 1814, for the settle- 
 ment of European aftairs. Divisions arose in the Congress on the question of the 
 rearrangement of the conquered countries; but when the astounding intelligence 
 that Napoleon had left Elba, and had landed on the southern coast of F"rauce, 
 reached the Congress, all divisions were cast aside ; and the Congress unanimously 
 agreed to take vigorous measures for the overthrow of the man whose ambition 
 troubled the world. 
 
 Return of Napoleon. — Encouraged by the discontent of the French pi^ople 
 with the rule of the Bourbons, Napoleon left Elba; and on the 1st of March, 1815, 
 he landed at Cannes, near Frejus, on the southern coast of France. He was accom- 
 panied by only i,ooo men; but he trusted that the prestige of his name, and the 
 zealous attachment of the troops whom he had so often led to victory, would restore 
 nmi to power. The troops that had been sent against him joined his standard with 
 the wildest enthusiasm. The tricolor was again displayed everywhere. The citi- 
 zens of Grenoble opened their gates to him, and Colonel Labedoyere joined him 
 with the garrison of the town. The Count of Artois, l^rother to King Louis XVI IL, 
 vainly endeavore<l to keep the troops at Lyons firm in their allegiance to their king. 
 They unanimously declared for Napoleon, crying "Vive 1' Empereur!" and Marshal 
 Ney, who had been sent against Napoleon, and who had sworn that he would bring 
 the ex-emperor to Pais in chains, joined him with the troops. All the old mar- 
 shals, except Marmont, Macdonald and Augereau, espoused the cause of Na]i'>]eon, 
 who entered Paris on the evening of the 20lh of March, 1S15, Louis XVIII. having 
 left the city on the morning of the same day. Thus, in the course of three weeks, 
 
DuiMl Vr VVCl-UMNVaTON. 
 
NAPOLEON BONAPARTL 
 
NINETEENTH CENTUR Y. ^cj j 
 
 lylthout one drop of bloodshed, Napoleon was again master of all France. Then 
 began the period historically known as "The Hundred Days." 
 
 Murat's Fall.-^On the landing of Napoleon at Cannes, Murat broke ofF his 
 alliance with Austria, and summoned the Italian people to arms against that power. 
 Advancing northward, at the head of the Neapolitan army, Murat was defeated bv 
 th-; Austrians, in the battle of Tolentino, on the 23d of May, 1S15. He then f"'? 
 *.o France, and his kingdom of Naples reverted to its former sovereign, Feidinarni 
 Napoleon, indignant because of Murat's desertion of his cause in 1814, refused fc 
 receive him in Paris. After remaining for some time in Southern France, Mura*' 
 sailed for Corsica, whence he made a descent on the Italian coast, for the pur[<-vve 
 of recovering his lost kingdom, but he was taken prisoner, and shot in iccordance 
 with the sentence of a military commission. 
 
 The W^ar Renewed — The Armies in Belgium. — The Congress of Vienna, 
 when informed of the events which had just transpired in France, declared that 
 " The Emperor Napoleon had placed himself beyond the pale of society, and that, 
 as an enemy and a disturber of the peace of Europe, he had made himself liable to 
 public vengeance." At the same time, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England, 
 entered into a treaty, by which they agreed to raise an army of 600,000 men, to crush 
 the man whom no treaties could bind. Napoleon raised a new army of 120,000 
 men. In the meantime, the allies were preparing to invade France from all sides. 
 The English under Wellington, and the Prussians under Blucher, were concentrat- 
 ing in Belgium. The Austrians were advancing through Northern Italy, and the 
 Russians were rapidly hastening to the theatre of action. For the purpose of pre- 
 venting France from again becoming the seat of war. Napoleon, with 120,000 men, 
 advanced into Belgium, about the middle of June, 1815, with the view of annihil- 
 ating the armies of Wellington and Blucher. 
 
 Battles of Ligny, Quatre-Bras, and Waterloo. — On the 15th of June, 1S15, 
 Napoleon assaulted Charleroi, and compelled the Prussians, under Ziethen, to 
 evacuate the town. At about noon, on the i6th (June, 1815), Napoleon, at the 
 head of 80,000 men, attacked 60,000 Prussians, under Blucher, at IJgny; while, at 
 the same time, Marshal Ney, with 30,000, assailed the English, under Wellington, 
 at Quatre-Bras. The battle of Ligny was long and bloody, and ended in the defeat 
 of the Prussians, who retired, and left the field in possession of Napoleon. After a 
 desperate engagement at Quatre-Bras, in which the gallant Duke William of Bruns- 
 wick was mortally wounded, the English were victorious, and Napoleon was obliged 
 to retire from the bloody field. Napoleon's victory at Ligny rendered the English 
 victory at Quatre-Bras useless; and on the following day (June 17, 1815), Wellington 
 fell back to the village of Waterloo, about nine miles from Brussels. On the morn- 
 ing of the i8th. Napoleon appeared at Waterloo, with 80,000 men. Wfllington 
 had 70,000. The chateau of Hougoumont and the farm-house of La Ilaye Siunte 
 were strongly garrisoned with English troops. The great battle of Waterloo br^gan at 
 about noon, when the French opened a heavy artillery fire on the British lines, rixi 
 assaulted Hougoumont, but were repulsed. A concentrated attack on the Bi'ti'll 
 right also failed. The PVench cuirassiers afterwards vainly attempted to break '.he 
 English centre, but they drove back the English troops who had followed them. 
 La Haye Sainte was captured and lost by the French infantry. The French cuiras- 
 siers next made a furious assault on the British right, only to be disastrously repulsed. 
 
352 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Three tremendous assaults had already failed to break the English lines, when, at 
 oeven in the evening. Marshal Ney, by direction of Napoleon, led the Imperial 
 Guard in a furious charge upon the English troops, while, in the meantime, the 
 Dritish line was fiercely cannonaded. The Imperial Guards reeled before the heavy 
 musketry fire which the English opened upon them, and Wellington, observing the 
 confusion, ordered a bayonet charge, and the result was the complete route of these 
 favorite veterans of Napoleon. Blucher, with 50,000 Prussians, now came to I he 
 assistance of Wellington, who immediately assumed the offensive, and Napoleon, ^^ee- 
 nig that his Empire was lost by the fatal result of the day, left the field, and hasterved 
 to Paris, where he annved on the 20th. The shattered remnants of the PVench army 
 fled in confusion, and were pursued by the Prussians; the English, fatigued by the 
 long and fierce contest, resting for the night on the field. The English had won a 
 great victory, but at the cost of 15,000 men in killed and wounded. Among the 
 killed was the gallant Sir Thomas Picton. The French had lost 40,000 men and all 
 iheir cannon. 
 
 Second Capture of Paris — Louis XVIII. Restored to the Throne. — 
 After some hesitation. Napoleon yielded to the proposal of the Chambers in Paris, 
 and abdicated the throne of France in favor of his son; whereupon a provisional 
 government, under the direction of Fouche, was formed. After the battle of 
 Waterloo, the English and Prussian annies marched upon Paris, which was sur- 
 rendered by Fouche to Wellington and Blucher, on condition that no individual was 
 to be punished for his political opinions. King Louis XVIII. reentered his capital 
 on the 8th of July, and was again seated on the throne of France. 
 
 Napoleon made a Prisoner and banished to St. Helena. — In the mean- 
 time. Napoleon had fled to Rochefort with the intention of escajjing to America, 
 but he found the harbor closely guarded by English war-vessels. Thus foiled. 
 Napoleon embraced the determination of throwing himself upon the generosity of 
 the English nation; and accordingly, on the 15th of July (i8l5),he went on board 
 the British frigate Bellerophon, and surrendered himself a prisoner to Captain 
 Maitland, the commander of the vessel, who took him to the coast of England, but 
 refused to allow him to land, or to have any communication with the people on the 
 shore. After some delay, the illustrious prisoner was informed that the allied mon- 
 archs had resolved to banish him to the small rocky island of St. Helena, in the 
 South Atlantic Ocean, where he was to be kept a close prisoner for the rest of his 
 life. Napoleon vainly protested; and on the i8th of October, 1815, he arrived at 
 the place of his banishment. Here he lived under the charge of the brutal gov- 
 ernor and jailor, Sir Hudson Lowe. The unhealthy climate and the merciless 
 treatment which he received hastened his death, which occurred on the 5th of May, 
 1821. In 1S40, his remains were brought to Paris and interred in the Hotel des 
 Invalides. 
 
 Proscription of Napoleon's Adherents. — A proscription of the family and 
 he adherents of Napoleon followed the second abdication of the Emperor and 'he 
 second restoration of the Bourbons. AH the members of Napoleon's family, all the 
 marshals and statesmen who had adhered to Napoleon during the Hundred Days, 
 and all the regicides who had voted for the death of Louis XVI., were banished; 
 and, in violation of the terms of the second capitulation of Paris, Marshal Ney and 
 Colonel Labedovdre were condemned and shot for treason, in joining Napoleon 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 353 
 
 oji his return from Elba with the troops with which they had been sent against 
 hiin. 
 
 Second Peace of Paris. — The battle of Waterloo put an end to the long wars 
 which the French Revolution and the ambition of Napoleon had kindled, and 
 which had convulsed Europe for a period of twenty-three years. On the 20tb of 
 No\ember, 1815, the second Peace of Paris was concluded between France and 
 th'^ allied powers, by which the boundaries of France were limited to what they 
 iia 1 been in 1 790; France was required to pay 700,000,000 francs for the expenses 
 of ihe war; the works of art and literature which the French had taken from other 
 n£.li.ins were to be restored to their rightful owners; and an allied army of 150,000 
 men was to garrison the frontier fortresses of P'rance for three years, fur the purjiose 
 of insuring peace by putting down any attempted rising of the French people. The 
 military power of France was thoroughly broken, her pride was lowered, and her 
 humiliation was complete. 
 
 POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE. 
 
 CONDITION OF EUROPE AFTER BONAPARTE'S FALL. 
 
 THE HOLY ALLIANCE (181S). 
 
 Object of the Holy Alliance. — On the 25th of September, 1815, the three 
 sovereigns, Alexander I. of Russia, Frederic William III. of Prussia, and Francis 
 I. of Austria, signed, in the city of Paris, the famous compact known as "The 
 Floly Alliance," by which they swore, " That, in accordance with the principles of 
 Holy Scripture, they would, as brothers, render each other all the assistance in theii 
 power, on every occasion." 
 
 The Holy Alliance an Instrument of Oppression. — The Holy Alliance 
 was at length joined by all the sovereigns of Europe, except the Pope and the Brit- 
 ish monarch. This powerful league of princes was made, as we shall presently 
 see, an instrument for the suppression of all democratic and liberal tendencies, and 
 the strengthening of monarchical power, under the mask of piety and religion. In 
 a few years, popular insurrections that broke out in Italy and Spain were suppressed 
 by the formidable league of crowned heads. 
 
 Efforts of the People of Europe. — While princes were seeking to establish 
 absolute governments, the people of Europe were striving for constitutional forms. 
 A free government, like that enjoyed by the people of Great Britain, was what seemed 
 most desirable to the oppressed masses of Europe. 
 
 THE ROYALIST REACTION IN FRANCE. 
 
 Contests of Parties in France — Hatred of Bonapartists and Republi- 
 cans — After the restoration of the Bourbons, in the person of Louis XVIII., France 
 was diii:racted by the contests of parties. A reaction in favor of the Royabsts l^.i 
 taken place among the French people. The Royalists manifested the most intensf 
 hatred against the Bonapartists and the Republicans, who were charged with thf 
 authorship of all the misery which had been brought upon the country by twenty 
 three years of revolution and war. 
 23 
 
154 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Zeal of the Royalists — Massacre of Bonapartists and Republicans. — 
 
 riie zealous Royalists, not satisfied with the moderation of the king, who tried to 
 steer between the two extremes, demanded punishment of the Bonapartists and 
 Republicans; and Louis XVIII., although disposed to be moderate, found himself 
 obliged to banish all those who had caused the execution of his brother, Louis XVL 
 D e Royalists (called White Jacobins), disgraced themselves by the bloody massa- 
 ,ie of Bonapartists and Republicans in Marseilles, Nismes, Toulon, Toulouse, 
 A I'lgn m, and I^yons. 
 
 Restriction of the Liberties of the People — Death of Louis XVIIL — 
 To gratify the reactionary party, which desired the reestablishment of the ancient 
 despotism, the king was forced to violate, in many instances, the constitutional 
 charter, which he had sworn to observe. He was urged, against his own will, to 
 place restrictions upon the liberties of the people m various ways, and to increase 
 the royal power. The influence of the Royalists prevailed to some extent ; and 
 the liberty of the press and other privileges were in a great measure restricted. In 
 1823, at the command of the Holy Alliance, a P'rench anny of 100,000 men, under 
 the command of the Duke of Angouleme, was sent into Spain, to crush a revolution 
 there. On the death of Louis XVIIL, in 1824, his brother, the Count of Artois, 
 became King of France, with the title of Charles X. 
 
 THK SOCIAL STRUGGLE IN ENGLAND. 
 
 The Extent, Power, and Glory of the British Empire. — Great Britain 
 emerged from the long contest with France with increased power and national 
 glory. Her empire was greatly extended in all parts of the world; her supremacy 
 on the sea was undisputed; her wealth and commerce were increased; and her 
 people enjoyed more civil and political liberty than any other in Europe. But 
 with all this national prosperity, the lower classes of the English people were sunk 
 in extreme wretchedness and poverty. 
 
 Caiuses of Distress among Workingmen. — The long wars with France, and 
 the immense subsidies with which Great Britain had furnished her Continental allies, 
 raised her national debt to an enormous amount, and her people were borne down 
 with the most oppressive taxes. During the European wars, the English manufac- 
 turers were enabled to can-y on their business very successfully, because then the 
 people of Continental Europe had been compelled to relinquish all peaceful pur- 
 suits. \Vhen peace returned, the people of the Continent were enabled to return to 
 their former occupations, and to compete successfully with the English manufac- 
 turers. The result was the decline of the prosperity of English manufactures, and 
 the want of employment for the English workingmen, who were in consequence 
 reduced to great distress. 
 
 Conspiracy for the Overthrow of the Monarchy. — The English pe-^ple 
 A-erc greatly discontented with the existing state of things; and, in 1817, the 
 3i tish Government discovered that an extensive conspiracy existed throu-Jticut 
 Jie kingdom fc. the overthrow of the monarchy and the estal)lishment of an 5?r.g 
 lifh republic in its stead. The Government thwarted the plot by susfAinding lh< 
 writ of habeas corpus, and caused the leading conspirators to be arrested, trir-' 
 C'indcmne 1, and executed. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 355 
 
 Lord Exmouth's Expedition against Algiers — Battle of Algiers.- -For 
 
 several centuries, the Barbary powers of Northern Africa had committed piracies 
 fin people of Christian countries. The commanders of vessels were kept as pris- 
 oners for ransom, and the crews were reduced to slavery. It had long been the 
 custom of Christian nations to pay tribute to the pirates, as a bribe for the safety of 
 their commerce; but the insolence of the corsairs induced the United States Gov 
 trnment, in 1815, to send a squadron under Commodore Decatur to humble thenj. 
 Decatur compelled the Dey of Algiers to accept very humiliating conditions. The 
 English Government followed the example of America. In 181 6, a British squad 
 ron under Lord Exmouth was sent against Algiers. Lord Exmouth appeared 
 before the city of Algiers, in May (1816), and demanded the release of all Chris- 
 tians whom the Dey held in slavery. As Lord Exmouth received no answer to his 
 demand, he opened a heavy cannonade upon the city, which was returned by the 
 Algerine batteries ; and, after several hours' fighting, the Dey's fleet and a great 
 part of the city were destroyed. The following morning, the Dey informed Lord 
 Exmouth that he would set his Christian slaves and captives at liberty, and the 
 firing ceased. Twelve hundred Christians were then released, and allowed to 
 return to their homes. 
 
 Disturbance at Manchester — Death of George IIL — In August, 1819, a 
 meeting of 80,000 persons, assembled at Manchester, to discuss the question of 
 parliamentary reform, was attacked by the military, and many victims fell. On the 
 death of King George III., in January, 1820, his son ascended the British throne, 
 with the title of George IV. 
 
 EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1820 AND 1821. 
 
 REVOLUTION IN SPAIN (1820-1823). 
 
 Tyranny of King Ferdinand VII. — After Lord Wellington's expulsion of 
 the French from Spain, in 1813, Ferdinand VII. came into quiet possession of the 
 Spanish throne. He began his reign with the most unrelenting tyranny over 
 his subjects. The Inquisition was reestablished with all its horrors; the liberal 
 Cortes Constitution of 1812 was suppressed; and thousands who had exposed 
 their lives in the cause of Ferdinand against the French invaders of Spain, were 
 persecuted in the most unrelenting manner. 
 
 Popular Insurrection — Reestablishment of the Cortes Constitution.— 
 The tyrannical rule of Ferdinand VII. roused the Sprnish Liberals against him; 
 and, on the ist of Jaimary, 1820, a mutiny broke out among the troops at Cadiz, 
 who were to be sent to crush the revolution against Spanish authority in South 
 America; and very soon the whole Spanish kingdom was in insurrection aga'nst 
 the tyrannical king. In order to retain his crown, Ferdinand was forced to grant 
 his subjects the Constitution of 1812. The Liberals abused theii pi>^c:i oy ha^ty 
 innovations, and by persecutions of the priests and the supporters of the Apusti'.if, 
 pp-rty. 
 
 Overthrow of the Cortes Constitution by a French Army. — It was re- 
 solved by the members of the Holy Alliance, in a Congress at Verona, to sujipress 
 the Spanish Constitution by violence; and in 1823, a French army of 100,000 men, 
 
3-6 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 under the Duke of Angouleme, entered Spain. The French invaders marchtd 
 through thi. country to Cadiz, overcame all opposition on the part of the Spani.-ih Lib- 
 erals, and effected the overthrow of the Cortes Constitution, aud the reestal)lishment 
 of the absolute power of the king. From this time, until his death, in 1833, Ferdi 
 nand VII. governed despotically. 
 
 REVOLUTION IN PORTUGAL (1821-1834). 
 
 Popular Insurrection — Establishment of a Liberal Constitution. — Pg; 
 
 ugal, as well as Spain, was torn by internal commotions. The Portuguese peopl, 
 were dissatisfied because the royal family did not return from Brazil after the ter- 
 mination of the Peninsular War ; and popular insurrections in Lisbon and Oporto, 
 in August, 1820, resulted in the establishment of a liberal constitution, modeled 
 after thai of Spain. In 1822, the Portuguese colony of Brazil became an inde- 
 pendent Empire. 
 
 Overthrow of the Portuguese Constitution — Donna Maria da Gloria. — 
 The Portuguese Constitution was overthrown in 1823, by the Apostolic party, which 
 was composed of the clergy and the aristocracy, with the supporters of Don Miguel, 
 the king's brother, at their head. King John VI. died in 1826, and was succeeded 
 on the throne of Portugal by his son, Don Pedro, Emperor of Brazil. Don Pedro, 
 however, soon resigned the crown of Portugal to his infant daughter, Donna Maria 
 da Gloria, appointed his brother, Don Miguel, regent of the kmgdom, and granted 
 the Portuguese a liberal constitution. 
 
 Usurpation of Don Miguel — ^Civil War— Defeat of Don Miguel. — In 
 1829, Don Miguel, with the support of the Apostolic party, suppressed the Portu- 
 guese Constitution, and caused himself to be proclaimed King of Portugal. In 1832, 
 Don Pedro, who had been compelled, the previous year, to abdicate his crown in 
 Brazil, in favor of his son, Don Pedro II., returned to Portugal, to defend the nghts of 
 hii daughter. The constitutional party rallied to the support of Don Pedro; and, in 
 1834, after a bloody civil war of two years, during which Don Pedro was aided by 
 England and France, the usurper, Don Miguel, was forced to renounce his preten- 
 sions, and to leave the kingdom ; whereupon the constitution, which had been sup- 
 pressed by the usurper, was reestablished. 
 
 REVOLUTION IN NAPLES (1820). 
 
 Tyranny of King Ferdinand of Naples. — After the fall of Napoleon I. 
 and ihe expulsion of the French from Italy, Ferdinand, the former King of Naples, 
 was restored to his throne. From the time of his restoration to the Neapolitan 
 throne, Ferdinand exercised a most unmitigated oppression over his subjects. 
 
 Popular Insurrection in Naples— A Liberal Constitution Granted. — At 
 
 length, in July, 1820, the Carbonari, an influential political society, excised a popu- 
 i;u' insurrection in the Kingdom of Naples; and the tyrannical Feircnand was 
 compelled to grant his subjects a constitution similar in its character to the Spaa'^t 
 Cottes Constitution of 1S12. 
 
 Intervention of the Holy Alliance — Overthrow of the Constitution. — 
 In October of the same year (1820), the three crowned heads who formed ttie Holy 
 Alliance held a conferenct a Troppau, in Austrian Silesia, where, at the instiga- 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 357 
 
 aoii of Prince Metternich, the Austrian Prime- Minister, they resolved to suppress 
 the Neapolitan constitution by force of arms. King Ferdinand, of Naples, who, 
 by invitation, met the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, at Laybach, ir 
 January, 1821, agreed to the proposal; and accordingly, an Austrian army of ^3,<oo 
 men marched into Naples, and, after several insignificant conflicts, dispersed the 
 revolulionaiy forces; whereupon King Ferdinand abolished the constitution which 
 ns had granted, and resumed his former despotic power. 
 
 REVOLUTION IN PIEDMONT (1821). 
 
 Insurrection in Piedmont — Abdication of Victor Emmanuel. — In March, 
 182 1, a military and popular insurrection l)roke out in Piedmont, against the absolute 
 rule of King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia. On the 13th (March, 1821), Victor 
 Emmanuel abdicated the throne of Sardinia, in favor of his brother, Charles Felix; 
 and a liberal constitution was also established in Sardinia. 
 
 End of the Piedmontese Constitution. — An Austrian army soon entered 
 Piedmont to suppress the constitution. The revolutionists were defeated at Novara, 
 and the Austrian forces occupied the cities of Turin and Alessandria. The Pied- 
 montese constitution was overthronw, and absolute monarchy was reestablished in 
 the kingdom of Sardinia. 
 
 THE GREEK REVOLUTION (1821-1829). 
 
 EVENTS OF 1821. 
 
 Proclamation of Alexander Ypsilanti. — Greece had been conquered by the 
 Turks in 1481. For three centuries and a half, the tyrannical rule of the Turks had 
 been quietly submitted to by the Greeks; but on the 7th of March, 1821, Alexander 
 Ypsilanti, a Greek, then serving as a general in the Russian arnjy, proclaimed, 
 from Moldavia, the independence of Greece, and, at the same time, assured his coun- 
 trymen of the assistance of Russia, in their apjiroaching struggle for liberty. But 
 the influence of Prince Metternich, who, at the Congress of Laybach, opposed giving 
 countenance to any revolt against legitimate authority, prevented the Czar Alexan- 
 der from giving any support to the Greeks, although he was at heart in sympathy 
 with them. 
 
 Revolution in the Morea. — Soon after the proclamation of Ypsilanti, an insur- 
 rection against Tui-kish authority bi-oke out in the village of Suda, in the Morea. 
 The movement rapidly spread over the whole peninsula; and the insurgents declared 
 that their purpose was to defend Christianity and civilization against Mohamme- 
 danism and barbarism. 
 
 Cruelty of the Turks — Murder of the Patriarch of Constantinople.— 
 The rage of the Turks against the insurgent Greeks knew no bounds ; and many 
 of the Greek clergy, including the gray-haired Patriarch of Constantinople, the 
 (Cfjreme head of the Greek Church, were put to death. Most of the Greek families 
 in Constantinople fell victims to the savage rage of the infuriated Turks, and other.- 
 were driven into exile. 
 
 Annihilation of the Sacred Band, and Flight of Alexander Ypsilanti. 
 —The i^acred Band of the Greeks in Wallachia, under the leadership of Alexander 
 
358 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Ypsilanfi, was annihilated by the Turks, in the sanguinary battle of Dragaschan, on 
 the 19th of June, 1821. The Greeks, like their ancestors at Thennopylse, fought 
 with the courage of desperation. Ypsilanti fled into the Austrian dominions, where 
 he was seized and kept a prisoner for years. 
 
 Capture of Tripolitza by the Greeks — Cassandra taken by the Turks. 
 —In August, 1821, the Greeks captured Navarino; and in October following, the 
 Btrorig fortress of Tripolitza, where they put 8000 Turks to the sword. On the 5tb 
 ind 6th of September (1821), the Greek general Ulysses defeated a large Tuikuh 
 force, near the famous pass of Thermopylae. The peninsula of Cassandra was after- 
 wards taken by the Turks, who put 3000 Greeks to the sword, and carried many 
 women and children into slavery. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1822. 
 
 Greek Congress at Epidaurus — A Provisional Government. — In the 
 
 beginning of 1822, a Greek Congress assembled at Epidaurus. On the 13th of 
 January, a provisional constitution was proclaimed; and on the 27th of the same 
 n'onlh, a manifesto was issued, announcing the union of the Greeks under a central 
 government, under the presidency of Alexander Mavrocordato. The Greek leaders 
 often quarreled among themselves, but, notwithstanding this, fortune was, in general, 
 on the side of the struggling patriots, until the summer of 1825. 
 
 Desolation of Scio by the Turks. — In March, 1822, the inhabitants of the 
 beautiful island of Scio rose in revolt, and put the Turkish garrison to the sword. 
 In April, a force of Asiatic Turks spread over Scio, plundering and massacring the 
 inhabitants, and reducing the beautiful island to a desert. Thirty thousand Sciots 
 were put to the sword; and many women and children were sold into slaveiy. 
 Soon afterward, 150 Greek villages in Macedonia were destroyed, and many of the 
 inhabitants were put to the sword. 
 
 Barbarous Warfare — Success of the Greek Fire-ships. — The war was 
 carried on by both parties in the most barbarous manner. Thousands of Greeks 
 were put to the sword by the enraged Turks, and when the Greeks had the oppor- 
 tunity, they took a bloody revenge on their cruel foes. Many of the Turkish vessels 
 were blown up by the Greek fire-ships. On the 12th of December, 1822, the strong 
 Turkish fortress of Napoli de Romania surrendered to the Greeks, after a furious 
 assault. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1823. 
 
 Victory and Death of Marco Bozzaris— Lord Byron. — On the 20th of 
 August, 1823, a Turkish army of 100,000 men was met and defeated by 500 
 Greeks, under the heroic Suliot leader, Marco Bozzaris, who was killed in the 
 moment of victory. The last words of this valiant patriot were, "Could a Suliot 
 lea ie.- die a noliler death?" Popular sympathy for the struggling Greeks was 
 ?.r^!;gly manifested in France, England, and the United States; and many privait 
 .ndividuals went from those countries to aid the patriots in their struggle for free 
 Jom. Among those who went to Greece from England was the illustrious ;«)«t, 
 Loi 1 Byron, who died at Missolonghi, on the 19th of April, 1824. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY 350 
 
 EVENTS OF 1824 AND 1825. 
 
 Fall of Ipsara —Desolation of the Morea by Ibrahim Pacha — Diirirg 
 >l>e year 1824, the Turks reduced the strongly-fortified rocky island of Ipsara; bu' 
 after 2,000 Turks had entered the last fort, the Greeks blew it up, and perisLed 
 with their foes. In 1825, Ibrahim Pacha, son of the celebrated Mehemet Ali, 
 Pacha of Egypt, whom the Sultan had induced to assist in the suppression of the 
 Grecian rebellion, landed in the Morea, with 25,000 Egyptian troops, and S{)it;a<? 
 jcsolation throughout the whole peninsula. Ibrahim Pacha captured Navaniio 
 '/lit the Turks were defeated, for the third time, at Missolonghi. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1826. 
 
 Siege and Fall of Missolonghi. — In the latter part of 1825, Ibrahim Pacha, 
 with 25,000 men, laid siege to Missolonghi. After many fierce assaults had been 
 gallantly repulsed by the Greeks, Missolonghi fell into the hands of Ibrahim Pacha, 
 on the 22d of April, 1826. The Greek garrison of 1,800 men cut their way through 
 the lines of the besiegers, and fled to Athens. Many of the inhabitants fled from 
 the city when the victorious foe entered, but some were pursued and captured ; 
 and those who remained in the city, about 1,000 in number, mostly old men, 
 women, and children, blew themselves up in the mines, rather than fall into the 
 hands of the enemy. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1827. 
 
 Intervention of England, France, and Russia — Battle of Navarino. — 
 
 The heroic conduct of those Greeks who voluntarily perished at Missolonghi, and 
 the continued devastations of Ibrahim Pacha in the Morea, aroused the European 
 governments from their lethargy; and, at the proposal of the great statesman. Can- 
 ning, who then wielded the destinies of Great Britain, a treaty of alliance was con- 
 cluded, at London, on the 6th of July, 1827, between England, France, and Russia, 
 by which these three powers agreed to secure for the Greeks their liberty. To 
 enforce this treaty, a combined English, French, and Russian fleet, under the com- 
 mand of the English admiral. Sir Edward Codrington, was sent to the Grecian 
 waters. The refusal of Ibrahim Pacha to evacuate the Morea occasioned the battle 
 of Navarino, on the 20th of October, 1827, in which the allied fleet totally anni 
 hila'ed the Turko-Egyptian fleet. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1828. 
 
 War between Russia and Turkey— Evacuation of the Morea. — The 
 
 destruction of his fleet enraged more than it alarmed the Sultan, who sliU obsti- 
 nately refused to give the Greeks their liberty, and who behaved in so insolent a 
 manner toward the allied powers that Russia declared war against him. In May, 
 1828,3 Russian army of 150,000 men, under Count Wittgenstein, invaded the Otto- 
 ai.in dominions in Europe, and by the early part of July, had taken seven strong 
 Airtresses, among which were Brahilov, Silistria, and Varna; while in Asiatic 
 furke) the Russians under General Paskiewitsch were everywhere victor! jus. In 
 rhe meantime, Ibrahim Pacha had beer compelled by the French fleet to evacuate 
 the Morea, and to restore to his Greek prisoners their freedom; and Count John 
 Capo d'Istria was chosen President of the Grecian States. 
 
360 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 EVENTS OF 182Q. 
 
 Declaration of the Allied Powers — Advance of the Russians — Peace 
 of Adrianople. — In Januai-y, 1829, the Sultan received a protocol from the threa 
 allied powers, declaring that they took Greece under their own protection, and 
 that they would consider another Turki.-.h invasion o{ Greece as an attack upon 
 themselves. This declaration, together with the rapid progress of the Russian 
 forces, under the command of Field-Marshal Diebitsch, who had forced the passe? 
 i\ ihe Balkan mountains, and, on the 20th of August, 1829, captured Adrianople, 
 he se:ond city of the Turkish Empire, seriously alarmed the Sultan; and, on the 
 24th of September, 1829, the Peace of Adrianople was concluded between Russia 
 and Turkey, by which the Ottoman Porte acknowledged the independence of 
 Greece, and agreed to indemnify Russia for her expenses in the war. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1831-1833. 
 
 Assassination of Count John Capo d' Istria — Otho, King of Greece. — 
 
 During the Revolution, the Greek leaders often quarrelled among themselves; and 
 in 1831, the Greek President, Count John Capo dTstria, who, by his selection of bad 
 advisers, had made himself unpopular, was assassinated, as he was about to enter a 
 church. The three allied powers, England, France, and Russia, having determined 
 to erect Greece into a constitutional monarchy, the crown .was bestowed on Otho, a 
 prince of the royal house of Bavaria, who arrived at Nauplia in 1833, and reigned 
 as King of Greece, until he was hurled from the throne by the Revolution of 1862 
 
 EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1830 AND 1831. 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1830. 
 
 Charles X. — Charles X., on his accession to the throne of France, in 1824 
 declared his intention of confirming the constitutional charter that had been granted 
 to the French people at the time of the First Bourbon Restoration, in 1814. But 
 Charles, entertaining a bitter hatred against the principles of the Revolution, and 
 under the influence of the most bigoted priests, labored for the establishment of an 
 absolute monarchy, on the principles of the ancient despotism. Of the Bourbons, 
 it was said, that during their long exile, " they had learned nothing and forgotten 
 nothing;" and Charles soon proved that he had not forgotten that his ancestors had 
 exercised absolute power, nor had he learned that such power was dangerous to 
 exercise. Unpopular Ministers were appointed, the freedom of the press was re- 
 stricted, the National Guard was dissolved, and severe measures were adopted for 
 dispersing popular assemblies. 
 
 Ultr. -Royalist Ministry of Polignac— In August, 1829, the Liberal Minis- 
 ■ry, which had been forced upon the king by the voice of public opinion, was dis- 
 •nis.-ed ; ard an Ultra- Royalist Cabinet, with Prince Jules de Polignac at its head, 
 ^nc, appointed. This new Ministry endeavored to strengthen the royal power, an') 
 f ii extremely unpopular with the French people, who accused Polignac and his 
 ci>llcagues of a design for the subversion of popular liberty, and the reestablishmeut 
 .if the ancient despotism; but Polignac blindly persevered in his arbitrary schemes. 
 
 The SSpeech from the Throne, March 2d, 1830 — Dissolution of tha 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 36 J 
 
 Chambers.— At the opening of the French Chambers, on the 2d of March, 1830, 
 the .-.rieech from the throne clearly announced the king's determination to overcome 
 by force any obstacles that might be thrown in the way of his government, and 
 contained a threat to deprive the French people of the rights granted them by the 
 Charter. There was a large majority against the Ministry in the Chamber of Depu 
 ties, and that body returned a frank rejily to the royal speech, declaring that a con 
 cuirence did not exist between the views of the Government and the wishes of the 
 poo])le. The king, declaring his intention to support his Ministers, prorogued the 
 Lhambere; and on the 17th of May, a royal ordinance declared them dissolved, anC 
 irdered elections for a new Chamber. 
 
 War with Algiers — Capture of Algiers. — In the meantime, the king and 
 his Ministers, with the view of overcoming their unpopularity by gratifying the pas- 
 sion of the French people for military glory, declared war against Algiers, the Dey 
 having refused to pay long-standing claims of French citizens, and having insulted 
 the honor of France by striking the French Consul. A naval expedition, consisting 
 of ninety-seven vessels, carrying more than 40,000 troops, sailed from Toulon, on 
 the loth of May, 1830, and on the 14th reached the African shores. The city of 
 Algiers was captured on the 5th of July (1830), with trifling loss on the part of the 
 French. The Dey fled to Italy, and his treasures fell into the hands of the con- 
 querors. 
 
 Increase of the Liberal Majority in the Chamber of Deputies. — The news 
 of the capture of Algiers occasioned much rejoicing in France, l)ut did nothing toward 
 gaining popularity for the Ministry, public feeling being too decided to be thus easily 
 affected. The elections for a new Chamber of Deputies resulted in giving the 
 Liberals a much larger majority than they had in the Chamber lately dissolved 
 
 The Three Royal Ordinances of July 26th, 1830 — Disturbances in Paris. 
 — The Ministry now resolved to set the popular will at defiance by measures directly 
 subversive of the constitutional charter; and, on the morning of the 26th of July, 
 1830, three royal ordinances were issued; — the first dissolving the newly-elected 
 Chamber of Deputies, the second arbitrarily altering the mode of election, and the 
 third suspending the freedom of the press. To all who were acquainted with the 
 popular feeling, it was apparent that these arbitrary measures, so subversive of 
 popular rights, could only be executed by force, and yet no preparations had been 
 made for this. So blind and infatuated were the king and his Minister?, that they 
 did not dream of any resistance on the part of the people. The king went on a 
 hunting excursion, and the Prince de Polignac gave a splendid dinnei to his col- 
 leagues. In the evening, mobs collected in Paris, lamps were demolished, the 
 windows of Prince de Polignac's hotel were broken, and cries cf "Down with the 
 Ministry!" and '-'The Charter forever !" were heard. 
 
 Commencement of the Revolution, July 27th, 1830. — On the morning of 
 the 27th (July, 1830) in defiance of the royal ordinance suspending the liberty ol 
 '1 e press, the conductjrs of the Liberal journals in Paris printed and distributed 
 ilieir papers as usual ; but their types were soon seized and their presses bioken bj 
 the police. Marshal Marmont, who was placed in chief command of the Govern 
 meni troops, endeavored to assist the police in preserving order, and the Ministry 
 declared Paris in a state of siege. The streets were kept clear by the guards foi 
 the greatet part of the day; and Marshal Marmont wrote to the king that quiet was 
 
j62 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 restored; but during the night, the citizens demolished the lamps, procured arms, 
 and barricaded the streets with paving stones torn up for the purpose. 
 
 Street Fighting on July 28th — Appearance of the Tri-color. — On the 
 morning of July 28th, the streets of Paris were filled with armed citizens, who raised 
 *he glorious tri-colored flag in every direction. They carried with trifling loss the 
 ?e(ac.hed guard-houses, the arsenal, and the powder magazine. At Jfine o'clock, 
 he tri color was seeea to wave from the spire of the Church of Notre Dan e, and 
 It eleven from the central tower of the Hotel de Ville. Carriages and omnibu5C* 
 were thrown on the sides of the streets, to obstruct the passage of the troops. Th; 
 tr jops were exposed to a severe fire from the windows, barricades, and street cor- 
 ners. Tiles and stones were hurled upon them from the tops of houses; while oil 
 and boiling water were showered upon them from the windows. The king and his 
 Ministers and Marshal Marmont were greatly surprised when they discovered that 
 what they had at first considered merely a riot had assumed the formidable aspect 
 of a revolution. During the night, the pavements were torn up, and the trees in 
 the Boulevards cut down, to raise obstructions for the passage of the troops. 
 
 July 29th — General Lafayette and the National Guard — Triumph of 
 the People. — The contest was renewed with terrible fui^y on the morning of July 
 29th ; and General Lafayette appeared among the insurgents, and assumed the 
 command of the National Guard. At noon, several regiments of the line deserted 
 to the people. Thus reinforced, the mob stormed the Louvre and the Tuileries, 
 from the windows of which they opened a tremendous fire upon the Swiss and 
 royal guards. The brave defenders of the throne, unable to make any further 
 resistance to the populace, succeeded only with great difficulty in effecting a retreat; 
 and, at three o'clock in the afternoon, the Paris Revolution of July ended in the 
 complete triumph of the people. The Ministers now resigned their offices, and the 
 king signed an order for the repeal of the obnoxious ordinances ; but it was too 
 late. The Parisians had already resolved that Charles X. should no longer reign. 
 The Deputies to the new Chambers in Paris organized a provisional government, 
 and decreed that the National Guard should be reorganized, and placed under the 
 command of that consistent friend of rational freedom, the Marquis de Lafayette. 
 
 Abdication and Flight of Charles X. — On the 31st of July (1830), Louis 
 Philippe, Duke of Orleans, son of Philip Egalite, accepted the office of Lieutenant- 
 General of the French kingdom. On the 2d of August, Charles X. formally abdi- 
 cated the throne of France, and his son, the Dauphin, resigned his rights in favor 
 of the king's infant grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. No attention was paid to 
 these proceedings. The Paris mob prepared to march in thousands to Rambouillet, 
 to which place Charles had retired ; but he did not wait for their coming. Recol- 
 lecting too well the awful period of 1789, when another Paris mob marched to 
 Versailles, he fled to England, and for a time took up his residence in Ilolyrood 
 palace, near Edinburgh. He afterwards went to Germany, and died at (ioritz, in 
 \ustria, in November, 1836. 
 
 Louis Philippe, " King of the French." — In the meantime, the newly electeJ 
 French Chambers assembled in Paris, and, after some debate, it was detennined 
 ithat the Government of France should remain a limited monarchy; and the crown 
 was conferred on the Duke of Orleans, who, on the 9th of August, 1830, took the 
 oath to support the constitutional charter, and ascended the throne of France, with 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 363 
 
 the title of "Louis Philippe I., King of the French." Louis Philippe owed his 
 elevation chiefly to the venerable Lafayette, who, believing the French people still 
 unfit for a republic, preferred "a throne surrounded with republican institutions." 
 Presenting the new citizen-king to the people, in front of the Chambers, Lafayette 
 e.tclaimcd, " Now we have the best of republics!" 
 
 THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION (18SO). 
 
 Consequences of the Paris Revolution of July. — The Paris Revolution 
 ^ JLily, 1830, occasioned a violent shock throughout Europe, and gave the death 
 blow to the Holy Alliance. Revolutionary movements occurred in Belgium, Poland, 
 Gcmiany, and Italy, which alarmed absolute monarchs, and threatened consequences 
 fatal to the general tranquillity of Europe. 
 
 The Union of Holland and Belgium — Dutch Oppression of the Bel- 
 gians. — The effects of the July Revolution of Paris first displayed themselves in 
 Belgium. The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, in utter disregard of difierences in 
 language, religion, and interests, had united Holland and Belgium into one mon- 
 archy, designated " The Kingdom of the Netherlands," under the government of a 
 prince of the House of Orange or Nassau. From the time of the incorporation of 
 Belgium with Holland, the Belgians suffered the most unmitigated oppression from 
 the Dutch king; and the Hollanders endeavored to force their own language, laws, 
 and religion upon the Belgians. The Protestant courts were entrusted with the 
 supervision of the education of the Catholic youth in Belgium. When the Belgian 
 press denounced the conduct of the Dutch Government, the writers were fined, im- 
 prisoned, or banished from the country. The alliance of the Belgian Liberal party 
 with the Catholic Ultramontane party was designated by the Dutch king, in his 
 speech from the throne, as " infamous." 
 
 Insurrection of Brussels — Declaration of Belgian Independence. — 
 Thinking the opportunity favorable, and encouraged by the success of the Paris 
 Revolution of July, the people of Brussels njse in insurrection, on the 25th of August, • 
 1830, and, after an obstinate struggle of four days, expelled the Dutch authorities 
 and garrison from the city. The movement spread raj^idly, and in a short time, the 
 whole of Belgium was in revolt against the authority of the King of Holland. The 
 Dutch were repulsed in an attack upon Brussels, and the Belgian insurgents pro- 
 ceeded against Antwerp, to drive the Dutch from that city. Thereupon the Dutch 
 general Chasse retired into the citadel with his troops, and cannonaded the town foi 
 several hours, thus destroying an immense amount of valuable property. Tl .s pro 
 ceeding caused much exasperation in Belgium; and, on the 14th of Octol.ier( 1830), 
 the Belgian National Congress declared the independence of Belgium, and the 
 exclusion of the House of Orange from the Belgian throne. 
 
 European Conference in London — Separation of Belgium from Hoi 
 and. -While the war between the Dutch and the Belgians was in progress, flio 
 ,'epi esentatives of the five great powers — Great Britain, France, Austria, PrussLs 
 and Russia — held a conference in London, where, after long diplomatic negotia! ion, 
 it » v; determined to separate Belgium from Holland. 
 
 Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, " King of the Belgians." — Prince I eo 
 pold of Saxe-Coburg, a relative of the English royal family, and who was shortlv 
 
364 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 afterwardb married to a daughter of Louis Philippe, King of the French, rei'eived 
 the crown of Belgium, with the title of " Leopold L, King of the Belgians." The 
 King of Holland vainly attempted to subdue the Belgians, who were now aided by 
 England and France. On the 24th of December, 1832, the Dutch army which had 
 held possession of Antwerp was compelled to surrender to the French army under 
 Marshal Gerard. Leopold granted his subjects a liberal constitution, and the sepa- 
 ration of the Church from the State. Since her separation from Holland, Belg^ vn 
 • h;is prospereed wonderfully in every branch of industry and social improvement 
 
 POLISH INSURRECTION OF 1830, 1831. 
 
 Ttie Kingdom of Poland — The Archduke Constantine — Russian Ty- 
 ranny. — The Congress of Vienna, in 1S15, erected Poland into a kingdom, with a 
 Diet and a constitution of its own ; but the sovereign power of the kingdom was 
 vested in the Czar of Russia, under the title of " King of Poland." The Poles were 
 soon disappointed in the hoj>es which they had entertained that the Emperor Alex- 
 ander would protect them in the enjoyment of the rights and privileges granted 
 them by the new constitution.. Before long, the principal offices in Poland were 
 filled with Russians; the article of the new constitution granting freedom of the 
 press was annulled; and publicity of debate in the Polish Diet was abolished. On 
 the death of the Emperor Alexander I., in 1S25, and the accession of his brother 
 Nicholas to the throne of Russia, the nominal administration of affairs in Poland 
 was intrusted to a Pole ; but all the real power was invested in the Archduke Con- 
 stantine, the brother of the emperor-king. Constantine was an unscrupulous tyrant. 
 His despotic and cruel course revived the old spirit of Polish freedom and nation- 
 ality; and the successful revolutions in France and Belgium, in 1830, urged the 
 Poles to a rebellion against the Russian power. Secret organizations were formed, 
 whose object was to bring about the restoration of Polish independence, and the re- 
 union, under one government, of those portions of Poland which had been absorbed 
 by Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 
 
 Insurrection at Warsaw. — On the evening of the 29th of November, 1830, 
 the students of the Cadet School, at Warsaw, attempted to seize Constantine, while 
 another party summoned the people to arms. Constantine escaped from Poland, 
 after a severe conflict, in which several hundred of his guards were killed. The 
 insurgents forced the arsenal at Warsaw, and before the close of the day, 40,000 
 men were in arms. The insurgent Poles established a provisional government, with 
 Adam Czartoryski, General Chlopiki.and others, at its head; and great enthusiasm 
 prevailed m the Polish capital. 
 
 Russian Invasion of Poland — Polish Successes. — The provisional govern 
 inent at Warsaw appointed Chlopiki dictator, and the Polish Diet, which was hastily 
 is^emliled, invested Prince Radzivil with absolute power; but the Polish aristocracy, 
 dianned at the violence of the republican and democratic clubs at Warsaw, opposed 
 .•\-ery attempt to excite a popular war. The Diet pronounced the deposition of the 
 jirinrely House of Romanoff ni Poland; and, on the 5th of Februar)', 1831. altet 
 ;wc mrnths of unsuccessful attempts at negotiation, the Czar Nicholas rejecting ail 
 term? but unconditional submission on the part of the Poles, a Russian army of 
 200,000 men, under the command of Field-Marshal Diebitsch, appeared in Poland 
 An indecisive action occurred on the 5th (February, 1831); and on the 25fh,ades- 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 365 
 
 perate engagement occurred between 40,000 Poles, under Prince Radzivil, and 
 100,000 Russians, and when the shades of night closed the combat, the dead bodies 
 of 10,000 Russians covered the sanguinary field. On the night of the 31st of March 
 (1831), the Polish army, under General Skrzynecki, fought and routed 20,000 Rus 
 sians. The Poles rapidly followed up their advantages, and before the cluse oi 
 April, the Russian forces were driven out of Poland. 
 
 Battle of Ostrolenka. — After concentrating his forces at Minsk, Skrzjmecki 
 rrc jsed the Bug, and advanced to Ostrolenka, where his army, led by General Bern, 
 encountered an army of 60,000 Russians, on the 26th of May. The carnage was 
 tnghtful. No quarter was given by either party. The Poles were defeated with 
 the loss of 5000 men. The victorious Russians also lost heavily, and three of their 
 generals were among the slain. 
 
 Dissensions among the Poles. — Owing to the dissensions among the Polish 
 leaders, the insurrection rapidly declined in strength after the battle of Ostrolenka. 
 In June, both Field-Marshal Diebitsch and the Archduke Constantine met with 
 sudden deaths. The populace of Warsaw ascribed the failure of the revolution to 
 treachery on the part of the aristocracy, thirty of whom were sacrificed to the popular 
 fury. The Polish dictator, Czartoryski, the successor of Chlopiki, fled in terror to 
 General Dembinski's camp, whereupon the Polish Diet invested Krukowiecki with 
 the supreme power. 
 
 Fall of Warsaw. — At length, a Russian army of 100,000 men, under the com 
 mand of General Paskiewitsch, advanced on Warsaw. At Wola, the ancient place 
 of the election of the Polish kings, the attacks of the Russians were repulsed. On 
 the 6th of September, 1831, after two days of furious assaults, during which 20,000 
 Russians and 10,000 Poles laid down their lives, the cowardly dictator, Kruko- 
 wiecki, surrendered Warsaw and Praga to Paskiewitsch. The main body of the 
 Polish army retreated from Warsaw, and soon afterward dispersed. 
 
 Submission of Poland — Flight and Exile of Polish Leaders. — The fall 
 of W^arsaw was the death-blow to the insurrection, and unfortunate Poland again 
 groaned under the iron heel of Russian despotism. Many of the Polish insurgents 
 retired into voluntary exile in foreign lands; and thousands of those who remained 
 and fell into the hands of the Russians, including generals, soldiers, and nobles, were 
 consigned to the dungeons and mines of Siberia. 
 
 Incorporation of Poland with the Russian Empire. — Poland was deprived 
 of her Constitution, her Diet, and her State Council, by the "Organic Statute," and 
 Incorporated with the Russian Empire, with a separate government and adminis- 
 tration of justice; and Polish nationality and independence seemed extinguish-^d, 
 
 INSURRECTIONS IN GERMANY AND ITALY (1831). 
 
 The Germanic Confederation — Insurrections in Hanover, Saxony, and 
 Hesse-Cassel. — The Congress of Vienna, in 181 5, united the Gei manic state.' 
 into one league entitled "The Germanic Confederation." The German portions ol 
 the j?jeat Austrian and Prussian monarchies were embraced in this confederation, 
 The affairs of the confederation were man.aged by a Diet composed of representa- 
 tives of the states of Germany. In this Diet the representative of Austria presided. 
 The Paris 'revolution of July also occasioned some revolutionary movements ir 
 
366 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Germany. The insurrections which took place in Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse- 
 Cassel, in 183 1, resulted in the establishment of liberal constitutions in those states. 
 In Brunswick, the constitution was improved, after the expulsion of the despotic 
 Duke Charles, and the assumption of the government of the Duchy by his brother. 
 Insurrections in Italy Suppressed by the Austrians — French Coup 
 de Main. — The success of the July Revolution of Paris roused the ?jberals m Italy 
 to action, but their efforts resulted in defeat. Insurrections whici. broke out in 
 Bulogna, Parma, and Modena, were suppressed by Austrian troops, and the regenii 
 ivlo had been expelled from the latter two states were restored to their governments, 
 tn the Papal States, the bandits and convicts who were employed in keeping dowr. 
 the revolutionists, conducted themselves in so shameful a manner, that the Austrian 
 troops marched into that section to protect the country against its own soldiers. To 
 prevent the Austrians from establishing their own supremacy in the Papal territory* 
 the French, by a " Coup de Main," seized upon Ancona, which they held for several 
 years. A band of refugees, under the Polish general Ramorino, made an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt upon Sardinia, from Switzerland, with the view of exciting all Italy 
 to revolution. 
 
 ENGLISH REFORMS (1828-1832). 
 
 Reign of George IV. — Abolition of the Test Act — Catholic Emancipa- 
 tion Act. — King George III., who during the last ten years of his life was an 
 imbecile, died in January, 1820, after a reign of sixty years, — the longest reign in 
 the annals of England, — and left his crown to his profligate son, George IV., who 
 had acted as Prince Regent during his father's imljecility. During the whole of 
 the reign of George IV., the British nation was agitated by the question of reform 
 in the representation in Parliament. The then-nominal disabilities imposed 
 upon Non-conformists, were removed by the abolition of the Test Act by Parlia- 
 ment, in 182S. The Catholic Emancipation Act, which allowed Roman Catholics, 
 to sit in Parliament, was passed in 1S29. 
 
 Accession of William IV. — The Wellington Ministry — The Grey Min- 
 istry. — King George IV. died in June, 1830; and his brother, the Duke of 
 Clarence, succeeded to the throne of Great Britain, with the title of William IV. 
 On the accession of William IV. the British Government was in the hands of the 
 Tory party, with the great Duke of Wellington as Prime-Minister. As public sen- 
 timent in Great Britain was in favor of reform in the constitution of Parliament 
 the Tory Ministry of Lord Wellington was obliged to resign, the same year, and a 
 Whig Ministry, under Lord Grey, came into power 
 
 Defeat of Lord John Russell's Reform Bill — Dissolution of Parlia- 
 ment. — On the 1st of March, 1831, Lord John Russell presented a measure of 
 reform in Parliament. After some stormy debates, the bill passed the House 
 <f Commons on a second reading, but was lost on a third reading. The Mini>lry 
 .hen dissolved Parliament, and ordered new elections to better ascertain I he 
 sonse of the nation. The result of the elections was that the friend? A reform weif 
 returned to seats in Parliament by all the large constituencies. 
 
 First Rejection of the Reform Bill by the House of Lords — Great 
 Riots. — The new Parliament was ojiened on the I4lh of June, 1831. Tlie reforra 
 
NINETEENTH CENTIJRY. 367 
 
 Dill was passed by the House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords. 
 The consequences of this action of the House of Lords were great riots in London, 
 Nottingham, Derby, and Bristol. In Bristol, much property was destroyed, and 
 many lives were sacrificed ; but the chief rioters were arrested, tried, convicted, and 
 executed. 
 
 Second Rejection of the Reform Bill by the Lords — Course of tht 
 \*eople. — Lord John Russell again brought forward a reform bill in Parliament, 
 III the I2th of December, 1831. The bill passed the House of Commons, on the 
 23d of March, 1832, but was again defeated in the House of Lords. Or tue tefusai 
 of the king to create a number of peers sufficient to secure the passage of the mea- 
 sure, the Ministry of Earl Grey resigned. The people formed political unions, 
 refused payment of taxes, and demanded the reinstatement of Earl Grey's Cabinet. 
 The king accordingly reinstated Earl Grey's Ministry, and created enough new 
 peers to insure the passage of the Reform Bill through the House of Lords. 
 
 Passage of the Reform Bill — Triumph of the Cause of Freedom. — The 
 Lords who were opposed to the Reform Bill, left their seats in Parliament when 
 the measure was again introduced. The bill was passed through both Houses, .and 
 received the royal assent on the 7th of June, 1832. By this bloodless revolution 
 and triumph of the cause of popular freedom, the right of sulTrage was extended to 
 half a million additional voters ; and the middle classes of English society were 
 invested with supreme political power in the British Empire. In 1833, Parlia- 
 ment passed an act abolishing slavery in the British West-India Islands. 
 
 Accession of Queen Victoria — England and Hanover — Victoria's Mar- 
 riage. — In June, 1837, King William IV. died, and was succeed-ed on the British 
 throne by his niece, Alexandra Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, and grand- 
 daughter of George HI. One result of the accession of a female to the throne of 
 Great Britain was the separation of the crowns of England and Hanover, after a 
 union of more than a century. The Salic Law prevailing in Hanover, the Duke 
 of Cumberland, Queen Victoria's uncle, ascended the throne of that German king- 
 dom. In February, 1S40, her majesty, Queen Victoria, was married to a German 
 prince, Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Since the accession of Queen Victoria, 
 tlie British Empire has enjoyed unrivaled prosperity. 
 
 SPANISH CIVIL WAR OF 1833-39. 
 
 Tyranny of King Ferdinand VII.— Abolition of the Salic Law m 
 Spain.— King Ferdin.and VII. of Spain, during whose reign the Spanish-American 
 colonies erected themselves into independent republics, after a long and bloody 
 struggle with the mother countiy, ruled in the most despotic manner, suppressing 
 eveiy germ of constitutional freedom. For the purpose of securing the succession 
 to the Spanish throne to his daughter Isabella, to the exclusion of his younger 
 1)1 )ther, Don Carlos, Ferdinand VIL, abolished the Salic Law. which had prevail^! 
 in all Bourbon kingdoms. 
 
 Civd War in Spain— Restoration of the Cortes Constitution if 181 a - 
 When I-erdinand VII. died, in 1833, and his daughter, Isaliella II., succeeded to 
 the throne of Spain, the Carlists, as the adherents of Don Carlos were called, who 
 were numerous in the North of Spain, took up arms, and involved the Spanish knig- 
 
568 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 •J 
 
 dom in civil war. For the purpose of securing the liberal party in Spain to the 
 support of the young queen, the queen-mother, Maria Christina, who acted as regent 
 during her daughters minority, restored the Cortes Constitution of 1S12. 
 
 Defeat of the Carlists — Capitulation of Moreto and End of the Civil 
 War. — The friends of absolute monarchy sided with Don Carlos. Many Uoody 
 battles were fought; and the queen-mother received aid from England an(, f ranee. 
 After the civil war had lasted six years, and about 300,000 lives had betr. su. rificfd, 
 the Carlists were subdued. In August, 1840, General Espartero compelled ih< 
 Carlist general Maroto to lay down his arms by capitulation; and thus L>niu<^ht 
 about the general pacification of the Sjianish i^ingdom. 
 
 Espartero and the Queen-Mother — Insurrections in Spain. — General 
 Espartero quarrelled with the queen-mother soon after the close of the civil war, 
 and after removing her from the regency, in 1841, he obtained control of the Gov- 
 ernment; but was overthrown in 1S43, by General Narvaez, and obliged to seek 
 refuge in England, whereupon the queen-mother recovered her lost authority. In 
 1853, a rebellion broke out in Spain in consequence of the despotic measures of the 
 Government; and in 1854, an insurrection in Madrid compelled the queen-mother 
 to flee, whereujion a provisional government under Espartero was formed; but 
 Queen Isabella II. afterwards secured control of the Government. 
 
 DISSENSIONS IN THE TURKO-EGYPTIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Mehemet Ali, Pacha of Egypt — Massacre of the Mamelukes — Con- 
 quests of Mehemet Ali. — Mehemet AH, who became Pacha of Egypt in 1805, 
 and who fully established his power by his treacherous massacre of the Mameluke 
 chiefs in 181 1, did much for the advancement and prosperity of Egypt. In 1818, 
 Mehemet Ali subdued the Wahawbees, a Mohammedan sect in Arabia; in 1819 
 and 1820, he conquered Nul)ia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and Dongola; and in 1824, 
 he sent his son, Ibrahim Pacha, with an army to aid the Sultan, his master, in 
 suppressing the Greek Revolution. 
 
 Mehemet Ali's First Rebellion against the Sultan — Russian Inter- 
 vention. — In 1 83 1, Mehemet Ali rebelled against his master, the Sultan of Turkey ; 
 and his son, Iljrahim Pacha, invaded Syria, took Acre by siege, and marched in u 
 rapid course of victories toward Constantinople; and the Ottoman Empire was only 
 saved from destruction by the timely intervention of the Czar Nicholas of Russia in 
 behalf of the Sultan, in 1831. 
 
 Mehemet Ali's Second Rebellion — European Aid to the Sultan. — In 
 1839, Mehemet Ali again toolc up arms against the Sultan. Ibrahim Pacha again in- 
 vaded Syria and defeated the Ottoman forces; but England, Austria, Russia, and 
 Prussia came to the Sultan's rescue. The British navy bombarded and took Beyrout 
 and Acre; and in 1841, the rebellious Pacha of Egypt was forced to accept a reate 
 VAJch left the province of Syria in the Sultan's possession. 
 
 GROWTH OF THE ANGLO-INDIAN EMPIRE 
 
 England's Opium War with China — Treaty of Nankin. — The seizure a'ld 
 destruction, by the Chinese authorities, of large quantities of opium smuggled into 
 
y»'/7VA TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 
 
 369 
 
 Clwnese cities by British merchants, led to a war between England and China, at 
 the close of 1839. The Chinese were thoroughly humbled; their great cities, Amoy, 
 Canton, and Ningpo, were taken; and by the treaty of Nankin, on the 29th of 
 August, 1842, China was required to pay to England twenty- one million pounds 
 sletling for the expenses of the war; to cede the island of Hong-Kong to Great 
 Eritaui; and to open five of her principal ports to the commerce of Christendom. 
 
 The Afghanistan War — Disastrous Retreat of the Anglo-Indian Aitny, 
 — The Biitish Empire in India has Ijeen greatly enlarged during the present cen- 
 tui /. The English East-India Company acquired additional territories by a sue- 
 f;essful war against the Burmese, in 1824 and 1S25; and in 1839, under the 
 erroneous impression that Russia intended to attack England's Indian Empire, an 
 Anglo-Indian army was marched into Afghanistan. The invading army took Can- 
 dahar, entered Cabul, the Afghan capital, deposed Dost Mohammed, the reigning 
 Afghan sovereign, and raised Shah Soojah to the Afghan throne. On the 2d of 
 November, 1841, a fierce rebellion, headed by Akbar Khan, son of the deposed 
 Dost Mohammed, broke out at Cabul. The British ministers and many of the 
 military commanders were put to death. Shah Soojah was dethroned, and Dost 
 Mohammed was raised to the Afghan throne. Finding themselves in the midst of 
 a hostile people, the English made a disastrous retreat. The British troops and 
 camp-followers, women and children, numbering 26,000 persons, were nearly all 
 killed, o: made captives. In the following year (1842), an Anglo-Indian army, 
 under General Pollock, marched into Afghanistan, gained some victories, and then 
 retired. 
 
 War with the Ameers of Scinde — Battle of Hyderabad — Annexation 
 of Scinde. — The treacherous conduct of the Ameers of Scinde toward the Eng- 
 lish, brought an Anglo-Indian army, under Sir Charles Napier, into their territory. 
 The Am.eers were defeated in the bloody battle of Hyderabad; and the result of 
 the short contest was the annexation of their territory, Scinde, to the British Empire 
 in India. 
 
 Mahratta War — Battles of Maharajpore and Punniar — Annexation of 
 Gwalior. — During the year 1843, the Mahrattas, who had also taken up arms 
 against the English, were defeated in the battles of Maharajpore and Punniar, and 
 their territory, Gwalior, was annexed to the English-Indian territories. 
 
 First Sikh War — Battle of Moodkee — Battles of Ferozeshah, Aliwal, 
 and Sobraon. — In 1844, the Sikhs in the Punjab began a war against the East- 
 India Company. The English defeated the Sikhs in the bloody battles of Feroz- 
 eshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon. In the battle of Sobraon, the Sikhs lost 10,000 men 
 in killed and wounded, and the English over 2,000 men. Peace was made in 
 December, 1846. 
 
 Second Sikh War— Battles of Chenah, Chillianwallah, and Goojerat — 
 /Annexation of the Punjab. — -Another war broke out between the English and 
 tlr.e Sikhs in 1848. The Sikhs were defeated in the battles of Chenah, Chillian- 
 wallah, and Goojerat, in consequence of which their territory, the Punj ib, wai 
 annexed to the British-Indian Empire, in 1849. 
 24 
 
jyo MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 EUROPEAN REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-49. 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848. 
 
 Peaceful Reign of Louis Philippe — Attempts of Louis Napoleon Bona- 
 parte.— Under Louis Philippe, the Citizen-King, ihe French nation prospered, and, 
 with the exception of the seventeen years' war with the Arab tribes of Algiers, 
 ••emained at peace with all the world. Insurrections which broke out in Paris an^i 
 Ly3n?, in the early part of this reign, were easily suppressed. In October, 1836, 
 Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the great Empeior Napoleon I., 
 attempted to raise an insurrection at Slrasburg, to overthrow the govermient oi 
 Louis Philippe. In August, 1840, Louis Napoleon landed at Boulogne, and made 
 another attempt to excite an insurrection in France, but he was seized and impris- 
 oned for several years. In 1840, the remains of the great Napoleon were brought 
 from St. Helena to Paris, and placed in the Hotel des Invalides. By the surrender 
 of the indefatigable Arab chieftain, Abdel-Kader, in 1847, the conquest of Algiers 
 by the French was accomplisheil. 
 
 Character of Louis Philippe's Government. — Louis Philippe received his 
 main support from the bourgeoisie, or middle class, and was opposed by the Ultra- 
 Republicans, and also by the Legitimists, or adherents of the elder branch of the 
 Bourbons. As Louis Philippe grew old, he became ambitious, and set about schemes 
 for the aggrandizement of his family, and the establishment of a dynasty founded 
 upon the principles of the ancient despotism. He practically ignored the constitu- 
 tional charter by corrupting both branches of the French legislature. With won- 
 derful good fortune, Louis Philippe escaped eight attempts at assassination; that 
 by means of the " infernal machine," contrived by the Corsican Fieschi, resulting 
 in the death of forty-two persons near the king. 
 
 The Ministry of M. Guizot. — In 1840, the Ministry of M. Thiers gave place 
 to a new Cabinet, at the head of which was M. Guizot. The government of M. 
 Guizot was characterized by pride, tyranny, and a series of encroachments on the 
 liberties of the French people. The efforts of M. Guizot were directed chiefly to 
 the strengthening of the royal prerogative. Guizot persevered in his despotic policy, 
 until the latent fires of popular disaffection broke forth in the Paris Revolution of 
 February, 1848, which cost Louis Philippe his throne. 
 
 Reform Banquets Forbidden by the Government. — During the lattei part 
 of 1S47, and in the beginning of 1848, numerous reform banquets were heid in 
 different parts of France. Arrangements were made for the holding of one in one of 
 thearrondissements of Paris, on the 22d of February, 1848, Washmgton's birth-day; 
 but the Ministry issued a proclamation forbidding it, and made preparations to sup- 
 press it by military force if it were attempted. The Chambers of Deputies, then in 
 session, warmly discussed the arbitraiy measures of the Government, and the op])o- 
 silion members resolved upon the impeachment of the Ministers. 
 
 Commencement of the Revolution, February 22d, 1848. — The lefoiu 
 Kvnquet arranged for the 22d of Februaiy, 1S48, was not held ; but, on the ni( rning 
 of that day, large crowds collected in Paris, blocked up the avenues leading to ll.c 
 legislative Chambers, and made offensive demonstrations before the house of M 
 Guizot. Abou) noon, a large crowd assembled in front of the Church of the Made^ 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 371 
 
 ,eino, hut weie easily dispersed by the troops. In the evening, disturbances began 
 m the French capital: gunsmiths' shops were broken open; lamps were extin- 
 guished; barricades were erected ; guards were attacked ; and the streets were filled 
 with soldiers. In the Chambers, Odillon Barrot moved an impeachment of the 
 Prinie-Mirister. 
 
 Street Fighting on February 23d — Dismissal of the Guizot Cibinet.— 
 
 On the morning of February 23d, the streets of Paris were filled with large 'jrowda 
 •f people, barricades were erected, and some fighting occurred between the people 
 ml the troops, in which several persons were killed. In obedience to the requea* 
 of the National Guards, who fraternized with the people, the king dismissed th« 
 Ministry of M. Guizot, and called on Count Mole to form a new Cabinet. Thii 
 a-tion of the king produced a lull ; hut the wanton discharge of musketry upon a 
 large crowd, by the guards assembled before M. Guizot's hotel, by which fifty-two 
 persons were killed and wounded, again excited the fury of the populace, who 
 paraded through the streets with a bier covered with dead bodies, crying " To arfns !" 
 "Down with the assassips !" "Down with Louis Philippe!" "Down with the 
 Bourbons !" 
 
 February 24th — Abdication of Louis Philippe — France a Republic. — 
 
 On the morning of February 24th, the whole city of Paris was in possession of the 
 people. At the Chateau d' Eau,a large stone building in front of the Palais Royal, 
 a severe fight occurred between the people and the municipal guards, and the 
 chateau was demolished by fire. The mob then marched to the Tuileries, 
 and demanded the abdication of the king. Louis Philippe signed an abdication 
 m favor of his grandson, the young Count of Paris, but the Chambers would not 
 accept the young prince, and Louis Philippe and his family fled to Neuilly, from 
 tvhich place they made their escape to England. The royal furniture was thrown 
 out of the windows of the Tuileries and burned, the wines in the royal cellars were 
 distril)uted among the multitude, the throne was carried through the streets, and 
 iflnally burned on the Place de la Bastile, and the royal carriages were burned at 
 the Chateau d' Eau. Overwhelmed by the mob, and amid the greatest confusion 
 and shouts of "Vive la Republique!" the sturdy republican, Dupont de 1' Eure, was 
 carried to the chair in the Chamber of Deputies, where a provisional government 
 was proclaimed, consisting of the following persons: M. Lamartine, Emanuel Arago, 
 Ledru Rollin. Gamier Pages, Dupont de 1' Eure, Lamoriciere, Cavaignac, and De- 
 coutrias. The Provisional Government was installed at the Hotel de Ville, and 
 proclaimed The Second French Republic. The Chamber of Peers was immedi- 
 ately abolished. The poet, M. Lamartine, was the master-spirit of the new govern- 
 m(;nt. Eveiy citizen of France was made an elector, and twenty-five years of age 
 constituted clegibility for office; the penalty of death for political offences was im- 
 Hi-idiately abolished; and all slaves on territory subject to France were declared free. 
 Doings of France's New Rulers — National Workshops. — On tht 4th of 
 Much, 1848, the victims of the Revolution of February were solemnly interred, in 
 ;he presence of nearly half a million of people, at the foot of a monument erected 
 to the memor)- of the victims of the Revolution of July, 1830. France's new rulers 
 directed their first efforts to the reestablishment of order; and many grievences of 
 which tl\e people complained were removed. Fetes, parades, and ilUui'inationg 
 were given daily for the public amusement. But the spirit of anarchy an ' restless- 
 
^-j2 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ness was i/ow rife lor another insurrection. As the Revolution had been the work 
 of the laboring classes, efforts were now taken by the Provisional Government to 
 better their condition. National workshops were established in Paris, where the 
 idle could find employment. 
 
 Attempted Revolutionary Risings. — The Moderate and Red Republians 
 had united to overturn the throne of Louis Philippe, but no sooner had the Repub 
 lie been proclaimed than the animosity between those two parties broke forth anew 
 and w^en the Reds perceived that the control of public affairs was in the hands of 
 I lie Moderate party, they began to conspire for another revolution. The first oper. 
 opposition to the Provisional Government was made on the i6th of April (184^:), 
 the object of *h° movement being the overthrow of the Provisional Government, 
 and the establishment of a Committee of Safety for the direction of public affairs. 
 This movement, and a rising of the various clubs of Paris, were easily suppressed. 
 Bloody riots occurred on the 23d and 24th of April (1848), the days for the election 
 of members for a permanent National Assembly. 
 
 A French National Assembly. — The elections throughout France resulted in 
 large majorities for the Moderate Republicans; and on the 5th of May (1848), 
 the newly-elected National Assembly met in Paris, and organized with the election 
 of M. Buchez as president. On the following day (May 6, 1848), the members of 
 the Provisional Government submitted their reports to the National Assembly and 
 resigned their powers. On the loth, the National Assembly appointed M. Eman- 
 uel Arago, Gamier Pages, M. Marie, M. Lamartine, and Ledru Rollin, an execu- 
 tive committee to act in place of the Provincial Government. 
 
 Communist Insurrection of May 15th. — On the 15th of May, 1848, an 
 immense mob assembled in the streets of Paris, proceeded to the hall of the National 
 Assembly, drove out the members, and proclaimed Socialism and Communism, the 
 imposition of taxes upon the rich for the benefit of the poor, and the restoration of 
 the guillotine. The mob also declared that France should send an army to Poland to 
 drive the Russian troops from that country, and a heavy tax was levied on the rich 
 to carry on the war for Poland. The mob also appointed an executive government 
 composed of the Communist leaders, M. Barbes, Blanqui, Flocon, Cabet, Albert, 
 Raspail, and Louis Blanc. This movement would doubtless have resulted in the 
 most serious consequences, had not the National Guard declared for the National 
 Assembl/, dispersed the mob at the point of the bayonet, and restored order. The 
 Communist leaders, Blanqui, Barbes, Raspail, Sobrier, and Albert, were arrested 
 and imprisoned. 
 
 The Great Communist Rebellion of June.— The insurrection of May I5tli 
 tvas only a prelude to the great Communist Rebellion of June. Fearing anothei 
 demonstration on an extensive scale, the Government made the necessary prepara- 
 tions to meet it. Finding the burdens imposed upon the national treasury too hea\7 
 to be borne, the Government, in June, resolved upon the discharge of the immense 
 atnxy of woikmen, more than 100,000 in number, uselessly employed in Paiis at 
 ;he public expense. This alarmed the workmen, who immediately organized toi 
 another des])erate struggle, for the purpose of bringing about the realization ir 
 practice of the absurd theory of Communism and Socialism, — a community of goods 
 lud manners. The party of law and order, which controlled the National Assem 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 373 
 
 dIj were resolved upon the complete annihilation of the Communist faction in the 
 event of another appeal to arms. On the 2?d of June (1848), a deputation of five 
 delegates, appointed by the vi'orkmen, called on M. Marie, the Prime-Minister of 
 the Republic. After a short conference, the deputation returned to the workmen, 
 assuring them that they had nothing to expect from the Government. This was the 
 signal lor riotous demonstrations. Large crowds collected, in the evening at the 
 ilotel de Ville, the Place de la Bastile, and other important points, crying fjt 'he 
 .iownl ill of the Republic, and the elevation of Charles Louis Napoleon Bonap^rH 
 to the throne of France. On the following morning, June 23d, it was found tlal 
 the rioters had made considerable progress, and thrown up barricades in various 
 portions of the city. The principal insurgent barricades were in the Rue St. Denis, 
 Rue du Faubourg St. Denis, Rue Villeneuve Bourbon, Rue de Clery, and near 
 the Porte St. Denis and the Porte St. Martin. The Government appointed General 
 Cavaignac, then Minister of Wa"-, commander-in-chief of all the troops in Paris. 
 The barricades near the Porte St. Denis were carried at the point of the bayonet. 
 The insurgents there were aided by boys, and even by women, who appeared on the 
 barricades, waving flags and other emblems. On the 24th, the National Assembly 
 declared Paris in a state of siege, and appointed General Cavaignac dictator. A 
 heavy musketry and artillery fire continued during the greater part of the day, and 
 before evening, the rebellion was suppressed on the left bank of the Seine, but a 
 sanguinary struggle took place at the Clos St. Lazarre, on the right bank. The con- 
 flict raged with great fury during the 25th. The Government troops numbered 
 300,000 men, and the insurgents 1 20,000. A terrible struggle raged at the Pantheon, 
 where the rebel barricades were captured, after frightful carnage. In the evening 
 of this day, occurred one of the saddest events in this unhappy civil war. Monseig- 
 neur Affre, Archbishop of Paris, appeared at the Place de la Bastile, for the lauda- 
 ble purpose of bringing about a pacification. On the appearance of the noble 
 prelate, both parties, for a while, ceased firing, but suddenly recommenced, and 
 the venerable Archbishop received a mortal wound, and expired on the morning 
 of the 27lh. On the morning of the 26th, the struggle was renewed with terrible 
 fierceness, the principal scenes of action being the Faubourg St. Antoine, the Place 
 Maubert, and the vicinity of the Pantheon. At noon, the insurgents at the Faubourg 
 St. Antoine surrendered, but the other places were stormed, and the insurgent gar- 
 risons of each were killed or captured. The insurgent barricade at the corner of 
 the Rue de la Roquette was attacked by the Government troops, under General 
 Lamoriciere, after having carried all the rebel barricades in the Faubourg du Tem- 
 ple. From the Place de le Bastile, Lamoriciere's troops bombarded and cannon- 
 aded the insurgent works, when the falling of shells on some of the adjoining houses, 
 several of which were set on fire, so frightened the insurgents that they fled out of 
 tbt city. Thus ended the great Rebellion of the Paris Communists, in June, 1848 
 Never before had Paris witnessed such slaughter as during these four sanguinary days. 
 The number of killed and wounded is not definitely known, but 25,000 is nof 
 irobably a very high estimate. One-fourth of the city was ruined. Several day? 
 A'eie occupied in buiying the dead, and in repairing the damage inflicted on tlu^ 
 city. On the 29th (June, 1848), General Cavaignac resigned his dictatorship into 
 the hands of the National Assembly, and that body then appcnted him Chief 
 Executive of France. 
 
374 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A New Constitution — Louis Napoleon Elected President of France. — 
 
 On the 4th of November, 1848, the French National Assembly, by a vote of 739 
 in favor, ind 30 in opposition, adopted a Constitution, giving France a republican 
 foim of government, v/ith one Legislative Assembly, and vesting the executive 
 power in a President, to be elected by universal suffrage, for a term of four years. 
 The candidates for the Presidency were General Cavaignac, General Changarnier^ 
 M. I^martine, Raspail, Ledru Rollin, Louis Blanc, and Charles Louis Napoleon 
 y^iraparte. To the surprise of all, the Presidential election resulted in the ch(jice 
 )f Louis Napoleon, by a clear majority of 3,556,400 against all the otlier candidatts 
 t.cmbined. The President-elect was sworn into office on the 20th of Decembeiv 
 1848, in the presence of the Assembly, by M. Marrast, President of that body. 
 
 REVOLUTIONS IN GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND PRUSSIA. 
 
 Consequences of the Paris Revolution of February. — The Revolution yf 
 February, 1848, in Paris, was the signal for general popular risihgs in Germany, 
 Italy, ard Hungary, which countries had long been disturbed by political and social 
 agitation ; and concessions which had been vainly demanded for thirty years by the 
 Liberal party in Germany, were now extorted from every German ruler within three 
 weeks. 
 
 Popular Movements in Baden, Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony, and Wur- 
 temberg. — On the 29th of Februaiy, 1848, deputations from every town in the 
 Grand-Duchy of Baden demanded of the Grand-Duke freedom of the press, trial 
 by jury, the right of the people to bear arms and to meet in public, and a popular 
 kglslative assembly for all Germany, by the side of the Federal Diet at Frankfort-on- 
 the-Main. On the 2d of March, the Grand-Duke yielded to all these demands, ap- 
 pomted a Ministry from the Liberal party, and adopted other conciliatory measures. 
 Popular movements of a similar character took place in other parts of Germany. 
 King Louis of Bavaria, after being forced to grant to his subjects the reforms which 
 they had demanded, abdicated his throne in favor of the Crown-Prince Maximilian. 
 The Kings of Hanover, Saxony, and Wurtemburg, granted to their su!)jects the 
 concessions which they had demanded. In Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and other 
 German States, the leaders of the popular party were called to the Ministry, and 
 many beneficent reforms were introduced; but the popular movement assumed such 
 fonnidable proportions that insurrection and revolution were entered upon in many 
 portions of Germany. In many localities, the peasants drove away the stewards, 
 and destroyed the land and tithe registers, and the seats of the landlords. 
 
 The Vienna Revolution of March. — When the Diet of Lower Austria was 
 opened at Vienna, on the 13th of March, 1S48, a large concourse of people, headed 
 by the students of the University, proceeded to the hall in which the Diet assembled, 
 and demanded a constitution, liberty of the press, a National Guard, trial by jury, and 
 religious liberty. The order for the people to disperse not being obeyed, the Arch- 
 lule Albert ordered the troops to fire into the crowd. A great number were kiL'^d 
 »nd wounded and the exasperation of the excited populace obliged the Austnac 
 Emperor to 01 Jer the soldiers to withdraw. The arsenal was opened to the peojilt 
 by tlie city guards, who declared for the popular cause. The Ministry of Prince 
 Metternich was overthrown, and in a few days the Emperor Ferdinand yielded to 
 all tt e demands of the people. Lawlessness soon prevailed in the Austrian capital, 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 •ri"^ 
 
 iiid the result of the liberty of the press was a disgraceful daily literature . Riots and 
 ir.surrections were of frequent occurrence. On the i8th of May, the Emperor and 
 his court retired to Innspruck, in the Tyrol, but, at the request of the people, he 
 ret^rnc' to the capital in August, when the students and the democratic clubs ruled 
 Vienna m the most despotic manner. 
 
 The March Revolution of Berlin. — On the 17th of March, 1848, the Ring 
 )l Prussia granted freedom of the press, but the people of Berlin also demanded 
 he withdrawal of the soldiers from the capital, and the formation of a National 
 Guard Crowds assembled in the streets, in front of the royal palace, where, u«. 
 the i8tL of March, a terrible conflict commenced, and only terminated on the after- 
 noon of the 19th, after having raged for fourteen hours. The barricades which had 
 been erected by the people were removed by the troops, who were then ordered by 
 the king to withdraw. The Ministry was dismissed, a militia and guard for the 
 palace were formed, and an unconditional amnesty was granted by the king, P'red- 
 eric William IV., who now placed himself at the head of the popular movement in 
 Germany. A few weeks later, a constituent National Assembly, elected by universal 
 suffrage, undertook the task of framing a representative constitution for the Prussian 
 kingdom. 
 
 Revolt of Schleswig-Holstein against Denmark. — When, in consequence 
 of the Paris February Revolution, a powerful movement was communicated to the 
 other European States, the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were 
 under the government of the King of Denmark, resolved to assert their independ- 
 ence by force of arms. The Duchies established a provisional government, and, 
 on the 26th of March, 1848, declared their independence of the King of Denmark. 
 A bloody war ensued between the King of Denmark and the Duchies. The Schles- 
 wig-Holsteiners were aided by Prussian and other German volunteers, and the 
 Danes were driven from Schleswig. The threatening attitude assumed by England 
 and Russia, in consequence of the distressing effect of this war upon the maritime 
 trade of Northern Europe, induced Prussia to conclude the Truce of Malmo with 
 the King of Denmark, and hostilities were for some time suspended. 
 
 The German Parliament. —In the beginning of April (1848), the German 
 Parliament assembled by its own authority, in the Free City of Frankfort-ou-the- 
 Main. This Parliament laid down the principle of popular sovereignty, and pre- 
 pared the way for the convocation of a freely-elected National Assembly, which 
 should be charged with the task of framing a constitution for a free and united 
 Germany. 
 
 Republican Insurrection in Baden. — A party headed by Hecker, Struve, 
 and others, was striving for a German republic ; and a republican insurrection broke 
 out in Baden, but the movement was speedily crushed, and the leaders were obliged 
 to flee. 
 
 The German National Assembly.— On the i8th of May, 1848, the German 
 National Assembly, which was chosen to frame a constitution for the German nation, 
 convened in the Church of St. Paul, in Frankfort-on-the-Main. The Assembly 
 Immediately set aside the Diet, and established a new central power, and resolved 
 upon the choice of an irresponsible regent, who was to surround himself with » 
 responsible ministry. 
 
376 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Slavic Insurrection in Prague — Siege and Fall of Prague.— The Bohe- 
 mians, a Slavic race, had applied lo the Emperor of Austria for a constitution which 
 would render their relations with the Austrian Empire the same as those of the 
 Hungarians. Representatives from all the Slavic nations of the Empire assembled 
 in a Congress at Prague, in June, 1848. During the session of this G ngress, the 
 [eopleof Prague demanded of Prince Windischgratz the removal of the troops 
 'I >Ji ths city, and the furnishing of arms to the people; and when this demand 
 «as not complied with, the people rose in insurrection. After dreadful fighting ir. 
 he streets of Prague, for a whole week, during which the city was also bombarded 
 .rom the neighboring heights, the city surrendered to Prince Windischgratz, on the 
 17th of June. The Slavic Congress was broken up, and the insurrection yas 
 quelled. 
 
 Archduke John of Austria Chosen Regent of Germany. — On the 29th of 
 fune, 1848, the Archduke John of Austria was chosen Regent of Gennany, by the 
 National Assembly, at Frankfort-on-the-Main ; and, on the I Ith of July, he received 
 from the hands of the president of the Federal Diet, the power exercised by that 
 body. 
 
 Republican Insurrection at Frankfort-on-the-Main. — On the i8th of 
 September, 1848, a revolutionary rising occurred at F"rankfort-on-the-Main, the 
 object of which was to disperse the German National Assembly, and to bring alx)ut 
 the esiaiilishment of a German republic. After a bloody street-fight, the insurrec- 
 tion was crushed by the Federal troops; but two members of the National Assem- 
 bly, Auerswald and Lichnowsky, were murdered by the mob in the Bornheimer 
 wood. 
 
 The October Revolution of Vienna — Siege and Fall of Vienna. — The 
 Croats and other Slavonic races of Hungary had taken up arms against the Mag- 
 yars, and were supported in their revolt by the Austrian Government. The 
 Magyars were highly incensed at the course of the Imperial Government; and, 
 on the 3d of October, 1848, the imperial commissioner, Lamberg, was murdered 
 by an enraged mob, on the bridge of Buda-Pesth. The Austrian troops were im- 
 mediately ordered to march into Hungary; but the democrats of Vienna, who were 
 in sympathy with the Magj'ars, excited another revolution in the Austrian capital. 
 Count Latour, Minister of War, was murdered by the excited mob, and the Minis- 
 try was overthrown. (October 6, 1848.) The Emperor of Austria fled to Olmutz, 
 in Moravia; and at his command, Prince Windischgratz marched against the rebel- 
 lif)us capital. After besieging Vienna for three weeks, the imperial army, under 
 Windischgratz, opened a furious assault on the city, on the 29th of October; and, 
 after a heroic defence, the city surrendered on the 31st. The conquered capital 
 was placed under martial law; and several of the revolutionary leaders, among 
 whom was Robert Blum, a member of the German National Assembly, were pun- 
 ished with death. The Imperial Government then adopted a conciliatory course; 
 ind, on the 2d of December, 1848, the Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the thione 
 and was succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. 
 
 Dissolution of the Prussian National Assembly. — For some time, ihi 
 popular unions ruled in Berlin; and noisy rioters, excited by public orators, and 
 by placards on the walls, constantly surrounded the Prussian constituent National 
 
NINE TE EN Til CENT UK Y. 
 
 377 
 
 /^,'^^enlbly, and exercised an influence upon the deliberations of that body by intimi- 
 dation. The King of Prussia resolved to put an end to such proceedings, and the 
 new Ministry of Count Brandenburg adjourned the sitting of the Assembly to the 
 town of Brandenburg. Some of the members continued their sittings in Berlin, but 
 were soon driven out by the troops ; and when the Assembly declared the levying 
 of taxes illegal it was dissolved. At the same time, the Prussian Government pro- 
 tlajned a liberal constitution, which was to be submitted for ratification to a ne* 
 elective assembly with two chambers. 
 
 Rejection of the New Imperial Constitution by the King of Prussia.- 
 lu March, 1849, ^^^ German constituent National Assembly adopted a constitution 
 which united the German States into a confederacy, with an hereditary emperor, 
 ard a legislative assembly consisting of two branches, one of which should be com- 
 posed of representatives of the Government, and the other of deputies chosen by 
 the German people. The Assembly, by a large vote, offered the dignity of " Em- 
 peror of Germany" to the King of Prussia, upon cojidition of his accepting the 
 new imperial constitution in all its details; but Frederic William IV. decisively 
 rejected the new constitution and the imperial dignity. When the Prussian Assem- 
 bly of Estates recommended the acceptance of the constitution and the imperial 
 dignity by the king, as the desire of the German people, the first chamber was pro- 
 rogued, and the second dissolved; and the elective law was so changed that the 
 right of universal suffrage was to give place to an election arranged upon the three 
 lax-paying classes. 
 
 Revolutionary Risings in Germany. — The consequences of the Prussian 
 king's rejection of the imperial constitution were fresh commotions in various 
 parts of Germany; and formidable insurrections and bloody street-fights occurred 
 in Saxony, Rhenish Bavaria, and Rhenish Prussia. The republican party was 
 gradually gaining power in the German National Assembly ; but the revolution- 
 ary movement in Germany was speedily suppressed by the Prussian army. Prussian 
 troops crushed the popular risings in Elberfeld, Dusseldorf, and other places ; 
 and, after a barricade street-fight of six days in Dresden, Prussian troops restored 
 the authority of the King of Saxony. 
 
 Republican Insurrection in Baden. — A mutiny of the garrison in the fortress 
 of Rastadt, and an insurrection at Carlesruhe, compelled the Grand-Duke of Baden 
 to take flight, whereupon the control of public affairs in the Grand-Duchy came 
 into the hands of the democrats and republicans. At the Grand-Duke's call tor 
 assistance, Prussian troops marched into Baden ; and, after several engagements, 
 in which the insurgent troops, under the Polish adventurer, Mierolawski, were 
 defeated, the insurrection was thoroughly crushed, and the Grand-Duke's authority 
 was fully restored. Some of the revolutionary leaders were shot, but others saved 
 themselves by fleeing into republican countries. In the meantime, the German 
 National Assembly, which was now entirely controlled by the republicans, the con- 
 Jervative members having resigned their seats, had removed its sittings to Stuttgart, 
 in the kingdom of Wurlemburg, but the Wurtemburg Government soon forced tht 
 members to leave the kingdom. 
 
 Renewal of the War in Schleswig-Holstein.— Hostilities between the 
 King of Denmark and the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein broke out afresh in 
 
378 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 March, 1849. On the 5th of April, the Danish ship-of-the-line, "Christian VIII.." 
 was sunk by German troops, and the Danish frigate " Gefion" was compelled to 
 surrender. The triumphant Germans soon laid siege to Frederica, but they were 
 afterwards driven back by the Danes. An armistice was concluded in July, 1849, 
 an i in the following year (1850), a treaty of peace was signed by whic^ the sove 
 reigntv of the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein remained in .;e hands 
 '^ the King of Denmark. 
 
 Austrian and Prussian Constitutions. — We have already alluded .0 hf. 
 /udi-alion of the Emperor Ferdinand of Austria, and the accession of his r.ephew 
 Ths new Emperor, Francis Joseph, dissolved the Austrian constituent Diet a. 
 Kremsier; and, on the 4th of March, 1849, he proclaimed a constitution for ;he 
 Austrian Empire. A new constitution went into operation in Prussia, on the 6th 
 of February, 1850, since which time Prussia has been a constitutional monarchy. 
 
 REVOLUTIONS IN ITALY. 
 
 Revolt of Sicily Against Naples. — For many years, there had existed in Italy 
 a party seeking to secure to Italy national unity, independence, and a constitutional 
 government; and the Paris February Revolution was the signal for the leaders of this 
 party to attempt to carry out their schemes. In January, 1848, the people of the island 
 of Sicily rose in revolt against their sovereign, Ferdinand, King of Naples, established 
 a provisional government, and asserted their independence. A bloody war ensued 
 between the Sicilians and the Neapolitans. Ferdinand was forced to grant the 
 people of Naples a liberal constitution ; but, in consequence of Ferdinand's viola- 
 tion of his liberal promises, an insurrection broke out in the city of Naples, in May, 
 1848, and the king gave up his capital to be plundered and sacked by the lazzaroni, 
 who brutally massacred many of the inhabitants. Ferdinand vigorously prosecuted 
 the war against the revolted Sicilians. Messina surrendered to the Neapolitans, 
 after a fierce bombardment of two days; the Sicilians were defeated in a furious 
 battle at Catania; and Palermo yielded to the arms of the Neapolitans, after a short 
 resistance. With the fall of Palermo, King Ferdinand of Naples recovered his 
 authority throughout Sicily, after which he overthrew by violence the constitution in 
 Naples, which he had granted in a moment of necessity. 
 
 Popular Insurrections in Austrian Italy. — For several years, there had been 
 much political agitation in those portions of Italy subject to Austria, — namely, Lom- 
 bardy and Venetia. The Paris Revolutionof February aroused the Italians, and finally, 
 the Vienna Revolution of March precipitated the climax in Austrian Italy. On 
 the 1 8th of March, 1848, the people of Milan, on receiving intelligence of the 
 March Revolution of Vienna, flocked to the government-house, and demanded the 
 release of all political prisoners, and the formation of a National Guard. The 
 Austrian troops fired, whereupon the mob raised the cry of "Evviva Italia !' and 
 rushing forward, overpowered the guard. A discharge of musketry on the pec pis, 
 by the military, occasioned a general rising; and, after a barricade street-fight of five 
 days, the Austrian troops were driven from the city. At the same time, populai 
 risings occurred at Parma and Pavia, and resulted in the expulsion of the Austriar. 
 ganisons from those places; and all Lombardy and Venetia was in open rebellion 
 agamst the Austrian power. 
 
M-INETEENTH CENTURY. 375 
 
 War Between Austria and Sardinia — An Armistice. — On the 23d ol 
 March, 1848, Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, issued a proclamation in favor jf 
 Italian nationality, and marched with an army into Lombardy, to assist the insurgents 
 there to drive out the Austrians. The delays of Charles Albert gave the Austiian 
 Field-Marshal, Radetzky, time to concentrate his forces and to receive reinfrrce- 
 ments. The Sardinian king gained victories over the Austrians at Peschiera m\C, 
 Goi'.o, and captured Rivoli; but, while he was employed in the siege of Mantua, 
 he Austrians, under Radetzky, defeated the Sardinians at La Corona, after a des 
 ^»erute conHic*.. After defeating the King of Sardinia in a bloody battle at Custozzo, 
 on the 25th of July, and in another at Bussolongo, on the 26th, Field-Marshal 
 Rcidetzky soon reconquered Milan, and reduced the whole of Lombardy to submis- 
 sion. King Charles Albert concluded an armistice with the Austrians, and then 
 retired into his own dominions. 
 
 Revolution in Rome and Flight of Pope Pius IX. — A Roman Republic. 
 — In June, 1S46, Cardinal Mastai was chosen to fill the chair of St. Peter, with the 
 title of Pius IX. The new Pope was at first a zealous political reformer, and the 
 liberal course pursued by him at once aroused a spirit of republicanism and nation- 
 atity throughout the whole of Italy. Pius IX. granted his subjects freedom of the 
 press, improved the administration of justice, and gave the city of Rome a liberal 
 municipal government ; but the liberal movement soon became too powerful fo; 
 the weak Pontiff to control. The Roman people at length outstripped Pius IX. ir 
 the matter of reform ; and the promise of the Pope to grant a constitutional govern- 
 ment to the Pontifical State did not satisfy his suljjects. The appointment of Couni 
 Rossi, an avowed antagonist of the liberal movement, to the head of the Ministry 
 excited the indignation of the Roman people, who thus became convinced that d 
 reaction had taken place in the mind of the Pope. On the 15th of November, 18481 
 Rossi was assassinated on the steps of the Assembly House. A popular rising en 
 sued ; a mob proceeded to the Pope's palace, and, after a short conflict with the 
 Papal-guards, forced the Pope to appoint a popular Ministry. On the 23d (Novem- 
 ber, 1848), the Pope fled from Rome, and retired to Gaeta, in the kingdom of 
 Naples. On the 9th of February, 1849, a popularly chosen National Assembly 
 declared the Pope's temporal power at an end, and that the form of government 
 for the Roman State should be a pure democracy, with the title of " The Roman 
 Republic." A Triumvirate was chosen to exercise executive duties; and at the 
 head of the new government was the able, energetic, and eloquent Joseph Mazzini. 
 The commander of the volunteers was the ardent republican, Joseph Garibaldi. 
 
 Renewal of the Austro-Sardinian War— Abdication of Charles Albert. 
 — Urged on by the Italian republicans, King Charles Albert, of Sardinia, declared 
 his armistice with Austria at an end on the 20th of March, 1849, and, on the same 
 day, his kingdom was invaded by the Austrian army under Field-Marshal Radetzky. 
 After a spirited campaign of four days, on the Ticino and near Novara, Sardinia 
 lay prostrate before the power of Austria; and, on the evening of the 23(1 (March, 
 11849), Charles Mbert abdicated the throne of Sardinia in favor of his son, Victoi 
 Emmanuel, and immediately retired to Portugal, where he shortly afterward dietl 
 of a broken heart. On the 25th of March (1849), Victor Emmanuel concluded a 
 treaty of. peace with Austria, by which Sardinia was required to pay fifteen milliou 
 of dollars, as in-Iemnity for the expenses of Austria in the war. 
 
3 So MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Rome by a French Army. — After waiting anxiously 
 several months for the Roman people to recall him, Pope Pius IX. appealed to the 
 tioman Catholic powers for assistance to restore his temporal power. In response 
 to this appeal, Republican France sent an army of 4,000 men, under General Oudi- 
 not, against Rome. The Roman republicans made earnest preparations for defense. 
 The Roman National Assembly declared itself permanent, and Mazzini made fiery 
 td cresses to the people. When the French troops arrived before Rome, on the 301! 
 jf A.j)ril, 1849, thsy found the Roman volunteers, under General Garibaldi, reaJy tc 
 make a determined resistance. The first attack of the French was repulsed, and 
 the Eternal City held out heroically until its resources were exhausted; and, aftei 
 withstanding many furious assaults, and a regular bombardment, Rome surrendered 
 to the besieging French, on the 3d of July, 1S49. General Garibaldi and the popu- 
 lar leaders escaped to England and the United States ; and the Pope was restored 
 to his former power, under the protection of foreign bayonets. Thenceforth Pope 
 Pius IX. was a most zealous friend of absolutism, and a bitter antagonist to all 
 liberal movement's. 
 
 Siege and Fall of Venice. — While victory shone upon the Austrian arms in 
 Lombardy and Piedmont, an Austrian army was engaged in the siege of Venice, 
 which, in March, 1848, had revolted against Austrian rule, and proclaimed "The 
 Republic of St. Mark." Under the able republican leader, Manini, Venice main- 
 tained its independence for nearly a year and a half.- After a siege of many months, 
 during which much property had been destroyed, and all her provisions had been 
 exhausted, Venice surrendered to Field- Marshal Radetzky, on the 25th of August, 
 1849; and, with the fall of that gallant city, the authority of Austria was reestab- 
 lished throughout Lombardy and Venetia. 
 
 HUNGARIAN REBEL-LION OF 1848, '49. 
 
 The Austrian Emperor's Concessions to the Hungarians. — Just after the 
 Vienna Revolution of March, 184S, a deputation from Hungary, headed by Louis 
 Kossuth, appeared in Vienna, and asked for the Hungarian kingdom the royal 
 assent to a series of acts passsed by the Hungarian Diet, providing for the annual 
 meeting of that body; the union of Transylvania with Hungary; the organization 
 of a Hungarian National Guard; equality of taxation for all classes; religious toler- 
 ation; liberty of the press; and a separate ministry for Hungary. These acts were 
 aj)proved by the Emperor-King, who, on the nth of April, 1848, personally con- 
 finned them in the Hungarian Diet, convened at Pesth, the capital of Hungary. 
 These concessions were hailed with joy by the Hungarians. 
 
 Slavic Revolt Against Hungary. — The Croates and the other Slavic races 
 under the Hungarian government, jealous of the ascendency of the Magyars, and 
 demanding their independence of Hungarian rule, took up arms against the Mag- 
 yars. The Croates were encouraged in their rebellion by the Austrian Government, 
 iiid Austrian armies were sent to their assistance. The Servians, a Slavonic racCj 
 who had also revolted against the Hungarian government, laid waste the Magyu 
 nllages, and committed the greatest atrocities on the defenseless population. "i\£. 
 Hungarian war actually opened on the 12th of June, 1848, when the Mag)-.rs 
 bombarded Karlowitz, the Servian metropolis. The Servians in the Ottoman 
 territories hastened to the aid of their brethren in the Austrian dominions; and 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 381 
 
 ifae Magyare were obliged to take refuge in the fortress of Poterwardein. The 
 whole Servian population in the Banat then arose against the Magyars, and Vo^tili- 
 'ies between the contending races raged with great fury. 
 
 Austria Supports the Slavic Rebellion. — On the 29th of June, 1643, the 
 Imperial Government at Vienna announced Austria's intention to openly support 
 the Slavic races in their revolt against Magyar rule; and it soon appeared that 
 *Jie Emperor Ferdinand, after the suppression of the rebellion against Austrian 
 luthority in Northern Italy, was resolved to deprive the Magyars of the privilege;) 
 •vhich he had recently granted to them. Convinced that the rights ol Hungary 
 aiust be defended by force of arms, the Hungarian Diet resolved to raise an army 
 of 200,000 men. 
 
 Jellachich's Invasion of Hungary. — In the meantime, a united Austrian and 
 Croatian force, under the command of Jellachich, the ban or governor of Croatia, 
 had invaded Hungary and advanced toward Pesth; but the Magyars, aroused by 
 the eloquent and patriotic appeals of Louis Kossuth, one of the ablest of their 
 leaders, soon repulsed the invaders, compelled Jellachich to flee, and, on the 5th 
 of October, 1848, captured the Croatian rear-guard, consisting of 10,000 men. 
 
 Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand and the Accession of Francis 
 Joseph. — Wearied of the contentions in the various parts of his dominions, the 
 Austrian Emperor, Ferdinand, abdicated his throne, on the 2d of December, 1848, 
 and was succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph. As the new Emperor did not 
 take the requisite oath to support the constitution, laws, and liberities of Hungary, 
 the Magyars refused to acknowledge him as their sovereign. 
 
 Hungarian Preparations for the Struggle. — All the efforts of the Magyars 
 for a peaceful settlement of difficulties were unsuccessful, as the Austrian Govern 
 ment was resolved upon depriving Hungary of her rights. The Magyars therefore 
 made the most vigorous exertions for defense; manufactories of arms and ammuni- 
 tion were established, the peasants of Hungary flew to arms, and the most intense 
 enthusiasm was manifested. 
 
 Austrian and Croatian Invasion of Hungary — Capture of Pesth. — In 
 December, 1848, the Austrian army, under Windischgratz, entered Hungary from 
 the west; and, on the 5th of January, 1849, P^^sth fell into the hands of the Austrian 
 and Croatian forces, under Windischgratz and Jellachich. Kossuth and the Hun- 
 garian Ministry and Diet retired to Debreczin, in the Northern part ol Hungary. 
 
 Fall of Eszeck — Operations in Transylvania.— On the 30th of January 
 1849, the Magyars lost the strong fortress of Eszeck, in Slavonia, which was sur- 
 rendered to the imperialists, with its garrison of 5000 men. About the same time, 
 General Bem, a Pole, who was at the head of an army of 10,000 Magyars, wa;i 
 driven from Transylvania, the Saxons and Wallachs, who inhabit that province, 
 having joined the Austrians; but the warlike Szecklers of Southern Hungary having 
 risen in favor of the Magyars, Bem returned to Transylvania, defeated the Austriar.s 
 and Faissians who opposed him, took Kronstadt and Hermanstadt, and then passed 
 into the Banat, and captured Temeswar, its capital. 
 
 Concentration of the Magyar Forces — Battle of Kapolna. — At the begin 
 ;nng of February, 1849, Kossuth appointed General Dembinski, also a Pole, to the 
 chief command of the Magyar forces. Dembinski concentrated the Hungarian 
 
382 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 amiies in the upper part of the valley of the Theiss, to meel the advancing Austrians 
 under Windischgratz. On the 26th and 27th of February (1849), a bloody battle 
 was fought between 40,000 Magyars and 60,000 Austrians at Kapolna, where, in 
 consequence of the inactivity of the Hungarian general Gorgey, the imperialists 
 were victorious. 
 
 Gorgey's Victories over the Austrians — Siege and Capture of Buda,-~ 
 
 At length. Got gey was entrusted with the chief command of the Hungarian armies^ 
 Dv'mbinski having resigned that post a few days after the battle of Kapolna. After 
 foarceeu days of temfic hand-to-hand fighting, commencing with the battle of SzdI- 
 nok, on the 27th of March, and ending with the capture of Waitzen by Gorgey, on 
 the 9th of April, the Magyars recovered Pesth, relieved Komorn, and utterly routed 
 the imperialists. On the 17th of April, the chief command of the Austrian armies 
 was assigned to Baron Welden. On the l8th (April, 1849), Welden was defeated 
 at Szonz; and on the 19th, the Austrian reserve, under Wohlgemuth, was annihil- 
 ated at Nagy Sarlo. The Austrians were severely repulsed in several attempts to 
 carry by storm the strong fortress of Komorn ; and Welden was compelled to re- 
 treat toward Vienna. Instead of following up his successes by threatening the 
 Austrian capital, as urged by Kossuth, Gorgey laid siege to the strong fortress of 
 Buda, opposite Pesth. Gorgey carried Buda by storm, on the 21st of May, but the 
 siege involved a delay fatal to the cause of Hungary, and saved Vienna, and proba- 
 bly the Austrian Empire. The imperial forces were now completely driven out of 
 Hungary, and the first campaign ended in the triumph of the Mag)'ars. 
 
 An Imperial Constitution — Hungarian Declaration of Independence. 
 — On the 4th of March, 1849, '^^^ Emperor Francis Joseph proclaimed a constitu- 
 tion for the Austrian Empire, by which Hungary was to be incorporated with 
 Austria. The Austrian Government also solicited the aid of Russia to crush the 
 Hungarian rebellion. The Hungarian Diet at Debreczin, convinced of the impos- 
 iibility of a reconciliation with Austria, took a decisive step, on the 14th of April, 
 1849, by declaring the independence of Hungary; and Louis Kossuth was ap- 
 pointed Governor of Hungary, with almost absolute powers. On the 12th of May, 
 the Emperor of Austria issued a proclamation to the Magyars, announcing the inter- 
 vention of Russia, and ordering them to lay down their arms. 
 
 Russian Aid to Austria — Austrian and Russian Invasion of Hungary. 
 
 — In response to Austria's application for Russian assistance in subduing the Mag- 
 yar insurgents, the Czar Nicholas sent an army of 160,000 men, under the command 
 of Prince Paskiewitsch, to invade Hungary on the northeast. At the same time, the 
 Austrians were preparing to reenter Hungary on the west; and by the 1st of June, 
 400,000 hostile troops were on the Hungarian frontiers. On the 30th of May, the 
 brutal Baron Haynau was invested with the chief command of the Austrian armies. 
 At about the same time, early in June, Haynau, with 5000 Austrians, entered Hun- 
 gar)' at Presburg; Paskiewitsch, with 90,000 Russians, crossed the Galician frontirrs, 
 and invaded Hungary on the northeast; an Austro-Russian army of 25.000 TlS^ 
 entered Transylvania; and Jellachich, with his Croats, advanced into the MaL>v;' 
 territory from the south. 
 
 Successes of the Austrians and Russians — Retreat of Bern and Dem 
 binski — Now opened the second cani[)aign in the Hungarian -(.ar, — the canij)aig.i 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 3S3 
 
 A'nich lesulted in the subjugation of the Hungarian insurgents. After a gallant 
 resistance, Bern was driven from Transylvania, by the overwhelming forces of the 
 Russians'; Paskiewitsch, with the main Russian army, entered Debreczm vin the 
 7th of July, and Pesth on the lith, and compelled Dembinski to retreat south- 
 ward into the Banet; and Jellachich, after suffering a severe defeat near Ilegyes, 
 marched up the Theiss with his Croats, to form a junction with the Austrians 'inder 
 llaynau. 
 
 Battle of Komorn — Retreat of Gorgey. — Haynau, who had in the meantime 
 a hancerl from Presburg with the main Austrian army, was defeated by Gorgey, 
 near Komorn, on the iith of July. From Komorn, Gorgey retreated eastward to 
 Tcilcay, and thence southward to Arad, which place he reached on the 81 h of August. 
 On the 19th of July, Haynau entered Pesth, and then went in pursuit of Gorgey. 
 The cruelties of Haynau during his whole career in Hungaiy reflected disgrace 
 upon his memory, and acquired for him the well-merited title of " Hungaiy's 
 Hangman." 
 
 Grand Sortie from Komorn — Battle of Temeswar. — While Haynau was 
 marching southward in pursuit of the retreating Gorgey, an event occurred far in 
 his rear which created serious alarm among the Austrians. On the 3d of Ausust, 
 the garrison of Komorn, under General Klapka, made a grand sortie from the 
 fortress, utterly routed the Austrians in that vicinity, and opened the road to Vienna. 
 On the 8th (August, 1849), ^f^^"" fo""" ^^^X^ %ht'"g with the Austrians, Dembinski 
 was severely wounded, whereupon the command of his armies devolved on Bern, 
 who, on the following day (August 9, 1849), engaged the Austrian and Croatian 
 forces, under Haynau and Jellachich, at Temeswar, where, after a sanguinary con- 
 flict, in which Bern was covered with wounds, the army which he commanded was 
 thoroughly annihilated, Gorgey, although within a short distance of the place where 
 he was fighting, having neglected to come to his assistance. 
 
 Gorgey Made Dictator — His Treacherous Surrender. — The disasters to 
 the Hungarian arms were in a great measure owing to the dissensions and want oi 
 concert among the Polish and Magyar generals; and Gorgey, with whom the grati- 
 fication of personal ambition was a primary consideration, was striving for absolute 
 power. At the request of Gorgey, and at the solicitation of his friends, Kossuth, 
 on the loth of August (1849), dissolved the provisional government, and appointed 
 llie aml)itious general dictator. Gorgey had long been suspected of treachery to 
 the cause of Hungary, and he had repeatedly disobeyed the orders of the provisional 
 government. It now appeared that he had for some time been engaged in a trea 
 sonable correspondence with the enemies of his country, and he immediately made 
 use of his absolute power to ruin the cause of Hungarian independence. On the 
 13th of August, 1849, Gorgey surrendered, without any conditions, his entire aimy 
 of 35,000 men, to the Russian general Rudiger, at Villagos. 
 
 Submission of Hungary — Flight of Hungarian Leaders. — The tieachei 
 .-"US surrender of Gorgey paralyzed all the efforts of the Magyars, the various H in- 
 ^urian detachmens laid down their arms, and Hungary lay powerless before *£ 
 Jespot power of Austria. Kossuth, Bem, Dembinski, and many others of Jhe 
 patriot leaders, fled into the Ottoman dominions, and the Sultan of Tuikey nobly 
 refused to deliver them up, at the demands of the Austrian Govemment. Btm re- 
 ceived a command in the Turkish army. In 1 850, Kossuth left Turkey, and visited 
 
384 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 England and the United States, in which countries his noble efforts in the cause 
 of Hungarian freedom excited universal sympathy. 
 
 Surrender of Komorn — Execution of Hungarian Leaders. — On the 29 L 
 5f September, 1849, Komorn surrendered to the Austrians on favorable conditions, 
 and, with the fall of that important fortress, all military opposition to Austrian po.vei 
 in Hungary ceased. To the everlasting infamy of the Austrian Government, thir- 
 teen Hungarian generals and staff-ofticers were executed at Arad, on tie 6t}i t^ 
 October, 1849. Many of the Hungarian civil leaders met the same fate. A 
 large number of the inferior officers were imprisoned in fortresses, some for a term 
 of years, and others for life ; and no less than 70,000 Hungarians who had engaged 
 uj the rebellion were compelled to serve in the Austrian army. 
 
 THE LATEST WARS AND REVOLUTIONS. 
 
 THE COUP D' ETAT OF LOUIS NAPOLEON (1851). 
 
 Parties in the French National Assembly. — Upon assuming the office of 
 President of the French Republic, Louis Napoleon publicly avowed the principle? 
 of his government to be strictly republican. The different parties in the French 
 National Assembly were the Legitimists, or adherents of the elder branch of the 
 Bourbons; the Orleanists, who desired the placing of the heir of Louis Philippe 
 upon the throne of France; the Bonapartists, or Imperialists, who desired the resto- 
 ration of the French Empire; the Red Republicans, and the Moderate Republicans, 
 or friends of the existing constitution. 
 
 Disagreement between the President and the National Assembly. — 
 From the beginning, there was a lack of harmony between the executive and legis- 
 lative branches of the Government, the National Assembly having no faith in the 
 republican professions of the President. The Assembly restricted the right of suf- 
 frage and the freedom of the press, and in many other ways encroached upon the 
 rights of the French people. In 1849, a French army, under General Oudinot, was 
 sent to Rome, to overthrow the Republic which had been established there. The 
 French constitution of 1848 provided for its revision by the National Assembly 
 during the last year of the Presidential term, and it also made the President ineligi- 
 ble to reelection before an interval of four years. Louis Napoleon desired to have 
 it revised and so altered as to render him eligible to reelection; but the Assembly, 
 by a large vote, in 185 1, refused to revise it. The President, in his message, in 
 November, 1851, advised the Assembly to extend the right of suffrage; but the 
 Assembly rejected a proposition for that purpose, and soon afterwards a proposition 
 was offered threatening the President with impeachment if he should seek a reelec- 
 tion contrary to the provisions of the constitution. 
 
 The Coup d' Ktat. — The breach between the President and the National As- 
 sembly was rapidly widening; and finally, Louis Napoleon determined to crush, aJ 
 one blow, all opposition to his will, by a bold stroke of state policy. About five 
 o'clock in the morning of the 2d of December, 1851, the principal streets of Paris 
 were occupied by troops ; and the leading members of the Assembly, and I. e chief 
 military leaders, whom Louis Napoleon knew were opposed to his ambitious schemes. 
 
THIERS, 
 
NAPOLEON 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 385 
 
 VI ere seized in their beds, and shut up in prison. M. Thiers and Generals Cavaig 
 n ic, Changarnier, and Lamoriciere, and other prominent characters, were arrested by 
 d itachnienis of police, assisted by the guards, and were imprisoned in the chateau of 
 \ incennes. At the dawn of day, the Parisians were surprised to find the walls every 
 » here covered with placards containing the following decree : " In the name of lK« 
 French people, the President of the Republic decrees : i. The National Assembly L 
 dissolved : 2. Universal suffrage is reestablished ; the law of 31st of May is repeale-l : 
 5 The PYench people, are convoked in their communes, from the 14th to the 31st o*. 
 December : 4. The state of siege is decreed in the whole of the first military division ; 
 5. The Council of State is dissolved: The Minister of the Interior is charged with the 
 execution of this decree. — Louis Napolecnr Bonaparte." During the day, some of 
 the members of the National Assembly met at the residence of M. Daru, declared 
 the President guilty of treason, and decreed his deposition; but no sooner had they 
 signed the decree, than they were seized liy the military, and conducted to prison. 
 None of the journals but those that suppoi'ted the President were permitted to be 
 printed and distributed. This bold act of usurpation, dignified by the title " The 
 Coup d' Etat," was completely successful ; the republican constitution was over- 
 thrown, and Louis Napoleon was a monarch in all but in name. 
 
 Unsuccessful Resistance to the Usurpation. — On the 2d of December, no 
 resistance was made to the President's usurjjation; but about ten o'clock on the 
 morning of the 3d, M. Baudin, a representative of the people, appeared at the head 
 of a mob in the Rue St. Antoine, but the arrival of the military restored order, and 
 M. Baudin and two other representatives were punished with death. On the fol- 
 lowing day (December 4, 185 1), barricades were erected in many of the streets of 
 Paris ; but at noon, large bodies of troops swept the Boulevards, fired upon the 
 buildings, killed many innocent people, and put an end to all resistance before 
 night. The troops gave no quarter to the insurgents, and more than 2000 persons 
 were killed. In the eastern departments of France, the rural population rose in 
 great strength against the usurpation ; but the army remaining faithful to the 
 President, the insurrection was suppressed in a few days. 
 
 Louis Napoleon Elected President for Ten Years. — On Satuidiy and 
 Sunday, December 20th and 21st, elections were held throughout Frau'^e, the 
 question submitted to the nation being whether or not Louis Napoleon should hold 
 the office of President ten years longer, with the power of forming a new constitu- 
 tion for France, on tlie basis of universal suffrage. No other candidate was allowed 
 to be named. The army vo'.cd first, and, as was to be expected, its vote was nearly 
 unanimous in favor of Louis Napolfon; and the entire majority in favor of thf 
 lengthened Presidential term was 6,761,659 votes. On New Year's Day, 1S52, the 
 result of the election was celel^rated in the French capital with all possible mag 
 Uficence: seventy rounds of artillery were fired at the Invalides, at ten o'clock in 
 Hie forenoon; the Te Deum was sung at noon, in the Church of Notre Dame, Ibr- 
 P?esident himself being present; and a splendid banquet was ^iven at the Tuilcries. 
 it which d,oo persons participated. 
 
 Mew Constitution. — On the 14th of January, 1852, the new constitution pn. 
 
 posed by Louis Nanoleon was decreed. The constitution entrusted the executive 
 
 authority to Louis Napoleon for ten years, and clothed him with almost absolute 
 
 power. The legislative power was vested in a Senate, composed of the most gifted 
 
 2% 
 
^S6 MODERN HISTORY. ij| 
 
 men in France; a Council of State, to originate and enact laws ; and a Corps Leg- 
 islatif, chosen by universal suffrage, to discuss and enact laws. 
 
 Louis Napoleon Made " Emperor of the French."— Tlie great end ol all 
 Louis Napoleon's aml^ition was the restoration of the French Empire. By means 
 of newspaper agents and a mercenary press, the President prepared the minds of 
 liie French people to pronounce at the ballot-box in favor of or against tlie reestab- 
 ijl.nient of the imperial throne. The election resulted in a majority of 7,611,055 
 /Dies ir favor of imperialism; and on the 2d of December, 1852, Louis Nnpolcjr. 
 was timially proclaimed "Em[>eror of the French," with the title of Napoleon \\\. 
 rhu- ended the Second French Republic; and thus was established the Second 
 French Empire, under Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the son of Louis Bona- 
 parte and Horlense Beauharnais. A large numl;er of persons who had actively 
 opposed Louis Napoleon's assumption of imperial power were arrested on the charge 
 of treason, and imprisoned or banished to Algeria or Cayenne. 
 
 Marriage of Napoleon IIL — The new Emperor's next movement was the 
 consummation of a marriage for the perpetuation of his dynasty; and, a;^ all his 
 proposals to foreign courts for the negotiation of a match were rejected, he selected 
 for his bride, Eugenie de Montijo, Countess of Teba, a Spanish lady, who was not 
 related to any reigning family. On the 2d of January, 1853, the announcement 
 of the approaching nuptials was made to the French Senate. On the 29th of the 
 same month, the civil marriage was celebrated at the Tuileries; and on the 30th, 
 the religious ceremonies were celebrated with great pomp, in the Church of Notre 
 Dame. 
 
 THE CRIMEAN WAR (A. D. 1853-1856). 
 
 The Guardianship of the Holy Places — The Czar's Demand. — For a 
 
 long time, a disjjute with regard to the Iluly Places at Jerusalem had raged at Con- - 
 btantinople, between the Greek and Romish Churches, Russia supporting the claims 
 of the Greek, and France those of the Romish Church. Early in 1S53, a dispute 
 arose between Russia and Turkey, which threatened to disturb the peace of Europe. 
 The Emperor Nicholas of Russia claimed the right to exercise a protectorate over 
 the Greek Christians in the Ottoman dominions. This demand was justly regarded 
 as incompatible with the dignity of the Sultan as an independent sovereign; and, 
 by the advice of the English and French ministers at Constantinople, the demands 
 of the Czar were rejected, and his extravagant pretensions denied, but the Sultan, 
 by a " hatti sheriff," confirmed all the privileges of his Christian subjects. 
 
 Russian Invasion of Turkey — War Between Russia and Turkey. — Iir- 
 mcdiately after the demand of the Russian autocrat had been rejected by the 
 Ottoman Porte, 60,000 Russian troops invaded the Turkish provinces of Moldavia 
 and VVallachia. The Sultan demanded the evacuation of his dominions, thi(;atr:n 
 ing, m case of a refusal, a declaration of war. The fleet.-- of France and Engl; nij 
 ere ordered to the Dardanelles, while England, PVance, Austria, and Pruisis 
 
 a\n;y endeavored to bring about an adjustment of the dispute by neg">liatii iii. 
 
 Hit. arrog?nce of Russia prevented a jjeaceful solution of tiie d fficulty, and, on l:ie 
 5ih of Octo.ier, 1853, the Turkish Government declared war against Russia. Od 
 the I4lh (October, 1853), the fleets of Great Britain and France, at the request of 
 the Sultan, passed the Dardanelles. 
 
NINE TEE NTH CENTUR V. 3S 7 
 
 Turkish Victories on the Danube — Battle of Sinope. — In the latter part 
 or October, 1853, the Turkish forces crossed the Danube, for the purpose of expel 
 ling the Russians from the Ottoman territories. Under the command of their slvill 
 ful general, Omar Pacha, the Turks won many splendid victories. On the 13th < i 
 Novembei (1853), the Turkish fleet at Sinope, on the southern coast of the Black 
 Sea, was suddenly and unexpectedly attacked and destroyed by the Russian (leel 
 Bt fore the close of the year, the British and P>ench fleets were ordered into h* 
 niai.ik Sea, to protect the Turks. 
 
 Alliance of England, France, and Turkey — Advance of the Russians. ■ • 
 A.S the Cz'ir Nicholas still rejected all proposals for an amicable settlement of the 
 dispute, England and France, closely in alliance with Turkey, declared war against 
 Russia, at the close of March, 1854; but Austria and Prussia remained neutral. 
 An allied English and French army of 90,000 men, under Lord Raglan and Mar- 
 shal St. Arnaud, was sent to the assistance of the Turks, and a powerful Anglo- 
 French naval armament, under Sir Charles Napier, was dispatched to the Baltic 
 sea. The Russians, under Prince Gortschakoff, their commander-in-chief, crossed 
 the Danube, the Ottoman forces retreating in good order before the invaders. 
 
 Bombardment of Odessa — Siege of Silistria — Expulsion of the Rus- 
 sians. — On the 22d of April, 1854, the allied English and French fleets bombarded 
 the Russian commercial town of Odessa, on the Black Sea. During the summer, 
 the Turks, under Mussa Pacha, successfully defended Silistria against 90,000 Rus- 
 sians under Prince Paskiewitsch, and finally compelled them to raise the siege, and 
 evacuate the Turkish dominions. 
 
 Allied Expedition to the Crimea— Battle of Alma — Siege of Sevasto- 
 pol. — In September, 1854, an expedition, composed of English, French, and Turkish 
 troops, landed at Eupatoria, in the peninsula of the Crimea, and, on the 20th of 
 that month, gained a brilliant victory over the Russians at Alma. A few days after- 
 ward. Marshal St. Arnaud died, and the command of the French army was assigned 
 to General Canrobert. The siege of Sevastopol commenced on the 17th of October, 
 1854, when the allies opened their first bombardment on the town. 
 
 Battle of Rplaklava. — The Russians sent large reinforcements to their army 
 in the Crime-x. for the purpose of compelling the allies to evacuate the peninsula. 
 On the 25th of October, 1S54, occurred the famous battle of Balaklava, in which 
 the English Light Cavalry Brigade of 600 men was almost totally destroyed, in a 
 reckless charge upon the strong Russian position. 
 
 Battle of Inkermann. — Large bodies of Russian troops continued to pour 
 mto the C'imea, for the purpose of relieving the beleaguered fortress of Sevastopol; 
 and on t^e cth of November, 1854, was fought the bloody battle of Inkermann in 
 which 8000 English troops held their ground firmly against 50,000 Russians ci 
 seven hours, when the appearance of a French force of 6000 men under General 
 IV.squet soon decided the battle against the Russians, who were driven wiih n?f vy 
 b.s.'i into the fortress of Sevastopol 
 
 Death of ^he Czar Nicholas— Peace Conference— Sardinia Joins tiie 
 Allies. — On »he 2d of March, 1855, the Emperor Nicholas died, and was succeeded 
 on the Russian throne by his son, Alexander II., who declared his resolution of 
 adhcrng to the policy of his father. A conference composed of representatives rf 
 
388 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 England, France, Turkey, and Russia, was held at Vienna, in the spring of 1855, 
 for the purpose of bringing about a peace; but, as Russia rejected the demand of 
 the allied powers, that the war-vessels of all nations should be excluded from he 
 Black Sea, the efforts for peace failed ; and Sardinia joined the allied powers ir 
 cheii war against Russia. 
 
 Siege of Sevastopol. — In the meantime, hostilities were prosecuted with vigor 
 in the Crimean peninsula. On the 17th of Februaiy, 1855, the Russians assuul t\" 
 Ihe intrenched camp of the Turks at Eupatoria, but were repulsed, aftei .1 fierce en 
 gagnment. A severe battle between the Russians and the French oc.urred on th<. 
 22d of March (1855), in which the Russians lost over 2000 men, and the French 
 600 m^n. The second bombardment of Sevastopol commenced on the 9th of April, 
 and continued for several days. The incompetent Canrobert was superseded in the 
 command of the French forces by the able and energetic General Pelissier. The 
 third bombardment of Sevastopol, which commenced on the 6th of June, resulted 
 in giving the French possession of the Mamelon, while the English captured the 
 Round Tower. On the l8th of June (the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo), 
 the French assailed the Malak off Tower, while the English, at the same time, stonned 
 the Redan. Both attacks were repulsed. On the 28th (June, 1855), Lord Raglan 
 died, and was succeeded in the command of the English forces by General Simp- 
 son. On the 1 6th of August, 60,000 Russians were repulsed in an assault upon the 
 French and the Sardinians at Tchernaya. 
 
 Attack on Sweaborg. — While the events just related were occurring in the 
 Crimean peninsula, hostilities were being prosecuted in other quarters. On the 9th 
 of August, 1855, the combined English and French fleet in the Baltic, under Sir 
 Charles Napier, commenced an attack upon Sweaborg, which was continued until 
 the 17th, without effecting any important result. 
 
 Fall of Sevastopol. — On the 5th of September, 1855, commenced the fourth 
 bombardment of Sevastopol. On the 8th, the French captured the Malakoff, after 
 a furious assault, but, at the same time, the English were repulsed in an attack upon 
 the Redan. The fall of the Malakoff rendered a further defense of the place use- 
 less; and on the 9th (September, 1855), the Russians evacuated the southern side 
 of Sevastopol, and left the town and the harbor in the possession of the allies. 
 
 Capture of Kinburn — Turkish Victory at the Ingour. — On the 15th of 
 October, 1855, General Bazaine, with 15,000 French and 4000 English troops, from 
 the allied army in the Crimea, landed at Kinburn, and captured that post, after a 
 fierce bombardment. Late in November, the Turks, under Omar Pacha, achieved 
 a glorious victory at the river Ingour, when they forced a passage over the stream, 
 and compelled the Russians to evacuate their position and retreat to Kutais, 
 
 The War in Asiatic Turkey — Capture of Kars. — Important events occurred 
 in Asiatic Turkey. On the 29th of September, 1855, the Turkish forces, under thf 
 command of the English general Williams, repulsed an attack of the Russians upor 
 Ihe town of Kars, and the place was defended successfully until the 28th of No\ em 
 oer (1855), when the Turkish garrison was compelled to surrender and the tjw' 
 fell nito the hands of the Russians. 
 
 Peace of Paris. — Early in 1856, an armistice was proclaimed, and soon after 
 ward, the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, Sardinia, Turkey, and Russia 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 389 
 
 . seinbl(;d in Paris ; and a treaty of peace was agreed upon, on Sunday, March 
 3.>th, 1856. By this treaty, the Russian forts and arsenals on the Black Sea were 
 destroyed; Russia was to renounce all interference in the internal affairs of the 
 Ottoman Empire; the vessels of all nations were to have the right to navigate the 
 Danube; the Christian subjects of the Sultan were to be secured in certain privi- 
 (egei; and the Russian fortress of Nicolaieff was to be dismantled. The eagle'& 
 :i ill 'mounted with gold and gems, with which the treaty was signed, was presented 
 tc the Empress Eugenie of France. Thus closed the Crimean War, in which mc^f 
 d.an one million of men perished. 
 
 THE SEPOY MUTINY IN BRITISH INDIA (1857-1859) 
 
 England's Wars with Persia and China— The Mutiny of the Sepoys.— 
 In less than a year after the termination of her war with Russia, England became 
 involved in wars with Persia and China. The war with Persia lasted only a few 
 months, but the contest with China was not closed before the autumn of i860. The 
 English and their allies, the French, completely humbled the Chinese, whose chief 
 cities Canton and Pekin, were taken, and the Chinese Emperor fled in consterna- 
 tion from his capital. By the Treaty of Tien-tsin, in October, i860, the Chinese 
 were obli-ed to allow a British minister to reside at Pekin. But a struggle of far 
 (rreater magnitude than the Persian and Chinese wars employed the military strength 
 of the Brit'sh Empire— namely, the war produced by the mutiny of the Sepoys, or 
 Hindoos in the military service of the East-India Company. 
 
 Discontent of the Mohammedans of India-The Bengal Army.-For a 
 lon<. time, the Mohammedans of India had been dissatisfied with their subordinate 
 position. When, in 1849, Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of British India 
 compelled the titular king of Delhi to exchange the fortress of Delhi for the royal 
 palace of the Kootub, the hatred of the Delhi Mohammedans against the British 
 Government was increased. When the Kingdom of Oude was annexed to the 
 British Indian Empire, many of the Sepoys comprising the Bengal army who were 
 natives of Oude were aroused to the highest pitch of indignation; and they suc- 
 ceeded in_uniting all the Mohammedan sects in India, with the view of freeing 
 themselves from British power. 
 
 The Enfield Rifles and the Greased Cartridges. -Circumstances soon 
 occurred which favored the cause of the Mohammedans of India. It had been 
 rumored among the Hindoos that the British Government had resolved to compel 
 all its subjects to embrace the Christian religion, and abolish the distinctions of caste 
 ^hich prevail among the Hindoos. Early in 1857, the East-India Company amied 
 ■ts Hindoo soldiers with the Enfield rifles, for which cartridges greased with pig« 
 ,nd cow's fat were used. The Hindoos are forbidden by their religion to taste 
 *nimal food; and, as the ends of the greased cartridges must be bitten off, the 
 Sepov. believed that by using them they would become defiled, lose their caste, and 
 U b<;und tc adopt the religion of their masters. Mohammedan emissaries secetly 
 moused the dissatisfaction of the Hindoos, for the advancement of their own rebel 
 lious schemes. 
 
 Mutiny of the Bengal Army.-During the month of April. 1857, many of 
 the regiments composed of Sepoys in the Bengal army manifested a mutinous spirL 
 
39° 
 
 MODEK^"^ HISTORY. 
 
 i 
 
 Tlie 19th and 341.1 regiments, the Ou-ie irregular infantry, and a part ol the 3ti 
 Light Cavalry at Meerut, were the first tP rise in rebellion. Other Sepoy regiments 
 followed their example, and before long, 'he whole Hindoo portion of the Bengal 
 army, al out 120,000 men, stood in armed opposition to the British Govtinment. 
 The rebellion was purely a mutiny, and not h popular insurrection. 
 
 Massacre of Delhi. — On the nth of Mav ^1857), a party of mutineers from. 
 Meerut f>»ndishly massacred all the English residents at Delhi; but a small En^< 
 bsh for^,c, under the gallant Lieutenant Willoughhv blew up the arsenal, to p-?vcn' 
 i iVim falling into the hands of the rebels. 
 
 Massacre of Cawnpore. — At Cawnpore, 300 Kn^;lish troops under Sii Hugh 
 Wheeler, and 500 women and children, were attacked and besieged by a body of 
 mutineers under Nena Sahib, a Mahratta prince. Wh^'p Nena Sahib found thai 
 he could not take the place by force, he offered the g=>rrison and the women and 
 children a safe passage to Allahabad, if they would evf'C'i^te Cawnpore ; but no 
 sooner had they embarked on boats in the river, than they were fired upon by the 
 treacherous mutineers, and many of their number were killed. One-hundred and 
 fifty who had surrendered were put to death, and the wome« and children were 
 massacred soon afterward. 
 
 Siege of Lucknow. — At Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, -^ the head of an 
 English force, defeated a large body of rebel Sepoys, but h« wis afterwards 
 besieged in the residency at that place, and was mortally woundec? io a sally, at the 
 beginning of July. (1857.) 
 
 Excitement in England — English Troops sent to India. - The greatest 
 excitement prevailed in England on the arrival of intelligence of the "rut-ny of tlK" 
 hitherto loyal Bengal army and the fiendish atrocities perpetrated by th*^ "Mutineers 
 Within four months, 30,000 troops were sent from Great Britain to India, for the 
 suppression of the Sepoy rebellion and the full restoration of British ai'thority if 
 Hindoostan ; and Sir Colin Campbell was sent to take the chief command of th« 
 British forces in Lidia. 
 
 General Havelock's Victories over Nena Sahib on the Gan^^YC— 
 Geneial Havelock, with British and loyal Hindoo troops, marched to the relief ci 
 the English garrison, under Sir Hugh Wheeler, at Cawnpore. He reached th"t 
 place after marching 126 miles and fighting four engagements with the mutineer* 
 and after Nena Sahib had treacherously massacred the women and children, »■' 
 already stated. When Havelock approached Cawnpore, Nena Sahib and his insu» 
 gent band fled ; but they were pursued, and defeated eight times, on the banks o.'" 
 the Ganges, by the force under Havelock. The Sepoy regiments at Dinapor^ 
 mutinied on the 25th of July (1857), and having fled from the station, they wer" 
 pursued and defeated by Major Eyre, of the Bengal artillery. 
 
 Siege and Fall of Delhi. — In the latter part of August, 1857, the Britis' 
 force before Delhi, which had quietly watched the insurgents who had held po- 
 1^ jion of that famous city, was reinforced by English and Sikh troops; and on th" 
 25'h (August, 1857), the mutineers were defeated at Nujuffghur with heavy los* 
 On the 7th of September, the British commenced besieging Delhi with vigor. Tli« 
 whole British force did not exceed 4,000 men. On the 14th of September, Gei»- 
 eral Wilson, the British commander, divided his army into four columns. Two en 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 39 r 
 
 tlicse columns carried the Cashmere and Water bastions by storm, on the same day. 
 The Cashmere gate was blown up, when the third column joined the other two in 
 the assault; and before the close of the day, the British were masters of a consider 
 able portijn of the city. The fourth column was repulsed m an attack upon tlie 
 city. On the 15th (September, 1857), the British shelled the palace and batlerc<l 
 ijic maj^azine; and on the l6th, a British storming party rushed forward, wlierc- 
 up'n the insurgent artillerymen fled in dismay, leaving the British in posses^ion of 
 ix pieces of cannon. On the 17th and iSth, the British gained several impoi'anl 
 dvantages; and after several more assaults, the mutineers entirely evacuaicd tlu 
 city of Delhi, which came into the military possession of the English on the 20tl) 
 of September. (1857.) A great part of the town was laid in ruins -und filled 
 with corpses, and numbers of captured mutineers were put to a cruel death. 
 
 Siege of Lucknow — Battle of Mungarwar — Relief of Lucknow. — Since 
 June, 1857, a large body of English troops and women and children had been 
 besieged in the residency at Lucknow, by 50,000 insurgents. While marching to 
 their relief. General Havelock defeated 40,000 insurgents, in the battle of Mungar- 
 war, on the 2ist of September. (1857.) After a forced march of four days, 
 Havelock and his troops appeared at Lucknow, on the 25th of September, and 
 relieved the brave garrison. After severe fighting, the rebel Sepoys were repulsed 
 in all their assaults; but they still continued the siege with vigor. On the 12th of 
 November (1857), Sir Colin Campbell arrived at Lucknow, wi'.h a strong English 
 force, and took the garrison, along with the women and children, to Cawnpore. 
 
 Insurgent Attack on Cawnpore — Siege and Capture of Lucknow. — In 
 December, 1857, Cawnpore was attacked by 25,000 rebel Sepoys, but the timely 
 arrival of the British force, under Sir Colin Campbell, saved the place, and obliged 
 the mutineers to retire, after a severe engagement. Soon afterward. Sir Colin Camp- 
 bell laid siege to Lucknow, which place, after a vigorous siege, fell into the hands 
 of the British on the 17th of March, 1858. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Gwalior— Close of the Sepoy Rebellion, — After 
 the fall of Lucknow, Gwalior became the stronghold of the Sepoy rebellion ; but 
 in June, 1S58, that strong place was compelled to yield to the British arms; after 
 which the war assumed a guerrilla character, and small bands roamed over various 
 parts of India until the close of 1859, when peace was fully restored, and British 
 authority was completely reestablished in India. The active power of the rebellion 
 had passed away with the fall of Gwalior, in the summer of 1858; and soon after 
 that event, the Governor-General, Lord Canning, ordered a public thanksgiving 
 for the overthrow of the rebellion, and the restoration of peaoe to British India. 
 Many of the vanquished rebels were put to death in a most kirbarous manner 
 A very important result of the mutiny was the transfer, in the summer of 1858. 
 of the government of British India from the East India Company to the Englis) 
 crv>wn. 
 
 THE ITALIAN WAR (1859). 
 
 Attempted Assassination of Napoleon III. — In January, 1858, while tnj 
 Emperor Napoleon III. was passing the Italian opera-house in Paris, three hollow 
 projectiles were aimed at his person, killing and wounding a number of persons 
 
Jy2 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 The Italian refugee, Orsini, who made this attempt at regicide, was punished with 
 death . 
 
 Warlike Threat of Napoleon III. — During the reception of foreign ministers, 
 at his palace, on New Year's Day, 1859, the Emperor Napoleon III., in speaking 
 to the Austrian ambassador to France about the affairs of Italy, made some remarks 
 vvhi.h w« .'e regarded by all who heard them as implying a threat of war; and \\ 
 ■soon appeared that France was arming on an extensive scale. A marriage ws? 
 aegoliated between Prince Napoleon, the Emperor's cousin, and the Prir.ce.'j 
 C:otilda, daughter of Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, who was an avowea 
 opponent of Austria with resj^ect to the question of Italian independence; anU 
 {\ents indicated the speedy approach of war. 
 
 Demands of Austria for the Disarmament of Sardinia. — The King A 
 Sardinia, supported by France, was now making earnest preparations for war. 
 Austria demanded that Sardinia should immediately disarm. Great Britain and 
 Russia endeavored to avert hostilities by negotiation; but Austria's demand for the 
 immediate disarmament of Sardinia was opposed by the other powers. Austria then 
 proposed that all the powers should disarm. This was agreed to by Russia, Prussia, 
 England, France, and Sardinia; but the proposition that the Italian States should 
 be represented in a congress of the Five Great Powers was opposed by Austria, 
 which still insisted on the immediate disarmament of Sardinia. This demand was 
 still objected to by the other jjowers; and, as Austria would not recede from the 
 position which she had taken, all hopes for an amicable settlement of the difficulty 
 were dispelled. 
 
 Sardinia's Rejection of Austria's Ultimatum — Austrian Invasion of 
 Sardinia. — In the latter part of April, 1859, Austria sent to Sardinia an ultima- 
 tum, demanding the immediate disbandment of her Italian volunteers, allowing 
 only three days for a reply, and threatening war in case of a rejection of the demand. 
 The King of Sardinia rejected the Austrian ultimatum ; and the Chambers, which 
 he immediately summoned, conferred upon him dictatorial powers. On the 26th 
 of April (1859), the Austrian army, in three divisions, numbering together 120,000 
 men, crossed the Ticino, and invaded Sardinia. 
 
 French Troops Sent to Italy — Napoleon III. Goes to Italy. — When 
 intelligence of the Austrian invasion of Sardinia reached France, a manifesto pre- 
 pared by the French Emperor was presented in the Corps Legislatif, declaring that 
 France would stand by Sardinia. Large bodies of French troops were now pushed 
 foward into Italy with the utmost haste; and, on the loth of May, the Emperor 
 Napoleon III., leaving the Government of France in the hands of the Empress 
 Eugenie as regent, left Paris to take command of the French troops in person. On 
 the I2th (Miy, 1859), he reached Genoa, where he met with a most enthusiastic 
 recei)tion. 
 
 Battle of Montebello. — After having exhausted the country which they had 
 n\aded, \\\t Austrians fell back slowly toward Lombardy. The first battle of thr 
 (talim war was fought on the 20th of May, 1859, at Montebello — the same plaa 
 where, on '.he 9th of June, 1800, the French, under General Lannes, defeated the 
 A istrians. After desperate fighting, the Austrians were defeated, with considerable 
 loiv. The French, who were commanded by General Forey, lost less than ^oc. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^93 
 
 men in killed and wounded. Among the killed on the side of the French was 
 General Beuret. On the following day (May 21, 1859), a slight engagement oc 
 curred between the Austrians and the left wing of the allied army under Genera' 
 Cialdini. 
 
 Italian and French Invasion of Lombardy — Defeats of the Austrians. 
 
 — A bod/ jf Italian volunteers, under General Garibaldi, invaded Lombardy and 
 cap'.uied Varese, where they repulsed an attack of the Austrians, on the 26(h of 
 Vlay. After a fierce conflict on the 27th, the Italians took possession of Como, the 
 .\uslr:ans retreating to Camerletta, where they were again defeated, and compelled 
 ■o continue their retreat. On the 29th of May j-^ the Emperor Francis Joseph, 
 of Austria, left Vienna for the seat of war, and 'arrived at Verona on the 3ibt. 
 On the 29th, the Sardinians crossed the Sesia, and forced the Austrian works at 
 Palestro, capturing two pieces of artillery, and some small arms and prisoners. On 
 the 31st, 25,000 Austrians were severely repulsed in an attempt to recover Palestro. 
 On the 1st of June, a French force, under General Niel, expelled the Austrians 
 from Novara, after an insignificant conflict. The Emperor of the French entered 
 Novara at five o'clock in the evening of the same day, meeting with an enthusiastic 
 reception. 
 
 Battle of Magenta — Proclamations of Napoleon and Victor Emman- 
 uel. — On the 4th of June, 1S59, was fought the great battle of Magenta, in which 
 100,000 French and Sardinians, under General MacMahon, were engaged. The 
 Austrians were defeated, with the loss of 27,000 men in killed, wounded, and pris- 
 oners. After the battle, the Emperor of the French and the King of Sardinia 
 entered Milan, where they were welcomed with the wannest enthusiasm. Napo- 
 leon III. published a proclamation to the Italian people, declaring his intention of 
 securing to Italy nationality and independence; and Victor Emmanuel issued a 
 proclamation to the people of Lombardy, declaring that country united with Sardinia. 
 
 Battles of Melegnano and Solferino. — On the 8th of June, occurred the 
 battle of Melegnano, which lasted nine hours, and in which 30,000 Austrians were 
 engaged. The Austrians were defeated, with the loss of 3200 men in killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners. On the 24th of June (1859), was fought the famous 
 battle of Solferino, in which the contending forces on each side numbered about 
 140,000 men, and in which the Emperor Napoleon III. and King Victor Emmanuel 
 commanded their troops in person. This sanguinary conflict raged from five 
 o'clock in the morning until late in the afternoon, and resulted in the utter defeat 
 of the Austrians, who were compelled to make a hasty retreat. 
 
 Peace of Villa Franca. — An armistice was agreed to on the 8th of July, 1S59; 
 and on the nth of the same month, a treaty of peace was signed at Villa Franca, 
 between the Emperors of France and Austria. The treaty was concluded on the 
 following basis : the formation of an Italian Confederation, under the honorary pre- 
 sidency of the Pope ; the cession of Lombardy by Austria to France, in trust for 
 Sarcinia; and Venetia, although retained by Austria, to constitute an integral pait 
 of the Italian Confederation. The King of Sardinia was dissatisfied with this treaty, 
 and his Prime Minister, Count Cavour, immediately resigned. The Emperor Napo- 
 leon III. now left Italy, and arrived at his palace of St. Cloud on the 17th of July. 
 A. defiiitive treaty of peace was agreed upon at Zurich, in November, 1859. In a 
 
394 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 war wuh Anam (1858-1862), France obtained by conquest a large portion ol 
 Cochin- China. 
 
 ITALIAN REVOLUTION OF 1860-1861. 
 
 Garibaldi's Invasions of Sicily and Naples- -Revolution in Naples.— 
 I'nportant events occurred in Italy in i860 — events which resulted in the unifi' itijn 
 if Italy. General Garibaldi, with a band of Italian volunteers, landed in Sicily, and 
 |T.fClaimed himself Dictator ^or the King of Sardinia. Garibaldi carried Palcnnt' 
 by storm, defeated the forces of Francis II., King of Naples, and then invading the 
 main-laud of the Kingdom of Naples, completely overthrew the Neapolitan army, 
 and compelled the King of Naples to flee from his dominions. After the flight of 
 Francis II., Victor Emmanuel entered Naples, and was acknowledged king. 
 
 Establishment of the Kingdom of Italy — Victor Emmanuel King. — 
 In 1 861, all the Italian States, excepting the Austrian province of Venetia, the Re- 
 public of San Marino, and the Papal dominions, were consolidated into one great 
 State, designated "The Kingdom of Italy," the crown of which was bestowed on 
 King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia. 
 
 GREEK REVOLUTION OF 1862. 
 
 Misrule of King Otho. — For a long time, the Greek people had suffered under 
 the misrule of King Otho. Oppression followed oppression. The greater part of 
 the uncultivated lands became the property of the crown. The peasants were re- 
 quired to pay a heavy land-tax, and manufactures were discouraged. The public 
 money was squandered by the extravagant court; and the corrupt Ministry succeeded 
 by bribes in having the Legislative Chambers filled with the supporters of the 
 crown. 
 
 Tyrannical Measures of King Otho. — The growing discontent of the Greek 
 people compelled King Otho to call on Canaris to form a new Ministry ; but when 
 Canaris presented to the king a memorial asking for the dissolution of the fraudu- 
 lently-elected Chambers, the formation of a national guard, and the abolition of the 
 censorship of the press, he was dismissed, and the corrupt Ministry remained in 
 power. 
 
 Insurrections of Nauplia and Syra — Flight and Abdication of Otho. — 
 
 Soon afterward. King Otho caused more than 1000 of the popular party to be im- 
 prisoned, on a charge of plotting against the Government. The result of this out- 
 lageous act was the breaking out of a revolt at Nauplia, on the I2th of February, 
 1862. The city of Nauplia was besieged by the Government troops, and the insur- 
 gents were forced to surrender on the 20th of April (1S62). An amnesty was 
 granted to all but nineteen of the insurgents ; but this amnesty was afterwards vio- 
 lated, and many of the insurgents were thrown into prison. Another insurrection 
 against the king had in the meantime broken out in the island of Syra. The Syrnns 
 were defcsred in tl e naval battle of Thermia, but still they refused to submit 
 During the summer, the spirit of opposition to the Government manifested itself 
 throughout Greece, while the tyranny of the king continually increased. Conv'cts 
 were liberated from the prisons to plunder and keep down the people; and the 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^gc 
 
 j)iess was prohibited from publishing the sentiments of the people. The oppositio.i 
 to King Otho became so great that he was obliged to abdicate hi.i throne, on the 
 30th of Octoi)er, 1862, and to leave Greece a few days afterward. A provisional 
 government, under Demetrius Bulgaris, was immediately installed; and in the fol 
 loving year (1863), Prince George, of Denmark, was raised to the throne of Circece, 
 wiJi the title of George I., King of the Hellenes. 
 
 POLISH INSURRECTION OF 1862-3-4. 
 
 Tyrannical Proceedings of the Russians at Warsaw. — The Poles who had 
 assembled a* Warsaw on the 15th of October, 1S61, to celebrate the memory of 
 Kosciuszko, were prevented from doing so by the Russian authorities, who, the day 
 before, had declared the city in a state of siege, and stationed large bodies of troops 
 in the streets. The people nevertheless assembled in the churches peaceably, and 
 when the churches were filled, the soldiers ordered them to disperse. As the Poles 
 refused to obey, the Russian soldiers, by order of their commander, carried more 
 than 2000 of them to the Citadel. These tyrannical proceedings were followed by 
 the arrest, imprisonment, banishment, and condemnation to death of the most promi- 
 nent Poles. 
 
 Attempted Assassination of the Archduke Constantine. — In the summer 
 of 1862, attempts were made by the Poles in Warsaw to assassinate the Archduke 
 Constantme, Lieutenant of Poland, and brother of the Czar Alexander II. The 
 Archduke and Count Wialopolski were severely wounded, but the assassins were 
 arrested, condemned, and executed. 
 
 Military Conscription — Polish Insurrection and Its Suppression. — In 
 November, 1862, the Russian Government determined to put the citizens of the 
 towns in Poland who had manifested any opposition to its authority, into the Russian 
 army as common soldiers, and to send them to perform military service in Siberia. 
 This harsh measure roused the Poles to a spirit of resistance; and a treneral insur- 
 rection against Russian authority commenced throughout Poland. Small bands of 
 insurgent Poles engaged in numerous conflicts with the Russian troops without 
 decisive results. The revolt never arose above the character of a pfuerrilla war. 
 This Polish rebellion at one time threatened complications dangerous to the general 
 peace of Europe. England, France, Austria, and Sweden, syniDathi7*^d with the 
 Poles, and asked of the Russian Emperor the amelioration of their condition. The 
 insurrection continued for upwards of a year, and it was with great difficulty thai 
 tlie Russian Government was enabled to suppress the rebellion in the summer of 
 1864. The Czar adopted harsh measures against the unfortunate Poles, roanj of 
 whom were imprisoned, banished, or executed. 
 
 RUSSIAN SERF EMANCIPATION (1S63). 
 
 .Russian Conquest of Circassia — The Russian Serfs. — Russia enlarged 
 iitr ^ast i mi.aions by the conquest of Circassia, in 1859, after a sanguinary sU'JQjie 
 of tl rty years, during which the Circassian tribes, led by the valiant and l.-roi: 
 warrior-prophet, Schamyl, defied all the efforts of the Russians, and fought bravely 
 for IheiV independence. The attention of the Russian Government was not whi.>lly 
 
-596 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 absorbed l>y schemes of conquest and territorial aggrandizement; and the Czai 
 Alexander II. immortalized his name by the emancipation of all the serfs or slaves 
 in the Russian dominions. Of the thirty-eight millions of serfs in the Russian 
 Empire at that lime, sixteen millions were the property of the Russian crown. 
 They weie bought and sold with the lands on which they lived, and their condition 
 V. as ir ai! icspects very degraded. 
 
 Enr ancipation of the Serfs. — In Fehruaiy, 1861, the Cza: issued a decrro, 
 ■.^romii-ing the emancipation of the serfs two years after that date. In accordance 
 with this decree, the Russian serfs received their freedom in February, 1863, and 
 aae.- ures were taken for their improvement. 
 
 THE SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN WAR (1864). 
 
 The Danish and Schleswig-Holstein Succession. — A Congress of Euro 
 pean Powers, assembled at London, in 1852, settled the succession to the throne of 
 Denmark, and to the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, upon Prince 
 Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg. On the death of King 
 Christian VIII. of Denmark, in November, 1863, Prince Christian succeeded to 
 the throne of Denmark and to the sovereignty of the German Duchies of Schles- 
 wig and Holstein ; but the succession to the Duchies was claimed by Prince 
 Frederic of Augustenburg, whose rights had been disregarded by the London Con- 
 gress of European Powers. The people of Schleswig and Holstein, mostly Ger- 
 mans, for the most part sided with the Prince of Augustenburg, who also had the 
 sympathies of the whole German nation. 
 
 German-Federal, Austrian, and Prussian Armies in Holstein.— In Janu- 
 ary, 1864, the Diet of the Germanic Confederation sent an army into Schleswig and 
 Holstein, to support the claims of Prince Frederic of Augustenburg, and to prevent 
 the incorporation of those German Duchies with the Kingdom of Denmark; while 
 Austria and Prussia, acting independently of the Federal Diet, also sent armies into 
 the Duchies; and a war ensued between Denmark and the German Powers. 
 
 First Campaign — Capture of Doppel. — On the 4th of Februar}^ 1864, hos- 
 tilities between the Danes and the Germans commenced at Missunde. The war 
 was prosecuted with vigor on the part of the Germans, and, after a spirited cam- 
 paign, the Danes were defeated. The most important event of the first campaign 
 was the capture of Doppel by the Prussians, on the l8th of April, 1864. Although 
 hei army was defeated, Denmark still refused to accept peace by relinquishing the 
 sovereignty of the German Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein; and Austria and 
 Prussia undertook a second cfimpaign to force Denmark to terms. 
 
 Second Campaign — Capture of Alsen. — The Danish army still gallantly 
 resisted, but in vain. The Austrians and Prussians were again victorious. The 
 island fif Alsen was captured by the Prussians, under Prince Frederic Charles, on 
 'he 9th of July, 1864, after a sanguinary struggle. Active hostilities had lasted five 
 nonthi and Denmark was now obliged to accept peace on such terms as Aa'^triaj 
 Prussia, and the Germanic Confederation chose to dictate. 
 
 Peace of Vienna. — On the 30th of October, 1864, a treaty of peace vas v;on 
 eluded at Vienna, between Denmark and the German powers, by which Kin^ 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^07 
 
 Christian VIII. of Denmark relinquished all claims to the soveieignty of the Ger 
 man Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. 
 
 THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR (1866; 
 
 The Schleswig-Holstein Controversy Between Austria and Prussia 
 
 —A dispute between Austria and Prussia concerning the sovereignty of the Duchies 
 .rf Schleswig and Holstein, which those two great powers had wrested from Den- 
 nark in 1864. led to a short, but fierce and decisive, war, in the summer of 1S66,. 
 Aastria seenif-l disposed to support the claims of Prince Frederic of Augustenlmrg 
 to the sovereignty of the Duchies; but, in October, 1865, Prussia declared that, 
 according to the late treaty with Denmark, the sovereignty of the two Duchies had 
 been yielded to Austria and Prussia jointly. Prussia considered the favor of Austria 
 for Prince Frederic of Augustenburg as indicating antagonism to the joint sover- 
 eignty of Austria and Prussia over the Duchies. 
 
 Arming of Austria and Prussia — Alliance of Prussia and Italy. — In the 
 early part of 1866, Austria placed her army on a war-footing; and Prussia, suspect- 
 ing the designs of Austria, began to arm in her defense. Austria pretended that 
 her military preparations were with the view of protecting the Jews in Bohemia 
 from persecution. The smaller German States endeavored to have the difficulty 
 between the two great powers settled by the process of Austragal Judgment, as 
 provided for in the eleventh article of the Federal Pact; but Prussia insisted on a 
 reorganization of the Germanic Confederation. At length, both Austria and Prussia 
 agreed to disarm ; but in the meantime, Prussia had entered into an offensive and 
 defensive alliance with Italy; and both Austria and Prussia continued their arma- 
 ments. 
 
 Demand of Prussia — Prussian Troops sent into Holstein. — The discuj- 
 sions of Prussia's demand for a reorganization of the Germanic Diet rendered an 
 amicable adjustment of the dispute still more difficult; and at length, Prussia 
 declared that if her demand were not complied with by the Diet, she would seek 
 redress through some other source. The Austrian governor of Holstein had 
 received orders to summon the Estates of the Duchy to consider their political rela- 
 tions. Prussia considered this as a violation of the stipulations of the treaty of 
 1864; and Count von Bismarck, the Prussian Prime-Minister, dispatched a military 
 force into Holstein, and the Austrians withdrew from the Duchy. 
 
 Mobilization of the German-Federal Army — Declaration of War. — A 
 motion for the mobilization of the German-Federal army was, through the influence 
 of xVustria, adopted by the Federal Diet; whereupon Prussia declared the Diet dis- 
 solved, on account of the violation of the Germanic Constitution, withdrew frorr, 
 the Germanic Confederation, and called upon the German States to unite with her 
 under a new consiitution. On the l8th of June, 1866, Italy and Prussia formally 
 and conjointly declared war against Austria, and immediately set their armies \\\ 
 motion. 
 
 Flight of the King of Saxony — Surrender of the Hanoverian Army,— - 
 Prussian troops had already occupied Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and Saxony, because 
 chose States refused to unite with Prussia in a new confederation. The King of 
 Saxony fled into Bohemia, destroying the bridges and tearing up the railroad* 
 
398 MODERN HISTOR Y. 
 
 behind him. Prussia vainly attempted a reconciliation with Hanover. Although 
 successful in an action vv^ith the Prussians, the Hanoverian army, not receiving the 
 expected assistance of the Bavarians, was obliged to surrender to the Prussians, 
 whose r.imbers were continually increasing. 
 
 Prussian Victories over the Bavarian and Federal-German Armies. — 
 riie Bavarians, being several times disastrously defeated by the Prussiam, were 
 obliged to retire behind the Main. The Prussians next defeated the Fec.eral- 
 jitrman army at Aschaffenburg, and forced it to retire beyond '.he Main, wher< J 
 efltected a junction with the defeated Bavarians. 
 
 Operations in Italy — Battle of Custozza — Naval Battle of Lissa.— 
 The Italian armies were at this time contending against the Austrians in Northern 
 Italy. On the 24th of June (1866), was fought the battle of Custozza, in which the 
 Italians were defeated and compelled to retreat. In July, the Italian army invaded 
 Venetia, and forced the Austrians to fall back. General Garibaldi, with 12,000 
 Italians, was in the passes of the Tyrol, to the left of the main Italian army. The 
 Italian right wing compelled the Austrians to retreat beyond Trent, in the Tyrol. 
 The Italian right pursued the Austrians in their retreat through Venetia. While 
 these movements were taking place on land, the Italian navy was defeated off the 
 island of Lissa, by the Austrian fleet under Admiral Tegethoff. 
 
 Prussian Invasion of Bohemia. — In the meantime, the Prussians were con- 
 ducting a brilliant campaign against the Austrians in Bohemia. Three large Prus- 
 sian annies, numbering together more than 200,000 men, had been a.ssembled in 
 June, 1866, for the invasion of the Austrian province of Bohemia. The 1st Prus- 
 sian army, under Prince Frederic Charles, the nephew of King William of Prussia, 
 advanced into Bohemia from Saxony ; the 3d Prussian army, under General von 
 Bitterfeld, joined the 1st Prussian army in Bohemia, before the close of June; and 
 the two combined forced the Austrians to fall back. In the meantime, the 2d Prus- 
 sian army, under the command of the Crown-Prince Frederic William of Prussia, 
 passed the frontiers of Silesia, and advancing into Bohemia, defeated the Austrians 
 on the 27th of June. (1866.) 
 
 Battle of Sadowa. — After brilliant maneuvering, and a series of conflicts, in 
 which the Prussians captured 15,000 prisoners and twenty-four pieces of artillery, 
 the 1st and 3d Prussian armies became engaged with 200,000 Austrians, under 
 Field-Marshal Benedek, at nine o'clock in the morning of the 3d of July, 1S66, at 
 the little village of Sadowa, near Koniggratz. The Prussians had held their 
 ground firmly against the superior force of the Austrians, when the arrival of the 
 Crown-Prince with the 2d Prussian army, at one o'clock in the aflernoon, decided 
 the battle against the Austrians, who, after fighting bravely, were defeated with the 
 loss of 40,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and 174 pieces of cannon. 
 The V ctorious Prussians lost 20,000 men. 
 
 Peace of Prague. — After the battle of Sadowa, the shattered Austrian forces 
 fetieated to Ohnutz, in Moravia, pursued by the Prussians, who gained anotLe vi: 
 fory on the 22d of July. (1866.) The Austrian Government, seriously ah: neo 
 at the rapid advance of the triumphant Prussians, was now anxious for peace; and, 
 through- the mediation of France, an armistice was concluded on the 26th of July. 
 On the 23d of Ar.gus (1866), a treaty of peace was signed at Pr.ague, by the 
 
NINETEENTH CENTUF:Y 
 
 399 
 
 plenipotentiaries of Austria and Prussia. By this treat)', Austria ceded Venetia tc 
 Italy, and consented to the formation of a new German Confederation, from which 
 xhe was to be excluded; and the entire sovereignty of the Duchies of Schleswig 
 and Holstein was surrendered to Prussia. 
 
 Prussian Treaties with Other German States — Peace of Vienna.- -Prus 
 sia conch ded treaties of peace, on advantageous terms for herself, with Wurtem 
 l)erg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt. An armistice had been pi-oclaimed 
 between Austria and Italy; and, on the 3d of October, 1866, a treaty of peace he 
 tween these two powers was signed at Vienna, Austria surrendering Venetia to Italy, 
 A confederation of North German States, with Prussia at its head, was established; 
 and Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt became independent sov- 
 ereign states. 
 
 ENGLISH REFORMS (1867-1869). 
 
 The Russell Ministry — Rejection of the Reform Bill. — For some time, 
 England had been agitated by the question of a more popular representation in 
 Parliament. A reform bill, brought forward by the Ministry of Earl Russell, was, 
 after much discussion, rejected by Parliament, on the i8th of June, 1866. This 
 result produced much excitement and dissatisfaction throughout England. Immense 
 reform demonstrations were made in various parts of the kingdom, and in some of 
 the principal cities serious riots occurred. 
 
 The Derby Cabinet — Passage of the Reform Bill — War with Abyssinia. 
 — The Whig Ministry of Earl Russell was succeeded by a Toiy Cabinet, at the 
 head of which was Earl Derby. The Derby Ministry proposed very liberal 
 measures of reform, which occupied the attention of Parliament for several months; 
 and a reform bill greatly extending the right of sulTrage by diminishing the pro- 
 perty qualification of voters for members of Parliament, was finally passed by 
 both Houses of Parliament, in August, 1867; and on the 15th of that month, it 
 received the royal assent. The chief event connected with the foreign policy 
 of England during Lord Derby's Administration was the advance of an expedition, 
 under General Robert Napier, into Abyssinia, late in 1867; and the Abyssinian 
 king, Theodore, who had refused to release his English captives, was defeated and 
 killed in April, 186S. 
 
 The Disraeli Administration — Reform Bill for Ireland. — In May, 1868, 
 Earl Derby was succeeded as Prime-Minister of Great Britain by Mr. Disraeli, the 
 chief leader of the Tory party in the House of Commons. A reform bill for 
 Ireland, proposed by Mr. Gladstone, one of the Whig leaders in the House of 
 Commons was passed. The disestablishment of the Church of England in Ireland 
 was now agitated by the English Liberal party, headed by John Bright and William 
 E. Gladstone. In August, 1868, the Ministry dissolved Parliament and i. rdcred 
 aew elections, in order to test the sense of the nation. 
 
 The Gladstone Ministry — Disestablishment of the Irish Church. —Th 
 Parliamentary elections in November, 1868, resulted :n overwhelming maj witici 
 fcf the candidates of the Liberal party, in consequence of which Mr. Disraeli and 
 his colleagues resigned, early in December (1868); and a Whig Ministry, with Mr. 
 Gladstone at its head, came into power. The great measure of Gladstone' 1 
 
400 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 A.dministration was the disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland. A 
 disestabiishment bill, which encountered the most strenuous opposition on the part 
 of the aristocratic Tories in the House cf Lords, was finally passed in August, 
 1869, and received the royal assent on the 26th of that month. The Irish land 
 bill, which was designed to better the condition of the tenant population of Ire- 
 land, was also passed and approved by the sovereign. Thus were removed ju:4 
 causes of complaint on the part of the people of Ireland 
 
 SPANISH REVOLUTION OF 1868. 
 
 Spam's Wars with Morocco, Peru, and Chili— Tyranny of Queen Is- 
 abella II. — The most prominent events in the recent history of Spain were the 
 successful war against Morocco, in 1859 and i860; the sending of the allied Eng- 
 lish, French, and Spanish expedition against Mexico, in December, 1861; and the 
 war against Peru and Chili, in 1864 and 1865. The dissolute and tyrannical con- 
 duct of Queen Isabella 11. made her detested by her subjects. Unsuccessful insur- 
 rections against her authority occurred at different times, and for several years, 
 Spain was in a disturbed condition. 
 
 Spanish Revolution of September, 1868— Flight of Queen Isabella II. — 
 Isabella's extravagance and profusion to her favorites produced a growing discontent 
 throughout the Spanish kingdom; and about the middle of September, 1868, while 
 the queen was at San Sebastian, on her way to visit the Emperor Napoleon III., an 
 insurrection, headed by Generals Prim and Serrano, broke out. The revolt soon 
 extended throughout the whole kingdom, and all the important towns declared 
 against the queen. The army and navy joined the insurgents, who soon took pos- 
 session of Madrid. The authority of Queen Isabella II. was now at an end, and 
 she fled to France; and a Central Provisional Junta was formed to conduct public 
 affairs. A bloody insurrection against Spanish authority now broke out in the 
 island of Cuba, and continued several years. 
 
 A Constituent Cortes — A New Constitution — Serrano, Regent. — In 
 November, 1868, elections for a Constituent Cortes were held in Spain. This 
 Cortes assembled soon afterwards, and, after long deliberation, adopted a new 
 monarchical constitution, on the 1st of June, 1869; and General Serrano was 
 appointed regent of the Spanish kingdom, until a king should be chosen. General 
 Prim was placed at the head of the Ministry. 
 
 Carlist and Republican Insurrections. — In August, 1S69, an insurrection of 
 the Carlists broke out in the north-eastern part of Spain, but it was promptly sup- 
 pressed by the Government troops. A Republican insurrection in the following 
 month (September, 1869), was also crushed, after the cities of Valencia and Sara- 
 gossa, where the Republicans had determined to make a desperate stand, were taken, 
 After furious assaults and sanguinary fighting in the streets. 
 
 The Duke of Aosta Elected King of Spain. — On the 17th of Noveml«r, 
 870, the Spanish Cortes, by a vote of 191 against 1 20, elected the Duke of A 0*1, 
 son of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy, King of Spain, with the title of Amads n 
 I. In the beginning of January, 1871, the newly-elected king made his entrance 
 i ito Madrid, and took the oath to support the new constitution of the Spanish 
 nation. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 401 
 
 Assassination of General Prim. — Strong opposition to the njw king was 
 manifested by the Spanish Republicans, and also by the Carlists; and General Prim, 
 the ablest of Spanish statesmen, was bitterly hated by the Republicans, many of 
 whom regarded him as the chief obstacle in the way of the establishmen'. of a Span- 
 ish Republic. As General Prim was returning from the Cortes, on the night cf the 
 27th of December, 1870, eight shots were fired at his carriage, by a party cf assas- 
 lins in the streets. The General was wounded in three places, and died on the 3ISI. 
 The death of Prim produced a profound sensation of grief in Madrid, and througl • 
 •^x- Spain ; and great popular indignation was manifested against the assassins. TjU 
 ronf. adopted a resolution in honor of the memory of the great statesman, declaring 
 icat the deceased deserved well of his country, and placed his family under the 
 orotection of the Spanish nation. 
 
 THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1870-1871). 
 
 Candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. — At ihe 
 
 beginniiig of July, 1870, General Prim, the Prime-Minister of Spain, with the con- 
 sent of Serrano, the Regent of that country, invited Prince Leopold, of Hohenzol- 
 lern-Sigmaringen, a German prince, to become a candidate for the vacant throne 
 of Spain. Regarding the candidature of this prince as a menace to France on the 
 part of Spain and Prussia, the French Government violently opposed the project; 
 and the Duke de Gramont, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, immediately 
 informed the Governments of Spain and Prussia that. France would not consent to 
 the election of a Prussian prince to the throne of Spain. 
 
 Diplomatic Note to Prussia — Reply to France. — On the 5th of July, Emile 
 Ollivier, the French Prime-Minister, held a consultation with the Duke de Gramont 
 and Senor Olozaga, the Spanish ambassador at Paris, and the result was a sharp 
 diplomatic note t(; Baron Werther, the Prussian ambassador to France. Immedi- 
 ately affr receiving the note. Baron Werther started for Em.s, to meet the King of 
 Prussia. General Prim refused to abandon the candidacy of the Prince of Hohen- 
 zollern intil the Spanish Cortes should have decided on the question; and the 
 Prussian Government, in reply to the diplomatic note from the French Cabinet, 
 stated tl at Prussia did nothing toward obtaining the offer of the Spanish crown for 
 Prince ] .eopold, that the consent of the King of Prussia to its acceptance would be 
 p;iven after the Spanish Cortes had acted on the question, and that if the Cortes 
 ihould choose the prince to the vacant throne Prussia would support him. 
 
 Co .rse of Spain and Prussia. — At a Council of Ministers in Madrid,! he 
 course of General Prim was unanimously approved, and the candidature of the Priice 
 of Hohenzollern was accepted. It was believed in Paris that Prim and the Count 
 von Bismarck, the shrewd and unprincipled Prime-Minister of Prussia, had for some 
 time been secretly intriguing for the elevation of the Prince of Hohenzollern to the 
 Spanish throne. Spain denied that she was influenced Ijy Prussia in regard to the 
 iandidacy of the Pdnce of Plohenzollern ; and Prussia declared herself innocent cf 
 all political intrigm;, and asserted that she had no right nor inclination to dictate tf 
 Spain, or to the Ptmce of Hohenzollern. England, Austria, and Russia, made vair 
 efforts for the preservation of peace. 
 
 Military Preparations of France. — France was now making the most earnest 
 26 
 
402 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 military preparations, and the Garde Mobile and the Garde Nationale were put up-zfl 
 a war-footing. The greatest activity prevailed at Toulon, Cherbourg, and other 
 French ports ; and troops were being rapidly moved eastward toward the Rliine. 
 The Imperial Guards were placed under the command of Marshal Bazaine; pmi 
 Marshal MacMahon was ordered home from Algeria, to take command of the French, 
 army which was to operate on the Rhine. Marshal Canrobert and Generals Failly 
 and Frossard were also appointed to important commands. 
 
 Formal Withdrawal of Prince Leopold— Demand of France. — On tli* 
 S2th of July (1S70), Prince Leopold, of HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen, declining l< 
 be the ca'ise of a European war, formally withdrew as a candidate for the Spanish 
 throne. N<:)t satisfied with the conduct of the King of Prussia in sanctioning the 
 withdrawal of the candidacy of Prince Leopold as head of the Hohenzollern family. 
 the French Government demanded that he should do it as King of Prussia. But 
 King William declined to do this, as he regarded such a step as inconsistent with the 
 dignity to which Prussia was entitled as one of the first class powers of the world. 
 Prussian troops were now also hurried to the Rhine. 
 
 Dismissal of the French Ambassador — Declaration of War. — On ilie 
 14th of July (1870), Count Benedetti, the French ambassador to Prussia, demanded 
 an audience of King William, at Ems, for the purpose of securing the perpetual 
 renunciation of Prince Leopold of HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen as a candidate for 
 the throne of Spain ; but as the king refused to receive him he started for Paris ; 
 and on the following day (July 15th, 1S70), the French Corps Legislatif declared 
 war against Prussia. 
 
 The Prussian Armies. — Both the French and the Prussian people were enthu- 
 siastic in support of their respective governments. All the German States rallied 
 to the aid of Prussia, and the immediate mobilization of the whole Prussian army 
 was ordered. The Crown-Prince Frederic William of Prussia was placed in com- 
 mand of the South German armies, while his cousin. Prince Frederic Charles, was 
 appointed to take command of the forces of North Germany. Although King 
 William of Prussia was the nominal commander-in-chief of the German armies, the 
 direction of the military operations of Germany was in the hands of the skillful 
 general. Count von Moltke. After concentrating between Mayence and Coblentz, 
 the Prussian forces were moved to the French frontier. 
 
 The French Armies. — After concentrating in the vicinity of Nancy, Metz, and 
 Thionville, the French forces were moved forward to the German frontier. In the 
 latter part of July, the Emperor Napoleon III. left Paris for the seal of war, and 
 took the chief command of the French armies. The principal French armies were 
 the Army of the Moselle, under Marshal Bazaine, in the neighborhood of Metz and 
 Thionville, and the Army of the Rhine, under Marshal MacMahon, in the vicinity 
 of Strasburg. There was also a large army of reserves, under Marshal Canrobert, 
 Jt Chalons-sur-Marne. 
 
 Numerical Strength of the Belligerent Forces — Skirmish at Saar- 
 bincken, — Toward the end of July, the German troops, 700,000 in number, occu- 
 pied a line along the French frontier, extending from the Moselle to the Rhine. 
 Tiie French troops, 350,00; it; i.umber, were assembled at various points along the 
 ftontier, directly opposite the Prussian line. Skirmishes occurred at Saarbrucken, 
 
LEOPOLD. 
 
FREDERICK WILLIAM, THE CROWN PRINCE. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 403 
 
 on tlie 30th of July and on the ist of August, in which the French were repulsed, 
 but on the 2d of August, the town was captured by the French, after a sharp fight. 
 
 Battle of Weissenbourg — Advance of the Prussian Line. — On the 4tb 
 of August, the frontier town of Weissenbourg was captured by a part of the Tru* 
 ii.iii army under the Crown-Prince Frederic William, after a spirited er.gagen- 1 iit^ 
 in which the French General Douay was killed, and 800 French troops were n.aJc 
 |.risoners by the Prussians. The Prussian victory at Weissenbourg was f'.>llowfd 
 by 2 general advance of the whole Prussian line int' France, and the Ccunt vr-i 
 .yloltke immediately assumed an offensive attitude. 
 
 Battle of Woerth — Battle of Forbach. — On the 6th of August was foughi 
 tl.e battle of Woerth or Froschwiller, in which the Crown-Prince of Prussia, with a 
 large force of Prussians and Bavarians, defeated the French under Marshal 
 MacMahon, separated them from the remainder of the French army, and made 4,000 
 of them prisoners. The total French loss was 1 1 ,000 men, and the Prussian loss 
 3,500. On the very day of the battle of Woerth (August 6, 1870), the Prussian 
 right, under General von Steinmetz, recaptured Saarbrucken, carried the heights of 
 Spicheren after a severe struggle, and completely defeated the French under Gen- 
 eral Frossard in the battle of Fcjrbach, and afterwards compelled them to evacuate 
 Forbach, St. Avoid, and Thionville, and took 8,000 of them prisoners. The whole 
 French line fell back on Metz, followed by the Prussians. 
 
 Consternation and Indignation in Paris. — When intelligence of the defeats 
 of the French arms at Weissenbourg, Woerth, and Forbach reached Paris, the inhabi- 
 tants of that proud capital manifested the most intense indignation, and the greatest 
 excitement and consternation prevailed ; and it was feared that a sudden revolution 
 would take place, and result in the overthrow of the Bonaparte dynasty. 
 
 Advance of the Prussians in France. — The Prussian right and centre, under 
 General von Steinmetz and Prince Frederic Charles, now advanced on Metz, and 
 60,000 South German troops, under General von Werder, laid siege to Strashurg. 
 At the same time, the Prussian left, under the Crown-Prince, followed the fhat 
 tered forces of Marshal MacMahon, in the direction of Nancy. On the 13th of 
 August MacMahon evacuated Nancy, which was immediately taken possession or liy 
 the victorious forces of the Crown-Prince, MacMahon retreating to Chalons-sni 
 Marne. 
 
 Movements near Metz — Battles of Courcelles, Vionville, and Grave- 
 lotte. — After the 1st and 2d Prussian armies had reached the Moselle, the French 
 army, under Marshal Bazaine, at Metz, attempted to retreat from that strong fortress, 
 on the 14th of August, but was met and defeated at Courcelles, by the ist Prussian 
 army, under General von Steinmetz, and driven back with heavy loss. On the fol 
 lowing day (August 15, 1870), the 1st Prussian army crossed the Moselle between 
 Metz and Thionville, to cut off Bazaine's retreat to Paris by the northern road tc 
 Verdun, while the 2d Prussian army, which had already passed the Moselle si-ulh 
 of Metz, seized the southern road. On the i6th, a fierce and bloody battle w;u 
 fought at Vionville, between Metz and Verdun, in which the French were defeated 
 by the 2d Prussian army under Prince Frederic Charles. Bazaine's army was now 
 in a peiilous situation. On the 17th, the Prussians hurried the remainder of thcit 
 corps acibss the Moselle for the final struggle. On the l8th (August, 1870), oc- 
 
404 
 
 MODERN HISTORW 
 
 curred the san/juinary battle of Gravelotte oi Rezonville, west of Metz, which latred 
 for nine hours, and in which Marshal Bazaine's amiy was again most disastrously 
 defeated. The carnage of both sides was frightful. The battle-field and neighbor- 
 ing villages were strewn with dead. During this week of battles, the French lost 
 50,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The victorious Prussians also lost 
 Ltavily. Thus eveiy attempt at retreat which Bazaine made was defeated. \\t 
 wa> now blockaded in the vicinity of Metz, with no hope whatever of extricating 
 1 imsclf from his perilous position. All communication between him and Paris was 
 E >vered, and an attempt to move in any direction would result in another disastrovi 
 defeat of his army. 
 
 Advance of the Crown-Prince of Prussia toward Paris. — While the isi 
 and 2d Prussian armies, under General von Steinmetz and Prince Frederic Charles, 
 were 1 oldmg Bazaine fast at Metz, the Crown-Prince of Prussia, with the 3d Prus- 
 sian army, 200,000 strong, having passed Metz on the south, was rapidly advancing 
 toward Paris by way of Chalons-sur-Marne, MacMahon with his defeated and shat- 
 tered forces retreating before him. King William at length removed his head- 
 quarters from the Prussian armies near Metz to Bar-le-Duc, and then accompanied 
 the Crown-Prince on his march toward Paris. In the meantime, a sharp conflict 
 occurred at Verdun, between a French detachment and 10,000 German troops undet 
 the command of the Crown- Prince of Saxony; and Vitry-le-PYancais was captured 
 by the Prussians, after a spirited engagement. 
 
 Battles of Beaumont and Sedan. — At length, when MacMahon, after having 
 evacuated Chalons-sur-Marne, on the 23d of August, and after being reinforced, 
 attempted to fly to the relief of Bazaine near Metz, the Prussian Crown-Prince, 
 suddenly relinquishing his march toward the French capital, followed his antagonist 
 northward, toward the frontier of Belgium. MacMahon's army was also threatened 
 by the forces of Prince Frederic Charles. There was heavy skirmishing on the 28th 
 and 29th of August, between the armies of MacMahon and the Crown-Prince. On 
 the 30th (August, 1870), MacMahon made a movement toward Montmedy, but his 
 army was attacked at Beaumont, and, after a tremendous conflict, utterly defeated 
 and driven acfoss the Meuse, toward the Belgian frontier, by the Prussian forces 
 under the Crown-Prince. The Prussians captured twelve cannon and thousands of 
 prisoners. During the night, both the French and Prussian armies received large 
 reinforcements ; and on the following day (August 31, 1870), the battle was renewed, 
 and, after the most desperate fighting, the French were again disastrously defeated, 
 and driven to Sedan. At daylight on the ist of September, 1870, MacMahon's arrry, 
 which was now reinforced, occupied a strong elevated position .\.-ound the fortif ed 
 town of Sedan, near the Belgian frontier. About 5 o'clock in the morning, the 
 Prussians commenced the great battle of Sedan by simultaneous attacks on .he 
 French front and left flank. During a great part of the forenoon, tht fighting wa.s 
 confined mainly to the artillery of both armies; but at length, the firing of musketry 
 Decame quite lively About noon, the Prussian infantry made a furious attempt t<: 
 ireak the French centre, but after the most desperate fighting they were repulsed 
 Afterwaids, a simultaneous movement was made along the whole line of the Prus 
 sians, their infantry charging the French guns. After the French cuirassiers hail 
 failed in a charge on the Prussian skirmishers at the La Givonne hills, the French 
 infantry made a desperate assault, but they also met with a disastrous repulse. A. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 405 
 
 Miree o'clock, the French line, which had thus far gallantly withstood the Prussian 
 assaults, wavered, and soon afterward broke. The battle now became a rout. The 
 victorious Prussians hotly pursued the French troops, who, leaving everything be- 
 hind them, were fleeing in dismay from the field, and throwing away their arms 
 The pursuing Prussians used the bayonet with terrible effect, as they were deter 
 mined to cut off the French retreat toward Belgium. Night put an end to th3 rout 
 an 1 p usuit, ami the broken hosts of the French army took refuge in the fortress A 
 Sedan The Prussians had won a brilliant victory, but at the cost of 30,000 men 
 if. killed and wounded. The defeated Fre.ich army had lost 20,000 men. On the 
 3tst of August r.nd the 1st of September (1870), Marshal Bazaine made anotlier 
 desperate eflort to escape from Metz, but he was again defeated by Prince Frederic 
 Charles, and driven back into the fortress. 
 
 Surrender of MacMahon's Army — Surrender of Napoleon III. — On the 
 
 2d of September, 1870, the French army under Marshal MacMahon, then number- 
 ing 120,000 men, and being entirely surrounded at Sedan, without any hope of 
 escape whatever, was surrendered prisoners of war to King William of Prussia, 
 by General WimpfTen, instead of Marshal MacMahon, who was severely wounded. 
 The Emperor Napoleon III., who had been with MacMahon at Sedan, but who then 
 held no command in the army, surrendered himself a prisoner to King William. 
 In his letter to the King of Prussia, proposing surrender, the French Emperor said, 
 " As I cannot die at the head of my army, I come to lay my sword at the feet of 
 your majesty." The King of Prussia treated his imperial captive with great courtesy 
 and generosity, and allotted to him the chateau of Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel, for a 
 residence during his captivity in Germany. Thus, five weeks after the commence- 
 ment of hostilities at Saarbrucken, the military power of France was thoroughly 
 broken. The imperial career of Napoleon III. Jiad now ended, and the Second 
 French Empire had received its death-blow. 
 
 The Paris Revolution of September — France Proclaimed a Republic. 
 — When intelligence of the capitulation of MacMahon's army at Sedan and the 
 surrender of the Emperor spread through Paris, the excitement of the people of 
 that city became almost indescribable. The streets were filled with excited crowds, 
 who demanded the dethronement of the Bonaparte dynasty and the establishment 
 of a new French Republic. A stormy scene took place in the Corps Legislatif. 
 On Sunday, September 4th, 1870, the French capital was in revolution. The pop- 
 ular agitation gradually became greater, and at length unparalleled excitement pre- 
 vailed throughout the city. The Place de la Concorde was one mass of human 
 beings, and the Boulevards were impassable, on account of the immense crowds 
 assembled tlieie. The National Guards, however, succeeded in preserving order. 
 The soldiers and National Guards fraternized with the people, singing the "Mar 
 Keillaise" and wildly shouting "Vive la Republique!" The Corps Legislatif wafl 
 ^uiTounded by hundreds and thousands of excited Parisians, who demanded the 
 iepos'.oon of the Bonapartes and the establishment of a republic. The Senate 
 K2i'' suppressed, and the Corps Legislatif dissolved, after proi [aiming, by a unaiii- 
 niji's vote, that the Bonaparte dynasty had forfeited the crown of France. The 
 Republican members of the Corps Legislatif then proceeded to the Hotel de Ville, 
 where t;hey proclaimed France a Republic. A Provisional Government, entitled 
 "The (Government of National Defense,'' was then formed, consisting of eleven 
 
4o6 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 persons, — namely, Emanuel Arago, Emanuel Cremieux, Jules Favre, Jules Ferry, 
 Jules Simon, Leon Gambetta, Garnier Pages, Ernest Picard, Henri Rochefort, Glais 
 Bizoin, and Eugen3 I'elletan, all representatives of Paris. The Parisians were wild 
 with joy, at the dtjhronement of the Emperor, and the inauguration of the new 
 Republic. They embraced each other and wept for joy. The Paris mob, which 
 agiin ruled supreme, was destroying in spite and fury. All signs having imperial 
 arms and medals were torn down. The mob invaded the great palace of the Tuil- 
 «;ies, tore down the throne, destroyed everything marked with the imperial insignia^ 
 aii'l carried away and cast into the river Seine, all the busts, statues, and pictures of 
 the Bonapaite family. On the following day (September 5, 1870), the Provisional 
 Government issued a proclamation, announcing that a Republic had been proclaimed 
 at the flotel de Ville. The Provisional Government also decreed that the Corps 
 Legislatif was dissolved and the Senate abolished, and accorded full amnesty for 
 all political crimes and offenses against the Empire. This sudden and remarkable 
 revolution was accomplished without the sacrifice of a single life. The greatest 
 enthusiasm prevailed throughout France, and the people of the departments every- 
 svhere accepted the Republic. The Empress Eugenie had fled from Paris and gone 
 to England. The Government of the Unites States promptly recognized the new 
 French Republic. 
 
 - -Advance of the Germans on Paris. — After the surrender of MacMahon's 
 army and of the Emperor Napoleon at Sedan, the Crown Princes of Prussia and 
 Saxony, accompanied by King William, the Count von Moltke, and the Count von 
 Bismarck, marched against Paris, at the head of 400,000 German troops. The for- 
 tified town of Laon surrendered to the Prussians on the loth of September, but the 
 citadel was treacherously blown up, killing several hundred French and German 
 soldiers. The immense German armies, upon their arrival before Paris, about the 
 middle of September, prepared for the prosecution of a vigorous siege of that great 
 capital. 
 
 Unsuccessful Attempts at Peace. — After the establishment of the Govern- 
 ment of National Defense in Paris, on the 4th of September, energetic efforts on 
 the part of France were made for peace with Germany. The distinguished Jules 
 Favre, the new French Minister of Foreign Affairs, visited Count von Bismarck, 
 and endeavored to procure a cessation of hostilities and the conclusion of a treaty 
 of peace. Favre offered many humiliating concessions to Germany; but Bis- 
 marck's harsh demand that the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine should be 
 ceded to Germany, and the non-existence of a permanent government in France, 
 rendered the efforts at peace abortive; and thus this sanguinary war was left to 
 continue. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Strasburg. — Soon after the German armies had entered 
 France, 60,000 South German troops, under General von Werder, invested Stras- 
 burg, the chief city of the French province of Alsace, which was garrisoned by 
 ab )ui 20,000 French troops, under General Uhrich. Although the city suffered 
 faeavi'.y from vhe fierce bombardments which the besieging Germans opened upjr 
 Lt, being often on fire in different places and a great part of it destrojed, the garii- 
 son held out heroically for two months, refusing repeated demands for surrender, 
 and making many desperate sorties. Finally, on the 27th of September (1870), 
 after the garrison and the inhabitants had sufferrd from famine, and any further 
 
Nfh £ TEE NTH CENTUR Y. 
 
 407 
 
 rtefciise being imix)ssible, General Uhrich surrendered the city of Strasburg ;u\d irs 
 garrison then consisting of 17,000 men, to General von Werder. The city waa 
 ihunediately Dcccpied by the conquering Germans, and placed under German rule 
 Investment and Siege of Paris. — On the 16th of September (1870), the 
 German armies, half a million strong, began the investment of Paris, and, on ths 
 same day, the city was declared in a state of siege. The headt^uarters of King 
 William were established at P^errieres, of the Crown-Prince of Prussia at Versailles, 
 md of the Crown-Prince of Saxony at Grand Tremblay. The French capital was 
 ^a?risoned by about 230,000 troops, under the command of General Trochu. 1 he 
 1 Frisians were determined to defend their city to the last extremity, resolving to 
 emulate Metz and Strasburg. Before the siege had commenced, the city had been 
 supplied with immense stores of provisions. Paris, surrounded by a strong wall (the 
 enciente), and by numerous fortifications, was impregnable to attack, and could 
 only be conquered by starvation. The principal forLs defending the city, — namely 
 Valerien, d' Issy, Vanvres, Montrouge, Bicetre, Noisy, and Rosny, — were strongly 
 garrisoned. Numerous engagements of an unimportant character occurred around 
 Paris, during the latter part of September and throughout October. On the 30th of 
 Septenil)er, a severe conflict took place between the French troops of the line and 
 the Prussians, resulting in the repulse of the French, who took refuge behind the 
 forts. On the 22d of October, Paris was completely surrounded by the German 
 army of investment, about 300,000 strong, and the German military authorities per- 
 mitted no person whatever to enter or leave the beleaguered capital. All commu- 
 nication between Paris and the outside world was cut off, except by means of bal- 
 loons. Before Paris had been completely surrounded by the besieging Germans, 
 some of the members of the French Provisional Government established themselves 
 at Tours, while the others remained in the besieged capital. Communication 
 between Paris and Tours was kept up by the dangerous service of balloons. 
 
 German Victories at Orleans. — In the meantime, a new French army of more 
 than 100,000 men had been formed on the Loire. A portion of this army was defeated 
 by a German force, under General Von Der Tann, near Orleans, on the loth of 
 October. The French fled in disorder, leaving 10,000 prisoners in the hands of the 
 victorious Germans. On the 1 2th of October, the French Army of the Loire was 
 defeated at Orleans, after nine hours' fighting. The Prussians took Orleans by 
 storm, and captured 10,000 prisoners. 
 
 Capture of Soissons. — On the 17th of October, Soissons capitulated to the 
 Germans commando 1 by the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, after an obstinate 
 contest of four days, and the most sanguinary fighting in the streets, no quartei 
 being shown to the wounded, the women from the houses hurling missiles upon the 
 heads of the Germans, and much of the city being destroyed. 
 
 Bazaine's Surrender of Metz. — After many unsuccessful sorties, and when 
 famine had begun to threaten the army and citizens of Metz with its horrors, Mai- 
 shal Bazaine surrendered the city of Metz, one of the most strongly-fortified place* 
 ii. *he world, together with his army, then consisting of 173,000 men, and all his 
 artillery, small arms, and ammunition, to Prince Frederic Charles, on the 27th of 
 October. This disgraceful capitulation produced the most intense indignation 
 throughout France. Bazaine, who had never recognized the Republic, was sus- 
 pected of treachery by his countrymen; and the Government of National Defense 
 
^o8 MODERN HISTOR V 
 
 ordered the arrest of the Marshal wherever found in France. King William created 
 the Crown-Prince of Prussia and Prince Frederic Charles Field-Marshals. This 
 wa.'; the first instance of any such dignitj- being conferred upon any prince of the 
 Hoase of Hohenzollern. 
 
 Failura of Renewed Attempts at Peace. — In the latter part of October and 
 in the '^egini ing of November (1870), in consequence of the fall of Metz, lenewed 
 jffc.ii; were made on the part of France for peace. Bismarck's firm refusal tc 
 consent to an armistice on any other basis than the cession of Alsace and Lorraine 
 lo Germany, and his rejection of the proposition for the revictualling of Paris n.s a 
 condition of the proposed armistice, rendered all efforts at an armistici;, a"^ die ore- 
 runnrr of a treaty of peace, fruitless, and both parties determined upon the con- 
 tinual/on of the terrible struggle. 
 
 Victories of the French Army of the Loire near Orleans. — After the 
 German victories near and at Orleans, in October, the French Army of the Loire 
 was gradually augmenting in numerical strength. On the 9th of November, after 
 a severe battle of two days, the Army of the Loire, 150,000 strong, under the com- 
 mand of General d'Aurelles de Paladines, inflicted a disastrous defeat on the 
 German force commanded by General Von Der Tann, near Orleans, and recap- 
 tured that city. The German loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was 12,000 
 men. Following up his victory, Paladines again defeated Von Der Tann at Arthe- 
 nay, the next day (November 10, 1870). The defeated and shattered forces of 
 V^on Der Tann retreated hastily in the direction of Paris. 
 
 Operations at Dijon — Capture of Thionville — Battle of Amiens. — On 
 the loth of November, the town of Dijon, in Eastern France, which had in the 
 meantime fallen into the hands of the Prussians, was recaptured by the French 
 Army of the East; but on the l6th of the same month (November, 1870), Dijon 
 was reoccupied by the Prussians in heavy force. On the 25th of November, Thion- 
 ville surrendered to the Prussians, after a fierce bombardment, by which a great 
 part of that town was reduced to ashes. Two days later (November 27, 1870), a 
 French force was badly beaten at Amiens, by the Prussians, under General Man- 
 teuffel, and driven toward Arras with severe loss. 
 
 Defeats of the French Army of the Loire near Orleans. — On the 2Sth 
 of November, after five days' fighting; in the vicinity of Orleans, between the 
 I'Vench Army of the Loire, and the Germans, under Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, 
 the design of Paladines to. advance to the relief of Pans was frustrated. On the 
 4th of December, after four days' heavy fighting near Orleans, *Vie Army of the 
 Loire suffered a disastrous defeat from the German armies, commanded by Prince 
 Frederic Charles and the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg. The Germans took 10,000 
 prisoners and reoccupied Orleans, which had been evacuated by the French. The 
 Army of the Loire retreated southward, toward Blois, closely pursued by the vic- 
 torious forces of Prince Frederic Charles. On the loth of December, after hree 
 lays' fighting in the vicinity of Meung, eleven miles south-west of Orleans, the 
 Army of the Loire was defeated by the Germans, under the Grand-Duke of Meek- 
 Jenburg. On the 14th of December, after four days' more fighting around Beau- 
 gency, the Army of the Loire retired to Blois and Tours. General d'Aurelles de 
 Paladines now resigned his command, and retired to his estate. The French Pro 
 visional Government had already left Tours, and been iistalled at Bordeaux. 
 
EMPEROR WILLIAM. 
 
COUNT VON BISMARCK. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 409 
 
 Grand Sorties from Paris. — On the 28th, 29th, and 30th of November (1870), 
 General Trochu made sorties from Paris on a large scale, but his assaults were re- 
 pulscG by the Germans, and his troops were driven behind the fortifications of the 
 rii). On the 2d of December, a French force of 150,000 men, under General 
 . Duciot, having been sent out of Paris by General Trochu on the preceding day, 
 made a desperate attempt to force the Cierman line of investment, and partially sue 
 "eede<l, compelling the Saxons and Wurtembergers, 100,000 in number, to fall back, 
 ^fKe.\ a sanguinary conflict of seven hours. Several days afterward, Ducrol's fiine 
 was co'n.pelled to retire back into Paris. During the Christmas holidays, the vvealii<J 
 around Paris was intensely cold, and thousands of French and German soldier? 
 were frozen to death. 
 
 Capture of Pfalzburg — Capture of Montmedy. — On the i^ihof December, 
 the fortress of Pfalzburg, in the Vosges Mountains, surrendered unconditionally to 
 the Germans, who had laid siege to the place soon after the battle of Wcjerth. On 
 the following day- (December 15, 1S70). Montmedy, near the Belgian frontier, also 
 capitulated to a German besieging force. 
 
 Restoration of the German Empire — King William Emperor, — For sev- 
 eral months, negotiations had been in progress for a union of the South German 
 States — namely, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt — with the 
 North German Confederation. These negotiations were successfully completed in 
 the early part of December, 1870; and, on the 9th of that month, the King of Prussia, 
 with the desire of the German princes and people, accepted the title of Emperor of 
 Germany. On the 19th of January, 1871, in the presence of all the German princes, 
 in the Hall of Mirrors, at Versailles, in France, King William, of Prussia, was 
 formally proclaimed Emperor of Germany. Thus the long aspirations and dreams 
 of the German people for the unity of their Fatherland were finally realized in the 
 restoration of the German Empire, which had been dissolved in 1S06, by the action 
 of Napoleon I. 
 
 Bombardment of Paris. — Having grown impatient at the lengthy duration of 
 the siege of Paris, the Germans determined to compel the devoted capital to sur- 
 render by assault and bombardment. In the latter part of December, 1870, the 
 besiegers opened a heavy bomi^ardment on Fort Avron, which was in consequence 
 evacuated by its French garrison, and immediately occupied by German troops. 
 (December 30, 1870.) The forts on the east and south sides of Paris were so vig- 
 orously bombarded that some of them — Forts Noisy, Rosny, d'lssy, and Vanvres — 
 were at length silenced, but they again resumed fire, and replied as vigorously to 
 the fire from the German batteries. Both the French and German armies suffered 
 much from the severity of the season. Much damage was done to the suburban 
 villages of Paris by the heavy fire from the German batteries; but the Parisians, 
 although suffering greatly from the inconveniences and mi leries of the siege, were 
 as determined as ever upon defense. Thousands of balls from the German guns- 
 fell in the suburbs of Paris, creating havoc in all directions, killing men, women, 
 and childien, in the streets and houses, striking ambulances, hospitals, mu'^'^um'J, 
 paliic libraries, churches, school-houses, and dwellings, and setting many pouicjus 
 of the city on fire. The horrors of the bombardment inflamed the Parisians witii 
 rage, and made them more resolute than ever in their intention to • esist to the ut- 
 most. On the 9th of January, 187 1, a severe action occurred at the village of 
 
/).IO 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Clarnart, in which the Prussians were victorious. On the loth of Januar)', Genera! 
 Trochu was repulsed in a sally on the north side of Paris, from St. Denis; and on 
 the I Uh, an unsuccessful sortie was made on the south side, between Forts Yanvres 
 and Monlrouge. On the 19th of January, a great sortie was made from Fort Vale- 
 rien, Jjy General Trochu, but he was repulsed, with the loss of 3000 men. 
 
 The Army of the Loire — Battles of Vendome and Le Mans. — The French 
 .\rmy of the Loire, under General Chanzy, assumed the offensive, about the begin- 
 oing of January (1S71), and the Germans, under Prince Frederic Charles, wtie 
 concentrating at Orleans, with th"" view of preventing Chanzy's army from advancing 
 to the relief of Paris. A severe engagement occurred near Vendome, on the 6th 
 of January, between the Army of the Loire and the forces under Prince Frederic 
 Charles, which resulted in the defeat of the French, who were in consequence com- 
 pelled to retreat westward, closely pursued by the Germans. After a series of 
 spirited actions, Chanzy's army was driven to Le Mans, where a general battle was 
 fought on the nth of January. The German army, under Prince Frederic Charles, 
 attacked the Army of the Loire along the whole line, carried all the P'rench posi- 
 tions, occupied Le Mans, and then went in hot pursuit of the defeated and fleeing 
 hosts of General Chanzy. On the 15th (January, 1871), another battle took place, 
 which ended in another defeat for Chanzy, who then continued his retreat westward 
 to Laval. The loss of the Germans in these battles was only 3500 men, while they 
 made 22,000 prisoners. The Army of the Loire was now thoroughly crippled, and 
 the last hope of the French for the relief of their capital had vanished. 
 
 The French Army of the North — Battles of Amiens, Bapaume, and 
 St. Quentin. — In the meantime, there had been great activity in the movements 
 of the French Army of the North, commanded by General Faidherbe, which was 
 endeavoring to cooperate with the Army of the Loire, in its efforts to raise the siege 
 of Paris. On the 23d of December, 1S70, Faidherbe's army, then numbering 60,000 
 men, was defeated and routed near Amiens, by the Germans under General Man- 
 teuffel. At length, Faidherbe's army met with some successes, which led to the 
 concentration of the German forces in the North of France under General Manteuf- 
 fel. On the 3d of January, 1S71, the French Army of the North was repulsed in 
 an attack upon a portion of General Manteuffel's army at Bapaume. After the battle, 
 Faidherbe's army hastily retreated, and was vigorously pursued by the German cav- 
 alry. On the 19th of January (1871), a severe battle was fought at St. Quentin, in 
 which P'aidherbc's army was defeated by the Germans, who lost over 3000 men, but 
 captured 4000 prisoners. Faidherbe then retreated northward, and near the close 
 of January he reached Dunkirk. 
 
 Battles at Belfort — Defeat and Retreat of the French Army of the East. 
 
 — At the close of December, 1870, a French army of more than 100,000 men, under 
 General Bourbaki, moved into Eastern P'rance, to operate against the Germans 
 under General von Werder, in the vicinity of Belfort. The Germans laid siege to 
 Belfort, but were repulsed in an assault upon the fortifications of the town. On the 
 loth of January, 1871, General von Werder took Viller Exel by storm, and ;ej ulsed 
 the F/ench in their attempts to recapture ttie place. On the 17th of Januaiy, after 
 three days of severe fighting at Belfort, the French Army of the East, under General 
 Bourbaki, met with a disastrous repulse, and, after a loss of 8,000 men, was com- 
 pelled to retre:it, closely pursued by the victorious Germans. In a series of skir- 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 411 
 
 mish(is with the Puissians, Bourbaki's army was successful. General Mantcuffelj 
 who was now placed in chief command of the German armies in Eastern France, 
 prepaied to bring about the destruction of the French Army of the East. Bout- 
 baki's defeated and shattei"ed army retreated to Besancon, closely pursued by Man- 
 teuffel's victorioMS forces. These disasters to the French arms had such an efleci 
 upon the mind of General Bourbaki that he attempted suicide. After a seiies of 
 engagements, lasting three days, and ending on the 1st of February, on the Swiss 
 "r'.ntier, Manteuffel captured 15,000 prisoners, and compelled Bourbaki's army 
 iOjOOO strong, to reti^eat into Switzerland. 
 
 Battle of Dijon — Siege and Capture of Longwy. — On the 22d of January, 
 1S71, the Prussians in large force attacked Dijon, but they were disastrously 
 repulsed, after a severe battle of five hours, and compelled to retreat. By the 20lh 
 of January, the town of Longwy, near the Belgian frontier, had been completely 
 invested by a Prussian force. The French garrison made two successful sorties, 
 dislodged the Prussians, and silenced their liatteries; but, after a furious assault 
 and bombardment, Longwy, with its garrison of 4,000 French troops, fell into the 
 hands of the Prussians on the 25th of January. 
 
 Surrender of Paris. — At length, after the French capital had suffered terribly 
 from the fierce bombardment by the Germans, and after famine had wrought its 
 horrors upon the inhabitants of the beleaguered city, the besieged made proposals 
 of surrender to the besiegers; and on the 27th of January, 1871, the articles of 
 capitulation were signed by which the city of Paris was surrendered to the Ger- 
 mans, and its garrison of 185,000 men, under General Trochu, became prisoners of 
 war. The Germans levied a contribution of 53,000,000 francs upon the conquered 
 city; and the forts around the city were n-nmediately occupied by German garri- 
 sons. Measures were taken for the revictualling of the city under German super- 
 vision. For several weeks after the surrender, hundreds of Parisians died daily 
 from starvation. 
 
 An Armistice — A French National Assembly. — The fall of Paris opened 
 the eyes of the French Government and people to the hopelessness and folly of 
 resistance to the gigantic power of Germany, and made them anxious for the speedy 
 conclusion of peace. An armistice of tliree weeks was signed at Versailles, on the 
 28th of January, by Jules Favre on the part of the French Republic, and by Prince 
 Bismarck on the part of the German Empire, in order to allow the French people 
 to elect representatives to a National Assembly, which should convene at Bordeaux, 
 to consider and ratify a treaty of peace with Germany. Each of the different parties 
 in France, — the Legitimists, the Orleanists, the Bonapartists, and the Republicans, 
 — made great efforts for success in the election for deputies to the proposed National 
 Assembly. The elections took place on the 8th of February, and resulted in the 
 choice mostly of Orleanists and Republicans. The National Assembly convened at 
 Bordeaux on the 15th of February, 187 1, and upon its organization unanimously 
 chose Louis Adolphe Thiers, the distinguised historian, orator, and statesman, to 
 Lhe off^i'.e of President of the French Republic, and took measures for the speeiiy 
 restoration of peace. 
 
 Preliminary Peace of Paris. — After much negotiation, the armistice having 
 been in- the meantime extended one week, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed 
 at Paris, on the 25th of February, 1 871, by President Thiers and Jules Favre on the 
 
412 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 part of the Frenci Republic, and by Prince Bismarck on the part of the German 
 Empire. France was required to cede to Germany nearly the whole of Alsace,, in- 
 cluding Strasburg, and one-fifth of Lorraine, including Metz; and pay five milliards 
 of francs (equal to one thousand million dollars), in three years, as indemnity foi 
 the losses sustained by Germany in the war: a large portion of the German nnny 
 was to garrison a number of the French fortresses until the entire indemnity was 
 p?id, the expense of supporting this army of occupation to be paid by France; ii^l 
 ths Dm] eror William and a portion of the German army were to enter Paris, and 
 occupy (he Champs Elysees. On the ist of March, 187 1, the National Asses. .My 
 at Piordoaux, by a large majority, ratified these terms of peace, so harsh and humili- 
 ating to France, and the great Franco-German War ended. 
 
 German Triumphal Entry into Paris — Release of Napoleon. — On the 
 1st of March, 187 1, the Emperor William, of Germany, and 30,000 German troops 
 made their grand triumphal entry into the French capital. Contrary to the expecta- 
 tions of many, no acts of violence were committed toward them, few of the inhabi- 
 tants of the city appearing in the streets. The Germans evacuated Paris two days 
 afterward (March 3, 1871), and on the 14th, the Emperor William started for Berlin, 
 where he arrived on the 17th (March, 1871). The ex-Emperor Napoleon was 
 released from his captivity at Wilhelmshohe by the German Government, on the 
 6th of March, whereupon he left Germany, and retired to Chiselhurst, in England, 
 where he died on the 9th of January, 1S73. The war just closed was the greatest 
 of modern times. During the six months that military operations were in progress, 
 nearly half a million human lives were sacrificed. The successes of Germany in 
 this mighty conflict were among the most remarkable in the annals of war : her 
 armies were victorious in nearly every encounter ; three of the most strongly-fortified 
 places in the world yielded to the power of her arms ; three of the largest armies 
 ever raised were compelled to lay down their arms ; the proudest capital in the 
 w^orld was occupied by her warriors ; and the once-proudest monarch in Europe 
 was made a captive. In all, 700,000 French soldiers were made prisoners during 
 the war. The pride of France was thoroughly humbled, and her sword was broken. 
 
 Definitive Peace of Frankfort-on-the-Main. — On the lothof May, 1S71, a 
 definitive treaty of peace was signed at Frankfort-on-the-Main, by Jules Favre and 
 Ponyer Quartier on the part of France, and by Prince Bismarck on the part of Ger- 
 many. Bismarck agreed to a reduction of the war indemnity to be paid by France 
 to Germany, from five milliards of francs to four and a half milliards. The French 
 were required to restore all the German ships captured during the war, or to refund 
 their value in cash in cases in which the vessels were sold. According to this 
 treaty, the Germans were only to hold Belfort, Nancy, and Longwy, as hostages 
 until the fulfilment of its conditions. This treaty was speedily ratified by the Gov- 
 ernments of France and Germany, whereupon the greater part of the German 
 Army of Occupation evacuated France, and the French prisoners in Germany 
 were returned to France as speedily as the railroads could transport them. 
 
 ITALIAN REVOLUTION OF 1870. 
 
 Garibaldi's Movement on Rome in 1862. — In 1862, General Garibaldi, at 
 the head of a band ef Italian volunteers, attempted a descent upcn the Papal tern- 
 
t^INETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 413 
 
 tones, with the view of uniting Rome with the Kingdom of Italy ; but he was met 
 and dcleated at Aspromonte, by the troops of King Victor Emmanuel, on the 29th 
 of August, 1862. Garibaldi was kept a prisoner for several months. 
 
 The Treaty of September, 1864 — Garibaldi's Movement in 1867. — In 
 September, 1864, a treaty was concluded between France and Italy, by which King 
 Victor Emmanuel was bound to prevent any violent attempt on the dominions of 
 'Je Pjpe. In the autumn of 1867, Garibaldi made another movement agrjnst 
 Rome, but he was again unsuccessful, and sent as a prisoner to the islar^ 1 di 
 Caprera. 
 
 The Italian Movement on Rome in September, 1870. — WTien the Second 
 French Empire had received its death-blow by the catastrophe of Sedan, at the 
 beginning of September, 1870, the King of Italy felt himself freed from all obliga- 
 tions entered into with Napoleon III. At the same time, there was much political 
 agitation in Italy, and fears of a republican rising were entertained by the Italian 
 Government. When intelligence of the Paris Revolution of September 4th, 1870, 
 and the proclamation of the Third French Republic, had reached Florence, King 
 Victor Emmanuel and his Caljinet resolved upon the military occupation of Rome, 
 and the annexation of the Papal territory to the Kingdom of Italy. The King of 
 Italy was compelled to take this step by the ardent wishes of his subjects, and any 
 refusal or delay on his part to comply with their wishes would have cost him his 
 crown. The people of the Pontificial States also petitioned the King of Italy to 
 occupy Rome. On the 12th of September, 1870, an Italian anny of 4000 men, 
 under General Cadorna, marched into the Papal territory. General Cadorna issued 
 a proclamation to the Roman people, assuring them that he did not bring war to 
 them, but peace and order, and that the independence of the Holy See would not be 
 molested. There was great enthusiasm among the Italian troops and people ; and, 
 as the troops advanced toward Rome, the people everywhere fraternized with them, 
 and received them with acclamations. The ultimatum of the Italian Government 
 stripped the Pope of his temporal power, but permitted him to remain in Rome as 
 Head of the Roman Catholic Church. King Victor Emmanuel issued a proclama- 
 tion to the Romans, declaring that peace, order, and self-government, and not war, 
 were brought by the Italians. The Pope protested to the foreign ambassadors in 
 Rome against the Italian occupation of the Papal dominions; but, anxious to avoid 
 bloodshed, he also ordered a cessation of all resistance on the part of the Papal 
 troops. 
 
 Surrender of Rome— End of the Pope's Temporal Power. — The siege 
 of Rome, by the Italian army, under General Cadorna, commenced on the 19th of 
 September, 1870; and on the following day, the Papal troops, 9,300 in number, 
 suirendeted, and the triumphant Italians entered the city and were welcomed by 
 the Romans as liberators. A plebiscite was taken in Rome a few days afterward, 
 resulting in a unanimous vote in favor of the annexation of the Eternal City to the 
 Kingdom of Italy. All political prisoners in the Papal territories were immcliately 
 set free, and a provisionial government was organized by General Cadorna. Tl e 
 King of Italy visited Rome in the early part of December, 1870. 
 
 Rome made the Capital of Italy.— On the 3d of July, 1871, King Victor 
 Emmanuel and his Ministers, and the foreign embassies to the Italian Government, 
 
414 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 removed from Florence to Rome, which then became the the capital of a united 
 
 Italy. 
 
 THE FRENCH CIVIL WAR OF 1871. 
 
 The Red Republicans of Paris. — No sooner was a preliminary treaty of 
 peace between France and Germany agreed to, than France began to be disfucted 
 by a fierce and bloody civil war, caused by a rebellion of the Red Republican;! 
 and Communists of Paris. For some time, the Red Republicans had been quite 
 active, and engaged in revolutionary schemes. Fearing a formidable revolutionary 
 rising, President Thiers and the National Assembly established themselves at Ver- 
 sailles. On the 6th of March, 187 1, the revolutionists intrenched themselves in 
 the Montmartre district with a battery of guns, and the Thiers Government brought 
 up troops of the line to resist any attack which the insurgents might make on the 
 capital. The National Guards resisted the action for their disbandment, piled 
 their arms on the Boulevards, and collected in groups, with discontented and angry 
 looks. 
 
 Rising of the Paris Red Republicans. — On the 17th of March, the Ver- 
 sailles Government sent a detachment of troops and gendarmes to occupy the posi- 
 tions of the mob, which had been rioting for several days, at Montmartre. A 
 considerable number of cannon were removed, and the gendarmes took 400 pris- 
 oners. The next morning (March 18, 1871), the National Guards of Belleville 
 and Montmartre, with many unarmed soldiers of the line, arrived on the scene, and 
 released the prisoners. A severe conflict took place in the Rue Royale. Some 
 artillerymen and cuirassiers were surroundered by a frantic mob, who accosted 
 them with shouts of "Go and fight the Prussians." General Aaron's troops, re- 
 maining faithful to the Government, cut their way through the mob by v/hich they 
 were surrounded, and escaped, after capturing the insurgent baiTicades at the point 
 of the bayonet. Generals Lecompte and Thomas were abandoned on the heights 
 of Montmartre, and shot in the Rue de Rosiere, by their troops, who joined th? 
 insurgents. 
 
 Progress of the Paris Rebellion. — The Central Committee of the National 
 Guard placarded two proclamations, defending their course, and issued orders for 
 the election of a Communal Council for Paris. The regular soldiers in Paris fra- 
 ternized with the insurgents, who now virtually ruled the city, and mob law was 
 completely triumphant. The bourgeoisie, or middle class, displayed perfect apathy, 
 and no resistance was made to the insurgents. By the 20th of March (1871), the 
 insurgents held possession of the Hotel de Ville, the Palais de Justice, the Tuileries, 
 and the Place Vendome. Barricades were erected in some quarters, and Forts 
 d'Issy, Vanvres, and Montrouge were seized and garrisoned by the insurgents, and 
 measures were taken to insure the defense of Paris against any assault from the 
 Government forces. On the morning of the 21st (March, 1871), the insurgents at 
 Montmartre and Belleville saluted each other with rounds of artillery, and fresh 
 hnrricades were erected in the vicinity of Batignolles, in the Rue d' Amsterdam, in 
 the Avenue Clichy, and near the Great Northern Railway Station. 
 
 The Versailles Government. — The greatest excitement pre-'-ailed at Ver- 
 saille;, in consequence of the revoiutiouaiy movement in E'aris; and the National 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 41 ^ 
 
 Assembly soon rallied a large army, under General Vinoy, to its support. On the 
 meetmg of the Assembly on the 21st of March, all the deputies of the Mountain 
 were absent. Measures were taken by the Thiers Government for the suppression 
 of the rebellion, and Versailles resembled a camp. Contrary to the expectations 
 of the Paris Reds, no successful rising of their partisans in the other large cities ji 
 France took place; but the departments rallied to the support of the Versail -is Go?- 
 -rnment. 
 
 Establishment of the Paris Commune — A Reign of Terror in Paris- 
 The Communal elections in Paris took place on the 26th of March, and resulted ir 
 an overwhelming majority for the revolutionists. The Commune was soon organ- 
 ized, holding its first sitting on the 29th of March. A reign of Terror was now 
 inaugurated in Paris, and the outrages of 1793 were repeated. The cry of the 
 Socialists and Red Republicans was, "Death to the priests!" "Death to the rich!" 
 "Death to the property-owners!" Aristocrats and wealthy persons were in constant 
 danger of being dragged to the guillotine, and more than 100,000 of the more respeta- 
 able Parisians fled in consternation from the city. Priests were arrested and thrown 
 into prison, churches were sacked, and religious service was suspended. Journals 
 which supported the Versailles Government were suppressed, and several journalists 
 were sentenced to death. The insurgents boldly avowed their determination to 
 march to Versailles, disperse the National Assembly, overthrow the Thiers Govern 
 ment, and establish "The Universal Republic." 
 
 Temporizing Policy of President Thiers. — The Government and the 
 National Assembly had already collected a considerable army; but, instead of 
 adopting prompt measures for the suppression of the insurrection. President Thiers 
 lost much precious time by temporizing with the Paris insurgents, with the view of 
 bringing about peace without bloodshed. On the contrary, energy and resolution, 
 but also great inefficiency, were displayed by the Paris Commune. 
 
 Battle of Courbevoie. — At the close of March, 1871, the military forces of 
 both parties were in motion; and on the 2d of April, a spirited action, favorable to 
 the Government forces, occurred at Courbevoie. The defeated insurgents fled to the 
 bridge of Neuilly, where they were again defeated. More than 200 insurgents 
 were killed, and many were wounded. The insurgents who were made prisoners 
 by the Government troops were immediately shot. 
 
 Terrible Battle between Paris and Versailles. — On the 3d of April, 100,000 
 Communists, under General Bergerot and Gustave Flourens, issued from Paris, at the 
 Neuilly gate, and marched against Versailles. They were soon met by the Assembly- 
 ists under General Vinoy, and a furious battle ensued, which resulted in great destruc- 
 tion of life. Contrary to expectations of the insurgents, the garrison in Fort Valerien 
 did not fraternize with them, but, remaining faithful to the Versailles Government, 
 suddenly opened a heavy fire upon them, producing the greatest consternation in 
 tlieir ranks. General Bergerot had just got out of his carriage when the veh'cle -vas 
 smashed to pieces by a bomb-shell. The wildest confusion ensued, and the main 
 aody of the Communist army retreated back to Paris, but General Bergerot and 
 35,000 men were cut oil and defeated in an attempt to jiass Fort Valerien. Among 
 the killed on the side of the insurgents was the violent political agitato:, ^'j-^ave 
 Flourens. The Government forces were completely victorious. 
 
41 6 • MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Government Successes. — A night attack by the insurgents upon the bridge 
 of Sevres was repulsed by a detachment of the Versailles army, on the 5th of April, 
 On the 6lh, the insurgent garrisons in Forts d' Issy and Vanvres kept up a resolute 
 fire on the Government troops at Chatillon; and on the 7th, the insurgents were 
 dislodged from the bridge of Sevres, and a fierce cannonade was kept up between 
 {Chatillon and Forts d' Issy and Vanvres. 
 
 Burial of the Insurgent Dead in Paris. — The burial of the insurgent '^ead in 
 1 aris, on the 6th of April, was an extraordinary scene. The most intense grief ar.c' 
 indignation were manifested by the Parisians. Hundreds of women were marchmg 
 along the Boulevards; and the bodies of the slain were interred in the cemetery of 
 Peie la Chaise, amid the shrieks of women and the cries of the men for vengeance 
 on "The assassins of Versailles." Fere la Chaise was thronged with people, who 
 shouted, "Vive la Republique!" "Vive la Commune!" 
 
 Battle of Neuilly. — On the 7th of April, severe fighting occurred at Porte de 
 Neuilly. The Communists at Courbevoie were dislodged by the guns of Fort Vale- 
 rien, but they rallied up the Avenue de Neuilly, and opened a severe fire on the 
 Versailles troops who appeared on the heights. The Communists were forced 
 to retire behind the bridge of Neuilly, which they barricaded, but the pursuing Ver- 
 saillists shelled and demolished their barricades. In attempting to hold the bridge, 
 the insurgent National Guards suffered severely, and being finally compelled to 
 retire, were closely pursued, by the Government troops ; but the insurgent guns 
 swept the Avenue de Neuilly and checked the pursuit. After vainly endeavoring, 
 under protection of their artillery, to throw up barricades across the avenue, the 
 insurgents were entirely driven out of Neuilly, and found themselves obliged to take 
 refuge behind the ramparts. 
 
 Marshal MacMahon — Outrages and Crimes of the Commune. — On the 
 
 8th of April, there were spirited engagements at various points. Fort Valerien and 
 the advanced Government batteries fiercely bombarded Porte Maillot, many of their 
 shells falling in the Champs Elysees. Marshal MacMahon was now invested with 
 the chief command of the Government forces. The Paris Commune M'as daily 
 growing more desperate, and the most shameful outrages and revolutionary excesses 
 were perpetrated. Additional numbers of priests and nuns were thrown into prison; 
 and at length, a demand was made on the Church for 1,000,000 francs, the insur- 
 gents threatening to kill the Archbishop of Paris, if the sum was not paid. The 
 ArchI)ishop suffered the most shameful treatment from a band of infuriated Reds. 
 
 Bombardment of Paris — Measures for Defense. — There was now severe 
 fighting under the very walls of Paris, and shells were constantly falling in the 
 Champs Elysees. The Arc de Triomphe was repeatedly struck and much damaged. 
 The fighting around Paris was very severe on the 15th and i6th of April. Many 
 more of the inhabitants left the city. The insurgents erected barricades in the Place 
 Vendome, in the Rue Castiglione, in the vicinity of the Tuileries, at MontrDirtre, 
 
 nd at Belleville, in anticipation of an attack from the Government army. Tin; 
 
 ommune continued the arrests of priests, and scarcely a church in Pa::s now 
 remained open. 
 
 Insurgent Victory at Vanvres. — The Government troops attacked he insur- 
 gents at Vanvres on the 15th of April, and a bloody battle ensued. The Commun 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 4»7 
 
 ists, completely taken by surprise, were driven back; but they soon rallied, and, 
 after a desperate fight, compelled the Assemblyists to retreat, and regained their lost 
 ground. Durin;^ the day the coutlict was several times renewed, but in the end the 
 insurgents were left masters of their position, and the Versaillists suffered severely 
 from the deadly fire from the insurgent garrison in F"ort Vanvres. On the 17th, 
 i.he insurgents were again victorious, in a furious engagement at Neuilly, in whir.L 
 each side lost about 2500 men. 
 
 Battle of Asnieres. — On the iSth of April, the insurgents were badly defcit^: i 
 at Asniires. Their large defensive works were fiercely assailed by the Governn.ei I 
 tnjops. ■ The Communists fled across the Seine, before the heavy cross-fire from the 
 attacking Government columns. After being reinforced, the insurgents rallied and 
 renewed the liattle ; but they were again defeated with heavy loss, being a second 
 time driven across the Seine by the Versailles troops. 
 
 Extraordinary Measures of Defense by the Commune. — The insurgents 
 continued the work of fortifying Paris, and the most desperate resources were being 
 rendered available for the defense of the city against the Government forces. In 
 various quarters, barricades were erected, surrounded by broad deep trenches, be- 
 yond which mines of powder were laid. These measures of the Communists for 
 defense, greatly terrified the people of Paris. At the Beaujou Plospital, crowds of 
 women, with streaming hair, were uttering loud shrieks, and demanding their hus- 
 bands, brothers, and children. On the 23d of April, the Government batteries 
 opened a furious cannonade upon Forts d' Issy and Vanvres, and the ramparts at 
 Pont du Jour. 
 
 Terrific Bombardment of Paris. — The bombardment of Paris on Sunda:y 
 night, April 30th, was fearful and apparently utterly reckless as to the amount of 
 damage it inflicted on the city. The Parisians were greatly e.xcited, and Large 
 crowds were assembled on the street corners, discussing the alarming condition of 
 affairs. Large bodies of Versailles troops were moved toward Paris, to reinforce 
 the Government Army of Investment. The insurgents at Neuilly kept up the 
 indignation of the people of Paris by throwing petroleum-shells into the city, 
 the Parisians being led to believe that they came from the lines of the Versailles 
 army. 
 
 Capture of Clatnart and other Government Successes. — On the ist of 
 Mav, the Clamail raiiv\ay station was captured by the Assemblyists at the point of 
 the bayonet, and about 300 insurgents were killed in the action. On the 6th of 
 May, the insurgents were repulsed, with a heavy loss, in a sortie from Fort d'Issy. 
 Ihe Government army continued its ap])roaches to the Bois de Boulogne; and on 
 the 7th of May, the Versailles batteries reopened fire on Pont du Joui md other 
 points. 
 
 Capture of Fort d' Issy — Investment and Siege of Paris. — After many 
 stubi)()rn conflicts and furious assaults. Fort dTssy was finally captured and occu 
 pied by the Government forces, on the 8th of May. On the following day (May 9 
 187 1 ), the investment of Paris from Gennevilliers to Fort d'Issy by the Governmeni 
 forces was complete, and preparations were lieing made for a grand assault on the 
 city. On the 13th of May, 30,000 Versaillists were in the Bois de Boulogne, shel- 
 tered by the trenches of the besieging army. A heavy column of Communist troojis 
 
 27 
 
jl8 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 which attempted a sortie from Port Dauphine was blown to atoms by the bursting 
 of twenty shells which came from the lines of the Versailles army. 
 
 Capture of Fort Vanvres. — After many desperate struggles and fierce assaults 
 and bombardments, Fort Vanvres fell into the possession of the Government troops, 
 on the 14th of May, the Communist garrison having fled, by a subterranean passage, 
 to ToTt Montrouge. The Government troops found sixty cannon and eighteen 
 T^Jl',a^^ in tht for* Thi approaches to the ramparts and fortificat'on? of Pain 
 were now actively pushed forward, under cover of a heavy cannona le. and prepara 
 tions were being made by Marshal MacMahon for a grand attack on the walls, o> 
 enciente, of Paris. 
 
 Bombardment of the Enciente of Paris. — By the 15th of May, the Gov- 
 ernment troops were under the walls of Paris, exchanging shots with the insurgents, 
 who lined the ramparts from Porte de la Meute to Porte d'Issy. Paris was now 
 completely invested and declared in a state of siege. The Parisians were expelled 
 from the trenches between Forts d'Issy and Vanvres. Breaches were made in the 
 enciente of Paris, by the furious cannonade from the Government guns, and the 
 Antiuel gate was now completely destroyed. The Western and South-western 
 arrondissements of Paris were now uninhabitable, on account of the great destruc- 
 tion of life and property in those portions of the city. On tlie night of the I5lh of 
 May, the Communists were repulsed with heavy loss, in a sortie upon the Govern- 
 ment troops in the Bois de Boulogne ; and the Versaillists continued to fire around 
 the ramparts from Pont du Jour to Porte Maillot. 
 
 Destruction of the Column in the Place Vendome. — At six o'clock in 
 the evening of the i6th of May (1871), the great Column in the Place Vendome, 
 which had been erected there by Napoleon I. to commemorate his great victory at 
 Austerlitz, was levelled with the ground, by order of the Paris Commune. The 
 Column fell at full length in the Rue de la Paix, amid the shouts of " Vive la Repub- 
 lique!" "Vive la Commune!" from the multitude which had assembled in the Rue 
 de la Paix and the Rue Castiglione, to witness the destruction of^this monument of 
 imperial glory. 
 
 The Government Forces in Paris — Battles in the Rue St. Honore and 
 Rue Royale. — On Sunday night. May 21st, the Government troops effected zin 
 entrance into Paris, through the Bois de Boulogne, when the most terrific fighting 
 of the whole civil war commenced; and for a week, Paris was one vast battle-field. 
 On the 22d (May, 1871), the Government troops, under Marshal MacMahon, con- 
 tinued pouring into the city, through the Bois de Boulogne; and very soon three of 
 the iirincipal avenues leading to the Champs Elysees were in the possession of the 
 Government fotces. The Communists were now thrown into the greatest confusion 
 A bloody battle occurred on the same day in the Rue St. Honcjre, where the msur- 
 gent barricades were captured and reca]5tured six times. Tht Government inxips 
 charged down the stieet with fury, and were fired upon from the windows of the 
 tcnciergieries. Many of the Communist barricades were captured, and ther (limp. 
 El) ^ees were .swept by the heavy fire from the Versailles artillery, whicl^ vver: 
 planred near the Arc de Triomphe. Many leaders of the Commune were captured 
 and some massacres were perpetrated. The head-quarters of Marshal MacMahon 
 wee estal'>!ished in the new opera-house. The heaviest fighting occurred in the 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 419 
 
 Rue Royale, where the slaughter was terrific. At the Tuileries, 10,000 insurgents 
 were made prisoners by the Government troops under General Clinchart. 
 
 May 23d — Battle at Montmartre — Murder of the Archbishop of Paris 
 ■ •■ A.t daybreak, May 23d, a terrible fire of musketry and cannon commenced in tht 
 M ntma.tre district; and at one o'clock in the afternooon, Montmartre was captured 
 by the Government forces, under Generals Clinchart and L'Admirault. Heavy 
 lighting occurred at the barricades in the Place de la Concorde and the Place df 
 Clichy, The Government troops under General Cissey captured the barricades 
 IE <^he Chaussu du Marne, in the southern part of Paris. Barricades were hastily 
 thrown up, and terrible conflicts occurred in other parts of the city. Many of the lead- 
 ers of the Commune were captured, and shot on the spot; and during the rattles in 
 various quarters of the city, no quarter was shown by the Government forces. At 
 the close of the day, the Government troops occupied the Place de Clichy, the 
 Palais de 1' Industrie, the Chamber of the Corps Legislatif, the Hotel des Invalides, 
 St. Quen, the Tuileries, the Hotel de Ville, and the Place Vendome. The Place 
 de la Concorde was also abandoned by the insurgents. On the evening of this day, 
 Monseigneur Darboy, Archbishop of Paris, and sixty-nine priests, who had been 
 seized and held as hostages, were murdered by the infuriated Communists. 
 
 May 24th — Vandalism of the Commune — Breaking out of Fires in 
 Paris. — On the 24th (May, 187 1), the Communist insurgents, in the madness 
 of desperation and despair, perpetrated acts of vandalism almost unparalleled 
 in the history of the world. With the intention of destroying the city they could 
 no longer rule, the insurgents, from their barricaded positions in various portions 
 of Paris, threw petroleum shells over the city, and fires arose in many quarters. A 
 number of women who were detected in the act of setting fire to buildings were 
 shot on the spot, by the exasperated Government troops. The most famous build- 
 ings set on fire were the Palace of the Tuileries, the Hotel of the Legion of Honor, 
 the Hotel de Ville, and the Louvre. The fighting during the day was of the most 
 desperate character. The streets were strewn with dead bodies, and no quarter 
 was shown by either party. The fighting resulted in immense advantages to the 
 Versaillists, the insurgents being driven from many of their positions. 
 
 May 25th — Retreat of the Insurgents to Belleville — Additional Fires. 
 — The fighting was continued during the 25th, with additional advantage to the 
 Government army. Driven from Paris proper, the insurgents, mad with rage and 
 fury, took refuge in Belleville, the very centre of the revolutionary movement, a»d 
 the birth-place of the great Communist rebellion. From Belleville, the Commun- 
 ists continued to throw petroleum shells all over Paris, thus kindling additional 
 fires in the city, and destroying many puljlic and private buildings. The whole citj 
 was wrap* in clouds of smoke, and the fires could be seen fi'r many miles a-ounJ. 
 A great many building? were destroyed by the explosion of mines. The I imiiv 
 liojrg, the Palais de la Quai d' Orsay, and the Palais Royal, were now also \\ nmg, 
 
 May 26th — Battle of Belleville — Capture and Death of Comm mist 
 Leaders. — On the 26th, a furious battle was in progress in I'antiu. The capi . f 
 6,000 insurgents in the Quartier Mouffiard ended the rebellion in that quarter. Ilie 
 Government troops were severely harassed by the fire of musketry from thf wukIuvvs 
 of houses. Many Communists who attempted to escape towards Pantin were hotly 
 
420 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 purj^ued, and slaughtered without mercy, by the exasperated Venaillists. Tht 
 insurgent position at Belleville was vigorously cannonaded by the Government army. 
 The -nsurgents were driven into the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, where they weic 
 sun junded by the Government forces. The Rue Royale was destroyed by inint;s, 
 and the most terrible tires were still raging in Paris. Women who were de'ecieci 
 ir jiouiing petroleum into cellars, were shot by the enraged Versaillists. Many of 
 the in-;urgent leaders, among whom were Valles, Amoreux, Brunei, Rlgaull. Bo r^ 
 flUfi. and General Dombrowski, were captured and shot. 
 
 May 27th — Battles of Belleville and Pere la Chaise. — On the 27th oc uned 
 tiiC most terrific fighting of the civil war. Sanguinary battles were fought at Belle- 
 ville, Menilmontant, and in the cemeteiy of Pere la Chaise. No quarter was given 
 to man, woman, or child. After a day of the most frightful carnage, the Govern- 
 ment forces captured the insurgent positions at Belleville and Pere la Chaise, late in 
 the night. The destructive fires were still raging in Paris, but soon after the arrival 
 of the London Fire 13rigade, the flames were got under control, and in a few days 
 entirely extinguished. 
 
 End of the Rebellion — Condition of Paris. — On Sunday morning, May 28lh, 
 the last band of insurgents surrendered unconditionally, the whole city was in the 
 undisputed possession of the Government forces, the firing ceased, and 10,000 pris- 
 oners were passing through the Rue Lafayette. The great Rebellion of Paris in 
 1 87 1 had now ended: one-third of Paris was in ashes, and 50,000 dead bodies 
 were lying in the streets and cellars of the city. Among the slain were many 
 vv^omen and boys who had fought in the ranks of the insurgents. The Tuileries, 
 the Louvre, the Hotel of the Legion of Honor, the Luxembourg, the Palais Royal, 
 the Hotel de Ville, and the Palais de la Quai d' Orsay were wholly or partially 
 destroyed. This foolish and causeless rebellion, during the two months of its exist- 
 tence, cost the lives of 60,000 Frenchmen. Many valuable works of art were sacri- 
 ficed to the madness of the infuriated Communists. The Outrages of the Commun- 
 ists equaled those of the Jacobins of 1793; and the names of Cluseret, Bergerot, 
 Dombrowski, Delescluse, Assy, Piat, and Rochefort, deserve the same execratioi' 
 as those of Robespierre, Danton, Marat, St. Just, Couthon, Henriot, and F'ouquie) 
 Tinville. 
 
 Paris under Military Law — Wholesale Execution of Communists.— 
 Upon the suppression of the rebellion. President Thiers appointed General Vinoy 
 military governor of Paris, and military law was established in the city. A heavy 
 doom was inflicted on the vanquished rebels, of whom about 40,000 were held as 
 prisoners. Drumhead court-martial was established, from fifty to one hundred 
 'ltsurgi;nts were shot at a time, and no person was permitted to leave Paris without 
 a pass signed by Marshal MacMahon. The places of execution were the Champ 
 de Mars, the Park de Monceaux, and the Hotel de Ville. Altogether, 18,000 of 
 Ihe Communist rebels were shot after they had surrendered. In a ff.w days aftei 
 ihe suppression of the insurrection, all restrictions concerning communiuation wi'h 
 Palis were removed, and entrance and exit were free to all. The tran-icadcs v\erf 
 soon removed, and perfect order again prevailed. 
 
 Republican Victory in the Supplementary Elections.— The supp'emon- 
 taiy elections in F"rance for deputies to the National Assembly at the beginning 0/ 
 
NINE FEEN TH CENTUR V. 
 
 421 
 
 July, 1871, resulted in an overwhelming majority for the Moderate Republicans. 
 Oat of 105 deputies chosen, there were 86 Moderate Republicans, 13 Radicals, 3 
 fji'eanists, 2 Legitimis"^, and i Bonapartist. 
 
 SPANISH REVOLUTION OF 1873 
 
 Difficult Position of King Amadeus — Various Opposition Parties. — 
 
 1 1 jm the moment of his accession to the throne of Spain, King Amadeus found is 
 liiuatK^n to be an unenviable one. The young sovereign was really desirous of the 
 wellar^ and prosperity of his subjects, but he lacked the abilities necessary for lue 
 difficult post of a constitutional monarch. The Spanish nation was divided into 
 numerous parties, the rebellion against Spanish power in the island of Cuba still 
 continued, and the young king found opposition on almost every hand. The most 
 im]iortant parties opposed to King Amadeus were the Carlists, or adherents of Don 
 Carlos; the Alphonsists, or partisans of Prince Alphonso, the son of ex-Queen 
 Isabella II.; the Republicans, and the Radicals. The Carlists worked actively lor 
 the elevation of Don Carlos to the throne of Spain ; and the Republicans, headed 
 by Senor Castelar and Senor Figueras, did not cease their dreams for the establish- 
 ment of a Spanish Republic. The throne of Amadeus was only upheld by the 
 non-agreement of the various opposition parties — the Carlists, the Alphonsists, the 
 Republicans, the Radicals, and others. 
 
 Carlist and Republican Insurrections — The Cuban Rebellion. — From 
 ihe moment of the accession of King Amadeus, in January, 1871, the Carlists and 
 '.he Republicans plotted against his government ; and several attempts were made 
 io assassinate the young monarch. In June, 1872, a formidable insurrection of the 
 Carlists broke out in the North of Spain; but, after some spirited actions, in which 
 the Carlists were defeated by the Government troops, the rebellion was suppressed. 
 Armed bands of Carlists and Republicans roamed over the Northern Provinces of 
 Spam, tearing up railways and cutting telegraph wires. A Republican revolt broke 
 out in the town of Ferrol, in October, 1872, but the insurgents dispersed on the 
 approach of Government troops. The Cuban rebellion still continued without any 
 decisive result. 
 
 Abdication of King Amadeus— Spain Declared a Republic. — In the be- 
 ginning of February, 1872, King Amadeus embraced the resolution of resigning his 
 troublesome throne. The Ministry sought to dissuade the king from his purpose, 
 but Amadeus persisted in his determination to abdicate the throne. When it be- 
 came known that King Amadeus would certainly resign his crown, groups of people 
 ?ssembled in Madrid, and there were some attempts to create a disturbance; but 
 >hese demonstrations were promptly suppressed, and the x;rowds were dispersed 
 without any conflicts. The Congress, or lower branch of the Cortes, adopted a 
 ]iroposilion that the President of that branch and fifty deputies should constitute a 
 Permanent Committee. The Cortes assembled at a late hour on February nth, 
 f87^, and the formal message of the king's abdication was read in each chan.bei 
 -,e]-iarately, but upon the conclusion of the reading the Senate and the Congress met 
 together in one chamber, and constituted themselves the Sovereign Cortes of Spain. 
 Senor Riv'ero, the President of the Congress, being called to the chair, declared him- 
 self ready to answer for the preservation of order, and for the execution of the decre-js 
 
422 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of the supreme power. The abdication of King Amadeus was unanimously accepted 
 by the Cortes, which then, by a vote of 259 in the affirmative, and 32 in the negative, 
 declared Spain a Republic. That night the streets of the Spanish capital were tilled 
 with an excited people. The Senate appointed a Permanent Committee ol Thirty. 
 Sen or Melcampo and Marshal Serrano offered their support to Prime- Minister 
 Zorilla in maintainmg order. The Ministry of Senor Zorilla now terminated, ard 
 on the following day (February 12, 1873), ^^ Cortes elected a new Ministiy, <i 
 IVovijional Government, of which Estanislao Figueras, the ardent Republican, .vas 
 tbosen President. After the members of the new Government had taken their se^ti 
 upon thi; ministerial benches in the Cortes, President Figueras addressed the Cortc 5, 
 expressing the hope that the Spanish Republic would be established forever. On 
 the following day (February 13th, 1873), the two Houses of the Cortes met in joint 
 session, and constituted themselves the National Assembly of Spain ; and proceeded 
 to effect a permanent organization by electing Senor E. Martos President of the 
 Assembly. The Provisional Government ordered the suppression of the Royal 
 Guard. Ex-King Amadeus had already left Madrid for Lisbon, in Portugal, whence 
 he was to be conveyed to Italy by an Italian squadron. The establishment of the 
 Spanish Republic was celebrated in Madrid, on the night of the 14th (February, 
 1873), by ^ general illumination, on which occasion the streets of the Spanish capital 
 were crowded with people, but there was no disorder. 
 
 Abolition of Slavery in Porto Rico — Dissolution of the National As- 
 sembly. — After several months' deliberation, the National Assembly of Spain, on 
 the 22d of March, 1873, passed, by a unanimous vote, a bill providing for the im- 
 mediate abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, one of the largest of the Spanish West- 
 India Islands, and accorded to the emancipated slaves the full privileges of Spanish 
 citizenship. After passing this important measure, the National Assembly dissolved 
 itself by a unanimous vote, on which occasion the greatest excitement prevailed in 
 the Assembly chamber, and in the streets of the capital. On that and the following 
 day (March 22d and 23d, 1873), there were several unsuccessful revolutionary 
 demonstrations in Madrid. 
 
 Carlist Insurrection in the North of Spain. — In the meantime, a formidable 
 insurrection of the Carlists had broken out in the North of Spain. The Carlists, 
 instead of concentrating their forces, roamed over the Basque Provinces, Navarre, 
 and Catalonia, in small bands, and engaged in tearing up railways, burning railway 
 stations and bridges, cutting telegraph wires, and in every way interrupting com- 
 munication in the Northern Provinces of Spain. Numerous small engagements 
 were fought with various success between the Republican forces, headed by Gen- 
 erals Gonzales, Nouvillas, Cabrinity, and others, and the Carlist bands, led by the 
 Cuie of Santa Cruz, and by Generals Seballs, Dorregaray, and Tristany, and Don 
 Alphonso, the brother of Don Carlos. At the close of May, 1873, General Nou- 
 villas, at the l.ead of 12,000 men, was holding the mountain passes of Biscay, and 
 'Iriving the Carlists in that province toward the coast. 
 
 Insurrection in Madrid. — During the latter part of April, 1873, Madrid waj 
 greatly excited. A rising of the Monarchists in that city took place on the 23d ol 
 April, begiiming with the revolt of several battalions of volunteers, who fired on 
 General Contreras. The agitation increased as night approached, and shots were 
 tired in otler portions of the city. During this time, the Permanent Committee 0/ 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 423 
 
 the National Assembly held a session, to consider the gravity of the situation, and 
 to deliberate upon measures for the public safety. While the Committee was in 
 se ision, some of the rebellious volunteers entered the hall, and the Committee sought 
 safety in flight. The Ultras demanded the establishment of the Commune ui 
 Madrid, and engaged in hunting down the members of the Permanent Committee, 
 several of whom were arrested and imprisoned by the infuriated insurgents, and 
 llie greatest excitement prevailed. Early in May, there was a renewal of revolu- 
 ki mary demonstrations in Madrid. The city was placarded with numerous procls- 
 n.ations, urging the people to demand the immediate proclamation of the FedcraJ 
 Republic, the abolition of capital punishment, the abolition of the State Council. 
 and the separation of Church and State; and large Federalist meetings were held 
 on the 5th of May (1873). 
 
 The Elections in Spain — Meeting of the Constituent Cortes. — In the 
 
 meantime, elections for a Constituent Cortes had been ordered. The elections took 
 place on Saturday and Sunday, May loth and nth, 1873, and resulted in the 
 choice of 310 Ministerial Federal Republicans, 30 Extreme Radicals, 8 Interna- 
 tionalists, 10 Independent Republicans, and 30 Monarchists. The total number of 
 votes cast throughout Spain was 1,200,000. The vote in the capital was light, owing 
 to the apathy of all parties except the Federal Republican. The Constituent Cortes 
 assembled on the 31st of May, 1873. The session was formally opened by Senor 
 Figueras, President of the Spanish Republic, with a speech, in which he maintained 
 the right of the Spanish people to choose their own form of government. The 
 Cortes organized by electing Senor Orense, a Federal Republican, its President. 
 
 Proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic — Ministerial Crisis. 
 — On the 8th of June, 1873, the Cortes, by a vote of 210 yeas against 2 nays, pro- 
 claimed the establishment of the Federal Democratic Republic in Spain, and then 
 adjourned until evening. The session of the Cortes on the night of the 8th of 
 June was a stormy one. Senor Figueras, President of the Spanish Republic, ten- 
 dered his resignation; but, after great confusion and excitement, a Ministry proposed 
 by Senor Pi y Margall was rejected, and the Cortes went into secrect session. An 
 excited crowd filled the streets in front of the palace, and within the Chamber the 
 greatest agitation prevailed. Through the efforts of Castelar and Figueras, calm 
 was finally restored in the Chamber, as well as among the populace outside Aftei 
 successive fruitless attempts of Figueras, Castelar, and Pi y Margall to form a new 
 ■Ministry, Senor Figueras was finally prevailed upon, by the Cortes, to remain in 
 j.ower with his old Cabinet. After a vote of confidence in the Figueras Ministry, 
 the Cortes adjourned. The proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic 
 v^s, celebrated at Barcelona, on the night of the 8th of June, with illuminationi 
 and general rejoicings. 
 
 Resignation of President Figueras — Senor Pi y Margall, President.— 
 At a Cabinet council on the nth of June, 1873, President Figueras and his Minis- 
 ters tendered their resignations, in consequence of a disagreement with the Coites 
 on the currency. In consequence of this ministerial crisis, fears were entertained 
 of a serious cutbreak in Madrid. The Cortes continued in secret session on Uic 
 foil jwing day, and during their deliberations, a party of armed volunteers sunoundec 
 the palace of the Cortes. A large body of armed pol-ce and troops weie stationea 
 at various points throughout the city, in anticipation of an outbreak. A majority 
 
424 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of the Cortes finally chose Senor Pi y Margall to the Presidency of the Republic, 
 and his Ministry was immediately appointed. The excitement which had prevailed 
 in Madrid for several days greatly subsided, and the city appeared quite calm, 
 Senor Nicholas Salmeron was elected President of the Constituent Cortes. 
 
 Disturbances at Barcelona, Malaga, and Seville. — Disturbances occ irred 
 at Barcelona on the 24th of June, 1S73. There was firing all that night between 
 'he soldiers and the citizens. On the following day, the troops were all removed 
 I'rom the city, and a cordon of police was established between them and the ;ity 
 <o ])revent a further collision. On the 25th of [une, the popidace in Malaga arost 
 igainst the authorities, and killed the Mayor of the city, but order was restored in 
 the evening. The Extreme Radicals arose in Seville, and barricaded the streets, 
 but the outbreak was soon suppressed. 
 
 Extraordinary Governmental Powers — A Spanish Republican Consti- 
 tution. — On the 30th of ]une, 1873, the Cortes, by a large majority, approved a 
 V>\\\ granting extraordinary powers to the Government, to enable it to crush the 
 Carlist insurrection. Serious apprehensions were entertained of an outbreak in 
 Madrid against the Government, and troops were placed at strategic points in 
 the city. The Constituent Committee of the Cortes completed the draft of a 
 Federal Republican Constitution for Spain. The Constitution provided for the 
 division of European Spain into eleve;n States; and Cuba, Porto Rico, and the 
 Philippine Islands were to be constituted Territories of Spain. Madrid was to 
 remain the capital. The Government was to be divided into the Legislative, 
 Executive, and Judiciary Departments. The Cortes was to hold two sessions each 
 year, and the members were to receive salaries. Senators were to be chosen by the 
 States, and Deputies by universal suffrage. Deputies could not act as Ministers. 
 A President was to be elected by universal suffrage, for a single term of four 
 years. 
 
 Rising at Alcoy. — On the 12th of July, 1S73, the Internationals arose against 
 the authorities at Alcoy, in the Province of Alicante, and assassinated the Mayor 
 of the city, although he was a life-long Republican. His body was dragged 
 througli the streets by a mob which kept up a continuous yell. The Collector of 
 Taxes was also assassinated, and his body was treated with the same indignities as 
 that of the Mayor. Several factories were burned by the mob. On the 13th of 
 July, General Velarde entered Alcoy, with a strong column of Government troops. 
 The insurgents had already been reduced to submission by the Alicante miliitia, 
 who took possession of the town, but the leaders of the revolt escaped. 
 
 Insurrections in Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, and Barcelona. — In 
 anticipation of the adoption, by the Cortes, of contemplated changes in the new 
 Federal Constitution, the Provinces of Andalusia, Murcia, Valencia, and Catalonia 
 rose in rebellion against the Government, and proclaimed their independence 
 Declarations of independence were issued at Seville, Cadiz, and Barcelona. 
 
 Communist Insurrection at Cartagena. — The Communist insurgents ai 
 
 -Jartagena, headed by General Contreras, made themselves masters of the whcic 
 
 cily, except the arsenal. The crews of several Spanish men-of-war in the harbi-t 
 
 of Cartagena having revolted, the Spanish Government issued a proclamation 
 
 eclaring them pirates, and authorizing their capture and treatment as such, by any 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 425 
 
 foreign power, on the ^igh seas; and decrees were issued dismissing General Con- 
 Lreras from the public service, and removing the civil governors of the levolted 
 inovinces. The insurgents at Cartagena, after gaining control of the city, seized 
 the Castillo de las Galeras, a strong fort on the west side of the harbor, less ihtrj 
 a tlujusand yards from the entrance, which it commanded completely. This gavts 
 them control of the batteries on the sht>re, at the moutli of the harbor. They 
 hoisted the red flag uf the Commune over the fortifications, and sunmioned the 
 ^>quidron lying in the harijor to surrender. The crews being in sympathy with the 
 insurgents, the vessels fell into their hands without opposition. The insurgents 
 levied a heavy contribution upon the inhabitants of Cartagena. The Commur.ists, 
 or Intransigentes, at Cartagena, established a Provisional Government for tbf" Cia 
 :on of Murcia, at the head of which was General Contreras, as President. 
 
 Insurgent Attack on Almeria. — Contreras was in command of the insurgent 
 ileet off Almeria. He demanded a heavy contribution from the city, but as the city 
 authorities refused to comply with his demand, he opened a heavy bombardment on 
 the city. After two hours of heavy firing, the Intransigentes attempted to disembark, 
 but were repulsed by the Government forces, and compelled to reembark; but they 
 afterward renewed their attack upon the city. 
 
 Resignation of Pi y Margall — Senor Nicholas Salmeron, Prcsident.- 
 The numerous internal troubles of Spain caused the Cortes to demand the formation 
 of a vigorous Ministry under Senor Nicholas Salmeron ; and accordingly, Senor 
 Pi y Margall and his Cabinet resigned, and on the 20th of July, 1873, Senor Nicholas 
 Salmeron was made President of the Spanish Republic, and an able Ministry was 
 formed. While the debate on the Ministry was going on in the Cortes, great excite- 
 ment was produced by the explosion of an Orsini ])omb at the door. Senor Emilio 
 Castelar was elected President of the Cortes, on the 26th of August, and on taking 
 the chair, he made a speech exhorting the Republicans to he united. 
 
 Bombardment of Valencia. — The insurgents at Valencia refused to surrendei 
 to the Government troops, who thereupon opened a heavy bombardment upon the 
 city, on the night of the 30th of July. The city was cannonaded at regular inter- 
 vals, musketiy firing was frequent, and there was some* desperate fighting. The 
 Government troops occupied the village of Mislata, but were dislodged by the in- 
 surgent artillery, and the village was alternately taken and retaken, and set on fire 
 by shells from the garrison in Valencia. A serious conllict took place at the village 
 of Masannasa, near Valencia, between the Government troops and the insurgents, 
 in which 150 men were killed. Already 200 shells had been hrown into Valencia, 
 and the Government troops had advanced 600 yards. 
 
 Reduction of Seville. — On the 31st of July, 1873, ^^ insurgents at Seville 
 fict file to that city in four different places, by means of petroleum The insurrec- 
 non at Seville was soon suppressed, and the city was occupied by the Government 
 j-oops. The fires which the insurgents had kindled were extinguished. Tin 
 Government troops captured twenty cannon at Seville. 
 
 Fight at Malaga — Revolt at Alhama— Fall of Cadiz. — Early in Augjsl 
 the Government troops defeated the insurgents in a sharp fight at Malaga, and drove 
 them from the field. The town of Alhama, in the Province of Alicante, prochime.I 
 its independence, and a junta was organized, whose first act was to levy a Iie.iv^ 
 
^26 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 contribulion upon the citizens. The insurgents at Cadiz surrendered to the Oovcm 
 m^;nt troops, under General Pavia, on the 5th of August. 
 
 Mutiny at Barcelona. — On the 8th of August, 1873, ^^e artillerymen belong- 
 ing to the garrison of Barcelona mutinied against their officers, but were quickly 
 disarmed, and imprisoned by the cavalry under the command of the Captain-General 
 of Barcelona. The mutineers were court-martialed, and twelve of the ringleaders 
 •v^re sentenced to death, and thirty to transportation to the penal colonieij of 
 ipa n. 
 
 Socialistic Rising in Andalusia. — Early in September, 1873, S ;cia]i>tn 
 troubles broke out in the Province of Andalusia. In the vicinity of the town of 
 Jimena, the farm-laborers banded together, for the purpose of demanding and endeav • 
 oring to enforce a division of property. They burned forty farm-houses belonging 
 to those opposed to them, and committed other excesses. Some of the rioters were 
 arrested. 
 
 Resignation of Salmeron — Senor Emilio Castelar, President. — The 
 question of military executions engaged the attention of the Cortes, and President 
 Salmeron, who was opposed to capital punishment, tendered his resignation, and 
 his Ministry retired on the 5th of September, 1873. On the 7th, Senor Emilio 
 Castelar was elected President of the Spanish Republic, and he entered on his 
 duties with an able Ministry. The Cortes conferred on President Castelar dicta- 
 torial powers, to enable him to crush the Carlist and Communist insurrections. 
 Senor Nicholas Salmeron was elected President of the Cortes; and several weeks 
 later, the Cortes adjourned. 
 
 Disturbances at Ecija, Malaga, and Seville. — On the i6th of September 
 1873, there was a serious riot at Ecija, provoked by the Intransigentes, and attended 
 with considerable loss of life. The municipal elections in Malaga, on the same day, 
 were attended with riot and bloodshed. The Intransigentes in Seville attacked a 
 party of Republican recruits, but the latter resisted, and several were killed. 
 
 Insurgent Bombardment of Alicante. — The insurgent men-of-war from 
 Cartagena effected a landing at Augilas, and pillaged the town and suburbs. The 
 msurgent fleet proceeded to Alicante, in the Province of Alicante; and when a 
 demand for a contribution was rejected, a fierce bombardment was opened on the 
 city, on the 27th of September, 1873, ^'^*^ 5°° projectiles, some filled with petroleum, 
 were thrown into the city, and did great damage; but the fleet was seriously disa- 
 bled by a vigorous return fire from the forts, and, after several days, the insurgent 
 fleet withdrew from Alicante. 
 
 Siege and Bombardment of Cartagena. — In the meantime, the siege and 
 bombardment of Cartagena by the Government forces had progressed actively. A 
 column of 2000 insurgents made a desperate sortie from the city, on the 9th of Octo- 
 ber, but were repulsed with heavy loss. The Intransigente fleet was defeated by 
 the National squadron under Admiral Lobos, on the nth of October, near Carta- 
 gena. On the 19th of October, the insurgent squadron from Cartagena appeared 
 before Valencia, but withdrew several days afterward, with the plunder of ten Suanish 
 merchant-ships. On the 23d of October, the Government fleet arrived off Carta- 
 gena, and was fired upon from the forts, but the insurgent vessels remained mside 
 the harbor. The bombardment of the city continued incessantly. On the ?6th <A 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 427 
 
 November, the cathedral and hospital were struck by the besiegers' artilleiy. On 
 the 28th, the Protestant church and the theatre were destroyed, and 200 persons 
 were killed and wounded within the city. The insurgents raised the black flig 
 upon the forts. The bombardment did great damage to the city, and 400 hou :e9 
 ff^re destroyed ; but the forts and batteries remained almost intact. The bombard 
 inert produced distress among non-combatants. The insurgents strengthened theii 
 works and armament. The Government forces at length occupied the San Antonio 
 (uburli, ami, concentratmg their fire upon the forts, suspended their bombardment 
 of the town. 
 
 The Carlist Rebellion. — The Carlist rebellion in the North of Spain continued 
 durmg the Administrations of Pi y Margall, Salmeron and Castelar. Don Carlos 
 had entered Spain, on the i6th of July, 1873, from Bayonne, France, accompanied 
 by several attendants, and was received by his adherents with indescribable enthu- 
 siasm. During the whole summer and autumn of 1873, the Basque Provinces, 
 Navarre, and Catalonia, were the theatres of numerous engagements between the 
 Republican forces, commanded by Generals Nouvillas, Cabrinety, Moriones, and 
 others, and the Carlist bands under the leadership of the Cure of Santa Cruz, and 
 Generals Dorregaray, Seballs, Olio, and Tristany, and Don Alphonso. By the 
 close of the autumn of 1873, there were 40,000 Carlists under arms in the North 
 of Spain, and Don Carlos took up his winter-quarters at Durango, in the Province 
 of Biscay. 
 
 Coup d' Etat of General Pavia — Marshal Serrano, President. — The 
 Spanish Cortes reassembled on the 2d of January, 1874; and President Castelar 
 read his message from the Ministerial bench. For a long time, a disagreement had 
 existed between Senor Castelar, President of the Republic, and Senor .Salmeron, 
 President of the Cortes, and on this occasion a sharp debate took place between 
 these two Republican leaders and statesmen. On the 3d (January, 1874), the Cor- 
 tes, on two votes, refused to sustain President Castelar, the majority against him 
 being twenty. As soon as the result of the votes was announced, General Pavia, 
 Captain-General of Madrid, who had surrounded the Chamber of the Cortes with 
 soldiers, sent an officer into the Chamber with a letter to Salmeron, demanding the 
 dissolution of the Cortes. Thereupon Senor Castelar resigned the Presidency of 
 the Republic, and his Cabinet retired from office; and immediately some of Gen- 
 eral Pavia's soldiers entered the hall and expelled the Deputies. General Pavia 
 then summoned the most eminent men of all parties to form a new Government, 
 excluding only Carlists and Intransigentes ; but he refused personally to become a 
 member of the Government. Marshal Serrano was made President of the Repub 
 lie, and an able Ministry was formed. Castelar, Salmeron, and other Republican 
 leaders protested with all their energy against the brutal Coup d' Etat of Genenil 
 Pavia. 
 
 Communist Insurrection in Barcelona. — On the 8th of January, 1874, a 
 Comniunisl insurrection broke out in Barcelona, and barricades were erected in the 
 suburbs by the insurgents. Fort Montijoi, on the south side of the city, opened 
 fire on the city ; and there was severe fighting in the suburbs. The insurrection 
 continiied until the 15th, when the insurgents surrendered, and .ne authority of the 
 Spanish Government was fully restored in the city. 
 
^28 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Bombardment of Cartagena. — Early in Januar}-, 1874, after General Pavia's 
 Couj) d' Etat, the besiegers of Cartagena redoubled tJieir efforts to reduce ihe city, 
 but the garrison stubbornly held out and made several desjierate sorties. On the 
 gth of January, a column of trie National army besieging Cartagena was repulsed 
 .n an assnult upon Fort .San Julian. A heavy fire was kept up on both sides. The 
 be-iiegers nnally compelled Atalaya Castle to surrender. During the siege and 
 liomiiardment, powder magazines frequently exploded in the city, causing micb 
 1 ?struction of life. 
 
 Fall of Cartagena — Flight of the Insurgent Leaders. — Cartagena tut 
 ■enderel to the Government forces, on the 14th of January, 1874. Upon thr 
 jajMtulation of the city, the members of tlie Insurgent Junta and the liberated con- 
 victs went on board the frigate Numancia. The Numancia, in escaping, passed 
 five Spanish men-of-war, and arrived safely at Mers-el-Kebir, on the coast of 
 Algeria, with 2,500 refugees on board, among whom were Generals Conlreras and 
 Galvez. One of the steamers which attempted to escape was captured with a large 
 number of refugees. Another insurgent vessel, with a large party of refugees, suc- 
 ceeded in reaching the French shores, M'hither she was pursued by a French man- 
 of-war. The members of the Cartagenian Junta surrendered the Numancia to the 
 French authorities at Mers-el-Kebir. The Numancia was delivered by the French 
 to a Spanish frigate. The insurgent chiefs, Contreras, Ferrez, and Galvez, were 
 sent to the capital of Algeria, and the Cartagenian refugees were interned in the 
 forts and barracks of Oran and Mers-el-Kebir. 
 
 The Carlist War. — Winter did not suspend operation between the Carlist and 
 Repulilican forces in the North of Spain; and the Province of Biscay was the prin- 
 cipal theatre of war. During the month of February, 1S74, there was severe fight- 
 ing at Bilbao, Tolosa, and .Somorrostro, between the opposing forces, with various 
 success. After the fall of Cartagena and the suppression of the Instransigente 
 insiuTection, President Serrano assumed the chief command of the Government 
 forces operating against the Carlists, and, with the aid of his chief subordinates. 
 Generals Loma and Manuel de la Concha, he prepared for a vigorous and decisive 
 campaign. 
 
 Serrano's Campaign against the Carlists — Siege of Bilbao. — By the 
 middle of March, I874, a Republican army of 34.000 men, under the chief com- 
 mand of President Serrano himself, stood face to face with a Carlist force of 35,000 
 men, while General Loma, with 8,000 Republican troops, was moving on the Car- 
 list lear. In the meantime, the Carlists had laid siege to Bilbao, which they bom- 
 liarded incessantly, throwing 200 shells into the city daily. The Carlists captured 
 an outlying fort with forty prisoners, and they threw incendiary shells into Bilbac 
 with terrible effect. An engagement before the city resulted in the occupation of 
 the Albia suburb by the besiegers. A desperate engagement was fought before 
 Bilbao on the 25th of March, lasting all day, and in the evening, the Republicans 
 encamped on the positions which they had captured from the Royalists. The fight- 
 •ng .lefoie Bilbao was renewed on the 26th, continuing all day, and closing c nigh.' 
 vith deciiled advantages for the Republican forces. Serrano's troops advanced. 
 md drove back the Carlist lines, capturing, at the point of the bayonet, several 
 villages an J. several positions which were occupied by the insurgents the day pre- 
 vious. Serrano's losses during these two days were 550 men, and Generals Loma 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^zy 
 
 (tnd rrimo de .Rivera were severely wounded. Serrano made a successful attack on 
 Pedro Abanto, and drove the Carlists beyond Santa Guliana. The fighting at l!il- 
 bao was renewed on the 28th of March, lasting all day; and the Republicans were 
 repulsed in their attacks on the Carlist lines, losing 4,000 men, while the Royalists 
 lost only 1,000. A heavy fire was kept up on the Carlist positions before Bilbao 
 by the Republican artillery. Active operations before Bilbao were resumed oa thf. 
 3d of April (1874), with the bombardment of Abanto by the Republican foicer;. 
 S^iJtano's aimy kept up a furious cannonade on the Carlist positions before Bilba<j. 
 Or the 29th of April, fighting was resumed before Bilbao, and continued the nex', 
 two days; and on the first of May, the Carlists were defeated and routed, and ihe 
 Republican forces, under President Serrano and General Manuel de la Concha, 
 triumjihantly entered Bilbao. During the month of May, there were several skir 
 mishes around Bilbao, and, at the close of the month, the Carlists invested Hernani. 
 
 Attack on Estella and Death of Marshall Concha. — On the 25th of June, 
 1874, General Manuel de la Concha, in the midst of a terrible storm, surpriseti the 
 Carlist positions near Estella. The engagement lasted an hour, and the Cailisl 
 losses were heavy. In a nayonet charge on the Carlist intrenchments at Mura, Mar- 
 shal Concha, who was over eighty years of age, having placed himself at the head 
 of the Republican troops, was instantly killed. The Republican army then fell 
 back to Lerin, eight miles from Estella. The Republican loss was 1,500 men. 
 The command of the Republican army was then given to General Zabala, Spanish 
 Minister of War. Marshal Concha's death jn-oduced a profound sensation through- 
 out Spain, and his remains were honored with magnificent funeral obsequies. 
 
 Capture of Cuenca by the Carlists — Cruelties of the Carlists. — On the 
 13th of July, 1874, Don Alphonso, with 8,000 Carlists, made an attack upon the 
 Republicans at Cuenca, and, after a most desperate struggle, during which the 
 Republicans repulsed four fierce assaults made upon them by the Carlists, the Roy- 
 alists finally obtained possession of the Citadel, compelling the Republicans to 
 surrender. The victors practiced the greatest cruelties upon the vanquished, many 
 of whom were shot after they had surrendered. 
 
 Recognition of the Spanish Republic by European Powers. — In August, 
 1874, the Spanish Republic was formally recognized by England, France, Gemiany, 
 Italy, Austria, Holland, and Sweden; but Russia held aloof, fearing that recogni- 
 tion would strengthen the cause of repuljlicanism in Europe, and alleging th.al 
 Marshal Serrano's government, which had its origin in a coup d'etat, had no legal 
 existence. 
 
 Progress of the Carlist War — Attacks on Puigcerda— Siege of Irun. 
 — The war between the Republicans and the Carlists continued with various 
 success. In the latter part of August, 1874, the Carlists were repulsed in lepeiieil 
 attacks on Puigcerda. Early in November (1874), the Carlists laid siege to Irun, 
 which they furiously bombarded for nearly a week, but they were eventua.Iy zow 
 felled to raise the siege, and to retreat Into Navarre. 
 
 Prince Alphonso Proclaimed King of Spain by the Armies —Or th{ 
 31st of December, 1874, Prince Alphonso, son of ex-Queen Isabella II., was pro- 
 claimed King of Spain, by the Republican armies. Marshal Serrano acquiesced. 
 The Minister of Interior immediately sent dispatches to the Governors of the 
 Provinces, announcing that Alphonso XII. had been proclaimed King l-y tiie 
 
4jO MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 nation, the army, and the Ministry. On the 9th of January, 1875, King Alphonso 
 arrived at Barcelona from France, and was received with great demonstrations of 
 enttiusiasm. On the 14th (January, 1875), he arrived in Madrid, and met with a 
 grand reception, and in the evening the city was brilliantly illuminated. 
 
 Alphonso's Proclamation to the Carlists — Desertion of Carlist Gen- 
 erals. — After taking possession of the throne of Spain, King Alphonso issued a 
 pioclamation, calling upon the Carlists to lay down their arms, but they refused, 
 »i d preparations were made to subdue them. In February, 1875, Estella was cap 
 hired by the Alphonsists, and the Carlists were repulsed in an attack upoii Bilbao. 
 In March, General Cabrera deserted the cause of Don Carlos, and issued a procla- 
 mation recognizing Alphonso as King of Spain, and calling upon the Carlists to 
 submit He also concluded a convention with the AI]")honsists. In May, General? 
 Elio and Aguirre also deserted Don Carlos; and Aguirre issued an address to the 
 Carlists, advising them to submit to King Alphonso. 
 
 Carlist Defeats — Flight of Dorregaray — Siege and Fall of Seo de Urgel. 
 — In July (1875), ^^ Carlists were defeated by the Alphonsists under Generals 
 Jovellar and Martinez Campos, but the Alphonsist general Loma was unsuccessful. 
 Dorregaray fled across the frontier, into France, pursued by the Alphonsists. In 
 August, the Alphonists laid siege to the strong fortress of Seo de Urgel. On the 
 17th, a body of 6000 Carlists made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the beleag- 
 uered fortress; and on the 27th (August, 1875), Seo de Urgel surrendered to the 
 Alphonsists. The Carlists were also defeated at other points, about this time. 
 
 Submission of Carlists — Carlist Dissensions. — In September (1875), ^^ 
 Carlists in the provinces of Catalonia, Navarre, and Biscay, gave in their submission 
 to the Government of King Alphonso, and applied for amnesty. The Carlists became 
 more and more distracted by dissensions in their own ranks; and Don Carlos quar- 
 relled with Generals Dorregaray, Seballs, and others, and ordered them to be shot. 
 
 RECENT AFFAIRS OF EUROPEAN NATIONS. 
 
 Political Struggles in France— Fall of Thiers — Marshal MacMahon, 
 President. — After the suppression of the rebellion of the Paris Commune in 1 87 1, 
 the question of the future form of government for France engaged the attention 
 of the French Assembly and people. The Legitimists and Orleanists effected a 
 fusion, and labored actively for the elevation of the Count de Chambord, the repre 
 sentative of the Legitimists, as the chief of the reunited House of Bourbon, to the 
 throne of France as king. The Bonapartists, who were now comjjaratively weak, 
 intrigued in behalf of the Prince Imperial, son of Napoleon III.; while the Re])ub- 
 licans of all factions, whose recognized chief was President Thiers, were determined 
 jpon the preservation of the Republic. The Radical Republicans, headed iiy M 
 Gambetta, demanded the dissolution of the National Assembly which had met in 
 I ebruary, 1S71, and the election of a new Assembly. On the opening if the As- 
 lembly, in November, 1872, a violent struggle began between the panics in thai 
 body, for the furtherance of their respective schemes. A Committee of TLirtj was 
 appointed, to consider the question of the reorganization of the Government ol 
 France. M Thiers recommended the definitive establishment of the Conservative 
 Republic. The struggle between the Republicans and the Monarchists in the As- 
 
VON MOLTKE, 
 
PRESIDENT McMAHON. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 431 
 
 scmbly continued until the 23d of May, 1873, when the Mona-chical majority in 
 the Assembly demanded the organization of a more Conservative Ministry. On 
 thai day, a violent scene took place in the Assembly. When President Thiers 
 mounted the tribune to address the Assembly, his voice was drowned by the cries 
 of the Monaichists; and, after vainly endeavoring to make himself heard, tic Pre- 
 sident descended the tribune, and, amid the greatest confusion and excitement, ti.e 
 Assembly adjourned. On the following day (May 24, 1873), President Thiers 
 addressed the Assembly, urging the definitive establishment of the Republic. Af'.ei 
 a violent debate, and the defeat of the Government on several votes in the Assem- 
 bly, the Ministry resigned, and a message from M. Thiers was read in the Assembly, 
 in which he tendered his resignation as President of the Republic, which was ac- 
 cepted by a vote of the Assembly. The Assembly then elected Marshal MacMahon 
 to the Presidency of the Republic. The new President announced a Conservative 
 policy, and formed a Cabinet composed chiefly of Monarchists, with the Duke de 
 Broglie at its head. For more than a year, the Assembly was engaged in the fram- 
 ing of Constitutional bills. The Monarchists were intriguing for the enthronement 
 of the Count de Chambord, while the Republicans carried nearly all the elections 
 10 fill vacancies in the Assembly. On the 20th of November, 1 873, the Assembly, 
 by a decisive vote, prolonged President MacMahon's powers for seven years. The 
 Broglie Ministry resigned in May, 1874, in consequence of a defeat in the Assem- 
 bly, and a new Ministry, in which the Duke Decazes was the chief member, was 
 formed. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Struggle in Germany— Attempted Assassination of 
 Prince Bismarck.— During this time, Germany was disturbed by a religious and 
 political dispute, or a struggle between Church and State. The Ultramontanes, 01 
 extreme Catholics, held allegiance to the Pope as a higher obligation than allegi- 
 ance to the Emperor of Germany. The German Government, under the energetic 
 direction of Prince Bismarck, was resolved to assert practically the supremacy of 
 the civil over the ecclesiastical power; while the Ultramontane party, encouraged 
 by the Pope and by the reactionary party in France, sought to place the spiritual 
 above ihe civil power. Bishops were frequently arrested, fined, and imprisoned, 
 by order of the Prussian Government, for their defiant attitude toward the civil 
 authority of the Empire. The Pope addressed a letter to the Emperor William, 
 praying him not to persecute the Church. To this letter the Emperor replied 
 politely, but firmly asserted his determination to defend the imperial authority against 
 the attacks of the Ultramontane party. The most defiant of the clergy were the 
 Bishop of Emeriand and Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen. The Prussian (iov 
 emment caused the Catholic churches of Berlin and the Province of Posen to be 
 closed, and Archbishop Ledochowski, who maintained an obstinate resistance to 
 Uie decrees of the Government, was arrested, tried, and sentenced to two years' 
 imprisonment. The Bishop of Treves, the Archbishop of Cologne, and Bisho]: 
 lanizewski of Posen, were also arrested for violation of the ecclesiastical laws. '1 le 
 Prussian Government issued an ordinance requiring all Bishops when installed tc 
 swear to maintain the subordination of the Church to the State. The Pope, u. 
 Deceml)er, 1873, issued an allocution denouncing the Governments of Germany, 
 Switzerland, and Italy, for their encroachments on the Church. The journals in 
 Prussia which published the allocution were prosecuted by the G-overnment. Or 
 
432 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 the 14th of July, 1874, while Prince Bismarck was riding out in the country, lie 
 was fired at by a young Catholic named KuHman. The I'rince narrowly escaped 
 assassination, the ball grazing his wrist. Kullman was promptly arrested, and the 
 people were with difficulty restrained from lynching him. Bismarck received over 
 ICX) telegrams congratulating him upon his escape. 
 
 Republicanism in England — War with the Ashantees — Gladstone's 
 Fall. — During this time, England was politically and socially agitated. Larg: 
 Republican meetings were held in some of the large cities, and the Rej ublicai 
 a . vement, directed by such men as Charles Bradlaugh and Sir Charles Dilke 
 made much progress among the workingmen. A Cabinet crisis occurred in M-irch. 
 1873, but was soon terminated by Mr. Gladstone's Cabinet remaining in office. Ii' 
 August, 1873, an English military expedition, undeV Sir Garnet Wolseley, invaded 
 the negro kingdom of Ashantee, in Ujjper Guinea, in Western Africa, for the pui- 
 pose of chastising the Ashantees for their depredations on the British possession.? 
 on the Gold Coast. After numerous victories over the Ashantees, the Britii b 
 finally stormed and took Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, early in February, 1874, 
 and compelled King Koffee to accept veiy humiliating conditions of peace. Late 
 in January, 1S73, Mr. Gladstone, finding a majority in Parliament opposed to him 
 on some important measures, dissolved Parliament and ordered new elections. The 
 elections resulted in giving the Tories an overwhelming majority in Parliament, 
 whereupon Mr. Gladstone's \\n:ig Ministry resigned, and the Tories, headed by 
 Mr. Disraeli, returned to power. 
 
 Definitive Establishment of the Republic in France. — In the meantime, 
 the question of the future form of government for France engaged the attention of 
 the French National Assembly. After voting the prolongation of President Mac- 
 Mahon's powers for seven years, the Assembly devoted itself to the framing of 
 Constitutional Bills. Finally, in Februaiy, 1875, '^^e Assembly passed Constitu- 
 tional Bills, providing for the establishment of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, 
 which were to be vested with the legislative power, while the executive power was 
 to be entrusted to a President of the Republic, who was to be elected for seven 
 years, by both Chambers of the Assembly in joint convention. The Constitution 
 also provided that the President of the Republic, with the advice and consent of 
 the Senate, could dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. The principle of Ministerial 
 responsibility was established. The Senate was to consist of 300 members, of 
 which 225 were to be elected by the Councils-Generals, the Municipal Councils, 
 and the Arrondissements, and 75 by the Chamber of Deputies; and all Senators 
 were to be irremovable. The Chamber of Deputies was to be elected by universal 
 suffrage. The Senate Bill was passed on February 24th (1875), by 448 yeas to 
 241 nays. On the same day, the Assembly recognized the Republic, by passing 
 the Public Powers Bill, by a vote of 433 yeas to 262 nays. An Electoral Bill, pre- 
 scribing the conditions of suffrage, was debated for many months, and finally passed 
 '"n December, 1875. 
 
 Russia's Wars in Central Asia. — During the greater part of the p-e?cji 
 cenlury, Russia ha.s been engaged in a series of wars with wild Tartar tribe? f,rci 
 petty states of Central Asia. In a war with Bokhara, in 1868. the Russian:- "vere 
 victorious; and in 187 1, they subdued Soongaria, which had fought itself inde- 
 pendent of Chinese rule in 1864. Early in 1873, a war broke out between 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 4.^ 
 
 Russia and Khiva; and a Russian military expedition, under General Kauffn^ann, 
 was sent against the Khivans. After several engagements, in which the Khi'ans 
 were defeated, General Kauffmann entered the Khivan capital in triumph, and Jic 
 lited terms of peace to the terrified Khan of Khiva (June, 1S73). In the fail oi 
 1873 the Russians defeated the Turkomans. In the summer of 1875, hosliluici 
 (iroke out between Russia and Khokand. A Russian army under General Kauff- 
 mann invaded Khokand, defeated 30,000 Khokand troops, captured the Khokand 
 capital, and forced the Khan of Khokand to accept a humiliating peace. (Septem 
 ber, 1875.) 
 
 Rebellion in the Herzegovina against the Turks. — In July, 1875, the 
 peasants of Herzegovina and Bosnia, provinces in the West of European Turkey 
 rose in rebellion against the Ottoman Government, to resist the collection of taxes 
 by the officials of the Porte. The insurrection became quite formidable, and fears 
 were entertained that the peace of Europe was jeopardized. The Consuls of the 
 Great European Powers met at Mostar, and endeavored to bring about a pacification, 
 by inducing the Porte to grant needed reforms and reasonable concessions to the 
 Herzegovinians and Bosnians; while, at the same time, they tried to induce the 
 insurgents to submit, but failed. Many engagements of an unimportant charactci 
 occuiTed in the autumn of 1875, but no great battle took place; and no advantagt 
 was gained by either party. 
 
 THE SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 
 
 THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 CAUSES OF THE SPANISH AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Deplorable Condition of Spanish America— Tupac Amaru's Revolt in 
 Peru (1780). — Mexico, or New Spain, and South America, during the three cen- 
 turies that they were dependencies of Spain, were to a great extent isolated from 
 the rest of the world. The most exclusive policy was pursued by Spain toward 
 her American colonies. No foreigners, except such as desired to make discoveries 
 in natural histor)% were permitted to travel in Spanish America, and then ciily with 
 the written consent of the King of Spain. The commerce of the Spanisl .\meri 
 can colonies was cri]ipled by the most severe restrictions, and most of the wealth 
 of the colonies flowed into the mother country. The Spanish American.! were 
 taught to look upon Spain as the mother of nations. The condition of the (reoler. 
 and Indians of Spanish America was the most deplorable imaginable. The iiativ .i 
 were the victims of the most cruel ojipression; being forced to work in the mines, 
 where many of them perished. The influence of priestcraft and Jesuitism contrib' 
 lUed to keep the inhabitants of Spanish America in intellectual darkness; and 
 ignorance and superstition enabled Spain to uphold het dominion in Spanisl 
 America for three centuries. The condition of the Spanish Americans w is fiL" 
 worse than that of the Anglo-Americans, as in the case of the former the inlellecl 
 was enslaved. In 1780, the standard of revolt was raised in Peru, by I'upac 
 Amaru, a descendant of the Incas, who endeavored to restore his country's inde- 
 pendence; but, after a bloody struggle of two years, the insurrection was suppressed, 
 28 
 
+34 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 and Tupac Amaru was put to a cruel death, his body being drawn in quarters by 
 horses. 
 
 Effect of Bonaparte's Dethronement of the Royal Family of Spain in 
 Spanish America. — The immediate cause of the Spanish American Revolut.on 
 had its origin in Europe. When intelligence of the dethronement of the legitima'.c 
 royal family of Spain, by the Emperor Napoleon I., reached Spanish Arneiica, m 
 lSo8 the inhabitants there, who since the first conquest of the country had heoti 
 1 lya' to Spain, declared in favor of the patriots of Spain, who had taken up aims 
 ag.inst the French invaders of their country, and in defense of their rightful sover- 
 eign, Ferdinand VII. The Spanish Americans also took up arms for Ferdinand 
 V'H., for the jiurpose of preventing Spanish America from being placed under the 
 dominion of Joseph Bonaparte, the so-called King of Spain; and they prepared to 
 resist the viceroys, who, in order to retain their offices, for the most part sided with 
 the French and acquiesced in the usurpation of Napoleon. But the motives of the 
 Spanish Americans were misunderstood by the Provisional Junta i|i Spain, which 
 sent out armies for their subjugation, and which by its tyranny soon alienated the 
 Spanish American colonies from the mother country; and the struggle assumed 
 the shape of a war for independence on the part of the Spanish Americans. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION IN MEXICO (1810-1824). 
 
 Enfranchisement of the Mexican Creoles — Imprisonment of the Vice- 
 roy of New Spain. — In Mexico, or New Si)ain, all offices were in the possession 
 of the European Spaniards, while the Creoles, or native inhabitants, were de])rivetl 
 of all share in the government. The Viceroy of New Spain allowed the Creoles a 
 share in the government, in order to secure their support to Ferdinand VII., the 
 lawful King of Spain. This measure was opposed by the provincial court of the 
 Audiencia, which, siding with the European Sjianiards, seized and imprisoned the 
 Viceroy, and again deprived the Mexican Creoles of their rights and privileges. 
 These arbitrary proceedings increased the bitterness on the part of the Creoles 
 toward the European Spaniards. 
 
 Commencement of the Mexican Revolution by Hidalgo. — On the i6th 
 of September, 1810, the Revolution in Mexico was begun, in the little town of 
 Dolores, by a priest named Hidalgo. The insurrection spread with wonderful 
 rapidity, and Hidalgo soon had 100,000 men under arms. With this immense 
 force, Hidalgo advanced toward the city of Mexico, gained some victories, but soon 
 made a hasty and unaccountable retreat. 
 
 Sanguinary Career and Death of Hidalgo — Short Career of Morelos. — 
 Hidalgo gained some victories during the latter part of the same year (18 10), Dui 
 tarnished his glory by his atrocities. The number of Spaniards put to death by his 
 nrders amounted to several thousand. After being several times defeated, Ilidalgt 
 «-a.- taken prisoner, and was shot by order of the Spanish authorities, in July, i8» ( . 
 •\ft',:r the death of Hidalgo, Morelos, a warlike priest, who was as generous aa 
 hrive, gained many brilliant victories over the Spaniards, during the years iS[ I an' 
 »8l 2, but he was defeated, cnptured,and shot in 1S13. 
 
 Declaration of Mexican Independence — Restoration of Spanish Au- 
 thority. — Ir 1813, a Congress which assembled at Chilpanzingo, declared Mexico 
 
NfNETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 435 
 
 an independent nation. Various partisan leaders, such as Victoria, bravo, Guerrero, 
 Teran, Rayon, and Torres, carried on a guerrilla warfare against the royalists until 
 r8l9, when the patriots were defeated, and Spanish authority was temporarily reestab 
 lished in Mexico. 
 
 Revolt of Iturbide — " Plan of Iguala" — Independence of Mexico.— 
 On the 24th of February, 1821, Don Augustin Iturbide, who had previously fought 
 en the side of the Spaniards, proclaimed the celebrated "Plan of Iguala," which 
 Jeclared Mexico independent of Spain, its government a constitutional monarchy, 
 :ind its religion Roman Catholic, while all Mexicans who ranged themselves on the 
 iide of independence were invested with the rights of citizenship. After a feel)le 
 resistance on the part of the Spaniards, Spanish authority was overthrown, and 
 Mexico became an independent nation. 
 
 Iturbide, Emperor — His Dissolution of the Congress — His Overthow 
 and Death. — On the 24th of September, 182 1, the Mexican capital was entered 
 in triumph by Iturbide. A Congress which was assembled in 1822, elevated Itur- 
 bide to the dignity of Emperor of Mexico, with the title of Augustin I. Soon a 
 dispute arose between the Emperor and the Congress. Iturbide ended the dispute 
 by dissolving the Congress, but his arbitrary conduct produced a revolution which 
 resulted in compelling him to abdicate his crown, and to flee from the country. 
 (May, 1823.) He retired to Europe, but returned to Mexico in February, 1824, 
 and, after making a fruitless effort to regain his former power, he was shot by order 
 of the provincial congress of Tamaulipas. 
 
 The Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824.— After the overthrow and flight 
 of Iturbide, in 1823, a Congress was convened, and a new constitution was estab- 
 lished, by which Mexico became a federal republic. This Federal Constitution, 
 which was somewhat modeled after the Constitution of the United States of America, 
 declared the United States of Mexico a federal republic, and divided the govern- 
 ment into three departments, — legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative 
 power was vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of 
 Representatives; the Senate to be composed of two members from each State, 
 elected for a term of four years by the legislatures of the States; and the House of 
 Representatives to consist of members elected for a term of two years by the citizens 
 of the several States. The executive power was vested in a President, who, with 
 a Vice-President, was to be elected by the legislatures of the several Mexican States, 
 for a term of four years. The President was to be a Mexican born, and thirty-tive 
 years of age. The judicial power was vested in a Supreme Court, consisting of 
 eleven Judges, and one A'torney-General, who were to be elected by the State leg 
 islatures, and who were not to be removed except in cases specified by law. With 
 many excellent features, this constitution did not provide for trial by jury; and i^ 
 declared the religion of Mexico to be perpetually the " Roman Catholic Apostolic,'' 
 ti) the exclusion of all other religious systems. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION IN COLOMBIA (1809-1823) 
 
 Juntas at Quito and Caraccas — Beginning of the Colombian Revoiu 
 tion. — In' August, 1809, a junta was established at Quito, by the inhabitants of that 
 city. The junta was suppressed by the viceroy of New Grenada; and, on the 2d 
 
436 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 of AugTist, 1810, about 300 of the supporters of the junta were treacherously mas5a 
 tred by the royalist troops. During the same year (1810), a junta was established 
 at Caraccas, where a declaration of independence was promulgated. Caraccas was 
 iilockaded by order of the regency of . Spain. In their conduct, the colonists were 
 acting in the name of King Ferdinand VII., and in opposition to the various juntos 
 in Spain, and to the French, who had almost subdued the Spanish peninsula. 
 WKile the wai was raging in the Spanish peninsula, Spanish troops were sent tc 
 .^ nf-rica, to reduce the colonists to submission. A sanguinary war of twelve years' 
 duration desolated New Grenada, Ecuador, and Venezuela, which three provinces 
 were soon united, with the title of Colombia. In the course of this war, the mos 
 shocking atrocities were perpetrated by the .Spaniards. 
 
 Declaration of Colombian Independence — Policy of the Bonapartes.— 
 
 The Colombians, provoked at the tyranny of the mother country, now resolved upoi 
 a political separation from .Spain, and, on the 5th of July, 1811, a Congress assem 
 bled at Caraccas declared Venezuela independent of Spain. Soon afterward th"" 
 provinces composing New Grenada declared their independence, and their examph 
 was followed by Mexico, in 1813, and Buenos Ayres, in 1816. Still Spain blindl) 
 persisted in her despotic course, until her American colonies were lost to her for 
 ever. Napoleon and Joseph Bonaparte were doing all in their power to promot'' 
 the cause of Spanish American independence, with the view of strengthening them 
 selves in Spain. 
 
 Conspiracy in Venezuela — ^Juntas at Bogota, Popayan, and Carthagena 
 — A frightful conspiracy in Venezuela, against the provisional government of Vene 
 zuela, was suppressed in iSio. A constitution was adopted in Venezuela in 18 12 
 A junta which had been established in Bogota, in July, 1810, gave place to a cop 
 gress, which conducted the affairs of the Revolution. A junta had been formed ?' 
 Popayan and Santa Martha. A junta had been established at Carthagena in iSio 
 The various provinces, acting separately from their federal governments, and oftek 
 at war with them, prosecuted the war against the royalists with vigor. The royalist: 
 in Popayan, after defeating the patriots, were themselves defeated. 
 
 Effects of the Earthquake at Caraccas in 1812. — The earthquake in 
 Venezuela in March, 181 2, which destroyed Caraccas, greatly injured the causa 
 of the Revolution, as many of the patriots, believing the earthquake to be a pun- 
 ishment inflicted upon them from Heaven for their rebellious conduct, joined the 
 royal cause Space will not permit us to give an account of the many cnllicls 
 between the Colombians and the Spaniards, and the changes of government and civil 
 wars among the Colombians themselves, while struggling for freedom against their 
 common enemy. 
 
 Suppression of the Revolt in Venezuela — Renew^al of the Revolt by 
 S'.mon Bolivar. — After the earthquake at Caraccas, that city was taken by the 
 Sj'aniards, who reestablished their authority in Venezuela, and who filled the dun- 
 geons of Puerto Cabello with the defeated patriots. The resistance to Spanish 
 i>ower was renevi'ed in Venezuela by the illustrious Simon Bolivar, who soon de- 
 feated the Spaniards, and liberated Venezuela from their yoke. The royalists then 
 armed the slaves against the patriots, and the war was renewed with vigor .and 
 ended in the triumph of the patriots, who, under Bolivar, gained the battle of 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 437 
 
 ^arabolo, on tlie 28th of May, 1814; but soon afterward, Bolivar was defeated at 
 La Pucrta, and the royalists recovered Venezuela. 
 
 Tyrannical Measures of King Ferdinand VII. — Civil War Among the 
 Colombians. — In 1814, the Emperor Napoleon 1. was overthrown in Europe by 
 the Allied Powers, and Ferdinand VII. came in undisputed possession of the throne 
 of Sji^in. The tyrannical measures of Ferdinand toward the rebellious Americans 
 leii lered forever impossible all hopes of a reconciliation between Spain and hei 
 
 t> ■.tiled colonies. The patriots greatly weakened their cause by their internal dis 
 sensions. "When the province of Cundinamarca refused to join the Colombian con 
 federacy, the Colombian Congress resorted to military force, and seat General 
 Bolivar with an army to compel Cundinamarca to unite with the other provinces 
 of Colombia. Bolivar compelled the city of Bogota, the capital of Cundinamarca, 
 to surrender, whereupon the rebellious province was obliged to join the confedera- 
 tion. 
 
 Morillo's Successes Over the Colombians — His Defeats. — In 1815, a 
 Spanish army, under the brutal Morillo, arrived from Cadiz, and conquered the 
 island of Margarita, on the Colombian coast, and captured the city of Carthagena. 
 General Bolivar again attempted to liberate Venezuela, but he was defeated and 
 compelled to evacuate the province; and the Spaniards, under General Morillo, 
 conquered New Grenada, captured Bogota, and massacred many of the patriots. 
 On the 5th of April, 1817, the city of Barcelona, in Venezuela, was taken by tht 
 Spaniards, after a furious assault ; but soon afterward, the Colombian army, under 
 Generals Bolivar and Piar, took the town of Angostura, in Guiana, and Morillo 
 made an unsuccessful attack on the island of Margarita, which had again revolted. 
 
 Defection of General Piar — Individual Foreign Aid to the Patriots. — 
 On the i6th of October, 1817, General Piar, who had fought bravely for freedom 
 in Colombia, having been detected in a conspiracy for obtaining the supreme power, 
 was executed. The patriots now received assistance from enthusiastic individuals 
 from Great Britain, who joined the Colombian armies, and fought heroically for 
 freedom in Colombia. Patriotic persons from the United States also aided the 
 Colombians. 
 
 Battle of Boyaca — Formation of the Republic of Colombia. — General 
 Bolivar, after marching his army into New Grenada, gained the most brilliant victory 
 of the whole war, in the battle of Boyaca, on the 7th of August, 1819. Soon after- 
 ward, Bolivar entered Bogota, where he established a provisional government for 
 New Grenada, after which he entered Venezuela. On the 17th of December, 1819, 
 the Congress sitting at Angostura, passed the fundamental law, which united New 
 Grenada and Venezuela into one state, with the title of "The Republic of Colo'n 
 bia." G:;neral McGregor, with a patriot force, after taking Puerto Cabello, was 
 defeated by the royalists. The army and navy of Colombia captured Rio de la 
 Ilaciia, in April, 1820. An armistice was now concluded, and General Morilk 
 «as Siccoe<led in command of the Spanish army by General Morales. 
 
 Battle of Carabobo— Capture of Carthagena by the Colombians. -Th: 
 patriots captured Coro, on the llth of May, 1821; and on the 24th of June of the 
 same year, 'Bolivar defeated the Spaniards in the battle of Carabobo. The Congress 
 of New Grenada, which shortly after convened at Cucuta, ratified the union with 
 
438 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Venezuela. A Sjianish flotilla was destroyed, on the 30th of the same month 
 (June, 182 1 ), by the Colombian squadron, under Admiral Biron, who compelled 
 the city of Carthagena to capitulate, on the 23d of Septem"jer of the same year. 
 (1821.) 
 
 Battle of Pinchincha — Capture of Maracaybo by the Colombians — (a 
 '.he I? of June, 1822, the Colombians under General Sucre defeated the Spaniai.ls 
 m the bloody battle of Pinchincha, which liberated Quito, or Ecuado?, from Spanish 
 Kithority. The Colombian squadron destroyed the Spanish flotilla m I>ake Mara- 
 iiybo, nn the 23d of July, 1823, and captured the town of Maracaybo; wi'h tht 
 Spanish army under General Morales. 
 
 Surrender of Puerto Cabello to the Colombians — Liberation of Colom- 
 bia. — Fmally, the long war was closed, and the independence of Colombia secured, 
 by the surrender of Puerto Cabello to the patriots, in the beginning of December, 
 1S23. The United States had already acknowledged the independence of Colom- 
 bia, in 1822. In 1824, Bolivar marched into Peru, and a part of his army, under 
 General Sucre, gained the battle of Ayacucho, which put an end to Spanish power 
 in America. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION IN LA PLATA (1810-1821). 
 
 Insurrection at Buenos Ayres. — The news of the dethronement of the legit 
 imate King of Spain by Napoleon, and the rise of the Spanish people against the 
 usurpation of the Bonapartes, occasioned popular movements in Buenos Ayres. 
 The Revolution in Buenos Ayres, or the provinces of La Plata, began on the 25th 
 of May, 1810, when the inhabitants of Buenos Ayres established a provisional 
 junta. In March, 1811, a new junta was appointed. The Spaniards of Monte 
 Video were opposed to this proceeding, and sent an army against Buenos Ayres-, 
 and war was commenced. 
 
 Revolt in the Banda Oriental — Dissensions among the Patriots. — The 
 royalists of Buenos Ayres were defeated, and a revolt was inaugurated in the Band.-\ 
 Oriental, of which Monte Video is the capital. The patriots of Buenos Ayres, like 
 those of all other parts of Spanish America, soon quarreled among themselves ; and 
 for ten years, while prosecuting the war against the Spaniards in Upper Peru and 
 Chili, Buenos Ayres was distracted by numerous revolutions and civil wars. 
 
 Wars of the Banda Oriental with Buenos Ayres — Independence of 
 
 Paraguay.— The Banda Oriental, with Artigas at its head, was often at war with 
 Buenos Ayres, and with the Brazilians, who claimed its territory. The province 
 (/f Paraguay became independent in 1812, with Dr. Francia as Dictator. 
 
 Declaration of Argentine Independence — Emancipation of La Plata. 
 -•On the 9th of July, 1816, a Congress at Buenos Ayres declared the confederated 
 [irovinccs of the La Plata independent of Spain. Civil war and anarchy continued 
 m the ptovince until 1821, when a period of tranquillity and prosperity returned 
 Ir. 1829, Spain acknowledged the independence of La Plata, or the Argentine 
 R.'pul.hc. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION IN BOLIVIA (1809-1824). 
 
 Insurrections of La Paz, Cochabamba, and Potosi. — Bolivia, or Upi>c) 
 Peru, a,; it was called at the time, was the first of the Spanish American colonies to 
 
 ( 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 439 
 
 rise in lebellion against llie despolism of old Spain. On the 25lh of March, 1809, 
 the citizens of the wealthy and enterprising city of La Paz pslablished a provisional 
 junta. The city of La Paz was attacked by the royalists from Buenos Ayres, and, 
 after a heroic defense, was forced to surrender, when many of the unfortunate 
 inhabitants suffered death on the scaffold. The people of La Paz revolted a second 
 :iiue, but we.-e again subdued. The neighboring cities of C(.)chabamba and i otosi, 
 « hich had also risen in insurrection, were likewise reduced. 
 
 [liberation of Bolivia — The Bolivian Constitution. — The blood) viai 
 ''ctwcen the patriots and the royalists in Upper Peru continued with various success 
 until the close of 1S24, when the memorable battle of Ayacucho put an end to 
 Spanish authority in South America, and Upper Peru became an independent 
 republic, and was named Bolivia, in honor of the great Colombian president and 
 dictator. General Simon Bolivar, who framed a constitution for the republic. 
 
 THE REVOI-UTION IN CHILI (1810-1818). 
 
 Insurrection at Santiago — The Carreras and O'Higgins. — The reAolo- 
 tionary movement in Chili began ui July, iSio, when the people of Santiago de- 
 posed their Captain-General, and put another in his place. A junta was forn.ed, 
 which assembled a Congress to consider the condition of the country. Disturbances 
 took place in iSii, which resulted in the exile of the opponents of the Revolucion. 
 The three ambitious brothers named Carrera soon overthrew the Congress, and took 
 the government of Chili into their own hands. In 1812, a Spanish army invaded Chiii 
 from Peru, and, through the dissensions of the Chilian leaders, O'Higgins and the 
 Carreras, the authority of the royalists was reestablished in Chili. 
 
 San Martin in Chili — Battles of Chacabaco and Maypu — Emancipation 
 of Chili. — In 181 7, the struggling Chilians found a deliverer in the valiant and 
 patriotic San Martin, who, after crossing the Andes from Buenos Ayres at the head 
 of a patriot army, overthrew the Spaniards in the battle of Chacabaco, which was 
 fought on the 12th of February, 1817, and which gave independence to Chili. 
 The Spaniards reconquered Chili, but their power was hopelessly broken, and the 
 independence of Chili permanently secured, in the decisive battle of Maypu, fought 
 on the 5th of April, 1818. 
 
 THE REVOLUTION IN PERU (1820-1824). 
 
 San Martin in Peru — Declaration of Peruvian Independence. — Peru, 
 the land of the Incas, was the last of the Spanish American colonies to strike for 
 freedom. The Government of Chili, convinced that Chilian independence was not 
 secure so long as the royalists held Peru, sent an army under San Martin into I'eru, 
 m 1820, f jr the purpose of expelling the Spaniards, and encouraging the Peruvians 
 to throw off the Spanish yoke. A Chilian squadron, under the command of "^he 
 F.nglish admiral. Lord Cochrane, whose standard was joined by many Englishmen 
 \\\A /Vinericans, harassed the royalists on the coast of Peru, capturing many Spatiisli 
 Vessels. On San Martin's appearance in Peru, the Peruvians rose almost unani 
 mously; and the independence of Peru was declared. The Chilians everywhere 
 defeated the Spaniards; and San Martin, after nobly proving his disinterestedness 
 by declirting the proffered dictatorship, returned to Chili. 
 
440 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 The Columbian Army in Peru — Battles of Junin and Ayacucho— Eman- 
 cipation of Peru.— The Spaniards soon regained their lost power in Peru, which 
 they held until the Colombian army, under Bolivar, marched to the rescue of the 
 Peruvians. On the 6th of August, 1824, the Colombians, under General SucrCj 
 "lined a victory in the battle of Junin ; and, on the glh of December of the san:e 
 year (1824), Sucre annihilated the Spaniards in the decisive battle of Ayacichiij 
 \bich secured the independence of Peru, and which swept away forever even 
 'tilige of Spanish power on the American continent. In 1826, Callao, the Ian 
 ironghold of the Spaniards in South America, surrendered to the Peruvians, and 
 Spanish America became free. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA SINCE THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 The Portuguese Colony of Brazil becomes an Independent Empire. — 
 iJrazil peacefully secured a political separation from Portugal in 1822, with Dor. 
 Pedro I., of the royal House of Braganza, as Emperor. In 1 831, the Brazilians, 
 becoming dissatisfied with the government of Don Pedro I., compelled him to ab- 
 dicate his crown in favor of his son, Don Pedro II., who was then only five years 
 old, During the minority of Don Pedro II., the Government of Brazil was con- 
 ducted by a regency. 
 
 Spanish American Congress at Panama. — General Bolivar cherished the 
 grand design of the formation of a confederation of all the Spanish American Re- 
 publics, with himself at its head as dictator; and, in 1826, a Congress composed 
 of representatives of all the Spanish American Republics convened at Panama, on 
 the Isthmus of Darien. The deliberations of this Congress were not attended with 
 any important result; and the plan of a Spanish American confederacy failed. 
 
 \A/ar between Brazi-l and La Plata — Formation of the Republic of 
 Uruguay. — For several years, war raged between the Empire of Brazil and the 
 Republic of La Plata, or the Argentine Confederation, respecting the possession of 
 the Banda Oriental, situated between the two countries. Through the mediation 
 of Great Britain, peace was concluded in 1828, by which it was agreed to erect the 
 Banda Oriental into an independent republic, under the name of Uruguay. The 
 dictator. General Rosas, governed the Argentine Confederation from 1835 ^'^ '^SS- 
 Both the Argentine Republic and Uruguay have been much disturbed by civil wars. 
 
 War betv^een Colombia and Peru— Dissolution of the Republic of 
 Colombia.— A war broke out between the Republics of Colombia and Peru in 
 1829, which resulted in the defeat of the Peruvians. General Bolivar's ambition 
 created for him many enemies, and greatly weakened his popularity with his coun- 
 trymen; and a civil war was only prevented by his death, in 1S30. In 1 83 1, the 
 Republic of Colombia was dissolved, and its three great divisions, — New Grenada, 
 \'enozuela, and Ecuador, — became separate republics. Since their separation, each 
 • f these republics, like all the other Spanish American States, have been distracted 
 y almost constant revolutions and civil wars. In 1861, the title of New Gienada 
 Aas changed, and that republic has since been known as "The United States ol 
 Colombia." 
 
 The Republic of Paraguay under the Dictator, Dr. Francia. — Paraguay 
 ccclared its independence in iSio; and in 1S12, Dr. Irancia made himself die- 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 441 
 
 tp.tor, and ruled with almost absolute and despotic power until 1840, when he died. 
 Under the government of Dr. Francia, foreigners were not permitted to travel in 
 Paraguay, and every inhabitant was compelled to learn to read and write. Fran 
 cia's rule, though despotic, was beneficial to Paraguay. 
 
 Peru-Bolivian Confederation — War between the Confederation auJ 
 Chili.— In 1836, Peru and Bolivia were united in a league, called "The i'eru- 
 Boliuar. Confederolion," at the head of which was General Santa Cruz as dicliloi 
 h\ 1S36, awar broke out between this Confederation and Chili. The Chilian 
 defeated the Peruvians in the battle of Yungay, on the nth of July, 1839. Gen 
 iral Santa Cruz was overthrown and obliged to flee from Peru, whereupon the 
 Peru-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved, and Peru and Bolivia again became 
 separate republics. Both these republics have since been the scenes of revolution 
 and anarchy. 
 
 War of Peru and Chili against Spain — South American Alliance 
 against Spain. — In 1864 a war broke out between Spain and Peru. The follow- 
 ing year (1865), Chili joined Peru in the war. The towns on the coast of Chili 
 and Peru were bombarded by the Spanish fleets. Valparaiso, in Chili, and Callao, 
 in Peru, withstood these attacks. In January, 1866, the Republics of Venezuela, 
 Ecuador, and Bolivia concluded an alliance with Peru and Chili in the war. Active 
 hostilities closed with the year 1866, but peace was not formally made until the 
 beginning of 1871. 
 
 War of Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Confederation against 
 Paraguay. — The interference of the Paraguayan dictator, Francisco Lopez, in the 
 domestic affairs of Uruguay, led to a war of Brazil, Urugu-ay, and the Argentine 
 Confederation against Paraguay, in 1864. Bloody battles were fought on Para- 
 guayan soil with various results. Under the leadership of their able dictator, the 
 Paraguayans fought heroically for the preservation of their national existence, which 
 was threatened by the encroachments of their enemies. But Lopez was driven from 
 one stronghold to another, and, after an enormous expenditure of blood and treasure, 
 this terrible war closed, in the early part of 1870, in the defeat and humiliation of 
 Paraguay. The hard-hearted Lopez, refusing to surrender, was put to death by a 
 Brazilian soldier. The conquerors established a provisional government in Par- 
 aguay. 
 
 THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNITED STATES OF MEXICO. 
 
 THE ADMINISTRATION OF OENERAL VICTORIA (1825-182©) 
 
 F.lection and Inauguration of President Guadalupe Victoria.— '^fi^i 
 the adoption of the Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824, General Guadalupe 
 Victoria was elected President of Mexico, with General Nicholas Bravo as Vice 
 I/esident. Victoria and Bravo were installed into office on the 1st of Januai> 
 1825. 
 
 The Escoces and the Yorkinos.— The Administration of President Victo. i;, 
 was very prosperous, and the Mexican Republic enjoyed a greater degree of 
 prosperity. than .at any previous or subsequent period. The Mexican nation was, 
 ho w.vpi, divided into two political parlies,— each of which was controlled by a 
 
442 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Masonic lodge. The Escoces, or aristocratic party, desired a strong central gov 
 ernment, like the Federalists of the United States, and weie accused, by theii 
 opponents, of aiming at the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. The York- 
 'nos, or democratic party, desired the preservation of the Federal system as opposed 
 to centralism, like the Jefferson Republicans of the United States, and were charged 
 «s'ith being anarchists and subverters of public order. 
 
 Election Corruption and Frauds in 1826.— In the Mexican elections r>! 
 ^ i526, bribery, ci/rruplion, and all sorts of disreputable means were resorted to tj 
 ihe two great political parties which divided the nation, and many of the electif ns 
 were declared null and void, in consequence of the illegal proceedings by which 
 Ihey had been etfected. In the same year (1826), the Escoces brought about an 
 insurrection against the Government, but the movement was easily suppressed. 
 
 Presidential Election of 1828 — Revolution and Civil War — Flight of 
 Pedraza. — Another Presidential election took place in Mexico in the year 182S. 
 The candidate of the Escoces, or aristocratic party, was General Pedraza, and the 
 nominee of the Yorkinos, or democratic party, was General Guerrero. To the 
 surprise of all, Pedraza was elected by a majority of only two electoral votes over 
 his opponent. The Yorkinos, thus defeated in the election, which they declared 
 to have been accomplished by fraud and bribery, determined to place themselves 
 in power by force of arms. The youthful general, Santa Anna, declared that 
 the election of Pedraza had been secured by corruption and bribery; and, at 
 the head of 500 men, he took possession of the castle of Perote, and proclaimed 
 Guerrero President. During the last day of November and the first three days of 
 December (1828), a sanguinary conflict took place in the Mexican capital, between 
 the Government guard and a large body of insurgents, which ended in the flight 
 of Pedraza, the President-elect, who, rather than involve his country in civil war 
 on his own account, advised his partisans to submit to an unconstitutional President, 
 and left the country. Thus revolutionary force was triumphant over the constitu 
 tion and laws of the Mexican Republic. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF GUERRERO, BUSTAM ENl £, AN D 
 PEDRAZA (1829-1838) 
 
 Guerrero Declared President — Spanish Invasion of Mexico — Surren- 
 der of the Spaniards. — When the Mexican Congress met, that body declared 
 General Guerrero, the defeated candidate of the Yorkinos, President of Mexico, 
 he having, next to General Pedraza, the highest number of votes, in 1829, a Span- 
 ish army of 4,000 men landed at Tampico for the invasion of the Mexican 
 Republic; but, after a four months' occupation, the invading ar.i.y surrendered to 
 Santa Anna, on the loth of September. (1829.) 
 
 Overthrow of Guerrero and Presidency of Bustamente — Death at 
 Guerrero. — As President Guerrero refused to relinquish the dictatorial povvcr- 
 T.'hich had been conferred upon him for the purpose of meeting the Spani\;h iin-a 
 sion. General Bustamente, the Vice-President, headed a revolution, which resulted 
 in the overthrow of Guerrero, and the assumption of the Preside. icy by Bustamente. 
 Guerrero afterwards attempted to recover his authority, but he wa.s made a prisoner, 
 and shot as a traitor to the established Government of the Mexican Republic. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 443 
 
 Overthrow of Bustamente by Santa Anna and Recall of Pedraza. — 
 In 1832, another revolution occurred in Mexico, headed by Santa Anna, who had 
 declared against the arbitrary encroachments of President Bustamente. After a 
 short contest, the revolution ended in the downfall of Bustamente, who retired to 
 France; wliereu[)on the exiled Pedraza, who had been constitutionally elected in 
 1S28, \va;- recalled to serve out the remaining three months of his unexpired j rcsi 
 -Iftitia] tern'. 
 
 PRESIDENCY AND DICTATORSHIP OF SANTA ANNA 
 (1833-1887). 
 
 THE TEXAN REVOLUTION (1833-1886). 
 
 Santa Anna Made President of Mexico — Unsuccessful Insurrections 
 
 — Early in 1833, Santa Anna himself was raised to the Presidency of Mexico, with 
 Gomez P'arias as Vice-President. In less than a fortnight after Santa Anna had 
 entered upon the duties of his office, an insurrection broke out within twenty miles 
 of the Mexican capital, supposed to have been instigated by the President him- 
 self, as the avowed object of the insurgents was to make Santa Anna dictator; but 
 he took the command of a large force against the insurgents, whom he completely 
 defeated. Not long afterwards, Santa Anna left the executive authority in the hands 
 of the Vice-President, Gomez Farias, and retired to his estate, to wait for a more 
 favorable occasion to strike a blow for dictatorial power. 
 
 Abolition of the Federal Constitution of 1824 — Santa Anna, Dictator. 
 — Early in 1834, Santa Anna, placing himself at the head of the military chiefs and 
 the army, dissolved the Congress and summoned another, and, taking into his own 
 hands all the powers of government, he trampled under foot the Constiution which 
 he had sworn to defend. The Mexican States were more or less convulsed by these 
 arbitrary proceedings, but the Centralist party, headed by Santa Anna, after much 
 opposition, succeeded in abolishing the Federal Constitution of 1824, and established 
 a " Strong Central Republic." The State Legislatures were declared to be abol- 
 ished, and the States were converted into departments, and placed under the charge 
 of military commanders, who were to be responsible to the chief authorities of the 
 Mexican nation. The supreme power was to be centralized in the hands of a single 
 individual whose will was law. At the head of this new Government, republican 
 only in name, was Santa Anna as President. Gomez Farias, who, at the head of 
 the Federalist party, supported the Constitution of 1824, was thrown into prison; 
 and General Barragan. z. ^ending Centralist, was made Vice-President. Several of 
 the Mexican States rose in arms to uphold the Federal Constitution, but all, with 
 '.he exception of Texas, were speedily reduced by the arms of Santa Anna. 
 
 Beginning of the Texan Revolution — Santa Anna's Invasion oi Texas 
 — Fall of the Alamo. — The arbitrary and usurping conduct of Santa Anna let) 
 to a rebellion of the province of Texas, which was inhabited almost exclusively by 
 •migrants from the United States. These emigrants refused to submit to Sants 
 Anna's military rule, and began a rebellion for the purpose of achieving theii i.nde 
 pendence of Mexican authority. The Mexican troops who invaded Texas wer« 
 repulsed by the Texans at Gonzales, on the 2d of October, 1835. Before the ena 
 ot the year (1835), the Texans captured the strong fortress of Goliad and the Alamo 
 
444 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 The following year (1836), Santa Anna invaded Texas^with 8000 Mexican ti-oops. 
 For two weeks, 4000 Mexicans, under vSanta Anna, had vainly besieged the Alamo, 
 when a( length, on the 6th of March (1836), they assaulted the fortress, which they 
 unly entered over the dead bodies of the 150 Texans who had defended it. 
 
 Texan Declaration of Independence— Battle of San Jacinto — Captiv- 
 ity of Santa Anna. — On the 2d of April, 1836, a convention of delegates assembled 
 i Washington, on the Colorado, declared Texas independent. In the meaninne, a 
 Mexican force, under General Urrea, was committing the most shocking atrocitie: 
 iljiig the coast of Texas, massacring small bodies of Texans after they had surren 
 dercd. On the 21st of April, 1836, was fought the celebrated battle of San Jancinto, 
 m which 1600 Mexicans, under Santa Anna, were defeated by 783 Texans com- 
 manded by General Samuel Houston, after a fierce struggle of twenty minutes. On 
 the day after the battle, Santa Anna was found in the woods by the victorious Texans, 
 and made a. prisoner. On being brought before General Houston, Santa Anna ex- 
 claimed, "You were born to no ordinary destiny : you conquered the Napoleon of 
 the West." 
 
 Santa Anna's Release — Texas an Independent Republic.^ — In order to 
 obtain his release, Santa Anna ordered the Mexican army to retire beyond the Rio 
 Grande, and acknowledged the independence of Texas ; but the Mexican Congress 
 refused to confirm the agreement which Santa Anna had made with the Texans. and 
 even Santa Anna himself, on his arrival in Mexico, disavowed all treaties whicii he 
 had made while a prisoner. Although Mexico refused to acknowledge the independ- 
 ence of Texas, she did not make another vigorous effort to reconquer her lost province. 
 Texas remained an independent republic for nine years, recognized by /ranee, 
 England, and the United States, after which it became a State of the Aaieri'^an 
 Union. (1845.) 
 
 BUSTAMENTE'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (18S7-M41). 
 
 Bustamente Made President of Mexico — Retirement of Santa Anna. 
 — After Santa Anna's departure from Mexico for the invasion of Texas, the execu- 
 tive authority of the Mexican Republic devolved upon the Vice-President, General 
 liarragan; and after the death of the latter, soon afterward. General Busuamente. 
 who had just returned from France, was invested with the functions of the Presi- 
 dency; Santa Anna, by his failure to subdue the Texans, having lost the confidence 
 and favor of the Mexican people, was obliged to retire to private life, until anothei 
 revolution in his unhappy country restored him to power. 
 
 General Mexia's Rebellion and Death — Vera Cruz Attacked by a 
 l-'rench Fleet. — A rebellion which bro^ce out in Mexico in 1S3S, was speedily 
 quelled by Santa Anna, whom President Bustamente had -ntrusted with the com- 
 ni -id of the Government army, and General Mexia, the leader of the veiicllion, 
 '.^ IS shot after he had surrendered. In November of the same year (1838) a French 
 lieit ai)peared before Vera Cruz, and when the Mexican authorities rejected c 
 demand for the reparation of the losses sustained by French subjects during tlx 
 domestic convulsions in Mexico, the fleet blockaded the harbor of Vera Cruz, and 
 French troops were landed before that city. During the retreat of the invaders 
 fiom Veia Cruv;, Santa Anna had one of his legs taken off by a cannon-ball. 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 44 c^ 
 
 Insurrection of July, 1840, in the Capital — Secession of Yucatan. — In 
 July, 1S40, an insurrection of the Federalists, headed by General Urrea and Gomez 
 Farias, broke out in the city of Mexico; and after a bloody contest of twelve day?, 
 m the streets of the city, between the opposing factions, a universal amnesty was 
 agreed upon. During the same year (1S40), the province of Yucatan secedi d 
 from Mexico ; but, after a struggle of three years against the Mexican forces, it 
 vas again united with Mexico. 
 
 Mexican Revolution of 1841 — Overthrow of Bustamente by Paredej 
 and Santa Anna. — In August, 1841, another revolution broke out in Mexico, 
 Leaded by General Paredes and Santa Anna. The revolutionary forces bombarded 
 the capital, and, after a struggle of one month, in the streets of the city, the revolu- 
 tion ended in the downfall and flight of President Bustamente. 
 
 SANTA ANNA'S SECOND PRESIDENCY AND DICTATORSHIP 
 
 (1841-1843). 
 
 Santa Anna, President of Mexico — The Mexican Constitution of 1842, 
 
 — In September, 1841, a convention of military oflicers at Tacubaya provided for 
 the assembling of a Congress to frame a new constitution; but this Congress, which 
 met in June, 1842, was soon dissolved l)y Santa Anna, who had acquired the office 
 of provisional president; and in June, 1S43, a national junta or council selected by 
 him framed a new constitution, estal^lishing an intricate representative system of 
 government, leaving to the Mexican people but a shadow of power. The Mexican 
 Repulilic was divided into Departments. The Roman Catholic religion was to be 
 protected to the exclusion of all others. The executive power was vested in a 
 President, to be elected for five years, who was to be assisted by a Council of Gov- 
 ernment, composed of seventeen members selected by the President, and whose 
 tenure of office was to be perpetual. The legislative power was vested in a Con- 
 gress, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. An annual income of 
 two hundred dollars was required for the enjoyment of all the rights of citizenship. 
 Every 500 inhabitants of a Department were to be allowed one elector; twenty of 
 these electors were to choose one member of the electoral college of the Depart- 
 ment; and the electoral college was to elect the members of the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties. One-third of the members of the Senate were to be chosen by the Chamber 
 of Deputies and the President of the Republic, and the remaining two-thirds by the 
 Assemblies of the Departments. Under this comjilicated representative system, 
 Santa Anna was made President, or, with more propriety, virtual dictator of Mexico, 
 in 1843. 
 
 Revolution and Civil War of 1844 — Overthrow of Santa Anna by 
 Paredes. — The almost absolute government of Santa Anna produced a wide-spread 
 ;ecret dissatisfaction throughout the Mexican nation. In October, 1844, Santa 
 \nna retired tc his farm on private business; and the National Senate appointed 
 lie Minister of War, Canalizo, to perform the executive duties in the absence of 
 ■fie President. In November (1844), General Paredes, the adherent of Santa Anna 
 in the revolution of 184 1, pronounced against the Dictator, and took the field against 
 him. The National Congress siding with Pared^es, that body was dissolved ana 
 ihe members were shut up in prison, by order of Canalizo, the acting President; 
 
446 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 but they were soon released by a body of insurgents ; and in the capital, the revo- 
 lutionists caused Santa Anna's amputated leg, which had been buried with military 
 honors, to be carried about the streets and broken in pieces. After a short civil 
 wai, Santa Anna was made a prisoner by the revolutionists, in January, 1S45, 
 while attempting to escape from the country; and, after an imprisonment of several 
 months, the National Congress decreed his perpetual banishment from the country 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF HERRERA, PAREDES, AND SAN TA 
 ANNA (1845-1848). 
 
 THE WAR ^A/■ITH THE UNITED STATES (1846-1848,. 
 
 General Herrera, President — Rupture betvireen Mexico and the United 
 States. — After the overthrow of Santa Anna, in January, 1845, General Herrera 
 was appointed provisional president of Mexico; and in August of the same year, he 
 was elected President, and, on the i6th of September, he was sworn into office, in 
 the presence of the Mexican Congress. During Ilerrera's provisional presidency, 
 the Republic of Texas was annexed to the United States of America (July 4, 1845), 
 •whereupon General Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washington, demanded his 
 passports; and when intelligence of the annexation reached Mexico, President 
 Herrera issued a proclamation calling upon the Mexican people to defend the integ- 
 rity and unity of their country, which was represented as being seriously threatened 
 by the aggressions of the United States. W. r between Mexico and the United States 
 broke out in the spring of the following year. (1846.) 
 
 Overthrow of Herrera by Parades — General Parades, President. — When 
 President Herrera, convinced of the inability of Mexico to prosecute a successful 
 war against the United States, manifested a desire for a peaceful settlement of the 
 difficulty between the two Republics, General Paredes, who had the command ot 
 die army marching northward to drive the United States forces from Texas, tooK 
 the occasion to arouse the patriotism of his countrymen, to prevent the dismember- 
 ment of the Mexican Republic, and pronounced against the Administration of Her 
 rera. Upon the approach of Paredes to the capital, the army there declared iii 
 favor of the revolution, and Herrera was driven from power and Paredes elevated 
 to the Presi<lency. 
 
 Opening of the War between Mexico and the United States. — President 
 Paredes had no sooner entered upon the duties of his office, than he made the most 
 energetic preparations to carry on the war against the United States. The first 
 bloodshed between the military forces of the United States and Mexico occurred 
 on the 24th of April, 1846, when an American reconnoitering party under Captain 
 Thornton was captured by the Mexicans, on the Texas bank of the Rio Grande. 
 The Americans under General Taylor defeated the Mexicans under General Aiista, 
 in the battles of Palo Alto, May 8, 1S46, and Resaca de la Palma, May 9; antl, 
 duiing the same month, the American and Mexican Governments formally declared 
 war agaiiist each other. On the iSth of May, 1S46, the American army undei 
 General Taylor captured the Mexican city of Matamoras; and, on the 24th of '^ep 
 iember (1846), Monterey, after a defense of four days, also surrendered to Taylor 
 
 Overthrow of Paredes — Santa Anna's Recall and Restoration to the 
 Presidency. — Ir. the midst of her war with the United States, Mexico was not 
 
A'fNETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 447 
 
 lec from domestic dissensions. While President Paredes was engaged in prepara- 
 tioni to prosecute a vigorous war against the United States, his Administration was 
 cut short; for Santa Anna had been recalled by the revolutionary party, and in 
 Decembe*-, 1846, he was again raised to the Presidency of the Mexican Republic. 
 Immediately after his elevation to power, Santa Anna, notwithstanding his formei 
 professions of a desire for the restoration of peace between the two nations, ^ if-i- 
 die field in person against the invading forces of the United States. 
 
 Occupation of Mexico by the United States Army — Peace of Guada- 
 loupe Hidalgo. — Disasters befell the Mexican arms in rapid succession. Tht 
 (\mericans conquered New Mexico and Upper or New California; while General 
 Taylor, with 5000 Americans, defeated 22,000 Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in the 
 amous battle of Buena Vista, on the 23d of February, 1847. General Scott, with 
 an American army of 10,000 men, captured Vera Cruz, March 18; defeated 30,000 
 Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in the battles of Cerro Gordo, April 25; San Anto- 
 nio, Contreras, and Churubusco, August 20; Molino del Rey, September 8; and 
 Chapultepec, September 13; and, on the 14th of September (1847), he entered the 
 Mexican capital in triumph, and Santa Anna fled from the countiy. On the 2d of 
 February, 1848, a treaty of peace was concluded at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, by which 
 Mexico ceded New Mexico and Upper California to the United States. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS OF HERRERA, ARISTA, SANTA ANNA, 
 ALVAREZ, COMONFORT, AND ZULOAGA (1848-1860). 
 
 Administrations of Herrera and Arista — Overthrow of Arista — Santa 
 Anna, President. — In the autumn of 1848, General Herrera again became Presi- 
 dent of Mexico, and remained in office until January, 1851, when he was succeedea 
 by General Arista. In Januaiy, 1853, Mexico again became disturbed by a domestic 
 revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of President Arista's Administration by 
 .Santa Anna, who had just returned to Mexico. 
 
 Santa Anna, President — Revolution of 1854 and Overthrow of Santa 
 Anna by Alvarez. — After the overthrow of Arista, Santa Anna was again made 
 President of Mexico, but adversity had not curbed his ambition; and, soon after 
 his restoration to the Presidency, he was accused of a design to assume imperial 
 power, and the consequence was another revolution in his unhappy country. The 
 leader of this revolution was General Alvarez, "The Panther of the Pacific." After 
 : short civil war, Santa Anna was hurled from power, and his public career was 
 ended forever. 
 
 Administrations of Alvarez and Comonfort — New Constitution — CiviS 
 War of 1858. — After the overthrow of Santa Anna in 1855, General Alvarez, his 
 antagonist, was invested with the office of President, but Alvarez was soon succeeded 
 by General Comonfort. On the i ith of March, 1857, a new constitution was proniul 
 gated by the Mexican Congress; but President Comonfort, supported by the army, 
 ■violently opposed this constitution, because it greatly restricted the Presidential 
 power; and, in January, 1858, Mexico again became a prey to the honors of revu 
 lu'.ion and civil war. 
 
 Resignation of Comonfort — General Zuloaga, President — Defeat of 
 Juarez. — In 1S5S, President Comonfort resigned, whereupon General Zuioaga 
 
448 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 made himst,.. President, in utter disregard of tlie constitutional rights of Benito 
 Juarez, who, us President of the Supreme Court of Justice, was the legitimate suc- 
 cessor of Comonfort. Civil war continued to distract the unhappy country; and 
 Juarez being defeated, retired from the country, but he afterward returned^ and 
 asserted his constitutional rights to the Presidency of the Mexican Republic. 
 
 THE ADMINISTRATION OF BENITO JUAREZ (1860-1872), 
 
 THE FRENCH INVASION AND THE EMPEROR M AXIMI LI A M 
 
 (1861-1867). 
 
 The Civil War between the Liberals and the Conservatives — Benito 
 Juarez, President. — The civil war in Mexico, between the Liberals, headed by 
 Benito Juarez, and the Conservatives, headed by Comonfort, Miramon, Marquez, 
 Almonte, and others, continued throughout i860; but Juarez finally triumphed cvei 
 his enemies, and secured possession of the office of President, to which he had a 
 legitimate right, but the defeat of his unprincipled antagonists did not restore peace 
 to his distracted country. 
 
 Allied English, French, and Spanish Expedition to Mexico — Occupa- 
 tion of Vera Cruz. — -During the civil war between the Liberals and the Conser- 
 vatives, both parties seized on the property of foreigners in Mexico ; and the Mexican 
 Congress passed an act suspending for two years the payment of certain foreign 
 obligations of debt. In consequence of this action of the Mexican Congress, the 
 Governments of England, France, and Spain concluded, at London, a Triple Alli- 
 ance, with the view of forcing Mexico to fulfil her foreign obligations; and, in 
 December, 1 86 1, a combined EngHsh, French, and Spanish expedition arrived at 
 Vera Cruz. The allied troops occupied Vera Cruz without resistance, that city 
 having been previously evacuated by the Mexican forces. The troops of the expe- 
 dition suffered severely from the excessive heat of the climate; and negotiations 
 were soon opened for a peaceful settlement of difficulties, and the invading army, 
 with the concurrence of the Mexican authorities, occupied more salubrious and 
 healthful quarters in Cordova, Orizaba, and Tehuacan, with the understanding thai 
 if hostilities should be renewed the allied expeditionary troops should first retire to 
 the positions which they had occupied before the commencement of negotiations. 
 
 Withdrawal of the English and Spanish Troops from Mexico. — At a 
 meeting of the representatives of the three allied natioAs in Mexico, just previous 
 to the opening of the peace negotiatons, the French Minister to Mexico presented 
 the enormous Jecker claim. This surprised the English Minister and General Prim, 
 the Spanish commander ; and the presentation of this claim, with other disclosures 
 made to them, leading to the belief that the Emperor Napoleon IIL intended to 
 interfere in the domestic affairs of the Mexican nation, caused the British ambassadf.r 
 ard the Spanish commander, on the 9th of April, 1862, to declare the Convention 
 of London transgressed, and to withdraw the English and Spanish troops fn it- 
 Mexico; from which time the invasion and military occupation of Mexico was c.-n 
 tiiiued by the French alone. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Puebla by the French. — After the withdrawal of the 
 English and Spanish troops, hostilities were renewed by the French and the ]\Iexi- 
 cans: but the French did not return to their original positions, as agreed upon 
 
NINETEExWTH CENTURY. 44^ 
 
 wilh the Mexican auihorities, but retained possession of Orizaba. On the 24th of 
 February, 1863, the French marched from Orizaba to Puebia, to which they laid 
 tiege on the iSth of March. Finally, on ihe iSlh of May, 1863, after a vigorous 
 eiege and a heroic defense of two months, during which the garrison repulsed many 
 of .he assaults of the besiegers, Puebia and its garrison of 17,000 men, under General 
 Ottega, were surrendered to the French. 
 
 Occupation of the City of Mexico by the French — Action of Genera! 
 P orey's Junta. — On the loih of June, 1863, the French, under General Forey, 
 inlcred the city of Mexico, after it had been evacuatetl by the Republican forces undei 
 President Juarez, who retired to .San Luis Potosi, afterwards to Monterey, and still 
 laler to Chihuahua. Soon after the cujiiure of the Mexican capital by the French, 
 General Forey established a junta of tiiirty-five Mexicans, which junta selected an 
 "Assembly of Notables," which assembly, by a vote of 231 to 19, declared that the 
 future government of Mexico should be a limited hereditary monarchy, with a 
 Roman Catholic prince for sovereign, to bear the title of Emperor, and the crown 
 to be offered first to the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, of the imperial House of 
 Hapsl)urgh. 
 
 The Archduke Maximilian of Austria Proclaimed Emperor of Mexico. — 
 The French were now firmly established in the heart of Mexico, but the Juarists were 
 still dominant in the Southern and Western portions of the country; and the contest 
 between the J uarisls and the Imperialists contniued with various success until the early 
 part of 1S64, when the Archduke Maximilian of Austria arrived in the Mexican capi- 
 tal, and was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico. Maximilian had been placed on the 
 Mexican throne through the instrumentality of the Emperor Napoleon III. of 
 France, and his throne was upheld by the French expeditionary troops and their 
 Austrian auxiliaries, and by the Mexican Im]5erialists; but the Juarists, or Mexican 
 Republicans, kept the field in defense of their free institutions, and waged a san- 
 guinary guerrilla warfare again.st their foreign and domestic foes, having with them 
 the sympathy of the friends of republican government everywhere. The war was 
 carried on with great barbarity by both parties, the shooting of prisoners being of 
 frequent occurrence. 
 
 Capture of Matamoras by the French and Surrender of Cortina's Army. 
 — The year 1864 was an eventful one in the history of Mexico. The French cap- 
 tured the city of Matamoras ; and the whole Mexican army under General Cortina 
 were forced to surrender themselves prisoners of war. This misfortune to the Lib- 
 eral cause, together with disasters to the arms of the Juarists in other quarters, 
 seemed to leave the cause of the Mexican Republic hopeless; and Maximilian's 
 Fmpire appeared to be on a fair way to become secure. 
 
 Decline of the Imperial Cause — Evacuation of Chihuahua ty the 
 Imperialists. — With the downfall of the Great Rebellion \\\ the United States, 
 the vitality of Maximilian's Empire decayed; and President Juarez, who had been 
 in the meantime driven into the extreme north-western limits of Mexico, gatlieied 
 new strength, and by the autumn of 1865, he had recovered a large amount of 
 territory from the Mexican Imperialists, and their French and Austrian allies. In 
 November, 1S65, the Imperialists evacuated Chihuahua, which was soon taken 
 possession of by the Juarists 
 29 
 
45 o 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Position of the United States Government — Withdrawal of the French 
 Forces. — The progress of events in Mexico was watclied with interest by tlie 
 Government and people of the United Stales, as the conduct of the Emperor of the 
 French, in attempting tlie estal)lishmenl of a Latin Empire on the American conti- 
 nent, was in defiance of "The Monroe Doctrine," proclaimed by the President of 
 he United Slates at the lime of the emancipation of Sjxinish America from tlie 
 yoke of Spain. But the United Stales t}uvernment, engaged in a gigantic struggle 
 igainst loniestic foes for its own preservation, was not in a position to oppose tl.i 
 in[)rincipled scheme? of llie French Emperor from the beginning; but after ha\ ii ^ 
 .rtished the Great Rebellion against its own authority, the United States Govei n 
 ment resolved upon the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine, and demanded of the 
 Emj)eror Napoleon III. the withdrawal of the FVench expeditionary forces from 
 Mexican territory. After some negotiation, Napoleon III. agreed to abandon the 
 cause of his dupe, Maximilian, and the F'rench troops, about 26,000 in number, 
 were gradually withtlrawn from Mexican soil. Early in 1S67, Marshal B.azaine, 
 with the last French contingent, evacuated Mexico, thus leaving Maximilian an(i 
 the Mexican Imperialists alone to contend against the Juarists. 
 
 Capture of Queretaro by the Juarists. — Capture and Execution oi 
 Maximilian. — After the departure of the I'Vench forces from Mexico, Maximilian's 
 Empire rapidly tottered to its fall. Vera Cruz, Puebla, and the capital were be- 
 sieged by the Liberals; and the Imperialists were gradually hemmed in at Quere- 
 taro, which city the Republican forces entered on the 15th of May, 1867, making 
 prisoners of Maximilian, his staff, and the small remnant of his army. On the 19th 
 of June, 1867, Maximilian was shot at Queretaro by the triumphant Juarists. The 
 two Mexican Imperial generals, Miramon and Mejia, were also shot. On the 1510 
 of July (1867), President Juarez returned to the capital, amid popular rejoicing., 
 and issued a memorable and eloquent address to his countrymen. 
 
 Re-election of Juarez — Revolutionary Movements. — -On the 6th of Octo- 
 ber, 1867, Benito Juarez was reelected President of Mexico, over the opposinj^ 
 candi<late. General Porfirio Diaz; and in December of the same year, the Mexican 
 Congress was again assembled for the first time in three years. After Mexico's 
 triumph over her enemies, the nation r.iijidly recuperated under the wise adminis- 
 tratitJU of Juarez, but this prosperity of the Rejiublic was continually disturbed by 
 revolutionary movements of more or less importance. A strong combination was 
 formed against Juarez in M.ay, 1868, when Rivero pronounced against the President, 
 but the revolutionists frittered away their strength, and the movement failed. 
 
 Re-election of Juarez — Rebellion of 1871-72.- — In the spring of 1S71, another 
 Presidential election took place in Mexico. There were three rival candidates in 
 the field, — namely. President Benito Juarez, General Porfirio Diaz, and Lerdo de 
 Tejada. Bribery, corruption, and all sorts of frauds, were resorted to by each paity, 
 to secure the election of its favorite candidate; but, as none of the three candidates 
 had received a majority of votes, the duty of choosing the President devolved upon 
 tiie National Congress, which reelected President Juarez, who was installed on the 
 1st of October, 1871. On that day, a sanguinary insurrection burst forth in the 
 capital ; but the revolt was quelled by General Rocha, who attacked and captured 
 the citadel, after a severe conflict ; and aliout 250 insurgents were shot after their 
 surrender. The partisans of the unsuccessful candidates throughout the countT 
 
NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^ci 
 
 arose 'n arms, and involved the Republic in the horrors of another civil war. Mili 
 tary chiefs in various States pronounced against Juarez, and took the field at the 
 head of revolutionary bands; and many of the Mexican States pronounced in favor 
 of the revolution. The National Congress gi-anted dictatorial powers to Juarez, to 
 enable him to quell the rebellion. In December, 187 1, the city of Oaxaca was 
 taken by the Government forces under General Rocha, after a stubborn resistance 
 on the part uf the insurgents. The city of Zacatecas was reduced by '.he rebcli 
 un ler General Guerra, on the 13th of January, 1872. A battle was fought at Sir 
 Luis Totosi, and Matamoras was captured by the revolutionists. The revoluti(>nai) 
 general Trevino defeated the Juarist general Cevalles at Monterey. 
 
 Death of President Juarez — Lerdo de Tejada, President — End of the 
 Rebellion. — On the iSth of June, 1872, President Juarez died of apoplexy; and 
 Lerdo de Tejada, as President of the Supreme Court of Justice, became President 
 of the Mexican Republic. From the time of the death of Juarez, the rebellion de- 
 clined; the revolutionary chiefs gradually laid down their arms; and in a few 
 months, the whole country was quiet, and Mexico was once more relieved from 
 anarchy and restored to peace. In the autumn of 1872, Lerdo de Tejada was 
 almost unanimously elected President; and December i6th, he entered upon hia 
 r'gular term. 
 
]OAT OF ARMS OF EACH STATE 
 
 ERICAN mNION. 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 Florida. 
 
 ' Georgia. 
 
Kansas. 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Maine. 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 Missouri. 
 
Minnesota. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 New York. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Oregon. 
 
Rhode Island. 
 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 'iiJ'U 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
THE 
 
 fllSTORY 
 
 FmsT One Hundred Years 
 
 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, 
 
 INCI.UniNG AN ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT 
 
 CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (A. D. 1775- 
 
 1789). 
 
 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Growth of Democratic Ideas in the Anglo-American Colonies. — DciiiO 
 
 ».railc ideas had a slow and steady, but solid growth, in England's North American 
 r.oIi)nies, from the time of the establishment of those colonies. Those who left tlieii 
 I'.onies in Europe to settle in the New World, were animated with a desire for the 
 enjoyment of pure civil, political, and religious freedom. The republican spirit of 
 cf tlie English American colonists was manifested in popular resistance to obnoxious 
 acts of ih" British Parliament, and to the tyranny of the royal governors sent from 
 England to America to administer the government of the colonies. The claim of 
 the English Parliament to legislate for the colonies was boldly denied by the colo- 
 nists, who finally rebelled against the mother country, and, after a war of seven 
 years, achieved their political independence, and established a democratic repuljlic, 
 under the name of " The United .States of America." 
 
 Wants of the British Treasury. — The long wars against France oppressed 
 England with an enormous debt and exhausted the British treasury, and the Impe- 
 rial (jovernment resolved to procure m-jney from the North American colonies l:)y 
 eithicr (hrect or indirect taxatinn. Tiie coto r'sts denied the right of the Imperial 
 Parliament to tax them, as they were not allow* I any representation in that body, 
 and maintained that "Taxation without rejjresentation is tyranny." 
 
 Writs of Assistance — Opposition of the Colonists — ^James Otis. — Tlie 
 British Government first attempted to exercise the asserted right to tax the colonies 
 Ijy issuing search-warrants to persons appointed by the king to enforce the revenue 
 laws. These warrants, called " Writs of Assistance," authorized the Government 
 officials in the colonies to search forsuspectfd goods which had been itnported into 
 the colonies, and on which the duty had noC been paid. The colonists firmly resisted 
 this encroachment on their liberties. The legality of the writs was boldly denied 
 by the Americans; and in February, 1761, the matter was brought before the Gen- 
 i;ral Court in Boston, where James Otis, then Advocate-General of the colonies, and 
 an able lawyer, aj^peared on the side of the American people, and denied the right 
 of the Imperial Parliament to tax the colonies without their consent. 
 
 Passage of the Stamp Act — Opposition to It in the Colonies — Patrick 
 Henry. — In February, 1765, George Grenville, who was then at the liead of ibe 
 British Ministry, introduced into Parliament a bill requiring the Anglo-American 
 colonists to purchase for specified sums, and place on all written documents, stanips 
 furnished by the British Imperial Government. This was a measure which no 
 former British Ministry had the courage to attempt. The passage of this bill, known 
 as "The Stamp Act," in 1765, ])roduced universal indignation in America. Mosi 
 »f the colonial legislatures passed resolutions denouncing the measure, and Jnnie." 
 fUi5 in Massachusetts and Patrick Henry in Virginia thundered forth eJoqucnl 
 Jenunciations of the act. 
 
 Boldr^ess of Patrick Henry in the Virginia Assembly — " Sons of 
 Liberty." — While speaking in the Virginia .'Vssembiy, at Richmond, of the fate of 
 
 455 
 
456 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 tyrants of fjrmer jierinds, Patrick I Icnry exclaimed, "Qesar had his Brutus, Charles 
 I. his Cromwell, and George 111." — Here the speaker was interrupted by cries of 
 "Treason! treason!" from some of the members, and Mr. Henry, after pausing 
 a moment, said, "May profit Ijy their example. If that be treason, make the moi.t 
 of it." A part of some bold resolutions which Henry had introduced, were adopted ; 
 and the colonists were aroused to a firm stand to defend their rights; and the deter^ 
 luinarior. was made to resist the execution cf the odious Stamp Act. Associatior.s, 
 :«lled " .Sons of Liberty," were formed, and the stnnn.is were seized on their arrival 
 11 the colonies, and secreted or burned. The officers, called " Stamp Distribut.ii-s," 
 who had been appointed to sell the stamps, were so much despised and insulted that 
 they soon relinquished their business; and on the day appointed for the Stamp Act 
 to go into effect, there was not an officer who had the courage to attempt the 
 enforcement of the law. 
 
 Stamp Act Congress — Indignation of the American People. — A conven- 
 tion of delegates, known as "The Stamp Act Congress," assembled in New York 
 City, on the 7th of October, 1765. This convention, or congress, which was in 
 session fourteen days, drew up a " declaration of Rights," which denied the right 
 of Parliament to tax the colonies, and adopted a petition to the king, and mem- 
 orials to Parliament. On the ist of November, 1765, the appointed day for the 
 Stamp Act to go into effect, universal silence prevailed in English America: all 
 business was suspended; the courts were closed; the bells were muffled and tolled; 
 and the vessels in the harbors displayed their flags at half-mast. Suddenly the 
 Anglo-Americans manifested their indignation in an open disregard of the law. 
 The houses of British officials in American cities were assailed by mobs, and loy- 
 alists were burned in effigy. The colonists agreed to import no more goods from 
 the mother country, until the obnoxious law should be repealed. 
 
 Repeal of the Stamp Act — The Declaratory Act. — The detennination of 
 American merchants not to import British goods into America, alarmed the British 
 merchants so much, that tliey united with the colonists in petitioning Parliament 
 to repeal the Stamp Act. The British Ministiy found that it must either compel 
 the colonists to submission, or have the odious act repealed. After long and angry 
 debates in Parliament, the act was repealed, on the 6th of March, 1766. The 
 repeal was hailed with manifestations of joy, in both England and America. The 
 colonists testified their gratitude to William Pitt and Edmund Burke, the great 
 friends and champions of the Americans in Parliament. The fires of discord 
 were soon kindled anew. For the purpose of securing the repeal of the Stamp 
 Act, Pitt had accompanied the repeal with a " Declaratory Act," which asserted 
 that the Parliament had "the right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." 
 
 New Measures of Oppression. — Under the sanction of the Declaratory Ad, 
 the British Parliament passed new acts, as obnoxious in principle to the Anglo- 
 Americans as the Stamp Act had been. To intimidate the colonists, British troops 
 were sent tc America, in Jime, 1766, and the Parliament passed a "Mutiny ."Vet," 
 requiring the colonists to furnish food and shelter to these royal troops. In Jure, 
 1767, a tax was imposed on several articles imported into the colonies. In _] .ily oi 
 the same year, an act was passed, creating a board of trade and commissioners of 
 customs in the colonies, independent of the colonial assemMie?- ind another act 
 was passed which suspended the legislative jjower of the assembly of New York, 
 
PATRICK HENRY. 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON 
 
UNITED STATES. 45 y 
 
 Because thn( body had refused to supply the royal troops in that colony with food 
 or quarters. These tyrannical measures highly exasperated the Americans. 
 
 Non-Importation Leagues — Boldness of the Massachusetts Assem- 
 bly. — New non-importation leagues were now formed in the colonies; and pamphlets 
 and newspapers instigated the American people to oppose the oppressive measures 
 of the British Ministry and Parliament. In February, 1768, the Massachusetts 
 Assembly issued a " Circular Letter" to the assemblies of the other Anglu-Ameri- 
 Sin colonies, soliciting their cooperation in endeavors to procure a redress of griev- 
 Alices; and before the close of the year, almost every colonial assembly had assc. to-.i 
 that the Imperial Parliament had no right to legislate for the coloijies. The Brii isL 
 Ministry, highly exasperated at this boldness, ordered the Massachusetts assembly, 
 in the name of the king, to rescind the Circular Letter; but the Assembly, by an 
 almost unanimous vote, refused to rescind. 
 
 Commissioners of Customs — A Mob. — The new commissioners of customs, 
 who arrived in Boston, in May, 176S, were detested by the colonists. In June, 
 1768, the commissioners seized a sloop belonging to John Hancock, because that 
 individual had refused to pay the duty on the cargo on the arrival of the vessel 
 When the seizure had become known, the commissioners were assailed by a mob and 
 compelled to flee for refuge to Castle William (now Fort Independence), in Boston 
 harbor. 
 
 Royal Troops in Boston. — At the call of Bernard, the royal governor of 
 Massachusetts, 700 royal troops, under General Thomas Gage, were brought to 
 Boston, for the purpose of frightening the people into submission. On a quiet Sun- 
 day, in September, 1768, these troops entered the city, with charged muskets and 
 fixed bayonets, with drums beating and flags flying, and with all the insolence of a 
 conquering army taking possession ofa captured city. As the indignant Bostonians 
 refused to furnish the troops who had been sent among them as instruments of 
 slavery, with [irovisions or quarters, Governor Bernard caused some of them to be 
 quartered in the State House, some in Faneuil Hall, and others in tents on the city 
 common. Early in 1769, the British Parliament revived an old law of the time of 
 Henry VIII., which required the governor of Massachusetts to send the leaders of 
 the late disturbances in Boston to England, for trial on a charge of treason. 
 
 Riot in Boston— "The Boston Massacre." — The exasperated people of 
 Boston could with difilkulty be restrained from committing acts of violence. The 
 soldiers and citizens quarreled almost daily; and on the 2d of March, 1770, sev- 
 eral citizens were beaten by some of the troops. This created great excitement 
 among the inhabitants, and on the evening of the 5th (March, 1770), several hundred 
 collected in the streets, for the avowed purpose of driving the troops from the city, 
 A fight ensuetl, in which three of the citizens were killed, and two badly wounded. 
 The mob retired before the troops. The city bells rang an alarum, and veiy soon 
 several thousand of the citizens assembled under arms. Governor Hutchinson 
 made hi? appearance, and appeased the excited people by promising that justice 
 ;h M "d I'e rendered in the morning. At the demand of the Bostonians, the soldiers 
 were removed from the city; and Captain Preston and eight of the troops, who haa 
 fired on the mob, were tried for murder. The captain and six of the troops were 
 acquitted. The other two were" found guilty of manslaughter. Those Bostonians 
 who were killed in the riot were considered martyrs to liberty; and "The Boston 
 
458 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Massacre," as the affray was called, was for many years kept alive by anniversa^ 
 orations in Boston and its vicinity. 
 
 The English East-India Company and the Duty on Tea.- -The disturb- 
 ances ill America, and the comj)lainls of the British merchants, whose interests were 
 iiiji;rec' by the operation of the American non-importation leagues, induced !fe 
 British Ministry to propose, on the very day of the Boston Massacre, the repeal of 
 111 the 'jbnoxious tax laws, except the duty on tea. The tax on tea was reinined 
 foi the double purpose of aiding the English East-India Company, and maintainins 
 die right of the Imperial Parliament to tax the colonies. Lord North, wlio w.u; 
 then I'rime-Minister of Great Britain, not comprehending the fact that the colonists 
 were contending for a great principle, and that they considered the imposition, by 
 the British Parliament, of a tax on a single article as a stroke at their liberties just 
 as much as if a hundred articles were taxed, believed that they would not complain 
 of a small duty on one article of luxury. The Anglo-Americans therefore continued 
 their non-importation leagues against the purchase and use of tea. 
 
 The Regulators of North Carolina — Destruction of the Gasp'e.--In 
 177!, the exactions of British Government officials produced rebellion in the inte- 
 rior of North Carolina. The insurgents, whose object was to redress the grievances 
 of the people, called themselves "Regulators." In a bloody skirmish on the Ala 
 mance Creek, on the 1 6th of May, 177 1, the Regulators were conquered by Gov- 
 ernor Tryon, and six of their number were hanged for treason ; but the spirit of 
 opposition among the people was not crushed, and was frequently manifested in 
 popular outbreaks. On the 9th of June, 1772, a parly of sixty four armed men 
 froii Providence, Rhode Island, burned the British schooner " Gaspe," which had 
 run aground while cruising in Narraganset bay for the purj)ose of enforcing the 
 revenue laws. 
 
 Tea-ships Sent to America — Destruction of Tea in Boston Harboi . — 
 As the Americans refused to use or purchase tea so long as a duty remained on 
 that article, Lord North, who was still unwilling to reliiic|uish the right of I'ar- 
 liament to tax the colonies, agreed to permit the East-India Company to send (,ver 
 their tea on terms tliat would make it cheaper in America than in England. I'his 
 attempt to bribe the colonists into submission by means of cheap tea only aroused 
 their indiiTnation so much the more, and they relused to receive a cargo of tea. 
 Governor Hutchinson of Massachusetts, in defiance of the popular will, ordered the 
 landino- of several cargoes which arrived at Boston in December, 1773. The [leo- 
 ple of Boston held meetings in Fanueil Hall, and resolved that no tea should l)e 
 landed; and on the night of the l6ih of December, 1773, a party of about sixty 
 men, disguised as Indians, went on board of the tea-ships, and broke open thiee 
 hundred and forty-two chests of tea, and emptied their contents into the waters of 
 tie harbor. 
 
 The Boston Port Bill and other Retaliatory Measures. — So highly cx.is 
 4X-ra cd at the destruction of tea in Boston harbor was the British Ministry ilm! 
 U'-y resolved upon retaliatory measures. On the 7th of March, 1774, Parlia 
 mcnt passed an act called the Boston Port Bill, which ordered the port of Boston 
 to be closed against all connnerce, and removed the seat of the colonial govcrninent 
 of M.issachusetts to >alein. Another act was passed on the 28lh (March, 1774], 
 
DANIEL WEBSTER. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 459 
 
 which v^irtually subverted the colonial charter of Massachusetts. This was followed 
 by another act on the 2ist of April, providing for the trial in England of any person 
 ch.irged with murder in the colonies in support of the Imperial Government. A 
 fourth act authorized the quartering of royal troops in the colonies; and a fifth 
 conceded great privileges to the Roman Catholics in the newly-acquired pro\ ince 
 ti Canada. These tyrannical measures aroused the most intense indignation in 
 Snierica, which was increased when General Thomas Gage, who had ju t jccn 
 ppoinled Governor of Massachusetts, went to Boston with troops, to enfirce il.s 
 jbnjxious acts of Parliament. Under his direction, the port of Boston was cliiiCil 
 jn the 1st of June, 1774. 
 
 Committees of Correspondence — Whigs and Tories. — Committees of Cor- 
 respondence had been formed in some of the colonies in 1773. These connnit- 
 tees were diligent in their work of uniting the colonies by an interchange of views 
 and intelligence. The Anglo-American colonists were now divided into two pai- 
 ties. The few who sustained the British Government were called "Tories;" and 
 the great body of the American people, who opposed the despotic measures of the 
 Government, were called " Whigs." 
 
 The First Continental Congress. — Soon after the closing of the port of Bos- 
 ton, the Assembly of Massachusetts met at Salem, and issued an invitation to the 
 other Anglo-American colonies to elect delegates, who should meet in a Continental 
 Congress in Philadelphia, in September following. This invitation was accepted; 
 and the First Continental Congres-s convened in Caqienter's Hall, in Philadelphia, 
 on the 5th of Septemljer, 1774. All the colonies, with the exception of Georgia, 
 were represented. The Congress chose for its president, Peyton Randolph, of 
 Virginia, and for its secretary, Charles Thomson, of Pennsylvania. The Congress 
 approved the conduct of Massachusetts, in her opposition to the oppressive meas- 
 ures of the British Ministry and Parliament; agreed upon a "Declaration of 
 Rights ;" recommended non-intercourse with Great Britain so long as the ob- 
 noxious laws of Parliament remained unrepealed; and voted a petition to the 
 king, and an address to the people of Great Britain and Canada; after which they 
 adjourned, to meet on the ensuing loth of May (1775), unless the British Govern- 
 ment should, in the meantime, redress the grievances complained of by the colo- 
 nists. 
 
 Spirit of the New England People. — During the summer of 1774, the 
 people of English America, and particularly those of Massachusetts, were earnestly 
 preparing for the inevitable struggle with the mother country. They engaged 
 daily in military exercises, chose leaders, and held themselves ready to fly to arms 
 at a moment's warning. On this account, they were called " Minute-men." Mar- 
 tial exercises continued throughout the ensuing autumn and winter; and public 
 speakers evei-ywhere encouraged the colonists to resist the tyrannical measures ol 
 'he British Parliament. General Gage, Governor of Massachusetts, and Biitisl. 
 commander in-cliief in America, becoming alarmed, fortified Boston K^eck, antl 
 .eiici great quantities of ammunition, found in the New England colonies ^\ 
 false rumor, which spread over New England in September (1774), that Biitish 
 war-jhips were cannonading Boston, produced such excitement that within two 
 days 30,(X>o amied men were on their way to that city. In Octolier, the Assembly 
 
46o CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 of Massachusetts convened at Cambrirlge, and resolved itself into a Provincial Con- 
 gress, with John Hancock as president, and made provisions for raising an army. 
 
 New Oppressive Measures of Parliament.— As the British Parliament, 
 early in I775> rejected a conciliatory measure, proposed by Mr, Pitt, and passed an 
 act prohibiting the colonists from fishing on the banks of Newfoundland, thus strik- 
 ing D '-evere lilow at the jirosjierity of New England, the colonists saw that they 
 rcusl: either defend their rights and liberties by force of arms, or slavishly submit to 
 ii.a oppressive acts of Parliament. They chose the former alternative; and, rely- 
 Log upon the justice of their cause and the aid of an All-Ruling Providence, they 
 re5o\ed to bid defiance to the military and naval power of Great Britain. 
 
 THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 
 (A. D. 1775-1783). 
 
 KVENTS OF 177S. 
 
 British Troops in Boston — Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord — Its 
 Effects. — On the i^t of April, 1775, there were 3,000 British troops in Boston; 
 and on the night of the i8th. General Gage sent 800 troops, under Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy the stores of ammunition which the 
 colonists had gathered at Concord, about sixteen miles north-west from Boston. 
 Although this movement was made secretly, the people were aroused by the vigil- 
 ant Dr. Joseph Warren and Paul Revere, who had obtained a knowledge of the 
 designs of Gage; and when, on the morning of the 19th (April, 1775), Pitcairn 
 approached the village of Lexington, six miles from Concord, he found eighty 
 armed Minute-men ready to oppose him. Pitcairn, riding forward, exclaimed, 
 " Disperse you rebels! lay down your arms and disperse!" and when they refused 
 obedience, his troops, according to his orders, fired upon the patriots, killing eight 
 of them. This was the first bloodshed in the great American Revolution. Aftei 
 the short skirmish at I>exington, the British immediately proceeded to Concord, 
 killed several more Minute-men in a skirmish there, and destroyed the stores of 
 ammunition. The king's troo])s then hastily retreated to Boston, fired upon along 
 the whole route of their retreat by the people, from behind trees, stone-fences, and 
 buildings; and liy the time they reached Boston, in the afternoon of the same day 
 (April 19, 1775), they had lost in killed and wounded 273 men, while the American 
 loss was only 103 men. The intelligence of the bloodshed .at Lexington and Con- 
 cord produced the greatest excitement throughout the Anglo-American colonies, 
 and everywhere aroused the colonists to action. Before the close of April, a patriot 
 army of 20,000 men was surrounding the British troops in Boston; and before the 
 close of summer, the power of every royal governor, from Massachusetts to Geor- 
 gia, was at an end. 
 
 Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point — Committee of Safety. ^On 
 che loth of May, 1775, some New Ilamjishire Militia, under Colonel Ethan Alh.'n, 
 leizcd Fort Ticonderoga. Two days later (May 12, 1775), Colonel Benedict Arm^ld. 
 with Connecticut militia, took possession of Crown Point. With the capture of 
 these two fortresses, the Americans obtained forty pieces of artillery, and seemed 
 the conmiand of Lake Champiain, thus opening the way for an invasion of Canada. 
 A Committee of Safety, appointed liy the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, 
 
UNITED STATES. 461 
 
 hcid its sittings in Cambridge, regulated military operations, and appomtcd Genera] 
 Artenias Ward commander-in-chief of the provincial forces, and Richard Gridlej 
 chief engini'^er. 
 
 Biitish Reinforcements. — On the 25ih of May, 1775, large reinforcements 
 /or General Gage arrived from England, under the command of Generals William 
 Howe, Hoiry Clinton, and John Burgoyne. The British army in Boston, thus in- 
 :reajed to 1 2,000 men, prepared to drive the rebellious provincials from the vicit ity 
 "f the city. Gage issued a ]irocIamation, declaring all Americans in arms to l>c 
 ■ebels and traitors, and offering an amnesty to all who wcjuld submit to Britiii- 
 .iiuj irity, except Samuel Adams and John Hancock, whom he intended to seize 
 and send to England to be hangetl. 
 
 Fortification of Breed's Hill— Battle of Bunker's Hill.— On the night 
 of the i6lh of June, 1775, General Artemas Ward sent 1,000 provincial troops, 
 under Colonel William Prescott, to take possession of, and fortify Bunker's Hill, in 
 Charlestown. By mistake, in the darkness of the night, Prescott and his troops as- 
 cended Breed's Hill, on which they erected a strong redoubt before morning. 
 VVhen the astonished British commanders saw this redoubt, on the morning of the 
 17th (June, 1775), they opened upon it, from Copp's Hill, in Boston, and from 
 the ships-of-war in the harbor, a fierce cannonade, which continued until noon 
 with little effect. The Americans had received a reinforcement of 500 troops 
 during the forenoon, thus increasing their force in the redoubt to 1,500 men. About 
 noon, 3,000 British troops, under Generals Howe and Pigot, crossed the Charles 
 river from Boston, and marched up the hill to attack the redoubt, firing cannon 
 as they ascended. When the British column had ajiproached within ten rods of 
 the redoubt, Colonel Prescott gave the order to fire, which his troops executed with 
 such terrible effect, that the advancing enemy were driven back with heavy loss. 
 The British again advanced and assailed the redoubt, but met with a second disas- 
 trous repulse. They ascended the hill a third time, and the battle raged fiercely, 
 until the Americans, having exhausted all their ammunition, were driven from the 
 redoubt, and compelled to retreat across Charlestown Neck. As the Americans re- 
 treated, one of their number, the heroic General Josejih Warren, was shot dead. 
 The British took possession of, and fortified Bunker's Hill, while the Americans 
 intrenched themselves on Prospect Hill. The Americans lost 450 men in killed, 
 wounded, and missing, while the British lost 1,054. During the battle, Charles- 
 town was set on fire by order of General Gage, and 500 houses were destroyed. 
 Although fought on Breed's Hill, this memorable engagement, which was the first 
 real battle of the War of the American Revolution, is known as " The Batde of 
 Bunker's Hill." 
 
 The Revolution in Virginia and North Carolina. — In the meantime, whde 
 '.he events just related were occurring in New England, the I\.evoUitioi; was pro- 
 gressing rapidly in the Southern colonies. In the Virginia Assembly, at Richmond, 
 Patrick Henry concluded a masterly speech with the words, "Give me Liberty 01 
 .^ive me Death !" When Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, scire I 1 
 iuantity of powder belonging to the colony, the patriot Hemy demanded and 
 oi)tained Jull indemnity, and Dunmore was forced to seek refuge on a British man- 
 of-war, in Norfolk harbor. In May, 1775, a convention of delegates, sitting at Char- 
 lotte, Mecklenburg county. North Carolina, declared their constituents absolved 
 
46 J CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 fioni all allegiance to the British crown. This is known as " The Mecl%lenburj^ 
 Declaration." 
 
 Second Continental Congress — Washington, Commander-in-Chief. — 
 
 In the meautime, while English America was in one blaze of excitement over the 
 the events at Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress assemhli d 
 111 Philadelphia, on the loth of May, 1775. Although expressing its desire for a 
 rcct)nciU".ion with the mother ccnmtiy, the Congress voted to raise an army of 20,0(X5 
 O.ih ; ctn 1 on the 15th of June, 1775, that body elected George \Vashingt(jn, ;: i(;Ie 
 gritc from Virginia, commander-in-chief of all the forces raised, or to be rais(.d, loi 
 the defense of American liberty. On the 3d of July (1775), Washington took com 
 mand of the American army at Cambridge. With this force, numbering 14,000 
 men, Washington began a siege of lioston, which was still occupied by the British 
 army under General William Howe. 
 
 Invasion of Canada — Capture of St. Johns, Chambly, and Montreal. 
 — During the summer of 1775, some New England and New York troops, under 
 General Philip Schuyler, went down Lake Champlain. Owing to illness, Schuyler 
 was ohliged to relin(|ui^h tiie command of his troops to General Richard Montgom- 
 ery, wlio, on the 3d of November, cajvau'ed .St. Johns, on the Sorel or Richelieu 
 river, after a siege of more than a month. While the siege of St. Johns was j)ro- 
 gressing. Colonel Ethan Allen, who, with eighty men, hail attacked Montreal on 
 the 25th of September, was made a prisoner and carried to England in irons. 
 Colonel Bedell, with some American troops, captured Chambly; and, on the 13th 
 of November, Montgomery took possession of Montreal. 
 
 Siege of Quebec — Defeat of the Americans. — At Point au Trembles, twenty 
 miles above Montreal, Montgomery was joined by 750 Americans under Colonel 
 Benedict .Arnold, who had left Caml)ridge, Massachusetts, in .September, 1 775, and 
 marched along the Kennebec and Chaudiere rivers to the St. Lawrence, suffering 
 almost incredible hardships on the way. On the 5th of December, the American 
 forces, under Montgomery and Arnold, laid siege to Quebec. For three weeks the 
 Americans had besieged Quebec, when, on the 31st of December (1775), they at- 
 tempted to take the city by assault. Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded, 
 and their troops were rejjulsed with great loss. In the month of June, 1776, "iie 
 American invailers were entirely driven out of Canada. 
 
 The War in Virginia — ^Defeat of Governor Dunmore. — Wliile the 
 Americans were suffering misfortunes in Canada, the Virginians were prosecuting 
 the Revolution with zeal and success. Governor Dunmore, at the head of a force 
 of Tories and negroes, ravaged .South-eastern Virginia, but was repulsed in an attack 
 upon llamjiton, on the 24lh of October (1775); and, after [proclaiming open war, 
 he wa.-> defeated by the Virginia militia, in a severe battle near the Dismal Swamp, 
 twelve miles from Norfolk. For the purpose of revenging himself upon the rebci 
 (ioui Virginians, Dunmore burned the city of Norfolk, on the 1st of janu.iry, 1776 
 but after connnilting other atrcjcities on the sea-board, he was fnially diivei: n.tsj 
 and went to England. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1776. 
 
 Siege and Evacuation of Boston. — /Vs the British Government, early in 
 1776, made extensive arringements to crush the rebellion against its authority in 
 
INDEPENDENT^ HALL 
 
miTH BB08., vmaa., fbila. 
 
 THE HOUSE IN WHICH THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE WAS WRITTEN. 
 
 
 <^'^'%^ 
 
 
 y(nfcm 
 
 
 
 STONATITBF.S TO THE DKOLAKATTON OF TNDFPFNDKNOE. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 463 
 
 Ni/rlh America, the Continental Congress urged General Washington to attack the 
 the British army under General Howe in Boston. On the evening of the 2d of 
 March, 1776, Washington, having 14,000 men under his command, opened a heavy 
 cannonade upon the British works around that city; and, on the night of the 4th, 
 a portion of Washington's army, under General John Thomas, intrenched ilseli 
 upon Dorchester Heights, now South Boston'. The siege continued until the I7tb, 
 wlien Howe and his troops were allowed to evacuate the city. The British army 
 jailed to Halifax, in Nova Scotia, with the families of 1,500' Tories, and Washing- 
 ton's army immediately took possession of the city, to the great joy of its delivered 
 inhauilants. 
 
 Lee and Washington in New York. — -During the winter, General Charles 
 Lee had been sent by Washington to take command of troops for the defense of 
 New York against any attack which might be made upon that city by Sir Henry 
 Clinton, who had left Boston in January, with a part of Howe's army. After the 
 evacuation of Boston, Washington proceeded to the Hudson, and fortified the 
 passes of the Highlands. 
 
 The War in South Carolina — British Repulse at Fort Moultrie. — In 
 the meantime, Sir Henry Clinton, with British land troops, in conjunction with a 
 fleet froui England under Sir Peter Parker, was on his way to attack Charleston, 
 South Carolina. The South Carolinians made ample preparations to defend their 
 chief city against any attack of the enemy. On Sullivan's Island, near the city, a 
 fort was built of palmetto logs, and garrisoned by 500 Americans under the gallant 
 Colonel William Moultrie; and before the British were prepared to attack the city. 
 General Charles Lee arrived in Charleston, and took the chief command of the 
 American troops there. The English fleet under Parker, and the land troops under 
 Clinton, ojiened a furious assault upon Fort Moultrie, on the 28th of June (1776). 
 After a stubborn conflict of ten hours, the British aiiny was repulsed with heavy 
 loss, and sailed away for New York, leaving the Southern colonies free from the 
 turmoil of war for more than two years. General Clinton joined Howe's army at 
 New York, on the 1st of August. 
 
 Declaration of Independence. — -A few days after the repulse of the enemy 
 at Charleston, the Continental Congress, sitting in the old State House, in Phila- 
 delphia, immortalized itself by a glorious act. The Congress had been for some 
 time discussing the question of proclaiming the independence of the Anglo-Amer- 
 ican colonies. All hopes for a reconciliation with the mother country had passed 
 away. The British Parliament had not repealed its oljnoxious acts. The British 
 Ministty had sent large armies to America to force the colonists to submit; anil 
 hired 17,000 Hessians from Germany to assist in crushing liberty in America. 
 These proceedings widened irreparaljly the i)reach between England and her Nortb 
 American colonies; and sentiments of independence tilled the hearts of the Anglo- 
 Americai.s. On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offcrfd 
 he following resolution of independence, in the Continental Congress: — " ResoUe I 
 riiat these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indepet .!oirf, 
 Slates; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that aU 
 political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to 
 be, totally dissolved." This resolution was wannly debated in the Congress, many 
 of the delegates opposing it as premature, and others as treasonable; and a com 
 
464 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 mlttee uf five, consisting of Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Aaams A Massa- 
 chusetts, Dr. Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, 
 and Robert R. Livingston of New York, were appointed to draft a declaration of 
 independence, in accordance with Lee's resolution. The declaration was written 
 by Jefferson, the chairman of the committee, and was reported on the 2d of July, 
 on which day Lee's resolution was passed; and on the 4th (July, 1776), the Con- 
 gress adopted the great Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed the Anglo- 
 American colonies free and indej^endent States, under the name of "The UiiteJ 
 States of America," and which also defined tlie rights of all mankind. Thi? aitirr 
 of the Congress was approved everywhere throughout English America; and the 
 4lh of July, 1776, has ever since been remembered l)y the American people as iheit 
 counti-y's birth-day, and the annual recurrence ^A the day has been always celebiated 
 wit'n every demonstration of public enthusiasm. 
 
 British Forces near New York — Peace Propositions. — A few days before 
 the Declaration of Lidependence, General Howe appeared on Staten Island, with 
 a powerful British force. There, on the 12th of July, he vi-as joined by his brother, 
 Admiral Lord Howe, with a large tieet from England ; and, on the 1st of August, by 
 .Sir Henry Clinton and his land forces from Cliarleston. In August, 30,000 British 
 troops stood opposed to the American army of 17,000 men. Admiral and General 
 Howe were jointly commissioned to treat for peace ; but only on the condition that 
 the Americans should lay down their arms and submit to the authority of the British 
 Government ; and, as the Americans refused to agree to such a peace, the British 
 ofilcers prepared to crush the rebellious colonists at one blow. 
 
 Battle of Long Island — Escape of the Americans. — On the 22d of August, 
 1776, a British force of 10,000 men landed on Long Island, near Brooklyn; and 
 on the 27th (August, 1776), a bloody battle was fought between the British com- 
 manded by Generals Grant, Cornwallis, Clinton, and De Heister, and several 
 thousand Americans under the chief command of General Israel Putnam. The 
 Americans were disastrously defeated, with the loss of 1,600 men in killed, wounded, 
 and prisoners. Among the Americans who were made prisoners were General .Sul- 
 livan and Lord Stirling. Several days after the battle. General Putnam was joined 
 bv Washington, with the main body of the American army, from New York City; 
 i)ut on the 30th (August, 1776), the whole American army recrossed from Brooklyn 
 to New York. 
 
 Washington's Retreat up the Hudson — Skirmish on Harlem Plains. 
 — On the 15111 of September (1776), Washington's army evacuated New York City, 
 and retreated up the Hudson, for the purjwse of seizing and fortifying Harlem 
 Heights, twenty-two miles above the city. The British pursued, and on the same 
 day a .severe skirmish occurred on Harlem Plains, in which the Americans were 
 victor'ous, but at the cost of the lives of Colonel Knowllon, of Connecticut, and 
 ^l ijoT Leitch, of Virginia. 
 
 Battle of White Plains — Capture of Fort Washington. — On the aStli 
 '-< October (1/76), Howe defeated Washington in the battle of White Plains; ;iftei 
 ,\1iich Washington retreated further northward; and, on the 4th of Novenilicr, he 
 cro-ised the Hudson river into New Jersey, for the purpose of saving Phik^delphia, 
 where the Congress was sitting. On the l6th of Novenil)er (1776), Fort'Washing- 
 ton was captured bv the Hessian general Knyphausen, after a furious assault, in 
 
UNITED STATES. 465 
 
 wliich he lost 1,000 men. The 2,000 American troops under Colonel Magaw, who 
 tiid gairisoned the lort, became prisoners to the victorious Hessians. 
 
 Flight of Washington's Army across New Jersey. — Two days aftei the 
 fill of P'ort Washington (Noveml:)er 18, 1776), Lord Cornwallis, with 6,000 British 
 troops, crossed the Hudson into New Jersey, in pursuit of Washington's shattered 
 army. For three weeks, Washington, with only 3,000 men under his command, 
 retreated before the pursuing hosts of Cornwallis, until he reached the Delaware, 
 on the 8th of December, and crossed that stream into Pennsylvania. Howe orderc'f 
 Cornwallis to wait until the river was frozen over, and then cross on the ice. 
 
 Battle of Trenton — Its Effects. — Taking advantage of the delay of the ene- 
 my, and having increased his army to 5,000 men, Washington secretely recDAsed 
 the Delaware into New Jersey, on Christmas night, and on the following morning 
 (December 26, 1776), he attacked and captured 1,000 Hessians at Trenton. The 
 Hessian commander, Colonel Rahl, fell mortally wounded in the streets of the cily. 
 This sudden victory raised the spirits of the des[)onding patriots, and alarmed Gen- 
 eral Howe, who had supposed that the rebellion was at an end. Howe immediate!) 
 sent Cornwallis with a considerable force to capture Washington's army. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1777. 
 
 Battle of Princeton — Guerrilla Warfare. — On the evening of the 2d of Jan- 
 uary, 1777, Lord Cornwallis appeared at Trenton, with a strong British force, and 
 encamped close to Washington's army, which he expected to capture on the follow- 
 ing morning. Washington, however, escaped secretly during the night, and the ne.\t 
 morning (January 3, 1777), he defeated a British detachment, under Colonel Maw- 
 hood, at Princeton. Among the Americans who were killed was the heroic Genera) 
 Hugh Mercer. After the battle of Princeton, Washington marched to the hills of 
 North-eastern New Jersey, and established his camp at Morristown. He sent out 
 detachments, which, by a system of guerrilla warfare, so annoyed the British that 
 they soon left New Jersey. 
 
 British Depredations in Connecticut. — About the middle of April, 1777, 
 Governor Tryon, at the head of 2,000 British and Tories, invaded Connecticut, and 
 devastated the southern part of that State. The Connecticut militia, under Generals 
 Wooster, Silliman, and Arnold, attacked Tryon's force at Ridgefield, on the 27th 
 of April (1777). Wo(3ster was killed in the engagement, but the enemy were 
 compelled to retreat hastily to New York. 
 
 Foreign Officers in America. — During the year 1777, the young Marquis de 
 Lafayette, a wealthy P'rench nobleman, nineteen years of age; the Baron DeKall), 
 also a Frenchman ; and the two l)rave Poles, Count Pulaski and Tiiaddeus K-.^ 
 ciuszko, arrived in America, to serve the cause of freedom. In the following year, 
 the Baron de Steuben, a skillful Prussian military officer, arrived, and brought < ffi 
 ciency to the American army. 
 
 Movements of Howe and Washington. — The main armies of the Britisl *nd 
 the Americans commenced active operations in June. In the latter part of thai 
 month, Howe's army left New Jersey, and was conveyed by the British ileet down the 
 Atlantic, to. the mouth of the Chesapeake bay, and up that bay to its head, where it 
 disembarked; after w'lich it marched eastward, in the direction of Philadelphia. 
 30 
 
466 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Washinglon, in the meantime, had crossed the Delaware river, and advanced west- 
 ward to meet Howe. 
 
 Battle of Brandywine — Massacre of Paoli. — On the banks of the Brandy- 
 wine creek, in Chester county, Pennsylvania, a bloody battle was fought, on the 
 nth of September, 1777, between the armies of Washington and Howe. Wash- 
 ington was defeated, with the loss of 1,200 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
 while Howe lost only 800 men. The next day, the shattered American army re 
 b'ealed to Philadelphia. In this battle, the young Marquis de Lafayette was severe );•! 
 ivounded. On the night of the 20th (September, 1777), General Anthony Wayne, 
 with 1,500 American troops, was attacked at Paoli, by a British force under General 
 Grey. Wayne lost 300 men. This is known as "The Massacre of Paoli." 
 
 Howe's Army in Philadelphia. — After the battle of Brandywine, Washing- 
 ton made no stand for the defense of Philadelphia against Howe's advancing forces. 
 The Congress left the city, and went first to Lancaster, and then to York, where it 
 assembled on the 30th of September (1777), and where it remained in session until 
 the following summer. General Howe took military possession of Philadelphia on 
 the 26th of September, 1777; and the British army established its winter-quarters 
 in the Quaker City. 
 
 Battle of Germantown^Whitemarsh and Valley Forge. — On the 4th of 
 October (1777), a severe battle was fought at Germantown, near Philadelphia, be- 
 tween the armies of Washington and Howe. The Americans were defeated, with 
 the loss of 1,200 men, while the British lost only half that number. The campaign 
 between the main armies closed with the battle of Germantown, and Washington 
 went into winter-quarters at Whitemarsh; but he afterwards removed to Valley 
 Forge, on the Schuylkill river, twenty miles north-west from Philadelphia, which 
 city was occupied by the enemy until the following June. 
 
 British Fleet in the Delaware — Assault on Forts Mifflin and Mercer. 
 — While the events just related were occurring on land, the British fleet sailed round 
 to Ijelaware bay, which it afterwards ascended, on its way to Philadelphia; but its 
 passage was obstructed by Fort Mifflin, on the Pennsylvania shore of- the Delaware 
 river. Fort Mercer, on the New Jersey shore, and heavy chevaux-de-frise, in the channel 
 of the river. The forts were unsuccessfully assailed by land troops sent by General 
 Howe to cooperate with the fleet. Fort Mifflin, which was defended by a small 
 American force under Colonel Christopher Greene, repulsed an attack of 2,000 
 Hessians under Count Donop, who was mortally wounded during the attack. Fort 
 Mercer, garrisoned by a body of American troops under Lieutenant-Cok;nel Smith, 
 also repulsed the assaults of the enemy; but about the middle of November (1777), 
 both forts were evacuated by their garrisons, and the British fleet sailed up to Phil- 
 adelphia. 
 
 Burgoyne's Invasion of New York — Schuyler's Retreat to the Mohawk 
 — While the Americans met with misfortunes in Pennsylvania, General Burgoync 
 « ilh 10,000 British troops, was marching southward from Canada, along the Westeii 
 coast of Lake Champlain, toward Albany. Burgoyne took possession of Ticonde 
 roga, on the 2d of July, the American troops under General Arthur St. Clair, whr. 
 had garrisoned the fortress, having fled, on the invader's approach, to Fort Edward, 
 which was then held by 3,000 American troops under General Philip Schuylei. 
 
UNITED STATES. 46} 
 
 Ij Clair 5 rear division was defeated by the enemy at Hubbardton, in the present 
 tii^te of Vermont. The shattered forces of St. Clair joined General Schuyler at 
 Fort Edward, on the 12th of July (1777); and the whole American army of the 
 Moith, then under the command of Schuyler, retreated to the Mohawk river, an-i 
 established a fortified camp in the vicinity of the Cohoes Falls. 
 
 Battle of Bennington — Burgoyne, after reaching Fort Edward, on the jd ot 
 July, sent out a body of Hessians, under Colonel Baum, to seize provisions and 
 cattle which the Americans had collected at Bennington, in the present Stale ol 
 Vermont. Baum's Hessians were defeated, on the i6th of August, 1777, by the 
 Greer. Mountain Boys, under Colonel John Stark, about five miles from Benning- 
 ton. On the same day, another British detachment was defeated by a small Amer- 
 ican force under Colonel Seth Warner. 
 
 Invasion of the Mohawk Valley — Siege of Fort Schuyler — Battle of 
 Oriskany. — While Burgoyne was advancing from the North, a strong force of 
 Canadians, Tories, and Indians, under Colonel St. Leger, John Johnson, John 
 Butler, and Joseph Brandt, the famous Mohawk chieftain, invaded the Mohawk 
 Valley, and besieged Fort Schuyler (now Rome), on the 3d of August. General 
 Herkimer, while hastening, with a body of New York militia, to the relief of Fort 
 Schuyler, was defeated and killed in the battle of Oriskany. When Colonel Bene- 
 dict Arnold approached Fort Schuyler, with an American relief force, the besiegers 
 were driven away and dispersed. 
 
 Battles of Bemis's Heights and Saratoga — Surrender of Burgoyne. — In 
 fhe meantime. General Horatio Gates superseded General Schuyler in the command 
 )f the American army of the North, which had been increased, by a heavy rein- 
 forcement of New England militia under General Benjamin Lincoln, to 13,000 men. 
 On the 19th of September, 1777, a bloody, but indecisive, engagement was fought 
 tt Bemis's Heights, near Saratoga, between the armies of Gates and Burgoyne. 
 3n the 7th of October (1777), another sanguinary battle took place between the same 
 trmies, at Saratoga. Ten days afterward (October 17, 1777), Burgoyne surrendered 
 iiis whole army of 6,000 men to the American general. This great victory pro 
 luced the liveliest joy in America, and fell like a bombshell into the midst of the 
 war party in the British Parliament. It strengthened the peace party in England, 
 and greatly influenced the French Court in favor of the struggling Americans. 
 
 Clinton on the Hudson— Capture of Forts Clinton and Montgomery.— 
 In the meantime, a strong British force, under Sir Henry Clinton, was marching up 
 the Hudson river, to cooperate with Burgoyne. Clinton captured Forts Clinton 
 and Montgomery, at the passes of the Highlands, but when he heard of Buigoyne's 
 surrender, he hastily retreated down the Hudson to New York. 
 
 Articles of Confederation.— In November, 1777, the American Congress, ;i 
 Vork, in Pennsylvania, agreed to an instrument of union, known as " The Articles 
 .>f Confederation." By these articles, the American States were united into a con 
 federacy for common defense, and the power of deckring and carrying on war, .mi 
 also the right of concluding treaties, were delegated to the Congress. Under thn 
 form of government, the United States continued until the adoption of the present 
 National Constitution in 17S9, — a period of nearly twelve years. 
 
468 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1778. 
 
 Encampment of Washington's Army at Valley Forge. — During the 
 
 severe winter of 1777, '78, Washington's army was encamped at Valley Forge, on 
 the banks of the Schuylkill river, twenty miles north-west from Philadelphia. Many 
 of the tJoops were without shoes, and left bloody footprints in the snow. But having 
 faith in the justice of their cause, the patriots patiently endured all their haidships, 
 ari were resolved to sacrifice evei"ything for the liberties of their country. An un 
 su xessful attempt was made by some American officers, with General Conway aJ 
 their head, to transfer the chief command of the American armies from Washingl it 
 to general Charles Lee. 
 
 Franco-American Alliance^Peace Propositions. — The surrender of Bur- 
 goyne convinced the P'rench Court and Government that the Americans were able 
 to defend their liberties, and accordingly that Government concluded a treaty of 
 alliance with, and recognized the independence of, the United States of America. 
 This act of the French Government led to a war between France and England. 
 The English Cabinet was now anxious for a reconciliation with the rebellious 
 Americans, and sent commissioners to America, to induce the Americans to consent 
 to a peace on the condition that they should return to their allegiance to the Jiritish 
 Government, and that Parliament in return should repeal all its obnoxious acts, 
 and surrender its pretensions to legislate for the Americans. Byt the Americans 
 now refused to treat for peace, unless Great Britain should withdraw her lleets 
 and armies, and unconditionally acknowledge the independence of the United Slates; 
 and so the war continued. 
 
 British Evacuation of Philadelphia — Battle of Monmouth. — When it 
 was known that a powerful French fleet under the Count D'Estaing was on its w. ay 
 to the Delaware, the British army, under Sir Henry Clinton, who had in the mean- 
 time succeeded General Howe as British commander-in-chief, evacuated Philadel- 
 phia, on the l8th of June, 177S, and fled into New Jersey, toward New \'ork. 
 Washington pursued Clinton with 12,000 men; and at Monmouth Court House, 
 on a hot Sabbath day, June 28th, 1778, a sanguinary, but indecisive, battle was 
 fought. The battle had continued nearly the entire day; and after mitlnighf, 
 Clinton and his army fled to New York. Washington crossed the Hudson into 
 New York, and encamped at White Plains until late in autumn, when he again 
 passed into New Jersey, and went into winter-quarters at Middlebrook, on the 
 Raritan river. 
 
 Events in Rhode Island — Battle of Quaker Hill. — The French fleet under 
 the Count D'Estaing appeared in the Delaware early in July; but the British fleet 
 under Lord Howe having .sailed to New York, D'Estaing sailed to Rhode Island, 
 lo cooperate with the American army under General John Sullivan, in an attempt 
 to expel the British from that State. On the 9th of August, Sullivan landed with 
 1 strong force on the island of Rhode Island, and Howe's fleet appeared oft the 
 island on the same day. D'Estaing intended to attack Howe; but both fleets being 
 i.Iisal)led by a terrible storm, they were obliged to seek port foi re]>airs. D'Estaing' 
 appeared .at Newport on the 20th, when Sullivan was near there; but the rienils; 
 a Imiral refused to give any aid to the American general; whereupon Sullivan re- 
 treated northward, and was pursued Ijy the British, who attacked him at Quaker 
 Hill, on the 29lh of August (1778). Sullivan repulsed the attacks of the enemy, 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 469 
 
 < A he was obliged to evacuate the island, xs the British had just been reinforced 
 by 4,000 troops under General Clinton. 
 
 Tory and Indian Raids — Massacre of Wyoming — Cherry Valley. — 
 Di'iiiig the year 1778, the Mohawk, Schoharie, and Cherry Valleys, in New York, 
 a.iJ Ih..' Wyoming Valley, in Pennsylvania, were the scenes of the most shocking 
 CUK'lt'es, -^lerpetrated by the Indians under Joseph Brandt, and the Tories undei 
 ^i(;i riels John Johnson and John Butler. At the beginning of July, 1,100 Indians 
 u:i ' ories, under John Butler, entered the lovely valley of Wyoming, over whid 
 d) ;y spread desolation, setting fire to dwellings, and massacring several hun ireo 
 men, women, and children. The few soldiers and settlers who had sought refuge 
 in a furt were forced to surrender; and about 300 of the inhabitants of the valley, 
 who had fled to the neighboring mountains, were hunted by the savages and their 
 white al ies, and massacred in cold blood. This horrible tragedy is known as " The 
 Massacie of Wyoming." In November (1778), Cherry Valley, in New York, was 
 visited by a band of Tories and Indians, under Butler and Brandt, and many of the 
 inhabitants were killed, or carried into captivity. 
 
 Campbell's Invasion of Georgia and Capture of Savannah. — In Novem- 
 ber, 1778, Sir Henry Clinton sent 2,000 of his troops, under Colonel Campbell, to 
 invade Georgia, thus transferring the seat of actual war to the Southern States. On 
 the 29th of December (1778), Campbell entered Savannah, the American troops, 
 under Colonel Robert Howe,. having evacuated the town, on the approach of the 
 British, and fled up the Savannah river. Royal authority was now temporarily 
 reestablished in Georgia, and that State remained under the power of the British 
 until near the end of the war. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1779. 
 
 Movements in Georgia — Battle of Brier Creek — Battle of Stono Ferry. 
 
 — On the gti. if January, 1779, the British army, under General Prevost, captured 
 Sunbury, in Georgia. On the 14th of February (1779), a band of Tories, undet 
 Colonel Boyd, was annihilated by a Whig force, under Colonel Andrew Pickens, 
 in the battle of Brier Creek. The British, under Colonel Campbell, who had just 
 marched up the Georgia side of the Savannah river, then fled toward the sea-coast, 
 pursued by 2,000 American troops, under General James Ashe. At Brier Creek, 
 Ashe was defeated, on the 3d of March, 1779, by the British under General Prevost. 
 After the battle of Brier Creek, Prevost invaded South Carolina, and marched against 
 Charleston. An American force, under General Benjamin Lincoln, hastened to the 
 relief of Charleston, whereupon Prevost retreated with great haste toward Savannah. 
 On the 20th of June (1779), a severe battle took place at Stono Ferry, between 
 fefachments of the two armies, which resulted in the repulse of the Americinis. 
 
 British Depredations in Virginia, New York, and Connecticut.- \n 
 expedition composed of 1,500 British and Hessian troops, under Governor Tr\ in 
 Hide a destructive raid into Connecticut, in April, 1779. After defeating th< 
 A.nieric.'ms, under General Putman, at Greenwich, Tryon retreated westward Iw 
 New York, pursued by Putnam, who retook some of the enemy's plunder. lu 
 May (1779), Sir George Collier, with a small British squadron, and General Mat- 
 thews, with an English land force, ravaged the country around Norfolk, in Virginia, 
 On the 31st of May, Stony Point, on the west side of the Hudson river, was 
 
*7o 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 taken by tlie British, under Sir Heniy Clinton, who, on the following day (June i 
 1779), also captured Verplanck's I^oint, on the opposite side of the river. In the 
 beginning of July, Tryon, with 2,000 British troops, made another destructive in- 
 vasion of Connecticut, laying llie beautiful towns of East Haven, Fairfield, and 
 Norwalk in xshes. 
 
 Wayne's Capture of Stony Point and Lee's Capture of Paulus Hook. 
 — About midnight, July i6th, 1779, General Anthony Wayne, with a small An.eii 
 can force, recaptured Stony Point, after a short but desperate fight, and mitde th« 
 lijjtish garrison, commanded by Colonel Johnson, prisoners of war. Tlie less o; 
 the English in killed, wounded, and captured was about 600 men. On the 191} ol 
 t^e same month (July, 1779), Major Henry Lee, at the head of a small body ol 
 Americans, captured Paulus Hook (now Jersey City), opposite New York City, after 
 killing, wounding, and capturing 200 of the enemy. In August, a British fleet de- 
 stroyed an American flotdla off Castine, on the coast of the present State of Maine 
 
 The War in the West — Daniel Boone — Kaskaskia and Vincennes.— 
 During 1778 and 1779, important events were occurring in tlie vast wilderness west 
 of the Alleghany mountains, for several years, Daniel Boone, the great pioneer, 
 had struggled with the Indians in the present State of Kentucky. Kaskaskia, on 
 the Mississippi, and Vincennes, on the Wabash, were wrested from the British, by 
 the Americans, under Major George Rogers Clarke, of Virginia. Vincennes was 
 recaptured by the enemy, but Clarke again obtained possession of that post in Feb- 
 ruary (1779). 
 
 Sullivan's Expedition Against the Indians in New York. — In the sum- 
 mer of 1779, the Americans sent an expedition, under General John Sulhvan, to 
 punish the New York Indians for their raids and massacres in the Wyoming and 
 Cherry Valleys in the previous year. At the head of nearly 5,000 men, Sulnvan 
 invaded the country of the Six Nations, in Western New York, where, in the space 
 of three weeks, he destroyed the crops of the Indians and forty of their villages. 
 
 Siege of Savannah. — The American army, imder General Lincoln, aided by 
 the French fleet, under the Count D'Estaing, commenced to besiege .he English at 
 Savannah, on the 23d of September, 1779. A heavy assault upon the British 
 ■works, on the 9th of October, was repulsed, after five hours of fighting, in which the 
 Americans and French lost 1,000 men; the brave Pole, Count Pulaski, being among 
 the slain. D'Estaing sailed with his fleet to the West Indies, and Lincoln was 
 obliged to raise the siege and retreat to Charleston. 
 
 John Paul Jones' Great Naval Victory off the Coast of England. — On 
 the 23d of September, 1779, the Bonhomme Richard, an American vessel, com- 
 manded by John Paul Jones, gained a brilliant victory off Flamborough Head, on 
 the eastern coast of England, over the English vessel Serapis, after a bloody hglit 
 of several hours. The ^Sfra/w surrendered ; and the Botihomme Richard w ^s sc 
 unicli mjured that she sunk sixteen hours after the engagement. 
 
 War between England and Spain. — Another power was now added 'o tlit 
 inemies of England. With the hope of recovering the rock of Gibraltar, Spr.it 
 declared war against Great Britain, in June, 1779. A combined PVench and ^]>an 
 ish armament attempted an invasion of England, in August, and a united I-ieaiJ 
 an I Spanish naval force laid siege to Gibraltar. 
 
UNITED STATES. 47, 
 
 EVENTS OF 1780. 
 
 Clinton's Expedition against Charleston — Siege and Fall of Charlestoii, 
 
 — At the close of 1779, Sir Henry Clinton sailed, with 5,000 troops, in AdnJral 
 Arbuthnot's fleet, from New York, for Charleston, South Carolina, which city was 
 dien garrisoned by the American army under General Lincoln. On the 9th of 
 Apr.i, 17S0, Arbuthnot,with the British fleet, passed up Charleston harbor, and botli 
 It, and Clinton, who lauded troops on the islands below Charleston, laid siege to tl.c 
 :ily. On the 14th of April, a parly of Americans, under Colonel Huger, was 
 k feated by the British cavalry, under Colonel Tarleton, at Monk's Corner, sonic 
 (list.ince north from the city. After the siege had lasted a month, and after the city 
 ha suffered heavy bombardments and been on fire in many places, Lincoln sur- 
 rendered Charleston, together with his army and many citizens, 6,000 in number, 
 and 400 pieces of cannon, to Clinton, on the 12th of May, 1780. Early in the 
 following month, Clinton sailed with the greater part of the British army for New 
 York, leaving Lord Cornwallis with a small force to complete the subjugation of 
 the Southern Stales. 
 
 British Occupation of South Carolina — Guerrilla Warfare. — Already 
 Cornwallis had marched up the Santee to Camden ; Lieutenant-Colonel Cruger, 
 with a small British force, marched to, and garrisoned. Fort Ninety-Six; and Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonel Smith, with another British detachment, marched to, and garrisoned, 
 the town of Augusta, in Georgia. At the Waxavv Creek, the British cavaliy, under 
 Colonel Tarleton, captured and massacred a small force of American infantry, under 
 Colonel Buford. All of South Carolina was now at the mercy of the British; and 
 Cornwallis prepared for the reestablishment of royal authority in that State. Soon, 
 however, when it was known that General Horatio Gates was advancing south- 
 ward with an American army, for the aid of the patriots of the Carolinas, guerrilla 
 leaders, like Thomas Sumter, Francis Marion, Andrew Pickens, and George Rogers 
 Clarke, appeared in the field, at the head of small detachments, falling upon and 
 annoying bands of British and Tories. Sumter was repulsed at Rocky Mount, on 
 the 30th of July; but he afterwards almost annihilated Tarleton's cavalry at 
 Hanging Rock. 
 
 Gates in South Carolina— Battle of Sanders' Creek— Sumter's Defeat 
 In Auo-ust, 1780, the American army under General Gates entered South Caro- 
 lina from the North. On ihe l6th of that month, Gates's army was thoroughly 
 defeated and dispersed by the British forces under Lords Coinwallis and Rawdon, 
 in the battle of Sanders' Creek, neai Camden. The Americans lost 1,000 men, 
 the brave Baron De Kalb being among the slain; and Genera! Gates fled to Char- 
 lotte, North Carolina. Two days after the defeat of Gates, Colonel Sumter's foice 
 v-as almost broken up by the British cavalry under Colonel Tarleton, on Fishing 
 Cieek. 'i'hese American misfortunes again prostrated South Carolina at the feel 
 I'f the oneiny. 
 
 Tyranny of Lord Cornv/allis— Battle of King's Mountain.- -C'ornwrdlii 
 actempted to restore British authority in South Carolina by harsh measures; but his 
 tyranny prevented a reconciliation, and inflamed the patriots with deadly hatred of 
 English rule. On the 7th of October (1780), a body of 1,500 Tory militia, undei 
 Major Pjicrick Ferguson, was completely defeated by backwoods patriots, undci 
 
472 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Colonels Campbell, Shelby, Cleveland, Sevier, Winston, McDowell, and Williams, 
 ■■>n King's Mountain, in the north-western part of South Carolina, the patriots 
 taking 800 prisoners and 1,500 stand of arms, and Major Ferguson being among 
 the slain. Tlie activity of the guerrilla leaders, Colonels Sumter, Marion, Pickens, 
 and Clarke, alarmed Cornwallis, and caused him to retire from Nor'h Czrol'na, 
 which State he had just invaded, and to return to South Carolina. 
 
 Invasion of New Jersey — Arrival of a French Fleet and Army. — In 
 June. J 7 So, a British force of 5,000 men, under General Matthews, invaded Nevs 
 I'ersey, from Mew York city. After being defeated in a skirmish at Springfield, Lj 
 the Americans luider General Nathaniel Greene, the invaders again retired frjni 
 Neiv Jersey, and returned to New York. At the close of 1780, a French fleet, 
 unJer Admiral de Ternay, carrying 6,000 French land troops, under the Count de 
 Rochambeau, landed at Newport, Rhode Island. 
 
 Treason of Benedict Arnold — Capture and Execution of Major Andre, 
 — While General Washington was in New England, conferring with the French 
 officers, General Benedict Arnold was bargaining with Sir Henry Clinton, for the 
 surrender of the important post of West Point, on the Hudson river, into the hands 
 of the enemy. Arnold, who had incurred vast debts by his extravagance, had been 
 charged by the Congress with fraudulent transactions while military governor in 
 Philadelphia. As a punishment, the Congress sentenced him to a reprimand from 
 Washington. Arnold determined to have revenge by plotting treason against his 
 country and aiding its enemies. His correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton was 
 carried on through the young and accomplished Major John Andre, Clinton's adju- 
 tant-general. The treasonable correspondence between Arnold and Clinton had 
 been carried on for more than a year, when, in September, 1780, Arnold and Andre 
 met personally for the first time, at Haverstraw, on the West side of the Hudsop 
 river. When their bargain was closed. Major Andre prepared to return to Clinton's 
 headquarters, at New York. On his way, Andre was stopped and made a prisoner 
 by three young American militia-men; and on the 2d of October (1780), he was 
 hanged as a spy by the Americans. Arnold succeeded in making his escape to the 
 enemy; and he received a commission of brigadier-general in the British army, 
 and 50,000 dollars as a reward for his treason to his country. 
 
 War between England and Holland — " Armed Neutrality."— When 
 it I)ecame known to the British Ministry that a secret commercial treaty had been 
 concluded between Holland and the United States, the British Parliament declared 
 war against Holland, on the 20lh of December, 17S0. Thus England had now to 
 contend, without any assistance, against France, Spain, Holland, and her rebellious 
 colonies in North America. At about the same time, the Empress Catharine H. 
 of Russia induced the Governments of Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Germany, and 
 Portugal, to unite with her in a maritime alliance, called "The Armed Neutrality," 
 The alleged object of this powerful league was the f'efcnse of the ncutraf power* 
 igainsjt the right of search claimed by England; but Us real object was tc deprive 
 I'ireat Britain of her maritime superiority. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1781. 
 
 Mutiny of Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops. — On the ist of Januaiy. 
 1781, about 1,300 Pennsylvania troops left Washington's camp at Mprrisfown, licw 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 473 
 
 Jersey and marched toward Philadelphia, for the purpose of compelh'ng the Con- 
 gress to provide die soldiers with pay and clothing, which duty had long been 
 neglected. When the mutineers arrived at Princeton, British emissaries sent by 
 General Clinton tried to bribe them to enter the king's service; but the mutineers 
 indignant at the implied doubt of their patriotism and devotion to the cause of free 
 doni, handed the emissaries over to General Wayne for punishment as spies. At 
 Princeton, the mutineers were also met by a committee from the Congress, promis 
 'XKg th\.t that body would provide for their necessities as soon as they returned (c 
 t\Cy. The Pennsylvania mutineers accepted the promise and returned to camp. 
 Oi! the l8th of the same month (January, 1781,) some of the New Jersey troops 
 at Pompton, in the same State, also mutinied; but this disorder was 5U]5pressed by 
 military force, and six of the ringleaders were hanged as a punishment for theii 
 mutiny. 
 
 Arnold's Invasion of Virginia. — Early in January, 1 781, Arnold the traitor, 
 with 1,600 English and Tories, invaded Virginia, went up the James river, and 
 destroyed much property at Richmond. In March, General Lafayettte was sent, 
 with 1,200 Americans, to oppose Arnold's further advance in Virginia; but the 
 traitor was soon reinforced by 2,000 English troops under General Phillips, when 
 he went up the James river on another marauding expedition. Soon afterward, 
 Arnold left Virginia, and Phillips died at Petersburg. 
 
 General Greene in South Carolina — Battle of Cowpens — Greene's 
 Retreat. — The Southern States were the chief theatre of war in 17S1. General 
 Nathaniel Greene was entrusted with the command of the American armies in the 
 South, at the close of 1780. On the 17th of January, 1781, a part of Greene's army, 
 under General Daniel Morgan, defeated Tarleton's cavalry, in the battle of the 
 Cowpens, in tbe north-western part of South Carolina, on which occasion Colonels 
 William A. Washington, of Virginia, and John Eager Howard, of Maryland, be- 
 haved very gallantly. After the battle, Morgan retreated toward Virginia with his 
 500 prisoners, and was pursued by the British army under Lord Cornwall is. Greene 
 soon joined Morgan, and the whole American army made a safe retreat across 
 North Carolina, into Virginia. After the Americans had crossed the Dan river, 
 Cornwallis, greatly dispirited, gave up the pursuit, and took post at Hillsborough, 
 in North Carolina. 
 
 Battle of Guilford Court-House— Battle of Hobkirk's Hill.— After a short 
 rest in Virginia, Greene marched into North Carolina, to oppose Cornwallis. A 
 bloody battle was fought at Guilford Court-House, near Hillsborough, on the 15th 
 of March, 17S1. Greene was driven from the field, but the army of Cornwallis 
 suffered severely, and after the battle, it retired to Wilmington, on the Cajje F^eai 
 river. After the battle of Guilford Court-House, Greene advanced into SoiiLi 
 Carolina, to oppose the British under Lord Rawdon. On the 19th of April, Greene 
 was defeated by Rawdon, in the battle of Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden. About 
 tlie middle of May (1781), four important military posts in South Carolina fell irl<; 
 Oie hands of the Americans. 
 
 Siege of Fort Ninety-Six — Siege and Capture of Augusta.— ».Jn trie 22d 
 ol May (1781), Greene laid siege to Fort Ninety-Six. After vainly attempting foi 
 nearly a month to take the fort, Greene relinquished the siege and retired from the 
 place, on the 19th of Jine, and marched to the High Hills of Santee. American 
 
474 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 troops, under Colonels Pickens, Clarke, and Henry Lee, capluied Augusta, "n 
 Georgia, on the 5th of June, 1781, after a siege of twelve days. 
 
 High Hills of Santee— Battle of Eutaw Springs— British Posts.— 
 JJuiing the summer of 17S1, Greene encamped on the High Hills of Santee. On 
 tli2 8th of September, he fought with the English under Colonel Stuart, the battle 
 of Eutaw" *iprings. Greene was driven from his position, but during the night, the 
 B.itish fled to Charleston, and the American army reoccupied ;he battlefield. T're 
 .\inervcan guerrilla parties, under Colonels Marion, Sumter, aid Henry Lee, con 
 tuitd the enemy to tne sea-board; so that at the close of 17S1, Charleslon an.; 
 .Savannah were the onJy posts held by the British south of New York. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis in Vicginia — Fortification of Yorktown. — Lord Corr- 
 wallis left Wilmington, North Carolina, on the 25th of April, 17S1, and arrived at 
 Petersburg, Virginia, on the 20th of May, where he took command of the troops of 
 the deceased General Phillips. Cornwallis moved beyond Richmond, destroying 
 a vast amount of property, but he was compelled to retire before the Americans 
 under General Wayne, Lafayette, and Baron Steuben. Soon afterward, Cornwallis 
 retired to the sea-coast and fortified Yorktown, on the York river, near its mouth. 
 
 The Allied Armies — Arnold in Connecticut— Washington's March for 
 Virginia. — Early in July, 17S1, Washington's army was reinforced by French 
 troops under the Count de Rochambeau ; and an attempt was about to be made to 
 expel the English army, under Sir Henry Clinton, from New York city; but vihen 
 Clinton was reinforced by 3,000 fresh troops from England, Washington resolved 
 to march into Virginia, for the purpose of driving the British under Cornwallis from 
 that State. After Washington had marched through New Jersey, Clinton sent the 
 traitor Arnold on a plundering expedition into Connecticut, for the purpose of in- 
 ducing Washington to turn back. Although Arnold burned New London, ami 
 massacred the American gamson under Colonel Ledyard, at Fort Griswold, Wash 
 ington continued his march for Virginia. 
 
 Siege of Yorktown— Surrender of Cornwallis— Clinton's Movements. — 
 On the 28th of September, 17S1, the allied American and French armies, under Gen- 
 eral Washington and the Count de Rochambeau, appeared before Yorktown. The 
 Count de Grasse, with a powerful French fleet, arrived in the mouth of the York 
 river, from the West Indies. A vigorous siege of the English works was soon 
 commenced. The besiegers opened a heavy cannonade upon the British works on 
 the 9th of October, and two of the British redoubts were captured by American and 
 French storming parties under Lafayette. Reduced to great extremities, Corn- 
 wallis attempted to escape, on the i6th, with his army, and join Clinton at New 
 York, but was prevented from so doing by a terrific storm; and three days after- 
 ward (October 19, 1781), he surrendered Yorktown and his entire army of 7,000 
 men to General Washington, and his shipping to the Count de Grasse. A few days 
 after tne surrender of Lord Cornwallis, Sir Henry Clinton appeared at the moutl 
 of the Chesapeake bay, with 7,000 English troops, to assist Cornwallis; but, being 
 :i.)0 late, he soon returned to New York, astonished and chagrmed. Washington'* 
 tnny returned to the Hudson, while the French troops passed the whiter in \v! 
 ginia. The capture of Cornwallis was hailed by the Americans as a harbinger o< 
 peace. 
 
UNITED STATES. 475 
 
 EVENTS OF 1782 AND 1783. 
 
 The Peace Party in England — End of Lord North's Administration.— 
 
 [nielligence of the surrender of Comwallis struck terror and amazement into the 
 hearts of Lord North and his supporters in the British Parliament. The English 
 people were now fully convinced of the utter impossibility of restoring England's 
 coloiiia empire in North America. Lord North and his Cabinet were obliged to 
 •esign, and a new Ministrj', headed by the Marquis of Rockingham, came into 
 ,/(n\ ;r, and took measures for the restoration of peace. On the 4th of March, 17S2, 
 the British House of Commons resolved to end the war in America, and orders 
 were sent to the British commanders to cease from hostilities against the AmencaiK. 
 
 Preliminary Peace of Paris — Definitive Peace of Paris. — On the 30th 
 of November, 17S2, a preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, by English 
 and American commissioners; and on the 20th of January, 1783, French and 
 English commissioners also signed a prelim! naiy treaty. A definitive treaty of 
 peace was concluded at Paris, on the 3d of September, 1783, by British and Amer- 
 ican commissioners, by which Great Britain acknowledged the independence of 
 the United States, to which all the country south of the Great Lakes and east of 
 the Mississippi, as far south as the Spanish possessions on the Gulf of Mexico, was 
 ceded. On the same day, definitive treaties of peace were concluded between 
 England, France, Spain, and Holland; and the United States took its place as an 
 acknowledged power among the nations of the earth. 
 
 British Evacuation of America — American Army Disbanded — Wash- 
 ington's Resignation. — The British evacuated Savannah on the nth of July, 
 17S2, Charleston on the 14th of December of the same year, and New York, on the 
 25th of November, 17S3. On the 3d of November, 1783, the American army was 
 disbanded, and the American soldiers returned to their homes, to enjoy the freedom 
 which their valor had won, and to receive the grateful benedictions of their country- 
 men. After an affectionate parting with his officers in New York City, on the 4th 
 of December, Washington proceeded to Annapolis, in Maryland, where the Con- 
 gress was in session; and on the 23d of December (1783), he resigned, into the 
 hands of that body, his commission of commander-in-chief of the armies of the 
 United States; after which he returned to his farm at Mount Vernon, on the banks 
 of the Potomac, carrying with him the esteem and gi-atitude of his countrymen, and 
 the admiration of the world. Thus Washington, like Cincinnatus, after deliveriug 
 his country from its enemies, returned to private life. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Weakness of the General Government of the United States after the 
 War. — When the War of American Independence was ended, and external dan- 
 ^e:> had passed away, the Americans perceived that the Articles of Confederation 
 all,nvsd the exercise of too much sovereign and independent power by the States, 
 and too little by the Congress, thus preventing a Union of States sufficiently strong 
 to entitle" the American people to the character or rank of a nation. The Congress 
 had no power to dispose of the immense foreign and domestic debt with which the 
 
476 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 c untry was Inirdened; and the Stales, all financially exhausted by the war, found 
 it extremely difficult to provide means for the payment of the soldiers of the Revo- 
 jjtion. 
 
 The Constitutional Convention — Framing of the National Constitu- 
 tion. — In May, 1787, delegates from all the United States, except Rhode Island, 
 assembled in convention, in the State House, in Philadeljihia, with General Wash- 
 rgton as president, for the purpose of amemlinj^ the Articles of Confederation, so 
 :« to give greater powers to the General Government. Convirced of the utter 
 infects of the Articles of Confederation, the Convention abandoned its former \a\x- 
 pose of amending them, and applied itself to the task of framing an entirely new 
 instrument. The Convention was imjjressed with the conviction that a centraliza- 
 tion of greater power in the General Government was essential to the public wel- 
 fare; and, in September, 1787, after four months secret deliberation and much con- 
 tention, many conflicting opinions and interests having to be reconciled, and the 
 Convention at one time seeming about to dissolve without accomplishing its grand 
 object, the National Constitution, under which the United States has ever since 
 been governed, was framed, and the Convention submitted the instrument to the 
 States for ratification, 
 
 THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Three-fold Powers of Government. — The National Constitution invests the 
 Governmeht of the United States with three-fold powers, — legislative, executive, 
 and judicial, — each of which is independent in its own sphere, and each is a coor- 
 dinate branch of the General Government. The legislative power is to enact laws; 
 the executive power to execute them; and the judicial power to interpret them. 
 
 The Legislative Power — The Senate and House of Representatives. — 
 The Constitution vests the legislative power in a Congress of the United States, 
 which consists of two branches, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The 
 House of Representatives, or Lower House, consists of members chosen for two 
 years by the people of the several States, the Representatives to be apportioned 
 according to the population, which is ascertaiued every ten years. The Senate, or 
 Upper House, consists of two members from each State, chosen for six years, by the 
 Legislatures of the States. The States retained the power of domestic legislation ; 
 but the Congress is invested with the power to declare war; to raise and support 
 armies; to levy and collect taxes, duties, imports, and excises; to coin money; to 
 '.•stai)lish post-offices and post-roads; to provide and maintain a navy; to call out the 
 militia for the purpose of suppressing insurrection and repelling invasion; to admit 
 new .Slates into the Union; and to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regu- 
 lations resjjcctingthe territory and other public property of the United States. All 
 bills for raising the revenue originate in the House of Representatives, and that 
 branch of the Congress has the sole power of impeachment; but the .Si.'nate hsj* 
 the sole power to try all impeachments, and to confirm all tieaties and all executive 
 ippointments. 
 
 The Executive Power— The President and Vice-President. — The Con- 
 stitution vests the executive power in a President of the Uniteil .States, .vho, with 
 the Vice-President, is chosen for a term of four years, by Electors, equal in nunibei 
 for each State to all its Senators and Representatives in the National Congress. No 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 477 
 
 nill passed by the Congress can become a law without the President's signature, 
 unless repassed by a vote of two-thirds of each branch of that body. The President 
 IS also commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. He irust 
 be a native-born citizen; and, before he can enter upon the duties of his office, hs 
 mist solemnly swear, or affirm, that he will faithfully execute the office of President 
 of the United States, and will, to the best of his ability, preserve, protect, and defend 
 the Constitution of the United States. The President has the power, by and with 
 the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, and to appoint ambassadois 
 and other public ministers and consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and other 
 officers of the United States. The duty of the Vice-President is to preside over the 
 Senate of the United States, but he is allowed no vote unless the Senate is equally 
 divided, in which case he must give the casting vote; and in case of the death, 
 resignation, or removal of the President, the Vice-President must perform the duties 
 of President of the United States. 
 
 The Judicial Powrer — The Supreme Court and Inferior Courts.— The 
 
 Constitution vests the judicial power in a Supreme Court of the United Stales, con- 
 sisting of a Chief-Justice and several Associate-Justices, and in such inferior courts 
 as the Congress may establish. The judges of both the supreme and inferior courts 
 nold their offices during good behavior. The judicial power of the United States 
 extends to all cases arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, 
 and treaties made with foreign powers ; to all cases of maratime jurisdiction; to all 
 controversies to which the United States is a party; to all controversies between 
 Slates; between citizens of different States; between a State and citizens of another 
 Stale; between a State, or its citizens, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 
 
 Various Provisions of the Constitution. — The Constitution defines treason 
 against the United States to consist in levying war against them, or in adhering to 
 their enemies ; and it provides for the removal of the President and all other civil 
 officers of the United States, on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, 
 and other misdemeanors. Provision is also made for the amendment of the Con- 
 stitution ; and for guaranteeing to every State of the Union a republican form of 
 government, and for the protection of each against invasio'n or domestic violence 
 The Constitution is the Supreme Law of the Land, .and all civil officers of the 
 United States, and of the several States, are bound thereby. 
 
 ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Opposition to the Constitution. — The National Constitution was to go into 
 effect as the Organic Law of the Republic upon its ratification by conventions of 
 the people in nine States. The new instrument met with violent opposition from 
 a large portion of the American people, and two parties were quickly formed upon 
 the question of its adoption or rejection. Those in favor of its adoption were called 
 Federalists, and those opposed to such action were designated Anti-Federalists, 
 Some of the States very reluctantly yielded their assent to the new instrument, and 
 wme of the greatest men in America, such as Thom.as Jefferson and Patrick Ilenr)', 
 of Virginia, were strenuously opposed to its adoption, because it deprived the St.ates 
 of too many of their former rights, and centralized too much power in the National 
 Government; but the articles in "The Federalist" in favor of its adoption, written 
 l>y Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, of New York, and James Madison, of Virginia, 
 had a powerful effect upon the public mind. 
 
478 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Ratification and Adoption of the Constitution — Expiration of the Con- 
 tinental Congress. — After much opposition, the Constitution was finally ratih&J 
 in 1788, by the conventions in eleven States, whereupon it became the Supreme 
 I, aw of the American Republic; and on the 4th of March, 1789, the old Contmema) 
 Congress expired, and the new National Government went into full operat'on. 
 Then the Republic of the United States of America commenced its glorious caiccr 
 
 THE GROWING AMERICAN UNION. 
 
 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (APRIL 30, 17^3- 
 MARCH 4, 1797). 
 
 Organization of the Government under the National Constitution. — 
 After the National Constitution, by receiving the approval of the people of the requi- 
 site numlier of States, had become the Supreme Law of the land, George WasMng- 
 ton was chosen, Ijy the unanimous vote of the Electors, the first President of the 
 United States, and John Adams, of Massachusetts, was elected Vice-President. The 
 inauguration of Washington took place, on the 30th of April, 1789, in New York 
 City, in the presence of an immense body of spectators. The First Congress under 
 the n"ew Constitution established three Executive Departments, — War, treasury, 
 and Foreign Affairs, — the heads of which were to be styled Secretaries, instead of 
 Ministers, as in other countries, and who were to constitute the President's Cabinet, 
 and could be appointed and dismissed at his pleasure. A national juaiciaiy was 
 established, consisting of a Sujireme Court, having a Chief Justice and several 
 Associate Justices; also Circuit and District Courts, which had junsOiction over 
 certain specified cases. Henry Knox was appointed Secretary of Wai; Alexander 
 Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury ; and Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Foreign 
 Affairs. John Jay was appointed Chief Justice. 
 
 Financial Measures — National Bank and Mint. — During the second ses- 
 sion of the First Congress, early in 1790, on the recommendation of Mr. Hamilton, 
 Secretary of the Treasury, the National Government assumed the public debt con- 
 tracted during the War of the Revolution; also the debts which the several States 
 had incurred during the same period. Congress, during this session, passed an act 
 to remove the seat of the National Government from New York to Philadelphia, 
 where it should continue until the expiration of ten yeors from that date, when it 
 should be removed to a suitable place on the Potomac. Agreeably to the recom- 
 mendation of Mr. Hamilton, Congress, during its third session, in 1791, authorized 
 the establishment of a national bank and a mint for coinage, both of which were 
 located at Philadelphia. 
 
 Admission of Vermont and Kentucky — Settlements in the West. — 
 Already Rhode Island and North Carolina had become members of the Union, by 
 a<!jf)ting the National Constitution; and the number of States was further increrised 
 by the admission of Vermont, in February, 1 79 1, and Kentuclcy, in June, 1792, intr 
 the Union. The vast wilderness v*'est of the Alleghany mountains, which was 
 embraced in the North-west Territory and the TeiTitory South-west of the Ohio, wa3 
 already becoming peopled. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 479 
 
 Indian War in the West. — In the summer of 1790, the Indians north-west 
 ./ the Ohio, encouraged by British emissaries, began a war against the United 
 States. After vainly attempting to secure peace, the President sent General 
 llarmer with a considerable force against the Indians. In October, 1790, Harmei 
 was severely defeated by the Indians, in two battles, near the present town of Fcft 
 Wayne, in Indiana. A year later. General St. Clair, Governor of the North-west 
 Territory, marched against the Indians, but was defeated on the 4th of November, 
 1791, and driven back with the loss of 600 men. General Wayne, who succeeded 
 St. Clair, defeated the Indians so badly, on the 20th of August, 1794, near the 
 present Maumee City, Ohio, that they humbly sued for peace. In August, 1795, 
 a treaty was concluded at Greenville, by which the Indians ceded to the United 
 States a vast extent of territory. From this time unti'l the commencement of the 
 war of 18 12 with Great Britain, the North-western Indians lived at peace with the 
 United States. 
 
 Federalists and Republicans — Washington Re-elected.— Before the 
 second Presidental election took place, in the fall of 1792, two political parties had 
 been organized. The one, called the Republican or Democratic party, headed by 
 Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Sate, advocated the distribution of power among the 
 States and the people. The other, called the Federalist party, headed by Alex- 
 ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, advocated the concentration of great 
 power in the National Government. In the election of 1792, Washington was 
 again the unanimous choice of the Electors for the office of President of the Repub- 
 lic, and John Adams was reelected Vice-President. 
 
 Troubles with the French Minister. — The Republican party sympathizea 
 with the Revolutionaiy party in France, which had executed King Louis XVI., 
 abolished monarchy, and established the political equality of all classes in that 
 country. The French Republic sent as its minister to the United States, M. Genet, 
 who, soon after his arrival in America, fitted out privateers in American ports to 
 prey upon the commerce of England, Spain, and Holland, against which countries, 
 Republican France had declared war. When Washington, anxious to keep the 
 United States free from the complications of European politics, issued a proclama- 
 tion of neutrality, declaring it to be the duty and the interest of the people of the 
 United States to observe a perfectly neutral attitude in regard to the European 
 struggle. Genet tried to arouse the American people agamst their Government; but, 
 at the request of Washington, the French Republic recalled its imprudent minister, 
 and sent M. Fouchet in his place. 
 
 Whisky Insurrection. — In 1791, Congress passed an act imposing heavy 
 duties upon liquors distilled in the United States. This measure was very impop- 
 ular, and, in 1794, the people of Western Pennsylvania rose in arms, resisted the 
 Government officers sent to collect the tax, robbed mails, and committed many 
 o'.hei outrages. After issuing two proclamations ordering the insurgents to lay 
 down their arms and obey the laws, the President sent General Henry Lee, of 
 Virginia, with a military force sufficient to quell the insun-ectiori. The insurg( ni 
 tmmediately submitted, and quiet was restored. This reb-dhon is known in hist.ij 
 as ''The Whisky Insurrection." 
 
 Difficulties with Great Britain — Jay's Treaty. — Unfriendly relations be 
 tween the United States and Great Britain Ih? eatened to end in war, in 1 794. The 
 
48o CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 United States accused Great Britain of violating ttie treaty of 1783, by retaining 
 possession of military posts in the North- West Territoiy, and by withholding in- 
 demnification for negroes carried away at the close of the Revolution; and com- 
 plaint was also made that British emissaries had excited the Indians of the North- 
 VVest to hostilities against the American people, that to retaliate on France 
 American vessels had been seized by British cruisers, and that American seamen 
 had been impressed into the British naval service. Great Britain com] laine 1 thit 
 :he United States did not comply with treaty stipulations respecting the property a{ 
 1 ories, and also in relation to the recoveiy of debts contracted in England bef or< 
 the Revolution. To settle these difficulties, John Jay was appointed a special en\ oj 
 to Great Britain. He negotiated a treaty which was violently opposed in the 
 United StaUv but i! was finally ratified l)y the United States Senate, on the 24tb 
 of June, 1794. 
 
 Algerine Pirates. — For several years, American commerce in the Mediterra- 
 nean sea had suffered from the depredations of Algerine pirates, who seized the 
 merchandise, and held the seamen as slaves, for the purpose of obtaining ransom 
 money. To put a stop to these outrages, Congress, in 1794, made appropriations 
 for the organization of a navy. In 1795, the United States was obliged to make a 
 treaty of peace with the Dey of Algiers, by which an annual tribute was to be paid 
 for the Iil)eration of captive American seamen. 
 
 Admission of Tennessee — Election of John Adams. — In June, 1796, Ten- 
 nessee was admitted into the Union of States. The Presidential campaign of 1796 
 was an exciting one. The candidate of the Federalists was John Adams, and the 
 nominee of the Republicans was Thomas Jefferson. Adams was elected President 
 and Jefferson was chosen Vice-1'resident. 
 
 JOHN ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1797- 
 MARCH 4, 1801). 
 
 Adams' Inauguration — Difficulties with France. — Mr. Adams was inaugu- 
 rated on the 4th of March, 1797, as second President of the United States. On 
 account of the unfriendly character of the relations between the United States and 
 France, the President summoned Congress to meet in extra session on the 15th of 
 May following. In July (1797), Congi-ess appointed Charles Cotesworth Pinck- 
 ney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry envoys to France for the adjustment of 
 all difficulties. The French Government refused to receive them until they should 
 pay a large sum of money into the French treasuiy. This insolent demand was 
 refused with indignation; and two of the envoys, Messrs Pinckney and Marshall, 
 who were Federalists, v^'cre ordered to leave France, while Mr. Gerry, who was a 
 Republican, was permitted to remain. 
 
 Preparations for War with France. — The year 1798 was signalized by pre- 
 parations, on the part of the United States, for war with the French Republic. In 
 May of that year, a large provisional army was authorized; and Washington vva; 
 appointed commander-in-chief. A small naval armament was raised, and hostilities 
 were begun on the ocean. The American schooner Retaliation was captured by 
 the French frigate Itisiirgente, but the latter was afterwards captured by the Ameri- 
 can frigate Constellation, commanded by Commodore Truxtun. The firm course 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 481 
 
 I 
 
 pufstied by the United States Government, caused the French Directory to propose 
 a settlement of all difficulties between the two nations. The President sent three 
 envoys, who, late in 1799, concluded a treaty of peace with Napoleon Bonaparte, 
 wtio Lad a short time previous overthrown the Directory, and made himse'f rulet 
 of France, with the title of First Consul. 
 
 Alien and Sedition Laws — Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions.' -The 
 Federal 'St party was greatly weakened by the passage of two extremely ui p-^puliU 
 ■ct3 by Congress, and their approval by President Adams. These were the Alier 
 nul Sedition Laws. The Alien Law authorized the President to expel from ihe 
 United States any alien whose presence he might deem dangerous to the Republic. 
 The Sedition Law authorized the suppression of publications which tended t( 
 weaken the authority of the National Government. The Legislatures of Virginia 
 and Kentucky asserted the dangerous doctrine of Slate Rights, by passing, in 
 opposition to the Alien and Sedition Laws, resolutions in which they declared the 
 rights of the States to judge how far the National Government had a right to go- 
 Death of Washington — Seat of Government at Washington City. — 
 At the close of 1799, the Nation was called upon to mourn the loss of the illustrious 
 Washington, who died at Mt. Vernon, on the 14th of December, 1799. In the 
 summer of 1800, the seat of the Government of the United States was removed 
 from Philadelphia to the new city of Washington, in the District of Columbia. 
 
 Election of Jefferson. — In 1800, the Federalists nominated John Adams and 
 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for the Presidency, while the Republicans nominated 
 Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. This time the Republican party was success- 
 ful; but, as Jefferson and Burr had each the same number of votes, the election was 
 carried to the House of Representatives, when, after thirty-five ballotings, Jefferson 
 was chosen President, and Burr was declared to be elected Vice President. 
 
 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1801- 
 MARCH 4, 1809). 
 
 Inauguration of Jefferson — Admission of Ohio — Purchase of Louisiana. 
 
 — Mr. Jefferson was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1801 ; and he commenced 
 the administration of affairs with great vigor and ability. In 1S02, Ol io was ad- 
 mitted into the family of States; and in 1803, the United States purchased from 
 France, for fifteen millions of dollars, the immense territory of Louisiana, then ex 
 tending from the Mississippi river to the Rocky Mountains, and from the British 
 poisessions to the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 War with Tripoli — Decatur's Bold Exploit — Eaton and Hamet's Ex- 
 ; edition. — The insolent conduct of the piratical Barbary .States of Northern Africa 
 caused the United States to stop paying tribute to them in 180I, whereupon the 
 liashaw, or ruler of Tripoli, declared war against the United States. The Americai/ 
 '..-igate George Washington, under the command of Captain William Bainbiidge, 
 was sent to the Mediterranean sea, to protect American commerce; and, in 1803, 3 
 small American squadron, under Commodore Preble, appeared before Trij^li, where 
 one of his vessels, the Philadelphia, commanded by Captain William Bainbridge, 
 grounded, and was captured by the Tripolitans. In February, 1804, seventy six 
 Americans, with Lieutenant Stephen Decatur at their head, went into the harboi 
 31 
 
482 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 of Tripoli, boarded the Philadelphia, drove the pirates from her de^k, and then, 
 under a heavy cannonade from- the shore, set the vessel on fire. Decatur did not 
 lose a single man in this bold exploit. A severe naval battle was fought on the 3d 
 of August (1804), which resulted in an American victory; and the city of Tripoli 
 suffered heavy bomljardments from the American squadron. The Bashaw of Tripoli, 
 alarmed at the rapid progress of the victors, made peace with Mr. Lear, the Amcri 
 anu consul- general on the Mediterranean. (June 4, 1S05.) 
 
 Reelection of Jefferson — Aaron Burr's Trial for Treason and Acquitta. 
 - Tn the autumn of 1804, Jefferson was reelected President, and George Clinton. 
 01 New York, was chosen Vice President. The great South-west was rapidly be- 
 coming jjeopled. In 1806, Aaron Burr, who, by killing Alexander Hamilton in a 
 duel, in July, 1804, had come to be detested by a majority of the people of the 
 United States, secretly organized a military expedition in the Ohio region, with the 
 professed object of establishing an independent empire in Northern Mexico, with 
 himself as Emperor. Being suspected of the design of separating the country west 
 of the Alleghany mountains from the Union, he was arrested and brought to trial 
 on a charge of treason, at Richmond, Virginia, in 1S07; but, his guilt not being 
 proven, he was ac<iuitted. 
 
 Robert Fulton and Steam Navigation. — The experiments of Robert Fulton, 
 a Pennsylvania, in the application of steam to purposes of navigation, resulted in 
 success, in a voyage from New York to Albany, in August, 1807. 
 
 Condition of Europe — Napoleon, Emperor. — Europe was still convulsed 
 l)y the wars resulting from the French Revolution ; and at this time the greater 
 part of Continental Europe was under the control of the powerful and victorious 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, who had been created "Emperor of the French," in 1804. 
 While France was triumjihant on land. Great Britain, which was engaged in a long 
 and fierce war with her old enemy, was undisputed master of the seas. 
 
 American Commerce Injured by France and England. — The measures 
 of the two belligerent powers for each other's destruction produced great injury to 
 the commerce of the United States. For the purpose of destroying the commerce 
 of France, Great Britain, by an order-in-council, declared the coast of Continental 
 Europe from the mouth of the Elbe, in Germany, to Brest, in France, to be in a 
 state of blockade. Napoleon retaliated by issuing a decree at Berlin, in November, 
 1806, declaring the blockade of the ports of the British Islands. American vessels 
 were seized by both English and French cruisers, and American commerce was 
 swept from the ocean. In January, 1807, England, by an order-in-council, pro- 
 hibited the coast trade with France. The American merchants, whose interests 
 were injured by the measures of the two belligerent powers, demanded redress and 
 protection; and great excitement prevailed in the United .States. France and Eng- 
 land still continued their desperate commercial game, regardless of the rights of 
 neultal powers. On the nth of Novemlier, 1S07, Great Britain, by an order-in 
 ton .veil forbade neutral nations from trading with France or her colonies, unlesj 
 'J:fy first paid tribute to England. In retaliation, Napoleon, by a decree issued 
 at ^'llan, on the 17th of December,. 1807, forbade trade with England or her colc^ 
 nie=, and authorized the coniiscation of any vessel that had fubmitted to English 
 search oi paid English tri'jute. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 483 
 
 Search and Impressment — The Chesapeake and the Leopard.- -Great 
 
 Dritain, denying that any of her subjects could become citizens or subjects of any 
 other nation, claimed the right to search American vessels, and take from them her 
 iKitixe born subjects for her navy. This right was denied by the United States, 
 On the 22d of June, 1807, an event occurred which increased the excitement in the 
 United Slates, and created intense indignation against Great Britain. Four men on 
 board the American frigate Chesapeake, being claimed as deserters from the British 
 aimed ship Melamptis, and Commodore Barron of the Chesapeake refusing to stir 
 render them, the Chesapeake was attacked by the British frigate Leopard, oil the 
 coast of Virginia. Taken completely by surprise, the Chesapeake surrendeici. aftcj 
 having lost eighteen men killed and wounded. The four men were taken on board 
 the Leopard, and the Chesapeake returned to Hampton. The matter was investi- 
 gated, when it was proven that three of the seamen were native Americans, and 
 that the fourth, after being impressed into the British service, had deserted. 
 
 Embargo and Non-intercourse. — In July, 1807, the President is'^ued a 
 proclamation, ordering all British armed vessels to leave the waters of the United 
 States, and forbidding any to enter until Great Britain should render full satisfac- 
 tion for the outrage upon the Chesapeake; and, on the 22d of December (1807), 
 the National Congress decreed an embargo, which prevented both American and 
 foreign vessels from leaving American ports. Because the embargo was very un- 
 popular in the United States, especially with the merchants, to whose interests it 
 was very injurious, and because it failed to obtain justice from France and England, 
 it was repealed on the ist of March, when all commercial intercourse with those 
 countries was forbidden, until they should either modify or rescind their injurious 
 Pleasures. 
 
 Election of Madison. — The Presidential election of 1808 resulted in the 
 choice of the Republican candidate, James Madison, of Virginia, for President, 
 and the reelection of George Clinton as Vice-President. 
 
 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1809- 
 MARCH 4, 1817). 
 
 Inauguration of Madison. — Mr. Madison entered upon the duties of President 
 of the United States, on the 4th of March, 1809, when the relations of the Rejjub- 
 lic with England and France were of the most unfriendly character. On account 
 of the unfavorable aspect of affairs. Congress, at the summons of the President, was 
 assenil)led in extra session on the 22d of May. 
 
 Erskine's Assurances of Peace Fail.— Soon after his inauguration. President 
 Madison was assured by Mr. Erskine, the British ambassador at Washington, that 
 a special envoy from Great Britain would soon make his appearance in the Uncled 
 States, to negotiate for a settlement of all the subjects of dispute between the two 
 Govei-iments. Relying upon this assurance, the President proclaimed a rcnewa! 
 of c .mmercial intercourse with England, but the British Government disavow ei 
 Eiskine's act, and the President again proclaimed non-intercourse. 
 
 Continued Injury to American Commerce.— Both France and Engl.in.l 
 continued Iheir desperate commercial game for the ruin of each other, regarciless 
 of the interests of other nations. Great Britain refused to rescind her oltu.xious 
 
484 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 orders-in-counc:l, and Bonaparte firmly adhered to his Berlin and Milan deciees, so 
 injurious to American commerce; and American vessels continued to be seized by 
 both English and French cruisers. In 181 1, Great Britain went so far as to send 
 armed vessels to the coast of the United States, to seize American merchant vessels, 
 and lake them to England as lawful prizes. 
 
 The President and the Little Belt.— On the i6th of May: 181 1, an e.-eni 
 occurred which increased the bitter feeling in the United States against England, 
 The British sloop-of-war Little Belt, Captain Bingham, was met and hailed by the 
 American frigate President, Captain Rodgers, off the coast of Virginia. The lit' 
 tie Belt immediately answered by a cannon-shot. A short engagement ensued; 
 and when the Little Belt had thirty-two men killed and wounded, her commander 
 gave Captain Rodgers a satisfactory answer. Both Governments approved the 
 acts of their respective officers. 
 
 Indian Hostilities — Battle of Tippecanoe. — During the spring of 181 1, the 
 Indians of the North-West, led by Tecuniseh, a famous Shawnoese chief, and in- 
 stigated by British emissaries, began a war against the United States, for the jjurpose 
 of expelling the while people from the country north of the Ohio river. In the 
 autumn of the same year, General William Henry Hairison, Governor of Indiana 
 Territory, led about 2,000 troops up the Wabash river, to the mouth of Tipj^ecanoe 
 creek, where the Prophet, a brother of Tecumseh, had assembled many Indian 
 warriors. The Prophet proposed a conference for peace ; but Harrison, suspecting 
 treachery, caused his troops to sleep on their arms that night. (November 6, 181 1.) 
 Before daylight the next morning, the Indians attacked Harrison's camp, but, after 
 a desperate conflict, which lasted until dawn, they were repulsed. This engage- 
 ment is known as the battle of Tippecanoe, and it occurred on the 7th of Novem- 
 ber, 181 1. 
 
 ^^^AR ^A/•ITH great Britain— events of I812. 
 
 Declaration of War against Great Britain — Doings of Congress. — All 
 
 efforts made by the United States Government for a peaceful settlement of the 
 difficulties with England having failed, the President of the United Slates, by 
 authority of Congress, issued a proclamation, on the 19th of June, 1812, declaring 
 war against Great Britain. The contest which then began is known as " The War 
 of 1S12." Congress made appropriations for carrying on the war, and authorized 
 the President to enlist 25,000 men, to accept the services of 50,000 volunteers, and 
 to call out 100,000 militia for the defense of the sea-coast and the frontiers. Gen- 
 eral Heniy Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was appointed commander-in-chief. The 
 other leading generals were James Wilkinson, Wade Hampton, William Hull, and 
 Josej)h Bloomfield. These officers had all served in the War of the Revolutiun. 
 
 Invasion of Canada — Hull's Surrender at Detroit. — The war c( mniemed 
 with an invasion of Canada, from Detroit, in Michigan Territory, in July, 1812. Hy 
 abiiut 2.000 American troops under the command of General William Hull, (jov- 
 ^vnor of Michigan Territoiy. When informed that Fort Mackinaw, a strong 
 American post in the North-west, had been surprised and captured by a parly of 
 British and Indians, on the 17th of July, and that a small American force under 
 Major Van Home had been defeated on the River Raisin, on ihe 5lh of August, 
 Hull hastily returned to I'^etroit. Sir Isaac Brock, at the head of 1,300 British and 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 485 
 
 Indians, pursued Hull, and, appearing before Detroit, demanded the surrender of 
 tliat post and Hull's army, threatening in case of a refusal to allow the Indians the 
 uniestrained exercise of their barbarous system of warfare. Hull, greatly alarmed, 
 complied with the demand of the British general; and his army, and tlie fori at 
 Detroit ind the Michigan Territory, fell into the hands of the enemy. 
 
 Movements on the Niagara Frontier — Battle of Queenstown. — Aflei 
 Hull' 3 surrender at Detroit, the Americans made an attempt to invade Canaida or- 
 the Niagara frontier. On the 13th of October (181 2), a party of Americans crossed 
 the Niagaia river into Cinada, to attack the British at Queenstown. The invaders 
 captured a battery and made theniselves masters of Queenstown Heights; bal 
 when the enemy were reinforced by 600 men under Sir Isaac Brock, the Briti&t 
 commander-in-chief, and when many of the American militia refused to go to thf 
 relief of their countrymen, the Americans were defeated with the loss of 1,000 men 
 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Among those who were taken prisoners by the 
 enemy were Colonel Winfield Scott and Captain John Ellis Wool, who had distin- 
 tinguished themselves by their gallantry. Among the killed on the side of the 
 British was Sir Isaac Brock, their able and heroic commander-in-chief. 
 
 Victories of the American Navy. — The Americans, though defeated on land, 
 were successful on the sea. On the 13th of August, 1812, the American frigate 
 Essex, Captain David Porter, defeated and captured the British sloop-of-war Alert. 
 On the 19th of the same month (August, 1812), the United States frigate Constitu- 
 tion, Captain Isaac Hull, defeated, captured, and burned the British frigate Guer- 
 riere, off the Gulf of St. Lawrence. On the i8th of October (1812), the United 
 States sloop-of-war Wasp, Captain Jacob Jones, compelled the British brig Frolic 
 to surrender, after a severe conflict, off" the coast of North Carolina; but, in the after- 
 noon of the same day, both the Wasp and the Frolic were taken by the British ship 
 Poitiers. On the 25th of October, the American frigate United States. Captain 
 Stephen Decatur, was captured by the British frigate Macedonin, off the Azores 
 Islands. On the 29th of December, the American frigate Constitution, Captain 
 William Bainbridge, compelled the British frigate Java to strike her colors, after a 
 desperate fight of three hours, ofif the coast of Brazil. 
 
 Federalist Opposition to the War — Re-election of Madison. — The Fed- 
 eralists were violently opposed to the war; but they failed in their endeavors to 
 make it unpopular, as the war spirit of the great majority of the people of the 
 United States was fully demonstrated, in the autumn of 1812, by the reelection of 
 Madison as President, with Elbridge Geny, of Massachusetts, as Vice President. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1813. 
 
 The American Armies. — The Americans had organized three armies on the 
 Canada frontier, for the campaign of 1813. " The Army of the West," under Gen 
 cr;tl Willum Henry Harrison, was near the Western end of Lake Erie; "Tba 
 A.iniy of the Centre," under General Henry Dearborn, the commander-in-chief, was 
 on the Niagara frontier; and " The Army of the North," under General Wade 
 Ilam^jtjn, Wi's near Lake Champlain. 
 
 Massacre of Frenchtown. — The people of the West were resolved to recover 
 Michigan I'eriitcry; and so many volunteers from Ohio and Kentucky offered theii 
 
486 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 servicer! tna' General Harrison found himself obliged to issue an order against furthei 
 enlislnen*s On the loth of January, 1813, General Winchester, with 800 Ken- 
 tuckiai s, reached the Maumee Rapids, and, after a portion of this force had driven 
 tht ]jiiti;h from Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, in Michigan, on the i8lh ol 
 Januaiy, Winchester arrived with the remainder of the troops on the 20lh (Janunry, 
 1S13). General Proctor, with 1500 British and Indians, attacked the Americ^is al 
 \ tencluown, on the 22d of January, and Winchester surrendered, on condition IhaS 
 Lis troops should be protected from the Indians; but Proctor, in disregard c( l:"t 
 (■"lom'se, marched away, leaving the sick and wounded Americans to be mas: acrti 
 t V ihc Indians. From that time the war-cry of the Kentuckians was, " Remembei 
 the River Raisin!" 
 
 Fort Meigs Twice Besieged. — In February, 1813, General Harrison built 
 Fort Meigs, at the Maumee Rapids, where he was besieged at the beginning of 
 May, 1813, by 2000 British and Indians, under Proctor and Tecumseh, who were 
 finally driven away on the 5th of May, when Harrison was reinforced by a body of 
 Kentuckians, under General Green Clay. On the 21st of July, 1 8 13, about 4000 
 British and Indians, under Proctor and Tecumseh, again besieged Fort Meigs, but 
 the garrison, then under the command of General Clay, repulsed the enemy and 
 compelled them to retire. 
 
 Attack on Fort Stephenson Repulsed. — After their second repulse before 
 Fort Meigs, Proctor and Tecumseh marched against Fort Stephenson, at Lower 
 Sandusky, which they attacked on the 2d of August, but the garrison of 150 men, 
 under Major Croghan, a gallant officer only twenty-one years of age, bravely resisted 
 the assaults of the enemy, who were at last obliged to flee in confusion. 
 
 Perry's Victory on Lake Erie. — During the summer, the Americans con- 
 structed, at Erie, in Pennsylvania, a squadron of nine vessels, carrying fifty-five 
 guns, which they placed under the command of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry. 
 The British had prepared a squadron of six vessels, carrying sixty-three guns, 
 commanded by Commodore Barclay. A terrible battle was fought between these 
 two squadrons near the West end of Lake Erie, on the loth of September, 1S13. 
 Each squadron had about 500 men. During the battle, which began about noon, 
 Perry was obliged to abandon his flag-ship, the Lawrence, and to transfer his flag 
 to another ship, in the midst of a severe fire from the enemy. Such terrible broad- 
 sides were poured upon the enemy's fleet, that at four o'clock in the afternoon, 
 every British vessel had surrendered to Perry. Perry's dispatch to General Harrison 
 was, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." 
 
 Canada again Invaded — Battle of the Thames— End of the War in the 
 West. — After the victoiy on Lake Erie, Peny's fleet conveyed General Harrison 
 and his army across the Lake to Canada. Harrison advanced upon Fort Maiden, 
 which he found deserted. He pursued and overtook the fleeing British and Inii 
 lUi, under Proctor and Tecumseh, and, at the Moravian Town, on the Thames, he 
 iii.-:;tilated the whole force of the enemy, on the 5th of October (1813). T'xunnel 
 f::<z amDng the killed. The consequences of this brilliant victory were the reco\er)i 
 oi Micnigan and the termination of the war in the North-west. 
 
 Capture of York or Toronto. — On the 27th of April (1813), General Dear- 
 born, after being conveyed across Lake Ontario in Commodore Chauncey's fleet, 
 
UNITED STATES. 487 
 
 landed with 1700 troops at York, now Toronto, the capital of Ui)per Ginada, and 
 an important depot of British supplies. The place was ininiedialely abandoned by 
 the enemy, who blew up their magazine, thus killing 200 Americans, among whore 
 was the gallant General Zebulon N. Pike, who led the troops against the town. 
 
 Capture of Fort George— Battle of Stony Creek.— On the 27lh of May, 
 the army under Dearborn and the fleet under Chauncey attacked the British at Fort 
 Cje'^rge, in Canada, at the mouth of the Niagara river, and drove them westwaal 
 [); many miles. On the night of the 6th of June, the enemy were repulsed in a 
 Lie ■ ii' attack upon the pursuing Americans, at Stony Creek; but Gentra.a Chandki 
 a:id Winder, the American commanders, were taken prisoners. 
 
 Battle of Sackett's Harbor— Battle of Chrysler's Field, — On the 29th of 
 May, 1813, Sir George Prevost, with loco British soldiers, landed at Sackett's Harbor, 
 but they were repulsed in an attack upon the town, by the American militia, under 
 General Jacob Brown, and compelled to return hastily to their ships. In August, 
 Dearborn was succeeded in command by General James Wilkinson, who, with 7000 
 troops, went down the St. Lawrence in boats, early in November, for the purpose 
 of attacking Montreal. Wilkinson landed troops near Williamsburg, on the Canada 
 shore of the St. Lawrence, a little below Ogdensburg, when an indecisive action, 
 known as " The Battle of Chrysler's Field," was fought with the enemy, on the nth 
 of November (1813). Wilkinson proceeded farther down the river; but when 
 General Wade Hampton refused to cooperate with him, he relinquished his inten- 
 tion of attacking Montreal, and went into winter-quarters at French Mills. 
 
 Desolation of the Niagara Frontier. — General George McClure, who then 
 commanded American troops on the Niagara frontier, was so hard pressed by the 
 enemy that he destroyed Fort George, and the neighboring village of Newark, on 
 the loth of December, 1813; and on the 12th, he fled to Fort Niagara, on the New 
 York side of the Niagara river. The British and Indians crossed the river, cap- 
 tured Fort Niagara on the 29th of December, and laid six towns, including Buffalo, 
 in ashes. 
 
 War with the Creek Indians^Subjugation of the Indians. — In the 
 meantime, trouble had arisen in the South, where the Creek Indians, instigated by 
 Tecumseh, had commenced a fierce war against the white people. On the 30th 
 of August, 1813, the Creeks surprised and destroyed Fort Mimms, on the Alabama 
 river, and put to death 400 men, women, and children, who had sought refuge 
 within its walls. This atrocious deed aroused the indignation of the white people; 
 and General Andrew Jackson marched into the Creek country, at the head of 2000 
 men, chiefly Tennesseeans, and, in a series of conflicts, beginning in the early part 
 of November, 1S13, and ending with the battle of Tohopeka, or Great Horse Shoe, 
 al ".he close of March, 1814, the Creeks were so thoroughly defeated, and theit 
 power was so completely broken, that they were compelled to accept a humiliating 
 peace. 
 
 The War on th.i Ocean.— The ocean was the theatre of desperate engage 
 (Jisnts in 1813. On the 24th of February, the American sloop-of-war IlotHet, 
 Cajitain James Lawrence, captuied the British brig Peacock, off the coast of Jamaica 
 aftei a sliarp action of fifteen minutes. The Peacock sunk soon after the fight, 
 canying with her to the bottom of the sea nine British and three American seiimen. 
 
y88 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Captain Lawrence, soon after his return to the United States, was promoted to the 
 command of the frigate Chesapeake ; and on the 1st of June, he was defeated and 
 killed, after a bloody struggle of fifteen minutes with the British frigate Shannon, 
 off Boston harbor. Forty-eight of the officers and crew of the Chesapeake were 
 willed, and ninety-eight wounded. As the herr.ic Lawrence was carried below, he 
 exclaimed, "Don't give up the ship!" The American brig Argtts, Capiain Allen, 
 ifter capturing many British vessels off the English coast, was herself captured, on 
 he 14th of August, 1813, by the British brig Pelican. On the 5th of Sejitcn l-e;, 
 i8i3, the American brig Enterprise, Lieutenant Burrows, captured the British bug 
 Boxer, off Portland, Maine. The commanders of both vessels were killeJ, and 
 their remains were interred, with militai-y honors, in one grave, in Portland. 
 
 Cockburn's Depredations on the Atlantic Coast. — During the spring and 
 summer of 1813, Lewistown, on Delaware bay, and Havre de Grace, Frenchtown, 
 Fredericktown, and Georgetown, on Chesapeake bay, were plundered and burned 
 by a British squadron, under the command of the infamous Admiral Cockburn, 
 After lieing repulsed in attacks upon Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia, in June, 
 1 81 3, and after committing great outrages at Hampton, Cockburn carried many 
 negroes away from the Carolina coasts, and sold them in the West-Indies. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1814 AND 181B. 
 
 Battles at Oswego. — On the 5th of May, 1814, the town of Oswego, in New 
 York, on Lake Ontario, after a fierce engagement, was captured by the British, 
 who, however, withdrew from the town two days afterward. (May 7, 1814.) 
 
 Battle of Chippewa. — On the 3d of July, 1814, the American army under 
 General Jacob Brown, on the Western frontier of New York, crossed the Niagara, 
 with General Winfield Scott and General Ripley, and captured Fort Erie on the 
 same day. Brown advanced northward, along the west bank of the Niagara river, 
 and, on the 5th (July, 1814), he gained a brilliant victory at Chippewa, over the 
 British army, under General Riall. 
 
 Battle of Lundy's Lane. — The British army, under the command of Lieu- 
 tenant-General Drummond, advanced toward the Niagara, and, at sunset c n the 
 25th of July, 1814, met the American army, under General Brown, at Lundy's Lane, 
 near the thundering cataract of Niagara, where a sangunary battle ensued, which 
 ended at midnight, without a decisive result. Each party had lost over 800 men. 
 Generals Brown and Scott, the American commanders, v/ere both wounded. On 
 the 26th (July, 1814), the American army retired to Fort Erie. 
 
 Siege of Fort Erie. — On the 15th of August, the British army under Drum- 
 mond attempted to take Fort Erie by assault, but was repulsed with the loss of 
 1,000 men. After the British had besieged the fort for more than a month, they 
 yere driven from their intrenchments, on the 17th of September, by a party of 
 A.mei'cans who sallied from the fort. The enemy then retreated to Chippewa; 
 uid in November, the Americans destroyed Fort Erie, and recrossed to the Ncs 
 York side of the Niagara river. 
 
 Invasion of New York— Battles at Plattsburg. — WTien infi^rmed that 
 General Izard, the American commander at Plattsburg, in New York, on Lake 
 Champlain, had gone to the Niagara frontier with 5,000 of his troops to reinforce 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 48^ 
 
 General Brown, leaving only 1,500 under General Macomb at Plattshurg, Sir 
 George Prevost, who commanded 14,000 veteran troops on the St. Lawrence, ad 
 toward Plattsburg, before which place he appeared on the 6th of September. 
 Each party had, during the summer, constructed a small squadron on Lake Ch.'m- 
 plain. On Sunday morning, September llth, 1814, the British squadron, undei 
 ComniMdore Downie, attacked the American squadron, under Commodore Mac 
 donoiigh, otf Plattsburg; and after a fierce engagement of several hours, every 
 British vessel surrendered to Macdonough. On the same day, 1 he British land 
 force of 12,000 men under Prevost, which had attacked the little American army 
 'indei M.»:omb, at Plattsburg, was defeated and compelled to retreat hastily towarr 
 Canafia. 
 
 Bombardment of Stonington. — In the meantime, the British had blockaded 
 the whole New England coast, and had taken possession of Eastport, Machias, and 
 Belfast, in Maine. A British squadron under Commodore Hardy had bombarded 
 and cannonaded Stonington, in Connecticut, for four days, when the enemy finally 
 withdrew on the 14th of August. Property on the New England coast was de- 
 stroyed by British marauding parties. 
 
 Invasion of Maryland — Capture of Washington. — About the middle of 
 August, 1814. a British fleet under Admiral Cochrane sailed up the Patuxent, and 
 landed 5,000 troops under General Ross, who defeated the Americans under 
 General Winder, at Bladensburg, on the 24th of August, and, entering Washing- 
 ton City on the same day, burned the Capitol, the President's House, and other 
 public and private buildings, and then quickly returned to their shipping. 
 
 Attack on Baltimore Repulsed. — Encouraged by their success at Washing- 
 ton, the enemy threatened Baltimore with an attack. With about 8,000 British 
 troops, Ross landed at North Point, on the 12th of September, 1814, and, after a 
 desperate engagement, seven miles from Baltimore, on the same day, in which 
 Ross was killed, the Americans, under General Strieker, were compelled to fall 
 back behind the defenses of Baltimore. The British squadron which had ineffect- 
 ually bombarded Fort McHenry, garrisoned by a few Americans, under Major 
 Armistead, a few miles below Baltimoie, finally withdrew with the land troops, 
 on the morning of the 14th (September, 1814), and the attempt to take Baltimore 
 was abandoned. 
 
 Jackson's Invasion of Florida and Capture of Pensacola. — The subjuga- 
 tion of the Creek Indians by General Jackson did not put an end to the war in 
 the South. The Spaniards of Florida permitted the British to make the town o[ 
 Pensacola a base of operations. From this point, a force of British troop? and fugi 
 *i^e Creek warriors marched into Alabama, and attacked Fort Bowyer (now Fori 
 Morgan), below Mobile, on the 15th of September, 1814, but were repulsed with 
 heavy loss. Failing to obtain satisfaction from the Spanish Governor of Florida 
 lor sheltering the enemies of the United States, Jackson marched from Mobile, 
 with 2,000 Tennesseans, against Pensacola, which he seized on the 7th ol Nov..m 
 oer, afc°i driving the British to their shipping. 
 
 Invasion of Louisiana — Battles near New Orleans. — After returning to 
 Mobile, Jackson was called to New Orleans, to defend that city against an expected 
 •ittack from the British army and navy. On the 14th of December, 1814, a Britisc 
 
490 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 fleet captured an American flotilla in Lake Borgne. A British army of 12,000 men, 
 under General Pakenham, landed in Louisiana, and soon appeared below New Or- 
 leans. After being repulsed in an attack upon the British camp, on the night of 
 the 23d of December, 1814, Jackson placed his little anny of 3000 men, mostly 
 Tennessee militia, behind strong intrenchments, three miles below New Orleans, 
 and extending from the Mississippi river to an impenetrable cypress swamp, v\here 
 ne was soon reinforced by about 3000 Kentucky militia, increasing his anry to 
 )0(jo men. The British opened a cannonade on the American works on the 281!; 
 L)f December, 1814, and again on New Year's day, in 1815. At length, on !he 8th 
 of January, 1815, the whole British army, 12,000 strong, with Pakenham at its head, 
 advanced to open a grand attack upon the Americans, who opened a deadly 
 musketn anc artillery fire on the advancing enemy. The British troops at length 
 wavered and began to flee, and, while endeavoring to rally them. General Paken- 
 ham was killed. The whole British army retreated to their ships, and this sanguin- 
 ary battle ended in a glorious victory for the Americans. The British lost 2000 
 killed and wounded, Vi-hile the Americans lost only seven killed and six wounded. 
 This victory produced the liveliest joy in the United States. 
 
 The War on the Ocean. — The war was still continued with vigor on the 
 ocean, during the years 1814 and 1815. On the 28th of March, 1814, the American 
 frigate Essex, Gaptain Porter, was captured off" the port of Valparaiso, on the coast 
 of Chili, in South America, by the British frigate Phoebe and sloop-of-war Cherub. 
 On the 29th of April, 1814, the American sloop-of-war Peacock, Captain Warring- 
 ton, captured the British brig Epervier, off the coast of Florida. The American 
 sloop-of-war Wasp, Captain Blakeley, was lost at sea, after capturing thirteen British 
 vessels, among which were the Reindeer, taken on the 28th of June, and the Avon, 
 on the 1st of September, 1814. On the i6th of January, 1815, the American frigate 
 President, Commodore Decatur, was captured off" Long Island, by a British squadron. 
 On the 20th of February, 1 81 5, the American frigate Constitution, Commodore 
 Stewart, captured the British sloops-of-war Cyane and Levant, off Lisbon, in Portu- 
 gal, after a spirited engagement. On the 23d of March, 1815, the American sloop- 
 of-war Hornet, Captain Biddle, captured the British brig Penguin, in the South 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Hartford Convention — Peace of Ghent. — The Federalists had all along been 
 strenuously opposed to the war, and had thrown every obstacle in the way of its 
 prosecution by the Administration. At length, in December, 1814, a convention 
 composed of delegates from all of the New England States, and called on the recom- 
 mendation of the Legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut, assembled at Hart- 
 ford, Connecticut, to consider the grievances of the people caused by the war, and 
 to adopt measures to bring about its speedy termination. The proceedings of this 
 convention, which were secret, were regarded by man) as treasonable. Soon after 
 the adjournment of the convention, the Legislatures of Massachusetts and Connec- 
 tif i.t passed several laws which were in direct opposition to the laws of ihe Unite! 
 States; and a feared collision between the governments of the States and iht 
 National (Government was only prevented by the arrival of intelligence that a trea!y 
 of peace had been signed at Ghent, in Belgium, on the 24th of December, 1814, by 
 American and Hritish commissioners. The President proclaimed peace on the i8tb 
 •jf February, 1815. The treaty left unsettled all the issues which had led to the wai 
 
UA'ITED STATES. 
 
 49' 
 
 War witn Algiers— CommoJore Decatur Humbles Algiers. — No soonei 
 was the war with England terminated, than the United States was obliged to engage 
 in a short war with the piratical Barbary State of Algiers, in Northern A^'rica. 
 Under the impression that the navy of the United States had been almost destrtyed 
 by that of Great Britain, the Algerines had become extremely insolent, and coiu- 
 mitted depredations upon American commerce in the Mediterrranean sea. Com 
 •Dodoie Decatur, who was immediately sent to the Mediterranean with a United 
 ila'as 5(;uadron, captured two Algerine vessels on the 17th of June, 1815; ami, on 
 h'? 28ih (June, 1815), he appeared before the city of Algiers, and demanded tha< 
 ill Americans held as prisoners should be set at liberty, that all destr jyed American 
 property should be indemnified, and that all claims to tribute from the United States 
 in future should be relinquished. Two days afterward (June 30, 1815), the Dey, 
 or ruler of Algiers, greatly alarmed, assented to Decatur's conditions, and a treaty 
 of peace was signed. Decatur also obtained satisfaction from the rulers of Tunis, 
 Tripoli, and Morocco; and thenceforth American commerce was not disturbed in 
 the Mediterranean sea. The United States was the first power that made any 
 determined efforts to stop the piratical proceedings of the Barbary States. 
 
 Admission of Louisiana and Indiana — Election of Monroe. — Two new 
 States were admitted into the Union during the Administration of Mr. Madison; 
 — Louisiana, in April, 1812, and Lidiana, in December, 1816. In the autumn of 
 
 1816, the Republican candidate for President, James Monroe, of Virginia, was 
 elected by a large majority, with Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, as Vice- 
 President. 
 
 MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1817- 
 MARCH 4, 1825). 
 
 Inauguration of Monroe. — Mr. Monroe was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 
 
 1817. He selected a Cabinet of able men; and entered upon the duties of his 
 office with vigor, at a time when the Republic was recovering from the effects ot 
 the late war with England, when American commerce and manufactures were re- 
 viving, and when the nation was starting on a new and glorious career of prosperity, 
 wealth, power, and greatness. 
 
 Emigration to the West. — During the war with England, the prices of 
 various commodities had become so high that the numerous manufacturing estab- 
 lishments in the United States had enjoyed a great degree of prosperity ; but when, 
 en the return of peace, British goods flooded the country at low prices, these estab- 
 lishments ceased to flourish, and thousands were compelled to seek other occupa- 
 tions. This sudden change in the pecuniary condition of so many thousa.ids, led 
 to so large and rapid an emigration to the vast region west of the Alleghanies, 
 whic;h awaited the industry of the agriculturist, that in less than ten years, four new 
 wd prosperous States had grown up in the recent vast wilderness. 
 
 Indian War in the South — Cession of Florida. — In the latter part of 1817 
 tlii Semin ile and Creek Indians began a series of murderous attacks upon tlirt 
 white settlers of Southern Georgia. General Jackson, with some Tennessee troops, 
 niarchijd against the hostile Indians. With the belief that the Creeks were [)ro- 
 tected by the Spanish author^ies of Florida, Jackson marched into that country, 
 
492 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 capluied the post of St. Mark's, sent the Spanish authorities to Pensacola, and 
 afterwarils to Havana, in Cuba, and hanged Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert C. 
 Ambrisler, British subjects, who were known to have excited the Indians to M'lr, 
 These proceedings led to a treaty, by which Spain ceded all of the Floridas tc '.ke 
 I' litfd States; and, in February, 1821, that country was organized as a Ten iiory, 
 I.i 1 81 8, a treaty with Great Britain fixed the boundary line between the Uni"eJ 
 States and British America at forty-nine degrees norih latitude, from the Lak.' ol 
 le Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Admission of Five New States — " Missouri Compromise." — Fiv nev, 
 t.ates were admitted into the Union during Monroe's Administration: Mississippi, 
 'n 1817; Illinois, in 1818; Alabama, in 1S19; Maine, in 1820; and Missouri, in 
 1821. When the proposition for the admission of Missouri was brought forward 
 in Congress, in 1819, angry debates arose as to whether it should be admitted as a 
 Free or a Slave State. This was the first great contest for supremacy in the Repub- 
 lic, between the friends and the opponents of slaver)'. It was finally agreed, in 
 1820, by a compromise, that Missouri should be admitted as a Slave State, and that 
 slavery should be allowed in all territory south of its southern boundary, thirty-six 
 degrees and thirty minutes north latitude, and prohibited in all territory north and 
 west of these limits. This is known as " The Missouri Compromise." Under this 
 compromise, Missouri became a State on the 2ist of August, 1821. 
 
 Re-election of Monroe — "The Monroe Doctrine." — In the autumn of 
 1820, Monroe and Tompkins were reelected President and Vice-President, by an 
 fllmost unanimous Electoral vole. The old Federalist party was almost extinct, and 
 the Administration was very popular. Among the important events of the Admin- 
 istration of Monroe, was the recognition of the independence of Mexico and the 
 South American Republics by the United States, when the President declared, as 
 a principle, "that the American continents are not henceforth to be considered as 
 subjects for future colonization by any European power." This is known as " The 
 Monroe Doctrine." 
 
 Visit of Lafayette to the United States. — In August, 1S24, the beloved 
 Lalayette arrived in the United States, as the guest of the nation for whose inde- 
 pendence he had fought so valiantly nearly half a century before. During a 
 period of eleven months, he visited twenty States of the Union, being everywhere 
 received with demonstrations of gratitude. When he was ready to leave the Amer- 
 ican shores, the frigate BranJyiuine, in compliment to him, conveyed him back to 
 his delightful France. 
 
 Election of John Quincy Adams. — In the Autumn of 1824, there were foui 
 candidates in the field for the Presidency. As not one of them had received a 
 aiujority of the Electoral vote, the election was carried to the House of Represen- 
 tatives, when John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, son of President Jonr Adams, 
 «as chosen President, and John Cad well Calhoun, of South Carolina, v;,is eltjcte^ 
 /ict President. 
 
UNITED STATES. 40 -j 
 
 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 
 4, 1825-MARCH 4, 1829). 
 
 Inauguration of John Quincy Adams— The Georgia Controversy. — 
 
 lohii (Quincy Adams was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1825, when the United 
 S'.iles was at peace with all the world. In the earlier ]3art of his Admii\istra- 
 ion, theie was a controversy between the National Government and the Slate of 
 j:;o'-gia, concerning the removal of the Indians within the borders of that SiJ.te, 
 riie Na:.onal Goverrmient had agreed to remove the Indians to the region west of 
 Jie Mississippi river, when it could be done peaceably. The Governor of Georgia, 
 assuming State supremacy, threatened to remove them Immediately; the National 
 Govermnent interfered in behalf of the Indians, and the difficulty would perhaps 
 have ended in civil war, had not the Indians, in consideration of a large annuity 
 which was to be paid to them from the National treasuiy, agreed to remove peace- 
 fully to the country west of the Mississippi. 
 
 Erie Canal — First Railroad in the United States. — John Quincy Adams's 
 Admimistration is celebrated for various internal improvements. The great Erie 
 Canal, which connects the Hudson river with Lake Erie, in the State of New York, 
 was completed in 1825, through the exertions of the distinguished De Witt Clinton. 
 The first railroad in the United States was finished in Quincy, Massachusetts, in 
 1827. 
 
 A Strange Coincidence. — The fiftieth anniversary of American Independence, 
 or the 4th of July, 1826, was made memoraljle by a strange coincidence, which 
 made a profound impression throughout the United States. On that day, John 
 Adams died at Quincy, Massachusetts, and Thomas Jefferson, at Monticello, Vir- 
 ginia. These two statesmen had been the most earnest advocates of independence, 
 each had signed the great Declaration, each had been a member of the Congress, 
 afterwards Vice-President, and lastly President of the United States. 
 
 The American System. — It was during the Administration of John Quincy 
 Adams, that the principle of encouraging home manufactures by imposing duties 
 on foreign articles of the same kind, became a settled national policy in the United 
 States, and was called "The American System." That policy was very popular 
 with the manufacturers of the Northern section of the Union ; but the planters of 
 the cotton-growing States, who found a ready market for their cotton in England, 
 opposed it. A tariff enacted in 1828, was made to appear very unjust to the Southern 
 planters, by John C. Calhoun and other Southern politicians, who taught the doc- 
 trines of " State Rights" and "Nullification." 
 
 Election of Jackson. — In the Presidential election of 1828, General Andiew 
 Jackson, of Tennessee, was chosen President of the United States, and John C. Cal- 
 lu'un, of South Carolina, was reelected Vice-President. 
 
 ? JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1829- 
 MARCH 4, 1837). 
 
 Inauguration of Jackson — His Collision with the Supreme Court. — 
 General Jackson was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1829, seventh President of 
 the United States. lie foimed a Caljint^t from his political friends; and entered 
 
♦94 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 upon the duties of his exalted station with a determined wil'i, and with incorruptible 
 intcyrily. In 1832, President Jackson came into collision with the Supreme Court 
 of tlie United States, resj^ecling the removal of the Creek and Cherokee Indians 
 from Georgia. The authorities of Georgia threatened to remove them by force; 
 and w hen the Supreme Court decided against the claims of that State, the President 
 sided with the authorities of Georgia, and procured the removal of the hiilians 
 beyun-.l the Mississippi river. 
 
 The United States Bank— Removal of the Public Money. — In his f st 
 annual message to Congress, in December, 1S29, President Jackson exjiressed hiiu 
 self strongly against a renewal of the charter of the United States Bank, which 
 would expire in 1836; and, although Congress refused to authorize the removal 
 of the public funds from the United States Bank, as recommended by the President, 
 he caused the Secretary of the Treasury to remove them, in 1833. The result of 
 this measure was great excitement and a terrible financial and business convulsion 
 throughout the country. 
 
 Black Hawk War. — In the spring of 1S32, the Sac, Fox, and Winnebago In- 
 dians, in Wisconsin Territory, led by the famous chief, Black Hawk, commenced a 
 destructive war on the frontier settlements of Northern Illinois. The Indians were 
 completely subdued in August of the same year (1832), by United States- troops 
 under General Scott and Illinois militia under General Atkinson. Black Hawk 
 was made prisoner, and taken to the principal Eastern cities, in order that he might 
 be impressed with the number and power of the white people. 
 
 Trouble with France — Re-election of Jackson. — At the close of Jackson's 
 first term, a serious difficulty between the United .States and France threatened to 
 end in a war between the two nations. The French Government did not promptly 
 comply with the agreement to indemnify the United States for French spoliations 
 on American commerce during the wars of Napoleon. But the resolute stand taken 
 by President Jackson caused France to pay the claims justly demanded by the 
 United States; and the difficulty ended. In the autumn of 1832, Jackson was 
 reelected President, with Martin Van Buren, of New York, as Vice-President. 
 
 Rebellion in South Carolina — Compromise Tariff. — The taril7-law of 
 1828 was still a source of bitter complaint in the Southern States; and in November, 
 1S32, South Carolina, through a State convention assembled at Charleston, declared 
 the tariff laws to be unconstitutional, null and void. Assuming that the enforce- 
 ment of those laws would be a sufficient cause for South Carolina to separate herself 
 from the Union, that State prepared to resist the collection of duties in the port of 
 Charleston by force of arms. At this crisis. President Jackson issued a proclama- 
 tion against the South Carolina nullifiers, with John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. 
 Hayne at their head, declaring that he would enforce the laws of the United States 
 liy military power, if necessary. The, threatened civil war was prevented by a 
 compromise prepared by Henry Clay, of Kentucky, the author of the Missouri Com- 
 piomise, and one of the warmest friends of the tariff system; and, on the 3d tf 
 March, 1S33, a law went into operation which greatly reduced the duties so obnox 
 ious to tiie Southern planters. 
 
 War with the Seminole Indians in Florida — " Specie Circular." — 
 Wlien, in December, 1835, the United States Government attempted to remove the 
 
ROBERT FULTON. 
 
 SAMUEL F. B. MORSE. 
 
ANDREW JACKSON 
 
 !OHN C. CALHOUN. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 495 
 
 Seminole Indians from Florida to the Territories M'est of the Mississippi, in accord- 
 ance with a Ireaty which had been concluded with a few chiefs, that fierce tribe 
 .Degan a wai against the United States. On the 2Sth of December, 1835. a band 
 of Seminoles, with their famous chief, Osceola, at their head, killed General Thump- 
 Gon and five of his friends, near Fort King. On the same day, another par.y of 
 Seminoles attacked 100 men under Major Dade, and killed all but four of them. 
 On the 30th of December, 1S35, General Clinch defeated the Seminoles on thf 
 banks of the Withlacoochee ; and on the 29th of February, 1836, General Gainer 
 defeahd them near the same place. On the nth of July, 1836, a circular was 
 issuc'd from the Treasury Department, requiring collectors of the public revenue to 
 receive only gold and silver in payment. This circular, known as "The Specie 
 Circular," created much bitter feeling against President Jackson. 
 
 Admission of Arkansas and Michigan — Election of Van Buren. — Two 
 
 new states were admitted into the Union during the Administration of General 
 Jackson; — Arkansas, in June, 1836, and Michigan, in January, 1837. In the 
 autumn of 1836, Martin Van Buren, of New York, the Democratic candidate for 
 the office of President of the United States, was elected. As the people had failed 
 to elect a Vice-President, Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, was chosen as such 
 by the United States Senate. 
 
 VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1837- 
 MARCH 4, 1841). 
 
 Inauguration of Van Buren — Financial Convulsion. — Mr. Van Buren 
 
 was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1S37, at a time when the country was on 
 the brink of a terrible financial and business convulsion. During March and April 
 of that year (1837), there were mercantile failures in the city of New York to 
 the amount of over one hundred millions of dollars. The efects of these failures 
 were felt throughout the whole country, and credit and confidence were destroyed. 
 The banks suspended specie payment. T? e National Government could not call 
 in its deposits, or collect its duties in specie; and the National treasury was empty. 
 The State of Mississijipi and the Territory of Florida repudiated their debts. 
 
 The Seminole War.— The Seminole war in Florida still continued. In 
 March, 1S37, some of the Seminole chiefs made a treaty of peace with General 
 Jessup, but it was soon broken by the treacherous Osceola, who was in consequence 
 seized by stratagem, in October, 1837, and imprisoned in Fort Moultrie, where he 
 died. On Christiras day, 1837, Colonel Zachary Taylor defeated the Seminoles 
 near Lake Okecl.obee. This destructive war ended in 1842, after a continuance 
 of seven years. 
 
 Rebellion in Canada. — The peaceful relations between the Governments of 
 the United Slates and Great Britain were disturbed in 1837, by a reiiellion in 
 Cmada, which had for it-, object the establishment of the independence of iLal 
 Cuuiitry. The leaders of the revolt were Louis Joseph Papineau, in Canaika East, 
 and William Lyon Mackenzie, in Canada West. Great Britain was offended 
 becau;e hundreds of citizens of the United States crossed the borders of New York 
 into Canada, to aid the rebellious Canadians. The danger of war was avert .'d by 
 ♦he pronvDt ailion of the President of the United States and of the Governor of 
 
49') L'&NTENNlAl, inS.TGk\. 
 
 New York, who issued proclamations declaring that all who crossed tht border to 
 aid the insurgents, would forfeit all claims to the protection of the Government ot 
 the United States. 
 
 The Maine Boundary Dispute. — The peace between the United States and 
 Great Britain was also threatened by a dispute about the boundary betv> "en the 
 State of Maine and the British Province of New Brunswick. The inhabitants of 
 ^I.une and New Brunswick were only pi evented from settling the dispute by an 
 a] 1 =al lo arms, \ty the conciliatory course of General Scott, who had been setit te 
 ths lor ler by the United States Govenmient to preserve peace. The boundai7 
 line was finally settled by a treaty, negotiated at Washington, in 1842, by Daniel 
 Wej'Ster on the part of the United States, and Lord Ashburton on the part of 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Election of Harrison. — The financial convulsions of this and the preceding 
 Administration produced such a change in the minds of the people of the United 
 States, that the Whig candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, in 1840, Gen- 
 eral William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, was elected by an overwhelming majority, 
 V ith John Tyler, of Virginia, as Vice-President. 
 
 HARRISON'S AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 
 (MARCH 4, 1841-MARCH 4, 1845). 
 
 Harrison's Inauguration and Death. — General Harrison took the oath of 
 office on the 4th of March, 1S41, as niitth President of the United States. On the 
 17th of March (1841), the new President issued a proclamation calling an extra 
 session of Congress, to begin on the 31st of May, of that year. The hopes of the 
 people of the United States that a new career of prosperity was about to dawn upon 
 the Nation by a change of policy, were soon dispelled by the death of President 
 Harrison, which occurred on the 4th of April, 1841, just one month after his in- 
 auguration. 
 
 Tyler Made President — His Rupture with his Party. — In accordance with 
 the requirements of the National Constitution, the Vice-President, John Tyler, was 
 immediately inaugurated President of the United States. The extra session of 
 Congress called by Harrison, commenced on the 31st of May, and ended on the 
 13th of September. (1841.) Two bills which had been passed for the re-charter 
 of the United States bank were vetoed by President Tyler. All the members of 
 the Cabinet, with the exception of Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, dissatisfied 
 with the action of the President in respect to the bank, charging him with violating 
 the pledges which he had made to the party which had elected him to the Vice- 
 Presidency, immediately resigned their offices. 
 
 Troubles in Rhode Island. — The year 1842 is noted for domestic troubles in 
 Rhode Island, whicli threatened to involve that State in civil war. The difficulty 
 was ai)out *he exchange of the old charter, granted by King Charles II. in 16C3, 
 for a new State constitution. The people of the State were all in favor of the 
 adoption of a new constitution; but with regard to the mode of adoption there were 
 :wo parties, known respectively as the Law and Order party and the Suffrage parly. 
 The Law and Order party chose Samuel W. King for Governor, while he Suffrage 
 parly elected Thomas W. Dorr. Each of these claimed to be the legal Governor , 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 A91 
 
 and bloodshed was only prevented by United States troops who had been sent there 
 to preserve order. A. new constitution was adopted the same year (1842), and went 
 u;to operation in 1S43. 
 
 The Texas Question — Election of Polk. — The question of the admission, as 
 a Slate of the Union, of the independent Republic of Texas, which had achieved 
 lis independence of Mexico in the battle of San Jacinto, in April, 1836, after a 
 Moody war, was warmly discussed in the United States during the last year of 
 Tyler's Administration. The annexation of this Republic, in which slavery existed, 
 was v'.jlently opposed in the Northern States, because it would increase the tern- 
 torial extent md political power of slavery; while it was advocated in the Southern 
 States for that very reason. In the autumn of 1 844, James Knox Polk, of Tennessee, 
 who was m favor of the annexation of Texas, was elected President of the United 
 States, with George Mifflin Dallas, of Pennsylvania, as Vice-President. 
 
 Electro-Magnetic Telegraph — Admission of Florida and Iowa. — The 
 fii-st use ever made of the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph, — the invention of Professor 
 Samuel Finley Breese Morse, — was in 1844, in sending to Washington the account 
 of the proceedings of the Democratic National Convention at Baltimore, which 
 nominated Mr. Polk as a candidate for the Presidency. On the 3d of March, 1845, 
 the day before he retired from the Presidency, Mr. Tyler signed a bill for the 
 admission of Florida and Iowa into the Union of States. 
 
 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1845- 
 MARCH 4, 1849). 
 
 Inauguration of Polk — Oregon Boundary Dispute. — Mr. Polk was inaugu- 
 rated on the 4th of March, 1845, ^^ ^ period when the United States had a serious 
 dispute with Great Britain in regard to the possession of the Territory of Oregon, 
 on the Pacific coast. The territory was claimed by both Great Britain and the 
 United States ; but the difficulty, which at one time threatened to end in war, wa.« 
 settled in 1846, by a division of the territory, giving to Great Britain all that portion 
 north of forty-nine degrees north latitude, and to the United States all that portion 
 south elf these limits. 
 
 Admission of Texas — Rupture with Mexico. — On the 4th of July, 1845, 
 the Government of Texas formally approved of the joint-resolution of the Congress 
 of the United States for annexation, and that Republic became a State of the 
 Amencan Union. Mexico, which had never acknowledged the independence of 
 Texas, a.nd which still regarded that country as a part of her territory, immediately 
 prepared for war with the United States, and recalled her minister, General Almonte, 
 from Washington. 
 
 General Taylor in Texas. — President Polk now ordered General Zachary 
 Taylor to advance into Texas with 1500 troops, to protect that State from invasion, 
 nd to take post near the Rio Grande, as an army of observation. In March, 1840, 
 Taylor lift his camp at Corpus Christi, and, having established a depot of supplies 
 at Point Isabel, advanced to the mouth of the Rio Grande, oppwitc the Mexican 
 lity cf Matamoras, where he erected Fort Brown. 
 
498- CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 ^A^AR "WITH MEXICO (1846-1848'). 
 
 First Bloodshed in the War with Mexico. — Being informed that '^.e Mexi- 
 cms were crossing the Rio Grande above Fort Brown, Taylor sent sixt) i'-jgoons, 
 under Captain Thornton, to reconnoitre. These were surprised, on ^'.e 26tl) of 
 A]iril, 1846, by the Mexicans, and, after losing sixteen men, were nnde prisoners, 
 ".iptain Thornton alone escaping jjy a leap of his horse. This was *he first IjIocmI 
 "•X.^A in the war between the United States and Mexico. 
 
 Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. — Leaving a Fmall gaiTi»?ii 
 111 Fort Brown, Taylor marched back to Point Isabel, which was threatened by t' e 
 Mexicans. While on his return to Fort Brown, Taylor, at the head of 2000 men, 
 met 6000 Mexicans under Arista, at a prairie called Palo Alto, on the 8th of May ; 
 and, after a desperate battle of five hours, during which he lost only fifty-three men, 
 Taylor gained a glorious victory. On the following day (May g, 1846), Taylor 
 again defeated the Mexicans with a loss of looo men, at Resaca de la Palma. By 
 these two battles the Mexican army was virtually annihilated. 
 
 Declaration of War against Mexico — Plan of a Campaign.— On the nth 
 of May, 1846, the Congress of the United States declared that "war existed by the 
 act of the Republic of Mexico," and appropriated ten millions of dollars to carry 
 on the war, and authorized the President to call out 50,000 volunteers. The Sec- 
 retary of War and General Scott planned the military operations. A fleet was to 
 sail around Cape Horn and attack the Pacific coast of Mexico; an "Army of the 
 West," under General Stephen W. Kearney, was assembled at Fort Leavenworth, 
 to invade New Mexico, and to cooperate with the Pacific fleet; an "Army of the 
 Centre," under General John Ellis Wool, was collected at San Antonio de Bexar, 
 in Texas, to invade Mexico from that point; and "The Army of Occupation," 
 under General Taylor, was largely reinforced by the new volunteers. 
 
 Invasion of Mexico — Capture of Matamoras and Monterey. — On the 
 1 8th of May, 1846, General Taylor crossed the Rio Grande into Mexico, and took 
 possession of the city of Matamoras. In August (1846), Taylor, at the head of 
 6,000 men, marched against the city of Monterey, which, after a siege and assault of 
 four days, he captured, on the 24th of September, with its garrison of 9,000 Mexi- 
 can troops under General Ampudia. After this triumph, Taylor advanced farthei 
 into Mexico; and, after being joined by General Wool, he took possession of Vic- 
 toria, the Capital of the State of Tamaulipas, on the 29th of December, 
 
 Battle of Buena Vista. — Early in 1S47, a large part of Taylor's army was 
 sent to assist General Scott in the siege of Vera Cruz, so that Taylor was left in 
 command of only 5,000 men, to oppose 20,000 Mexicans gathering at San Luis 
 Potosi, under General Santa Anna. On the 23d of February, a fierce battle was 
 fought between the armies of Taylor and Santa Anna, at a plantaUtjn called Buena 
 Vistn, eleven miles from Saltillo. The Mexicans, although foui times as numetous 
 as the Americans, were badly defeated, and compelled to flee during the n'ght and 
 i.Esve their dead and wounded on the field of battle. The Americans were no^ 
 masters of all Northern Mexico; and in September, 1847, Taylor left his annj 
 ir. connnand of General Wool, and returned to the United States. 
 
 The Conquest of New Mexico and California. — The Army of the West 
 under General Kearney took formal possession of New Mexico, at Santa Fe, its 
 
WINFIELD SCOTT. 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOR. 
 
UNITED STATES. ^py 
 
 capital, on the iSth of August, 1846. Leaving the greatei part of his force with 
 Colonel Doniphan at Santa Fe, Kearney, at the head of 100 men, hastened to take 
 possession of the Mexican province of California, on the Pacific coast. While on 
 his wa/ to California, Kearney learned, by a messenger, that the conq.iest of that 
 country had already been accomplished by Colonel John Charles Fremont, with a 
 few United States troops, assisted by the United States navy, under Commodores 
 i)Ii>at and Stockton. On the i8th of February, 1847, Kearney proclaimed the an 
 Rsxalion of Calit'ornia to the United States. 
 
 Doniphan's Exploits in Mexico — The Conquest of Northern Mexico 
 
 — In accor lance with the orders of General Kearney, Colonel Doniphan, with 
 1,000 Missruri volunteers, forced the Navajo Indians to make a treaty of peace with 
 the United States, on the 22d of March, 1846, and then proceeded to join General 
 Wool. Doniphan defeated the Mexicans, under General Ponce de Leon, at Bracito, 
 on Christmas day, 1846; and at Sacramento, on the 28th of February, 1847, he 
 gain 'd a victory which gave him possession of Chihuahua, a city of 40,000 inhab- 
 itants, and the capital of the State of the same name. After a march of 5,000 miles, 
 Doniphan joined General Wool at Saltillo, on the 22d of March, 1847. The con- 
 quest of Northern Mexico and California was now complete; and General Winfield 
 Scott had just commenced, at Vera Cruz, a campaign which ended in the reduction 
 of the Mexican capital and the military occupation of the heart of the Mexican 
 Republic. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Vera Cruz. — On the 9th of March, 1847, a United States 
 army of 12,000 men under General Scott, and a squadron under Commodore Conner, 
 appeared before Vera Cruz, and soon completely invested the city. After a vigor- 
 ■)us siege and bombardment, the city of Vera Cruz and the neighboring castle of 
 San Juan de UUoa, together with 5,000 Mexican troops aud 500 cannon, were sur- 
 rendered to Scott, on the 26th of March. (1847.) 
 
 Battle of Cerro Gordo. — After the capture of Vera Cruz, Scott's army marched 
 toward the city of Mexico. At Cerro Gordo, a difficult mountain pass, Scott de- 
 feated Santa Anna, who was at the head of 12,000 troops strongly intrenched. 
 The Mexicans lost 4,000 killed and wounded, and 3,000 were made prisoners by 
 the Americans. The Mexican army was completely broken up, and Santa Anna 
 fled on a mule. 
 
 The March toward the Mexican Capital— Rest at Puebla.— After their 
 victoiy at Cerro Gordo, the Americans continued their advance toward the capital 
 of the Mexican Republic, took possession of Perote, the strongest fortress in Mex- 
 ico, on the 22d of April, 1847, and on the 5th of May entered Pue])la, a city oi 
 80,000 inhabitants, where they rested until August, after a series of victories almost 
 unparalleled in the annals of war. 
 
 The March toward the Capital Resumed. — After having received r<;.n 
 :brccments, Scott left Puebla, on the 7th of August, 1847, and resumed his march 
 toward the Mexican capital; and on the loth (August, 1847), the American troojis 
 saw the extensive valley of Mexico before them. Lakes, plains, cities, and cloud 
 capped mountains burst upon their gaze. Away in the distance was seen the greai 
 city of tjie Montezumas, with its lofty domes and towers. But between that city 
 and the American army, were strong fortifications, and a Mexican army of 30,000 
 men, under Santa Anna, to be overcome. 
 
500 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Battles of Contreras, San Antonio, and Churubusco. — On the 20lh of Att- 
 gust, 1847, the American army, after u bloody struggle, carried the Mexican camp of 
 Contreras by assault. On the same day, the Americans took the .-;tiovi<^ fortress of 
 San Antonio, and gained a brilliant victory over the Mexicans at Churubusco, 
 Santa i^mia's army, virtually annihilated, fled to the capital. During this bloody day, 
 the Mexicans lost 4,000 men killed and wounded, and 3,000 wore made prisoner* 
 *'V the victorious Americans. 
 
 An Armistice — Treachery of Santa Anna. — Scott now offered the Mexican* 
 {■■-.ace. Santa Anna asked for an armistice, which Scott granted; but, when in- 
 formed liiai the treacherous Mexican general was improving the time by strength- 
 ening the defenses of the capital, the American commander declared the armistice 
 at an end, on the 7th of September. (1847.) 
 
 Capture of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec — Fall of the Capital. — 
 The victorious Americans took by storm the strong position of Molino del Rey, on 
 the 8th of September, and the lofty fortified hill of Chapultepec, on the 13th of the 
 same month; and, on the 14th (September, 1847), Scott entered the Mexican capi- 
 tal in triumph, and by his orders the Stars and Stripes were placed on the National 
 Palace. Order was soon restored in the city. Santa Anna and the authorities of 
 the Mexican Republic had fled. 
 
 Peace of Guadaloupe Hidalgo. — A treaty of peace between the Governments 
 of the United States and Mexico was concluded at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, on the 2d 
 of February, 1848; and President Polk proclaimed peace on the 4th of July of the 
 same year. By the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, New Mexico and California 
 became Territories of the United States, while the United States Government agreed 
 to pay to Mexico fifteen millions of dollars for the ceded territory, and to assume 
 the debts due by the Mexican Government to American citizens. 
 
 Admission of Wisconsin — General Taylor Elected President. — In May, 
 1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Union as a State. In the autumn of the 
 same year. General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, whose great military achievements 
 in Mexico had made him a popular favorite, was elected President of the United 
 States, with Millard Fillmore, of New York, as Vice-President. 
 
 SLAVERY AGITATION AND THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 TAYLOR'S AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATIONS 
 (MARCH 4, 1849-MARCH 4, 1853). 
 
 Inauguration of Taylor — Slavery Agitation. — As the 4th of March, 1849, 
 fell on the Sabbath, the inauguration of President Taylor did not take place until 
 the 5th. The agitation of the slavery question was revived during the first yea? of 
 Taylor's Administration, by the action of the people of California, who, in a con- 
 vention held at San Francisco, framed a State constitution by which slavery should 
 be excluded from California forever after its admission as a State. 
 
 Threatened Dissolution of the Union — A Compromise. — When, in Feb- 
 ruary, 1850, the representatives of California petitioned Congress to admit their 
 Territory into the Union as a State, the friends of slavery in Congress violently op 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 50I 
 
 p^iscci her admission as a Free State, and boldly declared that such a proceeding 
 wt)uld be a valid reason for the Slave States to secede from the Union. The bold 
 threats ot the members of Congress from the Slave States alarmed the friends 
 of the Union so much that they became ready to acquiesce in any measure, and 
 II enry Clay brought forward a plan of compromise in the United States Senate. A 
 ccmmittee of thirteen, composed of six Senators from the Free States and six from 
 ihe Slave States, with Mr. Clay as chairman, was appointed to consider the plan 
 (jf compromise; and, on the 8th of May, 1850, Mr. Clay reported a comprr mise 
 Wl. 
 
 Death of President Taylor — Fillmore Inaugurated President. — While 
 the slavery question was absorbing the attention of Congress and the Nation, Presi- 
 dent Taylor was attacked by a sudden illness, of which he died on the 9th of July, 
 1850. In accordance with the provisions of the National Constitution, the Vice- 
 President, Millard Fillmore, took the oath of office on the following day, and 
 immediately assumed the duties of President of the United States. 
 
 The Compromise Act — Admission of California. — After four months' 
 discussion, Mr. Clay's compromise measures were passed by both Houses of Con- 
 gress, and, after receiving the signature of President Fillmore, on the 9th of Sep- 
 tember, 1850, became a law of the Republic; and California entered the Union as 
 a Free State. The Compromise Act, as it was called, provided, ist. For the 
 admission of California as a Free State ; 2d. For the erection of the Mormon settle- 
 ments into a Territory called Utah, without mention of slavery; 3d. For the erection 
 of New Mexico into a Territory without mention of slavery, and the payment of 
 ten millions of dollars to Texas in purchase of her claims to a large portion of New 
 Mexico; 4th. For the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia; and 
 5th. For the arrest and return to their masters of all fugitive slaves who should 
 escape to the Free States. The last measure met with much opposition in the Free 
 States, and the execution and violation of the law in several instances led to serious 
 results. 
 
 Election of Pierce. — The Presidential election of 1853 was a remarkably quiet 
 one, and resulted in the choice of the Democratic nominees, Franklin Pierce, of 
 New Hampshire, for President, and William Rufus King, of Alabama, for Vice- 
 President. 
 
 PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1853- 
 MARCH 4, 1857). 
 
 Inauguration of Pierce — Dispute with Mexico. — Mr. Pierce was inaug j 
 rated on the 4th of March, 1853. For a time, during the earlier part of his Admio. 
 istration, another war between the United States and Mexico seemed inevitable. 
 The fertile Mesilla Valley was claimed by both the Territory of New Mexico and 
 ihe Mexican State of Chihuahua; and Santa Anna, who had again become Presi- 
 dent of Mexico early in 1854, caused Chihauhua to take armed possession of thf 
 disputed territory. The dispute was settled in 1854 ; and the Mesilla Valley came, 
 by purchase, into the possession of the United States. 
 
 Exploring Expeditions — Comm ercial Treaty with Japan. — During Pierce's 
 Administration, naval expeditions were sent by the United States Government to 
 
502 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 explore the North Pacific Ocean, between the Pacific shores of America and Asia. 
 Land expeditions were sent across the continent, to ascertain the must practicable 
 /oute for a railroad to the Pacific Ocean. In the summer of 1854, a treaty of 
 commerce and friendship was made with the Emperor of Japan, by Commodore 
 Matthew C. Perry on the part of the Government of the United States. 
 
 Agitation of the Slavery Question — The Kansas-Nebraska Act. — The 
 
 Imitation of the slaveiy question was suddenly revived in the beginning of 1854 b) 
 J fill reported in the United States Senate by Stephen A. Douglas, of Illin^'i-i, 
 1 hjinnan of the Senate Committee on Territories, proposing the organization of 
 t'lie vast region between the Missouri river and the Rocky mountains into two Tei 
 ntories, one to be named Kansas and the other Nebraska, and leaving the people 
 of those Territories to decide whether or not they would have slavery within their 
 borders. The passage of this bill would, in effect, annul the Missouri Compromise, 
 and for this reason it was violently opposed in the Free States, where the greatest 
 exr;itement prevailed, and where public meetings were held by men of all parties, 
 to protest against the measure. The bill was, however, passed, in March, 1854, 
 and thus the Missouri Compromise was virtually repealed. The most bitter sectional 
 feeling was beginning to be felt between the North and the South. 
 
 Civil War in Kansas. — The pro-slavery men of the Slave States now deter- 
 mined to make Kansas slave territory by colonizing it with emigrants from their 
 section of the Union, while the anti-slavery men of the Free States resolved to 
 secure the Territory to freedom by peopling it with settlers holding their views. A 
 heavy emigration to Kansas at once set in from both the Free and the Slave States, 
 and, as a natural consequence, there was civil war in the Territory for several 
 years. 
 
 Formation of the Republican Party — Election of Buchanan. — The repeal 
 of the Missouri Compromise, and the encroachments of the slave power, led to the 
 formation of a new political organization, called " The Republican Party," whose 
 leading principle was opposition to the extension of slavery into the Territories of 
 the Republic. This party, which had its entire strength in the Free States, nomi- 
 nated Colonel Johr Charles Fremont, of California, for the Presidency, in 1856. 
 The Democratic party, which had its chief strength in the Slave .States, nominated 
 J.ames Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. The American or Know-Nothing party, which 
 was opposed to foreign influence in American affairs, nominated ex-President 
 Millard Fillmore, of New York. The result of the election was the choice of James 
 Buchanan for President, and John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, for Vice-President, 
 
 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1857- 
 MARCH 4 1861). 
 
 Inauguration of Buchanan — The Bred Scott Decision.— James Buchanan 
 ivas inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1857, fifteenth President of the United 
 Elates. Two days after his inauguration, Chief-Justice Taney gave a decision in 
 the Supreme Court of the United States, that no freed negro-slave, nor the descend- 
 ant of a slave, could become a citizen of the United States, and that "the negro 
 hid no rights which the white man was bound to respect." This was called "The 
 [)red Scott Decision," because it was rendered in the case of Dred Scolt, whn 
 
UNITED STATES. go's 
 
 na J once been a slave in Missouri, but who now claimed to be free, on accdunt of 
 having been tai^en by his master into a Free State. 
 
 Threatened Rebellion of the Mormons in Utah. — Early in 1857, the Mor 
 ir.ons in the Territory of Utah threatened to rebel against the National Goveri ment, 
 because Congress refused to admit their Territory as a State of the Union. The 
 Presider- sent a body of troops, under Colonel Joseph E. Johnston, to enfor-e the 
 laws './ me United States, and to suppress any attempt at rebellion in Utah. Ttc 
 liffiu ihy was settled, however, without bloodshed. 
 
 The Political Contest in Kansas — Admission of Kansas, Minnesota, 
 and Oregon. — The Dred Scott decision aroused the agitation of the slavery 
 question in all its intensity, and the greatest excitement prevailed in the P"ree States, 
 In 1857, measures were taken for the admission of Kansas into the Union as a 
 S^ate. A State constitution which excluded slavery from Kansas was framed at 
 Topeka by the anti-slavery party; while the pro-slavery party framed a con.';titution 
 at Lecompton tolerating slavery within the Territoiy. Although the people of 
 Kansas rejected the pro-slavery constitution, in January, 1858, by ten thousand 
 majority, the President, in a message to Congress, recommended its acceptance by 
 that body. Congress, however, justly decided that it should be left to a vote of the 
 people of the Territory, who again rejected it by ten thousand majority; and, on 
 the 29th of Januaiy, 1861, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a Free State 
 Two other .States were admitted into the Union during Buchanan's Administration; 
 — namely, Minnesota, in 1858, and Oregon, in 1859. 
 
 The Personal Liberty Laws — Reopening of the African Slave-Trade. 
 — The Fugitive Slave Law of 1 850 was still obnoxious to the great body of the 
 people of the Free States; and, to guard against any abuses of the law, the Legis- 
 latures of New York, Ohio, Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Michigan, and W'is- 
 consin passed what were called "Personal Liberty Laws." During the Adminis- 
 tration of Buchanan, efforts were made by influential individuals in the Slave !-)tates 
 to reopen the African slave-trade. Native Africans were landed on the coa-.ts of 
 the Southern States, in defiance of the laws. In Louisiana attemps were made to 
 legalize the trade, under what was called " The African Apprentice System;'' and 
 the Grand Jury of Savannah openly protested against the laws when obliged to find 
 bills against some persons engaged in the illegal sla ve-trade. These proceedings 
 increased the slavery agitation, and strengthened the Republican party, which was 
 opposed to the extension of slavery into the Territories of the United States. 
 
 John Brown's Insurrection in Virginia — Execution of Brown.— In the 
 autumn of 1859, great excitement was produced in the Slave States by the foolisn 
 attempt of the enthusiastic John Brown, who had been a leading anti slavery man 
 in Kansas, to liberate the slaves of Virginia. On the night of October i6th (1859), 
 at the head of a few followers. Brown seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, intend- 
 ing to arm such slaves as approached. Brown did not succeed, however, in exciting 
 a slave insurrection ; and, being overpowered and made prisoner by Virginia niili 
 tia .md Unite<l States troops under Colonel Robert Edmund Lee, he was trieu on 
 the charges of treason, murder, and exciting slaves to insurrection, and was hanged 
 on the 2d of December, 1859, under the laws of Virginia. It was thought oy the 
 people of the Slave States that Brown was only the agent of a large party in the 
 
504 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Free States who had formed a plot to free all the slaves; and, during tht next 
 session of Congress, a committee, with Mr. Mason, of Virginia, the author or the 
 Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, as chairman, was appointed in the United States Senate 
 to investigate the matter, when it was proven that Brown had no other accomplices 
 than his immediate followers, fifteen or sixteen in number. 
 
 lilection of Lincoln. — There were four candidates for the Presidency in 1860. 
 lli: portion of the Democratic party from the Free States nominated Stephen A. 
 Itcuglas, of Illinois, while the portion from the Slave States nominated Johi C. 
 Breckinridge, of Kentucky. A new party, called " The Constitutional Union Party,'"' 
 nominated John Bell, of Tennessee. The Republican or anti-slavery party nomin 
 ated Abrahain Lincoln, of Illinois. The election was decided in favor of Abraham 
 Lincoln for President, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice-President. 
 
 Conspiracy of Southern Politicians. — No sooner was the election of Mr. 
 Lincoln known throughout the United States, than the politicians ot the Slavic States 
 began to carry out plans, which they had long prepared, for the dismemberment of 
 the Union, and the establishment, in their section, of an independent confederacy of 
 Slave States. 
 
 Secession of South Carolina and other Slave States. — As in 1832, South 
 Carolina took the lead in rebellion against the National Government. A State con- 
 vention, which had assembled at Charleston, declared, on the 20th of December, 
 l85o, that State to be separated from the Union forever. Within little more than 
 a month from the secession of South Carolina, the example of that State was fol- 
 lowed by six other Slave States, — namely, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, 
 Louisiana, and Texas. 
 
 Formation of a Southern Confederacy. — On the 4th of February, 1861, 
 delegates from the seceded States met in a Congress at Montgomery, in Alabama, 
 and formed a Southern Confederacy, with the title of " The Confederate States of 
 America." On the 9th of the same month, this Confederate Congress elected 
 Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, President of the Confederacy, with Alexander H. 
 Stephens, of Georgia, as Vice-President. 
 
 Seizure of National Property by the Conspirators. — Most of the property 
 of the National Government in the seceded States, such as forts, arsenals, mints, 
 ships, and custom houses, — were seized by the conspirators, who raised armies to up- 
 hold their treason and to subvert the Republic. In February, 1861, General Twiggs, 
 who commanded the United States troops in Texas, surrendered his whole force to 
 the authorities of that State. Fortress Monroe, in South-eastern Virginia, and the 
 forts on the Dry Tortugas, off the southern coast of Florida, remained in the posses- 
 sion of the National Government; and Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Florida, was 
 saved from falling into the hands of the conspirators by the gallant conduct of its 
 commander, Lieutenant Adam J. Slemmer. Fort Sumter, at Charleston, South 
 Carolina, was held by Major Robert Anderson. On the 9th of January, 1861, the 
 (government steamer Star of the West was fired upon by South Carolinians, while 
 &dngi.ic: reinforcements to Fort Sumter. 
 
 Conduct of the Administration — Treason of Cabinet-Officers. — PresuienJ 
 Buchanan made no effort to check the conspirators in their treasonable work. 
 Several of iiis Cabinet-Officers who were among the conspirators, were doing all in 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 505 
 
 their powei to deprive the National Government of all means for its protection 
 against armed treason. John B. Floyd, of Virginia, Secretary of War, trausfen-ed 
 most of the arms from the forts and arsenals in the Free States to those in the Slave 
 States; and Howell Cobb, of Georgia, Secretary of the Treasury, tried to injure the 
 public credit and bankrupt the National treasury. 
 
 The Peace Convention— The Crittenden Compromise. — On the 4 lb ;{ 
 february, 1861, an assemblage, known as "The Peace Convention," met at Wa;h 
 ingtor, for the professed purpose of preserving peace and saving the Union. Ever^ 
 Just ar d reasonable concession for the sake of peace was rejected by the conspirators , 
 and it was evident that they did not desire a reconciliation, from their rejection of 
 the plan known as " The Crittenden Compromise," proposed by John J. Crittenden 
 of Kentucky. 
 
 LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4 1861- 
 APRIL 15, 1864). 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR— EVENTS OF 1861. 
 
 Inauguration of Lincoln — Bombardment of Fort Sumter. — On the 4th 
 of March, 1861, Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated sixteenth President of the United 
 States. The conspirators at Montgomery, having determined upon war, sent several 
 thousand troops, under the command of Pierre G. T. Beauregard, to Charleston, 
 South Carolina, for the purpose of seizing Fort Sumter. Beauregard demanded 
 the surrender of the fort. Its commander. Major Robert Anderson, refused to com- 
 ply with this demand; and, on the 12th of April, 1861, Beauregard opened a heavy 
 bombardment on the fort, which continued the followmg day, and, on the 14th 
 (April, 1861), Anderson and his men evacuated the fort, which was immediately 
 taken possession of and garrisoned by the insurgents, and sailed for New York. 
 News of this event spread through the loyal States like lightning; and, like the 
 attendant thunder-peal, it aroused every loyal heart. 
 
 Troops Called to Suppress the Rebellion. — On the day after the evacua- 
 tion of Fort Sumter (April 15, 1861), the President called for 75,000 militia to 
 serve for three months in suppressing the rebellion. The loyal people warmly re- 
 sponded to this call. Within a short time, 200,000 men had offered their services 
 to the National Government ; and forty million dollars had been contributed to 
 carry on the war. 
 
 Secession of Virginia — Seizure of the Armory at Harper's Ferry.— -On 
 the 17th of April, 1861, Virginia seceded from the Union, and became a member 
 of the Southern Confederacy. On the following day (April 18, 1861), the United 
 States armoiy at Harper's Ferry was seized by the Virginia insurgents. On th» 
 17th of April (1861), Jefferson Davis, the President of the so-called Confederate 
 States of America, issued letters-of-marque and reprisal, to all who would prey upon 
 American commerce. Two days afterward (April 18, 1861), President Lincoji,' 
 proclaimed the blockade of the Southern ports. 
 
 Massachusetts Troops Attacked in Baltimore. — On the 19th of Aj-ril, 
 1S61, the sixth Massachusetts regiment, while passing through Baltimore, on its 
 way to Washington, was attacked by a mob of 10,000 men. A fight ensued- 
 
5o6 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Several of the troops were killed and wounded; and nine of the mob were killed, 
 and many others wounded. 
 
 More Troops Called For — Secession of Other States. — As armed Confed- 
 erates were continually pouring into Virginia for the purpose of seizing the National 
 capital, the President, on the 3d of May, called for 64,000 more men for the Ni- 
 li'inal army, and 18,000 men for the navy. Before the middle of June (1S6 \ 
 Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee had withdrawn from the Union and 
 jijined the Southern Confederacy. 
 
 Meeting of Congress — Its Doings. — The President, on the 15th of April^ 
 «86i, summoned Congress to meet on the 4th of July. When it asseniDled, there 
 were about 300,000 troops in the field to defend the old flag and to preserve the 
 integrity of the Union. Congress authorized the raising of 500,000 men, and 
 appropriated five hundred million dollars to defray the expenses of the war. 
 
 Confederate Troops — Richmond Made the Confederate Capital. — More 
 than 100,000 Confederate troops were stationed at various points in Virginia, from 
 Harper's Ferry to Norfolk. The chief force of the insurgents was at Manassas 
 Junction, about thirty miles from the National capital. On the 20th of July, 1861 
 the seat of the so-called Confederate Government was removed from Montgomery. 
 Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia. 
 
 Invasion of Virginia — Events in Missouri. — The first invasion of the re- 
 bellious States took place on the 24th of May, 1861, when National troops crossed 
 the Potomac river from Washington, and took possession of Alexandria and Arling- 
 ton Heights, on the opposite side of the river. Before this invasion (May 10, 
 1861), Captain Nathaniel Lyon saved Missouri to the Union by the capture of an 
 insurgent camp at St. Louis. 
 
 Battles of Philippi, Big Bethel, Romney, and Rich Mountain. — The 
 first regular battle of the Civil War occurred at Philippi, in Western Virginia, 
 where, on the 3d of June, 1861, General Benjamin F. Kelly, with a few National 
 troops, routed 500 Confederates. On the loth of the same month, a severe engage- 
 ment took place at Big Bethel, in South-eastern Virginia, between the National troops 
 under General Pierce and a considerable force of Confederates. In this action the 
 National troops were repulsed with the loss of two brave officers, — Lieutenant 
 John T. Greble and Major Theodore Winthrop. On the day after the National 
 disaster at Big Bethel (June 11, 1861), a few National troops, under General Lewis 
 Wallace, dispersed 500 Confederates at Romney, in Western Virginia. One month 
 later (July 11, I861 ), 3,000 Confederate troops, under Colonel Pegram, were defeated 
 at Rich Mountain, in Western Virginia, after a spirited action with the National 
 troops under General Willian S. Rosecrans. 
 
 Battle of Bull's Run— Its Effects.— On the iSth of July, i86i,the National 
 army of 50,000 men, in Virginia, under General Irwin McDowell, left Fairfax 
 Court House, to attack the Confederates under General Beauregard, at Manassas 
 Junction, about thirty miles from Washington. A stubborn contest was fought at 
 lilackbu Ti's Ford, near Centreville, on the same day. Three days afterward (July 
 21, 1861), a sanguinary and memorable battle was fought at Bull's Run, near Man- 
 assas Junction. At the moment that the Confederates were about to lose the field, 
 they received reinforcements from the Shenandoah Valley, under General Jo'^epli 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 5C7 
 
 E. Johnston. The result was that the Confederates gained a complete victory ; and 
 the National army fled toward Washington in the greatest consternation. P"or his 
 gallant c mduct in this battle, the Confederate General Thomas Jefferson Jackson 
 received the name of "Stonewall Jackson." The intelligence of the National 
 'nisfortune at Bull's Run struck the people of the loyal States with dismay; but^ 
 instead of discouraging them, it caused them to exert themselves more vigorously 
 foi tlie great struggle. Large numbers of volunteers joined the army. On the day 
 ifcer the battle of Bull's Run, General George B. McClellan was placed in com- 
 mand of "The Army of the Potomac," as the forces around the National capital 
 w ere named. 
 
 The War in Missouri — Battles of Carthage, Dug Spring, and Wilson's 
 Creek. — In the meantime, the war raged violently in iVIissouri. On the 5th of July, 
 1861, the National troops, under Colonel P'ranz Sigel, defeated the Confederates, 
 under Clayborne F. Jackson, the disloyal Governor of Missouri, at Carthage. On 
 the 2d of August, a National force under General Nathaniel Lyon defeated the 
 Confederates commanded by General Ben McCullough, the famous Texas Ranger, 
 at Dug Sjiiring, near the border of Arkansas. On the loth of the same month 
 (August, 1861), Lyon, at the head of 5,000 National troops, fought with 20,ooc 
 Confederates, under Generals Stirling Price and Ben McCullough, the battle of 
 Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, Missouri. In this battle, Lyon was killed while 
 gallantly fighting at the head of his troops. The slaughter on both sides was ter- 
 rific. The result of the battle was that the National troops were obliged to fall 
 back. 
 
 Capture of Hatteras Inlet. — On the 26th of August, 1861, Forts Clarke and 
 Hatteras, on Hatteras Inlet, on the coast of North Carolina, were captured by the 
 National army and navy, under General Benjamin F. Butler and Commodore String- 
 ham. This victory gave the National troops a foothold in North Carolina which 
 they never lost. 
 
 Loyalty of the People of West Virginia. — The people of West Virginia 
 had from the beginning of the Civil War been opposed to secession, and they per- 
 sisted in refusing to place themselves under the rule of the Confedate Government 
 and the rebel State Government of 'Virginia. Representatives from about forty of 
 the western counties of Virginia met in a convention at Wheeling, on the nth of 
 June, 1861 ; and, on the 17th, they declared West Virginia independent of the 
 rest of the State, and elected Frank Pierpont for their Governor. 
 
 Confederate Invasion of West Virginia — Battle of Carnifax Ferry. — 
 The Confedei'ates of Virginia, having resolved to compel the loyal people of West 
 Virginia to submit to their authority and that of the Confederate Government, sent 
 brge bodies of troops into that region, under the command of Robert Edmund Lee, 
 late a colonel in the United States army, Hemy A. Wise, ex-Governor of Virginia, 
 and John B. Floyd, ex-Secretaiy of War. Floyd was defeated by the Nationai 
 Qoops under General William S. Rosecrans, on the I2ih of September, 1861, at 
 Tamiiax FeiTy, on the Gauley river, in West Virginia, after a fight of three days. 
 
 Capture of Lexington, Missouri — Battle of Ball's Bluff. — About the 
 middle of September, 1S61, the town of Lexington, in Missouri, with its garrison 
 of National troops under Colonel Mulligan, was captured by the Confederates. On 
 
5o8 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 the i6tii of October (1861), Lexington was retaken by a National cavalry force undef 
 Major White. On the 21st of October, 1861, a severe action occurred at Ball's 
 Bluff, on. tiiC Potomac, above Washington, between the National force under Gen- 
 eral Stone and a large body of insurgents under General Evans. The National 
 troops were thoroughly defeated and routed, with the loss of many brave men, 
 among whom was the gallant Colonel Edward D. Baker, late a United States 
 Senator from Oregon. 
 
 Battle of Belmont — Capture of Port Royal. — On the 7th of November, 
 1861, a force of National troops, under General Ulysses Simpson Grant, was defeated 
 il Belmont, in South-eastern Missouri, on the Mississippi river, by the Confederates 
 under General Cheatham. On the day of the battle of Belmont (November 7, 1861), 
 Forts Walker and Beauregard, at Port Royal Entrance, on the coast of South Caro- 
 lina, below Charleston, were captured by a National naval force under Commodore 
 Dupont. The capture of Port Royal gave the National forces possession of the 
 Sea Islands of South Carolina, so celebrated for the production of fine cottor.. 
 
 McClellan, Commander-in-Chief — Extent of the Civil War— Foreign 
 Relations. — On the ist of November, 1861, General McClellan was made com- 
 mander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, General Winfield Scott having 
 resigned that post in October. Only the most important military events have been 
 related. There were thousands of conflicts in the refractory States. The relations 
 of the National Government with England and France were not of the most pleasant 
 character. Both of these nations, as well as Spain, had recognized the insurgent 
 Confederates as a belligerent power, in the beginning of the great contest. Russia 
 was the only European power that sympathized with the National Government in 
 its struggle for life. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1862. 
 
 Battle of Mill Spring. — On the 19th of Januaiy, 1862, a National force, under 
 General George H. Thomas, defeated a Confederate army under General George 
 B. Crittenden, at Mill Spring, near Somerset, Kentucky. The Confederate General 
 Felix Zollicoffer was killed. 
 
 Capture of Roanoke Island. — On the 8th of Februaiy, 1862, after a hot con- 
 flict, Roanoke Island, on the North-eastern coast of North Carolina, was taken pos- 
 session of by the National army and navy, under General Ambrose E. Burnside 
 and Commodore Louis M. Goldsborough. 
 
 Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — On the 6th of February (1862), Fort 
 Henry, on the Tennesc^c river, in Tennessee, was captured by the National army and 
 navy, under General Ulysses S. Grant and Commodore Andrew H. Foote. On the 
 l5th of February, after a siege and assault of three days, Fort Donelson, on the Cura 
 berland river, in the same State, was surrendered, with its garrison of 13,000 Con- 
 federate troops, to the National army of 40,000 men under General Grant. The 
 (confederate troops that had garrisoned the fort were commanded by Genera! 
 biraon Bolivar Buckner. Before the surrender, 5,000 Confederates, under Cenertik 
 Pillow and Floyd, made their escape. 
 
 Battle of Pea Ridge.— On the 6th, 7th, and 8th of March, 1S62, the National 
 army under General Samuel R. Curtis fought a severe battle with the Confederate 
 troops under Generals Earl Van Dorn, Stirling Price, and Ben McCullough, at Pea 
 
UNITED STATES. 509 
 
 Ridge, in North-western Arkansas. The Confederates were defeated; an'l among 
 their killed was General McCullough. 
 
 Fight Between the Merrimac and Monitor. — On the day of the National 
 rxtory at Pea Ridge (Maich 8, 1862), the Confederate iron-clad ram Mirriviac 
 iimk the National frigates Cumberland and Congress, at the mouth of the James 
 n>er. On the f.jilowing day (March 9, 1862), a newly-invented floating batteiy, 
 called the Monitor, attacked the Merrimac, disabled her after a severe action, and 
 compelled her to return to Norfolk. 
 
 Capture of Newbern — Battle of Winchester. — On the 14th of March, 
 1862, after a severe fight with the Confederates, General Bumside, with 12,000 
 National troops, captured Newbern, in Eastern North Carolina. A National force 
 under General Shields defeated the Confederates under " Stonewall Jackson," near 
 Winchester, Virginia, on the 23d of March. 
 
 Battle of Shiloh. — On the 6th of April, 1862, the National army commanded 
 by General Grant was attacked at Shiloh church, near Pittsburg Landing, on the 
 Tennessee river, in Tennessee, by the Confederates under Generals Beauregard and 
 Albert Sydney Johnston. The Confederates were victorious on that day; but on 
 the following morning (March 7, 1862), Grant was reinforced by a strong force 
 under General Don Carlos Buell, and the Confederates were defeated and compelled 
 to flee toward Corinth, in North-eastern Mississippi. The defeat of the Confeder- 
 ates is to be attributed chiefly to the assistance which the National gunboats in 
 the Tennessee river rendered to Grant's army. Among the Confederate killed was 
 General Albert Sydney Johnston. 
 
 Siege and Capture of Island No. 10.— On the day of Grant's victory at 
 Shiloh (April 7, 1862), the strong post of Island No. 10, in the Mississippi river, 
 was surrendered to Commodore Foote, whose flotilla had bombarded the place for 
 three weeks. 
 
 Capture of Fort Pulaski — Capture of Huntsville — Capture of Fort 
 Macon. — On the nth of April (1862), Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah 
 river, in Georgia, after withstanding a heavy bombardment, surrendered to the 
 National troops under Captain Quincy Adams Gillmore. On the same day, Gen- 
 eral Ormsby McKnight Mitchell, after a remarkable forced march through Kentucky 
 and Tennessee, captured Huntsville, in Northern Alabama. On the 25th of April, 
 Fort Macon, on the coast of North Carolina, was surrendered to the National troops, 
 after a severe bombardment. 
 
 Bombardment of Forts Jackson and St. Philip — Capture of New Or- 
 leans. — In the South-west, an expedition had been organized for the capture of 
 New Orleans. The expedition consisted of a gunboat and mortar fleet, under 
 Commodores David G. Farragut and David D. Porter, and a land force under 
 General Benjamin F. Butler, After bombarding Forts Jackson and St. Philip, 
 below New Orleans, for six days, Farragut and Porter passed up the river with 
 'iieir ?>eets, and appeared before New Orleans on the 25th of April. The Confed- 
 erate troops, 20,000 strong, under General Mansfield Lovell, who had garrisoned 
 the cify, fled, and, on the 28th (April, 1862), General Butler, with the National 
 army, took possession of the city. The capture of New Orleans was the severest 
 blow thus far inflicted upon the Rebellion. 
 
5IO 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Movements on the Virginia Peninsula — Evacuation of Yorktown.— 
 
 After compelling the Confederates to retreat from Manassas toward Richmond, the 
 Army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, prepared to approach the Confed- 
 erate capital by way of the peninsula formed by the York and James rivers. On 
 the 4lh of April, 1862, McClellan commenced his march up the peninsula, from 
 Fortress Monroe. After enduring a short siege, Yorktown was evacuated '^y tb? 
 Ccufedeiates, who fled toward Richmond. (May 3, 1862.) 
 
 Battle of Williamsburg — Fall of Norfolk. — Two days after the evacualioH 
 il Vorklown by the Confederate army (May 5, 1862), was fought the terrible ba' • 
 de of Williamsburg, which resulted in a National victory. The Confederates then 
 resumed their retreat, and were again pursued by the National forces. On the loth 
 of May, 1862, five days after the battle of Williamsburg, Norfolk was evacuated 
 by the Confederates, after they had destroyed the Aferrimac, and the town was 
 entered on the same day by National troops under the command of General John 
 Ellis Wool. 
 
 Capture of Hanover Court-House — Battle of Fair Oaks. — On the 29th 
 of May, Hanover Court-House was captured by a portion of the National army, 
 under General Fitz-John Porter, after a spirited conflict. The National army still 
 continued its advance toward Richmond. On the 31st of May and the 1st of June 
 (1862), a memorable engagement occurred at a place called Fair Oaks, in which 
 neither party was victorious. 
 
 Capture of Natchez — Capture of Corinth — Capture of Memphis. — On 
 the I2th of jNIay, the National fleet under Admiral Farragut captured Natchez, in 
 Mississippi, on the Mississippi river. On the 29th of the same month (May, 1862), 
 Corinth, in the north-eastern part of the same State, after having suffered a heavy 
 bombardment, was evacuated by the Confederates and taken possession of by the 
 National army under General Henry W. Halleck. On the 6lh of June, 1862, the 
 important town of Memphis, in Tennessee, on the Mississippi river, fell into the 
 hands of the National forces, after a severe naval engagement, in which all but two 
 vessels of the Confederate fleet were either captured or destroyed by the National 
 squadron under the command of Flag-Officer Davis. 
 
 Operations in the Shenandoah Valley — Battles of Cross-Keys and Port 
 Republic. — In the meantime, a National force of 4000 men, under General Na- 
 thaniel P. Banks, in the Shenandoah Valley, in Virginia, after being defeated near 
 Winchester, on the 25th of May, was driven down the valley, and compelled to 
 cross the Potomac into Maryland, by 15,000 Confederates under Stonewall Jackson, 
 who hastily retreated up the valley. On the 7th of June, General John C. Fremont, 
 with National troops, fought with the Confederates an indecisive battle at CrosS' 
 Keys; and, on the following day. General Shields was beaten by .Stonewall Jackscn, 
 ill a battle at Port Rej^ublic. 
 
 The Seven Days' Battles near Richmond— Battle of Malvern Hill. — 
 1 hree weeks after the battle of Fair-Oaks, McClellan jirepared to advance upi'i 
 Richmond. At the same time, he changed the base of his supplies from he Voik 
 to the James river. These movements led to a series of sanguinary buities neai 
 Richmond, during seven days, commencing on the 25th of June, and ending with 
 the repulse of the Confederates at Malvern Hill on the istofjuly. The mosf 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 5" 
 
 tmportar engagements were the battle of Oak Grove, June 25 ; the battle rif 
 Mechanirsville, June 26 ; the battle of Gaines' Mill, June 27 ; the battles of Peach 
 C)rcl"iard Station and Savage Station, June 29 ; the battle of White-Oak S'.yamp, 
 June 30; and the battle of Malvern Hill, July I. Each army ni:nibered aboul 
 100,000 men. The National anriy lost 16,000 men, and the insurgents aboul 
 20,000; and McClellan's movement on Richmond failed. 
 
 General Halleck, Commander-in-Chief. — On the ist of July, the lYesi lent 
 of tlie United States called for 300,000 more men for the army; and, on the nth 
 of (he same month. General Ileni-y W. Halleck was appointed commander-in chief 
 oi the armies of the United States. 
 
 Battle of Baton Rouge. — On the 5th of August, 1S62, ihe Confederates, under 
 General John C. Breckinridge, attacked a small National force under General Thomas 
 Williams at Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The National troops were victorious, and the 
 Confederate ram Arkansas was sunk, but the gallant General Williams was killed 
 in the moment of triumph. 
 
 Formation of the Army of Virginia — Battle of Cedar Mountain. — The 
 forces under Generals Banks, Fremont, and McDowell, were united on the 25th of 
 June, (1S62), into one army named " The Army of Virginia," the command of 
 which was given to General John Pope. This army soon found sufficient employ- 
 ment, as the insurgents, flushed with their successes over McClellan's army near 
 Richmond, marched northward for the purpose of taking Washington. On the 9th 
 of August, a spirited but indecisive action was fought at Cedar Mountain, in Cul- 
 peper »oun-ty, Virginia, between that portion of the Army of Virginia under General 
 Banks and a large body of insurgents under Stonewall Jackson. 
 
 Terrible Defeats and Retreat of the Army of Virginia. — At length, tlif 
 Confederates flanked the Army of Virginia, and a succession of bloody battles were 
 fought, beginning on the 24th of August, and ending on the 1st of September. The 
 most important of this series of engagements were the battle of Kettle Run, August 
 27; the battle of Groveton, August 29; the second battle of Bull's Run, August 
 30; and the battle of Chantilly, September i. In the last named conflict. Generals 
 Stevens and Kearney were among the killed on the National side. The Con- 
 federate loss in this series of battles was 15,000 men, while the National loss was 
 20,000 men. Pope's army was so badly defeated that, to escape total destruction, it 
 was compelled to seek safety behind the fortifications of Washington. 
 
 Lee's Invasion of Maryland.— Early in September, the Armies of Virginia 
 and the Potomac were consolidated, and were thereafter known as " The Army of 
 the Potomac," the command of which was entrusted to General McClellan, for the 
 defense of Washington. The Confederates, under the command of Robert Edmup.d 
 Lee, their commander-in-chief, now crossed the Potomac into Marjdand. McClelbn 
 followed on their right flank, to cover Washington and Baltimore. 
 
 Battle of South Mountain — Surrender of Harper's Ferry. — ^^On the 14th 
 oi Si;]-tember, 1S62, a heavy battle was fought at South Mountain, in Marylard, 
 ?phi< h the National army was victorious, but one of its gallant commanders, Genera.. 
 Reno,, was kilhd. The next day (September 15, 1862), after a bloody conflict-. 
 Harper's Ferry, with its garrison of 12,000 National troops, was surrcideied to the 
 Confederates. 
 
512 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Battle of Antietam^Lee in Virginia. — On the 17th of September (1862), 
 a great battle was fought near Antietam Creek, in Maiyland, between the armies of 
 McClellan and Lee, each numbering about 100,000 men. The Confederates were 
 defeated with the loss of 20,000 men. The National loss was about 15,000 men. 
 Among the killed on the National side were the heroic Generals Mansfield, Rich- 
 ardson, and Rodman. Immediately after the battle, Lee's army fell back to the 
 Potomac, which it crossed, and retreated in the direction of Richmond, without 
 being pursued by the National army. 
 
 Confederate Invasion of Kentucky — Battle of Richmond— -Battle of 
 Perryville. — In the latter part of August, 1862, a large body of Confederate tioops, 
 under General E. Kirby Smith, invaded Eastern Kentucky. On the 29th and 30th 
 of August, they defeated a part of the National army commanded by General Nel- 
 son, near Richmond, Kentucky. At the same time, another Confederate army, 
 under General Braxton Bragg, invaded the more western portion of Kentucky, and 
 advanced in the direction of Louisville; but, after suffering a defeat at Perryville, 
 from the National forces under Generals Rousseau and McCook, Bragg was com- 
 pelled to .'ibandon Kentucky with his army. Smith and his army also evacuated 
 the State about the same time. (October, 1862.) 
 
 Battles of luka, Corinth, and Hatchie. — In the autumn of 1862, events of 
 great importance were transpiring in North-eastern Mississippi. On the 19th of 
 September, the Confederates under Generals Van Dorn and Price were defeated at 
 luka, by the National troops commanded by General Rosecrans. On the 3d and 
 4th of October, the Confederates met with another severe defeat at Corinth. The 
 Confederates were pursued, and defeated on the 5th of October (1862), in "the 
 battle of the Hatchie," by the National troops under Generals Ord and H u'lburt. 
 
 Confederate Cavalry Raid — McClellan Relieved of Command. — About 
 three weeks after the battle of Antietam, a Confederate cavalry force, under General 
 Stuart, made a destructive raid as far as Chambersburg, in Pennsylvania. In the 
 latter part of October, the Army of the Potomac crossed the Potomac into Virginia. 
 On the 5th of November (1862), McClellan was relieved of the command of the 
 army, and General Ambrose E. Burnside was appointed to take his place. 
 
 Battle of Prairie Grove. — The war was again raging in Arkansas. On the 
 7th of December, 1862, the National troops, under Generals Herron and Blunt, 
 gained an important victory over a Confederate army under General Hindman, at 
 Prairie Grove, near Fayetteville, in North-western Arkansas. 
 
 Battle of Fredericksburg. — Toward the close of 1862, another great battle 
 was fought in Virginia. The Army of the Potomac, then under the command of 
 General Burnside, attacked the Confederates at Fredericksburg, on the 13th of 
 December (1862). After hard fighting, the National troops were repulsed, with 
 the loss of 8,000 of their number. The Army of the Potomac then recrossed to the 
 north side of the Rappahannock river, where it remained until May of the next year, 
 
 Sherman's Unsuccessful Attack on Vicksburg. — In the htter part '* 
 December, 1862, a large National force, under General William Tecum.sen Sherman, 
 made an attack on the city of Vicksburg, in Mississippi, on the Mississippi river: 
 but was repulsed after severe fighting. Sherman was then superseded in his com- 
 mand by General John A. McClernand. 
 
JEFFERSON DAVIS 
 
 ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. 
 
ROBERT E. LEE. 
 
 STONEWALL JACKSON. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 513 
 
 Battle of Murfreesboro'. — At Murfreesboro'.inTennesseo, a sanguinary battle, 
 between the N.itional army under General Rosecrans and the Confederate amiy 
 under General Bragg, commenced on the 29th of December, 1S62, and ended on 
 the 4th of January, 1863. The National army gained the victory, but lost 12,000 
 men. This engagement is also known as "the battle of Stone River." 
 
 War with the Sioux Indians in Minnesota. — During the summer of 1862, 
 Cr.c Sioux Indians in Minnesota, led by Little Crow and other chiefs, began a niii- 
 lerous war on the white people of that State, by an attack upon the town of K .';■« 
 Ulm. Many atrocious massacres were perpetrated by the savages ; and about 25 ooc 
 white people were driven from their homes. At length. General Henry H. Sililey 
 defeated the Indians and drove them into Dakota. The following year the savjges 
 renewed the war, but they were soon subdued, and their chief. Little Crow, was 
 killed. 
 
 Doings of Congress. — While the war was raging on sea and land during the 
 year 1862, the National Government was devising measures for»the suppression of 
 the rebellion. Early in April, Congress passed an act providing for the abolition 
 of slaveiy in the District of Columbia. The bill received the signature of the Pre- 
 sident and became a law on the i6th of June. On the 20th of the same month (June, 
 1862), the President signed a bill passed by Congress for the prohibition of slavery 
 in the Territories of the United States. Congress also authorized the President to 
 proclaim the freedom of the slaves; and, on the 22d of September (1862), he issued 
 a proclamation warning the insurgents that he would proclaim the emancipation of 
 every slave in the revolted States within a hundred days, if they refused to lay down 
 their arms and return to their allegiance within that period. 
 
 Gloomy Prospect. — Never during the whole period of the Civil War did the 
 cause of the Union appear more gloomy than at the close of 1862. The Rebellion 
 was as formidable as ever, and very little had been accomplished in the way of its 
 suppression. There were about 700,000 National troops in the field, while the 
 Confederate army was larger than at any previous or sulwequent period. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1868. 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation. — As the Confederates paid no attention to the 
 proclamation issued by the President on the 22d of September, 1862, he issued 
 another proclamation on the 1st of January, 1863, declaring forever free all the 
 slaves in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 
 Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas, excepting West Virginia and such 
 portions of the rebellious States as were in the hands of the National troops :tt that 
 time. Tt was evident that the time had arrived for this decisive step; and it received 
 tlic unanimous approval of the supporters of the Administration, and destroyed the 
 Ij^t hope of foreign aid to the insurgents. 
 
 Capture of Arkansas Post. — After his unsuccessful attempt to take Vi:ks- 
 Ltirg. at the close of 1862, Sherman was succeeded in his command by G( nex^" 
 )ohr> A. McClernand, who went up the ArKansas river, and, in conjunction will 
 Admiral Porter, captured Arkansas Post, wun its garrison of 5,000 Confederate 
 troops, after a severe engagement, on the iitn 01 January, 1863. 
 
 Operations in North Carolina — Siege 01 Suffolk. — In Eastern Nirth Caio- 
 3.1 
 
SM 
 
 CENTENNIA L HIS TOR V. 
 
 lina, during the spring of 1863, the National forces, under the command of General 
 JohnG. Foster, repelled the assaults of the Confederates, under General D. li. Hill 
 and others, and foiled their attempts to obtain the entire control of that region. 
 Early in May, 1863, the Confederates, under Generals Longstreet and D. H. Ildl, 
 were jepulsed in an attempt to take by siege the town of Sufiblk, in South-eastern 
 7irginia, by 14,000 Natiom^l troops under General Peck. 
 
 Success of Banks in Louisiana.- — During the winter and ip;:.':g of 1863.. 
 Irsneral Banks, with a National force, overran Louisiana, from New (.r^eans .( iL^ 
 Red River, defeated the Confederates in a number of actions, and captured many 
 piisoners, some artillery, and much public property. Banks returned to Nf:iv Or- 
 leans; and during the summer, he sent an expedition by water to Texas. 
 
 Battle of Chancellorsville. — On the 27th of April, 1S63, General Bumside 
 was relieved of the command of the Army of the Potomac and succeeded by Gen- 
 eral Joseph Hooker. Hooker crossed the Rappahannock river, and, on the 2d, 3d, 
 and 4th of May, his army engaged in a severe battle with Lee's army at a place 
 called Chancellorsville. In this battle, the famous Confederate general, " Stonewall 
 Jackson," lost his life. The result of the battle was that the National army was 
 defeated, and compelled to retire across the Rappahannock on the 5th (May, 1863). 
 
 Grant's Victories in Mississippi.— -The defeat of the Army of the Potomac 
 in Virginia was fully atoned for by a series of brilliant victories gained by the Na- 
 tional army under General Grant in Mississippi. In the latter part of April (1863), 
 Grant defeated the insurgents in two battles near Port Gibson. The Confederates 
 were also defeated in the battle of Raymond, May 12; the battle of Jackson, May 
 14; the battle of Champion Hills, May 16; and the battle of Big Black Rivei 
 Bridge, May 17; after which Grant prepared to carry on the siege of Vicksburg 
 with vigor. 
 
 Invasion of Maryland and Pennsylvania by Lee's Army. — After the 
 aattle of Chancellorsville, Lee's army began to march norlliward, for the purpose 
 of carrying the war into the loyal States. Hooker followed with his army, on the 
 fight flank of the Confederates, in order to save Washington and Baltimore from 
 capture. At length, on the 28th of June, General George Gordon Meade was 
 appointed to the command of the Army of the Potomac, Hooker having resigned. 
 
 Battle of Gettysburg — The Armies in Virginia. — Lee advanced into Penn- 
 sylvania, followed by Meade. At length, the two armies confronted each other at 
 Gettysburg, where a sanguinary engagement occurred on the 1st, 2d, and 3d of July, 
 1863. The Confederates were thoroughly defeated, with the loss of about 30,000 
 m^n, while the loss of the National army was more than 20,000 men. General 
 John F. Reynolds, of the National army, and General Barksdale, of the Confederate 
 army, were killed. After the battle, the Confederate army made a precipitate fligl t 
 lo'.vard Virginia, closely pursued by the victorious army under General Meade 
 in 1 it was not long before both armies again found themselves south o* the Potomai 
 
 Siege and Capture of Vicksburg. — Late in May, the arniy under Genera 
 (want invested Vicksburg, which was garrisoned by a large Confederate army, undei 
 General John C. Pemberton. The siege was prosecuted with so much vigor Ihat, 
 on the 4th of July, (1S63), Pemberton surrendered his whole force, amounting to 
 more than 30,000 men, and the city of Vicksburg, into the hands of Grant. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 515 
 
 Repulse of the Confederates at Helena. — On the day that Vicksburg yielded 
 lo the National arms (July 4, 1S63), a Confederate force was repulsed in an attack 
 n])on the National troops under the command of General Prentiss, at Helena, 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Fall of Port Hudson. — After his successes in South-western Louisiana, Gene- 
 ral Banks invested Port Hudson, on the Mississippi, above Baton Rouge. On tne 
 Bth of July (1S63), Port Hudson, .vith its garrison of 5,000 Confederate troop* 
 liider General Gardner, was surrendered to Banks; and thus the last obstru( tion tc 
 th'; navigation of the Mississippi river was overcome. 
 
 Morgan's Raid in Indiana and Ohio. — About the time of Lee's invasion 0/ 
 Pennsylvania, a -arge body of Confederate guerrillas, under General John Morgan, 
 suddenly crossed the Ohio river into Indiana, and advanced eastward into Ohio, 
 plundering as they went. After many of the raiders had been killed or captured, 
 Morgan surrendered with the remainder, numbering about 800 men, to General 
 Shackkfoid, in Morgan County, Ohio. 
 
 Siege of Charleston— Bombardment of Fort Sumter. — During the spring 
 and summer of 1S63, the National forces were vigorously besieging Charleston, 
 in South Carolina. An unsuccessful attempt was made, on the 7th of April (1863), 
 by the National navy, under Admiral Dupont, to take Fort Sumter. In July, a 
 National land force, under General Q. A. Gillmore, landed on Morris Island, and 
 commenced besieging the works which defended Charleston harbor. After a fright- 
 ful bombardment of seven days. Fort Sumter was reported by Gillmore as 'oeing 
 reduced to " a shapeless and harmless mass of ruins." It jvas not harmless, how- 
 ever, as it still successfully bid defiance to the guns of the besieging forces. Fort 
 Wagner was evacuated by its Confederate garrison in September (1863), after which 
 it was taken possession of by the National troops. The siege of Charleston was 
 continued for a year and a half longer. 
 
 Capture of Fort Smith and Little Rock. — On the ist of September, 1S63, 
 Fort Smith, in Western Arkansas, was captured by a National force under General 
 Blunt. On the roth of the same month (September, 1863), General Frederic Steele, 
 with National troops, completely broke the power of the insurgents in Arkansas by 
 the capture of Little Rock, the capital of that State. 
 
 The Army of the Cumberland. — In the latter part of June, 1863, the great 
 Army of the Cumberland, under General Rosecrans, began a decisive campaign in 
 Tennessee. After a series of conflicts, the Confederate anny under General Bragg 
 was compelled to retreat to Chattanooga, in the South-eastern part of that State. 
 The insurgents erected strong fortifications at Chattanooga, but when Rosecram 
 approached, in August, the Confederate army evacuated the city, which was tiker 
 possession of by a portion of Rosecrans' anny on the 9th of September. 
 
 Battle of Chickamauga. — Rosecrans again pursued Bragg, who was now rem- 
 foiced by General James Longstreet and his corps, from Lee's army, in Virginia 
 The Confederate army, thus strengthened, suddenly attacked the pursuing armj' o( 
 Ro-.ecrans at the Chickamauga creek, where a bloody battle was fought on the iQtl 
 and 20th of September, 1863. The ins,urgents were victorious; and the NationaJ 
 army was obliged 10 fall back, and seek refuge behind the fortifications of Ch.atta- 
 nooea. 
 
jl6 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Skirmishes between the Great Armies in Virginia. — In October, 1863, 
 Lee's .irmy drove the Army of the Potomac back upon Manassas, but was in turn 
 compelled to retreat, after some skirmishing. On the 7th of November, a severe 
 skinnish at Kelly's Ford resulted in the capture of 2,000 Confederates, by a portion 
 of the National army, under Generals John Sedgewick and W. H. French. 
 
 Battle of Chattanooga. — After his defeat in the battle of Chickamauga, Rose^ 
 ■ran.; was in a perilous situation. General Grant, who had just been entru ited 
 »,ith tlie command of all the National armies in the West, east of the Mississippi 
 hoiteiied to his relief. After being joined by Sherman from Vicksburg and Hookei 
 from the Army of the Potomac, Grant attacked Bragg's army at Chattanooga, on 
 the 23d of November; and, after a sanguinary conflict of three days, known as "the 
 battle of Chattanooga," in which the insurgents were driven from their strong 
 positions on Orchard Knob by General Thomas (November 23), from Lookout 
 Mountain by General Hooker, after a fierce struggle known as "the battle above 
 the clouds" (November 24), and from Missionary Ridge, after the most obstinate 
 resistance (November 25), the siege of Chattanooga was raised, and the National 
 aniiy gained a l^rilliant victory. Bragg's defeated and shattered army retreated into 
 Georgia, and the whole of Tennessee fell into the possession of the National 
 forces. 
 
 Siege of Knoxville.— About the middle of November, 1S63, General Burnside, 
 with 5,000 National troops, was besieged in Knoxville, in East Tennessee, by 
 General Longstreet, who had left Bragg's army with his corps, for the purpose of 
 expelling the National forces from that quarter. When General Sherman came 
 with National troops for the relief of Burnside's beleaguered force, Longstreet fled 
 eastward, and rejoined Lee's army in Virginia. 
 
 Progress of the National Arms during the Year. — The progress of the 
 National arms during the year 1863 had been very great. Missouri, Arkansas, 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, large portions of Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and 
 the control of the Rio Grande and Mississippi rivers, had been lost to the insurgents; 
 and the Rebellion was on its decline. 
 
 Doings of Congress — Riot in New York — West Virginia a State. — On 
 the 4th of March, 1863, the Thirty-seventh Congress closed its last session, after 
 having adopted measures for the efficiency of the army. Steps were taken for the 
 eiilistment and organization of colored troops; and, on the 3d of March (1863), a 
 conscription act became a law. In May, the President ordered a draft of 300,000 
 men. Much opposition was manifested against the draft, especially in the city of 
 Niw York, where a terrible riot of three days occurred (July 13, 14, and 15, 1863), 
 in which one hundred lives were lost, and property to the value of two million dol- 
 !ai5 was destroyed. On the 20th of June, 1863, West Virginia was admitted into 
 the Union as a State, by authority of an act passed by Congress on the 31st ol 
 December, 1862. 
 
 EVKNTS OF 1864. 
 
 Bright Prospect. — The year 1864 opened with many briglit and promising 
 hoijes for the National cause. The National armies were strong and well disciji- 
 Lined, while the finances of the Republic were in a good condition. The loyal 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 517 
 
 people were more united in the support of the Administration and in the deter- 
 mi nation to prosecute the war until the suppression of the rebellion should be 
 accomplished. 
 
 Averill's Raid in Virginia — Kilpatrick's Bold Attempt. — About the middle 
 of Janiiary, 1864, a body of National cavaliy, under General William W. Averiil, 
 destroyed thirty miles of the Virginia and Tennessee railway track west of Lynch- 
 burg, In the latter part of February, a bold exploit was performed by Generul 
 [udsun Kilpatrick, who, with a small force of National cavalry, entered the outer 
 defenses of Richmond. 
 
 Sherman's Invasion of Mississippi. — On the 3d of February, 1864, General 
 William T. Sherman, with a considerable National force, commenced a destructive 
 invasion of Mississippi. Starting from Vicksburg, Sherman's force advanced east- 
 ward, almost to the borders of Alabama, seizing or destroying much property, and 
 liberating about 10,000 slaves. 
 
 Seymour's Invasion of Florida— Battle of Olustee. — On the 5th of Febru- 
 ary, 1864, General Seymour, with a National force, left Port Royal, in South Carolina, 
 and invaded North-eastern Florida. Seymour defeated the Confederates at Jack- 
 sonville, and moved westward; but, on the 20tli (February, 1864), his army was 
 defeated and almost ruined, in a bloody battle at Olustee, on the Florida Central 
 railroad. Seymour abandoned his project and returned to Jacksonville. 
 
 Red River Expedition — Its Unfortunate End. — On the loth of March, 1864, 
 General Andrew J. Smith left Vicksburg, with a heavy National force, for the in- 
 vasion of Louisiana. A fleet under Admiral Porter, and an army under General 
 Banks from New Orleans, cooperated with Smith's expedition. Smith captured 
 Fort De Russey from the Confederates under General Richard Taylor, on the 13th 
 of March, and, continuing his advance toward Shreveport, was joined by Banks at 
 Alexandria. The National troops were defeated by the Confederates at Sabine 
 Cross- Roads, on the 8th of April, and were compelled to retreat toward New Or- 
 leans. On their retreat, they defeated the Confederates at Pleasant Hill, and at 
 Cane River. Porter's fleet, which had gone to Shreveport, was enabled to return 
 to New Orleans by damming up the river. 
 
 Forrest's Raid in Tennessee and Kentucky — Massacre of Fort Pillow. 
 — In March, 1864, a Confederate cavaliy force, under General Napokon Bona- 
 parte Forrest, made a destructive raid into Tennessee and Kentucky. P'orrost 
 captured Union City, Tennessee, on the 24th of March, and the next day some of 
 his troops almost destroyed Paducah, in Kentucky, on the Ohio river. On the I2ti 
 of April, Forrest captured Fort Pillow, in Tennessee, on the Mississippi river, and 
 caused most of the garrison, which was composed of negro troops, to be massacred 
 after they had surrendered. 
 
 Grant a Lieutenant-General— The Army of the Potomac— In Februaiy, 
 1S64, General Grant was placed in chief command of the armies of the Republic, 
 w'lli the tide of Lieutenant-General. He established his head-quarters in the field 
 with the Army of the Potomac. On the 3d of May, he issued an order for tLu 
 A.-my of the Potomac under .General Meade, and three Western armies under (Gen- 
 eral W. T. Sherman, in Northern Georgia, to commence operations against the 
 Confederate armies opposed to them. 
 
51- 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Ban es of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania — Advance on Richmond, 
 
 — On tl.e 5th of May, 1864, the Army of the Potomac, under the immediate com- 
 mand of General Meade, and by the direction of Lieutenant-General Grant, whose 
 head-quarters were with tliat army, crossed the Rapid Anna, and attacked General 
 Lee'~ army in the " Wilderness," in Orange County, Virginia, where a sanguinai7 
 K'.r.iie ensued, on the 5th, 6th, and 7th of May. (1864.) Lee retreated to Spotsyl- 
 vania Court-House, where another series of bloody struggles followed; and, at the 
 y,'\ of a week's conflict, the National army was successful, and Lee's army was in 
 f"i-. retreat toward Richmond. In these battles. Generals John Sedgewick and 
 jamrrs Wadsworth, of the National army, were killed. Grant pursued Lee's retreat- 
 ing army, fought several bloody actions with the enemy, the most important of 
 which was at Cold Harbor, outflanked Lee, and thus compelled him to fall back to 
 the defenses of Richmond, in the early part of June. 
 
 Cavalry Raids — Movements of the Army of the James. — Grant sent out 
 cavahy expeditions in various directions to destroy railroads, and to cut off" all com- 
 munication with the Confederate capital. Li the meantime, a large National force 
 named "The Amiy of the James," which had been placed under the command of 
 General Butler, had gone up the James river, from Fortress Monroe, and fortified 
 Bermuda Hundred, on the south side of the river. Butler was repulsed in an attack 
 upon Fort Darling, but he afterwards repulsed several attacks by the insurgents 
 under Beauregard upon Bermuda Hundred. 
 
 Siege of Petersburg. — Butler's movements enabled Grant to place the Army 
 of the Potomac on the south side of the James river, and to lay siege to Petersburg, 
 an important city on the Appomattox river, twenty miles south of Richmond. The 
 Confederates had strongly fortified Petersburg, as they considered the defense of 
 that town essential to the safety of Richmond. Lee with the greater part of his 
 army took a position to defend Petersburg. 
 
 Sherman's Successes in Georgia — Siege of Atlanta. — While the Army 
 of the Potomac had been thus successful in Virginia, the Armies of the Cumber- 
 land, the Tennessee, and the Ohio, which had been united in Northern Georgia, 
 and placed under the command of General W. T. Sherman, were fully as victorious. 
 At the beginning of May, 1864, Sherman compelled the Confederates, under General 
 Joseph E. Johnston, to evacuate Dalton. For several months there was almost 
 constant fighting between Sherman's and Johnston's armies. Johnston was always 
 defeated and compelled to retreat. The most important of these battles were those 
 if Resaca, Dallas, Allatoona Pass, and Kenesaw Mountain. In July, Johnston was 
 removed from the command of the Confederate army in Northern Georgia, and his 
 place was supplied by General John B. Hood. Sherman defeated Hood in three 
 great battles before Atlanta (July 20, 22, and 28, 1864), after which he laid siege 
 to that impoi' ant town and railway centre. In the battle fought on the 22d cf J'jlyi* 
 .'General James B. McPherson, of the National army, was killed. 
 
 Battle of Guntown. — While the great events just related were occuning in 
 (' r.^inia and m Georgia, events of minor importance were transpiring in otlei 
 (^ i?.-ters, On the lolh of J me, 1S64, a National force in Northern Mississippi, 
 uruiti- the command of General Sturgis, was defeated in the battle of Guntown, by 
 I Confederate farce under General Forrest, and compelled to retreat about seventy 
 
ULYSSES S. GRANT. 
 
 WILLIAM T. SHERMAN. 
 
CHARLES SUMNER. 
 
 SALMON P. CHASE. 
 
UNITED STATES. 5x9 
 
 five liiiles, Socm .fter this disaster, Sturgis was superseded in his command by 
 Gereral Andrew J. Smith, who soon defeated the Confederates and restored the 
 supremacy of the National arms in that quarter of the Southern Confedera.7y. 
 
 Fight between the Kearsarge and the Alabama. — After the beginning of 
 die Civil W xr, several large vessels were built for the Confederates at Liverpool, 
 in England, by I^aird, a ship-builder at that place, and a member of the British 
 F.Lrliament. One of these vessels, named Alabama, and manned (.hiefly by Eng- 
 (.■;1 men, Lat bearing a Confederate flag, and commanded by Captain Raphat! 
 cnune,- was defeated and sunk, on the 15th of June, 1S64, in the English Chan 
 acl, neai the French port of Cherbourg, by the Kearsarge, a National vessel, com- 
 aianded by Captain John A. Winslow. The crew of the Alabama were saved iy 
 an English vessel and carried to England. 
 
 Early's Invasion of Maryland — Battle of Monocacy. — At the beginning 
 of July, 1864, about 15,000 Confederate troops, under General Jubal Early, crossed 
 the Potomac, from the Shenandoah Valley, into Maryland. They moved toward 
 lialtimore, and, on the 9th (July, 1S64), they defeated a few National troops, under 
 General Lewis Wallace, on the Monocacy river, near Frederick. Soon afterward, 
 the Confederates recrossed the Potomac into Virginia, carrying with them a large 
 amount of plunder. 
 
 Battle at Winchester — Burning of Chambersburg. — When Early's troops 
 retired into Virginia, they were pursued by National troops, who defeated them ut 
 Winchester, on the 20th of July. In the latter part of July, a small Confedciatif 
 force crossed the Potomac, and marched northward to Chambersburg, in Pennsyl 
 vania. They reduced the greater part of that town to ashes, on the 30th (July, 18L.4J. 
 after which they again retired into Virginia, pursued by a National force. 
 
 Explosion of a Mine at Petersburg — Seizure of the Weldon Railroad. 
 — During the latter part of June, and throughout July and August, 1864, Giant 
 prosecuted the siege of Petersburg with vigor. On the 30th of July, a mine winch 
 had been dug under one of the strongest of 'he Confederate works, was exploded 
 with terrific effect; but the assault on Petersburg which immediately followed, was 
 disastrously repulsed. In August, Grant seized the railroad leading from Peters- 
 burg to Weldon, in North Carolina. Four desperate attempts made by the insur- 
 gents to re''ake this important road were defeated. (August 19, 20, 21, and 25, 
 1S64.) 
 
 Siege and Capture of Atlanta. — During the latter part of July and throughout 
 August, 1864, Sherman was vigorously besieging Atlanta, while the Confedeiate 
 aimy which defended the place was gradually becoming weaker. Cavalry expe- 
 iitions had cut the railways leading to Atlanta. At length, on the 2d of Sep- 
 tember (1864), Sherman defeated and severed Hood's army, ccmprlled it to ev;ic 
 uate Atlanta, and immediately took possession of the city. 
 
 Farragut's Victory in Mobile Bay — Capture of Forts Gaines and Mor- 
 gan.— While the sieges of Petersburg and Atlanta were progressing, impoitani 
 e tnts weie occurring near Mobile. On the 5th of August, the National fleet, imdei 
 Admiral Farragut, defeated the Confederate fleet at the entrance to Mobile bay, 
 ca])turing many vessels. The Confederate admiral, Franklin Buchanan, lost .1 \f.^ 
 during the engagement. Farragut acted in c-onjunction with a National array uni'ai 
 
520 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Generfi Gordon Granger. Fort Gaines, after a furious assault, was captured bj 
 Farragut on the 8th of August. Farragut and Granger opened a heavy assault on 
 Fort Morgan, which they com]5el]ed to surrender on the 23d of August (1864). 
 
 Sheridan's Victories in the Shenandoah Valley. — On the 19th of Septem- 
 ber, 1864, the National army in the Shenandoah Valley, under General Philip 11. 
 Sheridan, gained a brilliant victory over the Confederates under Gereral Eaily,no', 
 far Irom Winchester. Sheridan gained another victory at Fisher's Hill, on th(,'22d 
 September, 1S64). Early was driven farther up the valley. On the 19th ol Octc 
 'j<?r, Sheridan almost annihilated Early's army, in the battle of Cedii Creek. Aflei 
 diis the valley was under the complete control of the National troops. 
 
 Hood's Invasion of Tennessee — Destruction of Hood's Army. — Aftei 
 the fall of Atlanta, Hood, with his Confederate army, moved northward, for the pur- 
 pose of invading Tennessee and cutting off Sherman's communications with the loyal 
 States. Sherman followed Hood and drove him into Alabama. At length, Sher- 
 man left General George H. Thomas with a part of his army in Tennessee to watch 
 Hood, and with the remainder he began his great march through Georgia. Hood 
 invaded Tennessee with about 40,000 men. On his approach, Thomas retreated 
 to Nashville, the capital of Tennessee. Hood pursued, fought an indecisive battle 
 with a part of Thomas's army under General Schofield, at Franklin, on the 30th of 
 November, and then laid siege to Nashville. On the 15th of December (1864), 
 Thomas marched out of the city, and in a bloody battle he completely destroyed 
 Hood's army. Nearly the whole of Hood's artillery was captured by the victori- 
 ous National troops, and Hood, with a small remnant of his army, fled south into 
 Alabama. 
 
 Sherman's March Through Georgia — Capture of Savannah. — Alter 
 having gone in pursuit of Hood, Sherman divided his army, retaining 50,000 men 
 ■4nder his own command, and leaving the remainder under General Thomas to 
 oppose Hood's army in Tennessee. On the 14th of November, Sherman finally 
 abandoned Atlanta, and commenced a grand march through Georgia for the Atlantic 
 coast. No opposition was made to his progress. He captured Milledgeville, the 
 capital of that State, on the 29th of November; and, on the 21st of December, 
 he took military possession of Savannah, which, on his approach, had been evac- 
 uated by 15,000 Confederate troops, under General Hardee, who fled toward 
 Charleston. 
 
 Admission of Nevada — Re-election of Lincoln. — On the 31st of October, 
 1864, Nevada was admitted into the Union as a State. On the 8th of November, 
 the people of the loyal States pronounced in favor of a vigorous prosecution of the 
 war, by reelecting Abraham Lincoln President of the United States, over his oppo- 
 nent. General George Brinton McClellan. Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, was 
 elected Vice-President. 
 
 EVENTS OF ISeS. 
 
 Abolition of Slavery. — In the early part of 1865, Congress passed an anisUTi- 
 ment of the National Constitution abolishing slavery forever within the limirs of the 
 Republic. Within a few months, three-fourths* of the States had ratified the 
 aniendmenl. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 521 
 
 Capture of Fort Fisher and Wilmington. — On the 15th .f Januar)-, 1865, 
 Fort iMsher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, in North Carolina, having been 
 furiou ily lioinbar'led for tw^o days by 8,000 National troops under General Alfred 
 n. Terry, assisted by Admiral Porter's fleet, was surrendered, v/ith its garrison of 
 2,000 Confederate troops. Terry moved up the river, and, on the 22d of February, 
 he captured Wilmington, the possession of which had long been desired, as i* had 
 lx.en the only seaport in the power of the insurgents for a long time. 
 
 Sherman's March in South Carolina — Evacuation of Charleston 
 ^bdut the middle of January, 1S65, Sherman left Savannah and invaded Si u.i 
 Carolina. He was soon joined by General John G. Foster with a strong force of 
 National troops. Sherman marched northward, and entered Columbia, the capita, 
 of the State, on the 17th of February. This caused the Confederates to evacuate 
 Charleston on the same day, and on the following day (February 18, 1865), that 
 city was taken possession of by National colored troops. 
 
 Sherman's Invasion of North Carolina — ^Junction of Armies. — Sherman 
 advanced into North Carolina, and defeated the insurgents, under Hardee and John- 
 ston, at Averysboro', March i6th, and at Bentonville, March 19th. On the 22d of 
 March (1S65), Sherman was reinforced at Goldsboro', by the army under Terry 
 from Wilmington, and that under Schofield from Newbern, while Johnston with his 
 Confederate army retired to Raleigh, the capital of North Carolina, which was 
 occupied by Sherman on the 13th of April. 
 
 Sheridan's Movements.— In the meantime, Sheridan had gone up the Shenan- 
 doah Valley, with a force of 10,000 cavalry ; and, on the 2d of March, he almost 
 annihilated the Confederate force under Early, near Charlottesville. After destroying 
 railways and canals, Sheridan joined the Army of the James under General Ord. 
 
 Evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond — Surrender of Lee. — During 
 the entire autumn of 1S64 and the ensuing winter, nothing of importance occurred 
 at Petersburg, except a severe conflict at Hatcher's Run, in February, 1S65. On 
 the 25th of March, 1865, Fort Steadman was captured by the insurgents, but it was 
 recaptured by the National troops on the same day. On the 29th of March (1865), 
 a terrific struggle of three days began between the two great armies before Peters- 
 burg. After three days' fighting, Lee's army was compelled to evacuate Peters- 
 burg and Richmond, and flee westward toward Lynchburg. A hot pursuit on the 
 part of the National army followed, and many of the Confederate troops were cap 
 tured on the way. The retreat of Lee's army had been intercepted by Sheridan, 
 and, at Deatonsville, the Confederate General Ewell and his entire corps weie 
 made prisoners, after a sharp fight. At length, on the 9th of April, finding escapi' 
 impossible, Lee surrendered what remained of his army, about 26,000 nen, U 
 Genera] Grant, at Appomattox Court- House. 
 
 End of the Confederate Government. — By the surrender of Lee's army, the 
 Rebellion had received its death-blow. Richmond had been entered on the 3d of 
 April, by colored troops under General Godfrey Weitzel, who received the siu- 
 rendei of the city from the mayor. "The President," "The Cabinet." and " TIic 
 Congress" of the Confederacy had fled, thus putting an end to "The Confederate 
 Government." On the 4th of April (1865), President Lincoln, who had been al 
 the head-quarters of Grant for more than a week, made his appearance in Rich 
 
522 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 mond, and, in the mansion of Jefferson Davis, the fugitive President of the Southern 
 Confederacy, he publicly received many army officers and citizens. 
 
 Capture of Mobile— Cavalry Raids. — Operations near Mobile had been 
 suspended during the winter, but m March, 1S65, they were resumed by General 
 Caoby and Rear-Admiral Thatcher; and, after a defense of more than a mimth 
 the city of Mobile and its defenses were surrendered to the National forces, on the 
 tlihif April General J. H. Wilson, with a large force of National cavalry, 
 sale a destnictive raid through Western Georgia and Eastern Alabama; and 
 (ieneial George Stoneman, at the head of another cavalry force, swept through 
 Ilouth-westem Virginia, to Salisbury, in North Carolina, destroying railways and 
 bridges. 
 
 Assassination of President Lincoln. — While the American people were 
 rejoicing, because of the suppression of the rebellion and the return of peace, they 
 suddenly became a nation of mourners, when the news spread over the country 
 that President Lincoln had been assassinated in a theatre in Washington. On the 
 night of the 14th of April (Good Friday), 1865, John Wilkes Booth, who had at 
 one time been an actor in that theatre, stole up behind the President, and shot him 
 through the head. Mr. Lincoln died the next morning. The assassin, immediately 
 after committing his tragical deed, leaped upon the stage, and, brandishing a large 
 knife, exclaimed, in the motto of Virginia, "Sic semper tyrannis!" "May this ever 
 be the fate of tyrants!" and made his escape. Pie was afterwards found m a barn, 
 in Virginia, and, refusing to surrender himself, he was shot by Sergeant Boston 
 Corbett. Booth's accomplices in the assassination were tried, and, upon conviction, 
 four were hanged, and the rest were imprisoned for life, with the exception of one, 
 who was only imprisoned for six years. 
 
 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (APRIL 15, 1865- 
 MARCH 4, 1869), 
 
 Andrew Johnson Inaugurated President. — At about noon on the day that 
 Mr. Lincoln died (April 15, 1865), Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, was 
 sworn in, as President of the United States, by Chief- Justice Chase. 
 
 Surrender of Johnston's Army — End of the Rebellion. — On the 26th of 
 April, 1865, the insurgent army in North Carolina, numbering then about 31,000 
 men, under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston, surrendered to General 
 Sherman. The other Confederate armies and guerrilla bands soon afterward laid 
 down their arms; and, by the middle of May, all armed opposition to the National 
 Government had ended ; and the National armies were disbanded, and the Nation's 
 defenders were returning to their homes. 
 
 Flight and Capture of Jefferson Davis. — In the meantime, Jefferson Davis, 
 'lie late so-called Confederate President, and the chief of the foiled conspirators, 
 vaTr fleeing toward the sea-coast, with a large amount of specie, for the purpose of 
 tscaping from the country. He was captured near Irwinsville, Georgia, by ;*. j.ari 
 of the 4th Michigan cavalry, under the command of Colonel B. D. I'ritchard ; ano 
 was brought to Fortress Monroe, where he was kept a close prisoner for two ye*rs_ 
 after which he was finall) set at liberty (May, 1867 ) 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
TOMB OP i^BRATIAM LINCOLN AT SPRINGFIELD. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 523 
 
 Purification and Perpetuity of the Republic— Thus closed the most terrible 
 civil war ever known. A few restless and ambitious men, who had lost the power 
 which they had wielded over the Nation for many years, had conspired against the 
 life of the Kepublic, and inaugurated a gigantic rebellion, for the purpose of dis- 
 membering (he Union, and establishing an independent empire, with slaveiy as its 
 Comer-stone. In that fierce struggle perished the schemes of these conspirators, 
 «jid the barbarous institution which they had desired to perpetuate. The Rc-publiC 
 vva-~i purified and strengthened by the fiery ordeal through which it had passed. 
 
 Reconstruction — Readmission of Tennessee.— On the assembling of Con 
 ^ress, in December, 1S65, it became evident that a disagreement existed between 
 that body and the President, respecting the restoration of the lately-rebellious 
 States to their former relations with the Union. The President demanded their 
 immediate restoration, while Congress contended that they should first comply with 
 certain conditions imposed upon them in the shape of a Constitutional amendment. 
 In June, 1866, Tennessee, having ratified the proposed amendment, was restored 
 to its former place in the Union. 
 
 Atlantic Telegraph Cable. — In the summer of 1S66, telegraphic communica 
 tion, between America and Europe was established by means of the Atlantic Tele- 
 graph Cable, which was laid from Valentia, in Ireland, to Heart's Content, in New- 
 foundland. The accomplishment of this vast undertaking is owing to Cyrus W. 
 Fieldj of New York. The Queen of Great Britain immediately sent a congratula- 
 tory dispatch to the President of the United States, and received a reply from him 
 on the same day. 
 
 Military Reconstruction Bill. — The Thirty-ninth Congress, before the close 
 of its last session, in March, 1867, passed, over the President's veto, a bill placing 
 the States lately in rebellion under the military authority of the Republic until their 
 full restoration as States of the Union should be effected. 
 
 Admission of Nebraska — Purchase of Alaska. — During the last session 
 of the Thirty-ninth Congress, in 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as a 
 State. In the spring of 1867, Russia sold all her territorial possessions in North 
 America to the United States, for 7,200,000 dollars. The purchased territory was 
 named Alaska. 
 
 Impeachment, Trial, and Acquittal of President Johnson. — In the latter 
 part of February, 1868, the National House of Representatives preferred articles of 
 impeachment against President Johnson, for a violation of what was called the 
 Tenure-of-Office Act, in an attempt to forcibly remove Edwin M. Stanton, Secre 
 lary of War, from the Cabinet, and for other misdemeanors. On the 1 6th of May, 
 1868, the National Senate, sitting, in accordance with the provisions of the Con- 
 stitution, as a High Court of Impeachment for the trial of the Chief Magistrate, 
 acquitted the President of all the charges brought against him. 
 
 General Grant Elected President of the United States. — In May, 186S, 
 i-e Republican party, whicli had sustained the National Government in its prose- 
 ciiVJan of the war for the suppression of the rebellion, nominated Gener, 1 Ulyssei 
 Sin)p6on Grant, of Illinois, for President of the United States, and Schuyler Colfaif, 
 of Indiana, for Vice-President. The Democratic nominees were Horatio Seyinourj 
 of New York, for President, and Francis P. Blair, Jr., of Missouri, for Vice-President. 
 
524 
 
 CEN TENNIA L HIS TOR Y. 
 
 On the 3d of Novemlier, General Gtant and Mr. Colfax were elected by an over 
 whelming majority over the opposing candidates. 
 
 GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (MARCH 4, 1869-1871^ 
 
 Inauguration of Grant — Pacific Railroad.— On the 4th of Maich, 1S6'), 
 General Grant took the oath of office as eighteenth President of the United Stales 
 Irv May follovving, the railroad from Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento City, ("ali 
 foiiiia, was completed. This great National highway across the continent to tin.; 
 I'.'icific, is known as the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific Railroads. 
 
 Enfranchisement of the Colored Population of the United States. — 
 All political distinctions on account of race or color in the United States, were finally 
 removed by the ratification and adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment of the Na- 
 tional Constitution. This amendment, which was declared adopted in March, 1870, 
 secured the rights of citizenship to all races within the borders of the Republic ; and 
 several hundred thousand poor colored men, who ten years before were held as 
 chattels, now enjoyed the glorious privileges of American citizens, and were placed 
 on a political equality with their late masters. 
 
 War with Corea. — On the ist of June, 1871, the United States fleet under 
 Admiral Rodgers, while in the waters of Ci^rea, in Eastern Asia, was fired upon 
 from the Corean forts, but repulsed the attack; and, on the loth and llth of the 
 same month (June, 1S71), the Americans defeated the Coreans, and captured their 
 forts, after some spirited fighting. 
 
 The Alabama Controversy with England. — The conduct of England, in 
 allowing the construction, in her ports, and the escape therefrom, of the Alabama 
 and other Anglo-Confederate pirate-ships, had produced a bitter feeling in the 
 United States, against the British Government. A treaty signed by Lord Clarendon 
 on the part of Great Britain, and by Reverdy Johnson on the part of the United 
 States, on the 15th of January, 1S69, was almost unanimously rejected by the United 
 States Senate ; and the controversy threatened to end in a war between the two 
 nations, in the early part of General Grant's Administration. 
 
 Joint High Commission and Treaty of Washington — A Court of Arbi- 
 tration. — In February, 1 87 1, commissioners appointed by the American and British 
 Governments met in Washington City, as "The Joint High Commission;" and, on 
 the loih of May, 1871, fie commissioners agreed upon "The Treaty )f Washing- 
 ton," which was speedily ratified by the two Governments. The Treaty of Wash 
 ington provided for the settlement of the Alabama disinite by a Court of Aibitration, 
 consisting of five Arl)itrat()rs, to be appointed respectively by the President of the 
 United States, the Queen of Great Britain, the Emperor of Brazil, the King of 
 Italy, and the President of Switzerland. 
 
 The ' Indirect .Claims" Controversy. — When the Court of Arbitration met, 
 iX Geneva, in Switzerland, in February, 1872, American claims for indirect or for 
 seiiuentiai damages were presented; but the British Arbitrator, Sii Alexander Cj>T; 
 burn, violently objected to the consideration of such claims, and his course v. ji 
 approved and sustained by the British Government and people. Intense exciteuient 
 and bitter feeling against the United States was manifested in Great Britain, and it 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 525 
 
 was feared that the Arbitration would signally fail. The United States Government 
 for some time obstinately persisted in its preposterous claims for consequential 
 damages, and the British Government as persistently denied the justice of such 
 claims; but, alter ^everal months' negotiation between the two Governments, the 
 Tribunal of Arbitration, upon reassembling, in June, 1872, settled the question by 
 rejecting the consideration of the claims of the United States for indirect damages. 
 
 Decision of the Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal at Geneva. — 'ITie 
 Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal at Geneva finally concluded its work on tbf 
 5;h of September, 1872. The Court expressed in mild terms England's want oJ 
 due diligence in preventing the escape of the Anglo-Confederate cruisers. The 
 amount of damages awarded the United States by the Court was fifteen and one- 
 half million dollars. Thus was settled amicably a dispute which had threatened 
 to involve in war two nations kindred in race, language, institutions, and religion; 
 — presenting to the whole civilized world a most commendable spectacle. 
 
 Presidential Campaign of 1872, and Re-election of President Grant. — 
 A portion of the Republican parly, known as Liberal Republicans, dissatisfied with 
 General Grant's Administration, held a National Convention at Cincinnati, early 
 iii May, 1872, and nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, for President, and 
 Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown, of Missouri, for Vice President. Early in June, 
 the regular Republican National Convention, at Philadelphia, renominated President 
 Grant, with Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, for Vice-President. Early in July, the 
 Democrats, in their National Convention at Baltimore, instead of nominating a 
 candidate from their own party, adopted the Liberal Republican nominations. On 
 the Sth of November, President Grant was reelected by a majority far greater than 
 in 1 868; and, 6n the 29th of {he same month, Mr. Greeley died, mourned by the 
 whole American nation. 
 
 Domestic Difficulty in Louisiana. — Near the close of 1872, a serious domestic 
 difficulty arose in Louisiana, concerning the election in that State. Both parties 
 claimed to have carried the elections, and each endeavored to have its candidates 
 installed. On the night of the 6lh of December, 1872, in accordance with an ordei 
 issued by Judge Durell, of the United States District Court of Louisiana, United 
 States troops seized the State House in New Orleans, and held it for the Kellogg 
 or Administration faction, which was suj)poi-ted by the National Administration ; 
 but the opposite faction refused to recognize William Pitt Kellogg as Governor of 
 the State, and acknowledged John McEnery as chief magistrate of Louisiana ; and 
 for some time Louisiana had two governors and two legislatures. On the 5th of 
 March, 1873, the partisans of Governor McEnery made an armed attack upon the 
 Kellogg party in New Orleans, but the disturbance was quickly quelled by United 
 States troops. On the 13th of April (1873), ^ bloody conflict took place at Colfax, 
 in Grant f/arish, which resulted in the horrible massacre of 150 negroes who sup- 
 p>^rted the Kellogg Government. On the 7th of May (1S73), an armed insurrec- 
 -I'on against the authority of Governor Kellogg broke out at St. "Martinsville; but, 
 B"'er some spirited skirmishing, and upon the appearance of National troops, the 
 Lisurgents submitted, and quiet was restored, but the great body of the white popu 
 lation pf Louisiana was very restive under the authority of the Kellogg Government. 
 
 War with the Modoc Indians in Oregon. — In November, 1872, the 
 National Government attempted to remove the Modoc Indians, of Northern Call- 
 
526 
 
 CENTENNIAL HIS TOR V. 
 
 fornia, to a reservation in Southern Oregon. The Modocs, numbering no more 
 than sixty warriors, headed by their principal sachem, Captain Jack, and by their 
 other chiefs, Shack-Nasty Jim, Schonchin, Bogus Charlie, Boston Charlie, and 
 Scar-faced Charlie, resisted, and defeated the United States troops sent to lemove 
 them. In January, 1S73, Captain Jack again defeated the troops sent against him. 
 On the iith of April (Good Friday), 1873, General Canby and Commissioner 
 Thomas were treacherously assassinated by Captain Jack and Boston Charlie, at a 
 DCAce conference. This event produced the most intense indignation throughoul 
 Ihe United States, and public sentiment was for a time strongly in favor of the 
 extermination of the whole tribe of the Modocs. General Schofield, who com 
 manded the United States forces in the Pacific Department, sent troops after the 
 Modocs, who fled to the Lava Beds, in Southern Oregon. During the months of 
 April and May, 1873, the Modocs frequently repulsed the attacks of the United 
 States troops; but finally, on the 1st of June (1873), Captain J^'^^^ surrendered with 
 his bands, and the famous " Modoc War" ended. On the 3d of October, 1873, 
 Captain Jack, and the other Modoc leaders who had murdered General Canby and 
 Commissiuner Thomas, were hanged, in accordance with the sentence of a court- 
 martial; and the surviving Modocs were settled among other Indian tribes. 
 
 Great Financial Crisis. — In .September, 1873, a terrible financial crisis swept 
 over the country. In that month, many of the leading Ijanking houses of New 
 York City failed; and the consequences of these failures were felt to the remotest 
 borders of the Union. The banking houses of other large cities of the United 
 States immediately failed. These failures aflected every industrial and manufac- 
 turing interest in the land, and caused much distress among the laboring population 
 in the large cities. These failures were caused in. a great measure by too heavy 
 investments in North Pacific Railroad bonds. The condition of the finances 
 received the attention of the National Congress, which, in April, 1874, passed a 
 bill to inflate the country with more paper money, but this bill was vetoed by the 
 President, thus failing to become a law; but a bill providing for the more equal 
 distribution of the paper currency among the different sections of the Union, and 
 for a resumption of specie payments, received his signature, in June. (1874.) 
 
 The Virginius Difficulty with Spain. — On the 31st of October, 1S73, the 
 steamer Virginius, flying the American flag, manned by Americans and Cubans, 
 and commanded by Captain P"ry, was seized by the Spanish \Tar vessel Tornado, 
 off the coast of Jamaica, on the ground that she was a filibustering vessel and was 
 carrying war material to the Cuban insurgents; and, in the course of a few days, 
 fifty-three of the crew and passengers were shot, by order of the Spanish military 
 authorities at Santiago de Cuba. These wholesale executions produced the wildest 
 excitement and the most intense indignation in the United States, and the most 
 angry and warlike feeling against Spain was manifested. Immense public meet- 
 ings were held in New York and other large cities, which were addressed by noisy 
 orators and blatant demagogues; and large offers of volunteers were made to the 
 National Govemment. In the midst of this war fever, the Governments of the 
 United States and Spain were busily engaged in the task of settling the matter by 
 negotiation. The United States demanded reparation for the outrage upon tht 
 Ameiican flag. The C;istelar Government in Spain finally acceded to the deminds 
 »f the United States; and, on the 29th of November, 1873, a protocol was signed 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 527 
 
 \t Washington, by the American Secretary of State and the Spanish Minisier at 
 Washington, by which Spain was required to restore the Virginms and the smvi 
 vors of her passengers and crew. On the i6th of December, 1873, the Virginius 
 n'as deh'vered to the United States navy, by the Sjianish naval authorities, at Bahia 
 [londa, on the Cuban coast, west of Havana; and, on the l8th,the survivors of tLc 
 lUrgitim! crew and passengers were released at Santiago dc Cuba, and on the 
 aSth they arrived at New York, in the United States sloop of war yuniata. The 
 llrginius, which commenced leaking badly soon after her departure from B.iLia 
 clonda, wa.- finally aliandoned by her crew; and she sunk to the depths of I he 
 ncean, of the coast of North Carolina, on the 26th of December, 1S73. 
 
 Civil War in Arkansas. — The State of Arkansas, as well as Louisiana, was 
 beset with domestic troubles. The candidates for Governor in 1872 were Elisha 
 Baxter and Joseph Brooks. On account of alleged frauds, the votes of several 
 counties we e thrown out, thus leaving Baxter a majority in the State, and he was 
 accordingly inaugurated. In June, 1873, Brooks began proceedings, in the circuit 
 court of Pulaski County, for the office of Governor, charging Baxter with being a 
 usurper. On the 15th of April, 1874, the court decided in favor of Brooks's 
 claims; and Baxter vv^as ousted, and Brooks took possession of the Gubernatorial 
 chairj while his adherents seized the State House. For several weeks. Little Rock 
 resembled a vast camp. Brooks and Baxter each having collected a small army; 
 and the greatest excitement prevailed in the city. Baxter appealed to the Presi- 
 dent of the United States for aid, but the National Chief Magistrate declined to in- 
 terfere, except to preserve the peace ; and United States troops proceeded to Little 
 Rock to prevent bloodshed. On the 21st of April (1874), a slight conflict occurred 
 between the contending factions in Little Rock, but it was soon terminated by the 
 appearance of National troops. On the 30th of April, a party of Baxter's men were 
 captured by Brooks's men, near Little Rock; and, on the same day, a party of 
 Baxter's men attacked a party of Brooks's men near Pine Bluff, killing and wound- 
 ing thirty, and capturing the remainder. On the night of the 7th of May (1874), 
 a party of Baxter's men, on board the steamer Sallie, were attacked by Brooks's 
 men, and captured. On the 9th, there was some fighting in Little Rock, but Na- 
 tional troops soon restored order. On the nth, there was a spirited skirmish at 
 Baring Cross, near Little Rock, in which seven of Brooks's men were killed, but 
 the fight was terminated by United States troops. The State Legislature met at 
 Baxter's call, and decided in favor of his claims; and, on the 15th of May, Presi- 
 dent Grant issued a proclamation recognizing Baxter and ordering Brooks to submit. 
 On the 19th, Brooks's party surrendered the State House to Baxter. The opposing 
 forces then dispersed, and quiet was restored. 
 
 Revolution in Louisiana. — Early in September, 1874, che Kellogg police in 
 New Orleans seized several cases of arms belonging to private individuals. On the 
 !4t!i (September, 1874), the citizens of_New Orleans held a large mass meeting on 
 Canal street, to protest against the seizure of arms as an outrage. The sperikcrs a1 
 :his meeting advised the people to overthrow the Kellogg Government by violence; 
 iind a comniilee of citizens requested Governor Kellogg to resign; but the Governu 
 replied through a deputy, refusing to receive any communication from the commit 
 tee. D, B. Penn, Lieutenant-Governor with Governor McEnery, thereupon issued 
 a proclamation to th*i people of Louisiana, calling upon them to arm and drive th« 
 
528 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Tisuqiei Kellogg from power, and also a proclamation to the colored people of the 
 State, assuring them that no harm was meant toward their race. The people of 
 New Orleans responded with alacrity to the advice to arm ; and, on the afternoon 
 of the same day (September 14, 1874), armed men held undisputed possession of 
 Canal street. About four o'clock, 500 Metropolitan police, with cavalry ana artiU 
 'ery, appeared at the head of Canal street, and (general Longstreet, who commanded 
 'hem, oidered the ai'med citizens to disperse. The insurgents refusing to comply, 
 I fight occurred between them and the Metropolitan police, and eighty men were 
 <illed and wounded on both sides. The Metropolitans broke at the first tire, and 
 ;he citizens captured all their artillery. The citizens then built barricades on d! 
 ihe streets leading from Canal street. Most of the barricades were made with street 
 railroad cars. Governor Kellogg, General Longstreet, and others, fled for refuge 
 to the Custom House, where they were sheltered by United States troops. There 
 was considerable firing in the streets of the city during the night, and New Orleans 
 presented a decidedly warlike appearance. On the following morning, at seven 
 o'clock (September 15, 1874), the State House was surrendered by the Kellogg 
 party, to Lieutenant-Governor Penn's militia, which now numbered 10,000 men. 
 All the State and city property, police stations, arsenals, and police and fire-alann 
 telegraphs, were in the possession of the McEnery party. At nine o'clock, the en- 
 tire force of Metropolitan police and Kellogg's militia surrendered to Penn's militia. 
 Lieutenant-Governor Penn took the reins of government, and prepared to install all 
 those who had been voted for on the same ticket with McEnery in 1872. The bar- 
 ricades were torn down, and the street cars resumed their trips. In response to 
 application from Governor Kellogg, President Grant issued a proclamation ordering 
 the McEnery insurgents to disperse and return to their homes within five days. 
 On the 17th (September, 1874), the McEnery Government submitted to the Presi- 
 dent's orders. The State Capitol, and the other State buildings in New Orleans, 
 were formally surrendered by Governor McEnery, to the United States military 
 authorities at New Orleans. The Kellogg Administration was once more in pos 
 session of the State Government, and perfect quiet again prevailed. 
 
 Centennial Celebrations of Revolutionary Events. — The Nation was now 
 completing the first century of its existence, and the centennials of Revolutionary 
 events were observed with appropriate ceremonies. The one hundredth anniversary 
 of the destruction of tea in Boston harbor was appropriately celebrated at Boston 
 and other places, on the i6th of December, 1873 ; as was also the centennial anni- 
 versary of the meeting of the First Continental Congress, on the 5th of September, 
 1874, at Philadelphia. A magnificent celebration of the one hundredth anniversary 
 of the skirmishes at Lexington and Concord was held at those places, on the 19th 
 of April, 1875, about 100,000 people having assembled on the occasion, to wlmess 
 the ceremonies and hear the addresses. The centennial of the capture of Ticcnde- 
 roga by Ethan Allen was also duly celebrated by the inhabitants of that village, on 
 the loth of May, of the same year; as was also the centennial of the Mecklenburg 
 Declaration, by the people of Charlotte, North Carolina, on the 2Cth. But the 
 grandest of the celebrations of the year 1875, was the centennial of the Battle o\ 
 Bunker's Hill, on the 17th of June, at Boston and Charlestown, people from iiffe«m 
 narts of 'he Union participating, and a procession twelve miles in length marched 
 In the spot consecrated to Freedom. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE NEW STATES. 
 
 529 
 
 Settlement of the West. — Since the final organization of the Unii n in 1789, 
 .wentyfive nev' States have arisen, in what was a century ago one vast wilderness, 
 /Hhabited by the red children of the forest ; and thousands of new cities, towns, .ind 
 villages dot the country where, one-hundred years ago, the red man hunted and 
 tlihed. In addition to these twenty-five new States, flourishing Territories have 
 arisen, so that in the course of less than another century the country between the 
 ^lississippi and Pacific slope may be erected into an additional number of pros- 
 perous States ; and the whole continent between the Atlantic and the Pacific may 
 be covered with flourishing cities, towns, and villages, and beautiful farnT; jjuI the 
 miserable savage will disappear before the busy wheels of civilization. 
 
 The Thirteen Original States. — The thirteen original States, who^e early 
 history, as English colonies, we have have already considered, were as follows: 
 Virginia, settled in 1607; Massachusetts, in 1620; New York, in 1623; New 
 Hampshire, in 1629; Maryland, in 1634; Rhode Island, in 1636; Connecticut, in 
 1635; Delaware, in 1638; North Carolina, in 1663; New Jersey, in 1664; South 
 Carolina, in.1670: Pennsylvania, in 1682; and Georgia, in 1733. 
 
 The New States. — The twenty-five new States which were founded since the 
 Union was formed, were admitted into the Union in the following order: Vermont, 
 in 1791 ; Kentucky, in 1792; Tennessee, in 1796; Ohio, in 1802; Louisiana, in 
 1812; Indiana, in 1816; Mississippi, in 1817; Illinois, in 1818; Alabama, in 
 1S19, Maine, in 1820; Missouri, in 1821 ; Arkansas, in 1836; Michigan, in 1837; 
 Florida, in 1845; Texas, in 1845; Iowa, in 1846; Wisconsin, in 1848; California, 
 in 1S50; Minnesota, in 1858; Oregon, in 1859; Kansa's, in 1861 ; West Virginia, 
 in 1863; Nevada, in 1864; Nebraska, in 1867; and Colorado, in 1875. 
 
 Vermont. — The first of the new States, Vermont, was admitted into the Union 
 on the iSth of February, 1791. Its territory had previously been claimed by 
 both New Hampshire and New York. The first settlement in the State had been 
 made by the English, at Brattleboro', in 1724. 
 
 Kentucky. — The first Western State admitted into the Union was Kentucky. 
 The first settlement within its borders was made at Boonesboro', in 1775, by the 
 celebrated pioneer, Daniel Boone, of North Carolina. Its territory originally formed 
 a part of Virginia. It became a State on the 1st of June, 1792. 
 
 Tennessee. — Four years after the admission of Kentucky, June ist, 1792, 
 I tnnessee, whose territory originally formed a part of North Carolina, was 
 H'lmit'ed into the Union as a separate State. The fii^st permanent settlement 
 rrithin its borders was made at Fort Loudon, in 1757, by emigrants from Noi'h 
 Carolina. 
 
 Ohio. — In the year 1S02, Ohio became a member of the American Union. Tl 
 was formed from a part of the great North- West Territory, which had been cfdsd 
 to the United States by Virginia and Connecticut; and the first settlement wilh'in 
 its limitswas made at Marietta, in 17S8, by emigrants from New England. 
 
 Louisiana. — In the year 1803, as we have already seen, the vast territory ol 
 Louisiana was purchased from France by the United State? for fifteen million del 
 34 
 
53° 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY 
 
 lars. This immense region embraced all the ten-itoiy between the Mississippi 
 river on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the west, and between ]3ritish 
 America on the north, and Texas and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. The 
 Southeastern portion of this immense territory was admitted into the Union as a 
 Slate on the Sth of April, 1812. Louisiana was first settled in 1699. 
 
 Indiana. — The second State formed out of the North-West Territory, was Indi- 
 ana, which was admitted into the family of States on the nth of December, 1S16, 
 It had been settled at Vincennes, in 1705, by a party of French Canadians 
 
 Mississippi.— The limits of Georgia and South Carolina originally exiendcu 
 westward to the Mississippi river. The western portion of the territories of the 
 two States having been ceded to the United States and erected into the Missis- 
 sippi Territory, the western half became a Slate of the Union on the loth of De- 
 cember, 181 7. The first settlement within its territoiy was made at Natchez, by 
 the P'rench, in 17 16. 
 
 Illinois. — The third State formed out of the North-West Territoiy was Illinois, 
 which became a State, on the 3d of December, 1818. It was settled by the 
 French, in 1682, at Kaskaskia, the oldest European settlement in the Mississippi 
 Valley. 
 
 Alabama. — The eastern half of the Mississippi Territory was admitted into the 
 Union as a separate State, on the 14th of December, 1819. The first settlement in 
 its territory had been made at Mobile, in 1702, by French emigj-ants from Louisiana. 
 
 Maine. — On the 15th of March, 1820, Maine, whose territory originally was under 
 (he jurisdiction of Massachusetts, became a separate State. The first settlements 
 ni this State were made by the English in the first half of the seventeeth century. 
 
 Missouri. — The second State formed out of the magnificent domain of Louisiana 
 was Missouri, which was admitted into the Union on the 21st of August, 1821. 
 The oldest town in this State is St. Genevieve, which was founded by the French, 
 in 1755- 
 
 Arkansas. — The third State carved out of the vast region of Louisiana was 
 Arkansas, the date of whose admission into the Union was the 15th of June, 1836. 
 Its first settlement was made at Arkansas Post, by the French, in 1685. 
 
 Michigan. — On the 26th of January, 1837, Michigan, whose domain had at one 
 lime formed a part of the North-West TeiTitory, became a State of the American 
 Union. Detroit, its first settlement, was founded by the French in 1701. 
 
 Florida. — The province of Florida, %\ hich was settled by the Spaniards, at St. 
 Augustine, in 1565, was ceded by Spain to the United States in 1819, erected into 
 a Territory in 1821, and finally admitted nito the Union as a State on the 3d of 
 March, 1845. 
 
 Texas. — The province of Texas originally formed a part of Mexico, and was 
 settled by the Spaniards at San Antonio de Bexar, in 1692. It was sparsely settled 
 until after Mexico had become independent of Spain, when a stream of emigration 
 flowed into its territory from the United States. These American emigrants, dis- 
 satisfied with Mexican military rule, rebelled, and after a bloody war secured the 
 independence of Texas, which then became an independent republic, and so 
 remained for nine years, after which it was annexed to the United States; and it 
 became a State of the American Union on the 19th of December, 1845. 
 
UNITED STATES. 53 1 
 
 fowa. — On the 28th of December, 1846, Iowa, which had originally formed a part 
 t* (he Louisiana purchase, and afterwards a portion of the Wisconsin TeiTitory, was 
 aumitted in the Union as a State. It was first settled at Burlington and Dubuque, 
 in 11833, ^y emigrants from Illinois. 
 
 Wisconsin. — The eastern portion of the Wisconsin Territory was admitted into 
 the Dnion as a State, by the name of Wisconsin, on the 29th of May, 1848. It was 
 ?<,ttlcd by the French at Green Bay, in 1745. 
 
 California. — By the war with Mexico in 1846, all of the Mexican (.rovmces A 
 Upper California and New Mexico became Territories of the Unite! States by con 
 quest and purchase. The first settlement in California was made at San Diego, by 
 the Spaniards, in 1769. The discovery of gold in the valley of the Sacramento 
 river in 1848, caused this region, which had hitherto been thinly peopled, to become 
 suddenly densely populated. Immigration set in to California from all parts of 
 America and from Europe; and in 1849, application was made for the admission 
 of California into the Union of States, and it was accordingly admitted as a State 
 on the 9th of September, 1850, being the first State formed west of the Rocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 Minnesota. — Eight years after the admission of California, Minnesota was ad- 
 mitted into the Union as a State. The date of its admission was the nth of May, 
 1858. The first permanent settlement in Minnesota was made at St. Paul, in 1846, 
 by emigrants from the Eastern States. 
 
 Oregon. — The vast ten-itory of Oregon, west of the Rocky Mountains, and 
 north of California, which was for a long time claimed by both Great Britain and 
 the United States, was finally divided in 1S46, giving to Great Britain all that portion 
 of the territory north of forty-nine degrees north latitude, and to the United States, 
 all that poruon south of these limits. The valley of the Columbia river and 
 its tributaries was explored in 1804, by Lieutenants Lewis and Clarke, of the 
 United States army. Astoria, named in honor of the wealthy John Jacob Astor, 
 of New York, was founded in 181 1. On the 14th of February, 1859, the south- 
 western part of this Territory was admitted as a State by the name of Oregon — 
 being the second State formed on the Pacific slope. The northern portion of 
 Oregon Territory had been formed into a separate Temtory in 1853, named Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 Kansas.— On the 29th of January, 1861, Kansas was admitted into the Union 
 as the thirty-fourth State. It had been for several years the theatre of lawless vio- 
 lence growing out of the adverse views of its settlers on the slavery question. Its 
 first settlement was made at Leavenworth, by emigrants from Missouri. 
 
 West Virginia. — The Civil War produced a new State by the division of 
 Virginia. The inhabitants of the Western counties of Virginia being opposed to 
 secession, applied to the National Congress for the admission of their section as a 
 separate State. Congress granted their request; and accordingly. West Virgin)? 
 became an independent commonwealth on the 20th of June, 1863. 
 
 Nevada. — On the 31st of October, 1864, Nevada was admitted into the familj 
 of States, being the third State west of the Rocky Mountains. Its first Eettlement 
 was made at Carson City, by emigrants from the older States. 
 
 Nebraska. — On the 15th of January, 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the 
 
532 CENTENNIAL HISTORY 
 
 Union as the thirty-seventh State. Its first settlement was made at Omaha, l/f 
 emigranrs from the older States. Its population increased rapidly. 
 
 Colorado, — The thirty-eighth State was Colorado, which was admitted as such, 
 on the 4th of March, 1875. I's first settlements were made at Denver and Colo- 
 rado city. Owing to the large deposits of gold, its population rapidly increased. 
 
 The Territories of the United States. — There are now ten Teiritoriei 
 belonging to the United States- — namely, Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Idaho 
 ^\'ashillgton, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, the Indian Territory, and A.laska, (h< 
 fist of which comprises the extensive, but almost valueless domain, pui chased Ire n 
 Kuiisis in 1867, for ^7,200,000. 
 
 A HISTORICAL RETROSPECT. 
 
 Progress of the Nation. — We have now traced the history of the United 
 States of America to the close of the first century of their existence as a nation, and 
 we cannot more fittingly conclude than by a brief resume of their material, intellect- 
 ual, moral and political progress. The Republic is a marvel in history, outstrip- 
 ping anything ever before recorded in connection with national vigor and growth. 
 England dates back to the Heptarchy — more than a thousand years. France 
 counts an existence from the time of Charlemagne, though, to go no further back 
 than Hugh Capet, who made Paris her perm'anent capital, she is nearly nine 
 hundred years old. The Republic of the United States has scarcely outrun the 
 lives of her founders. One hundred years is but a little space in the chronology 
 of nations, yet one hundred years have served to see the modern and model 
 republic of the world grow from three to forty-three millions of people. True, she 
 has not bred them all ; but such is the beauty of her institutions that she has won 
 them from other nations, and such their vigor that she has indoctrinated them 
 and made them as much her own children as if they had been " to the manner 
 born." 
 
 Unity, Power and Commercial Growth. — Prior to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, England's hope of further supremacy lay in colonial segregation, sparse 
 settlement and commercial feebleness. But the unity which sprang from a common 
 danger proved the germ of a power which defied the wit of statecraft and set at 
 naught the forceful guardianship of monarchy. Not only was that power sufficiently 
 magical to transform discordant colonies into an harmonious organization, but it 
 proved capable of speedily endowing them with all those elements of potentiality, 
 without which infancy would have been sickly, and maturity long delayed and lean, 
 Wisdom might have framed a beautiful autonomy, stubborn will might have main- 
 tained independence, but without that spirit which impels to enterprise, which 
 shapes indus'xy and creates wealth, the Nation must have dragged along the road 
 to successful empire, even as Mexico drags, richly endowed as she is by nature, 
 .Xij'iong the embryonic possibilities of the new nation, we shall not say among hei 
 eatliest necessities, was a ommerce of her own. How these possi) ilities liave 
 developed, let a word suffice. In the beginning, a few fishing smacls and insig 
 nificant coasters constituted the commercial wealth of the Republic. Now her 
 merchant marine has swelled to 32,576 vessels of all classes, with an aggregate 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 533 
 
 /nnage of 4,725,346 tons. Then her exports were next to nothiitg.and her imports 
 consisted of tlie few articles upon which the mother country sought to levy a tax 
 for her ovu enrichment. Now her exports have swelled to the magnificent sum of 
 ;?643,o_;4,767, while her imports have reached $553,906,153. Her ships are found 
 in every harbor of the world, and the products of every clime are brought to her 
 ports Commensurate with the growth of her commerce has been that of her 
 Consjlar system, by which this commerce is stimulated and protected. The Gov- 
 jrn meat's official agents are accredited to every nation having a seaboard, for the 
 purpose of supervising the varied interests of seamen and merchants, and preserving 
 Ihe dignity of o^r flag in the maritime marts. 
 
 Growth in Manufactures. — While commerce is the Nation's badge of acquain- 
 tance and confidence abroad, and one of the most significant evidences of its enter- 
 prise and growth, its domestic manufactures are even more accurate representatives 
 of its genius and thrift. The Republic may be more impressive by reason of its 
 commerce, but it is more healthful, happy and stable by reason of its manufacturing 
 industries. The history of our growth in this respect reads like a tale of enchant- 
 ment. A primitive grist or saw-mill upon some eligible stream, an occasional fur- 
 nace, the inevitable hand-loom and spinning-wheel in the house — these constituted 
 the simple beginnings of a manufacturing interest which, in the short lapse of a 
 century, has reached colossal proportions. The manufacturing establishments now 
 existing number 260,000, employing 1,300,000 horse-power and 2,250,000 hands. 
 The capital embarked is ^2,250,000,000; the annual wages paid is $800,000,000; 
 the annual products are valued at $4,300,000,000. There is scarcely a commodity 
 used for the convenience or comfort of man that is not manufactured in our midst, 
 and by machinery of our own invention. Our hardware finds a ready sale in the 
 favorite markets of the world. Our textile fabrics have been quite recently intro- 
 duced in Liverpool and Manchester, where they compete successfully in price and 
 quality with the boasted manufactures of those industrial centres. 
 
 Agricultural Growth. — The pride of every nation is its husbandmen. The 
 United States fortunately embraces the great grain belts of the continent. Climate 
 conspires with soil to make it the most productive land in the world. The colo- 
 nists knew but little of the immense agricultural resources of the country; they eked 
 out subsistence on the comparatively barren slopes of the Atlantic, never dreaming 
 of the immeasurable wealth that was to spring from the, to them, inaccessible 
 prairies of the interior. It cannot be said that they laid the foundation of our now 
 majestic agricultural system, except in so far as they contributed to pioneer force 
 of character and the iove of acquired acres. The present system was the growth 
 of a time, after that civilization had pierced the Alleghanies and levied tribute on 
 •he boundless West. In all that appertains to agricultural development, history 
 mu5t make record of the same wonderful growth that has characterized the Nation 
 in other respects. Her agriculture has been a conquest as full of grand results as 
 her manufactures and commerce. It has brought hei plenty, wealth, independence. 
 We feed ourselves, and that is more than Germany, England or France can sav. 
 vVe sell to the needy nations abroad more of the cereal products than any othei 
 country in the world. The improved farm land of the country equals 200,000,000 
 acres, while the annual redemption of land from wilderness and subjection to agri- 
 cult iral purposes averages 4,000,000 acres. The cash value of the farms is in 
 
534 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 excess of |5 10,000,000,000, and tlie annual value of all farm products approximates 
 ;^3 ,000,000,000. The Colonies were dependent. Now we raise 800,000,000 
 bushels of corn and 200,000,000 of wheat, while the aggregate value of our cereal 
 products foots up $1,250,000,000. Europe now gets more grain from us in a year 
 than was raised in the entire thirteen States at the time the Constitution was formed. 
 Improvements in agricultural appliances have kept even pace with this enormous 
 ^uwth of products. The farms of the United States are the best furnished in the 
 n 'rid. In farm machinery there has been a complete revolution. Genius foi 
 "..ii/enting labor-saving appliances seems to hai e sprung from the ground along with 
 t;;e luxurian' crops. The agricultural sciences have been pushed with energy. 
 Faini education is looked upon as a desirable acquisition, and farming as an accom 
 plishment. These are achievements which make the century more glorious, than 
 if Alexanders had paraded the world in boots and spurs, or Pharaohs had been 
 mummified in magnificent monuments built to their own folly. 
 
 Growth of Mining Industries. — The charm of early discovery on the West- 
 ern Continent was intensified by stories of El Dorados and Golcondas told by the 
 natives to credulous adventurers. These were in some instances verified by the 
 discovery of vast treasure houses, as in the case of the Incas of South America and 
 the Montezumas of Mexico. Spanish cupidity subordinated every consideration of 
 solid comfort and substantial progress to the wealth that flowed from the mine. 
 As a consequence, the mineral development of the Spanish possessions began early, 
 and the new countries were made to contribute largely to the riches of the old. 
 The names of Peru and Mexico became synonymous with bullion and bars of gold 
 and silver. Little did the hardy colonists of the North dream that, ere their child- 
 ren passed away, the less inviting hills of their own country would unfold a wealth 
 richer and more exhaustless than any Southern land could boast. The application 
 of steam to machinery had hardly passed beyond the limit of experiment, till 
 science unearthed the magnificent coal fields of the Appalachian range and re- 
 vealed a treasure far more indispensable than any precious metal. Study of geolog- 
 ical structures, the drift and tendency of rock formations, the result of manual 
 experiment — these, crowning a desire that intensified as it marched westward with 
 our civilization, established the frfct that nature had not only been everywhere 
 prodigal of her mineral wealth, but that she had so arranged the different varieties 
 as to make them most useful to man. Coal may not always be found where iron 
 ore exists, but it is found most where iron exists most, thus proving the providential 
 distribution of the baser treasures of earth. How this happy arrangement has 
 aifected our industries can be learned by referring to those localities where the smoke 
 of the furnace and the forge forms perpetual clouds around the summits of the moun- 
 tains whose inward treasures are being wrought into use. Long before our pioneers 
 w t're checked by the ranges of the Western coast, the country could safely make 
 the boast of being the richest in mineral wealth in the world. But with 1S48 and 
 lu gold discoveries in California, and afterwards with the discovery of sih'er in 
 Ns'/ada, Mon.ana and Colorado, there came a time when the nations wcndereJ a) 
 d;e marvelous richness of our mineral deposits, and the most extravagant fables )f 
 :he wealth of the Sierras were eclipsed by convincing reality. No single event of 
 the century contributed so largely to our population, or so materially to our wealth 
 and progress, as the discoveiy that our Western border abounded in the precious 
 
o 
 
UNITED STATES. 535 
 
 meUlj. A nation grew up as if by magic among the Cordilleras, and our empire 
 waved her wand over the Pacific seas. In less than thirty years, we find great and 
 populous States literally carved out of the wilderness, vying with those of the East 
 in population and wealth, and contributing of their industry and resources a large 
 share to the general wealth. From 1848 to 1868, the gold and silver areas of the 
 West yielded 1 1,2 10,000,000, and the yield for every year since is set down at an 
 average cf |6o,ooo,ooo. In 1857, another discovery of underground wealti was 
 made, w hich has proven a boon to the world. We allude to the petroleum deposits 
 of Pennsylvania, Ohio' ant' Virginia — but especially to those of Pennsylvania. This 
 discovery was as if the fiat of Genesis had been repeated, sii lux! "let there be 
 light!" Coal oil has become indispensable in the American home, and a staple 
 article of commerce, being carried to every country. Nearly 1,000,000,000 gallons 
 have been sent aljroad since 1S57, yielding over ;^25o,ooo,ooo. 
 
 Internal Improvements. — It would be a pardonable hyperbole to say that a 
 countiy without railroads, telegraphs, and canals, is a thousand years behind the 
 age. Yet when the old thirteen States became one, -no such conveniences existed. 
 Our entire and vast system of inland communication is the result of less than a 
 century of enterprise. In the .application of power to inland commerce, in the 
 perfection of appliances for intercommunication, in the expenditure of money and 
 the elaboration of plans for abridging our immense distances, this country is almost 
 phenomenal. In 1830 the first 23 miles of railroad were opened for use. Now 
 not less than 70,000 miles occupy the country like a network, put down at a cost of 
 jSj, 500,000,000. This mileage exceeds that of all the countries of Europe com- 
 bined. Twenty-five years ago. Prof. Morse asked of Congress an appropriation to 
 aid him in experimenting with electricity, with a possible view of making it avail- 
 able in commerce. He was hooted at as a crazy enthusiast, and his scheme was 
 compared to that of the lunatic who projected a railway to the moon. There are 
 now in the country 80,000 miles of telegraph, and no natural force has ever been 
 bridled that has proved so cheap, convenient, and indispensable, nor any that is 
 more potent as a civilizer. Canal improvements, which were so much in favor in 
 the early part of the century, have not kept pace with the railways. They are too 
 expensive to build, and too sluggish in operation to be competitive and profitable, 
 except where they serve as short links to river, lake or ocean transit. The country 
 has not realized from them the promises at first held out. 
 
 Educational Advancement. — The glory of the Republic is its system of col 
 leges and schools. Our fathers sought intellectual, as well as personal, liberty in the 
 Western wilds. The former, left to itself, has proved abundantly able to care foi 
 its own welfare. Twenty years after the landing of the Pilgrims, and ere the suc- 
 cess of colonization in a strange land had by any means been proved, Harvard 
 College was founded, and the foundation of a common school system was laid. In 
 1637 a school was provided in the Massachusetts Colony for every neighborhood 
 of fifty families, and a school of a higher grade for every neighborhoovi' of one 
 hundred families. These schools were to be maintained by taxes. This .system, 
 called the New England System, has been adopted, with but slight modification, by 
 every State in the Union. Its growth has kept even pace with our civilization, of 
 which it is a distinguished concomitant. No man can measure its importance. Its 
 effects are visible everywhere in our characteristic enlightenment, our high morals, 
 
536 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 our wonderful enterprise. It has contributed, more than any other single factor, tc 
 national progress and perpetuity, and to that individual heroism and good sense 
 which lias made the title of "Yankee," both proverbial and respectable. Between 
 X!i\c coDeges and common schools has sprung up a system designed to provide aca- 
 deniic training for those who propose engaging in special service. Perhaps the 
 m"S. notable class of this system is the Normals, whose province it is to piepare 
 '..umnion school teachers. Another distinguished class is the agricultural colleges, 
 
 re. sixty of which exist, designed to train farmers for a scientific understanding! 
 
 I .ii;ir pr jfession. Nearly all the leading colleges have, in obedience to a dem md 
 r(,r special instruction, cojinected with their literary curriculums special courses 
 upon the physical sciences, in which the instruction is given a practical and eveiy- 
 lay turn. In all that concerns education, the Republic is fully abreast of the age, 
 and in many respects she is a model for governments far older and more pretentious. 
 Her systems meet the approval of countries like England, France and Germany, 
 where literature and art have high antiquity, and where institutions of learning always 
 invite the best talent and the most respectable surroundings. The common schools 
 of the Nation approximate 130,000 in number, with 150,000 teachers and an average 
 attendance of over 3,000,000 scholars. The system of the country is sustained at an 
 annual outlay of $75,000,000. Of the higher institutions of learning there were, in 
 187 1, 372 colleges, 56 agricultural colleges and scientific schools, 117 theological 
 seminaries, 40 law schools, 94 medical and dental schools, 136 female colleges, and 
 84 commercial schools. As a part of the educational system ,and as contributing a 
 pro rata share to the standard of literary and scientific excellence, mention must be 
 made of the wonderful growth of the country in libraries. The frequency of these. 
 Doth private and public, and their extent, stamp the Americans as a nation of readers. 
 There exist at jjresent over 165,000 libraries in the Republic, containing 46,000,000 
 volumes. Of these, about two-fifths are public, and three-fifths private. These fig- 
 ures are semi-official, and they only approximate the truth. It is safe to calculate 
 that the volumes in libraries exceed 60,000,000, Coincident also with the educa- 
 nonal growth of the country is that of the press — an adjunct to information, more 
 immediate in its effects than books, and further of reach than even the school-house. 
 At the beginning of the century, the newspaper was an exceptional thing. Now 
 nearly every county has its paper, and the town that does not support a periodical of 
 some kind cannot safely lay claim to intellectual precedence. The cities are centres 
 of news information, and there flows out from them a constant and rapidly swelling 
 s;ream of daily, weekly and monthly publications. In 1S70 there were 5,871 news- 
 papers printed in the Republic, with a daily circulation of 20,842,475 copies, and an 
 annual circulation of 1,508,548,250 copies. They are devoted to nearly every 
 subject, whether of trade, industry, science, profession or politics. 
 
 Religious and Moral Grov^th. — A wise proviso in the Constitution leaves the 
 lub, ; t of religion and church government entirely free from State interference 
 jJii' sc deeply rooted has Cln-istianity become in the hearts of the Ameiican people 
 n.at i'. is as much of a common law unto them as if its tenets were enjoined by 
 Congressional or legislative enactment, or established by usages running far beyc nd 
 •.he memory of man. Its growth is oven with that of other affairs, and as truly 
 cor^ratulatory and wonderful. Measured by general standards, the country occupies 
 Cwt. highest position in religious advancement and sound morals. Church munifi- 
 cence ranks in extent with the older countries. The denominations vie with each 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 537 
 
 other ill peaceful and persuasive propagandism. The consequence is growth every- 
 where, and what is more important, good everywhere. In free America, this cen- 
 tury has proved the possiliiHty of religious teaching and creed propagation, without 
 the cruelties of the inquisitorial peri'^d, without the bitterness of the last century, 
 with something of that comity and love which characterized the work of Him w4io 
 made the cause of the respective denominations a single and crowning cause. 
 
 Political Perpetuity and Growth. — The nation was born in spirit at the time 
 of the Declaration, but not in fact till the adoption of the Constitution. This com 
 pact uisirument crystallized the States then claiming to be independent sovereignties, 
 aiii begat of them a national entirety, whose authority became supreme for a'l 
 purposes for which empires are created. However compelling the necessities which 
 surrounded the inception of the Republic, and however auspicious its beginnings, 
 it was not to escape the trials which history proves to be inseparable from national 
 growth. Governments are apt to be their own worst enemies; at least their greatest 
 proofs of strength are found in their ability to live and to deserve existence. Colon 
 iai solidarity meant a comparatively easy triumph over the English forces sent to 
 crush us. So unity assured an early victory in 1814 and in 1848. But could the 
 Republic conquer and rule itself? Could it reduce to subjection the thousand and 
 one forces which its very growth, importance and beauty, generated and fostered? 
 This test of national greatness is crucial. It has not failed us thus far; God grant 
 it may never fail us. Possibly the most subtle force to reduce was that which we 
 will denominate the immigrative. The country invited millions from abroad. 
 They came with different motives and tastes, and with different feelings of respect 
 for our institutions. They were food in a raw state. Could the country digest 
 and assimilate them ? Had our institutions sufficient vitality to breathe into them 
 an Americanized life, and reduce them to the condition of willingly supporting 
 integers of population? Thus far the digestive process has been complete. The 
 strength of our freedom and the wholesomeness of our laws have ever conduced tc 
 respect for the Republic, and no matter what the nationality of the immigrant, he 
 has always been found willing to share with the native born the glorious name and 
 privileges of an American citizen. Another matter of concern was the reduction of 
 territory to the form and consistency of States. Were our institutions adapted to a 
 Union of numerous States, with diversified climates, products and wants? Could 
 they stand the test of repeated annexations of territory and introductions of new 
 governing factors? They have stood this test without strain or impairment, but 
 with an additional sense of their superiority and fitness. From thirteen States, 
 occupying the narrow Eastern slopes of the Alleghanies, the Republic has grown to 
 include thirty-eight States, while the outlying Territories contribute as much of their 
 sympathy and power to the central government as if ttiey were active participants in 
 its highest honors and more delicate affairs. But again, could our institutions stand 
 the ordeal of internal strife engendered by causes of a politico-moral nature, which 
 ■»eie left as a legacy by the fathers and founders, only because their early removal 
 ft'ould Jiave prevented the formation and adoption of the Constitution? They have 
 proven equal to this task also. However sorely taxed by the madness which pre 
 ceded the rebellion, however tried in the seven times hotter fires of civil war, there 
 was never a moment in which they bent to the crushing storm, but all through the 
 cruel ordeal they grew brighter, stronger, purer, and more worthy of respect. Witi 
 
538 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 the gradual obliteration of the scars left by civil war, with the the era of reconciUa 
 tioii in full tide, with a more perfect freedom than ever before, there is no hope of 
 additional prosperity which cannot be realized, no promise of future perpetuity 
 whi>'h cannot be fulfilled, no lustre for our institutions which they will not deserve. 
 
 THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 
 
 Tne Centenary Epoch — Preliminary Events. — A desire, verj gener.ilij 
 felt by the people of the United States, that the Centennial anniversary of then 
 National Independence should be celebrated in a manner worthy of the event, found 
 forcible expression through the writings of eminent men, soon after the close of the 
 Civil War. The most notable of these writings were prepared by Mr. John Bigelow 
 of New York, Gen'l Chas. B. Norton, U. S. Commissioner to the Paris Exposition, and 
 Prof. J. C. Campbell, of Waliash College, Ind., who presented his views in the 
 form of an address to Hon. Morton McMichael, then Mayor of Philadelphia. The 
 press of the country cordially seconded the sentiments thus enunciated, and it soon 
 became plain that a popular and responsive chord had been touched. 
 
 But the practical and fruitful inception of the enterprise was in a communication 
 from the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia to the Commissioners of Fairmount 
 Park, asking for authority to use the Park grounds for the purpose of a grand expo- 
 sition of American products, in which all the nations of the world were to be asked 
 to compete. A Committee of the City Councils was created, which brought the 
 project to the notice of the Legislature of Pennsylvania. This latter body broughl 
 the matter before Congress, in the shape of a memorial, dated June i6th, 1S70. 
 
 The Selection of a Site. — On the 9th of March, 1870, Mr. Morrell introduced 
 a bill in the National House of Representatives, which became the basis of future 
 action in the matter. As soon as it was known that Congress was likely to hearken 
 to the sentiment of the country, several of the leading cities laid claim to the honor 
 of a celebration so memorable as this bade fair to be. Much jealousy was mani- 
 fested by the claimants. A clangor concerning the merits of respective places was 
 kept up in the newspapers. Congress wrangled and hesitated. But as discus- 
 sion proceeded, the claims of Philadelphia, as being the scene of the promulgation 
 of the Declaration of Independence, as possessing within her limits Independence 
 Hall, and as ofiering the most majestic spaces and the best accommodations, began to 
 have general recognition. A Committee of the House of Representatives visited 
 that city, with the view of selecting a site. Their judgment was favorable. On 
 March 3d, 1871, a liill was passed providing " for a National Celebration of the 
 one hundredth anniversary of the Independence of the United States, by the holding 
 of an International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures and Products of the Soil and 
 Mine, in the city of Philadelphia, in the year 1876." The bill also authorized the 
 creation of a Centennial Commission, composed of one memJDer from each State, 
 with altt mates, whose duty was to organize the Celebration. The jealousy re.'^pect 
 iiig tht selection of a site now nearly disappeared, but its effect was painfully mani 
 ftst in the creative bill, which contained the parsimonious proviso that the OoveiTi 
 ment should hear no part of the expense of the Celebration. But while the \ rojeci 
 wa.s thus shorn of the truly national features at first designed for it, it waa giveu 
 fresh impetus by the organization of the Commission on March 4th, 1S72. 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 539 
 
 Further Organization and Work. — A subsequent act of Congiess (June ist, 
 1S72,) authorized the creation of a Centennial Bcjard of Finance, with a capital 
 stock not to exceed $10,000,000, to be secured by subscriptions, each share of stock 
 to be ten dollars. This Board organized on May loth, 1873, and immediately 
 began the work of raising money and applying the same to the elaboration of plans 
 and the erection of buildings. By July 3d, 1873, '^^ plans were sufficiently devel- 
 oj.«s,l to warrant a proclamation bythe President of the. United States, in accord- 
 ance with the act of March 3d, 187 1, in which he said, "I do hereby declare .miJ 
 proclaim that there will be held, at the city of Philadelphia, in the State of I'enn 
 sylvania, an International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures and Products of the .Su:S 
 and Mine, to be opened on the 19th of April, 1876, (afterwards changed to May 
 loth,) and to be closed on the i Qth of October, (afterwards changed to Nov. loth,) 
 in the same year." 
 
 By the same act, the President was requested, in the name of the United Statesi 
 to extend to all foreign governments a respectful and cordial invitation to be repre 
 sented and take part in the International Exhibition. Such invitation was extended, 
 through the Department of State, on July 5th, 1873, and afterwards, on a better 
 understanding of the relations of the Government to the Exhibition. The Coni- 
 mission invited the several States and Territories to form Advisory Boards or Com- 
 mittees, to assist in securing a complete representation of the industries of their 
 respective districts. The following States and Territories have at this writini;| 
 (Feb. 3d, 1876,) formed official Committees of representation : 
 
 Alabama, Kansas, New Mexico, 
 
 Arizona, Louisiana, New York, 
 
 Arkansas, Maine, Ohio, 
 
 California, Massachusetts, Oregon, 
 
 Colorado, Michigan, Pennsylvania, 
 
 Connecticut Mississippi, Rhode Island, 
 
 Dakota, Missouri, Tennessee, 
 
 Delaware, Minnesota, Texas, 
 
 Florida, Montana, Vermont, 
 
 Georgia, Nebraska, Virginia, 
 
 Illinois, Nevada, Washington T., 
 
 Indiana, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, 
 
 Iowa, New Jersey, Wyoming. 
 
 In other States the work has been undertaken by duly qualified Boards, which 
 ore likely to make as creditable displays as those officially endowed. 
 
 Participation by Foreign Governments. — The foreign Governments whicli 
 bive accepted the invitation to participitate and have appointed commissioris to 
 Bui^erintend the exhibition of their products, are: 
 
 Argentine Confeder- 
 ation, 
 Belgium, 
 Bolivia, 
 Brazil, 
 Chili, 
 China, 
 Denmark, 
 Ecuador, 
 
 Egypt, 
 
 France and Algeria, 
 Germany, 
 
 Great Britian, with Aus- 
 tralia and Canada. 
 Guatemala and Salvador, 
 Hawaii, 
 Hayti, 
 Honduras, 
 Japan, 
 Liberia, 
 Mexico, 
 Netherlands, 
 Nicaragua, 
 Norway, 
 
 Orange River Free 
 
 State, 
 Persia, 
 Peru, 
 Portugal, 
 Siam, 
 Spain, 
 Sweden, 
 Tunis, 
 Turkey, 
 
 U. S. of Colombia, 
 Venezuela. 
 
540 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 Appropriations and Subscriptions. — The absolute appropriations thus fw 
 aie tliose made by 
 Pennsylvania, ,..,.... $1,000,000. 
 
 Pb'ladelphia, ...... . 1,500,000. 
 
 $2,500,000. 
 
 The following States and cities have subscribed to the stock : 
 New Jersey, ....... . $100,000. 
 
 iXla.vare, . 10,000. 
 
 Connecticut, ....... . 10,000. j 
 
 New Hampshire, ..•..,.. 10,000. 
 
 Wilmington, (Del.) ...... . 5,000. 
 
 $135,000. 
 
 1 he amount of stock subscriptions of an individual character 
 
 thus far is $2,222,750. 
 
 Donations, ....... . 35,000. 
 
 Amount realized from concessions, .... 330,000. 
 
 $2,587,750. 
 
 Making a grand total thus far raised of ..... $5,222,750. 
 
 The total estimated expense of the liuildings and grounds is . . $6,724,350. 
 
 During the month of February, 1S76, an appropriation of $1,500,000 \\as made 
 by the United States Government. 
 
 Several States have appropriated money, to be expended by their respective 
 Boards for securing an exhibition of their products, and for the erection of State 
 buildings for the accommodation of their citizens. The General Government has 
 likewise appropriated half a million dollars for a building, and to secure an exhibi- 
 Uon of the products which come under its especial care. 
 
 The Buildings. — On July 4th, 1874, ground was broken for the first of the 
 structures, Memcjrial Hall. Now there is enclosed for the Exhibition a space equal 
 to two hundred and thirty acres, in which have been erected the Main Exposition 
 building, Memorial Hall (the Art Gallery), Machinery Hall, Horticultural Hall, 
 the Agricultural Building, the Women's Pavilion, buildings to represent the various 
 trades, and the different State and National buildings. The actual flooring for 
 exhibition purposes covers an area of sixty acres. The total number of buiUlings 
 within the enclosure will aggregate one hundred and fifty. 
 
 The Main Building. — This is a parallelogram, running East and West 1876 
 Teet in length, ami North and South 464 feet in width. The larger portion is one 
 story high, the interior height being 70 feet, rnd the cornice outside 48 feet from 
 ^he grouiul. At the centre of the longer sides are projections 416 feet in lengtii. 
 At either end are jirojections 216 feet in length. In these projections are the main 
 cr trances, with arcades on the ground floor, and fagades 90 feet high. At each 
 rciiier of ihc building are towers 75 feet high. In the centre, the roof, for a spare 
 ■.'1 184 feet square, has been raised above the surrounding portion, nnd at eai h 
 ••onier of this elevation are towers 48 feet square and 120 feet high. The ground 
 plan shows a central avenue 120 feet wide and 1832 feet long, which is the longest 
 avenue of that width ever introduced into an exhibition building. On either side 
 of this is an ivenue loo feet wide, and of equal length. Between the central and 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 54» 
 
 side avenuss are aisles 48 feet wide, and on the outer sides of the building are 
 aisles 24 feet wide. The square feet of surface in the floor are 936,008, or nearly 
 2 1 j^ acres. The superstructure is supported by wrought iron columns, on piers of mas- 
 onr)'. These are placed 24 feet a'^artjand there are 672 of them in the building, the 
 shortest being 25, and the longest 125 feet in length. Their aggregate weight is 
 2,200,000 lbs. The roof trusses and girders weigh 5,000,000 lbs. There underlie 
 the building two miles of drainage pipe, the water su;jiply and drainage fcting 
 complete. The design of the building is such that all exhibitors will have an 
 equally fair opportunity of exhibiting their goods to advantage. 
 
 The Art Gallery. — The most imposing and ornate of all the structures is 
 Memorial Hall, built at a cost of ^1,500,000 by the State of Pennsylvania and the 
 city of Philadelphia. It is designed to be a permanent edifice for the exhibition of 
 industrial and art collections, similar to the famous South Kensington Museum, at 
 London; but has been placed at the disposal of the Centennial Commission, to be 
 used during the Exposition as an Art Gallery. It stands upon a terrace 122 feet 
 above the Schuylkill. Nothing combustible has been used in its construction. 
 The design is modem Renaissance. It is 365 feet long, 210 wide and 59 high, 
 and covers an acre and a half. A dome, 150 feet high, surmounts the centre, 
 capped by a colossal ball, on which is a figure of Columbia. The entrance, on the 
 South side, is 70 feet wide. In it are three doorways, each 15 feet wide and 40 
 feet high. Between the arches of the doorways are clusters of columns terminating 
 in emblematic designs illustrative of Science and Art. The doors are of iron, 
 relieved by bronze panels, displaying the coats of arms of all the States and Terri- 
 tories. The United States coat of arms is in the centre of the main frieze. The dome 
 is of glass and iron. Colossal figures stand at each corner of the base of the dome, 
 typifying the four quarters of the globe. The inside of this building is arranged so 
 as to make the most effective display of works of art — paintings, statuary, or of 
 whatever kind. All the galleries and the central hall are lighted from above; the 
 pavilions and studios from the sides. There are 75,000 square feet of wall for the 
 exhibition of paintings, and 20,000 square feet of floor space for statuary. All the 
 skylights are double, the upper being of clear glass, and the under of ground glass. 
 
 Machinery Building. — This structure stands in a line. East and West, with 
 the Main Building, and, though 550 feet westward, is practically a continuation of 
 it, the two together making a frontage of 5824 feet. It consists of a main hall 
 1402 feet long and 360 feet wide, with annexes, one of which is 208 feet by 210 
 feet. It covers an area of 558,440 square feet, or nearly 13 acres, with a floor 
 space in all equal to 14 acres. The chief portions are one story in height, the cor- 
 nices being 40 feet from the ground. The ground plan shows two main avenues, 
 90 feet wide, with aisles between and on either side 60 feet wide, their length 
 being 1360 feet. The walls are chiefly of glazed sash between the columns. Eveiy 
 conceivable arrangement for the propulsion is provided for. A Corliss si earn engine 
 
 of 1400 horse power will furnish free power to exhibitors. 
 % 
 
 The Agricultural Building. — This building embraces a novel combmatioi cf 
 
 Wood, glass and iron. It consists of a nave or centre 820 feet long, by 125 wide 
 
 and 75 high. This centre is crossed by three transepts, the middle one being 100 
 
 feet wide and 75 high, and the two ends over 80 feet wide and 75 high. In the 
 
 interior it resembles a great cathedral, and the vista, looking from transept to 
 
542 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 transe- 1, is very imposing. The ground plan is a parallelogram, covering lo^ 
 acres. Steam power is introduced for propelling agricultural machinery. In con- 
 nection with this building are extensive stock yards for the exhibition of hcrses, 
 cattle, poultry, etc., and also a race-course. 
 
 Horticultural Building.— This building owes its existence to the libeiality ot 
 the city of Philadelphia. It is extremely commodious and ornate, and is designed 
 ci be a permanent ornament to Fairmount Park. Its design is Moresque of thi 
 ,2 h ccntur)', and its chief materials are iron and glass, supported by bases of 
 >nar' le and brick. It is 383 feet long, 193 wide and 75 high. The main floor \\ 
 xcupied by the central conservatory, 230 feet by 80 feet, and 55 feet high, sur- 
 mounted by a lantern 170 feet long, 20 feet wide and 14 feet high. It cmitains 
 four forcing houses, each loo by 30 feet. Ornamental stairways lead from spacious 
 vestibules to the interior galleries of the conservatory, and to four exterior galleries, 
 each 100 by 10 feet. The building is healed throughout. Surrounding it are 35 
 acres of ground, devoted to horticultural purposes. 
 
 Miscellaneous Buildings. — On every side, giving to the grounds the appear- 
 ance of a city, are buildings for special purposes. There are structures for execu- 
 tive officers, for customs purposes, post office, police, telegraph, judges, juries, etc. 
 The Women's Pavilion is a tasteful and commodious structure erected at a cost of 
 1^30,000. The building of the National Government is also beautiful and com- 
 manding. The numerous structures erected by foreign governments and by sev- 
 eral of the States, evince taste and special adaptation. The buildings representa- 
 tive of the different trades are ornate and convenient. 
 The Great Exhibitions of the World: — 
 
 Space covered by 
 
 buildings. Cost. 
 
 London, 1851, 20 acies. ^1,464,000. 
 
 New York, 1853, . . . . SX " 500,000. 
 
 Paris, 1855, 30 " 4,000,000. 
 
 London, 1862, 24 " 2,300,000. 
 
 Paris, 1867, 40;^ " 4,596,000. 
 
 Vienna, 1873, 50 " 9,850,000. 
 
 Philadelphia, 1876, .... 60 " 6,724,350. 
 
 Opening of the Centennial Exhibition, May loth, 1876. — The great 
 Exhibition, commemorative of the one hundredth anniversary of American Inde- 
 pendence, opened auspiciously, Wednesday, May loth, 1876. The day was 
 pleasant, and over 186,000 people were present at the Exhibition. The day being 
 a legal holiday, all the places of business in Philadelphia were closed, and flags 
 were displayed in profusion on all the thoroughfares. The gates opened at 9 a. m., 
 and at all the entrances there was soon an immense jam. The foreign Commis- 
 sioners and other distinguished guests effected an entrance through '.he Main 
 Exliibition Building, and took seats on the platform without confusion. At 10.30 
 fi, m., tie Emperor of Brazil arrived, and was escorted to his seat by Cenera] 
 IJawley, President of the Centennial Commission. Between 10.45 and ii a. ra., 
 a number of distinguished characters, includmg President Grant and his Cabinet, 
 Senators and Representatives in Congress, Judges of the Supreme Court, Governors 
 cf States, army officers, and the members of the foreign legations at Washington, 
 
UNITED STATES. 
 
 543 
 
 passed over from the Main Building to the stand in front of the Art Gallery, and 
 were greeted with applause by the multitude, which now filled the space between 
 the Main Building and the Art GaUeiy. The number of American and foreign 
 Hignitaries present amounted to about 4,000. The total number of invited guests 
 was about 20,000. During these proceedings a variety of National Airs were 
 performed by the orchestra under Theodore Thomas, one of the most eminent of 
 Ai.'crican musicians. The most noted of these were " Hail Columbia," " God Save 
 The Queen," and "The Marseillaise." At 1 1. 05, the Wagner Centennial Inau- 
 guration March was performed by the orchestra under the direction of Mr. Thom-..s. 
 At the conclusion, Bishop Simpson offered a devout prayer, during which a large 
 p irtion of the vast assemblage stood with uncovered heads. At the close of the 
 prayer the Centennial Hymn, by John G. Whittier, was sung by the grand chorus. 
 At 11.26 a. m., Mr. John Welsh, President of the Centennial Board of Finance, 
 presented the buildings to the United States Centennial Commission, being fre- 
 quently applauded while speaking. General Hawley then arose, and in an ap- 
 propriate address accepted the great trust confided by the Board of Finance. At 
 11.35 ^- "^-i ^^ Cantata, by Sidney Lanier, of Georgia, the music of which was 
 composed by Dudley Buck, of Connecticut, was rendereitl with great effect by 
 the orchestra; and the solo, which was sung by Myron N. Whitney, of Boston, 
 was distinctly audible for a considerable distance. The vast multitude main- 
 tained excellent order during the singing of the basso solo, and loudly applauded 
 Mr. Whitney, who acknowledged the compliment by repeating a portion of the 
 solo. At the close of the singing, Mr. Buck, the composer of the music, was 
 called for, and bowed in acknowledgment of the compliment. At 1 1. 48 a. m,, 
 General Hawley began the presentation address, turning the buildings over to the 
 President of the United States. At 1 1. 55 a. m.. President Grant, amid great 
 applause, arose, and in a short address accepted the trust confided to him by the 
 Centennial authorities, and declared the Centennial International Exhibition open. 
 .The President was loudly cheered by the immense assemblage, the Emperor of 
 Brazil joining in the demonstration by waving his hat. At 12 o'clock, at a signal 
 from General Hawley, the American flag was unfurled from the Main Building, 
 and the orchestra and organs rendered the Hallelujah Chorus, while the chimes 
 of the bells on the buildings and the salute of loo guns from George's Hill added 
 vastly to the impressiveness of the occasion. During the ringing of the chimes, 
 the foreign Commissioners left the platform and passed over to their respective 
 departments in the Main Building ; after which President Grant, accompanied by 
 Director-General Goshorn, followed by the guests and the multitude, passed into 
 the Main Building, and thence to Machinery Hall, where at 1.20 p. m. the Presi- 
 dent and the Brazilian Emperor started the great Corlisr. engines, which set in 
 motion fourteen acres of machinery, comprising 8,000 different machines, thus 
 closing the formal ceremonies of the day. After the closing of the ceremonies, 
 the immense multitudes dispersed over the grounds, visiting the different buildings. 
 Sii'cc the opening day, there have been from 25,000 to 50,000 visitors to the Exhi 
 l)ilion daily. 
 
 The Various Nations Represented and their Industries. — The foui 
 leading nations of the world — the United States, England, France, and Germany — 
 have the most advantageous positions in the Main Exhibition Building. These 
 
544 
 
 CENTENNIAL HISTORY. 
 
 four natrons have equal portions of the lofty central pavilion, and each pc/ sesses 
 one of the four towers. The proximity of these great competitors for the vorld's 
 trade will have a tendency to incite rivalry, and thus contribute largelj* toward 
 makijig the Exhibition a grand success. The most costly and beautifu/ articles 
 are exhibited here, and this is the great centre of attraction of the entire B.hibition, 
 More than ont-fourth of the entire floor-space is assigned to the United States. 
 England, France, and Germany have, since the first allotment, made ipplic:ation 
 for additional space, and each of these great nations is exerting itself tj its :tmost 
 to make the finest exhibit. Great Britain exhibits a full represent ition A hci 
 textile fabrics and her iron and steel products. Germany makes a full r.isplay of her 
 various industries, and her mining department doubtless excels that of any othei 
 nation of the Old World. France surpasses all other nations in the display of rich 
 and beautiful objects ; and various articles of jewelry and silk manufactures fully 
 assert the superiority of the French in matters of taste. Austria exhibits a great 
 variety of her industries, such as glassware, iron, manufactures, cloth, leather, and 
 fancy goods. Belgium makes a fair exhibit of the finest and most useful manu- 
 factures, such as Brussels laces and curious iron products, for which that little but 
 busy country is so famous. Holland makes some show in the department of 
 manufactures, and the curious and delicate fabrics of her East India possessions 
 are on exhibition. Italy is also represented, and the Italian manufactures have a 
 portion of the reserved space. Switzerland surpasses other nations in watches and 
 various instruments. Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Greece, Spain, and Portugal 
 also make a display of their manufactures, which are not so extensive, but which, 
 from the fact that they are so little seen in the markets of the world, form an inter- 
 esting feature of the Exhibition. Turkey and Eg)'pt make a fair display of Oriental 
 costumes, arms, furniture, and equipages. China and Jajian exhibit the curious 
 wares in the manufacture of which they -are so remarkably ingenious. Canada 
 and Cuba also fill a large space in the Main Building, and the mineral products of 
 Mexico and Peru are exhibited, but in general the countries of the New World, 
 with the exception of the United States, do not have much to exhibit. 
 
 Centennial Visitations.— Close of the Centennial Exposition, Nov. 
 loth, 1876. — During the months of September, October and November, there 
 were over loo,OCO visitors at the Exposition daily. Excursions came from all 
 parts of the country. In September and October, there were a number of " State 
 Days." The most prominent of these were "New York Day," September 21st, 
 at which over 120,000 people were present; "Pennsylvania Day," September 
 28th, at which 260,000 persons were present; and "Ohio Day," October 26th, at 
 which about 140,000 people were present. The Centennial International Exposi- 
 tion closed on the loth of November, 1876, over 150,000 people being present. 
 Owing to the inclemency of the weather, the ceremonies were held in the "Judges' 
 Hall," and thus were witnessed by very few persons. Addresses were made by 
 President Grant, General Hawley, and Director-General Goshorn. In all, there 
 were about eight million paying visitors at the Exposition during the six m Ki'hs 
 it was open. 
 
Recent Important Events. 
 
 BRITISH AFFAIRS. 
 
 Queen Victoria, " Empress of India." — Disraeli, Earl of Beacons- 
 field. — In the fall of 1875, the Prince of Wales paid a visit to India. The ex- 
 penses of this visit, which were paid by the British Government, were enormous. 
 At the same time British influence was increased in Egypt, by the purchase by the 
 British Government of the Suez Canal shares of the Viceroy of Egypt. In April, 
 1S76, the British Parliament passed an act conferring upon Queen Victoria the title 
 of " Empress of India." The new title was very unpopular with the British press 
 and people. In August, 1876, Mr. Disraeli, who was still Prime Minister, was 
 raised to the House of Lords, with the title of Earl of Beaconsfield. On the isl 
 of January, 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed with great pomp, at Delhi, 
 " Empress of India." The ceremonies were conducted under the auspices of the 
 Governor-General, Lord Lytton, in the presence of a vast concourse of people from 
 various parts of India. 
 
 THE EASTERN QUESTION. 
 
 Rebellion in Herzegovina and Bosnia Against the Turks. — In July, 1875, 
 die peasants of Herzegovina and Bosnia, provinces in the west of European Turkey, 
 rose in rebellion against the Ottoman Government to resist the collection of taxes 
 by the officials of the Porte. The insurrection became quite formidable, and fears 
 were entertained that the peace of Europe was jeopardized. The Consuls of the 
 Great European Powers met at Mostar, in September, 1875, and endeavored to 
 bring about a pacification by inducing the Porte to grant needed reforms and rea- 
 sonable concessions to the Herzegovinians and Bosnians ; while, at the same time, 
 they tried to induce the insurgents to submit, but failed. Many engagements of 
 an unimportant character occurred during the summer and autumn of 1875, and 
 the following winter and spring, but no advantage was gained by either party. 
 Cettinge, Trebinge, and Nicsic were the scenes of stubborn conflicts and close 
 sieges by the insurgents, but the result of the struggle continued indecisive. Tre- 
 bi.ige and Nicsic were both relieved by the Turks, the former in January and the 
 laller in March, 1876. The Bosnian insurgents committed frightful atrocities, and 
 bjjody actions were fought between them and the Turks. 
 
 The Andrassy Note. — Its Rejection by the Insurgents. — Count An 
 Jiassy, the Austro Hungarian Prime-Minister, drew up a note relative to refomw 
 in Turkey, which received the approval of Russia, and was dispatched to the guar 
 anteeing Powers. This note proposed the equality of all religious denominations, 
 and the introduction of provisional and communal self-government, and that the 
 first result of these changes in the insurgent provinces should be the imposition of 
 taxation l^y the provinces themselves and the abolition of serfdom. The A-jstro- 
 35 ( 545 ) 
 
546 EASTERN' QUESTION. 
 
 Hungarian Ambassador at Constantinople communicated Count Andrassy's note to 
 the Grand Vizier, wlio, in reply, rejected the idea of foreign mediation, and said that 
 the Sublime Porte would give the people of the Turkish provinces all necessary 
 guarantees for reform. Italy, France, Germany, and England, with certain reser- 
 vations, supported the Andrassy note concerning reforms in Turkey. The Grand 
 V'uicr at length intimated to the ambassadors of the Great European Powers thai 
 the Sultan was willing to accept Count Andrassy's recommendations, but ni t to 
 permit any foreign interference or control in the execution of the reforms. On tht 
 31st of January, 1876, the Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and German Ambassadors 
 communicated Count Andrassy's note verbally to the Porte. The ambassadors ol 
 the other Powers supported the note. The Porte, in reply to the note, promised to 
 apply in the insurgent districts five leading points of Andrassy's scheme — religious 
 liberty, the modification of the system of collecting tithes, the granting of facilities 
 to agriculturists, the application of a portion of the revenues of the insurgent pro- 
 vinces to local improvements, and the appointment of a mixed commission of Mus- 
 sulmans and Christians to watch the execution of these reforms. The Porte also 
 took note of the promise of the Great Powers to lend their moral support to the 
 pacification of the revolted districts. The Sultan then ordered the execution of 
 the reforms. The insurgents, however, rejected the reforms, because they were not 
 consulted in the arrangement. Toward the close of March, 1876, an armistice way 
 concluded between the contending parties. 
 
 Riot at Salonica. — Murder of the French £nd German Consuls ■ — On 
 the 6lh of May, 1876, a serious riot occurred at Salonica, in European Turkey, be- 
 tween the Christians and the Mohammedans. The trouble arose from the fact thai 
 a Christian girl wished to become a Mohammedan. She was forcibly taken from 
 her Turkish friends by the Greeks. Fighting between the Christians and tht 
 Turks ensued. During the riot, the French and German Consuls went to the 
 Mosque, and were assassinated by the exasperated Moslem populace, but the mob 
 was dispersed. As soon as mtelligence of the outrage reached Constantinople, the 
 French and German ambassadors to Turkey demanded redress, and were promised 
 satisfaction by the Porte. French and German war vessels immediately proceeded to 
 Salonica to protect the lives and interests of French and German citizens. The two 
 Powers jointly demanded the execution of the murderers, indemnification of the 
 families of the victims, a solemn salute to the French and German flags by the 
 Turkish authorities, and guarantees against similar atrocities in the future. The 
 Ottoman Government acceded to these demands, and the murderers of the Consuls 
 were executed. The funeral of the murdered Consuls took place on the 19th of 
 May, at Salonica, with great ceremonies. 
 
 The Berlin Conference and the Gortschakoff Memorandum. — On the 
 nth of May, 1876, a conference of the three Imperial Chancellors, — Prince (Jort- 
 schakofT of Russia, Prince Bismarck of Germany, and Count Andrassy of Aiistro- 
 Hnngary, — was opened at the residence of Prince Bismarck in Berlin, (^lunl 
 Andrassy's note formed the basis of their conference. The three Chanicllon 
 agieed to abstain from all military intervention in the Turkish troubles. Fie 
 memorandum agreed to by the three Chancellors was communicated to the guar- 
 anteeing Powers. While maintaining Count Andrassy's note as a basis, the memo- 
 rnnilum drawn up bv Prince Gortschakoff conceded the consideration of the 
 reforms (kiiiaiulcd 1 v ll.c ii;- i;i'. eiu kader^. The French and Italian tnihnss; dors 
 
EASTERN QUESTION. 547 
 
 «f Berlin gave their official notification of the complete concurrence of their respec- 
 live governments in the results of the conference ; but England raised a succession 
 of objections to the measures of the conference, and the text of her reply declin- 
 ing to agree to the programme of the Russian, German, and Austro- Hungarian 
 ChancrllorS; was communicated to the foreign ambassadors in I,ondon. The poin* 
 to which Great Britain objected was the decision of the three Imperial Powers that 
 in ca^e their friendly intervention should fail to effect a pacification, the six Great 
 Povvers should take joint action and adopt more efificient measures. The Biitish 
 Cabinet regarded this as a threat of armed intervention and a menace to the inde- 
 pendence of Turkey. The Herzegovinians and Bosnians rejected the proposition 
 of the Berlin Conference, and were satisfied with nothing less than complete inde- 
 pemlence of Turkish rule ; and the Porte asked for a modification of the Berlin 
 men "^randum, before giving its acceptance to the measures therein proposed. 
 Thuj the plan of the three Imperial Chancellors failed in its objects, and the 
 •nemorandum was withdrawn. 
 
 Dethronement and Suicide of Sultan Abdul Aziz. — On the 29th of May, 
 '876, the Turkish Ministry assembled at the residence of the Grand Vizier, and 
 discussed the state of public affairs. They concluded that unless some radical 
 measures were adopted, general rebellion and the downfall of the Ottoman Em- 
 oire would soon follow. A resolution was accordingly passed embodying these 
 views, and a petition to the Sultan, Abdul Aziz, was drawn up entreating him to 
 abdicate his throne in order to save the countiy from utter ruin. The Sultan re- 
 ceivcid the petition with seeming composure, saying he would consider the matter. 
 The Ministers were sustained by a decree of the Sheik-ul-Islam, the spiritual head 
 of the Mohammedan Church. On the following day there was an immense popu- 
 lar demonstration in the streets of Constantinople. The trade guilds, headed by 
 the Softas, marched to the Seraglio, the Sultan's palace, unopposed by the mili- 
 tary, who were apparently disaffected. The multitude cheered for Amurath, the 
 Sultan's nephew, and demanded the overthrow of Abdul Aziz. In the mean- 
 time, Amurath having been released from his own house, to which he had been 
 confined by the Sultan, was conducted to the mosque, and proclaimed Sultan with 
 the title of Amurath V. Soon after this, Sulieman Pacha, accompanied by officers 
 and soldiers, informed Abdul Aziz that the people had dethroned him, and that he 
 should surrender the palace to his successor. Perceiving that resistance was use- 
 less, Abdul Aziz complied ; and accordingly, he, with his family, household, and 
 fifty-three boats filled with women, left the building, and were conveyed under 
 escort to the I'clieragan Palace. After his deposition, Abdul Aziz had several 
 violent fits of insanity, and on the 4th of June (1876), he committed suicide by 
 opening the veins and arteries of his arms with scissors, and bleeding to death. 
 His funeral was honored with great pomp, and all the ministers and high official's, 
 civil and military, were present ; and his remains were placed in the mausoleum 
 of Sultan Mahmoud. 
 
 Assassination of Turkish Ministers. — On the 15th of June, 1876, Hassan 
 Bey, a ('ircassian officer of the rank of adjutant-major in the Turkish service, who 
 had been assigned to duty at Bagdad, and imprisoned for his refusal to leave Con- 
 stantinople, and who was just released on his promise to obey orders, proceeded 
 to the residence of Midhat Pacha, the Grand Vizier, who was in council with his 
 Miu'stf IS, and being admitted into the council chamber by mistake, d.ew a revolver 
 
548 EASTERN QUESTION. 
 
 and instantl)' shot and killed Hussein Avni Pacha, Minister of War. In endeavoring 
 to escape arrest, he shot and killed Reshid Pacha, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and 
 seriously wounded the Minister of Marine. A soldier and a servant were also 
 killed, and another wounded. The assassin was hanged on the 20th (June, 1876} 
 and the vacant offices were immediately filled. 
 
 The Turko-Servian War — Alliance of Servia and Montenegro. — I i^m 
 
 tlie time of the outbreak of the Herzegovinian insurrection, the Principality of Set- 
 vi.i, a slate in the north of European Turkey, tributary to the Porte, had main- 
 tained a warlike attitude toward the Ottoman Government, and shown a disposition 
 to espouse the cause of the insurgents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Turkish 
 Government had in the meantime anticipated the warlike designs of Servia by 
 sending troops to the Servian frontier ; and both parties were ready for hostilities. 
 At the beginning of July, 1876, Prince Milan, of Servia, declared war against the 
 Turkish Government, alleging as his reason the threatening attitude of the Porte 
 toward Servia, and its failure to satisfy the demands of Bosnia. At the same ti.ne. 
 Prince Nicholas, of Montenegro, a small tributary state in the west of European 
 Turkey, entered the field against the Porte, in support of the cause of Herzegovina. 
 There were now four Turkish provinces in open rebellion against the Porte — 
 Herzegovina, Bosnia, Montenegro, and Servia. The war which now opened was 
 most sanguinary in its character. During the whole of July, August, and Septem- 
 ber, 1S76, the struggle raged fiercely ; and battles between the Turks ana the 
 Servians were of almost daily occurrence. The valleys of the Drina, the Morava, 
 and the Timok, were drenched with blood ; and Izvor, Derbent, Saitschar, Gur- 
 gosovatz, Paratchin, Pandirola, Podgoritza, Alexinatz, and Deligrad were repeat- 
 edly the scenes of sanguinary conflicts. The Servian armies, commanded by 
 Generals TchernayefF, Leschjanin, Antitch, Olympics, Horvatovich, Paulovich. 
 and others, resisted with great bravery ; but the Turkish forces, under the com- 
 mand of Osman Pacha, Dervish Pacha, Hafiz Pacha, Suleiman Pacha, Kerini 
 Pacha, Mehemet Ali Pacha, and others, were successful in nearly every encounter ; 
 but in Montenegro and Herzegovina, the Ottoman troops, under Mukhtar Pacha 
 and Selim Pacha, suffered a series of calamitous defeats. Finally in Septembei 
 (1876), the Servians were reduced to such straits that the Servian Government 
 became anxious for peace. 
 
 Turkish Atrocities in Bulgaria. — Indignation in England. — A lebellion 
 having broke out in Bulgaria in May (1876), the Porte sent Circassians and Bashi- 
 Bazouks, irregular troops, to subdue the revolt. These troops committed the most 
 fiendish atrocities upon the Bulgarians after the suppression of the insurrection, 
 massacring, without discrimination, men, women, and children, in the most cruel 
 manner. According to the reports of English newspaper correspondents, and the 
 American Consul, Mr. Schuyler, 12,000 Bulgarians fell victims to the savage fury 
 of the Circassians and Bashi-Bazouks, and sixty villages were reduced to ashes, 
 1 hese atrocities aroused the most intense indignation in England. Immense public 
 tncetmgs were held in every part of the kingdom to denounce the outrages, ana in 
 London several monster demonstrations were held. The British press loudly 
 called for the interference of the Government to compel the Turks to respect the 
 usages of civilized warfare ; and the British Government, under the pressure of public 
 sentiment, instituted measures to secure an investigation of the Bulgarian outrages. 
 An animated debate occurred in the British House of Commons, and the Ministry 
 
QUEEN VICTORIA. 
 
EASTERN QUESTION. 549 
 
 was severely condemned for its indifference. Mr. Baring, the Secretary of the 
 British Embassy at Constantinople, in his report, estimated the number massacred 
 in and around Philippopolis at 12,000. The British Government called upon the 
 Foite to punish the perpetrators of the outrages, and received promises that justice 
 should be done, but the Ottoman Government was slow in fulfilling its promises, 
 
 Dethronement of Sultan Amurath V. and Accession of Abdul Hamid. 
 — From the time of his accession to the throne of Turkey, Sultan Amurath V. wai 
 an imbecile, 'itid preparations were made for his dethronement. Finally, on the 
 31jt of August, 1876, a Council of Ministers and great dignitaries of the Ottoman 
 Empire, in conformity with a decree of the Sheik-ul-Islam, proclaimed the deposi- 
 tion of Amurath V., and declared his brother Abdul Hamid Sultan of Turkey. 
 
 Prince Milan Proclaimed King of Servia.— On the 15th of September, 
 1876, General Tchernayeff 's army proclaimed Prince Milan King of Servia, and 
 conferred upon him dictatorial powers. This act of the Servian army was disap- 
 proved by Russia, and Austro- Hungary refused to recognize Milan's title. 
 
 Overtures for Peace. — An Armistice of Eighteen Days. — In consequence 
 of the Turkish victories, the Princes of Servia and Montenegro made overtures 
 for peace, and their demand was sustained by England. Sir Henry George Elliot, 
 the British Ambassador at Constantinople, presented to the Porte a demand for an 
 armistice of one month, to be followed by negotiations for peace. The demand of 
 England was sustained by the other foreign ambassadors at the Turkish capital. 
 The Ottoman Government decidedly refused to grant an armistice, but expressed 
 its willingness to treat for peace. This refusal threatened fresh complications in 
 the East, as Russia seemed disposed to insist on the demand for an armistice. 
 Finally, about the middle of September (1876), both Turkey and Servia agreed 
 upon a suspension of hostilities for ten days, afterward pi'olonged eight days, and 
 aegotiations for peace were opened ; but the conditions of Turkey were rejected 
 by both Servia and Montenegro, and thus the negotiations failed. 
 
 New Peace Negotiations. — Relations of Russia and Turkey. — Terms 
 of peace proposed by the Great European Powers -were rejected by Turkey ;■ and 
 the relations between Russia and Turkey were every day becoming more precarious. 
 The Russian Government was unable to restrain the warlike ardor of its subjects, 
 who were in hearty sympathy with the Servians. England was jealous of Russian 
 interference in Turkish affairs, and her interests demanded the upholding of the 
 Ottoman Empire ; but the English people, whose indignation had been aroused by 
 the Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria, opposed the Eastern policy of the Earls of 
 Beaconsfield and Derby. Germany seemed disposed to support Russia's position, but 
 A.ustro -Hungary and Italy opposed it. The Powers made continuous efforts for an 
 annistice. Servia, as well as Turkey, rejected the peace proposals of the European 
 Powers. Russia proposed a joint intervention on the part of the Great Pow ers in 
 Tuikish affairs, but France, England, and Austro-Hungary declined the proposi- 
 tion. R'lssia now seemed disposed to openly support Servia, and a wai between 
 Russia and Turkey appeared imminent. The Porte proposed a six months' armis 
 tice, but this was opposed by Russia, which demanded instead a six weeks' annis- 
 tice. 
 
 Russia's Menace Against Turkey. — Warlike Preparations. — On the 
 I2th of October, 1S76, the Ottoman Porte rejected the peace propositions ol the 
 
550 EASTERN QUESTION. 
 
 European Po.vers. Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian Prime Minister, issued a cir- 
 cular note to the other European Powers, opposing the six months' armistice, and 
 demanding instead a six weeks' armistice. Russia threatend to invade Turkey in 
 case of a refusal of a short armistice. War between Russia and Turkey appeared 
 inevitable, and great uneasiness prevailed in all the great European capitals. War 
 risks were required in London, and Lloyds were called upon td have steamers ready 
 to liansport troops. England was making warlike preparations, and the British fleets 
 ':) tiie Mediterranean were under sailing orders. Much bitter hatred against Russia 
 jvas manifested in England, the recent excitement against the Turks, on account of the 
 13algarian atrocities, having died away. Russian troops were concentrating at 
 Be.nder and at Tiflis, preparatory to invading both European and Asiatic Turkey, 
 while the Ottoman Porte was concentrating two large armies, one in European and 
 the other in Asiatic Turkey, to resist Russian invasion. 
 
 Russia's Ultimatum. — An Armistice. — Proposed Peace Conference. — 
 The French and German ambassadors at Constantinople received instructions 
 from their respective governments to support the proposal for a six weeks' 
 armistice. On the 30th of October, 1876, General IgnatiefT, the Russian Am- 
 bassador at Constantinople, presented an ultimatum to the Porte, demanding the 
 acceptance of a two months' armistice and a suspension of hostilities within forty- 
 eight hours, threatening, in case of a refusal, to break off diplomatic relations and 
 to leave Constantinople with the whole Russian Embassy. The Porte consented 
 to the Russian demands, and the armistice was signed on the 1st of November, 
 1876; and hostilities between the Turks and Servians were suspended. Montene- 
 gio also accepted the armistice. Upon the conclusion of the armistice, the Great 
 Powers agreed upon holding a peace conference at Constantinople to settle the 
 Eastern question. The conference was summoned on the basis of the integrity 
 and independence of the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 The Czar's Speech at Moscovi'. — Russia's Warlike Demonstrations. — 
 Oil the loth of November, 1876, the Czar Alexander IL of Russia delivered an 
 important speech at Moscow, in reply to an address from the citizens, declaring 
 that he would demand guarantees from the Porte, and threatening, in case 
 of a refusal, a declaration of war. The speech was received with enthusi- 
 astic cheers. The Czar's speech was everywhere applauded throughout the 
 Ritssian Empire. In the midst of the preparations for the peace conference, 
 the most warlike demonstrations were going on in Russia. Great Britain was ex- 
 cited by distrust of Russia, and war risks were taken in London. Great activity 
 prevailed at the Woolwich arsenal ; and in the dock-yards the iron-clads were pre- 
 pared for immediate service, and all soldiers on furlough in Ireland were ordered 
 to joiii their regiments. Russian troops were concentrating in Southwestern Russia, 
 and in the Caucasus, ready to invade both European and Asiatic Turkey; while 
 tlie I'oite was concentrating two large armies to resist Russian invasion. Tlie 
 C/:a/, in an address to the generals and officers of the Russian army, at a military 
 -s.v'Svv in St. Petersburg, on November 15th (1876), said, " Gentlemen, let us wish 
 Mie l)cst success to the commanders of our armies." The Czar's words were 
 received with enthusiastic cheering. All freight traffic was stojiped on ihc 
 railways in Southwestern Russia. A Russian army was rapidly concentiating at 
 Odessa. A Russian war loan of 100.000,000 roubles in bank notes was issuei! by 
 the State Bank of St. Petersburg, by authority of an imperial ukase, to be received 
 
ALEXANDER II. EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. 
 
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CZAREWITCH 
 
EASTERN QUESTION. 551 
 
 in subscriptions, bearing interest at 10 per cent. The Czar, in an interview with 
 L</rd Loftus, the British Ambassador at St. Petersburg on November 2d, 1876, 
 gave assurances that Russia would not seize Constantinople, or attempt to C(in<juer 
 India. 
 
 New Turkish Constitution. — In the meantime, the Turkish Government had 
 apjiointed a commission to frame a constitution for the Ottoman Empire. Tlie 
 commission concluded its labors in the latter part of November, 1876, and a irafl 
 of the document was sent to the Grand Vizier. The text of the constitution was 
 C( mniunicated to the Great European Powers. The new constitution was officially 
 promulgated with great solemnity on the 23d of December, 1876. The constitu- 
 Won declared the Ottoman Empire to be one and indivisible, and provided for a 
 legislative assembly comjirising two branches, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, 
 The principle of ministerial responsibility was established. On November 23d, 
 1876, the Sultan issued a decree abolishing slaveiy within the Turl<ish dominions. 
 
 The Peace Conference at Constantinople. — Unanimity of the Great 
 Powers. — In the meantime, while Turkey and Russia were making warlike dem- 
 onslralions, preparations for the peace conference at Constantinople were being 
 rapidly pushed. The British plenipotentiary. Lord Salisbury, while on his way to 
 Constantinople, had an interview with Prince Bismarck at Berlin. Lord Salisbury 
 also stopped at Vienna. Popular sentiment in England had conrpelled Lord 
 Beaconstield to reverse his policy on the Eastern question, and England was now 
 in full accord with Russia on the guarantees to be required of the Ottoman Porte. 
 France, Germany, Italy, and Austro- Hungary also supported the Russian de 
 mands. An interview between Lord Salisbury and General Ignatieff showed a 
 complete agreement between them on the points to be demanded of the Porte. 
 At a preliminary meeting of the Conference on December ilth, 1876, under the 
 presidency of the Russian Ambassador, the result showed a unanimity among the 
 plenipotentiaries of the Great European Powers. General Ignatieff appeared very 
 conciliatory, and at his suggestion, the Conference proposed that Belgium or Switzer- 
 land might occupy Bulgaria with troops, but both these small states rejected the 
 proposition. The Conference began its regular sessions on December 23d, 1876, 
 The Turkish plenipotentiary, Safvet Pacha, presided, and in his opening address, 
 declared that the Porte was ready to grant reforms to all its subjects. In all the 
 proceedings of the Conference, the Great Powers were unanimous. Russia l)e- 
 came more conciliatory and Turkey more defiant. All the proposals of the Euro 
 pean Powers were rejected by the Turkish Government, which met every proposi- 
 tion with a counter-proposal. It gradually became apparent that Midhat Pacha, 
 the Grand Vizier, had outwitted the diplomatists of Europe. Lord Salisbury, in 
 an interview with Midhat Pacha, urged him to accept the European proposals, but 
 without success. At a subsequent interview between Lord Salisbury and the Sul- 
 iaii, the latter objected to the European demands, whereupon Lord Salisbury 
 directed the British fleet to leave Turkish waters, in order to show the .""urks thai 
 England would not support them in resisting the united will of Europt On th: 
 30th of Decemk;r, 1 876, the armistice was prolonged to March 1st, 1877 The 
 Powers at length agreed to consid'ir the Turkish counter-proposals. Russia re- 
 ceded from her original position ; while the Turks appeared more defiant, and 
 refused to discuss the European propositions. An angry interview occurred be- 
 twr>en Lord Salisbury and Midiia^ Pn..ha o" January 2d, 1S77. The Conference, 
 
552 EASTERN QUESTION. 
 
 on the 6th of January, 1877, refused to make any further concessions, while the 
 Turks remained inflexible. The English, German, and Russian plenipotentiaries, 
 unsuccessfully urged the Grand Vizier to accept the proposals of the European 
 P'lvvers, On January 12th, 1877, Baron von Werther, the German plenipotentiary, 
 Jeclared that the Great Powers would make no further concessions to Turkey. 
 t)n January 15th (1877), the European Powers relinquished many of the contested 
 points, but Lord Salisbury, the British plenipotentiary, and Sir Henry George 
 hlliott, the British Ambassador at the Turkish capital, announced that they had 
 irderi to leave Constantinople if the Porte rejected the modified demands of the 
 Powers. All the other European plenipotentiaries made similar declarations. 
 Safvet Pacha, the Turkish plenipotentiary, replied that the conditions of the Pow- 
 ers would have to be submitted to the Porte, before a final answer could be given. 
 On the i8th (January, 1877), the Grand Council of the Turkish Empire, among 
 whom were sixty Christians, unanimously rejected the proposals of the European 
 Powers, and declared that the Turkish counter-proposals were the only subject 
 which would further be considered. The Council disregarded Midhat Pacha's 
 appeal for peace, and replied with loud shouts of "War rather than foreign inter- 
 ference !" " Death before dishonor!" The result of the Turkish Grand Council's 
 action was that Lord Salisbury and General Ignatieff refused to have anything 
 further to do with the negotiations; and the ambassadors of the six Great Euro- 
 pean Powers accordingly withdrew from Constantinople, and thus the Conference 
 failed. 
 
 Peace between Turkey, and Servia and Montenegro,— In the latter part 
 of January, 1877, the Porte opened negotiations for peace with Servia and Mon- 
 tenegro. Both Russia and England advised Prince Milan, of Servia, to make 
 peace. Midhat Pacha offered conciliatory terms to the Servians, who had for 
 some time been anxious for peace. The negotiations progressed slowly, but were 
 successfully completed in Llie early part of March, 1877. 
 
 Dismissal and Banishment of Midhat Pacha.— On the 5th of February 
 (1877), Midhat Pacha was dismissed from office and banished from Constantino- 
 ple by order of the Sultan ; and Edhem Pacha was made Grand Vizier. The 
 causes of the fall of Midhat Pacha were his progressive policy and his desire"for 
 peace, which were very obnoxious to the reactionary party in Turkey. 
 
 Piince Gortschakoff's Circular.— On the 4th of February (1877), Prince 
 Gortschakoff, the Russian Prime Minister, issued a circular note to the Russian Am- 
 Ijassadors at the courts of the other Great Powers, declaring the Ottoman Empire 
 a menace to Europe and to the sentiments of humanity and Christianity, and 
 endeavoring to ascertain what course the other Governments of Europe intended 
 t I piu-sue in consequence of the Porte's defiant attitude. 
 
 Position of England on the Eastern Question. — In the meantime, the 
 public mind in England was greatly excited on the Eastern question. Mr. Glad 
 5lone made important speeches at Taunton and Frome, denouncing the course :1 
 Lord Beaconsfield and Lord Derby in not taking vigorous measures to act in c.n 
 cert with Russia in putting a stop to the horrible atrocities of the Turks (oward tht 
 Christian inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire. Parliament opened on .he Sth of 
 Febnuiry, 1877, and the Queen's speech alluded in guarded terms to the Ea?ern 
 question, and expressed a hope for a satisfactory solution of the vexed problem. 
 On the i6th (February, 1877), Mr. Gladstone and others made speeches criticising 
 
GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS. 
 
MEXICAN- RE VOL VTION OF 1876. 553 
 
 Lord Beaconsfield and his Ministry severely. The Government avowed its 
 neutrality on the Eastern question. On the 20th (February, 1877), an animated 
 debate occurred in the House of Lords. The Duke of Argyll attacked the policy 
 Df the Ministry, but the Earl of Derby defended the Government's action. On a 
 Jest vote, the House of Lords sustained the course of Lord Beaconsfield's Cabinet. 
 
 General Ignatieff's Mission. — During March, 1877, General Ignatieff, the 
 Russian Ambassador at Constantinople, visited the capitals of the Great Powers on 
 a mission from the Czar. The result of this mission was the signing of a protocol 
 consenting to Russia's intervention in Turkish affairs. In the early part of March, 
 Lcrd Derby, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, suggested to Russia the pro- 
 prieiy of allowing Turkey a year's time to prove her sincerity in the matter of 
 reform. Russia did not seem disposed to adopt this plan. 
 
 Warlike Preparations of Russia and Turkey. — In the meantime, both 
 Russia and Turkey continued their warlike preparations. Russia was hurrying 
 troops forward to the Pruth, and Turkish troops were moving toward the Danube. 
 The Russians were still mobilizing an additional number of army corps on the 
 frontiers, and by the close of February (1877) there were 200,000 Russian troops 
 ready to enter Turkish territory. The Turks had concentrated an army of about 
 75,000 men on the Danube to resist Russian invasion. Both Russia and Turkey 
 were buying arms and munitions of war in the United States. On the 3d of 
 March, 1877, an imperial ukase was issued at St. Petersburg, directing the organi- 
 zation of nine additional army corps. About the middle of March, Russia was 
 preparing to put one million of men into the field. 
 
 THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION OF 1876. 
 
 Beginning of the Revolution. — Late in January, 1876, a revolutionary 
 movement against President Lerdo de Tejada broke out in the Northern and Cen- 
 tral States of Mexico. The leader of the rebellion was General Porfirio Diaz. 
 General Herrera pronounced for the revolution, and surprised the authorities at 
 Parras. There was severe fighting at Oaxaca, in March, 1876. Jalapa was cap- 
 tured by the revolutionists, March 12th, and Vera Cruz was declared in a state of 
 siege on the 13th. On the 2d of April (1876), the revolutionists under Diaz cap- 
 tured Matamoras, the Government troops making little resistance. New Laredo 
 was captured by the revolutionists, April nth. General Alatorre was defeated by 
 the rebels in an attempt to retake Oaxaca. The State of Chiapas was declared in a 
 state of siege. The Mexican Congress, before adjourning, granted the President 
 extraordinary powers to meet the rebellion. Generals Escobedo, Alatorre, and 
 others, were operating vigorously against the insurgents. General Porfirio Diaz 
 issued a manifesto assigning his reasons for opposing President Sebastian Lerdo 
 de lejada. General Escobedo, with 3,000 Government troops, and Generals 
 Tuero and Querago with 2,000 men, advanced on Matamoras, of which they took 
 possession on the loth of May, the revolutionists under General Gonzalez retiring. 
 FHe rebellion was now rapidly waning, the insurgents having met with reverses 
 everywhere. General Alatorre gained a great victory on May 2d, at Oaxaca, ovei 
 the revolutionists, who lost 4,000 men in killed and wounded, and many being 
 taken prisoners. The Government army lost 600 men in killed and wounded. 
 The Government troops also gained a victory in Tlaxco on the 2Sth of May. The 
 rebels, under Generals Figuerora, Cortina, and Martinez, were completely defeated 
 
554 THE UNITED STA TES IN 1876-77. 
 
 at Queretaro, on May 31st, with a loss of 500 men. The revolutionary army un- 
 der Generals Rivas and Palacio was surprised and defeated by Colonel Adolfo 
 Valle in the interior of Mexico. On July 15th, General Alatorre defeated and 
 captured the revolutionary General Henandez with 600 of his troops near Orizaba. 
 The Government troops re-occupied Jalapa. Ihe revolutionary general Trevinc 
 was captured in the North of Mexico. In the beginning of August a formidable 
 revolt tiroke out in the interior of Mexico. The insurgents defeated 16,000 Gov- 
 ernment troops. The revolutionary General Cortina besieged Matamoras in 
 September (1876). 
 
 President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada Re-elected. — His Overthrow by 
 Porfirio Diaz. — In the Presidential election in Mexico, in July, 1876, there were 
 five candidates in the field, — namely. President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, Chief 
 Justice Iglesias, and General Mejia, by the Government party; and Generals Por- 
 firio Diaz and Gomez Palacio by the revolutionary party. Lerdo de Tejada was 
 re-elected by an overwhelming majority. The opposition declared the election ille- 
 gal on account of prevailing lawlessness in many parts of the country, but the Mex- 
 ican Congress sustained the election as valid, whereupon Chief Justice Iglesi:^ pro- 
 nounced against Lerdo de Tejada, and declared himself Provisional President, 
 establishing himself at Leon, in the State of Guanajuato. On November i6th, 
 1876, General Porfirio Diaz annihilated the Government army under Generals 
 Alatorre and Gonzalez, near Huamantla, about lOO miles from the city of Mexico. 
 Lerdo de Tejada fled from the capital on November 21st (1876), with his cabinet, 
 accompanied by about 1,000 men, the greater part of whom afterward deserted. 
 Diaz entered the capital amid the greatest demonstrations. Puebla, Vera Cruz, 
 and other cities, declared for Diaz, who proclaimed himself Provisional President, 
 November 30th, 1876. The Presidential succession was now disputed between 
 Diaz and Iglesias, but the followers of Iglesias deserted to Diaz, who soon had 
 50,000 men under arms. Both Lerdo de Tejada and Iglesias escaped to the 
 United States. In February, 1877, under an order from Diaz, a new election was 
 held in Mexico, and Diaz was elected President by an overwhelming majority. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES IN 1876, '77. 
 
 Visit of Dom Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil. — In April, 1S76, Dom Pedro 
 IT., Emperor of Brazil, arrived in New York, on a visit to the United States, 
 During a period of three months, Dom Pedro visited many portions of the country, 
 crossing the continent to California, and endeavoring to learn something of the in- 
 dustries and resources of our people. He was present at the opening ceremonies of 
 the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia on the loth of May, and also at the cere- 
 monies in Independence Square on the 4th of July. In July, he set sail for Europe. 
 
 The Centennial Fourth of July. — The 4th of July, 1876, the looth anniver- 
 sary of" American Inilejiendence, was observed throughout the United States with 
 fitting and impressive ceremonies. The most magnificent celeliration was held in 
 Ph.bdelphia, the birth-place of the nation. Several hundred thousand pe'^pk 
 spent the day in this city, so classic in Revolutionary historj'. On the night of 'nc 
 3d, and the morning of the 4th, a magnificent procession, nearly seven miles in 
 length, paraded on Broad and Chestnut streets, and was witnessed by hundreds of 
 thousands of spectators. In this procession were Governors of States, army ■^na 
 navy officers, ilie Emperor of Brazil, Prince Oscar of Sweden, the Count ■« 
 
THE UNITED STATES IN 1876-7.7. 555 
 
 Rochamljeai , giandsoi) of the Count de Rochambeau who aided Washington in 
 ll.e siege of Yorktown, Sir Edward Thornton, British Ambassador at Washington, 
 the various foreign conmiissions at the Exhibition, and the various trades and clubs 
 of the cify. On the approach of the procession to Independence Hall at 12 o'clock 
 at nig-ht. the new liberty bell in the spire of Independence Hall opened the clang- 
 ing chorus, which was taken up by steeple after steeple throughout the city. Amid 
 the brazen din came the shrieks of steam whistles, report of artillery and small 
 arms, and the racket of fire-crackers let off by impatient Young America, who 
 C'-'uld not wait until daylight to begin his share of the celebration. On the morn- 
 ing of the 4th there was a grand military parade on Broad and Chestnut streets, in 
 which the " Centennial Legion," composed of select companies from the " Old 
 Thirteen States," made an imposing appearance. At 10:30 a. m., the ceremonies 
 began on Independence Square in the presence of about 15,000 people. 
 Addresses were made by General Hawley, President of the Centennial Commis- 
 sion, and United States Senator Ferry, of Michigan, acting Vice-President of the 
 United States ; after which the Declaration of Independence was read from the 
 original document by Richard Henry Lee, of "Virginia, grandson of the Richard 
 Henry Lee who offered the resolution of Independence in the Continental Con- 
 gress' in 1776. An inspiring poem, composed by Bayard Taylor, was recited by 
 its author, and a grand oration was delivered by the Hon. William Maxwell 
 Evarts, of New York, a grandson of Roger Sherman. A hymn appropriate to the, 
 occasion, composed by Oliver Wendell Holmes, was performed by the orchestra 
 and chorus. The ceremonies closed amidst the wildest enthusiasm, at 1:30 p. m. 
 Among the distinguished guests present on the occasion were the Emperor of 
 Brazil, Sir Edward Thornton, British Ambassador at Washington, Generals Sher- 
 man, Sheridan, Hooker, and McDowell, and a number of Governors of Stales. 
 In the evening there was a brilliant display of fireworks in East Park, at which 
 about 50,000 persons were present. The day was also appropriately celebrated in 
 every portion of the country. 
 
 Admission of Colorado. — On the 4th of March, 1S75, Congress passed an 
 act for the admission of Colorado into the Union as the thirty-eighth State. Col- 
 orado having at length complied with the enabling act of Congress, and formed a 
 State Constitution, President Grant issued a proclamation in July, 1876, declaring 
 Colorado a State of the American Union. 
 
 War with the Sioux Indians in Montana. — In the summer of 1873 gold 
 seekers flocked to the Black Hills, in the territory of Montana, but the Unilcd 
 Stales Government interfered to prevent this intrusion on the lands which had been 
 assigned to the Sioux Indians by treaty in 1868. The continual intrusion of the 
 wnites on the Indian domains led to serious troubles with the Sioux, the Chey- 
 ennes, and other Indian tribes; and in the summer of 1875, a number of chiefs 
 visited Washington to arrange a treaty with the United States Government for the 
 disposition of their lands. The Government offered them ;g25,ooo; but the Indians 
 demanded ^150.000, and having failed in their demand, they returned to their vari- 
 ous tribes dissatisfied. Repealed troubles occurred with the Sioux thereafter; 
 and under their chiefs, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Red Fox, Red Dog, Rocky' 
 Bear, Living Bear, Bearskin, Bear-Sland-Up, and Black Moon, they determined 
 to defend their lands. In 1872, Sitting Bull was repulsed in two attacks upon 
 United Slates troops under General Custer. In 1 87 s, Sitting Bull made a nighl 
 
556 THE UNITED STATES IN 1876-77- 
 
 attack upon Colonel Baker, but was repulsed and pursued. In 1874, he drove the 
 Crow Indians from their reservation and agency, and made war on all peaceable 
 Indians. In June, 1S76, an expedition under Generals Crook and Custer took 
 the field against the Sioux. Crook defeated the Sioux on the Rosebud river on 
 the 17th of June. On the 25th of June, General Custer fell into an ambush of the 
 Sioux on the Little Big Horn river. The Indians led "by Sitting Bull numbered 
 4,000, while Custer's men only numbered 307. General Custer and his er.tire 
 connnand were killed. On the same day, Major Reno attacked tlie Indians, an 1 
 the fight was resumed the next day, on the evening of which General Terry 
 arrived, and the Indians retired. During the months of July, August, and Septcm 
 ber, Gei erals Crook, Terry, and Merritt conducted the war against the Sioux. On 
 September 9th, General Crook captured a Sioux camp, and had a day's skirmish 
 with the Indians, which ended in the complete defeat of the savages. This defeat 
 brought the Sioux to terms, and on the 226. of September a treaty of peace was 
 concluded by which the Indians relinquished a portion of the Black Hills. 
 
 Presidential Campaign of 1876 — A Disputed Election. — On the i6th of 
 June, 1876, the Republican National Convention at Cincinnati nominated Gover- 
 nor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President of the United States, and Hon. 
 Wm. A. Wheeler, of New York, for Vice-President. On the 28lh of the same 
 month (June, 1876), the Democratic National Convention at St. Louis nominated 
 Governor Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for President, and Governor Thomas 
 A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for Vice-President. The election, which was held on 
 the 7lh of November (1876), was indecisive, as both parties claimed it. Three 
 States — Louisiana, Florida and South Carolina — were in dispute, and prominent 
 leaders of both parties went to Louisiana to watch the counting of the votes by the 
 Slate Returning Board. The Returning Boards of the three disputed States de- 
 clared their States to have gone for the Republican State and National tickets, but 
 the claim was denied by the Democrats. In Plorida, a recount of the votes 
 resulted in favor of the Democratic State ticket and the Republican Presidential 
 ticket. In South Carolina and Louisiana two State Governments were organized. 
 In Oregon, where the Republican Electors were chosen, a difficulty arose concern- 
 ing the eligibility of one of the Electors, and the Governor gave a certificate of 
 election to one of the Democratic Electoral candidates. This action added to the 
 embaiTassment of the situalicjn. 
 
 Electoial Commission. — Hayes Declared President. — His Inaugura- 
 tion. — When Congress assembled in December, 1S76, committees were appointed 
 by both Houses to proceed to the three disputed States to investigate the affairs of 
 the election. In January, 1877, a joint committee of the two Houses of Congress 
 agreed upon a bill for counting the Electoral vote. This bill provided for the de- 
 cision of the cases of the disputed States l;y an " Electoral Commission," or Arbi- 
 tration Tribun.Tl, composed of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Supreme 
 Court Judges. This bill was speedily passed by ovei-whelming majorities of both 
 [louses of Congress, and received the President's signature on the 30th (January, 
 1S77). The members of the Commission were .mmediately chosen, and entered 
 upon their duties on the 1st of February (1877), when both Houses of Congress 
 met in joint conventions to count the Electoral votes. The Commission, which 
 was com]3osed of eight Rej)ul)licans and seven Democrats, decided, by a strict 
 party vote, not to take evidence concerning the popular vote in the disputed States, 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 557 
 
 Tlie Commission also decided, by a strict party vote, to give the Electoral votes 
 of all the disputed States to Messrs. Hayes and Wheeler. The decisions of the 
 Commission caused intense dissatisfaction among the Democrats, and a considera- 
 ble number of Democratic Representatives in Congress made desperate efforts to 
 prevent the completion of the count of the Electoral votes by the joint convention 
 of the two Houses of Congress. During the last days of February and the 1st of 
 March, the House of Representatives was a scene of the greatest excitement ami 
 disoiler ever known in Congress. A large number of Democrats made repeated 
 efforts to obstruct the Electoral count by dilatory motions and other methods of 
 filibustering ; but the remaining Democrats united with the Republicans in voting 
 for the completion of the count, and the filibusters were defeated at every point. 
 The count was completed at 4 o'clock on the morning of March 2d, 1877, and 
 Hayes and Wheeler were declared elected. Governor Hayes was sworn into office 
 as President, by Chief-Justice Waite, on the 3d of March, the 4th coming on Sun- 
 day. The other inauguration ceremonies were performed on the 5th, \vhen Mr. 
 Wheeler took the oath of office as Vice-President. 
 
 THE EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 The Turkish Parliament. — The Turkish Parliament met on the igth of 
 March, 1877, and was opened by Sultan Abdul Hamid in person. The speech 
 from the throne was read by the First Secretary of the Sultan. A considerable 
 number of Senators and Deputies were present. The Sultan's speech recapitulated 
 the events of the Eastern crisis, and indulged in a profusion of promises. 
 
 The Protocol and its Rejection by the Ottoman Porte. — We have already 
 alluded to General Ignalieff's mission to the great European capitals. Austro- 
 Hungary, Germany, Italy, and France readily signed the Russian protocol ; while 
 England at first refused, but, after much diplomatic negotiation, the efforts of Gen- 
 eral Ignatieff and Count Schouvaloff, the Russian Ambassador at London, were 
 successful; and Great Britain, on the 31st of March, 1877, signified her acceptance 
 of the protocol. Russia then presented the protocol to the Ottoman Government 
 for its approval, but the Porte rejected its provisions as inconsistent with the dignity 
 and independence of the Ottoman Empire. 
 
 The Czar's Manifesto. — Prince Gortschakoff's Circular. — Upon the re- 
 jection of the protocol by the Ottoman Porte, the Czar Alexander II. of Russia, 
 who arrived at the Russian head-quarters at Kischeneff, on April 22d, issued a man- 
 ifesto, reciting the grievances of the Christians in Turkey, arraigning the Turkish 
 Government for obstinacy in resisting the European demands, and declaring his 
 purpose of espousing the cause of the oppressed Christians in Turkey ; while at 
 the same time. Prince Gortschakoff", the Russian Prime-Minister, published a cir- 
 cular, notifying the Great Powers that, as Turkey had rejected every demand of 
 Europe for the amelioration of the Christians in Turkey, Russia was now obliged 
 tJ undertake the amelioration of the Porte's Christian subjects. 
 
 Reply of the Porte. — Russian Invasion of Turkey. — On tte 25th of Apid., 
 the Porte replied to the Czar's manifesto, charging Russia with the design of at- 
 tacking'the independence of Turkey, and calling upon the other Great Powers to 
 enforce the stipulations of the Paris Treaty of 1856; while the Sultan issued a 
 
5s8 EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 patriotic address to his army, exhorting it to uphold the independence of the 
 Osnianli, and to defend the land won by their ancestors. Immediately after the 
 rejection of the protocol by the Sublime Porte, the Russian armies advanced into 
 Turkish territory, both in Europe and Asia. The Russian Army of the Danube, 
 325,000 strong, under the command of the Grand Duke Nicholas, advanced from 
 Kischenefif, in Southwestern Russia, into the Turkish Principality of P..oumania, 
 a semi-independent State, comprising the old Principalities of Moldavia and Wal- 
 jachia, which was friendly to Russia. At the same time, the Russian Army of 
 the Caucasus, 175,000 strong, under the Grand Duke Michael and General Mt likoff, 
 advanced from Alexandropol, in Georgia, into the Turkish province of Armenia. 
 A large portion of the Armenian population, being Christians, were friendly to 
 Russia. 
 
 First Battle of Batoum— Bombardments of Russian Ports. — The first 
 battle between the Russians antl the Turks in the war of 1877, was fought in Asia- 
 atic Turkey. On the 25th of April (1877), the Russians, under the Grand-Duke 
 Michael, were defeated by the Turks at Tchurukson, near Batoum, on the south- 
 eastern coast of the Black Sea, near the Russian frontier, with the loss of 800 men. 
 On the 27lh, the Russians were again repulsed at Batoum. The Turkish navy 
 bombarded Poti, Cliefketil, and Fort Nicholas, in Russian territory, on the 
 eastern coast of the Black Sea. 
 
 Attacks on Kars — Capture of Bayazid. — In the meantime, a heavy Russian 
 column had advanced against the strongly-fortified town of Kars, to the southeast 
 of Batoum. On the 29th of April, 40,000 Russians, under General Melikoflf, 
 attacked the Turks, under Mukhtar Pacha, at Kars; and, after desperate fighting, 
 the Turks lost several strong positions. On the following day (April 30, 1S77), 
 60,000 Turks attempted to recover their lost ground, but were repulsed and routed 
 with heavy loss. On the 1st of May, the Russians captured Bayazid, at the foot 
 of Mount Ararat, the Turkish garrison, 1,700 in number, having evacuated the 
 fortress on the approach of the Russians. 
 
 Second Battle of Batoum.— On the nth of May (1877), there was a renewal 
 of fighting around Batoum. The Russians in large force attacked the Turks, who 
 were strongly intrenched on the heights of Batoum. Both sides fought desperately, 
 and the Russians, after eight hours' fighting, were repulsed with the loss of 4,000 
 men in killed and wounded. The Turkish loss was exceedingly small. The 
 Turkish victory was won by the extraordinary valor of the Bashi-Bazouks. 
 
 Russian Advance on Erzeroum.— The operations of the Russians in Asiatic 
 Turkey were directed against Erzeroum, the capital of Armenia. Erzeroum is a 
 strongly-fortified city, surrounded with walls, and containing 50,000 inhabit.ants. 
 The city was strongly garrisoned, and its defense was essential to the safety of Asia 
 Minor. A heavy Russian force, under General Melikoff, advanced against Erze- 
 roum. Mukhtar Pacha, with a Turkish force of 30,000 men, retreated before 
 Melikoff's advance, for the purpose of defending Erzeroum. 
 
 Capture of Ardahan.— On the 17th of May, the town of Ardahan, its fortitica^ 
 tions, citadel, sixty guns, immense stores of provisions and ammunition, and the 
 Turkish camp, fell into the hands of the Russians, after a fierce bombardment of 
 three hours, the Turkish garrison having evacuated their positions and fled, leaving 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 559 
 
 their dead and wounded behind them. Ardahan was then abandoned by the 
 P iissiuns, and afterwards re-occupied by the Turks. 
 
 Mieg.i of Kars. — On the 8th of May, the Russians twice attacked Kars, but 
 mil with a disastrous repulse each time. On the 17th (May, 1S77), the Turks 
 attacked tlie Russian irregular cavalry at Kars, but were repulsed after a stubborn 
 fight. The Russians again bombarded Kars, but the garrii^on replied briskly, and 
 the Russians were obliged to retire. On the 20th (May, 1877), the Russians 
 opened a furious cannonade on the Turkish outworks at Kars, but the Turkish 
 battel its replied vigorously, and the Turks made a sortie on the assailants, and, 
 after a desperate engagement, the Russians were repulsed with the loss of 300 men. 
 On the 22d, the Russians drove the Turks from their positions at Karadrhouran, 
 a village near Kars. On the 23d, the Russians again made two unsuccessful as- 
 saults on the outworks of Kars, The Russians, at intervals, continued to bombard 
 Forts Karadagh and Tahmaz, outworks of Kars, but the Turkish batteries replied 
 briskly. On the night of May 31st, 4,000 Circassian cavalry, commanded hy 
 Mussa Pacha, while proceeding toward Kars, were surprised and slaughtered at the 
 village of Bekli-Ahmed. The Circassians fought desperately, and gave no quarter. 
 Kars was now completely invested by the Russians. 
 
 Attacks on Batoum. — On the 23d of May, 1877, the Russians, after receiving 
 a reinforcement of 2,000 men, opened a furious cannonade on Batoum, but the 
 Turkish batteries replied vigorously. On the 25th, the Russian's attempted to throw 
 a bridge over the river Tchuruk, at Batoum, but were fired upon and driven back 
 by the Turks. On May 28th, the Russians occupied several of the heights neai 
 Batoum with trifling loss. 
 
 Circassian Revolt against the Russians. — While the Turks and the Rus- 
 sians were contending for the mastery in Armenia, the Circassian tribes in the 
 t-aucasus rose in revolt against the Russians. The Russians were victorious over 
 the Circassians near Sukum-Kaleh and other points, but the Circassians resisted 
 with valor. Sukum Kaleh was attacked by the Turkish fleet and by the Circas- 
 sians without any result. On June 5th (1877), i,ogo Circassians were surprised 
 and cut to pieces by the Russians. 
 
 Operations on the Danube, — Roumania's Independence, — While the 
 war was thus progressing vigorously in Armenia, tlurc was little of importance on 
 the Danube. The Roumanians had joined the Russians, and there were slight 
 skirmishes between them and the Turks. There v\as also some skirmishing be- 
 tween small bodies of Cossacks and Bashi-Bazouks. The Tuiks bombarded 
 Jtrahilov and Kalafat ; slight collisions occurred at Reni. Ghiacet, Turlukai, 01- 
 teni'-za, and other points on the Danube; Ruslchuk and Nicupolis were bombaidej 
 by the Russians; and several Turkish monitors were sunk by torpedoes. By the 
 close of May, the Russians occupied the north side of the Danube from Kalafat 
 on the west to Galatz on the east, but their heaviest force was at Giurgevo, opisosite 
 Ruitcliuk. The Turkish forces south of the Danube numbered 200,000 men, and 
 were under the command of Abdul Kerim Pacha. Their main force was.-it Sliimila, 
 near the. Balkan Mountains, but they occupied the south side of the Danube from 
 Widdin, opposite Kalafat, on the west, to Ghiacet, opposite Galatz, on the east; 
 aud strong Turkish garrisons were placed in the four great fortresses on the south 
 
56o EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 side of the Danube — Widdin, Nicopolis, Rustchuk, and Silistria ; — while the other 
 two strong fortresses — Shumla, near the Balkan Mountains, and Varna, on the 
 Black Sea coast of European Turkey — were also strongly garrisoned. From the 
 beginning of the struggle, the Principality of Roumania had sided with Rusgia; 
 and, on the 15th of May, the Roumanian Senate and Chamber of Deputies pro- 
 claimed Roumania completely independent of Turkey, and declared war against 
 the Porte. 
 
 The Turko-Montenegrin War. — While the Russians were struggling wilb 
 the TuiKS on the Danube and in Armenia, the valiant Montenegrins were still 
 heroically resisting the Turks under Suleiman Pacha. During the early part of 
 June, 1877, the Montenegrins repulsed the Turks at Malj at, but they were defeated 
 by the Turks at the Duga Pass, and Suleiman Pacha's forces were preparing to 
 relieve Nicsic, which was closely besieged by the Montenegrins. 
 
 Condition of the Ottoman Empire. — Commotion in Constantinople. — 
 The condition of the Ottoman Empire was extremely critical at this period. The 
 treasury was exhausted ; public credit was destroyed ; the armies were wretchedly 
 organized and disciplined ; the various Christian provinces were on the verge of 
 rebellion ; Roumania and Montenegro were at open war with the Porte ; the Rus- 
 sian armies were in Roumania and Armenia ; Servia and Greece were ready to 
 join Russia in the war ; the Porte was without a single ally ; the Moslem popula- 
 tion of the capital was turbulent ; and the Turkish Ministry was at variance with 
 the Turkish Parliament. A popular outbreak was feared at Constantinople at the 
 close of May. The turbulent Softas threatened an insurrection, but the Gov- 
 ernment took precautionary measures to prevent it. The Softas were expelled from 
 the capital, and the city was declared in a state of siege. A dispute arose between 
 the Ministry and Parliament, and neither party seemed disposed to yield. The 
 Sheik-ul-Islam proclaimed a " Holy War" against Russia. 
 
 Position of the Great Powers.— Debate in the British Parliament.— 
 The other Great European Powers stood aloof from the Eastern war. France, 
 Italy, Germany, Austro- Hungary and Great Britain declared their neutrality; bul 
 the latter two powers were preparing for future contingencies. On the 7th of May, 
 Lord Derby's note in reply to Prince Gortschakofl's circular was published, accusing 
 Russia of bad faith in regard to treaties. On the same day, an animated debate 
 began in the British House of Commons on Mr. Gladstone's resolutions denying 
 Turkey's right to moral or material support. Fiery speeches were made on both 
 sides, but, on the 14th of May, the resolutions were rejected by a vote of 354 against 
 223. Several large public demonstrations were held in London on the night of 
 May 7th, in support of Mr. Gladstone's resolutions. Lord Beaconsfield's Cabinet 
 was divided on the policy to be pursued by Great Britain on the Eastern question. 
 The Government was, however, resolved to defend British interests — to protect 
 tlie Suez Canal, to guard Egypt, and to maintain the freedom of the Bosphoru*. 
 Military preparations were pushed forward, and an army was ready to embark 
 A great popular anti-Turkish demonstration was held at Birmingham, on May 
 31st, and the meetmg was addressed by Mr. Gladstone, who denounced the 
 Turkish Government for its oppression of its Christian subjects. Business was 
 sus])ended, and 30,000 persons were present. At the close of the speech, a 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 561 
 
 resolution was passed in favor of a policy to compel Turkey to govern her Chris- 
 tian subjects properly. 
 
 Prince Gortschakoff's Note to Lord Derby. — On the 7th of June, 1877, 
 Prince GorlschakoH', the Russian Chancellor, in a note to Lord Derby, ihe Bnlish 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, promised that Russia would not menace iirilish inter- 
 ests in the East, and would not therefore seize Egypt, the Suez Canal Constanti- 
 nople, the Eosphorus, or the Persian Gulf. 
 
 Relations of England and Russia. — Count Schouvaloff's Assurances. 
 — Count Schouvaloff, the Russian Ambassador at London, took with him to St. 
 Petersburg a specification of British interests as contained in Mr. Cross's speech in 
 the British House of Commons. Count Schouvaloff's instructions, on his return 
 to London, empowered him to declare that Russia had no designs against the Suez 
 Canal or Egypt. Russia showed a disposition to respect the neutrality of the Suez 
 Canal and Egypt. Russia promised England not to exercise belligerent ri<rhts in 
 the Suez Canal ; but Turkey refused to give a similar promise, and returned a 
 haughty answer to England's demand not to make the canal a scene of hostilities. 
 Count Schouvaloff's assurances were considered perfectly satisfactory by the British 
 Cabinet. The British Government, however, dispatched a tleet to Besika Bay to 
 be ready for eventualities. 
 
 The Turko-Montenegrin War— The Montenegrins Overpowered. — On 
 
 June 6th, the Montenegrins were defeated in an attack on Spuz. On June 12th, 
 after fifty-five hours' fighting, near Kistaz, the Montenegrins retired to Banjani. 
 The Montenegrins were also routed in an engagement in the Kolaschin district. 
 On June i6th, 10,000 Turks were defeated and routed by 3,000 Montenegrins, at 
 Rasnoglavika, the Turks leaving 2,000 dead on the field. The Turks were also 
 defeated by the Montenegrins at Danilograd, hut Mehemet Ali Pacha defeated the 
 Montenegrins at Kolaschin, June 15th. On the following day, Mehemet Ali Pacha 
 defeated the Montenegrins near Ritchima ; hut Mehemet Ali Pacha was defeated 
 near the river Jalonka. On June 20th, the Montenegrins defeated the Turks at 
 Martiiiitzi, after a desperate struggle of five hours. The Turks were now enclosing 
 Montenegro with three armies, 70,000 strong in the aggregate; and the position of 
 the Montenegrins was becoming extremely critical. On June 25th, a Turkish de- 
 tachment was defeated and routed by the Montenegrins near the Moratcha, bu' 
 the Montenegrins were again defeated by the Turks. In consequence of the 
 Turkish successes, the Montenegritis were at the mercy of the Porte; and the 
 Turkish army, under Suleiman P;icha, left Montenegrin territory, and marched 
 toward the Danube, to aid Abilul Kerim Pacha and Osman Pacha in resisting the 
 advance of the Russians in Eiinipenn Turkey. 
 
 I'he Bosnian Insurrection, — The Turkish Parliament Prorogued. — The 
 !ns'irrei.tion against the Turks in Bosnia still continued, and the insurgents «eie 
 de/eated in several conflicts. The Turkish Parliament was ]:)ror('gued by the Sid- 
 tin, or. Jrne 2Sth, 1S77, to be reassembled on the 1st of October, 1877. 
 
 The Siege of Kars — The siege of Kars was progressing vigorously thnnighi at 
 
 Die month of June, 1877; and the Turks attempted to form counter approaches, 
 
 and were constantly making sorties, but were frustrated in all their attem])ts by the 
 
 Russian batteries. On June Sth, 9th, loth and llth, there was heavy fighting be- 
 
 36 
 
562 EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 fore Kars ; but all the attacks of the Russians upon Forts Tahmaz and KaiadagL 
 were repulsed with heavy loss. On June 8th, the Russians made three attacks 
 upnn Fort Tahmaz, but were repulsed. On the following day (June 9, 1S77), 
 the Russians made a desperate efibrt to take possession of some of the heights, when 
 the garrison of Kars made a sortie in force, with field artillery, and repulsed the 
 Russians with heavy loss. On the lolh, the Russians again assailed Forts Tahmaz 
 and Karadagh, but were disastrously repulsed. On the nth, the Russians renewed 
 their attacks, but were again repulsed with great slaughter. The Russians, who 
 advanced against Erzeroum, fell back in order to aid in the siege of Kars. The 
 artillery engagements between the besiegers and the garrison of Kars continued 
 during the middle and latter part of June. 
 
 Battle of Saidachan. — On the 15th of June, 10,000 Turks, under Mehemet 
 Pacha, advanced from Delibaba to attack 12,000 Russians, under General Tergu- 
 kassoff, at Saidachan, twelve miles from Toprak-Kaleh, and an artillery duel fol- 
 lowed, which lasted all day. On the following day (June 16, 1877), '^^ Russian 
 infantry advanced, under cover of a heavy artillery fire, and a stubborn engagement 
 ensued. The Turks fought with great heroism, but their lines were raked by the 
 Russian artillery fire ; and after five hours' fighting, the Russians were completely 
 victorious, the Turks losing immensely, and Mehemet Pacha being among the 
 killed. 
 
 Battles of Delibaba and Zewin. — After their disastrous defeat at Saidnchan, 
 the Turks fell back on Delibaba, while the Russians seized and fortified Delibaba 
 Pass. Miikhtar Pacha, w'hose head-quarters were at Zewin, advanced with 14,000 
 Turks against the Russians, 12,000 in number, in the Delibaba Pass. There were 
 several skirmishes on Juii'' 20th; and on the morning of the 2lst, Mukhtar Pacha 
 attacked the Russian position in the pass, and, after a terrible battle which lasted 
 until night, the Russians were driven from their positions with heavy loss, by the 
 effective artillery fire from the Turks. On the 22d, fighting was renewed, and the 
 Russians were routed, after desperate fighting. The whole of this two days' 
 fighting lasted thirty-three hours. The Turkish loss was more than 2,000 men, 
 and the Russian loss almost 3,000 men. Mukhtar Pacha still had his head-quarters 
 at Zewin. On June 2gth, the Russians attacked the Turkish position at Zewin, 
 but were repulsed, despite repeated assaults, with a loss of 1,000 killed. 
 
 Russian Repulses at Batoum. — Operations at Van and Bayazid. — On 
 June 2ist, the Turks at Batoum repulsed the attacks of the Russians, who loat 
 about 1,500 killed and wounded. On June 29th, a Turkish column attacked the 
 Russians near Batoum, and compelled them to take refuge behind their old in- 
 trenchments. In the meantime, 1,000 Russians were defeated near Van by a 
 Turkish detachment. The Russian garrison in Bayazid citadel was relieved by 
 General Tergukassoft", who completely defeated the Turkish investing force c/ 
 53,000 men, but the town of Bayazid was destroyed. 
 
 Retreat of the Russians in Armenia. — The Siege of Kars Raised. - 
 On June 30th, the Turks made a grand sortie from Kars, and reopened com- 
 munication with Mukhtar Pacha's army; and the Russian bombardment materially 
 slackened. The disasters to the Russian arms in Armenia caused a retreat of the 
 whole Russian line toward the frontier, and the siege of Kars was consequently 
 
EASTERN WAR OE 1877. 5^3 
 
 raised. The Russian left wing was almost annihilated; the Russian centre was 
 in full retreat ; and the Russian right at Batoum was completely defeated. The 
 Muscovites retreated with such precipitancy that they buried or concealed their 
 artillery, and destroyed immense quantities of provisions and baggage; and the 
 roads were strewn with Russian dead. The Russians, however, maintained their 
 position in a battle at Ipek, July 4th (1877); but the garrison of Kars was rein- 
 forced, and a Russian detachment was routed in several engagements near the 
 frontier. Thus the first campaign in Asiatic Turkey, in the great war of 1877, 
 ended in favor of the Ottoman arms. 
 
 Russians Beaten at Sukum-Kaleh. — Bombardment of Russian Ports. 
 — A Turkish force having landed at Tchamdjari, near Sukum-Kaleh, on the Cir- 
 cassian coast, was defeated, on June 27th (1877), by 15,000 Russians. Both sides 
 were subsequently reinforced, and the Turks routed the Muscovites with a loss of 
 6,000 killed and wounded ; while the Ottoman loss was comparatively small. 
 Early in July, two Turkish frigates bombarded the Russian town of Chefketil, on 
 the Eastern coast of the Black Sea, and landed a force which defeated the garri- 
 son and compelled them to abandon the town, after which the frigates reembarked 
 the Turkish troops. Several days afterward, a Turkish frigate bombarded the 
 Russian town of Simferopol, in the Crimea. 
 
 The War on the Danube. — Immense Russian Forces in Roumania. — 
 In the meantime, while the war had been thus raging in Asiatic Turkey, and on the 
 Black Sea coast of Russia, the Russians opened an active campaign on the Danube, 
 after an inactivity of nearly two months. Rustchuk, on the south of the Danube, 
 had been bombarded by the Muscovites; while Giurgevo, on the opposite side of 
 the river, was bombarded by the Ottoman troops at Rustchuk. About the middle 
 of June, the Russians massed their forces at several points on the Danube, with 
 the view of crossing the river, the principal movements being at Galatz, Hirsova, 
 Sistova and Nicopolis. There were now over 400,000 Russians in Roumania. 
 During the latter part of June, there was heavy cannonading between Rustchuk 
 and Giurgevo, and also between Widdin and Kalafat. The Turks flooded the 
 Kustendje and Tchernavoda railroad, as a measure of defense. 
 
 Russian Crossing of the Danube at Galatz. — Capture of Matchin. — On 
 
 June 22d, 1877, a Russian detachment of 6.000 men, under General Zimmermann, 
 crossed the Danube, from Galatz, into the swampy region of the Dobrudja; and 
 on the same day they gained possession of the heights around Matchin, after an ob- 
 stinate engagement with a force of Bashi-Bazouks. On the next day, the Russians 
 entered Matchin, which had been abandoned by the Ottoman troops. The Musco- 
 vites, 28,000 in number, also crossed the Danube at Brahilov, while the Turks de^ 
 stroyed the railway between Tchernavoda, and Matchin, and a few days later 
 evMcuated the Dobrudja. 
 
 Russian Bombardments. — Battles at Turtukai, Sistova, and Fla- 
 munda. — Simultaneously with the Russian crossing of the Danube at Galatz 
 there was a general movement along the whole Russian line ; and the various 
 towns on' the south side of the Danube were bombarded by the Russians. On 
 June 25th, 18,000 Russians crossed the Danube at Hirsova, and joined the detach- 
 ment at Matchin. On June 26th. the Russians were repulsed in an attack upon 
 
564 EASTER., PV^., OE 1877. 
 
 the Ottoman troops at Turtukai, on the Danube, above Silistria. On June 27th, 
 the Grand-Duke Nicholas, of Russia, crossed the Danube near Sistova, with 
 the 8lh Russian army corps; and the Turks were driven from their positions ai 
 Sistova, after dreadful fighting, and Sistova was occupied by the Muscovites. 
 During the bombardment, Nicopolis was partly burned. On June 28th, the Czar 
 Alexandei II. issued a |:roclamation to the Bulgarians, promising protection to 
 Chrisaanj and Mussulmans alike. On June 29th, a Russian division crossed llie 
 •")anuoo at Flamunda, near TurnuMaguerelli, after desperate fighting w'tli the 
 1 url;.,, the Czar of Russia being present. 
 
 Russian Bombardment of Rustchuk. — Turkish Bombardment of Giur- 
 gevo. — During the latter part of June (1877), the bombardment of Rustchuk by 
 the Russians at Giurgevo, opposite the river, was terrible ; and the greater part of 
 the town was laid in ruins. During the bombardment, Russian shells struck the 
 English, French, German, and Austro-Hungarian Consulates; hundreds of non- 
 combatants were killed in the streets ; and many o{ the inhabitants of the city lied in 
 terror to the neighboring villages. At the same time, the Turkish garrison at 
 Ru'itchuk b(3mbarded Guirgevo, and destroyed a great part of that town, a number 
 of shells striking the Capitol. 
 
 Advance of the Russians. — Ba.tle of Biela.— Capture of Nicopous. — 
 
 The Russians also crossed the Danube at Turnu-Maguerelli, and joined the lorceof 
 the Grand-Duke Nicholas, at Sistova. After crossing the Danube, the Russians 
 advanced in several detachments southward, through Bulgaria, toward the Balkan 
 Mountains. On July 5th (1877), a battle was fought at Biela, lasting twelve 
 hours, and ending in the repulse of the Russians with considerable loss, and their 
 retirement toward Sistova. On July l6th, the Russians captured Nicopolis, witn 
 its garrison of 6000 Turks. 
 
 Battles at Plevna and Monastir. — The Russians across the B«ilkans. — 
 On July 13th, the Russians were attacked simultaneously at Plevna by Osman 
 Pacha, and at Monastir by Ahmed Eyoab Pacha; and the fighting was renewed 
 the next day, the Turks getting the advantage. The advanced guard of the Rus 
 sian army, under General Gourko, crossed the Balkan Mountains, on the evening ol 
 July 13th, without firing a shot. The next day, General Gourko surprised 300 
 Turkish soldiers, who fled to Kanari. On the 15th, a force ^f Cossacks and ilus- 
 siaii dragoons and artillery, under General Gourko, routed the Turks in u flight 
 engagement. 
 
 Turkish Preparations. — Russian Capture of Jeni-Saghra, Kazanlik, 
 and Shipka Pass. — The bold dash of General Gourko across the Balkans cieated 
 alarm and consternation at Constantinople, and vigorous preparations were made 
 to check the Russian advance. Abdul Kerim Pacha was removed from tne chief 
 command of the Turkish armies; and Mehemet Ali Pacha, a Prussian l)y the name 
 <f Schultz, was appointed in his stead. There were four Turkish armies in Eino- 
 ■f<::.r\ Turkey ready to oppose the Russian invaders; — namely, the army of Osman 
 Paiha, at Widdin, and that of Mehemet Ali Pacha, at Shumla, both north of the 
 Balkans; and the armies under .Suleiman Pacha and Raouf Pacha, south of (he 
 Balkans. The Cossacks burned four villages near Philip]50]-)olis, about the midille 
 of July. The Russians, after a brilliant victory at ]eni-S«ghra, occupied iWaJ 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 565 
 
 place. On July 17th, General Goiirko occupied Kazanlik, after an obstinate en- 
 gagement. On the iSth, Shipka Pass fell into the hands of the Russians. 
 
 First Russian Deleat at Plevna. — On July 19th (1877), a desperate engage- 
 itiant of ten Ikjuis was fought at Plevna, in which the Russians, under General 
 Schillder, were utterly defeated and driven from their positions, by the Ottoman 
 force vinder Osman Pacha, with the loss of 2,000 men. The Muscovites fled, 
 leaving their dead and wounded behind them. In view of this defeat, the Rus- 
 ians removed their headquarters from Tirnova to Biela. 
 
 England's Activity. — Position of Austro-Hungary. — In the meantime, 
 l.'ngland, in view of the Russian advance toward Constantinople, had been taking 
 vigorous precautionary measures. The British fleet at Eesika Bay was reinforced, 
 and British troops were sent to reinforce the garrisons of Gibraltar and Malta. 
 The greatest activity prevailed in the dockyards of Great Britain ; and orders were 
 received at the Woolwich arsenal to have field guns of the reserve class and some 
 larger ordnance equipped for service. Public feeling was intensely excited in 
 Austro-Hungary, the Hungarians, who sympathized with the Turks, being greatly 
 alarmed at the Russian invasian of Bulgaria; and the A ustro- Hungarian Cabinet 
 contemplated the mobilization of the Austro-Hungarian army. Russia was 
 intensely exasperated at England's course, and the Russian press manifested a hos- 
 tile tone toward Great Britain. At the prorogation of the British Parliament, 
 on August 14th, 1877, the Queen's speech, in alluding to the Eastern question, 
 contained these significant words, "If, in the course of the contest, the rights of my 
 empire should be assailed or endangered, I should confidently rely on your heip 
 to vindicate and maintain them." 
 
 Russian Naval Victory in the Black Sea. — On July 26th, an old Russian 
 merchant ship, the Vesta, had an engagement of five hours with a Turkish moni- 
 tor in the Black Sea, off Kustendje, in Bulgaria. The Vesta was victorious, the 
 Turkish monitor fleeing after the action, much damaged by Russian shells, one of 
 which burst in her turret. The Vesta had her rudder injured, and went to Sevas- 
 topol for repairs. The Russian loss in killed and wounded was seventeen. 
 
 Fight at Silistria. — Siege and Bombardment of Rustchuk. — On July 
 24th, there was sharp fighting at Silistria, which the Russians had completely in- 
 vested. During the whole of July, Rustchuk was closely invested by the Russians, 
 and the siege was prosecuted with vigor. The town was fiercely bombarded, and 
 people were daily killed in the streets from its eff"ecls. The garrison, however, held 
 out heroically. 
 
 Battles of Eski-Saghra, Karabunar, and Jeni-Saghra. — In the mean- 
 ti.nie heavy fighting occurred south of the Balkans. On July 26th and 27th, 
 there was severe fighting at Eski-.Saghra between the Russians and a Turkish 
 force under Raouf Pacha, with results favorable to the Turks, who occupied Eski- 
 Saghia. On July 26th, the Turks, under Suleiman Pacha, were defeated at Kara 
 bunar, and compelled to retreat toward Adrinnople. On August 4th, the Rus 
 sians w.-^re defeated by the Turks under Suleiman Pacha, at Jeni-Saghra, with 
 considerable loss. The Muscovites hastily fled, pursued by the victorious Ottomans 
 
 Second Russian Defeat at Flevna. — On July 30th and 31st, 1877, the 
 Russians, 40,000 in number, under Prince Schackosky and General Krudener, 
 
S66 EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 attacked 50,000 Turks under Osman Pacha, in a strong position at Plevna. The 
 Russians v;ere at first successful, capturing the Turkish positions; but the effective 
 tire of the Turkish artillery mowed down the Russians by hundreds, and, at the 
 close of the day, the Ottoman troops recaptured all their lost positions, and the 
 Muscovites were disastrously defeated. The batlle was renewed the next day 
 I July 31, 1877), and was equally disastrous to tlie Russians, who were finally 
 runted with immer.se losses. iJuring these two da)s, the Russuvis 'ost 8, coo 
 <[iled and 16,000 wounded. After the Russians had retired, the Bashi-Bazouks 
 ■ook possession of the battle-field, and slew the Russian wounded. The Turki.-.li 
 loss was comparatively small. This disastrous Russian defeat put the Russians 
 south of the Balkans in a critical position, and the Russian plans were thwarted. 
 
 The War on the Russian Coast. — Herzegovinian Defeat. — On July 
 30ih, the Turkish frigate Maumaudich bombarded the Russian batteries at Tchamt- 
 cbira, near Sukum-Kaleh, on the Russian coast of the Black Sea, silencing every 
 Russian gun. The Maumaudich was considerably damaged, and several of the 
 crew were killed and wounded. The 6,000 Turks who had been in a critical po- 
 sition at Tchamtchira, were then embarked in the fleet of Hobart Pacha, an Eng- 
 lishman in the Turkish service. On August 4th (1S77), a Turkish force of 8,000 
 men defeated 4,000 Herzegovinian insurgents, under General Despolovich, with 
 great loss. General Despotovich and 300 of his followers crossed the Austrian 
 Irontier, where they were disarmed and interned. 
 
 Battles at Plevna, Lovatz, Jaslar, and Yaillak. — Bulgarian Defeat. — 
 On August 6th, 5,000 Ottoman cavalry attacked the Russians at the village of 
 Lascon, near Plevna, but were repulsed without difficulty. On August 7th, the 
 Muscovites were repulsed by the Turks at Lovatz, after two days' fighting, w ith 
 the loss of 900 killed and wounded. On the same day (August 7, 1877), the 
 Russians were repulsed in two attacks on the Turks at Jaslar, south of Rasgrad, 
 after sanguinary fighting. On August 9th, a Russian infantry and cavalry force at- 
 tacked the Turks at Yaillak, but were repulsed with the loss of 180 men killed and 
 wounded. On August nth and 12th, the Turks under Rassam Pacha retook 
 Kartova from the Bulgarians and captured Kalofer, the Bulgarians fleeing into the 
 Balkans, after losing 500 killed. 
 
 Atrocities on Both Sides. — Revolt in Crete against the Turks. — In the 
 meantime there had been mutual charges of cruelty on both sides. The Turks 
 were charged with the most brutal massacres of defenceless men, women and 
 children, among the Ghristian population of European Turkey. These charges 
 were sustained by European newspaper correspondents. On the other hand, the 
 Russians and the Bulgarians were accused, by the Turks, of killing women and 
 children among the Mohammedan Turks; and the accusations were also partially 
 sustained by foreign newspaper correspondents. The excuses of the Bulgarians foi 
 rhce brutal massacres of innocent Turkish women and children, were the Turkish 
 .lU' rages in Bulgaria in the spring and summer of 1876. The Greeks in the island 
 r,f Can dia, or Crete, maddened by Turkish tyranny and cruelty, rose in revolt, 
 compelling the Turks to seek refuge in the fortresses of the island. 
 
 Russian Defeats in Armenia. — Toward the close of July, 1877, operations 
 were resumed in Armenia, the Russians having been heavily reinforced. Fighting 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1S77. 567 
 
 was renewed near Kars ; and, on August 4lh, a Turkish cavalry force of l,ocxD men 
 was defeated by a Russian detachment near Ardahan. On Autjust 5tli, the Turks 
 assuming the offensive in Armenia, skirmishing ensued beween the two armies 01 
 the fiontier, and the Russian outposts were driven in by Kurds ind Bashi-Bazouks ; 
 but the Ottoman troops were repulsed in an attack on the Russians at Khalfalut. 
 On August 8th, the Muscovites were repulsed in two attacks upon the Turks at 
 Kaduklar. On August iiih, several hundred Russians were killed in ambuscade 
 near Koule. On August 12th, the Russians outposts near Ani were defeated with a 
 loss of 100 killed. On August 13th, there was an artillery duel at Batoum. 
 
 Siege and Bombardment of Rustchuk. — Turkish Bombardment of Kus- 
 tendje. — In the meantime, the siege of Rustchuk had been pressed with vigor by 
 the Russians, and the town was fiercely, bombarded ; while the Turks furiously 
 bombarded Giurgevo, opposite the river. About the middle of August, the Turks 
 bombarded Kustenjde, and compelled the Muscovites to evacuate the town, but Kus- 
 tendje was reoccupied by the Russians a few days afterward. On August 13th, the 
 Ottomans defeated and routed the Russians at Tokoi, capturing five cannon. On 
 August 17th, a Russian reconnoitering party were repulsed near the river Lom. 
 On August 20th, detachments of Russian cavalry were repulsed by Ottoman troops, 
 at Nereinsk, not far from Plevna. 
 
 The War m Armenia. — Battles of Yanilar, Kiziltepe, and Kurukdara. 
 —In the meantime, the Russians had suffered a series of calamitors defeats in Ar- 
 menia. On August i8th, 40,000 Russians attacked Mukhtar Pacha's army along 
 the whole I'^ne, near Yanilar, but were repulsed and routed with the loss of 1,500 
 killed, while the Turks lost nearly 500 killed and wounded. On the night of 
 August 24th, Mukhtar Pacha's troops carried the heights of Kiziltepe, and re- 
 pulsed three attempts of the Russians to retake them. The fighting was continued 
 the whole of the next day (August 25, 1877), and, in the evening, the Russians 
 were routed along the whole line, with a loss of 4,000 killed anil wounded ; but 
 Ihe Ottomans were disastrously repulsed in an attempt to retake Kurukdara, losing 
 3,000 men, while the Muscovites lost less than i 000 men. On August 24th, the 
 Turks captured a redoubt near Batoum. At the beginning of September (1877), 
 General Loris Melikoff was removed from the command of the Russian army in 
 Armenia, and succeeded by the Grand-Duke Michael. 
 
 General Gourko's Retreat — Defeats of the Turks at the Shipka 
 Pass. — In the first part of August (1877), General Gourkt.'s army,m consequence 
 of its disastrous defeat by the Turks at Eski-Saghra, at the c.'ose of July, was obliged 
 to retreat northward toward the Balkans, pursued by Suleiman Pacha's army. On 
 August 2 1st, Suleimar Pacha's army, 30,000 strong, attacked the Russians undei 
 General Radetzky, at the Shipka Pass, in the Balkans, for the purpose of ''orcing 
 die pass, but was repulsed with heavy loss. On the following day (August 22, 1877), 
 Suleiman Pacha renewed his attacks, but was again repulsed, after desperate fight- 
 .ng. The terrible struggle was renewed on the 23d, but the Turks were still un- 
 able tL force the pass ; but the Russians evacuated the town of Shipka, which the 
 Turks then occupied. On the 24th, the Turks renewed their attacks on the Rus 
 sian position in the Shipka Pass, but were again repulsed with tremendous loss. On 
 the 25th, the Ottoman troops made another desperate effort to force the Shipka 
 
568 EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 Pass, but were again unsuccessful. On the 26th and 27th, the Turks were again 
 rejiulsed in all their attempts to force the pass. The fighting on the 28th was as 
 disastrous to the Turks as all the previous struggles. There was now a lull in 
 the contiict, the Russians remaining in [xissession of the Shipka Pass. On Sep- 
 leniber 1st, cannonading was renewed at the Shipka Pass, and continued on the 
 2d (September, 1S77). 
 
 Turkish Repulses at Tirnova and Selvi. — Battle of Eski-Djuma. — 
 On August 22(1, the Turks attacked the Muscovites at Tirnova, but were re- 
 p Ised. The fighting was renewed the next day, and the Ottoman trt)(ips 
 were again repulsed. On August 22(1, Osman Pacha's troops attacked the Rus- 
 sians at Selvi, but were repulsed. On August 22d, the Turkish army under Me- 
 hemet All Pacha gained a great victory over the Russians near Eski-Djuma, in 
 Bulgaria, capturing several cannon, and inflicting great loss upon the Muscovites ; 
 but the Russians retook Jaslar, which the Ottomans had captured ; and, on the fol- 
 lowing day, repulsed three attacks of the Turks, but the arrival of Turkish rein- 
 forcements compelled the Russians to retire, leaving the Turks in possession of 
 the place. 
 
 Battle of Karahassankoi. — On August 30th, 20,000 Ottomans from Mehemet 
 Ali Pacha's army attacked the Muscovites near the village of Karahassankoi ; and 
 after desperate fighting, the village being taken and retaken, the Russians were 
 defeated, and compelled to retreat in disorder, losing 4,000 killed and wounded, 
 and a cannon, and 2,000 stand of small arms. 
 
 Battle of Pelistat. — On the ist of September, 1877, a portion of Osman 
 Pacha's army made a reconnoissance against the Russian fortified positions at 
 Pelistat, five miles east from Plevna; and, after a desperate engagement, in 
 which all the attacks of the Ottoman troops were repulsed, the Russians, who 
 numliered 20,000, were victorious ; the Turks being compelled to make a hasty 
 retreat, with the loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, while the Muscovite loss was 
 only 500. 
 
 Battle of Lovatz. — On September 3d, the Turks at Lovatz, alarmed at the 
 great increase of the Russian forces before the town, attacked them fiercely, and a 
 desperate battle ensued, during which the Russians, 20,000 strong, under the com- 
 mand of Prince Meretinsky and General Skobeleff, overcame all opposition, and 
 finally drove the Turks into the town, which they entered with them. The strug- 
 gle continued in the streets of Lovatz, until the Ottoman troops were driven out 
 of the town in great disorder, followed by the Russian cavalry ; and, after twelve 
 hours' fighting, Lovatz was in the undisputed possession of the Muscovites. 
 
 Battle of Kadikoi. — Battle of Kazelova. — On September 4th, the Turks, 
 under Ahmed Eyoub Pacha, occupied Kadikoi, near Ruslchuk, but were subse- 
 quently driven out with great loss, by a force of Russian infantry and Cossacks. 
 On September 5th, the Turks, under Ahmed Eyoub Pacha, attacked the Russians 
 at Kazelova, near Rustchuk ; and, after a desperate battle of five hours, the Mus 
 covites abandoned their fortified positions near Kazelova, and recrossed the Lorn 
 in disorder, with the loss of 3,000 men, the Ottoman loss being about 1,000 nitn. 
 
 Bombardment of Rustchuk. — Suleiman Pacha's Movements.— On 
 September 5th, after an engagement near Rustchuk, the Russians opened a nerct 
 
FRENCH CRISIS OF 1877. 569 
 
 bombardment upon tlie city from Slobosia, which was replied lo by the Turks. 
 This conliniied for several days. In the mean time, after the battles at the Shipka 
 Pass, Suleiman Pacha's army was quiet for several weeks, but at length moved to 
 the Russian rear. 
 
 Third Russian Defeat at Plevna. — On September 7th, a heavy nrtillei^ 
 duel i)e'.jan between the two great armies before Plevna, and was continued on ihe 
 Sill, on the evening of which the Russians gained possession of the heights south 
 of I evna. The cannonade was continued during the night and the nex\ daj ■ 
 (Septenii)er 9, 1877). On September lOth, the Russians made some progress, and 
 on tile I ilh they captured the Grivitza redoubt and other positions, after a desj)i_-rate 
 struggle; but on the 12th, the tide of battle was again turning in favor of the 
 Turks, who recaptured all their lost redoubts except Grivitza, but only after the Rus- 
 sians under General Skobeleff had repulsed six Turkish assaults. The Russians 
 continued the bombardment of the Turkish fortifications. The Russian loss dur- 
 ing this fighting was about 7,000 men in killed and wounded. 
 
 POLITICAL CRISIS IN FRANCE. (1877.) 
 
 The Ministry of Jules Simon. — In March, 1876, a new Ministry under M. 
 Dufaure came into power in France ; but in DecemlDcr of the same year (1876), 
 a Cabinet crisis occurred, and the result was the organization of a Republican Minis- 
 try under Jules Simon, one of the Moderate Re])ublican leaders. This produced 
 quiet for a time, and affairs seemed to work smoothly until May, 1877, when Pres- 
 ident Mac-Mahon, who was in sympathy with the Monarchist faction, determined 
 to check the advancing spirit of Republicanism. 
 
 Resignation of Jules Simon's Cabinet. — On the 8th of May, 1877, the 
 French Chamber of Deputies had a tumukuous session. Jules Simon was attacked 
 by the Bonapartists, and angry debates ensued. On the 15th (May, 1877), the 
 Chamlier of Deputies voted to repeal the Press Law of 1875, whereupon President 
 MacMahon wrote to Jules Simon, opposing the repeal of the law. In consequence 
 of this letter, Jules Simon and his Cabinet tendered their resignations. In a gen- 
 eral meeting of the Re]-<uhlicnn Deputies, in the Grand Hotel in Paris, a resolution 
 was passed declaring the Chamber's want of confidence in a Monarchist Cabinet 
 C)n leaving the meeting, M. Gambetta, the talented young Republicnn le<ider, was 
 loudly cheered by the populace. He addressed them, recommefiding calmness and 
 moderation, and declaring his confidence in the final triumph of RepuJjlicanism. 
 The multitude responded with shouts of " Vive Gambetta !" " Vive la Republique!'' 
 The Re[iublican Union afterward met and confirmed the action of the meeting. 
 The first intelligence of the crisis produced dismay throughout Paris, and k-.irs 
 were entertained for the ]ience of the French Republic. In the Chamlitr of 
 Jjeputies, on the 17th (May, 1S77), a resolution declaring the Chamber's laciv of 
 Confidence in a Ministry not governing in accordance with Repul)lican princijiles, 
 was adrpted by a vote of 355 against 154. M. Gambetta made a speech ex]ires,'iri." 
 Frence's wi.iK for a definitive Republic. The speech was loudly cheered, amid h< 
 greatest pxcitcnient. 
 
 The Duke de Broglie's Ministry. — President MacMahon proceeded to the 
 formation of a Ministry composed of Monarchists, with the Duke de Proglie at its 
 
570 HA YES'S ADMINISTRA TION. 
 
 .bead. 'Ihe new Minisiiy proeeedeil lo the removal of the Republican Trefecta 
 from the Depan.r.ents, ami tlic aj-iuiiiUment of Monafchists in their stead. On 
 tliebth (May, 1S77), IVcsid.int MacMahon sent a message to the Chambers pro- 
 roguing both Chambers lor 01, c uu.iuh. There was great e.xcitement and confusion 
 m both Chambers. The Republicans of both Chambers issued spirited addresses 
 lo tht French people. The crisis was regarded as a serious one for France. 
 
 Dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies.— In the Chamber of Deputies, 
 on the iGtIi of June, icSyy, M. de Fourton, the new French Minister of the In- 
 terior, read a declaration announcing that President MacMahon had sent a mes- 
 sage to the Senate informing that body of his intention to dissolve the Chamber 
 of Deputies, by virtue of the power conferred upon him by the Fifth Article of 
 the Constitution, and demanding the concurrence of the Senate. A violent dis- 
 cussion ensued, and was continued for several days, the Republicans severely cen- 
 suring, and the Monarchists sustaining, the President's action. M. Gambelta re- 
 marked that the Republican majority in the Chamber will go to the country number- 
 ing Z^l, :^"'l leturn 400 strong, and tliat the triumph of the Monarchists would lead 
 to civil war. At the close of his speech, M. Gambetta fainted. Jules Simon 
 made a scathing attack on the Government. The Chamber refused to vote direct 
 taxes, but unanimously voted supplementary grants for the conduct of the public 
 service. In the Chamber of Deputies, on June 2Sth, M. Grevy, the President 
 of the Chamber, read the decree formally dissolving the Chamber, and intimat- 
 ing that the elections would be held within an interval of three months. The 
 Republican Senators issued a declaratt' ;■:, saying that the re-election of the 363 
 Republicans of the Chamiier of Deputies was a duty incumbent upon the country, 
 as a solemn affirmation of its intention to maintain Republican principles at home 
 and peace abroad. It was decided to hold the elections on September i6th, and 
 to convene the new Chamber on October Sth. 
 
 Persecution of Republicans.— Prosecution of Gambetta. — Death ol 
 Thiers. — The Ministry endeavored to carry the elections by a wholesale per 
 secution ol Republicans. Rcinibliean oflieials were removed, and the press was 
 muzzled. Uu August 2Sth, 1^577, the Public Prosecutor issued a summons upon 
 M. Gambetta, ordering him to appear to answer for certain remarks in a speech 
 at Lillo; and several weeks afterward he was sentenced to three weeks' im- 
 prisonment, and to pay a fine of 2,000 francs. The Republicans now suffered 
 an irreparable loss, their trusted leader, M. Thiers, suddenly dying of apoplexy, 
 at St. Germain, September 2d, 1S77, and being mourned by the friends of liberty 
 in France and throughout the wt)rld. 
 
 HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 Setikment of the Domestic Troubles in Louisiana and South Caio- 
 lina. — After the inauguration of Hayes and Wheeler (March 5, 1S77), the question 
 which engaged the attention of the new Administration was the settlement cf the 
 domestic troubles in Louisiana and South Carolina, in each of which two States -.wo 
 I'.rate (Governments had been organized. The question was settled within less thaj 
 two months by President Hayes's action in withdrawing the United States troops 
 from the capitals of the two States, whereupon the Republican State Governments 
 ceased to exist, and tl e authority of the Democratic Governors was undisputed. 
 
HA YES' S AD MINIS TEA TION. 5 7 1 
 
 War with the Nez Perces Indians in Idaho.— About the middle of June, 
 1877, tlie Nez Perces, a powerful Indian tribe in Idrdio Territory, led by their 
 chief, Joseph, and exasperated at the violation of a treaty by the whites, commenced 
 a tierce war against the white settlers on the Salmon River, by a bloody massacre 
 of men, women and children, at Mount Idaho. The Indians attacked and de- 
 feated the United States troops sent against them, with a loss of twenty-seven 
 killed. On July 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5lh, General Howard's troops had a series of 
 battles with the Indians on the Cottonwood, but the Indians finally escaped. On 
 July 13th, General Howard defeated the Nez Perces at the mouth of the. Cotton- 
 wood, and Chief Joseph's band were shelled from their position and pu. to fiiglu. 
 On Augu.st 9th, General Gibbon fought the Nez Perces at the Big Hole River, but 
 the Indians escaped, after losing 100 killed and wounded, while 70 of Gibbon's 
 troops were killed and wounded. General Howard went in pursuit of Joseph's 
 banfi, and overtook them ; but in an indecisive engagement the Indians seized Gen- 
 eral Howard's horses and made a rapid flight. On September 13th and 14th, the 
 Nez Perces were defeated, in a running fight of over 100 miles, by General Sturgis. 
 On September 30th, the Nez Perces were defeated by General Miles. A few days 
 later, Joseph surrendered, and the war ended. 
 
 Great Railroad and Labor Riots. — About the middle of July, 1877, many 
 of the employees of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad resisted a reduction of their 
 wages ; and at Martinsburg, West Virginia, the affair assumed such serious dimen- 
 sions that the State authorities were unable to deal with it, and the Governor of 
 West Virginia was obliged to call upon the National Government for aid in sup- 
 pressing domestic violence ; whereupon President Hayes issued a proclamation 
 calling upon the rioters to disperse, and sent United States troops to restore quiet. 
 The employees on all the grand trunk lines in the Northern States resisted the re 
 duction of wages, and allowed no freight trains to move for several weeks; and 
 large portions of the laboring classes, sym])athizing with the Railroad strikers, in- 
 augurated great riots in many of the leading cities of the Northern States. On 
 July 20th and 2ist, there was a serious riot in Baltimore, and the 6th Maryland 
 regiment and a small body of United States troops were stoned by a furious mob; 
 but the disturbance was cjuelled after a number of lives had been lost, the Presi- 
 dent having sent United States troops at the call of the Governor of Maryland. 
 On July 2ist and 22d, the most serious of all the rioting occurred at Pittsburg, 
 where an infuriated mob attacked the Phiiadeljjhia militia who had been sent to 
 preserve order, and were fired upon, many being killed and wounded on each side. 
 The round-house, to which the Philadelphia troops had retreated, was besieged 
 by the molj, and finally set on fire by burning cars which the mob had pushed 
 against the building; and the troops were finally dislodged and driven from the 
 citv. The Pittsburg moli destroyed about 125 locomotives, many of them costing 
 520,000 each, and burned from 800 to 1,000 cars; and the total loss sustained by 
 the Pennsylvania Railroad Comjjany was estimated at seven million dollars, Tho 
 Governors of Pennsylvania and Ohio called upon the President for military aid. 
 Bloody riots also occurred at Reading, Buffalo, Columbus, Chicago, St. Louis, 
 San Francisco, and other cities; while the peace was only preserved in New York 
 and Philadelphia by the vigilance and energy of the civil authorities. 
 
572 EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 THE EASTERN WAR OF 18W CONTINUED. 
 
 Second Battle of Biela — Turkish Repulses. — On September 21st (1877), 
 the Turks under Mehemet Ali Pacha attacked the Russia is under the Czartwiich 
 at BieLa; but all the Turkish assaults \\ ere repulsed, the lo=s being heavy on both 
 sides; and Mehemet Ali Pacha afterward retreated to his former positions on the 
 I.om. On September 22d, Hifsi Pacha defeated fifteen Russian battalions nr.ir 
 Dubiiik, and a few days later entered Plevna with tVesh sujiplies of provisions and 
 amnuiiiition. On September 2clh, the Russians under Count Stackelberg dis- 
 persed three Turkish stjuadrons of cavalry near Rascliita, but withdrew on the 
 approarii of Turkish infantry. On Sejitember 2lst, Colonel Totalmin routei-1 a 
 Turkish cavalry force, and held in check a Turkish force cf ten battalions with 
 artilkry, and two regiments of cavalry near Temin, by opening an artillery lire 
 ujion them, but afterward withdrew his troops to a post of observation. 
 
 Montenegrin Successes. — On September 20th, the Montenegrins captured 
 the Zlostup and Nosdre forts, and thus became undisputed masters of the Duga 
 Pass. On September 26th, Goransko, with its garrison of 300 Turkish regulars, 
 and three cannon and 500 rifles, fell into the hands of the Montenegrins. The 
 Montenegrins also occupied Piva, captured Fort Cravica, burned Eilek, and sur- 
 rounding villages. Early in October (1877), a force of Bashi-Bazouks and 2,000 
 Turkish cavalry arrived at Mostar, where 10,000 Turks were concentrating to 
 recover liie territory conquered by the Montenegrins. On October 1st, a force of 
 Bashi-Bazouks were repulsed by the Montenegrins after several hours of sanguin- 
 ary fighting. 
 
 Destruction of Rustchuk — Change of Turkish Commanders — Hunga- 
 rian Raid. By the beginning of October {1877), Rustchuk was in ruins, only a 
 few houses remaining, so incessant and destructive had been the Russian bom- 
 bardment. Early in October, Raouf Pacha was ap]3ointed to the command of the 
 Turkish Army of the Balkans, and Suleiman Pacha to the command of the Turk- 
 ish Army of the Lom in place of Mehemet Ali Pacha, who was removed. On 
 October 7tli, a Turkish force defeated a Russian detachment near Orchanie. On 
 October 1 ith, 1,500 Hungarians invaded Roumania, to aid the Turks, but the 
 next day they recrossed the frontier. On October 12th, Ijlh, and 14th, Russian 
 batlerit s bombarded Sulina, at the mouth of the Danube, and tlestroyed part of 
 tlic tow \, but were eventually driven ofl. 
 
 Revo.'t against the Russians in Daghestan. — In September, 1S77, an in- 
 surrection broke out against the Russians, in the Russian province of Daghestan, 
 on the west side of the Casjiian Sea. The insurgents were defeated by Russian 
 troops, on Septcuiber 23d and 24th. On Sejitemljer 30lh and October t,^], the 
 Russians iiilhcled crushing defeats upon the insurgents, but the revolt continued 
 fur several months. 
 
 The War in Armenia —Victory and Defeat of Mukbtar Pacha. — On Oc- 
 tolit-r 2d, 1877, the Russians, under General Loris Melikoff, acting under the 
 orders (jf the Grand-Duke Michael, attacked and captured Mukhtar Pacha's posi- 
 tion at Great Yaniiar, on the Armenian frontier, twelve miles east of Kars; but 
 the Russians were repulsed in their assaults on Kizil-Tepe and Little Y lilar. 
 The Turks capluret ICuruk-Dara, and carried Glade-Dagh by stonn, aftei live 
 
JKHTAR PACHA 
 
SULEIMAN PACHA. 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 573 
 
 hours' -ighting, and routed the Russians, who lost 3,000 killed and w( unded, the 
 Turkish loss being about the same. The Russian assaults on the following day 
 (October 3, 1877), were all repulsed along the whole line by the Turks, who 
 remained in possession of the battle-field. On the 4th, fighting was renewed, the 
 Ottoman troops having reoccupied Great Yanilar, which the Muscovites had 
 evacuated during the night of the 3d; but, after desperate fighting, all of MukhU r 
 Pncha's assaults were repulsed with heavy loss, the Russians having opened << 
 crushing artillery fire on the assailing Turkish columns. The losses on each side 
 were about 2,500 in killed and wounded. 
 
 First Battle of Aladja-Dagh. — On the night of October 8th (1877), in con 
 sequence of the Russian advance, the Turks abandoned Kizil-Tepe, Sarbatan, 
 and their other positions, which were then occupied by the Muscovites, the Otto- 
 man army retiring to the summit of Alauja-Dagh. On October 9th, a great bat- 
 tle was fought at Aladja-Dagh, lasting from noon until night, the losses being 
 heavy on both sides, and the Russians being finally repulsed and forced to with- 
 draw. 
 
 Mukhtar Pacha's Disastrous Defeat at Aladja-Dagh. — On October 14th 
 (1S77), a Russian division under General Lazaroff moved south of Aladja-Dagh, 
 drove the Turks from Orlok upon Vezinskoi and Kars, and occupied Orlok, thus 
 completely turning Mukhtar Pacha's right. On the following morning (October 
 15, 1S77), a heavy cannonade was directed against Olya-Tepe, the chief of the 
 Turkish positions. In the afternoon. General Heymann, with about 10,000 Rus- 
 sian infantry, carried Olya-Tepe by assault, cutting the Turkish army in two. 
 The Ottoman centre and left wing, under Mukhtar Pacha himself, retreated upon 
 Kars, pursued by General Heymann, and harassed on the flank by General Laza- 
 roff. Mukhtar Pacha succeeded in gaining the fortifications of Kars, after a ter- 
 rible rout, during which he lost a large number in killed and wounded, several 
 thousand prisoners, and four cannon. The Turkish right, comprising three divis- 
 ions, numbering 18,000 men, had in the meantime been surrounded and attacked, 
 and, after being driven from their fortified camp with heavy loss, were compelled 
 to surrender with forty cannon. Moussa Pacha and a son of Schamyl, the famous 
 Circassian chief, were among the killed on the Turkish side. Thus, in a single 
 day, all the advantages gained by the Turks during the summer had disappeared. 
 
 Russian March on Erzeroum — Investment and Siege of Kars. — In 
 
 consequence of their brilliant victory over Mukhtar Pacha's army, the Russians 
 under General Heymann marched against Erzeroum, the Armenian capital, and 
 another Russian force, under General Lazaroff, marched against the Turkish army 
 under Ismail Pacha; while a large Russian detachment invested Kars, which 
 now withstood another siege. On October i6lh, the Russians attacked Fort 
 Ahenz. before Kars, but were repulsed. Kars was again bombarded by the Rus- 
 sians, and part of the city was set on fire. Near the close of October, Ismail 
 Pacha's force effected a juncture with Mukhtar Pacha's army. Mukhtar Pacha 
 was hastily falling back on Erzeroum, before the advancing Russian army under 
 General Heymann. Erzeroum was preparing for a siege. The Russian forces 
 under Generals Heymann and Tergukassoff effected a junction near Hassan-Kaleh, 
 near which place Mukhtar and Ismail Pachas occupied a strong position. After 
 
574 EASTERN WAR OF 1S77. 
 
 occujiying Koprikoi on the 28th of October, when Mukhtar and Ismail Pacha's 
 rear-guard hastily retreated to Hassan-Kaleh, the Russian cavalry continued the 
 pursui*:, and, two hours after midnight, attacked the Turkish bivouac, cut down a 
 hundred men, and compelled the others to take flight. The Russian pursuit con- 
 tinued over three miles. 
 
 Siege of Plevna. — In the meantime, the Russians were besieging Osman 
 Pacha's army at Plevna. Siege operations were in progress during the latter half 
 of September, and throughout October and November. The Russian batteries 
 fired in concentrated salvos, directed simultaneously at one point. The fire haa 
 considerable effect on the Turkish positions, the bombardment being carried on 
 with great violence. Osman Pacha's army in Plevna numbered 130,000 mer.. 
 On October 19th, the Roumanians captured the second Grivitza redoubt, after be- 
 ing twice repulsed, but the redoubt was recaptured by the Turks during the night, 
 after a sanguinary struggle. The Turks now constructed a new interior line of 
 formidable defenses. Osman Pacha ordered all Circassian irregulars, Bulgarians, 
 and non-combatant Mohammedans to quit Plevna. 
 
 Russian Capture of Dubnik. — On October 24th, after a desperate engage- 
 ment of ten hours' duration, the Russian detachment under General Gourko, coop- 
 erating with the Russian Imperial Guards, captured the Turkish positions at 
 Dubnik, near Plevna, with 3,000 Turkish infantry and an entire regiment of 
 cavalry, four cannon, and a quantity of ammunition. The Turks lost 4,000 killed 
 and wounded, and 7,000 prisoners, among whom were two Pachas. Chefket Pacha 
 fled with twelve battalions. The Russian loss was 3,000 killed and wounded. 
 
 Movements on the Lorn. — Towards the close of October (1S77), the Turk» 
 i.h Army of the Lorn, under Suleiman Pacha, retreated to Rasgrad, and leaving g 
 detachment at Kadikoi, intrenched itself so as to cover Rustchuk, and to with- 
 stand any attack of the Russian army under the Czarewitch. The Czarewitch 
 pushed forward toward Rasgrad, leaving one corps to operate against Rustchuk. 
 On October 26th, twelve Russian battalions, with cavalry and artillery, attacked 
 the defenses of Rustchuk. The Turks made a sortie, and forced the Russians to 
 retire into their inirenchments, with a loss of 450 killed and wounded. Four 
 Russian divisions attacked the Turkish line on the Lom, but were repulsed with a 
 loss of 800 killed and some prisoners, the Turkish loss being about 200 men. 
 
 Conspiracy at Constantinople — Prominent Bulgarians Exiled.— Early 
 in November (1877), a conspiracy was discovered in Constantinople to depose 
 Sultan Abdul Hamid, and restore his deposed brother, Ex-Sultan Amurath V., 
 to the Turkish throne ; and forty-eight persons were arrested in consequence, forty 
 of whom were strangled. About the same time, four hundred prominent Bulgari- 
 ans, including the Messrs. Geshoff, wealthy merchants, were sentenced to exile 
 m Asia Minor. They started in chains, under a strong escort, on November 9th. 
 
 Lord Beaconsfield on the War. — At the banquet of the newly-inaugurated 
 Lord Mayor of London, at the Guildhall, on November 9th, 1877, Lord Beaconsfield, 
 replying to a toast, as Her Majesty's Minister, declared in strong terms that the 
 British Government unswervingly adhered to the declaration they made at the 
 commencement of the Eastern war, that British neutrality must cease if British 
 interests were assailed or menaced. 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1S77. 575 
 
 Fighting at the Shipka Pass. — Near the end of October (1S77), the Turks 
 recommenced a vigorous bombardment of the Russian positions in the Shipka Pass, 
 and silenced one Russian battery. On November loth, Russian detachments lost 
 500 men, in passing within range of the Turks at the Shipka Pass. 
 
 Siege of Plevna, — The Russians established a strong force west of Plevna, 
 near the close of October, and prepared to submit Plevna to a regular siege. A 
 portion of the Russian Imperial Guards crossed the Vid, between Nicopolis and 
 Plevna, passing around Osman Pacha's left. General Gourko's cavalry crossed the 
 Upper Vid, west of Lovatz, swept the Orchanie road, got in communication with 
 the force coming from the north, and made a successful attack on the Turks under 
 Ilifsi Pacha. Simultaneously with this attack, a heavy cannonade was opened 
 along the entire line on the east of Plevna. The Turks had in the meantime con- 
 veyed large quantities of provisions into Plevna. The Russian Imperial Guards 
 took up positions on the Russian left, thus gradually extending the line of invest- 
 ment across the Lovatz road to the Sophia Road. The Russians were continually 
 receiving reinforcements. On October sSth, a Russian detachment carried the 
 Turkish position at Teliche, west of Plevna, capturing a Pacha, several officers, 
 several companies of Turkish troops, and three cannon. On October 31st, the Turks 
 evacuated Gorny Dubnik, which the Russians then occupied without fighting. 
 By the early part of November, Plevna was completely invested by the Russian 
 army. 
 
 Capture of Dae Tetewen. — Chefket Pacha Routed. — On November ist 
 (1877), the Russians, under General Kanzeff, captured Dae Tetewen, northeast of 
 Orchanie, where there were seven large and thirty small positions. The Turks 
 left upward of loo dead upon the field. The Russians seized a large quantity of 
 provisions, tools for intrenchments, cartridges, and a herd of cattle. The Russians 
 were also intrenching in new positions toward Orchanie, and Cheflcet Pacha retired 
 fighting toward Orchanie. On October 31st, the Turks under Chefket Pacha 
 advanced to retake Teliche, but were defeated, after several hours' hard fighting, 
 by the Russians, at Radomirze, and fled in the greatest disorder. 
 
 The War in Armenia. — Battle of Deve-Boyun. — While the siege of Plevna 
 was in progress, the Russians were vigorously prosecuting the war in Armenia, 
 the great defeat of Mukhtar Pacha's army at Aladja-Dagh, on October 15th, having 
 broken the power of the Turks in Asia. The Russian forces, under Generals 
 Heymann and Tergukassoff, were concentrated at Deve-Boyun, near Erzeroum, 
 where Mukhtar and Ismail Pachas' united armies were encamped. On November 
 5th (1S77), the Russians made a severe attack on the Turkish positions at Deve- 
 Boyun. There was fighting along the vvhole line. After an engagement of ten 
 hours, the Turkish centre was driven in, and the Ottoman troops were compelled 
 tf. fall back, abandoning their camp, artillery, arms and provisions. The Turkisb 
 lo;.s was 2500 killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
 
 Siege of Kars. — On October aSth (1877), Manni Pacha, the Turkish com. 
 mandant at Kars, received a summons from General Loris Melikoff to surren 
 der the fortress within twenty-four hours. A council of Turkish officers imme- 
 diately "rejected the demand for surrender, and resolved to defend the place 
 to the last extremity. On November 5th, the Russians under General Loris Meli- 
 koff occupied a position in front of the southeastern forts of Kars, for the purpose 
 
;, _ EASTERN VVA v" OF 1877. 
 
 of erccntig siege batteries. The Turl^s attacked the Russians, supported by a fire 
 from the forts; but the Muscovites beat the Ottomans back in disortler. and pur 
 sued them into P'ort Hafiz Pacha at the point of the bayonet, inflicted great loss, 
 spiked tlie guns, captured ten officers and forty men, and then retired witii small 
 loss. The Russians were repulsed near Kars, on November 14th, after prolonged 
 fighting. 
 
 Russian Repulses near Erzeroum. — On November 9th (1877), the Russian 
 columns untler General Heymann attacked the Turkish redoubts southeast of Eize- 
 roum, md a battle commenced which lasted eleven hours. The Russians captured 
 Foit Azizie, which they were finally compelled to abandon. The Russians were 
 eventually repulsed, and compelled to retreat toward Deve-Boyun, pursued by the 
 Turks. The Russians rallied, and drove back the Turks ; but the Muscovites were 
 again forced to fall back on Deve-Boyun, before a superior Ottoman force. The 
 Russians lost over 600 killed and wounded, besides a large quantity of arms and 
 ammunition, but they carried off 559 prisoners. On November 14th, the Russians 
 recaptured Fort Azizie, but were immediately expelled. The inhabitants of Erze- 
 roup.i participated in the conflicts just mentioned. The united Russian armies of 
 Generals Heymann and Tergukassoff, now before Erzeroum, numbered about 
 25,000 men. 
 
 Siege of Plevna. — On November 4th, the Russians under General Skobelcfil 
 pushed on to Erestovec, south of Plevna, threw up batteries there, and, after a vio- 
 lent cannonade, attacked the Turkish position, but were unsuccessful. A Russian 
 detachment captured Vratza, between Plevna and Sophia, on November 9th, with 
 several thousand v/agons and a large quantity of stores. On November nth and 
 I2th, the Turks attempted to surprise General Skobeleffs positions, but were re- 
 pulsed. Osman Pacha's losses were from 200 to 300 men daily, from concen- 
 trated salvos of the Russian artillery. Osman Pacha was busily engaged in con- 
 structing fresh fortifications. On November 1 6th, the Russians were repulsed in 
 attacks on the Turkish positions near Orchanie. On November 1 7th, a detachment 
 of Russian infantry and Cossacks drove the Turks out of Rosalie Pass, by turning 
 their fortified positions on Moragai Dagh. The Turkish camp there was captured. 
 On the nights of November l6th and 17th, General Skobeleff was wounded by 
 fragments of shells. The Russian fire against the Turkish positions was constantlv 
 maintained. 
 
 The Turko-Montenegrin Campaign. — The Prince of Montenegro ordered 
 all Montenegrins to take up arms, on November 9th. On Novemljer loth, the 
 Montenegrins opened a heavy bombardment on Podgoritza. On November 12th, 
 the Montenegrins captiired a fort commanding the town of Antivari, with its garri- 
 son, two guns, and a quantity of ammunition and provisions. The Montenegrins 
 also took four block-houses near Scutari. A Montenegrin force was vigorously 
 bombarding Spuz and its fortifications. On November 19th, the Montenegrin, 
 stormed the citadel of Spitza. 
 
 The Sultan's desire for Peace. — On November i6th, a council, ov« which 
 the Sultan presided, was held at Constantinople. The general feeling expressed 
 by all present, and by none more strongly than by the Sultan himself, was in favor 
 of Dcace. Though great distrust was manifested at Russia's declarations, and al- 
 
FRENCH CRISIS OF 1877. 577 
 
 «ough a desire was expressed for the termination of the war, the necessity of prep 
 trations for a vigorous resistance was fully recognized by all the members of the 
 council. 
 
 Capture of Kars. — The Russians, under General Loris Melikoff and the 
 Cjrand Duke Michael, carried Kars by storm on Sunday morning, November i8th, 
 1S77, after a desperate battle of twelve hours. On the evening of the 17th, l5,OCXD 
 Russians climbed the steep rocks, ramparts, and walls, and attacked an equal num- 
 ber of Turks, who fought desperately. The Kanli-Tabia, the citadel, the three 
 towers, and Forts Hafiz Pacha, Kara-Dagh, and Suiwarri, were all carried by as- 
 sault in the morning, after a bloody struggle during the whole night. The garri- 
 sons of the Arab-Tabia and the Tchamak-Tabia resisted until morning, when they 
 evacuated the forts, and fled toward Erzeroum, but were overtaken by Russian 
 dragoons and Cossacks, and brought back as prisoners. The city and fortress of 
 Kars, with 300 cannon, stores, and ammunition, were now in Russian hands. The 
 Turks lost 5,000 killed and wounded, 10,000 prisoners, and many flags. The 
 Russian loss was about 2,500 men. Among the Russian killed were Count Grabbe, 
 <¥eneral Belinsky, and Lieutenant-Colonel Melikoff. General Loris Melikoff, 
 entered the city at eleven o'clock in the morning (Sunday, November i8th, 1877). 
 (General Loris Melikoff immediately started, with 15,000 men, for Erzeroum, and 
 Mukhtar Pacha was summoned to surrender that place, but refused. 
 
 Turkish Success near Rustchuk. — There was heavy fighting on the Lom, 
 n«ar Rustchuk, on November 19th, between portions of the armies of the Czare- 
 witch and Mehemet Ali Pacha. A Turkish force, making a reconnoissance, car- 
 li-^d the Russian positions on the Metchka Heights, at Pirgos, near Rustchuk, and 
 near Jovanchiftlich, destroying at Pirgos seventy caissons filled with ammunition 
 and provisions. The Russians lost 1,400 men. A Russian attack on Kadikoi was 
 repulsed. 
 
 Capture of Rahova by the Roumanians. — The Roumanians captured Ra- 
 hova, a small town northwest of Plevna, on the morning of November 2 1st, after 
 a three days' engagement. The Turks fled toward Lom-Palanka and Widdin, 
 pursued by the Roumanians. Simultaneously with the capture of Rahova, a Rou- 
 manian division crossed the Danube opposite that town. 
 
 THE FRENCH POLITICAL CRISIS CONTINUED. 
 
 Funeral of Ex-President Thiers. — The remains of Ex-President Thiers 
 were honored with the most magnificent funeral obsequies in Paris, the people 
 lining the streets as the funeral procession passed; but the French Government 
 caused the streets to be lined with soldiers, to prevent any extensive Republican 
 demonstrations in honor of the great statesman and champion of liberty. 
 
 Republican '\ddr°ss to tlie French People. — Gambetta's Conviction 
 Confirmed. — On Sentember 21st, an address was issued to the French people, 
 signed by a number of Parisian and Provincial Deputies, representing all shades of 
 French Republicanism, and reminding the people of the duty of returning the ,l')3 
 Republican Deputies. At the second trial of M. Gambetta, on September 22d, tm 
 appeal fr^m his previous sentence of three months' imprisonment and 2000 franas 
 fine, his counsel argued that the tribunal was incompetent. The court rejected the 
 plea, and confirmed the sentence at the first trial. 
 
 37 
 
578 FRENCH CRISIS OF 1877. 
 
 Violent Measures of the Government. — Elections for Deputies Or- 
 Jfcred. — The Bien Public was seized on October 23d, for reporting M. Gambctta's 
 trial. The Official Journal published a circular of the Minister of Justice, giving 
 instructions that all electoral addresses be carefully read, in order to prevent out- 
 rages against the President, violent measures, or falsehoods. The Official Journal 
 also published a decree ordering elections for Deputies on October 14th, and the 
 summoning of the extra session of the Chamber of Deputies on November 7th. 
 
 Republican Proceedings. — M. Thiers's Posthumous Address. — The 
 Republican committee of the Ninth Arrondissement of Paris, of which Victor Hugo 
 was honorary, and M. Gambetta acting president, formally nominated M. Jules 
 Grevy to the place filled by M. Thiers, as head of the French Democratic party 
 and leader of the 363 Republican Deputies. On October 2d, M. Gambetta for- 
 ma'.ly lodged an appeal against the sentence passed upon him by the Correciional 
 Tribunal. A manifesto to the French nation, found among M. Thiers's papers after 
 his death, was published by the Republicans. The Royalists denied the authentic- 
 ity of the document, and the Government telegraphed instructions to the Prefects 
 of the Departments, interdicting the colportage or placarding of M. Thiers's post- 
 humous address. The feeling between the Monarchical and Repulilican parties in 
 the remote provincial districts of France was as bitter as that of two hostile nations 
 ready to come to blows. 
 
 The " Official Candidates." — The Government placed in nomination an 
 " official list" of candidates for election to the Chamber of Deputies, and placards 
 were issued by the Prefects of the Departments, for posting in the various arromlisse- 
 ments. The placards were headed " Candidate of the Government of Marshal 
 MacMahon, President of the Republic." The Government's candidates were 
 divided into 131 Legitimists, 83 Orleanists, and 298 Bonapartists, about twenty 
 arrondissements being without any " official candidates." 
 
 Gambetta's Manifesto — Second Prosecution of Gambetta. — On Novem- 
 ber 7th (1877), M. Gambetta issued a manifesto to the electors of the Twentieth 
 Arrondissement of Paris, in which he enumerated the despotic acts am.! violent 
 measures of the Government to carry the elections in favor of the Monarchical jjarty. 
 The manifesto censured the licensed violence of the reactionaiy press, and the 
 muzzling of the Republican jsress ; and advised the utmost discretion on the part 
 of tiie Republicans. M. Gambetta was prosecuted for placarding his manifesto to 
 the electors of the Twentieth Arrondissement of Paris, on the streets; and the 
 printer of the manifesto was summoned before the Correctional Tribunal. At a Re- 
 publican meeting on October glh, M. Gambetta made a speech, urging u])i)n the 
 French people the necessity of returning the Republican majority in the Chamber 
 of Deputies. 
 
 MacMahon's Manifesto. — Republican Counter-Manifesto. — On October 
 llth. President MacMahon issued a nianilesto, appealing to the French jieojjie to 
 support the Government candidates, in the interest of social order, whicJi lie rep- 
 re.~ented as seriously threatened by the prevalence of radical ideas, and denying 
 thai the Government conteniplateil tlie subversion of the Cinistitution of tiic Re- 
 puolic, or that peace with foreign powers was in danger from the success of the 
 Government candidates. Ihe President's manifesto concluded as follows: " I an- 
 
 1 
 
FRENCH CRISIS OF 1877. 579 
 
 jwei fvjr order and peace." The Bureau of the Republican Senators issued a 
 counter-manifesto, asking the French people to disbelieve those who asserted that 
 Re[)ul)lican institutions were not in danger, and that the Government was no* 
 acting under the influence of the priests. The Republican counter-manifesto de 
 clared the ■' official candidates " enemies to the Republic. 
 
 Great Republican Victory in the Elections.— The elections in France for 
 Deputies were held on Sunday, October 14th, iS77,and resulted in a great Repub- 
 lican victoiy, though the former Republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies 
 was considerably reduced. In the former Chamber there were 363 Republicans 
 and 170 Monarchists, the Republicans having a majority of 193. The new election 
 resulted in the choice of 320 Republicans and 213 Monarchists, leaving a Repub- 
 lican majority of 107 The result of the election did not produce quiet, as both 
 parties appeared very uncompromising. The Republicans threatened to annul all 
 of those elections which resulted in the success of the Government candidates 
 through Government pressiire, while the Monarchists threatened another dissolution 
 in case the Republicans attempted to execute their threat. The Goveinmen' 
 journals declared that the Ministry would neither submit to the popular verdict 
 as expressed in the elections, nor resign ; and the Republicans threatened to refuse 
 to vote the budget, in case a Republican Cabinet was not appointed. The crisis 
 appeared serious, and civil war was threatened. The idea, however, of invali- 
 dating the elections of the Government candidates by wholesale was abandoned by 
 the Republicans, and it was determined to annul only those elections which were 
 palpably vitiated. In a speech at Chateau-Chinon, Department of Nierve, M. 
 Gambetta violently denounced the Government electoral maneuvers, declaring that 
 but for fraud and robbery, 400 Republicans would have been returned to the 
 Chamber of Deputies. He made a bitter attack on the Bonapartists, and declared 
 that the Republicans desired order with progress, but that they had no subversive 
 aims. 
 
 The Elections for Councils-General. — In the election for Councils- General, 
 on November 4th, 1877, the Republicans made immense gains ; and when the 
 second ballots were completed, the Republicans had the majority in forty-nine, 
 and the Monarchists in thirty-seven Departments. In an interview with a delega- 
 tion of Monarchical Deputies on November 6th, President MacMahon fully inti- 
 mated that he was resolved not to resign. The Duke de Broglie's Ministry several 
 times tendered their resignations, but remained at the President's request. 
 
 Meeting of the Chambers. — Debate in the Chamber of Deputies. — 
 The French Senate and Chamber of Deputies met on November 7th, 1877, and M 
 Jules Grevy, the Republican leader, was elected President of the Chamber of Dep- 
 uties, by a vote of 290 against 170. There was intense excitement in Paris, and 
 both parties seemed uncompromising. The Monarchists appeared determined to 
 rule, in spite of the expressed will of the French people. The Legitimists ar.d 
 Orleanists, alarmed at the increasing strength and boldness of the Bonapartu tS; 
 eeeu\ed disposed to break away from the Monarchical coalition. The Bonaparti; ti 
 and Legitimists, however, threatened, if their elections were invalidated by whole- 
 sale, to ifesign in a body, and thus furnish the Senate with a pretext for a fresh 
 'dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies ; but the Orleanist members of the Senate 
 
.580 FRENCH CRISIS OF 1877. 
 
 refused to sanction another dissolution, and thus the Duke de Broglie and M. de 
 Fouitou were baffled in their reactionary schemes. In the Chamber of Depu:ies, 
 on November 12th, the Republican Deputy, M. Albert Grevy, brother to M. Jules 
 Grevy, the President of the Chamber, introduced a resolution of inquii-y into elec- 
 toral abuses. The resolution produced a violent debate, which continued for sev- 
 eral days, M. Gambetta and M. Jules Ferry sustaining the motion for ini^uiry, ard 
 M. de Fourtou, Minister of the Interior, opposing the motion, and defending the 
 course of the Government during the electoral contest. M. Albert Grevy's reboln- 
 'ion vas passed, and a connnillee of inquiry was appointed. 
 
 Resignaaon of the Duke de Broglie's Ministry. — A New Cabinet. — 
 
 The Duke de Broglie's Ministry resigned on November 1 6th, 1877, the Orh-.anist 
 Senators having refused to sustain it any longer. Thirty Orleanist Senators waited 
 upon the President of the Republic on November 15th, and assured him of tneir 
 devotion, but declared they could not support the Cabinet in a policy of resistance 
 to the national will. TJie Orleanist Senators, in a preliminary meeting of the 
 Senate, on November i6th, declared that the salvation of the country w^s at stake 
 and refused to sanction another dissolution of the Cham^ ~- of Deputies. President 
 MacMahon accepted the resignation of the Duke de Broglie and his colleagues, 
 and set about the formation of a new Cabinet, composed of Legitimists and Bona- 
 partists, who, however, promised to govern in accordance with Republican princi- 
 ples. 
 
 Debate in the Senate. — In the Senate, on November 19th (1877), M. Arai;;o 
 Republican, moved the previous question in regard to M. de Kerdrel's interpella 
 tion as to how the Ministers had instructed officials to act with regard to the elect- 
 oial inquiry voted for by the Chamber of Deputies, on the ground that it was 
 unconstitutional and an encroachment on the rights of the Chamber of Deputies. 
 M. Arago's motion was rejected by a vote of 155 to 130. M. de Kerdrel and the 
 Duke de Broglie, on the Royalist side, sustained the interpellation, while M. 
 Laboulaye and M. Dufaure, on the Republican side, opposed it, as an encroach- 
 ment on the rights of the Chamber of Deputies. Despite M. Dufaure's appeal. 
 an attempt of the Republicans to shelve the discussion by proposing an order of 
 &.& day pure and simple, was defeated by a vote of 153 to 136, and the order oi 
 the day proposed by the Monarchists was passed by a vote of 15 1 to 129. 
 
 Gambetta's Course. — In Paris, the Reptiblique Fj'ancaise, Gambetta's organ, 
 declared that in view of the Senate's pretensions and the President's refusal to 
 change his policy, it became the clear duty of the Chamber of Deputies to refuse 
 to vote the budget. The Budget Committee of the Chamber of Deputies, on 
 November 21st, elected M. Gambetta president. In a speech on the occasion, 
 M. Gambetta reminded the committee that they were armed with the sanction of 
 the national sovereignty, for which it was their duty to secure a triumph. 
 
 Attitude of the Chamber of Deputies.— A Republican Ministry. — The 
 refusal of President MacMahon to select a Republican Ministry prolonged the 
 pdli^'cal crisis in France. The Republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies 
 refused to vote the direct taxes so long as the President retained a Ministry in 
 which the Chambers had no confidence. The Republican majority, however, con- 
 sented to vote the indirect taxes, but only by installments. The Ministiy recently 
 formed, not possessing the confidence of the country and the Chamber of Deputies, 
 
EASTERN WAR OF iSyy. 581 
 
 resigTied en December 7th ; and, after several ineffectual attempts to form a com- 
 promise Ministry, M. Dufaure undertook the formation of a Republican Ministry. 
 
 EASTERN WAR OF 1877 CONTINUED. 
 
 Russian Disaster at Nevesich. — Turkish Disasters. — A Russian detach- 
 ment consisting of one infantry and one cavalry regiment was annihilated by the 
 Turks, at Nevesich, on November 22d, the entire Russian cavalry regiment except 
 six men being destroyed, and two pieces of cannon and a number of prisoners 
 being taken by the Turks. The Roumanians took the strong position of Provitz, 
 on November 23d, after two days' fighting. The Turks evacuated Orchanie on 
 November 25th ; and, on the same day, the Russians captured the fortified town 
 of Etropoli, about twenty miles north of the Balkans, the Turks fleeing in the 
 greatest disorder. On November 26th, the Turks attacked the Twelfth Russian 
 Army Corps at Terstenik and Metchka ; but, after six hours' fighting, «he Ottomans 
 were repulsed with heavy loss, the Russian loss being about 300. Simultaneous 
 demonstrations by the Turks against Polomarka and Kazelova were repulsed by 
 the Russians after insignificant fighting. 
 
 Capture of Elena by the Turks. — Other Turkish Successes. — On De- 
 cejiiber 4th (1S77), the Turkish army under Suleiman Pacha attacked the Russians 
 under Prince Mirsky, near Elena, a town nineteen miles southwest of Tirnova; 
 and, after a stubborn fight, the Russians were defeated, with the loss of 3000 killed 
 and wounded. The Turks captured Elena, with eleven cannon, twenty ammuni- 
 tion wagons, and 300 prisoners. Fighting was renewed the next day without any 
 important result. On December 3d, a Turkish detachment defeated a Russian 
 detachment at Armedli, on the road to Tirnova; and a few days later, a Turkish 
 division crossed the Lorn and captured Popkoi. 
 
 Great Britain and Russia. — Turkey Anxious for Peace. — On November 
 28th (1877), Lord Derby, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, received a depu- 
 tation representing several political societies, headed by Lord Stratheden Campbell, 
 who presented a memorial urging active intervention in favor of Turkey. Lord 
 Derby replied that the British Government saw no reason to depart from its 
 neutrality. He did not think Constantinople or the Suez Canal in danger. 
 When the British Governme*it, he said, saw a reasonable opportunity, it would do 
 what it could to bring about peace. Lord Derby's speech made a good impression 
 in Russia. Turkey was now anxious for peace, and endeavored to secure media- 
 tion through Austro- Hungary, but without success. The greatest despondency pre- 
 vailed at the Turkish capital. Great excitement prevailed at Constantmople, when 
 the Porte called out the reserves to maintain order in the provinces and the capital. 
 
 Capture of Plevna. — On Sunday, December 9th, 1877, Osman Pacha made a 
 sortie from Plevna, in order to break through the Russian line of investment, in 
 the direction of Widdin ; but, after a severe engagement, Osman Pacha, who was 
 severely wounded, surrendered unconditionally to the Russians. The nuniljer of 
 prisoners taken by the Russians at Plevna was estimated at 40,000, exclusive of 
 20,000 sick and wounded. The Czar of Russia, after the suiTender of Plevna, 
 placed his own carriage and escort at the disposal of Osman Pacha. The Russian 
 and Roumanian armies made a grand triumphal entry into Plevna at 3:30 in the 
 afternoon of the following day (December loth, 1877). 
 
S82 EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 The Turkish Circular. — Foreign Mediation Refused. — Intelligence of 
 /he fall of Plevna caused great rejoicings in St. Petersburg, and dismay in Con- 
 stantinople ; and the Porte issued a circular to the European Powers, intimating 
 its readiness to treat for peace on the basis of the proposals of the Constantinople 
 Conference; but all the Powers refused to mediate. Russia insisted upon Turkey 
 treaing directly with her, and intimated that mediation would only make the 
 :erms harder. Great discontent prevailed among the populace of the Turkish 
 :apital, and seditious placards were frequently found. The Turkish Parliament 
 ■eassembled on December 13th, and the Sultan, in his speech from the throne, 
 illuded at some length to the reforms la(ely granted to his subjects by the new 
 constitution. 
 
 Servia Declares War against Turkey. — Servian uccesses. — The fall 
 of Plevna encouraged Servia to declare war against Turkey on December 14th, 
 1877 ; and, on the following day. Prince Milan issued a proclamation at Belgrade, 
 recounting the Turkish atrocities and violations of faith since the treaty of peace 
 signed between Turkey and Servia in February, 1877, and calling upon the Ser- 
 vian army to move forward in the name of Servian independence. Prince Milan 
 immediately started for Alexinatz, and the Servian army crossed the Turkish 
 frontier at Pirot, and marched on Kassova. On December 21st, the Servians de- 
 "stroyed the Shetchina bridge, after a stubborn engagement. On December 22d; 
 the Porte issued a proclamation deposing Prince Milan. On December 24th, 
 after eight hours of severe fighting, the Servians captured Ak-Palanka, together 
 with three Krupp guns and a large quantity of ammunition and provisions ; and 
 30,000 Servians, with 120 guns, were investing Nissa ; while the Servian forces, 
 under Cienerals Leschjanin and Benitzki occupied Leskovatz and Kurschumlje, 
 capturing a quantity of cattle and provisions. The Servians cannonaded Pirot 
 and Nov] -Bazai. but were repulsed; but they finally captured Pirot on the 28th 
 of December (1S77). 
 
 Montenegrin Victory. — Capture of a Turkish Transport. — On Decem- 
 ber 26th, 1877, the Montenegrins defeated a body of Turks occupying intrenched 
 positions near Dulcigno, the Turks losing many prisoners, three flags, and a quan- 
 tity of provisions. Near the close of December (1877), the Russian steamer 
 Rtissland, commanded by Adjutant Baranoff", returned to Sevastopol, from a cruise 
 in the Bosphorus, bringing as a prize the Turkish transport Messina, with 700 
 Turkish troops on board as prisoners. 
 
 General Gourko's Victory over the Turks and Capture of Sophia. — 
 
 On the 31'^t of December, 1S77, the Russians, under General Gourko, defeated 
 the Turks at Taskeseu, twenty-five miles from Sophia, capturing the Turkish in- 
 I'-enchments, the Russians losing 700 killed and wounded. The Turks retreated 
 a nigitfall toward Sophia, pursued by the Russian cavalry. After a halt for rest 
 and reorganization. General Gourko resumed the advance upon Sophia, which 
 ? Mr. entered by the Russians on January 3d, 1878. 
 
 Russian Victory at Bogrov. — The Russians across the Balkans. — 
 
 On the 2d of January, 1878, the Russians, under General Gourko, defeated the 
 Turks in a severe engagement at Bogrov, the Turks leaving 1,000 dead upon the 
 field, and the Russians losing only 200 men. A few days later, the Russians, 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 583 
 
 under General Radetzky, crossed the Balkans, through the Shipka Pass, the 
 Turks having previously abandoned their position, because of the severe cold. 
 
 Capture of a Turkish Army at Shipka Pass. — March on Adrianople. 
 ' — On January 9th, 1878, the Russian forces, under Generals Radetzky and Ska- 
 beleff, after desperate fighting, captured the whole Turkish army of 12,000 men 
 defending the Shipka Pass. At the same time, the Russians drove the Turks 
 from their positions in the Trojan Pass, in the Balkans, after a feeble resistance. 
 The Muscovites now advanced on Adrianople, the second city of the Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 Wholesale Flight of the Mussulman Population. — Occupation of 
 Adrianople. — The rapid progress of the Russians spread consternation among 
 the Mussulman population of Bulgaria and Roumelia, and panic-stricken fugitives 
 crowded into Constantinople by thousands, mostly women and children, many of 
 them perishing from hunger and cold, 15,000 being in the snow at Chorion. 
 Altogether, about 150,000 refugees crowded into the Turkish capital. On January 
 20th, the Russians entered Adrianople, the Ottoman troops having evacuated the 
 city, after exploding the powder-magazines and ammunition-depots. 
 
 Suleiman Pacha's Defeat at Philippopolis. — Advance on Constanti- 
 nople. — On January i8th (1S78), after four days of severe fighting, at Philippop- 
 olis, the Russians, under General Gourko, defeated Suleiman Pacha's army, 40,000 
 strong, which was driven into the Rhodope Mountains, with the loss of 4,000 
 killed, and 3,000 prisoners, and ninety-seven guns, while the Russian loss was 
 over 2,000 in killed and wounded. The Russians now rapidly advanced toward 
 Constantinople, where the greatest consternation prevailed. England and Austro- 
 Hungary became alarmed at the rapid approach of the Muscovites to the Otto- 
 man capital, and showed warlike signs. 
 
 Servian Defeats. — On January 7th, 1878, the Turks, under Hafiz Pacha, re- 
 occupied Kurschumlje, thirty -five miles northwest of Nissa, after two days of san- 
 guinary fighting, the Servian loss being considerable. Another Turkish force, 
 under Eyoub Pacha, defeated the Servians at Novi-Bazar, pursuing them to the 
 frontier, and burning six of their military stations, and destroying their intrench- 
 ments. 
 
 Capture of Nissa by the Servians. — Other Servian Victories. — Siege 
 of Widdin. — -On January nth, 1878, Nissa surrendered to the Servians, in con 
 sequence of the capture of Goritza and Venick, and all the other heights com- 
 manding the town, on the glh and loth, after five days of fierce fighting, the 
 Servian loss being considerable. The Servian forces also captured Vranj a; and, 
 on the 20th, they captured Prisiina. They also reoccupied Kurschumlje, after an 
 engagement, in which the Turks lost over 800 in killed, wounded and prisoners. 
 The Servians effected a junction with the Roumanians in the investment and siege 
 cf the strong fortress of Widdin, on the Danu'oe. By January 20th (1878), tnc 
 Roumanians occupied Florentin, thus completing the investment of Widdin. ' The 
 Roumanian bombardment set fire to Fort Belgradscik, in Widdin. On January 
 2Sth, aft,er a battle of four days, 40,000 Servians defeated the Turks near Rat- 
 scharnik, with heavy loss. 
 
584 EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 Montenegrin Victories. — Two Crimean Towns Destroyed by the 
 Turks. — On January loth, 1878, Antivari surrendered unconditionally to the 
 Montenegrins, after a vigorous siege. On January 26tli, the Montenegrinj cap- 
 tured three fortified islands in Lake Scutari, after a violent bombardment. Aljout 
 the middle of January (1878), a Turkish fleet bombarded and destroyed the ports 
 of Eupatona and Yatta, in the Crimea. 
 
 Warlike Altitude of Greece Toward Turkey. — ^Excitement in Athens. 
 — \n the meantime, Greece assumed a warlike attitude toward Turkey. The 
 peace Ministry ^t Athens was succeeded by a war Cabinet, about the middle of 
 January, 1878, which called to arms the National Guard of all the towns in 
 Gieece, and considerable an.viety prevailed among the Greek land and sea forces. 
 A Greek force of 600 men immediately entered Turkish territory, and a Greek 
 insurrection against the Turks immediately broke out in Thessaly, Epirus and 
 Macedonia. The cessation of hostilities between Russia and Turkey caused great 
 excitement and consternation in Athens, where, on January 26th, a furious mob 
 attacked the houses of the Cabinet Ministers, broke the windows, and killed and 
 wounded several persons, but the mob was finally dispersed by the troops. On 
 the following day, warlike demonstrations were renewed, crowds of people parad- 
 ing the streets and shouting outside of the residences of the Ministers. A turbu- 
 lent mob of 2,000 persons from the Piraeus was dispersed by the troops, after 
 several rioters had been wounded. 
 
 Warlike Action of Greece. — Greek Invasion of Turkish Territory. — • 
 On February 1st, 1878, the Greek Premier declared, in the Chamber of Deputies 
 at .'A.thens, that he intended to send troops into Thessaly and Epirus, and the whole 
 Greek population was ordered to enroll in the National Guard. Great enthusiasm 
 prevailed. The Greek Government ordered 12,000 men to cross the frontier into 
 the Greek provinces of Turkey — namely, Epirus, Thessaly and Macedonia — and 
 the Greek Chamber of Deputies voted a war supply of ten million drachmas, to be 
 raised by a loan. On February 2d, 12,000 Greek troops crossed the frontier. An 
 insurrection broke out against the Turks in the island of Candia, or Crete, and 
 the Greek insurgents declared the island annexed to Greece. Admiral Hobart 
 Pacha's fleet was sent by the i'orte to the Pirfeus. On f^ebruary 3d, the Greeks 
 in Thessaly captured Domocco from the Turks, at the point of the bayonet, losing 
 150 killed. A few days later, an armistice was concluded between the Greeks 
 anil the Turks, but the Greek insurgents in Thessaly and Crete continued in 
 aj'ms, and some fierce conflicts occurred between them and the Ottoman troops. 
 
 Movements Toward Peace. — In the meantime, Turkey had become ex- 
 tremely anxious for peace, and early in January, 187S, asked for an armistice 
 through England. Great Britain sounded Russia as to the terms on which she 
 would grant peace to the Porte, and Russia replied that Turkey would have to 
 treat directly with Russia for peace. Mr. Layard, the British Ambassador at Con- 
 stantinople, handed to the Porte the Russian reply to England's note. Lord 
 Derby, the British Minister of Foreign Affairs, informed Prince Gortschakoff, the 
 Russian Chancellor, that Great Britain must be allowed to participate in any peace 
 conditions which might follow an armistice. Russia claimed the right to negoti- 
 ate with Turkey alone, but recognized the right of the European Powers to show 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 5^5 
 
 theii appreciation of the peace conditions between the belligerents. The Russian 
 Government maintained the strictest secrecy as to the terms it would exact from 
 the Porte. The British Cabinet held numerous councils, and maintained constant 
 telegraphic communication with St. Petersburg. The Porte now informed Eng- 
 land of its readiness to treat directly with Russia. 
 
 Steps Toward an Armistice. — On January 9th, 1S78, the Turkish Com- 
 mander-in-Chief notified the Russian head-quarters at Lovatz that he was em- 
 I ovvered to arrange the basis of an armistice. The Grand Duke Nicholas, the 
 liusoian Commander-in-Chief, after referring the matter to St. Petersburg, replied 
 that negotiations could only be conducted with himself directly, and that there 
 could be no question of an armistice without bases for peace. On January 13th, 
 the Grand-Duke Nicholas also telegraphed to Constantinople that he was ready 
 to receive an Ottoman delegate to discuss armistice conditions, whereupon the 
 Porte appointed Server and Namyk Pachas to go to Kazanlik, to negotiate with 
 the Grand-Duke Nicholas. 
 
 The British Fleet Ordered to Move. — Liberal Opposition in Eng- 
 land. — In the meantime. Great Britain continued distrustful of Russia, and tele- 
 graphic orders were sent from London to Malta, instructing Vice-Admiral Hornby 
 to move with his fleet to Turkish waters, for the protection of British interests. 
 While the British Cabinet was thus hostile to Russia, the Liberal party in Eng- 
 land showed its opposition to a war policy ; and John Bright made a great speech 
 at Birmingham, in favor of non-intervention ; while speeches against England's 
 going to war with Russia were made by Mr. Gladstone at Oxford, Mr. MundtUa 
 at Sheflield, and Sir William Vernon Harcourt at Bradford. 
 
 England, Austro-Hungary, and Russia. — Russia declared her readiness 
 to discuss with the British Cabinet the special points which might affect British 
 interests. This decLinition caused frequent Cabinet councils in London. Both 
 Great Britain and Austro-Hungary declared their determination to be consulted on 
 the peace conditions. Russia, in defining her course, expressed her good will 
 toward England and Austro-Hungary, disclaimed any intention of interfering 
 with the Suez Canal, or the route to India, and denied that she contemplated the 
 acquisition of Constantinople. When the British Parliament assembled, on Janu- 
 ary 17th, 1878, the Queen, in her speech from the throne, alluded to the Eastern 
 question in a pacific tone, but recommended precautionary measures. England 
 now proposed a conference of the Great European Powers, to settle the European 
 questicms growing out of the Russo-Turkish war. 
 
 Great Debates in the British Parliament. — In the meantime, England 
 continued to be greatly excited. On January 29th (1878), Sir Stafford Norlhcote, 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, informed the House of Commons that he would 
 move for a supplementary grant for the militaiy and naval service. This an- 
 nouncement of the Chancellor's intention precipitated a debate, which lasted foi 
 several days, the Liberals opposing the policy of the Ministiy. In the House of 
 Lords, Lorl Beaconsfield spoke in the same strain as did Sir Stafford Northcote in 
 the House of Commons, declaring that England was not going to be dictated ta 
 by any other Power. Lord Derby, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, and Lord Caer- 
 narvon, Colonial Secretary, disapproving the policy of Lord Beaconsfield, tendered 
 
586 EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 their resignations. Lord Derby, however, soon withdrew his resignation, but 
 Lord Caernarvon retired, and was succeeded by Viscount Sandon. The Liberal 
 leaders held a meeting, at which it was decided to sustain the supplementary 
 credit vote, if it were not a war vote. In the House of Commons, on January 
 28lh, Sir Stafford Northcote, in moving for a supplementary credit of six million 
 pounds sterling, made a great speech, in which he declared that the supplement- 
 ary credit vote would be construed by the Government as a vote of confidence. 
 He expressed great distrust of Russia, and explained the circumstances under 
 which the British fleet had been sent to Besika Bay, declaring that European con- 
 cert was necessary. The speech of Sir Stafford Northcote precipitated another 
 gr<;at debate, which continued several days, Mr. Forster, John Bright, and Sir 
 Wilfrid Lawson censuring the Government's action. Mr. Cross replied, express- 
 ing great distrust of Russia. A large anti-Russian meeting was held in London. 
 
 Movements of the British Fleet in the Mediterranean. — Toward the 
 close of January, 1S78, the British fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, under Vice- 
 Admiral Hornby, approached Gallipoli, on the Dardanelles, and the guns of the 
 fleet fired a salute, as the fleet approached ; but the order to the fleet to advance 
 was countermanded by the British Ministry, and Admiral Hornby returned to 
 Besika Bay. 
 
 An Armistice. — On January 31st, 1878, an armistice was signed at Adrian- 
 ople, by the Grand-Duke Nicholas on the part of Russia, and by Server and 
 Namyk Pachas on the part of the Porte. This armistice was signed on the fol- 
 lowing basis: 1st, the erection of Bulgaria into a principality; 2d, a war indem- 
 nity, or territory compensation ; 3d, the independence of Roumania, Servia and 
 Montenegro, with increase of territory for each; 4th, reforms in Bosnia and Herze- 
 govina; 5th, an ulterior understanding between the Sultan and the Czar regard- 
 ing the Dardanelles ; and 6th, the evacuation of the Danubian fortresses and 
 Erzeroum. The conclusion of the armistice caused great rejoicings in St. Peters- 
 burg. The Czar issued an address to his troops, declaring that they were " still 
 far from the end," and should hold themselves prepared until a durable peace was 
 secured. Thanksgiving services were held in all the churches in the Russian 
 capital, salvos of artillery were fired, flags were flying, and in the evening the city 
 was brilliantly illuminated. 
 
 Evacuation of Turkish Fortresses. — New Turkish Ministry. — In ac- 
 cordance with the armistice conditions, the Turks evacuated the fortresses of 
 W'iddin, Rustchuk, Silistria, Belgradschik, and Erzeroum, which were then occu- 
 pied by the Russians; and, on the approach of the Muscovite forces toward 
 Constantinople, the Ottoman troops retired from the Buyuk-Chekmejek lines, 
 which comprised the fortifications of the Turkish capital. The office of Grand 
 Vizier was now abolished ; and a new Turkish Ministry, under Ahmed Vefik 
 Effendi, was formed. 
 
 Count Andrassy's Proposal for a European Conference. — Count An- 
 drassy, the Austro-Hungarian Chancellor, proposed a conference of the Great 
 European Powers, to settle the European questions growing out of the Eastern 
 war. Count Andra.isy's proposal was accepted by Germany, France, Italy, Great 
 Britain, ard Russia; but Russia strenuously oijjected to holding the conference in 
 
EASTERN WAR OF 1S77. 587 
 
 Vienna, or any other great capital, and preferred some small town in one of tne 
 minor states. 
 
 Supplementary Credit Voted by the British Parliament.— Excite- 
 ment in London. — After an animated debate, the supplementary credit of six 
 million pounds sterling was voted by the British House of Commons, amid deaf- 
 ening ciieers ; and Sir Stafford Northcote, Chancellor of the Exchequer, an- 
 nounced that five British war vessels had been ordered to Constantinople, to pro- 
 'ect die lives and property of British subjects. There was tremendous excitement 
 outside of Parliament. Crowds thronged the streets, singing "God save .the 
 Queen," and making demonstrations in favor of the Government. A rumor that 
 the British fleet had again been ordered to the Dardanelles, caused intense excite- 
 ment. The windows of Mr. Gladstone's house, and of lite Daily News office, 
 were broken by excited mobs. 
 
 Prince Gortschakofi 's Declaration. — Movements of the British Fleet. 
 — The relations of Russia and England were now extremely critical. Prince 
 Gortschakoff, the Russian Chancellor, informed the Powers that Russia contem- 
 plated sending troops into Constantinople, because England and other nations had 
 determined to send war vessels there for the protection of their subjects. Ausiro- 
 Hungary followed England's example, so far as to ask leave for her fleet to enter 
 the Dardanelles. The Sultan, however, refused so far as to authorize the British 
 fleet to advance to his capital, on the ground that Russian troops might occupy 
 the city if he did so. The British Government, however, instructed Admiral 
 Hornby to pass the Dardanelles, with or without leave. Admiral Hornby accord- 
 ingly passed the Dardanelles, with the five iron-clads, on February 13th, and 
 entered the Sea of Marmora, taking a position off Prince's Islands, thirteen miles 
 south of Constantinople, The Russians thereupon threatened to enter the Turkish 
 capital. The Sultan endeavored to stop the advance of the British fleet and the 
 entry of the Russian troops, by personal appeals to Queen Victoria and the Czar, 
 but his efforts were ineffectual. The British fleet advanced, and the Russian 
 troops occupied the suburbs of Constantinople. 
 
 Excitement in England and Austro- Hungary. — A report that the Rus- 
 sians had entered Constantinople and that the British fleet had arrived there, 
 caused intense excitement in London. In the British House of Commons, on 
 February 14th (1S78), Sir Stafford Northcote, Chancellor of the Exchequer, stated 
 that Admiral Hornby's fleet had orders to pass the Dardanelles, with or without 
 lea\e, and that the ships were prepared for action. This announcement was re- 
 ceived with loud cheers. Lord Derby made a similar statement in the House of 
 Lords, and read a dispatch from Prince Gortschakoff, informing him of the Russian 
 occupation of Constantinople. There was also great excitement in Austro- Hun- 
 gary. Count Andrassy, the Austro-Hungarian Chancellor, had a long conference 
 with the Emperor Francis Joseph; and the Emperor sent for the Archduke Al- 
 'jiechl, the Field-Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-Hungarian 
 aimy, for the purpose of concerting important military measures. The excitement 
 in Vienna aiid Pesth was extreme, and the Hungarian press was bitterly hostile to 
 Russia.. Great Britain and Austro- Hungary were acting in full accord, and an 
 alliance between these two Powers was imminent. 
 
58S EASTERN WAR OF 1877. 
 
 Lord Derby's Protest and Russia's Reply. — ^Withdrawal of the British 
 
 Fleet. — The danger of war between Eiiglaiul auJ Riu^ia was increasing hourly. 
 Lord Derby protested against the Russian occupation of Constantinople, and inti- 
 mated to the Russian Government that any attempt to seize Gallipoli, or menace 
 the communications of the British fleet, might lead to serious consequences. Tiiis 
 intimation was disregarded by Russia, as Russian troops occupied part of the Con- 
 stsntinople line of defences on February 15th. There was great excitement in 
 St I'etersburg. Russia addressed a conciliatory note to England in regard to 
 Gallipoli, and the document was considered at an informal meeting of the British 
 Cabinet. The British fleet now withdrew from Prince's Islands to Mundania 
 Bay, forty-two miles south of Constantinople. The Czar asked permission of the 
 Sultan for the entry of a portion of the Russian army into Constantinople, but the 
 Sultan refused the request. 
 
 Germany's Friendly Intervention. — The Czar appealed to the Emperor of 
 Germany to use his efforts for the preservation of peace. Austro-Hungary 
 appealed to Germany to intervene, by persuading Russia from occupying Constan- 
 finople; and Prince Bismarck, the German Chancellor, at Count Andrassy's solic- 
 itation, and in compliance with a request from St. Petersburg to make German 
 influence felt, intimated to Prince Gortschakoff that he was straining the situation 
 beyond reasonable bounds. Russia accepted Prince Bismarck's friendly oftices, 
 and issued a circular informing the Powers that she had renounced the occupation 
 of Constantinople, at the request of the Emperor William. There was great dis- 
 appointment at St. Petersburg, because the Russian people had expected the moral 
 support of Germany, whereas they now heard the Emjieror of Germany, in his 
 sjjeech from the throne, referring to the programme of the Constantinople Confer- 
 ence as the basis for a settlement. Thus friendly relations were restored between 
 Russia and Austro-IIungary. 
 
 Prince Bismarck's Speech. — Prince Auersperg's Dissatisfaction. — In 
 zhe German Reichstag, on P'ebruary 19th, 1S7S, in respijnse to an interpellation 
 by, Herr l^enningsen. Prince Bismarck made a speech, in which he said that Ger- 
 many had no rivalry with England except a friendly one in trade, and that he 
 would not advise the Emperor to go to war unless German interests were endan- 
 gered, and that those interests were not then in peril. On the same day, in reply 
 to a question of the Lower House of the Austrian Reichsrath, Prince Auersperg, 
 the Austrian Premier, expressed dissatisfaction with some of the peace stipulations, 
 but expected tliat the Eurojiean Conference would make matters all right. 
 
 Austro-Hungary's Precautionary Measures. — On February 24th, 1S7S, 
 a joint council of the Ministers of Austria and Hungary was held at Vienna, and 
 lasted five hours. The Emperor Francis Joseph presided. Count Andrassy stated 
 that he desired a vole of confidence and a vote of credit for military purposes, to 
 support Austro- Hungary's views at the European Conference, as some of Russia's 
 conditions were inadmissible. The Ministers empowered Count Andrassy to ask 
 llie Delegations for a credit not exceeding sixty million fl(jrins. Both Count 
 Andrassy and the Emperor assured the council that they earnestly desired peace. 
 
 Hostile Meetings in London. — On February 24th, 1S7S, the supporters of 
 Lord Beaconsfield assembled in areat f<jrce near the Marble Arch, in London, for 
 
GLADSTONE. 
 
DISRAELI 
 {LORD BEACONSFIi:Ll 
 
EASTERN IVAR OF 1877. 589 
 
 the purpose of voting down the peace resolutions, and protesting against any attempt 
 to embarrass the Government, and against a Russian occupation of Constanti- 
 nople. After passhig enthusiastic resolutions in favor of the Goverrmient, the crowd 
 attacked and temporarily broke up the peace meeting which was in progress in 
 Hyde Park. After some time, Charles Bradlaugh moved the resolutions in favor 
 of peace, but he was frequently obliged to change his position. Several fights 
 occurred, and the mob sang *'Rule Britannia." After Mr. Bradlaugh's departure 
 there was some heated discussion and more fighting. It was estimated that there 
 were from 80,000 to 100,000 people around the park, of whom io,ooo actually 
 participated in the proceedings. The assemblage dispersed gradually, but a large 
 and excited mob went to hoot before Mr. Gladstone's residence, and was only 
 prevented from doing any damage by a strong force of police. 
 
 Russia's Disagreement with Serbia and Roumania. — In the meantime, 
 Russia's relations with Servia and Roumania had become extremely awkward. 
 Servia claimed part of Old Servia, which Russia desired to annex to Bulgaria. 
 Late in February, 1878, the Russians occupied Pirot and Ak-Palanka, the Servians 
 withdrawing to Nissa, and Prince Milan protesting against the Russian occupation. 
 The Russians continued to advance, but Prince Milan remained af Nissa with a 
 strong, force, and refused to evacuate the place. Russia, however, reassured 
 Servia relative to Nissa. Roumania was dissatisfied because Russia was deter- 
 mined to seize Roumanian Bessarabia, and to give in exchange the Dobrudscha. 
 I'rince Charles of Roumania threatened to abdicate if Russia persisted, but Russia 
 showed no sign of relinquishing its design upon Bessarabia. 
 
 Preliminary Peace of San Stefano. — After long negotiations, the prelimi- 
 nary treaty of peace, known as th*^ IVace of Constantinople, was signed on March 
 2d, 1878, at San Stefano, a sm^H village ten miles from Constantinople, by the 
 Grand-Duke Nicholas, on the part of Russia, and by Server and Namyk Pachas, 
 on the part of Turkey. The Grand-Duke Nicholas held a grand review on the 
 following day (Sunday, March 3, 1S78), and formally announced the event to his 
 troops. The news of peace produced unbounded enthusiasm at St. Petersburg, 
 and an immense multitude assembled before the palace, shouting and singing 
 "God save the Czar." The principal conditions of the treaty were the following: 
 1st. Batoum, Kars, Ardahan, and the district of Bayazid to be ceded to Russia; 
 2d. The question of the Straits to be reserved for further consideration ; 3d. The 
 question of the navigation of the Danube to remain in status quo ; 4th. A zone 
 to be left between Montenegro and Servia, so as to enable the Porte to main- 
 tain communication with Bosnia and Herzegovina; 5th. The new Principality 
 of Bulgaria to include Bourgas, Varna, and Kustendje, but not Salonica or Adri- 
 anople ; 6th. Russia to have power to cede the Dobrudscha to Roumania, in 
 exchange for Roumanian Bessarabia; 7th. The money indemnity to be twelve 
 million pounds sterling, in addition to the territorial cession. The Czar and the 
 Sultan exchanged congratulatory telegrams, and the ratifications of the treaty 
 were speedily exchanged by the Russian and Turkish Governments. 
 
590 EASTERN QUESTION. 
 
 THE EASTERN QUESTION AND THE TREATY OF 
 BERLIN. 
 
 Misunderstandings Concerning the Proposed European Congress. — 
 Great Britain and Austro-Hungary were greatly dissatisfied with the treaty of San 
 Stefano. It was proposed to settle the Eastern Question by a Congress of the 
 great European Powers at Berlin; but misunderstandings soon arose concerning it. 
 Great Britain demanded that the whole treaty should be submitted to the Con- 
 gress. England's position was sustained by Austro-Hungary. The Louaoa 
 Times, a journal extremely favorable to Russia, contended that Russia must sub- 
 mit every one of the peace conditions to the Congress. This demand was made 
 because it was believed that special and secret arrangements were made between 
 Russia and Turkey, independent of the treaty. This was, however, denied by the 
 Russian press. In Germany, the Government organs, such journals as the Berlin 
 Post, National Zeituiig, and others, previously of Russian sympathies, now con- 
 tended that precautions must be taken for the protection of European interests, 
 and measures adopted to prevent the Dardanelles and Bulgaria from becoming 
 Russian property. In the Britisli House of Lords, on March nth (1878), Lord 
 Derby, in reply to Loril Stratheden, said that it would be useless and foolish for 
 England to participate in the Congress unless it had real power. The German 
 Government determined not to issue invitations to the Congress until all difficul- 
 ties about the subjects to be considered thereat were removed. Germany, how- 
 ever, claimed the right to preside over the Congress. Prince Gortschakoff inti- 
 mated that if Greece is represented in the Congress, Servia and Montenegro must 
 also be admitted. Prince Bismarck notified Austro-Hungary that Russia, in con- 
 sequence of his intervention, had consented to submit all the peace conditions, 
 without exception, to the Congress for discussion, should the Congress make a de- 
 mand to that effect. England still persistently refused to participate in the Con- 
 gress until Russia gave a formal engagement to submit all the clauses of the 
 treaty of San Stefano to the Congress. Prince Gortschakoff reiterated a previous 
 promise that the full treaty should be communicated to the Powers. On March 
 19th, Count Andrassy made a conciliatory speech to the Hungarian Delegation. 
 In the British House of Lords, on March 21st, Lord Derby, in reply to a speech 
 by Lord Stratheden on the Eastern Question, reiterated his former declaration 
 that England expected the whole treaty to be submitted to the Congress, other- 
 wise a Congress would be useless. 
 
 Austro-Hungary's Precaution.— Credits Voted by the Austro-Hun- 
 garian Delegations. — In the meantime, Austro-Hungary was taking precau- 
 tionary measures against Russian aggression. On March 9th (1S78), a demand 
 was presented to the Austrian and Hungarian Delegations for grants on account 
 of extraordinary and urgent army and navy requirements. A spirited debate oc- 
 curred in the sub-committee of the Hungarian Delegation, M. Falk and Count 
 Andrassy sustaining the demand for a grant. On March 13th, the Hungarian 
 Delegation voted in committee the grant demanded for urgent and extraordi- 
 nary army and navy requirements. Count Andrassy informed the Hungarian 
 Budget Committee that Austro-Hungary would never consent to the extension of 
 Bulgaria to the /Egean Sea, or to a Russian occupation of the province for more 
 than SIX months. Herr Wahrman and others declared that the Hungarians were 
 
EASTERN QUESTION. 591 
 
 ready to enter upon war if unavoidably necessary. The Budget Committee of the 
 Austrian Delegation adopted, by a vote of eleven to nine, a resolution to the ef- 
 fect that if a display of military force became unavoidable, the Austro-Hungar- 
 ian Government be empowered to incur, with the consent of the Ministries of 
 Austria and Hungary, an expenditure not exceeding sixty million florins. On 
 March 21st, the Austrian Delegation granted a credit of sixty million florins, by a 
 vote of 39 to 20. 
 
 London Peace Meeting. — On March loth (i87S),a peace meeting was held 
 in Hyde Park, in London, but was dispersed by a disorderly mob, which cheered 
 for Lord Beaconsfield and Musurus Pacha, the Turkish Ambassador at London, 
 and groaned before Mr. Gladstone's residence. Mr. Gladstone and his wife, 
 when going to church, were obliged to take refuge in a friend's house, whence 
 they were escorted by the police. The Prince of Teck was mistaken for Count 
 Schouvaloff, the Russian Ambassador, and was insulted and hustled by the mob. 
 
 Great Britain's Activity.— In the meantime, C}rcat Britain displayed the 
 greatest vigilance. The House of Commons voted the navy estimates on March 
 15th; all officers of the Corps of Royal Engineers first on the list for foreign ser- 
 vice, vi"ere ordered to provide themselves with field equipments, and to be ready 
 for immediate service ; and several more iron-clads were sent to the Dardanelles. 
 England obtained permission from Turkey to disembark troops on the island of 
 Tenedos, on the west coast of Asia Minor, and to send four more iron-clads to 
 the .Sea of Marmora. M. Onou, the dragoman of the Russian Legation at Con- 
 stantinople, protested against these proceedings. On March 31st, the English 
 landed a large quantity of war material on the island of Tenedos. 
 
 The Russians on the Bosphorus. — Turkish Outrages in Thessaly. — In 
 the meantime, the Russians continued to tighten their hold on Constantinople and 
 the Bosphorus, distributing troops in the suburbs of Constantinople; and a Rus- 
 sian division was marching on Bulair, an important position on the isthmus of 
 Gallipoli ; while Russian torpedo boats were jjlaced in the Bosphoi'us. About 
 the middle of March, 1878, a force of 12,000 Turks landed at Volo, in Thessaly, 
 and soon crushed the Greek insurrection in that Turkish province. The Turkish 
 Li-regulars committed the greatest outrages — plundering, murdering and devastat- 
 ing — twenty villages being burned or pillaged, the inhabitants having fled or per- 
 ished. The insurgents were afterwards defeated by the Turks. 
 
 Roumania and Servia Dissatisfied. — In the meantime, the Russians seized 
 Roumanian Bessarabia, having, on March 6th ( 1878), occupied the Bessarabian 
 towns of Ismail, Cahul, and Bolgrod, the Roumanian Government protesting 
 against the occupation. It was stated that the Roumanian agent would hand to 
 Count Andrassy a memorandum declaring that Roumania refused to be bound by 
 the Russo-Turkish peace preliminaries. The Servians, who were also dissatisfied 
 with the treaty of San Stefano, re-occupied Vranja. The Grand Duke Nicholas 
 made a pressing demand on Servia to remobilize her reserves, as a demonstration 
 against Austro-Hungary, but .Servia declined with firmness. 
 
 England's Demand and Russia's Reply. — Bismarck's Mediation.-- 
 Engiand" made a formal demand upon Russia in regard to the submission of the 
 treaty to the proposed Congress, to which Russia gave an unsatisfactory reply. 
 
592 EASTERN QUESTION. 
 
 Prince Bismarck coniinued to mediate between Great Britain and Russia for the 
 preservation of peace. Russia suggested that the Congress be held without Eng- 
 land, but this suggestion was declined by the other Powers. Germany abandoned 
 the idea of issuing calls for a Congress until Great Britain and Russia should 
 agree. The Berlin Post, one of Prince Bismarck's organs, intimated that Germany 
 would never fight for Russian or any other interests, and that Russia had belter 
 restrain her ambition. 
 
 General Ig-natieff's Mission to Vienna. — Austro-Hungary and Servia. 
 ■ — General Ignatieft went on a mission to Vienna, and had interviews with Count 
 Andrassy and the Emperor Francis Joseph, with the view of isolating England 
 from the other Powers; but his mission was a failure. General Ignatieft" declared 
 that the Russian army would remain before Constantinople as long as the British 
 fleet stayed in the Sea of Marmora. Count Andrassy informed General Ignatieff 
 that Austro-Hungary regarded the treaty of San Stefano as clashing with Austro- 
 Hungarian and European interests; and General Ignatieff immediately started for 
 St. Petersburg. Auslro-llungary refused to recognize the treaty of San Stefano, 
 and prepared to mobilize an army of 400,000 men on the Bosnian frontier ; and 
 Servia, becoming alarmed at Austro-Hungary's attitude, remobilized her army to 
 resist any threatened encroachment on Servian independence. 
 
 Lord Derby's Resignation. — British Reserves Called Out. — In the Brit- 
 ish House of Lords, on March 28th, Lord Derby announced his resignation of 
 tlie office of Secretary of Foreign Affairs, because the Government had determined 
 to call out the reserves — a measure which he did not deem prudent in the inter- 
 ests of peace. Lord Derby was succeeded in office by Lord Salisbury. In the 
 House of Commons, on March 28th, the Hon. Gathorne Hardy, Secretary of 
 War, replying to various questions, announced that the Government intended to 
 call out the reserves; and on April 1st, the Queen's message calling out the re- 
 serves was read in the House of Commons by the Speaker. On April 9th, in the 
 debate on the address to the Queen in reply to her message, the Government was 
 sustained by a vote of 319 to 64. 
 
 Lord Salisbury's Circular and Prince Gortschakoff's Reply. — On April 
 ist (1878), Lord Salisbury, the new British Secretary of Foreign Affairs, issued a 
 circular note to the European Powers, complaining of the temis imposed by Russia 
 upon Turkey, and asserting that the treaties of 1856 and 187 1 were still in force. 
 Lord Salisbuiy's circular was received with favor in Vienna, and Austro-Hungary 
 seemed disposed to act in diplomatic accord with England. Prince Bismarck 
 proposed a European Congress to revise the treaties of 1856 and 1871. This pro- 
 posal was accepted by Russia, but rejected by Great Britain. The other Powers 
 asked England to state her views. The Berlin Post, Bismarck's organ, adopted 
 Lord Salisbury's criticisms of the San Stefano treaty, intimating that England 
 would not stand alone in maintaining that the Paris treaty of 1856, until amended, 
 was the law of Europe, and said that Russia would have no choice between war 
 and parting with the treaty of San Stefano, as she would do if she entered a Con- 
 gress. Prince Gortschakoff" replied to Lord Salisbuiy's circular, contesting it 
 point by point, and defending the Russo-Turkish treaty ; but his reply was in the 
 main conciliatory. Prince Gortschakoff also replied to Austro-Hungary's objec- 
 liojus to the treaty. Gor.schakoff's note was not reassuring, and Germany endeav- 
 
EASTERN question: 593 
 
 . ed to bring about an understanding. An attempt was made in May (1878) to 
 jvttle the question by the simultaneous withdrawal of the British fleet and the 
 X\ussian troops from the neighborhood of Constantinople, but without success. 
 
 Russian Military Movements. — The Defenses of Constantinople. — The 
 Russians, expecting a war with England, prepared for it by moving troops tovsard 
 Gallipoli, and erecting fortifications at certain points in Southern Roumelia. 
 Russia ordered the building of one-hundred more torpeda boats, about the end of 
 March (1878). About this time the Turks had an army of 50,000 men encamped 
 in the lines of Buyukdere, and fifty battalions in the lines defending Constanti- 
 n:,ple. 
 
 Fnsso-Roumanian Quarrel. — The quarrel between Russia and Roumania 
 growing out of Russia's demand for the cession of Roumanian Bessarabia to 
 Russia, became extremely bitter. The Roumanians became so hostile that they 
 hindered the passage of the Russian provision columns through their territory, and 
 threatened to forbid it altogether. Prince Gortschakoff declared to Prince Ghika, 
 the Foumanian agent at St. Petersburg, that Russia's decision in regard to Bess- 
 arabia was irrevocable; that Russia would not allow the question to be brought be- 
 fore the Congress, and that, if Roumania refused to cede Bessarabia, Russia 
 would take it by force. Prince Gortschakoff also informed the Roumanian agent 
 that if Roumania intended to protest against the article in the Russo-Turkish 
 treaty providing for the communication of the Russian army in Bulgaria with 
 Russia, the Czar would order the Russian occupation of Roumania and the di"".- 
 armament of the Roumanian army. The Roumanian agent replied that Russia 
 should have treated with Roumania, not with Turkey, concerning the passage of 
 the Russian army through Roumanian territory, to which Prince Gortschakoff re- 
 joined that Russia insisted upon a free passage through Roumania. There was 
 a general sympathy for Roumania throughout Europe. Toward the middle of 
 April (1878), Russian troops arrived at various places on the Roumanian bank 
 of the Danube. On the 15th of April (1878), Prince Charles of Roumania started 
 to join his army. Constant quarrels occurred between the Russian and Rou- 
 manian officers and soldiers. The Russians prevented a train laden with ammu- 
 nition from leaving Bucharest for the Roumanian army. The entire Roumanian 
 militia was called out. The Russians stationed vessels laden with stone, ready to 
 close the Sulina mouth of the Danube, if necessaiy. The Russians claimed that 
 the military convention with Roumania concerning the passage of Russian troops 
 lasted until a definitive peace was concluded. The Roumanians withdrew their 
 troops to the Carpathian mountains, where they boasted they would make anotlier 
 Plevna if the Russians attacked them. The commander of a Ru.ssian division near 
 Bucharest informed the Roumanian Government that his troops would remain in 
 Roumania until they returned to Russia. The Roumanian Government asked 
 Russia for explanations. The relations between Austro-Hungary and Roumania 
 became closer. The Emperor William of Germany advised Prince Charles of 
 Roumania to yield Bessarabia, and to abdicate if the Roumanians raised difficul- 
 ties ; but the Prince refused, and went to his army. This German interference 
 offended Austro-Hungary. The Russians, considering their communications 
 threatened by the position of the Roumanian army, determined to occupy Plojesta. 
 Roumania determined to protest, at the Congress, against the cession of Bess 
 arabia. 
 .-,8 
 
594 EASTERN QUESTION. 
 
 Bulgarian Outrages. — Mjasulman Insurrection in Roumelia. — In the 
 meaiiiime, Bulgaria was in a stale of anarcliy. Tlie Bulgarians were taking a 
 terrible revenge lor the Turkish outrages of 1S76. The Mussulmans were goaded 
 to despair by the tyranny of their former victims. The Russians took repressive 
 measures, and three ijulgarians were executed. The country was full of refugees 
 from the scattered armies and disbanded garrisons of the Turks, who were joined 
 by the inhabitants of the iVIussulman villages in a guerrilla warfare against the 
 native Christians and the Russian troops. About 80,000 Mussulmans in the 
 Balkan districts armed themselves with cannon and rifles left behind by Suleiman 
 Pacha's army at the time of his retreat, and attacked the Russians, who lost over 
 900 men in the fight. The Bulgarian Christians attacked eight Moslem villages, 
 and committed great outrages. The Mussulman insurgents surprised a Russian 
 encampment at I'hilippopolis, and took 1,000 prisoners. Fifteen fresh Russian 
 battalions were sent against the Roumelian insurgents. There was heavy fighting 
 about Haskoi, at the beginning of May, and twenty-one Mohammedan villages 
 were destroyed. The trouble was finally settled and quiet was restored. 
 
 Russo-Turkish Dispute. — Early in May (1878), General Todleben, the Rus- 
 sian commander in Turkey, demanded the immediate evacuation of Shumla, 
 Varna, and Batoum, by the Turks. The Turks refused until the Russians retired 
 to Adrianople, in accordance with the Peace of San Stefano, but the Russians 
 maintained that they could not withdraw until the three fortresses were evacuated. 
 General Todleben threatened to occupy Constantinople in case the fortresses were 
 not evacuated. The matter was finally arranged ; but the Turks did not evacuate 
 the fortresses until the end of July, the Russians retiring from the neighborhood 
 of Constantinople about the same time. 
 
 Austro-Hungary's Precautions. — In the Austrian Reichsrath, on May 14th 
 (1S7S), Prince Aucrsperg, the Austrian Premier, made a speech indicating Austro- 
 Plungary's intention of opposing Russian aggression; while, on the same day, 
 Herr Tisza, the Hungarian Premier, made a speech of the same tenor in the 
 Hungarian Diet. Both Premiers asked for a credit vote. Herr Tisza said it was 
 necessary to take precautions on the northern, southern, and eastern frontiers. 
 On May l6th, the Lower Houae of the Hungarian Diet passed a bill providing 
 for a credit of si.xty million florins. AustroTIungarian troops were ready to be 
 sent to die frontier. 
 
 Great Britain's War Preparations. — In the meantime. Great Britain had 
 been making extensive preparations for war. Six thousand Sepoys were brought 
 to Malta from British India, and additional iron-clads were sent to the Eastern 
 Mediterranean. Recruiting was going on briskly in England, and factories for 
 the manufacture of arms were working day and night. A gunboat flotilla was to 
 be prepared for the defence of the British coast, and a fleet was to be sent into the 
 Baltic to operate against the Russians in that quarter. The British Government 
 also chartered one hundred fast cruisers, and threatened to treat Russian privateers 
 as pirates. The prep.-u-ations for war were proceeding actively at the arsenals and 
 the dockyards, and British agents were buying horses in Uie United States. Pre- 
 cautions were taken for the defense of British India. 
 
 Russia's Prepai aliens. — Russian Finances. — In the meantime, Russia 
 had not been idl , The Russian garrisons in I'oland were moving soulhward, 
 
EASTERN QUESTION. 595 
 
 and 200,000 Russian troops were moving toward the Galician frontier of Austro- 
 Hungary. Moscow and St. Petersburg were full of troops, and new levies were 
 constantly coming forward. The Russian people were bitter against Great 
 Britain and Austro-Hungary. The Russian finances were in a wretched condi 
 tion. The Ru.«ian Government was so heavily in debt that it did not dare to 
 publish the weekly returns, and Russian credit was so bad that the Government 
 could not borrow money under thirty per cent, discount.. The continued issue of 
 paper money was necessary. 
 
 Count Schouvaloff's Mission. — About the middle of May (1878), Count 
 Schouvaloff, the Russian Ambassador at London, went on a special mission to 
 St. Petersburg, for the purpose of bringing about an understanding between the 
 British and Russian Governments, about the meeting of the Congress. 
 
 Conspiracy and Riot in Constantinople. — On May 20th (1878), a riot oc- 
 curred before the Sulian"s palace, in Constantinople, originating with a band of 
 refugees, who endeavored to restore ex-Sultan Amurath V. to the throne, but the 
 outbreak was speedily suppressed. 
 
 Anglo-Russian Agreement. — Count ScliouvalofCs mission was entirely suc- 
 cessful. Through his efforts, and those of Prince Bismarck, an understanding 
 was finally reached between Great Britain and Russia ; and it was agreed to 
 settle the dispute about the Russo-Turkish treaty by a Congress of the Great 
 European Powers at Berlin. Important concessions were made on both sides. 
 Count Schouvaloff, on his return to London, brought with him the assurances of 
 Russia's desire for peace; and Lord Salisbury and Count Schouvaloff' agreed 
 upon a memorandum as to the terms upon which England and Russia would 
 enter the Congress. The terms agreed upon were the following : Bulgaria to be 
 divided into two provinces ; one north of the Balkans, to be under a Prince ; the 
 other south of the Balkans, but not touching the /Egean Sea, with a Christian 
 Governor, and a government similar to that of an English colony ; Turkish troops 
 to permanently quit Bulgaria. Great Britain agreed not to oppose the retrocession 
 of Bessarabia, nor the annexation of Batoum to Russia, and reserved the right to 
 discuss in the Congress international arrangements relative to the Danube. Russia 
 promised not to further advance her Asian frontier, nor to take indemnity in 
 land, nor to interfere with the claims of British creditors, the question of payment 
 to be discussed by the Congress, which was also to reorganize Thessaly, Epirus, 
 and the other Greek provinces. Russia was to restore Bayazid to Turkey, while 
 Turkey was to cede the province of Kotour to Persia. Russia agreed that the 
 question of the passage of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus should remain in 
 status quo. England reserved the right to suggest at the Congress that Europe 
 should reorganize Bulgaria, and to discuss the occupation of that province by Rus 
 sia, and also the passage of Russian troops through Roumania. The Turkish 
 promises of reform in Armenia were to be understood to have been made to 
 England as well as to Russia. The agreement reserved to Russia and England 
 the 1 ight to raise and discuss in the Congress all questions not raised by its stipu 
 lations ; but if, after agreed to, Russia persisted in maintaining the treaty as modi- 
 fied, England would not dispute her right to do so. At the demand of England, 
 Count Schouvaloff finally consented to submit the whole treaty to the Congress. 
 All of the Powers adhered to this proposal. 
 
5g6 EASTERN QUESTION. 
 
 Count Andrassy's Objections to the Treaty of San Stefano. — On May 
 
 29th (1878), Count Andrassy mentioned to the Austrian Delegation the points 
 brought to the notice of Russia and the other Powers as chiefly affecting Austro- 
 Hungarian interests. In an interview with the Hungarian Delegation, on May 
 30th, Count Andrassy used the following strong language: "The monarchy is 
 vested on the basis of historical development, and let him who touches it be- 
 ware." There continued to be a misunderstanding between Russia and Austro- 
 Hungary; and Austro-Hungary continued her military preparations with the 
 greatest activity. Austro-Hungary strongly opposed the extension of Montene- 
 grin territory in the direction of the Adriatic. 
 
 A European Congress Called — The Plenipotentiaries. — On May 25th 
 (1878), Germany was informed of the happy solution of the Anglo-Russian diffi- 
 culty, and was requested to immediately issue invitations to the Great European 
 Powers to meet in a Congress at Berlin, for the definitive settlement of the East- 
 ern question. The other Powers — namely, England, Russia, Austro-Hungary, 
 France, Italy, and Turkey — accepted Germany's invitations, and it was agreed 
 that the Congress should meet on June 13th, 1878. The following were the 
 plenipotentiaries of the Great Powers at the Congress : Prince Bismarck, Prince 
 Hohenlohe, and Count von Bulow, for Germany ; Lord Beaconsfield, Lord Salis- 
 buiy, and Odo Russell, for Great Britain; Count Schouvaloff, Prince Gortscha- 
 koft", and M.d'Oubril, for Russia; Count Andrassy, Count Karoyli, and von Kay- 
 merle, for Austro-Hungary; M. Waddington and the Marquis de St. Vallier, for 
 France; Count Corti and Count de Launay, for Italy; and Caratheodori Efitndi 
 and Mehemet AH, the former a Greek Christian, and the latter a Prussian, for 
 Turkey. 
 
 Meeting of the European Congress at Berlin. — Prince Bismarck Presi 
 dent. — The European Congress for the settlement of the Eastern Question as- 
 sembled in the Radziwell Palace, in Berlin, at one o'clock p. m., June 13th, 1S78, 
 and was organized with the election of Prince Bismarck as President. Isiottiing 
 was done on that day, excepting the opening formalities. The leading figures in 
 the Congress were Prince Bismarck and Lord Beaconsfield. Lord Beaconsfield 
 made a good impression on Prince Bismarck in their interviews. On Juno iSth, 
 Great Britain proposed the admission of Greece on all subjects concerning the 
 Christians, which the Congress agreed to on the following day. Russia and 
 Austro-Hungary also came to an agreement, similar to the Anglo-Russian agree- 
 ment. 
 
 Turkey's Protest. — A Crisis at the Congress. — Austro-Hungary and 
 Bosnia. — The Turkish plenipotentiaries presented a large number of memorials 
 to tlie Congress, from the Christian subjects of the Sultan, praying that they might 
 be left under the Sultan's rule, and protesting strongly against being handed over 
 to Russia, Bulgaria, or Austro-Hungary. The discussion of the Bulgarian (jues- 
 lion produced a crisis at the Congress ; as Great Britain and Austro-Hungary, 
 naving concluded an agreement to support each other at the Congress, firmly de- 
 manded the evacuation of Bulgaria by the Russian troops. England threatened to 
 withdraw from the Congress unless her demands were complied with ; where- 
 upon Russia conceded the British and AustroTIungarian demands, and peace was 
 preserved. The Congress agreed to allow Austro-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and 
 
EASTERN QUESTION. 597 
 
 Herzegovina. The Bosnians and Herzegovinians, and also the Ottoman Porte, 
 protested against the Austro-Hungarian occupation; and Servia also opposed the 
 scheme. 
 
 Revolt in Crete against the Turks. — Toward the middle of June (187S), a 
 revolt against the Turks broke out in the island of Candia, or Crete. Battles 
 were fought at Canea and Apocorona between the Turkish forces and the Cretan 
 insurgents, in June ; and, on June 29th, the Cretans were defeated by the Turks 
 at Canea, their position being captured. 
 
 Anglo-Turkish Treaty. — England Obtains Cyprus — Early in July, 
 (1S78), the whole world was surprised by suddenly learning that, before the Con- 
 gress had assembled, the British Government had secretly concluded a defensive 
 treaty with the Ottoman Porte; by which Asiatic Turkey was placed under the 
 protection of Great Britain, which promised to resist, by force of arms, any further 
 encroachments by Russia upon Asiatic Turkey ; while Turkey promised to intro- 
 duce the necessary reforms throughout her dominions, and ceded the island of 
 Cyprus to England. In July (1878), Sir Garnet Wolseley occupied Cyprus with 
 the Sepoy troops at Malta. This treaty, although concluded 'on June 4th, only 
 became known to the English Parliament and people on July 8th ; on which day 
 it was Communicated to the Berlin Congress, as a matter of courtesy. It occa- 
 sioned surprise in England and on the continent of Europe. Both Houses of 
 Parliament were utterly taken by surprise when it became known that such a 
 treaty had been concluded. Mr. Cross, the Home Secretary, defended the treaty 
 in a speech in the House of Commons, and was loudly cheered when he con- 
 cluded his speech. This treaty gave Great Britain control of the Euphrates 
 valley, and secured her route to India — a railway being in contemplation through 
 the valley from the Mediterranean to British India. Thus Turkey virtually 
 placed herself in the hands of England. The treaty thrilled the English people, 
 and Lord Beaconsfield was the hero of the hour. In an interview with Prince 
 Gortschakoff, on July 9th, at Berlin, Lord Beaconsfield fully and frankly defended 
 the Anglo-Turkish treaty. Prince Gortschakoff declared that he saw nothing 
 objectionable in the treaty, as he entertained no projects of aggrandizement on the 
 coast of Asiatic Turkey. He perceived no difference between England's occupa- 
 tion of Cyprus and her occupation of Malta. He would always be pleased with 
 everything tending to strengthen England's road to India, because it calculated to 
 promote the prosperity of the whole world. Prince Gortschakoff and Lord 
 Beaconsfield then shook hands, as a pledge of the new relations between Russia 
 and Great Britain. 
 
 The Definitive Treaty of Berlin. — The definitive Treaty of Berlin, as 
 framed by the European Congress, was finally completed on July 13th, 1878, on 
 which day the treaty was signed by all the plenipotentiaries ; and the Congress 
 adjourned, after a parting speech from Prince Bismarck, who said that the Con- 
 gress deserved well of Europe, and who expressed the hope tl at European peace 
 was firmly established. The treaty was quite lengthy, embracing sixty-four 
 articles. We have only space for an outline of its leading provisions. Die 
 treaty provided for the new autonomic tributary principality of Bulgaria, under the 
 suzerainty of the Sultan, with a Christian Prince and a national militia, and to 
 be limited on the south by the Balkans • the Prince to be elected by the Bulgarian 
 
598 EASTERN QUESTION. 
 
 people, and to be confirmed by the Porte and by the Powers. There was to be 
 formed, south of the Balkans, the new province of Eastern Roumelia, under the 
 direct political authority of the Sultan, having administrative autonomy and a 
 Christian Governor-General ; and religious and political liberty was to be estab- 
 lished. The Russian army in Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia was to be limited 
 to 50,000 men, and v^'as to complete the evacuation of the territory by the end of a 
 year; and religious liberty was to be established. Bosnia and Herzegovina were 
 .1 be occupied and administered by Austro- Hungary, excepting Sanjak and 
 ■Nuvi-Bazar. The independence of Montenegro was recognized, with religious 
 liberti and the annexation of Antivari. The independence of Servia was recog- 
 nized, on condition of granting religious liberty. The independence of Roumania 
 was recognized, on condition of granting religious freedom, while Roumania was 
 to cede Bessarabia to Russia, in exchange for the Dobrudscha. The fortifications 
 on the Danube were to be razed, while the navigation of the river was to be free. 
 The Porte was required to introduce necessary reforms in the island of Candia, or 
 Crete. Religious liberty was to be maintained in Turkey on the widest basis. 
 Batoum, Kars, and Ardahan were to be ceded to Russia, and the province of 
 Kotour was to be ceded to Persia. All the Powers speedily ratified the Treaty 
 of Berlin. 
 
 England's Great Triumph. — Thus England came forth triumphant from the 
 Congress. A severe check had been put upon Russia's southward advance by the 
 Anglo-Turkish treaty. Lord Beaconsfield proved himself the greatest diplomatist 
 that England has ever produced, and the equal, if not the superior, of any diplo- 
 mat of his time. He had won more for England by diplomacy than other Min- 
 isters had won for her by war, and had raised British prestige to the highest 
 point that 'it had reached since the battle of Waterloo. For a period of twenty 
 years. Great Britain had remained, in a large measure, isolated from the rest of 
 Europe ; but the brilliant diplomacy of Lord Beaconsfield had restored her former 
 supremacy in European councils, and she was again the leading Power of Europe. 
 England was now restored to her rightful place, and that was a great gain to the 
 world. All England rang with joyful acclamations at the great triumph which 
 had been acMeved without firing a shot; and Lord Beaconsfield was fairly idol- 
 ized by the British people, and the British press was lavish in its praises of the 
 successful statesman and diplomat. 
 
 Lord Beaconsfield's Enthusiastic Receptions in Dover and London. — 
 A grand reception awaited Lords Beaconsfield and Salisbury on their return from 
 Berlin. On arriving at Dover, on July i6th (1878), they were received by sev- 
 eral Peers and members of the House of Commons, who went down from London 
 10 meet them ; and the immense multitude which had assembled at the landing 
 place, greeted them with cheer upon cheer. The corporation of Dover presented 
 •lieni with an address of welcome, to which Lord Beaconsfield made a brief but 
 eloquent reply, concluding with these words: "We have brought peace with 
 •lonor, and I hope the prosperity of England will follow." The reception in 
 I oiulcMi resemblfd that of a triumphant warrior returning from a field of con- 
 •quest, and was given with the same enthusiasm with which the ancient Romans 
 greeted their conijuering generals on their return from their victorious cam 
 paigns. The scenes at Charing Cross, Trafalgar S<iuare, Parliament street, 
 
EASTERN QUESTION. 599 
 
 Whitehall, and Downing street, on the arrival of the Earl of Beaconsfield and the 
 Manjuis of Salisbury, and during their progress to the Foreign Office, were ex- 
 tremely exciting. Crowds of people, numbering more than 100,000, which had 
 assembled in the places just named, manifested the greatest enthusiasm, cheering 
 and throwing flowers as the eminent statesmen passed. After Lords Beacons- 
 field and Salisbury had arrived at the Foreign Office, the crowds received them 
 w ith cheer upon cheer. Loud calls were made for the illustrious dignitaries to 
 appear, and both responded. Lord Beaconsfield, in a brief speech, said that he 
 hoped hat the peace secured by the Beilin Treaty would satisfy the Queen and 
 gratify the country. Lord Salisbury said that he hoped that Englishmen would 
 always support the Government by supporting England's honor. The enthusi- 
 astic populace finally retired, singing " God save the Queen." The Queen con- 
 ferred the Order of the Garter upon the Earl of Beaconsfield and the Marquis 
 of Salisbury; and, on August 3d, both the distinguished statesmen were honored 
 with the freedom of the city of London. 
 
 Great Debates in the British Parliament. — The Ministry Sustained. — 
 On luly iSth, Lord Beaconsfield made a statement in the House of Lords con- 
 cerning the results of the Berlin Congress. Angry words passed between Lords 
 Derby and Salisbury. Speeches against Lord Beaconsfield's policy were made 
 by the Right Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone, at the Liberal Association, at Sheffield, 
 and by the Right Hon. Wm. E. Forster, at the Cobden Club, at Greenwich, on 
 the evening of July 21st; and on July 29th, the Marquis of FLirtington, the Lib- 
 eral leader, moved a resolution in the House of Commons against Lord Beacons- 
 field's Eastern policy, thus precipitating a debate which lasted a week. The 
 Government's policy was defended by Hon. Robert Bourke, Under Secretary for 
 the Foreign Department, Sir Stafford Northcote, Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
 Lord John Manners, Postmaster General, Mr. Cross, Home Secretary, Captain 
 Baillie Cochrane, and other leading Conservatives, and also by Mr. Roebuck, a 
 Liberal ; while speeches denouncing the Ministry's policy were made by the 
 Marquis of Hartington, Sir Charles Dilke, Hon. William E. Gladstone, Hon. 
 William E. For.ster, Hon. Robert Lowe, Sir William 'Vernon Harcourt, Sir Wil- 
 frid Lawson, and other prominent members of the Liberal party. At the end of 
 the debate. Lord Hartington's resolution was rejected, and the Ministry was sus- 
 tained by a vote of 33S against 195. Lord Beaconsfield made speeches in de- 
 fense of his policy, in the House of Lords, at the Carlton Club, and at a banquet 
 in his honor at the Mansion House. Parliament was prorogued by the Queen 
 on August 1 6th, to meet on November 2d, 1878. 
 
 The Austro-Hungarian Occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.— The 
 Austro-Hungariaii army advanced into Bosnia and Herzegovina at the beginning 
 of August, 187S. The Porte had ordered its officials not to resist the Austro- 
 Hungarian advance, but the Bosnians and Herzegovinians were bitteWy op- 
 posed to the Austro- Hungarian occupation, and rose in arms to resist it. Austro- 
 Hungary declared that she occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina with no hostile 
 intentions, but only in the name of liberty and peace. The Austro-Hungarians 
 were fired at, after crossing the river Save, by united Christian and Mohammedan 
 bands. An insurrection broke out at Mostar, the capital of Herzegovina, the 
 nhole population rising in arms; and the Governor and Mofti of Mostar were 
 
6oo SOCIALISM AND NIHILISM. 
 
 assassinated. The state of affairs was equally threatening at Serajevo, the Bos- 
 nian capital; and the Austro-Hungarian Consul and the Turkish officials fled. 
 The Austro-Hungarian hussars were received with a volley at Zepee, which they 
 returned. The hussars were again attacked at Maglaj, where seventy of their 
 number were killed. In Herzegovina, the Austro- Hungarians fought a short en- 
 gagement near Citlak, with 500 insurgents. Several of the insurgents were 
 killed, and some were made prisoners, and four Austro-Hungarians were 
 wounded. The Austro-Hungarians, under Gt;neral Javanovich, entered Mostar, 
 Uie capital of Herzegovina, in the evening of August 5th, without opposition, the 
 •nhabitants appearing friendly. On the same day, the 13th Austro-Hungaiian 
 Army Corps defeated the insurgents at Maglaj, capturing two flags and a quantity 
 of munitions, the insurgents losing 1200 men in killed, wounded and prisoners, 
 while the Austro-Hungarian loss was but twelve. Maglaj was occupied by the 
 Austro-Hungarians, who found the town deserted by all except a few Christians. 
 On August 8th, the Austro-Hungarians again defeated the insurgents at Maglaj, 
 the Austro-Hungarians losing 50 men, while they took 400 prisoners. Another 
 Austro-Hungarian force defeated the insurgents at Varcarvakuf, August 5th, and 
 at Jaicze, August 7th. A third Austro-Hungarian force, under General Zapary, 
 fought the insurgents near Gratschanitza, August 4th, 8th, 9th and loth, and was 
 finally beaten at Tuzla, August nth, after a twelve hours' battle. On August 
 i6lh, the Austro-Hungarian army under General Phillipovich, captured an in- 
 surgent camp at Buzovaca, with a large number of wagons, ammunition, and 
 other property, but the insurgents escaped. On August i6th, the 20th Division 
 of the Austro-Hungarian army was attacked at Doboj by a considerable force of 
 insurgents, whose assaults were all repulsed, the Austro-Hungarians, however, 
 losing heavily. On August 17th, the Austro-Hungarian force under General 
 Tegethoff occupied Visoka, capturing a quantity of arms and ammunition, after 
 an engagement in which he lost eighty-six men in killed and wounded. On 
 August iQlh, the united Austro-Hungarian forces under General Tegetlioff and 
 Phillipovich attacked Serajevo, the Bosnian capital, and, after a desperate strug- 
 gle, during which the assailants were fired upon by the insurgents from every 
 doorway and window, even the women, and the sick and wounded insurgents in 
 the military hospitals participating in the fight, the insurgents fled in all direc- 
 tions, leaving twenty-seven cannon behind them. The town was then occupied by 
 the victorious Austro-Hungarians, who were received wdth cheers by the Christ- 
 ian population. On August 2ist, the Austro-Hungarian force under General Ja- 
 vanovich carried the insurgent positions before Stolatz after several hours of 
 severe fighting, the Austro-Hungarians losing forty-two men in killed and 
 wounded. 
 
 SOCIALISM IN GERMANY AND NIHILISM IN RUSSIA. 
 Socialism in Germany — Industrial Prostration and General Distress, 
 --For some years the doctrine of Socialism, or a reorganization of society on a. 
 C^ommunistic basis, had been steadily growing in Germany. The geiieral pros- 
 tration of all industries, and the consequent distress among the lower classes of 
 the population, which had for several years prevailed m Germany, made the Ger- 
 man people discontented with existing institutions. This discontent was increased 
 
SOCIALISM AND NIHILISM. 6oi 
 
 by the heavy burden imposed upon the country by a gigantic military establish- 
 ment. The German army consisted of 1,900,000 men on a war-footing, and 
 401,000 upon a peace-footing. The withdrawal of so many men from useful 
 occupations was a heavy strain upon the resources of the Empire. The prevail 
 ing discontent among the German masses tended to the growth of Socialist ideas 
 
 Hoedel's Attempt to Assassinate the Einpeior William.— Tlie prevailing 
 discontent in Gerniany led to several attempts by Socialists to assassinate the 
 Emperor William, who was already eighty-one years of age. On the llth of 
 May, 1878, while the aged Emperor was riding in his carriage in the Avenue 
 Unter den Linden, in Berlin, he was fired at twice by a tinsmith from Leipsic. 
 named Hoedel, aged twenty-one years. Both shots missed, and Hoedel ran into 
 the Middle Avenue, followed by a crowd. On an attempt being made to capture 
 him, he fired three more shots, and then threw his revolver away. He was then 
 secured. He denied that Tie had fired at the Emperor. Socialist documents 
 were found in his possession. The city was soon greatly excited, and dense 
 masses thronged the streets, and testified their respect for their aged and beloved 
 Emperor. Great crowds assembled in front of the imperial palace, singing the 
 national anthem, and manifesting their loyalty and sympathy; and the venerated 
 Emperor showed himself several times, in acknowledgment of their expression of 
 sympathy. Members of the Ministry, foreign ambassadors, and army officers 
 hastened to the palace, to tender their congratulations upon the Emperor's escape. 
 In the evening the Emperor went to the opera and the Royal Theatre, and re- 
 ceived great ovations. Hoedel's attempt proved that Socialism was deeply rooted 
 in Germany, and Socialistic meetings were prohibited by the Government. The 
 Ministry presented a bill in the German Parliament, for the repression of Social- 
 istic excesses; but this bill was defeated by the Liberal majority in the Reichstag, 
 or Lower House of the German Parliament, because the bill curtailed liberty of 
 speech and of the press. Hoedel was tried and convicted, and finally beheaded 
 on August i6th, 187S, meeting his death with firmness, and shouting "Bravo!" 
 
 Nobiling's Attempt to Assassinate the Emperor William. — Another 
 dastardly attempt was made to assassinate the venerable Emperor of Germany, on 
 Sunday, June 2d, 1878, by Dr. Nobiling, who, as the octogenarian Emperor was 
 riding in his carriage in the Avenue Unter den Linden — the scene of Hoedel's 
 attack — fired at him twice from a double-barreled gun, from a house in the 
 avenue. The Emperor received about thirty small shot in the face, body, both 
 arms and back. He suffered great pain, but no serious apprehensions were felt 
 as to his condition. Nobiling fired with a revolver upon persons attempting to 
 irrest him, and then inflicted several serious wounds upon his own head. \N hen 
 asked why he attempted to kill the Emperor, he said, "The people have done 
 away with God, and want no more kiaigs." He was thirty-two years of age, in 
 comfortable circumstances, well educated, and held a diploma of Doctor of 
 Philology. He resided in Berlin, and frequented Socialist clubs. This second 
 attempt to assassinate the Emperor caused a profound sensation in Berlin, and 
 throughout Germany. The people of Berlin were greatly excited, and made 
 warm manifestations of their regard for their venerable and beloved sovereign. 
 Vast crowds assembled in front of the imperial palace, making anxious inquiries 
 as to the Emperor's condition; and it was only by the most superhuman efforts 
 
6o2 SOCIALISM AND NIHILISM. 
 
 of the police that Nobiling, while being carried a prisoner to the police station, 
 escaped the fury of the enraged populace, who demanded the would-be-assassin's 
 life. The crowd Agreed its way into the palace, and only dispersed on receiving 
 satisfactory news of the Emperor's condition. Tlie Emperor rapidly recovered 
 from his wounds. Nobiling was defiant, and glorified in his crime. His wounds 
 V ere at first thought serious, but he soon began slowly lo recover. Loyal and 
 £ymj;adietic demonstrations in favor of the wounded Emperor were made 
 tlrrov.ghout the Empire. Nobiling relapsed, and died September loth, 1S78. 
 
 Dissolution of the Reichstag. — The Elections for a New Keichstag. — 
 In consequence of these two attempts at regicide, the German Government con- 
 templated repressive measures; and, although the National Liberals now prom- 
 ised to support any bill to suppress Socialism, I'rince Bismarck dissolved the 
 Reichstag, and ordered new elections, with the view of securing a reactionary 
 majority to support any measure which the Government might propose. The 
 National Liberals made a determined effort to return their majority. The Gov- 
 ernment closed all Socialist meetings; and Herr Most, a Socialist member of the 
 Reichstag, was sentenced to six months' imprisonment, for persisting in addressing 
 a Socialist meeting at Chenniitz, after the police had declared it closed. The 
 elections for a new Reichstag were held on July 31st (1S78), and resulted in the 
 choice of no Liberals, 93 Conservatives, 96 Ullramontanes, and 35 members of 
 various other parties. The Liberals lost thirty seats, though they still had a 
 plurality. There was an immense increase in the Socialist vote, the party polling 
 over 700,000 votes. Sixty-six second ballots were necessary, as in that many 
 cases there had been no definite results. Prince Bismarck prepared a stringent 
 bill for the suppression of Socialism. 
 
 Nihilism in Russia. — Vera Sassulitch's Bold Attempt, Trial, and 
 Escape. — While Socialism was growing in Germany, a far more radical and 
 revolutionary doctrine, called Nihilism, was making rapid progress in Russia, 
 among all classes of the population ; even among the aristocracy and the army, as 
 well as among the peasant class. In April, 1878, Nihilist outbreaks were feared 
 at Moscow and Kiev, and troops were sent to strengthen the garrisons at those 
 places. About this time (April, 1878), a young maiden, named Vera Sassulitch, 
 attempted to assassinate General Trepolf, Prefect of Police at St. Petersburg, in 
 revenge for his cruel flogging of a Nihilist. She was tried for this attempt, and, 
 notwithstanding her known guilt, she was acquitted by the jury. The Govern- 
 ment, unwilling to abide by the verdict, declared that in future such cases should 
 not be tried by jury. The Public Prosecutor appealed from the verdict, and the 
 Supreme Court of St. Petersburg declared the trial null and void, on the ground 
 of informality of procedure, and ordered tlrat a new trial take place at Novgoroo; 
 but Vera Sassulitch had, m the meantime, escaped. After her acquittal, the 
 police attempted to rearrest her, but were frustrated by a crowd, and a riot 
 ensued. The maiden was seized by the police disguised as medical students, and 
 was to be transported to Siberia; but, by bribing the police, she succeeded in 
 making her escape, in the disguise of a Sister of Charity, and found her way to 
 Geneva, in Switzerland, where a supper was given in her honor by a n imber of 
 Russian and other exiles. In a speech before these exiles, she said that she had 
 given herself, body and soul, to the cause of revolution, and that, in her opinion, 
 
SOCIALISM AND NIHILISM. 603 
 
 its triumph was not far distant. The Russian people, she said, were fast becoming 
 undeceived ; the blood that had been spilled in the late Russo-Turkish war v.-as 
 the last that would be shed in combats instigated by the ambition of princes; the 
 next struggle would be that of the people against kings. The other speeches at 
 the supper were of a violent character. The authorities at Geneva, uneasy at 
 Vera Sassulitch's presence, compelled her to leave Switzerland; whereupon she 
 went to Paris. 
 
 Assassinations of Baron Heyking and General Mezentzoff.— In the 
 
 meantime, Baron Heyking, Prefect of Police at Kiev, was stabbed to death, while 
 walking in the streets of that city; and the assassin succeeded in making his 
 escape, shooting one of his pursuers. Baron Heyking had made himself hated 
 on account of his severity — secret whippings of Nihilists for imprudent language 
 being frequent at Kiev. On August l6th, 187S, General Me/.cntzoff, the successor 
 of General Trepoff as Prefect of Police at St. Petersburg, was fatally stabbed in a 
 public square in that city, dying shortly afterward. Upon conimitting their 
 bloody deed, the assassins, brandishing their weapons, jumped into a conveyance 
 and escaped. The assassination of General Mezentzoff caused intense excite- 
 ment in the Russian capital. It was supposed that the act was committed in 
 revenge for the execution of lioedel at Berlin, which occurred on the same day 
 It was known that there was a bond of sympathy between the Communists of 
 France, the Socialists of Germany, and the Nihilists of Russia. On August 27th, 
 1S78, a Russian imperial ukase was issued at St. Petersburg, temporarily remitting 
 crimes against the State and attacks upon officials to court-martial. 
 
 HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION CONTINUED. 
 
 Financial Affairs. — -The people of the United States were still suffering from 
 the business prostration caused by the disastrous effects of the panic of Septem- 
 ber, 1873. ^n February, 1878, a bill remonetizing the silver dollar was passed 
 by both Houses of Congress, over the President's veto. On Januaiy 1st, 1879, 
 specie payments were resumed, m accordance with the provisions of the Specie 
 Resumption Act passed by Congress in January, 1875. 
 
 War with the Bsnnock Indians in Oregon. — In the beginning of June, 
 187S, the Bannock and Shoshone Indians in Northern Oregon began a murderous 
 war against the white settlers. The Bannocks raided and robbed freight stations 
 on the overland road, and committed many murders. Early in June (1878), a 
 party of seventeen volunteers had a fight with about 100 Bannocks, near South 
 Mountain; two of the volunteers being killed, six wounded and two missing; 
 the rest being forced to flee. About eight Indians were killed. > On June 23d, 
 Major Bernard's troops, 500 in number, attacked 1,500 hostile Indians at Cherry- 
 Creek, killing many of them, and compelling the rest to flee in dismay. The 
 soldiers lost only three killed and two wounded. On June 29th, a fight occurred 
 near Canon City, between some scouts and a party of hulians. On July 2d 
 (1S7S), the Umalillas had a fight with the Snake Indians. On July 6th, fifty 
 volunteers under Captain Sperry were defeated at Willow Springs. Captain 
 Sperrv was killed, and nearly his entire command were either killed or m ounded. 
 On July 8th, a body of troops under Major Kress went down the Columbia river 
 in a steamboat, and destroyed an Indian camp on the north side of the river. On 
 the same day, (July 8, 1878,) General Howard, with a force of artillery, infantry, 
 
6o+ THE EASTERN QUESTION CONTINUED. 
 
 cavalry, and volunteers, attacked the hostile Indians at Butler Creek, charging 
 up steep ridges three times, capturing the Indian camp, provisions, and horses; 
 the Indians going in headlong flight into a rugged mountain region. On July 
 I2th (1878), Cayuse station was burned by the Indians, who murdered some of 
 the settlers; and fourteen citizens had a skirmish with 150 Indians, and were 
 driven back. On July 15th, General Miles, with his command, fought and 
 repulsed the hostile Indians at Umatilla. On July 14th, a cavalry force, under 
 Colonel Forsyth, fought the Indians near Canyon station. On July i6th, General 
 Miles's troops had a fight with the Bannocks near McKay's Creek. On July 
 17th, the Umatilla Indians under Colonel Forsyth's command attacked a hosti e 
 camp, killing seventeen warriors, about twenty squaws and children, and seventy 
 head of horses. On July igth and 20th, the friendly Indians defeated the hostilcs 
 in several skirmishes, kdling about twenty-five and capturing the same number, 
 and also taking over 300 horses. On July i6th, the r>annocks and Snakes were 
 badly beaten by Colonel Sanford's cavalry, aided by Nez Perces and Umatillas. 
 Late in August (1878), Captain Egan's cavalry captured fifty-six head of Bannock 
 ponies. On August 25th (1878), a party of Bannocks entered the Yellowstone 
 Valley, and stole a large amount of stock, including that of Hayden's surveying 
 party, and then escaped. The Hayden parly were fired upon by the Bannocks, 
 but succeeded in making their escape. On September 4th, 1878, General Miles, 
 with twenty-seven soldiers and thirty-five Crow Indians, defeated a large party of 
 Bannocks, near Clark's Fork of the Yellowstone river, killing thirteen hostile 
 Indians, and capturing thirty-four Indian men, women, and children, and 200 
 ponies. Captain -Bennett, of Company B, 5th Infantry, was killed. On the fol- 
 lowing day the Bannocks were again defeated, and their chief, their squaws, and 
 children, were captured. The Bannocks were now thoroughly subdued, and the 
 war ended. 
 
 War With the Cheyenne Indians in Colorado. — On September 9th, 1878, 
 the Cheyenne Indians, about 350 in number, left their agency near Fort Reno, in 
 the Indian Territory, entered Eastern Colorado, and within two weeks they had 
 five engagements with United Slates troops. In the fifth engagement, September 
 2Slh, 1S7S, the troops defeated the Cheyennes severely, but Lieutenant Lewis, of 
 the 19th Infantry, was mortally wounded. The hostile Cheyennes now spread 
 murder and desolation through their whole course, destroying every residence for 
 twelve miles, and murdering seventeen settlers on Sappa Creek. They then fled 
 into Nebraska. The fleeing Cheyennes were finally captured and imprisoned at 
 Fort Robinson, Nebraska, but they escaped in January, 1879. On January 22d, 
 1S79, the escaped Cheyennes were severely defeated by a body of troops who had 
 surrounded them ; the whole band, refusing to surrender, were all but extennin- 
 'aled — twenty-nine warriors, squaws, and papooses being killed, six wounded, and 
 only one unhurt. 
 
 THE EASTERN QUESTION CONTINUED. 
 
 The Austro-Hungarian Conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina. — ilic 
 
 Austro-Hungarians did not subdue liosnia and Herzegovina without a hard si: uggle. 
 
 The Servians were accused of comjilicity with the Bosnian insurgents. The Austro- 
 
 Ilungarians occupied Zarina, in Herzegovina, on August 29th, 1S78. Many of 
 
THE EASTERN QUESTION CONTINUED. 605 
 
 the Herzegovinian chiefs submitted to the Austro-Hungarians, but 1,000 insurgents 
 were massed at Trebinge. The invaders occupied Nevesinje, in Herzegovina, on 
 August 28th. General Szapary defeated the insurgents at Doboj.on August 3cth, 
 after an artillery engagement of several hours, aud silenced four or five of their 
 guns, and in the evening there was musketry fire for two hours. The Moham- 
 medan population of Kolaschin took possession of the fortifications after a c n- 
 fiict with two battalions of Turkish regulars. Some of General PhilippovvLu's 
 troops defeated a band of insurgents near Kadinoselo, on September 3d, killing 
 thirty of them. On September 4th, General Szapary sent two regiments south- 
 ward, driving the insurgents from Lipac, after a seven hours' engagement. On 
 September 5th, General Szapary defeated the insurgents near Tuzla, the Austro- 
 Hungarians losing 462 killed, wounded, and missing. General Zach captured 
 two of the most important outworks of Bihacs, after obstinate fighting, but the 
 positions before his left wing were still held by the insurgents. The Austro- 
 Hungarians occupied Trebinge, on September 7th, without opposition, the Turkish 
 troops surrendering the citadel and quitting the town the same evening. The Austro- 
 Hungarian troops in Bosnia now numbered 200,000. Forty-six Bosnians and 
 Servians, and more than 200 Mussulmans, were executed at Serajevo in September. 
 On September 8th, the Austro-Hungarians captured Klijuc, after a stubborn en- 
 gagement, in which they lost 260 men, killed and wounded. On Septemljer 17th, 
 the Austro-Hungarians attacked the town of Bereska, which they captured after a 
 desperate fight. They had previously captured Krespic and Dubravo, to the west- 
 ward of Bereska, after prolonged and stuljborn fighting. On September 19th, 
 General Zach captured two of the insurgent outworks before Bihacs, the insurgents 
 making a furious effort to retake them. Tiie Austro-IIangarians then bombarded 
 Bihacs, which finally capitulated at four o'clock in the afternoon. On September 
 2:st (1878), the Austro-Hungarians, starting from Serajevo, defeated 7,000 Bosnian 
 insurgents and Turkish regulars, after a six hours' engagement, near Senkovics ; 
 the insurgents being taken in flank and rear, were obliged to retreat under a 
 destructive artillery fire, the Austro- Hungarian loss being 400 killed and wounded, 
 and the insurgent loss being considerably heavier. Another Austro-Hungarian 
 force, operating from the north, occupied Olovo, unopposed, on September 2ist. 
 Still further north. General Szapary, on the same day, captured the Majevica hills, 
 which had barred the advance on Belina, and a part of his force under General 
 Budich marched to Belina, at the solicitation of the inhabitants. Numbers of 
 Bosnians tendered their submission to the Austro-Hungarians at Serajevo. The 
 Austro-Hungarians occupied Rogateca without opposition, on September 24th. 
 The invaders also occupied Zwornik without resistance. On September 28th 
 (1878), the Austro-Hungarians under General Jovanovich captured Klobuk, the 
 last refuge of the Bosnian insurgents, after a violent bombardment of five hours, 
 and a gallant resistance by the insurgents. The Austro-Hungarian force under 
 the Duke of Wurtemberg captured Livno, on the same day, after a fierce bombard- 
 ment. Bosnia and Herzegovina were now virtually conquered by Austro-Hun- 
 gary, and the insurgents submitted to the invaders, over 4,000 fleeing into ServLi, 
 where they were disarmed and interned. 
 
 Austro-Hungarian Crisis. — ^The Austro-Hungarian conquest of Bosnia 
 threatened to produce internal complications in Austro-Hungary. The Hungarians 
 
6o6 THE EASTERN QUESTION CONTINUED. 
 
 were opposed to the annexation of any more Slavonic territory to the Austro-Ilnn- 
 garian Empire, because they were jealous of the preponderance of the Slavonic 
 race over the Magyars. Count Andrassy was therefore bitterly opposed by many 
 of his former supporters, because of his Bosnian policy. The irritation in Hungary 
 at the situation of affairs in Bosnia was hourly increasing. The Hungarian radi- 
 cals held a meeting at Pesth, the capital of Hungary, on September 29th (1S78), 
 to protest against the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia. Resolutions were 
 unanimously adopted, declaring that the Austrian occupation of Bosnia was fatal 
 to the Hungarian nation ; protesting against the sacrifice of the blood and treasure 
 of Hungarians against their wishes; and demanding the withdrawal of the Austro- 
 Hungarian army from Bosnia. The resolutions were forwarded to the Ministers. 
 The dissensions in Austro- Hungary produced a Ministerial crisis. There was a 
 grave difficulty concerning Hungary's contingent of the expenses of the Austro- 
 Hungarian occupation of Bosnia, the Hungarian Ministers declaring that they 
 could not provide the money required to meet the contingent until the meeting of 
 the Hungarian Delegations. It was feared that the crisis would cause the resig- 
 nation of the Austrian, Hungarian and Imperial Ministries. After a Cabinet 
 council at Pesth, Herr Tisza, the Hungarian Premier, visited the Emperor Francis 
 Joseph at Vienna, and informed him that unless a limit be fixed to tiie military 
 expenditure the whole Hungarian Ministry must resign. The Hungarian Minister 
 of Finance, Herr von Szell, after an interview with the Emperor at Vienna, resigned 
 his office, and the other members of tlie Hungarian Cabinet only agreed to remain 
 in office on the acceptance by the Imperial Government of the following condi- 
 tions: the issue of a joint Austro-Hungarian loan; the conclusion of a convention 
 with the Porte; the reduction of the army of occupation in Bosnia; and the aban- 
 donment of the occupation of Novi-Bazar. The Austrian Cabinet opposed a joint 
 loan, and a conflict between the Austrian and Hungarian Cabinets was imminent. 
 The Emperor agreed to accept the resignations of the Austrian and Hungarian 
 Ministers. On November 6th (187S), the Lower House of the Austrian Reichs- 
 rath sustained Count Andrassy 's Bosnian policy, hy a vote of 160 to 70. 
 
 Austro-Hungary and Turkey. — Austro- Hungary and Turkey disagreed on 
 the Bosnian question, and grave complications were feared. The Porte had sent 
 a circular to the Powers, requesting them to compel Austro-Hungary to conform 
 to the declarations of the plenipotentiaries of the Great Powers at the Berlin 
 Congress, and to stop the advance and excesses of tlie Austro-Hungarian troops 
 pending the decision of the Powers, declaring if that was done the Pone would 
 consider Austro-Hungary a violator of international law. This circular caused 
 great indignation in Vienna. 
 
 Turkey and Greece. — Turkey and Montenegro. — -The Greek question 
 threatened to produce complications between Turkey and Greece. In August, 
 1878, the Porte declined to enter into any discussion with Greece relative to 'he 
 rectification of the Greek frontier. Turkish troops encroached upon Greek tc; ri- 
 tory. Greece appealed to the Great Powers to exercise the right of mediation 
 in her dispute with tlie Porte. Queen Victoria and the Prince of Wale'" advised 
 Greece to come to terms with Turkey. Russia promised to support t;.,- claims 
 of Greece on the frontier question. The Turkish Cabinet Council advised an 
 
THE EASTERiV QUESTION CONTINUED. 1607 
 
 aiTangement with Greece, conformabl)- to the proposals of the Berlin Congress, 
 without specifying the line of the frontier. Mukhtar Pacha invited the Cretan 
 Assembly to send delegates to Constantinople to negotiate with the Porte, and the 
 Cretans accepted the invitation; but Mukhtar Pacha's mission failed, the Cretans 
 rejecting all the Porte's proposals, and refusing to enter into any arrangement 
 with Mulchtar Pacha looking to the establishment of reforms in the administra- 
 tion of the island. Finally, about the middle of October (1878), Mukhtar Pacha 
 and the Cretans signed a convention by which the pacification of Crete was 
 secured. In September (1878), Russia proposed to the Powers to make a 
 collective demand upon the Porte for the immediate surrender of the teititory 
 ceded to .Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin. The Porte received a telegram 
 from the Prince of Montenegro strongly insisting upon the fulfilment of the 
 Treaty of Berlin respecting the cession of territory to Montenegro. 
 
 Insurrection in Albania. — Assassination of Mehemet AH.— In the 
 beginning of September, 1878, a formidable insurrection against the Turks broke 
 out in Albania, a province of Western Turkey. The Albanian insurgents assas- 
 sinated the Governor of Ipek and ten other officials. Mehemet Ali Pacha, who 
 was sent to pacify Albania, was mobbed at Yacova, a town sixty-seven miles 
 northwest of Scutari. He fled from the place and took refuge in a shed, but was 
 pursued by the Albanians, who called upon him to organize an attack against the 
 Austro-Hungarians. Upon refusing to comply with this demand, Mehemet Ali 
 and twenty members of his suite were massacred. The insurgents afterward fired 
 the house containing the dead body of Mehemet All, with petroleum. The Al- 
 banian League was said to number 45,000 men, well-armed and equipped, and 
 determined to resist the occupation of their territory by any Christian power. 
 Christians from Albania were fleeing into Montenegro, and the Albanian League 
 sent troops into Lpirus. Early in October (1878), the Albanians massacred Saad 
 Detden Pacha, together with 150 Turkish officers and troops. 
 
 Proposed Turkish Reforms. — Early in September, 1878, England endeav- 
 ored to induce the Porte to execute its promised reforms in Asia Minor. On 
 September 12th, Safvet Pacha informed Mr. Layard, the British Ambassador at 
 Constantinople, that the Porte adhered to the scheme of reforms for Asia Minor. 
 Safvet Pacha at the same time pointed out the necessity of obtaining the means 
 for executing the reforms, and asked for an advance of si.x. million pounds on the 
 .surplus revenue of Cyprus. Mr. Layard replied that this was impossible, as it 
 would require a vote of Parliament. The Porte promised not only to accept the 
 English programme of reforms for Asia Minor, but to extend it to the whole Otto- 
 man Empire. The difficulty of executing the necessary reforms in Asia Minor 
 was increa-ed by the Sultan's jealousy. The negotiations at length promised some 
 result. The mixed Christian and Mohammedan police were to be commanded by 
 English officers. An English Assistant Judge was to be added to each Court of 
 Appeals. The Governor and head tax-gatherer were to be appointed and dis- 
 mis.sed subject to English influence. These and other equally important clauses 
 were approved by the Porte, which expressed a desire to introduce English insti- 
 tutions into the Ottoman dominions. Mr. Layard energetically insisted upon the 
 execution of the convention between England and the Porte abolishing the sale 
 ^1 
 
6o8 THE EASTERN QUESTION CONTINUED. 
 
 and importation of slaves. Mr. Layard demanded tJie freedom of the slave who 
 had recently taken refuge at the British Consulate. Tlie Turkish paper currency 
 was rapidly depreciating in value, causing a disastrous state of affairs. In No- 
 vember, (1S78,) the Porte appointed Carathedori Pacha at the head of a commis- 
 sion to apply reforms to Eastern Roumelia. The Porte contracted a new loan for 
 fifteen million Turkish pounds, the guaranty to comprise the surplus of the Cyprus 
 revenue. 
 
 Bulgarian Outrages. — The Bulgarian Christians continued to plunder and 
 outrage the Mussulmans. The .Sultan appealed to the Czar to stop the massacres, 
 to which the Czar sent an amicable and reassuring reply, saying the Russian Com- 
 missioners in Bulgaria would severely punish all acts of injustice or cruelty com- 
 mitted against any of the inhabitants of the province. Christian refugees were 
 fleeing in the rear of the Russians. It was reported that native armies were form- 
 ing in Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia, commanded by Russian officers, equipped 
 with Russian arms, and numbering about 50,000 men. Forcible enlistments con- 
 tinued, and arms were distributed by the Russians among the Christian villagers 
 in Eastern Roumelia, while the Turks provided rifles and ammunition for the 
 Pomaks in the Rhodope mountains. The Bulgarian Christians were organizing 
 a movement for the extermination of the Mohammedan population, and the Rus- 
 sians encouraged secret committees in procuring arms. Russia was resolved to 
 maintain her administration in Eastern Roumelia, while the Porte insisted on 
 maintaining the financial administration, subject only to the supervision of the 
 Eastern Roumelian Commission, and the Bulgarians continued the agitation in 
 favor of annexation to Bulgaria. It was officially denied that Russian oflicials par- 
 ticipated in, or connived at, the Bulgarian outrages. General Todleben, the 
 Russian commander, issued orders to the Russian military authorties on the 
 Eastern Roumelian frontier to prevent the formation of insurgent bands, and to 
 watch the movements of insurgent committees. The Russians arrested 500 Bul- 
 garians who were about to enter Macedonia. The Bashi-Bazouks and Circassians 
 defeated the Bulgarian insurgents in the Melnik District of Macedonia, and burned 
 twenty more villages, only a thousand inhabitants escaping. Insurgent Bulgarian 
 bands were forming all through Macedonia; and Rhodope refugees were descend- 
 ing into the Portlagos District, murdering and robbing indiscriminately. Turkish 
 troops were sent to the scene. The insurrection in Macedonia was daily assuming 
 greater dimensions, and spreading into Epirus and Thessaly. The Porte sent a 
 strong military force to crush the insurrection. 
 
 German Circular. — Lord Salisbury's Accusations. — Early in September, 
 1878, the German Government sent a circular to the signatories of the Treaty of 
 Berlin, asking them to take a common step with the view of bringing the Porte to 
 execute the stipulations of the treaty. Austro- Hungary, France, and Russia replied 
 affirmatively. Lord Salisbury and the English Consuls having accused the Rus- 
 sian authorities of conniving at the atrocities of the Bulgarians, the Agence Rtisse, 
 of St. Petersburg, on August 25th, 1878, pronounced the imputation offensive, and 
 declared that it was made to pave the way for the encroachment of British influ- 
 ence even into Bulgaria, and that Russia would know how to oppose such 
 encroachment. 
 
THE EASTERN- QUESTION CONTINUED. 609 
 
 Withdrawal of the Russian Troops and the British Fleet from Con- 
 stantinople. — Late in September, 187S, the Russians began to withdraw from 
 the neiglibornood of Constantinople toward Adrianople, and at the same time tlie 
 British fleet withdrew from Princes' Island to Artaki Bay, in the Sea of Marmora, 
 seventy miles southwest of Constantinople. 
 
 Russo-Turkish Difficulty. — About the middle of October, 1878, the Russians 
 marched on Adrianople from the north. The Turks occupied Babaeski when it 
 was evacuated by the Russians, whereupon General Todleben, the Russian com- 
 mander, summoned the Turkish commander to withdraw from the place, threaten- 
 ing to take it forcibly. Safvet Pacha accordingly ordered its evacuation, and tlie 
 Russians reoccupied it. The Turks now mounted guns on the Constantinople line 
 of defenses. 
 
 Critical Relations of England and Austria. — Russia's Assurances. — 
 
 The Eastern question still continued to greatly agitate Europe. Great distrust of 
 Russia's sincerity in abiding by the Treaty of Berlin was manifested in England. 
 Russia was forming a new camp of 60,000 men at Kischeneff, to replace the troops 
 who crossed the Balkans. Russia refused to evacuate the Dobrudscha or Rou- 
 mania until Roumania concluded an ofTensive and defensive alliance with Russia. 
 On the evening of October 19th, 1878, Sir Stafford Northcote, Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, in a speech at Birmingham, announced England's determination to 
 enforce the Treaty of Berlin; and Mr. Cross, the Home Secretary, made the same 
 declaration in a speech at Southport. At the close of October, 1878, England 
 remonstrated with Russia on the non-fulfilment of the Treaty of Berlin. The 
 Porte, likewise, asked Russia to explain why the Russian troops had returned to 
 Adrianople and other places in Eastern Roumelia. The London Times declared 
 the Treaty of Berlin a failure, and demanded war. The Golos, of St. Petersburg, 
 said the Russian people would favor a renewal of hostilities. On November 9th, 
 1878, a note was handed to Lord Augustus Loftus, the British Ambassador at St. 
 Petersburg, giving assurances of the Czar's desire to faithfully respect the Treaty 
 of Berlin. Russia also assured the other Powers of its sincerity to carry out to the 
 letter the provisions of the treaty. At the banquet given by Sir Charles Whetham, 
 the new Lord Mayor of London, on the evening of November 9th, 1878, Lord 
 Beaconsfield made a speech defending the Treaty of Berlin, and announcing 
 England's determination to see it enforced in spirit and to the letter. 
 
 Definitive Peace of Constantinople. — On February 8th, 1879, ^ definitive 
 treaty of peace between Turkey and Russia was signed at Constantinople, by 
 Caratheodori and Ali Pachas on the part of Turkey, and by Prince Labanoff, the 
 Russian Ambassador at Constantinople, on the part of Russia. The treaty de 
 clared peace and cordial relations between the two empires; the war indemnity to 
 be paid by the Porte to Russia to be fixed at 300,000,000 paper roubles, and the 
 settlement to be deferred ; and all the San Stefano stipulations which were modi 
 fied by the Treaty of Berlin to remain as modified, and the articles of the San 
 Stefano Ti^aty not modified by the Berlin Treaty to remain in force. Russian 
 evacuation of Ottoman territory was to be completed forty days after the ratification 
 of the treaty. The Russians began to evacuate Turkish territory on the following 
 day (February 9, 1S79) The definitive treaty of peace was speedily ratified by 
 .-9 
 
6io SOCIALISM AND NIHILISM. 
 
 the Turkish and Russian Governments, and the Russian troops in Turkey were 
 ordered to return home. St. Petersburg was brilliantly illuminated on the night 
 of February i6th, 1S79, i" honor of the event. 
 
 THE STRUGGLE WITH SOCIALISM AND NIHILISM. 
 
 The Supplementary Elections for the German Reichstag^. — -The supple- 
 mentary elections in Germany for the Reichstag were all over by the beginning 
 of September, 1878. The total result was that the Ultramontanes gained six seats, 
 the Conservatives forty. The National Liberals lost 29, the Progressists 13, and 
 the Social Democrats 4. The Social Democrats now had only eight members. 
 
 Debates in the German Reichstag on the Anti-Socialist Bill. — -The new 
 German Reichstag convened in September, 1878, and Bismarck's bill directed 
 against Socialism was immediately introduced. Debate on the Anti-Socialist bili 
 opened in the Reichstag on September i6th, 1878; and Herr Reichensperger, 
 Ultramontane, and Herr Bebel, Socialist, made speeches denouncing the bill; 
 while Herr Bamberger, Liberal, Count von Eulenburg, and Count Stolberg spoke 
 in favor of the measure. On the following day (September 17, 1878), Prince 
 Bismarck defended his Anti-Socialist bill in an energetic speech. On September 
 2ist (1878), one of the clauses of the bill was rejected by the Parliamentary Com- 
 mittee to which the bill was referred ; but, on the following day, the committee 
 accepted the bill in an amended form. The clause prohibited Socialist meetings 
 tending to endanger the public peace or concord among the various classes in 
 Germany. On September 27th (1878), the Parliamentary Committee completed 
 its first reading of the Anti-Socialist bill, and adopted the clause providing that 
 the final court of appeal for cases arising under the bill should consist of five 
 members of the Federal Council, selected by their colleagues, and five Judges 
 from the Supreme Court of the German Empire, or of individual German States, 
 the Emperor to appoint the president and vice-president of the court. The 
 Emperor William, in a written reply, thanked the Reichstag for its work. The 
 Government organ in Berlin opposed the amendment which the Parliamentary 
 Committee made to the Anti-Socialist bill restricting the operation of the law to 
 two and a Iralf years. The organ expressed the intentions entertained by Prince 
 Bismarck, who threatened another dissolution of the Reichstag in the event of an 
 unsatisfactory result of the Anti-Socialist debate. On October. 2d (1878), the 
 Parliamentary Committee adopted the Anti-Socialist bill on its second reading in 
 all the essential points the same as after its first reading. The Committee even 
 retamed the clause limiting the operation of the bill to two years and a half, not- 
 withstanding the objection of Count von Eulenburg, Minister of the Interior. 
 
 Herr Hasselmann's Violent Speech in the Reichstag. — On October loth, 
 1878, in the course of the debate in the German Reichstag on the Anti -Socialist 
 bill, Herr Hasselmann, a well-known Socialist agitator, made a violent though 
 clever speech, beginning and ending with threats of violence and bloodshed as 
 results of repressive legislation. The President of the Reichstag interrupted Herr 
 Hasselmann, called him to order, and said that his speech was an incitement to 
 rebellion. Herr Hasselmann repeated his words, and was again called to order, 
 arnid loud and indignant protests. He uttered these words: " I am not per 
 
SOCIALISM AND NIHILISM. 6ii 
 
 sonally in favor of revolution. I prefer pacific means; but, if we are forced to 
 fight, we shall know how to fight; and I shall be proud to lay down my life on 
 the field of honor. Let Prince Bismarck remember the iSth of March, 1848.' 
 Herren Lowe and Benningsen denounced the purposes and methods of Socialism 
 and defended repressive legislation. 
 
 Passage of the Anti-Socialist Bill by the Reichstag. — On October nth, 
 1878, the Reichstag passed through a second reading, clauses 2d and 3d of the 
 Anti-Socialist bill, with scarcely any modifications. On October 14th, the Reich- 
 stag threw out clause 6th of the Anti-Socialist bill, prohibiting Socialist writings. 
 Clauses 7th, 8th, 9th and loth, were passed over; and clauses nth, 12th, 13th 
 and 15th, were adopted. On October 19th (1878), the Reichstag adopted the 
 whole of the Anti-Socialist bill, by a vote of 221 against 149. Both sections of the 
 Conservatives and National Liberals, with some independent Liberals, voted for 
 the bill. Prince Bismarck then read the message closing the Reichstag. He said 
 the Government, armed with this measure, would make a determined effort to cure 
 the prevalent disease. If they were not able to succeed in two years and a half, 
 the Government hoped to obtain further concessions. Pursuant to the provisions 
 of the Anti-Socialist bill, the police of Berlin dissolved four Socialist clubs in that 
 city. 
 
 Attempt to Assassinate King Alphonso of Spain. — On October 25th, 
 1878, as King Alphonso, of Spain, was driving through the streets of Madrid, a 
 man in a blouse fired at him. The king was not touched, and continued his drive 
 to the palace, amid the acclamations of the crowd. The would-be assassin, wha 
 was immediately seized by the soldiers and taken to prison, was a young man of 
 twenty-three, named Juan Moncase, a cooper by trade, a native of Tarragona, 
 and a member of the International Society, a Socialist organization extending 
 over Christendom. All the foreign ambassadors and diplomatists in Madrid con- 
 gratulated the young king upon his escape, and a solemn Te Deum was sung on 
 the following day. The popular indignation against the would-be assassin was 
 intense. The would-be assassin was tried and condemned, and executed January 
 4th, 1879. 
 
 Attempt to Assassinate King Humbert of Italy.— On November 17th, 
 1878, an attempt was made at Naples to assassinate King Humbert, of Italy, v/ho 
 had succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, Victor Emmanuel^ in 
 January, 1878. As King Humbert and his queen and son were entering Naples 
 in state and were enthusiastically received by the populace, a poorly-clad man 
 attempted to assassinate him with a poniard. Signor Cairoli, Chief of the Italian 
 Mintstry, who was in the carriage with the young king, laid hands on the would- 
 be assassin, who wounded him in the left thigh. The king drew his sword and 
 struck the would-be assassin, who was immediately secured. The king received 
 a slight scratch on the left arm. The would-be assassin, who was immediately 
 taken to the guard-house, was a man named Giovanni Passanante, aged twenty- 
 nine, a cook by occupation, and a member of the International Society. He said 
 that he did not like kings. Great popular indignation against the would-be 
 assassip was manifested in Naples, and throughout Italy. Demonstrations 'A loy- 
 alty were unbounded, and congratulatory telegrams were pouring in from all 
 
6i2 SOCIALISM AND NIHILISM. 
 
 sides, one being from the Pope. The Patriarch of Venice ordered a Te Deiim lo 
 be sung, and the Papal organ in Rome vehemently denounced the crime, Tlie 
 would-be assassin was tried, condemned, and sentenced to penal servitude 
 for life. 
 
 Revolutionary Conduct of Russian Students. — In December, 1878, a 
 mysterious struggle occurred between the Russian Government and the students 
 of St. Petersburg, Kieff, and Charkoff. On December 12th, several hundred s;u- 
 i'-nts assembled before the Czarewitch's palace to present a petition. The Czare- 
 wi.;ch being absent, Selo, the Prefect of Police at St. Petersburg, received tlie 
 petition, and ordered the crowd to disperse, saying that it was illegal to present a 
 uetition in such a manner. The students refusing to disperse, half a squadi on of 
 gendarmes were summoned, and 142 students were arrested and lodged m the 
 barracks of the Moscow Regiment. On December 14th, the Agence Russe an- 
 nounced that, in consequence of illegal demonstrations by the students, the autlior- 
 ities had adopted certain measures for securing public order. The students were 
 agitating for the liberation of their colleagues arrested at Charkoff, in connection 
 with recent demonstrations caused by the introduction of an obnoxious regulation 
 in reference to their studies. The agitation continued. On December l6th, 
 a meeting was held to protest against the violence of the soldiery. The students 
 complained that the Prefect of Police had promised to bring an answer to the 
 petition calling attention to oppression of the students, and requesting the libera- 
 tion of their colleagues arrested at Charkoff. Instead of any reply being given to 
 the petition, the St. Petersburg colleges were surrounded by 2,000 gendarmes and 
 Cossacks, and 200 arrests were made. The Cossacks used whips, and several 
 students were injured. The drawbridge over the River Neva was removed, to 
 prevent a thousand students from crossing to the south side. The lecture halls 
 were closed, and meetings within the universities, as well as outside, were for- 
 bidden. The police were ordered to act within the universities, if requested to do 
 so by the Rectors. A proclamation was conspicuously posted, forbidding the 
 carrying of arms in the St. Petersburg District, except by authorization. On De- 
 cember 30th, 1878, a riot took place at Kieff, caused by the resistance of the stu- 
 dents of the university at that place. The students, in a meeting held outside of 
 the town, had decided to protest against the closing of the university. A body of 
 armed men accordingly proceeded to the university, and forced their way in, after 
 disarming the city police. They then fixed on a blackboard an energetic protest 
 against the arbitrary proceedings of the authorities. Two companies of local 
 militia tried to disperse the students, who resisted, whereupon a riot ensued, in 
 which many persons were killed on both sides. A calvalry force succeeded in 
 clearing the streets in front of the university, and many students were arrested. 
 Similar riots, though on a smaller scale, occurred in other Russian towns. Orders 
 were sent to the Russian police at the Western frontier of Russia to redouble 
 rhcir vigilance, in order to stop the smuggling of revolutionary pamphlets inl(> the 
 country, a practice which had been going on on a large scale, and to prevent the 
 entrance into Russia of revolutionary emissaries from Germany. Late in February, 
 1879, a serious riot occurred at Kieff, caused by the attempt of the police to close 
 a secret Nihilist printing establishment. 
 
THE ANGLO-AFGHAN WAR. 613 
 
 The Pope's Encyclical. — On January 12th, 1879, the new Pope, Lea XIII., 
 who had succeeded to the chair of St. Peter on the death of Pope Pius IX., in 
 P'ebruary, 1878, issued an encyclical letter, in which he inveighed against Social 
 ism. Communism and Nihilism, which he declared militated no longer secretly, 
 but openly, against the civil State, rupturing the matrimonial tie, ignoring the 
 rights of property, claiming everything, however legally inherited or honestly 
 acquired, and attempting even the lives of kings; the sinister agencies springing 
 from the Protestant Reformation, which opened the sluice-gate of skepticism, till 
 godless governments have arisen, wherein the Author and Redeemer of the world 
 i.s ignored; youth are trained to believe than man's destinies are bounded by the 
 present, without any hereafter ; hence the impatient and aggressive spirit which 
 seeks its gratification at others' expense. Thus the natural development of the 
 Reformation was indicated by previous Pontiffs, from Clement XII. to Pius IX., 
 in their allocutions and encyclicals, but the Church's warning is more than ever 
 required. The equality maintained by the sects is contrary to the Scripture. 
 There are distinctions between the angels in heaven, a fortiori must there be 
 distinctions between men upon earth. When tyranny prevails the Church shields 
 the oppressed. When the tyrant is too strong she enjoins resignation. The Pope 
 justified Christian marriage, and the subservience of woman to man, of the child 
 to the parent, and of the servant to the master. Such interdependence, rightly 
 observed in the State, as well as in the family, would operate on earth as it does 
 in heaven. The poverty of which Socialism is impatient, is corrected by the 
 Church, which, beside her own duties, enjoins almsgiving on the rich, to whom 
 she reconciles the poor. Such is the solution of the evils for which Socialism 
 seeks a revolutionary remedy. Let, therefore, all principalities and powers accept 
 the Church — the safeguard of earthly and the surety of heavenly things. 
 
 THE ANGLO-AFGHAN WAR OF 1878-9. 
 
 Russian Embassy to Afghanistan. — During the summer of 1878, a Rus- 
 sian ernbassy was hospitably received by Shere AH, Ameer of Afghanistan, thus 
 arousing the suspicion of England, which feared that Russia intended some hos- 
 tile movement against British India through Afghanistan. The British Govern- 
 ment accordingly determined to require Shere AH to receive a permanent British 
 resident at Cabul and British agents at other places. 
 
 A British Mission Refused Permission to Enter Afghanistan. — In Sep- 
 tember, 1878, a British mission was sent from British India to Shere AH, but was 
 refused pf^rmission to enter the Khyber Pass, on its way to Cabul, by the Afghan 
 officer at AH Musjid, the heights which commanded the pass being guarded by 
 Afghan soldiers. After an interview of three hours with the officer, in which he 
 warned him that his act would be regarded as the act of the Ameer himself. 
 Major Cavagnari, commander of the advanced escort of tl-; British mission, re- 
 turned to Jumrood, and the mission withdrew to Peshawur. The object of this 
 British mission to Shere AH was to inform him that he must live on friendly terms 
 with the British Indian Government, and show no friendliness toward Russia. 
 The Government organs in England announced that any unfriendly act on the 
 part of Shere AH toward Great Britain would lead to war. It was believed that 
 the Ameer. of Afghanistan was instigated to his hostile action toward England by 
 
6i4 THE ANGLO-AFGHAN WAR. 
 
 Russia. Tlie British Government accordingly determined to punish the AfgliaT5 
 insuh to the British nation, and an Anglo-Indian expedition was immediately or- 
 ganized to chastise Shere AH. 
 
 Energetic Action of the Anglo-Indian Government. — On September 
 24th, 1878, a special meeting of the Council of the British Viceroy of India was 
 held at Simla. General Roberts, the commandant of the British frontier forces, 
 Hrar'ed for Peshawur with secret orders. A large Anglo-Indian force was ordeied 
 . be in readiness on the Afghan frontier, where 12,000 men were soon massed, 
 (here M'as much excitement in British India, and the Anglo-Indian press was 
 unanimously warlike in tone, demanding an apology from the Ameer of Afghan- 
 istan, or the occupation of his territory. Almost a commercial panic existed at 
 Bombay. The British Indian Government acted promptly on the Afghan qnes- 
 tion, and orders were issued on September 25th (1878), to concentrate troops on 
 the Afghan frontier, with a view to early operations, if necessary. The Ameer 
 of Afghanis'.an allowed three letters from the Viceroy of British India to remain 
 unanswered. The British mission was then broken up. An Anglo-Indian force 
 under General Roberts was dispatched to the Koorum Valley. A column of 
 6,000 British Indian troops was ordered to assemble at Moultan, and a force of 
 8,000 was designed to occupy Quettah. The excitement in British India at the 
 prospect of war with Afghanistan was hourly increasing. 
 
 British War Preparations. — Russia's Peaceful Assurances. — The Brit- 
 ish Government was making energetic preparations for the Afghan war. The 
 2d battalion of the 14th regiment started from Queenstown, Ireland, October 5tli. 
 Five batteries of artillery left Portsmouth for British India, October 15th. All 
 preparations advanced with the utmost speed. Several British regiments were 
 soon mobilized, the army was enthusiastic, and the spirit of the native Indian 
 troops was admirable. Russia officially denied having done anything toward 
 causing the Ameer's rejection of the British mission. Russia also intimated to 
 England her intention to recall the Russian mission from Cabul. 
 
 Dissensions in Afghanistan. — Early in October, 1878, the British troops 
 were ordered to advance from Dera-Ghazi-Khan, thus threatening Afghanistan 
 from a new point. Dissensions now broke out among the Afghan chiefs. The 
 Ameer asked the Tribal Councils for assistance. A number of Afghan tribes, 
 mustering 150,000 fighting men, assented. The other Afghan tribes, mustering 
 35,000 warriors, remained neutral. The Ameer of Afghanistan freed from prison 
 his son, Yakoob Khan, who was a noted general. The whole British garrison of 
 Pesl/^wur now rnarched against Fort Ali-Musjid. The Khyberees declared in 
 favo/ of the British. Several of the hill tribes also joined the invaders. The 
 Moipunks marched to join the Cabulees. There was great enthusiasm in the 
 Angl'i-Indian army at the prospect of active service. 
 
 The Anglo-Indian Government Left in Full Control. — A Cabinet Coun- 
 cil w vs held in London on October 5th, 1878, which generally approved of the 
 manlier in which the British Viceroy of India was dealing with the Afghanistan 
 alTai' , and decided to leave the Anglo-Indian Government in full control. The 
 Am<;er of Afghanistan endeavored to raise a religious war among the Mohamme 
 dans of Centra! Asia against England. 
 
THE ANGLO-AFGHAN WAR. 615 
 
 fioth Sides Reinforced. — Russian Intimation to England, — Tlie con- 
 centration of the Afghans in the Khyber Pass alarmed the British, and the British 
 garrisons at Peshawur and Kohat were reinforced and placed in a state of readi- 
 ness. The Afghan forces at Ali Musjid and Candahar were also largely rein 
 forced. The Golos, of St. Petersburg, the Russian official organ, declared that, 
 although England may seek redress from Afghanistan, if she were victorious, the 
 fate of Afghanistan must not be decided without the consent of Russia. 
 
 The Ameer's Defiant Answer. — England's Ultimatum. — On Octobtr 
 2 1st, 1S78, the Am.eer of Afghanistan sent a defiant answer to the British Viceroy 
 of India, saying, "You may do your worst; the issue is in God's hands." The 
 Ameer's message was immediately telegraphed to England. The Ameer also 
 dispatched an envoy to the Czar of Russia. On October 30th (1878), a Cabinet 
 Council was held in London, at which it was decided to send an ultimatum to 
 Shere Ali before proceeding to strong measures. England's ultimatum summoned 
 the Ameer to give guaranties for a future good understanding, and demanded that 
 the Russian embassy must withdraw from Cabul. Three weeks' time was given 
 the Ameer for an answer. On October 31st (1S78), Mr. Gladstone made a speech 
 at Rhyl, denouncing the Government's action on the Afghan question. 
 
 The British Invasion of Afghanistan. — The British Armies. — Shere 
 Ali not having replied to the British ultimatum by November 25th, 1878, the 
 British Government considered the ultimatum rejected, and accordingly author- 
 ized the Anglo-Indian army to invade the Ameer's dominions. The British Gov- 
 ernment also published a long explanatory dispatch from Lord Cranbroolc, Secre- 
 tary for British India, to Lord Lytton, Viceroy of British India, recapitulating the 
 negotiations with Afghanistan. The excitement in London was very great. At 
 three o'clock in the morning of November 21st, 1878, the loth Hussars crossed 
 the frontier, and found Fort Kapiyanga abandoned by the Afghans. General 
 Roberts's force at once moved on Fort Ahmedishams, five miles farther up the 
 valley. All the British columns crossed the frontier on the same day. The Brit- 
 ish forces invading Afghanistan were divided into three armies, as follows: the 
 Pe.shawur Valley Army, consisting of 16,000 men, with 66 guns, commanded by 
 General Browne ; the Koorum Valley Army, numbering 6,000 men, with 24 guns 
 commanded by General Roberts; the Quettah Aemy, composed of 12,000 men, 
 with 60 guns, commanded by General Biddulph — making a total force of 34,000 
 men, with 150 guns. 
 
 Proclamation of the Viceroy of British India. — England and Russia. 
 • — Lord Lytton, the Viceroy of British India, issued a proclamation, recounting 
 the relations between British India and Afghanistan during the last ten years, 
 and putting upon Shere Ali the responsibility of exchanging the friendship for the 
 hostility of the Empiess of India. In the meantime, the conduct of Russia with 
 regard to the Anglo-Afghan quarrel was suspicious. Russian military expeditions 
 advanced toward Afghanistan by way of the Caspian Sea, and rumors of intended 
 Russian aid to Shere Ali were frequent. General Kaufmann, the Russian com 
 mander in Turkestan, on the occasion of presenting a sword to the Afghan En- 
 voy at Tashl end, for transmission to the Ameer of Afghanistan, declared tliat 
 w'-oever sided with Russia did not need fear that a hair of his head would be in- 
 
6i6 THE ANGLO-AFGHAN WAR. 
 
 jured. The speech of General Kaufmann induced :he English Cabinet to ask 
 explanations from the Russian Government. There was serious strife in the Biitish 
 Cabinet Council on November 22d, 1S78, on the constitutional question involved 
 in the war. Mr. Gladstone, in a speech at Greenwich, on the night of November 
 30th, 1878, bitterly denounced the Government's dealing with the Afghan ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Capture of Fort Ali-Musjid.— Submission of Afghan Tribes. — The 
 Biitish force under General Browne attacked Fort Ali-Musjid, in the Khyber 
 Pass, on tlie morning of November 21st, 1878, and bombarded the fort all day, 
 finally silencing the fort, which was abandoned by the Afghans on the following 
 morning. The British columns, under Generals Roberts and Biddulph, advanced 
 without opposition into Afghan territory, many of the hill tribes of the Afghans 
 tendering their submission, and offering their services to the British. As General 
 Browne advanced, other Afgha.i tribes submitted to the British. The Afghan 
 tribes who tendered their services to the British were sufficient to furnish the in- 
 vading army with 50,000 fighting men. 
 
 British Occupation of Dakka. — Flight of the Afghan Army. — Leaving 
 P'ort Ali-Musjid in the charge of a British regiment, General Browne pushed on 
 toward Dakka, which his advance under Major Cavagnari reached on November 
 23d, 1878, the Khan of Lalpoor meetmg him to offer submission. On the follow- 
 ing morning (November 24, 1878), the British occupied Dakka, finding that 
 the deserted fort had been plundered by neighboring tribes. The Ameer's au- 
 thority was now completely destroyed in the invaded district. The fleeing 
 Afghan army, in iis effort to escape, was plundered of evei7thing, the country 
 having risen against it, refusing it shelter. Jelalabad was evacuated by its 
 Afghan garrison, wliich was in headlong flight toward Cabul. On November 
 30th (187S), an Afghan force was dispersed in the Khyber Pass by General 
 Appleyard. 
 
 Russia's Position on the Afghan Question. — It was announced on Nov- 
 ember 28th, 1878, that Russia was about to commence a diplomatic campaign 
 with England relative to Afghanistan. General Kaufmann, the Russian com- 
 mander in Turkestan, handed to the Russian Government a memorandum point- 
 ing out how dangerous to the security of the Southern frontiers of Turkestan it 
 \\ould be if the Khyber Passes were permanently occupied by British troops. 
 General Kaufmann regarded as groundless the British apprehensions of Russia 
 threatening the Northern frontier of India from Central Asia, that frontier being 
 impregnable ; while the British occupation of Southern Afghanistan would be a 
 standing menace to Russian Turkestan. The Russian Government, acting on 
 General Kaufmann's report, determined to ask serious guaranties from England 
 that no changes be made in the territory or independent condition of Afghanistan. 
 Russia announced her intention of actively supporting the Ameer of Afghanistan, 
 in the event of England occupying any points in Afghanistan from which Russian 
 dominion in Asia might be effectually threatened. The Moscow Gazette declared 
 intervention indispensable, in consequence of the British expeditions against Can- 
 dahar and Herat. 
 
 Share Ali's Address to his Chiefs. — At the close of November, 1S78, 
 
THE ANGLO-AFGHAN WAR. 617 
 
 Shere AH addressed his assembled chiefs, telling th-em to prepare to resist the 
 British invasion, and demanding a special credit to defray the expenses of the 
 honors done to the Russian embassy, and explained the cordial reception of the 
 embassy on the ground of gratitude for Russia's hospitality to Afghan troops. A 
 declaration was read on the occasion, showing forth the power and fame of Rus- 
 sia, which declaration was loudly applauded by the assembled chiefs. Shere Ali 
 caused the Afghan commandant at Ali-Musjid to be blown from a cannon's 
 mouth, for his failure to hold that fortress. 
 
 Battle of Peiwar Khotal. — On the night of December ist, 1878, the Afghan 
 position was turned by a flank march of the British force under General Roberts 
 over the Spangwai Pass. The Afghans were surprised at dawn on the 2d (De- 
 cember, 1878), when the 72d Highlanders and the 5th Ghoorkas gallantly drove 
 the Afghans from several positions. The Afghans afterward endeavored to reach 
 Peiwar Khotal, but the assault could not be delivered on that side. The British 
 then threatened the Afghan rear, and attacked and carried Peiwar Khotal at fou. 
 o'clock in the afternoon. The Afghans had the previous evening received rein- 
 forcements of four regiments. They fought desperately. Their artillery was 
 well served. Their defeat, however, was complete. The British captured eigh- 
 teen cannon, and a large quantity of ammunition. The British loss was moder- 
 ate, considering the number of their adversaries and the difficult nature of the 
 country. Major Anderson, of the Pioneers, was among the killed on the side of 
 the British. General Cobbe and Lieutenant Munro, of the 72d Highlanders, 
 were wounded. The British behaved gallantly. 
 
 Meeting of the British Parliament. — Sir Stafford Northcote's State- 
 ment. — The British Parliament assembled on December 5th, 1S78, and the pass- 
 age in the Queen's speech alluding to the Afghan war was the chief topic of 
 interest. On December 9th (1878), Sir Stafford Northcote, Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer, replying to an inquiry in the House of Commons, said that Count 
 Schouvalofif, the Russian Ambassador at London, had informed Lord Salisbury 
 that the Russian envoy had left Afghanistan, and that he learned from other 
 sources that the envoy had returned to Russia. The family of the Ameer of Af- 
 ghanistan took refuge in Russian Turkestan. The Ameer, Shere Ali, in a letter 
 to Lord Lytton, the British Viceroy of India, now replied to England's ultima- 
 tum, expressing friendly sentiments. 
 
 Debate in the British Parliament. — The Ministry Sustained.— In the 
 British House of Lords, on December 9th, 1S78, Lord Cranbrook, Secretary of 
 State for India, on moving the resolution that the expenses of the Afghan war be de- 
 frayed from the revenues of India, said that the estimated surplus after paying the 
 war expenses was 2,136,000 pounds; therefore there would be a substantial surplus 
 after paying the war expenses, which were estimated at less than 1,125,000 pounds, 
 for the year. Lord Cranbrook declared that the Government assumed full re- 
 sponsibility for Lord Lytton. There was not room for both England and Russia 
 in Afghanistan. The Ameer's letter was no answer to England's ultmiatum, but 
 a mere invasion. England must be paramount in Afghanistan, which must be a 
 friendly janitor to the doors of India, or England must hold the key herself. 
 Viscount Halifax moved the amendment censuring the Government. Lords Law- 
 
6i8 THE ANGLO-AFGHAN WAR. 
 
 lence, Derby, and Caernarvon denounced the conduct of the Government tovv-ard 
 •■he Ameer of Afghanistan. In the House of Commons, Messrs. Whitbread, 
 Treveiyan, and Chamberlain censured the action of the Government ; while Mr. 
 Stanfiope, Under Secretary for India, defended the Cabinet's Afghan policy. In 
 th2 House of Lords, on December loth, 1878, Lord Beaconsfield warmly at- 
 tacked the opposition for their flimsy criticisms of his policy, after which the 
 House rejected Viscount Halifax's amendment, by a vote of 201 to 65. In the 
 House of Commons, on December 12th, 1S7S, Sir Stafford Northcote, Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer, replying to an inquiry in reference to his statement in the 
 House on December 9th, that the Russian envoy had left Cabul, said that he had 
 since heard that only the Russian envoy, not the Russian mission, had left Cabul. 
 He declared that England would not acquiesce in Russian interference in Afghan- 
 istan in any form whatever. In the House of Commons, on December 12th and 
 13th, the Government's Afghan policy was denounced by Messrs. Goschen, Burt, 
 Percy, and Grant Duff, Sir William Venon Harcourt, and Lord Hartington ; and 
 defended by Messrs. Hardy, Denison, and Newdgate, Sir Alexander Gordon, 
 Robert Bourke, Under Secretary for the Foreign Department, and Sir StaiTord 
 Northcote, Chancellor of the Exchequer. Mr. Whitbread's motion censuring the 
 Government's Afghan policy was rejected, by a vote of 328 to 227. On Decem- 
 ber 17th, 1878, the Ministry carried its resolution in the House of Commons, al- 
 owing it to levy every part of the war expenses on India, and Mr. Fawcett's 
 amendment declaring the proposal unjust was rejected, by a vote of 235 to 125. 
 On December 19th, 1878, Lord Beaconsfield received a deputation of British resi- 
 dents of California, who presented a testimonial, which he received with thanks 
 expressed in an eloquent little speech. 
 
 British Occupation of Jelalabad. — Flight of the Ameer. — On December 
 13th, 1878, the officials and notables of the city of Jelalabad arrived at Dakka, to 
 tender their submission and services to the British authorities. The British troops 
 under General Browne occupied Jelalabad on December 20th (1S7S). The 
 Ameer of Afghanistan fled toward Balk, in Turkestan, v/ith the retiring Russian 
 mission. Complete anarchy prevailed in portions of Afghanistan. The Ameer's 
 soldiers were fast deserting. General Roberts announced to the people of the 
 Koorum Valley that the Ameer's rule had passed away, and that they were now 
 the subjects of the Empress of India. Yakoob Khan, whom Shere Ali had left 
 in charge of affairs at Cabul, visited the British head-quarters at Jelalabad. The 
 Russians were disposed to accord quiet hospitality to Shere Ali. 
 
 British Occupation of Candahar. — British Victory in the Khyber Pass. 
 — As the British troops under General Stewart advanced toward Candahar, the 
 Afghan officials at that place fled toward Herat, and the Afghan garrison dis- 
 banded. The Deputy Governor offered submission to the invaders. The British 
 forces, under Generals Stewart and Biddulph, marched through Candahar, on 
 January 8th, 1879, without opposition. The Afghan army was thoroughly disor- 
 ganized, and Yakoob Khan was urged by his chiefs to make friends with the in- 
 vaders. The hill tribes which opposed the British in the Khyber Pass on January 
 7th, 1879, were defeated by General Roberts, who gained a complete victory. 
 Forty troops of the Punjaub cavalry charged a mass of the Afghans, killing nearly 
 three hundred. Skirmishers of the loth Hussars drove the Afghans from Brouen- 
 
TRIUMPH OF REPUBLICANISM IN FRANCE. 619 
 
 Gromo. One hundred prisoners, a quantity of grain, and a large number of cattle 
 were captured. The British loss was trifiing. In March, 1879, the Afghans were 
 repulsed in attacks upon Generals Stewart's and Biddulph's rear-guards. 
 
 Share All in Russia — His Death — Close of the Anglo-Afghan War. — 
 Shere Ali, the fleeing Ameer of Afghanistan, finally entered Russian tenitory, in 
 Januaiy, 1879. His followers were disarmed by the Russian authorities. Shere 
 Ali died Febraary 21st, 1879, and was succeeded by his son, Yakook Khan, who 
 made peace with the British, ceding to them the Khyber and Kojuk Passes, and 
 allowing a British resident at Candahar. 
 
 TRIUMPH OF REPUBLICANISM IN FRANCE, lS78-'79. 
 
 Political Quiet. — Gambetta's Speeches at Romans and Grenoble.— 
 
 The triumph of the Republicans in the crisis of 1877 was a great one for France, 
 and the country enjoyed some rest from political excitement under M. Uufaure's 
 Republican Cabinet. On September iSth, 1878, M. Gambetta made a speech at 
 Romans, denouncing clericalism, which, while applauded by the Radical Repub- 
 lican press, made the Moderate Republicans feel uneasy, as they feared that the 
 enemies of the Republic would seize upon it as a pretext to alarm the conserva- 
 tive classes by attempting to make it appear revolutionary. On October I2t]i, 
 1878, M. Gambetta made a speech at Grenoble which greatly pleased the Mod- 
 erate Republicans. He declared his belief in the necessity of the Senate, min- 
 imized his former utterances regarding clericalism, and made a dexterous and 
 effective appeal to the municipal delegates, who form a majority of the Senatorial 
 electors, to return Republican candidates to the Senate. M. Gambetta predicted 
 a Republican majority of twenty in the new French Senate. 
 
 Republican Success in the Elections for Communal Councils. — On 
 
 Sunday, October 27th, 1878, elections were held for municipal delegates in 17,- 
 000 Communes of France, resulting in great Republican gains, leaving no doubt 
 of the Senatorial elections on the 5th of January, 1879. These elections settled 
 the fact that the Republicans would carry forty- six of the seventy-five Senator- 
 ships to be filled, being a gain of twenty-eight. The French Assembly met early 
 in November, 1878. After a long and animated debate and many calls to order, 
 the Chamber of Deputies, on November 7th, 1878, declared the election of M. 
 Paul de Cassagnac, a violent Bonapartist, invalid. 
 
 Great Republican Triumph in the Senatorial Elections. — The Senator- 
 ial elections whtch took place in France on Sunday, January 5th, 1879, resulted 
 in a great Republican triumph. The Republican gains were far beyond the most 
 sanguine expectations. Of forty-seven Conservative Senators whose terms ex- 
 pired, oniy thirteen were re-elected. All the retiring Republican Senators were 
 re-elected. The general result showed the election of fifteen Conservatives and 
 sixty-four Republicans, thus making the Republican majority in the Senate about 
 fifty-seven. Second ballots were necessary in the Departments of Haute-Gar- 
 onne and Landes. The Paris press agreed that the result of the elections was a 
 crushing blow to the Bonapartists, and a great triumph for the Moderate Repub 
 licans. 
 
 Meeting of the Assembly. — The French Assembly re-assembled on January 
 
■ 620 TRIUMPH OF REPUBLICANISM IN FRANCE. 
 
 14th, 1879. M. Jules Grevy, the Republican leader, was re-elected President of 
 the Chamber of Deputies almost unanimously. Three of the Vice-Presidents 
 were Republicans, and one was a Conservative. On the following day (January 
 15, 1879), Louis Joseph Martel, a Republican Senator, was elected President 
 of the Senate by a majority of seventy-two. 
 
 Ministerial Crisis. — A Cabinet crisis was now imminent at Versailles. On 
 January 14th, 1S79, General Borel, Minister of War, resigned, and General 
 Gresley was appointed his successor. The Radical Republicans demanded ihe 
 formation of a new Cabinet. The Republican Union opposed the Ministerial 
 programme. When the Ministerial declaration was read in the Assembly, it was 
 coldly received in the Chamber of Deputies, but was applauded by the Republi- 
 can Senators. The political situation in France was now regarded as critical, 
 and the ojiposition of the Republicans to the appointment of General Gresley as 
 Minister of War was very strong. 
 
 Debate in the Chamber of Deputies. — The Ministry Sustained. — The 
 Ministerial crisis in France continued for several days. The debate in the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies on the Cabinet question began on January 20th, 1879. The Con- 
 servatives had resolved to abstain from voting. The Moderate Republicans 
 seemed disposed to support the Cabinet, but the Radical Republicans appeared 
 inclined to oppose the Ministry. The Repuljlicans had prepared two orders of 
 the day ; one expressing confidence in the Ministry, to be brought forward if the 
 declaration of M. Dufaure was satisfactory, and the other expressing a want of 
 confidence, should the Ministerial statement appear insufficient. These orders 
 were intrusted to M. Jules Ferry. Among the Republican majority there was a 
 desire to support the Ministry if the declaration should prove sufficient. The 
 debate in the Chamber of Deputies was opened by M. Senard, a veteran Republi- 
 can, who opposed the Ministerial programme. M. Dufaure, President of the 
 Ministry, replied, defending his policy. M. Madier de Montjaw, a Radical Re- 
 publican, made a bitter attack on the Ministry, and was followed by M. Floquet, 
 the orator of the Republican Union, who made a mild speech in favor of a Min- 
 istry representing all sections of the Republican majority in the Chamber of Dep- 
 uties, A suspension of the sitting of the Chamber followed, during which the 
 Government effected a compromise with the Radical Republicans, thus securing 
 a majority for the Ministry. In consequence of this result, M. Jules Ferry offered 
 his motion expressing confidence in the Ministry, and the motion was adopted by 
 a vole of 223 to 121. On January 23d, 1S79, M. Teisserenc de Bort resigned 
 the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. 
 
 President MacMahon's Resignation. — M. Jules G.evy, President. — ■ 
 At a C;ibinet Council at Versailles, on January 2Sth, 1879, President MacMahon 
 signed a decree making changes in the magistracy, but he refused to assent to any 
 changes in the great military commands, and then quitted the Council. This 
 refusal of the President produced the greatest excitement in France. In llie 
 Chamber of Deputies, on January 30th, 1879, M. Jules Grevy, the President of 
 the Chamber, amid profound silence, read a letter from President MacMalion, 
 announcing his resignation of the Presidency of the French Republic. M. Grevy 
 then read the articles of the Constitution applicable to the situation, and an- 
 
TRIUMPH OF REPUBLICANISM IN FRANCE. 621 
 
 nounced that the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies would meet together in 
 Congress at 4.30 p. m. The sitting was then suspended. The two Chambers met 
 in Congress at the appointed hour, and M. Martel, President of the Senate, pre- 
 sided over the Congress, and opened the procedings by again reading President 
 MacMahon's letter of i-esignation and the articles of the Constitution, amid pro- 
 found silence. M. de Gavardie, a Senator, amid shouts of disapprobation, asked 
 whether the C'ongress accepted the resignation of President MacMahon. The 
 Congress set tliis inquiry aside by voting the previous question by a large majority. 
 The Congress, after appointing tellers, proceeded at five o'clock to vote for Pres- 
 ident of the Republic. Of the seven hundred and thirteen Senators and Depu 
 ties, six hundred and seventy voted. M. Jules Grevy obtained five hundred and 
 thirty-six votes, and General de Chanzy ninety-nine. M. Grevy was accordingly 
 declared elected, and was proclaimed President of the French Republic for the 
 term of seven years. Forty-three blank voting papers were deposited. M. Du- 
 faure, the President of the Ministry, and Victor Hugo, were loudly cheered when 
 they cast their votes ; while the Duke de Broglie, Baragnon, Buffet, and other 
 Monarchists, were hooted. The result was announced at 7.45 p. m. Amid a 
 perfect frenzy of enthusiasm, the Republican Senators and Deputies and the pub- 
 lic in the galleries, rising in a body, repeatedly shouted " Vive la Republique." 
 Shortly afterward, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies resumed their separ- 
 ate sittings. M. Bethmont took the chair in the Chamber of Deputies, and read 
 a letter from M. Jules Grevy, who expressed the profound regret with which he 
 resigned his seat as a Deputy, and thanked his colleagues for the sympathy with 
 which they had honored and would continue to honor him. In the evening of 
 the same day (January 30, 1879), Ex-President MacMahon visited President 
 Grevy, and congratulated him upon his election. The interview was most cour- 
 teous. The same evening the Ministers congratulated President Grevy, and col- 
 lectively tendered their resignations, but M. Grevy expressed a hope that they 
 would conttnue in office, at least provisiohally. A notification of M. Grevy's 
 election to the Presidency of the French Republic was telegraphed to all foreign 
 governments the same night. 
 
 General Satisfaction at M. Grevy's Election. — M. Waddington's Min 
 
 istry. — The day after M. Grevy's. election to the Presidency of the French Re- 
 public (January 31, 1S79), M. Gambetta was elected President of the Chamber 
 of Deputies by three hundred and fourteen votes out of four hundred and five. 
 In the morning of the same day a Cabinet Council was held at M. Grevy's pri- 
 vate residence. There was a general feeling of gratification throughout France 
 at the issue of the crisis, and flags were flying in many parts of Paris. The Paris 
 press, on the morning of January 31st (1S79), congratulated the country upon the 
 consolidation of the Republic. The Journal de Debats ^-xiA: "The Republic 
 lias passed through a formidable crisis, and has emerged from it more firmly con- 
 solidated." The Republique Francaise said : " What has passed may be summed 
 up by saying, since yesterday we have a Republic." The London press unani- 
 mously congratulated France upon the change in the Presidency, and the Berlin 
 press also generally approved of M. Grevy's election. On February 4th, 1879, a 
 new Cabinet, with M. Waddington at its head, was constituted. 
 
622 ENGLAND'S WAR WITH THE ZULUS. 
 
 ENGLAND'S WAR WITH THE ZUi-US, 18~8-79. 
 
 Annexation of the Transvaal Republic to the British Dominions. — In 
 the summer of 1877, the British domain in Southern Africa was enlarged by the 
 annexation of the Transvaal Republic, which had been founded by Dutch settlers. 
 nie 'President of the Republic had offended the Zulus, a warlike tribe of negroes; 
 and the Dutch settlers, or Boers, had been defeated. The Zulus threatened to in- 
 vade the Transvaal, expel the Dutch, and attack the British colonists in Natal. 
 The British Government, in order to prevent a general war in Southern Africa, 
 proposed confederate union with the Transvaal. The Boers accepted the terms, 
 the British flag was hoisted at Pretoria, the Transvaal capital, and Sir Theophilus 
 Shepstone, the British Governor of the Cape Colony, proclaimed the annexation 
 of the Transvaal to the British dominions. This, however, did not relieve the 
 British in Southern Africa from the threatened attack by the Zulus. 
 
 The Situation in Southern Africa. — In July, 1878, Lord Chelmsford, the 
 commander of the British forces in Natal and the Transvaal, found the situation 
 so alarming that he asked for reinforcements from England. These were dis- 
 patched, and a large body of native troops, allies of the British, were concen- 
 trated at several points ; and in December, 1878, Lord Chelmsford had about 
 10,000 British troops and native auxiliaries under his command, armed with 
 breech-loaders and light mountain guns. Cetawayo, the Zulu king, had assem- 
 bled a force of about 40,000 men to oppose the British. 
 
 British Ultimatum to the Zulu King. — His Defiant Course. — Late in 
 November, 1878, the British ultimatum was sent to Cetawayo, demanding the 
 immediate disarmament and disbandment of the Zulu army, the cession of St. 
 Lucia Bay, and the stationing of a British resident in Zululand. This ultimatum 
 was rejected by the Zulu king with indignation, and he immediately assembled a 
 force of 8,000 men to resist the British. When Cetawayo's defiant answer was 
 returned, the British columns invaded Zululand. The Zulu king was given time 
 until January nth, 1879, to submit, but as he still rejected the British terms, the 
 invading army advanced. 
 
 British Disaster in Zululand. — On January 22d, 1S79, a British column, 
 consisting of a portion of the 24th regiment, a battery of artillery, and 600 native 
 auxiliaries, which was advancing into Zululand, was utterly annihilated near the 
 Zugela River, by 20,000 Zulus, who captured a valuable convoy of 102 wagons, 
 ijODO oxen, two cannons, 400 shot and shell, 1,000 rifles, 250,000 rounds of am- 
 munition, 60,000 pounds' weight of provisions, and the colors of the 24th regi- 
 ment. The Britibh loss in killed alone amounted to 300 officers and men. The 
 Zulus lost about 2,000 men, killed and wounded. Seven attacks subsequently 
 made by the Zulus v/ere repulsed by the British. 
 
 Consternation in Cape Colony. — Excitement in England. — Intelligence 
 of the British disaster in Zululand produced the greatest consternation in Cape 
 Town, and throughout Cape Colony, as well as in Natal. Sir Bartle Frere, the 
 British Governor of Natal, sent appeals to England and the Mauritius for rein- 
 forements. The mail steamer for England was dispatched from Cape Town a 
 day earlier tlian usual, with a request foi six regiments of infantry and a brigade 
 
ENGLAND'S WAR WITH THE ZULUS. 623 
 
 of cavalry. Upon the reception of the news of the terrible misfortune to the 
 British arms in Zululand, the greatest excitement prevailed in London and 
 throughout England. The demand for newspapers at all the suburban stations 
 was greater than at any period since the Franco-German War. 
 
 British Reinforcements for Zululand. — At a C.Tbinet Council in London, 
 on February nth, 1879, it was decided to send six battalidns of infantry, two 
 regiments of cavalry, two batteries of artillery, a company of engineers, three 
 companies of the Army Reserve Corps, and a company of the Array Hospital 
 Corps, to reinforce Lord Chelmsford in Zululand. The reinforcements for Cape 
 Colony, ordered from England, numbered about 7,000 men. Troops for Zulu- 
 land were also ordered from British India, St. Helena and Cape Town. Mr. W. 
 n. Smith, First Lord of the Admiralty, in a Speech at Westminster, on the night 
 of February nth, 1879, said that forces sufficient to end the struggle would be 
 on their way to Cape Colony. On February 27th, 1879, the British House of 
 Commons voted a supplementary credit of 1,500,000 pounds for the Zulu war, 
 without a division, though not without expressions of dissent. The war was de- 
 clared unjust and iniquitous. 
 
 Zulu Repulses. — In the meantime, the victorious course of the Zulus had 
 been checked. On January 24, 1879, a Zulu orce of 4,000 men was repulsed 
 by Colonel Wood's command, and several attacks on Pearson's column were also 
 repulsed. The Zulus were likewise repulsed from a fort on the Lower Zugela. 
 In February, 1 879, Colonel Pearson gained several victories over the Zulus. 
 
 Debate in the British Parliament. — In the House of Lords, the Marquis of 
 Lansdowne offered a resolution denouncing the Zulu war. Lords Salisbury, 
 Bcaconsfield, and Caernarvon defended Sir Bartle Frere's policy in South Africa; 
 but Lord Granville supjxirted Lord Lausdowne's motion, which was finally re- 
 jected by the House of Lords by a vote of 156 against 61. In the House of 
 Commons, Sir Charles Dilke denounced the Zulu war as iniquitous. 
 
 Another British Disaster — A British Victory. — A British convoy of sup- 
 plies, escorted by 104 men of the 80th regiment, was attacked and overpowered at 
 dawn on March 12th, 1879, on the Intombe river, by 4,000 Zulus under Umbelini, 
 the British losing forty men, and a quantity of ammunition and supplies. The Zulu 
 loss was heavy. A part of the ammunition was afterwards recovered by the British. 
 On March 2Sth, 1879, the British, under Colonel Wood, attacked the Zulus under 
 Umbelini, and captured a quantity of cattle, but lost heavily. Subsequently 20,000 
 Zulus retook the cattle, and the next day attacked Colonel Wood's camp, but were 
 repulsed after four hours' fighting, the British loss being heavy. The British de- 
 feated the Zulus on March 2ist and 23d, 1S79. 
 
 Siege and Relief of Ekowe. — In March, Cetywayo made unsuccessful over- 
 tures for peace. After the British disaster at Isandula (January 22, 1879), Colonel 
 I'ear.on, with 1.200 British troops, was strongly intrenched at Ekowe, in Zululand. 
 His communications were interrupted, and his position was surrounded by 35,000 
 Zulus. On March 28th, 1879, Lord Chelmsford set out with 6,000 men to rescue 
 Colonel Pearson; and on April 3d he defeated 1 1,000 Zulus at Gingelova with 
 heavy loss, and entered Ekowe the following day, thus relieving Colonel Pearson 
 from his perilous position. The British then abandoned Ekowe. 
 
624 GEJ^MAN SOCIALISM AND RUSSIAN NIHILISM. 
 
 Chelmsford's Demands — Prince Louis Napoleon's Death — Sir Garnei 
 Wolseley. — In June, Cetywayo again made overtures for peace, but they were 
 again rejected, Lord Chelmsford demanding that Cetywayo should not assemble an 
 army for five years, and that a British resident should be permitted to remain in 
 Zululand. On June 2d, 1879, Prince Louis Napoleon, son of Napoleon IIL, 
 fighting on the British side, was surprised and killed by a body of Zulus, while 
 reconnoitering with a party of British officers. In the meantime Sir Garnet Wol- 
 seley succeeded Lord Chelmsford as British commander-in-chief in South Africa, 
 Cl'iclmsford becoming Wolseley's subordinate. 
 
 Battle at Ulundi — Cetywayo's Army Destroyed. — On July 4th, 1879, Lord 
 Chelmsford, with 5,000 men, attacked and defeated 20,000 Zulus under Cetywayo 
 at Ulundi. The Zulus were utterly repulsed and routed, with the loss of 1,500 
 men. Ulundi was burned by the British. Cetywayo's army was broken up, and 
 his nation was dispersed. Cetywayo himself became a fugitive ; and the other Zulu 
 chiefs surrendered to the British. Sir Garnet Wolseley informed the Zulu chiefs 
 that Cetywayo could no longer be king, and the chiefs replied that they did not 
 want any more black kings. In the British House of Commons, after a protracted 
 debate, a vote of credit of three million pounds sterling for the Zulu war was 
 agreed to without a division. 
 
 Capture of Cetyw^ayo and Close of the Zulu War. — The British cavalry 
 started in pursuit of Cetywayo on August 13th. His relatives and followers by 
 degrees surrendered to the British, and he was at length almost totally deserted. 
 Cetywayo was finally captured on August 2Sth, in Northeast Zululand, by a detach- 
 ment of British dragoons under Major Marter. All the other Zulu chiefs had sub- 
 mitted, and the Zulu war was ended. 
 
 GERMAN SOCIALISM AND RUSSIAN NIHILISM. 
 Commotions in the German Reichstag. — In January, 1879, Prince Bis- 
 marck's Parliamentary Discipline Bill was introduced into the German Reichstag ; 
 but this bill was rejected by this Reichstag, after a long debate. On February 
 19, 1079, Herr Lasker presented a motion in the Reichstag denying that under the 
 Anti-Socialist Law the Government could arrest members of the Reichstag. 
 Herren Lasker and Rickert spoke in support of the motion. The Minister of Jus- 
 tice and Federal Councilor Friedberg supported the Government's interpretation 
 of the law ; but after a long debate, Herr Lasker's motion was adopted by a large 
 majority, only -the Conservatives and Imperialists voting against it. On March 
 loth, 1879, angiy words passed between Prince Bismarck and Herr Lasker, in the 
 Reichstag, and Bismarck left the chamber several times during the day, to avoid 
 listening to the speeches of his opponents. On March 17th, during a debate in the 
 Reichstag on the report of the Government's action in instituting a petty state of 
 siege in Berlin, Herr Liebnecht, a Socialist, strongly censured the measure, which 
 he pronounced wholly unjustifiable. He declared that the Socialists were a party 
 of reform, not of revolution. He defended the course of the Socialist De]iuties in 
 not rising from their seats when cheers were given for the Emperor. The Presi- 
 dent of the Reichstag, amid cheers, remarked that this conduct offended the moral 
 sense of the chamber. Herr Liebnecht continued : " If a republic is established in 
 Germany — " He was unable to finish the sentence, in consequence of the uproar 
 
GERMAN so CIA L ISM A ND R USSIA N NIHIL ISM. 625 
 
 which his words provoked. The President threatened to deprive him of his right 
 of speech. Count von Eiilenberg declared that the state of siege in Berlin was 
 absolutely necessary to the public safety, and the Reichstag took formal cogriizance 
 of the report concerning the state of siege. 
 
 Solovieff's Attempt to Assassinate the Czar Alexander II. — On the 
 morniug of April 14, 1879, as the Czar Alexander II. was walking near his palace 
 in St. Petersburg, four shots were fired at him by a young schoolmaster named 
 Alexander Solovieff, twenty-three years of age. The would-be-assassin fired at 
 persons who attempted to arrest him, wounding a detective, but he was finally 
 captured. The great throng of people which quickly assembled enthusiastically 
 cheered and congratulated the Emperor, who thanked them for their fidelity on so 
 painful an occasion. The Emperor then drove to the palace without escort ; after 
 which he drove, without escort, to the Kasan Cathedral, to return thanks for the 
 preservation of his life. While receiving the congratulations of his officials at noon, 
 the Czar was so overcome with emotion that he was unable to speak for some 
 minutes. On recovering he exclaimed: "This is the third time that God has 
 saved me I" All the European sovereigns, including the Sultan of Turkey, tele- 
 graphed their congratulations to the Czar upon his escape. Solovieff was tried, 
 convicted, and finally hanged early in June. 
 
 Martial Law in Russia.— In consequence of this attempted regicide, the Czar 
 of Russia adopted the most vigorous and despotic repressive measures. He pro- 
 claimed martial law in six great centres of Russian population, including the cities 
 of jNIoscow, Kiev, Warsaw, Charkoff, Odessa, and St. Petersburg. Replying to a 
 congratulatory address of the marshal of the nobility, the Czar said that he had 
 been forced to adopt rigorous measuies by the audacity of the revolutionists. Cir- 
 culars were sent to the Governors of all the Russian provinces, directing them to 
 execute the orders of the newly-appointed Governors-General. It was determined 
 to send 1,200 Nihilist prisoners from Novogorod to Siberia. In St. Petersburg 
 one house alter another was searched, and every person whose passport was irreg- 
 ular was arrested. Porters to guard the doors of houses and prevent the posting 
 of placards, as required by General Gourko's order, could not be found; as the 
 Nihilists threatened with death all who undertook the service. In St. Petersburg 
 the police arrested people by batches at all hours of the day. On the slightest sus- 
 picion, whole families were arrested ; and a large number of lodging-house keepers 
 were imprisoned for not reporting, within twenty-four hours, their latest arrivals. 
 There were few pedestrians or carriages in the streets; but an endless line of porters 
 were seated on stools at every door, with stout sticks. Covered prison vans frequently 
 passed with a police officer mounted beside the driver, and General Gourko drove 
 around in a open drosky, escorted by Cossacks, cracking their whips. On July 
 20th (1879), General Gourko issued an order that premises on which presses foi 
 publishing revolutionary pamphlets were found be closed by the authorities, even 
 if the proprietors were in no way connected with the illegal proceedings which had 
 been carried on therein. 
 
 Reign of Terror in Russia. — A reign of Terror prevailed throughout the 
 Russian Empire. In St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Charkoff, Odessa, Archangel, 
 and other large Russian citiej. Nihilist outrages occurred. Military and police 
 40 
 
626 THE SOUTH AM ERICA ^f WAR OF iSyg. 
 
 officials who caused Nihilists to be put to death, exiled, or imprisoned, were cruelly 
 tortured or assassinated, in accordance with the decrees of secret Nihilist tribunals. 
 The revolutionary movement was gradually growing more formidable. Among 
 the Nihilists were many of the Russian nobility and aristocracy, and many civil and 
 military officials ; and the female sex was as active and entliusiastic in the revolu- 
 tionary movement as the male. Rigorous government officials seldom escaped as- 
 sassination ; while Nihilist assassins were seldom discovered. Nihilists were 
 arrested by hundreds and thrown into prison, where they were starved to death, 
 while large numbers were exiled to Siberia. 
 
 THE SOUTH AMERICAN WAR OF 1879. 
 
 Alliance of Peru and Bolivia Against Chili. — In the spring of 1879, a dis- 
 pute arose between Chili and Bolivia, with regard to the transfer of certain territory 
 by Chili to Bolivia, on condition that Bolivia should not tax the Chilian residents 
 therein. Bolivia ceased to impose taxation, but confiscated certain nitrate works 
 owned by a Chilian company. ChiU retaliated by sending troops into Bolivia, and 
 by blockading the Bolivian ports. 
 
 Progress of the War. — -The Peruvians entered upon the war with a great deal 
 of enthusiasm. President Daza, of Bolivia, marched against the Chilians with 
 5,000 men. The Chilians had 9,000 men in Bolivia. The Bolivians took Ata- 
 cama, April i8th, 1879. ^'^ May 27th, a fierce naval engagement occurred off 
 Iquique, in Peru, between the Chilian wooden vessels Esmeralda and Covadonga, 
 and the Peruvian iron-clads Independencia and Huascrtr ; all the vessels, except 
 the Huascar, being sunk. The Peruvian iron-clads Huascar and Union after- 
 wards visited Chilian ports, destroying launches and capturing tlie Chilian steamer 
 Riinac, with a Chilian cavalry regiment, fully equipped and supplied with horses, 
 besides three vessels loaded with coal and copper. The Chilians resumed the 
 blockade of Iquique, and threatened an attack on Lima, in consequence of which 
 there was a general call to arms in the Peruvian capital. Pisagua, in Peru, was 
 bombarded by the Chilians. The Peruvian and Bolivian armies, under General 
 Campero, forced the Chilians to evacuate Calama, and defeated the Chilian corps 
 under Colonel Ruiz. The Huascar attacked Antofagasta, August 2Sth, 1879, and, 
 after a four hours' engagement, silenced the Chilian fire and dismounted the prin- 
 cipal Chilian battery. 
 
 RENEWAL OF THE ANGLO-AFGHAN WAR, (1879.) 
 Afghan Revolt at Cabul — Massacre of the British Embassy. — On 
 September 3d, 1879, several Afghan regiments which had come to Cabul to demand 
 their arrears of pay, revolted and were joined by the po]iulace. The Ameer's 
 arsenal and stores were first plundered and destroyed, after which the British Em- 
 bassy was attacked by about 4,000 mutineers and set on fire. Tne Embassy was 
 first stoned, but afterwards cannonaded by the mutineers. Several volleys were 
 fired from the Embassy in return. The British force defending the Emliassy num- 
 bered only seventy-nine, but fouglu w ith the most determined heroism. After the 
 buildings had been fired, the surviving members of the Embassy sallied out and 
 defended themselves desperately, but were all killed, including Major Cavagnari 
 and Lieutenant Hamilton. Intense excitement prevailed in British India. The 
 
RENEWAL OF THE ANGLO-AFGHAN WAR, {1879.) 627 
 
 Ameer, Yakoob Khan, declared that he was completely surprised by the outbreak. 
 He endeavored to quell it, and sent General Daoudshah to the assistance of Major 
 Cruagnari, of the British Embassy. The Ameer begged for the lives of the mem- 
 bers of the British Embassy. The Afghan insurgents sent messengers to all the 
 Afghan tribes, calling upon them to rise in arms against the British. The insur- 
 gents preached a holy war among the Mongols, and made preparations for a stub- 
 born resistance. 
 
 British War Preparations. — The British authorities ift India took prompt and 
 energetic measures to restore order in Afghanistan. General Roberts set out for 
 the Peiwar Pass, whence he intended to advance on Cabul, while General Stewart 
 was ordered to hold Candahar ; and the British forces in the Khyber Pass were 
 strongly reinforced, with the view of operating on Jelalabad. The British troops 
 at Ali Kheyl were ordered to advance instantly on Shutargardan Pass. British 
 troops of all arms were recalled from Pishin, and re-occupied Candahar. Yakoob 
 Khan asked for British aid. Badshok Khan offered his services to the British. 
 The Punjaub was scoured for camels, and orders were given for the collection of 
 transportation. General Roberts asked for four additional regiments, and the 
 British military authorities decided to reinforce both the Kurum and Khyber col- 
 umns to 12,000 men each. Generals Roberts and Massey pushed on toward Cabul, 
 notwithstanding the difficulties of transportation. 
 
 Yakoob Kahn's Conduct. — The St. Petersburg Gazeiie intimated that a favor- 
 able moment had arrived for Russia to expel the British from Central Asia. Tlie 
 Gazette also recommended a solution of the Afghan question by a partition of 
 Afghanistan between Russia and Great Britain. Yakoob Khan sent several letters 
 to the British authorities in India, expressing his deep regret at the Cabul revolt 
 and massacre, and declaring his fidelity to the British cause. Lord Lyton replied 
 to the Ameer that a strong British force would march to his relief, and that he 
 must use all his resources to co-opeiate and facilitate the British advance in Afghan- 
 istan. The Ameer sent an Embassy to Ali Kheyl to give assurance of his fidelity 
 to the British interest. General Roberts was instructed to call on the Ameer to 
 prove his sincerity by sending a deputation of confidential representatives to com- 
 municate with the British General. 
 
 Afghan Repulse at Shutargardan. — The British camp at Shutargardan was 
 attacked on October 2d, 1879, by hostile Afghan tribes, but the assailants were re- 
 pulsed with the loss of twenty killed, while the British loss was six wounded. The 
 3d regiment of Sikhs and the 21st Punjaub native infantry, held a strongly-intrenched 
 position in the Shutargardan Pass. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, 
 
 OR 
 
 THE GREAT EVENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 1 HE WORLD'S HISTORY 
 
 IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. 
 
 ANCIENT TIMES. 
 B.C. 
 
 4.004 The Creation, ..... 
 
 2348 The Deluge, . . . . 
 
 2247 The Confusion of Tongues, 
 
 2240 Founding of China, . . . 
 
 2217 Founding of Babylon by Nimrod, 
 
 " Founding of Nineveh, 
 
 2188 Founding of Egypt by Misraim or Mencs, 
 
 1 92 1 Abraham settles in the Promised Land, . 
 
 1856 Argos, in Greece, founded by Inachus, 
 
 1706 Jacob and his family settle in the Land of Goshen, 
 
 1556 Athens, in Greece, founded by Cecrops, 
 
 1520 Sparta, or Lacedaemon, founded by Lelex, . 
 
 " Corinth founded, .... 
 
 1494 Thebes, in Greece, founded by Cadmus, 
 
 1491 Moses leads the Israelites out of Egypt, 
 
 145 1 The Israelites led by Joshua settle in the Promised 
 
 1263 The Argonautic Expedition, . . . 
 
 1245 Overthrow of the Midianites by Gideon, 
 
 1 194 The Trojan War begun, 
 
 1104 Return of the Heraclidce, 
 
 1095 Saul anointed first King of Israel, 
 
 lObS Death of Codrus, the last King of Athens, . 
 
 1055 David annointed King over Israel, . . 
 
 1015 Solomon becomes King of the Israelites, 
 
 1004 Solomon builds the Temple, 
 
 975 Revolt of the Ten Tribes, . 
 
 S8S Fall of the First Assyrian Empire, 
 
 884 Lycurgus establishes his code in Sparta, 
 
 SSo Carthage founded, .... 
 
 753 Rome founded by Romulus, 
 
 721 The -Israelites carried into the Assyrian Captivity, 
 
 716 Death of Romulus, 
 
 70S The Kingdtjm of Media founded, 
 
 606 Nineveh destroyed by the Medes and Chaldeans, 
 
 (0 
 
 Land, 
 
 PAGE, 
 . 21 
 
 21 
 . 21 
 
 22 
 . 24 
 
 24 
 
 . 25 
 27 
 
 . 37 
 28 
 
 . 37 
 37 
 
 . 37 
 37 
 
 . 28 
 29 
 
 . 3? 
 29 
 
 • 38 
 
 38 
 . 30 
 
 38 
 . 3« 
 
 3« 
 . 3' 
 
 3> 
 . 24 
 
 40 
 
 27. /<• 
 66 
 
 .• 32 
 
 67 
 
 . 33 
 24 
 
CHR OA'OL GICA L INDEX. 
 
 594 Solon flames a code for Athens, 
 
 588 The Jews carried into the Babylonian Captivity, 
 
 560 Usurpation of Pisisiralus in Athens, 
 
 559 Cyrus the Great founds the Persian Empire, 
 
 5 ^6 Cyrus the Great conquers Croesus, King of Lydia, 
 
 53S Conquest of Dai)yiun l)y Cyrus the Great, . 
 
 " Edict of Cyrus permitting the return of the Jews to Palestine 
 530 Cyru; the Great defeated and killed ljy the Scythians, 
 525 Clauiliyses, King of I'ersia, contiuers Egypt, 
 521 Darius Hystaspes becomes King of Persia, . 
 510 A. Kepublic estaiilished in Athens, 
 50() Tarquin the Proud exjielled from Rome, 
 
 " Rome becomes a Republic, .... 
 495 Revolt of the Greek cities of Asia Minor against Persia, 
 494 Plebeian insurrection at Rome, .... 
 
 " Tribunes chosen at Rome, .... 
 490 Banishment of Coriolanus from Rome, 
 
 " Commencement of the Persian War against Greece, 
 
 " Persian invasion of Greece, .... 
 
 «' Battle of Marathon, .... 
 
 480 Invasion of Greece V)y Xerxes, King of Persia, 
 
 " Battle of Thermopylae, .... 
 
 " Athens burnetl Ijy the Persians, 
 
 " Battle of Salamis, ) 
 479 ]5attle of Plata;a, \ Greek victories over the Persians, 
 
 " Battle of Mycale, J 
 47 ( Theniistocles bani.-;hed from Athens, 
 469 Battle of Eurymedon, .... 
 
 464 Earthquake at Sparta, .... 
 46^ Rebellion of the Spartan Helots and the Messenians, 
 460 Ezra and Nehemiah rebuild Jerusalem, 
 45S Dictatorship of Cincinnatus, 
 450 Decemvirs chosen in Rome, 
 449 Peace made between Greece and Persia, 
 448 Abolition of the Office of Decemvir, 
 431 Commencement of the I'eloponnesian War, 
 429 Plague at Athens and death of Pericles, 
 421 I'eace of Nicias, .... 
 415 Athenian Expedition against Syracuse, . 
 405 Battle of /Egospotamus, 
 404 Surrender of Athens to the Spartans, 
 
 •' The Thirty Tyrants rule in Athens, . 
 
 403 The Council of Ten in Athens, 
 " Democracy restored in Athens, 
 
 400 Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks from Persia, 
 
 399 Death of Socrates, .... 
 
 395 Conquest of Veil by the Romans under Camillus, , 
 
 387 Peace of Antalcidas, ... 
 
 " Italy invaded i)y the Gauls under Brennus, 
 «' Battle on the AUia, — the Romans defeated by the Gauls, 
 '• Rome taken and burned by the (iauls, . 
 
 ]83 Commencement of the Theban War, 
 
 371 Batle of Leuctra, ..... 
 
 30f) Adoption of the Laws of Caius Licinius Stole, 
 
 '^02 Battle of Mantinea, ..... 
 
 W'i Beginning o^ the Sacred War in Greece, 
 
 350 Destruction of Sidon, ..... 
 
 343 First war between the Romans and Samnites begun, 
 
 342 War between the Romans and the Latins. 
 
338 
 
 336 
 335 
 334 
 
 333 
 332 
 
 3?i 
 
 330 
 
 32S 
 
 327 
 324 
 
 321 
 301 
 290 
 281 
 
 280 
 279 
 275 
 272 
 
 263 
 255 
 250 
 
 240 
 238 
 22S 
 222 
 221 
 219 
 218 
 217 
 
 2j6 
 
 215 
 
 212 
 
 207 
 
 202 
 191 
 168 
 
 M9 
 
 '.'/' 
 
 «3i 
 '32 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 B .ttle of Vesuvius, — Patriotic devotion of Decius, . 
 
 Battle of Cliieronea and end of (ireelc independence, . 
 
 Assassination of I'hilip of Macedon, 
 
 Thei)es, Greece, destroyeil hy Alexander the Great, 
 
 Alexander's invasion of the Persian Empire, 
 
 Battle of the Granicus, "1 -.t- , • r , 1 , .\. r^ ,. 
 
 ,, .., r.u T \ Victories of Alexander the Great, 
 
 Battle of the Issus, J 
 
 Tyre taken and destroyed by Alexander the Great, 
 
 Siege and capture of Ga/.a by Alexander the Great, 
 
 Founding of Alexandria in Egypt, 
 
 Battle of Arbela anil Gaugamela, 
 
 Assassination of Darius Coduuiannus, King of Persia, 
 
 Cejucpiest of Scylhia by Alexander the Great, 
 
 Alexander's invasion of India an<l tlefeat of Porus, 
 
 Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon, . 
 
 Demosthenes destroys himself by poison, 
 
 The Romans defeated by the Samiiites and obliged to pass under the yoV 
 
 Battle of Ipsus and dismemberment of Alexander's emp: 
 
 Sub'iugatioii of the Samnites by the Romans, 
 
 Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, engages in a war with Rome, 
 
 invasion of Macedon and Greece by the Gauls under Brennus, 
 
 Defeat of the Gauls at Thermopylx, 
 
 iJefeat of Pyrrhus by the Romans, 
 
 Death of Pyrrhus at Argos, 
 
 Conquest of Tarentum by the Romans, 
 
 Commencement of the First Punic War, 
 
 Defeat of the Romans and captivity of Regulus, 
 
 Battle of Panormus — Defeat of the Carthaginians, 
 
 Rise of the Achaian League untler Aratus of Sicyon, 
 
 The Parthian Empire founded. 
 
 End of the First Punic War, 
 
 Sicily made a Roman province, 
 
 Conquest of the Illyrians by the Romans, . 
 
 Coni|uest of the Cisalpine Gauls by the Romans, 
 
 Death ol Cleomenes III. and capture of Sjjarta by the Macedonians, 
 
 Capture of Saguntum, in Spain, by the Carthaginians, 
 
 Beginning of the Second Punic War, 
 
 Hannibal's ])assage of the Alps and invasion of Italy, 
 
 Battle of the Ticinus, 
 
 Battle of the Trebia, 
 
 Battle of Placentia, 
 
 Battle of Trasimenus, 
 
 liattle of Cann;E, 
 
 Building of the Great Wall in China, .... 
 
 Syracuse taken and destroyed by the Romans, 
 
 Battle of the Metaurus, — Hasdrubal defeated by th? Romans, . 
 
 S|)arta subdued by Philoptemen, the successor ot Afatus, 
 
 Batiie of Zama and end oi the Second Punic War, 
 
 liatile of Cynoscephala;, ...... 
 
 Battle of Magnesia, ...... 
 
 Death of llai'.nibal and Scipio Africanus, . . , . 
 
 Baltic of i'ydiia and conquest of Macedon by the Romans, 
 
 liegimiing of the Third Punic War, .... 
 
 Carthage taken and destroyed by Scipio /Emilianus, 
 
 Destruction uf Corintl; and con(]uest of Greece by the Romans, 
 
 Nuinantia, in Spain, taken and deslioyed by Scipio ^limilianus, 
 
 Tiberius Gracchus endeavors to secure the enforcement of the agrari 
 
 'law, but is defeateil and slain, ..... 
 Caius Gracchus attempts to secure the enforcement ot the agra'ian la 
 
 but is killed in a tumult, . . • . . 
 
 Victories of Hannibal, 
 
 3 
 
 PACE, 
 
 74 
 
 . 5 3 
 
 5t 
 
 • 54 
 54 
 
 V 55 
 
 55 
 56 
 5^' 
 56 
 57 
 57 
 58 
 59 
 59 
 e, 74 
 60 
 
 75 
 75 
 61 
 61 
 76 
 61 
 76 
 76 
 77 
 77 
 61 
 64 
 77 
 77 
 78 
 78 
 62 
 78 
 78 
 78 
 79 
 79 
 79 
 79 
 I 79 
 
 80 
 80 
 62 
 81 
 
 62, 8/ 
 Si 
 Si 
 
 63.82 
 
 • 8; 
 C'3, S2 
 
 84 
 84 
 
io6 
 
 iOI 
 
 90 
 SS 
 
 86 
 S4 
 81 
 
 78 
 
 60 
 60 
 5f^ 
 55 
 54 
 5-^ 
 49 
 
 48 
 47 
 
 46 
 45 
 44 
 
 43 
 42 
 
 A. I). 
 9 
 14 
 5' 
 
 64 
 
 68 
 70 
 
 79 
 96 
 226 
 .505 
 3'2 
 325 
 ?36 
 557 
 3t" 
 363 
 i<^A 
 396 
 406 
 410 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 Jiigtirtha, King of Nuniidia, defeated ami ca]itiired hv the Romans. 
 
 The Cimliri and TeiUoiies anniliilaled Ijy the Ruiiians. 
 
 The S(jcial War in Italy beyun. — k lasted two year,-., 
 
 I'irst war iietween Rome and Mitluiilates, Kint^ ul l'ontu.>, 
 
 The civil war between Mariiis and Sylla bej^un, 
 
 Dictatorship and death of Mariiis, .... 
 
 Sylla defeats Mithridales, ..... 
 
 ^ylla assumes llie l>ictatorship, .... 
 
 Resignation and death of Sylla, .... 
 
 The rebellion of Serlorins in .Spain suppressed. 
 
 The rebellions slaves in Italy under .S])artaciis subduetl by Crassus, 
 
 The Cilician pirates subdued by I'onipey, 
 
 l'nni])ey's victory over Mitliridates, 
 
 I'onipey overthrows the Syrian Kmjiire of the Seleiicidiv 
 
 Jerusalem taken anci destroyed by I'onipey, 
 
 Mithridatcs terminates lii.-^ life by poison, 
 
 Catiline's conspiracy at Rome, . 
 
 The First Triiinnirate at Rome, — Ca'sar, l'om]iey, and Crassus, 
 
 Defeat and death of Crassus in Parthia, 
 
 Julius Ciesar made go\ernor of (.iaiil, 
 
 Ciesar's lirst invasion of Ihitain, 
 
 L';esar's second invasion ol llritain, 
 
 l''inal coin|uesl ol (iaiil by C;esar, 
 
 T he civil war between I'onipey and C.xsar commenced, 
 
 Ciusar's crosses t lie Rubicon and marches to Rome, 
 
 Hattle of riiaisalia and assassination of I'onipey, 
 
 Ciesar overthrows I'tolemy in Egypt, 
 
 Ca.'sar's triumph over I'harnaces, the son of Milhridates 
 
 Jjattle ol T liaiisus, — the Roman republicans defeated by Ca;sar, 
 
 Hattle of iMunda, — Tompey's sons defeated by Civsar, 
 
 Dictatorship of C;vsar, .... 
 
 Assassination of C;vsar, .... 
 
 TTie .Second TriimiNirate at Rome, — Antony. Octavius, and Lepidus, 
 
 Battle ol l'hili])pi and suicide of Pirutus and Cassius, 
 
 Hattle of Actiuni and suicide of Mark .Antony ami Cleopatra, . 
 
 Kgypt becomes a Roman ])rovince, 
 
 Uctavius becomes Kmperor, with the title of Augustus, . , 
 
 Defeat of the Roman iegic^ns under Varus by the Germans, 
 
 Death of the Emperor Augustus, .... 
 
 Caractacus, the British chief, carried a captive to Rome, 
 
 Burning of Rome by order of the Emperor Nero, . 
 
 Defeat of the British queen, Boadicea, by Suetonius Paulinus, . 
 
 Overthrow and death of Nero, .... 
 
 )erusaleni taken and destroyed by T'ittis, 
 
 iJeslruction ol 1 lerculaneum and l'(mi[ieii, . 
 
 Final conquest of Britain by the Romans under Julius Agricola, 
 
 Beginning .)f tlie I'ersian Enqiire ol the Sas^anidie, 
 
 Abdication of the Emperor Diocletian, .... 
 
 Constantine the Cireat becomes sole Emperor of l\(.)me, 
 
 Constantine the (ireat embraces Christianity, 
 
 Constantine makes Constanlino]ile the capital of his empire. 
 
 Death of Constantine the (ireat at Nicomedia, in Asia iSlinor, . 
 
 lulian the .Ajiostate becomes Enqieror of Rome, 
 
 Julian's unfortunate expedition against the New I'ersians, 
 
 T he Roman Empire divided between Valentinian and V'alens, 
 
 .Stilicho, the general of llonorius, defeats the (ioths in Greece, 
 
 The Romans uiuler Stilicho defeat the barbarians, . 
 
 Rome taken and pi'laged by Alaric, King of the Goths, , 
 
 pai;e, 
 ^55 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 5 
 
 PAGE, 
 
 451 Altila, King of the Huns, defeated at Chalons by the Romans, . 112 
 
 41^2 Attila's retreat into Pannonia, ...... 112 
 
 472 Rome taken and plundered hy Genseric, King of the Vandals, . 112 
 
 456 Downfall of the Roman Empire of the West, . , . • "3 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 A D 
 
 <,S6 Clovis, King of the Franks, conquers Gaul, 
 f96 Clovis defeats the Alemanni in the battle of Tolbiuc and embraces 
 Christianity, ....... 
 
 30/ Clovis puts to death the other chiefs of the Franks, 
 
 527 Justinian becomes Emperor of the East, .... 
 
 555 Uelisarius overthrows the Vantlal kingdom in Africa, 
 
 537 Belisarius defends Rome against the attacks of the Goths, . . 
 
 554 Tejas, the last Gothic king, slain in battle with Narses, 
 
 565 Death of the Emperor Justinian, ..... 
 
 568 The Lombard kingdom in Italy founded by Alboin, . , 
 
 622 rhc Hegira, or Mohammed's flight from iSIecca, 
 
 632 Death of Mohammed, ...... 
 
 638 Conquest of Syria by the Saracens, . ' . . , , 
 
 640 Conquest of Egypt by the Saracens, .... 
 
 65 1 Conquest of Persia by the Saracens, .... 
 
 660 Accession of the Ommiyades, ..... 
 
 712 Iivvasion and conquest of Spain by the Saracens, . , 
 
 732 Defeat of the Saracens near Tours ijy Charles Martel, . 
 752 The dynasty of Ommiyades overthrown by the Abbasides, . 
 
 " Beginning of the Pojie's temporal power, 
 768 Death of Pepin the Little and division of the Frank kingdom, 
 
 771 Charlemagne becomes sole monarch of the Franks, 
 
 772 Charlemagne forces the Saxons to a peace, 
 775 Charlemagne overthrows the Lombard kingdom in Italy, 
 778 Charlemagne's rear-guard cut to pieces in the pass of Roncesvalles, 
 Boo Charlemagne crowned at Rome Emperor of the West, . 
 804 P'inal subjugation of the Saxons by Charlemagne, 
 814 Death of Charlemagne, ..... 
 827 Founding of the Kingdom of England by Egbert, . . 120 
 841 Battle of Fontenaille. ...... 
 
 S43 Partition Treaty of Verdun, ..... 
 
 871 Alfred the Great becomes King of England, 
 875 The Kingdom of Norway founded by Harald Fairhair and Denmark by 
 Gomi the Old, ...... 
 
 898 Charles the Sim]ile becomes King of France, 
 
 900 The Vnglians found the kingdom of Sweden, , 
 
 901 Death of Alfred the Great, ...... 
 
 911 Germany l)ecomes an elective empire, .... 
 
 935 Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Germany, defeats the Magyars at Merse 
 berg, ....... 
 
 973 Otho the Great, Emperor of Germany, defeats the Hungarians at Lech- 
 feld, ....... 
 
 98 1 Gieenland discovered by an Icelander, .... 
 
 9S7 Hugh Cajiet ascends the throne of France, 
 
 ^og Death of Hugh Capet, ...... 
 
 • o >C S'ejihen the Pious assumes the dignity of King of Hungary, 
 
 Vladimir the Great iiecomes sovereign of Russia, . 
 /0(i? Greeland colonized by Icelanders, .... 
 
 " Massacre o^ the Danes in England, .... 
 
 1016 C.nyte the xreat of Denmark becomes King of England, 
 
 1025 Conversion )f Canute the Great to Christianity, . . . 
 
 103 1 Diijsolution ' f the Saracen Caliphate of Cordova, 
 
 >25 
 
 125 
 [25 
 [I7 
 
 117 
 18 
 18 
 
 19 
 [I9 
 
 121 
 [21 
 [22 
 123 
 [22 
 123 
 [24 
 [24 
 
 24 
 
 [26 
 [26 
 [26 
 127 
 [27 
 [27 
 [28 
 [28 
 [29 
 [71 
 29 
 [29 
 171 
 
 [46 
 
 [85 
 [72 
 '59 
 
 [60 
 
 r6c 
 
 '30 
 146 
 
 '47 
 
 189 
 [88 
 
 30 
 172 
 [72 
 177 
 
 1 25 
 
CHR OXOL QIC A L INDEX. 
 
 1060 Robert Guiscard, tlie Norman duke, conquers Southern Italy, 
 
 1066 Battle of Hastiui^s and conquest (jf England i)y Duke William of Njr- 
 
 mandy, who then becomes King of England, 
 1077 Henry IV. of (iermany humiliated l>y Pope Gregory VII. (IlildebranI), 
 1081 The Em])eror Henry IV. leads an expedition against Ilildebrand, 
 loSi Hildebrand deposed and Clement III. made Pope, 
 
 1085 Tope Urban II., at the Council of Clermont, preaches the First Crusade, 
 loy6 The First Crusade undertaken, .... ; 55, 
 
 1097 The Christian army under Godfrey o"" Bouillon arrives in Palestine, 
 " Tlie Crusaders besiege and take Antioch, .... 
 1099 Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, . . . . . 
 
 1 130 I<.oger II. founds the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily 
 1 147 St. Bernard of Clairvaux originates the .Second Crusade, 
 1 1 52 rVederic Barbarossa becomes Emperor of Germany, 
 1 154 Henry Plantagenet ascends the throne of England, 
 1 1 70 Assassination of Thomas a Becket, Archljishop of Canterbury, 
 1 1 72 Ireland conquered liy King Henry II. of England, 
 I176 Battles of I.ignano, — Frederic Barbarossa defeated by the Milanese, 142, 
 
 1 179 Henry the Lion deprived of his territories by Frederic Barbarossa, 
 
 1 180 Philip Augustus fTscends the throne of France, 
 
 1 187 Sultan Saladin of Egypt wrests Jerusalem from the Christians, . 
 
 1 189 Death of Henry H. of England and accession of Richard the Lion- 
 
 hearted, ........ 
 
 1 190 The Third Crusade begun, — Death of Frederic Barbarossa, 137, 
 
 1 191 Defeat of Saladin by Richard the Lion-hearted, 
 
 1192 Richard the Lion-hearted imprisoned in Germany, , . 138, 
 1 199 Death of Richard the Lion-hearted and accession of John, 
 
 1204 Fourth Crusade and temporary subversion of the Greek Empire, 138, 
 
 1205 The Pope causes the Cross to be jireached against the Albigenses, 
 1213 The Child's Crusade, ..... 
 1215 King John of England forced to sign M.agna Charta, 
 1218 Frederic 11. becomes Emperor of Germany, 
 
 1226 Louis IX., or St. Louis, l/ccomes King of France, 
 
 1227 Zingis-Khan, chief of the Moguls, begins his career of conquest, 
 
 1228 The Emperor TVederic II., undertakes the Fifth Crusade, . 139, 
 1234 King Andrew II. of Hungaiy grants the Golden Privilege, 
 1237 Russia made tributary to the Khan of the (Jolden Horde, 
 1244 Defeat of the Christians at Gaza by the Corasmins, 
 1250 Death of the Emperor Frederic 11. of Germany, 
 
 " The Sixth Crusade, — Captivity of St. Louis, . . 139, 
 
 1258 The Moguls overthrow the Caliphate of Bagdad, 
 1266 The foundations of the English House of Commons laid, . 
 1270 The Seventh Crusade, — Death of St. Louis, . . . 140, 
 
 1273 Count Rodolph of Hapsburgh elected Emperor of Germany, 
 1282 The Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, . . . . . 
 
 1285 Philip the Fair becomes King of France, .... 
 1291 Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Palestine, taken by the Turks, . 
 1296 Battle of Dunbar, — John Baliol defeated by Edward I. of England, 
 " Battle of Stirling, — the English defeated by William Wallace, . 
 Battle of Falkirk, — WUliam Wallace defeated by Edward I., 
 Martyrdom of William Wallace, the Scottish ):)atriot, 
 Avignon, in France, i)ecomes the seat of the j^ap.acy, 
 Piattie of Bannockburn, — defeat of Edward II. of England, 
 Battle of Morgarten, — the Austrians defeated by the Swiss, 
 I'hilip of V'alois ascends the throne of France, . 
 
 1346 Battle of Crecy, — Edward HI. of England defeats the French, 152, 
 " Battle of Nevil's Cross, — David Bruce taken prisoner, . 
 
 1347 Calais surrendered to Edward III. of England after a long siege, 150, 
 " Cola di Rienzi becomes the head of a new Roman Republic, 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 '45 
 
 1298 
 1305 
 
 1.3 M 
 >3'5 
 
 «3^S 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 1 554 Assassinati')!! of Cola di Rienzi, the Last of the Trilnines, . 
 IJ56 Battle of l\)itiers, — Kiiif; John of France taken prisoner, 
 I 364 Death of John the Good of France, 
 
 1376 Death of the IJlick Prince, ..... 
 
 •377 Reatli of Edward III. of Enjrland, .... 
 
 1 38 1 Wat Tyler's Insurrection in England, .... 
 13S6 Battle of Sempach, — Patriotic devotion of Arnold Winkelried, 
 1397 Union of Calmar, ^Denmark, Sweden, and Norway united, 
 1399 Dethronement of Richard II. of England hy Henry of Lancaster, . 
 1402 Battle of Angora, — Sultan Bajazet taken prisoner by Tamerlane, 
 l.]03 Battle of Shrewsbury, — Henry IV. of England defeats the barons, 
 14 14 The Council of Constance assembles, .... 
 
 1.4 1 5 Battle of Azincourt, — -Henry V. of England defeats the French, 
 1417 Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, 
 I419 Beginning of the Hussite War, which lasts seventeen years, 
 1422 Treaty of Troyes. — Accession of Henry VI. of England, 
 1429 Joan of Arc compels the English to raise the siege of Orleans, 
 143 1 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, perished at the stake, 
 1453 The English driven out of P'rance, . . . • 
 
 " Sultan Mohammed II. captures Constantinople and puts an end 
 to the Byzantine or Greek Empire, .... 
 
 1455 Commencement of the Wars of the Roses in England, . 
 1461 Edward IV. becomes King of England and Louis XL of France, 
 147 1 Battles of Barnet and Tewksbury, — the Lancastrians overthrown, 
 
 1476 Battles of Granson and Murten, — defeats of Charles the Bold, 
 
 1477 Battle of Nancy and death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, . 
 1479 Union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinantl and Isabella, 
 1483 Death of Edward IV. of England and Louis XL of France, 
 1485 Battle of Bosworth P'ield and death of Richard III., 
 i486 Bartholomew Diaz discovers the Cape of Good H(5pe, 
 
 1492 The Mo, rish Kingdom of Granada conquered by Ferdinand and 
 
 Isabella, ...... 
 
 " Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, 
 
 1493 Founding of St. Domingo by Columbus, 
 
 1497 Vasco de Gama's voyage to India round the Cape of Good Hope, 
 " Discovery of North America by Sebastian Cabot, 
 
 1498 Discovery of South America by Columbus, 
 
 1499 The Emperor Maximilian I. of Germany acknowledges the independ- 
 
 ence of Switzerland, . . . . . • 17' 
 
 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
 A. D. 
 1 501 Discovery of Central America by Columbus, 
 
 1504 Ferdinand of Spain obtains possession of Naples, . 
 
 1505 Death of Ivan the Great, Grand Duke of Moscow, . , 
 
 1506 Death of Christopher Columbus at Valladolid, in Spain, 
 
 1507 The city of Orniuz, in Persia, conquered by Albuquercjue, 
 l=io8 League of Cambray against Venice, 
 
 1509 Death of Henry VII. of England and accession of Henry VIIL, 
 
 1 5 10 Albuquerque conquers Goa, which becomes the capital of Portu- 
 
 guese Asia, ....... 
 
 1512 John Ponce de Leon discovers Florida, .... 
 
 15 :? C<'nquest of Navarre by Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain, 
 
 • — 1513 Falboa discovers the Pacific Ocean, . . . < 
 
 " John de Medici becomes Pope with the title of Leo X., 
 
 " Battle of he Spurs, P'rance, 1 S t 1 - loth / 
 
 " Ba,ttle of Flodden Field, England, / ' ' ' * 1 
 
 I515 Death of Louis XII. of France and accession of Francis I., 
 
 *' Battle of Marignano, or Battle of the Giants, Italy, 
 
 
 7 
 
 I,\ 
 
 r,v.. 
 
 
 142 
 
 '53. 
 
 178 
 
 153. 
 
 "79 
 
 
 179 
 
 
 179 
 
 
 179 
 
 
 168 
 
 
 186 
 
 
 1 8c 
 
 
 191 
 
 
 iSo 
 
 
 169 
 
 154, 
 
 181 
 
 
 169 
 
 
 169 
 
 154, 
 
 181 
 
 155. 
 
 181 
 
 155. 
 
 181 
 
 156. 
 
 181 
 
 
 191 
 
 
 182 
 
 183, 
 
 156 
 
 
 i«3 
 
 
 156 
 
 
 156 
 
 
 159 
 
 
 183 
 
 
 184 
 
 
 193 
 
 125. 
 
 159 
 
 
 194 
 
 
 194 
 
 
 193 
 
 
 195 
 
 
 194 
 
 
 194 
 
 
 145 
 
 
 188 
 
 
 194 
 
 
 •93 
 
 144. 
 
 158 
 
 185, 
 
 209 
 
 
 193 
 
 
 194 
 
 
 '59 
 
 
 iq4 
 
 
 199 
 
 158', 
 
 209 
 
 
 209 
 
 158, 
 
 202 
 
 143. 
 
 202 
 
8 CURONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAr.E. 
 
 1517 Commencement of the Relir;ioiis Reformation Ijy Martin Luther, . 199 
 
 " Conquest of Ki^y])t by the Turks, ..... 192 
 
 " Discovery of Mexico liy Cordova, ..... 214 
 
 1519 Heath of the Kmperor Maximilian I. and accession of Charles V., 202 
 
 1520 Luther excommunicated l)y tiie I'ope and his writings condemned, . 2(iG 
 " Luther burns the papal i)ull of condemnation, . , . 2(X) 
 " leather appears before the Diet of Worms, .... 2CO 
 " Commencement of the first war between Charles V. and Francis I., 202 
 '■' The Field of the Cloth of Gold, .... 2C2, 209 
 '■ Massacre of Stockholm, ..... 186. i 3 
 " Solyman the Mai^nificent becomes Sultan of Turkey, . . . 19a 
 " Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the jrlojie, . . 195 
 
 1521 Conquest of Mexico by the S]ianiards under Feinando Cortez, . .2(4 
 " Henry VIIL of Englaml writes a volume against the Reformation, 209 
 
 1523 Death of the Chevalier Hayard, ..... 203 
 " ("rustavus Vasa liberates Sweden from the Danish yoke, . . 213 
 
 1524 John Verrazzani explores the Atlantic coast of North America, . 195 
 
 1525 Battle of Pavia, — Francis T. defeated and made prisoner, . . 203 
 " Establishment of the Mogul Empire in India by 15aber, . . 215 
 
 1526 Peace of Madrid and release of Francis L, . . . . 203 
 " Bittle of Mohacz and fall of Louis IL of Hungary, . 190, 204 
 " Discovery of the La Plata river by Sebastian Cabot, . . , 195 
 
 1527 The Holy League formed against Charles V., . . . 203 
 " Second war between Charles V. and P'rancis L, . . . 203 
 " Ri)me taken and pillaged by the Oermans and Spaniards, . . 204 
 
 ^528 Andria Doria frees Oenoa from French sujiremacy, . . 144, 204 
 
 1529 Ladies' Peace of Cambray between Charles V. and Francis I., . 204 
 " Siege of Vienna by Sultan Solyman the ^Lagnit^ce^t, . . 192, 204 
 " The Protestation of the Cerman Reformers at the Diet of Spire, . 201 
 " Discovery of Peru by PVancisco Pizarro, . . . .214 
 
 1530 Diet of Augsburg, — The Augsburg Confession, . . . 201 
 " The League of Schmalkald formed by the Gerinan Protestants, . 206 
 " Religious war in Switzerland, — Battle of Kappel and death of Zwingle, 201 
 " Death of Cardinal Wolsey, November 29th. .... 210 
 
 1532 Conquest of Peru by the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro, . 214 
 
 1533 Henry VHL divorces Catharine of Aragon and marries Anne Boleyn, 209 
 " Accession of Ivan ihe Terrible, Czar of Russia, . . . 188 
 
 1534 Henry VIIL created Head of the Church in England, . . 210 
 " James Carlier discovers the St. Lawrence river, . . . 195 
 
 •535 Cartier's second voyage up the St. Lawrence, . . . 195 
 
 " First expedition of Charles V. to Africa, .... 204 
 
 1536 Heniy VIIL causes Anne Boleyn to be beheaded, and marries Jane 
 
 Seymour, . . . . . . .210 
 
 " Third war between Charles V. and P>ancis L, . . . 205 
 
 1538 The Ten Years' Truce of Nice between Charles V. and Francis I., 205 
 
 1540 The Order of Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola, . . . 213 
 
 1541 Discovery of the .Mississippi river by Ferdinand De Soto, . . 195 
 " Second African exjcdition of Charles V., .... 205 
 
 1542 Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., . . . 205 
 " War between England and Scotland, — Battle of Solway Moss, . 211 
 
 1543 Bombardment of Nice by the French and Turkish fleets, . . 205 
 
 1544 Battle of Cerisoles, ....... 205 
 
 " Peace of Crepy i)etween Charles V. and Francis I., . . 205 
 
 1545 Opening of the Council of Trenl, ..... 207 
 
 1546 Death of Dr. Martin Luther, February i8th, . . . 207 
 154.7 Beginning of the religious war in Germany, .... 207 
 
 " Death of Henry VIIL and accession of Edward VI., . 206, 211 
 
 " Death of Francis I. of France and accession of Henry II., 206, 218 
 
 " English invasion of Sc(jtland. — Battle of Pinkie, . . .211 
 
 1552 D^ke Maurice of Saxony makes war on the Emperor Charles V., 208 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. . 
 
 I'AGE. 
 
 1552 Henry II. of France seizes the fortresses in Lorraine, . . 206, 218 
 " Reiij;ious Peace of Passaii, ..... 208 
 
 1553 Death of Edward VI. of England and accession of Mary , 212 
 
 1554 Unsuccessful siege of Metz by the Emperor Charles V., , 206 
 " Religious Peace of Augsburg, ...,., 208 
 
 1556 Abdication and retirement of the Emperor Charles V., . . 208 
 " Philip II., King of Spain, and P'erdinand I., Emperor of Germany, 208 
 
 1557 War of England and Spain against France, . . 212, 23S 
 " Bi.ltle of St. Quentin, — the French defeat the English and Span- 
 iards, ....... 212, 2l3 
 
 1558 The PVench recover Calais from the English, . . 212, 218 
 " Death of Queen Mary of England and accession of Elizabeth, . 212, 222 
 " Death of Charles V., ...... 209 
 
 1559 Peace of Chateau-Cambresis between France and Spain, . 206, 218 
 " Death of Henry II. of France and accession of Francis II., . 218 
 
 1560 Death of Francis II. of France and accession of Charles IX., . 218 
 
 1562 The first religious war in France, ..... 219 
 
 1563 Peace of Amboise between the P>ench Catholics and Huguenots, 219 
 " Hungary comes under the House of Hapsburgh, . . . 190 
 
 1564 Death of the Emperor Ferdinand I. and accession of Maximilian II., 225 
 
 1565 The Catholic nobles in the Netherlands petition for toleration, . 216 
 " Mary, Queen of Scots, marries Lord Darnley, . . . 222 
 
 1566 Murder of Mary's favorite, David Rizzio, ..... 222 
 " Death of Sultan Solyman the Magnificent of Turkey, . . 192 
 
 1567 The second religious war in France, ..... 219 
 '• Philip II. appoints the Duke of Alva Governor of the Netherlands, 216 
 " Murder of Lord Darnley, the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, . 222 
 " Mary's marriage with the Earl of Bothvvell, . . . 222 
 
 1568 The Peace of St. Germain closes the second religious war in France, 219 
 " Queen Mary of Scots flees to England, where she is kept a prisoner, 223 
 
 1571 Battle of Lepanto, — the Turkish navy annihilated, . . 192, 215 
 
 1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew, ..... 219 
 " The revolted States of the Netherlands choose William of Orange 
 
 for their Stadtholder, ...... 216 
 
 1574 Death of King Charles IX. of France and accession of Henry HI., 220 
 
 1576 The Pacification of Ghent, . . . . . . 217 
 
 " Death of the Emperor Maximilian II. of Germany and accession of 
 
 Rodolph II.. ....... 225 
 
 1579 The Union of Utrecht, ...... 217 
 
 1580 Portugal united with .Spain, . . . . . .216 
 
 15S1 Assassination of William of Orange, .Stadtholder of HolLand, . 217 
 
 1^87 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, by order of Elizabeth, . . 223 
 
 1588 The Spanish Armada sent against England. — Destroyed by storms, 224 
 " Rebellion in Paris against King Henry HL, .... 220 
 " ' Death of the Czar, Ivan the Terrible of Russia, . . . 1S8 
 
 1589 Henry HI. besieges Paris. . . ... 221 
 
 *♦ Assassination of Henry HI. and accession of Henry IV., . . 221 
 
 1590 Siege of Paris by King Henry IV.. . . . . .22 1 
 
 1393 Henry IV. becomes a Catholic and thus brings about a peace, . 221 
 
 i598 Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV., tolerating Protestantism, , 221 
 
 " Death of Philip II. of Spain an(l accession of Philip HI., . . 215 
 
 " The Earl of Tyrone heads a Catholic rebellion in Ireland, . . 221; 
 
 1600 The English East-India Company chartered by Queen Elizabeth, . 298 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, 
 A D. 
 
 1601 E<ccution of the Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favorite, . . 22^ 
 
 1602 Baitholomew Gosnold explores the New England coast, , . 257 
 160J Death of Queen Elizabeth of England and accession of James I., . 225 
 
lo CHROXOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1603 Martin Pring exj^lores the New England coast, . . . 257 
 
 1605 The French colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia) founded by De Mon'.s, 300 
 " The Gunpow<ler Plot in London, ..... 233 
 
 1606 Martin Print's second visit to the New England coast, . . 257 
 
 1607 The first permanent English settlement in America at Jamestown, 255 
 t6c)S (,)uel)ec, in Canada, founded by Samuel Champlain, . . 300 
 1609 Samuel ChaiDplain discovers Lake Cham])lain, . , 300 
 
 " Henry Iludsim discovers and ex])lores the Hudson river, , 259 
 
 " I iollancl becomes indejiendent of Spain, . . 217. 231 
 
 .013 Assassination of Henry IV. of France and accession of Lou.s XIIL, 22\ 
 " F,\ptdsi<jn of 600,000 iSIoors from Sjiain, . . . 215 
 
 " The Starving Time in Virginia, ..... 256 
 
 1612 Death of the Emjieror Rodolph H. and accession of Matthias, . . 226 
 " Capture of Moscow by the J'oles. 
 
 1613 Michael Komanoff becomes Czar of Russia, .... 253 
 
 1614 Captain [ohn Smith explores and names New England, . . 21,7 
 
 1618 Execution of .Sir Walter Raleigh, .... 232 
 " lieginning of the Thirty Vears' War by the Bohemian revolt, . 226 
 
 1619 I)ealh of the Emperor .NLuthias and accession of Ferdinand IL, 226 
 " The first legislative assembly in America met at Jamestown, June 28, 256 
 " The Dutch colony of P>atavia, in Java, founded, . . 218 
 
 1620 Slavery introduced into Virginia, ..... 256 
 " The Puritan settlement of Plymouth, in New England, December 21, . 257 
 
 1621 'I'he Virginia House of Purgesses established, . . . 256 
 " Death of Philip HL of Spain and accession of Philip TV. 
 
 1622 Ormuz wrested from the I'ortuguese by Shah Abbas of Persia, . 215 
 " The first Indian war and massacre in V^irginia, .... 256 
 
 1623 The Dutch cohjny of New Netherland estal)lished, . . 259 
 
 1624 Cardinal Richdlieu becomes Prime-Minister of France, . . 249 
 " King James L of England makes Virginia a royal I'rovince, . 256 
 
 1625 Death of James L of England and accession of Charles L, . . 234 
 " Frederic, King of IJohemia, defeated by the Emperor Ferdinand IL, 227 
 
 1625 King Christian IV. of Denmark aids the (jerman Pretestants, . 227 
 
 1626 Defeat of Christian IV. at Lulter by Tilly, the imiierial general, . 228 
 
 1628 Validity of the Petition of Right ackntjwiedged by Charles I., . 234 
 " Richelieu humbles the Huguenots by the capture of Rochelle, . . 249 
 " Salem, Massachusetts, founded by John Endicott, . . . 258 
 
 1629 Peace of Lubec between the King of Denmark and the Emperor of 
 
 Germany, ........ 228 
 
 " The Edict of Restitution published by the Emperor Ferdinand 1 1., 228 
 
 " Charles L of England dissolves his Parliament, which is not again 
 
 convened for eleven years, ...... 234 
 
 1630 Boston, Massachusetts, founded by John Winthrop, . , 258 
 " King (justavus Adolphus ol Sweden aids the German Protestants, . 229 
 
 1631 Magdeburg taken and destroyed i:)y Tilly, . . . . ' 229 
 " Battle of Breitenfeld and Leipsic, — Tilly defeated by Gustavus, . 229 
 
 1632 Battle of Lulzen, — victory and death of Gustavus Adolphus, . 230 
 
 1633 Alliance of Heilborn between the Swedes and the Germans, . . 230 
 
 1634 Assassination of Wallenstein by order of the Emperor Ferdinand IL, 230 
 " Battle of Nordlingen, ....... 231 
 
 " Settlement of Maryland by iMiglish Roman Catholics, . . 261 
 
 1635 Clayborne's first rebellion in Maryland, . . . . . 261 
 " I'eace of I'rague between the (jerman Princes and the Emperor, . 231 
 " Rogei Williams banished from Massachusetts, . . . 25S, 263 
 
 4636 Founding of Providence, Rhode Island, by Roger Williams, , 263 
 
 " Settlement of Hartford, Connecticut, by Rev. Thomas Hooker, . 262 
 
 1637 Extermination of the Pequod Indians i)y the Connecticut settlers, . 262 
 
 " Death of the Emperor Fer<linand H. and accession of Ferdinand III., . 231 
 " Presbyterian rebellion in Sci)tland, ..... 235 
 
CHRO NO LOGICAL IXDRX. 1 1 
 
 I AGE. 
 
 l6;7 Foimdiiig of ITnrvan! Collegje at Cani'jridj^e, Mns^iav-huselts. 
 
 i6;S KnuniliiiiT of New Haven, CDiiiiecticiil, l)y Rev. John I)aven;ioit. . 2hl 
 
 " SL-l'Llcnient of Nevvjxin, Rhode Island, hy WilHani Coddinj^lon, , 263 
 
 " Seltleaient of New Sweden (now Delaware), . . . 264 
 " Sullan Aniurath IV. of Turkey causes a massacre of the inhahitatants, 
 of Bagdad. 
 
 164c Porlnga! recovers her inde|iendence, . . . , 216 
 
 " Frederic William, the (Ireat Elector of Brandenburg, begins liis reign, 281 
 
 /641 Ca'holic rebellion in Ireland, ..... 236 
 
 1642 C iminencenient of the civil war in England between the Cavaliers 
 
 and the Roundhearls, ..... 236 
 " Battle of Ivlge Hdl, England, October 3d, . . .237 
 
 " Death of Cardinal Richelieu, Decenil)er, . . . 249 
 
 1643 Death of Louis XIII. of France and accession of Louis XIV., . 249 
 " Battle of Rocroi, — the Spaniards defeated by the French. 
 
 " Battle of Newbury, England, ..... 237 
 
 " Union of the New E^nglaiid colonies, .... 258 
 
 1644 Battle of Marston MoOr. — Lord Fairfax defeats the royalists, July Qtl 237 
 " Second Indian war in Virginia, ..... 256 
 " Lbiion of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, . . 263 
 " The Mantchoo-Tartar dynasty ascends the throne of China. 
 
 1645 Clayborne's second rebellion in Maryland, . . . 261 
 " lialtle of Naseby, — Charles I. overthrown, June 14th, . . . 238 
 
 {648 Peace of Westj^halia terminates the Thirty Years' War, . . 231 
 
 " The Civil Wars of the Fronde commence in France, . . . 250 
 
 " Colonel Pride's Purge, — 81 Presbyterians expelled from Parliament, 239 
 
 1649 Execution of King Charles I. of England, January 30th, . . 239 
 " The Commonwealth of England established, . . . 240 
 " The Toleration Act passed l)y the Maryland Assembly, . . 262 
 
 1650 Battle of Dunbar, — the Scots defeated by Cromwell, Sejitember 3d, 240 
 
 1651 liattle of Worcester, — the English royalists defeated by Cromwell, 
 
 September 3rd, ....... 240 
 
 " The Navigation Act passed by the English Parliament, . . 241 
 
 1652 Commencement of a naval war between England and Holland, . 241 
 
 1653 Cromwell dissolves the Long Parliament, April, . . . 24I 
 '• Praise-(iod ISarebone's Parliament, April t(j December, . . 242 
 " Oliver Cromwell created Lord Protector of England, December, . 242 
 
 1654 Abdication of (^ueen Christina of Sweden, . . . • 232 
 '• i'eace between England and Holland, .... 24I 
 
 1655 War between England and Spain, ..... 242 
 " Conquest of the island of Jamaica by the English Admiral Penn, . 242 
 " Civil war in Maryland between the Catholics and Protestants, . . 262 
 " Conf|uest of New Sweden by (Governor Sluyvesanl of New Nelher- 
 
 land, ....... 260 264 
 
 1656 Persecution of Quakers in Boston, Massachusetts, . . . 258 
 " Three days' battle of Warsaw, — the Swedes defeat the Poles. 
 
 1657 Death of the Emperor Ferdinand III. and accession of Leopold L 
 
 1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell, Sejitember 3rd, . . . 242 
 " Richard Cmmwell becomes Lord I'rotector, but soon resigns, . 243 
 
 :65i) /Vuringzebe ascentls the Mogul throne in India, . . 215 281 
 
 '• The Treaty of the Pyrenees between France and Spain, . 25c 
 
 (66o Restoration of Monarchy in England,— Charles IL, King, May 29th, 243 
 
 f66i Death of Canlinal .Mazarin. Prime- Minister of France, . . , 250 
 
 66; Maval war between England and Holland, . . . 244 
 
 ' ' (Jnarter granted to Rhode Island by King Charles II. of England, . 264 
 
 ' Settlement of North Carolina by emigrants from Virginia, . 264 
 
 1664 Ccr.quest of New Netherland by the English, . . . 260 
 " Sett.lement of Elizabethtown, New Jersey, by English Puritans, 266 
 
 1665 Connecticut and New Haven united under one charter gnTnted by 
 
 Charles II. . . . . . . • • -263 
 
12 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1-665 Greal plague in Loiuion, ...... 244 
 
 1666 (Ileal lire in Lond.iii, ....... 244 
 
 1667 I'eace of lireda l)el\veen Englaiui and Holland, . . . 244 
 " Louis XIV. of France makes coni|uesis in the S]ianish Netherlands, 251 
 
 l66<S Triple Alliance of Kngland, Ilolk.nd, and Sweden against France, 251 
 
 " I'eace of Aix la-Chapelle, — Louis XI V. restores his conquests, . . 251 
 
 " Peace between Spain and Portugal after 26 years of war, 
 
 '6C() Conquest of Candia (Crete) by the Turks. 
 
 (67c Settlement of South Carolina by English emigrants, . , 265 
 
 1671 Lmmeiik Tokeli's insurrection in Hungary, .... 252 
 
 ^672 Louis XIV. invades Holland with a powerful army, . . 251 
 
 1673 Louis Joliet and James Marquette explore the IMississijijii river, , 300 
 " John Sobieski, King of Poland, defeats 200,000 Turks at Kotzim. 
 
 " New York taken by a Dutch fleet, ..... 260 
 
 1674 New York restored to the English, ..... 260 
 " Sjjain and f Germany join Holland in the war against France, . . 251 
 
 1675 Battle of Fehrbellin, — tlie Swedes defeated by the Great Elector, . 251 
 " Beginning of King Philip's War in New England, July 4th, . . 258 
 
 1676 Subjugation of the New England Indians and death of King Philip, 258 
 " Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia, ..... 256 
 
 1678 Peace of Nimeguen between France and the Allies, . . . 252 
 " The Habeas Corpus Act passed by the English Parliament, . 246 
 
 1679 Eleven days' battle at Tangier between the English and the Moors. 
 
 1680 Charleston, South Carolina, founded, .... 265 
 
 1681 Louis XIV. wrests the free city of Strasburg from the German Empire, . 252 
 16S2 Philadelphia and Pennsylvania founded by William Penn, . 266, 267 
 
 " Robert de La Salle explores the Mississip]ii river, . . . 30c 
 
 1683 John Sol)ieski, King of Poland, drives the Turks from Vienna, . 252 
 " Rye House Plot in England. — P>xecution of Russell and Sydney, . 246 
 " Bombardment of Algiers by a I'^rench fleet, .... 252 
 
 1684 Genoa bombarded by the PVench navy, . . • . 252 
 
 1685 Death of Charles II. of England and accession of James II., . 246 
 " Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and persecution of the Huguenots, . 254 
 
 1686 League of Augsburg, — Germany, Spain, Holland, and Sweden against 
 
 France, ........ 254 
 
 1687 The Connecticut charter concealed from Sir Edmund Andros, . 263 
 
 1688 Death of Frederic William, the (M'eat Elector of Brandenburg, . . 281 
 " Desolation of the Palatinate by the French, . . . 254 
 " Revolution in England and flight of James IT., . . . 247 
 
 1689 The Bill of Rights passed by the English Parliament, . . 247 
 " William and Mary created joint sovereigns of England, . . 247 
 " Sir Edmund Andros de]iose(l and imprisoned in Boston, . . 259 
 " England joins the Allies in the war against Louis XIV., . . 254 
 " Rebellion of the Scotch Highlanders against William and Mary, . 248 
 " Battle of Killicrankie and death of Lord Dundee, . . . 248 
 " Catholic rebellion in Ireland in favor of James II., . . 24S 
 " Peter the Great becomes sole Czar of Jvussia, .... 273 
 " Dover, New Hampshire, burned by the French and Indians, . 301 
 
 1690 Schenectady, New York, destroyetl by the French and Indians, 301 
 " Battle of the Boyne, Ireland, — James 11. defeated liy W'illiam HI., 24S 25-I 
 
 1691 Battle of Aughrim, Ireland, and death of the Irish General St. Ruth, . 248 
 " Massacre of Glencoe, .Scotland, ..... 248 
 ♦' Acadia seized and ]")lundered by Sir Willi.am Phipps, . . , 301 
 
 1692 Massachusetts made a royal province, .... 259 
 
 " S.deni Witchcraft, ....... 259 
 
 " Naval battle off Cape La Hogue. — Beginning of England's naval 
 
 superiority, ........ 254 
 
 " Battle of Neerwinden, — William TIT. defeated by the French, . 254 
 
 1695 War of Ciermany, Russia, Poland, and Venice against Turkey, . . 253 
 
 1696 Death of John Sobieski, King of Poland, .... 253 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1697 Peace of Ryswick between France and the Allies, . 24S, 255, 301 
 
 " Battle of Zenta, — Prince Eugene defeats the Turks, . . 253 
 
 " Charlijs XII. ascends the throne of Sweden, .... 273 
 
 " Governor Fletcher of New York defied at Hartford by Captain 
 
 Wads worth, ........ 263 
 
 1699 Peace of Karlowitz between Turkey and the Allies, . . 253 
 " The English erect Fort William at Calcutta, Hindoostan, . . 298 
 
 1700 Death of Charles II. of Spain and accession of Philip of Anjou, . 268 
 " Charles XII. of Sweden compels the King of Denmark to make peice, 27 \ 
 " Biltle of Narva, — Charles XII. defeats the Czar Peter the Great, , 274 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 A. D. 
 
 1701 Founding of the Kingdom of Prussia, .... 281 
 " Founding of Yale College in Connecticut. 
 
 1702 Founding of Molnle in the present Alabama, . . . 300 
 " Death of William III. of England and accession of Queen Anne, . 248 
 " Commencement of the War of the Spanish Succession, . . 268 
 " Charles XII. of Sweden enters Warsaw in triumph, . . . 274 
 " Deertield, Massachusetts, burned by the French and Indians, . 301 
 
 1703 St. Petersburg foundeil by the Czar Peter the Great, . . . 274 
 " Charles XII. of Sweden deposes Augustus II. of Poland,. . . 275 
 " Protestant insurrection in France, ..... 269 
 " Protestant insurrection in Hungary, .... 269 
 
 f 704 Stanislaus Leczinski elected King of Poland, .... 275 
 " Capture of Gibraltar by Sir George Rooke, . . . 269 
 
 " Battle of Blenheim, August 13th, ..... 270 
 
 1705 Death of the Emperor Leopold I. and accession of Joseph I., . 270 
 
 1706 Battle of Ramillies, May 23d, ...... 270 
 
 " Battle of Turin, September 6th, ..... 270 
 
 " Peace of Altranstadt between Charles XII. and the Elector of Saxony, 275 
 " A Franco-Spanish fleet attacks Charleston, South Carolina, . . . 265 
 
 1707 Parliamentai-y Union of England and Scotland, . . 248, 278 
 " Battle of Almanza, Spain, April 25lh, . . . . .271 
 " Death of Aurungzebe, the great Mogul Emperoi of India, . . 2S1 
 
 1708 Battle of Oudenarde, July nth, ..... 271 
 " Charles XII. of Sweden invades Russia, .... 275 
 
 1709 Battle of Pultowa, July Slh, ...... 276 
 
 " Battle of Malplaquet, September nth, .... 271 
 
 1710 The French colony of Acadia conquered by the English, . . 301 
 " Charles XII. of Sweden seeks refuge in Turkey, . . . 276 
 
 171 1 Unfortunate expedition of Sir Hovenden Walker against Canada. . 301 
 " The Tuscarora Indians make war on the North Carolina settlers, . 265 
 " Death of the Emperor Joseph II. and accession of Charles VI., . 272 
 " The Hungarian insurrection of Count Ragotzky suppressed, . 269 
 
 1713 Peace of Utrecht, ....... 272 
 
 1714 Peace of Rastadt, ....... 272 
 
 " Death of Queen Anne of England and accession of George I., 249, 27S 
 
 1715 The Yamasee Indians make war on the South Carolinians, . . 265 
 " Charles XII. returns to Sweden, ..... 277 
 " Death of Louis XIV. of France and accession of Louis XV., . 272 
 " Rebellion in .Scotland against the House of Brunswick, . . 278 
 
 1716 Battle ofj^heriff Muir, Scotland, ..... 278 
 " Austria joins Venice in a war against the Ottoman Porte, . . 278 
 
 ' Charles XII. of Sweden invades Norway, .... 277 
 
 ' Prince Eugene defeats the Turks near Peterwardein, . . 278 
 
 1717 Prince, Eugene annihilates an army of 200,000 Turks at Belgrade, . 278 
 
 1718 War of the Quadruple Alliance against .Spain, . . . 279 
 ' Peace of l'a>san)vitz between Austria and Turkey, . . . 278 
 
14 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1718 Siege of Frederickshall and death of Charles XII. of Sweden, . 278 
 " '\''ale College removed from Saybrook to New Haven. 
 
 " Foundhng of New Orleans, Louisiana, .... 300 
 
 1721 Peace of Nystadt between Russia and Sweden, . . , 278 
 
 1722 Persia overrun and subdued by the Afghans, . . , 281 
 1725 Death of Peter the (ireat of Russia and accession of Catharine I., . 278 
 1727 Death of Catharine I. of Russia and accession of Peter II., . 278 
 
 " Death of George I. of England and accession of George II., . 2<iy, 278 
 
 " Siege of Gibraltar Ijy the .Spaniards. 
 
 " Conquest of Thibet by the Chinese. 
 
 '729 North and South Carolina become separate royal provinces, . 266 
 
 " The Natchez Indians massacre the French settlers at Fort Rosalie, . 301 
 
 1730 The Empress Anne ascends the throne of Russia, . . , 278 
 
 1732 Birth of GeDrge Washington, February 22d. 
 
 1733 Savannah, Georgia founded liy James Edward Oglethorpe, . 267 
 " War of the Polish Succession begins, ..... 280 
 
 1734 Battle of Parma, Italy, between the Sardinians and Austrians. 
 
 1735 Peace between France and Germany, ..... 280 
 
 1736 Kouli Khan ascends the throne of Persia with the title of Nadir Shah, 281 
 
 1737 Austria joins Russia in a war against the Ottoman Porte, . . 280 
 
 1738 Battle of Krotzky, July 21st, — the Turks defeat the Austrians. 
 
 " France agrees to the Pragmatic Sanction, .... 2S2 
 
 1739 Peace of Lielgrade between Austria and Turkey, . . . 280 
 " Nadir Shah of Persia invades India and causes 100,000 of the inhabi- 
 tants of Delhi to be massacred, . . . . . 2S1 
 
 " Colonial and maritime war between England and Spain, . . 280 
 
 " Porto Bello, South America, taken by Admiral Vernon's fleet, . 280 
 
 1740 Admiral Vernon and General Wentworth repulsed in an attack upon 
 
 Carthagena, South America, ...... 2S0 
 
 " Death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, . . . 282 
 
 " Frederic the Great becomes King of Prussia, .... 281 
 
 " Coalition against Maria Theresa and War of the Austrian Succession, 282 
 
 " Frederic the Great begins the First Silesian War, . . . 2S2 
 
 (741 Battle of Molvitz, — defeat of the Austrians by the Prussians, . 282 
 
 " A French army under Marshal Belleisle marches into Bohemia, . 283 
 
 " Charles VII. elected Emperor of Germany, . . . 283 
 
 " Accession of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, .... 278 
 
 " War between Sweden and Russia, ..... 281 
 
 " Supposed Negro Plot in New York City. 
 
 1742 Peace of Breslau between Austria and Prussia, . . . 283 
 " Marshal Belleisle's retreat through Germany to the Rhine, , . 283 
 
 1743 England's alliance with Maria Theresa, .... 2S3 
 " Battle of Dettingen, — George II. of England defeats the French, . 283 
 " Peace of Abo between Sweden and Russia, . . . 281 
 
 1744 The Second Silesian War and Frederic's capture of Pr.ague, . . 284 
 
 1745 Death of Charles Vlt. of Germany and election of P'rancis I., . 284 
 " Battle of Hohenfriedberg, ...... 284 
 
 " Battle of Sorr, ....... 284 
 
 " Battle of Kesselsdorf, ....... 284 
 
 " Peace of Dresden between Frederic and Maria Theresa, . . 2S4 
 
 " Battle of Fontenoy, ....... 285 
 
 " Capture of Louisburg, Acadia, by Admiral Warren and General 
 
 Pepperell, ...... 2S5, 302 
 
 " Scotch Rebellion, . . . . . . .285 
 
 " Battle of Preston Pans, Scotland, ..... 285 
 
 1746 Battle of Falkirk, Scotland, ...... 285 
 
 " Battle of Culloden Moor, .Scotland, ..... 285 
 
 1747 Assassination of Nadir Shah of Persia, .... 2S1 
 (748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, ..... 286, 302 
 I74g The Ohio Company nblains a laud-grant from King George II., . 30J 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. i^ 
 
 PAGK. 
 
 '753 ^^'^^Ilil■l<;(c1n'.■; mission to the French, .... 302 
 
 1754 \V.isiiiiifrton's expedition against Fort Dii Quesne, . . . 303 
 " liattle of tlie Great Meadcnvs, ..... 303 
 " Washiiif^jton's capitulation at Fort Necessity, July 4th, , . , 303 
 " Colonial Congress at Albany, New York, .... 303 
 
 1755 Ca[)ture of French forts in Acadia by Colonel Monckton, June, . 303 
 " Acadia plundered and desolated by the English, June, . . 30? 
 " Hattle of the Monongahela and death of Braddock, July 9th, . . 303 
 '■' Haltle of Lake George, — Colonel Williams defeated by Dieskau, . 304 
 " Great earthquake at Lisbon, Portugal, destroys 30,000 houses. 
 
 1/56 Coalition against PYederic the Great and beginning of the Seven 
 
 Years' War, ........ 286 
 
 " Sudden invasion of .Saxony by Frederic the Great, . , . 287 
 
 '' Hattle of Lowositz, Bohemia, ...... 287 
 
 " Surrender of the Saxon army, ..... 287 
 
 " The French wrest the island of I^Iinorca from the English, . . 287 
 
 " The Marquis de Montcalm captures the English garrison at 
 
 Oswego, ....... 2S7, 304 
 
 *' l^atlle of Kittanning, — Colonel John Armstrong defeats the Indians, 304 
 
 " Surajah Dowlah confines 146 Englishmen in the Black Hole of 
 
 Calcutta, ........ 299 
 
 1757 Battle of Piassey, India, — ...... 299 
 
 " Battle of Prague, Bohemia, May 6th, .... 287 
 
 " Battle of Kolin, Bohemia, June iSlh, ..... 288 
 
 " Battle of Rosbach, Saxony, Novemlier 5th, . . . 288 
 
 " Battle of Leuthen, Silesia, December 5th, .... 288 
 
 " Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalmj . . 289, 304 
 
 " William Pitt the Elder becomes Prime Minister of England, . 289, 304 
 
 1758 liattle of Zorndorf, Brandenburg, August 24th, . . . 289 
 " Battle of Hochkirchen, Saxony, October 14th, .... 289 
 " Capture of Louisburg, Acadia, by- Generals Amherst and Wolfe, 289, 305 
 " Capture of Fort Frontenac, Canada, by Colonel Bradstreet, . 289, 305 
 " Capture of Fort Du Quesne by General John Forbes, . . 305 
 
 1759 Battle of Minden, Havover, August 1st, .... 290 
 " Battle of Kunersdorf, Silesia, August 14th, .... 290 
 " Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point by General Amherst, . 305 
 '• Capture of I'^ort Niagara by General William Johnson, . . 305 
 " Defeat of the P'rench at Quebec and death of ^Volfe and Montcalm, 
 
 September 13th, ...... 290, 306 
 
 " Quebec surrendered to General Murray, Sejitember iSth, . 290, 306 
 
 " The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay. 
 
 1760 Battle of Liegnitz, August 13th, ..... 291 
 " Battle of Torgou, November 3d, ..... 291 
 " Battle of Sillery, Canada, April 28th, .... 291, 306 
 " Surrender of Montreal to General Murray, September 8th, . 291, 306 
 " Death of George II. of England and accession of George HI., 292, 297, 455 
 
 1761 liattle of Panniput, India, January 7th, .... 281 
 " Family Compact between France and Spain, .... 99I 
 " Defeat of the Cherokee Indians in Georgia by Colonel Grant, . 306 
 " Mason's and Dixon's Line established, ■ . . , 267 
 " Writs of Assistance tried in the Anglo-American colonies, . . 455 
 
 176J Capture of Havana, Cuba, by the British navy, . . . 292 
 " Death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, . . 202 
 " Murder of the Czar Petei HI. of Russia and accession of Catha- 
 rine IL, ....... 292 
 
 1763 Peace of Paris between England and France, February loth, 292, 306 
 " Peace of Ilubertsburg between Austria and Prussia, . . 292 
 " Pontiac's ^Var against the English in North America, . . . 306 
 
 1764 Death of Augustus HI. of Poland and election of Stanislaus Ponia- 
 
 towski, ........ 293 
 
1 6 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 lAGE. 
 
 1765 The Stamp Act passed Ijy the British Parliament, . , , 455 
 " The Stamj) Act Congress in New York City, October, . . 456 
 " Death of the Emjteror Francis I. and election of Joseph II., . 298 
 
 1766 Repeal of the Stamp Act, March 6th, ..... 456 
 " I'arliamenl levies duties on articles imported into America, . 456 
 
 1767 Civil war in Poland, ....... 294 
 
 " Ilyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore, begins a war against the English, . 299 
 
 176b) War between Russia and Turkey, ..... 294 
 
 •' British troops under General Gage sent to Boston, . . . 457 
 
 l''6o Ac(]uisilion of Corsica by the French, ..... 297 
 
 1 /C Bender stormed and taken by the Russians, . . , 294 
 
 " The Boston Riot and Massacre, March 5th, .... 457 
 
 1771 Defeat of the Regulators in North Carolina, May i6th, . . 45S 
 " Gustavus III. ascends the throne of Sweden. 
 
 " Gustavus III. breaks the power of the Swedish aristocracy. 
 
 1772 Destruction of the Gaspe, ...... 458 
 
 " First Partition of Poland, ...... 294 
 
 1773 Committees of Correspondence in the Anglo-American colonies, , 459 
 " Tea-ships sent to America, ...... 458 
 
 " Destruction of tea in Boston harbor, December l6th, . . . 458 
 
 1774 Pugatscheff's rebellion in Russia, ..... 294 
 " Passage uf the Boston Port Bill by the British Parliament, . . 458 
 " The [lort of Boston closed against all commerce, June 1st, . . 458 
 " The First Continental Congress assemldes in Philadelphia, Sept. 5th, 459 
 " Peace of Kutlschuck Kainardsche between Russia ancl Turkey, . 294 
 " Death of Louis XV. of France and accession of Louis XVI., . , 310 
 
 1775 PugatscheH", the Don Cossack, beheaded in Moscow, . . 294 
 " American Revolution begins by the skirmishes at Lexington and 
 
 and Concord, April 19th, . . . . 307, 460 
 
 " The Second Continental Congress assembles at Philadelphia, 
 
 May loth, ....... 
 
 " Capture of Ticonderoga by Colonel Ethan Allen, May loth, 
 
 " Capture of Crown Point by Colonel Seth Warner, May I2th, . 
 
 " Mecklenberg Declaration of Indejiendence, May 20th, 
 
 " Washington chosen Commander-in-chief, June I5lh, . , 
 
 " Battle oY Bunker's Mill, June 17th, 
 
 " American invasion of Canada, Se]itember, 
 
 " Defeat of Governor Dunmore in Virginia, . 
 
 " Capture of Montreal by General Montgomery, November 13th, 
 
 " Defeat of the Americans at Quebec and death of Montgomery, 
 
 December 31st, 
 
 1776 Lord Dunmore burns Norfolk, Virginia, January 1st, 
 " Washington begins the siege of Boston, March 2d, 
 " Evacuation of IJoston by (ieneral Howe, March 17th, 
 " The British repulsed at Charleston, South Carolina, June 28th, 
 " Declaration of .(Vmerican Independence, July 4th, . 
 " Battle of Long Island, August 27th, .... 
 " Battle of White Plains, New York, October 28th, . 
 " Capture of Fort Washington by the British, Novendier i6th, 
 " Washington's retreat across New Jersey, December, 
 " Battle of Trenton, New Jersey, — 1,000 Hessians captured, Decem- 
 ber 26th, ........ J.65 
 
 '777 Battle of I'rinceton, New Jersey, January 3d, . . . {.65 
 
 " Skirmish at Ridgetield, Connecticut, April 27th, . . . 465 
 
 " Siege of Fort Schuyler, New York, August, .... 467 
 
 " Battle of On>kany, New York, August 6th, . . . 467 
 
 " ]]attle of Bennington, Vermont, August i6th, .... 467 
 
 " Battle of Brandywinc, Pennsylvania, September I ith, . 466 
 
 " Battle of Bemis's Heights, New York, Se])teml)er igta, . . 467 
 
 " Massacre of Paoli, Pennsylvania, September 20tn, . . . 466 
 
 462 
 460 
 4 bo 
 461 
 462 
 461 
 462 
 462 
 307, 462 
 
 307, 
 
 307 
 307 
 
 307, 462 
 
 462 
 . 462 
 462 
 • 463 
 463 
 464 
 404 
 464 
 465 
 
 307. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 17 
 
 '''V ^!;!'^ °f Gennantown, Pennsylvania, October 4th. . "^"ih 
 
 Battle of Saratoga, New York, October 7th ^ ' ' ' -466 
 
 SurrenderofBurgoyne, October 17th * ' ' "^J 
 
 ' Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey Tune 28th 
 
 Massacre of Wyoming, Pennsylvania, July 3d, 4th and 'tL ^f 
 
 mTJ' °^ ^^'^f "'"' Rhode Island Auguit'29S; ' ' * ' tfl 
 
 Massacre of Cherry Valley, New York, November I ith ' ' '' 
 
 " War of the Bavarian Succession,' ^69 
 
 " I^'scovery of the Sandwich Islands bv Captain Cook ' * ^^^ 
 
 Batt e of Bner Creek, Georgfa. March 3d ^ ' ' ' "469 
 
 Rattle of Stono Ferry, South Carolina, June 20th, ' ' ' til 
 
 ' Spam declares war against England, Tune "' * • • 469 
 
 Siege of Gibraltar commenced by the Spaniards ' ' ^ q' ^''^ 
 
 Capture of Stony Point by General Anthony Wayne TulV ,6th " ^ ' ^^° 
 
 Capture of Paulus Hook by Major Henr^ Le! Ju J' /oth ' ' 1 ° 
 General Sullivan's chastisement of the Indians in New York Auau^ V-a 
 
 • §lVof"y°""\^K'=^^"^?^^'^'°'^°ffF'-»borougr^^^^^^ • J'C 
 
 Siege of Savannah begun by the French and Ameiicans Sent J^d V.c. 
 
 The <.ordon or "No Popery Riots" in London, June, . ' 
 
 Sk rmish at Springfield. New Jersey, June 23d, ^ 
 
 Ba e of Sander's Creek, South Carolina, August i6th, . ' 
 
 Arnold s treason discovered, Septemi^er 22d 
 Execution of Major Andre, October 2d 
 
 '' Dealh ""L fJ"l'' ^^"""^,=1'"'. South Carolina, 'Octobe; 7th, ' 
 
 Death of the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria . 
 ^^ Hyder Ali defeated in India by Sir Eyre Coote 
 
 •^'^^"'n'ng of Tupac Amaru's insurrection in Peru, . 
 
 Armed Neutrality as^^ainst Ent^land 
 
 ,7Sr m" r^"'^ ?o '^'"'' ^'''' ^g'-^hist^HoIland, December 20th,' 
 
 " Bat tle^.f1h^'r"'^ '"'V™T '^ M°r"«to-". New Jer'sey, Jan 
 
 BatleoftheCovvpens, South Carolina, January 1 7th, . .;, 
 
 Mu iny of New Jersey troops at Pompton, Neu^feLy, j;nuary I'sth ' 47^ 
 
 " Bn 1 G-o'-^l Court House, North Carolina, March I5th?^ ' %\ 
 
 Jattle of Hobkirk's Hill, South CaroHna, Aprir25th, ^ ' f,\ 
 
 Siege of Port Ninety-Six, South Carolina, b/ Genera Greene, May" %\ 
 
 Capture of Augusta, Georgia, i,y the Americans, June 5th, ^ * tl\ 
 
 Battle of Eutaw Springs, South Carolina, September Sth ' tit 
 
 " Sur?en?Lo7r"T""rV^-^^^"^^^ • '471 
 
 ■ '«, K T f . ^°™,^^^^hs at Yurkiown, October 19th, . V. ] 
 
 a- 82 End of Lord North's Administration, March ' l]^. 
 
 MaS'Jh"""'^ "^ Commons resolves to ^id the' American war, ^ ' 
 
 " '^ti,rifi2^h;^"'^ '^'^''''' ^'""^ ^' ^'""''" •" ^^^ West Indies, ' ^^^ 
 
 " Grand attack of t'he French and 'Spaniards on Gibraltar, 'Sept. 131),. " 3^ 
 
 471 
 
 • 297 
 472 
 
 . 471 
 471 
 
 . 472 
 472 
 
 • 471 
 298 
 
 • 299 
 
 433 
 
 308, 472 
 
 308, 472 
 
 rst, 472 
 
1 8 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1782 Preliminar}' Peace of Paris between England and the United States, 
 
 November 301)1, ....... 475 
 
 " The younger William Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England. 
 
 " Migration of the Kalmuck Tartars from Russia, . , . 294 
 
 " Tupac Amaru conquered and put to a cruel death, . . . 433 
 
 " Death of Plyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore, and accession of Tirpoo Saib, . 299 
 
 1783 Preliminary Peace of Paris between England and France, Jan. 20th, 475 
 Detiniti\'e Peace of Paris. — American independence acknowledged, 
 
 September 3d, . . . . . . 475 
 
 ' Evacuation of New \'ork City by the British anny, November 25th, .^75 
 
 ■' Washington resigns his commission, December 4th, , . 475 
 
 " Conquest of the Crimea by the Russians under Potemkin, . . 294 
 
 " Great earthquake at Messana, Italy. 
 
 1784 Democratic insurrection in Holland, ..... 298 
 
 1756 Shay's insurrection in Massachusetts. 
 
 " Death of Frederic the Ch-eat at Potsdam, August 17th. . . . 297 
 
 1757 An Assembly of Notables convened in France, February, . . 312 
 " Assembling of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, May, . 476 
 " The Constitution of the United States framed, September, . . 476 
 " War of Austria and Russia against Turkey, .... 295 
 " King Frederic William II. of Prussia restores order in Holland, . 298 
 " Rebellions in the Austrian Netherlands and Hungai-y, . . • 298 
 " Impeachment of Warren Hastings by the House of Commons, . 298 
 
 1788 Gustavus III. of Sweden makes war on Russia, . . . 295 
 " Ratification and adoption of the Constitution of the United States, 478 
 " General Washington elected President of the United States, . . 47S 
 " Capture of Oczakow by the Russians under Potemkin, December 22d, 295 
 
 1789 The Constitution of the United States goes into oueration. March 4th, . 478 
 " Inauguration of President W'ashington, April 30th, . . 478 
 " Assembling of the States General at Versailles, May 5th, . . 312 
 " The States General declares itself a National Assembly, June 17th, 312 
 " The French Revolution begun by the storming of the Bastile, July 14th, .314 
 " The Paris mob forces Louis XVI. to remove from Versailles to Paris, 
 
 October 5th, . . . . . . • S'S- 
 
 " Admission of North Carolina into the American Union, Nov. 29th, . 47S 
 
 179c Death of Joseph II. of Germany and accession of Leopold II., February, 29S 
 
 " Rhode Island admitted into the American Union, May 29th, . . 478 
 
 " The Ceremony of Federation in Paris, June 17th, . . . 315 
 
 " ['eace between Gustavus HI. of Sweden and Catharine II. of Russia, . 295 
 
 " Tippoo Saib renews tlie n'ar against the East-India Company, . 299 
 
 " General Harmer defeated by the Indians in Ohio, November 4th, . 479 
 
 " Ismail stormed and taken by the Russians under SuwaiTow. Dec. 17th, 295 
 
 1-91 V^ermont admitted as a State of the American Union, Feoruary i8th, , 47S 
 
 " Death of Count Mirabeau, April 2d, .... 316 
 
 " A new monarchical constitution adopted in Poland, May 3d, . . 295 
 
 " Siege and capture of Bangalore, India, by Lord Cornwallis, . 299 
 
 " Unsuccessful attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from France, June, .316 
 
 " E'eace between Austria and Turkey, .... 295 
 
 " The P>ench Legislative Assembly convenes in Paris, October ist, .316 
 
 " General St. Clair defeated by the Indians in Ohio, November 4th . 479 
 
 179; Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey, January, . . . 295 
 
 " Death of Leopold II. of Germany and accession of Francis II., . 298 
 
 " Lord Cornwallis defeats Tippoo Saib at Seringapatam, India, . . 299 
 
 " .Assassination of King Gustavus HI. of Sweden, March 29th, . 295 
 
 " Fiance declares war against Austria and Prussia, April 20th, . • 3'7 
 
 " Poland invaded by Russian troops, May, . . . 295 
 
 " Kentucky admitted into the American Union, June 1st, . . 47^ 
 
 " Insunection in Paris, June, . . . . . • 3'7 
 
 " Defeat of Kosciuszko at Dubienka by the Russians, July 17th, . . 295 
 
 " Austro- Prussian invasion of France, July, .... 318 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 19 
 
 FACE. 
 
 179:; fnsurrection and massacre in Paris, August loth, , , , 318 
 
 Flight of General Lafayette to the Austrians, . . . 31 8 
 
 Massacre of the Prisons in Paris, September 2d-5th, . . •319 
 
 Bailie of Valmy, France, Sej)teniber 2Cth, .... 319 
 
 The French National Convention assembles in Paris and declaies 
 
 France a Repuljlic, September 22d, . . . . 319 
 
 Battle of Jemappes, Belgium, November 6th, . . . c 319 
 
 1793 Execution of King Louis XVL of France, January 27th, . . 320 
 France declares war against England, Spain, and Holland, PeLruary, . 32c 
 Battle of Neerwinden, Belgium, March iSih, . . . 32c 
 Pumourier seeks refuge among the Austrians, March, . . 321, 32; 
 Second Partition of Poland, April, ..... 296 
 
 Insurrection of the Jacobins in Paris, May 31st and June ist, . . 321 
 
 The Reign of Terror in France, . . . . .321 
 
 The insurrection of La Vendee, ..... 322 
 
 Insurrection of Lyons, ...... 322 
 
 Insurrection of Marseilles, ...... 322 
 
 Insurrection of Toulon, ...... 322 
 
 Siege and reduction of Toulon, — Appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte, . 322 
 Insurrections in Brittany and Normandy, .... 322 
 
 Trial and execution of Marie Antoinette, October i6th, . .321 
 
 F.xecution of the Girondist leaders, October 31st, . . . 321 
 
 The French National Convention abolishes the Christian religion, 
 
 November loth, ....... 322 
 
 1794 Execution of Danton and Camille Desmoulins, April, . . 323 
 " Rise of the Poles under Kosciuszko against the Russians, April, . 294 
 " Execution of Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon, and Henriot, July 28th, 323 
 " General Wayne defeats the Indians in Ohio, August 20th, . . 479 
 " Defeat of Kosciuszko by the Russians at Maczievvice, October loth, 296 
 " Jay's Treaty between the the United Stales and Great Britain, . . 479 
 '' The Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania, .... 479 
 
 1705 Third Partition of Poland, January, .... 296 
 
 " Holland erected into the Batavian Republic, January, . . 325 
 
 " The P'rench National Convention surrounded by a mob, March 31st, 
 
 April 1st, ........ 324 
 
 " Peace of Basle between France and Prussia, April 5th, . . 325 
 
 " The Insurrection of the 1st Prairial in Paris, May 20th, . . 324 
 
 " The Austrians take Heidelberg and Manheim by storm, September. 
 
 " Insurrection of the Sections in Paris, October 3d-5th, . . . 325 
 
 " Establishment of the Directory m France, October 27th, . . 325 
 
 1796 Battles of Montenotte and Mellessimo, Italy, April, . . . 326 
 
 " Battle of Lodi, Italy, May loth, ..... 326 
 
 " Tennessee admitted into the American Union, June 1st, . . 480 
 
 " Death of Catharine II. of Russia and accession of Paul, . . 296 
 
 " Moreau's masterly retreat through the Black Forest, September, . 325 
 
 " S[ ain declares war .against England, October 2d. 
 
 " Battles of Areola, Italy, November 15th, l6th, and 17th, . . 326 
 
 •797 J«^" Adams inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 4S0 
 
 " Preliminary Treaty of Leoben between France and Austria, April i8th, . 326 
 
 " The Venetian Republic sul)verted by Bonaparte, . . . 327 
 
 " The Royalist deputies imi^risoned and banished from France, Sept., . 327 
 
 " Peace of Campo Formio between France and Austria, October 17th, 327 
 
 '« Tlie Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics established in Italy, . . 327 
 
 " A European Congress assembles at Rastadt, Baden, December. 
 
 •798 A new Roman Republic established, February, . . '1-1 
 
 " Switzerland converted into the Helvetic Republic, . . . 32S 
 
 " Rebellion in Ireland against British authority, .... 298 
 
 " Bo^iaparte invades Egyj.il, July 1st, ..... 32S 
 
 " Cajjture of Alexandria, Eg)'pt, by Bonaparte, July Ist, . . . 328 
 
 ♦' Battle of the Pyramids, Egypt, July 2 1st, .... 328 
 
20 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1798 Battle of the Nile, — Lord Nelson defeats the French fleet, August isl, . 328 
 
 " Alien and Sedition Laws passed by the United States Congress, , 481 
 
 " The Virginia and Kentucky States Rights Resolutions, . . . 481 
 
 " Coalition of Austria, Russia, England, and Turkey against France, 329 
 
 '799 Th^ Parthenopeian Republic established in Naples, January, . . 327 
 
 ' Bonaparte's invasion of Syria, February, .... 33c 
 
 " Siege of Acre, Syria, by Bonaparte, March and April, . . . 330 
 
 " Battle of Mount Tabor, Syria, March, .... 330 
 
 " Fall of Seringapatam and death of Tippoo Saib, May 4th, . . 299 
 
 " Battles of Cassano and Trebia, Italy,— French defeats, June, c 329 
 
 " The Parthenopeian Republic overthrown, June 13th, . . , 329 
 
 " Battle of Aboukir, Egypt, July 25th, .... 330 
 
 " Battle of Novi, Italy, — Suwarrow defeats the French, August 5th, . 529 
 
 " Battle of Zurich, Switzerland, — Russians defeated by the French, 
 
 September 25, 26, . . . . . . 329 
 
 " Bonaparte overthrows the Directory in France, November 9th, . ' 7)2>^ 
 
 " Death of General Washington at Mount Vernon, December 14th, . 481 
 
 1800 Napoleon created First Consul of the French Republic, January, . 331 
 
 " Napoleon's passage over the Alps, May and June, . . . 332 
 
 " Batde of Montebello, Italy, June 9th, ..... 332 
 
 " Battle of Marengo, Italy, June I4lh, .... 332 
 
 " Washington City becomes the Capital of the United States, . . 481 
 
 " Macdonald's passage over the Splugen, November, . . . 332 
 
 " Battle of liohenliiiden, Bavaria, December 3d, .... 332 
 
 " Maratime League formed against Great Britain, December i6th, . 333 
 
 " Attempted assassination of Bonaparte, December 24th, . . . 332 
 
 .A.. D, 
 
 1801 
 
 1802 
 
 1803 
 
 1804 
 
 1805 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland, January 1st, . , 298 
 
 Peace cf Luneville between France and Austria, February gth, . 333 
 
 Battle of Copenhagen, — Lord Nelson defeats the Danes, March 2d, . 333 
 Inauguration of President Thomas Jefferson, March 4th, . , 481 
 
 Battles of Canopus, Eg)'pt, and death of Sir Ralph Abercrombie, 
 
 March 21st, ........ 333 
 
 Assassination of the Czar Paul and accession of Alexander I., 
 
 March 24th, . . . . . . . .333 
 
 War between the United States and Tripoli, . . .481 
 
 War between Spain and Portugal. 
 
 Peace of Badajoz between Spain and Portugal. 
 
 Peace of Amiens between England and France, March 27th, . . 333 
 
 Ohio becomes a State of the American Union, . . . 481 
 
 Bonaparte elected First Consul of P'rance for life, . . . 334 
 
 Revolt of St. Domingo against the French, .... 334 
 
 Renewal of the war between England and France, , . . 334 
 
 French invasion and conquest of Hanover, .... 334 
 
 Robert Emmett's insurrection in Dublin, Ireland, . . . 298 
 
 Purchase of Louisiana from France by the United States, . . 48 1 
 
 War between Russia and Persia. 
 
 War between the English and the Mahrattas of India, . . 299 
 
 Battle of Assay6, India, — Sir Arthur Wellesley defeats the Mah'-attas, 299 
 Conspiracy against Bt>naparte, ..... 335 
 
 Execution of the Duke d' Enghien, May 21st, .... 335 
 
 War between Great Britain and Spain, December, . . . 335 
 
 Napoleon crowned " Enijieror of the French," December 2d, . . 335 
 
 Napoleon crowned " King of Northern Italy," May 26th, . . 335 
 
 Meheinet Ali becomes Pacha of Egypt, ..... 368 
 
 Coalition of England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden against Napoleon, 336 
 Ihn Austrian general Mack surrenders Ulm to Napoleon, Oct. 20th, . 336 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 21 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1S05 Battle of Trafalgar, — victory and death of Lord Nelson, Oct. 2ist, 336 
 
 •' Battle of Dirnstein, Austria, November nth, .... 336 
 " Napoleon entei's Vienna, the Austrian capital, November 13th, . 336 
 
 " Battle of Austerlitz, Austria, December 2d, .... 336 
 " Peace of Presburg between France and Austria, December 26th, . 336 
 
 .1 Sob End of the German Empire and formation of the Confederation of the 
 
 Rhine, ........ 336 
 
 " Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples and I>ouis King of Holland, . 336 
 
 " Death of William Pitt the Younger and Charles James P'ox, . . 336 
 
 " The English conquer the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch. 
 
 " Capture of Buenos Ayres, South America, by Sir Home Popham 
 
 " War breaks out between France and Prussia, August, . . 337 
 
 " Battle of Saalfeld, — Prince Louis of Prussia defeated and killed, 
 
 October 10th, ........ 337 
 
 " Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, Prussia, October 14th, . . T^y^ 
 
 " Napoleon enters Berlin, the capital of Prussia, October 25th, . . 337 
 
 " Napoleon's Berlin Decree establishing the Continental System, 
 
 November 21st, ...... 337, 482 
 
 " Battle of Pultusk, Poland, — the French repulsed, December 26th, 337 
 
 1807 Battle of Eylau, Prussia, February Slh, .... 337 
 " Dantzic, Prussia, surrendered to the French, May 24th, . . 337 
 " Battle of Hielsberg, Prussia, June 5th, ..... 338 
 " Battle of Friedland, Prussia, June 14th, .... 2>1)^ 
 " Attack of the Leopard on the Chesapeake, June 22d, . . . 483 
 " Peace of Tilsit between France, Russia, and Prussia, July 7lh, . 338 
 " Jerome Bonaparte becomes King of Westphalia, . . . 338 
 " War begun between Russia and Turkey, .... 343 
 " A British fleet under Admiral Duckworth repulsed at Constantinople. 
 
 " The English under General Frazer take Alexandria in Egypt. 
 
 " Buenos Ayres recovered from the English by its inhabitants. 
 
 " Robert Fulton's steam navigation experiments crowned with success, 482 
 
 " Bombardment of Copenhagen by the British navy, September 2d-5th, . 338 
 
 " Aaron Burr's trial for treason and acquittal, November, . . 482 
 
 " War of Prus' ia, France, and Denmark against Sweden, . . . 338 
 
 " The royal family of Portugal sails for Rio Janeiro, in Brazil, Nov. 27th, 339 
 
 " The French occupy Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, November 30th, . 339 
 
 " Napoleon's Milan decree forbidding neutrals trading with England, 
 
 December 17th. 482 
 
 1 808 Intrigues of Bayonne, — Dethronement of the Bourbons in Spain, . 339 
 " Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain, .... 339 
 " Beginning of the Peninsular War, ..... 339 
 " Dupont's capitulation of Baylen, ..... 339 
 " Napoleon's meeting with the Czar Alexander I. at Erfurt, Prussia, July. 
 
 " The Portuguese resist the French and are aided by the English, August, 340 
 " Battle of Rolica, Portugal, August 19th, .... 
 " Batde of Vimiera, Portugal, August 2ist, . . . -340 
 
 " Convention of Cintra, — French evacuation of Portugal, . . 340 
 
 " Napoleon enters Madrid, the capital of Spain, December 4th, . 340 
 
 1809 Battle of Corunna, Spain, — victory and death of Sir John Moore, 
 
 January 1 6th, . . . . . • • H^ 
 
 " Surrender of Saragossa to the French after a long siege, Feb. 2iith, , 34c 
 
 " James Madison inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 483 
 " King Gustavus IV. of Sweden deposed by the Swedish Senate, 
 
 March 13th, . . . . . • • j'l' 
 
 " Sweden cedes Finland to Russia by the Peace of Frederickshamn, 34 1 
 
 " War breaks out between France and Austria, April, . . . 34a 
 
 " Battles of Abensberg and Eckmuhl, Bavaria, April I9th-22d, . 34c 
 
 " Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13th, ..... 14° 
 
 " Battles of Aspern and Eslingen, Austria, May 2ist, 22d, . . 34a 
 *' Eugene Beauharnais defeats the Ausirians at Raab, May. 
 
22 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1809 Revolt of the Tyrolese against the Bavarian Govei-nment, . 341 
 Unforlanate expe'lition of the English to the island of Walcheran, 
 
 Pope Pius VII. imprisoned in France, July, . . . 341 
 Battle of VVagram, Austria, July 5th and 6th, .... 341 
 
 Battle of Talavera, Spain, July 28th, .... 340 
 
 Beginning of the Revolution in Colombia, August, . . . 435 
 
 Peace of Schoenlirunn between P'rance and Austria, October 14th, 341 
 
 Napoleon's divorce from Josephine, . . . . 34' 
 
 t8lC Napoleon's marriage with the Archduchess Waria Louisa of AvsL'"x. 
 
 Januaiy, . . . . . . j ) 1 
 
 " General Charles John Bernadotte elected Crown PrLr.ce of Sweden, 34; 
 
 " Holland annexeil to the French Empire, . . . .34 
 
 " Beginning of the Revolution in Chili, July, . . . 439 
 
 " Hidalgo begins the Revolution in Mexico, September 1 6th, . . 434 
 
 " Battle of Busaca, Spain, September 27th, .... 342 
 
 " Wellington's retreat to Torres Vedras, October and November, . . 342 
 
 181 1 Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, causes a massacre of the Mamelukes, 36S 
 " Attack of the Little Belt on the President, March l6th, . . . 484 
 " Battle of Albuera, Spain, May 1 6th, .... 342 
 " Colombian Declaration of Independence, July 5th, . . . 436 
 " Hidalgo, the Mexican insurgent chief, shot, July 27111, . . 434 
 " Battle of Tippecanoe, Indiana, November yth, .... 484 
 
 1812 Earthquake at Caraccas, South America, .... 436 
 " Louisiana admitted as a State of the American Union, . . '491 
 " Peace of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey, . . . 343 
 " The United States declares war against England, June 19th, . . 484 
 " Naiioleon declares war against Russia, June 22d, . . . 343 
 " Napoleon crosses the Niemen and invades Russia, June 24th, . . 343 
 " Battle of Salamanca, Spain, July 22d, .... 342 
 " Hull's surrender of Detroit, Michigan, August i6th, . . . 484 
 " Battle of Smolensko, Russia, August xyth, .... 344 
 " Battle of Borodino, Russia, September 7th, .... 344 
 " Napoleon enters Moscow, September 15th, .... 344 
 " Conflagration of Moscow, September 1 6th-i 9th, . . . 344 
 " Battle of Queenstown, Canada, October 13th, . . . 485 
 " Napoleon begins his retreat from Moscow, October 19th, . . 344 
 " Battles of Krasnoi, Russia, November i6th, 17th, and iSth, . 345 
 " Terrible passage of the Beresina, December, .... 346 
 
 1813 Massacre of F>enchtown, Michigan, January 22d, . . . 485 
 " Prussia joins Russia and Sweden in the war against Napoleon, Feb. 3d, 346 
 " Battle of Lutzen, Germany, May 2d, .... 347 
 " First siege of Fort Meigs, Ohio, May 5th-9th, .... 4S6 
 " Battle of Bautzen, Germany, May 20th, .... 347 
 " Capture of York or Toronto, Canada, by the Americans, April 27th, . 4S6 
 " Battle of Vittoria, Spain, June 2 1st, ..... 346 
 " European Congress at Prague, Bohemia, July 4th, . . . 347 
 '* Second siege of Fort Meigs, Ohio, July 21st, . . . 486 
 ' Attack on Fort Stephenson, Ohio, August 2d, .... 486 
 ' Austria joins the allies in the war against Napoleon, August loth, . 347 
 '' Battle of Gros-Beeren, Prussia, August 23d, . . . 347 
 " Battle of Katzbach, Prussia, August 26th, .... 347 
 " Battle of Dresden, Saxony, August 26th, 27th, .... 347 
 " Battles of Culm and NoUendorf, Bohemia, Augu'^t 29t)i 30th, 347 
 '• Battle of Dennewitz, Prussia, September 6th, . , 347 
 •' Perry's victory on Lake Erie, Sept. loth, .... 4S6 
 • Battle of the Thames, Canada, October 5th, . . . , 4.86 
 " Battle of Leipsic, Saxony, October i6lh, 17th, and iSth, . 347 
 " Napoleon begins his retreat from Lei])sic, October 19th, , . 348 
 " War with the Creek Indians in Alabama, Noveml^er, . . 4S7 
 " Battle of Chrysler's Field, Canada, November nth, . . . .4^7 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 23 
 
 fAl K. 
 
 ;8l3 M.xijan Declaiation of Independence, November 13th, . . 43^5 
 
 1814 Invasion of P'rance by the allied armies, January 1st, . . . 348 
 " Denmark ( edes Norway to Sweden by the Peace of Kiel, Januai-)' 34S 
 " l'o]ie Pius VII. restored to his authority in Rome, January, . . 348 
 " Battle of Drienne, France, January 27th, .... 349 
 " Batile of La Rothiere, France, Fel;ruary 1st, .... 349 
 " Napoleon's victory at Montereaii, February iSlh, . , 349 
 " IjiUtle of Tohopeka, or Great Horse Shoe, Alabama, March 27'h, . 4S7 
 " First capitulation of Paris to the allies, Marcli 31st, . 349 
 ' Treaty of Fontainbleau, — Napoleon's abdication, April nth, . 34? 
 * Battle of Toulouse, France, — Wellington defeats Soult, April nth, 345 
 ' Napoleon arrives in Elba, May 4lh, ..... 349 
 " Louis XVm. placed on the throne of France, May 20th, . 350 
 •' First Peace of Paris between France and the allies. May 30th, . . 350 
 " Battle of Chi])pe\va, Canada, July 5th, . . . 488 
 " Battle of lamdy's Lane, Canada, July 25th, . . . 48S 
 " Battle of Bladensburg, Maryland, August 24th, . . 489 
 " Washington City cajitured and burned by the British, August 24th, 489 
 " Battle of Plattsburg, New York, September nth, . . 4SS 
 " Battle of North Point, Maryland, Se])tember 12th, . . . 489 
 " British bombardment of Fort McHenry, Maryland, Sept. I2th-I4th 4S9 
 " A Congress of European Powers meets at Vienna, Se].itember 25th, . 350 
 " Jackson's invasion of Florida and capture of Pensacola, November 489 
 " Battle below New Orleans, Louisiana, December 23d, . . . 4S9 
 " Peace of CJhent between Great Britain and the United States, Dec. z^di, 490 
 
 1815 Battle of New Orleans, I,ouisiana, January 8th, .... 4S9 
 " Napoleon returns to France and recovers his throne, March, . 35c 
 " England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia combine against Napoleon, . 351 
 " Napoleon compels the Prussians to evacuate Charleroi, Belgium, 
 
 June 15th, . . . . . . . .351 
 
 " Battles of Ligny and Qftatre-Bras, Belgium, June 1 6th, . . 351 
 
 " Battle of Waterloo, Belgium, June 1 8th, .... 351 
 
 " Commodore DeOatur humbles Algiers, June 30th, . . . 491 
 
 " Second abdication of Napoleon, July 2d, .... 352 
 
 " Second capitulation of Paris, July 7th, . . . '35- 
 
 " Louis XVIII. restored to the throne of France, Jul^ 8th, . . 352 
 
 " Napoleon banished to St. Helena, where he arrives October 2d, . 352 
 
 " The Holy Alliance formed, September 25th, .... 353 
 
 " The Germanic Confederation established, .... 365 
 
 ^ Second Peace of Paris between France and the allies, November 20th, 353 
 
 i8i6 Argentine Declaration of Independence, July 9th, . . . 43S 
 
 " Lord Exmouth humbles Algiers, August 27th, . . . 355 
 
 " Indiana admitted as a State of the American Union, December, . 491 
 
 1S17 ISattle of Chacabaco, Chili, — the Spaniards defeated, . . 439 
 
 " President James Monroe's inauguration, March 4th, . . . 491 
 
 " Admission of Mississippi into the American Union, . . . 492 
 
 " Raids of the Seminole and Creek Indians in Georgia, . . . 491 
 
 " Repiililican conspiracy in England, ..... 354 
 
 1818 Battle of Maypu and emancipation of Chili, April 5th, . . . 439 
 
 " The Wahawbees of Araijia subdued by Mehemet Ali, . . j68 
 
 " General Jackson's second invasion of Florida and seizure of Pensacol,-*, 491 
 
 •• Admission of Illinois as a State of the American Union, . , 492 
 
 fSig Spain cedes Florida to the United States, . , . , \')\ 
 
 "' Popular demonstration at Manchester, PZngland, , . . 353. 
 
 " European Congress at Aix la-Chapelle. 
 
 •'• Alabama admiUed into the American Union, .... 4')i! 
 
 1820 Death of George III. of England and accession of George IV., 
 
 January, . . • • • • • 355) 3"^ 
 
 " Conquest of Nubia and Kordofan by the Pacha of Egypt, . • 36S 
 
 " Revolution in Spain and reeslablishment of the Cortes Constitution, 355 
 
24 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 FACE. 
 
 1820 Revolution in Portugal and estalilishment of a liberal constitution, , 356 
 " Revolution in Naples and establishment of a liberal constitution, ^ 356 
 " The Holy Alliance restores absolute monarchy in Naples, . . 356 
 " Maine admitted into the American Union, .... 492 
 " T'le Missouri Compromise agreed to, . . . . . 492 
 
 1821 Death of Napoleon Bonaparte at St. Helena, May 5th, . . 352 
 " Revolution in Piedmont crushed by Austrian power, . . . 357 
 " Adm ssion of Missouri as a State of the American Union, August 2ist, 492 
 " Alexander Ypsilanti's proclamation to the Greeks, . . . 357 
 ' Commencement of the Greek War for Independence, . , 357 
 ' Mexico 1 ecomes independent of Spain, ..... 435 
 
 San Martin rouses the Peruvians to revolution, . . . 439 
 
 " War between Turkey and Persia. 
 
 lS2i Don Augustin Iturbide created Emperor of Mexico, . . 435 
 
 " Brazil declared an independent empire, .... 356, 440 
 
 " Desolation of Scio by the Turks, ..... 358 
 
 1823 A French army restores absolutism in Spain, .... 35S 
 " Surrender of Puerto Cabello to the Colombians, . . . 438 
 " Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, overthrown, .... 435 
 
 1824 Death of Lord Byron at Missolonghi, Greece, April 19th, . . 358 
 " Death of Louis XVIII. of France and accession of Charles X., . 354 
 " General Lafayette's visit to the United States, . . . 492 
 " The East-India Company involved in a war with the Burmese, . . 369 
 " A Federal Constitution adopted in Mexico, .... 435 
 " Battle of Junin, Peru, August 6th, — the Spaniards defeated, . . 440 
 " Battle of Auyacucho and emancipation of Peru, December 9th, 438, 439, 440 
 
 1825 General Guadalupe Victoria inaugurated President of Mexico, Jan. 1st, 441 
 " John Quincy Adams inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 493 
 " War between Russia and Persia. 
 
 " Death of the Czar Alexander I. and accession of Nicholas, . . 364 
 
 " France acknowledges the independence of Hayti, . . . 334 
 
 1826 Bloody destruction of the Janissaries at Constantinople. 
 
 " Surrender of Callao, Peru, to the Peruvians, .... 440 
 
 " Spanish American Congress at Panama, .... 440 
 
 " Capture of Missolonghi, Greece, l;y the Turks, August, . . 359 
 
 •'' Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, July 4th, . . 493 
 
 1827 Intervention of England, France, and Russia in favor of Greece, . 359 
 " Battle of Navarino and annihilation of the Turko-Egyptian fleet, Oct. 20th, 359 
 " First Railroad in the United States built, .... 493 
 
 1828 Revolution in Mexico and flight of General Pedraza, November, . 442 
 " War between Russia and Turkey, ..... 359 
 *' Abolition of the Test Act by the British Parliament, . . . 366 
 •' Establishment of the American System, .... 493 
 
 1829 General Andrew Jackson inaugurated President, March 4th, . . 493 
 " Catholic Emancipation Act passed by Parliament, . . . 366 
 " Peace of Adrianople between Russia and Turkey, . . , 360 
 
 1830 Death of George IV. of England and accession of William IV., June, 366 
 " The city of Algiers taken by a F'rench fleet, July 4th, . . . 361 
 " Revolution in Paris and dethronement of Charles X., July, . . 360 
 " Louis Phillippe created "King of the French," August 9th, , . 362 
 '* Belgium becomes an indejjendent kingdom, . . . 363 
 " Rebellion in I'oland against Russian authority, November, . , 364 
 
 fSj' Popular movements in Germany and Italy, .... 365 
 
 " Battle of Ostrolenka, Poland, May 20th, ... 365 
 
 •' Fall of Warsaw and end of the Polish insurrection, September, . 365 
 
 " Assassination of John Capo d' Istria, the Greek President, . . 36c 
 
 " • Abdication of Don Pedro I. of Brazil and accession of Don Pedro II., 356 
 
 " Mehemet All's first rebellion against the Ottoman Porte, . . 368 
 
 •' Dissolution of the Republic of Colombia, .... 440 
 
 1832 Siege and capture of Acre. Svria, by the Egyptians, . . . 368 
 
1832 
 
 r«33 
 
 a 
 t( 
 
 iS 
 
 1835 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 (( 
 1841 
 
 (( 
 ft 
 t( 
 
 IS42 
 
 1843 
 (t 
 
 1844 
 
 .< 
 
 <( 
 
 1^46 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 Battle of Horns, Syria, July 8th, — the Egyptians defeat the Turks 
 
 The Russians take the Circassian post of liimry, October 8th, 
 
 President Bustamente overthrown in Mexico, 
 
 Santa Anna chosen President of Mexico, 
 
 Civil war in Portugal between Don Pedro and Don Miguel, 
 
 Passage of the First Reform Bill by the British Parliament, 
 
 Black Hawk War in Illinois and Wisconsin, 
 
 President Jackson's collision with the U. S. Supreme Court, 
 
 Nullification in South Carolina, November, 
 
 Removal c/ deposits from the United States Bank, 
 
 King Otho I. ascends the throne of Greece, March, 
 
 I'he Sultan of Turkey cedes Syria to the Pacha of Egypt, 
 
 The British Pailiament abolishes slavery in the British West Indies 
 
 Death of King Ferdinand VII. of Spain and accession of Isabella II 
 
 Civil war begins in Spain between the Christinos and Carlists, 
 
 Begin.iing of the Texan War for independence, October, 
 
 Capture of the Alamo by the Mexicans, December 2d, 
 
 Commencement of the Seminole War in Florida, December 29th, 
 
 Battle of San Jacinto, Texas, April 2 1st, — Santa Anna captured, 
 
 Texas becomes an independent republic, 
 
 Arkansas admitted into the American Union, 
 
 Michigan becomes a State of the American Union, 
 
 25 
 PAGE. 
 
 443 
 
 443 
 356 
 367 
 494 
 493 
 494 
 494 
 36c 
 36S 
 367 
 367 
 367 
 443 
 443 
 494 
 444 
 444 
 495 
 495 
 
 Martin Van Buren inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th, 495 
 Death of William IV. of England and accession of Victoria, June, . 367 
 Rebellion in Canada against British authority, . . . 495 
 
 Osceola, the Seminole chief, treacherously made a prisoner, October, . 495 
 General Mexia's rebellion in Mexico, .... 444 
 
 Vera Cruz, Mexico, attacked by a P'rench fleet, November, . . 444 
 
 Revolution in Peru and overthrow of General Santa Cruz, , . 441 
 
 Mehemet All's second rebellion against the Sultan of Turkey, . . 368 
 
 Battle of Nisib, Syria — the Egyptians defeat the Turks, June 24th. 
 England's opium war with China begins, .... 368 
 
 Anglo-Indian invasion of Afghanistan, .... 369 
 
 Acre and Beyreut, Syria, bombarded and taken by the British navy, . 368 
 The remains of the Emperor Napoleon I. lirought to Paris, . 352, 370 
 
 Sanguinary insurrection in the city of Mexico, .... 445 
 Disastrous retreat of the British from Cabul, Afghanistan, . . 369 
 
 Canton, China, captured by the British and ransomed by the Chinese, . 369 
 Revolution in Mexico and downfall of Bustamente, . . . 445 
 
 General William Heniy Harrison inaugurated President, March 4th, . 496 
 Death of President Harrison, April 4th. .... 496 
 
 John Tyler's inauguration, April 6th, ..... 496 
 Domestic difficulties in Rhode Island, .... 496 
 
 The Treaty of Washington settles the Maine boundary dispute, . 496 
 
 Treaty of Nankin between Great Britain and China, August 29th, . 368 
 
 Battles of Hyderabad, Maharajpore, and Punniar, India, . . 369 
 
 Annexation of Scinde and Gwalior to British India, . . 369 
 
 The Russians take the Circassian fortress of Akulgo by storm. 
 First experiment with the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph, . . 497 
 
 The towns of Tangier and Mogadore, Morocco, bombarded by a Frenf:h 
 
 fleet. 
 Revolution in Mexico and overthrow and banishment f<f Santa Anna, 445 
 Florida admitted into the American Union, March 3d, . . \^^ 
 
 Inauguration of President James Knox Polk, March 4th, . . Y)^ 
 
 Annexation of Texas to the United States, July 4th, . . r 497 
 
 Battle of Moodkee between the English and the Sikhs, December 6th, 369 
 Batiles of Ferozeshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon, and end of the First Sikh War, 369 
 The British Parliament repeals the Corn Laws. 
 
 Commencement of hostilities between the Americans and Mexicans, 
 April 26, . . . . . . . -495 
 
26 
 
 l84 
 
 CHR ONOL O GICA L INDEX. 
 
 1547 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 49cS 
 
 . 498 
 498 
 
 1849 
 
 Battle of Palo Alto, Texas, May 8th, 
 Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Texas, May 9th, . 
 The United States declare war against Mexico, May nth, . 
 Capture of Matamoras, Mexico, by General Taylor, May i8th, . 
 Revolution in Mexico and Santa Anna's restoration to power, 
 Capture of Mt)nterey, Mexico, by General Taylor, September 24th, 
 Conquest of California by Colonel Fremont, 
 
 Battle of Eracito, Mexico, — the Mexicans defeated by Colonel Don 
 phan, December 25th, ..... 
 
 I.jwa admitted into the American Union, December, 
 Battle of Buena Vista, Mexico, February 23d, . . . 
 
 Battle of Sacramento, Mexico, Februaiy 2Sth, 
 Siege and capture of Vera Cruz by General Scott, March, 
 Battle of Cerro Gordo, Mexico, April iSth, . 
 
 Battles of San Antonio, Contreras, and Churubusco, August 20th, 
 Battle of Molino del Rey, Mexico, September 8th, 
 Battle of Chapultepec, Mexico, September 13th, 
 General Scott enters the city of Mexico, September 14th, 
 The French conquest of Algiers completed by the surrender of 
 Abdel-Kader, ...... 
 
 Civil war in Switzerland between the Catholics and Protestants. 
 Peace of Guadaloupe Hidalgo between Mexico and the United States, 
 February 2d, ....... 
 
 Revolution in Paris and abdication and flight of Louis Philippe, Feb., 
 Establishment of the Second French Republic, Februarj', . 
 Popular movements in the German States, March, 
 The First Revolution in Vienna, March, .... 
 
 Revolution in Milan, Italy, and expulsion of the Austrian?, March, 
 Revolution in Berlin, March, ..... 
 
 Sicily's revolt against the King of Naples, 
 
 Revolt of Schleswig-Holstein against the King of Denmark, 
 
 First Communist rising in Paris, May 15th, 
 
 The German National Assembly meets at Frankfort, May iSth, 
 
 Archduke John of Austria chosen Regent of Germany, . 
 
 Wisconsin admitted into the American Union, May, 
 
 Slavic insurrection in Prague, Bohemia, June, . 
 
 Great Communist insurrection in Paris, June, 
 
 The old Austrian tield-marshal Radetzky defeats the Sardinians, July, 
 
 Second Revolution in Vienna, October, .... 
 
 Siege and fall of Vienna, October, . . . ■ . 
 
 Dissolution of the Prussian National Assembly, 
 Hungarian rebellion against the Austrian emperor. 
 Revolution in Rome and flight of Pope Pius IX., November, 
 Establishment of a new Roman Republic, November, . 
 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte inaugurated President of France, Dec. 20th, 374 
 Abdication of Ferdinand of Austria and accession of Francis Joseph, 376, 381 
 The Austrians under Prince Windischgratz enter Pesth, Hungary, 
 
 Januaiy 5th, ........ 3^1 
 
 The Magyars lose the strong fortress of Eszeck, in Slavonia, Jan. 30th, 381 
 . Battle of Kapolna, Hungary, February 26th and 27th, . . . 381 
 
 The Emperor Francis Joseph [iroclaims a constitution for Austria, 
 
 March 4th, ....... 37S. j'^2 
 
 General Zachary Taylor inaugurated President of the United States, 
 
 March 5tli, ....... 
 
 Renev.'al of the Schleswig-Holstein revolt against Denmark, March, 
 Del'eat of the Sardinians by Marshal Radetzky and abdication of 
 
 Chailes Albert, ...... 
 
 Terrific hand-to-hand fighting in Hungaiy, April, . . . 
 
 Hungarian Declaration of Independence, April 14th, 
 
 Loi is Kossuth created Governor of Hungary, April 14th, . 
 
 446 
 498 
 49S 
 
 49? 
 497 
 498 
 498 
 499 
 499 
 500 
 500 
 500 
 500 
 
 370 
 
 500 
 371 
 371 
 374 
 374 
 378 
 374 
 378 
 375 
 372 
 375 
 376 
 500 
 376 
 372 
 379 
 376 
 376 
 376 
 380 
 
 379 
 379 
 
 50f. 
 377 
 
 379 
 3S2 
 382 
 382 
 
CHROXOLOGICAL IJ^'DEX. 
 
 •S49 
 
 The Ma^oynrs under Gorgey carry Buda by storm, May 21st 
 The Austrian armies expelled from Hungary, May, . .' 
 
 " Invasion of Hungary by the Austrian and Russian armies Tune 
 " 1 he Magyars under Bern driven from Transylvania, . ' 
 
 " Surrender of Rome to a French army after a spirited sieo-e *Tuly -x^l 
 " Pope Puis IX. restored to his authority in Rome, . '^ ^ ■> ^ ' 
 " Republican insurrection in Eaden, 
 " Battle of Komorn, Hungary, July nth, 
 
 " General Klapka's grand sortie from Komorn, August 3d, ' , ' 
 " l^rnfic fighting in the Banat, Hungary, August 5th-8th 
 '• Battle of Temeswar,— defeat of the Magyars^undev Bern' Aucrust oth 
 " Governor Kossuth appoints Gorgey Dictator of Hungaiy, Au^'crust loth 
 " Gmgey's treacherous surrender to the Russians at ViUagos, Au<.ust i Uh 
 " The Austnans under Radetzky reduce Venice after a lona^iecre 
 August 25th, .... t> o ' 
 
 " Surrender of Komorn to the Austrians, September 29th, 
 " Thirteen Magyar generals and staff-officers executed at Arad, Oct 6th 
 " The Punjab annexed to the Anglo-Indian Empire, . . ' 
 
 1850 Prussia becomes a constitutional monarchy, FebruaiT 6th 
 
 " Death of President Taylor, July 9th, . ..'*.' 
 
 " Inauguration of Millard Fillmore, July loth, 
 
 " Slavery agitation in the United States, .','.' 
 
 " The Compromise Act passed by the United States Congress, September! 
 
 " Admission of California into the American Union, 
 
 1851 Louis Kossuth's visit to the United States. 
 " War between P'rance and Morocco. 
 
 " The Coup d' Etat of Eouis Napoleon, December 2d, . 
 1S52 The Rebellion of Tae-ping-wang in China begins. 
 " Second war between the English and the Burmese. 
 " Louis Napoleon proclaimed " Emperor of the French," December 2d 
 
 1853 Subjugation of the Caffirs of South Africa by the English. ' 
 " Marriage of the Emperor Napoleon HI. with Eugeme de Montijo, 
 
 " Franklin Pierce inaugurated President of the United States, March 4th 
 " Nankin, China, captured by the Tae-ping rebels. ' 
 
 '' Santa Anna overthrows Arista's Administration in Mexico, . . • 
 
 " War breaks out between Russia and Turkey, October, . ' ' 
 " Russian invasion of Turkey, 
 
 1854 Turkish victories on the Danube, 
 " Siege of Silistria by the Russians, . 
 
 " Alliance of England, France, and Turkey against Russia, 
 " Bombardment of Odessa by the allied fleets, April 22d, 
 " Allied expedition to the Crimea, 
 " Battle of Alma, September 20th, 
 " Siege of Sevastopol commenced, October 17th, . 
 " Battle of Balaklava, October 25th, . 
 " Battle of Inkermann, November 5th, 
 " Insurrection in RLidrid and flight of the queen-mother, 
 " Passage of the Kansas- Nebraska Act by the United States Congres.s, 
 '' Revolution in Mexico and final overthrow of Santa Anna, 
 
 1853 Death of the Czar Nicholas of Russia and accession of Alexander II. 
 " Sardinia joins the allies in the Crimean War, 
 '• Sir Charles Napier's attack on Sweaborg, August 9th-i4th, 
 '* Fall of Sevastopol, September 9th, .... 
 " Capture of Kinburn by General Bazaine, October, 
 " Omar Pacha's victory over the Russians at the Ingour, November, 
 " Surrender of Kars, in Asiatic Turkey, to the Russians, Nov. 28th,' 
 " Civil war in Kansas, . . . . , 
 
 1856 Peacfc of Paris between Russia and the allies, March 30th. 
 " War between England and Persia, .... 
 •• War of England and France aijainst China. 
 
 27 
 
 PAGE. 
 382 
 382 
 382 
 382 
 
 38'-. 
 38c 
 
 377 
 38.3 
 385 
 381 
 383 
 38} 
 585 
 
 380 
 384 
 384 
 369 
 378 
 501 
 
 501 
 500 
 
 SOI 
 
 501 
 
 384 
 
 386 
 
 386 
 501 
 
 447 
 386 
 386 
 387 
 387 
 387 
 387 
 387 
 387 
 387 
 387 
 387 
 368 
 502 
 447 
 387 
 387 
 387 
 388 
 3S8 
 388 
 388 
 502 
 38S 
 389 
 389 
 
28 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 390. 
 
 i8 
 
 5S 
 
 1859 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Bomljardment and capture of Canton by the English, . . 389 
 
 James Buchanan inaugurated President of the United States, March 4lh, 502 
 The Dred Scott Decision of the United States Supreme Court, March 6th, 502 
 
 503 
 389 
 390 
 390 
 391 
 39''- 
 391 
 
 3QC 
 
 391 
 391 
 391 
 
 394 
 448 
 392 
 392 
 392 
 393 
 393 
 393 
 393 
 
 i860 
 
 1861 
 
 Mormon rebelUon in Utah, 
 
 Beginning of the Sepoy Mutiny in British India, April, 
 
 Massacre of Delhi, India, .... 
 
 Massacre of Cawnpore, India, .... 
 
 Siege of Lucknow, India, .... 
 
 General Havelock's victories over Nena Sahib on the Ganges, 
 
 Battle of Mungarwar, India, September 2ist, 
 
 Siege and fall of Delhi, India, September, 
 
 Cawnpo. e attacked by 25,000 rebel Sepoys, December, 
 
 Capture of Lucknow by Sir Colin Campbell, after a siege, March 17th, 
 
 Reduction of Gwalior, the last stronghold of the Sepoys, June, 
 
 War of France and Spain against Anam, 
 
 Civil war in Mexico between the Liberals and Conservatives, 
 
 War breaks out between Austria and Sardinia, April, 
 
 France joins Sardinia against Austria in the Italian War, May, 
 
 Battle of Montebello, Italy, May 20th, .... 
 
 Battle of Magenta, Italy, June 4th, ..... 
 
 Battle of Melegnano, Italy, June 8th, .... 
 
 Battle of Solferino, Italy, June 24th, . . . 
 
 Peace of Villa Franca between France and Austria, July llth, . 
 
 Capture of Schamyl, the Circassian chief, by the Russians, August. 
 
 War breaks out between Spain and Morocco, October, . . . 400 
 
 John Brown's insurrection in Virginia, October 19th, . . 503 
 
 Execution of John Brown by the authorities of Virginia, Dec. 2d. . 503 
 
 The Spaniards under General Prim defeat 40,000 Moors, Jan. 2d. 
 
 Peace between Spain and Morocco, April, .... 400 
 
 Capture of Pekin, China, by the English and French, . . 3S9 
 
 Treaty of Tien-tsin, between. England, France, and China, October, . 389 
 
 Abraham Lincoln elected President of the United States, November, 504 
 
 Rebellious movements in the Slave States, .... 504 
 
 Secession of South Carolina from the American Union. Dec. 20th, 504 
 
 General Garibaldi overthrows King Francis II. of Naples, . . 394 
 
 Attack on the United States Government steamer " Star of the West," 
 
 January 9th, ........ 504 
 
 Secession of Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, and 
 
 Texas, ........ 504 
 
 President Lincoln's first inauguration, March 4th, . . . 505 
 
 Fall of Fort Sumter and beginning of the American Civil War, 
 
 April 14th, . . . . . . . .505 
 
 President Lincoln calls for 75,000 militia, April 15th, . . 505 
 
 Secession of Virginia from the American Union, April 17th, . . 505 
 
 Massachusetts troops attacked in Baltimore, April 19th, . . 505 
 
 Secession of North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee, . . 506 
 
 Battle of Big Bethel, Virginia, June loth, .... 506 
 
 Battle of Carthage, Missouri, July 5th, ..... 507 
 
 Battle of Bull's Run, Virginia, July 21, .... 506 
 
 Battle of Wilson's Creek, Missouri, August loth, . . . 507 
 
 Capture of Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, August 29th, . . 507 
 
 Capture of Lexington. Missouri, by the Confederates, September, . 5^7 
 
 Battle of Ball's Bluff, Virginia, October 21st, . . . 507 
 
 Battle of Belmont, Missouri, November 7th, . . . 508 
 
 Capture of Port Royal, South Carolina, by Admiral Dupont, Nc. . 7th, 50S 
 The Czar Alexander II. of Russia promises serf-emancipation, FebTuary, 395 
 Renewal of the Circassian war against the Russians, July, 
 King Victor Emmanuel of .Sardinia created King of Italy, . . 394 
 
 Allied English, French, and Spanish expedition against Mexico, 
 
 December, ...... 400, 448 
 
CHR ONOL O GICAL INDEX. 
 
 1862 Uattle ijf Mill Spring, Kentucky, Januaiy iqth, . 
 
 " Capturs of Roanoke Island, North Carolina, Fehruaiy 8th, 
 
 " Capture of Fort Donelson, Tennessee, by General Grant, Feb. i6th. 
 
 " Battle of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 6th, 7th, and 8th, . 
 
 " Victory of the Monitor over the Merrimac, March 8th, . 
 
 " Capture of Newhern, North Carolina, by Burnside, March 14th, 
 
 • Battle of Winchester, Virginia, March 23d, 
 
 •' Battle of Shiloh, Tennessee, April 6th and 7th, 
 
 " Captm-e of Island No. 10, Mississippi river, April 7th, . 
 
 ♦' Capture of Fort Pulaski, Georgia, by Captain Gillniore, April nth, 
 
 ' Capture of Iluntsville, Alaljama, by General Mitchell, April nth, 
 
 • Capture of I'ort Macon, North Carolina, April 25th, 
 
 " Cr.])ture of New Orleans by General Butler and Admiral Farragut, 
 
 April 28th, ....... 
 
 " Evacuation of Yorktown, Virginia, by the Confetlerates, May 3d, . 
 
 " Battle of Williamsburg, Virginia, May 5th, 
 
 " Capture of Natchez, Mississippi, by Admiral Farragut, May 12th, . 
 
 " Capture of Vera Cruz, Mexico, by the Spaniards, 
 
 " Capture of Corinth, Mississippi, by (General Halleck, May 29th, 
 
 " Battle of Fair Oaks. Virginia, May 31st and June 1st, . 
 
 " Capture of Memphis, Tennessee, June 6th, .... 
 
 " The Seven Days' Battles near Richmond, Virginia, June 25th, — July 1st 
 
 " Battle of Malvern Hill, near Richmond, Virginia, July 1st, 
 
 •' Defeat of General Pope's army between Manassas and Washington 
 
 August 23d-3 1st, ...... 
 
 " Battle of Richmond, Kentucky, August 29lh and 30lh, 
 
 " Garibaldi's defeat at Aspromonte, Italy, August 2gth, . 
 
 «' Battle of South Mountain, Maryland, Sejitember 14th, 
 
 " Surrender of llarjier's Ferry, Virginia, September 15th, 
 
 " Battle of Antietam, Maryland, Sejitember 17111, 
 
 " Battle of luka, Mississi|ipi, September 19th, 
 
 " Battles near Corinth, Mississijjpi, Octolier 3d, 4th, 5th, 
 
 " Battle of Perryville, Kentucky, October 8th, 
 
 " Revolution in Greece and flight of King Otho, October, 
 
 " Insurrection in Poland against Russian authority, 
 
 " War between the whites and the Sioux Indians in Minnesota, 
 
 " Battle of Prairie Grove, Arkansas, December 7th, 
 
 " liattle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, December 13th, 
 
 " Battle of Murfreesborough, Tennessee, Dec. 2gth — Jan. 4th, 1863, 
 
 " Sherman's unsuccessful attack on Vicksburg, December 29th, 
 
 1863 President Lincoln's Kmanciiiation Proclamation, January 1st, . 
 
 " Emancipation of the Russian serfs, February 1st, 
 
 " Prince CJeorge of Denmark becomes King of Greece, 
 
 " Battle of Port Gibson, Mississippi, April 29th, 
 
 " Battle of Chancellorsville, Virginia, May 2d, 3d, and 4th, 
 
 " Battle of Raymond, Mississippi, May I2th, . 
 
 " Battle of Jackson, Mississipjii, May 14th, 
 
 " Battle of Champion Hills, Mississipjii, May i6th, . 
 
 " Battle of Big lilack River Bridge. Mississippi, May 17th, 
 
 " Capture of Puebla, Mexico, by the French, after a spirited sicj 
 
 May iSlh, . . . : , : 
 
 ' West Virginia becomes a State of the American Union, June 1st, 
 
 •' Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, July 1st, 2d, and },(\, 
 
 « Surrender of Vicksburg, Mississi])pi, to General Grant, July 4th, 
 
 " Union Yict^ry at Helena, Arkansas, July 4th, 
 
 " Capture of Port Hudson, Louisiana, by Gener.al Banks, July 8th, 
 
 " The. draft riots in New York City, July 13th, 14th, and 15th, 
 
 " Capture of the City of Mexico by General Forey, June, . 
 
 <' Siege of CJiarlesto'n, South Carolina, by General Gillmore, . 
 
 " Capture of Liille Rock, Arkansas, by General Steele, .Seplemlier lOth, 
 
 " Battle of Chickamauga, Tennessee, September I9ih and 20th, 
 
 42 
 
 29 
 
 AC-.K. 
 50S 
 508 
 S08 
 508 
 509 
 509 
 
 5"9 
 
 509 
 
 3' "9 
 
 5"9 
 
 509 
 
 ^09 
 510 
 510 
 
 510 
 448 
 5'o 
 510 
 510 
 , 510 
 510 
 
 511 
 
 412 
 5'2 
 
 512 
 512 
 
 394 
 395 
 5'3 
 512 
 512 
 
 5'3 
 5'2 
 5'3 
 396 
 395 
 514 
 514 
 5'4 
 514 
 5'4 
 5'4 
 
 44 S 
 5>6 
 5'4 
 •^M 
 5'i 
 5i5 
 S!6 
 
 149 
 5'5 
 5' 5 
 51^ 
 
3Q 
 
 .863 
 
 1864. 
 
 C//J? ONOL O GICA L INDEX. 
 
 h, 
 
 Battle of Chattanooga, Tennessee, November 23d, 24th, and 25th, 
 
 Siege of Knoxville, Tennessee, by General Longstreet, November, 
 
 War of Prussia and Austria against Denmark, P'ebruary, 
 
 Grant made a Lieutenant-General, February, 
 
 Battle of Olustee, Florida, February 20lh, 
 
 Massacre of Fort Pillow, Tennessee, April 12th, 
 
 General Banks's Red River Expedition, Louisiana, 
 
 The Archduke Maximilian of Austria, Emperor of Mexico, 
 
 Capture of Doppel, liolstein, by the Prussians, April i8th. 
 
 Battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania, Virginia, May 5th-i3 
 
 Battle of Cold Harbor, Virginia, June IM, 
 
 Battle of Allaloona Pass, Georgia, June, 
 
 Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia, June, . 
 
 Siege of Petersburg and Richmond, \''irginia, June, 
 
 F'ight between the Kearsarge and the Alabama, June 15th, 
 
 Battle of Monocacy, Maryland, July 9th, 
 
 Capture of the island of Alsen by the Prussians, July 9th, 
 
 War of Brazil and the A'-gentine Confederation against Paraguay, 
 
 War between Spain and Peru, ..... 
 
 War of England, France, and Holland in Japan. 
 
 Russia suppresses the Polish insurrection, .... 395 
 
 Peace of Vienna between Austria, Prussia, and Denmark, October, . 396 
 
 Siege of Atlanta, Georgia, commenced l)y General Sherman, July 20th, 519 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 . 516 
 
 516 
 
 • 396 
 517 
 
 • 517 
 517 
 
 • 517 
 449 
 39G 
 518 
 
 . 51S 
 518 
 
 . 518 
 518 
 
 . 519 
 519 
 
 • 396 
 441 
 
 400, 441 
 
 " Burning of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, July 30th, 
 
 " Farragut's victories in Mobile bay, August, .... 
 
 " Capture of Atlanta, Georgia, by Sherman, Sejitember 2d, 
 
 " Sheridan's victory at Cedar Creek, Virginia, September 22d, 
 
 " Sheridan's victoi^ at Fisher's Hill, Virginia, October 19th, 
 
 " Nevada admitted into the American Union, October 31st, . 
 
 " Reelection of President Lincoln, November 8th, 
 
 " Sherman's grand march through Georgia, November and December, 
 
 " Hood's army annihilated at Nashville, Tennessee, December 15th, 
 
 " Capture of Savannah, Georgia, by General Sherman, December 21st, 
 
 1865 Capture of Fort Fisher, North Carolina, by General Terry, Jan. 15th, . 
 " Capture of Wilmington, North Carolina, by Terry, February 22d, . 
 
 " Charleston, South Carolina, evacuated by the Confederates, Feb. l8th, . 
 
 " Lee's evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond, April 3d, 
 
 " Surrender of Lee's army at Appomattox, Virginia, April 9th, 
 
 " Capture of Mol)ile, Alabama, by General Canby, April 12th, 
 
 " jVssassination of President Lincoln, April 14, . . . . 
 
 " Andrew Johnson inaugurated President of the United States, April 15th, 
 
 " Surrender of Johnston's army in North Carolina, April 26th, 
 
 " Capture of Jefferson Davis near Irwinsville, Georgia, May loth, 
 
 " Close of the Rebellion in the United States, May, . 
 
 " Adoption of the 13th Amendment of the United States Constitution 
 
 abolishing slavery, ....... 
 
 " War between Spain and Chili, .... 40O) 
 
 " Russian conquests in Turkestan. 
 
 1866 Alliance of Peru, Chili, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela against 
 
 Spain, January, ....... 
 
 " Readmission of Tennessee into the American Union, June, 
 
 " The Seven Weeks' War of Prussia and Italy against Austria begins, 
 
 June 14th, ..,...., 
 
 " Battle of Custozza, Italy, June 24th, .... 
 
 ■' Battle of Sadowa, Bohemia, July 3d, . . . . . 
 
 " Naval battle off' the island of Lissa, — Austrian victory, 
 
 " The Atlantic Telegraph Cable successfully laid, June, . 
 
 " Peace of Prague lietween Austria and Prussia, August 23d, 
 
 " The North German Confederation establisheil, . . . . 
 
 ■• Peace of Vicuna between Austria and Italy, October 3d, 
 
 519 
 519 
 
 519 
 520 
 520 
 520 
 520 
 520 
 520 
 520 
 521 
 521 
 521 
 521 
 521 
 522 
 522 
 522 
 522 
 522 
 522 
 
 520 
 441 
 
 441 
 
 397 
 39^ 
 39? 
 398 
 
 523 
 398 
 399 
 399 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 31 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 e866 Insurrection in the island of Candia against the Turks. 
 
 " The French forces under Marshal Bazaine evacuate Mexico, Decembei 450 
 
 1867 The Dominion of Canada established by the British Parliament, Feb. 
 
 " Passage of the Military Reconstructiion Bill by the United States 
 
 Congress, March, ...... 523 
 
 " Nebraska admitted as a State of the American Unica, January 15th, 523 
 
 " Purchase of Alaska from Russia by the United States, March, . , 523 
 
 " Siege of Vera Cruz and Mexico by the Liberals of Mexico, . . \^z 
 
 " Capture and execution of the Enipero.r Maximilian at Querctaro, 
 
 June 19th, . . . . . . . 451 
 
 " Passage of the Second Reform Bill by the British Parliamen*-, August, 399 
 
 " Garibaldi's movement on Rome, September, . . . 4.13 
 
 " War between Great Britain and Abyssinia, November, . . 399 
 
 rS68 Impeachment of President Johnson, February, . . . -523 
 
 " King Theodore of Abyssinia defeated and killed by the English, April, 399 
 
 " Accjuittal of President Johnson after a trial of several weeks. May i6th, 523 
 
 " Revolution in Spain and flight of Queen Isabella II., September, . 400 
 
 " General U. S. Grant elected President of the United States, Nov. 3d, 523 
 
 " Insurrection in Cuba against Spanish authority, November, . 400, 421 
 
 1869 Inauguration of President Grant, March 4th, .... 424 
 " Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad, May, . . • 424 
 " Disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland, August, . . 399 
 " Carlist insurrection in Spain, August, .... 400 
 " Republican insurrection in Spain, September, .... 400 ' 
 
 1870 President Lopez of Paraguay defeated and killed by the Brazilians, 441 
 " Adoption of the 15th Amendment of the United States Constitution, . 424 
 " Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern a candidate for the crown of Spain, 401 
 " France declares war against Prussia, July 15th, . . . 402 
 " Prussian invasion of France, July 30th, .... 402 
 " Skirmish at Saarbrucken, August 2d, ..... 402 
 " Battle of Weissenburg, August 4th, .... 403 
 " Battles of Woerth and Forbach, August 6th, .... 403 
 " Great battles near Metz, August I4th-i8th, . . . 403 
 " Battle of Gravelotte, France, August 18th, . . . .403 
 " Battle of Beaumont, France, August 30th and 31st, . . 404 
 " Battle of Sedan, France, September ist, .... 404 
 " Surrender of McMahon's army and of Napoleon III., September 2d, 405 
 " Revolution in Paris and establishment of the Third French Republic, 
 
 September 4th, ....... 405 
 
 " Siege of Strasburg by the Germans, August and September, . 405 
 
 " Investment and siege of Paris by the Germans, September i6lh, . 407 
 
 " Italian military occupation of Rome, Se[)tember 20th, . . 413 
 
 " Surrender of Strasburg to the Germans, September 27th, . 406 
 
 " Bazaine's surrender of Metz, October 27th, .... 407 
 
 " French victories near Orleans, November 9th and loth, . . 408 
 
 " The Duke of Aosta elected King of Spain with title of Amadeus I., 
 
 November 17th, ....... 400 
 
 1871 Bombardment of Paris by the Germans, January, . . . 409 
 " Battle of St. Ouentin, France, January, .... 410 
 " Battle of Vendome, France, January 6th, .... 410 
 " Battle of Le Mans, France, January nth, . . . .410 
 " Battle of Belfort, France, January, . . . . .410 
 " King William of Prussia proclaimed Empepor of Germany, Jan. I9lh, 409 
 " Capitulation of Paris to the Germans, January 27th, . . -Ill 
 " The French National Assembly meets at Bordeaux, February 14th, 411 
 " Peace of Paris between France and Germany, March 2d, . .411 
 «* Red' Republican insurrection lireaks out in Paris, March 17th, . 414 
 " Battle of Courhevoie, near Paris, April 3d, .... 415 
 " Siege and bombardment of Paris by the Versaillists, April and 
 
 May, ....... 416, 4I7» 4iS^ 
 
32 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 
 
 PACK. 
 
 " Terrible fighting in Paris, May 2ist-27th, . . 418, 419, 42c 
 
 " Battle of Pere la Chaise, Paris, May 27th, .... 420 
 
 " End of the Paris rebellion, May 28th, .... 420 
 
 " Treaty of Washington between the United States and England, May, . 524 
 
 " Victories of the United States navy over the Coreans, June loth-iith, 524 
 
 " Revolution and civil war in Mexico, October, . . . 450 
 
 1872 Carlist insurrection in Spain, June, . . . . .421 
 " Death of President Juarez of Mexico, June 1 8th, . . .451 
 " Close of the Mexican civil war and presidency of Lerdo de Tejada, . 451 
 " The Alabama Claims Arbitration Tribunal, . . . . 525 
 " General Grant reelected President of the United States, Nov. 5th, . 525 
 " Death of Horace Greeley, November 29th, . . • S'^S 
 
 1873 Death of the Ex-Emperor Napoleon in , January 9th, . . . 412 
 " Abdication of King Amadeus of Spain and establishment of a Spanish 
 
 Republic, February nth, ...... 421 
 
 " Second inauguration of President Grant, March 4th, . . 525 
 
 " Abolition of siavary in the Spanish island of Porto Rico and dissolution 
 
 of the Spanish National Assembly, March 22d, . . . 422 
 
 •' Carlist insurrection in Spain, ..... 422 
 
 " \Var between Russia and Khiva, ..... 432 
 
 " Domestic difticulties in Louisiana, . . . . '5-5 
 
 " War with the Modoc Indians in Oregon, .... 525 
 
 " Resignation of President Thiers and election of Marshal McMahon as 
 
 President of France, May 24th, ..... 43° 
 
 " War between the British and the Ashantees, . . . 43^ 
 
 " Communist insurrection in Spain, ..... 4^4 
 
 " War between the Dutch and the Atcheenese of Sumatra. 
 
 " The Virginius dispute between Spain and the United States, . . 526 
 
 " Bombardment of Cartagena, Sj^ain, by the Government forces, . 426 
 
 1874 Coup d' etat of General Pavia in Spain, January 2d, . . . 427 
 " Passage of a military bill by the German Parliament. 
 
 " Fall of Cartagena, Spain, January I5lh, .... 428 
 
 " Capture of Coomassie, the Ashantee capital, by the British, February, 432 
 
 " Fall of Gladstone's Ministi-y in England, February, . . . 432 
 
 " Egyptian victories in Darfur. 
 
 " Siege of Bilbao, Spain, by the Carlists, March and April, . . 428 
 
 " Relief of Billiao by Marshal Serrano's army, May 1st, . . 429 
 
 " Civil war in Arkansas, April and May, ..... 5^7 
 
 " Veto of the cunency-inflalion bill by President Grant, April, . 526 
 
 " Republican defeat at Estella, Spain, and death of Marshal Concha, 
 
 June 25th, ........ 429 
 
 " Capture of Cuenca, Spain, by the Carlists, July 13th, . . 429 
 
 " Attempted assassination of Prince Bismarck, July 14th, . • 45' 
 
 " Iceland's niillenium, August. 
 
 " Insurrection in Louisiana, Se])tember, ..... 5^7 
 
 " Prince Aljihonso proclaimed King of Spain, December 31st, . 429 
 
 1875 Admission of Colorado as a State of the American Union, March 4th, 52S 
 " Centennial Celebration of Lexington and Concord, April 19th, . 528 
 " Centennial Celeliration of the cajilure of Ticonderoga, May loth, . 528 
 " Centennial Celeiiration of the Mecklenburg Declaration, May 20th, 528 
 " Centennial Celebration of the Battle of Ijunker's Hill, June 17th, . 528 
 " Insurrection in the Herzegovina against the Turks, July, . . 433 
 " Capture of Seo de Urgel, Spain, by the Alphonists, August, . . \\0 
 " War between Russia ami Khokand, September, . . . \\- 
 ♦' General Kaurfmann defeats 30,000 Khokand lroo]is, September 4th, , 433 
 " Khukand occupied by General KauH'mann, September 1 6lh, . 435 
 " War between Egypt and Abyssinia. 
 
 " War between the English and the Malays of Malacca, November. 
 
 " French Constiuition completed, December, .... 43^ 
 
 1876 The United Stales Centennial Celebration, May loth— Nov. lOth, . 53S 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 AND 
 
 PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 PROPER NAMES. 
 
 A. Page. 
 
 Aaron (A'-ron), . . . .28 
 
 Ab-bas (Ab-bas'l, .... 124 
 
 Alibasides (Ab'-bas-ides), . . . 124 
 
 Al'del Kader (Ab'-del Ka'-der), . 370 
 
 Abdclrahman (Ab-del-rah'-man), . . 124 
 
 Abderrahman ( Ab-der-rah'-man, . 124 
 
 Abel (A'-bel),. . . . .21 
 
 Abcnsberg (A'-bens-berg), . . 340 
 
 Ahcrcrombie (Ab'-er-crom'-bie), . 304, 305, 333 
 
 Abo (A'-bo), . . . . .281 
 
 Aboiikir ( A-l)oo-l:iir'), . . . 328 330 
 
 Abraham ('A'-bra-ham), . . . 27, 28 
 
 Absalom ( Ab'-sa-lom), ... 31 
 
 Abul)ekir ( A'-bu-ba'-ker), . . 121, 127 
 
 Abyssinia (Ab-ys-sin'-i-a), . . 25 
 
 Aby-.siniaii (Abys-sin'-i-an), 
 
 Abyssinians (Ab-ys-sin'-i-aiis) . 
 
 Acadia A-ca'-di-a) . 
 
 Acadians ( A-ca'-di-ans), . 
 
 Acarnania ( A-car-nan'-i-a), 
 
 Achaia (A-ka'-a) 
 
 Achaiaii (A-ka'-an) 
 
 Achilles (A-kil'-lees), 
 
 Acre (A'ker), . 
 
 Acropolis (A-krop'-o-Iis) 
 
 Actiiim ( Ak'-she-um), 
 
 A. lam (Ad'-am) 
 
 Adams (Ad'-ams), 
 
 Adams, John (Jon Ad'-ams). 
 
 Acams, John Quincy (Jon Quin-cy 
 
 Adams, Samuel (Sam-yel Ad'am 
 
 Adda (Ad'-Wa). . 
 
 A Jherbal ( Ad-her'-bal), 
 
 Vdiup ( Ad'-ij), 
 
 \dJiph (A'-doll"), 
 
 Adrian (A'-dri-an), . . 
 
 Adrianople (A'-dn-an-o-pel). 
 
 Adriatic (A-dri-at'-ic) 
 
 /'Kg'ian (E-jo'-an), 
 
 /'Etjospotamos (E'-gos-pot-a'-mus,) 
 
 itniilianus (K-mil'-i-an-us) 
 
 ;Eniilius, Paiilus (Pawl-us E-mil'-i-us), 
 
 'tut as (E-nc'-as) . . 
 
 • 399 
 106 
 
 300, 301 
 
 3°3 
 
 . 35 
 
 35, 61, 62, 63 
 
 61, 62, 63 
 
 38, 56 
 
 138, 140, 330 
 
 • 44 
 93 
 
 . 21 
 464,479, 481 
 464, 478, 4S0 
 Ad'-ams ) 
 
 . 492. 493 
 
 ) . .461 
 
 326 
 
 . 166 
 
 99 100 
 
 109. 360 
 
 8q, 143 
 
 38, 4<'i 45 
 
 50 
 
 . 104 
 
 63. 79 
 
 . 65 
 
 (3 
 
 Page, 
 
 • 37 
 
 71 
 
 . 3S 
 
 6a 
 
 . 63 
 
 37S 
 
 22, 26, 27, 35, 90, 54 
 
 94 
 
 118 
 
 81 
 369 
 369 
 
 52 
 
 59,6a 
 
 300 
 
 65 
 
 ./Eolian (E-o'-le-an) , 
 
 ^quians (E'-qui-ans), 
 
 ylitulia (E- to'- le-a) . 
 
 v'Etolian (E-to'-le-an), 
 
 yEtoleans (E-to'-le-ans) 
 
 Affra (Af'-frai, . 
 
 Africa (Af'-re-ca), 
 
 African (Af'-re-can), 
 
 Africans (Af re-cnns), 
 
 Africanus, Scipio (Sip'-e-o Af-re-can-us) 
 
 Afghan (Af'-gan) .... 
 
 Afghanistan (Af-gan-is-tan') . . 35 
 
 Afghans (Af'-gans), . 
 
 Agag (A'-gag), .... 
 
 Aganiennum (Ag-a-mem'-non), 
 
 Agesilaus (A-jes-e-la'-ns), 
 
 Agis (A'-jis), .... 
 
 Agra(Ag'ra). 
 
 Agricola, Julius (Ju'-le-us Ag-re'-co-la) 
 
 Agrigentnm ( Ag-re-jeu'-tum), . 
 
 Agrippa, Menenius (Me-nen'-e-iis A-gnp'-pa) 70 
 
 Agrippina (Ag-re-pi'-na), . . 95 
 
 Augilas (Au-ge'-las), . . . 426 
 
 Ahab (A-hab), .... 31 
 
 Ahriman (Ab-re-man'), . . • 35 
 
 Ai.x laChapelle (Akes-la-Sha-pel'), 129, 251, 286 
 
 ■ 303 
 
 Akbar (Ak'-bar), 
 
 Alabama (Al-a-bam'-a), . , 
 
 Alamance (Al-a-mance'), 
 
 Alamo (Al'-a-mo), 
 
 Aland (A'-latid), 
 
 Alans (A'-lans) . 
 
 Alaska (A-l.'.s'-ka), . 
 
 Allatoona I'ass ( Ala-too'-na Pass) 
 
 Alba (Awl'-ba) . ' . 
 
 Alban (Awl'-ban), 
 
 Albania ( Al-ba'-ne-a), 
 Albans (Awl'-bans), . 
 
 Alb.^ny (Awl'-ba-ne), . . 
 
 Albemarle (Al be-marl'), 
 
 Albcroni ( Al-ba-ro'-ne), . . 
 
 j Albuquerque ( Al-boo-ker'-ka), 
 ! Albert (Al'-bert), 
 
 3) 
 
 
 215 
 
 5'S 
 
 525 
 458 
 
 443t 
 
 444 
 
 
 277 
 
 III 
 
 6v 
 
 u 
 
 :^5 
 
 5j 
 
 
 ' 55 
 
 s6o, 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 244 
 
 . 
 
 270 
 
 
 193 
 
 . 
 
 37» 
 
34 
 
 A L PHA BE nCA L INDEX. 
 
 AIbi (Ai'-bt), . _ . . . .150 
 
 Albigeiiies I Al-1)e-jen'-sees), . 141,149,150 
 Albinus, Clodiub (Klo'-di-us Al-bi'-nus), loi 
 Alboin (Al'-bo-iii), . . . 119 
 
 Albuera (Al-boo-a'-ra), . . . 342 
 
 Alcibiades ( Al-ci-bi'-a-dees), . . 49, 50 
 
 Aleoy (Al-ko'-e), .... 424 
 Alcuin (Al'-<u-in), . . . .128 
 
 Allemanni (Al-le-man'-ni), . 109, 125 
 
 Aleppo (A-lep'-po), .... 122 
 Alert (A-lert'), .... 48--, 
 Alessandria (Al-es-san'-dri-a), . . 357 
 
 Alexander (Al-ex-an -der), . 26. 27, 3";, 54, 55 
 ■56, 57, 58 
 AlexanderCastriotto (Cas-tre-ot'-ta), . 190 
 Alexander Farnese (Far'-nese), . . 217 
 
 Alexandrr Severiis (Sev'-e-rus), . . 1Q2 
 
 Alexandra Victoria (Al-ex-an'-draVic-to'-ri-a), 
 
 e-dus) 
 
 ■2,355, 
 
 -ee) 
 
 171,172 
 
 158 
 
 80, 402,428 
 
 . 480 
 
 • 49' 
 71 
 
 ,6t, 480, 491 
 . 480, 491 
 
 • 42? 
 . 121, 123 
 
 299 
 .359,368 
 
 • 369 
 424, 425, 426 
 
 Alexandria (Al-ex-an'-dri-a) 
 Alexandiian (Al-ex-an'-dri-an), 
 Alexi s (A-lex'-is) 
 Alexius (A-iex'-i-us), 
 Alfred (Al'-fred), 
 Algarve (Al-garve), 
 Algeria (Al'-je-re-a), . 
 Algerine (Al'-je-reen), 
 Algerines (Al'-je-reens), 
 Algidus, Mount (Mount Al'- 
 Algiers (Al-jeers), . 205, 2 
 Algonquin (Al-gon'-quin), 
 Alhama (Al-ha'-ma), . 
 Ali (Al'-ee), 
 
 Ali, Hyder ( Hy-der Al-ee\ 
 Ali Mehemet (Me-hem'-et Al 
 Aliwal (Al'-e-wal), 
 Alicante (Al-e-kan'-ta), . 
 Alien Law (Ail'-yen Law) 
 AUeghanies ( Al-le-ga'-nees), 
 Alleghany ( Al-le-ga'-ny), 
 Allen (Al'-len), . 
 Allia (Al'-li-a). . 
 Alma (Al'-nia), 
 Almagro (Al-nia'-gro), 
 Al Mansur (Al Man'-soor), 
 Almanza ( Al-nian'-za), 
 Almeida 1 Al-ma'-e-da). 
 Almenar :t ( Al-ma-nah'-ra),] 
 Almeria ( Al-nui'-re-a), 
 Almonte (Al'-mont), . 
 Alphonsists ( Al-fon'-sists), 
 Alphonso (Al-fon'-so), 11 
 
 Alps(Alp>), 
 Alsace (Al'-sase,), 
 Alsen (Awl'-sen), . 
 Altona (Al-too'-na), . 
 Altranstadt (Al'-tran-stot), 
 Alva (Al'-v^.), 
 Alvarez ( Al-var'-ez), 
 Alvinzi (Al-vin'-zi), . 
 Amadeus (A-ma'-de-us), . 
 Amaru Tupac (Am'-a-ru Tu 
 Amboise (Am-boi'-se), 
 Ambracia ( Am-bra'-she-a), 
 Ambrister ( Am-bris-ter), 
 Ameers (A'meers), . 
 .Amelekites (A-mel'-e-kites), 
 -America (A-mer'-i-ca), 
 American (A-mer-i-can), 
 A'liericaiiS (A mer-i-cans), 45 
 Amerigo Vespucci, (A-mer-e' 
 
 she), 
 Amherst (Am'-herst), 
 Aniidas ( Ame'-e-das), 
 
 Amiens A-me-ong'), .135,333,334,408,410 
 Amnion, lupiter (ju'-pi-ter Am'-mon), . 56 
 Ammonites ( Am'-nion-ites), . . 29 
 
 Ainoreaux (A-mo-ro'), ... 420 
 
 Amorites (A'-mor-ites^, ... 29 
 
 Amos (A'-mos), , , , • 33 
 
 367 
 
 27, 56, 57, 64 
 
 60 
 
 273 
 
 491 
 
 470, 478 
 
 460, 462 
 
 . 72 
 
 387 
 
 . 214 
 
 124 
 
 . 271 
 
 193 
 
 • 271 
 
 425 
 
 446, 48S 
 
 .421,430 
 
 , 165,421,429,430 
 
 79, 315, 317,319 
 284, 406, 412 
 
 . 277 
 
 275 
 
 . . 207 
 
 447 
 
 • 326 
 400, 421, 422 
 
 433,434 
 2r9 
 
 • 93 
 492 
 
 pac),, 
 
 30 
 
 193,300, 3'4, 455 
 460, 462, 465, 468 
 ;, 460, 462, 463, 464 
 go Ves-poot'- 
 
 . 193 
 
 . 289, 290, 305 
 
 5 
 
 Amoy (A'-'noy), .... 369 
 
 Amphictyon (Am-phic'-ty-on), . . 39 
 
 Aniphictyonic ( Am-phic'-ty-O'.l-ic), . 39,53 
 Ampudia (Am poo'-di-a), . . . 498 
 
 Amru (Am'-ru), . . . .122,123 
 
 Amsterdam (Am'-ster-dam), . . . 251 
 
 Ainulius (A-mu'-li-us), ... 66 
 
 Amurath ( Am'-u-rath) . . . 191 
 
 Anabaptists (An-a-bap' -lists) , , 207 
 
 Anam (An'-am), . . . 394 
 
 Ancona (An-co'-na), . . 366 
 
 Ancus Martins (An'-cus Mar'-she-us), . 168 
 Anderson, Robert (Rob'-ert An'der-son)^ 5J5 
 Andes ( An-dees'), . . . 439 
 
 Andre, John (Jon An'-dre), . . 472 
 
 Andreas Dona (An'-dre-as Do'-ri-a), 144,204 
 Andreas Hofer (An'-dre-as Hof-er), . 341 
 Andrew (An'-droo), .... 189 
 Andros, Sir Edmund (An'-dros), . 259 
 
 Angele-land (An'-gle-land), . . 120, 171 
 
 Angelo, St. (Saint An'-je-lo), . . 204 
 
 Angles (An'-gles), .... 120 
 Anglia, East (East An'-gli-a), . . 120 
 
 Anglican Church (An'-gli-can), . 211,222 
 Anglo-Saxons ( An'-glo-Sax'-ons), . 120 
 
 Angora (An-go' ra), .... 191 
 Angostura (An-gos-too'-ra), . . 437 
 
 Angouleme (An-gou-leme'), . 202,354,356 
 
 Anjou (An-joo'), . 145,150,165,173,174,182, 
 220, 268,269,272 
 Ankarstrom (An'-kar-strom), . . 296 
 
 Anna (An'-na), .... 278 
 
 Annapolis (An-nap'-o-lis), . . 300,475 
 
 Anne (Ann), . . . 248,269,278 
 
 Anne Boleyn ( Bo'-len), . 209,210,222 
 
 Ansgar (Ans'-gar), . . . 186 
 
 Anson (An'-son), .... 287 
 
 Antalcidas (An-tal'-ce das), . . 52 
 
 Antediluvian (An-te-de-lu'-ve-an), . . 21 
 
 Antediluvians (A n-te-de-lu'-ve-ans), . 21 
 
 Anthemuis ( An-the'-me-us), . . .112 
 
 Antichrist (An'-te-krist), . . 235 
 
 Antietam (An-tee'-tam\ . . . 512 
 
 Antigonus (An-tig'-o-nus), . 60,61,62 
 
 Antioch (An'-te-ok), . . 64, 122, 136 
 
 Antiochus (An-te-ok'-us), . . 63, 64 
 
 Antiochus Epiphanes (An-ti-ok'-us E-pif-a- 
 
 nees), ..... 64 
 
 Antipater (An-tip'-a-ter'), . . 54, 59 
 
 Antoinette, Marie (Mar'-e An-tui-net') . 310 
 
 Antoninus Pius ( An-to-ni'-nus Pi us) . 100 
 
 Antonio (An-to'-ne-o), . . . 216 
 
 Antonio de Levya{ An-to'-ne-o de Lev-ya'), 203 
 Antonio, San (San An-to'-ne-o), 477, 447,500 
 Antonius (An-to'-ne-us), . . . 133 
 
 Antony, Mark (Mark An'-to-ny), 89. 01, 92, 93 
 Antwerp (Ant'-werp), . . 156, 'f-^ 364 
 
 AnviUe, Duke d' (Duke de An'-vil),. 302 
 
 Aosta, Duke of (A-os'-ta), . . 400 
 
 Apis(A'-pis), . . . .56 
 
 Apollo (A-pol'-lo), . . 36,39,53,6' 
 
 Appalachian (Ap-pa-la'-chi-an), . 265 
 
 Appius Claudius (Ap'-pi-us Clau'-di-us,) 71, 73 
 Appomattox (Ap-po-mat'-tox), . 518, 521 
 Apraxin (A-prax'-in), . . .65, 79, 145 
 
 Apulia (A-pul'-e-a), ... 79 
 
 Aquse Sexlia; (A-que-Sex-she'-a), . . 35 
 
 Aquitaine (A-que-tain'), . . 126, 148 
 
 Aquitania (A-que-tan'-e-a), . . 94 
 
 Aquitanians (A quo-tan'-e-ans), . 127 
 
 Arab (Ar'-ab), ... 12* 
 
 Arabella Stuart (A-ra-bel'-Ia Stu'-art), 2.:^2 233 
 Arabia (A-ra'-bi-a), . 25,28,121.122,366 
 
 Arabian (A-ra'-bi-an), 58,120, 121,122,124, 125 
 Arabians (A-ra'-bi-ans), . . 121,122,123 
 
 Arabs (Ar'-abs), . . 28, 120, 123, 124, 125 
 
 Arad (Ar'-ad), . . . 383,384 
 
 Arago, Emanuel (E-man'-yel Ar'-a-go), 371, V^ 
 Aragon (Ar'-a-gon), 225, 146, 150, 158, 159 
 
 202,260 
 
ALFHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 35 
 
 6i, 62 
 
 56,57 
 
 no 
 
 471,492 
 
 155. 181 
 
 . 35 
 no 
 mphe'), 41C, 418 
 
 349 
 . 80 
 
 49 
 , 326 
 
 43B 
 
 Ararat (Ar'-a-raO, 
 Aratus (A-ra'-tus), 
 Arbela (Ar-bel'-a), 
 Arbogastes (Ar-bo-gas'-tees), 
 Arbulhnot (Ar'-buth-not\ 
 Arc, Joan of (Jo'-an of Arc), 
 Arcadia (Ar-ca'-de-a), 
 Arcadius (A,-ca'-di-us\ . 
 Arc <le Tri< mphe (Ark de Tre-o 
 ^icbidamiij ( Ar-ke-da'-mus), 
 \rcluiiiedes (Ar-ke-me'-decs), 
 l^icis (Ar'-se), 
 ^rcoki (Ar-ko'-la), . 
 ivdca (Ar'-(le-a), . 
 Areopagus (Ar-e-op'-a-gus) . 
 Argentine (Ar'-jen-teen), , 
 
 Argive ( Ar'-givej, . . , .61 
 
 Argo f Ar'-go), .... 38 
 
 Argolis ( Ar'-go-lis), . . . 35, -iS 
 
 Argos (Ar'-gos), . . . 35. 37. 61 
 
 Argonautic (Ar'-go-naut'-ik), . . 38 
 
 Argus (Ar'-gus), .... 48S 
 
 Argyle, Duke of (Ar-gile'), . . 246.278 
 
 Anan (A'-re-an), . . . .110 
 
 Ari.uia i A-re-an'-a), . . . .57 
 
 Arista (A-rees'-ta), . . 446, 447, 49S 
 
 Arislides (A-ns-ti'-dees), , . 46,47,48 
 
 Aristobulus (Ar-is-tob'-u-lus), 
 Aristodemus I Ar-is-to-de'-mus), . . 42 
 
 Aristogiton ( Ar-is-to-git'-ton I, . . 44 
 
 Aristijinenes (Ar-is-tom'-e-nees), . .42 
 
 Aristotle (Ar-is-tot'-el), ... 54 
 
 Arius (A'-re-us); .... 107 
 
 Arkansas (Ar-kan'-sas), 495, 506, 507, 509, ■;i2, 
 513, 515, 527 
 Arkansas Post (Ar-kan'-sas Post), . • 5'3 
 
 Arlington Heights (Ar'-ling-ton Hights), 506 
 Armada' Ar-ma'-dal, . . 217,224 
 
 Arinand Marrast (Ar'-mong Mar-rah'), . 374 
 Armenia ^Ar-me'-ne-a), . . 21,281 
 
 Arminians Ar-rnin'-e-ans), . . . 218 
 
 Arinistead ^Arm-is-ted'i, . . . 489 
 
 Armstrong ( Arm'-strong), . . 304 
 
 Arnaud, St. (Saint Ar'-no), . . 387 
 
 Arnold, Benedict (Ben'-e-dict Ar'-nold), 460, 
 462, 467, 472, 478, 474 
 Arnold Winkelried (Ar'-nold Win'-kel-ried), 168 
 Arnolph (Ar'-nolf), .... 159 
 Arpad (Ar'-pad), . . . 129, 189 
 
 Arras (Ar'-ras), . . .156, 408 
 
 Arrondissements (Ar-ron'-dis-ments), 370,418 
 Artaphernas (Ar-ta-fer'-nas), . . 45 
 
 Artaxerxes Longimanus (Lon'-jim-an'-us), 
 Artaxerxes Mnemon (Ar-ta-zerk'-zees Ne'- 
 
 mon ), . 
 Artemisium (Ar-te-me'-se-um), 
 Anhenay (Ar-te-nay'), , . . 4-18 
 
 Arthur Ar'-ther), . . . . '49 
 
 Artois Ar-twah'), . . . .310, {54 
 
 Aruns (A'-runs), . . . 68,69 
 
 Asralon (As'-ca-lon^, . • .138 
 
 Aschaffenburg (As-chaf'-fer.-burg). . 284, 398 
 Ashantee (Ash-an-fe'), . . . 432 
 
 Ashantees (Ash-an-tees'), . . . 432 
 
 Ashhurton (Ash'-bur-ton), . . 496 
 
 Ashley fAsh'-ley), . . . .24=; 
 
 Ashley Cooper (Coop'-er), . . 264 
 
 Ashur (Ash'-er), 
 Asia (A'-she-a), 
 Asia Minor (,A'-shea Mi-nor), 
 Asiatic (A-she-at'-ik), 
 Asmouians ( As-mo'-ne-ans), . 
 Asnieres (As'-niers), 
 Aspern iVi'-pern), 
 Aspromonte (As-pro-mont') 
 Assassins (As sas'-sins) 
 Assaye (As-sa'-ya), 
 Assemblyists (As-sem'-bly-ists) 
 Assisi, Francis of (As-se'-se;, 
 Assy (As'-se), . 
 
 34 
 
 46 
 
 22,26, 27, 35 
 
 22,40,44,45 
 
 37,58,388 
 
 . 64 
 
 4'7 
 
 • 34" 
 
 413 
 
 141,142 
 
 . 299, 300 
 
 4'5,4'7 
 
 133 
 
 . . 204 
 
 • 24,27 
 
 24, 33 
 188 
 
 • 897 
 •n5.33? 
 
 42S 
 
 • 3; 
 42.43, 4^ 
 
 ■ 45, 48, 4S 
 5,37,42,43,4c 
 
 • 494 
 518, 519,52^ 
 
 37,94,194115; 
 84 
 
 • 337 
 
 •327,350 
 
 . 248 
 
 201,207,254 
 
 471,473,474 
 
 .3961793 
 
 . 120 
 
 Assytia (As-syr'-e-a), 
 
 .'Assyrian (As-syr'-e-an), 
 
 Astracan (As'-tra-kan). . 
 
 Austragal Judgment (Aus-tra'-gal), 
 
 Asturias (As-tu'-re-as), . 
 
 Aslyages (As-ty-,.'-geesl, 
 
 Atalayga Castle (At-a-ly'-a),. 
 
 Athena ( Ath-e'-iia , . 
 
 Athenian (Ath-e'-ne-an), . 
 
 Athenians, 
 
 Athens (Ath'-ens), 
 
 Atkinson (At'-kiu-son), 
 
 Atlanta (At-lan'-ta), 
 
 Atlantic ( At-lan'-tic),. 
 
 Attalus (At'-ta-his), 
 
 Attica (At'-te-ka), 
 
 Attila (At-til'-a). . 
 
 Auerstadt (Ou'-er-stot), 
 
 Augereau ((^-zhe-ro'j 
 
 Aughrini (Au'-grim), . 
 
 .Augsburg (Ougs'-burg), . 
 
 Augusta ( Au-gus'-ta), . 
 
 Angus tenburg (Au-gtis'-ten-burg), 
 
 Augustine (Au'-gus-teen), 
 
 Augustine, St. (Saint Au'-gus-teen), . 133 
 
 Augustinian ( Au-gus-tin'-e-an), . 133, 199 
 
 Augustulus, Romulus (Rom'-u-lus Au-gus'-tu- 
 
 lus), . . . . .119 
 
 Augustus (Au-gus'-tus . . . 93, 94 
 
 Augustus, Philip (Fil'-ip Au-gus'-tus), 149,150 
 Aulus Plautius (Au'-lus Plau'-te-us), . 95 
 
 Aurehan (Au-re'-le-an), . . . 105 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus (Mar'-kus Au-re'-le-us), . 100 
 Aurungzebe (Au-rung-zebe'), . .215,281 
 
 Aruns (A'-runs), . . . .'68 
 
 Austrasia (.^us-tra'-she-aj, . . 126 
 
 Austria (Aus'-tre-a), . 138, 166, 167, 168, 39S 
 Austrian (Aus'-lre-an), . 167,168,341,398 
 
 Austrians (Aus'-tre-ans) . 282,284,288 
 
 Auxerrois, St. Germaine 1' (Sang Zher'-men- 
 
 . 219 
 
 128 129, 159 
 
 68 84 
 
 547 
 
 . 521 
 
 142, 150, 169 
 
 . 112 
 
 490 
 
 409 
 
 lo-zer-waW), 
 Avars '.'Vv'-ars), . 
 Aventnie Hill ( Av'-en-tin Hill), 
 Averill, William W (Av'-er-il), . 
 Averysborough (Av'-er-is-bur'-o), 
 Avignon (A-vin'-yon), 
 Avitus (A-vi'-tus), . . 
 
 Avon (A'-von), 
 Avron ^ Av'-roni, '. . 
 
 Axel (Jxenstiern (Ax'-el Ox-en-steern'), 230 
 
 Ayacucho (I-a-coo'-cho), . 438,439,441; 
 
 Ayesha (I'-shal, . . . .121 
 
 Azincourt (.'^-zhin-koor'), . 154,155,181 
 
 Azores (A-zores'). . . . 193 
 
 Azov (.A'-zov), .... 253 
 
 Aztec (Az'-tek .... 214 
 Aztecs, ..... 214 
 
 B. 
 
 Baal (Ba'-al), .... 24,2 
 
 Haall)ec ( Ba'-al-bek), . . . 122 
 
 Babel (Ba'-bel), . . . 21,22 
 
 Baber (Ba'-ber!, .... 215 
 liabylon ( Bab'-e-lon\ . . . 24,25 
 
 }!abylonia (Bab-e-lo-ne-a), . . n 
 
 Babylonian, . . . 24,25,27 35 
 
 Babylonians, . . . . • 3* 
 
 Bacchus (Bak'-kus\ . . . 3f 
 
 Bacon, Nathaniel (Na-than'-yel Ba'-kon\ is; 
 ISactrian (Bac'-tre-an), ... 5; 
 
 Bactnana ( Bac-tre-an'-a), • . 5; 
 
 Badajoz ( Bad-a-hoce'), . . .34: 
 
 Baden (Bad'-e:i), . 170,207,374,37s 37; 
 
 Baden IJurlach lP,ad'-cn-Dur'-lok), . 225 
 
 Bagdad (Bag'-dad), . . 124,125,191 
 
 Bagratian 1 Ba-gra'-shan), . .336,343 
 
 Bailly (Bal'-ye), . 312,313,321 
 
 Bainbridge (Bain'-bridge), . . 481 
 
 Hajazet I Baj'-a-zet\ .... 191 
 Bakei Edward D (Ba'-ker), . . 508 
 
36 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Bal iklava (Bal-a-kla'-va), , . .387 
 
 HalbLiuis Bal-bi'-nus), . . , 103 
 
 R;ill>')a I lial-bo'-:i), .... 194 
 B.ikluin of Flanders (Bald'-win), . 138, 139 
 
 lialr.il, John (Jon Bal'-e-ol;, . . 176,177 
 
 !!i'lk;ni(Bawr-kan), . . .360 
 
 lb!i\ lUufff Ball's Bluff), . . 507,508 
 
 li.illic 1 Bawl'-tic),. ... 27 
 
 LJali imore (Bawl'-te-more), . 261,262,489,505 
 B.inA( (Ban'-at), .... 381,383 
 I!.-'. ml I Oriental (Ban'-da O-re-en'-tal), . 440 
 ll ipcr ;Ban'-er), . . . .231 
 
 liiiii;;ilore - Ban-ga-lore'j, . . . 2y9 
 
 Haick.',, Nathaniel P. . . 510,511,514, 
 
 515,516 
 B ninockburn (Ban-nok-burn'), . . 177 
 
 l!aij:iiinie (Ba-paum'), . . . 410 
 
 B.ir ( Bar), ..... 294 
 
 Barak iBar'-ak), . , . .29 
 
 Barbicdoes (Bar'-ba-does), . . 264 
 
 Barbarossa, Frederic (Bar-ba-ros'-sa), 137, 149, 
 162, 163. 194 
 Barbarossa Hayraddin (Hay-rad'-din), . 204 
 Barbaroux (Bar-bar-roo'), . 317,321 
 
 Barbary (Bar'-ba-ry ), . . . 355 
 
 Ban;a (Bar'-ka), ... .40 
 
 Barcas, Hamilcar (Ha-mil'-kar (!'ar'-kas),77, 7S 
 Barcelona (Bar-se-lo'-na), . 270,424,426,427 
 Barclay (Bar'-kl.ay), . . .486 
 
 Barclay, Robert, .... 266 
 Barclay de Tolly (Bar'-klay de Tol'-ly), 343, 
 
 344,347 
 Bareljone (Bare'-bone), . . . 242 
 
 Barenberg (Ba'-ren-bergl, . . . 228 
 
 Barenklau (Ba-renk'-low), . . 283 
 
 Barksdale (Barks'-dale), . . .514 
 
 Karlow, Arthur (Ar'-thur Bar'-lo), . 255 
 
 Barnave (Bar-nav'j, .... 321 
 );arnet ( Bar'-nel), . . 1S3 
 
 B.rnveldt, Van Olden), (Van Ol'-den Barn'- 
 
 ve't), ..... 218 
 
 Barragan fBar'-ra-gan), . . . 444 
 
 Barras (Bar'-ras), . . 324, 3:5 
 
 Barrere I Bar-rare') .... 321 
 Barrot, Odillon (O-deel'-yong Bar-ro'), 371 
 
 Bartholomew, St. (Saint Bar-thol'-u-mew), 219, 
 
 Bashaw (Ba-shaw'), 
 
 Basle (Ba'-sel), 
 
 Bas(|ue Provinces (Bask), 
 
 Bassantello (Bas-san-tel'-lo), 
 
 Biistile (Bas-teel'), 
 
 Baiavia (Ba-ta'-ve a), 
 
 Batavian, . 
 
 Bath, Bath), 
 
 Batignolles (Bat-ig-noles'), 
 
 Baton Rouge (Bat-on Roozh'), 
 
 Haudin 1 Bo'-din), 
 
 Baiiin ( Bourn). 
 
 Bautzen (Boutz'-en), . 
 
 Bavaria (Ba-va'-re-a 
 
 B.ivarian, . 
 
 Bavarians, 
 
 Bedford (Bed'-ford), . 
 Bedlue fBed'-lo), . 
 Belfast (Bel'-fa,sl), . 
 Belfort (Bel'-fort), 
 Belgian (Bel'-je-aii). . 
 Belgians, 
 
 15s, 156, 182 
 
 246 
 
 . 489 
 
 . 410, 412 
 
 363, 404, 405, 4" 
 
 . 363, 364 
 
 i56, 170, 171, 325 
 
 . 422, 427 
 
 . 160 
 
 • 4'4 
 5". 515 
 
 • 385 
 467 
 
 • 347 
 128, 159, 167, 336 
 
 . 167, 297 
 270. 403 
 Bayard, Chevalier (Chev-a-leer' By'-ard), . 203 
 H.iyonne f Ba-one'), . . 339, 348, 427 
 
 ftaj !en (Bi'-len), .... 339 
 Ba^aine (Ba-zang'), . 388, 402, 403, 404, 405, 
 
 407. 450 
 Beam (]5a-arn'), .... 219 
 Beaugency (Bo'-zhen-sy), . . 408 
 
 Beauharnais, General ( Bo-har'-na), 321, 323, 325 
 Beaiiharnais, Eugene (U-geen'), . 335, 348 
 
 Beauharnais Hortense (Or-tangs'), . 386 
 
 Bea'.ijou iBo-joo'), .... 417 
 Beaulieu (Bo-loo') . . . 326 
 
 Beauregard, Pierre G. F. (Bo'-re-gard), . 505, 
 506, 509, 518 
 Beausejour (Bo-sp-jour'), . . 303 
 Beckct, Thomas a (Toin-as a Beck'-et) . 174 
 Bedell (Be-dcll') 462 
 
 Belgium (Bel'-jt-um), . 217, 298, 351, 363, 364, 
 
 404, 400 
 l?elgrade (Bel-grade'), . 135, 190, 192, 279, 280 
 Belisanus (Bel-e-sa'-re-us/, . . 117, 118 
 
 Bell, John (Bell), . . . .504 
 
 Bclldsle (Bcll-ilc'), . . . ,.^83 
 
 Bellerophoii (Bel-ler'-o-fon), . . 35s 
 
 Belleville (Bell'-vil), . . 414, 475, 4'.'9, 42(. 
 
 Belmont (Bel-mont), ... . 5j8 
 
 Beloochistan (Be-loo-chis-tan') . . 35 
 
 Belshazzar (Bcl-shaz'-zar), . . .25.33 
 Belus (Bel'-us), . . . . 24 
 
 Belvedere (Bel-ve-deer'), . . . 340 
 
 Bern, .... 365, 381, 383 
 
 l^,emis's Heights (Bem'-is's Hights), . 467 
 
 Bender (Ben'-der), . . . 276, 294 
 
 Benedek (Biii'-e-dek). . . . 398 
 
 Benedetli (Ben-e-det'-te), . . . 402 
 
 Benedict of Nursia (Beu'-e-dict of Nur'-she-a), 
 
 133 
 Benedictine (Ben-e-dic'-teen), . 133, 186 
 
 Benevento (Ben-e-ven'-to), . . 165 
 
 Bengal (Ben-gawT), . . . 389, 390 
 
 Benito Juarez (Bcn'-e-to Whaw-ar'-ez), 447, 448, 
 
 449,450.451 
 Benjamin (Ben'-ja-min), . . 30, 31 
 
 Benningsen{Ben'-niMg-scn), . •337,338 
 
 Bennington I Ben'-riing-toii), . . 467 
 
 BentonviUe (Ben'-tan-vil;, . . 521 
 
 13erber (Ber'-ber) .... 124 
 
 Beresford ' Ber'-ez-ford), . . . 342 
 
 Beresina (Ber-e-ze'-na), . . . 346 
 
 Berg (Berg), .... 226 
 
 Bergen ( Berg'-en \ . . . 266, 290 
 
 Bergerot (Ber-jer-o'), . . .415 
 
 Berghen (Ber'-jenI, .... 330 
 Berkeley (Berk'-le), . . 256,257,266 
 
 Berlin Ber-liii'l, . . 288,291,337,412 
 
 Bermuda Hundred (Ber-mii'-da Hundred), 518 
 Bernadotte (Ber'-na-dot),. . 342, 347 
 
 Bernard (Ber'-nard), .... 457 
 Bernard, St. (Saint Ber-nard), . . 332 
 
 Berne (Bern), . . . 167,328 
 
 Bernese ( Bern'-esei, . . . 328 
 
 Bernhard ( I'.ern'-hardi, . . .231 
 
 Bernhard of Weimar (Wi'-mar), . 231 
 
 Berri, Duke of (Ber'-re), , . . 156 
 
 Bertha (Ber'-tha), . . . 147 
 
 Bcrthelemy (Ber-thel'-e-me), . 327 
 
 Berthier (Ber-te-a'), . . . 327 
 
 P>erthold Schwartz (Bert'-old Schwartz), 192 
 Berwick (Bcr'-wick), . . . . 271 
 
 Besancon (Be-zong'-soang), . . 411 
 
 Bessieres (l!es-se-er'), . . . 347 
 
 l^essus (Bes'-sus), ... 57 
 
 Bethlehem (Beth'-le-hem), . . .94 
 
 Beuret (Boo-ra'), .... 393 
 Beyreut (Ba-root'), . . . 368 
 
 Big Bethel (Big Belh'-el), . . 506 
 
 I'ig Black River Bridge, , . . 514 
 
 Bicetre (Be-set-ra'), , . 407 
 
 ISicocco (Be-kok'-ko), . 203 
 
 Biddle (Bid'-del), . . 491 
 
 Bienville (Be-aiig'-veel), . 30* 
 
 Biloxi ( Be-lok'-se), . . 30t! 
 
 Billaud Varennes (Bil'-lo Va-ren'), 323 32^ 
 
 liingham (Bing'-am), . . 484 
 
 Biroii (Bi'-ron), . . 321, 43a 
 
 Bismarck (Bis'-mark), 397 401. (o6 1^8, (ii, 
 412 431, 432 
 Jiithynia (Bith-in'-e-a), . . 60, 81 
 
 JJitienfeld (liit'-tin-fekl), . , . ■598 
 
 l:iz.)in. (;i..is rGJai ISizh-oin'), . ^ai 
 
 Blackburn's Ford (Clack'-burn's), . 5':^ 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 37 
 
 ^lacli Forest, ..... 326 
 
 filack Sea, . 34, 3S, 40, 51, 295, 38'/, 388, 389 
 Blackstoiie (Black'-stone), . . . 263 
 
 (iladensburg (Hlad'-ens-burg), . . 489 
 
 'Jiair, Francis P., .... 523 
 ''lake, ..... 241 
 
 Blakeley (Blake'-le), . . . .490 
 
 BlariC; Lcuis (Loo'-e Blong), . 372, 374 
 
 Clanclie (Blanch), . . . .150 
 
 Blanqiii (Blon-kee), . . . 372 
 
 Blenheim (Blen'-hime), . . . 270 
 
 Block, Adrian (A'-dri-an Block), . 262 
 
 6 3is ((^lAfavv), . . . 136, 173, 408 
 
 "loomfif Id, Joseph (Bloom'-field), . . 484 
 
 Bl Mint, Sir George, . . . 279 
 
 Blucher (Blook'-cr), 347, 348, 349, 351, 352 
 
 BUini, Robert, .... 376 
 
 Blunt. ... . 512, 513 
 
 Boadicea H'o-a-de'-she-a), . . .96 
 
 Boccluis (Bok-kiis), . . 85 
 
 Boeff. I, a (La Bui'), . . . .302 
 
 Boeotia (Be-o'-she-a), . . '35, 37 
 
 Bogota (Bo-go-taw'), . . 436,437 
 
 Bohemia (Bo-he'-me-a), 166, 169, 726, 283, 289 
 Bohemian, .... 169, 22S 
 
 Bohemians, .... 226, 227 
 Bohemiind (Bo'-he-mond'), . . 136 
 
 Bois de Boulogne ( Boi de Boo-lone'), 417, 418 
 Bokhara (Bo-ka'-ra), . . 190, 432 
 
 Boleslau^ (Boies'-hius), . . . iS5 
 
 Boleyn, Anne (Ann Bo'-len), 209, 210 
 
 Biilin^broke (Bo'-ling-bn^ke), . 182, 272 
 
 Bolivar, Simon (Si'-mon Bo-le'-var), 436, 437, 
 
 43S, 440 
 f.olivia (Bo-lee'-ve-a), . . 438, 439, 441 
 
 B tlogna (Bo lone'-ya), . . . 366 
 
 P> 'mhay (Bom'-bay), . . . 298 
 
 Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon (Bo'- 
 
 na-part), . ... 370, 371, 372 
 
 Bonaparte, Jerome (Jer-ome'), . . 338 
 
 Bonaparte, Joseph . . 336, 339, 346, 438 
 B)naparte, Louis (Loo'-e), . . 336,341 
 
 Bonaparte, Lucien (Lu'-she-en), . . 331 
 
 Ijonaparte, Napoleon (Na-po'-le-on), . 322, 3^5, 
 326. 327, 328, 329, 330, 331 
 Bona partes, ..... 436 
 Bonapartists (Bo-na-part'-ists),350, 384,411, 430 
 Borhomme Richard (Bon-hom'), . . 470 
 
 Boniface (Bon'-e-face), . . .126, 151 
 
 Boone, Daniel (Pan'-yel Boon), . . 470 
 
 B 'oth, John Wilkes, . . . 522 
 
 B.>ra, Catharine of (Bo'-ra), . . . 201 
 
 Bordeaux (Bor-do'l, . 179, 34S, 362, 411, 412 
 Borgne (Born^, .... 450 
 
 Bcirnheimer (Born-hi'-mer), . . 376 
 
 Borodino (Bor-o-de'-no), . . . 344 
 
 Boscawen (Bos-caw'-en), . . 305 
 
 Bosnia (Bos'-ne-a), . . . 228, 431 
 
 P.osqiiet (Bos-ka'), . . . 387 
 
 Boston (Bos'-ton), 258,259, 457, 458, 459,460, 
 461, 462, 463 
 Bostonians (Bos-to'-ne-rins), . ' 259, 4S7 
 
 Bosworth Field 'Boz'-wiirti), . . 184 
 
 Bothnia I Both'-ne-a), . . . 130 
 
 Bothweli ! Both'-well), . . 222.22:? 
 
 Bcnfflurs (Boof-flers), . . ,271 
 
 Bouillon (Bool-yong'). . • 135. 136 
 
 Boulevards (Bool-vards'). . 385, 405, 414 
 
 Boidogne (lioo-lone'), . 205,211,333,335 
 
 Boui(jaet il5oos-ka'1, . . . 420 
 
 'iriirbil- Boor-ba'-ke), . . 410,411 
 
 Bcuj-^cr. Boor'-bon), . . 156,221 
 
 B:nirooni, . 291,332,348,350 
 
 Bourgeoi.ve (Bour-jeoi -soe), . 370,414 
 
 Bonvines (Boo-veen'), . . . I49 
 
 Bowyer, Foit (Bow'-yer), . . . 489 
 
 Boxer (,Box'-er1, .... 488 
 
 Boyaca ( Boy-ak'-ka\ . . . 437 
 
 Boyne Boi 1), . . 248, 254 
 
 Bojrjb :B(z'-rah), . . . . 122 ' 
 
 358 
 
 . 499 
 
 286, 303 
 
 Bozzaris fBot-zar'-is), 
 Bracito fBra-se'-to), . 
 Braddock, Edward (lirad'-dock), 
 Bradford, William (Brad'-ford), . , 257 
 
 Bradstreet ( Brad'-streel}, . , 29c, 305 
 
 Braganza (Bra-gan'-za), . 216 339, \^ 
 
 Bragg, Braxton (Brax'-ton Bragg), 512, 515, 516 
 Brahma (Bram'-a), . . . 2j 
 
 Brahminical(Bram-in'-ic-al), . . 23 
 
 BraHmins (Bram'-ins), . . . 2j 
 
 Brahilov (Bra-e'-lov;, . . . 35.J 
 
 Brandenburg (Bran'-den-bnrg), 128, 169, 207, 
 208, 226, 251, 252, 281, 287 
 Brandt, Joseph (Brant), . . i,t'; i^og 
 
 Brandywine (Bran'-de-wine), . . 466 
 
 Braunau (Brou'-nou), . . . 226 
 
 Bravo (Bra'-vo), .... 435. 441 
 Brazil (Bra'-zeel), , 193, 339, 356, 440, 441 
 Brazilian (Bra-zeel'-yan), . . 441 
 
 Brazilians, .... 438, 440 
 Breadalbane (Bre-ad-al'-bane), . 248 
 
 Breckinridge, John C. (Brek'-in-nj), 502 504, 
 
 5" 
 
 . 244 
 
 . . 461 
 
 . 229 
 
 61, 72, 73 
 
 . 165 
 
 . 190, 283 
 
 318, 482 
 
 146, 149, 156, 157 
 
 Breda (Bra'-da), 
 Breed's Hill, 
 
 Breitenfeld (Bri'-ten-feld) 
 Brennus (Bren'-nus), 
 Bremen (Brem'-en), . 
 Brcslau (Bres-lou), 
 Brest, . 
 Bretagne (Bre'-tan), 
 
 • 157 
 
 Bretons (Bre'-tons) 
 Bridgewater (Brij'-wau-ter), 
 Brieime (Bre-en'), . . . 348, 349 
 
 Brienne, Lomoine de (Lo-mo-ne' de), . 311 
 
 Bright, John (Brite), . . . 599 
 
 Brahuega (Brah'-we-ga), . . . 271 
 
 Brissot (Brees'-so), ... . 317 
 
 Bristol (Bris'-tolj, . . 195,238,367 
 
 Britain (Brit'-tn), . . 89,95,96,106, 120 
 
 Britain, Great . 278, 306, 308, 460, 463, 475, 4B4 
 Britannicus (Rrit-an'-ne-kus), . . 95 
 
 British (Brit'-ish 1, 307, 308, 309, 328, 331, 453, 504 
 Britons (Brit'-ons), . . 89,95 96,98 
 
 Brittany (Brit'-ta-ne), . . 157, 158 
 
 Brock, Sir Isaac , . . 484, 485 
 
 Broglie (Brole'-ye), . 
 Broglio (Brole'-yo), 
 Briiwn, Jacob 
 Brown, Benjamin Gratz . 
 Bruce, Robert . 
 
 Brueyes fBrays!, . . 
 
 Bruges (Bru'-jez), . 
 Brumaire (Bru'-mer), 
 Brundusium (Brun-du'-ze-um), 
 Brune, .... 
 Brunei (Bru-nel'), 
 Brunswick (Bruns'-wick), 163, 227, 
 290, 
 Brussels (Brus'-sels), 
 Brutus (Bru'-tus), 
 Brutinm ) Bru'-te-um), 
 Bucharest (Boo-ka-rcst'), 
 Bucephala (Bu-sef-a-lal, . 
 Bucephalus (Bu-sef'-a-lus), . 
 Buchanan, Franklin (Buk-an'-an), 
 Buchanan, James . . . 5°2, 503 
 
 Buchez iBoo-shez't, . . 
 
 Buckersdorf ( Buck'-ers-dorr\ 
 Biickner, Simon Bolivar (Buck'-ner), 
 Buena Vista (Bwa'-na Vees'-ta), 
 Buenos Ayres (Bo'-nos Airz), 
 Buda iBoo'-da), . . c 
 
 Buddha (Bood'-da), 
 Biidenbrock CBoo'-den-brock), 
 Buell, Don Carlos (Don Car'-los F I'-el), 
 Buffalo 'Buf-fa-lo), . 
 Kuford (Bii'-ford), 
 BiigiBoog), . 
 Bulgaria (Bul-ga'-re-aJ, . 
 
 68 ,,69 
 
 487, 488 
 525 
 176, 177 
 328 
 . 156 
 331 
 • 92 
 330 
 . 420 
 28,278, 289 
 8, 337. 351 
 6, 351, 363 
 9I) 921.456 
 65 
 
 . 343 
 
 58 
 
 372 
 292 
 
 508 
 
 AM 
 438, 
 376, 
 
 439 
 38a 
 23 
 283 
 509 
 487 
 471 
 365 
 135 
 
38 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Bulgarians, . . 
 
 Bulgans, Demetrius (De-me'- 
 
 gar'-is), 
 Bull's Run, 
 Bulow ( Boo'-lo), . 
 Bunker's Hill (Bunk'-er's), . 
 Burgesses (Bur'-ges-ses), 
 Burgus (Boor'-goce), . 
 Purgoj'ne (Bur-goin'), 
 Burgundians, ( Bur-gun'-de-ans 
 Burgundy (Bur'-gun-de), 126, i 
 
 Burke, Edmund, 
 
 Burleigh (Bur'-le), 
 
 Burnside, Ambrose E. (]3urn'-side), 
 
 Burr, Aaron, 
 
 Burrhus ( Bur'-rus'i, , 
 
 Burrows ( Bur'-rose ), 
 
 Busaco (Boo-sak'-ko), 
 
 Bussolongo (Boos-so-lone'-go), 
 
 Bustamentc ( Boos-ta-men'-ta) 
 
 Bite, Earl of, . 
 
 Butler (But'-ler), 
 
 Butler, Benjamin F., , 
 
 Butler, John, 
 
 Byng, .... 
 
 Byron (By'-ron), . 
 
 Byzantine (Be-zan'-lin), 113, 
 
 us Bool- 
 
 506, 507, 
 
 307) 
 
 461, 466, 467, 
 
 46, 154, 
 56, 157 
 
 298; 
 
 223, 
 50S, 509, 
 
 514. 
 
 481 
 
 395 
 511 
 348 
 461 
 256 
 340 
 468 
 III 
 155, 
 160 
 456 
 234 
 5'2 
 5.6 
 482 
 
 342 
 379 
 
 442,443, 444,445 
 * 292 
 
 507, 509, 
 467, 
 
 "7, 
 123, 
 
 Byzantium (Be-zan'-she-um), 
 Byzas (By'-zas), . . . 
 
 c. 
 
 Cabal (Ka'-bal), 
 
 Cabet (Ka-ba'), . 
 
 Cabot, John ' Ka'-bot"), 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian (Se-bas'-che-an), 
 
 Cabral (Ka-bral'), 
 
 Cabr.?ra (Ka-bra'-ra), 
 
 Cabrinity ( K-a-brin'-e-te), . . 
 
 Cabul (Ka'-bool), 
 
 Cade, Jack, .... 
 
 Cadesiah ( Ka-de'-she-a) . . 
 
 Cadiz (Ka'diz), 
 
 Cadmea ( Kad'-me-a), 
 
 Cadmus (Kad'-mus), . . 
 
 Cadorna (Ka-dor'-na), . 
 
 Cadoudal, George ( Ka-doo'-dal), 
 
 Caernarvon! Kar-nar'-von), 
 
 Csesir, Julius (Ju'-le-us Se'-zer), 88, 
 
 CjEsar. Octavius (Ok-ta'-ve-us), 
 
 Caesars, .... 
 
 Cain, ..... 
 
 Cairo (Ki'-ro), . . . . 
 
 Caius Gracchus (Ka'-e-us Grak'-us), 
 
 Caius Marius (Ma'-re-us), 
 
 Calabria (Ka-la'-bre-a), . 
 
 Calais (Kal'-la), 152, 156, 178, 182, 202, 
 
 Caledonia, (Kal-e-do'-ne-a), - 
 
 Caledonians, 
 
 Calcutta (Kal-cut'-ta), 
 
 Calhoun, John C. {Kal-hoon'), 
 
 Calicut (Kal'-e-kut), 
 
 Calif jrnia (Kal-e-for'-ne-a), 447, 
 
 Cj.lig.ila (Ka-lig'-u-la), . 
 
 Ca'iph(Ka'-lifi, . . 121, 
 
 C'.ai.phat-2 (Ka'-lif-ate), . 
 
 Calphi, 
 
 Calixtirios (Ka-lix'-tins),. 
 
 (Jallao ( Kal-la'-o), 
 
 Calmar, Union of (Kal'-mar), . 
 
 Calonne ;Ka-lon'), 
 
 Calvary ( Kal'-va-rel, . . 
 
 Calvert, Cecil (Sis-il Kol'-vert), 
 
 Calvin, John (Kal'-vin). 
 
 Cah inism I Kal'-vin-ism), 
 
 Calsinists (Kul'-vin-istsj, 
 
 ii3, iig, 
 139, 191, 
 • 40, 47i 
 
 5t8 
 469 
 279 
 358 
 122, 
 192 
 107 
 40 
 
 244, 245 
 
 372 
 
 . 195 
 
 195 
 
 • 193 
 430 
 
 422, 427 
 
 369 
 
 . 1S2 
 
 • 122 
 
 27. 37 
 
 37 
 
 • 37 
 413 
 
 • 335 
 176 
 
 89, 90, 91 
 
 92,93 
 
 93 
 
 21 
 
 123, 328 
 
 . 84 
 
 85 
 
 65, 145 
 
 209, 212, 
 
 . 
 
 . 120 
 
 
 99 
 
 
 . 299 
 
 492 
 
 493. 494 
 
 
 193 
 
 498, 
 
 499, 500, 
 
 
 501, 524 
 
 
 • 94,95 
 
 122 
 
 123, 124 
 
 123, 
 
 124, 125 
 
 
 • 125 
 
 
 170 
 
 
 440, 441 
 186 
 
 
 . 3" 
 
 
 94 
 . 20r 
 
 
 217, 222 
 
 
 218,219 
 
 Cambaceres (Kam-ba-ser'), . . , 331 
 
 Cambray (Kam-bra'j, . . 144, 158, 2ofi 
 
 Cambresis, Chateau (Sha-to' Kong.b;a-ze'), 206, 
 
 218 
 Cambridge (Kame' brij), . . 258, 460 
 
 Cambyses (Kam-bi'-seez), . , 34 
 
 Camden (Kam'-dcn). . 266, 471, 473 
 
 Camerletta (Kam-er-let'-ta), , . 393 
 
 Camille Desmoulins (Ka-meel' Da-mo-long'j 
 
 313, S"? 318, 32j 
 
 Camillus (Ka-mil'-lus), . , 72, 73 
 
 Campania (Kam-pan'-e-a), . ^Si 74 
 
 Campbell (K.am'-el), . , 469, 47J 
 
 Campbell, Sir Colin (Ko'-lin), . ■■i'^j 39' 
 
 Campbells, . . . . " . ziS 
 
 Campo Formio (Kam'-po For'-me-o), 327 
 
 Canaan (Ka'-nan), . . 28, 29 
 
 Canaanites (Ka'-nan-ites), . , -29 
 Canada (Kan'-a-da), 301, 302, 304, 305, 306, 307 
 
 522, 
 
 300 
 445 
 526 
 
 369 
 517 
 
 • 79 
 350 
 
 • 359 
 387, 402 
 
 3<J9 
 .172 
 
 195, 264 
 
 146, 152 
 
 146, 147 
 
 73, 489 
 
 66, 67 
 
 7J 
 
 359, 36-' 
 
 105 
 
 • 94 
 74, 80 
 . So 
 
 lOI, 
 
 435, 
 
 Canadian ( Ka-na'-de-anJ, 
 
 Canahzo (Ka-nal'-e-zo), 
 
 Canby iKan'-be), . 
 
 Candahar (Kan-da-har') 
 
 Cane River, . . 
 
 Cannae (Kan-ne'), 
 
 Cannes (Kan), . 
 
 Canning I Kan'-ning), 
 
 Canrobei t (Kan'-rob-ert), 
 
 Canterbury (Kan'-ter-ber-re), 120,174, 179, 310, 
 
 234 
 Canton (Kan-ton'), 
 Canute (Ka-nute'), . 
 Cape Cod, . . . 
 
 Cape Fear River, 
 Capet (Kah-pa'), . 
 Capet, Hugh (Hu), . 
 Capitol (Cap'-e-tol I, 
 Capitoline Hill (Ka-pit'-o-line), 
 Capitolinus (Kap-it-o-li'-nusl, 
 Capo d' Istria (Ka'-po Dees'-tre-a), 
 Cappadocia ( Kap-pa-do'-she-a), 
 Capreae (Ka-pre'-e), . 
 Capua (Kap'-u-a), 
 Capuan, 
 
 Carabobo (Kar-a-bo'-bo), 
 Caracalla ( Kar-a-kal'-laJ, 
 Caraccas (Ka-rak'-kas), . 
 Carartacus ( Ka-rak'-ta-kus), 
 Carbonari ( Kar-bo-na'-re), 
 Carinthia (Ka-rinth'-e-a), 
 Corasmin (Ko-ras'-minj, . 
 Corasmins, . . 
 
 Carinus (Ka-ri'-nus), . 
 
 Carlisle (Karl'-ile), . 
 
 Carlist (Karl'-ist), 368, 400, 422, 424, 427, 428, 
 
 429, 430 
 Carlists, . 366, 367, 400, 422, 427, 428, 429, 430 
 Carloman (Kar'-lo-man), . . 126, 127 
 
 Carlos, Don (Don Kar'-los), 215, 280, 367, 368, 
 421, 422, 427, 43a 
 Carlovingian (Kar-lo-vin'-je-an), 126, 129, 146, 
 
 159 
 Carlovingians, 
 Carlsruhe (Karls'-ru), 
 Carlstadt (Karl'-stot), 
 Carmania (Kar-man'-e-a), 
 Carnifax Ferry (Kar'-ne-fax Fer'-re 
 Carniola (Kar-ne-o'-la), . 
 Carnot (Kar'-no), , . 
 
 Carolina (Kar-o-li'-na), . 
 Carolinas, 
 
 Caroline ( Kar'-o-line), 
 Carolinians (Kar-o-li'-ne-ans), 
 Carpenter's Hall, 
 Carrera (Kar-ra'-ra), . 
 Carreras, . . . 
 
 Carrier (Kar-re-a') 
 
 Cartagena (Kar-ta-je'-na), . 424, 425, 426, 428 
 Cartagenian (Kar-ta-ge'-ne-an),. . 42S 
 
 Carteret Sir George (Kar'-tcr-et;, . . 26* 
 
 f5, *6i 
 
 437 
 102 
 436 
 95 
 356 
 226 
 I go 
 
 139 
 105 
 177 
 
 120 
 
 377 
 200 
 
 ss 
 
 5'J7 
 166 
 327 
 264 
 264 
 335 
 5C4 
 459 
 4 39 
 439 
 3? 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 39 
 
 Carteret Philip (Fil'-ip) . . .266 
 
 Carthage (Kar'-thage; 27, 62, 63, 66, 77, 7S, 80, 
 81, 82, 83, 123 
 Carthagena (Kar'tha-je-nal, . 78, 280, 436, 437 
 Carthaginian (Kur-tha-jin'-e-an), 76, 77, 78, 79, 
 
 81,82, 83 
 Carthaginians, 62, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 
 Carti isiars (^Kar-thu'-slie-ans), . . T33 
 
 Carti<r, James (Kar-te-a'j, . . 195 
 
 Carus (Ka'-rus), .... 105 
 
 Carv-er, John (Kar'-ver), . . 257 
 
 C'jshmete ; K..ish'-meer), . . . 371 
 
 ^siniir ,'Kas'-e-mer), . , . 187 
 
 fasimir tlie Great, .... 187 
 Casino, Mount (Kas-e'-no) . . 133 
 
 Caspian Sea (Ka^'-peanj, . . . 33, 34 
 
 Cassander (Kas-san'-der) . . 60 
 
 Cassandra (Kas-san'-draj . . . 358 
 
 Cassano ( Kas-sah'-noj, . . . 329 
 
 Cassavo i Kas-sa'-vo) . . . 191 
 
 Cassel (Kas'-sel), .... 405 
 
 Cassius ( Kash'-e-us) . . . 89,91,92 
 
 Castanos (Kas'-ta-npce') . . .339)340 
 
 l^astelar (K.as-te-!ar') 421, 422, 423, 425, 426,427 
 Castiglione ( Kas-teel-yo'-na) . . . 418 
 
 Castile (Kas'-teel), 125, 158, 159, 165, 194, 269 
 Castilian (Kas-teel'-yan) . . 158 
 
 Castillo de las Galerus (Kas-tcel'-yo-da-las 
 
 Gal-a'-rus) . . , . . 42^ 
 
 Castor (Kas'-tcr), ... 38 
 
 Catalonia (Kat-a-lo'-ne-a), 158,422, 422,427,430 
 Catana (Ka-tan'-a) . . . .65 
 
 Catania (Ka-tan'-ea) . . . 378 
 
 Catharine I. (Kath'-a-rin), . . . 278 
 
 Catharine II., 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 308, 472 
 Catharine de Medicis (Aled'-e-chej . 318, 319 
 Catharine Howard (Hovv'-ard), . . 210 
 
 Catharine Parr, ... 1 210 
 
 Catharine of A ragon (Ar'-a-gon), . 209,210 
 Catharine of Braganza (Bra-gan'-za), . 244 
 
 Cathelineau (Kath'e-lin-o'), . 322 
 
 Catholic (Kath'-o-lik), . . . 206 
 
 Catholicism (Ka-thol'-e-sism) . . 
 
 Catholics, .... 
 
 Catiline, Sergius (Ser'-je-us Kat'-e-line) . 88 
 ( atinat (Kah'-te-nah) . . .255,260 
 
 Cato the Elder (Ka'-to) . . .82 
 
 Cato the Younger, . . .90 
 
 Catulus (Ka-tul'-us) ... 85, 86 
 
 Caucasus (Kau'-kas-us) . . .188 
 
 Caudine Forks (Kaw-dine), . . 74, 75 
 
 Cavaignac (Kav'-en-yak), . 37'i 372, 373i 374 
 Cavaliers (Kav-a-leers'), . . 236 
 
 Cavour ( Kav'-oor), .... 393 
 Cawnpore ( Kawn'-pore) . . 390, 391 
 
 Cayenne (Ki'-enj, .... 3^^ 
 Cecil(Sis'-il), . . .224 
 
 Cecrops (Se'-krops), . . . .37 
 
 Cedar Creek (Se'-der), . . . 52° 
 
 Cedar INIountain, . . . S^' 
 
 Centreville (Sen'-ter-vil). . . 506 
 
 Ceraunus, Ptolemy (Tol -e-me be-raw'-nus), 61 
 Ceres (Se'-rees), . . . .3^ 
 
 Cerisoles (Se-ris'-o-lees), . . 205 
 
 Cerro Gordo (Seer'-o Gor'-do), . 447, 499 
 
 Cevalles (Se-vals'), . • .451 
 
 Cevennes (Sa-ven'), .... 269 
 Ceylon (Se-lon') . . . .193 
 
 Chacabaco (Cha-ka-ba'-ko), . . .439 
 
 Chaerenea i Ker-o-ne'-a), . . 53 
 
 Chaldca (Kal-de'-a), .' . . 23.99 
 
 ./haldean, .... 27 
 
 O; ildeans, . . . . .24 
 
 Chalgrave Field (Shal'-gravel. . . 237 
 
 Chalier iShal-e-a') . . . .322 
 
 Chalons (Sha-loang'), . . . 112 
 
 Chalons-svir-Marne (-soor-Marn), 402, 403, 404 
 Chambersburg (Cham'-bers-burg), . 5>9 
 
 Chambly (Sham' ble), . . .462 
 
 Champagne (Sham-pane), 146, 147, 148, 349 
 
 Champ de Mars (Shong 3er Mat), 
 Champion Hill (Cham'-\ e-on), 
 Championnet (Sham-pe-o'-na), . , 
 
 Champaubert (Shong-po'-ber), . 
 
 Champlain, Lake (Sham-plain ), 
 Champlain, Samuel, 300, 304, 460, 4(2, 
 
 Champs Elysees (Shong-E-Iees'-e) 412, 
 
 Chancellors ville (Chan'-cel-lors-vil),. 
 
 Chandler (Chand'-ler) 
 
 Changarnier (Shan-gar'-ne-a), 
 
 ChantiUy (^Chan'-til-le), . 
 
 Chanzy (Snon'-ze),- . 
 
 Chaos (Ka'-os), . . . . 
 
 Chapultepec (Cha-pool'-te-pek) 
 
 Charette (Shar-et'), 
 
 Charlemagne (Shar'-le-mane), 119, 126, 
 
 Charleroi (Shar-ler-waw'), 
 Charles, 126, 129, 145, 146, 150, 151, 
 157, 158, 159, 165, 168, J71, 
 Charles Felix (Fe'-lix), 
 Charles Martel (Mar-tel'), 
 Charles the Courteous, . . 
 
 Charles the Fair, . . , 
 
 Charles the Fat, . , 
 
 Charles the Simple, . . 
 
 Charles the Wise, 
 
 Charles the Victorious, . 155, 156 
 
 Charles 1., of England, 234, 235, 236, 
 
 Charles II., of England, . 243, 244, 
 Charles II., of Spain, 
 Charles III., of Spain, . 
 Charles IV., of Germany, 
 Charles IV., of Spain, 
 Charles V., of Germany, 171, 200, 201, 
 204, 205. 2q6, 207 
 Charles VI., of France, 
 Charles VI., of Germany, . 
 
 Charles VII., of Germany, . . 
 
 Charles IX., of France, . 
 Charles IX., of Sweden, 
 Charles X., of France, . 
 Charles X., of Sweden, 
 Charles XI., of Sweden, . 
 Charles XII., ofSweden,273, 274, 275, 
 
 Charles XIII , of Sweden, . 
 Charleston (Charles'-ton), 265, 463, 469 
 474, 475, 494. 504, 508, 515, 
 Charlestown (Charles'-town), . 
 Charlotte (Shar'-lot) . . 461, 
 
 Charlotte Ccrday (Kor'-da) . 
 Charlottesville (Shar'-lots-vil) . 
 Charolois (Shar-o-lwaw'). 
 Chartres (Shar'-ter), 
 Chasse, .... 
 
 Chasse (Shas-sa'), 
 
 Chasu du Marne (Shas'-su du Maru), 
 Chateau (Shah-to'), 
 Chateau Cambresis ( Kong-bra-zee'), 
 Chateau d' Eau (Shat'-o-do'), 
 Chateau Thierry (Ta-er'-re), . 
 Chateaux (Shah-to'), 
 Chatillon (Shah-teel-yoang'), 
 Chattanooga (Chat-ta-noo'-ga), 
 Chaudiere (Sho-de-air';, . 
 Chaumette (Shomet'l, 
 Chauncey (Chaun'-se), 
 Cheatham (Cheet'-ham) 
 Chenah (Che-nah';, 
 Cheops (Ke'-ops), 
 Cherbourg (Sher'-burg), 
 Cherokee (Cher-o-kee'), 
 Cherry Valley, 
 Cherub (Cher'-ub), . 
 Chesapeake (Ches-a-peek'), • 405 
 Chester (Ches'-ter\ . 238,266 
 
 3' 5. 42a 
 
 • 5M 
 . 327 
 
 • 349 
 
 • 300 
 466. 48^ 
 4S8, 48e 
 
 , 416, 41& 
 
 . 514 
 
 4S7 
 
 . 374 
 
 511 
 
 . 4J3 
 
 36 
 
 447, 500 
 
 322 
 
 , 127, 128 
 
 129 
 
 351 
 
 154, 155, 
 
 200, 201 
 
 • 357 
 , 124, 126 
 
 157. 158 
 
 . 151,152 
 
 120, 159 
 
 146 
 
 • 154 
 
 , 181, 182 
 237. 238, 
 239, 240 
 245, 246 
 . 26S 
 , 291 
 
 . 16S 
 
 339 
 202, 203, 
 , 208, 2og 
 
 154.155 
 . 272,282 
 
 283,284 
 , 219, 220 
 
 354. 360, 361, 363 
 
 276, 277, 
 278 
 . 341 
 , 47°! 471 
 . 520, 521 
 258, 461 
 471, 528 
 
 . I5e 
 221 
 
 . 522 
 363 
 
 • 419 
 405 
 
 206, 218 
 
 • 371 
 349 
 
 • 314 
 349) 416 
 515, 516 
 
 462 
 
 • 323 
 486, 487 
 
 t^nester Holies -LCI r, . - j-i 
 
 Chevaux-de-frise (She-vo-de-fnse ), 
 
 369 
 
 26 
 
 ■ A ''^ 
 3°o, 494 
 
 469 
 
 . 49= 
 
 , 483, 488 
 
 , J67, 466 
 
 46$ 
 
40 
 
 A L PIIA BE TICAL INDEX. 
 
 Chicka.nauga (Chiclv-a-maw'-ga), . 515, 516 
 Chickasav s (Chick'-a-saws), . , 301 
 
 <.hi-hoang-ti I She-wong'-ti), . 22,23 
 
 Clii)uiahau (She-wah'-wah), . 449,499 
 
 Chilcleric (Shil'-der-ik), . . 126 
 
 Chili (Chil'-lej, . . . 400, 439, 441 
 
 ("hilian (Cliil'-e-an), .... 439 
 Chilians, ..... 439 
 
 CliiUianwallah (Chil-yan-wal'-lah), . . 369 
 
 Chilpanzinco (Chil-paii-zin'-go), . 434 
 
 China (Chi'-na), 22, 23, 119, 190, 368, 369, 389 
 Chinese (Chi'-nese), . 22, 368, 369, 389 
 
 Chip[iewa (Chip'-pe-waw), . . .488 
 
 Chisstjlhurst (Chis'-sel-hurst), . . 412 
 
 Chivalry (Shiv'-al-re), . . 131, 132 
 
 Chlopiki (K-lo-pe'-ke), . . 364, 365 
 
 Chlonis, Constantius (Con-stan'-shus Klo'- 
 
 riis), ..... 106 
 
 Christian I. (Krist'-j'an), . . 186 
 
 Cliristian II., .... 186, 213 
 Christian III.,. . . . 213 
 
 Christian IV., . . , 227, 228 
 
 Christian VIII., .... 396 
 
 Christiana I Krist-e-an'-a), . . . 264 
 
 Christina ( Kris-ti'-na), . . . 232 
 
 Christinas (Kris'-ti-noes), . . . 368 
 
 Christopher Columbus (Kris'-to-fer Ko- 
 
 lum'-busl, .... 194, I 
 Chowan iSho-won'), . . . . : 
 
 Churchill 'Church'-ilD, . . .2 
 
 Chiirubusco iChoo-roo-boos'-ko), . 447, 5 
 Cialdini iSi-al-din'-iJ, . . . - 
 
 Cicero 'Sis'-e-ro), . . . 88,' 
 
 CiliLia (Sil-ish'-e-a), . . 55, 87, 88, 
 
 Cilician, ..... 
 
 Cilicians, ..... 
 Cimbrians (Sim'-bre-ans), . . 85, 
 
 Cirnon ;Si'-mon), , . 45, 47, 
 
 Cincinnati (Sin-sin-at'-e), 
 Cincinnatus (Sin-sin-at'-us), 
 Cineas (Sin'-e-as), 
 Cinq Mars (Sang Mars), 
 Cintra (Sin'-tra), 
 Circassia (Ser-kash'-ya), 
 Circassian, 
 Cas.dpine Gaul Sis-al'-pine Gawl), 65, 72,78, 
 
 3^7. 
 
 329 
 
 . 4>9 
 
 '33 
 
 466, 467 
 
 •37 
 410, 417 
 
 183, -izf 
 
 (.iis.dpine Republic, 
 Cissey (Sis'-see 1, . . 
 
 Cistercians (Sis-ter'-shans\ . 
 Clair, St., Arthur Saint Kiare), 
 Cl.irvaux t Ivlair-vo'), 
 Clamart ' Kla-mar'), . 
 
 (."iarence (Klar'-encel, 
 
 Clari'iidon ' l<.l,.r'-en-don), 174, 244, 264, 524 
 
 Clarke, George Rogers (Klark), . 470 
 
 Clarke, Fort ..... 507 
 Claudius Klau'-de-iis), ... 95 
 
 Claudius, Appius ■ Ap'-pe-us), . 7' 172 
 
 Claudius Marcellus f Mar-sel'-lus), . 78 
 
 Claudius Nero (Ne'-ro), . . .80 
 
 Claverhouse Graham of (Klav'-er-house), 248 
 ("lay. Green 1 Kla), 
 *.;iay. Henry, . 
 
 (^layhornc ' Klay'-bornl, 
 Claypole, Mrs ( Kla'-pole), 
 (llem-rnt (Klom'-cnt), 
 
 (,'lecimbrotus (Kle-om'-bro-tus), . . 52 
 
 Cleomones i Kle-oin'-i"-nee3), 
 '".leopatra (Kle-o-pa'-tra), 
 •■ ;i«;rni<iit ( Kler-rnonl'), . 
 ?'iiry I Klcr'-ej, 
 ."level:ind (Kleev'-land), 
 {..'Icves ( Kleevs) 
 Clichy (Klish'-e), 
 Clifford iKhl'-ford), . 
 C'linchait ( Klang-sharM, . 
 Clinton, De Witt (De Witt' Khn'-ton), 
 C'llnlon, George, 
 
 62 
 
 90, 92, 93 
 
 '35 
 
 • 373 
 472 
 
 210, 226 
 . 414, 419 
 
 • 245 
 419 
 49 3 
 
 . 2. 4'<i3 
 
 Clintcii, Henry, 461, 463, 464,467, 468 469,470, 
 
 47', 472, 473. 474 
 
 Clissons, Oliver (Klees-song'), . . 15^ 
 
 Clitus iKIi-tus), ... 54, 55, 59 
 
 Clive (Klive', .... 291 
 
 Clodius Albiruis (Klo'-de-us Al-bi'-nus), 107 
 
 Clootz I Kloots), .... 323 
 
 Clos St. l^azare (KIos Sang La-zhar') . 373 
 
 Clostergrab (Klos'-ter-grab;, . . 226 
 
 Closterseven (Klos'-ter-sev-en), . . 288 
 
 Clotilda (Klo-til'-da), . . . .392 
 
 Clond, St. (Sang Kloo'), . . 331, 393 
 
 Clovis { Klo'-vis), . . , 125, 120 
 
 Cluseret ( Kloo-ser-a'), . . . xih 
 
 Chisian I Kloo'-se-an) • . . .65, .'l 
 
 Clusians, . . . . . 71 
 
 Clusium (Kloo'-se-um), . . . 69 72 
 
 Clyde (Kljde), . . . . idi 
 
 Clypea ( Kly-pe'-a), ... 77 
 
 Cnaeus Pompey (Ne'-us Pom'-pe), 87, 88, 8y, 30 
 Cneius Pompey (Ne'-us), , . 90 
 
 Cobb, Howell ' How'-el Kob), . . 505 
 
 Cobham iKob'-ham), . . . 181 
 
 Coblentz iKob'-lentz), . , 348, 402 
 
 Coburg, Prince of ( K.o'-burg), . . 320 
 
 Cochabamba (Ko-chn-bam'-ba) , . 459 
 
 Cochin China 1 Ko'-chin Chi'-na), . 394 
 
 Cochrane (Kok'-rane), . . 439, 489 
 
 Cockburn (Ko'-burn'i, . . . 488 
 
 Codes, Horatius (Ho-ra'-she-us Ko'-klees), 69 
 Cod, Cape, .... 257 
 
 Coddington, William (Kod'-ding-ton\ . 263 
 Codomanus, Darius (Da-ri-us Kod-o-man'- 
 
 us), . . ^. 54. 55, 56, 57 
 
 Codrington, Sir Edward (Kod'-ring-ton), . 359 
 Codrus Ko'-driis), . . . 39, 43 
 
 Cohoes Falls ( Ko-hosel, . . 467 
 
 Cola di Rienzi iKo-la de Re-ain'-ze), . 142 
 
 Colbert ;Koal'-bair), . . 250, 253 
 
 Colchis (Kol'-kis), . . . .38 
 
 Cold Harbor, . . . .518 
 
 Colfa.ic, Schuyler (Ski'-ler Kol'-fax), 523, 524 
 Coligni (Ko-leen' ye\ . . 218, 219 
 
 Coliseum ^Kol-e-se'-um), ... 97 
 
 Collatmus (Kol-lat'-in-us), . . 68, 69 
 
 Colleton ( Kul'-ton), .... 265 
 Collier, Sir George, (Kol'-yer), . . 469 
 
 (JoUingwood ( Kol'-ling-wood), . • 336 
 
 Collot (1' Herbois (Ko-lo-der-bwaw'), 
 Cologne (K.j-lone'>, . , . . 207 
 
 Colombia (K.o-lom'-be-a), 435, 436, 437, 438,440 
 Colonna ( Ko-lon'-na ), . . . 142 
 
 Columbia (Ko-lura'-be-a\ . . . 521 
 
 Columbus,Christopher( Kris'-to-fer Ko-lum'- 
 
 bus), . . . 193, 194, 19s 
 
 Comniodus (Kom'-mo-dus>, . 100,101 
 
 Commune (Kom'-mune), 314, 415, 416, 417, 418, 
 
 419 
 Communism (Kom -mu-nism), . . 327 
 
 Communist (Kom'-mu-nist), 372, 373, 415, 418, 
 
 419, 420 
 Communists, 373,414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420 
 Como (Ko'-moi, .... 392 
 
 Comonfort ( Koni-on-f'ort), . . 447, 448 
 
 C^ompeigne ' Kom-peen'-ye), . . . 155 
 
 Concord (KiMig'-kord) . . . 46:1, 528 
 
 Concordat , Kon-kor'-dah), . . 162,334 
 
 Conde' ( Kon'-da) , 218,219,250,251,314 
 Condorcet (Kong dor-sa') . . • 3'7 
 
 Confucius 1 Kon-lu'-shus), . . 22, 2;. 
 
 Connecticut (Kon-net'-e-kut, 258, 262, 268, 460, 
 464, 465, 469, 47:), 474, 4S9, 490 
 Conner ^Kon'-ner J, .... 499 
 Conon (Ko'-non), ... 51 
 
 Conrad I. (Kon'-rad), . . 159, 160 
 
 Conrad II., . . . . 160, i6j 
 
 Conrad 111., . . 137, 14H, 1O2, 163 
 
 Conrad IV., . . . , 165 
 
 Conradine I Kon-ra-dine'), . . . 165 
 
 Constance (Kon'-stans), . . 147, 63,163 
 
 Constans, (Kon'-stans) . . . loS 
 
 Constantine the Great (Kon'-stan-line), 1 06, 107, 
 
 loS 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 41 
 
 OonsUntine Paleologus (Pa-le-ol'-o-gus, , 191 
 Constantinople (Kon-stan'-te-no'-pel; , 107 
 
 Constaniius ( Kon-stan'-shus), . . 108 
 
 Constanlius Chlorus (Klo'-nis), . 106 
 
 Constellation, ..... 480 
 Constitution, .... 485, 490 
 
 ContrerasiKon-tra'-ras), 422, 424, 425,428, 447, 
 
 500 
 Conway (Kon'-way), . . , 468 
 
 Coomassie ( Koo-mas'-see), . . . 432 
 
 Cr-oper, Ashley (Ash'-le Koop'-er), . 264,263 
 Ccote, Sir Eyre (Aire Koot), . . 299 
 
 Cop^, Sir John (Kope), , . . 285 
 
 Copenhagen ( Ko-pen-ha'-gen), 274, 333:338 
 
 Copps' Hill (Kops Hill) . . . 461 
 
 Copts iKoptS),. . , . 106, C22 
 
 Corasinin (Ko-ras'-min) . . . 190 
 
 Corasmms, ..... 139 
 Corbett, Boston (I?os'-ton Kor'-bet), . 522 
 
 Corbulo (Kor-boo'.|o), . . .96 
 
 Corcyra ( Kor-si'-ra), . • . 49 
 
 Corday, Charlotte ;Shar'-Iot Kor'-da'i . 321 
 
 Cordova, (Kor'-do-vaJ, . . 124,125,214 
 
 Cordova, Gonsalvo de (Gon-.sal'-vo da) . 157 
 Corea (Ko'-re-a), .... 524 
 
 Corean, . , ... 524 
 
 Coreans, ..... 524 
 Corinth (Kor'-inth), 37, 38, 44, 48, 49, 54, 62, 
 63, 82, 510, 512 
 Corinthian (Kor-inth'-e-an), . 46, 49, 52 
 
 Corintnians, .... 49 
 
 Curiolanas ' Ko-re-o-la'-niis), , . 71 
 
 Cornelia (Kor-neel'-ya), ... 84 
 
 Cornelian Law, . . . -87 
 
 Cornelius De Witt CKor-neel'-yus De Wit), 251 
 Cornelius Scipio (Sip'-e-o I, . 80,81, 82 
 
 Cornelius Sylla (Sil'-la), ' . .85, 86, 87 
 
 Cornwall ( Korn'-wall), . . 27, 120, 237 
 
 Cornwallis (Korn-wal'-lis), . 299, 308, 464, 465, 
 
 47I1 47^1 473i 474 475 
 Coro (Ko'-ro), .... 437 
 
 Coronaea (Kor-o-ne'-a), ... 52 
 
 Corps Legislatif ( tCore Lej-is-la'-tif), 386, 392, 
 
 402, 405 
 Corpus Christ! (Kor'-pus Kris'-te), . 497 
 Corsica (Kor'-se-ka), . . .77, 297 
 
 Corsican, .... 3^2, 325 
 
 Corsicans, ..... 297 
 
 Cortes (Kor'-tes), . 355, 356, 36S, 400, 401, 421 
 422, 423. 424 425, 426, 427 
 C^ortez, Fernando (Fer-nan'-do Kor'-tez), . 214 
 Cortina (Kor-tin'-a), . ; . 449 
 
 Corunna ( Ko-run'-na), . . . 340 
 
 Corvinus, Matthias (Ma-thi'-us Kor-vin'-us), 790 
 Cosby (K.os'-by), .... 261 
 Cosmo de Medici CKoz'-mo de Med'-e-che), 145 
 CossacUs (Kos'-saks), . 275,276,345, 346 
 
 Cossacks, Don, . . . . 29J 
 
 Coup d' Etat(Koo-der-tah'), • 384,385 
 
 Coup de Main ( Koo-der-mang'),. . 366 
 
 Courbevoie (Koor-be-voi'), . . •415 
 
 Courland (Koor'-landi, . . . 186 
 
 Cour-pleniere ( Koor-pla-ne-aire') . . 312 
 
 Couthon (Koo-tong') . 317,321,323,324 
 
 Covenant, .... 235, 237 
 
 Covenanters, ..... 210 
 Cow'pens (Kow'-pens), . . . 473 
 
 C'ar-/~w ^Kra'-ko), . iSr 190, 274, 294, 296 
 C/anmer, Thomas (Tor/; -as kran'-mer), 210, 
 
 211, 212 
 Crnisus (Kras'-sus), • . 87, 83, 89 
 
 Craonne (Krah-yon'), . . • 349 
 
 (Jrateriii ( Kra-te'-rus), ... 60 
 
 Craven (Kra'-ven), .... 266 
 Crecy (Kres'-se), . 152, 156, 178, 1S4 
 
 Creek (Kreek), . . 267, 487, 494 
 
 Creeki 487 
 
 Crf;feld (Kra'-feld), . . . .289 
 
 Cremieux (Kre-moo ;, . . . 406 
 
 Ocoles CKre-olp.s), .... 434 
 
 Crepy fCrep'-e), . . 205 
 
 Crete (Kreet), . . , 40,42,43 
 
 Cretan, (Kre -tan), ... 40 
 
 Crimea i,Kri-ine'-a), . . 294, 295, 387, 388 
 
 Crimean, .... 3S6, 3S7, 388 
 
 Crispus ! Kris'-pus) . . . .107 
 
 Crittenden, John J., (Krit'-ten-den), . 50; 
 Crittenden, George 13., - . , 508 
 
 Croatia I Kro-a'-she-a), . . .3^1 
 
 Croatian, .... 38::, 382 
 
 Croats (Kro'-ats), . . 283, 380, 382, 383 
 
 Cr jesus I Kre'-sus),. . • • 33 
 
 Croghan (Kro'-han), .... 486 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver (Ol'-iv-er Krom'-wcll), 235 
 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 24'. 243, 244, 243 
 Cromwell, Rich.ird (Rich'-ard), , . 243 
 
 Cromwell, Thomas (Tom'-as), . . 210 
 
 Cronstadt (Kroan-stot), . . , 275 
 
 Cross Keys, .... 510 
 
 Crown Point, . . 290, 304, 305, 460 
 
 Crozat, Anthony (An'-tho-ne Kro-zah'), . 300 
 Cruger (Kru'-ger), .... 471 
 
 Crusade (Kru'-sade), 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 
 139, 140, 141 
 Crusader (Kru'-sa-der), . 135, 136, 137, 139 
 
 Crusaders, . . 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 
 
 Crusades, . . . 134, 140, 141 
 
 Ctesiphon (Tes'-e-fon) . . 89, 99, loi 
 
 Cuba (Ku'-ba), . . . 292, 400, 421 
 
 Cuban, ...... 421 
 
 Cucuta (Koo-koo'-tah), . . . 437 
 
 Cuenca (Koo-ain'-kah), . . , 429 
 
 Cuddalore (Kud-da-lore'), . . 299 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo (Kwe-00-dad Ro-dre'-go), 342 
 Cuirassiers ( K.wir-as-seers'), . .351,404 
 
 Culloden Moor (ICul-lo'-den), . .285 
 
 Culm (Kulm), .... 347 
 
 Culpeper I Kul'-pep-er), . . • 511 
 
 Cumijerland, Dukeof (Kum'-ber-Iand), 285, 288 
 Cundinamarca (Koon-de-nah-mar'-kah), . 437 
 Cunaxa (Ku-nax-ah'), ... 51 
 
 Curatii (Ku-re-a'-shea-a) . . 67,68 
 
 CuriusDentatus Ku'-re-us Den-ta'-tus), . 76 
 Curtis, Samuel R. (Kur'-tis), . . 508 
 
 Custine (Kus-teen'), . . . 3191323 
 
 Custozza iKoo-stot'-sa) . , . 379, 398 
 
 Cyane (Si-an') .... 490 
 
 Cynocephalse (Sin-o-sef a lee) 62, 63, 81 
 
 Cyphus (Si'-prus), . . 40. 47, 52. 56 
 
 Cyrenaica (Si-re-na-i'-ca) . . 34 
 
 Cyrene (Si-re'-ne), . . . .40 
 
 Cyrus (Si'-rus), . . 25, 27, 33, 34, 51 
 
 Cysicus (Sis'-e-kus), . . . • y 
 
 Czar (Zar), 188, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277,292, 357, 
 364, 368, 382, 386, 387, 396 
 Czartoriski (Zar-to-ris'-ke), . . 364, 365 
 
 Cza3lau(Tsas'-lou) . . . 283 
 
 Dacia (Da' she-a), . . . -99 
 
 Dacian, ..... 99 
 
 Dacians, . . . . "99 
 
 Dade, ..... 495 
 
 Dakota CDa-ko'-ta) . . . 515, 53' 
 
 Dalecarlia (Dal-e-kar'-le-a) . . 213 
 
 Dalhousie (Dal-hou'-se), . . .389 
 
 Dallas (Dal'-las), . . .518 
 
 Dallas, George Mifflin (Mif-flin), . .49? 
 
 Dalmatia (Dal-ma'-she-a), . 106,138,327 
 
 Dalmatius (Dal-ma'-she-us), . . >o8 
 
 Dalrymple (Dal-rim'-ple), . . 3tc 
 
 Dalton (Dawl'-ton), . . . . 5"S 
 
 Damascus (Da-mas'-kus), 31, 55,122,123, coi 
 Damietta (Dam-e-et'-ta), . . 14'^, 15° 
 
 Dan 473 
 
 Danaus (Da-n.V-us), . . -37 
 
 Dandola (Dan'-do-lo), , . .138 
 
 Danes, . 130, 171, 172, 185, 333, 375, 378, 39^ 
 I tnish (Dain-ish). 171, i/?. '86, 213, 227, 274, 
 278. 333, 338, 378, 396 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Dinton (Dan'-ton), . 317. 3'8, 321, 3^3 
 
 Dal■ltolu^ts, ..... 323 
 Dantzic (Dant'-sik), . . 296, 337, 338 
 
 Danube (Dan'-ube), 94,99, 109, 179, 189,253, 
 280, 295, 298, 387 
 D'AnviUe (Daii'-vil), . . . 302 
 
 Darboy ( Dar'-boy), . . .419 
 
 Dardanelles (Dar-da-nelz'), . jS, 40, 191,386 
 Daricn (Da'-re-en), . . . 194, 440 
 
 Darius (Da-ri'-us), . - . -35 
 
 Daiius Codomannus (Ko-ao-man'-nus^ 54, ^5, 
 56, 57, 122 
 I)arius Hystaspes(His-tas'-pees), 34, 35, 45, 46 
 Das ius Noll.iis (N'J -thus), . . 51 
 
 Darling, Fort (Dar'-ling), . . 518 
 
 Darnley, Lord (Darn'-le) . . .222 
 
 Daru (Dar-oo')) .... 385 
 
 Datis iDa'-tis), . . . .45 
 
 Da,in(Doun), . . 288,289,291,292 
 
 Dauphin (Daw'finj, 152, 153, 155, 156,181,212, 
 
 222, 362 
 Dauphiny (Daw'-fin-ne), . . 152,156 
 
 D'Aurelles de Paladines (Do-rels'-der Pa- 
 
 lah'-dong), .... 408 
 
 David (Da'-vid), . . .30, 31 
 
 Davis, Jefferson, (Jef-fer-son Da'-vis), 504,505, 
 
 522 
 Davison (Da'-ve-son), . . . 224 
 
 Davoust iDah-voo'), . . . 337 
 
 Dearborn, Henry (Deer'-born), 4S4, 4S4. 486,487 
 Deatonsville (Dee'-tons-vilj, . . 521 
 
 Debonnaire, Louis the (Deb-on-yare') . 129 
 
 Deborah (Deb'orrah) . . .29 
 
 Debreczin (De-bret'-sin), . 381, 382, 383 
 
 Decatur, Stephen (Ste'-fen De-ka'-ter), 4S1, 4S2, 
 485, 490, 491 
 Decazes (Da'-ka'-za), . . . 431 
 
 Deccan (Dek'-kan), ... 23 
 
 Decemvir (De-sem'-ver), . . .7' 
 
 Decemvirs, . . . . 71, 72 
 
 Decius (De'-she-us), . .74,103,104 
 
 Decoutrias (De-koo'-tre-ah), . . 371 
 
 Deerfield (Deer'-field) . , .301 
 
 De Grasse (De Gras') . , .309,474 
 
 De Heister I De Hise'-Ler), . . .464 
 
 Deitzman (Ditze'-man), . . . 166 
 
 Dejoces (Dej'-o-cees), . . .33 
 
 De Kalb (Da- Kalb'), . . .465.471 
 
 Delaunay (De-lo'-naj . . . 314 
 
 Delaware (Del'-a-wer), 264, 266, ^67, 465, 466, 
 
 468 
 Delescluse (De-les'-klu-sa), . . 420 
 
 Delft, . . . . . .217 
 
 Delhi : Del'-le) . 215, 2S1, 300, 389, 390, 391 
 Delphi (Del'-fei, . . 36, 39, 53, 61 
 
 De Marigny (Da Ma-reen'-ye), . 151 
 
 Dembinski (Dem-blns'-ke) 365, 381, 382, 383 
 Demetrius Bulgaris (De-me'-tre-us I3ool- 
 
 gar'-is), . . . . .395 
 
 Demetrius Phalereus (Fa-le'-re-us), 60 
 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes (Po-le or-se'-tees), . 60 
 Demosthenes (Demos'-the-nees), . 59 
 
 De Monts (Da-Mawng'), . . . 300 
 
 Denain (Da-nang') • . . 272 
 
 D'Enghein (Dan-ge-aing'), . . . 335 
 
 Denis. St. (Saint Den'-is), 219, 221, 373, 410 
 Denmark (Den'-mark), . . . 206 
 
 Dennewitz (Den'-ne-witz), . . -76 
 
 Derby iDcr'-be),. - . .367,399 
 
 DeRetz. Cardinal, (DerRets), . . 250 
 
 DerinotMacmorrough (Der'-mot Mac-mur'- 
 
 ro), ..... 174 
 
 De Russey, Fort (De Rus'-se), . .5(7 
 
 De Rtiyter (De-Ri'-ter), . . 241 
 
 Derwentwater,Earl of (Der'-went-waw-ter), 278 
 Desaix { De'-za), . . . 330,332 
 
 Deseze I De-saze'), .... 320 
 Desideriuj (Des-e-de'-re-us), . . 127 
 
 Desmoulins, Camille (Ka-meel' Da-mo- 
 iong'), . . . 313, 317, 3'8, 323 
 
 De Soto, Ferdinand (Fer'-de -nand De So' 
 
 to), ..... I9» 
 
 Dessau (Des'-sou), . . 228, 282, 28 
 
 D'Estaing (Des-tang'), . . 46S, 470 
 
 De Thou (Der-Too'), . . . 249 
 
 Detroit (De-troit'), . 300, 306, 484, 485 
 
 Dettingen (Det'-ling-en), . . 583, 284 
 
 De Witt, Cornelius (Kor-neel'-yus De Witt), 251 
 DeyvDa), . . .355,361,480 49' 
 
 Diana ( Di-a'-na"), ... 36 
 
 Diaz, Ijarthoiiimew fBar-thoI'-o-mu Di'-ai' l()3 
 Diaz, Porfirio ( i^or-fir'-e-o), . ■ 45c 
 
 Didius, Julianus (Did'-e-us Jii-le-an'-tis), . 101 
 Dido (Di'-do), .... 2; 
 
 D'lberviUe, Lemoine (Lem-won' Deb-.ire- 
 
 veel'), ..... 300 
 Diebitsch (De'-bitsh), . 346, 360, 364, 365 
 
 Dieskau (De-es'-ko), . . . 304 
 
 Dijon (De-zhong'j, . . 408, 411 
 
 Dioclea (Di-o-kle' a), . . . 106 
 
 Diocletian (Di-o-kie'-she-an), . 105, 106 
 
 Dliiwiddie I Din-wid'-de), . . . 30a 
 
 Directory ( De-rek'-to-ry), 325, 327, 331, 481 
 Dirnstein (Dirn'-stinej, . . . 336 
 
 Dismal Swamp, .... 462 
 
 Disraeli (Dis-ra'-le\ . . 399, 432 
 
 DissiUent-i (Dis'-se-dents), . 293, 294 
 
 D'lssy (Dis'-se), 407, 409, 414, 416, 417, 418 
 Dixon (Dix'-on), . . . 267 
 
 Dnieper (Neep-er), . 109, 188, 276, 294, 345 
 Dniester ( Nees'-terJ, . . . 109 
 
 Doge (Doje), . ' . . . 138, 143 
 
 Dogger Bank (Dog'-ger), . . 309 
 
 Dolores ( Do-lor'-esi, . . . 434 
 
 Dombrowski (Doni-brous'-ke), . 296, 420 
 
 Domingo. St. 1 Saint Do-min'-go), . 194, 334 
 Dominican (Do-min'-e«kan), . . 133 
 
 Dominicans, .... 133, 134 
 Dominicus (Do-min'-e-kus), . . 133 
 
 Domif.a (Do-mish'-e-a), . . .99 
 
 Domiiian (Do-mish'-e-an), . . 98,99 
 
 Dom Remy iDome Rem'-e), . 155, 181 
 
 Don Augustin Iturbide (Au-gus'-tin E-toor'- 
 
 be-da), . . . . .435 
 
 Don Carlos (Don Kar'-los), 215, 280, 367, 368, 
 421, 422, 427, 430 
 Don Cossacks (Don Kos'-sacks), . . 294 
 
 Donelson (Don'-el-son), . . . 508 
 
 Dongola (Don-go'-la), . . . 368 
 
 Doniphan I Don'-e-fan), . . . 499 
 
 Don Juan (Don Ju'-an), . . 215,217 
 
 Don Miguel (Don Me'-gel), . , 356 
 
 Don Pedro (Don Ped'-ro), . 356, 440 
 
 Donna Maria de Gloria (Don'-na Ma-ri'-a 
 
 Da Glo're-a), . . , 356 
 
 Donop ( Don'-op), . . . 466 
 
 Doppel (Dop'-pel), .... 396 
 Dorchester (Dor-ches'-ter), . 258, 463 
 
 Doria Andrea (An'-dre-a Do'-re-a), 144, 204 
 Dorians (Do'-re-ans), . 37, 38, 39^ (o, 41 
 
 Doris (Do'-ris), • • . 35, 38 
 
 Dorr, Thomas W. (Dore), . . 496 
 
 Dort, Synod of, . . . 216, 218 
 
 Dorylaeum (Dor-e-le'-um), . . 136 
 
 Dost Mohammed (Dost Mo-ham'-med), . 369 
 Douglas (Dug'-las), . . . 180 
 
 Douglas, Stephen A,, , . 502, 504 
 
 Dover (Do'-ver), .... 261, 301 
 Dowlah, Sur,ijah (Sur-aj'-ah Dowiah'), . 29J 
 Downie (Dow' ne), . . . 489 
 
 Draco (Dra'-ko), . . 42 
 
 Dragaschan (Drah-ga-shan'), , . 358 
 
 Dragonnade (Drag-on-nade'), . 253 2S< 
 
 Dresden (Dres'-denj, 284, 285, 287, 289, 291, 
 
 ^ ,^ 343, 3 »7, 377 
 
 Dreux (Drul, .... 219 
 
 Drouet (Dru-a'), .... 316 
 Drummond (Drum'-mond), , . 488 
 
 Drummond William, . . . 26* 
 
 Dry I'ortugas (Tor-tu'-gas), . , 50* 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 43 
 
 i)>i1iien'<a CDu-been-ka). • . 29, 
 
 Dublin (L)ub'-lin,> . 2oS 
 
 Di'.crol (Dii-kro'), .... 409 
 Dudley (Dud'-le) . . 212 
 
 Dii Giiesclin ( Du Gwek'-lin), . . 154 
 
 Dumblain ( Du'm'-blain 1, . . 178 
 
 Uumourier (Du-moo'-rc-a), 317, 319, 320, 321 
 I >Lna ! Du'-na), .... 274 
 
 Dunbar (Dun'-bar), , 176, 177, 240, 243 
 
 Di.ndalk ( I)nn'-da-.vk), . . . 177 
 
 Dundee ('Dun-dee'), , . . 242 
 
 Dunk.rk (Dun'-kirk), 242, 24,;, 25c, 323, 410 
 Dunmore, Lord (Dun -more), . . 462 
 
 Ouph'jt (Du— fo'), , . , 327 
 
 Oupont (Du-pont), . . 339, 508, 515 
 
 Dupont lie 1' Eure (Du-poang' Del-ure'), . 371 
 Du Quesne (Du Kane'), 236, 289, 302, 302, 303, 
 
 305 
 Durango (Du-ran'-go), . . . 427 
 
 Durazzo (Du-ral'-so), . . . 145 
 
 Durham (Dur'-ham), . . . 178 
 
 Durlach, Baden (Bad'-en Dur'-lok), . 227 
 
 Duroc (Du-rok'), .... 347 
 Dusseldorf )Dus'-sel-dorf), . 226,377 
 
 Dutch, 218,225, 241, 244, 247, 251, 259,260,260, 
 262, 264, 272, 285, 308, 309, 323, 363, 364 
 
 Early, Jubal (Ju'-bal Er'-le), . 519, 520 
 
 East Haven (Ha'-ven), . . . 417 
 
 East Indies (In'-dees), . . 287,308,309 
 
 Kastport (East'-port), . . . 489 
 
 Eaton, Theophilus (The-of-e-lus E'-ton), 263 
 Ebro (Eb'-ro), 
 
 Ecbatana (Ek-bat'-a-na), . 
 Ecija ( A-the'-hah), 
 Eckmiihl(Ek'-mool,). 
 Ecuador I Ek'-wa-dor), . ^ 
 
 Eden, Garden of (E'-den), . 
 Edenton ( E'-den-ton), 
 Edge Hill, 
 
 Edinburgh (Ed'-in-bor-o), 
 Edmund Ironside (Ed'-mund I 
 Edward (Ed'-ward), 
 Edward the Confessor, 
 Edward I., . 
 
 Edward II., 
 Edward III 
 Edward IV., 
 Edward V., 
 
 Edward VI., . _ . 
 
 Edward, the Black Prince, 152, 
 Effingham (Ef'-iing-hain) 
 Egalite, Philip ( A-gal-e-ta'), 
 Egbert (Eg'-bert), 
 Eger (Eg'-_er,) . 
 Egeria )E-je'-re-a), 
 Egmont (Eg'mon;), 
 Egypt (E'-jipt), 25, 26, 27, 28, 3- 
 90, 92,93, 106, 122, 123, 137, 13 
 , 328, 329, 3: 
 Eg5'ptian (E-jip'-she-an), 25, 2^ 
 Egyptians, 
 
 Ehud(Ude) . 
 Eisleben (Ise-lee'-ben), . 
 
 EUtea (El-a-te'-a) . . . -53 
 
 E ba (El'-ba), . . . .349, 35° 
 
 Elbe(Elb), , . [99,287,318 
 
 Elberfeld (El'-bcr-feld), . . 377 
 
 y.ing .El'-bing'), . . . .141 
 
 EKainc.-(El-a-rror') . . .140,148 
 
 Eli(E'-ii), . . . . .30 
 
 Elijah (E-li'jah) ... 32 
 
 Elio (Ei-e-o'l, ..... 43'5 
 Elis (El'-ivj), . . . 35,37,39 
 
 Elisha (E-li'-sha), . . . .32 
 
 Elizabeth (E-liz'-a-beth) . . 185 
 
 Elizabeth of England, 213, 222, 223, 224, 225, 
 
 7S, 127, 340 
 33i 35, 57, 59 
 . 426 
 
 • 340 
 ,6, 438, 440, 441 
 
 • 237 
 222, 235, 297 
 
 -ron-side) 172 
 
 . 140 
 
 . 172 
 
 . 176, 177 
 
 177 
 
 152, 152, 177, 178, 179 
 156, 183, 184 
 . 184 
 
 . 211, 212 
 
 153, 145, 178, >79 
 
 . 224 
 
 . 320, 362 
 
 . 171 
 
 .283, 292 
 
 • 67 
 
 , 46, 56, 60, 64, 
 9, 140. 150,19-, 
 
 .0, 333, 359, 363 
 
 , 28, 34, 37, 368 
 
 25, 26, 34, 56 
 
 ■ 29 
 
 . 199, 207 
 
 Elizabeth of Russia, , . 278,287,292 
 
 Elizabethtown, .... 266 
 
 Elliot (El'-e-ot), .... 309 
 
 Elster (El'-ster, . . . 161,348 
 
 Emanuel Arago (E-man'-u-el Ar'-a-go) 371, 372, 
 
 406 
 Emessa (E-mes'-sa), . . . 122 
 
 Emile Oiilvier (A-meel' Ol-le'-ve-a) . 401 
 
 Emdio Castelar (A-meel'-e-o Kas-te-Iar') 421, 
 423, 425, 426, 427 
 Emmanuel the Great, (Em-man'-u-el), 193 
 
 Emmanuel, Victor-(Vic'-tor), 357, 379, 392, 393, 
 394, 400, 413 
 Emmerick Tokeli (Em'-er-ik To-ke'-li), 252, 253 
 Emmett, Robert (Em'-met) . 
 Ems .... 
 
 Enciente fOng'-se-an'-ta), 
 Endicott, John ( En'-de-cot), 
 Enfield (En'-field), . 
 Enghein, Duke d' (Dong-ge-aing'), 
 England ' Ing'-gland), 120, 130, 13 
 147, 148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 155, i( 
 
 172, 173, 174, 175 
 English (Ing'-glish), 138, 146, 149, 152, 153, 154, 
 155, J56, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174 
 Enterprise, ..... 488 
 Enzio (Ain'-ze-o), . • . 165 
 
 Epaminondas (E-pam-e-non'-das), . 52, 53 
 
 Epervier (E-per'-ve-a), . . . 49'^ 
 
 Ephesus (Ef-e-sus), . . .36, 55, 81 
 
 Ephori (Ef'-o'-ri), ... 41 
 
 Ephraim (E'-fra-im), . . - Z^ 
 
 Epidaurus (Ep-e-daw'-rus), . . 355 
 
 p:pirus ( E-pi'-rusI, . 36, 60, 61, 75, 76, 93 
 
 ■" • " . 232 
 
 232, 235 
 . 209 
 
 . 127 
 45 
 
 
 29S 
 
 401 
 
 402 
 
 407 
 
 4IS 
 
 
 258 
 
 
 389 
 
 
 335 
 
 '37, 
 
 140, 
 
 165, 
 
 171. 
 
 302, 4S6 
 493 
 
 . 160 
 
 406 
 
 227, 228 
 
 483 
 
 . 28 
 
 441, 442 
 
 . 340 
 
 368 
 
 Episcopacy ( E-pis'-ko-pa-sy ), 
 
 Episcopal (E-pis'-ko-pal), . 
 
 Erasmus (E-raz'-musI, . 
 
 Eresburg (E'-res-burg), 
 
 Eretria (E-re'-tre-al, . . 
 
 Eric the Pious (Er'-ik), 
 
 Eric XIV., 
 
 EriefE'-re), . . • • 
 
 Erie Canal, . . • 
 
 Erie, Fort, . . . • 
 
 Erie, Lake, . . 
 
 Ernest I Er'-nest"), 
 
 Ernest Picard ( Pe-kar'), . 
 
 Ernest von Mansfeld) (Mahns'-feld), 
 
 Erskine f Ers'-kin), 
 
 Esau (E'-saw), . . . 
 
 Escoses ( Es-ko'-sees\ . 
 
 Eslingen (Es'-ling-enl, 
 
 Espartero (Es-par-ta'-ro), . 
 
 Essex (Es'-sex). . 120, 179, 224, 225, 237, 23B 
 
 Estaing, Count d', (Des-tang'), . 468,47° 
 
 Estanislao Figueras (Es-tan-is-la'-o Fig-oo- 
 
 a'-ras) 4^1,422,423 
 
 Estella(Es-tel'-la), • * •, • '^'9 
 
 Esthonia (Es-tho'-ne-a), . . '86, 274, 278 
 
 Eszeck (Es'-zek), 
 
 Ethelred (Eth-el-red'), . 
 
 Ethiopia ( E-the-o'-pe-a), 
 
 Etna (Et'-na), 
 
 Etruria I Et-ru'-re-a) 
 
 Etru.scan (Et-rus'-kan), 
 
 Etruscans, 
 
 Euboea (U'-be-a) 
 
 Eudoxia (U-dox'-e-a), . • "' 
 
 Eugene (U-jeen'), 253,268,270,27', 273. 279^, 
 
 Eugene Bca\iharnais (Bo-har'-na), . 33S? 348 
 Eugene Pelletan ( Pel-le-tong') . . 406 
 
 Eugeme de Montijo ^U-je'-ne^ d.. Mon -te- ^^^ 
 
 Eug°enius (U-je'-ne-us)*, . • "°' '2° 
 
 Eunus(U'-nus), . • • ^c,'A 
 
 Eupatoria (U-pa-to'-re-a), . 3»7, :)^o 
 
 Euphrates (U-fra'-teez), 21, 24, 27, 33. 5^ ^58, 
 
 Eure, Dupont de '1 (Du-poan£ Del-ure'), . 3T' 
 
 172 
 
 25, 34 
 
 36 
 
 65, 78, 88 
 
 68, 69, 73 
 
 65, 68, 69, 75 
 
 35 
 
44 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDE.K. 
 
 • 75, 76 
 
 
 410 
 
 
 402 
 
 
 510 
 
 
 238 
 
 
 506 
 
 
 470 
 
 457 
 
 458 
 
 ), .443, 
 
 445 
 
 
 217 
 
 
 414 
 
 Europe ^U'-rope), 22, 34, 100, 119, 124, 130, 131, 
 >33. '341 '37. 199,261), 280, 293, 323, 353 
 European (U-ro-pe'-an), . . 130,192 
 
 Eurybiacics (U-re-bi'-a-deez), . . 46 
 
 iAirymeiJun (U-re-me'-don), . . 47 
 
 Eustace St. Pierre (V'oos'-taseSang Pe-aire'), 
 
 J52,i7S 
 Eutaw Springs (U'-taw), . , . 474 
 
 Euxine Sea (Yoig-zcen'), . . 34 
 
 'ivans (E'-vans), . , . .508 
 
 Eve, . . . • . 21 
 
 Evesham (Eves'-ham), . . . 176 
 
 fiwelilU'-el), . . . .521 
 
 ExAvch (Ex'-ark), . . , .118 
 
 Exchequer ( Ex-chek'-er), . . 237 
 
 Exeter I Ex'-e-ter), . . . 238,261 
 
 Exmoiuh, Lord (^Ex'-mulh), , , 355 
 
 Eylau (I'-lou), . . . 337 
 
 Eyre (Aire;, . . . • 390 
 
 Eyre Coote (Koot), .... 299 
 Ezra (Ez'-ra), .... 33 
 
 F. 
 
 FaDiiis Maximus (Fa'-be-us Max'-e-mus), 79, 
 Fabricius (Fa-bre'-she-iis), 
 Faidherbe ( Faid-her'-be), 
 Failly (Fad'-ye), 
 Fair Oaks, 
 
 Fairfax, Lord (Fair'-fax), 
 Fairfax Court House, 
 Fairfield 'Fair'-iield), 
 Fanueil Hall (Fan'-d), 
 Farias, Gomez (Go'-meth Fa'-re-as), 
 Farnese Alexander (Far-neez'), 
 Faron (Fa-roang'), . , 
 
 Farragut, David G. (Far'-ra-gut), 509, 510, 519, 
 
 520 
 Faubourg du Temple (Fo'-boorg du Tem'- 
 
 ple 
 Faubourg St-Antoine (Fo-boorg Sang Ang- 
 
 twa'-n.i), 
 Faust (Foust), 
 Fausta (Faus'-ta\ 
 Faust-recht (Foust'-rekt), 
 Favre, Jules (Jule Fav-ra'\ 
 Fawkes, Guy (GyFawks), 
 Fayette iFa-et'), 
 FayetteviUe, 
 Fear, Cape, 
 
 Federalist (Fed'-er-al-ist), 443,478,481,485, 492 
 Federalists, . . 445, 47^), 4S0, 485, 490 
 
 Fehrbellni I Fair-be-leen'), . . 251,252 
 
 F'eodor (Fe'-o-dor), . . . 188 
 
 Ferdinand the Catholic (Fer'-de-nand), 1 = 7, 158 
 
 159, 202 
 Ferdinand De Soto (Da So'-to), . . 190 
 
 Ferdinand L of Germany, . 206, 225 
 
 Ferdinand H., . 226, 227, 228, 229, 230 
 
 Ferdinand 1 IL, .... 230 
 
 Ferdinand VI of Spain, . . . 291 
 
 Ferdinand of Austria. . . •374,376 
 
 Ferguson, Patrick (Pat-rick Fer'-gu-son), 471, 
 
 472 
 Fermoi (Fer'-mor) 
 
 Ferhando Cortes (Fer-nan'-do Cor'-tes) 
 Ferozeshah ( Fe-roze'-shah) 
 Ferrez (Fer'-reth), 
 Ferrieres (Fer-re-a'), 
 ferrol (Fer'-rolel, 
 F»rry, Harper's (Har'-per's), 
 Ferry, Jules (Jule Fer'-re), . 
 Ferry Stono (Sto'-no) . 
 Feuda'ism (F'u'-dal-ism"i, 
 Feudal System (Fu'-dal), 
 Feversham (F'c'-ver-sham), . 
 Field, Cyrus \V., 
 Fieschi ( l'e-(s'-kc), . 
 Figueras, Estanitlao, (Ec-tan 
 
 oo-a'-rasj, 
 
 373 
 
 • 373 
 192 
 
 . 107 
 
 168 
 
 , 411, 412 
 
 233 
 
 • 303 
 512 
 
 195, 264, 473 
 
 
 
 2 89 
 
 Cor'-tes 
 
 • 
 
 214 
 369 
 42S 
 407 
 421 
 
 . 503 
 
 505 
 
 ,51' 
 406 
 469 
 185 
 
 T30, 
 
 171 
 
 173 
 247 
 
 523 
 
 -is-la'-o 
 
 Fig- 
 
 370 
 
 . 421, 
 
 422 
 
 423 
 
 Fillmore, Millard (Mil'-Iard Fill'-more). 
 
 5"'. 
 Finland, (Fin'-land), ... 338, 
 Fiiilanders. . . . . . 
 
 Finns, ..... 
 
 Fisher, Fort (Fish'-er), . . 
 
 Fisher's Hill, 
 
 Fishing Creek, . . . , 
 
 Flamborough Head (Flam-bur'-o) 
 Flaminius, Quintus (Quin'-tus FJa-min'-e- 
 
 us), 6; 
 
 Flanders (Flan'-ders), 136, 138, 139, 146, 
 
 149, 150. 157, 
 Flavio Gioja (Fla'-ve-o Jo'-e-ah) 
 Flavius Claudius (Fla'-ve-us Klaw'-dt-us), 
 
 Fleetwood (Fleet'-wocd), 
 Flemings (F'lem'-ings), . . 150, 151, 
 
 Flemish (Flem'-ish), . . . 154, 
 
 Fletcher ( Fletch'-er), . 
 Fleurus (Flu'-rus), , . . . 
 
 Fleury (Flu'-re), .... 
 Flocon (Flo-koang'), . . 
 
 Flodden Field (Flod'-den) 
 Florence (Flor'-enre), 110, iii, 143, 144, 145. 
 Florentine (Flor'-en-t!ne) . , 194, 
 
 Florian (Flo'-re-an), 
 
 Florida (Flor'-e-da), 194, 264, 265, 266, 292, 
 491, 494, 49s, 497, 504, 
 Floridas, .... 306, 
 
 Florus (Flo'-rus), 
 
 Flourens, Gustave (Gus'-tav Floo-raign'), . 
 Floyd, John B., . . 505, 507, 
 
 Fontainbleau (Fon-tain-blo'), 
 Fontenaille (Fon-te-nel'), 
 Fontenoy (Fon-te-noy'), . . . 
 
 Foote, Andrew H. (Foot), 
 Forbach (For'-bok), 
 Forbes, John (Forbs), 
 
 Forty, General (Fo'-re), . . 392, 
 
 Fornova (For-no'-va), 
 Forest, Napoleon Bonaparte (For'-rest), 
 Forth, ..... 
 Fortress Monroe (Mon-ro') 504, 510, 518, 
 Fort Smith, ..... 
 Fort Wayne (Wain) 
 
 Foster (Fos'-ter), . . . . 
 
 Foster, John G., .... 
 F'ouche iFoo-sha'), . . 323,331, 
 
 F"ouquet(Foo-ka'), 
 Fouquier Tinville (Foo-ke-a' Tang-vecl'), 
 
 Fowler (Fow'-lcr), 
 
 Fox, 
 
 France (Frans), 124, 129, 146, 147 
 
 500, 
 502 
 
 341 
 126 
 266 
 521 
 52c 
 47: 
 47c: 
 
 ;. 81 
 
 ^-47, 
 252 
 
 193 
 
 1-4, 
 
 los 
 243 
 154 
 185 
 263 
 32 + 
 280 
 372 
 209 
 414 
 195 
 105 
 489, 
 
 5'7 
 492 
 
 97 
 41S 
 
 508 
 
 349 
 129 
 
 508, 509 
 
 15', 152, 153, 154, 155, 156 
 Franche Comte (Fransh Kong-ta'), 
 Francia, Dr. (Fran'-se-ah), 
 Francis L, of France (Fran'- 
 
 •sis), 158, 
 203, 204 
 Francis I., of Germany, 
 Francis IL, of France, . 
 Francis 1 1., of Germany, 
 Francis, of Austria, . 337, 
 
 Francis Joseph, . . 376 
 
 Francis of Assisi (As-se'-si), 
 Francis of Guise (Geez). . 206 
 
 Franciscan (Fran-sis'-kan) 
 Franciscans 
 
 F'rancisco Pizarro (Fran-sis'' 
 Francisco Sforza (Sfor-tsa'), 
 Francisco, San, 
 
 Franconberg (Fran'-kon-berg), , 
 Franconia (Fran-ko'-ne-a) . 
 Frank, . . 125 126, 127, 
 
 Frankfort (Frank'-fort), . 2S5, 290, 375, 
 
 Frankish (F>ank'-ish), . .126,127, 
 
 Franklin (F>ank'-lin), . . 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, . 303, 
 
 Franks, . . . 119, 124, 125 
 
 149, 
 i57,-i5S, 17S 
 217 
 440. 
 195, 
 
 449 
 '57 
 517 
 ii^'i 
 I 522 
 5'5 
 479 
 27S 
 
 5M 
 ,352 
 291 
 324, 
 420 
 160 
 298 
 150, 
 , 181 
 , 252 
 441 
 202, 
 
 2S4, 
 219, 
 298, 
 341, 
 
 212, 
 133, 
 
 ko Piz-ar'-ro* 
 
 -59, 
 12S, 
 
 2P2 
 
 3)7 
 353 
 
 '33 
 219 
 134 
 '3i 
 214 
 143 
 500 
 
 16c 
 129 
 
 376 
 
 i2i 
 
 520 
 464 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 45 
 
 Frederic I., of Prussia, . . . 282 
 
 Frederic II., of (jermany, , 139,164,165 
 
 Frederic II I ., of Denmark. . . 213 
 
 Frederic III., of Germany, . , 170, 171 
 
 l^'rederic IV., ot Denmark, . 273,274 
 
 Frederic Cliarles, 396, 398, 402, 403, 404, 407, 
 
 408, 410 
 Frederic tlie Great, 281, 282, 283, 2S4, 285, 286, 
 287, 28i, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 297 
 Frederic William I., . . . 282 
 
 Frederic William II., . . 297,298 
 
 ")';deric William III., . . 337,353 
 
 Fiederic William IV., . . 375,377 
 
 Frederic William, the Great Elector, 251, 252, 
 
 281 
 Frederic Barbarossa (Bar-bar-os'-sa), 137, 149, 
 
 162, 163 
 Frederick, . . . . .519 
 
 Fredericksburg (Fred'-er-iks-burg), . 512 
 
 Frederickshall (Fred'-er-ik-shawl), , . 278 
 
 Fredericksham(Fred-er-ik-shami, . 341 
 
 FVedericktown f Fred'-er-ik-town), . . 488 
 
 Frejiis (Fra'-zhus), , • • 33I1 35° 
 
 Fremont, John Charles (F're-mont'), 499, 502, 
 
 510, 5" 
 French, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 
 
 154, »55. 156, 157. '58, 178, 181 
 
 French Mills, . . . .487 
 
 FVenchtown, . . . 485, 486 
 
 Freroii ( Fra-ronng'), , , . 322, 324 
 
 PViedland (Freed'-land), . 228, 229, 338 
 
 Friedlingen (Freed-iing'-en), . . 269 
 
 Frolic, ' . . , . ,485 
 Fronde (Frond), .... 250 
 
 F'rontenac (Fron'-te-nak), , 289, 305 
 
 Froschwiller (Frosh'-wd-ler), . . 403 
 
 Frossnrd ( Friis-sard'), . . ,402,403 
 
 Fructidor ( Fruc-te-dor'), , . . 327 
 Fulda{Fur-da), .... "128 
 
 Fulton, Robert ' Ful'-ton), . . , . 482 
 
 Fundy ( Fun'-de), . . , 303 
 
 Fulvia (Ful'-ve-a), . . . .92 
 
 G. 
 
 Gades (Ga'-dees), 
 Gage, Thomas (Gaje), . 
 Gaines, Cleneral (Gaines), 
 Gaines' Mill, . 
 Galntia (Ga-la'-she-a), . 
 Galba (Gal'-ba), 
 Galerus ((ja-la'-rus), 
 Galerius (Ga-le'-re-us), 
 Galesbrusch fGales'-brush), 
 Gaiicia (Ga-lish'-e-aj, 
 Galician, ... 
 
 Gallia Cispadana (Gal'-le-a Sis-pad'-a-na), . 6; 
 Gallia 'I'raspadana ('i'rans-pad'-a-na), . 65 
 
 Gallic (Gal'-lik), . . . 61,73,78 
 
 Gallienus (Gal-le-e'-nus), . . 104 
 
 Gallus (Gal'-liis), .... 104 
 Galvez (Gal'-veth), . . . 428 
 
 Gal way (Gal'- way), .... 270 
 Gama, Vasco dp (Vas'-ko da Ga'-ma), 193 
 
 Gamljelta, Leon (I.e-oang'Gam-bet'-ta), 406, 430 
 Gambler, Admiral Lord (Gam-beer'), . 3 ,8 
 
 G.int;cs (Gan'-jees), . . .58, 390 
 
 Garde .\iobile (Gard Mo-beel'), . . 4^2 
 
 (■arde Natiouale (Gard Na-shun-ale'), . 402 
 Gardner ((jard'-ner), . . . 5'5 
 
 Gaiib.ildi (Gar-e-bawl'-dah), 379, 3S0, 393, 394, 
 39S, 412, 413 
 Gamier Pages (Gar-ne-a' Pa-zha'), 371, 372, 40C 
 Gascoigne (Gas-koiu'), . . .181 
 
 (jascony (Gas'-k>ne), . . . 146 
 
 Gaspe I Gas-pa'), .... 458 
 
 Gaspcreau (_Gas-pe-ro'), . . . 303 
 
 Gath, > . . , . .30 
 
 Gaugamela (Gaw-ga-me'-Ia), . . 5^ 57 
 
 Gaul (Guwl), 72, 78, 89, loi, 108, no, 112, 125 
 Gauley (Gaw'-le), . . . • 507 
 
 43 
 
 
 27, 37 
 
 437i 459) 
 
 460, 461 
 
 
 495 
 
 
 . 511 
 
 , 
 
 61 
 
 . 
 
 . 96 
 
 
 425 
 
 
 106, 107 
 
 . 
 
 277 
 
 . 
 
 . 294 
 
 
 . 382 
 
 72 
 
 1 73 
 
 177 
 
 
 56: 
 
 '39 
 134 
 58 
 
 -73 
 
 118 
 
 • <79 
 524 525 
 
 I Gauls, . . , . 6. , 
 
 Gaveston (Gaves'-ton), . ' . ' 
 
 I Gaza (Ga'-za), 
 
 I Gebel-at 'larik (Gej-el-ail Tah'-rik), 
 Gedrosia (Ge-dro'-she-a;, 
 
 ' Gefion (Gef'-e-on),. 
 
 I Geisa (Gi'-sa), . . . ' 
 
 Gelimer (Jel'-e-mer), 
 Genesis (Jcn'-e-sis), 
 Genet (Zhe-na'), 
 Geneva (Je-ne'-va), 
 Gennevilliers (Zheo-ne-veel'-le-a), . 
 Genoa (Jen'-o-a), 141, 143, 144, 202, 204, :sa 
 2971 327, 33s :c 2 
 Genoese (Jen'-o-ese), . 144,193,204,^(7 
 
 (Jenseric (Jcn'-ser-ik), . . . iii 
 
 Geoffrey Plantageuet ( lef'-fre Plan-t.ij'-e-' 
 
 net), . . . . . ,., 
 
 George I. of Kngl.and (Jorj'), . .249,278 
 
 George 1. ol (ireece, .... ^95 
 George II. of England, . 249, 278, 284, 296* 302 
 
 H'''"'S"I'' 292,296,355,^66 
 
 George IV.. . , . . ^g^ 
 
 George Cadoudal (Ka-doo'-dal), . • iM 
 
 G>-orgetown, .... 488 
 
 Georgia (Jor'-je-a), 267, 268, 306, .459, 469, 471, 
 472) 493. 494. 504, 509, 518, 51Q, 522 
 Georgians, . . . .267 
 
 Gepida: (Jep-e-dee'), . . . . 1 19 
 
 Gerard (Zher-ard'), . , , 364 
 
 Gerhard of Franch-Comte (Zha-rar' of 
 
 Fransli-Kong'-ta), . . . . 217 
 
 German), St. (Sang Zher-mang'), . 219, 247 
 German (Jer'-man, 94, 112, 113, 115, i2u, 129, 
 141, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168 
 Germanic I Jer-maii'-ik I, , . .85 
 
 Germanicus 1 Jer-man'-e-kus), . • 94,95 
 
 Germans, . . . .94, n,8 
 
 Germantown, .... 466 
 
 Germany (Jer'-man-ne), 89, 126, 129, 137, 139, 
 
 142, 143, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 
 167, i63, 169, 170, 171, 199, 206, 226, 251 
 Gerry, Elbridge (Ger'-re), . , . 485 
 
 (ieryon (Cier'-yon), ... 37 
 
 Geslcr (Ges'-ler), .... 167 
 Gcta ((;e'-ta), . . . .101 
 
 Gettysburg ! Get'-tis-burg), . . . 514 
 
 Ghent i (jeiitl, . . . 156,217.490 
 
 Ghibelline (Gib'-el-line), . . 162, 167 
 
 Ghibellines, . 142, 143, 144, 145, 162, 164, 165 
 Gibraltar (Jib-rawl'-ter), 124, 269, 270, 308, 3119, 
 
 470 
 Gideon (Gid'-e-on), ... 29 
 
 Gilboa (Gil-bo'-a), . . . .30 
 
 Gillmore, Qiiincy Adams (Gill'-more), 509, 515 
 Gioja, Flavio 1 Fla'-ve-o Jo'-e-a), . . 193 
 
 Gironde (Zhe-roand'), . . 317 
 
 Girondist (Zhe-roand'-ist), . 317, 318, 322 
 
 Ciirondists, . 316, 317, 320, 321, 324 
 
 (JIadiator (Glad-e-a'-tor), . . .87 
 
 (JIadiators, . . .87, 101, 103 
 
 Gladstone, William E. (Glad'-stone), 399, 432 
 (JIais Bizoiii (Zlila l!e-zwawn'), . . 406 
 
 C;iencoe (Glcn'-kol, . , . 248 
 
 Glendower, Owen lO'-wen Glen'-dow-er), 180 
 Gliessaw (Glees'-sjul, . . . ^74 
 
 Gloucesier (Glos'-ter), . . 180,183 1H4 
 
 (Jlucksburg (Glooks'-burg), . . . 396 
 
 Glycerins Glis-e'-re-us), . i:z, 113 
 
 Goa (Go'-ai, . . . . • '93 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon (God -freof Bool-yang'i, 
 
 Godoy (Go-doy'), ... 
 
 ( loldsboroimh 1 ( loulds-bur'-o), 
 
 (;„liadiG.i.|e-ad'), . 
 
 (ioliath ((;o-li'-ath). 
 
 Gomez Farias iGo'-meth Far'-e-as), 
 
 Gousalvo de Cordova ( Gon-sal'-vo da Kor'- 
 
 do-val, . . . . ■ 'S7 
 
 Gou/.des (Gon-thah'-lcthi, , 422, 443 
 
 338, JJ. 
 
 52: 
 
 443 
 
 30 
 
 44), 445 
 
46 
 
 A L PHA BE TIC A L INDEX. 
 
 193, 334 
 369 
 
 382, 3*^3 
 
 36^ 
 
 . 218 
 
 84 
 84 
 
 248 
 401 
 
 '59 
 
 Good Hope, Cape of, . 
 
 Oooierat iGooj-er-at'), . . 
 
 Goruey iGor'-je), 
 
 Goriiz Go-ritz'i, 
 
 Gormarisls (lor'-mar-ists), . 
 
 Gorni the Did, . . . . i»5 
 
 Gonschokuff Gori'-sha-kof), . . 387 
 
 Gorlz, Haruii voii, . . 277, 279 
 
 Goslien Go->licn), . . ■ .28 
 
 Gor.iinlil, l!ariholomew(Bar-thol-o-mu Gos'- 
 
 11. Id), . , . . .257 
 
 Goth, . . . . . no. Ill 
 
 Ciotlia, Saxe Cobourg (Sax Ko-burg Gu'- 
 
 tha', 567 
 
 r.otlilc (Golh'-ik), . . . 103,111 
 
 Guihs, . 103, 1Q4, 105, 109, no, III, 112 
 
 Ijr.icchi (Grak'-i I, ..." 
 
 Gracchu'i, Ga'-us Grak'-usl, . 
 Gracchui, Tiberias iTi-be'-re-iis Grak'-us), 
 Grail. nil of Cl.iverhouse iGra'-ham ol Klav' 
 
 cr-huuse), .... 
 
 Gramoiit. Duke cle iGra-inont'), 
 
 Granada (lira iiah'-iiaj, . . . 125. 
 
 Gr.uiada, New. . . 435. 436, 4c 7, 440 
 
 Gr.iiul Tremblay (Grang Tr.iing-bia , . 47 
 
 Granger, Gordon (Gor'-don Gram -jer), 520 
 
 Graiiiciis (Gran'-c-kus), . . 54,55 
 
 Gran.son iGran'-sun', , . . 1^7 
 
 Grant, U'ysses Simpson ( U-lis'-sees Sim'- 
 
 son Grant;, 508, 509, 514, 516, 517, 518, 519, 
 
 52'. 523, 524, 525 
 
 Granvella (Gran-vel'-ya), . . 216 
 
 Grassc, C'liint de (dcr Gras'), . 309,474 
 
 Gr.itian (( '.ra' she-an), . . . 110 
 
 Gravelotti (Grav-lot), , . 403, 404 
 
 Gravina ('ira-ve'-iia), . . . 336 
 
 Great li"iliin (ISrit'-en), 278, 292, 302, 306, 307, 
 
 308, 309, 348, 460, 463, 475, 484 
 
 Greaf Ho'se Shoe, .... 487 
 
 Gr.'.at .St. Bernard (Sainl Ber'-nard), . 332 
 
 Gri.ble, John T. a".reb'-el„ . .506 
 
 Grt-cia, Jlagna M 'g'-na Gree'-she-a), 40, 65 
 
 C.recian. (Grc'-shc-an), 38, 39, 45, 46, 46, 48, 
 
 5', 52, 53, 54, 62, 81 
 
 Grecians, .... 39, 47 
 
 ■ Greece (Grees), 34, 36, 37, 40, 43, 44,45146, 47, 
 
 48, 50, 51, 52, 53.54. 59. 6u. 61.63. 81,82,357, 
 
 360, 394, 395 
 
 Greek, . 33, 34, 38, 40, 45, 47, 55, 357, 358, 359, 
 
 360, 394 
 Greeks, 38, 39, 44, 45, 46, 47, 357, 358, 359, 360 
 CJreelcy, Horace I Hor'-as Gree'-lei, . 525 
 
 Greene, Nathaniel iNa-than'-yel Green), 472, 
 
 473, 474 
 Greenland (Green'-land), . . . 130 
 
 Greenville I Green'-vill ', . . 
 
 Greenwich ( ireen'-wich ), . . 
 
 Gregory VII. ^Greg'-o-ry), 
 
 Gregory IX 
 
 Gregi.ry XIII.. . 
 Greii.tdiers i Gren'-a-decrs), , 
 
 (;ren,,ble 1 Greii-o'-bel), . 
 GriMviile, George (Greii-viU), 
 Grey ((Iray), 
 
 Grey, Lord 
 
 Guy, l..idy Klizabeth, . 
 
 Gr.y, Lady Jane. . 
 
 Gridley. Richard (Grid'-le), . 
 
 Gn-.ils ((;r>.-/..,aiig'), 
 
 Gri» ..Id, K..rl rCris'-wold), 
 
 ni'>> IJeeren ' (iroce lieer'-eiO, 
 
 Gr.Jtius. Hugo ( Hu -go Gro'-stie-iis), 
 
 G.-o/i ton I tjrove'.lun), 
 
 Gu.idaloupe Hidalgo iGaw-dah-lupt 
 
 'iargui 
 
 Gii:ul.doiipe Victoria 1 Vik-io'-ie-a;, 
 Gu d;di|uiver . Gaw-il.,l-kce'-vrr,), . 
 Giiari.diaiii ( ".aw-n.i-haw'-na j, . 
 Gu. Ij.h (Oelf . 
 Guclphic ((.'.elf-ik), 
 
 '32 
 
 164 
 
 479 
 469 
 i6i 
 165 
 
 
 220 
 
 326 
 
 33' 
 
 
 37<J 
 
 • 
 
 297 
 466 
 184 
 '83 
 
 
 212 
 
 
 46. 
 
 
 3-^9 
 
 
 474 
 
 
 347 
 218 
 
 He- 
 
 5" 
 
 447 
 
 500 
 
 435 
 
 ,441 
 
 
 124 
 
 
 '94 
 162 
 
 Guelphs, 142, 143, 144, 145, 162, 164, 165, 167 
 Guerra ;Ger-ra'), . . . < 451 
 
 Guerrero (Ger-ra'-ro), ... 442 
 
 Giierriere (Ger-e-aire'j, . . . 485 
 
 Guiana (Ge-an'-a). • . . 
 
 Guicnne (Ge-en'), . • . 153, 179 
 
 (jiiilford (Gil'-ford), . . . 475 
 
 (kiilloiine (Gil'-lo-tin), . . . 321 
 
 Guinea (Gin'-ne), . . . 432 
 
 Guiscard, Robert (Rob'-ert Gees'-kar) 143, ifi 
 Guise, Duke of (Geezj, 206,212,218,219,2-^0, 
 
 J2J 
 
 Guises, . ■ . . 219, 220, 221 
 
 Guizot (Ge-zo'), . . . 370, 771 
 
 (Justave Flouiens (Giis-tav Floo'-raingl, . 415 
 Gustavus Adolphus (Gus-ta'-v is A-dol'-fus), 213, 
 229, 230, 232 
 Gustavus III., . . . . 295 
 
 Gustavus IV., . . . 338,341 
 
 Gustavus Vasa (Gus-ta'-vus Vas'-a), 1S6, 213 
 Guthrum (Guth'-rum ), . . . 171 
 
 Giilicnberg, John ((Int'-ten-berg,), . 192 
 
 Guy Fawkes ;Gi Fawks), . . . 233 
 
 Gwalior (Gwal'-e-or), . . 369,391 
 
 H. 
 
 Habeas Corpus (Ha'-be-as Cor'-pus), 246, 354 
 Hagar (Ha'-gar) . . . .28 
 
 Halicarnassus ( Hal-e-car-nas'-sus), . 55 
 
 Halidon Hill' Hal'-e-don Hill;, . 177,178 
 Halifax (Hal'-e-fax), . . .463 
 
 Halleck, Henry W. (Hal'-lek), . 510, 511 
 Hain, .... 22,24,25 
 
 Hamburg (Ham'-burg), . . . 165 
 
 Hamilcar Barcas iHa-mil'kar Bar'-kas), 77 
 Hamilton, Alexander (Ham'-il-ton), 478, 479, 
 
 482 
 Hainilnn, Andrew, . . . 261 
 
 Hamlin, Hannibal (Han'-ne-bal Ham'-lin), 504 
 Hampden, John (Ham -den), . 235, 236, 237 
 Hampshire, New (Nu Ham'-shir), 261, 301, 
 
 460, 501 
 Hampton (Ham'-ton), . . 462,488 
 
 Hampton. Wade, . , 484, 485, 487 
 
 Ilanau (Ha'-now), .... 348 
 Hancock, John (Han'-kok), . 457,460,461 
 Hangirg R.ick, .... 471 
 
 Hannibal (Han'-ne-bal), 78, 79, 80,81, 82 
 
 Hannibalianus 1 Han-ne-bal-e-an'-us;, , 108 
 
 Hanno (Haii'-no;, ... 77 
 
 Hanover (Han'-o-ver), 248, 273, 290, 334, 335, 
 337, 365, 366, 367, 374, 397 
 Hanover Court Hou.se, . . .510 
 
 Hanoverian (Han-o'-ver e-an), 288, 289, 290, 
 
 397, 398 
 Hanoverians, ..... 323 
 Haiisealic l-eague (Hahn-se-at'-ik'l, . 165 
 
 Hans Holbein (Hahns Hol'-bine), . . 210 
 
 Hans iVluller ( Hahns Mill'-er), . . 200 
 
 Hnpsburg ( Haps'-burg;, 166, 170, 206, 229, 272 
 Hardee (Har-.lec'), . . .520 
 
 Hardiciiulc ( Har-de-ca-nute'), . 172 
 
 Hardy (Har'-d.:), . . .489 
 
 H,.ineur llar'-ll..or), . . 15-1, 181 
 
 Harlcin Heights vHar'-lem), . . 464 
 
 Harlem Fiains, .... 464 
 
 H. inner ( Har'-mer), . . . 479 
 
 Hariii.idius ( H.ir-<no'-de-us), . . 44 
 
 Harold ,Har'-.,ld,, , . .172 173 
 
 Han.kl lllucl.ioth, ... 186 
 
 Harold Fairhair, . . .185 
 
 Har.,ld Havel. ,.,t, ... 17* 
 
 Har.,nn-al Raschid ( Ha-roon'-al-Rash' id) 125 
 Harper's Firry ( H.ir'-per's;, . 503, ^05 511 
 Harrison ( H.ir'-re-sonj, . . .241 
 
 H.irrisi.n, William Henry, . 485,486,496 
 Hartford I l.irl -f..rd , . 262, 26 ;, 490 
 
 Hasdnibal Has'-dru-bal), . . 8., 83 
 
 Hase H.ih-za), . . . .128 
 
 llasleng, Sir .-Vrihur (,Has'-lcr-ig;. . 23., 236 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 47 
 
 172. 
 
 173 
 
 
 184 
 
 
 298 
 
 
 521 
 
 
 512 
 
 
 259 
 
 
 507 
 
 
 507 
 
 '94 
 
 492 
 
 390 
 
 391 
 
 
 470 
 
 262 
 
 263 
 
 
 472 
 
 
 4S8 
 
 . 
 
 2S5 
 
 
 494 
 
 Hassan fHas'-saii), . . 
 
 Hi.sttnbach Has -ten-bok), 
 
 Hastings, Battle of (Haist'-ings), . 
 
 Hastings, Lord, . 
 
 Hastings, Warren, . . , 
 
 Hatcher's Run ( Hatch'-er's), . 
 
 Halchis (Hatch'-ee), 
 
 Hatfield (Hat -field], 
 
 Hatteias, Fort (Hat'-ter-as), 
 
 Hatleias Inlet, . 
 
 Havana (Ha-van'-a), . 
 
 H:ivelor.l< (Hav'-lock), . 
 
 H.iven, East (Ha'-venj, 
 
 Haven, New 
 
 Haverstraw ( Hav'-er-stra\v), 
 
 Havre de Grace ( Hav'-er-de-grass), 
 
 Hawley (Ha« le), . 
 
 Hayne, Robert Y. (Hain), 
 
 Hayraddiii Barbaro.'.sa (Ha-rad'-din Bar- 
 
 ba-ros'-sai, . . . • 204 
 
 Hayti (Ha'-te), . . . ,194 
 
 Heart's Content, . . . . 523 
 
 Hcbert (Ha'-baire), . . . 321,323 
 
 Hebrew (He'-broo), . . 28,29,30 
 
 Hebrews (He'-bruos), . . 27,28,29 
 
 Hebron Heb'-ron), ... 30 
 
 Hecker Hcck'-er), . . . .375 
 
 Hector (Hec'-tor;, . . . 38,56 
 
 Hegyes (Heg'-yes), . . . .383 
 
 Heidelberg I Hr-del-burg), . 227,254 
 
 HLiiborn (Hile'-bornJ, . . . 230 
 
 Heg.ra ; He-ji'-ra;, . . .121 
 
 Helen (Hd'en), . . . 37i j8 
 
 Helena (He-le'-na), . . • S'S 
 
 Helena, St. I Saint He-le'-nal, . .352 
 
 Heliogabahis ! He-le-o-gab'-a-lus), . 102 
 
 Heliopohs (He-le-op'-o-lis), . . .122 
 
 Hellas (Hcl'-las J, ... 35 
 
 Helle (Hel'-le), . . . .38 
 
 Hellenes (Hel-lee'-neez), . • 37 
 
 Hellenic (Hcl-len'-ik), . . 39i 61 
 
 Hellespont (Hel'-les-pont), . 38,40,54,191 
 Hclos (Hel-os), . . . . 4> 
 
 Helots (Hel'-ots), . . . 41.48 
 
 Helsinglors ( Hel'-sing-fors), . . 338 
 
 Helvetia ', Hel-ve'-sbe-a), . . 166 
 
 Helvetic (Fel-vet'-ikj, . 328, 329,334 
 
 Heiigist (Heii'-gist), . . .120 
 
 Henlopen, Cape Hen-lo'-pen), , .259 
 
 Henrietta Maria ! Heii-re-et'-ta Ma-ri'-a), 233 
 Henriot (Haiig'-re-o), . 321,324,40 
 
 Henri Rochefort (Hen'-re Roash'-foar), 406, 420 
 Hnry 1. of England ^Heii'-re;, . . 173 
 
 Henry 1. of France, . . . 147 
 
 Hem y 1. of Germany, . . . 160 
 
 Henry 11. of England, . . 148,174 
 
 Henry II. of France, . . 206,218 
 
 Henry 1 1, of Germany, . . . 160 
 
 Henry 111. ol England, . 150, '75, 176 
 
 Henry 111 of France, . . .220,221 
 
 Henry HI. of Germany, . . 161 
 
 Henry 1 V. of England, . . . 180. 181 
 
 Henry IV. of Fr.tncc, . 221,222,249 
 
 Henry IV. of Germany, . .161,162 
 
 Henry V. of England, . 154, »8i, 183 
 
 Hi my V. of Germany, . . .162 
 
 Ileniy VI. of England, . 155, '8i 182, 183 
 
 Henry VI of Germany, . . 163, 164 
 
 Ileniy VII. of England, . . 185,209 
 
 Heiuy VII. of Germany, . . .167 
 
 /l:nry V III. of England, 185,199,202,205,209, 
 2io, 211, 212, 222 
 Heiir;^, Patrick (Pat'-rik Hen'-re), 455, 456. 
 
 461, 477 
 {Irnry Raspe' iRas-pa'), • • '^s 
 
 IUplia.--tlon (He-les'-te-on), . • 59 
 
 Hcptarnir.is 1 Hep-tan'-o-inis), . . 25 
 
 Heraclidae (Her'-a-kli'-da;, . . 38,40 
 
 Heraclius (He-rak'-le-uz), . • "9 
 
 Herbois, Collot d' (Ko-lo' Der-owaw'), 321, 
 
 323, 324 
 Herctilaneum (Her-cu-la'-ne-um), . 98 
 
 Hercules (Her'-ku-leez). . . 27, 37, 38 
 
 Hciistal, Pepin d' I Pep'-in Der'-is-tal), . 126 
 
 Herkimer (Her'-ke-mer), 
 
 Hermanstadt ( Her'-man-staht), . 
 
 Heriiani (Her-nan'-e), . 
 
 Herrera ( Her-ra'-ra), 
 
 Herron (Her'-ron), . , 
 
 Heruli (Her-ii-li'), . 
 
 Hesse Hes), . 126, 128, 200, 201, 206 
 
 Hesse-Cassel (Kas'-sel), 348, 365, 366 
 
 Hesse- Darmstadt ( Darm'-staht), 
 
 Hessian (Hesh'-an), 
 
 Hessians, . . 307, 323, 463, 465, 
 
 He/ekiah ;Hez-e-ki'-ah), 
 
 Hidalgo (He-dal'-go), . 
 
 Hidalgo, Guadaloupe_(Gawd'-a-lupe H 
 
 go), . . '. 
 
 Hielsberg ( Heels' berg), . 
 
 Hiempsal ' Hi-emp'-sal), . , 
 
 Hier,. iHi'-e-ro), 
 Highlands (Hi'-lands), 
 Highlanders Hi'-land-ers), 
 Hildcbrand (Hil'-de-brand), 
 Hill, .... 
 
 Hiller (Hir-ler\ 
 Hillsborough (Hils'-bur-o), . 
 
 Hindman (Hinde'-man), 
 Hindoo (Hin'-doo), . . 23 
 
 Hindoos, 
 Hindoostan (Hin-doos-tan'), 
 
 107 
 
 ^8i 
 
 429 
 446,447 
 
 S'a 
 '-5 "7 
 
 ::■; i6i- 
 
 3;*-. 39f 
 
 . 39S 
 
 464, 465 
 
 466, 467 
 
 • 3a 
 
 434 
 
 -dal'- 
 
 447, 500 
 338 
 . 8s 
 76 
 463, 467 
 248 
 132, 161 
 514 
 . 348 
 473 
 . 5" 
 389, 390 
 23. 27, 389 
 190, 215, 298^ 
 299, 390 
 Hipparchus (Hip-par'-ktis), . . 44 
 
 Hippias (Hip'-pe-as), . . -44. 45 
 
 Hiram I Hi'-ram), . . . • 3> 
 
 Hobkirk's Hill (Hob-kirk's), . . 473 
 
 Hoboken 1 Ho-bo'-ken), . . . 260 
 
 Hochkirclien (Ho'-kirk-en), . . . 289 
 
 Hochstett ( Hoak'-stet), . . 269, 270 
 
 Hofer, Andreas (Ahn'-dre-as Hof-er), . 341 
 Hogoumont (Ho'-goo-mont), . . 351 
 
 Hogue, La (La Hogc'), . . 254, 255 
 
 Hohenfriedberg (Ho-en-freed'-berg), . 284 
 
 Hohenlindeii ( Ho-en-lin'-den), . . 332 
 
 Hohenlohe(Ho-en-lo'-he), . . .337 
 
 Hohen:>taul3reu (Ho-en-stouP-fen), 162, 163, 164, 
 
 165 
 HohenstaufTens, .... 162 
 
 Hohenzollern (Ho-en-tsol'-lern), 282, 408 
 
 HohenzoUern Sigmaringen (Sig-ma-ring'- 
 
 eni, . . . . 401, 40a 
 
 Holbein, Hans (Hahns Hol'-bine), . 210 
 
 Holland (Hol-land), 165, 216, 217, 218, 231, 241, 
 
 244, 245, 247, 251, 252, 254, 255, 260,26s, 269, 
 
 282, 285, 298, 308, 309, 321, 325, 334,336, 341, 
 
 348, 363, 364 
 
 23. 
 
 Hollanders, . . 
 
 Hollis(Hor-lis), 
 
 Holmes (Homes), 
 
 Holstein (Hol'-stine), 120, 186 
 
 Holyrood ( Ho'-ly-rood), 
 Homer (Ho'-mer), 
 Homildon Hill (Hom'-il-don), 
 Hong Kong, 
 
 Honornis 1 Ho-iio'-re-iis), 
 Hood, John P.., 
 Hoogly(Hoog'-Ie), . 
 Hooker, Joseph (Hook'-er), 
 Hooker, Thomas, 
 Hooper (Hoop'-er), 
 Horatia ( Ho-ra'-she-a), 
 Horatii (Ho-ra'-she-i), . 
 Horatius ( Ho-ra'-sheus), . 
 Hor.-itius Codes (Ko'-kleez), 
 Horn, Cape, . . 
 
 Hornet, . • 
 
 Hursa (Hor'-sa), . . 
 
 363 
 236 
 263 
 
 274. 375, .'77. 
 378. 39". 597 
 
 . 302 
 
 . i8c 
 
 . ^c^ 
 
 IIO_ 111 
 
 518, 519, ■;2C 
 
 • ^99 
 
 • .114, •!•« 
 
 26J 
 
 213 
 
 6S 
 
 67,68 
 
 . 498 
 487 
 
48 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX.. 
 
 Hortense Beauharnais (Or-tangs' Bo-har'- 
 n-A), . . . . . . 386 
 
 Hosea ( Ho se'-a), ... 32 
 
 Hoshea Ho-s'.ie'-a), . . . .32 
 
 Hi^spilallcr-^, .... 136 
 
 Hole! des liivalides( Ho-tel' de In'-va-leeds), 
 
 250, 3521 370 
 Hotel de Ville (Ho-tel' der Vil'), 324, 362, 371, 
 373. 4051 4"6> 4 '4, 4»9i 420 
 Hc'tlcnlots Hot'-ten-tcits), . . . 193 
 
 ilniichartl (HiM>->h.ird'), . .321,323 
 
 Hiiu-itjij, S.imuel ( Hews'-loii), . . 444 
 
 HitwG, L'Tci (How/, . . . 305 
 
 H HVL', Admiral, . . . 464, 468 
 
 Hiwe, K ibrrt. .... 461) 
 
 Howe, William, 461, 463, 464, 465, 466, 468 
 
 H,, ward. John f.nijer ( K'-ger How'-ard), . 473 
 Hulibirdtou iHiib'-bard-toii,, . . 467 
 
 Huliertslnirg Hoo' Ijurts-burg), . 292, 293 
 
 Hiids .11, Henry Htid'-sou), . . 259 
 
 Hudson. La)wc vJ.o'j .... 352 
 
 H..dM)n River, . 463, 464,467, 468, 469, 472 
 Hnger (Hu-gcr), . . . .471 
 
 Hui;li(nn) 146 
 
 HiiL'h Capet (Kah-pa'), . . .146 
 
 Hugh Spenser (Speii'-ser), . , 177 
 
 Huguenots iHu-ge'-notsj, 218, 219, 220, 221, 
 
 249. 253i 254, 265 
 
 Hull, Isaac 485 
 
 Hull. William, . . . 484, 485 
 
 Humay.iu Hoo-ma'-yan), . . . 215 
 
 Hungarian (Hung-ga'-re-.an), 189, 190, 252, 269, 
 282, j8o, 381, 3S2, 383, 384 
 Hungarians, . 129, 159, 160, 189, 252, 283, 380 
 Hungary Hung'-ga-re I, 129, 139, 189, 19 , 192, 
 204, 252, 253, 269, 282, 298, 376, 380, 381,382, 
 
 383. 384 
 Hnnnic ( Hun'-nik), . . .112 
 
 Huiuiiyades (Huu-ni'-a-deez), . igo, 192 
 
 Huns, .... 109, 112 
 
 Huntsville ' Hunts'-vil), . . , i;o9 
 
 Hurlbut (Hurl'-but), . . .512 
 
 Huron Hu-ron'/, . . , 300 
 
 Hiiss, John, ..... 169 
 Hussite (Huss'-ite), . . . 169 
 
 Hussites, .... i6g 
 
 Hiuiu I Hu-tans;'), . . . 151 
 
 Hutchinson ( Hutch'-in-son), . . 458 
 
 Hutchinson, Ann, . . . 258 
 
 Hyd.ispes (Hi-das'-peez), . . .58 
 
 Hyderabad . Hi-der-ah-b.ad'), . . 369 
 
 HydcrAli Hi'-dcrAI'-e), . . .299 
 
 Hyphasis ( Hif'-a-sisi, ... 58 
 
 Hyrcanuh, John Hir-ka'-nus), . . 88 
 
 Hyst-.spes, Darius ^Da-ri' us His-tas'-peez), 
 
 34. 35, 45,46 
 
 Iberian 'l-be'-re-an), . . . 158 
 
 Iberville ilb'-er-vih. . . . .306 
 
 Iberville, l.emoine de (Lem-won' Der-bare- 
 
 veel), ..... 300 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha (Ib'-rah-im Ba-shaw'), 359, 368 
 Iceland Ice'-land;, . 
 Iccni ( 1-seu-i'), .... 
 Icouium 1 I ko' iie-iim), 
 Iglcstrom (lg'-el->trom), 
 Ignatius Loyola ^ Ig-na'-she-us Loy-o'-la), 
 
 214 
 
 Incas, . . , 
 
 )ncitatus (In-se-ta'-tus), 
 Independents, . . 236, 237, 
 
 India (In'-de-a), . 23, 24, 34, 58, 123, 193. 
 281, 369, 389, 390, 
 Indian, .... 256, 
 
 Indiana (In-de-an'-a), . 484, 491, 515, 
 
 Indians, 23, 236, 257, 258,259, 260, 262. 265 
 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 469, 470, 
 
 485, 487, 489. 49'. 493. 494, 49; Vi 
 Indies, East (lu'-deez;, . 287, 292, 30S 
 
 Indies, West, . . 287, 292, 308, 
 
 Indus (In'-dus), . . . 5? 
 
 Ingolstadt {Ing'-gol-stahl), . 200, . 
 
 Ingour 'In-goor'), .... 
 Ingria (In'-gre-a), 
 Inkerniann (In'-ker-man), . 
 Innocent III., . 
 
 Innocent IV., .... 
 
 Innspruck (Ins'-prook), . . 208, 
 
 lni|uisition ( In i|ue-sish'-on), 159,215, 
 
 lni|uisitor (In-quis'-e-tor;, 
 Insnrgente, L' Lang-soor-zhong'-ta), 
 Iinransigentes ( In-tran'-se-jents), 425, 426, 
 Inverness ( In-ver-uess'^, 
 Ionian (l-o'-ne-an), 
 
 lonians, ..... 
 
 Iowa (I'-o-wah), 
 Ipsara Ip-sa'-ra), 
 Ipsus ' Ip-sus), 
 Irish (Ire'-ishj, . 
 
 .439 
 95 
 - 239 
 •215, 
 39' 
 259 
 523 
 joo, 
 
 179. 
 
 25 
 
 i3S 
 
 2'/S 
 
 387 
 ■75 
 •65 
 375 
 2,6 
 216 
 480 
 4 -'3 
 
 Ireland (Ir 
 
 >ii-side), 
 237, 
 
 159. '93. '94, 
 367, 368, 
 
 37 
 497 
 
 3.59 
 6c 
 
 400 
 242, 
 400 
 238 
 172 
 283 
 4^9 
 522 
 
 23 
 
 96 
 >37 
 296 
 213, 
 214 
 Igiiala f Ig-whah'-la), . , . . 435 
 
 Ib.ul ir-e-ad, 38 
 
 lluim (ll'-e-UMi), . . . .38 
 
 IlluKi.s ll-le-iiois'), 300, 306, 492, 494, 504, 523 
 
 lllo'll'-lol. . . . . 2JO 
 
 lllyria ( ll-.ir'-e-a), . . . "94 
 
 Illyrian, ..... 73 
 
 Illyriaiis, . . . . 54, 78 
 
 Imperator 'Iiii-pcr-a'-tor), . . 9^ 
 
 Inathus 'In'a-kus;, . . . •37 
 
 In';a (lii'-kah). .... 214 
 
 174, 177. 225, 236, 237, 
 248, 298, 399, 
 ;ind), 174, 177, 225, 236, 24 , : 
 248, 254, 298, 399, 
 Ireton (Ire'-ton), 
 Ironside, Eduuind (Ed'-niund I 
 Ironsides, 
 Irun I'-run), 
 Irwinsvi le ( Ir-wins-vil), 
 Isaac I I'-zak ), 
 
 Isaac Augelus (An'-jedusJ, . 
 l.sabella 1 Is-a-bel'-la;, . 
 Isabrllall., 
 
 Isabel, Point ' Is'-a-bel), 
 Ishbosneih . Ish'-bo-sheth), 
 Uhmael Ish'-nia-el), 
 Islam Is'-laini, 
 IslaiKl N-,. 10, . 
 Isniael ils'-ma-cll, . 
 Ismail Is-ma-eel'), 
 Is,,;dKUMN'-p.i-hahn'), 
 Isr.iel Is'-ra-el, . 
 Isr.iclites' l>'-ra-el-iles), 
 IsMis Is'-sus., . 
 Issy, Kori d' ( Dis'-se), 
 Isihmi.iii ' Isi'-mc-ani, 
 Italian It-al'-yan;, . 6 
 Italians, 
 
 halica l-tal'-e-ka), 
 Italy It -a-le', . 61, 
 Ithaca lih'-a-kal, 
 llhonie I l-tho'-inel, . . . - 
 
 llurbide. Don .Augustin (Don Au-gns-tecn 
 
 K-t.M,rd)e-dal 
 
 luka I yu'-ka) 
 
 Ivan the Creat I'-van), . . 
 
 Iv.ui the Terrible, 
 
 Izard (I'-zard). . . , . 
 
 Jabiii (Ja'-hin) '<) 
 
 Jacinto, S.ui (San Ja-sin'-to), . . 4l4 
 
 J.ick Cade I |.ik Kade;, . . . iBi 
 
 J..cks..u (Jak--s,,n), . - 5 '4 
 
 J. ickson, Andrew, .487,489,490,491 49.- 4'-4, 
 
 495 
 Jackson, Clayborne F., . . • -v.7 
 
 J.ii ks..M, rii.im.is JelTerson, 507,510,511 t.:4 
 
 J.,cksoi.villc 5:7 
 
 lacobija'-kohl, . . . . s8 
 
 . S.3. 120 
 . . 121, 122 
 
 509 
 
 • . • 215 
 
 2y5 
 
 . 215 
 
 28. 29, 30, 31. 32 
 
 24, 27, 28, fO 
 
 . 55, toi 
 
 407, 409, 414, 416, 417 
 
 63, 81 
 
 142, 143. 378. 39'. •♦•z 
 
 65, 393, 3'.'8 
 
 »6 
 
 , 87, 117, 204, 326, 378 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 49 
 
 ra^obin (Jak'^-bin), . . 313, 3i7i 3^2, 3^4 
 
 ai obins, . 316, 320, 321, 323, 324, 32s 
 
 ' ai .bites fjak'-o-bites), . . .278 
 
 ;u lucrie' Jak-ka'-ree), . . .153 
 
 Iicques Bonhomine (Jak-a' Bo-nom'), . I53 
 .elij.ile,, .... 29 
 
 iffa, (Jaf-fa) 33'^ 
 lUclloiYa-gt.l'-lo). . • .187 
 
 'ag.llos 187 
 
 laiiiaica ^Ja-ma'-ka), 
 James I. of England, 
 Jaiitis I. c''Scjtland, 
 jrtiues II.' >f England, 2 0,2 
 Jiines IV. of Scotland, 
 JiMies V. of Scotland, . 
 James River, . 
 
 laiuesl'iwn, . . 2 
 
 Janiciilum, Mt. (Ja-nik'-u-lum), 
 Janissaries (Zhah-nees-sah'-ree 
 J.I mis (Ja'-nus), 
 Japan ija pan'), . 
 Jtpheth (Jaf'-eth), . . • .22 
 
 J;ulclelcil^ Laroche (La-roash' Zhah-lang'), 322 
 
 J assy V'ah'-se), . . 
 
 Hva ijav'-ah), 
 Jay, John 'ja), 
 Jelnis ijcb'-iis), 
 Jcljiisites Jeb'-u'-ites), 
 Iechoniah,Je-l/: -neah), 
 Jefferson, Thoci.as ^Jef'-fer-son 
 
 . 242 
 
 232, 233,234 
 
 i3o, 181 
 
 47, 248, 254, 269 
 
 . 209 
 
 . 21 ; 
 
 55,473- 510, 5'S 
 
 , 255, 256, 257 
 
 . 68 
 
 19' 
 
 • 67 
 
 . 50 ',5-^2 
 
 295 
 
 218, 485 
 
 478,479. 480 
 
 3' 
 
 • 3' 
 32 
 
 464, 47B, 479, 
 
 ,481, 482, 493 
 
 . 246 
 
 • 215 
 32 
 
 376, 38'. 382, 383 
 319 
 
 • 337 
 30 
 
 3I1 32 
 
 na-part), 338 
 
 169 
 
 465,466, 468, 472 
 
 470 
 
 Jeffries f Jer-fr.-r.s), 
 lerKiaghir (Je.' -haiig-yer), 
 JclioaKez (Je-'io'-a-hez), 
 K-llachich(V<l'-la-kik), 
 jcinappes il.l.raapj, 
 5eMa(Jen--:.^, 
 Jepluhah (Jif'-thah"), 
 Jer..boair f Jer-i-bo'-am), . 
 Jcrmiie lin.l^parte (Jer-ome' Bo 
 Jeni/iieof Prague (Praigi, 
 Icrsty, >if wijer'-se),266, 464, 
 Jersey City, . . 
 
 Jcrnsi.le.11 Jer-ru'-sa-lem), 24, 31, 32, 33, 34, 5°, 
 64, 88, 97, 98, 122, 134, 135, '36, 137, 138, '39. 
 147, 164 
 
 Jessupfjes'-sup), . . . • 495 
 
 Jesuit (Jes'-u-it), . . . 214, 300 
 
 Jesuits, .... 213, 214 
 
 Jews, . . 24,33.34,64,97,98,170 
 
 Jimeiia (He-ma'-na), . • • 420 
 
 oaO, . ... 3' 
 
 Joachim Murat (Jo'-a-kim Mu-rah'), 33'. 339. 
 ^ 348, 35' 
 
 Joan of Arc (Jo'-an of Ark), 
 John of lioheinia, . . 
 
 John of England, 
 John the G"od of France, . 
 John Frederic of Saxony, 
 John XXII., . 
 John XXII I, 
 
 John de Medici (Jon de Med'-e-che), 
 John, St., . 
 Johnson (Joii'-son), . 
 
 1ohnr,on, Albert Sydney (Al'-bert Sid'-tie\ 509 
 Jolin.,on, Andrew, . . 52Q, 522, 523 
 
 Johnson, John, .... 467, 469 
 Ji)hiison, ( Rev'-er-de), . • 5^4 
 
 Jolm.son, Richard M., . . .495 
 
 Johnson, William, . . • 3^4, 3'j5 
 
 Johnston, Jos'iph E., 503, 506,507, Sj8, 521, 522 
 Joliel, Louis (Loo'-e Zho-le-a'), . .3"° 
 
 Jonah (Jo'-nai), . . ■ .2' 
 
 Jon. (than 'Jon'-a-tban), . • . -io 
 
 Jones, John Paul, . . . 47" 
 
 J<,l.pa (Jop'-pa), . . 137.330 
 
 Jordan I Jor'-dati), . . • 29. 3.?° 
 
 Joseph (Jo'-sef ), . . • -28 
 
 Josephine ( Jo'-sef-in), . 525, 34' 
 
 Joshua (Josh'-u-a), . . • .29 
 
 
 
 '52, 
 
 178 
 
 
 
 '49, 
 
 '75 
 
 153, 
 
 54, 
 
 .78, 
 
 179 
 
 
 
 207, 
 
 208 
 167 
 .69 
 
 e-che 
 
 ), 
 
 
 199 
 462 
 
 470 
 
 449 
 
 • 3'. i* 
 
 . 120 
 
 31, 64, 88 
 
 , ' . 85 
 
 8s 
 
 406, 4] I, 41a 
 
 406 
 
 . A06 
 
 Joubert (Zhoo-bare'), . • • 339 
 
 Jourdain (Zhoor-dang'), . 324, 326, 34(> 
 
 Jovian Jo'-ve-an), . . . v:x) 
 
 Juan, Don (Don Ju'-an), . , 215,217 
 
 Juarez, Benito (Ben' e-to Whaw-ar'-eth), 448, 
 449. 450, 451 
 Juarists (Whaw-ar'-ists), 
 Jud.ih (Ju'-dah), . 
 Judaism ( Ju'-da-ism), 
 Judea(Ju-de'-a), . . 
 
 Jugurtha (Ju-gur'-tha), 
 Jugunhine (Ju-gur'-thin), 
 Jules Favre 1 Jule Fav'-er), , 
 Jules Ferry (Jule Fer'-re), 
 Jules Simon (Jule Si'-mon), 
 Julia iju'-le-al, . . . . 93 
 
 Julian the Apostate fju'-le-an), . loS, 109 
 Julianus, Didius ( Did'-e-us Ju-le-an'-us), . loi 
 Julius Agricola (Ju'-le-us Ag-re-ko'-lah ), 9S 
 
 Julius Cajsar (Se'-ser), . 87,88,89,90,91 
 
 Julius Vindex (Vin'-dex), . . loi 
 
 Jumonville (Zhu-moang-veel'), . . 303 
 
 Juniii (Whoon'-in), . . . 440 
 
 Junius Brutus (J a'-ne-us Bru'-tus), 68,69 
 
 Juno Ju'-no), . . • 3^, 37, 73 
 
 Junot iZhu-no'), . . ^iO, 339, 340 
 
 Junta (Jun'-ta), . . 34°. 435, 436, 449 
 
 Juntas, 
 
 Jupiter (Ju'-pe-ter), 
 Jupiter. Amnion (Am'-mon), 
 Justinian ( Jus-tin'-e-an), 
 Jutland Jjut'-land), . 
 Juxon (Jux'-onj, 
 
 K. 
 
 Kalb, De (De Kalb), 
 K.aled(K.ah'-ledj, 
 Kalkreuth ( K.ahl'-kroit) . 
 Kalmuck Tartars (Kal'-muk Tar'- 
 Kansas (Kan'-zes), 
 K.ippel (Kap'-pelj, . 
 Kapolna(Ka-por-na), . 
 Kapstchak (Kahpt'-shok), . 
 Kara Musrapha (Ka-rah' Mus-taP^ 
 Karlowitz (.Kar'-lo-witzJ, . 
 Kars, . . • • 
 
 Kasan (Ka'-zan), 
 Kaskaskia ( Kas-kas'-ke-a), 
 Katzbach 1 K ihtz'-bok), 
 Kei.raey (Ker'-ne;, 
 Kearney Stephen VV., 
 Kearsarge (Ke-ar'-sarj^, 
 KcUernian • Kel'-ler-nian), . 
 Kelly, Benjamin F. (Kel'-le), . 
 Kelly's Ford, . . 
 
 Kenusaw Mountain (Ken'-e-saw), 
 Kennebec (Ken'-ne-bek), 
 Kent, • . . . 
 
 Kentuckians (Ken-tuk'-e-aiis), 
 Kentucky ^Ken-tuk'-e), 47 j, 478, ' 
 504, 505, 
 Kesselsdorf (Kes'-sels-dorfj, . 
 Kettle Creek, . 
 Keltic Kun, 
 
 KevenhuUer (Kev'-en-hul-ler), 
 Khan, . . • • 
 
 Khiva (Ke.e'-vah), . 
 Khivan, . . • • 
 
 Khivans, 
 
 Khokand(Ko'-kand), . 
 Khosrou the Great (Kos'-roo), 
 Khosronll., 
 I Kieft, Sir William (Keeft), . 
 Kiel Keel), 
 Kiev (Keev), . 
 
 Killicrankie (Kil-le-krank'-ee), . 
 Kilpairick, Judson (Jud-son Kil'-pat -iik;, 517 
 Kinbiirn Kin -burn,, . . " ^! 
 
 Kinmuir (Kin-moor), . . • ■27» 
 
 King, Samuel W 49' 
 
 339. 435 
 
 • 36, 95 
 
 34, 56 
 
 117, 118, 119 
 
 . 228 
 
 , 240 
 
 465 47« 
 121, 122 
 . 333 
 tars), 294 
 
 . 502. 503 
 . 201 
 . 381, 382 
 . 188 
 •a), . 254 
 
 253, 3»o 
 
 300, 470, 530 
 29', 347 
 511 
 498, 499 
 5'9 
 3'9, 332 
 5o5 
 . 5'6 
 5'8 
 . 462 
 , 182, 367 
 486, 490 
 495, 502, 
 , 5'2, 517 
 . 284, 285 
 
 283 
 433 
 433 
 433 
 433 
 433 
 118 
 
 26c 
 348 
 19a 
 248 
 
 i88, 
 
so 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 • 47'. 472 
 
 . 3-'4 
 
 383 
 
 33°i 333 
 
 • 132 
 
 . 136,140 
 
 136, 140 
 
 464 
 
 . 473 
 
 222 
 
 5i6 
 
 464, 471 
 
 2SS 
 
 383, 384 
 
 King, William Rulus, , 
 
 King's Mountain, , 
 
 Kingston (Kings'-ton), 
 
 Kinsky (Kins'-ke), 
 
 Kittanning 1 Kit-tan'-ning), , 
 
 Klapka (Klap'-ka), 
 
 Kleber i^Kia-bairc'), . 
 
 Kniglits Errant (Nites Er'-ant), 
 
 Knight> of St. John, 
 
 Knights Templars, . 
 
 K 11 >wlton (Nole'-ton), , 
 
 K j^x. Henry (Noxj, . 
 
 K11.1X, John, 
 
 K r.ox\ille ^N t vil), 
 
 K r.yphaiisen K iie-fou'-sen) 
 
 Kolin ( Ko'-lini, . 
 
 Kunarn ( Ko'-morn), . 
 
 Koniggratz ( Ken'-ig-grets), . 
 
 Konigsburg ' Ken'-igs-burg), 
 
 Konigseg _( Kcn'-ig-seg), 
 
 Kootub : Koo'-toobi, . 
 
 Koran ( Kcj'-ran), . 
 
 Kordofan 1 Kor-dof-an), 
 
 Koreish (Ko'-reesh\ .... 121 
 
 Koreishites (Koree-shi'-tees), . . 121 
 
 Kosciuszko, Thaddeus (Thad'-de-us Kos-se- 
 
 uz'-ko) , . . . 295, 296, 465 
 
 Kossuth, Lcuis (Loo'-e Kos-shoot'j, 380, 381, 
 
 382, 383 
 Kouli Khan, (Koo'-le Khan) . .281 
 
 Krasnoi ( Kras-noi'), . . . 34; 
 
 Kremlin (Krem'-lin), , . 188, 344, 345 
 
 Kremsier I Krem'-seeri, . . . 378 
 
 Kronstadt ( Krunc'-staht), . . 3S1 
 
 Krukowiscki i Is.ru-kow-eek'-e), . . 365 
 
 Kudschuck Kainardche (Kood'-chook Ka- 
 
 nards'-ke), 
 Knllmau ' Kool'-nian), 
 Kiinersdorf ! Koo'-uers-dorf), 
 Kutais I Ku-tais'), 
 Kutusuff(Kn'-tu-soflf), 
 
 141, 28 
 
 121, 122, 123 
 
 337 
 
 295 
 
 • 434 
 
 . 290 
 
 382 
 
 336, 344, 340 
 
 Labedoyere (I,a-be-dwah-yer'), . 350, 352 
 La HoeiiflLa P.nf), . . . 302 
 
 Labrador (Lab'-ra-dore), . . . 195 
 
 Labyrinth ; Lab-e-rinth), . . 25 
 
 Lacedaemon (Las-e-de'-mon), 35, 37, 41. 44, 48, 
 52, 53, 59, 6= 
 Lacedsmonian (Las-e-de-mo'-ne-an), 41, 49, 
 
 50, 59 
 Laceda;nionians, , 42, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53 
 Leclerc (Le-klare'), .... 334 
 Laconia ( La-ko'-ne-a), . . 35, 37,41,42 
 
 La Corona i La Ko-ro'-na) . . . 379 
 
 L'Admi^aiilt (Lad-me-ro'^ . . 410 
 
 Laevinns (Le-vi'-nus), . . .75 
 
 Lafavorita (I^a Fa-vor-it'-a), . . 326 
 
 Lafayette (^Lah-fa-et'), 307, 314, 315, 318 
 
 465, 466, 473, 474, 492 
 Laffeld (Lar-feld^ . . . .285 
 
 La (livonne (La Oe-vone'), . . 404 
 
 La HaycSaintel La Ha Sante'), . . 351 
 
 La Hogiie (La Hoag';, . . .254,255 
 
 Lainez i^Li'-nets), .... 214 
 Laird, ..... 519 
 
 Laniachus (Lam-ak'-us), . . 49, 50 
 
 ..aimrtine 'Lam'-ar-tinj, . 37i> 372, 374 
 
 I^imballe ( L:un'-l>al), . . . 319 
 
 l.amberg i Lani'-ljerg), . . .376 
 
 I/an>bcrt ( Lam'-bert), . . . 243 
 
 S-iiiibcrt Sininel (Lam'-bert Sini'-nel), 185 
 
 \ f niia Lain' < ), . . . .59 
 
 l..;'iiiaii, ..... 59 
 
 L tm.rjc.cre I La mo-re'-se-a), . 371, 373, 4^16 
 ijncasicr (Lank'-.»i-tcr), . 177, 180, 182, 184, 
 
 185, 466 
 Lancastrian ( Lan-kas'-tre-aii), . 183 
 
 Lancastrians . . .183 
 
 Land fricde (Lahnd-free'-da), . 171 
 
 Landshut (Land'-shoot), . . . aij 
 
 Langdale, Sir Marmaduke (Mar'-ma-duke 
 
 Lang'-dalet, .... 23*. 
 
 Langside (Lang'-side), . . . 223 
 
 Langnedoc ( Lang'-ge-dok), . . . 2so 
 
 Lannes 1 Lanz), . . . 332, 341, iC2 
 
 Laon ( La-oang' ', , . , 340. 41 5 
 
 La Paz (l>a Paz), . . 439 440 
 
 La Pkita (La Pljt'-a', . 195,438 14'^ 
 
 La Piierta (La Pwair -la), . {37 
 
 Larochc-Jaqaclein ( La-roash Zhak-lang'), 52:1 
 La Rothiere La Ro-te-aire'), . 348 u j 
 
 La Salle, Robert de ( Rob'-ert de La Sal'), \i. : 
 Latimer (Lat'e-mer), . . 211 i- ^ 
 
 Latin (Lat'-in), . . . . ; i 
 
 Latins, . . .65, 66, 6? vh. ^' 
 
 Latiniis 'Lat'-e-niisi, . . . 6i 
 
 Latiiim ( Lat'-e-uni), . , . -65 
 
 Latonr ( La-toor'), . . . 376 
 
 Laud ( Laud ), . . 234, 235, 236 
 
 Lauderdale ( Law'-der-dale), . . 245 
 
 Laudon ( Loii'-doii), . 290, 291, 292, 295 
 
 Lauenburg ( L»u'-en-burg), . . . 1S6 
 
 Laval ( Lah-vahl'i, . , . 410 
 
 La Vendee (La Von'-dee), . . , 322 
 
 Lavinium (La-vin'-e-uin), . . 65 
 
 Law, John, . . , . 279, 301 
 
 Lawrence (Law'-rence), . .487, 4:8 
 
 Lawrence, St. (Saint Law'-rence), 195, 3.m, 3 11 
 
 462, 487 
 Laybach (Li'-bok), . . . 357 
 
 Lazzari>ni (Laz-za-ro'-ne), . 328, 329, 378 
 
 Lear (Leer), .... 482 
 
 Leavenworth (Lev'-en-worth), . . 498 
 
 l^ebanon (Leb'-a-non), ... 26 
 
 Lebon ( Le-boang'), .... 324 
 Lebrun I Lc-brung'), . . . 331 
 
 Lech (Lck), ..... 230 
 Lechfeld ( Lek'-feld), . . .160 
 
 Lecompte ( Le-kong'-ta), • . .MH 
 
 Lecompton ' Le-com'-ton). . . 503 
 
 Leczinski, Stanislaus (Stan-is-la'-us Lek- 
 
 zins'-kej, , . . 275, 276, 280 
 
 Ledochowski (Le-do-chows' ke), . . 431 
 
 Ledrii Rollin (Le'-dru Kol'-liii), 371, 372 374 
 Ledyard ( Led'-yard), . . . 474 
 
 Lee, Charles, . . . 463, 468 
 
 Lee, Henry, .... 470, 474 
 Lee, Richard Henry, . . . 463 
 
 Lee, Robert Edmund, 503, 507, 511, 512, 514, 
 516, 518, 521 
 Lefebvre (Le-fe'-ber), . . . 338 
 
 Legendrf? (Le-jen'-der), . . 317,323 
 
 Leger, St. (Saint Led'-jer), . . 467 
 
 Legitimists (Le-git'-e-mists), 370, 384, 411, 421 
 
 420 
 Lehwald (La'-wald), . . . 288 
 
 Leicester (Les'-ier;, . 176,217,224 
 
 Leipsic (Lipe'-sik;, 200, 207, 229, 231, 289, 347, 
 
 348 
 Leisler, Jacob (Lees'-Ier), . 260, 261 
 
 Leiex iLe'-lex', . . . -37 
 
 Le i\Lans ( Le Mong), . . . 410 
 
 Leinuine d' Iberville (Lem-won' Deb-are-vtel ) 
 
 30.. 
 Lepidus (Lep'-e-dus), . . . OJ 
 
 Leo (Le'-o), , . • 199,202, 209 
 
 l-eobeii ( l.a-o'-ben), . . 326,327 
 
 Leon Leon'i, .... 125 
 
 Leon Gambetta ( Le-oang' Gam-bet'-ta), 406, 4 jc 
 Lconidas ( Le-on'-e-das), . . 46 5j 
 
 l.ecjpold I., of Helgiuin (Le'-o-pold), . 3631.^64 
 Leopold 1., of Germany, 251, 252, 2:3, 208, 27c 
 Leopold II., . . . . 2<,» 
 
 Leopold of Hohenznllern Sigmaringen, 401 404 
 Lcosthenes (Le-os'-the-necs;, . . 49 
 
 Lepanto ( Le-pan'-toi, . 102, j>5, 217 
 
 Lerdo de Tcjada ' Lair'-dode 'i'e-zlia'-da), 451 
 Lerna, Hydra of I Ler'-na), . . 37 
 
 Le lellier Le lel'-le-aj, . . . 2i5 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 SI 
 
 505 
 52 
 
 !^ttert of M 11 que (Let'-ters of Mark), 
 Letircs de Cachet (I>et'-tcr de Ka-shit'l. 
 Leiictra (Luc'-traj, 
 Leiiilaen (Loi'-len), , 
 
 Levant (Le-vant'j, .... 490 
 I^vi ( Le'-vi), .... 306 
 
 Levites (Le'-vites), . . . .29 
 
 I.ewenlawpt (Lu'-en-houpt), . . 276 
 
 l«\ves 1 1. use), . . . .176 
 
 I,cw istown ( Lu'-is-town, . . 4K8 
 
 Lexington i Li x'-ing-ton), . 307, 460, 507 
 
 Lr:yden (Li'-den), . . . 217 
 
 Lryva, Antonio de (An-to-ne-o' de Le'-va), 203 
 Li- licwbk: (Lik-nows'-ke), . . . 376 
 
 Li iuian Law (Li-sin'-e-an Law), . 74, b4 
 
 Lir.iiiius (Li-sin'-c-us), . . . 107 
 
 Liciiims Stolo ;Li-sin'-e-us Sto'-lo), . 74, 84 
 Liege I Lccj), .... 156,162 
 Licgnitz I Leeg'-nits), . . .190,291 
 
 Linnano(Leen-yan'-o) . . . 163 
 
 Ligny ( Leen'-ye), . . . 351 
 
 l^iguria (Li-ju'-re-a), . . -64, 79 
 
 Liguriaii Republic, . . . 327, 329 
 
 LiTle (Lech, ..... 271 
 Lincoln, Abraham, (Lin'-kon), 504, 505, 520, 
 
 521, 5'2 
 Lincoln, Ijenjainin, . 467, .^69, 470, 471 
 
 L'Lisurgente (Lang'-zur-zhong'), . . 480 
 
 Lintz( Lints), . • . .252,283 
 
 Lisbon ( Lis'-bon), 193, 339, 342, 356, 422 
 
 Lissa ( Lis'-sa), .... 398 
 
 Leitch^Litch), . ... 464 
 
 Lithup.nia I Lith-u-an'-e*a), . . . 187 
 
 Little Belt, .... 484 
 
 Little Crow, . . . . -513 
 
 Little Rock, . . . 515, 527 
 
 Livius (Liv'-e-us), . . . .80 
 
 Livingston (Liv'-ings-ton), . . 464 
 
 Livonia ( Li v-o'-iie-a;, . 186,273,274,278 
 
 Livunian (Liv-o'-no-an), . . 275 
 
 Llewi-llyii I Lu-el'-lin), . . .176 
 
 Lobos Lo'-bo I, . . . . 426 
 
 Lochleven (_L(ik-le'-ven), . . 223 
 
 Lock, John (Luk), . , . .264 
 
 Locriaiis ^Lo'-kre-ans), ... 53 
 
 Locris (Lo'-krisj, . . . 35i ^'2 
 
 Lodi iLo'-dei, . . . 163,326 
 
 Loire (Lwar"!, . . 126, 407, 408, 410 
 
 Lollards iLol'-lards), . . .181 
 
 Loma (Lo'-ma', .... 428 
 
 Lombard (Lora'-bard), 119, 127, 142, 163, 165, 
 
 3^-6 
 Lombards, . . no, 127, 163, 164, 165 
 
 Loinbardy (Lom'-bar-de), 119, 142, 143, 160, 163 
 37^, 379. 3S0, 392. 393 
 London (Lon'-don), 96, 153, 172, 173, 177, 17^, 
 182, 183, 210, 234, 236, 239, 243, 244, 297 
 London, New, .... 474 
 
 Londonderry (Lon-don-der'-re\ . 24S 
 
 Longimaniis, Arta-vcr-ices (Ar-ta-zerk'-sees 
 
 Lon-jiin-:in'-us), . . . .34 
 
 l/)ng Island ! Lung I'-land), . . 464 
 
 Long 1-land Sound, .... 259 
 LongolMrds ( Long -go-bards), . . 119 
 
 Longstreet, James I Long'-street), . . 514 
 
 Longwy ilxmg-we), . . . 4" 
 
 1 ookuut Mountain, .... 5'6 
 I opez, Francisco (Kran-sis'-ko Lo-pa'), 441 
 Lc>renzo de Medici { Lo-ren'-zo d j Med'-e- 
 
 che). ..... 145 
 
 1,'Uiient (Lo-re-ong'j, . . . 328 
 
 l<jrraine i Lor-rain';, 135,155,159, 181.205,206, 
 
 2H, 218, 255,253, 2S0, 2S2, 2S4, 318, 406, 408, 
 
 412 
 Lot. . . . . . .21 
 
 Lothaire (Iy>taire'j . . . 3"4 
 
 Loudon CLmi'-doni, . . . . 304 
 
 Louis Adoij)he Thiers (Loo'-e A'-dolf Tee'- 
 
 a), . . 3?o. 3851 4"i 415, 420 
 
 Louis Blanc (Loo'e Blongj, . . 372, 374 
 
 
 
 1J9 
 
 
 
 >59 
 
 
 
 146 
 
 . 
 
 
 1,3 
 
 I37i 
 
 148, 
 4'i 
 
 149 
 
 150 
 
 139. 
 
 140, 
 
 150 
 151 
 
 ''56, 
 
 ";7i 
 
 184 
 
 
 '58, 
 
 2oa 
 249. 
 
 Louis Bonaparte (Loo'-e Bn'-na-p,. rt ), 3^6,341 
 Louis Kossuth, (Loo'-e Kos-shoot), 380, 381, 
 
 382, 383 
 Louis Moro (Loo'-e Mo-ro') . . . '43 
 
 Louis Napoleon (.Loo'r. Na-pole'-yon) 370, 373, 
 
 , . ^ . 374, 384. 3^5. 386 
 
 Louis of Zuniga (Loo'-e of Zu-ne'-ga), . 217 
 Louis Philippe (Loo'-e Fil'-leep^ 362. 363, 364, 
 
 , . , 370, 37', 372 
 
 Louis the Bavarian, . . . 167, 168 
 
 Louis the Debonnaire (Debon-yairi:'), 1 ^9 
 
 Louis the German, 
 Louis IV., 
 Louis v., . 
 Louis VI., 
 Louis VI L, 
 Louis VllL, . 
 Louis IX., or St. Louis, 
 Louis X., 
 Louis XL, 
 Louis XIL, . 
 Louis XI 11., 
 
 Louis XIV., 245, 247. 248, 249, 250, V51, 252, 
 253, 254, 255, 268, 269, 271. 273, 300 
 Louis XV., . 273, 280, 284, 2S6, 3^9, 310 
 
 Louis XVI. , . . 310,313,316,317,320 
 
 Louis XVIIL, . 310,349,350,352,353,354 
 Louis St. (.Saint Loo'-e), . . . 506 
 
 Loviisa (Loo-e'-sa>, . .■ . 203 
 
 Louisa, Maria (Ma-ri'-a Loo-e'-sa), 341, 349 
 Louisburg (Loo'-is-burg), . 285, 286, 302, 305 
 Louisiana (Loo-is-e-an'-a), 300, 301, 481, 489, 
 
 490, 491, 503, 504, 513, 514, 515, 516,517, 
 525. 527 
 Louisville (Loo'-e-vil), . . . 512 
 
 Louverture, Toussaint ('I'oo-sang' Loo- 
 
 ver-turc'), ..... 334 
 Lotivois ; Loo-ywaw'), . . . 250 
 
 Louvre (Loo'-ver), . 149, 250, 362, 419, 420 
 Lovelace, Francis, (Fran-cis Lovc'-lasej, . 260 
 Lovcll, iNLinsficId (Mans'-tield Lov'-ell), . 509 
 Lowe, Sir Hudson ^Hud'-son Lo), . 352 
 
 Lowosiiz (Lou'-o-sits), . . . 287 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius ( Ig-na'-she-us Loy-o'-la), 
 
 213, 214 
 Lubec (Lu'-bek), . . 163, 165,228 
 
 Lucan (Lu'-kam, ... 96 
 
 Lucania (Lu-kan'-e-a), . . • f'5 
 
 Lucerne (Lu-sern'), . . . 167 
 
 Lucicn Bonaparte Lii'-she-en Bo'-na-part), 331 
 Lucius Sexiius Lateranus (Lu'-she-us Sek'- 
 
 she-us Lat-er-an'-iis), . -74 
 
 Lucius Junius Brutus (Lu'-she-us Ju'-ne-us 
 
 Bru'-tusJ, ..... 
 Lucius Qviintus Cinciniiatus (Quin'-tus Sin- 
 
 sin-at'-us', ..... 
 Lucius Verus (Lu'-she-us Ve'-rus), 
 Lucknnw i Luk'-no), . . 390, 
 
 Lucrctia (Lii-kre'-she-a), 
 Liiculliis Lu-kul'-lus;, 
 laindy's Lane i Lun'-dy's Lane), 
 Luncville (Lune'-vil 1, 
 Liipercalia, Feast of (^Lu-per-kal'-e a), 
 Lusaii.i (Lu-sa'-she-aj, 
 Lusitanians ( L.u-se-tan'-e-ans), 
 i.uther, Martin (,Mar-tin Looth'-er), 199, 200, 
 
 201- 207 
 Lutheran ( I.ooth'-er-an), . . 213 
 
 Lutheranism (Looth'-er-an-ism), . 213 
 
 Lutter i Lut'-lcr), ... 2^8 
 
 Lutzen ( Luiz'-eni, . . 230.34; 
 
 Luxembourg ( Lux'-em-booig), 250, 254, J24, 
 
 41^,. ^^~ 
 Luxemburg (Lux'-em-burg), . 167, 166 
 
 l.uzara iLu-za-ra), ... 269 
 
 l.ycurgus ' l.i-kur'-gus), . 40, 41, 42, <» 
 
 Lydia iLid'-e-ai, . . . • 33. 45 
 
 Lynchlnirg (Linch-lnirg), • . . 5>7 
 
 Lynn ( Lin 1, . . • 25 
 
 Lyon, Nathaniel (Na-than'-yel Ly'-on\ 506, 50 
 
 231 
 
 68 
 
 333 
 91 
 
 83 
 
52 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Lyons fl.y'-ons), .... loi 
 Lys:uulcr i Li-s.in'-der 1, , . 50, 51 
 
 Ly^imnchlls iLi-se-inak'-us), . ,60 
 
 M, 
 
 Maccabeus, Jonathan (Jon'-a-than Mak-ka- 
 
 bc-iiM, . . . . .64 
 
 Mucabciis, Judas (Ju'-das), . . 64 
 
 M.iucal^cus, Siiniiij Si'-nion), . . 64 
 
 Macialjces ■ M,.k'-ka-l)ces:, . . 64 
 
 M.tijtioii Id lAlak di'ii'-aldi, . 329, 332, 346, 350 
 Macd •Miiugh (M.ik-duii'-o), . 489 
 
 Maccdon (,Mai'-.--duii;, 34, 33, 53, 54, 55, 56,57. 
 60, 61 , 62, 03, bi 
 Macedonia (M:LS-e-do'-ne-a), 61, 82, 92, iio, 112 
 
 Macedonian I Mas-c-do'-iic-an ), . 53, 54, 5^, 56, 
 57i 5^. 59. 6u, 62. 6j, 64, 81 , 82 
 Macedonians, . . 54, 55, 56, -7, 58 
 
 Maclii.iS iMa-ki'-as), . . 261,489 
 
 J\I..Lk, ... 327. 336 
 
 Mackenzie, VVllliani l.yr.n (Mak-ken'-zee), 495 
 M.,ckiMaw Mak'-c-nau), . . .484 
 
 MaciiunTiigh, UeniiLil (Der-niot Mac- 
 
 nior-ci), . . . . .174 
 
 Macomb (Ma-konic'), . . . 489 
 
 Macun Ma -knii), .... 509 
 Macrinus (.Mak-re'-nus\ , . 102 
 
 Majzicwice .\l..k'-zc-wi^), . . .296 
 
 Madeira Ma-de'-ral, . . . 193 
 
 Madeleine (Mad'-e-lin), . . 370,371 
 
 Madison, James (.Mad -e-son), 483. 48=;, 491 
 
 Madras (.Mid'-r..s,, . . .298 
 
 Madrid ^Ma-drid',, 203, 270, 339, 340, 342, 368, 
 4CO. 401, 422, 423, 424, 430 
 Magaw ?Ma-gaiv'), . . . 465 
 
 Mai;del)iiry Nlag'-de-biirg', 208, 229, 319 
 
 MageUaii, Ferdinand (Fer'-de-nand Ma-jcl'- 
 
 kui), . . . . .195 
 
 Mageiiia f Ma-jen'-ta), . , . 394 
 
 Mayi Ma'-jii, .... 35 
 
 Magna C.'harta (Mag'-na Kar'-ta), . . 175 
 
 Magna Grecia iMag'-na Cire'-shc-a), 40, 65 
 
 Magnesia ' Mag-ne'-she-aj, . . 63,81 
 
 Magyar (Mad'-yar), . . 381,382,383 
 
 Magyars, , 129, 159, 160, 189, 381, 382, 383 
 
 M.diar.ijpore (M.ah-a-raj'-pore), . 369 
 
 Mahomet i Ma-lioin'-el), . . .121 
 
 Mahratla (Mah-rat'-taj, . . 281, 300 
 
 Mahrattas, . . , 281, 299, 300, 398 
 
 Main, . . . . 290, 375, 376 
 
 Maine (Main), 149, 221, 261, 470, 489,492, 496, 
 
 5'"4 
 Maintenon (Main-le-nong'), , , 25^ 
 
 Maitland 1 l\lait'-laiid), . . . 352 
 
 Majorca (Ma-jor'-ca) . . . 15S 
 
 Malacca (Mal-lac'-ca), . . . 193 
 
 Malaga ( iMal'-a-ga), . 424, 425,426 
 
 Ma!ak<.ff(Mal'-a-kofr), . . .388 
 
 .Malculm .Mal'-koin), . . .173 
 
 IVlaldeii (Mawl'-dcn), . . .486 
 
 Malesberbes (Mal-zerb'), . .320,325 
 
 Malniu (M.d'-mo), . . . .375 
 
 Malo N'aiaslavetz (Ma'-lo Ya-ras-la'-vets;, 345 
 Malplu]iiet iMal-pla-ka'j, . . .271 
 
 Malta (Mawl'-ta , . . 140, 328, 334 
 
 Malvern Hill (Mal'-vern Hill), . 510,511 
 
 Maine; )n I Main'-e-loii). . . . 3! 8 
 
 iMameliikc (Mani'-c-luke), . . .328 
 
 Maciiehikes, . . 140, 192, 328, 368 
 
 M.imcriines ( Mam'-er-tines). . . 76 
 
 Manassas Junction (Ma-nas'-sas Junk'- 
 
 -ihiin I, . . . . 506, 516 
 
 Manchester (Man'-ches-ter), . . 555 
 
 Manfred I Man'-fred), . . .145,165 
 
 Maiiliattan .Man-hui'-ian), . 259, 260 
 
 Manheim ' Man'-hime), . 227, 251. 2';4 
 
 Maiiiiu ( M;i-ni'-iii >, , . . 3S0 
 
 Manlius i^Man'-lc-us), , , •74 
 
 Manlius, Marcus (Mar'-kils Man'-le-us), 
 M.mlins, Titus (Ti'-tus Man'-le-ns). 
 Mansfeld, Ernest von (Er'-not von Mans'- 
 
 fcld , ... 227, 228 
 
 Mansfield (Mans'-field), . , . siis 
 
 MantcufTel Mahn-toi'-fel), . . 410,411 
 
 Mantinea i Man-te-ne'-a;, . . 51.53 
 
 Mantua (Man'-tu-a), . . . 326, 3-9 
 
 Mar, Karl of, .... 278 
 
 Maracaybo iMar-a-ki'-bo), . . . 433 
 
 Marat 'M.th-r.ih'), . j'5i3>7. •'» ''^1 
 
 Marathon M.^r'-a-thoni, . 15 
 
 Marburg I .Mar'-burgj, . . , j; 
 
 Marcel ,Mar-sel',, . . 15- 
 
 Marcellns Mar-sel'-lus), . . 70 8c 
 
 Marchfeld 'March'-lcld , . . i(it 
 
 Marco ISotzaris (Mar'-ko Hot-zar'-is), . 358 
 
 Marcoinanni M.ir ko-nian -ni , 100 
 
 Marcus .Aurclius Mar'-kus Au-re'-le-us', . 10 
 Marcus Crassus (Kras'-iis), . 87.88.89 
 
 Marcus Junius Krutas ijii -ne-us Bru'-tus) ji, 
 
 92 
 Marcus Manlius (Man'-le-us', . 73 
 
 Marcus 'lulliiis Cicero ('I'ul -le-us Sis'-e-roj, 88, 
 
 92 
 Mardonius 'Mar-tlo'-ne-us). . . 45,47 
 
 Marer.go (Ma-rcng'-gc), . . 332 
 
 Margall, Pi y tV e Mar'-gau'l , 423. 424, 425 
 Margaretof An-jou(Mar-ga-retof An-joo'), 182. 
 
 183 
 Margareta of Oenmark ( Mar-ga-ret'-a), . 186 
 Margarita ( Mar-gah-re'-t.ih i, . . 437 
 
 Maria Chris:ina i Ma-ri'-a Kns'-te-na). . 368 
 ilaria da (iloria. Donna (Uon'na Ma-ri'-a 
 
 (la i;io'-rc-ai, . . .356 
 
 Maria Louisa i Lou e'-sa', . 341,349 
 
 Maria ']'heresa (Te-rc'-sa), 280, 282, 283, 284 
 285, 286, 297, 298, 311 
 Marie (Mar'-re), . . . 372. 373 
 
 ALirie Antoinette (Mar'-re Ang-lwaw-net'i 310, 
 
 3'9. 321 
 Marignanii (.\Li-rig-nan'-o>, . 143, 202 
 
 Marion, Francis Fran-sis ALar'-e on), 471,474 
 ^hirius ( .Ma'-re-us , . . . 85. 8f 
 
 i\LTrk .Antony ' i\Lirk An'-to-ne), 89,91,92,93 
 Mark, St. iSaint NLirk , . . 143,380 
 
 Marlborough ( iNLai l-bur'-o), 269, 270, 271, 272 
 iVLirniont (.Mar'-mont I, , 342,350,361,362 
 
 .Marnuira ( ^h^r-lno'-ra), . , . 323 
 
 .\Lin|Uelte, James I .Mar-ket'), . . 300 
 
 ALirqiiez ■ Mar-kaze'j, . . . 448 
 
 .^Llrr.cst ' Mah rah'', . . . 374 
 
 M.irs(ALirz , . . 36, 66, 67,"9i 
 
 Marseilles I ^L^r-saiIs''), . 90,203,322,354 
 
 Marsellaise i Mar-sail-aise'l, . . 405 
 
 Marshall, John iMar'-shal), . .480 
 
 Marsians ALir'-st-ansi, . . 86 
 
 Marsiii (NLir-sang'l, . . . .27 
 
 Marsum .Moor (Mars'-lon), . . 257 
 
 Martcl, Charles (Mai-tel',, . . 124,1^6 
 
 Martha's Vineyard I i\Lar'-lha's Vin'-yard;, 257 
 RLirtin ( ^Llr'-tin ', . . .169 
 
 ^Llrlinitz (^L^r-^in'■its), . . . 226 
 
 ^Llrtos I XLir toce'j, ... 422 
 
 Mary of I'.urgiindy (Bur'-g\in-de), . 157, 202 
 
 NLiry of England, . 212, 21 ). 222 
 
 Mary of Scotland, 218, 219, 222, 223, 224 232 
 Maryland (Ma'-re-land 1, 261, 262, 473, 475, iSa, 
 510, 511, 512, 514, 51 J =29 
 Mary's, St, .... 261 
 
 ]\h»ssachusetts (Mas-sa-chu'-sets\ 257, 7^8 j-g, 
 261, 262, 263, 307, 455. 457, 45 3, 459, 4611, j52, 
 478, 484, 485, 490, 491, 5..?, .,..= 
 Massasoit f Mas-sa-soit'), . .2=7,2,8 
 
 .Masseiia ( ^LlS-sen'-na , . 329, 3J2. .^42 
 
 Massinissa 'Mas-se-nis'-sa), . . 8'j. S5 
 
 Maslai ( NLis-ta-i'', . . . ^79 
 
 M.it.unoras ( Mat-a-mo'-ras* . 446,449,4^1 
 Matilda iMa-li!'-dai, . .473 
 
 NUilthews (Math '-use), . . . 47a 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX, 
 
 M.Tthias (Ma-thi'-as), . . . 226 
 
 M.(tliias Corvinus ( Kor-vi'-nus), . igo 
 
 Mauherl, I'liice ( Plas Mo-baiie'), . . 373 
 
 Maiimee City (Maw'-mee), . . 479 
 
 M.iurice of i>raiige (Maw'-ris), . 217,218 
 M.iiirii,e of Saxony, . . .207,208 
 
 Maiirilania (Maw-re-tan'-e-a), . . 85 
 
 Mavrooordato (Mav-ro-kor-da'-to), . 358 
 
 Mawhood Maw'-hood), . . . 465 
 
 Waxtn (iMax'-em, . . . 290 
 
 M.ixumius (Max-en'-she-us), . . 107 
 
 4;:xir.i lian 1. (Max-e-mil'-yan), 144, 157, 158 
 171, 20Q, 202 
 tl.ixiiiiilian II., .... 2:5 
 
 M.i.viiiiilian Joseph, . . , 297 
 
 Maxiiiiiian of Austria, . . 449,450 
 
 Maxmllian of Uavaria, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 
 
 231 
 Maxniilian, King of Bavaria, . . 374 
 
 Ma.vimian ( Max-im'-e-aii), , . 106. 107 
 
 M.ixiniin (Max'-e-mini, . . 102,103 
 
 M.ixiiuiniis .Max-e-niin'-us), . . no 
 
 M;ixiiiuis (Max'-e -niiis), . . 112 
 
 Maytnce (Ments), i65, 170, 192, 254, 319,323, 
 
 4u2 
 
 Maypii (Ma'-poo), .... 439 
 .^l.|/..■l■i^ , Maz-a-reen'), . • 242,249,250 
 
 Mazcppa (Ma-zep'-pa), . . 275,276 
 
 Mazzini (Maz-ze'-nei, . . 379. 380 
 
 JVlcClcllan, George B. (Mak-KIel'-lan), 507, 508, 
 510, 511 , 512 
 McClernand (Mak-Kler'-nand), . 512, 51^ 
 
 McClure (Mak-Kliire') . . .487 
 
 McCook (MaU-Kook') . . .512 
 
 Mci ulloiigli, Ben (Mak-Kul'-lo), 507, 50S, 509 
 McDowelT (Mak-Doti'-eh, . . 472 
 
 McDowell, Irwin Jr'-win), . . . 506 
 
 McGregor (Mak-Gre'-gor), . . 437 
 
 McHenry, Fort (Mak-Hen'-re), . .489 
 
 MacMahon (Mak-Mahn'), 393, 402, 403, 404, 
 
 405 
 McPherson, James B. (Mak-Fer'-son) 518 
 
 Meade, George Gordon (Gor'-don Meed), 514, 
 
 517, 5>8 
 Mecca (Mek'-a), . . .1 = 1 
 
 Mechanicsville ' Me-kan' iks-vil'), . 511 
 
 Mecklenberg, (Mek'-len-burg), 186,408,461,462 
 Mecklenburg Schwerin (Scliwair'-inJ, . 407 
 
 Medes, t Meeds) . . . .24,35 
 
 Media (Me'-de-a), . . . -33 
 
 Medici (Mcd'-e-che), . . 145,199,280 
 
 Medici, Cosmo de ( Kos'-mo de), , 145 
 
 Medici, Lorenzo de (Lo-rcn'-zo), . . 145 
 
 Medicis, Catharine de (Kaih'-a-rine de 
 
 Med'-e-shel, . . . zi8, 219 
 
 Medicis, Mary de, . . . . 249 
 
 Medina (Me-de'-na', . . .121 
 
 Medina Sidonia (Me-de'-na Si-do'-ne-a), . 224 
 Mediterranean (Med-it-er-ra'-ne-an ', 26, 27, 37, 
 87, 144, 158. 349. 480, 481, 491 
 Meeriit (Mee'-nit), . . . 39° 
 
 Megalopolis (Meg-a-lop'-o-lis\ . . 60 
 
 Mchemet Ali ( Me-hem'-et Al'-e), . 359, 360 
 
 Meigs, F'ort (Meegsj, . . . 486 
 
 Meissen ,Mi'-sen), . . . 290 
 
 Mejia '.Ma he'-a), . . . -45° 
 
 Mei.uiipus (Me-lam'-pus), . . 483 
 
 MeUnchthon,l'hilip(Fir-ipMe-lank'-thon),2oi, 
 
 207 
 Melas (Ma'-las\ . . • .332 
 
 M .'Icampo Mel-kam'-po), . . 422 
 
 Vlclegnano (Me-leg-nan'-o). . . .393 
 
 Mckk Kamel Mel'-ek Kam'-el), . 139 
 
 Memn m the Rhodian (Mam'-non the Ro'- 
 
 de-aiii. . . . . . 54. 55 
 
 Memphis <Mem'-fis', . . 25,56,122,510 
 
 Menehuiild, St. 'Sang Ma-noo'), . 3'^ 
 
 Menelaiis (iSlen-e-la'-us), . . -38 
 
 Mcneniiis Agrippa (Me-nen'-e-us A-grip - 
 
 pa), • .... 70 
 
 Menes (Me'-neez), . . . .25 
 
 Menilmontant (Men-il-man-tong'), . 420 
 
 Menno (Men'-no), .... 207 
 Mennonites (Men'-no-nites), 207 
 
 Menzikoff;Mentz'-ze-kotT!. . . .276 
 
 Mercer, Hugh (Hu Mer'-ser), . . 465 
 
 Mercia (Mer'-she-a), . . 120 
 
 Mercury ( Mer'-ku-re), . . 36 
 
 Merida ' l\Ier'-e-dah), . . . 124 
 
 Meroveus (Me-ro'-ve-us), . , lafi 
 
 Merovingian (Me-ro-vin'-je-an), , 1 26 
 
 Merovii.gians, . ' . . . 135. uf 
 
 Merrimac ( Mer'-re-mak), , , • >o^ 
 
 Merseberg ( Mer'-se-bur?), . . 16c 
 
 Mersel-Kebir (Mers'-el-Ke'-ber), . .428 
 
 Messilla Valley (Mes-sil'-la), . . 501 
 
 Mesopotamia, (Mes-o-po-ta-me-a), zi, 29, 103, 
 
 105 
 Messalina fMes-sa-li'-na), . . -95 
 
 Messana (Mes-san'-a), , , 40, 42, 76 
 
 Messene i Mes-se'-ne), . . 63 
 
 Messtnia ( Mes-se'-ne-a), . . '35 
 
 Messenian, , , . . .42 
 
 Messenians, .... 42, 48 
 
 Messina (Mes-se'-na), . . . 378 
 
 Mctacomet (Met-a-kom'-et), . . 258 
 
 iMetaiirus(Me-taw'-rus), . . , 80 
 
 Metellus (Me-tel'-lns), . , -85 
 
 Meilernich (Met'-ter-nik), . .3571374 
 
 Melz (Mets), 170, 206, 309, 402, 403, 404, 405, 
 
 407, 408 
 Metzler, George (Mets'-ler), . . . 200 
 
 Meung (Mc-oong ), . . . 408 
 
 Meuse iMuze), . " . . 404 
 
 Mexia (Ma-he'-a), . . . 444 
 
 Mexican (Mex'-e-kan), 434, 435, 441, 442, 443, 
 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451 
 Mexicans, . . 435, 444, 446, 447, 449 
 
 Mexico (Mex'-e-ko), 214, 434, 435, 441, 442, 444, 
 445) 446, 448, 449. 450. 451 
 Mexico, New, . . . 447 
 
 Michael de la Pole (Mi'-kel de la Pole), . 180 
 Michael Paleologus ( Pa-le-ol'-o-giis), . 139 
 
 Michael, Romanufr(Ro-man-ov'), . > 273 
 
 Michigan (^Mish'-e-gan), 300, 484, 485, 486, 495, 
 
 503, 522 
 Micislaus (Mis-is-la'-us), . . 160, 186 
 
 Micipsa (Mikip'-sa), . . .85 
 
 Middlcbrook (Mid'-del-brock), . . 468 
 
 Middesex (Mid'-del-sex), . . .297 
 
 Midianites (Mid'-e-an-ites), . . 29 
 
 Mierolawski (Me-ro-lous'-ke), . . 377 
 
 Mifflin (Mif-flin), . . . 4^6 
 
 Miguel, Don (Don Me'-gel), . .356 
 
 Milan (^Mil-an'), 109, no, 142, 143, 158, 160, 163 
 202. 203, 204, 205, 272, 335, 378, 379, 393 
 Milanese (Mil-an-eez'), . . . i43i '^3 
 
 Milbourne (Mil'-born), . . 260, 261 
 
 Milessimo (Mil-la'-se-mo), . . 3-6 
 
 Miletus (Me-le'-tus), . . 44.55 
 
 MilledgevilletMil'-lej-vil), . 520 
 
 Mill Spring, . . .508 
 
 Miltiades (Mil-ti'-a-deez), . . 45i 46 
 
 Milvian Bridge (Mil'-ve-an), • . 107 
 
 Mimms, Fort, . . . 4S7 
 
 Minden (Min-'den), . . 29^ 
 
 Minerva (Min-nei'-va), 3? 
 
 Minnesota (Min-ne-so'-ta), , 5"3. iMi'-)' 
 
 Minorca I Min-or'-ka), . . 158, 287, 09 
 
 Minos (Mi'-nos), . . •4'' 
 
 Minsk 1^5 
 
 Minuit, Peter (Pe'-ter Min'-u-it), 250, 260 iO.j 
 Mirabeau (Me-ra-bo'), . 3'2, 3'J 3't 
 
 Miramon (Mir'-a-mon), • . 448. 15" 
 
 Misraim (Mis'-ram), . . . .25 
 
 Missionary Ridge, . . .516 
 
 Mississippi ( Mis-sis-sip'-pe), 195, 279, 300, 475, 
 4S1, 492, 493, 494. 504, 508, 5091 5>o, 512, 5>3i 
 514. 515, 516, 517, 518. 53a 
 Missolonghi (Mis-so-long'-geJ, . .350,359 
 
 k 
 
54 
 
 ALPHA BE TICAL INDEX. 
 
 Missouri (Mi ,-soo'-re), 492, 499, 506, 507, 508, 
 
 5231 5^5. 530 
 Missundc (Mis'-soonil), . . . 396 
 
 Mitclicll. Ormsby McKnight (Orms'-be Mak- 
 
 iiiie' iMit -chcl), .... 509 
 Millirid.itcs (Miili-re-da'-teez), . 86,87,88 
 
 MilhiHl.uic .Mith-re-da'-tik), . 86,87 
 
 IMilyloiic (Mit-e-le'-ne), ... 44 
 
 Miii;niun. Artaxei'xes ( Ar-ta-zerk'-seez Ne'- 
 
 inoiii, . . , . 51, 52 
 
 Muab Mo'-ahi, .... 29 
 
 Miiawiyah iMu-a wi'-ah), 
 
 300, 489, 519, 520, 53.J 
 
 366 
 
 . 26 
 
 103 
 
 190, igi, 215, 281 
 
 . 190 
 
 192, 204, 253 
 
 121, 123, 124 
 
 191 
 
 Mobile Mo-becl'), 
 M .(Icna (Mo-dc'-na), 
 MfLris (Mc'-ris), 
 Rhesia (Mc'-slie-a), 
 Mogul Mo'-giili, . 
 M.,g„ls, 
 
 M hacz Mo'-hakl, 
 Ml lianimcd I Mu-ham'-mod), 
 M.jh.aiiiuicd II-,. 
 
 Mohainmcdaii, . . 122, 123, 125 
 
 Mohaniniedanisin, . . 253, 357 
 
 MohanuiieiJans, .... 121 
 
 M.,h.<nimtd, Utjst, . . . 369 
 
 Mc^hawk iMu'-hawk), . . 467,469! 
 
 Mohawks, . . . . 262 i 
 
 Mohcyaii Mo-he'-ganl, . . . 262 I 
 
 MoUlavi.i (Mol-da'-vc-a), . 294, 357, 3S6 
 
 Mole Mu-la'), . . . . 371 j 
 
 Moliiu) dL'l Key (Mol-lee'-no del Ra') 447. 500 
 Mulocli iMo'-luk), . . . .26 
 
 Moltke (Miilt'-kei, . . . 402, 406 
 
 Molucca (Mo-liik'-ka), . . ■ >93 
 
 Molvitz iM.il'-vitsi, . . .282 
 
 Momoro ( Mo-mo-ro'), . . . 323 
 
 Monachism ^Moii'-a-kism"l, . . 133, 134 
 
 Monasticism (Mo-nas'-ti-sism), . . 133 
 
 Mi)ncey (Moaiig-se'), . . . 339 
 
 Moiickton (Mouk'-tou), . . . 303 
 
 Monitor, ..... 509 
 
 MouK, . . . 341,243,244 
 
 Monk's Corner, .... 471 
 
 Monniouih, Uuke of f Mon'-muth), . . 246 
 
 Monmouth Court House, . . 463 
 
 Mouoc.icy (Mo-nok'-a-se), . . ' 519 
 
 Moiiong.ihela ;Mo-non'-ga-he'-la), . 303 
 
 Monro (,Mon-ro'), .... 304 
 Monroe, James (ftlon-ro'), . . 491, 492 
 
 Monseigncur (Mong-seen'-yure), . 373,419 
 Montana I Mon-laii'-al, . •.132,534 
 
 Montcalm iMout'-kam), 287, 2S9, 290, 304, 306 
 Monlcbello ! Mon-ie-bel'-lo), . . 332,392 
 
 Monticello.lM.jn-te-sel'-lo), . . .493 
 
 M mtecuciili I Mon-ta-koo'-koo-le), . 251 
 
 M-.nlcnotte (Mjnt-not'i, . . . 326 
 
 Montereau (.Moii-le-ro'), . . 349 
 
 Monte Video (.Mon-te Vid'-e o), . .438 
 
 Moiuezimia ' Alon-te-zu'-ma), . . 214 
 
 Montfort, Simon lie (Si'-moH de Monl'-fort), 175, 
 
 176 
 Montgomery, Fort (Mont-gom'-e-re), . 467 
 
 Muntgouiery, Richard, . . . 462 
 
 Moiitijo, Eugenie de (,Eu-je'-ne da Mon'-te- 
 
 bul, . . . 386, 389, 406 
 
 Mc ptijoi ! Mnn-te-yoy'), . . . 427 
 
 iVioiitinartre (Mont-inar-ter), 349, 414, 416, 419 
 Moutniedy (Monl-mc'-de), . . 404, 4 9 
 
 Montn'.irail (Mong me rail'), . . 349 
 
 Vloiui.lorenci ^,\lont-mo-ren'-se), 205, 219, 249, 
 
 3-6 
 >l. II' trial I Mont-ie-awl') 195, 301, 306, 307, 462, 
 
 487 
 Moutroiige ^^Ion-troozh'), 407, 410, 416, 418 
 Mo,,dkce !.\l..od'-kec), . . .369 
 
 .SI )ore. Sir John I More), . . 340 
 
 M-.>orish, iMuor'-ishj, . . .124, 159 
 
 Moors, . . 106, 140,158,204, 215, 216 
 
 Morales (Mo-rales') . . .4371 438 
 
 Moravia (Mo-ra'-ve-a), 166, 277, 282, 289, 336 
 
 376, 398 
 Moravian, . . . , .170 
 
 Moraviantown, .... 4S6 
 
 Morea (Mo-re'-a), 35,1)2,253,294 357.359 
 Moreau (Mo-ro'i, 325, 326, 329, 332, 335, 347 
 Morelos (.Mo-ra'-los), . . . A34 
 
 Morgan, Daniel, (Mor'-gan), - 473 
 
 ilorgau, John, ... 515 
 
 Morgarten ( Mor-gar'-ten), . 167 
 
 Morillo (Mo-ril'-lo), . . ^vj 
 
 .Moriones (Mo-re-on'-es), . 427 
 
 Mormons i Mor'-mons}, . 503 
 
 Morocco (Mo-rok'-o), . 85. 400. 491 
 
 Moro, Louis (Loo' e Mo-ro'), . . 143 
 
 Morris, Lewis (Lu'-is Mor'-ns), . 26C 
 
 Morristown, .... 465, t'\ 
 
 Morse, Samuel Finley Breese(Fin'-le lirccs 
 Mois.', ...... 497 
 
 Morlier ; Mor'-te-a), . . . 345 
 
 Mortimer, Kdmiind f F.d'-mund Mor'-te-meri, 180 
 Mortimer, Roger (Roj'-eri, . 177, 178 
 
 Moscow (Mos'-ko), 188, 190, 275, 294, 343, 344, 
 
 345 
 
 402. 403 
 
 28, 29, 33 
 
 344 
 
 • 122 
 124 
 
 463. 495 
 
 463 
 . 71 
 
 21 
 
 • »33 
 29 
 
 • 36 
 28 
 
 • 33° 
 475, 481 
 
 • 31 
 328 
 
 . i8o 
 242 
 
 • 207 
 167 
 
 . 200 
 
 507 
 
 63, 82 
 
 90 
 
 • 391 
 63, 168, 283 
 
 207, 231 
 200 
 429 
 
 Moselle (Mo-zel'), 
 Moses (Mo'-sesl, . . 
 
 Akskwa i Moask'-v.a), . 
 Moslem (Mos'-lem), . 
 Moslems .... 
 Moultrie, Foit (i\Ioal'-tre), . 
 Moult' ie, William, . . . 
 
 Mount Algidus (Al'-je-dus), . 
 Mount Ararat (Ar'-a-ral), 
 iVIount Casino ( Kas'-se-no), . 
 Mount Nebo (Ne'-bo), . 
 Mount Olympus (O-lim'-pus), 
 Mount Sinai i Si'-na), . , 
 
 Mount Tabor (I'a'-bor), 
 Mount Vernon I Ver'-non), , 
 
 Mount Zion (Zi'-on), . 
 
 Mourad Bey !Moo'-rad Kay), . 
 Mowbray, Thomas (Mow'-bray), 
 Moyer ^loy'-er), . , 
 
 Muhlberg ' Mool'-berg'), 
 iMuhldorf iMooi-dorf), . 
 Mulier, Hans ' Hahns Mil'-ler), 
 Mulligan (Mul'-le-gan), . 
 Muinmius 1 Muin'-me-us), 
 Muiida I Mun'-dal, 
 .Miingarwar 1 Mung-ar-war'), 
 Munich (.Mu'-nik), 
 Munster I -Muns'-tcr), 
 Munzer, Thomas (Moontz'-er), 
 Mura Moo'-rah), . . . . ,.. 
 
 Murat, Joachim ( Jo'-a-kim Mu-rah'), 331, 339 
 
 345i 351 
 Murcia (Mur -she-a), . . 158, 424, 425 
 
 Murfreesborough 1 Mur'-fr-ies-bur'-o), . 517 
 
 Murray, Earl ot'(Mur'-re), . . 223 
 
 iVIurray, (jenerai, . . . 291, 3o( 
 
 Murten I Miir'-ten), , . , 157 
 
 Muscovite (Mus'-co-vite), . . . 188 
 
 Miissa Pacha (Moos'-sah Pa-shaw'), . 387 
 
 Mussulman ( Miis'-sul-man), . . . 124 
 
 Mnstapha, Kara (Ka-r.ih' Mus-taF-ah'), 252 
 
 Mutius Scjevola (Mu'-she-us Sev'-o-laj, . 69 
 .Mycale (Mi-ka-le'), ... 47 
 
 Mysore (Mi-sore'), . , . 299 
 
 Mystic (Mis'-tik), . . 263 
 
 N. 
 
 Nadir Shah (Na'-der Shah\ 281 
 
 Nagy Sarlo (Na'-ge Sar'-lo), , . 383 
 Nainur (Na'-miir), .... 254 
 
 Nancy (Nan'-sel, . . 157, 403 412 
 
 Nankin Nan'-kin), . . 368, 369 
 
 Nantes ! Nanls ', . . 221 254 
 
 Nantucket (Nan-tuk'-et), . . 257 
 
 Napier, Sir Charles (Na'-pe-er), 369. 387, 388 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 55 
 
 Napii-r, Txobert, .... 399 | 
 
 Napk-s (Na'-peli), 94, 100, 145, 146, 157, 15S, 1 
 165, 202, 27^, 280, 285, 327, 328, 329 336, 356, 
 
 357. 37«, 394 
 Nap'jlcon (Na-po'-le-on), 322,325, 326, 327, 32S, 
 
 329-330, 331, 333. 334, 335. 3j6. 337 
 Napoli de Romania (_Nah'-po-le de Ko-man'- 
 
 e-a), 35S 
 
 Narraganset Bay (Nar-ra-gan'-set), . 263 
 
 Narragaiisetj, .... 259 
 
 Narses (Nar'-seez), . . . .lib 
 
 Narva i,Nar'-vah), . . . 274 
 
 Nar'-'iez ( Nar vah'-eth), . . .368 
 
 Naseb/ (Naze '-be), . . . 238 
 
 Nasln ille i^Nash'-vil), . . . 520 
 
 N issau 1 Nas'-sou), . . 166,266,363 
 
 N.uchez (Natch'-ez), . 300,301,510,530 
 
 Naupactas i Nau-pak'-tus), . . 48 
 
 Navajo (Nav'-a-ho), .... 499 
 Navarrtta ( Nav-a-ret'-tah), . . 154 
 
 Navarino ( Nav-a-re'-no), . . . 359 
 
 Navarre (Na-var'_i, 159, 202, 219, 22c, 221, 427, 
 
 430 
 Naxus (Nax'-us), . . . .65 
 
 Nazareth (Naz'-a-reth), . . 330 
 
 Neapolitan (Ne-a-pjl'-e-tan), 336, 351, 356, 357 
 
 394 
 Neapolitans, ..... 378 
 Nearchus (Ne-ar'-kus),' ... 58 
 
 Nebo, Mount (Ne'-bo), . . .26 
 
 Nebraska (Ne-bras'-ka), . 502,523,531 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar (Neb-u-kad-nez'-ar), 24, 27, 32 
 Necessity, Fort, .... 303 
 
 Necho, Pharaoh (,Fa'-ro Nek'-o), . 26, 27 
 
 Necker (Nelc'-er), . 311, 312, 313, 3:4 
 
 NeerwinJcn (Neer-win'-den), . 254, 320 
 
 Nchcmiah (Ne-he-mi'-ah), . . 33 
 
 Nelson, Admiral Lord ( Ncl -son), 328, 333, 336 
 Neiia Sahib ^Na'-na Sah'-ib), . . 390 
 
 Nepos (Ne'-pos), . . . 113 
 
 Neptune (Nep'-tune), . . -36 
 
 Nero (Ne'-ro), . . . 80,95,96 
 
 Nerva (Ner'-va), . . . .99 
 
 Netherlands (Neth'-er-lands), 202, 216,217,251, 
 254, 269, 270, 271, 272, 285, 298 
 Netherland, New, . 244, 259, 260, 264 
 
 Netherlanders, . . . 216,217 
 
 Ncnberg : Noi'-berg), . . . 225 
 
 Neiiilly (Nu-eel'-ye), . 371,416,417 
 
 Neiistria iNuse'-tre-a), . . . 1^6 
 
 Nevil (Nev'-il), . . . .182 
 
 Nevil's Cross, .... 178 
 
 Neva (Ne'-va), . . . , . 275 
 
 Nevada (Nev-ah'-dah), . . . 520, 531 
 
 New Amsterdam (Nu Am'-ster-dam), 259, 260 
 Newark (Nu'-ark), .... 487 
 Newbern ^Nii'-bern), . . . 509 
 
 New Brunswick (Nu Bruns'-wik), . 300 
 
 Newbury (Nu-ber'-re), .- . . 237 
 
 Newcastle (Nu-kas'-sel), . . . 237 
 
 New England (Nu Ing'-gland), 257, 258, 259, 459, 
 4fo, 461, 489, 490 
 New Englanders, , . 258, 302 
 
 Newloiindland (Nu'-fund-land), . 195, 523 
 New France (Nu Frans), . . 195 
 
 Newgate (Nu'-gate), . . . . 297 
 
 New Granada (.Nu Gra-nah'-dah), 435,436, 437, 
 
 440 
 Ke» Hampsh re (Nu Ham'-shir), 261, 301, 460, 
 
 529 
 jj' » Haven (Nu Ha'-ven), . 258, 262, 263 
 filiiv Jersey (Nu Jer'-se), 266,464,465,466,468, 
 47'>i 472. 474, 5=9 
 N :« London (Nu Lon'-don), . . 474 
 
 New Mexicc (Nu iMex'-e-ko), . 447,500,532 
 New Netherlands (Nu Neth'-er-lands j, 244, 259, 
 
 260, 264 
 
 New Orleans (Nu Or'-le-ans), 301, 489, 490. 509, 
 
 5>4, 517, 525, 5-'7, 5-^8 
 
 Newport (Nu'-port), . . . 263, 468 
 
 New Scotland (Nu Skof-l ind). . 301 
 
 New Spain, .... 214 434 
 
 New Ulm, ..... 513 
 New York, 244, 260, 261, 263, 266, 301, 303, 
 
 456, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 46;), 47,), 471 172 
 
 474, 475, 478, 4*i2, 487, 488, 491, 495, 496, :03. 
 516. 529. 
 Ney (Na), . 334, 345, 346, 35°, 35' 35a 
 
 Niagara (Ni-ag'-a-ra), 290, 303, 304, 305, 306, 
 4S5, 4S7, 4S8 
 Nicsea (Ni'-se-a), . , . . 5S 
 
 Nice (Nees\ . ■ . . 107, 20-. 326 
 
 Nicholas 'Nik'-o-las), . 364,382,386,387 
 
 Nici.is (Nish'-e-as), ... 49 
 
 Nicolaieff (Ne-ko-li-eP) . . ,389 
 
 Nicolls, Richard (Nik'-ols), . . 260 
 
 Nicomedia (Nik-o-me'-de-a), . . 107 
 
 Nicopolis (Nik-op'-o-lis), . . 191 
 
 Niel (Neelt, ..... 393 
 Nienien (Nee'-men), . 141, 338, 343, 356 
 
 Nile, . . 25, 26, 90, 9-1, 32d, 329 
 
 Niger, Pescennius (Pes-sen'-ne-us Ni'-jer;, 101 
 Nimeguen (Nim'-e-gen), . . . 253 
 
 Nimrod (Nim' rod;, ... 24 
 
 Ninety Six, Fort, .... 473 
 Nineveh (Nin'-e-va), ... 24 
 
 Ningpo ' Ning'-poJ .... 369 
 Ninus (Ni'-nus), ... 24 
 
 Nismes !Ne,-m), . . . 249,354 
 
 Nithsdale, Lord fNiths'-dale), . . 278 
 
 Niville (Nee'-veel), .... 346 
 Noah (No'-.ih), . . . .21,22 
 
 Noailles iNo-al'-ye), . . . 284,323 
 
 Nogai Tartars (No'-ga-i Tar'-tars), . 295 
 Noisy (Nwaw'-se>, . . . 407,409 
 
 Nordlingen (,Nord-ling'-en), . . 231 
 
 Norfolk (Nor'-folk), 180, zii, 223, 462, 463. 488, 
 
 506, 510 
 Noricum (Nor'-e-kum), . . .85 
 
 Norman (Nor'-man\ . 136, 145, 171, iS3 
 
 Normandy (Nor'-man-de), 130, 135, 136. 146, 
 147,148, 149, 172, 173, '75 
 Normans, . . 130, 145, 146, 159, 1S5 
 
 North, Lord, .... 458, 475 
 North America CA-mer'-e-ka) 195, 232, 300, 3^6 
 Northampton, (North-am'-ton) . . 182 
 
 Northamptonshire f North-am'-ton-shire), 238 
 North Carolina (North K.ar-L>-li'-na), 264, 265, 
 266, 458, 461, 471, 473 478, 506, 5'J7, 508, 509, 
 513, 514. 52», 522 
 Northmen (North'-men), . . .130 
 
 North Point, . . . . 4S9 
 
 North Sea, . . . • 13^, 3 --9 
 
 Northumberland (North-um'-ber-land), 120, i3o, 
 
 212 
 Norwalk(Nor'-wawk), . . . 470 
 
 Norway (Nor'-way), 176, 185, 186, 213, 277, 
 
 ^73, 343 
 Nothiis, Darius (Da-ri'-us No'-thus') . 51 
 
 Noire Dame, Church of (Not'-er Dahm), 335, 
 362, 3S5, 386 
 Nottingham (Not'-ting-ham), . . 236, 367 
 
 NonviUas, (Nu-veel'-yah), . . 4-2,437 
 
 Novara (No-vah'-rah), . . 357,379,393 
 
 Nova Scotia (No'-vah Sko'-she-ah), 272, j86, 
 300, joi, 301 463 
 Novgoroii (Nov'-go-rod)., . . i88 
 
 Novi(No'-vi) .... 3-'9 
 
 Noyons (Noy'-oang), . . 146 
 
 Nubia (Nu'-be-a), . ' . 26,368 
 
 Nujuffghur 'Nu-jur-gur\ . . .39^1 
 
 Niunancia (Nu-man'-she-a), . . 428 
 
 NuMiantia (Nu man'-shc-aj, . . . 8j 
 
 Numantians, .... 83 
 
 Nuina Pompilius (Nu'-ma Pom-pil'-e us), . 67 
 Numean Lion ( Nu-me'-an), . . 37 
 
 Numerian Nu-nicer'-e-an), • . .105 
 
 Numidia (Nu-mid'-e-a), . . 80, 85 
 
 Numidian, . . • • ' ^j 
 
 Numitor (.Nu'-rae-tor,, ... 6b 
 
56 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX, 
 
 Niiromberg fNu'-rem-burg), . , 206,230 
 
 Niirsia ( Nur'-she-a), . . . 13^ 
 
 Nysiadt (Ne'-stahtJ . . . 278 
 
 0. 
 
 Oak Grove, . . , .511 
 
 O.it'-s, 1 itiii;, (Ti'-tus Oats) . . 246 
 
 O.ixaca (Wah-hah'-kahj, . . 451 
 
 Ocl.ivi.i (Oc-ta'-ve-al, . . .93, 96 
 
 Oci ivius (Ok-ta'-ve us) . 84,92,9^,94 
 
 OLZ.ikow i( )|i;h-a-koo') . . . 295 
 
 • '•leaatus (Od-e-na'-tus), . . .104 
 
 ''. 'der (')'-der), . , 186,289,290,337 
 
 '^li.-^^-a (^-dis'-sah) . . . 3H7 
 
 v)dillun M irrot (.O-deel'-yoang Bar'-ro), . 371 
 {) liii lO'-diii), . . . . 186 
 
 O l.iacer (,()d'-o-a'-ser) . . 113,117 
 
 GCimtrians (Eii'-o-tre-ans), . . 6i 
 
 Ogdciisbiirg (Og'-dens-biirg') . . 4S7 
 
 O-diithorpe, James Edward vO'-gel-thorpe), 267, 
 
 268 
 O'Hitjgins (O'Hig'-gins), . . 439 
 
 Ohio .O-hi-o), 286, 3J2, 303, 305, 471. 481, 484, 
 496, 503, 515, 529 
 Okechobee (O kee-cho'-bee\ . . 495 
 
 Ol.if hkotkoining(0'-laf Skot'-ko-nung), . 186 
 Olaf the Saim, . . . .186 
 
 Oldenburg, (Or-den-biirg<, . . 186,348 
 
 Oliver Clissons (Ol'-e ver Klees'-soang , . 154 
 Oliver Cromwell (Krora'-well , 235, 237, 238, 
 239, 240, 241, 242, 243 
 Ollivier, Emile (A-meel' Ol-le-ve'-a), . 401 
 
 0!lo Ol'-yo I, .... 427 
 
 Olmiitz(Ol'-miits), . . 319 376, 398 
 
 Oloz iga Ol-o-za -gab), . . , 4J1 
 
 Olii-.tee {O-liis'-tce I, .... 517 
 Olybriu-; i,0-hb -re-us), . . 112,113 
 
 Olympia (O-lim' pe-a), . . .59 
 
 Olympiad ()!im -pi-ad), . . 30 
 
 Ol\ mpias (O-lim'-pe-as), . . .60 
 
 Olympic Festiv.d (Olim'-pik), . . 39, 40 
 
 Olympic Gam-s . . . 40, 96 
 
 Olyrnpiiis ()-lim'-pe-iis), . . iii 
 
 Olympus (O-iim -pus], . . .36 
 
 Olymhian 'O-liii -lb >an), . . 52 
 
 Olyiuhiis (O-Ini -thus), , . .52 
 
 Omaha (O -m i-haw), . . .524,532 
 
 0;nar iO' marl, . . . 122, 123 
 
 Om.ir Pacha ■ Pa-shaw'), . . 387, 388 
 
 O.mmiyades Om-mi'-a-deez), , 123, 124 
 
 Ontario ^Ol\-ta'-re-o, . 287,289,304,486,488 
 Opechaiicanough lOp-e-kan'-ka-no), . 256 
 
 Ophir lO'-fir), .... 31 
 
 Opimius <)-pim'-e-us), . . .84 
 
 Oporto (()-por'-to), . . 340, 356 
 
 Oral) O-raii,, . . . .428 
 
 Orange (Or'-anjj, , 216, 217, 218, 247, 251, 254, 
 259, 26J, 365 
 Orchard Knob, .... 516 
 
 Ord, .... 512, 521 
 
 Oregon 'Or'-e-gonl, 497, 503, 508, 525, 526, 531 
 (.)rense (^-ren-^a), . . . 423 
 
 Orient L' (l,o-re-ong'), . . . 328 
 
 Orinoco :()-re-no'-ko), ... 194 
 
 Onsk.my lO-ris'-ka-ne), . . . 467 
 
 Orizab 1 Or-e-sab'-bah), . 448,449 
 
 OHeani-.l i(Jr-le-an-ists), . . 384,410 
 
 t.rlcans 'Dr'-ie-anz', 155, 156, 158,181, 182,219, 
 2»i ^73i 3'3i 317. 320, 321.362, 4071 4-'S 
 
 ■)rlcar-, New 301, 489, 490, 5^9, 514, 517, 52:;. 
 
 5271 528 
 
 )i-<i,inJ (I )r'-mond), , . 240,272 
 
 'Ji'niK ijr-muz , . ' . . 193,215 
 
 Ornuzd (Or-miud), . . 35 
 
 Orsiiii (,Or-se'-ne), . . . 142, 392 
 
 Ortegi lOr-ta'-gah), . . . 449 
 
 Osceola (Os-e()'-lah\ , . . 495 
 
 Osnaburg Os'-na-burg), , , 231 
 
 O-tIa Os'-ch.>a), . . . .68 
 
 Ostrogoth (Os-tro-goth>, . . 117 
 
 Ostrogothic, .... 117, 118 
 
 Ostrogoths, . . , 109, 112, iiS 
 
 Ostroleuka (Os-tro-Ienk'-ka), . . 365 
 
 Oswego (Os-we'-go), . 287, 304, ,\ii 
 
 Othman (Otb'-man), . , 123, 191 
 
 Othniel ((^ih'-ne-el), . . . .29 
 
 Oiho the Great of Germany (O'-tho), . 160 
 
 Otho IL, . ... 16a 
 
 GthoUI., .... inj 
 
 Otho IV :r, 
 
 Otho of Greece, . 36?. 3)4. i y. 
 
 Otho of Rome, . . , ""Ati'i 
 
 Otis, James (O'-tis), . . ,5; 
 
 Ottocar (Ot'-to-kar) . . . . lo^ 
 
 Ottoman (.Ot'-to-man), 190, 191, \^: zjj, ?ij4 
 295. 328, 359, 36J. 363, 380. 3^7 389 
 Oltowa (Ot'-to-waw), . . . 3 )6 
 
 Oude lOod), . , . 389, 39J 
 
 Oudenarde (Ood'-nard), . , . z-ji 
 
 Oudinot (Oo-de-no'l, . . 347, 380, 384 
 
 Owen Glendower (O'-wen Glen'-dow-erj, . 180 
 t)xenstiern. Axel (Ax'-el Ox-en-steern'\ 230 
 Oxford ^Ox'-tordj, . 171,209,238,272 
 
 Pacha (Pa-shaw'), • . 330, 356, 368 
 
 Pacbomius (Pa-ko'-me-us), . . 133 
 
 Pacific Ocean (Pa-sif ik), 194, 195, 280, 497, 
 498, 502, 524, 526, 531 
 Paderborn (Pad'-er-born), . . . 127 
 
 Paducah (Pa-du'-kah), . . . 517 
 
 Padus (Pa'-dus), . . . 65,85 
 
 Pages, Gamier (Gar-ne-a' Pa-zha'), 371, 372, 
 
 406 
 Pakenhani f Pak'-en-ham\ . . . 490 
 
 Paladines, D'Aurelles (Do-rels' Der Pa-lah- 
 
 dang') ..... 408 
 
 PalEEologiis (Pa-le-ol'-o-gus), • . 139 
 
 Palafox (Pal'-a-fox), . . . 339> 34° 
 
 Palais Royal ^Pah-la' Rwaw'-yawl), 313. 37r, 
 
 419, 420 
 Palais de Justice fPah-la'-der Jiis'-tis), 414 
 
 Palais de la Quai d'Orsay (Pah-la'-der la- 
 
 K.a L).ir'-sa), . . 419,420 
 
 Palais d I'lndustrie (Pah-la' der Leen-dus- 
 
 tree'), ... . . 419 
 
 Palatinate (Pa-lat'-e-nate), 168, 226, 227, 251, 
 
 254. 297 
 Palatine Hill, (Pal'-a-tin), 66, 67, 73, 227, 237, 
 
 251 
 Palermo (Pa-lare'-mo), . . 77, 150, 378 
 
 Palestine ' Pal '-es teen) . . . 33, 34 
 
 Paleslro (Pal'-es-tro), . , . 393 
 
 P.illas ;Pal'-las!, .... 36 
 
 Palmyra ( Pal-mi '-ra), . . 104,105, 122 
 
 Palo Alio (Pah-lo' Ahl'-to), . .446,498 
 
 P.ilos : Pa'-Iosi. .... 194 
 
 P.impeluna ' Pam-pe-lu'-na). . .127,346 
 
 Panama (Pan'-a-mah), . . 194,440 
 
 P.indccts (Pan'-dects) . . . iig 
 
 Pandours ( Pan-dures'), . , . 283 
 
 Panniput ( Pan'-ne-put), . . 281 
 
 Pannonia ( Pan-no'-ne-a) . 94,105,119 
 
 Pannonian, .... 105 
 
 Pan Tmus (Pa-nor'-mus), , . -77 
 
 Pantheon ( Pan-the'-on) . . . 373 
 
 Pantin ' Pan tang') .... 419 
 Paoli, Massacre of (Pa-o'-le;, . . 466 
 
 Pai.li, Paschal (Pas'-kal), . . . 297 
 
 Papineau, Louis Joseph ( Pa-pe-no'), . 495 
 
 Papirius Carho (Pa-pir'-e-us Ki>r'-ho\ 85 
 
 Papirius, Marcus ( Mar'-kus Pa-pir -ens), . 73 
 Pappenheim ■ Pap'-pen-hime), . , 2',.^ 
 
 Paraguay (Par'-a-gwi), . . 440. .» fr 
 
 Paraguayan (Par-a-gwi'-an), . . 441 
 
 Par.aguayans, ..... 441- 
 Parades'; Pa-ra'-desi, . . 445,44 = 
 
 Paris, (Par'-is), 38, 125, 146, 14Q. '8(,?2u, 271, 
 
 292, 306, 309, 313, J17. 320, 323, 3.U i£«, 37Q 
 405, 407, 409- t'* 4"J' 4^" 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 57 
 
 Parlsinn fPar-ish -e-an), . i53i 3'3i 319 
 
 Parisians, , 362, 385, 405, 4(6, 407,415 
 
 Park de Monceaux (Park der Nion-ko'j . 420 
 Parker, Sir Peter (Pe'-ter Par'-kerl, 308, 309, 
 
 234. 235, 236, 237i 241. 242, 245, 455, 460, 461, 
 462. 463, 464 
 Parliament (Par'-le-ment), . , 175, 176 
 
 ParliTinoiitarian (Par-le-men-ta'-re-an), . 23S 
 Parliamentary (Par-le-men'-ta-re), . 238 
 
 Purnia (Par'-ma), . . . 366,378 
 
 Paiiiienio (Par-men'-e-o), . . 54 
 
 Paios ( i'a'-ros), . . . .45 
 
 Psrr, Catliarine fKath'-a-rin Par), 210, 211 
 
 P;ril ;iiop ian Republic (Par-the-no-pe'- 
 
 aii;, . . . 327,328,329 
 
 I'arthia (I ar'-lhe-a), . . 89, 99 
 
 Parthian, . . 64, 89, 100, 103 
 
 Parthians, . . . 89, 99, loo, loi 
 
 Paschal Paoli (Pas'-kal Pa-o'-le), . 297 
 
 Paskiewitsch (Pas-ka'-vitsh), 359, 305, 382,383, 
 
 3S7 
 Pasquasde Floras (Pas-koo'-ah daFlo'-res), 194 
 Passau ( Pas'-soul, . . 208,225,231 
 
 Passarovitz (Pas-sa'-ro-vits), . 278, 279 
 
 Fatkul (Pat'-kul), , . . 275 
 
 Patriarchs ' Pa'-tre-arks), . . .27 
 
 Patuxent (Pa-lux'-ent), . . . 489 
 
 Paul, . . . . 296, 330, 333 
 
 Paulinas, Suetonius (Su-ton'-e-us Pau-li'- 
 
 niis), ..... 96 
 
 Paulas .^milius (Paul'-us E-mil'-e-us), 63, 82 
 
 470 
 
 • 47 
 , 426, 427 
 
 . 263 
 5" 
 
 • 490 
 508, 509 
 
 . 514 
 
 • 442, 443 
 
 356, 44^ 
 
 429 
 
 . 506 
 
 389 
 
 48S 
 
 Panlus Hook, 
 
 Pausanius ( Pau-sa'-ne-us), . 
 Pavia ( Pa'-ve-a), , 119, 127,203, 
 Pawtucket (Paw-tuk'-et), 
 Peach Orchard Station, 
 Peacock, . . . 
 
 Pea Ridge, 
 
 Peck 
 
 Pedraza (Pa-drah'-zah), 
 Pedro, Don (Don Ped'-ro), . 
 Pedro Abanto (Ped'-ro A-ban'-to), 
 Pegram ( Pe'-grain), . 
 Pekin (Pe'-kui), ... 
 Pelasgians (Pe-las'-je-anz), . . 37, 
 
 Pelican, 
 
 Pclv^sier(Pe!-is-se'-a\ 
 Pelletan, Eugene (U-jeen' Pel-le-tong'), 406 
 
 Pclopidas (Pel-op'-e-das), . . 52 
 
 Pel iponuesian i Pel-op-un-ne'-she-an), 48,49, 50 
 Peloponnesus (Pel-op-on-ne'-sus), . 35,37,38, 
 4", 49, 92. 192 
 Pelops(Per-ops), . . . .37 
 
 Pelusium (Pe-lu'-zhe um), , . 26, 34 
 
 Pemberton (Pem'-ber-ton), . . . 514 
 
 Pembroke (Pem'-broke), . . . 174 
 
 Penguin, ..... 49° 
 
 Penn, Admiral, .... 242 
 
 Penn, William, . . . 266, 267 
 
 Pennsylvania (Pen-sil-va'-ne-a), 266, 267, 302, 
 3^Ji 304. 4641 465, 4661 469. 472, 479. 486, 497, 
 502, 514, 515, 5>9. 529 
 Pennsylvanian, , . . . 482 
 
 Pennsylvanians, .... 267 
 
 Pcnsacola (Pen-sa-ko'-la) . 489, 492, 504 
 
 Pepin d'Hcristal (Pep'-in Der'-is-tal; . 126 
 
 I'epin the Little, .... 126 
 Pepperell William, (Pep'-per-ell), . 286, 302 
 Pesnnd(Pe'-quod;, . . . .262 
 
 Pequods, . . . • . 262 
 
 "Percy , Per'-se), . . . .180 
 
 Ferdiccas (Per-dik'-kas\ . . 59, 60 
 
 Pere Dui hesue 1 Pa-ra' Du-shain'), . 315 
 Pere la Chaise (Pa-ra' la Shaise'j . 416, 420 
 Pergamus 1 Per'-ga-mus),. . 84 
 
 l^ericles ' Pifr'-e-kleez), . . 48,49 
 
 lerkin WarbecK (Per'-kin War'-bek), . 18s 
 Perorine ' Per-on') . . . 156 
 
 Perote (Pa-ro'-t 1), . . 442,499 
 
 Perry, Matthew C. (Per'-re), . . y^ 
 
 Perry, Oliver Hazard, . . . 486 
 
 Perryville, .... 512 
 
 Perscpolis (Per-sep'-o-lis), , , 57, 58 
 
 Perseus 1 Per'-se-us), . . .631 82 
 
 Persia ( Ptr-she-a,>„ 25, 26, 27, 33. 34,35, 45, 46, 
 
 47, 5't 52, 55? 57, 58, 104, 108, loy, 117, 122, 
 19 •, 191, 215, 2?! 
 Persian, 25, ?6, 27, 33, 34, 35, 45, 46, 47, 51 52, 
 54. 55i 561 57i 59i i°3, 'o4i 'o9) "8, 122 jis 
 Persians, 25, 26, 33, 34, 35, 45, 46,47, 51, 54 55, 
 56, 57, 58, 103, 104, 108, 117, 118, 122, 136 
 Peninax ( I'er'-te-nax), . . . loa 
 
 Peru (Pe-ru'), . 214,400,439,44c, (41 
 
 Peruvians (Pe-ru'-ve-ans), . 21/, 43J 
 
 Pescennius Niger (Pes-sen'-ne-us Ni'-jcr), 191 
 Peschier.a ( Pesh-e-a'-ra), . . . 37c 
 
 Pesth (Pest), . . 380,381,382,383 
 
 Peter n. of Russia, . . , . 278 
 
 Peter 111. of Aragon, . . .158 
 
 Peter III. of Russia (Roosh'-yah), , . 292 
 
 Peter the Cruel of Aragon, . . 150 
 
 Peter the Great, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278 
 Peter the Hermit, , . . 135, 147 
 
 Peterborough (Pe'-ter-bur-o), 270, 293, 333 
 
 Petersburg ( Pe'-lers-burg), . 473, 518, 519, 521 
 Petersburg, St., . . . 274, 275 
 
 Peterwardein (Pe-ter-war'-deen), . . 279 
 
 Petion (Pa-te-oang'), . . . 321 
 
 Petrowski ( Pe-trous'-ke), . , . 344 
 
 Plalzburg (Plahls'-burg), , . 409 
 
 Phalereus, Demetrius (De-me'-tre-us Fa- 
 
 le'-re-us), .... 60 
 
 Pharaoh (Fa'-ro), . . . 25,28 
 
 Pharaoh Necho (Nek'-o), . . 27, 32 
 
 Pharaohs, .... 25, 26 
 
 Pharnaces (Far-na'-seez), . . 90 
 
 Pharsalia ( Far-sa'-le-a), . . .90 
 
 Philadelphia (Fil-a-del'-fe-al, 267, 459, 462, 463, 
 466, 468, 473, 476, 47S, 481 
 Philadelphus, Ptolemy (Tol'-e-me Fil-a-del'- 
 
 fus), . . . . . 64, 90 
 
 Philip I. of France (Fil'-ip), . . 147,148 
 
 Philip I. of iMacedon, . . .53. 54 
 
 Philip II. of Macedon, . . 62. '',3,81 
 
 Philip II. of Spain, 206, 20S, 2j2, 215, 216, 217, 
 218, 220, 224 
 Philip III. of Spain, . . . 216 
 
 Philip IV. of Spain, .... 250 
 Philip, Emperor of Rome, . . 103 
 
 Philip of Valois, . , 152,153,178 
 
 Philip the Fair, . • . 150, 151 
 
 Philip the Hardy, .... 150 
 Philip the Tall, . . . .151 
 
 Philip Augustus (Au-gus'-tus), 137, 138, 149, 
 150, '63. 174, 17s 
 Philip Egalite (A-gal-e-ta'), . . 320, 362 
 
 PhilippaiFil-ip'-pa), . . . 152, 178 
 
 Philippe, Louis (Loo'-e Fil-leep'), 362, 363, 364, 
 370. 37' 372. 384 
 
 Philippi (Fil-ip-pi'), 
 
 92, 506 
 
 Philippine (Fil'-ip-peen), 
 
 . 292 
 
 Philistines Fe-lis'-teenz), 
 
 29, 30, 31 
 
 Phillips (Fil'-ips), . 
 
 • 473 
 
 Philopoemen (Fil-o-pe -men). 
 
 62, 63, 32 
 
 Phipps, Sir William (Fips), 
 
 • 259. 30« 
 
 Phocians (Fo'-she-ans), . 
 
 53 
 
 Phocion (Fo'-she-on), 
 
 . 55 
 
 Phocis ( Fo'-sis), . . 
 
 . 33, 53 
 
 Phoebe (Fe'-be), 
 
 . 490 
 
 Phccnicia (Fo-nish'-e-a), 
 
 . 26,27.34.55 
 
 Phtenician, . 
 
 . 26 27, 57 
 
 Phcenicians, . . 
 
 2J ::-, '6 
 
 Phraortes (Fra-or' teez). 
 
 . !3 
 
 Phrygia (Frij'.e-a), 
 
 3? 
 
 Phryxus ( Frix'-us), . 
 
 . 38 
 
 Piacenza (Pe-a chent'-sa). 
 
 -Ss 
 
 Piar (Pe-ar'), . 
 
 . 437 
 
 Piast 1 Pe'-ast), . 
 
 . 186, 187 
 
 Piasts, 
 
 . 186 
 
 Piat(Pe-ah'), . 
 
 420 
 
58 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 501 
 506 
 507 
 302 
 46. 
 487 
 
 94 
 508 
 517 
 
 55 , 
 438 
 
 Picaril Ernest fEr'-nest Pe-kar'), . . 406 
 
 Picermim ( Pik'-er-num), . . 65 
 
 PichcgriMPeesh-gru'), . 324,325.335 
 
 Pickuiis, Andrew (Pik'-ens), . 469, 471, 474 
 
 Pici->n, Sir Thomas (Pik'-ton), . . 352 
 
 Picis, .... 109, 120 
 
 Piedmont fPeed'-mont), . . 205,357 
 
 Pieilnicmlcsel Peed-mont-eez'), . . 357 
 
 Pierce, Kranklin (Peerce), . . 
 
 Pierce (jeneral, .... 
 
 I'icipuiii, KranU (Peer'-pont), . 
 
 Pierre. St. iSang Pe-aire'), 
 
 Pi«..t , Pis'-c.>t>, 
 
 Pike. Zcbiilon N. (Zeb'-u-lon N. Pike), 
 
 Pil.ile, Piintius ( Pon'-she-us Pi'-Iat), 
 
 Pilli.w, Fort I f'il'-lo), . 
 
 Pillow, (jeneral, 
 
 Pin irnsi I^in-a'-rus\ . . . 
 
 Pinch ncha ( Pin-chin'-cha). . 
 
 Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth (Kotes'- 
 
 worth Pink'-ne), , . . 480, 481 
 
 Pindar • Pin'-der), ... 54 
 
 Pinkie (Pink'-el, . . * .211 
 
 Pinens I'i-re' 11s), ... 47 
 
 Periander ! Per-e-an'-der), . . -44 
 
 Pirna I I'ir'-na), .... 2S7 
 
 Pisa (Pe'-sa), . . 141,144,145,167 
 
 Pisi-.tratns ! Pi-sis'-tra-tus'), . . 43, 44 
 
 Pitcairii. Major ( Pit'-kairn), . . 460 
 
 Piit, William, the Elder, . 289, 304, 456 
 
 Pitt, William, the Younger, . 320, 336 
 
 Pittacus ( Pit'-ta-kiis), ... 44 
 
 Pittsljurg (Pitts'-burg), .' . . 3;'5 
 
 Pittsbnrg Eanding, . . . 509 
 
 Pius V'l. (Pi'-us), . . . 326, 329 
 
 Pins VII., , . . 335, 341, 348 
 
 Pius IX., , . . . 379, 38 J 
 
 Pi y Margall fPe'e Mar'-gawh, 423, 424, 425 
 Pizarro, Erancisco ( Fran-sis'-ko Piz-zar'-o;,2i4 
 Place de Clichy ( Plas d-- Klish' e), 414,419 
 Place de la Bastile (Plasde la Bas-teel'),37i, 373 
 Place de la Concord ^Plas de la Kong'- 
 
 kordi, .... 405, 419 
 
 Place Maubert (Plas Mo-baire'), . 373 
 
 Placentia ( Pla-sen'-she-a\ . . .79 
 
 Place Vendome (Plas Ven-dome'), 414, 416. 
 
 418, 419 
 Plantagenet (Plan-t.ij'-e-net), . •. 774 
 
 Plantagenet, GeofTrey (Jef'-fre), . 173 
 
 Plantagenet, Henry, . . 148, r74 
 
 Plant.igenets, . . . .174 
 
 PUassey ( Plas'-se\ .... 29^ 
 Plata;a ( Pla-te'-a), . . .47. 49 
 
 Plato(r(Pla'-toffi, . . . 34S346 
 
 Plattsburg ( Platts'-bnrg\ . 488, 435 
 
 Plautins, Anlus (Au'-lus Plau'-she-us), . 95 
 Pleasant Hill, . . . .517 
 
 Plessis (Ples'-se), . . . .1 = 7 
 
 Pluto ( Plu'-to). .... 36 
 
 Plymouth (Plim'-uth), . 255,257,258,259 
 
 Po, 65, 85 
 
 Pocahonta? ( Po-ka-hon'-tas), . 255,256 
 
 Podolia (Po-do'.le-a), . . . 253, 296 
 
 Point Au Trembles ( Point O Traing'-blej, 462 
 Point Isabel ' Is'-a-bel;, . . . 497 
 
 Point, Crown, . . . 290, 303, 460 
 
 Point, Stony, .... 470 
 
 Point, Verplanck's (Ver'-planks), . 470 
 
 Point, West, . . . .472 
 
 PoiliiTs (Pwa -te-a), 124, 153, 154, 156, 178, 179, 
 
 184, 185 
 Polanl ( Po'-Iand), 160, 186, 187, 213, 273, 274, 
 275 280, 287, 293, 294, 295, 296, 337, 343, 395 
 Pole, ..... 381 , 470 
 
 Poles, . 186, 187, 295, 296, 364, 365, 395, 465 
 
 Polignac, Jules de (jule der Po lecn-yak'}, 361, 
 
 361 
 Poliorcetes, Derretrins (De-me'-tre-us Po- 
 
 leor-se'-teez), . • . 60 
 
 Polish (Po -lish), . 186, 187, 274, 280, 293, 294 
 295,296,364,365,395 
 Polk. James Knox, . . . 497 
 
 Pollentia ( Pol-len'-she-a), . . . no 
 
 Pollock (Pol'-lok), ... 369 
 
 Pollu.\ (Pol'-hix), . . . .38 
 
 Polydectes {Pol-e-dek'-teez"), . . 40 
 
 Polysperchon (Pol-e-sper'-koii), . . 60 
 
 Pomerania ( Pom-er-an-e-a), 186, 228, 229, 231, 
 277,287, 258 
 Pompadour, Madame (Pom-p.a-du?e'), i?6, 310 
 Pompeii ( Pom-pe'-e-i), . . • 9^ 
 
 Pompey, Cntens (Ne'-us Pom'-pe), 37, ?8| 8c y. 
 Ponipey, Cneius (Ne-ns Pom'-pe), . y 
 
 Pompey, Sextns (Sex'-tus), . . >" ?' 
 
 Pompton (Pnm'-ton), . . ^73 
 
 Ponce de Leon (Pon'-tha da Le-on'), . 499 
 
 Ponce de Leon, John, . . 194 
 
 Poiidicherry (Pon-de-sher'-re), . 292, y,% 
 Pont du Jour (Pont du Zhoor'j, 417, 418 
 
 Pontiac ( Pon'-te-ak), . . . 306 
 
 Pontic (Pon'-tik), . . . ,88 
 
 Pontius (Pon'-she-us), . . .74, 74 
 
 Pontius Pilate (Pon-she'-ns Pi'-hat), . 9.^ 
 
 Pontus i,Pon'-tiis), . . ^ . 86,88 
 
 Ponyer Quertier (Poang'-yer Ker'-te-a), . 412 
 Pope, John, .... 511 
 
 Poppa;a ( Pop-pe'-a"l, . . . .96 
 
 Popayan (P.i-pi-ahn'), . . . 436 
 
 Porsenna ( Por-sen'-na), . . .69 
 
 Porte Oauphine (Port Do-feen'), . 418 
 
 Porte de l.i Meute 'Port dela Mute'), . 418 
 
 Porte Maillot (M.d'-yo\ . . 416,418 
 
 Porte St. Denis (Sang Der-ne'), . 373 
 
 Porte St. Martin Sang Mar'-tin), . . 373 
 
 Porter, David (Por'-ter), . . 483, 490 
 
 Porter, David U , . . 509, 513, 521 
 
 Porter, Fitz John, . . • 510 
 
 Port Gibson Gib'-son), . . . 514 
 
 Port Hudson (Hud'-son), . . 515 
 
 Port Republic, .... 510 
 
 Port Royal, . . . 300, 301, 508 
 
 Porto Hello (Por'-to P.el'-lo), . . 280 
 
 Porto Rico ' Por'-to Re'-ko), . . 422 
 
 Portsmouth (Ports'-muth), . 261,263,264 
 
 Portugal (Por'-tu-gal), . 125, 158, 193, 215, 244, 
 
 270, 292, 338,'j39, 340, 356, 440 
 Portuguese (Por'-tu-geez), . 193, 216, 270, 292, 
 334. 339. 342, 35^, 44° 
 Poms (Po'-rus), . . . .518 
 
 Posen (Po'-zen), . . . 275,431 
 
 Potemkin (Po-tem'-kin), . . . 295 
 
 Polidaia (Po-tid-e'-a), ... 49 
 
 Potomac (Po-to'-mak), 261,475,478,50/, 508, 
 
 510, 511, 512, 514, 516, 517, 518 
 Potosi 'Po-to-se'), . . . 43*5,439 
 
 Potosi, San Luis (San Lu-ls Po-to-se), . 498 
 Potsdam Pots'-dam), . . 297 
 
 Powhatan ( Pow-a-tan'), . . 235.257 
 
 Praitor (Pre'-tor), . . . 74,87 
 
 Pra;torian Guards (Pre-to'-re-an), . 94, 96, 101, 
 
 102, 103 
 Praga (Prah'-gah), , . . 296,365 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction (Prag-mat'-ik), 280, 282 
 Prague iPraig), i63, 169, 170, 226, 227, 284, 287, 
 2S8 347, 376. 398 
 Prairial (Pra-re-yaD, . . .324 
 
 Prairie (jrove ( Pra'-re), . . .. 512 
 
 Preljle ( Preb'-el ', . . . .481 
 
 Premonstrants 1 Pre-mon'-strants), 133 
 
 Prentiss I, Prcn'-tis\ . . * 51; 
 
 Prenzlow Prents'-lou), . . . 33J 
 
 Presbnrg ( Pres'-burg), . , ^36, (81 
 
 Presbyterian ( Pres be te'-re-an), 232 
 
 Presbyterianism, . . . • ^ 3' 
 
 Presbyterians, . . 21S. -';,(- 237, 239 
 
 Prescott. William fPres'-kot), . . 461 
 
 President, .... 484. 49" 
 
 Presiiue Isle (Presk He'}, . • • Tfl'* 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 59 
 
 Presior. ( I'res ton). . . . 457 
 
 Preston Pans, . . . • 2S5 
 
 Prevost (Pre'-vost), . . • 4''9 
 
 Prevost, Sir George, . . • 4S9 
 
 Priam 1 1'li' am). . . • • 38 
 
 Pi ice, Stirling (Stir'-ling Price), 507, 508, 512 
 Pri.le, Colonel, . . . -239 
 
 Pi-ideaiix (Pre-do'), . . ■ 1,'^^ 
 
 Hum, . . . . 40c, 401, 448 
 
 Prii;io <Je Rivera ( Pre '-mo da Re'-ver-ah), 429 
 i'rinctloii ( Prince'-tou), . . .465 
 
 Piiii!;, Mariin, . . .257 
 
 i'llicli.ird (Pritch'-ard), . . 522 
 
 i"i::!>u.s ( Pro -bus), . . 'oS 
 
 i'lo'. as ( Pro'-kas), . . .66 
 
 Prnci:r ! Prok'-terl, . . . 4S6 
 
 Propontis (Pro-pon'-iis), . . . 4'3 
 
 1-rospecl Hill 461 
 
 I roiestant 1 Pi ot'-est-ant), 206, 207, 208,211, 
 
 212, 2j6, 222, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230 
 
 I'roteslanism, . . . • 227 
 
 Protestants, 2" i, 206, 207, 208, 214, 216, 21R, 225, 
 
 226, 22S, 231 
 
 Provence f Pre v-once',) . i47i 3'°. 349 
 
 Vrovidence (F rov'-e-dense), . 263,264,458 
 
 /•russia (Proo:h-yali). . 252, 272, 278, 281, 285, 
 
 286, ?• 2, 294, 337, 346, 37-t, 39^. 397.4 '" 
 
 Prussian, 28.,, 2S5, 287, 289, 290, 291, 337, 346, 
 
 396, 397, 41)0, 402, 405 
 
 Prussians, \f\, 277, 284, 285, 287, 288, 337, 346, 
 
 396, 397, 400, 402, 405 
 
 Pvjth (Prooh), . . • -277 
 
 Vrynne (Pr iO, .... 23^ 
 
 Psammenir .s iSam-men'-e-tus), . ^ ' ^i 
 
 ^sammetic'is i Sam-met'-e-kus), . 26 
 
 Ptolemies 1 Tol'-e-ineez), . . 60, 64 
 
 Ptolemy, -"Tol'-e-me), . . 54,61.04,9° 
 
 p.'ulemy 'Jeraunus (Se-rau'-niis), . .60 
 
 Pule ly Kpiphanes lE-pif'-a-neez), . 64 
 
 Pti,',em\ Philadelphus vFil-a-Jel'-fus), 64,90 
 
 PlolMT.v Soter iSo'-ter), . • • o4 
 
 Pneb.3 iPweb'-lah), . • 448,449,499 
 
 Puerto Jabello (Pwair'-to Ka-bel'-yo), 430. 437, 
 
 Piis;atscheflr'P^o-gat'-sher), . • 294 
 
 Puigcerd.-. (Pweeg-i-air'-dah), . .429 
 
 Pulaski, Count (Pul-as'-ke), . 465.47-^ 
 
 Pulaski, Fort 509 
 
 Pultowa(Pul-to'-wah), . . .276 
 
 Pultusk I P.iol'-toosk), . . .337 
 
 Punic (Pu'-i,ik\ . 76,77.78,81,82.83 
 
 Punjab I Pun -jaub'), . . • 5», 369 
 
 Punnicr ( Pui.-ne-ar'), . . -369 
 
 Pupienus Pu-'je'-nus), . . • '"3 
 
 Puritan 1 Pu'-r.:-tan), . 235, 257, 258, 2^3 
 
 Puritanism, . . • 232,234 
 
 Puritans, 21&, '<', ., 237, 245, 257, 25 , -=^3 
 Putnam. Israel (P if - -m), . .464,469 
 
 Pyin. Jolm, Pin-.' . . • 235,236 
 
 Pyramids 1 Pir'-a .n = .?.), . • 20, 32S 
 
 Pyrenees (Pir-e-neez' ), 78, 80, 124, T26, 127 
 159,250,251,268,323,340,346 
 Pyrrhus (Pir'-rus), . . 61, 75, 76 
 
 Quintus Cassius (^Quin tus K.ash'-iisl 89, 91, 91 
 
 Ouiiitus Haminius ( Fla-min'-e-us), . 8i 
 
 Quiriaus ((^ae-ri'-iuis), . . .67 
 
 OuitolKee'-to), . . . 43j-, 43S 
 
 3,9 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabbah (Rab'-bab), . 
 
 Kachael (Ra'-cbel), 
 
 Radauaisus ( Ra-da-ga-i'-sus), 
 
 Radelzky (Ra-dets'-keJ, 
 
 Radovi ^Ra-do'-ve), . 
 
 Radzivil ' Rad'-ze-veel), . 
 
 R.aglan 1 Rag'-lan), . 
 
 Ragotzky (R.a-gots'-ke), 
 
 Rahl, .... 
 
 R.usin. . 
 
 Raloiuh (Raw'-lel, . 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, . 
 
 Rambonillet ( Ram-bool'-ya), 
 
 Ramdlies iRam-il-eez'), 
 
 Ramorino (Ram-o-re'-no), . 
 
 Randolph, I'eyton (Pa'ton Ran'-dolO, . 
 
 Rapid Anna, . . . • 
 
 Rappahannock ( Rap-pa-han'-nok), 
 
 Raritan / Rar'-e-tan), 
 
 Raspail (Ras-pail'i, 
 
 Rastadt ' Ravv'-staht), 
 
 Raucoux (Ro-koo'), 
 
 RavaiUac ( Ra-val-yahO, 
 
 Ravenna (Ra-ven'-na), . 89, T17, 118 
 
 Rawden (Raw'-den), . 
 
 Raymond ol Toulouse (Ra'-mond of ' 
 looz'), ... '3' 
 
 Rayon (Ra'-oni, . 
 
 Rebecca ( Re-hek'-a), 
 
 Redan (Re-dan'), 
 
 Red River, .... 
 
 Red Sea, . 
 
 Reaenshurg 'Ra'-gens-burg), 
 
 Regulators ' Reg-u-la'-tors), . 
 
 Rui;ulus I Reg'-u-hisi, 
 
 Rehoboam ( Re-ho-bo'-am), 
 
 Reindeer, . . • • 
 
 Remus ' Re'-mus), 
 
 Rem, (Re'-no), 
 
 ResaLa(Ra-sah'-kah1, . . - 
 
 Resnca de la Palma(,Ra-sah'-kah da la Pah 
 
 3S 
 
 2f 
 
 [ II 
 
 ;8o 
 
 . 294 
 
 364 3^! 
 
 ;37 3M 
 
 269 
 . 465 
 
 486 
 
 . 52' 
 
 232, 233, 255 
 
 . 262 
 
 270 
 . 366 
 
 459 
 . 5t8 
 
 5'4 
 . 468 
 
 372 
 . 272 
 
 285 
 
 . 22 1 
 
 vA 158 
 ♦7', 472 
 00- 
 141, 149 
 
 435 
 
 514, 517 
 
 2rf 
 
 200, 252 
 
 458 
 
 • 77 
 
 31. 32 
 
 . 490 
 
 66 
 
 . 511 
 518 
 
 446, 498 
 
 ilz). 
 
 250 
 460 
 5'4 
 340 
 
 Q. 
 
 265, 266, 
 258,265, 2C6, 
 
 )iaker (Qua'-ker), . 
 Quaker Hill, 
 
 Uuakcis, . • „ , , 
 
 J.ialic Hr.as rKah'-ter P.rah), 
 Jiiariier Mouffiard ( K.ar-te-a' Moof-e-ar ), 
 )i.ebcc (Oue-bek'j, 290, 291, 300, 301, 3^2. 
 306,307, 
 T le'M ucwn (Qiieens'-town), . • 
 
 '.icniin St (Sang Kain-tang'), 212,218, 
 5ueriii-v, P. nyer . P. ang-yare' Kair-te-a ), 
 Qn-sne Fptt Du (,Ua K.ane), 280, 289, 302, 
 
 Qiiincy iQuin'-se;, 
 Qniutilius (guiu-til'-e-us), . 
 
 m.ih), 
 Retaliation, 
 Retz, Cardinal de. 
 Revere, Paul Re-vereM, 
 Reynolds, John P. ^Ren'- 
 Rcynosa ^Ri-no'-sa), 
 Rha;tia (Re'-she-a), . . • ^ " "^ 
 
 Rh'ims (Reemzi, . . '46 153, 349 
 
 Rhenish Bavaria (Ren-ish P.a-va -re-a), 377 
 Rhenish Prussia (Proosh'-yah), . ■ ^T' 
 
 Rhine (Rinel, . 89, 94, 125. 126, t6s, .66, 227, 
 2^1 251. 254, 269, 270, 280, 283, 284, 2b8, 319, 
 ^ ' ' 323, 326, 336, 348, 402 
 
 Rhode Island (Rode I'-land), 258, 263. 2(.4,458, 
 468, 478, 490 
 
 Rhodes (Rodes), 
 
 Rhodian ( Ro'-de-an), . 
 
 Rhone ' Rone), 
 
 Riall iRi'-all. 
 
 Rialto (Re-awl'-to), . 
 
 Rich •, ■ 
 
 Richard the Uon-hearted, . 137, n<: 
 
 55. 56. '23, 140. '92 
 5t 
 
 40 
 
 20 s 
 43'i 
 Ml 
 241 
 
 '3 
 
 '79 
 
 lie 
 >^4 
 
 Richard 11., 
 Richard III., . 
 Richardson Rich'-ard-son), . • :'» 
 
 Richelieu (Rish'-e-lu., "2--^i'\V? 
 Richmmid i Rich'-mond), 184,473. z-"^ ''^ - ^.'J' 
 512, 510, -i^' 
 sot 
 Rich Mountain. . • • ' ^ 
 Ricinier Ris'-e-mer), . . ' „,, 
 
 Ridley iRid'-le) ="" 
 
6o 
 
 ALPHABETJCAL INDEX. 
 
 Ri(i-;efi^lJ iKij'-ficlJ,, . 
 Rieii (Reed,, . . . . . 
 
 Kiija y Re'-gii), .... 
 Rigaiill Rc-'-go), . . . . 
 
 Ri ,de la HMcha ( Re'-o da la Hatch'-ah\ 
 Ri ) de la I'iala Re-o da la Plat'-a) , 
 Rii. Orande (Re'-o (iraii'-daj, . 444, 446, 
 
 498 
 Rio Jaiiiero (Re'-c Jan-e'-ro), 
 Ripley R'f'-lei, . . . . 
 
 Ri\ era Prime de ( Pre'-mo da Re'-ver-ah), 
 Rien ■Re'-vcr-o), . . 421 
 
 R' ers, Lord i Riv'-ers), 
 ?. '.-li ,Riv-o'-le), . . 326 
 
 R ixio, David, 1 Reel'-se-o), 
 R i.uioke (Ro-a-noke'i, . . . 
 
 Robert of France iRob'-ert), 
 Robert of Normandy, . . 136, 147 
 
 Robert Guiscard ;Gees'-kar), . 145 
 
 Ribespierre (Ro-bes-pe-aire'), . 317, 318, 
 
 Robinson Rev. John (Rob'-in-son), 
 Rociia ^Ro'-cha), . . . 430, 
 
 Roch.imbe.iu, Count de(Ro-sham-bo'), 472, 
 Roche.'ort (Roash'-foar), 
 Rochef>rt, Henri, . . 406, 
 
 Ruchelle, La (La Ro-shel') . 
 Rochester (Roch'-es-ter^ 
 Rockingham, Marquis of(Rok'-ing-ham), 
 Rocky Mount, .... 
 
 Rocky Mountains, 195, 481, 492, 530, 
 
 Roderick ( Rod-er-ik), 
 
 Rodgers ( Roj'-ers), . . 484, 
 
 Rodinan (Rod'-man), 
 
 Rodney, Admiral, (Rod'-ne), . 308, 
 
 Rodolph of Hapsburg, 
 
 Rodolph IL, . . . 225, 
 
 Roger L (Roj'-er), . . . . 
 
 Roger IL. .... 
 
 R.iland (Ro'-land), . . 127, 317, 318, 
 
 Roland, Madame, . . 3; 7, 
 
 Rolfe, John (Rolf), . . . . 
 
 Rollin, Ledru (Le'-dru Rol'-lin), . 371, 
 
 Rolio , Rol'-lo), . . . 130, 
 
 Roman (Ro'-man), 65, 66, 69, 73, 77, So, 86 
 loi, 109, 113, 327, 379, 
 Romanoff (Ro-man-ov'), . . 364, 
 
 Romans, . 62, 63, 66, 67, 72, 77, 81, 87, 95, 
 no, 142, 204, 
 Romanzofi" (Roman-zov'), 
 Rome, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 71, 76, 84, 85, 103, 
 112, 128, 142, 204, 373, 380, 412, 413, 
 Romish C^hurch (Roam'-ish;, 200, 201, 207, 
 Romney (Rom'-nei, ... 
 Romulus (Rorn'-u-lus1, . . 66, 67, 
 
 Romulus AiigustuUis (.-Vu-gus'-tu-lus), 112, 
 Ronccsvalles (Ron-.se-vals'), . 
 
 Ron^in (Roang 
 Rooke, Sir George (Rook), 
 Rosalie, Fort, ' Ro-sa-le'), 
 Ros?munda 1 Ro-sa-mun'-dah), 
 Rosas (Ro'-sas), . 
 Rosbach ( Ros'-bokl, . 
 
 Rosbecque (Ros'-bek), . 
 Rosecrans (Ros'-e-kranz), . 506, 507, 512, 
 
 5 '5. 
 Rosny (Ros'-ne), . . . 407, 
 
 Ross, ..... 
 
 R .ssi (Ros'-se), . . 
 
 Rossignol Ros-seen-yoal'), ■ 
 .^oslopschin ( Ros-top-shin'), 
 .'{'■tliiere, La !,a Ro-ie-aire'), . 348 
 
 .^ uerdam 1 Rot'-ter-dam), 
 S uen (Roo'-cni, . . 148, 156, 
 
 Round «'ay Down (Round'-way Down), . 
 Rouse (Rous', . 
 
 Rousseau ( Roos'-so), . . 311, 
 
 Roxana (Rox-,i'-na), . . .57 
 
 Roxbury I Ri).\-ber'-re), 
 Icubicou t Ru-be'-konj, 
 
 465 
 
 347 
 
 274 
 
 420 
 
 437 
 
 '95 
 
 497, 
 
 ,516 
 
 ' 339 
 
 483 
 
 429 
 
 , 450 
 
 > 1S4 
 
 . 379 
 
 222 
 
 508 
 
 147 
 
 . 173 
 
 ,161 
 
 321. 
 324 
 257 
 451 
 474 
 352 
 420 
 249 
 210 
 475 
 47' 
 531 
 124 
 
 524 
 512 
 309 
 1 66 
 226 
 145 
 145 
 321 
 321 
 256 
 372 
 146 
 
 , B9, 
 413 
 373 
 
 100, 
 
 413 
 294 
 
 III, 
 414 
 336 
 506 
 "3 
 "3 
 127 
 322 
 269 
 300 
 119 
 440 
 288 
 >54 
 
 513. 
 5.6 
 409 
 489 
 
 379 
 322 
 
 344 
 .349 
 209 
 182 
 237 
 242 
 512 
 
 Rudiger (Rn'-de-jer), . , , 
 
 Rmliger von ?'.aliremberg(Stah'-rem-berg), 
 
 Rud.jiph (Ru'-dolf), . . ■ . 
 
 Rue Castiglione (Kas-teel-yo'-na), 416. 
 
 Rue d' Amsterdam (d' Am'-ster-dam). 
 
 Rue de Clery (der K.ler'-e), . , 
 
 Rue de la Paix (der la Pa',\ 
 
 Rue de la Roquctte (der la Ro-ket'), . 
 
 Rue de Rosiere (der Ro-se-aire'), . 
 
 Rue du Kaubourg St. Denis (du Fo'-ho:r5 
 
 Siuig Der'-ne;, 
 Rue Lafayette (Lah-fa-et'), 
 Rue Royule (Rwaw'-ale), . 414, 419, 
 
 Rue St. Denis 'Sang Der'-ne), . . 
 
 Rue St. Honore (Sang Ho'-nore), . 
 Rue Viileneuve Bourbon (Vil'-le-nuve Boor 
 
 bon), . . . . . 
 
 RulTo (Ruf'-fo) 
 
 Rugen ( Ru'-jen), . . 231,277, 
 
 Runnymede (Run'-ne-meed), 
 
 Rupert, Emperor of Germany (Ru'-pert), 
 
 383 
 25a 
 161 
 418 
 414 
 373 
 
 ,,a 
 
 373 
 M4 
 
 237, 
 
 Rupert of the Palatinate, 
 Ruric ' Ru'-rik;, . 
 Russell, Lord John (Rus'-sel) 
 Russell, Lord William, 
 Russia ( Roosh'-yah), 188, 273, 
 286,292, 254, 295, 296, 329, 
 Russian, . i83, 273, 276, 278, 
 
 336, 345, 365, 3S6, 
 Russians, 130, 1S8, 274, 275, 
 
 ?96, 329, 336, 345, 
 Ryswick (Ris'-wikj, . 
 
 s. 
 
 Saabaism fSa'-ab-ism), , 
 
 Saalfeld (Sahl'-feld;, 
 Saarbrucken iSahr'-brook-en), 
 Sabine (Sa'-bine), , , 
 
 Sabine Cross Roads (Sa-been'), 
 Sabines, .... 
 Sac (Sakl, 
 Sachem Sa'-kem), 
 Sackctt's Harbor (Sak'-et's), 
 Sacramento iSak-ra-men'-to), . 
 .Sacramento City, 
 Sad )wa ' Sah'-do-wa), . 
 Saguntum (Sa-gun'-tum), 
 Sahib, Nena(Na'-na Sah'-ib), . 
 Saib Tippoo (Tip'-poo .Sah'-ib), 
 Saladin Sal'-a-din), . . 
 
 Salamanca fSal-a-man'-ka"l, . 
 Salamis (Sal'-a-misi, . . 
 
 Salankemen (Sa-lan'-ke-men), 
 Salem (Sa'-lem), . . 
 
 Salic Law '.Sa'-lik\ . 151, 
 
 Salien Franks (S.T.l'-yan), 
 Salisbury (Sals'-ber-re>, 
 Salle, Robe, t de La ider La Sahl') 
 
 238, 
 366^ 
 
 295. 
 , 388. 
 289, 
 ,386, 
 248, 
 
 244, 
 130. 
 367 
 
 .278, 
 ,364. 
 296, 
 I 393. 
 294, 
 3S7, 
 235, 
 
 333 
 '75 
 168, 
 169 
 245 
 188 
 
 . 399 
 246 
 280, 
 ,386 
 
 329, 
 396 
 
 295, 
 395 
 
 Salmeron, Nicholas (Nik'-o-las Sal'-me 
 
 424, 
 
 . 120 
 
 337 
 402, 405 
 . 66, 67 
 
 • 517 
 . 66, 67 
 
 ■ 494 
 257, 526 
 
 . 487 
 499 
 524 
 39^ 
 
 • 78 
 39^ 
 
 • 299 
 137, 138 
 
 ■ 342 
 
 46 
 
 • 253 
 58, 2^9, 266 
 52, 178, 367 
 
 151 
 522 
 300 
 
 425, 426, 427 
 498, 499 
 
 . 190 
 
 3', 32 
 74. 75 
 74, 7) 
 63, 75 
 
 29, 30 
 
 ron), 
 Saltillo fSahl-teel'-yo), 
 Salzbach (Sahlts'-bok), . 
 S.amarcand (Sam-ar-kand'), 
 Samaria I Sa-ma'-re-a), . 
 Samnlte (Sam'-nite), 
 Samnites, 
 
 Samnium (Sam'-ne-um), 
 S.amson (Sam'-son), . . 
 
 Samuel (Sam'-yel), . 
 San Antonio (San An-to'-ne-ol, . 
 San Antonio de Bexar ( P.a-har'), 
 Sander's Creek (San'-deis), 
 Sandusky fSan'-dus-ke), 
 Sandwich (SariB'-witch) , 
 
 San Francisco (San Fran-sis'-ko), 
 San Jacinto I San Ja-sin'-to), . . -,,, 
 
 San Juan de Ulloa (San Wahn da C*o-Ior,'<i'l, 499 
 San Julian (San Ju'-le-an), . . \i% 
 
 ■(2; H7, 
 
 499 
 )": 
 486 
 24s 
 
 500 
 
 444 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 6i 
 
 San I, Ills Pjtosi (San Lu'-is Po-to-se'), . 498 
 San Marino (San Ma-re'-no), . . 394 
 
 San Martin (San Mar'-tin;, . . . 373 
 
 San Salvador (San Sal'-va-dore), . 194 
 
 Sanscrit (San'-skrit), . . • ^"i 
 
 San Sebastian (San Se-bas'-che-an), . 346, 400 
 Santa Anna (^San'-ta An'-na), 442, 443, 444, 445, 
 ^ ,^ , 4-46,447,498,499,500,501 
 Sant^ Cruz (San'-ta Krooz), . . 441 
 
 Santa I'e (San'-ta Fa) . . 498, 499 
 
 Santa tliiliana (San'-ta Gu-le-an'-a), . 429 
 
 S^nta Martha (San'-ta Mar'-thaj, . 436 
 
 •j\nit.e (San'-tee) .... 474 
 -jrrplerre (San-taire'), . . .317,320 
 
 Santiago (San-te-a'-go), . . .439 
 
 Sapur (Sa'-por), . . . .104 
 
 Saracen (Sar'-a-sen), . 120, 122, 123, T24, 125 
 Saracens . 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 134, 160 
 .Saragossa (Sar-a-gos'-sa), 127, 271, 339, 340,400 
 .Sarah (Sa -rah), . . . .28 
 
 Saratoga (Sar-a-to'-ga), . . . 467 
 
 Sardanapahis (Sar-dan-a-pa'-lus), . . 24 
 
 Sardinia (Sar-din'-e-a), 65, 77, 92, 158, 282, 285, 
 ^ , . 326, 357, 379, 387, 388, 392, 393, 394 
 
 Sardinian, .... 379 
 
 Sardinians, . . 2S5, 323, 379, 388, 393 
 
 Sardis (Sar'-dis), . . 33, 45, 52, 55, 60 
 
 Sarinati.ans (Sar-ma'-she-ans), . . 105 
 
 Sassaciis (Sas'-sa-kus), . . . 262 
 
 Sassanidae (Sas-san'-e-de), . . 103, 122 
 
 Saturn (Sat'-urn), ... 36 
 
 Saul, . . . , . '3° 
 
 Savage Station, .... 511 
 
 Savannah (Sa-van'-nah), 267, 469, 470, 475, 503, 
 
 500, 530 
 Savona (Sa-vo -nah), .... 203 
 Savoy (Sa-voy') 203, 205, 253, 255, 268, 326 
 
 Saxe (Sax), .... 285 
 
 Saxe-Col)urg (Sax-Ko'-burg), 363, 364, 367 
 
 Saxon (Sa.x'-onj, 120, 127, 128, 150, 160, 161, 162, 
 
 171, 172 
 Saxon-Heptarchy (Hep-tark'e), 120, 171, 285, 
 
 287, 348 
 
 Saxons, . 109, 120, 127, 128, 189, 229, 275 
 
 Saxony (Sax-on'-ne), 159, 160, 161, 200, 206, 207, 
 
 208, 227, 229, 231,273, 275, 282,287, 337> 374i 
 
 3777 379 
 Say and Seale fSa and Seel), . . 262 
 
 Saybrook (Sa'-brook), . . . 262, 263 
 
 Sayle, William (Sale), . . . 265 
 
 Scaevola, Mutins ( Mu'-she-us Sev'-o-la), 69 
 
 Scandinavia (Skau-de-na'-ve-a), . 146, i85 
 
 Scandinavian, . 103, 130, 171, 185, 186, 213 
 Scandinavians, .... 184 
 
 Scarron, Madame (Skar'-on), . . 253 
 
 Schamyl (Sham'-mil), . . . 395 
 
 Scharuhorst (Sharn'-horst), . . 347 
 
 Scheldt iShelt), . . . .271 
 
 Schenectady (Ske-nek'-ta-de), . 301 
 
 Schleswig (,Shles'-wigj, 120, 228. 273, 375, 377, 
 378, 39'J) 397' 399 
 Schlusselburg (Schlus'-sel-burg), . . 275 
 
 Schmalkald (Shinahl'-kold), . 206, 207, 208 
 SchoefiTer (Shef'-fer), . . . 192 
 
 Sch jeiibrun (Shain'-brun), . . 341 
 
 Schofield (Sko'-feeld), . . 520, 521 
 
 Schoharie Valley (Sko-ha'-re) . 469 
 
 Schuyler, Philip (Ski'-ler), . 462, 467 
 
 Schuyler, Fort, .... 4^7 
 
 3chu>lkill (Skool'-kiin, . 266,267,466,468 
 
 -.(hwartz, Berthold (Bert'-old Shwarts) . 792 
 kh .Vartzenberg 1 Shwarts'-en-berg), 347, 348, 
 5';h /ve'dnitz (Shwide'-nits), . 288,292 
 
 Shiveiin (hhwrair'-in), . 186,282,287 
 
 SihAfytz (Shwites), . , . . 167 
 
 Scinde (Sind), . . ^ . 3^9 
 
 Scio (Si'-o), . . . . .358 
 
 Sciots (Si'-ots), . . . .358 
 
 Scipio (Sip'-e-o), . . . .79 
 
 Scipio ^milianus (E-mil-e-an'-us), . 83 
 
 44 
 
 Scipio Africanus (Af-re-kan'-us), . Ro, 81, 81 
 Scipio Nasica (Na'-se-kaj, . 84 
 
 Scone (Skone), .... 177 
 
 Scots (Skots), . loi, 109, 176, 177, 211, 222 
 Scotch (Skotsh), 176, 178,211, 222, 223, 235,285 
 Scotland (Skot'-land), 172, 173, 174, 176, 177, 
 c ., T^ J ^78, 180, 209,235,278 
 
 bcott, Dred, .... 50a 
 
 Scott, Winfield (Win'-feeld Skot), 485, (88,494, 
 
 e ,_, , 456, 498, 499. 500. .'ja 
 
 Scrope (Skrope\ . . . . : 2o 
 
 Scythia ^Sith'-e-a),' . . . '». 57 
 
 Scythian, . . , . ", 3^ 
 
 Scythians, . . .34, 104, ac 
 
 Sea Islands, ..... 508 
 Seballs iSe-balls'). . . 422, 427, 430 
 
 Sebastian Cabot (Se-bas'-che-an Ka'-bot), . itj', 
 Sebastian, St., . . . 346, 400 
 
 Seckenheim (Sek'-en-hime), . .170 
 
 404. 405, 4061 413 
 516, 518 
 
 125, 373. 406 
 
 • 94 
 64, 8q, 101 
 
 . 60, 64, 88 
 
 . 60, 64 
 
 . . 192 
 
 192 
 
 • 134 
 49'. 494, 495 
 
 • 495 
 24, J 86 
 
 • 519 
 168 
 
 . 79 
 
 • 95, gf* 
 
 . 24 
 
 108 
 
 389, 390. 391 
 
 389, 390. 391 
 
 . 90 
 
 lOI 
 
 470 
 
 Sedan (Se-dong') 
 
 Sedgwick (Sej'-wick), 
 
 Sedition Law, . , 
 
 Seine (Saine), 
 
 Sejanus (Se-jan'-us), . . 
 
 Seleucia (Se-!u'-she-a), . 
 
 Seleucidje (Se-lu'-se-da), 
 
 Seleucus, (Se-lu'- kus), . 
 
 Seliin 1. of Turkey (Se'-lim), 
 
 Selim II., . 
 
 Seljuk (Sel'-jook), 
 
 Seminole (Sem'-e-nole), . 
 
 Seminoles, . , 
 
 Semiramis (Se-mir'-a-mis), 
 
 Semmes, Raphael (Raf'-a-el Sems), 
 
 Sempach, (Sem'-pok), 
 
 Sempronius (Sem-pron'-e-us), 
 
 Seneca (Sen'-e-ka, . . 
 
 Sennacherib (Sen-na-ke'-nb), 
 
 Sens, .... 
 
 Sepoy (Se-poy'), 
 
 Sepoys, ... 
 
 Septimius (Sep-tim'-e-us), 
 
 Septimius Severus (Sev'-e-rus), . . 
 
 Serapis (Se-rap'-is), . . . 
 
 Sergius Catiline (Ser'-je-us Kat'-e-line),. 
 
 Seringapatam (Se-ring-ga-pa-tam'), . 299 
 
 Serrano (Ser-ran'-o), 400, 401, 422, 427, 428, 429 
 
 Sertorius (Ser-to'-re-us), ... 87 
 
 Servia (Ser'-ve-a), . . . .191 
 
 Servian, .... .380,381 
 
 Servians, ..... 380 
 
 Servius TuUius (Ser'-ve-us Tul'-le-us), . 68 
 
 Sesia (Sesia (Se'-se-a), 
 
 Sesostris (Se-sos'-tris), . 
 
 Sevastopol (Sev-as-to'-pol), . 
 
 Severus (Sev'-e-rus), . . 
 
 Severus, Alexander (Al-ex-an'-der), 
 
 Severus, Septimius (Sep-tira'-e-us), 
 
 Sevier I Sev-eer'), ... 
 
 Seville (Sev'-il), . 158,340,424,425,426 
 
 Sevres iSev'-er), .... 416 
 
 Sextius Lateranus (Sek'-she-us La-ter-an'-us), 78 
 
 Seymour (Se'-morej, . . . 212 
 
 Seymour, General, . . . 51" 
 
 Seymour, Horatio, (Ho-ra'-she-o) 523 
 
 Seymour, Jane, . . . 210, an 
 
 Sforza, Francisco (Fran-sis'-ko Sfor'-tsa), . 143 
 
 Shackleford (Shak'-el-ford), . . 515 
 
 Shaftesbury, Earl of (Shafls'-ber-rc) 245, 246, 
 
 Shah Abbas, Shah Ab'-bas), . 
 Shah, Nadir (Na'-dir Sh.ah), 
 Shah Soojah(Shah Soo'-jah), 
 Shalmanesar (Shal-man-e'-sef), 
 Shannon (^Shan'-non), 
 Shawnoese (Shaw-no-ese')) . 
 Sheba (She'-ba), . 
 Shechem 'She'-kem), 
 Shelby (Shel'-be), 
 Shem, . . • 
 
 • 393 
 
 26 
 
 387, 388 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 . lOI 
 
 472 
 
 215, 
 
 ■l<C.l 
 
 2S1 
 
 3-1 
 . 24 
 
 488 
 
 . 48< 
 
 3' 
 
 . 31 
 
 472 
 
 22, H 
 
62 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Shenandoah ViUey (Shen-an-do'-ah), 506, 510, 
 519, 520, 521 
 Sheridan (Sher'-e-dan), . . . 298 
 
 Sheridan, Philip H., . . ,520,521 
 
 Sheriff Muir (Sher'-if Moor), . . 27S 
 
 Sherman, Roger (Roj'-er Sher'-man), . 464 
 
 Sherman, William Tecumseh (Te-kum'-sa) 512, 
 513, 516, 517. 5'8, 519, 520, 521, 529 
 Shields (Sheeids), .... 502 
 Sliiites (Shi'-ites), . . . 123 
 
 Shiluh (Shi'-lo), .... 509 
 
 shinar, Land of i^Shi'-nar), , . 21, 22 
 
 Shirley (Shir' le), . . 302, 303, 304 
 
 Shishak (Shi'-shak), ... 32 
 
 Shreveport (Stireve'-port), . • . . 617 
 
 Shrewsbury (Shnise-ber'-re), . . 180 
 
 Siberia ( Si-be '-re-a), . 188, 276, 365, 395 
 
 Sibley, Henry H. (Sib'-le), . . 513 
 
 Sicilian (Sis-ii'-e-an), . , • .150 
 
 Sicilians, ..... 37S 
 
 Sicilian Vespers, . . . 145, 150 
 
 Sicily (Sis'-e-k ), 40, 42, 49, 50, 65, 76, 77, 78, 80, 
 83. '45, 146, 165, 272, 279i 378, 394 
 Siculi (Sik'-u-h), . • . .65 
 
 Sicyon (Sish'-e-on), . . . 61, 62 
 
 Sidon (Si'-don), . . . 27,55,137 
 
 Sidonians (Si-do'-ne ans), . . 27 
 
 Sierra Morena (Se-a'-ra Mo-ra'-na), . 158 
 
 Sieyes (Se'-cs), .... 312, 331 
 Sigel, Franz (Se'-gel), . . . 507 
 
 Sigismund, of Germany (Sid'-jis-mund), 169, 170 
 
 Sigismund I. of Poland, 
 Sigismund II. of Poland, 
 Sigmaringen (Sigma-ring'-en), 
 Sikh (Seek), 
 
 Sikhs, .... 
 Silesia (Se-lee'-she-a), . 
 Silosian, . . . 2B2, 
 
 Silistria (Sil-is'-tre-a), . . 
 
 Sillcry (Sil'-ler-re), . 
 Silliman, (Sil'-le-man), . 
 Simnel, Lambert (Lam'-bert Sim'-nel), 
 Simon de Montfort (,Si'-monde Mont'-ibrt), 175, 
 
 176 
 Simon, Jules (Jule Si'-mon), 
 Simon, Maccabeus (Mak-ka'-be-us), 
 Simpson (Sim'-son), . 
 Sinai, Mount (Si'-na), . 
 Sinope (Sin'-o-pee), . 
 Sioux (Soo), . 
 
 Sirmium (Sir'-me-um), 
 Sisera(Sis'-e-ra), . 
 Siva iSi'-va), . 
 Siwah (Se-wah'), 
 Skippon (Skip'-pon), . , 
 
 Skrzynecki (Skshe-nets'-ke), 
 Slaves (Slaves), 
 Slavic (Sla'-vik), . 
 Slavonia (Sla-vo'-ne-a), 
 
 Slavonians, . . 118, 129, 159, 160, 1S6 
 
 Slavonic (Sla-von'-ik), . . .186 
 
 Slemmer, Adam J. (Slem'-mer), 
 Sloal (Sloat), . 
 Sloughter, Henry (Slout'-er), 
 Smart, .... 
 Smith, Andrew J., 
 Smith, E. Kirby (E. Kir'-be Smith), 
 Smith, John, 
 
 t iiiih, Sydney (Sid'-ne Smith), 
 Sitijlensko (Smo-lens'-ko), 
 Bobieski, John (So-be-es'-ke), 
 Sobraon (So-bra'-on), 
 Sobrier (So-bre-a'j, 
 Socialism, 
 
 Socrates (Sok'-ra-teez), . 
 Sogdiana (Sog-de-an'-a), . . .57 
 
 Soissons (Swos-soang'), . . 125, 349 
 
 Solferino (Sol-fer-e'-no), ... 393 
 Solomon (Sol'-o-mon), ... 31 
 
 Solon (So'-lon), . , 42, 43, 44 
 
 187 
 
 187 
 
 . 401, 402 
 
 369, 390 
 
 • 369 
 
 190, 2S2, 285 
 
 282, 284, 285 
 
 • 359. 1,'i'l 
 , 291, 306 
 
 465 
 
 6 
 
 '64 
 
 . 38S 
 
 28 
 
 . 387 
 
 5'3 
 
 . 105 
 
 29 
 
 • 23 
 
 34 
 
 . 238 
 
 365 
 
 . 129 
 
 376, 380 
 
 381 
 
 504 
 499 
 261 
 242 
 
 519 
 512 
 
 255, 256, 257 
 
 ■ 330 
 
 344 
 
 252, 253 
 
 309 
 
 37-^ 
 
 • 37-* 
 
 SoltikofffSol'-te-kof), ... 290 
 
 Solway Frith (Sol'-way), . , '99 
 
 Solway Moss, .... 211 
 
 Solyman (Sol'-e-man), . . 192, 204 
 
 Somerset (Som'-er-set), . . 2ti, 212, 508 
 
 Somorrostro(So-mor-ros'-tro), . . 428 
 
 396 
 191 
 463 
 28* 
 
 228 
 
 44« 
 194 
 
 Sonderburg Glucksburg, (Soon' der burg 
 
 Glooks'-burg), .... 
 Sophia St. (Saint So-fe'-a), , 179 
 
 Sorel, (Sor'-elj, 
 
 Sorr, .... I 
 
 Sothel (Soth'-el), 
 
 Soubise (Soo-beez'), . . . 
 
 Souk (Soolt), . . . 340,341,346 
 
 South America (South A-mer'-c- ka). 
 
 South Carolina (South Kar-o-li'-na), 264, 265 
 
 4S3, 47I1 473i 494, 504. 505) 508, 5' 5, 52] 
 
 South Mountain, .... 511 
 
 Spain, 27, 37, 78, 80, 83, 87, 90,96, III, 124, 127, 
 
 146, 156, 194, 215, 242, 269, 335, 339, 355 
 
 Spaniard (Span'-yard), . . . 194, 214 
 
 Spaniards, . 143,145,242,265,268,340 
 
 Spanish (Span'-ish), 194, 195, 213, 268, 339, 342, 
 
 367, 400, 431 
 
 Sparta (Spar'-ta), 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 48, 51, 52, 
 
 53, 62 
 Spartacus (Spar'-ta-kus), . . .87 
 
 Spartan (Spar'-tan), 40, 41,, 42, 46, 49, 50, 51, 
 
 52, 62 
 Sp.artans, . . 41, 42, 46, 49, 50, 52, 62 
 
 Spenser, Hugh (Hu Spen'-serJ, . . 177 
 
 Spicheren iSpik'-er-en), . . . 403 
 
 Spice Islands, .... 193 
 
 Spire, . . . 161, 166, 201, 354 
 
 Splugen (Splu'-jen), .... 332 
 Spotsylvania Court House (Spot-sil-va'- 
 
 ne-a), ..... 
 Springfield (Spring'-feeld), . 
 St. Afbans (Saint Awl'-bans), . 
 St. Angelo (Saint An'-je-lo), 
 St. Antoine (Saint An-twaw'-na), 
 St. Arnaud (Sang Ar'-no), . 
 St. .'^ubin (Sang O'-been), 
 St. Augustine 1 Saint Au'-gus-teen), 
 St. Avoid (Saint Av'-old), 
 
 St. Bartholomew (St. Bar-thol'-o-mew), 219, 320 
 St. Bernard (Saint Ber-nard'), . . 137 
 
 St. Clair (Saint Klair), 466, 467, 479 
 
 St. Cloud (Sang Cloo'), . . 331,393 
 
 St. Denis (Sang Der'-ne), 219, 221, 373, 410 
 .St. Dom ngoiSaint Do-ming'-o), . 184, 334 
 
 St. Germain (Sang Zher'-men), . 219, 247 
 St. Germain IWuxerrois (Sang Zher'-men 
 
 Lo-zher-waw') .... 219 
 
 St. Helena (Saint He-le'-na), . . 352 
 
 St. Honore (Sang Ho-ncre'), • . 418 
 
 St. John, .... 156, 140, 192 
 St. Just (Saint Just), . . . 208 
 
 St. Lawrence (Saint Law'-rence), 195,300, 302, 
 306, 462, 487 
 St. Leger (Saint Le'-jer), . 
 St. Louis (Sang Loo'-e), . 
 St. Mark (Saint Mark), . 
 St. Mark's (Saint Mark's), . 
 St. Mary's (Saint Ma'-ry's), 
 St. Menehould (Sang Ma'-noo), 
 St. Paul (Saint Paul), 
 St. Peter (Saint Pe'-ter), 
 I St. Petersburg (Saint Pe'-ters-burgj, 274, :js 
 
 St. Philip, Fort (Saint Fil'-ip), 
 
 St. I'ierre (Sang Pe-aire'), 
 I St. Pierre, Eustace (Use'-tas), 
 i St. (^)uen (Sang K.ain), . 
 
 St. (Juentin (Sang Kain-tang'), 
 
 St. Ruth, 
 I St. Salvador (Sal'-va-dore), 
 
 St. Sophia (So-fc'-ai, . 
 I Stadtholder (Staht'-hold-er), 216,217,218,247, 
 
 251, 298 
 
 _ 8 
 
 472, 507 
 
 184 
 
 . 204 
 
 250, 373 
 
 . 387 
 
 157 
 
 . 268 
 
 403 
 
 
 
 467 
 
 139, 
 
 140, 
 
 150 
 143 
 492 
 261 
 316 
 234 
 
 199 
 
 200 
 
 379 
 
 rgj. 
 
 ^74, 
 
 :yS, 
 
 
 293 
 
 33? 
 
 
 '3' 
 
 415 
 
 212, 
 
 218, 
 
 410 
 248 
 194 
 
 
 119, 
 
 191 
 
ALPHA BE TICA L INDEX. 
 
 63 
 
 Ru 
 
 Stun, 
 
 Stanhop; (Stan'-hopel, 
 Stanislaus Leczinski (Stan 
 
 zins'-ke), 
 Si iiiislaus Poiiiatowski (Po- 
 SlJnley (Stan'-le), 
 Stanton, Edivin til. iStan'-ton), 
 StahreiTiberg, Riidiger von 
 
 Stah'-rem-burg), 
 Stark, John, . 
 Staten Island 'Sta'-ten), 
 Slaira (Sta-ti -ra), 
 Stcadman, Foit (Sted'-man) 
 Stcile, P'rederic (Steel), 
 KteiiiLock (Stine'-bok), . 
 i:ti:inmetz (Stine -mets), 
 Slf:phen of England (Ste'-ve 
 Stephen of Hungary, 
 Sti;phens, Alexander H. (Ste'-V( 
 Stephenson, Fort (Ste'-ven-son), 
 Stenben (Stu'-ben), 
 Stevens (Ste'-vens), . 
 Stewart (Stu'-artt, 
 Stilicho (Stil'-e-ko), . 
 Stirling tStir'-ling), 
 Stirling, Lord, 
 Stockach (Stok'-ak), 
 Stockholm (Stok'-holm), 
 Stockton (Stok'-ton), 
 Stofllet (Stof-fla'), 
 Stone, . 
 
 Stoneman (Stone'-inan), 
 Stone River, . . 
 
 Stono Ferry (Sto'-no), 
 Stony Point, 
 Strafford (StraP-ford), 
 Straisund (Strahl'-soond), 
 Strasburg (Stras'-burg), i 
 
 . 271 
 -is-la'-us Lek- 
 
 275, 276, 280 
 
 ne-a-tous'-ke), 20,^ 
 
 . 184 
 
 . 5=3 
 
 de-jer von 
 252, 271, 272 
 
 • 467 
 
 464 
 
 58 
 
 521 
 
 S'5 
 
 277 
 
 403, 404 
 
 173. 174 
 
 . l8q 
 
 ns), 
 
 Stratton Hill (Strat'-ton), 
 Strelitzes (Strel'-its-es), . 
 Strieker (Strick'-er), . 
 Stringer (String'-er), 
 Strini;ham (String'-am), 
 Strode, . 
 
 Strongbow (Strong'-bo), 
 Struve i,Stru'-va), . 
 
 Stuart (Stu'-art), , ■ 5 
 Stnrgis fStur'-jis), 
 Stuttgart (Stut'-gart), 
 Stuyvesant (Sti-ves'-sant), 
 Styria (Stir'-e-a>, 
 Suchet (Su-sha'), . 
 
 Sucre (Su-kra'), . 
 
 Suda (Su'-da), 
 
 Sudermania (Su-der-ma'-ne-a 
 Suetonius Paulinas (Su-ton'-e 
 Sueve (Sweev), . 
 
 Suflee (Suf-fee') . , 
 
 Siiffeean (Suf-fee'-an), 
 SulT,.lk (Suf'-folk), . 
 Suliot (Su'-le-ot), . 
 Sullivan, John (Sul'-Ie-van), 
 Sullivan's Island, 
 Sully (Sul'-le), . 
 Sultan (Su!'-tan), 137, 138, i 
 Stnnter, Fort (Sum'-ter), 
 Sumter, Thomas, . 
 Sunbury (Sun'-ber-re), 
 Eunnites (Sun'-nites), 
 Siiraj.ih Dowlali iSu-ra'-jah 
 Buiiey, Earl 'f (Stir'-re), 
 Susa ^Su'-sa) 
 Susi^na (Su-se-an'-a), 
 Sussex (Sils'-sex), 
 Suwarrow (Su-wahr'-o), 
 Swabia (Swaw'-be-a), 
 Swabian League, 
 Swanzy (Swan'-ze), . 
 
 165, 228 
 
 252, 370 
 
 406 
 
 ), • 
 ■us Pau-li 
 
 464 
 
 192, 204 
 
 504 
 • 471 
 
 504 
 
 . 486 
 
 46s 
 
 • 5" 
 490 
 
 no. III 
 177 
 
 • 464 
 329 
 
 186, 213 
 
 499 
 
 • 322 
 508 
 
 • 522 
 513 
 
 • 469 
 470 
 
 234. 235 
 
 277. 338 
 
 402, 403, 
 
 407, 412 
 
 . 237 
 
 1S8 
 
 . 489 
 
 242 
 
 . 507 
 236 
 
 • 174 
 373 
 
 474, 512 
 
 5«8 
 
 . 377 
 
 260 
 
 . 166 
 
 342 
 
 . 440 
 
 357 
 
 213, 34' 
 
 nus), 96 
 
 . 112 
 
 in 
 
 • 215 
 215 
 
 513. 514 
 
 358 
 
 468, 470 
 
 463 
 
 221 
 
 359, 386 
 
 505, 5>5 
 
 472, 4 74 
 
 . 469 
 
 123 
 
 Dow'-Iah), 299 
 
 , 209, 211 
 
 35, 57. 59 
 
 ■ 57 
 
 , 120 
 
 295, 296, 329 
 
 159, 161, 162 
 
 • 170 
 258 
 
 Sweaborg fSwe'-lorg), . . 338, 388 
 
 Swedes (Sweeds), . 229, 230, 252, 295 
 
 Sweden ;Swe'-d(-n), 185, 186, 213, 229, 273, 275, 
 c ^- .. /c ^",278. 281, 295, 33^3, 338, 341, 34? 
 bwedish (bweed -ishj, . 213, 229, 251, 274, :76, 
 277, 278, 281, 33b, _)47 
 Sweyn (Swain)_ . . . , 172 
 
 Swiss, . ' . 157,166,167,168,171,334 
 Switzerland (Swits'-er-land), 167, 171, 201, 328, 
 
 334> ♦" 
 Syagrius (Se-a'-gre^us), . . ^5 
 
 Sydney, Algernon (Al' ger-non SId'-ne), 246 
 Sydney Smith, . . . , .30 
 
 Sylvia (Sil'-ve-ah), . . . 'tii', 
 
 Syra (Sir'-ah), .... 394 
 
 Syrans (Sir'-ans), . . . 394 
 
 Syracusans (Sir-a-ku'-zans), . . . ;o 
 
 Syracuse (Sir-a-kuze'j, . 40,50,65,76,80 
 
 Syria (Sir'-e-aj, 33, 34, 55, 60, 63, 64, 81, 88, 89, 
 99, loi, 122, 134, 3 
 
 Syrian, . . 
 
 Syrians, 
 
 Szecklers (Zek'-lers), 
 Szigeth ! Zig'-eth), 
 Szolnok (Zol'-nok), 
 Szonz (Zonts), 
 
 31,63, 64, 88, 330 
 . 64 
 
 192 
 382 
 
 T. 
 
 9. 331 
 
 Tabor Hill (Ta'-bor), 
 Tabor, Mount, . , 
 
 Taborites (Ta'-bor-ites) 
 Tacitus (Tas'-e-tus), 
 Tacubaya (Ta-koo-bi'-ya), . 
 Talavera ( Tal-a-va'-ra), . 
 Tallard i,TaI-lar'), , 
 Talleyrand (Tal'-le-rand), 
 Tallien (Tal-le-ong'j, 
 Tamasp (Tam-asp'), 
 Tamaulipas (Ta-mow'-le-pas), 
 Tamerlane (Tatn'-er-lane), . 
 Taney (Taw'-ne), . 
 
 Tarentines (Ta-ren'-tins), 
 Tarentius Varro (Ta-ren'-she-us 
 Tarentum (Ta-ren'-tum), 
 Targowicz (Tar-go-vits'j, 
 Tarik (Ta'-rik), . 
 Tarleton (Tarl'-ton), . 
 
 Tarpcia (Tar-pe'-a), . 
 Tarpeian Rock, 
 Tarijuin the Elder (Tar'-quin), 
 Tarquin the Proud, . 
 Tarquinius Ptiscus (Tar-quin 
 
 kus), 
 Tarquinius Superbus (Su-per'-bus), 
 Tarsus (Tar'-sns), 
 Tartar (Tar'-tar), 
 Tartaric (Tar-tar'-ik), 
 Tartars, .... 
 Tartary (Tar'-ta-re), 
 Tauris ('I'an'-ris), . . 
 
 Taylor, Richard (Ta'-Ior), , 
 Taylor, Zachary (Zak'-a-re), 495, 497, 498, 500, 
 
 501 
 Tchernaya (Cher-na'-ya), . . . 388 
 
 Teba (Te'-ba), .... 386 
 
 Tecumseh (Te-kum'-sa), . . 48), 486 
 
 Tegethoff (Tcj'-et-hof), . . 398 
 
 Tehiiacan (Ta-wah'-kan), . . . 448 
 
 Tejada, Lerdo de (Lair'-do de T--h»'-'Ja), 450, 
 
 4:.- 
 Tejas CTe'-jas), . . . itt 
 
 Tell, William, . . . . 165 
 
 Teineswar, (Tem-esh var'), . 381 387 
 
 Tennessee (Ten-nes-see'), . 4S0, 490, 491 433, 
 497. 504, 506, 508, 509, 510, 515, .516, 517, 520, 
 
 523 
 Tennesseeans,n'en-nes-see'-ans), . . 489 
 
 Tennis Court (Ten'-nis), . SHi 3'7 
 
 Teran (Ta-ran'), . . . . 43S 
 
 Ternay (Ter-na'), . . . 47a 
 
 . 231 
 
 330 
 
 . 170 
 
 105 
 
 • 445 
 340 
 
 - 270 
 346, 349 
 323. 324 
 
 . 215 
 435, 498 
 
 . 191 
 50a 
 
 • "7s 
 Var'-ro), 79 
 
 65, 75, 76, 80 
 295, 206 
 
 , J24 
 
 47', 473 
 66 
 
 • l^ 
 68 
 
 68, 69 
 e-us Pris'- 
 
 . 68 
 
 68, 69 
 
 55,92 
 
 190 
 
 . 189 
 
 129 
 
 57, '23 
 
 295 
 
 517 
 
64 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Terska (Ters'-ka), .... 230 
 
 Teutoners (Tu'-tones), ... 85 
 
 Tewksbury (Tukes'-ber-re), . . . 183 
 
 Texan (,Tex'-aii;, . . . 443, 444 
 
 Texans, ..... 444 
 
 Tcxa« (Tex'-as), . 443, 446, 497, 498, 501, 504, 
 
 5131 516 
 'I'huddeiis K.osciu.izko (Thad'-de-us Ko.s-se- 
 
 uz'-k(jj, 
 Thalcs i 'i'ha'-leez), 
 rh.iiMes ( reinz), 
 I'haosus (Thup'-siis), 
 Til is.-<ilo (Thas-sil'-lo), 
 I h itther ('I'haich'-erj, . 
 Jli.ibiis (The'-bais), 
 riicbaii (The'-ban), 
 I'hcbans, 
 
 Thebes, Egypt (Theebs), 
 Thebes, Greece, 
 Thciss (Ticel, 
 
 Theinistocles ( The-mis'-to-kleez), 
 Theodure (The'-o-dore), 
 Theodoric the Ostrogoth (The-od'-o-rik), 112, 
 
 "7 
 Theodosius the Great iThe-o-do'-she us), . no 
 Theophilus Katon (')lic-t>f'-e-Uis E'-ton), 363 
 There>a, Maria (Ma-ri'-a 'I'e-re'-sa/, 250, 280, 
 282, 283, 284, 2S5, 2S6, 297, 298, 311 
 ■ 394 
 • 3231 324 
 46, 61, 358 
 
 37 
 
 . 46 
 
 53 
 
 36, 90 
 
 148 
 
 • 295 
 
 296, 395, 465 
 
 
 44 
 175, 4S6 
 
 
 . • ..^8 
 
 
 522 
 
 
 • 25 
 48 
 
 
 • 52, 53. 54 
 
 
 25 
 
 35< 37i 
 129 
 
 48,52, 53. 54 
 189, 382, 383 
 
 46, 47, 48 
 
 rhermia (Ther'-me-a), 
 1'hcrmidor \ Ther'-me-dor), 
 Theriiiopyla; (Ther-mop'-e-le), 
 Theseus (The'-soosj, 
 Thespians (Thes-pi'-ans), 
 Thessalians (Thes-sa'-le-ans), 
 Thessaly ^Thes'-sa-le), . 
 
 Thibault (Te'-bo), 
 
 Thiers, Louis Adulphe (Loo-e A'-dolf Te'-.a), 370 
 385,4:1,414,415,420,430,431 
 Thionville (Te-oans;-veel'), . 402, 421, 408 
 
 Thomas (Tom'-as), . . . 414 
 
 Thomas, George H., . 508, 516, 520 
 
 Thomas, John, .... 463 
 
 Thomson, Charles (Tom'-son), . . 459 
 
 Thompson (Tom'-son), , 
 Thomyns 1 Thom'-e-ris), 
 Thornton (Thorn'-ton), 
 Thrace (Thra'-se) 
 Thracian (Thra'-she-an), 
 Thracians, . . . 
 
 Thrasybiilus fThras-ib'-u-lus), , 
 Thuringia (Thu-rin'-je-a), . 
 Thuringian, 
 
 Thurn, Count von (Toorn), . 
 Thymbra (I'hiTi'-bra), . 
 Tiber iTi'-ber), . .68, 
 
 Tiberias, Lake (Ti-be'-re-as), . 
 Tiberius (Ti-b';'-re-us), 
 Tiberius Grarchus iGrak'-kus), 
 Ticino (Tis'-e-no), 
 Ticinus (Tis i'-nus), 
 Ticondeiog? (Ti-kon-der-o'-ga), 
 
 495 
 
 • 34 
 
 . 446, 498 
 
 40, 45, 60, 109, 112 
 
 102 
 
 . 117 
 
 51 
 
 . 159 
 
 166 
 
 . 226 
 
 33 
 
 3, 97, loi, 102 
 
 137 
 
 94, 95 
 
 84 
 
 379. 392 
 
 79 
 
 290, 3°5. 307. 
 
 460, 466 
 
 Tien-tsin (Teen'-tsin), 
 Tigris I Ti'.gris), . . . 24,56,59,99 
 
 Tilly ('I'eel'-ye), . . 227, 228, 229, 230 
 
 Tilsuri'il'--'it), . _ . . .338 
 
 Tiniour the Lame ( Te-moor'), . . 191 
 
 Tinicum Island ('I'in'-e-kum), . . 266 
 
 'I'inville, Eouquir (Foo-ke-a' Tang-veel'), 
 
 Tippecanoe (Tip-pe-ka-noo'), 
 
 Tippoo Saib {'I'lp'-po Sah'-ib), . 
 
 Tissapliernes ( Tis-sa-fer'-nes), 
 
 Titans (T-'-tans;, 
 
 Titus (Ti tus), 
 
 Titus Manlius (Ti'-tus Man'-le-us), 
 
 Titus Oates (Oats), . 
 
 'J'ilus Tatius (Ta'-she-us), . 
 
 Tohopeka (To-ho-pe'-ka), . . 
 
 Tokay (To-ka'), . 
 
 324, 
 
 420 
 
 484 
 
 299 
 
 52 
 
 36 
 
 ■246 
 
 67 
 4S7 
 
 383 
 
 Tokeli, Emmerick (Em'-er-ik To-ke'-le), 252, 
 
 253 
 Tolbiac (Tol'-be-ak), . . . 125 
 
 Tolentino (To-len-te'-no), . 326, 351 
 
 Tolosa (To-lo'-sa), . . .158, 428 
 
 Tompkins, Daniel D. (Dan'-yel D. Tom'- 
 
 kins), .... 491, 492 
 
 Tomochichi (To-mo-ke'-ke), . . 267 
 
 Topeka (To-pe'-ka), . . 503 
 
 Torgau (Tor'-gou), . . . 291 
 
 Tories (To'-rees , . 246, 272, 297, 400, (J2 
 
 Toronto (To-ron'-to), . , i'^i 
 
 Torres (Tor'-res), . . . 43; 
 
 Torres Vedras (Tor'-res Va'-dras), . 545 
 
 Torstenson (Tors '-ten-son), . . J ii 
 
 Tory ( To'-re), . . 246, 255, 366 5^9 
 
 Tostig (Tos'-ti 
 Totila (To-ti'-la), . . . ii3 
 
 Toul (Tool), .... 206, 208 
 
 Toulon ('I'oo-lon'), 
 
 Toulouse (Too-looz'), 136, 141, 146, 
 Touraine (Too-raine'), 
 'I'uurenne (Too-ren'), 
 Tournay (Toor-na'), 
 'I'ours (Toors), 
 Tourviile (Toor'-veel), 
 
 271, 322, 325, 361, 4Q2 
 
 Toussaint Louverture (Too-sang' Loo-ver 
 ture'). . . . . .334 
 
 Tra^ilgar (Traf-al-gar'), . . 336 
 
 Trajan (Tra'-jan)' . . . -99 
 
 Transvlvania (Tran-sil-va'-ne-a), 189, 192, 253, 
 380, 381, 382, 383 
 Transylvanian, . . . .192 
 
 Trasimenus (Tras-im'-e-nus), . . 79 
 
 Traun (Troun), .... 284 
 
 I'ravendal (Trav'-en-dal), . . 274 
 
 Trebia (Tre'-be-a), . . . 79 
 
 Trent (Trent), . . 207, 208, 398 
 
 Trenton (Tren-ton), . . . 465 
 
 Trevino (Tra-ve'-no), . 
 
 Tribonian (Tre-bo'-ne-an), 
 
 Tribimate (Trib'-u-nat), 
 
 Tribune (Trib'-une), 
 
 Tribunes, . . 70, 7 
 
 Tristany (Tris'-ta-ne), . 
 
 Triiels (Tre'-fels), 
 
 Tripoli (Trip-'o-le), . 
 
 Tripoli tans (Tre-pol'-e-tans), 
 
 1'npolitza ( rrip-o-lit'-sa), 
 
 Triumvirate (Tri-um'-ver-ate), 
 
 Triuaivirs ( I'ri-um'-vers), 
 
 Trochu (Tro'-koo), . . 407, 
 
 Trojan (Tro'-jan), 
 
 Trojans, , . . 
 
 Tromp, Van (Van Tromp), 
 
 Tronchet ( Tron-sha'), , 
 
 Troppau ^Trop'-pou), 
 
 Troy, .... 
 
 Troyes (Troy'-e), 
 Truxton (Tru.x'-ton), 
 Tryon (^Try'-on), 
 Tudela (Too-da'-la), 
 Tudor (Too'-der), 
 
 49. 249, 349 
 
 . 149 
 
 206 
 
 158, 209 
 
 . 124, 407 
 
 255 
 
 • 45' 
 119 
 
 • 332 
 
 84 
 72, 89, 142 
 422, 427 
 138 
 482 
 4S1 
 358 
 
 92, 481 
 
 . 88, 92 
 
 409, 410, 411 
 
 . 38.65 
 
 . 38 
 
 241 
 
 . . . 320 
 
 . 356 
 
 38 
 
 loS, 154, 155, 181, 349 
 
 480 
 
 . 458, 465, 469, 470 
 
 340 
 
 184 185 
 
 Tuileiies (Tweel-ree'), 315, 318, 321, 327, 362, 
 
 37I1 385, 406, 4'9. 430 
 
 Tull!a (Too'-le-a), ... 68 
 
 Tuilus Hostilius (Tul'-his Hos-til'e-us), 76 
 
 T'unes ( Too'-nes), ... 77 
 
 Tunis (Too'-nist, . . 140, 150. -02, 204 
 
 Tupac Amaru (Too'-pawk Am'-a-rui, .,3, 414 
 
 Turenne (Too-ren') . 23ij ,;3. ^51, 2'? 
 
 Turgot (Tur'-go'), . . . • 2'' 
 
 Turin Cl'oo'rin), . . 270, ;j) 
 
 Turkestan (Turk-es-tan'), . . 3; 5^ 
 
 Turkey ( lurk'-e), 3^, 204, 276,278, 280,294, i^s, 
 
 359, 386, 38 7, 38a 
 
 Turkish (Turk'-ish), 136, 191, 192, 205, 206,2^2, 
 
 276, 294, j6o, 388 
 
 Turks, 134, 13";, 136, 191, 192, 206, 215, 252, 277, 
 
 294, 387, 388 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 65 
 
 lascany (Tus'-ka-ne), . . .144,280 
 
 Tuscarora (Tus-ka-ru'-ra), . . . 265 
 
 Tuscaroras, . > . . . 265 
 
 Twiggs, . . . . 504 
 
 I'yler, John (Ti'-ler), . .496,497 
 
 lyler, Wat (Wot Ti'-ler), . . .179 
 
 1 yndariis (Tin-da'-rus), . 38 
 
 Tyne (Tin), .... 99, 172 
 lyre, . . . .27, 31, 55, 56 
 
 Tynan (Tir'-e-an), . • . 56 
 
 lyririns, . . . . .56 
 
 Tyrrhenians (Tir-re'-ne-ans), . . 65 
 
 1 yrol ( I'ir'-ol), . 207, 208, 341, 375, 398 
 
 1 J rolese (Tir-ol-ese') . . . 341 
 
 'J'yroiie (Ty-rone'), .... 225 
 I'yrLEus (Tir-te'-us), ... 42 
 
 u. 
 
 Uhrich (Oo'-rik), . . . 406,407 
 
 Ukraine (U'-krane), . . 253, 276, 296 
 
 UUoa, San Juan de (San Whaun' daOo-Ioo'- 
 
 a) 499 
 
 Uhn, ..... 165, 336 
 Ulm, New, .... 513 
 
 Ulric (Ool'-reek), .... 170 
 Ulrica, Eleanora (Ool-re'-ka El-e-no'-ra), 278 
 Ulric Zwingle (Ool'-reek Zwin'-glej, . 2at 
 
 Ultramontane (Ul-tra-moii-tane'j, . 363, 431 
 Ultramontanes, .... 431 
 
 Ulys5es (U-lis'-sees), ... 38 
 
 Umbria (Um'-bre-a), . . . -65 
 
 Umbrians, .... 75 
 
 Union City, ..... 517 
 United States, 455, 463, 475, 478, 4S4. 490, 496, 
 498, 500, 504, 524 
 Unstruth, (Oon.-;'-troot), . . .161 
 
 Unterwalden (Oon'-ter-wol-den), . 167, 168 
 Upsala,(Up-sa'-la), . . .213 
 
 Ural (U'-ral), . . . . .129 
 
 Uranus (U'-ran-us), ... 36 
 
 Urban (Ur'-ban), . . . .135 
 
 UriiOo'-re), . . . .167 
 
 Uriah (U-ri'-ah>, . . . .31 
 
 Urrea (Oo-ra'-ah), . . .444,445 
 
 Uruguay (Oo'-roo-gwi), . . 440, 441 
 
 Utah (U'-tah), .... 503. 532 
 Utica (U'-te-ka) . . . .90 
 
 Utopia (U-to'-pe-a), . . . 210 
 
 Utrecht (U'-trckt), . . 272 280, 302 
 
 Vadier (Va-de-a'), . ■ • 3^4 
 
 Valencia (Va-len'-she-a), 158, 339, 342, 400, 
 
 424, 425, 426 
 Valenciennes (Va-long-se-en'), . . 323 
 
 Valens(Va'-lensl,. . . . 109, no 
 
 Valentinian I. ( Val-en-tin'-e-an), . 109, no 
 Valentinian U., . . . .110 
 
 Valentinian III., . . . 111,112 
 
 Valeran (Va-le'-re-an), . . .104 
 
 Valerian. Fort (Va-lar-re-aing') 407. 410. 415 
 Valladolid (Val-la-do-lid'), . . 194 
 
 Valles (Vals), . . . .420 
 
 Valley Forge, . . . 466,468 
 
 Valmy (Val'-me), . . • 3'9 
 
 Valparaiso (Val-pa-ri'-so) . • 44'. 49° 
 
 Valois (Val-waw') . 152, 178. 187, 206, 221 
 
 Van ArtveldtlVan Art'-veU), . .i54 
 
 Van liuren, Martin (Van Bu'-ren), . 494, 495 
 Vand.al (Van'-dal), . . "2, "7i "8 
 
 Ua-ulalism, . . . ■ 4'9 
 
 Vandals, . . 104, 112, 117, 118 
 
 Vandamnie (Van-dam'), . . . 347 
 
 Van Dorn, Earl, . . 508, 5'2 
 
 Vane, Sir >ienry, . . . 241 
 
 Van Home, ..... 4^4 
 Van Olden Barnveldt (Van Ol'-den Barn' 
 
 veldt), ..... 218 
 
 Van Tromp, ..... 241 
 Van Twiller (Van Twil'-ler), . . 260 
 
 39 
 
 Vanvres (Van'-ver), 407, 409, 410, 414, 416,417, 
 
 418 
 Varangian (Va-ran'-je-an), . . 130, 188 
 
 Varennes (Va-ren'), . . . 316 
 
 Varennes, Billaud (Beel'-yo V^a-ren'), 323, 324 
 Varese (Va-rese'), .... 3^3 
 Varna (Var'-na), . . , 191, 359 
 
 Varus (Va'-rus ), . . -94 
 
 Vasa, Gustavus (Gus-ta'-vus Vas-a), 186, 213 
 Vasco de Gama (Vas'-ko da Ga'-ma), 193 
 
 Vassy (Vas'-se), . ' . . . 219 
 
 Vauban (Vo-bong') . . . 250 
 
 Vauch.ainps (Vo-shong'), . . 34-^ 
 
 Vaud(Vo) ^28 
 
 Vedas (Ve'-das), .... 23 
 
 Veil (Ve'-e-i), . . . .72 
 
 Velarde (Va-lar'-da), ... 424 
 
 Venables (,Ven'-a-bles), , . . 242 
 
 Vendean (Von-de'-an), . . . 335 
 
 Vendeans, ..... 322 
 Vendee, La (La Von'-da), . . 322 
 
 Vendemiaire (Vong-de-me-aire'), . 325 
 
 Vendome (Ven-dome'), 270, 271, 272, 410, 414, 
 
 4)6, 418 
 Veneti (Ven'-e-ti), .... 143 
 Venetia (Ve-ne'-she-a), . 65, 380, 393, 399 
 
 Venetian, . . . 143, 144, 327 
 
 Venetians, . . 138, 143, 144, 327 
 
 Venezia (Ve-ne'-ze-a), . . . 143 
 
 Venezuela (Ven-e-zu-e'-la), 436, 437, 438, 440, 
 
 441 
 
 Venice (Ven'-is), 112,138,141, 143,144, 158, 
 
 192, 195, 253, 278, 279, 327, 380 
 
 Venus (Ve'-nus), . . . -36 
 
 Vera Cruz (Va'-rah Krooz), 444, 447, 448, 450, 
 
 499 
 Vercellae (Ver-sel'-le), ... 86 
 
 Verd, 'Cape de, .... 193 
 
 Verdun (Ver-dun'), 129, 159, 206, 208, 319, 403, 
 
 404 
 Vergniaud (Varn'-yo), . . 317,318 
 
 Vermandois ( Ver-man-dwaw'), . . 135 
 
 Vermont ( Ver-mont'j, . 300, 467, 478, 528 
 
 Vernon (Ver'-non), . . . 280 
 
 Vernon, Mount, . . . 475,481 
 
 Verona, (Ve-ro'-nal, . . 103,393 
 
 Verplanck's Point (Ve'r-plank's), . »470 
 
 Verrazzani, John (Ver-rat-sah'-ne), . 195 
 
 Versailles ( Ver-sails'), . 250, 293, 312, 313, 315, 
 407, 409, 411, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418 
 Versaillists (Vcr-^ail'-ists), . 417,418,419,420 
 Verus, Lucius I Lu'-she-us Ver'-us), . 100 
 
 Vespasian (Ves-pa'-she-an), . 97, 08 
 
 , Vespucci, Amerigo (A-mer-e'-go Ves-poot'. 
 she), . . . . -194 
 
 Vesta (Ves'-ta), .... 36 
 
 Vesuvius (Ve-su'-ve-us), . . -74 
 
 Veturia (Ve-tu'-re-a), ... 71 
 
 Vicksburg (Vicks'-burg), . . 512, 5r4 
 
 Victor Emmanuel \. (Vik'-tor Em-mau'-u- 
 
 el), . . . . 357 
 
 Victor Emmanuel IL, 379, 392, 393, 394, 430, 
 
 413 
 Victoria, Alexandra (Al-ex-an'-dra Vik-to'- 
 
 re-a), . ... 367 
 
 Victoria, General, . . 435. 4»> 
 
 Vienna (Ve-en'-na), joo, 192, 204, 231, 252, 253, 
 336, 340. 341. 350, 374, 376, 378, 382, 383, 393, 
 396. !99 
 Vigo (Ve'-go) .... 269 
 
 VillagosfVeel' a-goash), . . . jSj 
 
 Villars (Vil-yar'), . . 269 ?7i, 272 
 
 Villa Franca (Vil'-la Fran'-kai, . 39J 
 
 Villaviciosa (Vil-le-ve-se-os'-sa), . . 272 
 
 Viller Exel (Vil'-ler Ex'-ei), . 4'0 
 
 Villeroi I Vil-yer-waw'), . 268,270 
 
 Villiers, George (Vil-ye-aire'). . . 232 
 
 Vimiera ( Vini-e-a'-ra), . . 340 
 
 Vincennes (Vin-senz'), . 300, 335, 470, 530 
 Vindex, Julius (Ju'-le-us Vin'-dex), . 96 
 
(>(i 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 . 
 
 . 23 
 
 
 415, 420 
 
 256, 
 
 257, 264. 
 
 464, 
 
 469,473. 
 
 4q6, 
 
 S03, 505, 
 
 ,516 
 
 517, 521 
 
 
 • 302 
 
 303 
 
 305, 462 
 
 7= 
 
 526, 527 
 
 
 . 8., 
 
 
 78 
 
 
 . 143 
 
 
 248 
 
 
 . 23 
 
 
 III, 112 
 
 
 • 124 
 
 294 
 
 296, 337 
 
 
 97 
 
 , 
 
 . 118 
 
 
 346 
 
 
 . .48 
 
 sais' 
 
 ), 408 
 
 
 253 
 
 
 . ]88 
 
 
 187 
 
 
 187,275 
 
 
 . 109, 264 
 
 
 . 296 
 
 
 68, 70, 71 
 
 
 • 7' 
 
 
 407, 408 
 
 
 409 
 
 . 
 
 . 36 
 
 Vindyi (Viiid -ya), 
 V'inoy (Ve-noy'), . . . 
 
 Virginia (Vir-jiii'-e-a), 71, 72, 255, 
 302, 303, 455, 459, 461, 462, 463, 
 474. 477. iSi, 483, 48S, 491, 493, 
 506, 507. 512,514, 
 Viri^inian, . 
 
 Virgin'ans, . . 256, 258, 
 
 Virgin u". 'Vir-jin'-e-us), 
 V:iijtlius , Vir-e-a'-thus), 
 S'\ -i.lijiiunis (V'r-e-do-ma'-rus), . 
 
 •. ■';..;niit; ' Vi:, k jn'-tc), 
 
 ,■ s.:'juiit ( Vi'-l<ouiU), 
 
 • is-iiiiu ( V'ibh'-nu), 
 
 ' ir ii;otliic ( Vis-e-goth'-ik), 
 
 vi-ig.iiiis (Vis'-e-goths), 
 
 »';miiI.i ;Vis-tii'-lai. 141, 186, iSS, 
 
 VitcUius ' Vi-trl'-le-us), . 
 
 V'iligesi Vit'-e-jeesi, . 
 
 \ ittoiia (Vit-to'-re-a), . 
 
 \"itry (Vit'-re), 
 
 V'itry la Fraucais (Vit'-re la Fron- 
 
 Vizier I Ve-zeer'), . . . 
 
 Vladimir (Lad'-e-mer), 
 
 Vladislaus (Lad-is-la'-us), 
 
 Voiwode I Voi'-wode), . 
 
 Volga, (Vol'-gai, . , 
 
 Volhyiiia (Vol-hin'-e-a), 
 
 Volscians i Vol'-sc-aris), . . 
 
 Volumnia (Vo-lum'-ne-a\ 
 
 Von Der Tann ( Fon Der Tabn'), 
 
 Vosges (Voazb), . 
 
 Vulcan (Vul'-kan), 
 
 w. 
 
 Wabash CWaw'-bash), 
 
 Wadsw'orth (Wods'-worth), . 
 
 Wadsworth, (jeneral, 
 
 Wagner, Fort ( Wag'-ner), . 
 
 Wagram ( Wawg'-ram 1, . . . 
 
 Wahawbees ( Wa-haw'-bees), 
 
 Waibling (Wi'-bling), 
 
 Waitzen (Wite'-scnl, . 
 
 WakLfield ( Wake'-feeld), 
 
 Waldemar (.Wol'-de-mar), . 
 
 Wales, .... 120, 176, 
 
 Walker, Fort (Waw'-ker), . 
 
 Walker, Sir Hovcnden ( Ho'-ven-den), 
 
 Wallace, Lewis Loo'-is Wol'-les), . 506, 
 
 Wallace, Sir William, 
 
 Wallachia ( Wol-luk'-e-a), . 294,357, 
 
 Wallachs rWf.l'-loks) . 
 
 Wallenstein (Wol'-len-stine), 227, 228, 229, 
 
 Walpole, Sir Robert (Rob'-ert Wol'-pole) 
 Walter the Penniless, (Wawl'-ter), . 135, 
 Walworth, Sir William (Wil'-yam Wol'- 
 
 worth), ..... 
 Wanipanoag ( Wawm-pa-no'-ag), . 257, 
 Warbeok, Perkin f Per'-kin War'-bek), 
 Ward, Arteraas (Ar'-te-mas Wardj, 
 Warner, Seth I Seth War'-ner), 
 Warren, Joseph ( Jo'-sef War'-ren), . 460, 
 Warrington 'War'-ring-lon), 
 Warsaw ' War'-saw), 296, 337, 338, 364, 365, 
 Warlburg (Wart'-burg), 
 W;/rwii:k, (War'-wick), . 182, 183 
 
 V^ ill wick ihire (War'-wik-sh!r), 
 sVashington (Wash'-ing-ton,, 481, 489, 496, 
 506, 507, 508, 511, 514, 522, 
 ^A'lshington, Fort, . . . 464 
 
 *\ ashington, George, 286, 302, 303, 305, 
 
 4'''3, 4C''4. 465, 466, 468, 472, 474. 475, 476, 
 479, 480, 
 Washington, William A., 
 Wasp, 
 
 Waterford fWaw'-ter-ford), 
 V/aterloo (Waw'-ter-loo), 
 Watertowi. (Waw'-ler-town) 
 
 263 
 518 
 515 
 34" 
 368 
 162 
 382 
 182 
 186 
 
 , 180 
 508 
 302 
 518 
 '77 
 3&6 
 381 
 
 230. 
 231 
 280 
 147 
 
 179 
 
 , 25.-^ 
 18;; 
 47: 
 367 
 
 , 46r 
 490 
 
 , 295 
 
 200 
 
 , 262 
 
 237 
 
 505. 
 
 , 524 
 
 , 465 
 
 462, 
 
 478, 
 
 , 481 
 
 473 
 
 , 490 
 
 302 
 
 1 352 
 
 258 
 
 Wat Tyler (Wot Ti'-ler), . 
 Waxaw (Wax'-aw), 
 
 Wayne, Anthony (An'-tho-ne Wain), 466, 
 ♦73, 474, 
 Wayne, Fort (Fort Wain), . 
 Weathersfield ( Weth'-ers-fee Id), . ?62, 
 
 Webb, 
 
 Webster Daniel, (Web'-ster), . 
 Weimar (Wi'-mar), . . . .• 
 
 Weinsberg ( Wines'-berg) . • 
 
 Weissenberg (Wi'-sen-berg), . 
 
 Weissenbourg (Wi'-s.en-boorg'i, . . 
 
 Wcitzel. Godfrey (God'-fra Witze'-el;, 
 Welden (Wel'-den), 
 
 Weidon, (Wel'-don), .... 
 Wellesley, Sir Arthur (Wel-les' le), 299, 
 
 340, 
 
 Wellington, Duke of (Wel'-ling-ton), 300, 
 
 346, 348. 349i 351, 352, 
 
 Welsh 176, 
 
 WencesKaus (Wen-ses-la'-us), . 168, 
 
 Went worth, General ( Went'-worth), 
 
 Weutworth, Thomas, 
 
 Werdcr, (ieneral von (Wair'-der), 403, 406, 
 
 Werther, Baron (Wair'-ter,) 
 
 Wessex (Wes'-sex), . . . 120, 
 
 Westermann (Wes'-ter-man), . . 
 
 West Indies (In'-deez), 194, 508, 509, 334, 
 
 474, 
 Westminister (West-min'-ster) 
 Westmoreland (West-more'-land), 
 Westphalia (West-fa'-le-a), 217, 231, 338, 
 
 West Point, . ... 
 
 West Virginia, ( Vir-jin'-e-a), . . 507, 
 
 Wheeler, Sir Hugh iHu Wheel'er), . 
 Wheeling (Wheel'-ing), 
 V/heelright, Rev. John (Wheel'-rile), . 
 Whig, . . . 246, 366, 399, 
 
 Whigs, . . ' . 246, 272, 
 
 White, Colonel, . , . . 
 
 While, Major, .... 
 Whitehall 1. White'-hawl), . 
 Whitemarsh (White'-marsh), . 
 While Oak Swamp, . . . . 
 
 White Plains, . . 464, 
 
 Whitwortn ( Whit'-worth) . 
 Wialopoiski (Wi-al-o-pols'-ke), . 
 Wickr..fe,John(Wik'-liO, . 169, 
 
 Wie-.;och, (Wees'-lok), . 
 Wi^iht, Jsleof(Wite), 
 
 Wilderness, .... 28, 
 
 iVilhelmshohe (Wil'-helms-haa), . 405, 
 Wilkes, John (Wilks), . . 296, 
 
 Wilkinson, James ( Wil'-kin-son), . 484, 
 
 William I. of Germany (Wil-yam), 398 
 405, 406, 407, 400 
 William III. of England, 247, 248, 254, 
 
 402 
 4C'9, 
 255, 
 268. 
 366, 
 136, 147, 172, 
 
 304, 
 
 William IV. of England, 
 
 William the Conqueror, 
 
 William Rufus(Ru'-fus), 
 
 Williams, 
 
 Williams, Roger (Roj'-er), 
 
 Williams, Thomas, . 
 
 Williamsburg, .... 487 
 
 Willoughby (WilMo-be), 
 
 Wilmington (Wil'-ming-ton), 264, 473, 474 
 
 Wilna (Wil'-na), 
 
 Wilson (Wil'-son), 
 
 Wilson, Henry, , 
 
 Wilson, J. H., 
 
 Wilson's Creek, 
 
 Wimpfen (Wim'-fen), . 
 
 WimpH'en (Wim'-fen), 
 
 Winchester (Win'-ches-ter), 
 
 Winder (Wine'-der'l, . 
 
 Windischgratz ( Win'-dish-grots). 376 381, 
 
 Windsor (Win'-zer;, . . 175 262, 
 
 176 
 
 471 
 470, 
 479 
 471 
 263 
 304 
 496 
 231 
 162 
 227 
 40;, 
 521 
 3£i 
 1C3 
 J38, 
 342 
 342, 
 366 
 180 
 169 
 280 
 234 
 41a 
 401 
 171 
 322 
 
 470, 
 488 
 
 239 
 
 180 
 
 343, 
 34^ 
 474 
 516 
 390 
 
 5°: 
 258 
 432 
 459 
 242 
 508 
 241 
 466 
 
 5'i 
 468 
 334 
 395 
 j8i 
 
 2-' 7 
 
 239 
 
 5'8 
 
 412 
 . 297 
 
 487 
 404, 
 
 412 
 
 259. 
 ,269 
 
 367 
 173 
 173 
 
 388 
 263 
 5" 
 . 5>o 
 390 
 521 
 343 
 39° 
 525 
 521 
 
 V-\ 
 
 22 J 
 
 ♦"J 
 
 S'O, 
 520 
 
 ;89 
 382 
 
 267 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 67 
 
 Winfned(Win'-freed), . 
 Winkflried, Arnold (Ar'-nold Wink' 
 reed), .... 
 
 'Winnebago (Win-ne-ba'-go), 
 
 Winsljw (Win'-slo), . 
 
 Winsiow, John A., 
 
 Winston ( Wins'-ton), 
 
 Winthrop, John (Win'-throp), . 
 
 Winthrop, Theodore (The'-o-dore), 
 
 Winzingerode (Win'-zin-jer-rode), 
 
 'Vis ;o)isin ( Wis-kon'-sin), . 500 
 
 »\ IS", Henry A., . 
 
 ^V iihiicoochie ( With-la-koo'-chee), 
 
 A'iukind (Wit'-e-kind), 
 
 Wittclsbnch iWit'-tels-bok), . 
 
 Wittenberg (Wit-ten-berg'), 199, 
 
 Wittgenstein (Wit'-gen-stine), . 345, 
 
 VVoerth (Worth), . 
 
 Wohlgemuth (Wol'-ge-mute), . 
 
 Wola (VVo'-la), 
 
 Wolesley, Sir Garnet (Gar'-net Wol'-es 
 
 Wolfe, James (Woolf), . 290, 
 
 Wolsey, I'homas (Tom'-as Wool'-se), 
 
 el- 
 
 494 
 
 303 
 
 519 
 
 472 
 
 258 
 
 506 
 
 348 
 
 1 531 
 
 507 
 
 495 
 
 , 128 
 
 I 164 
 
 ,287 
 
 . 359 
 
 , 409 
 
 . 365 
 -■e), 432 
 
 305, 306 
 
 202, i:09, 
 210 
 
 Wool, John Ellis (El'-lis Wool), 485, 498, 499, 
 
 5'o 
 465 
 243 
 254 
 
 Wooster (Woos'-ter), 
 
 Worcester (Woos'-ter), . 240, 241, 
 
 Worms (Werms), 162, 165, 166, 171, 200, 
 Wouter Van Twiller (Wou'-ter Van Twil'- 
 ler), ...... 260 
 
 Wrangel (Ran'-gel), . . .231 
 
 Wrede (Vra'-da), . . . .348 
 
 Wurniser ( Werm'-ser), . . . 326 
 
 Wurtemberg (Wir'-tem-berg), 170,348,374, 377, 
 
 399 
 VVurtembergers (Wir'-tem-berg'-ers), . 409 
 
 Wurzburg (Wurts'-burg), . . 326 
 
 Wjatt, Sir Thomas (Tom'-as Wi'-at), . 256 
 Wyoming, Massacre ol (Wy-o'-ming), 469, 470 
 Wyoming Territory, . . . . 532 
 
 X. 
 
 Xantippiis (Zan-tip'-pus), . . .77 
 
 Xenophon (Zen'-o-fon), . . • S't 52 
 
 Xeres delaFrontera (Ha-ras'de la Fron-ta'- 
 ra), . . . . . .124 
 
 Xcrzes (Zerk'-seez), . . .46, 47 
 
 ), 
 
 T. 
 
 Yamasee (Yam-a-see') . 
 
 Yamasees, 
 
 Yeamans, Sir John (Ye'-n\ans), 
 Yermouk (Yer-mook'), . 
 Yesdijird (Yaze'-de-zherd), . 
 Ynglians (Ing'-gle-ans), . 
 Yorck (Yor'-nk), . , 
 
 York, 107, 180, 182, 183, 184, 
 
 York, New, 244, 2S9, 260, 261, 263, 
 462, 463, 464, 466, 468, 469, 
 Yorkinos (York'-e-noes;, 
 Yorkists (York'-ists), . 
 Yorktown ( York'-to wn\ 
 Ypsalanti, Alexander ilp-sa-lan'-ti 
 Yucatan (Yu-ka-tan'), 
 Yungay (Yoon'-gi) 
 
 z. 
 
 Zabala (Za-bal'-a), 
 
 Zacatecas (Zak-a-ta'-kas), 
 
 Zaraa (Za'-ma), 
 
 Zanagra (Zan'-a-gra), 
 
 Zara (Za'-ra), . 
 
 Zealand (Zee'-land), 
 
 Zedekiah (Zed-e-ki'-ah), 
 
 Zend Avesta (Zend A-ves'-ta), 
 
 Zenger, John Peter (Zeng'-er), 
 
 Zenobia (Ze-no'-be-a), . 
 
 Zenta (Zen'-ta), 
 
 Zerubbabel (Ze-rub'-ba-bel), 
 
 Ziethen (Tse'-ten), 
 
 Zingis Khan (Zin'-jis Khan), 
 
 Zion, Mount (Mount Zi'-on) 
 
 Ziska, John (Zis'-ka), 
 
 Znaym (Znah'-im), . 
 
 ZoUicoffer, Felix (Fe'-lix Zol'-le-koP' 
 
 Zorilla (Zo-ril'-la), 
 
 Zorndorf (Tsorn'-dorf), 
 
 Zoroaster (Zo-ro-as'-ter), 
 
 Zoutman (Zout'-man), 
 
 Zug (Tsoog'), 
 
 Zulonga (Zoo-lo'-a-ga), 
 
 Zuniga (Zu-ne'-ga), 
 
 Zurich (Tsu'-reek), . . 167 
 
 Zwingle, Ulric (Ool'-reek Zwing'-gle) 
 
 Zwinglians (Zwin'-gle-ans) . . 
 
 . 265 
 
 266 
 
 . 264 
 
 123 
 . 12a 
 
 .85 
 
 • 346 
 I 246, 466 
 
 301 , J56, 
 
 47.S 51* 
 44'. H2 
 . iii 
 3°3, 474 
 357. 358 
 
 • 445 
 441 
 
 . 429 
 
 451 
 
 . 81 
 
 43 
 
 . 138 
 
 274 
 
 32.33 
 
 35 
 
 . z6i 
 
 104, 105 
 
 . 253 
 
 33 
 
 ■ 351 
 
 190, 191 
 
 31 
 
 169 
 
 . 341 
 
 , 508 
 
 422 
 
 . 289 
 
 35, 120 
 
 • 309 
 167 
 
 • 447 
 217 
 
 329. 393 
 201, 218 
 
 . 301 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 ASSYRIAN KINGS. 
 
 BABYLONIAN KINGS 
 
 
 B. C. 
 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Ninirod, . 
 
 . 2217 
 
 Nabonassar, . 
 
 747 
 
 Seiniramis, . . , 
 
 2040 
 
 Asordanus, 
 
 691 
 
 Niiuis, , . , 
 
 . 2009 
 
 Aramels, . , 
 
 687 
 
 Ninias, . . . 
 
 1765 
 
 Esarhaddon, , 
 
 . 687 
 
 Arias, . . 
 
 • 1927 
 
 Axerdis, 
 
 670 
 
 Chedcirlaomer, 
 
 I912 
 
 Soosduchinus, . 
 
 . 668 
 
 Aralcus, 
 
 . 1S97 
 
 Asurukhbal, . . . 
 
 663 
 
 Balfus I., . 
 
 1857 
 
 Chyniladan, 
 
 . 648 
 
 Aniuiniles, 
 
 . 1827 
 
 Nainichodonosor, . 
 
 648 
 
 Beluchus I., . 
 
 1796 
 
 Sarac, . . , 
 
 . 628 
 
 Baleus XL, 
 
 . 1754 
 
 Naljopolasar, , 
 
 626 
 
 Altades, 
 
 1702 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 
 
 605 
 
 Mjimilus, . 
 
 . 1670 
 
 Evihoerodach, , . 
 
 561 
 
 Manchaleus, . 
 
 1640 
 
 Neridglissar, 
 
 560 
 
 Spherus, . 
 
 . 1610 
 
 Belshazzar, • . 
 
 555 
 
 Mamilus, 
 
 1590 
 
 
 
 SpareUis, . 
 Ascalades, 
 
 . 1560 
 
 
 
 1520 
 
 PHARAOHS OR KING 
 
 S OF EGYPT 
 
 Amyiilas, . 
 
 . 1480 
 
 
 
 Beluchus II., 
 
 1435 
 
 Menes, 
 
 . 21S8 
 
 Bellepares, 
 
 . I4IO 
 
 The Shepherd Kings, . 
 
 1900 
 
 Lamprides, . 
 
 1380 
 
 Horus, 
 
 • I5!^7 
 
 Sosares, . . . 
 
 . 1348 
 
 Rameses Miamum, 
 
 1577 
 
 Panyas, 
 
 1298 
 
 Acenclieres, 
 
 . 1549 
 
 Sosannus, . 
 
 • 1253 
 
 Achoris, 
 
 1537 
 
 Dercelo, 
 
 1250 
 
 Cenchres, . 
 
 . . 1528 
 
 Mithrreus, . 
 
 . 1234 
 
 Cherres, 
 
 1504 
 
 TeiUainus, 
 
 1207 
 
 Menophis, . . 
 
 . 1416 
 
 Divanukha, 
 
 . 1200 
 
 Selhos, 
 
 1376 
 
 Teul;tus, 
 
 1 1 65 
 
 Rameses, . 
 
 • 1321 
 
 Phiiutus, . 
 
 • II35 
 
 Menu[>htah and Sethos II 
 
 . . 1305 
 
 Mardcjkempad Messessimor 
 
 iacus, 1049 
 
 Aminanejihthes, 
 
 . 1255 
 
 Eupa]>lfS, . 
 
 . 1014 
 
 Animenemes, 
 
 1215 
 
 Laosllienes, , 
 
 1006 
 
 Sesostris, . 
 
 , 1200 
 
 Adrannnelech I., 
 
 . 1000 
 
 Thuoris, 
 
 1 1 89 
 
 Pyriatidcs, 
 
 961 
 
 Rhampsinilus, . 
 
 . 1124 
 
 Anaku-Merodach, , 
 
 960 
 
 Cheoj», 
 
 1082 
 
 Oplinitteus, . 
 
 931 
 
 Shishak, . 
 
 . 978 
 
 Ephecheres, 
 
 010 
 
 Nephercheres, 
 
 937 
 
 Divaiuiber, 
 
 875 
 
 Amemophthis, . 
 
 • 933 
 
 \.draininelech 11., 
 
 . 840 
 
 Osochor, 
 
 924 
 
 Ba.dasi, 
 
 800 
 
 Osorlhon I., 
 
 . . i^ii 
 
 Sar l.mflpalus, 
 
 . 771 
 
 Taccollothis, 
 
 838 
 
 Tighuh Pileser, 
 
 747 
 
 Petubastes, 
 
 . . 825 
 
 Shalinanezar, 
 
 . 72S 
 
 Osorlhon II., . . 
 
 82s 
 
 Sennacherib, , 
 
 712 
 
 Psamnies, . 
 
 . 791 
 
 Esarhaddon, . . , 
 
 . 709 
 
 Bocchoris 
 
 78' 
 
 
 (6 
 
 ?) 
 
 
70 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 B. c. 
 721 
 6S7 
 663 
 639 
 594 
 572 
 525 
 
 Senechos, . , 
 
 Sie|)hinales, . , 
 
 Nechepsos, 
 
 Nfcho, 
 
 Apries, . 
 
 Ainasis, 
 
 r^iaminenitus, 
 
 KINGS OF MEDIA. 
 
 Deioces 710-656 
 
 Phrjortes, .... 656-635 
 Cyaxares, .... 635-595 
 Asty.iges, .... 595-559 
 
 KINGS OF PERSIA. 
 Cyrus the Great, . . . 559-529 
 Cambyses, . . . 529-521 
 
 Snierdis, . . . .521 
 
 Darius Hystaspes, . . 521-485 
 Xerxes the Great, . . , 485-464 
 Artabanus, , . . 464 
 
 Artaxerxes Longimanus, . 464-425 
 
 Xerxes II., . . . 425-424 
 
 Sogdianus, .... 424-423 
 Darius Nothus, . . . 423-404 
 
 Artaxerxes Mnemon, . . 404-35S 
 Artaxerxes Ochus, . • 358-337 
 
 Arses, 337-336 
 
 Darius Codomannus, . . 336- 
 
 OF 
 
 HEBREW 
 
 Saul, 
 David, . 
 Solomon, 
 
 KINGS 
 Rehoboam, 
 Abijah, 
 Asa, 
 
 Jelioshaphat, 
 Jehorani, . 
 Joash, . 
 Amaziah, . 
 Uz/.iah, . 
 
 Jolham, 
 Ahaz, . 
 
 Hezekiah, , 
 
 Mauassah, , 
 Anion, 
 
 Jobiah, , 
 
 fehoahaz, . . 
 [ehoiakin, 
 Ichoiachim, , 
 Zedekiah, . 
 
 KINGS 
 Jeroboam, . 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 . 1095-1055 
 
 1055-1015 
 
 . 1015-975 
 
 JUDAH. 
 
 975-958 
 
 95M55 
 
 955-904 
 
 904-889 
 
 889-S78 
 
 S78-S39 
 
 839-809 
 
 809-759 
 
 759-742 
 
 742-726 
 
 726-697 
 
 697-642 
 
 642-641 
 
 641-609 
 
 609 
 
 609-598 
 
 598-596 
 
 596-588 
 
 OF ISRAEL. 
 
 975-954 
 
 Nadab, 
 
 Baasha, 
 
 Elah, 
 
 Zimri, . . 
 
 Omri, 
 
 Ahab, . 
 Ahaziah, . 
 Jehoram, 
 Jehu, 
 Jehoahez, 
 Jehoash, 
 Jeroboam II., 
 An Interregnum, 
 Zachariah, 
 Shallum, . 
 Menahem, 
 Pekaiah, . 
 Pekah, . 
 Hosea, 
 
 KINGS OF 
 Romulus, . 
 Numa Pompilius, . 
 TuUus Hostilius, 
 Ancus Martins, . 
 Tar([uin the Elder, 
 Servius TuUius, 
 Tarquin the Proud, 
 
 KINGS OF MACEDON 
 
 Caranus, . 
 
 Coenus, , 
 
 Thurymas, . 
 
 Perdiccas I., . 
 
 Argl^^us, 
 
 Philip I., 
 
 /Eropus, 
 
 Aleetas, 
 
 Amyntas I., 
 
 Alexander I., 
 
 Perdiccas II., 
 
 Arclielaus, 
 
 Orestes, 
 
 Pausanius, 
 
 Amyntas II., 
 
 Alexander II., 
 
 Ptolemy, 
 
 Perdiccas III., 
 
 Philip the Great, 
 
 Alexander the Great, 
 
 Philip AridKus, 
 
 Cassander, 
 
 Philip IV., 
 
 Alexander and Antippus 
 
 Demetrius I., 
 
 Pysimachus of Thrace 
 
 Ptc^lemy Ceraunus, 
 
 Meleager, . 
 
 954-953 
 
 953-930 
 
 930-929 
 
 929 
 
 929-918 
 
 918-897 
 
 897-896 
 
 896-894 
 
 894-856 
 
 856-840 
 
 840-825 
 
 825-784 
 
 784-772 
 
 772-771 
 
 771 
 
 771-761 
 
 761-759 
 
 759-739 
 739-721 
 
 ROME. 
 
 753-715 
 715-672 
 672-640 
 640-616 
 616-578 
 57S-534 
 534-509 
 
 795 
 
 360-336 
 336- 324 
 324 317 
 3 '7- 298 
 298-297 
 297-294 
 294-288 
 2S8-282 
 282-280 
 280 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 n 
 
 Sostlienes, . . . 2S0-27S 
 
 Antigimus Gonatas, . . 278-242 
 Demetrius 11., . . . 242-232 
 
 Anligoniis Doson, . . 232-220 
 
 I'hilip v., . , . . 220-178 
 
 I'erseus 1 78-168 
 
 THE SELEUCID^ OF SYRIA. 
 
 Seleucus Nicator, . . . 301-283 
 ;\ntiochus Soter, . . 283-261 
 
 Anliochus Theos, . . . 261-246 
 
 Seleucus Callinicus, . . 246-226 
 
 Seleucus III., . . . 226-223 
 
 Anliochus the Great, . . 223-185 
 
 Seleucus Philopater, . . 185-175 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, . 175-162 
 Demetrius I., ... 162-150 
 Alexander I., . . . 150-146 
 
 Demetrius II., . . . "I46-130 
 Anliochus VII., . . 130-127 
 
 Alexander II., . . . 127-123 
 Antiochus VIII., . . 123-112 
 
 Antiochus IX., . , . "2-95 
 Antiochus X., . . . 95-92 
 
 , Anliochus XL, . . . 92-87 
 'Antiochus XII., . . 87-83 
 
 Tigranes, .... 83-69 
 Anliochus XIII., . . 69-65 
 
 THE PTOLEMIES OF EGYPT. 
 Ptolemy Lagus, . . 301-284 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, . . 2S4-246 
 Ptolemy Evergetes, , . 246-221 
 
 Ptolemy Philopater, , . 221-204 
 Ptolemy Epiphanes, . . 204-180 
 
 Ptolemy Philometer, . . i So- 145 
 Ptolemy Physcon, . . 145-I17 
 
 Ptolemy Lalhyrus, . . I17-100 
 
 Ptolemy Alexander L, . 100-81 
 
 Cleopatra I., . . . . 81-80 
 Ptolemy Alexander II., . 80-65 
 
 Ptolemy Auletes, . . . 65 
 
 Berenice, .... 65-55 
 
 Ptolemy and Cleopatra II., . 55-45 
 Cleopatra II., . . . 45-3° 
 
 THE AR.SACID^ 
 
 Arsaces, 
 
 Arsaces Artabainis, 
 Mithridates I., . 
 Orodes, I., . 
 Phraortes, . 
 
 Pha.aticus, . . 
 Orodes II., 
 Vonones I., . 
 Artahanui H [., . 
 Tiridatus, . . 
 
 OF PARTHIA. 
 256-217 
 . 217-156 
 
 156 
 . 58-37 
 
 37-A. D. 13 
 A. D. 
 
 . I3-H 
 
 14-15 
 15-18 
 18-35 
 
 . 35-45 
 
 Vardanus, 
 Golarzes, 
 Vologeses I., 
 Vonones II., 
 Artabanus IV., 
 Pacorus, 
 Khosroe I., . 
 Parlhanaspates, 
 Vologeses II., 
 Vologeses III., 
 Artabanus V., 
 
 THE MACCABEES 
 
 Judas Maccabeas, , 
 Jonathan Maccabeas, 
 Simon Maccabeas, 
 John Hyrcanus I., 
 Aristobulus I., 
 John Hyrcanus II., 
 Aristobulus II., 
 Antigonus, 
 Herod the Great, . 
 
 Archelaus, Ethnarch, 
 
 A. D. 
 
 45 
 
 45-50 
 50-60 
 60-81 
 81-90 
 90-106 
 106-117 
 
 117-134 
 174-189 
 
 1^1.9-213 
 
 212-22 j 
 
 OF JUDEA. 
 
 B. C. 
 . 165-160 
 160-143 
 
 143-135 
 
 135-106 
 
 106-70 
 
 70-67 
 
 67-40 
 
 . 40-37 
 
 C. 37-A. D. 2 
 
 A. D. 
 
 2-6 
 
 B. 
 
 ROMAN EMPERORS. 
 
 Augustus, 
 
 Tilierius, 
 
 Caligula, 
 
 Claudius, 
 
 Nero, 
 
 Galba, . 
 
 Olho, 
 
 Vitellius, 
 
 Vespasian, 
 
 Titus, 
 
 Domitian, 
 
 The Ccesars. 
 
 . B 
 
 The Five 
 Nerva, 
 Trajan, . 
 Adrian, 
 Titus Antoninus Pius, . 
 Marcus Aruelius Antoninus, 
 
 C. 30-A. D. 14 
 A. D. 
 
 • 14-37 
 • 37-41 
 
 • 4«-54 
 . . 54-68 
 
 68-69 
 . . 69 
 
 69-70 
 
 . 70-79 
 
 . 79-81 
 
 . 81-96 
 
 Good Emperors. 
 
 . . 96 
 
 . 96-117 
 
 117-13^ 
 
 38-161 
 161 180 
 
 The Period of Military Dispotism. 
 Commodus, . . . 1 80- 193 
 
 Perlinax, 
 Didius Julianus, 
 Septimius Severus, 
 Caracalla, 
 Macrinus, 
 Heliogabalus, 
 Alexander Severus, 
 Maximin, . 
 
 193 
 
 193 
 
 193-2T2 
 
 212-217 
 
 217-21S 
 
 218-222 
 
 222-235 
 
 235-238 
 
72 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 Pupienus and Balbinus, 
 
 Gordian, . 
 
 Philip, . 
 
 Decius, 
 
 Gallus, . 
 
 jfi^milianus, 
 
 Valerian, 
 
 Gallienus, , 
 
 Flavins Claudius 
 
 Aurelian, . 
 
 Tacilus, 
 
 Florian, , 
 
 Probus, , 
 
 Carus, 
 
 Carinuo and Numerian, 
 
 Diocletian and Maximian, 
 
 Constantius and Galerius, 
 
 Constanline the Great, 
 
 Constantius II., 
 
 Julian the Apostate, 
 
 Jovian, . 
 
 Roman Emperors of ih 
 Valentinian I. . , 
 Gratian, 
 Maximinus, . 
 Valentinian II., 
 Euj^enius, 
 
 Theodosius the Great, 
 Honorius, 
 Valentinian III., 
 Maximus, 
 Avitus, 
 Marjorian, 
 Severus, 
 Anlhemius, . 
 Olybrius, . 
 Glycerus, 
 Nepos, 
 Romulus Augustulus, 
 
 ROMAN GOVERNORS OF 
 
 Copinicus, 
 Ambivinus, 
 Valerius Flnccus, . 
 Pontius Pilate, . 
 Herod As^rippa, 
 Cuspius Fadus, . 
 Tiberius Alexander, 
 Veiitidius (aimanus, 
 Cbuuiius F'elix, 
 P'lriius F"estus, , 
 Albinus. 
 Gcssius F"lorus, . 
 
 A. D. 
 23S 
 
 238-244 
 244-249 
 249-251 
 251-254 
 254 
 
 254-261 
 261-268 
 268-270 
 270-275 
 275-276 
 276-277 
 277-282 
 282-283 
 283-284 
 284-305 
 305-306 
 306-336 
 336-361 
 361-363 
 363-364 
 
 e West. 
 
 THE SASSANID^ OF 
 Artaxerxes, 
 Sassan, . 
 
 364-375 
 375-3S3 
 
 383-388 
 
 38S-394 
 
 394-395 
 
 395-423 
 
 423-455 
 
 455 
 
 455-457 
 
 457-461 
 
 461-467 
 
 467-472 
 
 472-473 
 
 473 
 
 473-475 
 
 475-476 
 
 JUDEA. 
 
 37 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 223-226 
 , 226-235 
 
 Sapor I., . 
 
 Hormisdas I., . 
 
 Varanes I., • , 
 
 Varanes II., . . , 
 
 Narses, 
 
 Sapor II., 
 
 Sapor III., 
 
 Varanes III., 
 
 Indigertes I., 
 
 Varanes IV., 
 
 Indigertes II., or Varanes 
 
 Obalus, .... 
 
 Cabades, . . , 
 
 Chosroes the Great, 
 
 Cliosroes II., 
 
 Siroes, .... 
 
 Hormisdas II., 
 
 Yesdejird, . . , 
 
 A. D. 
 
 235-272 
 . 272 
 
 272-276 
 . 276-294 
 
 294-309 
 
 • 309-384 
 3S4-3.S0 
 
 • 389-400 
 400- 4. c 
 
 . 420-441 
 
 v., 441-482 
 
 . 482-490 
 
 490-532 
 
 • 532-591 
 591-027 
 627-632 
 632-641 
 
 . 641-656 
 
 GREEK EMPERORS. 
 
 Emperors of Different 
 
 Valens, 
 
 Theodosius the Great 
 Arcadius, 
 Theodosius II., 
 Marcian, a Thracian, 
 Leo the Thracian, 
 Zeno, 
 
 Anastasius I., 
 Justin I., 
 Justinian I., 
 Justin II., 
 Tiberius, . 
 Mauritius, 
 Phocas, 
 Heraclius I., 
 Heraclius II., 
 Heracleonas, 
 Constantine IV., 
 Justinian II., 
 Leontius, . 
 Apsimarus Tiberius, 
 Philipicus Bardanes, 
 Anastasius II., 
 Theodosius HI., 
 
 Isauric Race. 
 
 Leo the Isarian, 
 Constantine Copronymus, 
 Leo the Iconoclast, 
 Constantine V., . 
 Irene, FZmpress, 
 Nicephorus, . , 
 Michael Curopalates, 
 Leo the Armenian, 
 Michael the Stammerer, 
 Theopliilus I., . 
 
 Races. 
 
 364-379 
 
 379-395 
 
 395-408 
 
 408 450 
 
 450-457 
 
 457-476 
 
 476-491 
 
 49 1 -5 00 
 
 500-527 
 
 527-565 
 
 565-578 
 
 57S-582 
 
 582-602 
 
 602-610 
 
 610-641 
 
 641 
 
 641-642 
 
 642-685 
 
 685-695 
 
 695-698 
 
 698-711 
 
 7H-713 
 
 713-715 
 
 715-716 
 
 716-741 
 
 741-775 
 775-781 
 781 788 
 788- So? 
 802 -811 
 81 1-81 5 
 813 82a 
 820-S29 
 829-842 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 73 
 
 842-S67 
 867-8S6 
 
 886-911 
 
 911-919 
 919 942 
 942-959 
 959-963 
 963-969 
 969-976 
 
 976- 
 025- 
 028- 
 
 034- 
 041- 
 042- 
 
 054- 
 056- 
 
 Michael the Drunkard, . 
 Basil I., . 
 
 Macedonian Race. 
 Leo the Philosopher, . 
 Coiijtantine VI., and Alexan- 
 der, .... 
 Ronianus I., . 
 Constantine VII. restored, . 
 Rcnianus II., 
 Nicephorus Phocas, . 
 Jolm Zeurisces, 
 Basil II., . 
 Constantine VIII., 
 Ronianus III., . 
 Michael IV., . 
 Michael V., 
 Cousianline IX., . 
 Theodora, Empress, . 
 Michael VI., 
 
 The Coinnetii. 
 
 Isaac Comnenus, . . 1057- 
 
 "Constauline X., . . 1059- 
 
 Romanus Diogenes, . 106S- 
 
 Michael VII., . . . 1071- 
 
 Nicephorus III., . . 107S- 
 
 Alexiiis I., Comnenus, . 108 1- 
 
 John I., Comnenus, . II18- 
 
 Manucl Comnenus, . . I143- 
 
 Aiexius II., Comnenus, . I180- 
 
 Andronicus I., . . . 1183- 
 
 Isaac Angleus, . . 1185- 
 
 Alexius III., . • . 1203- 
 
 French or Latin Dynasty. 
 
 I-5aldwia I., of Flanders, . 1204- 
 
 Henry, . . . 1206- 
 
 Peler de Courtenay, . . 1216- 
 
 Baldwin II., . . . 1228- 
 
 The Paleologi. 
 
 Michael VIII., Paleologus, 1261- 
 
 Antlronicus II., Paleologus, 1282- 
 
 Andronicus the Younger, . 1328- 
 
 John v., Paleologus, . 1341- 
 
 John VI., .... 1355- 
 
 Enianuel II., . . 1391- 
 
 Joliv VII., . . . 1424- 
 
 Conslantine XII., Paleologus, 1448- 
 
 025 
 028 
 
 034 
 041 
 042 
 
 054 
 056 
 
 057 
 
 059 
 068 
 071 
 078 
 081 
 118 
 
 143 
 180 
 
 ii^3 
 185 
 203 
 204 
 
 206 
 216 
 228 
 261 
 
 282 
 328 
 341 
 355 
 391 
 424 
 448 
 453 
 
 GOTHIC KINGS OF ITALY. 
 
 ,rheod;iiic 493-526 
 
 Aihalaric, .... 526-534 
 
 Vheodatus, .... 534-53^ 
 
 V'itiges, .... 536-540 
 
 Heldibadus, .... 540-541 
 Eraric, . . . .541 
 
 Totila, 541-553 
 
 LOMBARD KINGS OF NORTHERN 
 ITALY. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Alboin, .... 568-573 
 
 Clephes 573-575 
 
 An Interregnum, . . , 575-584 
 
 Antharis, . . • . 584-591 
 
 Agiluljihus 591-615 
 
 Adaloaldus, ' . . . 615-625 
 
 Arivoaldus, .... 625-636 
 
 Rotharis, .... 636-652 
 
 Rodoaldus, .... 652-653 
 
 Aribertus I., . • . 653-660 
 
 Gundebertus, . . . 660-662 
 
 Grimoaldus, . . . 662-671 
 
 Pertharit, .... 671-686 
 
 Cunibert, .... 686-701 
 
 Raginibertus, . . . 701 
 
 Arii<ertus II., . . . 701-712 
 
 Ansprandus, .■ . . , 'Ji'Z 
 
 Luitjirandus, . . . 712-744 
 
 IIildel)randus, , . . 744 
 
 Rachisius, . . . 744-749 
 
 Artolphus, .... 749-756 
 
 Desiderius, . . . 756-774 
 
 MONARCIIS OF THE FRANKS. 
 
 The Merovi7igia7ts, 
 
 Pharamond, . . . 420-428 
 
 Clodian, .... 428-448 
 
 Meroveus,. . . . 448-458 
 
 Childeric L, . . . . 458-486 
 
 Clovis L, . . . . 486-511 
 Childebert, Thierry, Clodomir 
 
 and Clothaire I., . . 511-562 
 
 Charibert, Grothan, Chilperic 
 
 I., and Sigebert, . . 562-584 
 Childebert 11. and Clothaire 
 
 II 584-628 
 
 Dagobert I., . . . 628-638 
 
 Clovis II. and Dagobert II., . 638-665 
 
 Clothaire II., . . . 665-673 
 
 Thierry II., .... 673-69I 
 
 Clovis III., . . . 691-711 
 Dagobert 11 1., . . .711-715 
 
 Chilperic II., . . . 7 1 5-7=0 
 
 Thierry W. T2.0-TM 
 
 Childeric HI., . . . 747^751 
 
 The Carlovingians. 
 
 Pepin the Little, . . 751-768 
 
 Charlemagne, or Charles the 
 
 Great, .... 768 -814 
 
 Louis le Debonnaire, , . Si 4-840 
 
 THE POPES. 
 
 Gregory the Great, 
 Sabinianus, . . 
 
 590-604 
 604-606 
 
74 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. D. 
 
 
 A. D, 
 
 Boniface III., . . , 60D-607 
 
 Benedict V., 
 
 964-965 
 
 Bonilace IV., 
 
 
 
 . 607-625 
 
 John XIII., . 
 
 . 965-972 
 
 Honoiius I., 
 
 
 
 
 
 625-640 
 
 Benedict VI., . 
 
 972-974 
 
 Seivius, 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 640 
 
 Doniis II., , 
 
 . 974-975 
 
 John IV., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 640-642 
 
 Beneilict VII., . 
 
 • 975-983 
 
 Theodore, 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 642-649 
 
 John XIV., . 
 
 • 983-985 
 
 Martin I., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 649-655 
 
 John XV., 
 
 9S5-1000 
 
 Euyenius I., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 655-657 
 
 Gregory V., . 
 
 1000 
 
 Vitaiianus, , 
 
 
 
 
 
 657-672 
 
 Sylvester II., 
 
 1000 -I 00 J 
 
 Aileodatus, . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 672-676 
 
 John XVI., . 
 
 1003 
 
 Dvinus I., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 676-678 
 
 John XVII., . 
 
 I 003- I 004 
 
 Agatho, 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 678-683 
 
 John XVIII., 
 
 I 004- I 009 
 
 Benedict II., 
 
 
 
 
 
 683-6S5 
 
 John XIX., 
 
 I 009- I 033 
 
 John v., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 685-686 
 
 Benedict IX., 
 
 1033-1044 
 
 Canon, 
 
 
 
 
 
 686-687 
 
 Gregory VI., . 
 
 I 044- I 046 
 
 hert^ius, 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 687-701 
 
 Clement II., 
 
 1046-1047 
 
 John VI., 
 
 
 
 
 
 701-705 
 
 Benedict X., 
 
 1047 
 
 John VII., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 705-707 
 
 Damascus, 
 
 I 047- I 048 
 
 Sissinius, . 
 
 
 
 
 
 707-715 
 
 Leo IX., . . . , 
 
 1048-1054 
 
 Gregory II., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 715-731 
 
 Victor 11., 
 
 1054-1057 
 
 Gregory 111., 
 
 
 
 
 
 731-741 
 
 .Stejihen IX., 
 
 1057-1058 
 
 Zachary, 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 741-750 
 
 Nicholas II., 
 
 1058-1061 
 
 Stephen II., 
 
 
 
 
 
 750-757 
 
 Alexander II., . 
 
 1061-1073 
 
 Paul I., 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 757-767 
 
 Gregory VII. (Hildebrand 
 
 , 1073-1086 
 
 Stephen III., 
 
 
 
 
 
 767-772 
 
 Victor III., 
 
 1086-1088 
 
 Adrian I., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 772-795 
 
 Urban II., . 
 
 I 088- I 099 
 
 Leo III., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 795-816 
 
 Pascal II., 
 
 1099-1118 
 
 Stephen IV., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 816-817 
 
 Gelasius II., . 
 
 1118-1119 
 
 Pascal I., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 817-824 
 
 Calixtus II., 
 
 II 1 9- 1 1 24 
 
 Eugenius II., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 824-S27 
 
 llonorius II., . . 
 
 1124-1130 
 
 Valentine, 
 
 
 
 
 
 827 
 
 Innocent II., 
 
 1 130-1143 
 
 Gregory IV., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 827-844 
 
 Celesiine II., 
 
 1 143-1 144 
 
 Sergiiis II., 
 
 
 
 
 
 844-847 
 
 Lucius II., 
 
 1144-1145 
 
 Leo IV., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 847-855 
 
 Eugenius III., 
 
 1145-1153 
 
 Benedict III., 
 
 
 
 
 
 855-858 
 
 Anastasius IV., 
 
 1153-1154 
 
 Nicholas I., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 858-867 
 
 Adrian IV., . 
 
 1154-1159 
 
 Adrian II., 
 
 
 
 
 
 S67-872 
 
 Alexander III., 
 
 1 1 59-1 180 
 
 ;ohn VIII., . 
 IVIartin II., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 872-882 
 
 Lucius ill., , 
 
 1180-1185 
 
 
 
 
 
 S82-884 
 
 Urban III., 
 
 1185-1187 
 
 Adrian III., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 884 
 
 Gregory VIII., 
 
 11S7 
 
 Stephen VI., 
 
 
 
 
 
 884-891 
 
 Clement III., . 
 
 1187-1191 
 
 Forniosus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 89I-S96 
 
 Celestine HI., 
 
 1191-1194 
 
 Stephen VII., 
 
 
 
 
 
 896-897 
 
 Innocent III., . 
 
 II 94 -1 226 
 
 John IX., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 897 
 
 llonorius III., 
 
 1226-1227 
 
 Benedict IV., 
 
 
 
 
 
 897-903 
 
 Gregory IX., 
 
 1227-1241 
 
 Leo v., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 903-904 
 
 Celestine IV., 
 
 1241-1243 
 
 Sergius III., 
 
 
 
 
 
 904-9 I 2 
 
 Innocent IV., . 
 
 1 243- 1 254 
 
 Anastasius III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 9'2-9i3 
 
 Alexander IV., 
 
 1 254- 1 36 1 
 
 LaniJDn, 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 913-914 
 
 Urban IV., 
 
 1261-1265 
 
 John .v., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 914-928 
 
 Clement IV,, 
 
 1265-1271 
 
 Leo VI., 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 928-929 
 
 Gregory X., . , , 
 
 127 1 -1276 
 
 Stephen VIII., 
 
 
 
 
 
 929-931 
 
 Innocent V., 
 
 1276 
 
 Johu .\I., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 931-936 
 
 Adrian V., . . . 
 
 1276 
 
 Leo VII., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 936-939 
 
 John XX., . 
 
 1276-1277 
 
 Stephen IX., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 939-942 
 
 Nicholas III., . 
 
 1277 1281 
 
 Martin III., 
 
 
 
 
 
 942-946 
 
 Martin IV 
 
 1281-12S5 
 
 Agapetus II., 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 946-955 
 
 llonorius IV., , 
 
 1285 1288 
 
 John XII., 
 Leo VIII., , 
 
 
 
 
 
 955-964 
 
 Nicholas IV., 
 
 1288 1294 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 964 
 
 Celestine V., , , , 
 
 1294 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 75 
 
 Bon. face VIII,, , 
 
 Benedict XI., , 
 
 CleiiieiU v., . , 
 
 John XXII., . 
 
 Benedict XII., 
 
 Clement VI., . 
 
 Innocent VI., 
 
 Uiban v., 
 
 Gregory XI., 
 
 Urban VI., . 
 
 Boniface IX., 
 
 Innocent VII., 
 
 Gregory XII., 
 
 Alexantlcr V., 
 
 John XX III., , 
 
 Martin V., 
 
 Eugenius IV., 
 
 Nichcjlas V., . 
 
 CaUxtus III., 
 
 Pius II., 
 
 Paul II., . 
 
 Sextus IV., . 
 
 Innocent VIII., . 
 
 Alexander VI., 
 
 Pius III., . 
 
 Julius II., 
 
 Leo X., . 
 
 Adrian VI., . 
 
 Clement VII., . 
 
 Paul III., 
 
 Julius III., 
 
 Marcel 1 us, 
 
 Paul IV., . 
 
 Pius IV., 
 
 Pius v., . 
 
 Gregory XIII., 
 Sextus v., . 
 Urban VII., . 
 Gregory XIV., . 
 Innocent IX., . 
 Clement VIII., . 
 Leo XL, 
 Paul v., . 
 Gregory XV., 
 Urban VIII., 
 Innocent X., . 
 Alexander VII., . 
 Clement IX., 
 Innocent XL, 
 Clement X., . 
 Alexander VIIL, 
 Innocent XII., 
 Clement XL, , 
 Innocent XIIL, 
 Benedict XIIL, . 
 Clement XII., 
 Benedict XIV., , 
 Clement XIIL, 
 
 I 294- I 303 
 
 I 303- I 305 
 I305-I3'6 
 1316-1334 
 1334-1342 
 1342-1352 
 1352-1362 
 1362-1370 
 1370-1378 
 137S-13S9 
 I 389- I 404 
 I 404- I 406 
 I 406- I 409 
 1409-1410 
 1410-1417 
 1417-1431 
 
 1431-1447 
 
 I 447- I 45 5 
 
 1455-1458 
 
 1458-1464 
 
 1464-147 1 
 
 1471-14S4 
 
 1484-1492 
 
 1492-1503 
 
 1503 
 
 1503-1513 
 
 1513-1521 
 
 1521-1523 
 
 1523-1534 
 
 1 534- 1 549 
 
 1549 1555 
 
 1555 
 
 ■ 1555-1559 
 1559-1565 
 
 . 1565-1572 
 1572-1585 
 1585-1590 
 
 1590 
 . 1590-1591 
 
 1591 
 . 1591-1605 
 
 1605 
 . 1605-1621 
 
 1621-1623 
 . 1623-1644 
 
 1644-1655 
 . 1655-1667 
 
 1667-1676 
 . 1676-1679 
 
 1679-1689 
 , 1 689- 1 691 
 
 1691-1700 
 , 1700-1721 
 
 1721-1724 
 . 1724-1730 
 
 i730-'740 
 . 1740-1758 
 
 1758-1769 
 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Clement XIV., . 
 
 • 1769-1775 
 
 Pius VI., 
 
 1775-1800 
 
 Pius VII., . 
 
 . 1 800- 1 823 
 
 Leo XII., 
 
 1823-1829 
 
 Pius VIIL, 
 
 , 1829-1831 
 
 Gregory XVI., 
 
 1831-1846 
 
 Pius IX., . 
 
 . I 846- 187 8 
 
 Leo XIIL, . 
 
 . 1878 
 
 SARACEN CALIPHS. 
 
 Rnce of ATohamtned, 
 
 Mohammed, 
 
 . 627-632 
 
 Abubekir, 
 
 • 632-634 
 
 Omar, 
 
 634-644 
 
 Othnian, 
 
 . 644-655 
 
 Ali, .... 
 
 655-660 
 
 The Omnii 
 
 yades. 
 
 Moawivah, 
 
 . 660-679 
 
 Yezid {., . 
 
 679-683 
 
 Abdullah, 
 
 683-684 
 
 Merwan I., 
 
 684-689 
 
 Ab-al-Malib, . 
 
 . 689-704 
 
 Walid I., . 
 
 704-714 
 
 Solyman, 
 
 • 714-717 
 
 Omar II., . 
 
 . 717-719 
 
 Yezid II., 
 
 . 719-723 
 
 Heshman, . 
 
 723-743 
 
 Wall IL, 
 
 . 743-744 
 
 Yezid III., 
 
 744 
 
 Merwan IL, . 
 
 . 744-75C 
 
 The Abbe 
 
 isides. 
 
 Abul-Abbas, . 
 
 • 750-754 
 
 Al-Mansur, 
 
 754-779 
 
 Al-Modi, 
 
 . 779-7^^4 
 
 Musa'1-Hadi, 
 
 784-7^5 
 
 Ilaroun-al-Raschid, 
 
 . 7S5-«o7 
 
 Al-Amin, . 
 
 807-813 
 
 Al-Mamun, . 
 
 • . 813-833 
 
 Al-Motaseni, 
 
 833-841 
 
 Al-Wathek, . 
 
 . 841-846 
 
 Al-Motawakkel, 
 
 846-861 
 
 Al-Montaser, . 
 
 . 861-862 
 
 Al-Mostaim, 
 
 862-865 
 
 Al-Motaz, 
 
 . 865-868 
 
 AlMohtadi, 
 
 868-869 
 
 Al-Motanied, 
 
 . S69-892 
 
 Al Motaded, 
 
 892-901 
 
 Al-Moklasi, . 
 
 . 90 1 -907 
 
 Al-Moklador, . 
 
 907-932 
 
 Al-Kahcr, . 
 
 . 932 933 
 
 Al-Radi, . 
 
 . 933 939 
 
 Al-Moklaki, . 
 
 . 939-943 
 
 Al-Mosktacsi, . 
 
 943 944 
 
 Al-Moti, 
 
 . 944 973 
 
 AI-Tay, . 
 
 973 991 
 
 Ai-Kader, 
 
 991-1031 
 
 Al-Kaymen, 
 
 . 1031-1055 
 
76 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 SARACEN CALIPHS OF SPAII^. 
 
 House of York, 
 
 
 A. I). 
 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Abderrahman I., 
 
 755-7S7 
 
 Edward IV., , 
 
 . I461 -1483 
 
 llashem I., . 
 
 . 787-S22 
 
 Edward V., . 
 
 I4S3 
 
 Abdeirahman II., 
 
 822-852 
 
 Richard HI., 
 
 . 1483-1485 
 
 Mohammed, . 
 
 Al.dalla, .... 
 
 . 852- 8S9 
 8S9-9 I 2 
 
 House of Tudor 
 
 Abderraliman III., 
 
 . 912-961 
 
 Henry VIT., . 
 
 1485 1509 
 
 Alliakem, .... 
 
 961-976 
 
 Henry VIII., . 
 
 . 1 509-1547 
 
 I [ixeiii I, . 
 
 . 976- 
 
 Edward VI., . 
 
 1547-1553 
 
 Ilixem II., 
 
 
 Mary, 
 
 1553 '55"- 
 
 Ilivem III., . 
 
 -1030 
 
 Elizabeth, 
 
 i558-t6<:;. 
 
 
 
 House of Stuart. 
 
 KINGS AND QUEENS 
 LAND. 
 
 OF ENG- 
 
 James I., . 
 
 . 1603- 1625 
 
 
 
 Charles I., 
 
 1625-1649 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Kings. 
 
 The Commonwealth. , 
 
 . 1649-1660 
 
 Egbert, .... 
 
 . 827-83S 
 
 Charles II., . 
 
 1660-16S5 
 
 Ethel wolf. 
 
 83^-^57 
 
 James II., . 
 
 . 1685-1689 
 
 Ethell)ald, . 
 
 . 857-860 
 
 William HI., 
 
 16S9-1702 
 
 Ethelbert, .... 
 
 8'6o-S66 
 
 Anne, 
 
 . 1702-1714 
 
 Ethelred I 
 
 Alfred the Great, 
 
 , 866-871 
 871-901 
 
 House of Brunszvick. 
 
 Edward the Elder, 
 
 . 901-925 
 
 George I., 
 
 . 1714-1727 
 
 AtheLstan, .... 
 
 925-940 
 
 George II., . 
 
 1727-1760 
 
 Edmund I., . 
 
 . 940-946 
 
 George HI., 
 
 . 1760-1820 
 
 Edred, .... 
 
 946-955 
 
 George IV., . 
 
 1820-1S30 
 
 Edwy, .... 
 
 • 955-959 
 
 William IV., . 
 
 . 1830-1S37 
 
 Edgar, .... 
 
 959-975 
 
 Victoria, 
 
 1837 
 
 Edward the Martyr, 
 
 975-1014 
 
 
 
 Danish Kings. 
 Sweyn, .... 
 
 1014-1017 
 
 KINGS AND QUEENS OF SCOT- 
 LAND. 
 
 Canute the Great, 
 
 1017-1036 
 
 House of Kenneth. 
 
 Harold Ilarefoot, . 
 
 I 036- I 039 
 
 Kenneth TL, . 
 
 . 843-859 
 
 Hardicanute, 
 
 1039-1041 
 
 Donald V., 
 
 859-S65 
 
 Saxon Kings. 
 
 
 Constanline II., 
 
 . 865-878 
 
 Edward the Confessor, 
 
 1041-1066 
 
 Ethus, 
 
 87S-SS0 
 
 Harold, 
 
 1066 
 
 Gregory the Great, 
 
 . 880-S92 
 
 
 
 Donald VI., 
 
 892-903 
 
 Norman Kings. 
 
 
 Constantine HI., . 
 
 . 903-943 
 
 William the Conqueror, . 
 
 1066-10S7 
 
 Malcolm I., 
 
 943-958 
 
 William Rufus, . 
 
 10S7-1100 
 
 Indulf, . 
 
 . 95S-968 
 
 Henry I., . 
 
 1100-1135 
 
 Duff, 
 
 968-972 
 
 Stephen, .... 
 
 1135-1154 
 
 Culen, . 
 Kenneth III., . 
 
 . 972-977 
 . 977-1003 
 
 The Plantageneti 
 
 
 Constantine IV., . 
 
 1003 
 
 Henry II., 
 
 II 54-1 1 89 
 
 Kenneth the Grim, . 
 
 . I 003- I 004 
 
 Richard the Lion-hearted, . 
 
 11S9-1199 
 
 Malcolm II., 
 
 1004-1034 
 
 John, .... 
 
 1199-1216 
 
 Duncan I., 
 
 . 1034-1040 
 
 Henry HI., 
 
 1216-1272 
 
 Macbeth, 
 
 1040-1057 
 
 Edward I., . 
 
 1272-1307 
 
 Malcolm HI., . 
 
 . 1057-1093 
 
 Edward II., 
 
 1307-1327 
 
 Donald the Bane, . 
 
 1093-1 108 
 
 Edward HI 
 
 1327-1377 
 
 Edgar, 
 
 . 110S-1117 
 
 Richard II., 
 
 1377-1399 
 
 Alexander I., 
 
 1117-1124 
 
 
 
 David the Saint, 
 
 . 1 124-1 153 
 
 House of Lancaster. 
 
 Malcolm IV., 
 
 1153-1165 
 
 Henry P'' . 
 
 1399-1413 
 
 William the Lion, 
 
 . 1165-1214 
 
 Henry v., .... 
 
 1413-1422 
 
 Alexander II., 
 
 1214-1249 
 
 Henry VI„ . 
 
 1422-1461 
 
 Alexander III., 
 
 . I 249- I 285 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 77 
 
 Houses of Bnliol and Bruce. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 John B.iliol, 
 
 12S5-1306 
 
 Ki)bL'rt Bruce, 
 
 1 306-1 329 
 
 David Bruce, . 
 
 1329-1332 
 
 Edward Baliol, 
 
 1332-1342 
 
 David Bruce restored. 
 
 1342-1370 
 
 House of Stuart. 
 
 
 Kv-.l)ert II., 
 
 1370-1390 
 
 Rnbortlll. . 
 
 I 390- I 406 
 
 An Interregnum, 
 
 I 406- I 424 
 
 James I., . . . 
 
 1424-1437 
 
 James 11., 
 
 1437-1460 
 
 James III., . 
 
 1 460- 1 48 7 
 
 James IV., 
 
 14S7-1513 
 
 James v., 
 
 1513-1542 
 
 Mary, .... 
 
 1542-1507 
 
 James VI., . 
 
 1567-1603 
 
 KINGS AND ElMPER 
 
 JRS OF 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 
 Carlovingian Kin^ 
 
 •s. 
 
 Charles the Bald, . 
 
 . 843-877 
 
 Louis II., . 
 
 877-S79 
 
 Louis III. and Carloman, 
 
 . 879-884 
 
 Charles the Fat, 
 
 884-888 
 
 Count Eudes, 
 
 . 888-898 
 
 Charles the Simple, . 
 
 89S-922 
 
 Raoul, .... 
 
 . 922-936 
 
 Louis IV., ... 
 
 936-954 
 
 Lothaire, 
 
 . 954-986 
 
 Louis v., . . ■ . 
 
 986-987 
 
 House of Capet. 
 
 
 Hugh Capet, 
 
 987-996 
 
 Robert, 
 
 996-1031 
 
 Henry I , . 
 
 1031-1060 
 
 I'hilip I., . . . 
 
 1060-1108 
 
 Louis the Fat, . 
 
 1 108-1 137 
 
 Louis VII., . 
 
 1 137-1180 
 
 Philip Au<Tustus, 
 
 1180-1223 
 
 Louis VI II., 
 
 1223-1226 
 
 Louis IX. or St. Louis, 
 
 1226-1270 
 
 I'hilip the Bald, . 
 
 1270-1285 
 
 Philip the Fair, . 
 
 1285-1314 
 
 Louis X., 
 
 1314-1316 
 
 Philip the Hardy, 
 
 1316-1321 
 
 Charleu the Fair, . 
 
 1321-1328 
 
 House of I'alois. 
 
 
 Philip of Valois, . 
 
 132S-1350 
 
 John the Good, 
 
 1350-1364 
 
 Charles the Wise, . 
 
 1 364-1 3S0 
 
 Charles VI., 
 
 13S0-1422 
 
 Charles the Victorious, . 
 
 1422-1461 
 
 Louis XL, 
 
 1461-1483 
 
 Charles VIII., 
 
 1483-1498 
 
 Louis XII. 
 
 1498-1515 
 
 Francis L, t . . . 1515-1547 
 
 Henry II., . . 1547-1559 
 
 Fr.ancis II., . , . 1 559-1 560 
 
 Charles IX., . . . 1560-1574 
 Henry HI., . . . J574-1589 
 
 House of Bourbon . 
 Henry IV., . . . 1589 1610 
 
 Louis XIII., ' . . . J610-164} 
 Louis XIV., . . . 1643-1715 
 
 Louis XV., . . . 1715-1771 
 
 Louis XVI., . . . i774-'793 
 
 The E'irst Fre7ich Repul'/ir, 
 
 1793-1804 
 
 The First French Empire. 
 
 Napoleon I., . . . 1804-1814 
 
 House of Bourbon. 
 
 Louis X VIII., . . 1814-1824 
 
 Charles X., . . . 1824-1830 
 
 House of Orleans. 
 
 Louis Philipiie, . . 1830-1848 
 
 The Second French Republic, 
 
 1848-1852 
 The Second French Empire. 
 Napoleon HI., . . 1852-1870 
 
 The Third Fre7ich Republic, 
 1870- 
 
 EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 
 
 Carlovingian Emperors. 
 
 Louis the German and Loth- 
 aire, .... 843-855 
 Louis II,, .... 855-875 
 Charles the Fat, . . 875-887 
 Arnoljih, .... 887-898 
 Louis the Child, . . 898-911 
 
 House of Franconia. 
 
 Conrad I., . . . • 911-919 
 
 ] louse of Saxofiy. 
 
 Henry the Fowler, . . 9 '9-936 
 
 Otho the Great, . . . 936-973 
 
 Otho II., . . . . 973-983 
 
 Otho HI., . . ' . 9S3-1002 
 
 Henry the Saint, . . 1002-1024 
 
 House of Franconia. 
 
 Conrad II., . ., . 1024-1039 
 
 Henry HI 1039 1056 
 
 Henry IV., . . . 1056-1 106 
 
 Henry v., . . . 1 106-1 125 
 
 //oust of Saxony. 
 
 Lothaire II 11 25 1138 
 
 45 
 
78 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND KULERS. 
 
 The Hflhenstaitffcns. 
 
 A. n. 
 Conrad III., . . • 1138-1152 
 
 Krederic Barbanissa, . II 52-1190 
 
 Ik-nryVl., . . . 1190-1197 
 
 Ulho IV. and Philip of 
 
 Swahia, . . . 1197-1218 
 
 [Vederic II., . . . 121S-1250 
 
 ^li Interregnum, . . 1250-1273 
 
 House of Ilapsbui-g. 
 Rudolph of I lapsburg, . 1273-1291 
 
 House of Nassau. 
 Adolph, . . . 1 29 1 -1 298 
 
 House of Austria. 
 Albert, .... 1298-130S 
 
 House of Luxemburg. 
 Henry VII., . . . 1308-1313 
 
 House of Bavaria. 
 
 luuis v., .... 1313-1347 
 
 House of Luxemburg. 
 
 Charles IV., 
 Wenceslaus, 
 
 1347-1378 
 1378-1400 
 
 House of the Palatinate. 
 I^upert, . . . 1400-1414 
 
 House of Luxemburg. 
 
 Sigismund, . . . 1414-1438 
 
 House of Elapsbiirg. 
 
 I 438- I 440 
 
 . I 440- I 493 
 
 Albert II., . 
 Frederic III., 
 Maximilian I., 
 Charles V., 
 Ferdinand I., 
 Maximilian II., 
 Rodolph II., . 
 Matthias, . 
 P'erdinand 11., 
 I'erdinand III., 
 Leopold I., . 
 Joseph 1., 
 Charles VI., , 
 
 1493-1519 
 1519-1556 
 1556-1564 
 1564-1576 
 1576-1612 
 1612-1619 
 1619-1637 
 1637-1657 
 1657-1705 
 1705-1711 
 1711-1741 
 
 Hou le of Bavaria. 
 Charles VII., . . 1741-1745 
 
 House of Lorraine. 
 Francis I., . . . 1745-1765 
 
 Jo?epli r.., . , . 1 765-1 790 
 
 Leopold II., . . 1790-1792 
 
 Tnanris II., , , . 1792-1806 
 
 The Cenfederation of the Rhine, 
 
 1806-181S 
 
 The Germanic Confederation, 
 
 1815-1806 
 The A'orth German Confederation, 
 
 1S66-1871 
 House of Hohenzollei n. 
 
 William the \'ictorious, . 1 87 1 
 
 KINGS OF POLAND. 
 House of Piast. 
 
 Boleslaus I., . . . 1000-1025 
 
 Miceslaus 11., . . 1025 -1041 
 
 Casimir I., ... 1041-1058 
 
 Boleslaus II., . . 1058-1079 
 
 Ladislaus the Careless, , 1079-1102 
 
 Boleslaus III., . . 1102-1139 
 
 Ladislaus II., . . . I139-1146 
 
 Boleslaus IV., . . 1140-1173 
 
 Miceslaus III., . . . 1173-117S 
 
 Casimir the Just, . . 1178-1202 
 
 Lesko 1 1202-1226 
 
 Conrad of Masovia, . 1 226-1 227 
 Boleslaus v., . . .-1227-1279 
 
 Lesko the Black, . . 1 279-1 295 
 
 Pr;;emislaus, . , . 1295-130G 
 
 Wenceslaus of Bohemia, 1300-1305 
 
 Ladislaus IV., . . . 1305-1333 
 
 Casimir the Great, . 1 333-1370 
 
 Louis the Great, of Hungary, 1370-1386 
 
 Ladislaus V., . . 13S6-1400 
 
 The yagcllos. 
 
 Jagello, . . . 1400-1434 
 
 Ladislaus VI., . • . 1434-1447 
 
 Casimir IV., . . 1447-1492 
 
 John Albert, . . . 1492-1501 
 
 Alexander, . . . 1501-1506 
 
 Sigismund the Great, . 1506-1548 
 
 Sigismund IL, . . 1548-157^ 
 
 An Interregnum, . . I572-I573 
 
 House of Valois. 
 
 Henry of Valois, . . I573-I574 
 
 An Interregnum, . . 1574-^575 
 
 Stephen 1 575-1 5''^7 
 
 Sigismund III., . . I5<^7-I632 
 Ladislaus Vll.,. . . 1632-1648 
 John Casimir, . . . 1648-1669 
 Michael Wisniowiecski, . l669-'674 
 John .Sobieski, . . 167 4 1697 
 Frederic Augustus I., of Sax- 
 ony, .... 1697- 1704 
 Stanislaus Leczinski, . 1704 1709 
 Frederick Augustus I. re- 
 stored 1709-1733 
 
 Frederick Augustus II.,. 1733-^764 
 Stanislaus Augustus Poniat 
 
 owski, .... 1 764-1 795 
 
SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 79 
 
 KINGS AND QUEEN OF DEN- 
 MARK. 
 
 Dynasty of Skiold. 
 
 bweyn I., 
 i.anutc ihe Great, 
 Camile III., . 
 Magnus the Good 
 
 way, . 
 Harold VII., . 
 Si. Canute, . 
 Olaus II., . 
 Eric III., 
 Nicholas, . 
 Eric IV., 
 Eric v., . 
 Sweyn II., 
 Canute V., 
 VValdemar the Grt 
 Canute VI., 
 Waldemar the Con 
 Eric VI., . 
 AliL-1,, . 
 
 Christopher I., . 
 Eric VII., . 
 , Eric VIII., 
 Christopher II., 
 Waldemar III.,. 
 Olaus III., . 
 Margareta, 
 Eric XIII., . 
 Christopher III., 
 
 Hoicse of 
 
 Christian I., . 
 John, 
 
 Christian II., 
 Frederic I., 
 Christian III., 
 Frederic II., 
 Christian IV., 
 Frederic III., 
 Christian V., . 
 Frederic IV., 
 Christian VI., 
 Frederic V., 
 Christian VII., 
 Frederic VI., 
 Christian VIII., 
 Frederic VII., 
 Christian IX , 
 
 queror. 
 
 of Nor 
 
 Oldenbiir 
 
 A. D. 
 iooo-ioi6 
 1016-1036 
 1036-1045 
 
 1045-1074 
 1074-1076 
 1076-10S7 
 1087- 1095 
 1095-1 102 
 1 102-1 135 
 
 1135-H39 
 1139-1148 
 
 1 148 
 
 1148-1157 
 
 1157-1182 
 
 1 182-1202 
 
 1 202- 1 224 
 
 1224-1250 
 
 1250-1252 
 
 1252-1259 
 
 1259-12S6 
 
 1286-1319 
 
 1319-1340 
 
 1340-1376 
 
 1376-1387 
 
 1387-1412 
 
 1412-1439 
 
 1439-1448 
 
 1448-14S1 
 14S1-1513 
 1513-1523 
 1523-1533 
 1533-1559 
 1559-15^8 
 15S8-1648 
 1648-1670 
 1670-1699 
 1699-1730 
 1 730- 1 746 
 1 746-1 766 
 1766-1S08 
 1 808- 1 839 
 1 839-1 848 
 1848-1863 
 1863- 
 
 KIMGS OF ARAGON. 
 
 Ramiiizl., 
 Sancho Ramiriz, 
 Peter I., . 
 
 Alphonso the Warrior, 
 Ramiriz the Monk, 
 Frotrcjuilla, . 
 
 1035-1065 
 1065-1094 
 1 094- 1 104 
 1 104 1 1 24 
 1124-1137 
 II37-I162 
 
 Alphonso II., . . 
 
 Peler II., 
 
 James I., . 
 
 Peter III., . 
 
 Alphonso the Beneficent, 
 
 James II,, 
 
 Alphonso the Meek, . 
 
 Peler the Ceremonious, , 
 
 John I., . 
 
 Martin, 
 
 Ferdinand I., 
 
 Alphonso the Magnanimous 
 
 John II., . 
 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, 
 
 1162-1 196 
 1 196-1 2 13 
 1213-1276 
 
 1276-1285 
 1285-1291 
 1291-1327 
 1327-1336 
 1336-1387 
 1387- 1395 
 1395-1412 
 1412-1416 
 1416-1458 
 145S-1467 
 1467-1492 
 
 KINGS AND QUEEN 
 Ferdinand I., 
 Alphonso VII., . 
 Urraca, 
 
 Alphonso VIII., 
 Sancho II., . 
 Alphonso IX., . 
 Henry I., 
 
 Ferdinand the .Saint, . 
 Alphonso the Wise, 
 Sanch'o the Brave, 
 Ferdinand IV., . ■ 
 Alphonso XL, . 
 Peter the Cruel, 
 Henry of Trastamara, 
 John I., . 
 Henry the Sickly, 
 
 John II 
 
 ilenry IV., . 
 Isabella, 
 
 OF CASTILE. 
 
 1035-1072 
 . 1072-1 109 
 
 1 109-1 126 
 . 1126-1157 
 
 1157-1158 
 . 1158-1214 
 
 1214-1217 
 , 1217-1252 
 
 1252-1284 
 . 1 284- 1 295 
 
 1295-1312 
 
 • i3'2-i350 
 
 . 1350-1368 
 
 1368-1379 
 
 . 1 379-' 39a 
 1390-1406 
 
 . 1406-1454 
 1454-1464 
 
 . 1464- I 492 
 
 KINGS AND QUEENS OF 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 House of Bicrgttndy. 
 Henry I., . 
 Sancho II., . 
 Alphonso II., . 
 Sancho III., . 
 Alphonso HI., . 
 Dennis, 
 
 Alphonso IV., . 
 Pedro the Cruel, 
 Ferdinand, 
 John the Great, 
 Edward, . 
 Alj^honso v., 
 John the Perfect, 
 Emmanuel the Great, 
 John III.,. 
 Sef)astian, 
 Henry II., 
 
 United with Spain 
 
 1139-1185 
 1185-1202 
 1202-1233 
 1233-1247 
 1247-1272 
 1272-1325 
 1325-1357 
 1357-1367 
 1367-1385 
 1385-1433 
 1433-1438 
 1438-1481 
 1481-1485 
 1485-1521 
 1521-1557 
 1557-1578 
 1 578- 1 580 
 
 1580-1 -4r 
 
8o 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 House of Braganza. 
 
 John IV., . 
 
 Alphonso VI., 
 
 re.ln) II., . 
 
 John v., 
 
 Joseph Emmanuel, 
 
 Peilro III. and Maria I. 
 
 Maria 1., . 
 
 lohn VI., . 
 
 Pedro iV., 
 
 Maria II., 
 
 Pedro v., . 
 
 Louis II., 
 
 A. D. 
 
 164O-1656 
 1656-1683 
 I 683- 1 706 
 1706-I750 j 
 
 1750-1777 
 
 1777-1756 
 
 1786-1816 
 
 1816-1826 
 
 1826 
 
 1826-1853 
 
 1853-1861 
 
 1861 
 
 KINGS AND OUEENS OF 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 Adolphus, . . . . 1212-1250 
 
 Waldemar, . . . 1 250-1279 
 
 Magnus II , . . . 1279-1290 
 
 Berger II., . . . 1 290-1 
 
 Magnus III., . . 1320-1 
 
 zVlbert of Mecklenburg, . 1 363-1 
 
 United with Denmark, 
 
 1397- 
 House of Vasa. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa, . ■ . . 1523- 
 
 Eric XIV., . . . 1556- 
 
 John III., . . . 1569- 
 
 Sigismund, . . . '59-- 
 
 Charles IX 1600- 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, . 1611- 
 
 Christina, .... 1632- 
 
 Charles X 1654- 
 
 Charles XL, . , . 1660- 
 
 Charles XII., . . 1697- 
 
 Uh-ica Eleanora, . . 1718- 
 
 Frederic L, . . . 1721- 
 
 Adolphus Frederic, . . 175'" 
 
 Gustavus III., . . 1771- 
 
 Gustavus IV., . . . 1792- 
 
 Charles XIII., . . 1809- 
 
 563 
 
 597 
 
 1523 
 
 1556 
 1569 
 1592 
 1600 
 i6u 
 1632 
 
 1654 
 1660 
 1697 
 1718 
 1721 
 
 1751 
 1771 
 1792 
 1809 
 1S18 
 
 House of Bernadotte. 
 Charles XIV., . . 1818-1S44 
 
 Oscar I., .... 1844-1859 
 Charles XV., . . 1859-1872 
 
 Oscar II. 1872- 
 
 DUKES OF BURGUNDY, 
 rhilip the Bold, , . 1363-1404 
 
 John the Fearless, . . 1404-1419 
 
 Philip the Good, , , 1419-1467 
 
 Charles the Bold, . . 1467-1477 
 
 SULTANS OF TURKEY. 
 Othman I., . . . 1299- 1326 
 
 Orchan. . . . 1326-1360 
 
 Amuralh I., 
 Bajazet I., . 
 Mohammed I., . 
 Amurath II., 
 Mohammed IL, 
 Bajazet IL, . 
 Selim I., . 
 
 Solyman the Magnificent, 
 Selim IL, . . 
 
 Amurath III , 
 Mohammed III., 
 Achmet L, . 
 Mustapha I., 
 Othman II.,. 
 Mustapha I. restored, 
 Amurath IV., 
 Ibrahim, . 
 Mohammed IV., 
 Solyman 1 1., 
 Achmet IL, . 
 Mustapha IL, . 
 Achmet III., 
 Mohammed V., 
 Othman III., 
 Mustapha IH., . 
 Achmet !V., 
 Selim III., 
 Mustajiha IV., 
 Mohmoud IL, . 
 Abdul Medjid, 
 Abdul Aziz, 
 Amurath V., 
 Abdul Hamid. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF R 
 House of Ruric 
 
 Ivan the Great, 
 Vasily IV., . 
 Ivan the Terrible, 
 Feodor I., 
 Boris GodonofT, 
 Demetrius, 
 Zuiski, 
 An Interregnum, . 
 
 1360 
 1589- 
 1412- 
 1421- 
 
 1451- 
 
 1481- 
 1512- 
 1520- 
 1506- 
 1574- 
 159s- 
 1603- 
 1617- 
 1618- 
 1622- 
 1623- 
 1640- 
 1649- 
 1687- 
 1691- 
 1695- 
 1703- 
 1730- 
 1754- 
 1757- 
 1774- 
 1789- 
 1807- 
 1S08- 
 
 1S39- 
 l5ol- 
 1876 
 1870 
 
 USSIA 
 
 1462-1505 
 
 1505-1533 
 
 1533-15^8 
 
 1588-1600 
 
 I 600- I 604 
 
 1604-1606 
 
 1606 
 
 i6o6-i6n 
 
 3S9 
 
 412 
 421 
 
 451 
 481 
 512 
 520 
 566 
 574 
 
 595 
 603 
 617 
 618 
 622 
 623 
 640 
 649 
 687 
 691 
 
 695 
 703 
 730 
 754 
 757 
 774 
 789 
 807 
 808 
 
 839 
 861 
 S76 
 
 House of Rotnanoff. 
 
 Michael Romanoff, . 1613-1645 
 
 Ale.xis, .... 1645-1676 
 
 Feodor II. , . . . 1676-1682 
 
 Ivan V. and Peter, . . 16S2-16S9 
 
 Peter the Great, . . 1689-1725 
 
 Catharine I., . . . 1725 -1 727 
 
 Peter II. , . . . 1727-173C 
 
 Anna, -. . . . 173° '740 
 
 Ivan VI., , , . 1740- 1741 
 
 Elizabeth, . . . 17.11-1762 
 
 Peter III 1762 
 
 Catharine II. , . . . 1762-1796 
 
 Paul 1796-1801 
 
SOVEREIGA'S AND RULERS. 
 
 'Viexaiider I., 
 
 Nicholas, 
 Alexaudjr II., 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1801-1825 
 1825-1855 
 1855- 
 
 KINCS AND QUEENS OF SPAIN. 
 
 House of Trastaviara. 
 (•"erdinand V. and Isabella I., 1479-15 17 
 
 House of HapsLmrg. 
 Charles I., . . . ' 15 17-1556 
 
 Philip II., . . . 1556-1598 
 
 I'liilip III., . . . 159S-1621 
 
 Philip IV., , . . 1621-1666 
 
 Charles II., . . . 1 666-1 700 
 
 House of Bourbon. 
 Philip v., of Anjou, . 1700-1745 
 
 Ferdinauil VI., . . . 1745-1759 
 
 Charles III., . . . 1759-17SS 
 
 Charles IV., . . . i788-'iSo8 
 
 House of BoJiapnrte. 
 Joseph Bonaparte, . . 1S08-1813 
 
 House of Bourbon. 
 Ferdinand VII., . . 1813-1833 
 
 Isabella II., . . . 1 833- 1868 
 
 An Interregnum, , . 1868- 187 1 
 
 House of Savoy. 
 Amadeo, .... 1871-1S73 
 
 The S/anis/i Republic, 
 
 1873-1875 
 House of Bourbon. 
 Alphonso XII., . . 1875- 
 
 SHAHS OF PERSIA. 
 
 Suffeean Dynasty. 
 
 Ism.iel, . . . 1501-1519 
 
 Tamasp, .... I5I9-I577 
 
 Mohammed the Pious, . 1 577-1 586 
 
 Shah Abbas the Great, . 15S6-1643 
 
 Abbas II., . . . 1643-1666 
 
 Solyman, .... 1 666-1 694 
 
 llussien, , . . 1694-1722 
 
 Mahmoud, . . . 1722-1725 
 
 Asharf, . . . 1 725-1 732 
 
 Abbas III., . . . 1732-1736 
 
 Nadir Shah, . . . I736~I747 
 Anarchy, 
 
 Kadjar Dynasty. 
 
 'Futteh All Shah, . . 1800-183 5 
 
 Mohammed Shah, . 1835-1848 
 
 Nasr-ul-Deen, . . , 1848- 
 
 I 747-1 800 
 
 MOGUL EMPERORS OF INDIA. 
 
 Baber, 
 Hiiniayan, 
 
 A.kbar. 
 
 1525-1530 
 1530-1556 
 
 Jehani^hir, 
 Shah Jehan I., . 
 AuruuLj/.ebe, . 
 Bahadur Shah, . 
 Farokhsir, 
 Mohammed Shah, 
 At)med Shah, . 
 Alain<rir, . 
 .Shah Jehan II., , 
 Shah Alum, 
 
 MANTCIIOO EMP 
 CHINA 
 
 .Shun-che, 
 
 Kang-hy, . 
 
 Yong-tching, 
 
 Kien-long, 
 
 Kea-king, 
 
 Taou-kwang, 
 
 Hien-fung, 
 
 Tsai-chun, 
 
 Kuang-Su, 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1605-1627 
 1 627 -1 659 
 I 659- I 707 
 1707-1712 
 
 I7i2-r7i9 
 1719-174S 
 1748-1754 
 
 1754-1756 
 i756-i76r 
 1761 
 
 ERORS OF 
 
 1 6^4-1 
 1 662-1 
 
 17 
 
 735-1 
 795-1 
 8 20- 1 
 850-1 
 862-1 
 87^ 
 
 662 
 
 722 
 735 
 795 
 820 
 850 
 862 
 875 
 
 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 
 House of Hohenzollern. 
 Frederic I., . . . 1701- 
 
 FVederic William I., . . 1713- 
 
 Frederic the Great, . 1740- 
 
 Frederic William II., . 1786- 
 
 Frederic William III., . 1797- 
 
 Frederic William IV., . 1S40- 
 William I., . . . 1S61- 
 
 BRITISH GOVERNORS OF INI 
 
 1773- 
 1786- 
 1792- 
 
 1797- 
 1804- 
 1805- 
 1813- 
 1823- 
 1827- 
 
 1835- 
 1842- 
 
 1843- 
 1847- 
 1856- 
 1S58- 
 1S63- 
 1S72- 
 1876- 
 
 W^arren Hastings, . 
 Lord Cornwallis, 
 Sir John Shore, 
 Marquis Wellesley, 
 Lord Cornwallis, . 
 Lord Minto, 
 Marquis of Hastings, 
 Lord Amherst, . 
 Lord William Bentnicl 
 Lord Auckland, 
 Lord Ellenborough, 
 Sir Henry Hardinge, 
 Lord Dalhousie, 
 Lord Canning, . 
 Lord Elgin, . 
 Lord Mayo, 
 Lord North brook, . 
 Lord Lytton, 
 
 713 
 
 740 
 786 
 
 797 
 840 
 861 
 
 TA. 
 
 786 
 792 
 
 797 
 804 
 S05 
 813 
 823 
 827 
 
 835 
 842 
 
 843 
 8^7 
 856 
 858 
 803 
 872 
 876 
 
 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED 
 STATES. 
 
 17S9-1707 
 
 George Washington, 
 
 1 556- 1 605 ' John Adams, 
 
 1797-1801 
 
82 
 
 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 James Madison, 
 James Monroe, . 
 [olm Quincy Adams, 
 Andrew Jackson, 
 Martin Van Buren, 
 William Ilein-y Uan'ison, 
 jnhn Tyler, . 
 JAmes Knox Polk, 
 Zacliary Taylor, 
 i\Iillard P^illmure, 
 I'ranklin Tierce, 
 James I'uchanan, 
 Ahraliam Lincoln,. 
 Andrew Johnson, 
 Ulvsses S. Grant, . 
 Rutherford B. Eaves, 
 
 A. D. 
 1801-1809 
 1809-181 7 
 1817-1S25 
 1825-1829 
 1S29-1S37 
 18^7-1841 
 I 84 1 
 
 1S4I-1845 
 1845-1849 
 1 849- 1 850 
 1850-18^3 
 1853-1857 
 1857-1S61 
 1861-1865 
 1865-1869 
 I 869- I 87 7 
 1S77- 
 
 PACTIAS OF EGYPT. 
 
 Mehemet Ali, 
 Ibrahim Pacha, 
 Ahbas Paclia, 
 
 1S05-1848 
 1S48-1849 
 1849- 
 
 EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 Hottse of Lorraine- Hnpsbii7-g. 
 
 Francis [., . . . 1 806-1835 
 
 Ferdinand, 
 I''rancis Josejih, 
 
 1S48- 
 
 KINGS OF HOLLAND. 
 House of Nassau. 
 
 William I., 
 William IL, . 
 William IJL, 
 
 1814-1840 
 1840-1649 
 1849- 
 
 EMPERORS AND PRESIDENTS 
 OF MEXICO. . 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Don Angustin Ttr.rhidc, 
 
 Prtsiiloifs. 
 
 Guadalupe Victoria, 
 Guenera, . 
 
 TSiistamente, , 
 
 1822-1S2 
 
 1825-1823 
 1829-1830 
 18JO-1832 
 
 Lopez 
 
 Pedraza, 
 Antonio 
 Anna, 
 Bustamente, 
 Santa Arma, . 
 Herrera, . 
 Paredes, 
 Santa Anna, 
 Henera, 
 Arista, 
 
 Santa Anna, . 
 Alvarez, 
 Comonfort, 
 Zuloaga, 
 Benito Juarez, 
 
 de 
 
 Santa 
 
 A. D. 
 
 '832-1833 
 
 ''\53 '■'^37 
 
 1837-1841 
 
 1841-1845 
 
 1845-1846 
 
 1846 
 
 1846-18.18 
 
 1848- 1S51 
 
 1851-1S53 
 
 1853-1854 
 
 1854-1S56 
 
 1856-185S 
 
 1858-1860 
 
 1S60-1864 
 
 Emperor and Presidents. 
 
 Maximilian of Austria, Em- 
 peror, . . . 1864-1S67 
 Benito Juarez, President, . 1864-1872 
 Lerdo de Tejada, . . 1872- 1877 
 Porfirio Diaz, . . .1877- 
 
 EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 
 
 House of Braganzn. 
 
 Don Pedro I., . . 1822-1831 
 
 Don Pedro IL, 
 
 1831- 
 
 KINGS OF BELGIUM, 
 
 House of Saxe- Coburg. 
 
 Leopold I., . . . 1830-1S64 
 
 Leopold II 1864- 
 
 KLNTGS OF GREECE. 
 
 House of Bavaria. 
 
 Otho, .... 1833-1863 
 
 House of Denmark. 
 George, . . . 1S63- 
 
 KING OF ITALY. 
 
 House of Savoy. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel, . . 1S61-1878 
 
 Hunihert, 
 
 1878- 
 
 «t 716 
 
 ci)